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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OP NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, and GEOLOGY.

(being a continuation of the ‘magazine of botany and zoology,’ and of

LOUDON AND CHARLESWORTH’s ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.’)

CONDUCTED BY

SirW. JARDINE, Bart., E.L.S.—P. J. SELBY, Esq., E.L.S.,

GEORGE JOHNSTON, M.D.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. XIX.

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY R. AND J. E. TAYLOR.

SOLD BY s. highley; simpkin and marshall; SHERWOOD AND co.; W. WOOD,

TAVISTOCK STREET ; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS :

LTZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :

CURRY, DUBLIN : AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1847.

44 Omnes res creatae sunt divinse sapientise et potentiae testes, divitiae felicitatis

humanae : — ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris ; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini ;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper aestimata; a vere eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta ; male doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.” —

Linnaeus.

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep : the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide : the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

the sylvan powers

J. Taylor, Norwich , 1818.

©

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIX.

SC 5

NUMBER CXXIII.

Page

I. On the Formation of the Flints of the Upper Chalk. By J. Toul-

min Smith, Esq. (With a Plate.) 1

II. A Supplement to “ A Synopsis of the British Rubi.” By Charles

C. Babington, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. &c 17

III. On a peculiar Organ found in the Rays (Raia, Cuv.). By

M. le Dr. Ch. Robin 19

IV. Notice of an Ichthyolite from Sheppey, in the collection of

Mr. Tennant, F.G.S. By Prof. Owen, F.R.S 25

V. On the Development of the Lycopodiacece . By Karl Muller.

(With five Plates.) ' 27

VI. Drafts for a Fauna Indica. By Ed. Blyth, Curator of the

Asiatic Society’s Museum, &c. &c 41

New Books : — A Natural History of the Mammalia, by G. R. Water-

house, Esq., of the British Museum. — Introduction to Zoology, for

the Use of Schools, by Robert Patterson, Vice-President of the

Natural History Society of Belfast. — Eliae Fries Summa Vegetabi-

lium Scandinaviae 53 — 58

Proceedings of the Entomological Society; Microscopical Society .. 58 — 69

On the Habits of the Limpet ; Meteorological Observations and

Table 70—72

NUMBER CXXIV.

VII. Descriptions of some new species of the genus Gynautocera ,

from Northern India. By Edward Doubleday, Assistant in the

Zoological Department of the British Museum, F.L.S. &c. (With a

Plate.) 73

VIII. Horae Zoologicae : — Ornithology of the Island of Tobago. By

Sir William Jardine, Bart., F.R.S. E. & F.L.S 78

IX. A Supplement to “ A Synopsis of the British Rubi.” By

Charles C. Babington, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. &c 83

IV

CONTENTS.

Page

X. The Birds of Calcutta, collected and described by Carl J. Sun-

DEVALL 87

XI. Description of a new species of the genus Actias of Hiibner, from

Northern India. By Edward Doubleday, Assistant in the Zoological

Department of the British Museum, F.L.S. &c. (With a Plate.) 95*

XII. Notices of new or rare British Animals observed during Cruises

in 1845 and 1846. By Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., and Professor Ed-

ward Forbes. (With a Plate.). 96

XIII. Drafts for a Fauna Indica. By Ed. Blyth, Curator of the

Asiatic Society’s Museum, &c. &c 98

XIV. On the Development of the Lycopo diace ce. By Karl Mul-

ler. (With five Plates.) 109

XV. An Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals. By J. E.

Gray, F.R.S. &c 120

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Microscopical Society ... 129 — 137

Addendum to the Birds of Corfu, by Capt. Portlock ; Achillea tanace-

tifolia, All. ; On the Characters separating the four great Divisions

of the Animal Kingdom, by J. E. Gray, F.R.S. ; On the genus

Caloptylum, by Sir J. Richardson; The Tein-ching, or Chinese In-

digo ; M. Schonherr ; On the Minhocao of the Goyanese, by M.

Auguste de Saint-Hilaire ; Award of Medals — Linnaean Society ;

Meteorological Observations and Table 137 — 144

NUMBER CXXV.

XVI. On the Reproduction of Lost Parts in the Articulata. By

George Newport, F.R.S. &c. (With a Plate.) 145

XVII. Notes on Buccinum undatum. By Albany Hancock, Esq. 150

XVIII. On a second form of Fructification in Peyssonnelia Squa ••

maria. By C. Montagne, D.M., in a Letter to the Rev. M. J. Berke-

ley, M.A., F.L.S 155

XIX. Note on the genus Atya of Leach, with descriptions of four

apparently new Species, in the Cabinets of the British Museum. By

G. Newport, F.R.S. &c. (With a Plate.) 158

XX. Notes on a Dredging Excursion off the coast of Durham ; with

descriptions of the Ova-Capsules of Fusus Norveyicus and F. Turtoni.

By Mr. Richard Howse. (With a Plate.) 160

XXI. The Birds of Calcutta, collected and described by Carl J.

SuNDEVALL 164

XXII. Descriptions of new or imperfectly described Lepidopterous

Insects. By Edward Doubleday, F.L.S., Assistant in the Zoological

Department of the British Museum, &c. 173

XXIII. Note on the Irish species of Cephaloptera ( Pterocephala ).

By Frederick M‘Coy, M.G.3. & N.H.S.D. &c. (With a Plate.) 176

CONTENTS.

V

Page

XXIV. Drafts for a Fauna Indica. By Ed. Blyth, Curator of the

Asiatic Society’s Museum, &c. &c 179

New Boole : — Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology

of the Vertebrate Animals; Part I. Fishes, being Vol. II. of

Hunterian Lectures, by Richard Owen, F.R.S 187

Proceedings of the Linnaean Society ; Royal Institution ; Botanical So-

ciety of Edinburgh 190 — 209

Description of a new genus and species of Entozoa, by Joseph Leidy,

M.D. ; Description of two living Hybrid Fowls, between Gallus and

Numida , by Samuel George Morton, M.D. ; On the Habits of the

Honey Buzzard in Confinement, by Gordon Jos. Forster, Esq. ;

Larus eburneus ; Fossil Human Bones ; On the Mechanism which

closes the Membranous Wings of the genus Locusta, by Joseph

Leidy, M.D. ; On the genus Caloptylum ; Meteorological Obser-

vations and Table 209 — 216

NUMBER CXXVI.

XXV. Notes on the genus of Insects Trachyphlceus, with descrip-

tions of new species. By John Walton, F.L.S 217

XXVI. Comparison of the Periods of Flowering of certain Plants

in the early Spring of 1846, in the Botanic Garden of Belfast and the

Jardin des Plantes at Paris. By William Thompson, Esq. (Belfast),.. 223

XXVII. Notice of anew species of Dawsonia. By Robert Kaye

Greville, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. &c. (With a Plate.) 226

XXVIII. Notes on some Chalcidites and Cynipites in the Collection

of the Rev. F. W. Hope. By Francis Walker, F.L.S 227

XXIX. The Birds of Calcutta, collected and described by Carl

J. Sundevall 232

XXX. On the Development of the Ly cop o diace ce, By Karl Mul-

ler. (With five Plates.) 240

XXXI. On the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk and other Formations,

in reply to Mr. J. Toulmin Smith. By J. S. Bowerbank, F.R.S. &c. 249

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Royal Institution ; Botanical

Society of Edinburgh 262 — 278

Reproduction of Lost Parts in Articulata ; Note on a British specimen

of Oculina prolifera ; On a new species of Penella ; Report on be-

half of the Section of Zoology by the Secretary, Prince Bonaparte,

read at the concluding General Meeting of the Eighth Italian Sci-

entific Congress ; Observations on the Development of the Echi-

VI

CONTENTS.

nidce ( Echinus esciilentus ), by M. Dufosse; Remarks on Opalina

Naidos , an Entozoon found in the Naiadce, by Dr. O. Schmidt ; On

the Formation of Cylindrical Masses of Snow in Orkney, by Charles

Clouston, Esq.; Meteorological Observations and Table ... 279 — 288

NUMBER CXXVII.

XXXII. Further Observations on the Formation of the Flints of

the Upper Chalk, with Remarks on the Sponge Theory of Mr. Bower-

bank. By J. Toulmin Smith, Esq 289

XXXIII. Descriptions and Notices of British Shells. By J. Gwyn

Jeffreys, F.R. & L.S 309

XXXIV. Notes on the genus of Insects Ornias, with descriptions of

new species. By John Walton, F.L.S 314

XXXV. On the Development of the Lycopodiacece. By Karl

Muller. (With five Plates.) 317

XXXVI, On the Discovery of Silurian Rocks in Cornwall. By Sir

Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C. St. S., F.R.S., V.P.G.S. &c 326

XXXVII. First series of Supplementary Notes to a former Paper,

entitled “ An Account of some Shells and other Invertebrate Forms

found on the coast of Northumberland and of Durham/* By William

King, Curator of the Newcastle Museum, 334

New Books : — Outlines of Structural and Physiological Botany, by

Arthur Henfrey, F.L.S. &c. — Supplement to English Botany. —

Cybele Britannica ; or British Plants and their Geographical Rela-

tions, by H. C. Watson 340 — 344

Proceedings of the Linnsean Society ; Zoological Society 344 — 353

Microscopic Anatomy of the Shell of the Decapodous Crustacea, by

J. Lavalle ; The Tea-Plant of China; Description of two new

species of Shells, by William Case ; Trichina spiralis ; Meteoro-

logical Observations and Table 353 — 360

NUMBER CXXVIII.

XXXVIII. Biological Contributions. By George J. Allman, M.B.,

F.R.C.S.I., M.R.I.A., Professor of Botany in Trinity College, Dublin,

late Demonstrator of Anatomy and Conservator of the Anatomical

Museum, T.C.D. (With two Plates.) 361

XXXIX. Ornithological Notes. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. ... 371

XL. Descriptions of new British Coleoptera, with additional Notes.

By James Hardy, Esq 379

XLI. On a new genus of Labyrinthi- bronchial Fish from Quelli-

mane. By Dr. W. Peters. (With a Plate.) 384

XLII. Descriptions of new or imperfectly described Lepidopterous

CONTENTS. Vll

Page

Insects. By Edward Doubleday, Esq., F.L.S., Assistant in the Zoo-

logical Department of the British Museum, &e 385

XLII1. Notices of new or rare British Animals observed during

Cruises in 1845 and 1846. By Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., and Pro-

fessor Edward Forbes. (With a Plate.) 390

XLIV. Characters of undescribed Chalcidites collected in North

America by E. Doubleday, Esq., and now in the British Museum. By

Francis Walker, F.L.S 392

New Boohs : — Flore de l’Algerie, ou Catalogue des Plantes indigenes du

Royaume d'Alger, par G. Munby. — The xAncient World; or Pic-

turesque Sketches of Creation, by D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S.

&c 398—401

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-

burgh 401 — 424

Occurrence of Sertularia elongata , Lamouroux ; Description of two new

genera of Shells, by Dr. Philippi ; Infusorial Deposit at Dolgelly,

North Wales ; A Sketch of the Geology of Texas, by Dr. Ferdinand

Roemer; Meteorological Observations and Table 425 — 432

NUMBER CXXIX. SUPPLEMENT.

XLV. On the Larval State and Metamorphosis of the Ophiuridce

and Echinidce. By Prof. J. Muller. (With a Plate.) 433

XL VI. Notes on the genus of Insects Otiorhynchus> with descrip-

tions of new species. By John Walton,' F.L.S. (With a Plate.) ... 445

Proceedings of the Linnasan Society ; Zoological Society 453 — 470

Monstrous Roses 470

Index 475

PLATES IN VOL. XIX.

Plate I. Formation of Flints of the Upper Chalk.

n-1

HI-

IV. ^Development of the Lycopodiaceae.

VI J

VII. New species of Gynautocera and new species of Actias.

VIII. Reproduction of lost parts in the Articulata. — New species of

Atya.

IX. New species of Testaceous Mollusca. — New species of Pelagia.

X. Ova-capsules of Fusus Norvegicus and F. Turtoni.

XI. Figs. 1 and 2, Pterocephala Fabroniana. — Figs. 3 and 4, Cteno-

poma multispinis. — Fig. 5, Metamorphosis of the Ophiuridae.

XII. Dawsonia superba.

XIV } ^^e^ura terebrans.

XV. New species of Otiorhynchus.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

“ per litora spargite museum,

Naiades, et circtim vitreos eonsidite fontes :

Poll ice virgineo teneros hie carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, divas, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphae Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, i)eae pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Eel. 1.

No. 123. JANUARY 1847.

I. — On the Formation of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

By J. Toulmin Smith, Esq.

[With a Plate.]

Various theories have, at various times, been proposed to

explain the very curious and interesting phsenomena connected

with the presence of flints in the upper chalk. Having for some

time paid close attention to the facts, from which alone any true

theory can be framed, I would now offer a few observations on

some of the more prominent of those theories.

The theories which have been proposed have had very differ-

ent objects, which it is desirable to distinguish clearly at the outset.

Thus, while Ehrenberg and Dr. Turner have suggested explana-

tions of the origin of flint itself, without entering into detailed

observations on the particular modes and forms in which we now

find it in the chalk, Dr. Buckland and Mr. Bowerbank have en-

deavoured to explain, not the origin of flint, but the forms and

modes in which it is now found.

Disposed as I am to regard the explanation offered by Dr.

Turner*, combined with other sources known to exist, of the ori-

gin of the siliceous fluid as sufficient and satisfactory, the sug-

gestions of Ehrenberg being, at any rate, applicable in particular

* See “ Lecture on the Chemistry of Geology/’ Philosophical Magazine,

vol. iii. (1833).

Ann. <5)’ Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xix.

1

2

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

cases and to a very limited extent only, our attention will at pre-

sent be principally confined to the theories which attempt to

explain the forms and modes in which the flint is now found.

Of these, the theory of Dr. Buckland, that flint and chalk

being deposited together in the form of viscid fluids the former

separated itself from the latter according to the well-known laws

of chemical affinity, is of too indefinite and general a character to

be readily applied and tested in individual cases, though, as we

shall find, such opportunity does sometimes occur. The theory

of Mr. Bowerbank alone proposes a distinct and definite explana-

tion of all the forms and modes in which flint, either in nodules

or tabular masses, is actually found. To that theory therefore

I will direct chief attention, the more so as it has very recently

been advocated in this Journal*, and as I believe the views ex-

pressed in Mr. Bowerbank* s published paper on the subjectf are

still held by their author, and they come from him with an au-

thority so great as to claim the most careful and candid exami-

nation.

Mr. Bowerbank^s views may be shortly stated to be, in his

own words, “ that the common tuberous flints, the horizontal

tabular flints, and those forming perpendicular or oblique veins,

were all produced by the same agency,” namely, in all cases

from sponges, of which those flints occupy the exact places,

though of the sponges themselves but small remains generally

exist (see pp. 183 and 186 of the paper referred to).

It is not my intention to dispute the particular facts stated by

Mr. Bowerbank as applying to the cases observed by him. What

I undertake to show is that those, admitting their correctness,

are not all the facts, and that many others exist wholly incon-

sistent with the conclusions which Mr. Bowrerbank would draw.

And it is here well deserving of remark, that, while Mr. Bower-

bank finds in such abundance on the exterior of all flints sponge

spiculse and evidence of the mouths of the excurrent canals of

sponges, Ehrenberg finds the same exteriors to consist almost

entirely of the skeletons of Infusoria! No one accustomed to

the use of the microscope can be otherwise than aware how much

very minute objects seen under a high power are apt to assume

a character in accordance with preconceived notions ; and when

we find such careful observers as Mr. Bowerbank and Ehrenberg

thus differing altogether and in so very marked a manner in the

results of their examinations, it may be allowed us, in all humi-

lity, to call in the aid of other classes of facts to clear up the

mystery, and this I now proceed to do.

I fully admit that spicuke are not uncommonly found in some

By Prof. Ansted, 1814.

f Gcol. Trans, vol. vi. 181.

3

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

flints, but they are most assuredly not always found ; in some

flints they are very numerous, while in others from the same spot

they are exceedingly rare, and in very many wholly wanting.

Now these sponge spiculce are indestructible. The destruction

of the structure of the sponge, which this theory requires as a

necessary postulate, would not destroy them. How then is it

that they are thus variably present ? And it is important to re-

member that similar spiculse are also found in the chalk itself.

It may be remarked, in passing, that this theory, if true, pre-

sents us with a phenomenon still more extraordinary and unac-

countable than that which it is called in to explain. It is taken

for granted that the flint itself is a foreign substance which has

filled the places formerly occupied by sponges. Now how hap-

pens it that flint should be found in such places only ? and this

restriction, be it observed, besides being expressly made by Mr.

Bowerbank, is necessary to the existence, in any shape, of the

theory. If it is once admitted that flint is ever, or may be even

in a single instance, found elsewhere, the theory ceases to be an

explanation of the phenomena, and becomes of no value to the

philosophical inquirer. Now, can it be shown that silex has any

peculiar affinity for either the animal substance or the horny

skeleton of sponges ? The contrary is known, as matter of fact,

to be the case. Facts palaeontological as well as recent might be

cited in abundance in disproof of this necessary postulate of the

sponge theory. I have undoubted sponges in my possession

from the chalk, which, instead of being wholly silicified, are in

part so, and in part still in the chalk, while the flint is otherwise

extended beyond the boundary of the sponge. Such facts dis-

prove the alleged special affinity. But if we turn to events going

on before our eyes, we find that not only is silex abundantly se-

creted on the leaves and stalks of the Plumbago , and at the joints

of the bamboo, and in many other instances, but the plants grow-

ing near the Geysers in Iceland, as well as near the hot springs

in some of the Azores, are incrusted with silex, in which many

are completely imbedded, and that without the presence or neigh-

bourhood of any sponge whatever. These facts alone, apart from

those of a like nature which will presently be named, and which

every one must feel to be clearly analogous, are fatal to the

theory. They show analogous results produced at the present

day by a wholly different set of causes from those suggested by

the sponge theory and necessary to its maintenance.

It is admitted that it is very rarely, if ever, that the reticulated

tissue which is conceived to have belonged to sponges is found

throughout any considerable portion of the flint ; that often but

little of such tissue is found ; often no trace of it at all. Now

these facts want, but have not had, explanation. How is it that

1*

3

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

the bodies themselves whence the flints are said to derive their

forms are almost wholly, often wholly, gone, and yet in those

very flints are preserved structures, as we shall see, in endless

variety, every whit as delicate and beautiful as the sponges them-

selves, and that too of bodies which, according to the very as-

sumption of the theory, were themselves dead before the sponge

was formed over them ?

But it may further be asked, how happens it that there are

found in flints fragments perfect and in beautiful preservation of

the reticulated tissue, while all the rest is wanting ? This is in-

consistently enough an admitted fact, — a fact itself proving that

the destruction of this tissue, assumed to have taken place in all

but these fragmentary places, is not a necessary or easily explain-

able fact. These fragments generally show under the micro-

scope a clear and distinct torn edge , not a going-off into gradual

indistinctness as would be the case if they were the remnants of

a large body formerly filling the place of the flint. I can readily

understand that fragments of sponges might float about in the

ocean mud and become, with other organic remains, imbedded and

preserved in flint. We find precisely such fragments in the chalk

also. Such a view fully accounts for the presence of these frag-

ments in the flints, while their presence in that fragmentary state

is totally inconsistent with the idea of the whole mass of flint

having ever been made up of such tissue.

Moreover, perfect sponges do exist among the flints. These

however assume a totally different aspect and form to ordinary

flints. I have several specimens, in which the general form of

the sponge, with its roots, is perfectly preserved, and the struc-

ture very beautifully displayed on fracture ; and, placed side by

side with a fine specimen of recent sponge, the one seems but

the solidified representation of the other. Not so the flint nodules

or tabular masses. They assume every variety of fantastic form,

while it is admitted that roots, or traces of them, are not to be

found.

We advance now to another and distinct branch of the in-

quiry; namely, as to the evidence afforded by the organic re-

mains, undoubtedly other than sponges, which are found in

flints : and I think we may derive equally conclusive evidence

from this class of facts.

Where, in recent sponges, do we find the innumerable quan*

tities of shells and other large objects that we find in the chalk

flints ? In a specimen now before me, by no means a picked one,

I find projecting from the exterior two Plagiostomas, a Terebra-

tula, a Pecten, twelve Ostreas and several Serpulas ; all these ob-

vious ; besides innumerable smaller shells and several portions of

a quadrangular Yentriculite. This specimen is about 8 inches

5

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk.

by 4, unbroken, and of most fantastic form. Another, about

4 inches by 3, and containing one Ventriculite which it just

encases, presents two beautiful Dianchoras and at least eight

Ostreas, besides many small shells. These are lying on the ex-

ternal surface, just sunk, as it were, in the flint, as they would

sink in water, but not at all covered*. No hollow of a sponge

could have retained them thus.

I have seen, in Mr. Bowerbank’s valuable collection of sponges,

a specimen in which one small shell is imbedded : this may have

happened in casual instances with small dead shells, but where

can it be found, in recent sponges, from the most favourable spots,

that they are full, as we find the flints full, of bivalves large, nu-

merous and perfect, and apparently living when enveloped ?

It is assumed by this theory that the sponges grew over the

shells and other organic objects which lay on the surface of the

mud. But the observed facts are wholly at variance with this

assumption. The organic bodies are found, not on the under

surface of the flints only, but equally on all parts of the surface

and in all parts of the inside. Now how can this be accounted

for ? Shall we suppose that the shells, &c. sank down from

above and rested on the sponges till grown over, unaffected by

their natural tendency to fall to the actual bottom on the slightest

motion in the water ? What follows then ? necessarily this : that

the upper surfaces of the tabular masses would, far more than

any other flints, display these remains, as such shells, &c. would

be far less liable to roll off the assumed sponges of this form.

But do the facts support this necessary conclusion from the sponge

theory ? Assuredly not. It is the nodular flints in which are

found most of the organic remains of the class alluded to. Thus

on the flat surfaces, off which shells, &c. could not fall, they are

not found in any abundance, while on the smaller and nodular

masses, of all sizes, off wdiich the least motion, if not their natural

gravity, would cause them to fall, they are found in great abun-

dance ! The same result follows from the observation of the fact,

that on the under side of the upper part of the goblet-shaped flints

which inclose Ventriculites (and the upper and under surfaces of

which can therefore be positively known), shells and other re-

mains, not originally affixed to the surface of the animal, are found,

which therefore could never have been either lying on the ground

or have fallen from above. These two sets of facts are equally

conclusive against the sponge enveloping theory.

The Echinites alone, extensively examined, afford conclusive

evidence against the sponge theory. These are very frequently

indeed found in the very centre of flints. They are sometimes

* See note, p. 7, for explanation of this fact.

6

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

found with spines affixed, and therefore alive or with unde-

composed soft parts when entombed. The masses of flint to

which they are affixed are very frequently not attached to either

of the large orifices of the shell, but to some part of the sides,

while the shell is entirely filled with flint and both orifices closed.

Mr. Bowerbank states that, when the shell is not entirely filled

with flint, in “ the space thus unoccupied by the flint was always

included one or both of the large orifices of the shell*.” I do

not find this fact in any degree borne out by my own observations.

I have specimens at this moment before me in which the reverse

is the fact, — both orifices being closed though the Echinite has

never been filled with flint. Many other illustrations of the clear

inapplicability of the sponge theory to the case of Echinites might

be given.

It is frequently the case that the remains of a zoophyte are

found in the exact centre of a flint which is externally round. In

some localities these abound, and they occur from the condition

of a very friable substance, perfectly preserving the structure

however, and merely coated with a layer of flint, to the same

body perfectly solid and silicified throughout, though still clearly

showing the structure. It is easy to understand that, in parti-

cular classes of objects (such e . g . as some of the beautiful ob-

jects inclosed in the Wiltshire flints) and under particular cir-

cumstances, the affinity for the siliceous fluid might not be suf-

ficiently great, or the rapidity of its solidifying too great, to

allow of its penetrating the body round which it formed. In such

cases we should necessarily find, as we do, that the soft animal

substance, not being penetrated, has decayedf, leaving only what

we find, — the hard and, so protected, indestructible parts; where

it was wholly soft animal matter a mere hollow is found. The ex-

tent to which penetration extended will of course affect the facts

exhibited. The explanation offered by Mr. Bowerbank of the

Wiltshire flints is clearly inadmissible. Had they been dead and

sponges grown over them, it is obvious that they would not, as

now, have been loose within the flints, but solidly encased, as

shells and corals are found.

I have an Asterias in the centre of a flint. Teeth, pieces of

wood, &c. are often found in flints, which could never have be-

come entangled within the meshes of a sponge. It will be said

that the sponge may have been built over them. This, though

highly improbable, may be possible ; but there are cases to which

such an explanation cannot apply, in which flint is found in situ-

* Loc. cit. p. 1 86.

f I believe it may be stated as an invariable rule, that there is an orifice,

large or minute, in all such cases, through which the gases evolved might

escape.

7

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

ations to which it is impossible that, on the sponge theory, it

could have gained access.

The specimen of Mososaurus ( Leiodon of Owen *), discovered

by Mr. Charlesworth, exhibits the pulp cavities of the teeth par-

tially filled with flint. This is sufficiently remarkable ; but those

teeth being large, and the cavities not being wholly filled with

the flint, it may not perhaps, alone, be considered as absolutely

conclusive. What is wanting in this case is however fully sup-

plied by the following : —

I have a flint, in the centre of which is found, by a happy frac-

ture, a jaw on which are made visible, by the fracture, at least

sixteen teeth (see figure). They are very minute ; the largest

not exceeding in size the point of a pin the eighth of an inch in

length. On examining this very interesting specimen under the

microscope, it is found that, though the jaw itself is perfect and

not silicifiedf, the pulp cavity of each tooth in which the fracture

has exposed it is entirely filled with solid flint. How did that

flint get there ? Geological phenomena will indeed be easily ex-

plainable if we are to believe that any sponge gemmule ever found

its way into these minute and perfectly inaccessible spaces, and

still more that, having found its way there, it was able to exist and

grow there without any possible access to the very essential means

of its existence, the sea-water. That the silex when in solution

possessed however the power, and that it was one of its qualities,

to penetrate some of the most intimate tissues of organic bodies

within its range, will appear from the next class of facts cited ;

in reference to which, as well as to the last-named facts, it may

be stated that soft animal matter appears to have had a greater

* Odontography, p. 261. and pi. 72 ; and a section is figured in the Lon-

don Geological Journal for Sept. 1846.

f See this phenomenon alluded to in a very interesting paper by Dr. Man-

tell in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' voi. xvi. p. 80. The

whole article is well-worthy of attentive perusal. The same principle will

consistently explain why, as often seen, though a Ventriculite was enveloped

in flint, the shells on it were left bare, not having so much affinity for the

siliceous fluid as the soft animal substance of the V entriculite. On the sponge

theory this frequent fact would be utterly inexplicable.

8

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

affinity for the silex than bone or shell ; through which latter

the silex would frequently pass without lodging there in order to

reach those parts for which its affinity was greater*.

We now come to the innumerable cases in which organic re-

mains belonging to the many varieties commonly, though very

loosely, grouped as Ventriculites, whether cyathiform, flexuous

or quadrangular, and Choanites and the like are found imbedded

in flints ; and many of the most delicate of which we now find

imbedded in the solid flint with yet a light floating elegance of

form as if still enjoying life in their native liquid element ; and

which facts assure us that they were thus suddenly and instanta-

neously fixed in a moment of the highest vitality.

What are the conclusions to which a careful and extensive ex-

amination of these objects necessarily leads ?

First, that the animals were enveloped while living +, and not

after death , as the sponge theory assumes as a necessary postu-

late. The specimens are found both in flint and chalk in pre-

cisely the same conditions. They are found in all states, from the

fully expanded to the closely contracted. They are found — not,

as is the case with the sponge tissues, rarely or never, but — very

generally in a perfect state of preservation, the whole tissues and

structure being preserved to us in a condition fully as clear as if

the living being were before us. Now it is very easy to conceive

of the living animal being suddenly enveloped in a mass of soft

mud or other liquid which hardened more or less rapidly, but we

cannot conceive of its allowing the growth over it, while living,

of a sponge which enveloped without killing it or altering its ap-

pearance ; still less of that sponge afterwards decaying and leaving

the inclosed body undecayed.

Second. It is beyond a question that the cause which gave

rise to these flints was not a foreign body enveloping the exterior

of the Ventriculites and other bodies, but a substance which pos-

sessed the quality of penetrating their most intimate structure.

It is only necessary to examine polished specimens of either

Choanites or the cyathiform, quadrangular or flexuous Ventri-

culites, or the specimens of either cracked open, when, as is often

the case, they admit of this, to be fully satisfied on this point.

The structure of these bodies themselves remains perfect and

most beautiful, while no enveloping structure or tissue can be

made out, except in the occasional fragments already noticed.

Again, it is not unfrequently found that the flint itself has only

* The same point is well illustrated by cases of fish and Crustacea, of

both of which I have specimens of which the integument remains unsili-

cified, the interior is solid flint.

f This might easily be shown to have been the case with other classes of

objects, but space forbids extending the illustrations. All these soft parts

are preserved, and yet the enveloping sponge has decayed !

9

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

penetrated the internal structure, none being found encasing

either the external or internal surface*. This would clearly be

inexplicable on the sponge theory, but presents itself as a fre-

quent phsenomenon in several of the classes of objects above

enumerated, and is consistent with the observed fact, already no-

ticed, of the affinity of the silex for soft animal matter. When,

moreover, flint is found enveloping the outside of a Ventri-

culite, it is almost invariably found enveloping it, to exactly the

same extent and no more, on the inside, and this without the

edges of the Ventriculite being at any point overlapped. It is

obvious that no sponge can have possibly grown in this manner.

Again, the delicate roots of these bodies are very frequently in-

deed, more frequently than any other part , found preserved in

flint, a fact in most diametrical opposition to the very funda-

mental and necessary postulates of the sponge theory, as the

sponge would clearly lie upon, not penetrate into, the mud. Yet

these ventriculite roots are thus commonly found, while it is ad-

mitted that no place of root is to be found belonging to the so-

called sponge masses themselves. I have a specimen in which,

in one block of chalk, there are five Ventriculites. The stem and

root of each one , and no other part, is enveloped in flint.

It may here be noticed as an interesting and important fact,

that it will be found, on careful examination, that not only is the

internal structure of the Ventriculite preserved, but, in fine spe-

cimens opened with care, the integument of the animal, which

presents quite a different structure, is also preserved, covering over

the internal structure ; and thus at the same time disproving the

alleged sponge character of the Ventriculites t, and showing that,

at the time when the silex aggregated round and penetrated the

Ventriculite, this integument was unbroken. So in Choanites,

which have quite a different exterior, that exterior will be fre-

quently seen perfect, clear and distinct, while exterior to it is a

layer of flint.

It will be obvious, that if the sponge theory is to be taken as

any explanation at all, it must assume, in addition to the inad-

missible postulates already noticed, the inconceivable pheno-

menon that every one of these living bodies was penetrated by

the sponge, since the very object of the theory is to show that all

the spaces now occupied by flint were once sponge, that is, that

silex has precisely replaced sponge and nothing else . If it does

not go this length it is of no value whatever as a theory, since

* It is worthy of particular remark, too, that all these bodies are very

frequently found only partially enveloped in flint, the remainder of the

body being found in the adjoining chalk. This affords clear demonstration

against the sponge theory, but space will not allow of my entering on this

very interesting class of facts.

f See Prof. Ansted’s paper above cited.

10

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

there is no doubt, as already seen, of sponges being, like other

remains, sometimes inclosed in flint : the point is to explain upon

a general and universally applicable principle, the presence, in all

its forms, of flint ; and this has been seen by the extract already

given to be the express intention of Mr. Bowerbank. If there-

fore it appears that it is impossible, in any one particular in-

stance, to explain the presence of flint on this theory, the theory

itself falls wholly to the ground as an explanation of the pheno-

mena. Its insufficiency is not any more demonstrated, though

it is further illustrated, by multiplying such instances or sets of

instances. Such illustration is afforded by the variety of facts which

have been already cited, and the citation of which, did space per-

mit, might be extended almost without limitation. It is conceived

however that it has been sufficiently shown, first , from the con-

dition of the assumed sponge remains themselves, second , from

the nature and condition of the inclosed organic bodies, that the

sponge theory is in nowise tenable as a comprehensive theory

to explain the origin of the forms and modes in which flint is now

found in the chalk.

We will now take another ground apart from any internal ex-

amination, to which we have hitherto confined ourselves, of the

substance of the flint. And we shall find, on taking a careful

review of some facts of the external forms and modes in which

the flints are found, that the sponge theory is not only wholly

unsatisfactory, but absolutely impossible ; while we may gain some

hints as to the true origin of these masses. To avoid extending

these remarks to too great a length I shall confine myself to a

few cases, which however are conclusive, and all of which, with

many others confirming them, have been collected by myself upon

the spot ; and I purposely select such as have been collected at

spots many miles apart.

The reader is requested to examine carefully the specimen

represented in fig. 1 of Plate I., which is, with the others there

figured, of the natural size. It will be seen that the external

surface of this specimen is entirely covered with strong liny

ridges. These ridges overlap one another precisely like pieces

of card-board cut to a clear square edge, or, to take another and

I believe an exact analogy, as flakes of ice just on the point of

congelation would do if violently agitated*. They rise one above

another about, on an average, the twentieth of an inch, and, as it

will be seen that they run in various directions, they thus give to

the surface a very peculiar form, the anticlinal axis b c crossing

it, and there being at a, where the ridges run concentrically, a

deep and very accurately rounded cup, of which a small space at

* In an experiment with Glauber salts, made since the above was written,

I found, on an accidental motion given, exactly the same character of ridges

assumed.

11

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

the bottom is flat and all around the ridges rise regularly and

concentrically; giving necessarily the idea of some liquid sub-

stance, of which the surface was very rapidly solidifying, and

disposed altogether to very rapid solidification, and which at the

exact moment of such condition was affected by some small

rapidly revolving eddy, while the other parts of the solidifying

substance were at the same moment affected by small but rapid

currents running in opposite directions. This very motion pro-

bably caused the solidification of the mass, for, curiously enough,

there are fewer marks of organic remains in this and another

similar flint than in any others I possess*. The edges of all

the ridges are sharp, although in this instance, contrary to what

we shall presently find in another, the whole surface, under the

angles of the ridges as well as above them, is covered with the

mealy coating. The under surface of this flint is covered with

ridges precisely in the same manner as the surface figured, and

in a manner which renders the specimen still more striking as

illustrating the action of the supposed currents. Traces of the

flakes which have thus been forcibly slipped over each other are

also observable in the substance of the flint, at a cross fracture,

precisely as might be the case where flakes of ice, slipped over

one another, varied slightly in colour, from some contained sub-

stance, while separately exposed and before- being piled over by

a mass of other liquid, on whose thus forcibly and rapidly

upraised surface the broken edges of other flakes would of

course be seen ; and the whole of which mass, so piled up and very

rapidly solidified by the

very agitation thus given,

affords the most exact idea

of the present specimen.

I have another specimen

presenting exactly the

same general characters of

liny ridges with sharp over-

lapping edges, though the

form assumed is different.

I have also a most inter-

esting section of flint, pre-

senting, under the micro-

scope, evidence of a pre-

cisely analogous train of

facts and consequences.

This specimen, which is

here figured, speaks for

* “ The slightest disturbing causes, as agitation , change of temperature

or the affinity, though slight, of some other body for the solvent, would put

an end to the solution.” — Turner’s Lecture , as before cited, p. 26.

12

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

itself. The lines on it present no trace of organic structure,

but are obviously caused by the rapid revolution of the particles,

to which motion the flint, almost free from trace of organism,

probably owed its solidification.

These facts are obviously totally incompatible with the sponge

theory. Not only is it clear that no sponge can ever have taken

such forms of growth as these, which are obviously the result of

mechanical causes acting, not on an animal substance but on an

inorganic one; but, while the sponge theory, necessarily assuming

as it does the decomposition of the saturated sponge, requires

as a necessary postulate a very slowly solidifying body, as the

only means of accounting for that decomposition, the facts above

named obviously point to a very rapidly solidifying substance, a

condition, too, best agreeing with known phenomena. Nor do

the facts admit of that substance being of the nature suggested

by Dr. Buckland. They seem, on the contrary, necessarily to

indicate a substance which, while of a considerable specific gra-

vity (flint is 2*59), was in an extreme state of liquidity* for the

time, but liable to extremely rapid solidification ; in fact such a

substance as Dr. Turner indicates. The sharp edges, as well as

the character of the ridges, preclude the supposition of a viscid

fluid. Phenomena analogous to those suggested as explanatory

of the condition of fig. 1 are often seen in cold weather in a

vessel of water in which fine flakes of ice only are seen while it

is at rest, but the moment it is agitated the whole becomes a

solid mass. Similar phenomena may be produced experiment-

ally in many ways.

The rare occurrence in the flint of instances like those just

stated probably arises from that very rapidity of solidification

which explains those particular instances ; a solidification which

contact with any organic body would equally induce, and which

would of course, therefore, prevent frequent liability while yet

liquid to such casualties as there happened. That rapidity of

solidification,- — a fact, as has been seen, inadmissible on the

sponge theory, — is demonstrated not only by the facts last stated

but by those to be next named, and which, with the last, render

it indisputable that the flint was perfectly solid and brittle (and

not in anywise in the state of a glutinous or viscous mass) before

the chalk itself became solid or was in otherwise than the state

of a soft mud, but yet while it was in a state of mud and not

* Dr. Turner speaks, p. 27, of the silica being in a gelatinous form and

hardening slowly. Why this should ever have been assumed does not ap-

pear, and both parts of the assumption are obviously directly inconsistent

with all the general principles enunciated in that lecture and with observed

facts, as above shown. There is probably some incompleteness in this part

of the report of his lecture.

13

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

merely of muddy water *. This is a veiy important point, as it

enables us to explain very many of the most striking phenomena

connected with the deposit and contents and aspect of flints.

PI. I. fig. 2 represents a specimen extracted with elaborate

care from the rock with my own hand, and in which therefore

no mistake exists as to facts or appearances. It is a mass of

chalk in which is a flint in part enveloping a Ventriculite, though

a part of it (on each side of d ) is an instance of a frequent case

above named, where the flint is found not enveloping but only

penetrating the substance of the animal ; and the specimen af-

fords the yet further illustration of a Ventriculite preserved

partly in flint, partly in chalk. Now this flint formerly enve-

loped with an extremely thin coating (not the eighth of an inch

thick) the lower part of the Ventriculite, together with the stem

and roots. After it was thus encased however, and while the

chalk was yet a soft mud, the flint, then necessarily solidified and

brittle, was by some accident broken. The force which broke it

nearly expended itself in so doing, and was not sufficient to

overcome entirely the adhesive properties of the mud and so to

remove the separated parts to a great distance. In this instance

there were in the chalk, when I found it in situ , four pieces of

flint a , b, e, and one at c, the impression of which last remains,

but the piece itself was broken out before I discovered the nature

of the specimen : a , b and e remain exactly as they were.

Neither of them has ever been disturbed, and each is perfectly

fixed and firm in the chalk. The chalk still remains, filling up

the spaces between them and between c and a , except where I

have, to a slight depth, cleared it away between a and b in order

to ascertain the interesting fact to be next stated, namely, that

the substance of the structure of the Ventriculite is perfectly

preserved and displayed in each piece a and b , and the edge a is

the exact counterpart of the edge b, and would fit to it if they were

brought in contact . A more interesting fact it has seldom been

my lot to develope in the course of my geological researches.

This case alone is sufficient to establish beyond possibility of

dispute the proposition to illustrate which it has been cited.

Neither the mass of chalk in which it now exists, nor that from

which it was extracted, does or did exhibit, on or near the place

of this fracture, the slightest trace of any movement or displace-

ment. Being, as above said, obviously in a state of soft mud

when the accident happened, it was sufficiently adhesive to retain

* This condition, while thus demonstrated, explains with a beautiful con-

sistency the very frequent fact of Ventriculites, &c. preserved half in flint

and half in chalk. I regret that space will not allow me to enter on that

point, which an extensive reference to facts only may render obvious to those

unfamiliar with the phaenomena.

14

Mr. Toulmin Smith on the Formation

the pieces in these positions and to prevent injury to the exposed

parts of the Ventriculite, but filled up the space made by the

fracture, and afterwards gradually hardened, bearing itself no

trace of the event.

I have also another and larger specimen in which precisely the

same state of facts is found, and which therefore, though an im-

portant illustration of the results learnt from the last specimen,

it is unnecessary to describe in detail.

Eig. 3 of the Plate exhibits phenomena of the same character,

but carried further. A mere glance at the figure will show that

the mass of flint is covered by sharp angular pieces of broken

flint adhering to its surface. These do not, as in the case of

fig. 1, rise as mere ridges. They are clearly broken fragments

of a flint already solidified, which have here lodged on this mass

while in the act of solidifying, and have become a part of it.

The places of union show no mark of junction or fracture : they

are completely united. The edges are sharp enough to cut the

finger, and the mass c , the largest, and which is itself, as will be

seen, cross-cracked into four pieces which are now at slightly

different elevations, rises at least the sixth of an inch above the

mass onto which it is fixed. The edges of these pieces are not

covered with the mealy coating*. It should be remarked that

the minute angular fragments scattered all over the surface of

this specimen are much more numerous than could be repre-

sented with clearness in the figure, and that the whole mass on

which these angular fragments rest (the left-hand portion of the

figure) has received a slip over to the right, so as to leave a ridge

at a b of a quarter of an inch high and having a very sharp edge,

and beyond which to the right not a single angular fragment is

found .

It is clear that in this case a very different state of things took

place to what happened in fig. 1, although equally clear, as in

that case, that the sponge theory is directly opposed by the facts,

as neither could any sponge thus fracture (which, if that theory

be true, must be assumed), nor could such broken fragments fall

in this manner onto a soft sponge and become thus part of its

substance. It is obvious that a mass of flint had become per-

fectly solidified; that that solid mass became by some accident

greatly shattered ; and that some of the fragments fell through

* Thus disproving a view which has been advanced, that the mealy coat-

ing is the mere effect of exposure to carbonate of lime and the deprivation

of some of the water of the flint thereby. These parts have been in every

respect equally exposed with all other parts, but were not so until after they

had become solid. The mealy coating does not seem to present any diffi-

culty, but space will not allow me now to enter into it further than to add

that 1 have found it covering a large part of the surface of flints inclosed in

Eehinites.

15

of the Flints of the Upper Chalk.

the soft chalk-mud upon another mass at that moment on the

point of solidifying. The movement which caused this fracture

and impelled the pieces onto the yet fluid mass was probably

the same which caused the whole surface on which the fractured

pieces alighted to slip forwards, and which surface and the mass

beneath it, probably by the very agitation thus caused, instantly

solidified, leaving the ridge a b , and fixing the fractured pieces

firm.

This case illustrates and demonstrates all the conditions al-

ready noticed; extreme liquidity and rapid solidification of the

flint, together with the soft state of the surrounding chalk.

It is unnecessary to enter now into further details of facts, or

to dwell long on the conclusions to which the numerous facts

above cited lead us. Some of these conclusions have been sug-

gested in the course of these observations, others will naturally

suggest themselves *. Numberless facts unite to show that the

sponge theory is wholly untenable, while they point to a state of

facts easily conceivable and analogous to what is found in other

formations ; which is in accordance with known laws and experi-

mental phenomena ; and with which all the observed phenomena

of flint will be found consistent. For different mineral concre-

tions to form themselves round organic centres, by the combined

effect of some affinity thereto and of their own molecular attrac-

tion, is a phenomenon of frequent occurrence. In the Septaria

of the London clay, each having its organic centre, numerous

organic remains are found interspersed, and frequently half im-

bedded and half projecting on the surface, precisely as is the

case with the flints. The siliceous solution, which was probably

supplied periodically only, being supplied but to a limited ex-

* I conceive it unnecessary to enter here at length on the question of the

arrangement of the flints in layers. Such a phenomenon presents no

greater difficulty than any fossiliferous layers proving several distinct and

successive bottoms of the sea ; such, for example, as form so marked a

feature of the Dudley limestone. There would thus always be some bottom

sufficiently hard to resist the pressure caused by the specific gravity of the

siliceous fluid and flints, the greater part of which would thus fall onto it

through the softer mud above. Scattered small flints are found between

the layers, which a variety of causes may have arrested in their descent.

The distances between the layers are by no means equal ; the modifying

conditions which caused at intervals, in this formation like others, a rela-

tively hard bottom to form, varying at different times. That such “ modi-

fying conditions” must be taken into consideration will be evident from the

important facts that in the Lower Chalk no flints at all occur in the south-east

of England, while in the Middle Chalk they do occur scattered indiscri-

minately through the mass; but it is only in the Upper Chalk that they

assume the peculiar stratified arrangement which marks it. To explain

these facts on the sponge theory would indeed be impossible, but they are

perfectly consistent with the conclusions above drawn, and those conclusions

and these facts mutually illustrate each other.

16 On the Formation of the Flints of the Upper Chalk .

tent and during a certain part of the chalk formation only, dif-

fering, as is known, in different localities, could only form itself

into masses which occupy a certain space. Whether it took the

form of nodular or tabular masses was owing to local modifying

causes. Where organic remains of any considerable size, or

grouped in particular masses, happened to be abundant and lie

near one another, they acted as separate centres, while the solu-

tion was attracted to them in a mass. Hence the fantastic and

varied forms in which we find the nodules, together with the

projecting bodies, the supply of material being often too limited

to encase the whole of all the organic bodies by which it was

attracted. Where those bodies were less abundant or less indi-

vidualized,— as where there was a layer of minute organic bodies,

■ — there would be fewer centres of attraction, and tabular flints

would be formed. Wherever the concretions happened to form

themselves they would be attracted by and envelope, more or

less, every organic body with which they came in contact, living

or dead. That the siliceous liquid possessed the power of pene-

trating,— that is, had some peculiar affinity for, — the substance of

the organic bodies, vegetable or animal, which it enveloped, and

even sometimes without being in sufficient quantity to envelope

them at all, is a fact which we see before us. This may be a fact

difficult to explain, but it is one which is exemplified in innu-

merable other instances, and which is not therefore peculiar to

flint *.

Such are the conclusions to which a very careful and extensive

observation of the phenomena of flints has led me. Accepting

the views of l)r. Turner, combined with the well-known facts of

the products of thermal springs, as affording a satisfactory and

the most probable explanation of the origin of the siliceous liquid,

I offer these conclusions as explanatory of the modes and forms

in which we actually find the flints themselves : and I offer them

without being wedded to any preconceived notion or theory, but

simply as the results of extensive observation, and as alone ap-

pearing consistent with all the varied class of facts which that

observation has brought under my notice.

Highgate, Nov. 1846.

* The extreme liquidity of the siliceous fluid, combined with its specific

gravity and the superincumbent pressure, help to explain these facts. The

questions of that specific gravity of the siliceous fluid, and of its not under-

going any material contraction when solidified, cannot be here discussed,

though illustrating and supporting the conclusions to which other facts have

above led.

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Rubi.

17

II. — A Supplement to “ A Synopsis of the British Rubi ” No. I.

By Charles C. Babington, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. &c.f

The publication of my Synopsis of the British Rubi has already

resulted in the discovery of several additional British forms of

this difficult but beautiful genus. These I purpose publishing

at intervals as time will allow me to determine them with accu-

racy.

25. R. glandulosus , Bell.

£. dentatus; caule subanguloso piloso setoso, aculeis parvis paucis,

foliolo terminali ova to cuspidato basi cordato insequaliter apicu-

lato -dentato, paniculse hirtae aculeis paucis tenuibus rectis decli-

natis setis brevibus mul'cis apice et ramis paucis brevibus distan-

tibus divaricatis paucifloris corymbosis.

Whole plant of an ashy green colour. Barren stem rather

angular with small not very numerous yellow prickles ; hairs and

setae abundant, nearly equal, short. Leaves very like those of

R. Bellardi but different in colour, thinner, much less hairy

(with scattered hairs on both sides), the terminal leaflet cordate

at the basej; petioles armed like the stem, except that the

prickles are deflexed (this is also the case in the R. Bellardi

from Terrington Car — in the c Rubi Germ/ they are represented

straight). On the flowering shoot the hairs are more numerous

relatively to the setae than on the barren stem ; both are very

short ; prickles few, scattered, short, very slender. Leaves all

ternate, the uppermost 1 — 3 excepted, which are usually simple.

Branches few-flowered, subcorymbose ; panicle corymbose at the

end ; sepals lanceolate with an attenuated point, setose, acicular,

reflexed from the fruit.

Abundant near Twycross, Leicestershire, Rev. A. Bloxam ,

from whom my specimens were received.

Obs. Very closely resembling the typical R. glandulosus (R.

Bellardi ), but differing remarkably in its colour, the dentition of

its thin leaves and its fewer prickles and aciculi, and more nu-

merous hairs on the barren stem. N.B. A specimen of this

bramble will be found in Bloxam’s * Fasciculus of Rubi/

25*. R. Gunteri (Weihe) ; caule subanguloso sparsim piloso et se-

toso, aculeis insequalibus nonnullis validis sed brevibus rectis decli-

natis multis,/b/«s ternatis vel quinatis insequaliter dentato-serratis

concoloribus supra glabris subtus ad venas pilosis pallide viridibus,

foliolo terminali late obovato cuspidato, paniculce thyrsoidece hirtse

f Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 10th, 1846.

X The leaves are almost invariably ternate, but rarely a quinate leaf

occurs.

Ann. Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xix.

2

18

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Ruhi .

inferne foliosse aculeis paucis tenuibus rectis declinatis setis bre-

vibus apice et ramis brevibus ascendentibus multifloris paniculatis.

R. Gunteri, Weihe, Rubi Germ. 63. t. 21.

Prickles rather numerous on the barren stem, remarkably de-

clining, but straight, short, their base thick ; hairs few ; aciculi

more numerous ; setae rather plentiful, short and nearly equal (in

an old shoot now before me the hairs, aciculi and setae have nearly

all fallen off) . Leaves ternate or (in very rare instances from the

subdivision of the unequal lateral leaflets) quinate, green on both

sides, nearly or quite glabrous above, rather paler, and with yel-

lowish downy and hairy veins beneath ; terminal leaflet broadly

obovate, cuspidate, slightly cordate or emarginate below ; lateral

leaflets placed nearly at right angles with the intermediate leaflet

as in R. glandulosus and Bellardi , unequally ovate or lobed on

the lower margin, cuspidate ; all irregularly but rather strongly

dentate-serrate ; general and partial petioles and midribs beneath

armed similarly but less strongly than the stem, and their

prickles are often deflexed ; stipules linear, hairy, setose. Flower-

ing shoot long, very hairy, with rather numerous, short (and a

few longer) slender declining prickles ; aciculi and sete short,

not longer than the hairs, not very numerous, except in the

upper part of the shoot and amongst the flowers. Leaves ter-

nate ; leaflets nearly equal, rather obovate or lanceolate, green

and hairy on both sides with paler veins beneath ; general and

partial petioles armed like the shoot but with more numerous

prickles ; the two or three uppermost leaves simple, ovate or cor-

date-ovate, often lobed on one or both sides. Panicle long, nar-

row, with three or four axillary short panicled branches, and a

long slightly compound panicled ultra-axillary summit with very

short branches, each bearing four or five long-stalked flowers.

Sepals downy, setose, ashy, with a long point, reflexed from the

fruit.

Hartshill Wood, Warwickshire, in abundance, Rev. A . Blox -

am , to whom I am indebted for most beautiful specimens.

Obs . 1. This plant very much resembles R. glandulosus , of

which I was once inclined to consider it as a variety ; but its pa-

nicle is so different from that of all the forms of that species as

to claim specific distinction. Its leaves (on the barren stem) are

often exactly like those of typical R. glandulosus ( R . Bellardi ) in

look and form, but differ greatly in their dentition. In one of

the specimens now before me the panicle is almost exactly like

that represented in the ' Rubi Germ/ as characteristic of R. thyr -

siflorus , except that its upper ultra-axillary portion is narrower

from its shorter branches ; other specimens have the ultra- axillary

part shortened and the axillary branches lengthened, thus ap-

proaching some forms of R. glandulosus .

19

M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays .

Obs . 2. R . Guntcri is referred by Arrhenius to jR. glandulosus,

to which it is doubtless very nearly allied. Its armature seems

to differ and so does its panicle. Probably R. thyrsiflorus (Weihe)

is only a form of this species ; and that, together, they will take a

place close adjoining to, but not absorbed in, R. glandulosus .

N.B. This plant is named, on my recommendation, R. glan-

dulosus var. subracemosus in the ‘ Fasciculus of Rubi/ issued

lately by the Rev. A. Bloxam.

III. — On a peculiar Organ found in the Rays (Raia, Cuv.).

By M. le I)r. Ch. Robin.

There exists upon each side of the tail of the Rays an organ

which is not mentioned in any of the works which I have hitherto

been able to consult. This apparatus however deserves, on more

than one account, to attract the attention of physiologists, and

probably of physicists also.

The two organs united form nearly the third of the entire bulk

of the tail of the Rays. The bulk of each, at its largest part, is in

one of these fishes of an average size, nearly that of the index-finger.

Their origin is towards the union of the first and second quarter

of the caudal appendage of the Rays, and they terminate in a point

at the extremity of the latter. Their anterior extremity is soft

and more or less slender, according to different individuals : it

swells gradually as far as the middle of the tail of these fishes ;

the volume remains the same as far as the origin of the posterior

quarter, whence it diminishes finally to the end. This organ is

at first almost cylindrical, though a little flattened on the sides

(to about the extent of the anterior quarter) ; in the whole of

that part it is enveloped by several thin and concentric muscular

layers. These muscles soon terminate in as many aponeurotic

layers ; the organ then becomes subcutaneous, and at the same

time its form changes, becoming round externally and flattened

within. In a word, this organ, separated from the tissues to which

it adheres, presents the form of an elongated fusiform body,

swollen in the centre, more or less blunt at the extremity, and

always flattened upon its internal surface.

In a Ray one metre* long, the tail was 49, and the organ 36

centimetres in length ; 11 millimetres in the transversal direction,

and 13 from above downwards.

The tissue of this organ has the semitransparency of gelatine,

but more consistence, and its colour is a clear translucid gray.

It is furnished with a general fibrous envelope, which adheres to

the adjoining tissues by aponeurotic membranous layers ranged

at regular distances.

* The metre is equivalent to 39 37 English inches.

2*

20 M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays .

I have already said that its anterior portion was completely

surrounded by some concentric muscular layers, and then that

it became subcutaneous in its three posterior quarters, for the

greatest part of its surface. I add, by way of more detail, that its

internal surface alone is not subcutaneous, and is separated from

the vertebral column by the two long muscular and tendinous

bundles intended to move the caudal vertebrae. Its upper mar-

gin is traversed by a large subcutaneous vein, a branch of the

lateral vessel ; its external surface is traversed by the lateral vessel

itself, which is accompanied by the lateral nerve. This nerve is

situated betweeen the organ and the skin, throughout the whole

length of the subcutaneous portion.

After these details on the relations of this apparatus with the

adjacent organs, — relations, moreover, common to all the species

of Rays, — I proceed to make known the texture of the tissue

peculiar to this organ and the distribution of its vessels and its

nerves. For this purpose I shall adopt a comparative course,

that is to say, at each step I shall refer to the relations of this

organ with those which most resemble it in other fishes.

On examining attentively the apparatus in question, we ob-

serve that its substance does not constitute an uniform gelatinous

mass, but that it is divided into a large number of polygonal

flattened discs by the partitions of cellular tissue. These discs

have consequently two surfaces larger than the rest, one turned

forwards, the other backwards. With respect to the faces of the

circumference, they are in number three, four or five, which gives

the discs a triangular, tetragonal or pentagonal form ; their small-

est diameter measures the thickness of the disc, which is 1 mil-

limetre in nearly all the species. The diameter of the large sur-

faces, which measures the height of the disc, is 2 mill., one more

in the Raia rubus and R. batis , and 3 to 4 mill, in the Raia cla-

vata .

From this difference it follows, in the greatest diameter of the

discs according to the species, that in a transverse section of

the organ, from eleven to fifteen discs are counted in a R . clavata ,

and twenty to twenty-five in the R. rubus and the R. batis. The

volume of the discs increases with age and the size of the indivi-

duals, but their number does not appear to increase.

These gelatinous discs are piled up one upon another, in the

direction of the length of the apparatus, by the adherence of

their broad faces, with the interposition nevertheless of a thin

cellular partition. These longitudinal rows of discs are arranged

side by side, reunited by a cellular partition thicker than that

which separates each disc from that which follows or precedes it.

The kinds of longitudinal columns represented by the piled-up

discs are not rectilinear and do not all follow' the length of one

M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays . 21

of the faces of the apparatus ; but they are more or less contorted,

and are interrupted at intervals. The interruptions proceed from

the discs becoming at intervals irregular, more narrow, and the

series of discs terminates ordinarily in a very small, triangular

one. It follows from these anatomical arrangements, that on the

surface of the organ we may perceive one of the small faces of

each of the superficial discs, and study very regularly the elon-

gated, quadrilateral or lozenge-shaped polygonal, sometimes hex-

agonal form which it assumes in consequence of the reciprocal

pressure which it undergoes from the adjoining discs. We may

moreover very easily perceive that when the discs of a series

begin to lose their form and are interrupted, there exist at the

side other irregular discs which commence a new series. It is to

be remarked also that the discs are ranged more regularly on the

internal surface of the apparatus in the Raia rubus and R. batis

than in the Raia clavaia ; in the first two species we also observe

on the internal surface of the organ, that one of the partitions

which separates the series of discs on the internal surface, follows

its whole length and is of greater thickness than the rest : it is

formed by glistening aponeurotic fibres, and it forms a sort of

longitudinal pile into which the vessels and the nerves penetrate.

With respect to the gelatinous substance of the discs, mag-

nified 400 diameters, it is seen to be hollowed out by cavities,

and the walls of the latter are hollowed by cavities gradually

lessening in size. The substance too which circumscribes these

areolae (to which we shall recur hereafter) is hyaline, homogeneous

and transparent; it is studded with extremely fine molecular

granules. From one spot to another are very regular granular

spheres of 0mill*0050, surrounded by a very pale circular mass of

granules similar to the preceding. It is impossible to recognise

veritable cellules with walls and nuclei, and it is easy to see that

the preceding areolae are not cellules : we shall soon speak of

their uses. On the margins of the discs, the homogeneous gela-

tinous substance presents regularly undulated striae which it

would be impossible to take for fibres.

At the point at which we are arrived, it is impossible not to

recognise a great analogy between the semitransparent gelatinous

substance which essentially constitutes the discs of the peculiar

organ of the Rays, and that of the prisms of the apparatus of the

Torpedo, the rhomboidal meshes of the Silurus electricus, and

those interrupted ones between the transversal and vertical fibrous

laminae of the Gymnotus.

Although there may be differences in form between the discs

of the organ of the tail of the Rays and those which constitute

the prisms of the electrical apparatus of the Torpedo, these dif-

ferences are certainly less considerable than those of the portions

22 M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays.

of gelatinous substance circumscribed by the partitions and

areolse of the apparatus in the Silurus and Gymnotus , which

however produce similar effects to those of the Torpedo.

The mode of arrangement of these discs is as regular in the

Ray as in the Torpedo, and approximate much nearer to the

latter than to that of the same parts in the apparatus of the

Silurus and Gymnotus.

The nerves of this apparatus originate in the portion of the

spinal marrow which is prolonged into the caudal vertebrae. I

have an object in view in remarking that this portion of the

spinal marrow must be composed of sensitive and motive nervous

fibres, for it corresponds to the portion called cauda equina in the

higher animals.

The nervous roots which originate from this organ do not take

their rise together at the same level, but there springs alternately

an anterior and a posterior root. It is always from the anterior

one (before its anastomosis with the posterior) that the greatest

number of nerves which exist in the apparatus proceed ; lastly,

some issue from the ganglion and the lowest branch of the two

which proceed from it. These nerves are of the number of four

to seven for each nervous pair. They are, as is seen, very nume-

rous, and their diameter is from j to ~ millimetre. These nerves

are finally distributed in the thickness of the partitions which

separate the lateral muscles from the tail, when they penetrate

into the organ, after being more or less subdivided. In the Raia

rubus and R. batis the greatest number penetrate into the longi-

tudinal pile of the internal surface ; in the Raia clavata they pe-

netrate into some one of the partitions of that surface. In these

three species several branches wind round the superior and infe-

rior margins of the apparatus to penetrate into one of the parti-

tions of its subcutaneous portion. In the first two species these

superficial branches freely anastomose before penetrating.

It results from these facts that a considerable number of nerves

extend into the partitions of each series of discs infinitely subdi-

viding. From these subdivisions part the filaments which pene-

trate between the partition which separates each disc from that

with which it is in contact. This filament expands opposite to

the anterior face of each disc, but never does a single one pene-

trate into the substance of the disc. The nerves spread out on

the internal surface of the partition between it and the disc. No

single thread ever ramifies against the posterior face of the disc ;

we shall soon see that this surface receives only vessels.

The elementary fibres of the nervous filaments have a double

character ; that is, they are true elementary nervous tubes tra-

versed by a semifluid substance which escapes in drops of variable

forms from their extremities when torn across. [These observa-

23

M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays .

tions however would require to be verified upon animals fresh

captured. ]

The elementary tubes which spread out against the prism are

from 0m*01 to 0*013, that is to say, half the diameter of the ele-

mentary tubes measured on the nerves at the point of their pe-

netration into the apparatus. The elementary nervous tubes do

not terminate in a net-work, but actually in very large meshes,

to effect which they fork out several times into two or three

branches and anastomose by inosculation.

These facts rest on the clearest evidence, being easily proved

even with a magnifying power of 100 diameters. The semifluid

nervous substance contained in these elementary tubes may be

made to flow out, and be seen to penetrate into each of their sub-

divisions and anastomoses. These anastomotic terminations of

the elementary nervous tubes have already been proved to exist

by Savi, in his “ Anatomical Investigation of the Torpedo (1844) ”

He has also proved this fact in the partitions which separate the

discs of gelatinous substance of the electric apparatus of this

fish.

The last facts which I have just established exhibit a still

greater analogy between the organ in question and the apparatus

of the electric fishes. It is true that these nerves proceed from

the termination of the spinal marrow, that is to say, from the

cauda equina , but the same fact takes place in the Gymnotus , the

most potent in its discharges of the electrical fishes, whose elec-

trical organs however, according to Hunter, do not receive a mass

of nerves proportionably so considerable as those of the Torpedo.

In the Ray, as in the Gymnotus , the mass of the nerves sent to

the electric apparatus by each nervous pair, is at least as consi-

derable as those which they transmit to the skin and the muscles.

The lateral nerve does not in the Ray, any more than in the

Gymnotus , send any filament to the organ in question.

The nerves of the electrical apparatus of the Silurus , examined

by Geoffroy St. Hilaire, M. Valenciennes, Rudolplii and Peters,

proceed from the lateral nerve, a branch of the eighth pair.

Thus there is nothing constant in the origin of the nerves of

the electrical apparatus, as they proceed sometimes from the

eighth and ninth pair [Torpedo), sometimes from the eighth pair

alone [Silurus), sometimes from the pairs which arise from the

spinal ntarrow [Gymnotus and Raia). Their situation has also

no constancy, as they are sometimes situated towards the head

[Torpedo), around the body [Silurus), and on each side of the

tail [Gymnotus and Raia).

The vessels of this organ are numerous and curiously arranged.

Between the articulation of each vertebra there passes a vessel,

alternately an artery and a vein, proceeding from the principal

24 M. Robin on a peculiar Organ found in the Rays .

artery and vein of the tail. These two vessels never pass together

to reach their foramina, and they never traverse the inferior spi-

nal apophyses, like the nerves, to issue from the spinal canal.

Beyond the vertebrae, the vessels follow the course of the nerves,

and penetrate with them into the apparatus. Several branches

ramify on its surface, surround it with their anastomoses, and

from the plexus which they form, some branches are detached,

destined either for the skin or the adjoining muscles.

Those vessels which penetrate the thickness of the organ are

there subdivided infinitely in the partitions of connective tissue

which separate the discs from one another.

From the plexus formed by the arterial and venous ramifica-

tions capillaries are given off, which are directed towards the pos-

terior face of the disc which is in front of them, and penetrate

into its substance. A capillary vessel never penetrates into the

anterior surface of a prism ; but we have stated that the nerves

ramify opposite to or against that surface. The capillaries which

penetrate the discs are very elegantly arranged in flexuous loops,

and are sometimes agglomerated in the form of tufts. These

loops and tufts are lodged and buried in the cavities by which

the disc is hollowed out ; these excavations exist only on the pos-

terior face of the discs, whilst the anterior face against which

the nerves are arranged is smooth. The capillaries which are

buried in the discs are from to °f a millimetre in dia-

meter.

To sum up the matter, there exists in the Rays a pretty volu-

minous organ, situated in the tail of that fish, as in that of the

Gymnotus . [From a letter which I have received from Prof. J .

Muller, Riippell would appear to have described an organ ana-

logous to the former in the tail of the fishes of the genus Mor-

myrus.~\ This organ of the Rays receives fine but very numerous

nerves. It is formed of a gelatinous semitransparent and firm

matter, as in all the electrical organs known. This substance is,

as in all these fishes, divided into polygonal discs, regularly piled

together, against which nerves ramify that terminate by succes-

sive bifurcations and anastomoses supplied from their elementary

fibres. How can we help seeing in this an electrical apparatus ?

It is true that its position is not the same as in the Torpedo, but

in the Gymnotus and the Silurus the organ is also situated in the

tail or around the body. These conclusions are further confirmed

by the following facts : I have proved that this apparatus is

wanting in the tail of the Torpedo and the genera Mustelus ,

Scy Ilium, Squat ina, Zygcena , Acantliias and Carcharias.

The presence of this apparatus in the tail of the Rays explains

the immoderate proportional length of this organ, its flattened

form beneath, and the absence of the inferior lobe on the caudal

25

Prof. Owen on an Ichthyolite from Sheppey.

fin, which scarcely exists in the Rays. The anal fin is also want-

ing in the Rays, it is also wanting in the Torpedos ; but all these

fishes have a complete caudal fin, whereas it is wanting in the

Rays, as I have just observed.

I am indebted to the kindness of M. Bibron for being enabled

to ascertain that the other fishes allied to the Rays ( Cephaloptera ,

Myliobates and Pastinacus) whose tail is terminated by a thin

and extended whip or prolongation, do not possess this apparatus.

The whip is formed of a portion of the tail, which the electrical

apparatus would occupy if it existed.

As we have just seen, this organ cannot be regarded as a

gland, for it has not the structure of one ; it does not possess an

excretory duct, it does not communicate in any part with the in-

side, and no gland receives so many nerves of animal life*.

IV. — Notice of an Ichthyolite from Sheppey , in the collection of

Mr . Tennant , F.G.S. By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.

The unfrequency of the discovery of any part of the internal

skeleton of the cartilaginous fishes associated in a fossil state

with the teeth, which are the most common evidences of the ex-

tinct Chondropterygii, induces me to send the following descrip-

tion of the Ichthyolite figured in cuts A and B, which has been

kindly transmitted to me for that purpose by Mr. Tennant, F.G.S.

It was found in the well-known and rich fossiliferous deposit of

London-clay at the Isle of Sheppey, and consists of a portion of

the premandibular bone (c) with six of the large median (a) and

a few of the small lateral (b) dental plates of the extinct species

of Eagle-ray, called by M. Agassiz c Myliobates striatus

A B

a

Fossil under jaw of Myliobates striatus .

The first appearance likely to attract attention in the portion

of lower jaw here preserved is that of a large medullary cavity at

* Nevertheless the proof of its being an electrical organ must depend

upon its power of giving electric shocks. Such a property, in our common

Rays, if it existed, could hardly have escaped the notice of fishermen, in the

constant habit of handling large Rays, Skates and Thornbacks immediately

after their capture. — Ed.

26

Prof. Owen on an Ichthyolite from Sheppey.

m> fig. B, an appearance affecting at first sight a general charac-

ter attributed to the bones of fishes *, and apparently at variance

with the known laws of development of the osseous tissue in the

existing members of the class.

In most Vertebrata, as is well known to physiologists, exten-

sion of parts is not the sole process which takes place in the

growth of bone : to adapt the bone to its destined office, changes

are wrought in it by the absorption of parts previously formed,

chiefly in the interior. In the growth of the bones of fishes

such internal changes have not been observed, and hence the

character assigned to them by Prof. M. Edwards ; and in point

of fact, most of the bones of recent fishes are solid or spongy in

their interior. The bones of the Chelonia are likewise solid : a

coarse diploe fills the interior of the long bones of the extremi-

ties, and we find a similar structure in the bones of the Cetacea

and Phocida . Among terrestrial mammals also, the inactive

Sloths, both recent f and extinct J, have the long bones of the

extremities solid ; whilst the agile Antelopes have their diaphyses

in the condition of hollow columns ; the strength and lightness

of the bones being increased by the progressive absorption of the

first-formed osseous substance, which is removed from within as

new bone is deposited from without. The ribs of the large

Ophidians, which serve them as legs, have likewise their medul-

lary cavities ; and the bodies of the vertebrae of some Lizards,

and of the great extinct Poikilopleuron , are similarly excavated.

These medullary cavities become filled with spar or matrix in

fossil marrow-bones : and the same infiltration of foreign matter

in the cavities of such bones of cartilaginous fishes, as the jaw

of the Myliobates here described, might seem to indicate that

there had been an original formation of a medullary cavity in it

by the action of the absorbents on a primitively solid bone.

This however is not the case : in most Chondropterygii an os-

seous crust is formed upon the periphery of the original cartilage ;

the crust consists, as in the fossil (figs. A, B, c), of prismatic

pieces, which under the microscope present oval calcigerous cells

about -^oth °f an inch in diameter, but without conspicuous

radiating tubes : the ossicles closely resemble in tissue the plates

and tubercles (placoid scales) on the integument ; but in the

fossil this tessellated crust of bone may be traced passing beneath

the posterior dental plates.

The cavities which such partially ossified bones of fishes ap-

pear, when seen in the fossil state, to have had while recent, were

* “ Les os lie presentent jamais de canal medullaire,” Milne Edwards,

Elemens de Zoologie, Classe des Poissons, p. 690, 1834.

f De Blainville, Osteographie de Paresseux, p. 1.

% Owen, Memoir on the Mylodon, 4to, pp. 83, 112.

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaeese. 27

actually then occupied by the clear unossified cartilaginous basis

of the bone, and not by marrow. The non-medullary character,

therefore, assigned to fishes from the texture of their bones is

strictly accurate. They may have cavities, but these are never

occupied, as in higher classes, by marrow. The persistent carti-

laginous basis of such partially ossified bones of fishes differs in

chemical composition from the temporary cartilage of the bones

of reptiles, birds and mammals, as Prof. Muller has shown*.

It bears a closer resemblance to mucus : it requires a thousand

times its weight of boiling water for its solution, and is neither

precipitated by infusion of galls, nor yields any gelatine upon

evaporation.

I have been induced to offer the foregoing comments on Mr.

TennanPs Ichthyolite from having been asked more than once

to explain the seeming contradiction given by such fossils to the

law of the absence of medullary cavities in the bones of fishes,

and from the circumstance of there being no precise explanation

of the appearance, in reference to the cavities in the bones of

higher Vertebrata, in the classical work of M. Agassiz on fossil

fishes.

Y. — On the Development of the Lycopodiaeese.

By Karl Muller*)-.

[With five Plates.]

§ 1. Literature .

The most complete researches on this interesting family which

have hitherto been presented to us are certainly those of Bischoff,

which he published in his c Cryptogamische GewachseJ/ Since

that time however the position of science has undergone such an

important change, that in this family also questions have arisen

which remain to be solved. Toward the attainment of this end

the present memoir is contributed. I know well that there is

yet many a gap to be filled up here, still I am induced to publish

my observations in their present condition, as I believe them to

be conclusive in reference to many points.

The history of this family up to the time of Bischoff has been

given by him in his above-mentioned work. This relieves me

from the necessity of entering upon it here. What has been

done since, is chiefly confined to their systematic arrangement,

* See his admirable memoir, ( Ueber die Myxinoiden,’ in the Berlin

Transactions for 1835.

t From the ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ July 31, and August 7, 1816. Trans-

lated by Arthur Henfrey, F.L.S. &c.

X 2te Lieferung, Nuremberg, 1828.

28 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese^

and on this point Spring’s observations are the most important.

His labours are to be found in the c Flora’ Journal, 1838, and

in the c FI. Brasiliensis,’ pp. 106 — 135. I am not acquainted

with a treatise of Link’s, which Schleiden cites in the first edition

of his ‘ Grundziige, &c.*/ but it appears of very little import-

ance to my purpose. In another memoir however by H. von

Mohlf, an attempt is made to open a new path, which will be

spoken of hereafter in the places bearing reference to it. Other

critical observations are given by Schleiden in his work already

mentioned J. Nothing connected, therefore, seems to have ap-

peared upon the Lycopodiacece .

§ 2. The Germinative Spore .

It is well known that two kinds of spore-cases are distinguish-

able in the Lycopodiacece , — 1. for those capable of germination,

and 2. for others which apparently have no share in the repro-

duction. Spring calls the former Oophoridia , the latter Anthe-

ridia . In the latter expression Spring indicates no more than a

morphological opposition to the Oophoridia ; he did not entertain

any idea of a sexual distinction §. The essential points relating

to both sporangia have been long known ; Bischoff has given ac-

curate illustrations of them in his work above-mentioned. We

have here therefore only to do with the spore which germinates,

the development of which I have traced, as also did Bischoff, in

Lycopodium denticulatum .

This exhibits, on the whole, a great conformity of structure

in the different species in which it makes its appearance. They

are more or less roundish bodies, which on those surfaces which

have been in apposition with each other in the oophoridiumy are

flattened just like the smaller pollen-like spores. Therefore, since

only three or four spores are contained in one of these capsules,

they are spherical on the outer surfaces, that is, where they are

not in contact, and on the inner side have three or four triangular

faces. This is particularly distinct in L. selaginoides, and also in

L . denticulatum . In others they are often quite round, for in-

stance in L . articulatum and pygmceum .

A transverse section distinctly shows that they possess two

* Part 2. p. 82.

f Morph ologische Betracht. liber das Spovang. der mit Gefassen versehen-

en Kryptogamen. Tubingen, 1837, p. 28, &c.

J 2 Th. pp. 79 — 83. I have here usually cited the first edition, since

this is probably now in the hands of most botanists. The second contains

nothing new relating to this family.

§ At least I so understand Spring’s words : “ capsulas fariniferas et globu-

liferasnon de essentia sed per accidens solummodo esse diversas neutiquam

credo. Est omnino antithesis inter ipsas, sexuali analogo , licet non eadem .”

(See FI. I. Bras. fasc. 7. pp. 106 — 108.)

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 29

coats. The exterior is very thick and made up of numerous

cells, the walls of which are wholly confused together, so that

they are often scarcely perceptible on the surface of the section.

This thickening is common to the whole coat, the cells of which,

by the incessant deposition of new matter in their interior, be-

come homogeneous plates. Yet some species differ so much in

this respect, that the cells are not completely thickened, but still

exhibit some cavities, as in L . articulatum . The continued depo-

sition of membranous substance usually causes the external coat

of the spore to exhibit elevations on its outer surface. They occur

especially upon walls of the cells as anastomosing ridges of irre-

gular form (L. articulatum) ; in other spores where the walls of

the cells have become almost indistinguishable, as wart-] ike bodies

(L. selaginoides), or as large, compact papilke (L. pygmceum). In

L . articulatum there are, besides these larger elevations, still

smaller papillae scattered over the whole surface. They constitute

a special thin membrane which may be detached from the cells

lying beneath.

The inner membrane on the contrary is usually perfectly struc-

tureless and of equal thickness in all parts ; it is not so firmly

adherent to the outer membrane as to prevent its being detached

from it. I have only found the inner membrane different from

this in the spore of a single species, namely in L . gracillimum ,

that is indeed if I did not confound it with the outer membrane,

which I do not believe. In this case, beneath the outer thick

membrane lies a layer of parenchymatous cells of tolerable size ,

which could be separated from the former. I saw nothing of

any other layer, like that which is present as the inner mem-

brane in all the other spores; this therefore must be regarded as

the peculiar inner layer, although it is not clear to me how this

inner membrane can consist of an independent layer of cells.

In general this membrane is formed of a more or less granular

substance, which is particularly evident in L. articulatum .

The contents of these spores consist of a granular mass which

is contained free within the inner membrane. The granules

are perfectly round, distinct from one another, transparent and

of very variable though always small size. They still remain in

this condition after being kept for years, as I can state, in con-

firmation of Bischoff, with regard to L . selaginoides. This in-

quirer says* of them, that they appeared to him to consist of ve-

sicular cells, and following him, Schleiden f speaks also of a deli-

cate cellular tissue. On the other hand, I must remark, that to

me these granules appeared to be not nearly so like small cells as

compact grains, since on treating them with strong tincture of

* Ut sup. p. 110.

f Grundz. ii. p. 82. ed. 1.

30 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

iodine I could not detect any ring in their interior, and this

is the first character of a hollow globule. But there can be no

question at all of a cellular tissue here, and this can only be a

misconception. A fluid which appears to he oily accompanies

the granules at a later period, and this will be more fully spoken

of hereafter.

§ 3. The process of Germination .

When the spore escapes from the sporangium and falls upon

a suitably soil (which must be somewhat moist), it swells out by

absorbing water into its interior. If we examine under the mi-

croscope a spore in this stage, on crushing or cutting it the gra-

nular matter contained is readily spread through the water upon

the slip of glass, and is evidently accompanied by the apparently

oily fluid already mentioned. This is also scattered through the

water in the form of drops or globules of oil. To satisfy myself

whether I had to do here with actual globules of oil which have

hut too frequently been described by various inquirers as forming

part of the cell-contents, or with some other substance, I next

endeavoured to test them with very strong solution of iodine.

By the application of this, the mass became brown, firmer and

more tenacious. I then added sether, and the globules were not

dissolved, as must have been the case if they really consisted of a

fatty matter. The mass remained tough. Moreover it still re-

mained so when I applied hydrochloric acid, and distinctly

showed by this that I had to do with a totally different sub-

stance. It is already present before the formation of cells begins

and is the material for that operation, therefore I do not doubt

in the least that it is the same mass which H. Mohl has briefly

characterized under the very expressive name of Protoplasma in

the ‘Botanische Zeitung' (vol. iv. p. 75*).

If the process of cell-formation has already begun, when we

carefully examine a spore, we find that as soon as we act upon it

with iodine, some free cells always show themselves among the

remainder of the cell-contents and the protoplasma, and are

always coloured blue. They appear more or less round, com-

pressed on two sides or angular, most of them however in the

laterally compressed form. In the centre occurs a roundish,

smaller nucleus inclosed in a coagulated mass, but in such a

manner that it always appears round. Other layers, surrounding

this, now present themselves, which are concentrically situated

around the nucleus, and are likewise coloured blue. A gelati-

nous, coagulated and thicker layer envelopes the whole in the

form of a cell, which therefore wholly identifies itself with an

* Annals Nat. Hist. vol. xviii. p. 3.

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceae. 31

“ amylum-cell.” I regard it in fact as actually such, and like-

wise as one of the earliest stages of cell-formation. They soon

lose the character of amylum-cells, since they become transformed

into another substance which is coloured brown by iodine, and

which again wholly incloses the nucleus like the protoplasma,

only in another situation, as I shall at once show further on.

I must here however make mention of a peculiar phaenomenon

which remains totally inexplicable to me. When I treated these

cells with iodine, aether and hydrochloric acid, I found that their

deep indigo blue colour was changed and they became reddish

or even wholly colourless. When I now touched the fluid in

which they swam, the slight agitation instantly restored the blue

colour. In a state of rest however this soon disappeared again,

and reappeared when the fluid was touched, and so on. But if

the cells had become quite colourless, immediate contact with

some object, either of metal or wood, was necessary, and then the

blue colour again instantly seized upon one point — it appeared

to me to be the nucleus — and extended itself over the whole cell.

I have met with this remarkable phaenomenon in two spores.

In spite of every endeavour I have not hitherto been able to

find it again, although I have applied an infinite variety of

mixtures of the three reagents, and also used the hydrochloric

acid first and the others afterwards, or these first and that last.

It is possible that a peculiar stage of the life of the cell may be

here requisite, which therefore I have not again lighted on.

I remark however expressly, that I found this changing of colour

in all the blue-coloured cells of those two cells, and consequently

it cannot be attributed to any optical illusion, and so much the

less that I could continue this play of colour as long as I liked.

Perhaps some one else may succeed in observing this phaenome-

non in similar cells and by more close observation discover the

law, and it is for this reason that I have here called attention

to it.

In the interior of the perfect young cell is found a collection of

that granular substance which has been already described as the

spore-contents, or only a single large granule as a nucleus, al-

ways in the centre. Around it, as has been stated above, a sub-

stance similar to, probably identical with the protoplasma, has

already been evenly deposited, the outer contour of which, firmer

than the inner substance, forms the whole into a cell. The

protoplasma has been thus equably deposited round the granules,

because these lie exactly in the centre of the cell, and this posi-

tion is an evidence of the importance of the granules for cell-for-

mation. They are, as often in the process of crystallization, only

the point of attachment, and thus the special foundation for the

substance deposited around them, just as we explain the forma-

32 M. Miiller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceae.

tion of the oolite limestone or urinary calculi, &c., the nucleus

of which is a granule, which is afterwards to be found in the

centre. This analogy is the more striking here, since in these

amylum-cells the contents have been likewise deposited concen-

trically around the nucleus, as in these crystalline formations.

Some authors draw a parallel between the processes of cell-for-

mation and crystallization, and in fact I see no reason to object

to this view.

From these observations this cell-formation appears to be

somewhat different from the usual kind depending on cytoblasts.

Here we have no cytoblasts but only a simple nucleus as a cen-

tral organ ; around this the protoplasma is deposited till the

outermost surface hardens ; in the other formation, protoplasma

is indeed similarly deposited round a nucleus and so forms the

cytoblast and through this a cell, but then the process is of some-

what longer duration, as the outer surface of the cytoblast must

first become softened and extended to form a membrane, while

in the other case such solution and extension does not take place,

and the outer surface of the protoplasma is immediately trans-

formed into sc membrane substance.” Thus we can, if we like,

with perfect right in our case, call the cells cytoblasts which de-

velope directly into cells, since they soon become hollow, although

the protoplasma is not perceptible without the addition of iodine.

As a whole however it comes to the same thing, with this di-

stinction only, that in one case the protoplasma is not precipitated,

as in the cytoblast, in the form of a granular and distinctly vi-

sible, compact mass. In both cases the nucleus is to be consi-

dered as the central organ, as therefore especially the basis of

cell-formation. The cells now become hollow by the absorption

of the protoplasma. This does not take place quite completely

at first, for, exactly as in the cytoblasts, the nucleus comes to be

suspended in the centre by thin, persisting filaments of proto-

plasma, till at last both filaments and nucleus disappear.

Thus these observations wholly agree with MohFs so far, as

here the protoplasma is deposited round the nucleus exactly as

he describes. The formation of membrane alone by the direct

hardening of the outer surface of the protoplasma deposited round

the nucleus appears to be a new modification of cell-formation. I

am the less inclined to believe myself deceived here, since I could

never find any true cytoblasts, and I saw that the cells were

already filled with protoplasma in their earliest stage. I must

particularly remark, that the earliest cells inside the spore cer-

tainly originate independently. I never found secondary-cells

within parent-cells.

This formation of cells commences at a particular spot on the

inner spore-membrane. The spot is characterized by the fact

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 33

that the membrane upon which the cells are deposited are coloured

blue by iodine, while the rest of the surface becomes brown. It

is consequently partly altered chemically and indeed into a sub-

stance containing starch. It is thus qualified for its further ex-

tension, since being more porous than the rest of the membrane

it can more readily acquire new parts by interstitial deposition.

The cells apply themselves so firmly upon this spot, that they

appear to grow together with the inner membrane.

Lastly, the firm outer spore-membrane is broken through,

since the bud grows out from the interior of the spore in the

form of a blunt, rounded cone. I distinguish it here by the

name germ (Keimkbrper) . Its cells are yet quite white and

transparent. The place however where the outer spore-mem-

brane opens, is, according to Bischoff, always where the three

elevated ridges meet, consequently at the point of union of the

three triangular faces of the spore.

At this period the process of germination begins to be visible

externally. But the whole of the contents of the spore are not

yet by any means transformed into cells ; on the contrary, the

“germ” is yet of very small circumference, and more or less

truncated at its base in the interior (PI. II. fig. 4 b ).

If the spore-membrane is first ruptured and the primary germ

drawn out, it exhibits a growth in two opposite directions.

One indicates the formation of the stem and the foliaceous or-

gans, the other the formation of a rootlet. The former appear

in the shape of an ovate mass, the latter as a little cone. Both

stand quite upright upon the perpendicular spore (PI. II. fig. 1).

Subsequently they both are curved into a much more horizontal

direction, so that, since the stem and root come to be placed ex-

actly on a level, the spore becomes transposed into a horizontal

position (PI. II. figs. 5, 11, 13, 15 — 19). This position only

alters, if the elongating stem subsequently becomes irregularly

curved.

If we now examine more closely the whole development, we

have here to consider four masses visibly distinct from each

other: 1. the germ ; 2. the rootlets ; 3. the stem , and 4. the ter -

mined bud , which organs will be treated of in the following para-

graphs.

§ 4. The Germinating Plant .

1. The germ [Keimkbrper) . This body is composed of an

assemblage of very small, parenchymatous and transparent cells,

rising to the height of a few lines above the spore, and is here

provided with many little radicle fibrils which are merely

elongated cells of the outer surface (PI. II. fig. 1). Within the

spore, its base is truncated (fig. 4), and it does not become per-

Ann . Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xix. 3

34 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

fectly round until a later period, when it gradually produces a

number of new cells upon the base. This however takes place

but slowly, and it is seldom that the whole contents of the spore

become completely transformed into cells before the plant 'has

attained a condition in which its self-sustaining power has be-

come tolerably evident. Considered in connection with the plant,

the “ germ ” in its perfect condition is pear-shaped, a neck being

formed where it breaks through, and rises from the spore (fig. 4 a ).

At a later period it disappears, apparently through decomposi-

tion.

2. The rootlet . This first appears, as I have already said,

under the form of a little conical process (fig. 1). Its substance

originally consists of an apparently structureless, undeveloped

deposit of roundish granules which appear of a somewhat reddish

colour. The apex however of the radicle is more transparent.

It soon grows longer, forms parenchymatous, elongated tissue,

and many of its epidermal cells become radicle fibrils. The

inferior extremity still remains, as at first, more transparent, i. e.

having the reddish substance and the brighter point, which is

indeed the condition of newly-formed parts generally. I have

never been able to find any little spongy investment upon this

end, and I therefore know not what BischofF alluded to under

this character. I have seen a number of radicles in all stages,

and have carefully examined them under the microscope ; but an

organ of this kind, such as we find in Lemna, never presented

itself to me. As to the vessels, which the root subsequently ex-

hibits, they are formed after those of the stem. The growth of

the root generally is slower than that of the last-named organ.

The subsequent course of development of the radicle is an

elongation and dichotomous ramification. As soon as the plant

has become more independent, several roots are developed at the

base of the stem, and these present characters exactly similar to

those of the first. Like this they originate from the extension of

the “ germ,” and by their frequent occurrence on the same point

of attachment they render it very doubtful whether we ought to

consider the root first developed as a chief root (. Hauptwurzel ) as

Schleiden does*. It is indistinguishable from those subsequently

produced, and only has the advantage over them in the fact that

it is the first formed and is on a level with (its axis correspond-

ing with that of) the stem. The only question is therefore how

much importance is to be attached to this last circumstance.

The radicle fibrils subsequently appearing upon the foliaceous

branches do not differ from these roots in their structure and

development. But these cannot be spoken of until wTe come to

the formation of branches.

* Griindzuge, ed. 1. ii. 79.

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 35

3. The stem . The future situation of this is very evident in

the (C germ ” as a dark, circular expanded spot. This occurs near

the middle, and consists of cells filled with material for develop-

ment (PL II. fig. 4 a). This is the special point of vegetation

for stem and root, and the boundary of the germ. By the time

indeed that the stem has become so far visible that we can di-

stinguish clearly in the main axis, a terminal bud and an infe-

ferior, cylindrical, cellular portion (the stem itself), the vessels of

the stem and the terminal bud have already set out from that

spot. At a subsequent period the vessels of the root also origi-

nate at the same place ; so that this organ must be accounted part

of the main axis, notwithstanding that its originally erect and

independent development, apparently unconnected with that of

the bud of the stem, appears to indicate the contrary.

The number of the vessels always amounts to two. This

number indeed occurs almost universally in Lycopod . denticula -

turn, since both the roots and the subsequently formed branches

divide dichotomously. At a later period, it is true, these two ves-

sels appear to become blended, but this union is only apparent,

and in the perfect stem the two orifices of the vessels are always

easily demonstrable in a transverse section.

In their first stage they decidedly contain air, since when we

bring a stem at this period of its development under the micro-

scope, the vascular bundle appears all dark and filled with air-

bubbles (fig. 5 a). This arises probably from the circumstance,

that as the germinating plant lies in water, the latter penetrates

to a certain extent, accumulates in particular places among the

air contained in the vessels, and thus somewhat compresses it.

This is the more likely, since the vessel soon becomes so filled

with water, which could only be taken up through endosmose,

that the air is completely driven out, or perhaps in great part

mixed with the fluid.

This stem now constitutes the whole of the as yet undivided,

main axis, and may thus be clearly distinguished from the branches

next produced. What the condition of this may be in the other

Lycopodia which do not belong to the genus Selaginella, I am

unable to say. It elongates only up to a certain limit, while the

terminal bud is becoming perfected at its apex.

4. The terminal bud . When the stem is only just distinguish-

able, this organ is found upon it as a little head, of ovate form

and of a green colour. Within appear distinctly two, much

smaller, ovate bodies, situated opposite one another, which are

visible through the external, green envelope (fig. 1 d, fig. 2 a, a

lateral view), in which one body is in front of the other, and so

only one is visible.

Examined more narrowly, the terminal bud is seen to consist

3*

36 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

of two outer leaves, which are so closely united that they may be

said to fit one another like the two hollow hemispheres of a bul-

let-mould (fig. 3 a, where they are separated to some extent by

slight pressure between two glass plates) . I distinguish them by

the name of “ bud-envelopes ” (Knospenhullblatter), because the

two inner bodies which they inclose are already in fact two buds ,

in which may be found the types of the complete organs of the

future branches. They are therefore two buds of ramification

( Astknospen ) . A vessel in course of development proceeds toward

each of them from the point of vegetation of the stem (PL II.

fig. 4 c).

Since however all the organs have already been contempora-

neously produced in the youngest condition in which it becomes

visible to us, I prefer to describe them in a somewhat more ad-

vanced stage of development, because at their first production

the individual organs are too minute, to allow of our giving a

sufficiently clear representation of them, since it is scarcely pos-

sible to prepare them for examination.

a . The bud-envelopes . They are broad, somewhat oval, almost

roundish and having transparent denticulations on the borders,

in other parts of a green colour, and in all these characters quite

indistinguishable from the leaves of the branches which succeed.

They possess but one character which does not and indeed can-

not belong to the leaves of the branches. They possess, namely

at their base, which, broader than that of the branch leaves, half

embraces the stem, a thin, membranous, transparent, cellular

membrane, which also half incloses the stem, and usually appears

as if torn more or less regularly at the truncated base. This is

not organically connected with the stem, but only an appendage

to the “ bud-envelopes ” (figs. 5 — 7).

I regard this appendicular membrane as a remnant of the in-

ternal spore-membrane. For this does not become detached from

the terminal bud until after a considerable period, and then re-

mains with its upper portion (on which, as I have already said,

the primary cells of the “ germ ” are so closely applied that they

grow together with it) also further organically connected with the

base of the “ bud-envelopes,” until the developing stem in the

course of its elongation tears through the spore-membrane, ex-

actly like the calyptra and vagina of the Mosses, where, as here,

the lower portion remains attached to the base of the axis, while

the superior portion is carried upwards. This explanation is con-

firmed by the fact that this membrane always looks as if it had

been torn, and the other portion of the spore- membrane is still

to be observed upon the base of the young stem (fig. 5). It is

however cellular, while the remaining portion of the spore-mem-

brane consists of a homogeneous membrane, and this appears to

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 87

me. to arise from the following circumstances ; those cells which

were originally produced in the spore and became organically

connected with the spore-membrane, belong peculiarly to this

last structure and form a special membrane upon the inner coat

of the spore as it becomes attenuated by its external prolonga-

tion, for they have a flattened form and must be regarded as be-

longing to the spore-membrane only, since they are perfectly free

and distinct from the other cells of the “ germ.” In fact the

whole course of development exhibits it in this light.

That these “ bud-envelopes ” were formerly regarded as actual

cotyledonary leaves, may be accounted for to a certain extent, by

the long time during which they remain visible upon the young

plant. But they cannot naturally be compared to cotyledons,

since they proceed from no embryo, and are in no wise different

from the leaves of the branches. But they have the same func-

tion on the young “ germ,” as cotyledonary leaves, to nurse, that

is, to defend the young buds of ramification, until they have at-

tained a self-sustaining degree of development.

b. The buds of ramification. As soon as the “ bud-envelopes ”

unfold, i. e. have become turned back, the buds of the future

branches may be very distinctly perceived between them, oppo-

site to each other. Each occurs in the middle of the leaf, and

placed in such a manner that its side is turned toward the in-

ternal cavity of its enveloping leaf (fig. 6 a). Therefore when by

their further unfolding the two buds become turned outwards in

opposite directions, a cruciform arrangement is produced with

the “ bud-envelopes ” (fig. 11). Every leaf which is inclosed in

the bud follows the same course. If we examine, with a view to

ascertain this, the bud represented in fig. 6, and unfold it, another

leaf presents itself (fig. 8), which, hollow and folded upon itself,

may contain yet more according as the bud has become deve-

loped, till at last we reach the axis on which the leaves are pro-

duced (figs. 9, 10). The development of these leaves I prefer to

describe as seen in the perfect plant.

The unfolding of the leaves takes place according to the fol-

lowing plan : —

1. Two “ bud-envelopes ” (fig. 5). 0

2. Two branch- leaves. These deviate 90° from 0

the first, and form a cross with them (fig. 11) a.

3. Two leaves, which again cross the cross al- c

ready formed. They stand therefore at an angle of

about 45° from the “ bud-envelopes,” and are at

this period the smallest leaves of the bud distin-

guishable by unassisted vision (fig. 12) b.

38 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

4. This arrangement does not long persist, for

two new leaves arise between the last two c, and

affect the position of the remainder, so that a is

pushed aside to the extent of 45°. c stands almost

exactly at an angle of 90° with the bud-envelopes

(%. 13).

5. Then two more leaves appear in each bud

which deviate almost equally about 90° d.

The alternation of the first two leaves a b may already be re-

marked here, whereof b is placed higher up on the axis of the

branch than a. Both are attached to the lower side of the axis,

and are the larger leaves, c and d , on the contrary, are deve-

loped upon the upper side of the axis of the branch, and are here

(in L . denticulotum ), as almost universally in Selaginella, smaller

than the preceding. Spring calls them folia intermedia .

Between the last and first leaves lies the axis of the branch,

which now becomes elongated, while in the next place two other

larger leaves become visible, whereupon two folia intermedia

appear on the upper side, &c.

Four series of leaves therefore are now distinctly visible upon

the axis of the branch, two above and two below. Of these four

series two on one side always correspond so with each other, that

first a large leaf is situated on the under, and a folium interme-

dium at some distance on the upper side. But if all four series

are now compared, a folium intermedium is normally opposite a

large leaf situated on the other (under) side (figs. 15 — 18) ; con-

sequently two series of leaves always alternate with each other.

The two opposite buds developing in this manner, the germi-

nating plant becomes bifurcated. But one of the buds is some-

times abortive, and then of course there is no bifurcation ; the

single bud developes into a branch, and this subsequently under-

goes a bifurcate division (PI. II. figs. 18, 19).

c. Accessory organ . I come now to an organ which is con-

tained in the terminal bud and contemporaneously formed, and

which, so far as I know, has never hitherto been observed. It

appears to me that it must be of importance to the plant, since

its occurrence is constant.

It is a body, usually pyriform, composed of a number of deli-

cate, transparent, parenchymatous cells. It is consequently

bellied out at its base and attenuated into a neck above (PI. III.

fig. 1). It is compressed on two sides, but in such a manner

that its borders are not acute, but rounded (fig. 2). The borders

are entire, and the apex alone, which is always truncated, has

the uppermost cells irregular and more or less rounded. Within

them are parenchymatous cells usually smaller, normally hexa-

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 39

gonal, with horizontal walls (figs. 1, 3). The apex of this organ

is often bifurcated (fig. 4) ; the forks however at their apices

pass gradually into cells like those we have before met with

(figs. 1, 3). By a transverse section we find that the interior

also is filled by layers of delicate parenchymatous cells (fig. 2).

The same is seen in a longitudinal section (fig. 5), in which it

may be clearly perceived, the external layer of cells regularly

inclosing the remaining mass of cells. The apex is prolonged

out into a few layers of cells (fig. 5) ; finally into a single one

(fig. 1). Moreover the cells of the swollen, expanded base are

filled with a finely granular, somewhat reddish matter, which

however is only developed here into membrane-substance , since

it probably forms new cells to multiply the numbers, whereby

the bulging circumference of the basis is enlarged. No other

kind of cell-contents is present (fig. 1).

This singular organ is present in all stages of the plant's

existence. In the terminal bud of the youngest “ germ " it is

already perfect, and is situated between the bud of the branch and

the bud-envelope (PI. II. fig. 6 b). It is again met with in every

successive leaf, in the large as well as in the “ intermediate."

In the terminal bud even of the perfect branch it is produced

soon after the development of the leaf from the stem, and is

always placed between them. Equally constant is it between

the oophoridium and the antheridium and their involucral

leaves. It is particularly large between the oophoridium and

its involucre.

With respect to the development of this organ, it appears both

in the terminal bud of the “ germ " and that of the branch as a

more or less circular plate (PI. III. figs. 6, 7, 8, 8 a). In the

first-named bud its very delicate cells are already filled with

that often-mentioned reddish substance, by means of which the

organ becomes more extensively developed (figs. 6, 7). In the

second the plate is frequently quite transparent and devoid of

that substance (fig. 8). The plate, now of equal thickness all

over, then extends itself upwards into an attenuated neck,

rounded at the top (PI. III. figs. 9, 10). This is usually more

transparent than the base of the organ, which also in the leaves

of the terminal bud of the branch soon becomes filled with the

same reddish contents. Through this elongation, however, the

base appears as if thicker ; this indeed is quite natural, as it has

not yet become extended. But the cells speedily become deve-

loped in this part of the organ on the side next to the leaf. By

this means the organ acquires a bulging form in this situation

(PI. III. fig. 5 a), while the side turned toward the axis of the

branch is usually much more perpendicular (fig. 5 b). As soon

as the general form is perfect, the top of the organ becomes

40 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

truncated by the cells of this part separating from one another,

so that it looks as if it had been torn (figs. 1, 3), and the organ

is then perfect. In this shape it continues until the end of the

annual growth of the plant, at the end of which period it withers

with the leaves, apparently without acquiring any further develop-

ment, since we never find anything in its interior different from

what has already been described.

But the nature of its connexion with the longitudinal axis of

the branch is to be seen by making a delicate longitudinal sec-

tion. In this we observe that it is neither attached to the leaf

nor laterally upon the axis of the branch. It stands exactly be-

tween the two, and is united by several larger, transparent and

empty cells, usually two, with the green parenchyma which

passes off from the axis to the leaf. The organ never receives a

branch from the vascular bundle, although the vascular bundle,

which is given off from the axis to the leaf (figs. 5 c, 11 a), runs

close under it. If at a later period we cautiously detach a leaf

with the whole of its base from the stem, we always find upon it,

i. e . upon its thickened base, this organ removed with it, and it

would thence appear as if it really belonged to the leaf and had

been formed from the parenchyma of the same ; but the history

of its development speaks most decidedly against this last view.

It is difficult, with respect to this enigmatical structure, to at-

tain a view which shall give us even an approximation to its real

import. Even the history of development here leaves us at fault,

and a true solution of this question will probably only be found

when we know how widely this structure is extended throughout

the Lycopodiacese, in how many different forms it appears, and

when perhaps anomalies in its mode of formation shall be met

with. Meanwhile its analogues appear to me to occur in those

buds which are often met with in the axils, between leaf and

stem, in various other Cryptogamic plants, as in the axils of the

leaves of Bryum annotinum and others. Here however it must

not be forgotten that in our case the cells never acquire green

contents, while those often do. They consequently cannot be

regarded as buds. Are they little branches ? are they radicle

structures ? Reasons on both sides may be brought forward,

which to me are yet inadequate to solve the question. I com-

mend it therefore to the attention of more skilful investigators.

[To be continued.]

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

41

VI.— Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

{Comprising the Animals of the Himalaya Mountains , those of the

Valley of the Indus , of the Provinces of Assam, Sylhet, Tip -

perah and Arracan, and of Ceylon, with occasional Notices of

Species from the neighbouring Countries *.) By Ed. Blyth,

Curator of the Asiatic Society’s Museum, &c. &c.+

No. 1. The Columbidce, or Pigeons and Doves.

Order IV. Gyratores, Pr . JBonap. Gemitores, McGillivray .

This consists but of a single family, that of the Pigeons,

Fam. Columbidce,

which subdivides into three marked subfamilies, viz. Treronince,

or arboreal fruit pigeons ; Gourince, or ground pigeons ; and

Columbince, or ordinary pigeons and doves.

Subfam. Treronince.

The members of this group are eminently frugivorous and ar-

boreal, scarcely ever descending to the ground, and some perhaps

never, unless to drink J ; and in general they are of a green

colour, which renders them difficult to discern amid the foliage

of trees. They are distinguished from other pigeons (with the

sole known exception of Ectopistes carolinensis) by having con-

stantly fourteen tail-feathers instead of twelve §. In form of

* The object of publishing the present series of Monographs of various

groups of animals, is to elicit, as much as to impart, information that might

be incorporated in a general work now in preparation ; and it is therefore

earnestly requested that observers, interested in the subject, will favour the

author with any additional facts or corrections that may occur to them, and

that they will also endeavour to settle any questions that are still at issue,

and, in short, to render the future conspectus of Indian animals as complete

as circumstances will permit of. In the class of Birds, it may be here re-

marked, that any information on the nidification and colour of the eggs of

species generally, and of the song- notes of the smaller Insessores, will be

particularly acceptable. [The notes marked T. have been supplied by Capt.

Tickell, and those marked H.E S. by Mr. H. E. Strickland.]

f From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, no. 169.

J An individual of Treron bicincta has been seen feeding on the ground,

but such instances are extremely rare. Vide also description of Tr. nipa-

lensis.

§ Perhaps, however, certain of the ground pigeons may also have more

than twelve tail-feathers, which remains to be ascertained. In the domestic

breed of fan-tails, the number is abnormally multiplied to as many as thirty

or more. It is very remarkable, that of the two species of Ectopistes , which

are nearly allied to each other, one should have fourteen tail-feathers, while

the other, the celebrated passenger-pigeon of North America, should possess

but the usual number— twelve. This fact was observed and recorded bv

the Prince of Canino.

42

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

bill, they present a gradation from the strongest beak that occurs

throughout the order, to a feeble organ, soft and tumid to near

its tip, which alone is corneous ; but the gape, especially in the

latter case, is very capacious. The tarsi are short, stout, and

more or less feathered ; and the toes (except in one subgenus)

are remarkably broad-soled, and are furnished with strong and

sharp claws, commonly much-hooked; hence they have great

power of clasping, or holding on to the small branches of trees,

while straining to pluck the fruit or berries from the terminal

sprays ; so that, when feeding, these birds may be commonly

observed to lean over and downward so far as to be inverted, and

then draw themselves back by the unaided muscular strength of

the extremities. The flight of all is powerful and rapid. Three

strongly-marked genera occur, numerous species of which in-

habit the warm regions of the Old World, Australia, and Poly-

nesia ; but from America they are wholly excluded.

Genus Treron, Vieillot : Vinago , Cuvier. [Hurrial and

Hurrwa,H.'y Hurtely Beng. ; N’goo, Arracan.) The Hurrials.

In this genus may be observed the gradation in form of bill

that has been adverted to in its full extent ; but all the strong-

billed species are here included. The plumage is blent and

glossless, and almost without exception of a lively green, varied

with ashy, and with a stripe of bright yellow on the wings mar-

gining their coverts ; while the males are commonly further

adorned with a deep maroon hue* on the mantle, and with

orange, or orange and lilac, on the breast. Irides crimson, with

a blue ring encircling the pupilf. The voice a melodious deep-

toned whistle, considerably prolonged and varied in different

cadences. Nidiflcation as in most other arboreal doves and

pigeons, and two white eggs produced, of a somewhat less elon-

gated shape than in common pigeons. Except in the pairing

season, these birds collect in small, or moderately large flocks, on

the topmost branches of high jungle trees, where, if one can be

descried and is shot at, two or three will commonly fall, that had

eluded observation from the similarity of their colouring to that

of the foliage. They subsist on fruits and berries of all kinds,

and during the season especially on the small figs of the Ficus

indica and F. religiosa ; and they have likewise been observed

“ devouring the blossoms and newly-formed fruit of the mangoe

* This hue, in different shades of vinous or claret-colour, occurs in a

great number of Columbidce , and has been remarked to be almost peculiar

to the tribe.

f A partial exception to this occurs in Tr. nip alensis only, among the

Indian species ; at least, the only two living specimens of this bird which

I have seen had dark red-brown irides, with a blue inner circle. Mr. Hodg-

son describes them as — “ outer circle of the iris orange-red, inner circle

blue.”

43

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts fur a Fauna Indica.

and tamarind trees. ” Their flesh is esteemed for the table, but

the skin requires to be removed, this having a strong bitter taste ;

and hanging them up for a day or two, when the season will

permit of it, improves them much for culinary purposes.

It is necessary to distinguish three well-marked subgenera, as

follow : —

A. Toria (since altered to Romeris ), Hodgson. Distinguished

by the great strength and vertical depth of the corneous terminal

portion of the beak, which, in the typical species, is continued back

to beyond the feathers of the forehead. The eyes are surrounded

by a naked space.

Tr. nipalensis : Toria nipalensis , Hodgson, As. Res. xix. 164.

( T’horya , quasi rostrata , of the Nepalese.) Green, yellowish

below and towards the tail ; the crown of the head ash-coloured ;

mantle of the male deep maroon-red, and a faint tinge of

fulvous on the breast ; primaries and their larger coverts black,

the latter margined with yellow ; middle tail-feathers green, the

rest with a blackish medial band and broad gray tips ; lower

tail-coverts cinnamon-coloured (more or less deep) in the male ;

subdued white, marked with green, in the female. Bill greenish-

white, with a large vermilion spot occupying the membrane at

the lateral base of the mandibles ; legs also vermilion ; irides

deep red-brown, with a blue inner circle ; and orbital skin bright

green. Length, lOf inches by 17 inches; closed wing in.

This bird inhabits the central and lower hilly regions of Nepal,

and more abundantly those of Assam and Arracan, spreading

southward to the Tenasserim provinces and Malay peninsula.

It also occurs in the hilly districts of Bengal, but rarely strays

into the plains, though specimens are occasionally met with even

near Calcutta. Mr. Hodgson states, that “it is not very grega-

rious ; adheres to the forests ; feeds chiefly on soft fruits ; and

prefers the trees to the ground, but without absolute exclusive-

ness of habit in that respect.”

Most closely allied and hitherto confounded with it is Tr.

aromatica of Java, and I believe of the more eastern portion of

the Malayan Archipelago generally (the Col. curvirostris , and the

female, C. tannensisy of Gmelin)*. The latter differs by having

a bright yellow beak, greenish at sides towards base, and the

nude skin at the sides of its base is apparently blue, fading into

a blackish tint in the dry specimen ; while in Tr. nipalensis the

vermilion colour fades to amber ; the anterior half of the crown

is much more albescent ; the fulvous tinge on the breast much

stronger ; the maroon colour of the back is more extended ; the

* Mr. G. R. Gray’s figures of the beak, &c. of a species of Hurrial to

which he applies the name aromatica, in his illustrated work on the genera

of birds, refer to a species of the following section of this genus.

44 Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

longest tertiaries are greenish- dusky instead of green ; and the

lower tail-coverts are of a deeper cinnamon colour. Lastly, the

corneous portion of the upper mandible scarcely extends quite so

far back as in Tr. nipalensis ; and a curious and marked distinc-

tion consists in the Indian species having the inner web of its

third primary sinuated, as in the Hurrials of the next section,

while its closely allied Javanese representative exhibits no decided

trace of such a character *. In a third species which I refer to

this section, the Tr. Capellei , Temm.f (common near the Straits

of Malacca), the beak is lengthened by the prolongation of its

soft and tumid basal portion becoming, as remarked by Mr.

Strickland, “ almost vulturine in form ; ” while the size of the

bird is considerably larger, and, it may be added, that the sinua-

tion of the interior web of its third primary exists, but not to

the same depth as in Tr. nipalensis .

B. Typical Treron. Hurrials with the beak moderately ro-

bust, much less so than in the preceding section, its corneous

portion occupying the terminal half, or thereabouts. There is

no bare space round the eyes, and the tail is squared. Sinuation

of the third primary well-developed in eight species examined,

and probably therefore throughout the group.

Tr. phcenicoptera : Col. phcenicoptera, Latham: C. militarise

Temm. : C. Hardwicldi , Gray (figured in Griffiths Animal King-

dom, viii. 299) : Vinago militarise Gould’s Century, pi. 58 J.

Green. The neck all round, with the breast, bright yellowish-

green, having a shade of fulvous ; cap, sides of base of neck, and

the abdominal region ash-gray, the belly with generally some

admixture of green, more or less developed, and there is a green

* This character of the sinuation of the middle of the inner web of the

third primary appears to be variable. I have before me two specimens of

what I consider the true aromatica , both obtained at Malacca, but the male

bird presents no trace of such a sinuation, while in the female it is strongly

marked. I think therefore that the supposed distinctness of nipalensis and

aromatica requires further confirmation, the differences in colour being

very slight. — H.E.S.

f Treron magnirostris , Strickland, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1844, p. 116,

and doubtless Vin. giganteus of Raffles, mentioned in the ‘ Catalogue of

Zoological Specimens ’ appended to Lady Raffles’ 4 Life of Sir Stamford

Raffles/ p. 674, though not the bird referred to in the note attached, which

is probably a Carpophaga.

X Mr. G. R. Gray identifies this bird with Col. Sti. Thomce of Gmelin,

to which name he assigns the precedence ; but I decidedly think that he is

mistaken in so doing. I perceive also that in Griffith’s ‘ Animal Kingdom/

Col. Sti. Thomce is referred to militaris of Temminck ; this last-named author

having stated that C. Sti. Thomce occurs in India.

[The Columba Sti. Thomce was so named from occurring in the island of

St. Thomas, on the west coast of Africa, and is undoubtedly distinct from

any Asiatic species. It is probably referable to the female of T. calms ,

Temm., or of T. crassirostris , Fraser. — H.E.S.]

45

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

tinge on the forehead ; shoulder of the wing lilac in the male,

and a trace of the same in the female ; greater wing-coverts

margined with pale yellow, forming an oblique bar across the

wing ; terminal two-fifths of the tail ash-gray above, albescent

underneath, and its medial portion blackish underneath, and

deeply tinged with green above ; tibial plumes (extending partly

down the tarse) and central abdominal feathers between the

tibise bright yellow ; vent mingled white and green ; and lower

tail-coverts maroon, with white tips. Beak whitish ; the feet

deep yellow. Length 12| by 22 inches, and of closed wing

7 to 7 \ inches.

This is one of three closely-allied species, each having its pecu-

liar habitat ; and it is intermediate in its colouring to the two

others, namely Tr. viridifrons, nobis, of the Tenasserim provinces,

and Tr . chlorigaster , nobis, of Peninsular India. Tr. viridifrons

is distinguished by having the anterior half of the head and the

medial portion of the tail of the same (and as bright) yellowish-

green as the breast, though somewhat less fulvescent ; that of

the tail being well-defined, and contrasting strongly both with

the gray tip and also with the gray coverts impending the tail,

so that this green appears as a very conspicuous broad caudal

band : the throat also is not weaker-coloured, as in Tr. phceni-

coptera. Tr. chlorigaster, on the other hand, has the whole

under parts green ; no trace of green upon the tail, except at its

extreme base, and the wdiole cap and ear-coverts are ashy, devoid

(in fine males at least) of the slightest tinge of green on the

forehead. These are, in fact, three osculant races, which, if com-

monly inhabiting the same districts, wrould doubtless intermix

and blend, like Coracias indica and C. affinis, and likewise cer-

tain of the Kalidge pheasants ( Gallopkasis ) ; but writhin their

own proper range of distribution, each continues true to the co-

louring which distinguishes it from the others. To term them local

varieties of the same species, would not merely imply that the three

are descended from a common origin, but also that such changes

of colouring are brought about by difference of locality ; a notion

which is inconsistent with the fixity and regularity of markings

we observe in either race, over an extensive and diversified range

of country. Tr. phcenicoptera is a very abundant species in

Bengal, Assam, Sylhet, Nepal, and all Upper India, its range

extending southward at least to the foot of the mountains of Cen-

tral India, where it wrould seem to be equally common with the

next, and intermediate specimens are met with even in Lower

Bengal. In Arracan it does not appear to have been met with,

but further southward, in the Tenasserim provinces, it is repre-

sented by its other near affine, Tr. viridifrons *.

* Capt. Hutton writes me word from Mussooree, that Tier on plioenico -

46

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

Tr. chlorigaster, nobis, Journ. As. Soc. 1843, p. 167 : Tr.

Jerdoni , Strickland, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1844, p. 38 : Vi-

nago phcenicoptera v. militaris of Southern India, Auctorum .

Similar to the last, except in the particulars already mentioned.

It replaces Tr. phcenicoptera in the Peninsula of India, and

specimens are occasionally met with in the vicinity of Calcutta.

These three species have the feet of a deep yellow colour, whereas

in all the other Asiatic Hurrials they would appear to be bright

red.

Tr. bicincta : Vinago bicincta , Jerdon, 111. Ind. Orn. pi.

21 ; Madras Journal, 1840, p. 13 (the male); and V. unicolor ,

Jerdon, ibid . (the female) : V. vernans , var. Lessors Traite.

( Chota Hurrial, Hind, Bengal.) Green : the forehead and throat

brighter and more yellowish, as are the whole under-parts of the

female, passing in both sexes to bright pale yellow towards the

vent ; occipital region ash-gray ; a stripe of yellow along the

wing, formed by the margins of the greater and outer coverts ;

tail gray above, with a blackish medial band on all but its middle

feathers; beneath blackish, tipped with grayish-white; and its

lower coverts cinnamon-coloured in the male, and mingled

dusky-ash and buffy -whitish in the female. The male is further

distinguished by having a large buff-orange patch on the breast,

and above this a lilac band, broader at the sides. Bill greenish-

glaucous ; and the legs deep pinkish-red. Length 11 or 12

inches by 20, or nearly so ; and of wing generally about 6 inches,

rarely as much as 6T.

This beautiful species is common to all India, but would seem

to be more numerous in Lower Bengal than in the Peninsula ;

ptera is ‘'common in the Deyrah Boon, but never mounts into the hills,

where it is replaced by Tr. sphenura. Many of the Boon birds,” he adds,

“ have come to be regarded as hill species, from their commonly occurring

in collections made by residents at the different hill stations. Such collectors

however entertain one or more shikarrees , who start off sometimes to the

Boon, sometimes to the interior of the mountains, just as they happen to

remember or to want any bright-colouredibird ; and when the collection is

brought in, the collector never dreams of asking where the birds were shot,

but puts them all down together as ‘ a collection from the hills.’ Nepal

being further to the south-east than Mussooree, a greater elevation may he

required to produce the same temperature that we have ; so that birds

which with us are found only in the warm valley of the Boon, may perhaps

in Nepal rise to a certain elevation on the mountains ! ” Capt. Tickell

adds, that “ T. phcenicoptera is very common throughout the high stony

barren parts of Singhhhoom, and in the Mautbhoom district, confining them-

selves to the hurgoolur and peepul trees. They breed in the thick damp

forests to the southward towards Sumbulpoor, during the rains, at which

time not a single specimen is to be found in these parts. The Oorias sell

numbers of the young ones, which are taken to Calcutta.” All that I have

seen with the Calcutta dealers were from the neighbourhood, and chiefly

adults newly taken with bird-lime.

47

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

and it occurs plentifully in Nepal, Assam, Sylhet, Tipperah,

Arracan and the Tenasserim provinces. In Bengal, however, it

is much less numerous than Tr. phcenicoptera , and the flocks of

the two species do not commingle. I once found its nest, half-

way up a small mahogany tree, in the Calcutta Botanic Garden.

The eggs, of a somewhat less lengthened form than in pigeons

generally, measured an inch and a quarter in the long diameter.

I have also obtained the young, which resemble in colouring the

adult female. The voice is much the same as in Tr. pkosni-

coptera.

Mr. G. R. Gray has erroneously identified this bird with Tr.

vernans (L.), common in the Malay countries. The latter differs

in its smaller size, having the wing but inches ; in the male

having the entire crown and throat gray, instead of green ; in

the very much greater development of the lilac colour above the

orange of the breast, this enveloping the whole neck, whereas in

Ti\ bicincta it is confined to a band above the breast ; and in the

tail being gray above, with a blackish terminal band, and slight

grayish extreme tips to the feathers ; whereas Tr. bicincta has a

broad whitish terminal band to the tail, as seen underneath, and

which appears of a dull ash-colour above. No two species can

be more obviously distinct *.

Tr. malabarica : Vinago malabarica, Jerdon, 111. Ind. Orn.

(Art. V. bicincta ) : V. aromatica , apud Jerdon, Catal. (the male) ;

and V. affinis , Jerdon, ibid, (the female) : also V. aromatica of

Southern India, Jardine's Nat. Libr., Columbidce. This bird

exactly resembles Tr. nipalensis in size and colouring, except in

having a yellower throat in both sexes ; but is at once distin-

guished by the very different form of its beak, and by having no

naked space round the eyes ; the buff tinge on the breast of the

male is also more decided, and its legs are Make-red/ The

female may be distinguished from that of Tr. bicincta by the

ash-colour of its forehead and entire crown, and by its unspread

tail being wholly green above.

Mr. Jerdon’s specimens of this bird were obtained on the

western coast of the Peninsula, and at the foot of the Neil-

gherries. I have never seen it from Northern India; but to the

eastward it inhabits Assam Sylhet, Tipperah, and appears to

be equally common with Tr. nipalensis in the island of Ramree,

Arracan.

* I killed a specimen of Tr. bicincta some years ago in Singhbhooin, when

firing into a flock of the common Hurrial ; and I have more than once re~

marked in a flock of the latter, smaller individuals, which I have no doubt

were interlopers of this species. It is exceedingly rare here, for I have

never obtained another specimen. — T.

t It is figured among Dr. McClelland’s drawings of the birds of Assam.

48 Mr. E. Blyth's Di'afts for a Fauna Indica.

There is a nearly allied species in the Nicobar islands, Tr.

chloroptera , nobis, which differs in its superior size, having the

wing 7 inches, instead of 6 to 6{; and in the male having a

large portion of the fore part of its wing green instead of deep

maroon ; its breast also is less tinged with fulvous, and the fore-

head more albescent.

Columba pompadora , Gmelin, founded on pi. 19 and 20 of

Brown's Zoology (1776), should be another nearly allied spe-

cies, inhabiting Ceylon; but as both figure and description re-

present the back to be green instead of maroon, like the rest

of the mantle, and as it is also described as “ smaller than the

turtle-dove," it clearly cannot be Tr. rnalabarica , and is probably

a sort of representative (as regards its diminutive size) of Tr.

olax of the Malay countries*.

C. Sphenurus, Swainson : Sphenocercus , G. R. Gray. Hur-

rials with cuneiform tail, of which the central feathers are, in

some species, much elongated beyond the rest, and their pro-

longed tips attenuated, with the basal two-thirds or more of the

bill soft and tumid, and with the soles of the toes narrow, whereas

in the preceding sections they are particularly broad and flat : a

nude livid space surrounds the eyes, but less developed than in

the first section ; and the curious character observable through-

out the preceding group, of having the inner web of the third

primary abruptly sinuated, does not exist in the present one.

These birds are exclusively mountaineers, inhabiting the hill-

forests, and are remarkable for the music of their notes.

Tr. sphenura : Vinago sphenura , Vigors, Proc. Zool. Soc.

1831, p. 173 ; Gould's Century, pi. 57 : Kokla or Kokhela , H.

(a name also applied to the next species). Very similar in co-

louring to Tr. nipalensis and Tr. rnalabarica , but larger, and at

once distinguished by its cuneiform tail ; by the greater develop-

ment of the soft basal portion of its bill ; also by the green co-

lour tinged in the male with buff of its crown ; by the consider-

able diminution of the maroon colour on the mantle of the male,

especially on the back, the posterior scapularies, the tertiaries,

and the great wing-coverts being green ; and by having but a

slight pale yellow margin to only the great coverts of the wing.

Tail green above, with an ill-defined subterminal dusky band to

its outer feathers, and uniform dull albescent-gray underneath ;

its lower coverts long, and of a pale rufous-buff hue in the male,

yellowish white with green centres in the female, as are likewise

the short outer ones of the male; breast of the latter deeply

tinged with buff. In the female, the subterminal dusky band on

* I have no doubt of the identity of pompadora and rnalabarica. Brown’s

description is drawn up from the sketch of a native artist, and great accu-

racy cannot therefore be expected. — H.E.S.

49

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

the three outer tail-feathers is much better defined. Irides co-

loured as usual ; the bill, and nude skin around the eye, livid,

and legs coral-red. Wing 7 to 7\ inches ; middle tail-feathers

5f inches.

This species inhabits the Himalaya, and is, I believe, more

abundant in the south-eastern portion of the chain, as in Nepal

and at Darjeeling, though it is also common at Simla. Capt.

Hutton writes from Mussoorie — “ This species is very numerous

in the hills from April to J une, when, having reared its young,

and the rains having set in, it becomes scarcer, and gradually

disappears during the rainy season. The nest is in high trees,

composed of dried twigs, a mere platform ; and the eggs are two,

and white. I heard the first Kooklah this year on the 12th of

April.” It is greatly prized by the natives as a cage-bird, on

account of its singularly prolonged and varied musical note,

which is an improvement upon that of Tr . phcenicoptera and its

allies. A few are even brought in cages to Calcutta, and sell at

a high price as song-birds. I have heard the notes of both this and

the next species, which I think are absolutely similar : they bear

some resemblance to the human voice in singing, and are highly

musical in tone, being considerably prolonged and modulated,

but always terminating abruptly ; and every time the stave is

repeated exactly as before, so that it soon becomes wearisome to

an European ear *.

Tr. cantillans : Vinago cantillans , nobis, Journ. As. Soc.

xii. 166: Col. aromatica , var. A, Latham. Size and proportions

of last, but the green colour replaced by a delicate pearl-gray,

with a slight tinge of green here and there, more especially on

the under-parts : forehead and throat whitish ; the crown and

breast of the male tinged with ruddy or weak maroon ; and the

mantle marked, as in Tr. sphenura , with deeper maroon : a

slight yellowish- white outer edging to the greater wing-coverts.

Irides as usual in this genus, or having a crimson ring encircling

a violet one : bill and bare skin around the eye glaucous-blue,

* Tr. sphenurus. This bird, the Kookoo-fo of the Lepchas at Dar-

jeeling, is there exceedingly common, but is not so extensively gregarious

as the common Hurrial of the plains. They frequent the highest trees, feed-

ing on their berries, and running along the branches with great agility. The

male has a most agreeable note, exactly resembling the music of a pastoral

reed or pipe. It breeds in June and July, making a large nest in high trees,

deeper than that of the common doves and wood pigeons. Bill pale livid

blue, nearly white at tip, and pale clear cobalt basally. The young resem-

ble the female; and the ruddy tinge of the back and small wing-coverts of

the male is not assumed until the second year. — T.

I have observed this red to be less developed in some specimens, but

still suspect that more or less of it would be obtained at the first moult. —

E.B.

Ann. Mag . N. Hist . Vol. xix.

4

50

Mr. E. Blyth's Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

and legs and toes reddish-carneous. The female I have not yet

seen. Length 13 by 21 inches ; closed wing 7 inches.

This species occurs in the north-west Himalaya, as about Simla,

and is, I believe, rare in Nepal. I kept one alive for some time

that was stated to have been brought from Agra, whither it had

no doubt been carried from the hills. Can it be a variety only

of the last ?

Tr. apicauda, Hodgson (mentioned in Mr. G. R. Gray's

Catalogue of the Ornithological Specimens in the British Mu-

seum). Nearly allied to Tr. oxyura of the Malay countries,

from which it is at once distinguished by the pale yellow margins

of its great wing-coverts, forming two narrow longitudinally ob-

lique bars on the wing. General colour green, more yellowish

towards the tail and on the under-parts, and tinged in the male

with russet on the crown and breast ; primaries dusky black ;

tail with its middle feathers greatly prolonged beyond the rest,

and their elongated portion much attenuated; its colour gray

with a medial blackish band, obsolete on the middle pair of

feathers, which at base are yellowish- green. Bill evidently glau-

eous-bluisli, and legs red. Length of wing 6^ inches, and of

middle tail-feathers 8 inches or more, passing the next pair by

about 3 inches.

Inhabits the south-eastern Himalaya and the hill-ranges of

Assam, being tolerably common at Darjeeling.

Genus Carpophaga, Selby (1835): Ducula, Hodgson (1836):

Dukul , or Dunkul , H. The Dunkuls.

These fruit pigeons are mostly of large size, with broad-soled

feet and strong hooked claws, much as in the typical Hurrials,

and a slender, generally somewhat lengthened bill, having the

terminal third only of its upper mandible corneous, and the plu-

mage of the chin advancing very far forward, underneath the

lower mandible. In a few species the base of the upper mandible

expands to form a fleshy knob. Wings, in all the typical spe-

cies, adapted for powerful flight. The plumage of the head,

neck and under-parts, and in some species throughout, is blent

and glossless, and mostly of a delicate gray, or a vinous hue, with

never the peculiar burnish on the sides of the neck so general

among ordinary pigeons ; but many species have the upper parts,

wings and tail shining metallic green, which in some is bronzed

or coppery, in others varied with rich steel-blue ; hence several

are among the most showy of the pigeon tribe ; others, however,

being simply black and white, though all are alike handsome

when viewed in the fresh state, from the delicate beauty of the

irides, bill, feet, and any nude skin about the head, the exquisite

colouring of which is lost in the dry specimen. These birds are

more especially developed in the great Oriental Archipelago, where

51

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

the species are very numerous, two only occurring in India, and

others in Australia and Polynesia. They are gregarious, like the

Hurrials, and keep exclusively to the great forests, more espe-

cially to those of upland districts : and it would appear that they

do not generally lay more than a single egg, and certain species

invariably but one; in which respect they resemble the cele-

brated Passenger Pigeon of North America ( Ectopistes migra-

toria). At least three subgenera occur, at the head of which

may be placed Lopholaimus , G. R. Gray, founded on the Col. ant-

arctica , Shaw (v. dilop ha, Temm.), of Australia ; then follow the

ordinary Dunkuls, of which the two Indian species are charac-

teristic ; and finally a short-winged type, with bill and feet as

in the former, and colouring as in the division Chalcophapjs (of

the next subfamily), to which I apply the appellation Dendro-

phaps .

C. insignis : Ducula insignis , Hodgson, As. Res. xix. 162 :

Carp . cuprea , Jerdon, Madr. Journ.1840, p.12, and subsequently

referred by him to Col. badia , Raffles, ibid. 1844, p. 164. ( Dukul ,

Nepal ; Dunkul , H.) Head, neck and under-parts pale ruddy

lilac-gray; the throat albescent; and crown pure cinereous in

some specimens, in others tinged with ruddy ; back and wings

deep vinaceous-brown ; the rump and upper tail-coverts dusky-

cinereous, and the lower tail-coverts buffy -white ; tail dusky,

with its terminal fourth dull ashy above, and albescent as seen

from beneath. Bill, circle of eyelids and legs intense sanguine,

except the tip of the bill and the claws, which are horn-coloured ;

orbital skin livid ; and irides “ hoary or blue-gray/’ according

to Mr. Hodgson, “red/* as stated by Mr. Jerdon. Length 20

inches by 2~ feet (Hodgson), 19 by 26 inches (Jerdon); of wing

9- inches, and of tail 8 inches. Weight a pound and a half.

“ The female,” remarks Mr. Hodgson, “ is a fourth smaller than

her mate, wants almost wholly the rich vinous tint of the male,

and is generally more obscurely coloured.”

This diversity of colouring of the sexes reminds us of the Hur-

rials ; and it may be remarked, that the general tints are not

very different from those of Treron cantillans. The species in-

habits the Himalaya and the Neilgherries ; and Captain Phayre

has obtained it in the Ya-ma-dong mountains, which separate

Arracan from Pegu. It appears to keep always to a more ele-

vated region than the next species, as near the snow line of the

Himalaya ; and Mr. Hodgson states that it is “ almost solitary ”

in its habits *.

* Carjwphaga insignis. Of this fine species I killed a female (one of

a pair, the male of which escaped) at Kursiong, towards the end of the

month of June. It is not common. The pair were perched on a small tree

on the summit of the hill, feeding on berries, with which the crop of the

4*

52

Mr. E. Blyth's Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

The Col. badia, Raffles (v. capistrata, Temm.), of the Malay

countries, would appear to be very closely allied in its colouring,

but considerably inferior in size ; the two are regarded as distinct

by Mr. G. R. Gray.

C. sylyatica : Col. sylvatica , Tickell, Journ. As. Soc. ii. 581 :

C. cenea of India, Auctorum; but not of Raffles, Linn. Trans,

xiii. 316. (. Dunkul , H.; Pyoon-ma-dee, Arracan.) Head, neck

and under-parts pearl-gray, purer on the crown and breast, and

tinged elsewhere (and occasionally on the crown) with ruddy-

vinaceous; back, wings, rump and tail shining coppery-green,

with a dash of gray on the large alars, and greenest upon the

tail ; under tail-coverts dark maroon ; chin and immediately

around the base of the bill white. “ Irides and orbits lake- red;

bill slaty, at base above red, at tip bluish-white ; legs lake-red,”

(Jerdon). Another observer describes the irides to be “ deep

pink;” but Captain Tickell writes: “Eyes orange; feet rose-

coloured; bill horny, bluish over the nostrils.” Length 18 or

19 inches ; expanse 2| feet ; closed wing 9 inches to 9~, and

tail 6 inches to 6L ; sexes alike.

“This fine species,” remarks Mr. Jerdon, “is found in all the

lofty forests of the west coast, single, or in small parties of three

or four. It has a single, low, plaintive note.” Captain Tickell,

in his 6 List of Birds collected in the Jungles of Borabhum and

Dholbhum/ states that it is “ common in some parts, preferring

the open and large-timbered tracts. They are wild and difficult

of approach, and go generally in small parties of four or five.

The voice is deep, and resembles groaning.” I have never seen

it from the Himalaya, but it is very abundant in the hill regions

of Assam, Sylhet, Tipperah, and Arracan ; also in the Tenasse-

rim provinces; and the Asiatic Society has received it from Java.

A writer in the ( Bengal Sporting Review * (no. 2. p. 89) ob-

serves, “ The habits of this handsome bird are strictly arboreal ;

it is seldom seen but in the depths of the jungle; is gregarious,

like the Hurrials, but is only a cold-weather resident in the east-

ern districts of Bengal, and breeds elsewhere *. It makes its

appearance in November, and leaves towards the end of March.

Its favourite food consists of the bijer plum (Zizyphus Jujuba),

and a jungle berry, called by the natives Anygootah . When

wounded it evinces more spirit than the Columbidce appear gene-

rally to possess ; erecting the feathers of its head and neck, and

female was filled. Voice a deep short groan, repeated — ‘ woo-woo-woo.'

Length of this female 17 inches by 27 inches in spread of wing; wing 9

inches. Irides pearl-gray ; bill dull lake, with blackish tip ; legs dull lake.

Back, scapularies and wing-coverts full deep vinous ash-gray washed with

cupreous, the latter pervading the tips and edges of the feathers. — T.

* Mr. Frith found a nest of this bird in the Garrow hills.

53

Bibliographical Notices.

buffeting with its wings the hand that captures it. The note is

harsh, not unlike the croaking of a bull-frog * *.”

There are several closely allied species : C. cenea, as figured

(i. e . the head) by Mr. G. R. Gray in his illustrated work on

the € Genera of Birds/ has a large round knob at the base of its

upper mandible, of which the Indian species never presents the

slightest trace ; and a beautiful specimen before me, from Bor-

neo (?), exhibiting this knob, differs also from the Indian species

in several other particulars f- Another, from the same region,

exactly resembles the Indian species, except in its inferior size,

having the wing but 8 inches, and the rest in proportion ; this

is doubtless the C . cenea of Raffles* s list, described as “ exceeding

15 inches in length**; so that in Sumatra there would appear to

be closely allied diminutives of both the Indian species J. C. per-

spicillata of Java and the Moluccas also approximates a good

deal, but is readily enough distinguishable.

Of the third great genus of fruit-eating pigeons, Ptilinopus,

also largely developed in the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesian

isles, no Indian species has been discovered; the Ft. Elphin-

stonii of Sykes (seemingly) appertaining to the same group of

ordinary pigeons as the British Cushat or Ring-dove.

[To be continued.]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Natural History of the Mammalia. By G. R. Waterhouse, Esq.,

of the British Museum. Illustrated with engravings on wood and

coloured plates. London, H. Bailliere.

The first volume of this excellent work, in which every species in

the class Mammalia will be described in detail, is now completed.

The author is already favourably known to the public by various

monographs, and by papers in this Journal, on the Rodentia, Marsu-

piata and other animals. His former connexion with the Zoological

Society and his present position in the British Museum (where he is

* C. sylvatica. I have found these birds only in one part of my district,

— in the jungles bordering on Midnapore. They were in a party of eight

or ten, perching on detached trees, in a wide plain of jungle-grass. The

notes are deep and ventriloquous. By the Oorias it is called Sona Kubootra,

or Golden Pigeon ; it is also termed Burra (or Great) Hurrial , — T.

+ It seems to be the “ Sumatran Pigeon, no. 12,” of Latham.

I The true Columba cenea of Linnaeus is founded on the Palumbus mo-

luccensis of Brisson, whose figure and description perfectly accord with the

Indian bird, though it is stated to be from the Moluccas. The knob-fronted

species will stand as C. myristicivora, Scop. (C. ylobicera, Wagl.), founded

on Sonn. Voy. Nouv. Guinee, pi. 102. Mr. Gray erroneously applies the

name myristicivora to Sonn. pi. 103, which is the bicolor of Scopoli. —

H.ES.

54

Bibliographical Notices .

at present chiefly employed on fossil Mammalia), — his extensive ac-

quaintance with the works of foreign naturalists, as shown by the

numerous references in this publication, — together with several visits

undertaken solely from his love of science to the museums on the

continent, eminently fit him for the great work here commenced.

We use this expression advisedly, for it must not be supposed that

we have here merely a compilation ; original descriptions, and mea-

surements generally taken from more than one specimen, are in the

majority of cases given. The dental and osteological details are

described with particular care, and are illustrated by distinct and

careful plates : in the precision of these details, we imagine we see

the effects of Mr. Waterhouse’s long and ardent attachment to en-

tomology. Although the work is not a compilation, the author has

not neglected any source of information ; and in this first volume,

which is confined to the Marsupiata, he is much indebted to Mr.

Gould’s admirable labours in Australia. Mr. Waterhouse however

often differs from Mr. Gould with respect to specific characters, and

we rejoice to see no signs of that rage to create new species, so pre-

valent amongst zoologists.

A distinguishing feature in this work is the notice of all fossil

species, interpolated in their proper places ; hence, when the whole

is completed, we shall have a comprehensive view of the entire class

of Mammalia, as far as known ; and the accident of extinction will

not remove from the series, as is too often the case in systematic

works, allied or intermediate forms. Many curious and original

remarks are interspersed on the affinities of the various genera and

families ; but we find no trace of those fanciful speculations on ana-

logies— such as between a mouse’s nose and a snipe’s beak, or be-

tween oxen and poultry — which we fear must have lowered us in the

estimation of continental naturalists. In reference to affinities, we

must express our regret that the Marsupiata were not ranked, in

conformity with Prof. Owen’s views, as a sub-class distinct from the

placental mammifers. Whether we view classification as a mere

contrivance to convey much information by a single word, or as

something more than a memoria technica, and as connected with the

laws of creation, we cannot doubt that where such important differ-

ences in the generative and cerebral systems, as distinguish the

Marsupiata from the Placentata, run through two series of animals,

they ought to be arranged under heads of equal value. We are not

convinced by the ingenious remarks on this subject given at p. 17 ;

we cannot admit that numerical differences in the number of the

species in two groups, or their geographical distribution, or a some-

what hypothetical statement that the amount of difference is greatest

amongst the lower forms in each class, ought to be taken into ac-

count in a system of classification ; we believe that our best botanists,

who may well serve as guides on this subject, eschew such considera-

tions, and confine themselves to the strict rule of difference in struc-

ture. Should this rule be disregarded, some naturalists would admit

habits (useful as they undoubtedly are) — some would admit analo-

gies, or, as well expressed by Lamarck, adaptations in widely different

Bibliographical Notices. 55

beings to similar external conditions, — some would admit the sup-

posed order of the appearance of organic beings (as has been sug-

gested) on the surface of the earth, as aids or bases of classification ;

— the result would be, that no two naturalists would agree in the

same conclusion, and our system, instead of becoming a solid and

simple edifice, would be a labyrinth of blind passages.

An admirable feature in Mr. Waterhouse’s work is the great at-

tention paid to Geographical distribution, that noble subject of which

we as yet but dimly see the full bearing. The following remarks

(p. 537) give us an excellent summary on the distribution of the

Mammalia on the Australian continent : —

“ Australia may be conveniently divided into five principal divi-

sions or districts, of which the east, west, north and south portions

of the main land will each form one province, and Van Diemen’s

Land the fifth. Of these provinces, the northern one has the great-

est number of species peculiar to it, since out of ten species dis-

covered in that part of Australia, eight are not found elsewhere.

The Marsupiata of the eastern district are for the most part distinct

from those of the opposite side of the continent, there being but

eight species, out of upwards of sixty inhabiting the two provinces,

which are found in both. But if the three districts mentioned are

characterized by the few species which they have in common. South

Australia must be characterized by an opposite quality, that of having

a comparatively large proportion of species identical with those of

other districts ; indeed I know of but four species which are peculiar

to this district : it possesses sixteen species in common with Western

Australia, and fifteen in common with Eastern Australia. Western

Australia possesses one genus (Tar Sipes') which is peculiar to it, and

one sub-genus ( Macrotis ); none of the other districts of continental

Australia possess any genera which are not found elsewhere. About

half of the species found in Van Diemen’s Land are peculiar to that

island — in fact, nine out of twenty : of the remainder, the greater

portion are found on the eastern part of the main land. This island,

moreover, possesses one genus (Thylacinus) and one sub-genus (Sar-

cophilus) which are now peculiar to it. Examples of both these

sections have, however, been found in a fossil state on the main

land.”

Speaking strictly we have here four divisions, for South Australia

does not appear from these remarks, zoologically considered, to de-

serve to be ranked as a subdivision. New Guinea, however, and

the adjacent islands form a well-marked fifth subdivision, and an

interesting table is given (at p. 3) of the ranges of the quadrupeds

inhabiting them. The fact of South Australia possessing only few

peculiar species, it having apparently been colonized from the eastern

and western coasts, is very interesting ; for we believe that Mr. Ro-

bert Brown has shown that nearly the same remark is applicable to

the plants ; and Mr. Gould finds that most of the birds from these

opposite shores, though closely allied, are distinct. Considering

these facts, together with the presence in South Australia of up-

raised modern tertiary deposits and of extinct volcanos, it seems

56

Bibliographical Notices .

probable that the eastern and western shores once formed two

islands, separated from each other by a shallow sea, with their in-

habitants generically though not specifically related, exactly as are

those of New Guinea and Northern Australia, and that within a

geologically recent period a series of upheavals converted the inter-

mediate sea into those desert plains which are now known to stretch

from the southern coast far northward, and which then became colo-

nized from the regions to the east and west. We will only further

point out an interesting table (p. 536) showing that in South Ame-

rica, Brazil is the metropolis of the Didelphidse, a family which, as

Mr. Waterhouse remarks, curiously replaces in that continent the

Insectivora of the Old World.

Most of the genera are illustrated by elegant and spirited copper-

plates ; there are also many woodcuts ; some few however of these

latter are rather unfortunate works of art. The plates are printed

on excellent paper, and the whole work is got up in a style credit-

able to the publisher. The Marsupiata, though highly interesting in

their structure and affinities, yet are less so in their habits than the

higher mammalia ; but from some scattered notices we clearly see

that this amusing part of the subject will not be neglected. To the

professed naturalist we believe that, this work will be almost indis-

pensable ; but we also strongly recommend it to those who do not

come under this class, but yet are interested in the wide field of na-

ture. We do not doubt that Mr. Waterhouse is conferring by this

publication a real service on natural science ; we therefore trust to

his continued perseverance, and we heartily wish him all success.

Introduction to Zoology : for the Use of Schools. By Robert Pat-

terson, Vice-President of the Natural History Society of Belfast.

— Invertebrate Animals. With upwards of 170 Illustrations. Lon-

don : Simpkin and Co. 1846.

The main cause of the great ignorance of Natural History in this

country among all classes, not excluding even the highest, is that it

forms no part of our regular system of education. Most of our

youth leave school scarcely aware of the existence of such a science,

and so utterly unacquainted with its merest rudiments, that to be

told that whales aud bats give suck to their young, would excite in

them a contemptuous smile of incredulity. This is deplorable ; but

it is the misfortune not the fault of our youth, that they are thus

ignorant of facts with which mere children in France and Germany

are familiar. Fully occupied with the routine of our usual instruc-

tion at school, and thence directly transferred either to college or

the active duties of commercial or professional life, they have no

opportunity of repairing this great deficiency of their early educa-

tion, and thus remain deprived of what may be justly called another

sense — the power of seeing at every step objects of the highest in-

terest and delight, to which the man unacquainted with natural

history is blind, and of thus opening to themselves a new source of

mental enjoyment, which, whether they traverse the mighty ocean

Bibliographical Notices. 57

or the pathless desert, stroll through the woods or the fields, or are

even confined to the limits of a garden, will be found to be endless

and inexhaustible.

It is the conviction of this great defect in our system of educa-

tion which has led Mr. Patterson, Vice-President of the Natural

Plistory Society of Belfast, and well-known as an excellent observer

of nature, to compose the work whose title stands at the head of

this notice, which from his intimate acquaintance with the subject,

the popular interest he has imparted to it, and the numerous excel-

lent wood-cuts (chiefly adapted from Milne Edwards’s ‘ Cours Ele-

mentaire de Zoologie ’) amply illustrating every part of it, combined

with its low price, may be regarded as one of the most valuable con-

tributions ever offered towards the more extended cultivation of

natural history in this country.

As its high character as an elementary work has been recognised

by the Board of National Education in Ireland, by its adoption in all

the National Schools there (of which in December 1845 the num-

ber was 3426, attended by 432,844 scholars), it is superfluous to

speak further in its praise, and we shall merely state our full per-

suasion, that if adopted, as we trust it will be, in all our schools,

both for the upper and lower classes, the next generation will show

a hundred naturalists for one that we can now boast of, and that

results, the value and importance of which can scarcely be too highly

estimated, will attend a more extended cultivation of a science,

which, as Mr. Patterson truly observes in his preface, “ exercises

both the observant and reflective powers, furnishes enjoyment pure

and exhaustless, and tends to make devotional feelings habitual.”

We conclude with the following anecdote from the Work, both as

a specimen of its popular manner, and as proving very strikingly how

important an acquaintance with the nature of the lower objects of

creation in quarters seemingly the most remote from being affected

by them, may often prove. “ With regard to the Medusae, we may

mention an anecdote which we learned from an eminent zoologist,

now a professor in one of the English Universities. He had a few

years ago been delivering some zoological lectures in a seaport town

in Scotland, in the course of which he had adverted to some of the

most remarkable points in the economy of the Acalephce. After the

lecture, a farmer who had been present came forward, and inquired

if he had understood him correctly, as having stated that the Medusae

contained so little of solid material, that they might be regarded as

little else than a mass of animated sea- water ? On being answered

in the affirmative, he remarked that it would have saved him many

a pound had he known that sooner, for he had been in the habit of

employing his men and horses in carting away large quantities of

jelly-fish from the shores and using them as manure on his farm, and

he now believed they could have been of little more real use than an

equal weight of sea- water. Assuming that as much as one ton

weight of Medusae recently thrown on the beach had been carted

away in one load, it will be found that, according to the experiments

of Prof. Owen already mentioned (p. 30), the entire quantity of solid

58

Entomological Society .

material would be only about four pounds, an amount, which, if com-

pressed, the farmer might with ease have carried home in one of his

coat-pockets ! ” — P. 39.

Elle Fries Summa Vegetabilium Scandinavia . Holmise et Lipsise.

A new work by Prof. Fries of Upsala — need we say more in its

recommendation ? It may however be as well to mention the cha-

racter of its contents.

It has long been known that Fries was contemplating a Flora of

Scandinavia, i.e., as he defines it, “ inter mare occidentale et album,

inter Eidoram et Nordkap.” The present may be considered as the

forerunner of such a work, since it contains a complete catalogue of

Scandinavian plants accompanied by a tabular view of their distri-

bution. This is followed by a synopsis of such species as are either

not contained in the invaluable 1 Synopsis Florae Germanicae ’ of Koch,

or are considered by Fries to require further elucidation or correction.

In short it may be considered, as observed by its author, to be an

extension of the ‘ Synopsis Florae Germanicae/ which is bounded on

the north by the Baltic Sea and the river Eyder, from that river,

through Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Lapland and Norway, to the

North Cape. It is therefore essential to all who make use (and what

botanist does not?) of Koch’s Synopsis.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

[Continued from vol. xviii. p. 473.]

September 1st, 1845. — The Rev. F. W. Hope, President, in the Chair.

“ Further notes on the Honey-bee.” By Mr. Golding and Dr.

Bevan.

In this communication Mr. Golding again affirmed that the first

swarm from a hive is led off by the queen-bee. He considered that

it was chiefly owing to the striking peculiarity in the royal cells that

the insects developed therein are so different from the ordinary indi-

viduals in the hive. He adopts the opinion of Huber, that the great

number of males in a hive is rendered necessary in order to ensure

the fecundation of the virgin queen in her flight in the air, and

that the law of primogeniture seems to be followed strictly in the

emigration of young queens. From the fact that the long piping

note of a young queen at liberty may be heard — but with short in-

tervals of a minute or two — without intermission, from the time of

her hatching until she comes off with the swarm, together with their

having been seen to leave the hive in a day or two after being hived,

he thinks it may be safely inferred that impregnation in the case of

the young emigrant queen takes place after she becomes sovereign

in her own right, and that she never leaves the hive until accom-

panying the swarm.

59

Entomological Society.

Dr. Bevan’s communication was a reply to a note addressed to

him by Mr. Westwood, and is as follows : —

“ Machynlleth, August 25, 1845.

“ My dear Sir, — I was well pleased to find from your favour of

the T2th inst. that our opinions on the relative perfection of queen-

arid worker-bees were in unison ; and also to learn, from your letter

to Mr. Golding, that we agree as to the probable effect of the pabu-

lum which is supplied, as well to the development of animal as of

vegetable life. The instance which you refer to of the effect pro-

duced on flowers by the soil in which they bloom, and of course by

the kind of nutriment which the plants derive therefrom, is very

much in point. So likewise is its effect on fruit. It is well-known

that in the cider counties the juice of the same fruit, treated in the

same manner, will produce very different sorts of cider, according to

the soil by which the trees are nourished. In Herefordshire to wit,

the clay side of the county affords a sweet pleasant liquor, the sandy

side a liquor that is rough and harsh, the fruit being the same. The

mere dimensions of the royal cell without other concomitants would,

I conceive, only cause the evolution of a large worker-bee, not a bee

undergoing such wonderful changes as a queen presents, and capable

of continuing its race. To accomplish this end, supported as we are

by various analogies, it is surely reasonable to believe that much, if

not the whole, depends upon diet. With yourself, I should much like

to obtain the analogies of other swarming insects, such as humble-

bees, wasps, ants, &c., in support or otherwise of this theory, but

must transfer the research to the eyes of younger investigators and

the resources of another Huber.

“ As I now, for the first time, learn what was stated in the British

Association * at Cambridge, and am unacquainted with the particu-

lars, which ought to be minutely ascertained before an opinion rest-

ing on such abundant evidence can be shaken, that matter must

stand over for the present. I should like to know what evidence

can be afforded that the queen which accompanied the swarm was

a young one ; also, whether it be clearly ascertained to have been a

first swarm, and what queen, if any, was left behind. The hive

might have contained a superannuated queen, which died during the

maturation of her successor, though in that case I should conceive

that the family would not have been populous enough to send forth

a swarm. But she might have issued unknown to her proprietor,

and have lost her life from some accident prior to being hived, in

which case the swarm might return, and might in a short time after-

wards re-issue with a young queen. Upon one or other of these

suppositions only can I ever believe a prime swarm would be accom-

panied by a young queen.

“ The disproportionate number of males usually found in a family

of bees, in summer, has long been a stumbling-block with natural-

ists ; but it is a difficulty which Huber hoped he had been able to

* It was stated by one of the members of the British Association, at the

meeting at Cambridge, that he had observed a first swarm led off by a

newly-hatched queen. — J. (). W.

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Entomological Society .

remove, by what however can only be regarded as an ingenious hy-

pothesis, viz. that as the queen is evidently impregnated in the wide

expanse of the atmosphere, this may render a numerous race of males

desirable, that she may run no risk of experiencing disappointment

in meeting with them. This aerial flight, having impregnation for

its object, is countenanced by a similar proceeding among ants and

humble-bees. In a correspondence which Feburier held with Mr.

Knight, he mentioned a circumstance which fell under his own ob-

servation, tending to show that the union of the sexes in bees takes

place after the manner of whales and human beings. If so, the

horny prehensile appendages which appertain to the genital organs

of wasps and hornets would not be needed. The evidence afforded

by Mr. Golding of the act having been performed, taken per set

is certainly merely presumptive ; but confirmed as it is by Huber’s

declaration, that a portion of the drone’s organ ( corps lenticulaire)

was repeatedly seen by Burnens in the vulva of the young queens,

I think Mr. Golding’s observation carries weight with it. I never

knew nor heard of a princess having been impregnated prior to her

quitting the parent hive. The experience of Huber, Mr. Golding,

myself and other apiarians shows that impregnation never takes

place till after she has been established in her new abode. In all

probability, if she quitted the old stock to take her aerial flight, the

next in succession would be set at liberty during her absence, and

when she returned, be prepared to receive her in hostile array, an

event which the bees appear, on all occasions, sedulously to guard

against.

“ As regards the law of primogeniture in the royal brood, I think

you will be satisfied that it is observed, when you consider the na-

tural enmity which the royal insects bear towards each other ; so

great as to render it intolerable for more than one to be at liberty in

the hive at the same time. The first-born pipes in a shrill tone, her

voice being heard through no other medium than that of the air and

the hive, while the next in succession, and sometimes even the next

but one, sends forth a hoarse note, being heard through the addi-

tional medium of the royal cell. And the workers allow not one of

the imprisoned princesses to emerge till the swarm issues forth, or

till it is decided that there shall be no farther issue ; in which latter

case the royal cells are left unguarded, and the senior princess is

allowed to despatch all the embryo princesses, which she very soon

accomplishes, and thereby prevents the possibility of any compe-

tition for the throne. — E. Bevan.”

A discussion also took place on the potato-disease, the President

attributing it chiefly to the attacks of the wire-worm, whilst Mr.

Spence and others referred it to atmospheric causes,

October 6th. — The Rev. F. W. Hope, President, in the Chair.

The President exhibited a large collection of Ichneumonidce, re-

cently captured by himself at Southend. Also some plates of exotic

Lepidoptera , drawn by Mr. Spry for the Transactions, containing

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figures of new species of Charaxes from his own collection. Like-

wise a number of specimens of Scolopendrae of small size, which he

had found in myriads infesting diseased potatoes at Southend, which

he was thence induced to consider as the chief cause of the evil ; an

opinion which was however opposed by several of the members, Mr.

Edward Doubleday detailing the results of microscopical observa-

tions made in this country and abroad, proving the growth of a mi-

nute parasitical fungus within the diseased part of the tubers.

Captain Parry exhibited two cases of insects from Caffraria, in-

cluding Manticora latipennis, Waterh., and other new and rare Co -

leoptera.

Mr. W. W. Saunders exhibited a box of exotic insects, including

a new and most brilliant species of Morpho , from South America,

several species of Thynnidae taken in copula , and several species of

Zeuzerce and other case- making Lepidoptera from New Holland.

Mr. Evans exhibited a specimen of Sphinx Atropos, taken on the

rigging of a ship forty miles from land, off Cape Clear island, and

one of Porthesia auriflua, taken 250 miles from land in the Bay of

Biscay.

Mr. F. Smith exhibited specimens of Nomada pacata , one of

which was gynandromorphous.

Mr. Edward Doubleday stated that the British Museum had re-

cently acquired a collection of Lepidoptera from the north of Bengal,

containing a new species of Papilio and many other new species, and

that a collection from Honduras, formed by Mr. Dyson, had also

been recently received by the Museum.

The following memoirs were read : —

The continuation of Mr. Saunders’s Descriptions of New Holland

Cryptocephalidce.

Sp. 4. Pleomorpha concolor, W.W.S. Entirely dark blue green ,

except underside of 1st joint of antennae , which is rufous ; elytra

shining punctate-striate , the lateral striae more deeply. Length

-y^ths of an inch. — Inhabits Australia. In Mus. Parry.

Sp. 5. Pleomorpha atra, W.W.S. Entirely black , except under-

side of first two joints of the antennae , which is rufous , and the

club , which is pitchy brown ; mandibles strongly projecting ; ely-

tra punctate-striate. Length y^-ths of an inch. — Inhabits West-

ern Australia. In Mus. Hope.

A letter from John Hogg, Esq., F.L.S., addressed to Mr. West-

wood, on the alleged habits of Crabro cephalotes , dated Norton,

July 19, 1845

“ On my return home on the 28th of June, I observed a couple

of the handsome Crabro cephalotes about my hot- house, and I found

that they had nearly constructed a somewhat curious nest, or de-

posit for their eggs. It is composed of fine gravel or sand, strongly

agglutinated together with clay, and contains four cylindrical cells,

which are quite closed up at the top. I watched one of the insects

sitting, most likely the female depositing her eggs, in the last cell,

62 Entomological Society .

which she afterwards finished ; and which she has now deserted, as I

have not seen her for many days.

“ The nest is firmly fixed on the lime and gravel surface of the

wall of the hot-house, and is itself nearly of an equal hardness with

it. I do not doubt but each cell contains one or more eggs, and

from which in due time young insects will come forth.

“ The genus Crabro of Fabricius is a part of Linnaeus’s genus Sphex ;

and I find that the latter author has given a short account of the mode

adopted by the Sphex sabulosa (now called Ammophila sabulosa ), of

making its hole in the sand, and of depositing its eggs in the bodies

of insects (see Syst. Nat., edit. 12, p. 941, vol. ii.) ; and he also de-

scribes (p. 942) how the Sphex figulus makes its nest in holes in wood,

and ‘ nidum argilla claudit / The mode there described of that in-

sect using clay is similar to that adopted by the Crabro cephalotes , but

I did not notice it conveying a spider, or the larva of any other insect,

into its nest ; though perhaps, if the cells were examined, some

such insect might be discovered within them.

“ A few days ago I observed some sparrows on their nest in a tree

in my garden pulling about something which appeared like a bundle

of white feathers ; a short time afterwards I went to water some

flowers below the same tree, when to my surprise I found on the

ground a beautiful nest of the Vespa Britannica. The sparrows

having however dug holes with their bills in the lower portion of

it, in search of larvse, or of something to devour, had a good deal

injured this most elegantly-made nest.”

In a subsequent communication Mr. Hogg states that he is quite

certain the insect which formed the nest “ is the same as that which

I sent to you some few years ago, and which you named * Crabro

cephalotes’ ; and the reason of my troubling you with my commu-

nication was, that I strongly suspected that its economy in nidifi -

cation has never been fully ascertained. But as I before said, I

have not at hand Shuckard’s ‘ Monograph of the Fossorial Hyme-

noptera,’ or any other modern work which describes the species.

That it may sometimes make its nest in the holes of rotten wood or

in sand-banks, I do not know ; but that it does not always do so,

the present example clearly proves.

“ One of the insects (probably the male') I only saw one day ; it

was inside , flying up and down the glass light of the hot-house. The

other, or the female, was then as usual forming her nest. But I did

not capture either of them, because I thought they would make

more ceils, and I should have frequent opportunities for doing so.

Should either of them return, I will take care and secure it.

“I yesterday (22nd July 1845) opened one of the cells, when

I found only a single larva, which is soft, yellowish- white, apodous,

and resembling that of the common ivasp. The entire cell was lined

with a white membrane ; but I did not notice, after the most minute

examination, any fly, spider, or any remains whatever of any insect,

and no egg. This was the same cell which I mentioned in my last

letter as that in which I saw the female Crabro sitting, and then

closing up its top.

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Entomological Society.

“ I have thought it better to send you herewith pieces of the

nest, from which you will see how it has been formed of clay and

sand ; and you will also observe a part of the membrane which lined

the inside of the cell. The larva (also inclosed) was at first quite

alive ; hut, owing to my having injured its head as I was opening the

cell, it became yesterday evening nearly motionless. I observed, in

using a strong lens, that here and there some pieces of sand do not

fit quite close, and are unfilled up with clay ; this will allow a little

air to reach the inside of the cell.

“ The cells are of an elongate-ovate form, varying from |ths to ^ths

of an inch in length, the four being applied side to side and mea-

suring If inch across their upper part, each cell being about fths of

an inch across, and the diameter of the interior of the cell which I

opened being about fth of an inch. The exterior surface of the

nest projects from the surface of the wall about fths of an inch.

Each cell is quite separated from the adjoining one and has no

internal communication with the other.

“ The tree in which I saw the sparrows on their nest, pulling

about the nest of the Vespa Britannica , is a large pear-tree trained

against the wall of my house : I examined the nest in which the

sparrows were, but found no remains of the wasp’s nest, only three

gaping unfledged sparrows, and many feathers, some pieces of paper

and cloth, to keep them warm and snug ; and I likewise examined

the tree around, in order to discover the peduncle of the wasp’s nest,

but I could see no traces of it. The wasp’s nest had then been

brought from some of the neighbouring trees or shrubs ; this could

easily be done, as it is extremely light , and measures only about

2 inches in its larger diameter, and about If inch in its smaller

diameter.”

November 3rd. — The Rev. F. W. Hope, President, in the Chair.

It was announced that the second part of the fourth volume of

the Transactions was ready for delivery to the members.

Mr. Tatham exhibited several splendid species of Carabi, one be-

longing to a new species recently received from China.

The President exhibited a box of insects received by him from

Dr. Savage, collected at Cape Palmas, containing a new Goliath

beetle. Also several boxes of insects recently forwarded from Lan-

dour in the East Indies by Mr. Benson, including several new spe-

cies of Coleoptera.

A letter from Captain Boys, on the habits of various Indian spe-

cies of insects, addressed to Mr. Westwood, was read, dated from

Simla in the Himalayas, August 2nd, 1845 :

“It is a curious fact, of which I have undoubted proof from

ocular demonstration, that both male and female insects of the genus

Copris are mutually employed in forming the casing of earth after

the deposition of the ova within the cowdung. When at Mhow,

in search of scorpions on the bank of a rivulet, in turning up a large

stone I exposed the perpendicular section of an excavation formed

6 4 Entomological Society.

by them, and which was about two feet from the upper level, imme-

diately below a large dropping of cowdung. The stone was on the

slope of the bank, the cavity containing four balls, two nearly

finished and two about half- size. The male and female were hard

at work, and after a little surprise at the light, continued the opera-

tion of adding earth to the smallest ball ; this was performed by

rolling it round and round, scraping up the mud which gathered,

and by pattering it firmly with the fore and hind tibiae. When I

use the word pattering, I only mean to say the insects kept their

legs in constant motion on the ball, as obtains in Sisyphus when

rolling its pill ; but in order that it should collect more earth, the

male was frequently employed in digging beneath it. I could not

detect the female in the act of depositing her ova. One side of

every ball is very thin (comparatively), which leads me to believe

that on this side the ova is placed. In forming the nucleus of cow-

dung, the female is the principal worker ; she rolls it round and

round, digging occasionally, so as to let it sink as the earth is thrown

up above, and in this work the male also assists. — The small insect

allied to Aphodius (Chcetopisthes fulvus , Westw.) is one of our com-

monest, though not indigenous to these hills at this height: it

abounds in horse- and cow-dung. — A small species of Tridactylus is

also very common ; during the rains, with a sheet and a lantern, my-

riads may be taken. Was it perfect or in the larva state ? or rather

I should ask if the wing-cases were black ? — The larva of Hete -

r or him Roylii to my knowledge may become a pupa, and perfect from

the pupa in less than two months, however long it may have been

in the larva state. — I arrived here on the 1st of June, and collected

a great number of larvae of all sizes, which I brought home, accom-

panied with the rotting debris of oak-dust in which I found them.

Of these, six formed cocoons of the* earth and oak-dust, and two

were perfect the day before yesterday, and two more came out yes-

terday, hut were not H. Roylii , though certainly I could in nowise

distinguish a difference in any of the larvae. One was a bronzed

Cetonia ( Heterorhina ?) with faint white lines on the elytra and

thorax ; the other a bronzed green with spots. — Does the Atlas

moth feed on oak-trees in its larva state, or on the hill species of

Berberis ? At Almorah I took the cocoon from the latter, but never

saw the larva ; here I have taken the insect in the latter stage (at

least I conjecture it will turn out to be the moth in question) on the

oak, and the cocoon looks very like what I took at the former place.

The larva of the one now alluded to is very like the one which

forms the Tussa silk (I believe an Actias also), but the nidus is like,

whitey-brown paper and no thicker, in this respect resembling that

formed by Actias Lunat but the caterpillar is not the same. — I heard

a few days ago from a friend (W. Benson, Esq.), that a novel spe-

cies of Trictenotoma had been captured in his neighbourhood (Mus-

soorie), as also either a variety of, or novelty allied to, Geotr.

longimanus. The former he describes to me as more nearly allied

to the Prionides than to the Ceramhyces , though possessing con-

nexion with the Lucani as far as the antennae are concerned. The

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thorax in his specimen is strongly toothed as in many species of

Prionus. — From the body of an unfortunate goat, carried off by a

leopard some days since, I have lately taken three species of Necro-

phori ; one species large, i. e. 1 * inch, and wholly black ; the second

black with red patches, J inch ; and the third I suspect is a shade

removed from, or may be, a Necrodes . The male and female are both

black, but the former is easily distinguished by the form of the pos-

terior thighs, which are strongly incrassate. All these insects if not

very strongly pressed when taken smell of musk , but their stench

is intolerable if roughly handled. A largish species of red ant forms

its nest among the leaves of mangoe trees. I have not yet met a

description of it, though it cannot have escaped so long, being not

only common, but the insect is a perfect nuisance to all pic-nic-ians,

and must have drawn attention. The queens or females, wdien

winged, are a very fine apple-green in the colour of body. I took

them from the nest near Mhow at several times. The web which

the)?' elaborate from the mouth will bear writing on, and take ink as

legibly as paper. I never saw any but red workers making the

web. In this country the natives use them for the purpose of get-

ting rid of wasps’ nests (though I do think the remedy equally bad

with the cure). The branch on which the colony has formed its

leafy home is carefully cut through and transported to the vicinity

of the wasps, and in a few days a total extirpation of the latter ensues.

The ground is covered with the bodies of the Vespce , and the ants

go about biting every human being that they happen to crawl on.

Is not the remedy as I stated ? It is however only used when the

wasps are in a chopper or thatched roof, and not easily to be got at

for extirpation. I have never observed their nests but on the

mangoe tree and Ficus Indica . I would wish to know if the com-

mon cabbage in England is ever infested with an apode (?) Acarus,

or something allied thereto, and resembling a flask. Here I have

taken them for the first time, and for some time doubted my own

eyes, even with a microscope to help them. The creature is fully

one-third of an inch long, but the snout or mouth is so minute as to

require the aid above-mentioned*.— I have lately taken quantities

of Colliuris ; the larger one w’ith black legs is a different species

from those with red. Of this I doubted some time ago, but all my

suspicions are now perfectly set at rest.”

December 1st. — The Rev. F. W. Hope, President, in the Chair.

Mr. Bedell exhibited a specimen of Anacampsis alacella of Zeller

and Fischer, a species new to Britain, which he had captured on

Leatherhead Common on the 17th of August last.

Mr. Edward Doubleday exhibited a box of Lepidoptera from the

highest range of the Rocky Mountains in North America, collected

by Mr. Burke, the majority of which were strikingly analogous to

European species, including a species of Parnassius, a genus hitherto

found only in the Old World, although Dr. Boisduval had suggested

* [Probably a female Coccus of an undescribed species.]

Ann. Mag. N. Hist. Vol . xix. 5

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Entomological Society.

the probability of its existence in the northern parts of America.

Also a box of Lepidoptera from Borneo, collected by Mr. Hugh Lowe,

jun.

The following memoirs were read :■ —

“ Descriptions of a new Longicorn Beetle (since published in the

# Annals of Nat. Hist/) and of a species of Lucanidce ( Lucanus ma -

crognathus) from Borneo/’ By Adam White, Esq.

“ Descriptions of two new Goliath Beetles from Cape Palmas, in

the Collection of the Rev. F. W. Hope/’ By J. O. Westwood.

Smicorhina, Westw.

Corpus oblongum , depressum , supra velutinum , lateribus subparaU

lelis, pedibus elongatis. Caput in mare laminis duabus parvis

horizontalibus in vertice clypeoque in cornu breve recurvum pro -

ducto. Prothorax lateribus pone medium fere rectis, margi-

neque posiico fere recto . Processus mesosterni brevissimus.

Tibice anticce maris extus tridenticulatce, intus pone medium ser-

rated.

Smicorhina Sayii, Hope MS. Nigra , pronoto sanguineo , vittis 4

nigris, intermediis duabus abbreviate, capite supra cinereo-velu-

tinOy pedibus nigrisy femoribus tibiisque sanguineo variis. Long,

corp. lin. 13.— -Hab. in Africa tropicali (D. Savage). In Mus.

Hope.

Megalorhina, Westw.

Corpus oblong o-ovale, subdepressum, supra velutinum , elytris posticb

angustioribus. Caput maris supra fere planum, denticulis duobus

ad marginem internum oculorum , clypeo in cornu valde elongato

apice bifido producto. Prothorax fere semicircular is , convexus.

Elytra subconvexa, velutina, colore pallido guttata. Tibice anticce

elongated, curvatce, externe fere ad apicem emarginatce, interne

serratce. Processus mesosterni antice porrectus.

Megalorhina Harrisii, Savage MS. Supra op aco -velutina, capite

supra albo, cornu subtiis castaneo ; pronoto brunneo, luteo-margi-

nato ; s cut ell o brunneo, elytris olivaceonigris maculis numerosis

fulvescentibus in seriebus 5 (in singulo elytro ) dispositis , pedibus

castaneis, tibiis tarsisque 4 anticis nigris tar sis posticis foreseen-

tibus. Long. corp. (exclus. capitis cornu) lin. 18 ; latitudo ely-

trorum lin. 9. — Hab. cum prsecedente (D. Savage). In Mus.

D. Hope.

“ Descriptions of some new Scutelleridce from Cape Palmas/’ By

J. O. Westwood.

After detailing the structural characters of Plataspis Bucephalus,

White, descriptions are given of two new species of the same genus

of large size, collected at Cape Palmas by Dr. Savage, and for-

warded by him to Mr. Hope.

Plataspis (Aphanopneuma) biloba, Westw. Supra obscure lutea,

nitida, depressa , lateribus subparallelis, undique nigro-guttulata,

guttulis punctatis, spatio magno bilobo fulvescenti ad basin scu -

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telli, capite maris in lobos duos magnos conicos convergentes pro-

ducts, spiraculis later alibus in membrand tenui fere inconspicuis.

Long. corp. lin. 7. — Hab. Cape Palmas (D. Savage). In Mus.

Hope.

Plataspis (Cantharodes) coenosa, Westw. Supra obscura sub-

lutescens, opaca , nigro punctatissima, scutello fascia indistincta

mediana subpallidiori , capite magno subconcavo , postice in collum

angustato, prothorace antice valde emarginato, lateribus rotunda -

tis in medio parum angulatis , pedibus subgracilibus. Long. corp.

lin. 8. — Hab. cum preecedente.

“ Note on two species of Moths taken at great distances from

land.” By W. F. Evans, Esq.

The two insects in question were Sphinx atropos and Porthesia

auriflua . They were caught on board Her Majesty’s Ship 'Rodney*

(one of the experimental squadron), which left Portsmouth on the

15th of July, and lost sight of land in two days ; which they never

saw, nor were certainly within 200 miles of, until beating up to

Cork in September ; and when at least forty miles off Cape Clear,

wind due east (or off the land), the specimen of Sphinx atropos was

captured on one of the topmasts.

The specimen of Porthesia auriflua was taken from off one of the

boats which had been recently tarred, at about the extreme point of

the cruise in the Bay of Biscay, and at least 200 miles from land.

The sailors called the Sphinx an Irish paroquette. Great difficulty

was experienced in killing it, but its death was after some time

effected by means of creosote.

Extracts from a letter addressed by Dr. Savage to Mr. Hope on

some of the insects of Cape Palmas, dated Cape Palmas, W. Africa,

7th March, 1845. Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Hope.

" Goliathus. — Ceratorhina frontalis and aurata feed upon a small

fig, the fruit of the Ficus microcarpa ; also the ciliolosa and other

species, of which we have several. One resembles in its habits the

F. Indica ; so much so, that it had obtained the common name of

‘ Banyan-tree.’ G. frontalis feeds also upon the fruit of another tree,

belonging to the Linnsean class Pentandria and order Monogynia ;

further examination of this tree, botanically, I have not had time to

make. Upon these fig-trees we find also the Cetonia guttata of

Oliv., C. marginata, the different species of black Cetonice , green, &c.,

feeding upon the juices of the ripe fruit.

“ I have fully established the point that the Goliathi proper feed

upon juices ; and all the Cetonice (especially the Goliathideous spe-

cies) that I have captured have been taken in the act of extracting

juices from fruits and plants. The tree upon which the G. Cacicus

is found I suppose to be a gigantic Eupatorium, from the juice of

the bark of which that insect, and also Cetonia guttata , derive their

nourishment.

“ The C. guttata being found upon two different trees, feeding at

one time upon the juice of the bark, at another upon that of the

fruit, shows the manner in which its food is supplied the year round.

5*

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Entomological Society .

The figs yield several crops during the year, and the different spe-

cies come to maturity at different times. The Mecynorhina Savagii

of Harris feeds upon a gigantic climber, which upon being cut yields

an astonishing quantity of pellucid water. So abundant is this fluid,

and so negative in its qualities, that the natives, when a stream of

water is not at hand, resort to it to quench their thirst. (See “ A

description of an African Beetle allied to Scarabceus Polyphemus,

with remarks upon some other insects of the same group,” published

in the Journal of the Boston Natural History Society, 1843, by

Thaddeus William Harris, M.D.) I have remarked that almost

every individual Cetonia that I have sent to England I have found

feeding upon the juices of plants ; one ( Plcesiorhina mediana , figured

by Mr. Westwood) I captured in a rose-apple, through which it had

made a hole; another, an Heterorhina (Westwood), I captured in

the act of extracting the juice of the Zea maize, having made quite

a hole at the foot of the young succulent leaves.

“ I also send several pairs of C. guttata. One of the individuals of

the series (a male) you will find with a different armature on the

clypeus from all the others ; the clypeus itself is extended, while the

central horn remains the same. I have had several hundreds of

guttata in my possession, but the individual in question is the only

one of the kind. Is it simply a variety of guttata ? It was captured

with guttata proper, and brought to me by my collector with not

less than fifty specimens of that insect. October and November are

the months in wThich frontalis , aurata and guttata have been found

most abundantly this year.

“ Apim. — I send eight specimens of the best honey-bee of this

region ; it is that from which the wax of commerce (as I suppose)

is derived. The local name at this point (region of the Grebos) is

‘Duh * (pronounced Ddh). The natives (I speak only of this tribe

(Grebos), the native inhabitants of Cape Palmas) do not domesticate

them. Occasionally a hive will be seen in a Gregree or Fetish

house, attached or placed there, and looked upon as a sacred ob-

ject. I have known only one instance, that of a noted doctor, when

it was made a private Fetish. Their sting, it is said, is very severe

and much dreaded by the natives. They make their nests generally

in the cavities of old trees. I have succeeded in taking one swarm

and domesticating them. When the natives desire their honey, they

make a bundle of splintered bamboo, about six or ten feet in length,

and, setting one end on fire, apply it to the entrance of the nest,

which soon destroys them. The wax is not an article of commerce

here, and is used to a very limited extent among the natives. The

principal use by them is to make tight small boxes, &c., to protect

their contents against the bad effect of water on the sea as they go

off to vessels.

“ There is a second species, the local name of which is 4 Null '

(pronounced Noo), about the same size as that of Duh. It is of a

darker aspect, as also its wax, which is held in no estimation by the

natives. This bee is said by some to be stingless ; I am unable to

decide this point.

Microscopical Society.

69

" A third species exists, very small indeed, of a very light colour,

approaching closely to white ; local name ‘ Dafre ’ (pronounced

Darfray). It attaches its nest to the surface of trees, and delights

in lofty positions. The nest varies in size from a man’s fist to three

or four times that size, and is very light in aspect, nearly white.

All admit that this bee is stingless. I regret that I have no speci-

men at hand. I mention these different species at the present time,

simply because I have forwarded them in the box.

“ A fourth species is found with the local name ‘Vranh’; French

sound, the an sounded like an in ‘ franc.’ Many of the natives

pronounce it as if written with Franh. This species burrows in

the soft sticks of which the rafters in the natives’ houses are made.

They take a longitudinal direction, and extend from three to ten

inches in length. They have the diameter of a bullet; sometimes

two will be seen parallel. At the end will be found a shallow ex-

cavation, in which are deposited the eggs, and which are separated

from the main cell by a perpendicular division, consisting of the fine

particles of the wood made in process of excavation, united by some

agglutinal, which no doubt they have the power of secreting. One

of the specimens sent differs from the others. Is it not a male ? It

was found in the same nest with the others.”

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Oct. 14, 1846. — J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the

Chair.

A paper by John Anthony, Esq., “ On a Method of rendering the

Appearances in delicate Structures visible by means of oblique trans-

mitted light.”

This method depends upon the placing the object in such a posi-

tion that the fine lines or other delicate markings are exactly at

right angles to the illuminating rays, when these lines, &c. will be

at their maximum of distinctness, and thus tissues may be rendered

distinctly visible whose existence when viewed in the ordinary man-

ner might be considered as exceedingly doubtful. The object em-

ployed to illustrate this position was the Navicula of the Humber,

one of the most delicate of test objects, which under ordinary cir-

cumstances appears perfectly transparent, but when viewed in this

way, not only exhibits a double set of lines but also transverse lines,

giving the whole the appearance of being covered with a delicate

net-wrork. Four drawings of this object were exhibited, showing it

in as many different positions, making a complete revolution of the

field in which the markings just mentioned were distinctly visible.

In order to bring out these appearances, it is necessary that the light

should be very oblique, and must be passed laterally through the

“ bull’s eye,” in such a manner that the object (the Navicula) may

appear of an intensely blue colour nearly opake. The stage is then

to be gradually turned round until the shell is in the position to be

best seen as described.

70

Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ON THE HABITS OF THE LIMPET.

Lyme Regis, Oct. 10, 1846.

Dear Mr. Dean, — The limpets have engaged my attention, but

the wall newly-built has been thrown down by a great gale. I find

limpets to be very intelligent creatures, and I justify the term from

finding them suit their habits to their locality : thus some placed

upon a tolerably smooth surface out of the stroke of the breakers

move and halt anywhere as their choice leads them.

They move out of the water at a steady pace, about half as fast

as a house snail ; a foot distance is consequently soon accomplished.

In some situations I could not see what made them start off or halt,

whether to feed or for any other purpose.

I do not think limpets move about much when the tide is in and

their enemies the crabs near. I have often admired their clever

manner of slewing themselves round without moving from the spot.

I again repeat, the limpets I have specially watched do move about,

and if upon a smooth surface halt anywhere ; now for a little dis-

covery I made.

On the slope of a great cockle rock (higher greensand rock from

Whitlands) at the end of the Cobb, is a basin-like depression which

is left partly filled with water. One fine day I climbed up and found

in the basin and round about several small and a few middle-sized

limpets. Above the level of the water (the basin) was a smooth

place from which a limpet had not long before moved, as the spot

was different in colour to the rock around ; the shape was singular.

Looking into the water I saw several limpets there, and a good many

little faeces of these creatures. I was not long in spying my friend,

who was from home. I found him leaving the others and making

his way steadily back to his habitat. I watched his course ; he ar-

rived, and I at once perceived a difficulty, which he made nothing of,

viz. the getting adjusted. He slewed himself round and fitted a little

notch which he had to a small piece of projecting quartz with won-

derful readiness. He was tight in a moment, ready to resist the

heaviest breakers or any enemy.

I give you a sketch to show how peculiar the shape was, which is

not unusual in limpets fixed to cockle and Portland stone, in which

are shells, chert, and in the former quartz, which they cannot cor-

rode like the other parts.

The Limpet the size of life.

I find this limpet descended daily into the little basin of water,

met his fellows there, and duly travelled back before the tide came

in, and fitted the notch to the piece of quartz as before described.

Meteorological Observations . 71

I believe his disappearance in October is due to some interference

with him or her made by one of my pupils who had seen me visit

the spot, perhaps to try how far the creature would travel back to

his habitat.

I have found some depressions in the Portland blocks made by

limpets within the last fifty-five years very surprising for their

extent.

Edge of the stone originally when first worked.

The lower line shows the present outline, the intervening matter

having been worked away by limpets.

I am, dear Mr. Dean, your faithful Servant,

George Roberts.

Very Rev . Dr. Buckland , Dean of Westminster.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR NOV. 1846.

Chiswick. — November 1. Foggy. 2, 3. Very fine. 4. Overcast. 5. Foggy

and drizzly. 6,7. Foggy: hazy. 8. Foggy. 9. Hazy and cold. 10. Dusky

clouds: fine. 11. Cold and dry. 12. Overcast. 13. Hazy. 14. Foggy.

15. Cloudy. 16. Overcast : cloudy and fine. 17. Densely overcast : slight rain

at night. 18. Cloudy : very fine. 19. Cloudy and damp : very fine. 20. Cloudy:

boisterous. 21. Very fine : rain. 22. Fine : clear. 23. Slight rain : overcast.

24. Hazy and damp : rain : overcast. 25. Rain. 26. Clear and fine : foggy.

27. Dense fog. 28. Clear and fine. 29. Frosty : clear and fine. 30. Sharp

frost : overcast.

Mean temperature of the month 44°*53

Mean temperature of Nov. 1845 44 *26

Mean temperature of Nov. for the last twenty years ... 42 *91

Average amount of rain in Nov 2*56 inches.

Boston . — Nov. 1. Foggy. 2. Fine. 3, 4. Cloudy. 5. Fine. 6 — 9. Cloudy.

10,11. Fine. 12 — 14. Cloudy. 15. Cloudy : rain r.M. 16. Cloudy. 17.

Cloudy: rain p.m. 18. Cloudy. 19. Fine. 20. Stormy. 21. Cloudy: rain p.m.

22. Fine: rain p.m. 23. Cloudy: rain p.m. 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy. 26. Fine.

27. Cloudy: rain a. m. and p.m. 28. Cloudy : snow p.m. 29. Fine: snow on

the ground. 30. Fine : melted sncw in the gauge.

Sand wick Manse, Orkney. — Nov. 1. Showers: cloudy. 2,3. Cloudy. 4. Bright:

rain. 5. Bright: cloudy. 6. Hazy: rain. 7. Bright: showers. 8. Bright:

clear: fine. 9. Clear: very clear and fine. 10. Hoar-frost: cloudy: fine.

11 — 15. Cloudy: fine. 16. Bright : clear : aurora. 17. Rain : clear : aurora,

south. 18. Clear : showers. 19. Clear: aurora. 20. Rain : showers. 21.

Showers. 22. Rain : clear. 23. Damp: cloudy. 24. Showers. 25. Showers:

cloud}7. 26. Showers. 27. Hail-showers. 28. Snow' : hail-showers. 29. Snow7-

drift : clear. 30. Cloudy : shower : thaw\

Apple garth Manse, Dumfries -shire. — Nov. 1. Slight showers p.m. 2. Showers

morning and evening. 3. Rainr M. 4. MoistA.M. : rain p.m. 5. Showers. 6. Fair,

but moist. 7. Fair, but dull and cloudy. 8. Fair and fine. 9. Fair, but cloudy.

10. Hoar frost: clear and fine. 11. Fair and fine : hoar-frost a. m. 12 — 15.

Fair, but dull. 16. Clear : piercingly cold. 17. Wet. 18. Showers. 19. Heavy

rain. 20. Heavy rain : river in flood. 21. Heavy rain : thunder p.m. 22. Rain.

23. Heavy rain. 24. Rain a.m. 25. Rain and fog. 26. Dull and drizzly.

27. Fair. 28. Frost: shower of snow. 29. Hard frost: clear. 30. Frost:

thick and foggy.

Mean temperature of the month 44°*4

Mean temperature of Nov. 1845 42 *7

Mean temperature of Nov. for 23 years 40 *2

Mean rain in Nov. for 18 years 3*63 inches.

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THE ANNALS

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MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

No. 124. FEBRUARY 1847.

VII. — Descriptions of some new species of the genus Gynautocera,

from Northern India, By Edward Doubleday, Assistant in

the Zoological Department of the British Museum, F.L.S. &c.

[With a Plate.]

Genus GYNAUTOCERA, Guerin.

Section Amesia, Hope .

Gyn. Namouna. Alis omnibus fuliginosis, anticis punctis sex rni-

nutis pone cellulam albidis, posticis maculis disci ceeruleis, mar-

gine externo linea alba cseruleaque profunde dentata notato. $ .

Exp. alar. 4 unc. vel 100 mill.

Hab. India Septentrionali.

Anterior wings fuscous black, with six minute white spots

edged with blue, placed between the nervules immediately be-

yond the cell. Posterior wings of the same colour, with four

blue spots placed transversely a little beyond the middle, two si-

milar spots at the end of the cell, of which the inner is pupiled

with white. Between the cell and the outer margin is a deeply

zigzag line, the outer angles upon the ends of the white slightly

bordered with blue, the inner between the nervules bright blue,

embracing a series of fine white spots ; anal angle gray.

Below, black, all the wings bordered with white ; nervules of

anterior wings slightly, of posterior very distinctly bordered with

white.

Head, thorax and abdomen black above, spotted with blue be-

low, the terminal segment of the last blue. Antennae and legs

blue.

In the collection of the British Museum.

The marginal band of the posterior wings very much resembles

that of the two common species of the genus Thais in form.

Ann. fy Mag . N. Hist . Vol . xix. 6

74 Mr. E. Doubleday on new species of the genus Gynautocera.

Gyn. Aliris. Alis omnibus supra fusco-nigris, anticis maculis qua-

tuor basalibus roseis, apicalibus plurimis albido-cseruleis, posticis

margine externo leete et late cseruleo, maculis albis. $ £ . Exp.

alar. 3| unc. vel 90 mill.

Hab. Silhet.

Anterior wings fuscous black, with a chocolate or vinous hue

in certain lights ; the base darker, with several small bright blue

dots, followed by four rosy spots, one on the costa, one nearly

opposite to this below the cell, two in the cell rather farther from

the base ; the margin with a series of white dots divided into two

parts by the nervules and bordered with blue, between which and

the cell are six small dots placed in two transverse series, and

also a seventh placed more internally near the third of the inner

series. Posterior wings of the same colour, with a broad blue

patch commencing on the costa beyond the middle, occupying

the outer angle and extending along the outer margin nearly to

the anal angle, preceded by one or two detached spots of the

same colour, and marked by a series of submarginal white spots,

preceded by three others of the same colour near the apex.

Below, the posterior wings want the blue border, have the anal

angle blue, a red spot in the cell followed by four blue ones with

white centres; the anterior wings have the spots larger and bluer

than above, and also have several additional spots on the disc.

Head, thorax and abdomen black, spotted below with white,

the terminal segment of the last shining olive-green, especially

in the males. Antennse blue, pectinated in both sexes, not dif-

fering remarkably in their structure.

In the collections of the British Museum, Dr. Boisduval, &c.

Closely allied to B . Sanguiflua , Drury (Am. Sanguiflua, Hope),

but at once known by the absence of the purplish red veins.

Gyn . Azim . Alis omnibus utrinque fuscis, maculis numerosissimis

flavidis adspersis, anticis basi fascia transversa Hava. ? ? Exp.

alar. 3^ unc. vel 90 mill.

Hab. India Septentrionali.

Wings fuscous black, somewhat diaphanous : the anterior with

numerous pale yellowish spots, viz. a series of small rounded dots

between the costa and costal nervure, alternating for some di-

stance beyond the base with a series between the costal and sub-

costal nervures, two series in the cell, of which the upper are

elongate-quadrate, the first and second of the lower series round,

the first being very small, the third almost reniform, the fourth,

fifth and sixth elongate, and the second round ; a series of rounded

dots in the interstices between the subcostal and discoidal ner-

vules, a similar series and a solitary spot in that between the se-

Mr. E. Doubleday on new species of the genus Gynautocera. 75

cond discoidal and the third median nervules, a double series in

the interstice between the second and third median nervule, the

upper consisting of five, the lower of four rounded spots, and

between these near the cell a solitary spot ; in the next interstice

a series of five and another of three spots, followed by two very

minute ones near the margin ; in the interstice above the sub-

median nervure a series of fifteen spots, the first round, as are

also the six outer ones, the last of all very minute ; a rounded

spot at the origin of the first median nervule ; in the interstice

below the submedian nervure and along the inner margin two

other series of spots, the upper composed of fifteen, the lower of

ten, the five outer of the first and four outer of the inner series

rounded. The posterior wings have two series of suboval spots

in the cell, the last but one of the inner series being small and

placed a little out of the straight line.

Head, thorax and abdomen black, spotted with white. An-

tennae black.

In the collection of H. G. Harrington, Esq.

The only specimen I have ever seen of this curious species is

the one from which the above description has been taken : un-

fortunately the posterior wings are much injured.

Gyn. Camadeva. Alis anticis trigonis, nigris, puncto minuto in cel-

lulam, quinque pone cellulam, duobusque anguli anali albidis pos-

ticis saturate cseruleis fimbria nigra, <$ . Exp. alar. unc. vel 55

mill.

Hab . Penang.

Anterior wings elongate, trigonate, black, a minute spot near

the end of the cell, five rather larger oval ones beyond the cell

and two near the anal angle, pale, subdiaphanous. Posterior

wings rich deep blue, with a narrow black border.

Below, the anterior wings are bright blue with the apex fuscous,

the markings of the upper surface reproduced more clearly, and

besides there is a yellow vitta in the cell at the base, an irregular

spot in the cell, and an indistinct cloud below it of the same

colour. Posterior wings blue, with a black border, three yellow

vittse at the base, an irregular yellow spot in the cell, between

the cell and the nearest vitta two spots of the same colour, the

first small, the second large, oval ; on the anterior margin near

the outer angle a large white spot, preceded by a black cloud and

some white atoms ; about the middle of the outer margin two

white spots, the inner preceded by a black ocellus pupiled with

white.

Head and thorax black above, yellow below. Antennse blue.

Abdomen blue above, yellow below.

In the collection of the British Museum.

6*

76 Mr. E. Doubleday on new species of the genus Gynautocera.

Gyn . Adalifa . Alis omnibus albidis, anticis nervis, nervulis, fasciaque

transversa nigris; posticis nervulis caeruleis, fascia transversa nigra,

angulo anali flavo. Exp. alar. 3 unc. vel 74 mill.

Hah. Silhet.

Anterior wings white, slightly tinged with yellowish, the ner-

vures and nervules of a greenish black ; a waved band of the same

colour extends from the costa across the end of the cell, and is

continued onwards as far as the first median nervule of the pos-

terior wings. Posterior wings of the same colour as the anterior,

broadly yellow at the anal angle, the subcostal and median ner-

vures and nervules and the discoidal nervule bluish green.

Below, the anterior wings have a basal black vitta along the

costa, and the base of the cell is greenish.

Head green; thorax black, prothorax crimson; abdomen pale.

In the collection of the British Museum.

Section Ciialcosia, Hiibn.

Gyn . Znleika. Alis omnibus albis, anticis fimbria lata marginis ex-

terni nigra, aureo-viridi notata, basi, fasciaque media transversa,

aureo, nigro, viridi, cseruleoque variegatis, posticis apice late nigro,

cseruleo vittato. Exp. alar. 2 unc. vel 50 mill. PI. VII. fig. 4.

Hab. Silhet.

Anterior wings with the base of a bright golden green, the

green colour bounded externally by bright blue varied with black

and green; beyond this a wide space of a very light cream-colour

or almost of a pure white, then a broad transverse band of a

bright golden green, bordered on each side with black, divided

by blue nervures and shaded with blue. The whole outer margin

broadly black, the black extending more along the costa than the

inner margin, glossed with blue and divided by broad golden

green lines along the nervules. Posterior wings white, the apex

broadly black, divided by blue lines along the nervules ; the cilia

white.

Below, anterior wings nearly as above but less brilliant, the

white space near the base yellowish, the apex white. Posterior

wings white, immaculate.

Plead, thorax and base of abdomen gold-green, abdomen ex-

cept the base pale. Antennae blue ; legs white.

In the collection of the British Museum, &c.

Gyn. Zelica. Alis anticis nigro-fuscis, macula magna baseos, fascia

media transversa maculisque tribus apicalibus albis ; posticis albis,

fimbria lata nigro-fusca. $ $ . Exp. alar. 2 — 2^ unc. vel 50 — 65

mill. PI. VII. fig. 3.

Hab. Silhet.

Anterior wings black, with slight bluish or greenish reflections,

Mr. E. Doubleday on new species of the genus Gynautocera. 77

the base with a large white spot not reaching the costa, the mid-

dle with a broad white band, the apex with three white spots

placed transversely, less distinct in the males than in the females ;

the apex in the females white. Posterior wings white, with a

broad black fimbria ; the apex in the females white.

Below, colours and markings as above, but greener.

Head blue ; antenme very deeply bipectinated in the males,

much less so in the females except at the apex.

Thorax green anteriorly. Abdomen of the male yellow, with

a black transverse band on each segment above. Abdomen of

the female white.

Gyn. Zenotia . Alis omnibus subdiaphanis albidis anticis vitta ad

basin costae, maculis duabus costalibus, altera marginis interni,

aliquotque marginis externi nigris ; posticis macula costali apice-

que nigris. Exp. alar. 11 — 2 unc. vel 40 — 50 mill. PI, VII. fig. 2.

Hah. Silhet.

Anterior wings somewhat diaphanous white, the costa from the

base to about the middle black, marked before the middle and

beyond the cell with a large subquadrate black spot ; the outer

margin towards the apex with two black patches, below which

are some irregular black spots ; on the inner margin near the

middle is a large black spot divided by a nervule, and between

the cell and the anal angle another smaller oval one. Posterior

wings with a fuscous black spot near the costa, the apex also

fuscous.

Below, as above.

Antenme of the male large, very deeply bipectinated ; of the

female less deeply except at the apex.

Section Heterusia, Hope .

Gyn. sex-punctata. Alis omnibus luteis anticis pone medium punctis

duobus, posticis unico nigro cserulescentibus. Exp. alar. 1^ unc.

vel 40 mill.

Hah . Silhet.

All the wings luteous above, with two small bluish black dots

between the end of the cell and the anal angle of the anterior

wings, and one in a similar position on the posterior. Below,

rather paler, with a second indistinct spot on the posterior wings.

Head and prothorax bright red. Antennae bluish black. Ab-

domen black at the base with white rings, beyond white with

black rings.

In the collection of the British Museum.

The colour and markings of this species strikingly resemble

those of some Lithosice.

78 Sir W. Jardine on the Ornithology of the Island of Tobago .

VIII. — Horce Zoologicce . By Sir William Jardine, Bart.,

F.R.S.E. & F.L.S.

[Continued from vol. xviii. p. 121.]

Ornithology of the Island of Tobago .

Trogon collaris, Vieill. s.*

Mr. Kirk says in one of his early notes, “ very rare,” but from

the number of specimens received from him and seen in his pos-

session, we judge he had not at that time discovered their loca-

lity in the island. Mr. Gould, in his beautiful monograph, gives

Brazil and Cayenne as the true country of the species, and states,

“ from any localities to the north of which countries I have never

seen specimens.” The white spot posterior to the eye of the fe-

male, and ring of wThite feathers encircling it, do not appear in

those figures.

We have been able only partially to examine the structure of

this bird, and feel much inclined to agree with those who place

the Trogons with the Fissirostres. The very tender skin and

loose soft plumage, the habits partially nocturnal, or frequenting

thick and shaded woods, and the generally insectivorous food,

assimilate them with the Caprimulgida, while the observations of

Mr. Eyton place them among the Kingfishers. We may be able

to illustrate this more fully ere long, but may in the meantime

state that the tongue is short, bifid at the tip, thick and mus-

cular at the base ; the stomach round and slightly elongated, and

in all that were opened contained the remains of Grylli, Lepi-

doptera and caterpillars ; in one only a few seeds were found ;

the cseca are about one half the length of the space between their

origin and the anus ; the whole general structure weak. Mr. Kirk

remarks in one letter, “ This bird has the most tender skin of

any I ever attempted to skin ; the note is four distinct shrill

mournful whistles diminishing in duration ; I cannot describe it

better than by saying it is four notes of E natural on flageolet,

which I have this moment tried ;” and in another he observes,

“The orbits of the female, encircled by a single row of white

feathers, terminating a little broader towards the corner of the

eye backwards, have the appearance at some distance of a white

spot. Feed upon berries and fruit ; are remarkably stupid ; I

have frequently called them half a mile distant and brought them

within twenty yards. Their note is four distinct hoo , hoo, hoo ,

hoos , which they cease as soon as they see the person calling

them, but seem to apprehend no danger, as they generally sit

* Species marked n. are also found in North America; s. in South Ame-

rica ; and n. s. in both.

Sir W. Jardinc on the Ornithology of the Island of Tobago . 79

and look down with deliberate stupidity ; tlieir flights are short

and frequent.”

Prionites bahamensis, Swain. (King of the Wood.) s.

W e have never received this closely- allied species from the con-

tinent of South America ; Swainson gives the Bahama Islands as

its principal locality, and in addition to those from Tobago we

possess specimens from the island of Trinidad ; one of the latter

is varied on the wings with white.

In vol. vi. p. 321 of these * Annals 9 we gave an account of the

habits of this species from the notes of our correspondent, to

which we refer our readers ; the following additional information

in regard to their nidification was received in a subsequent letter.

“ I think I can now happily afford you all the information you

require regarding this bird ; on the 11th of June I shot No. 172,

and found her nest close by from the curring sound kept up by

the young. After examining the diameter of the entrance, which

was only 2\ inches, I dug into a marl bank 5 feet direct back,

and 5 feet farther at a direct angle, the passage considerably

larger at the angle and again considerably larger at the farthest

extremity, where I found three young huddled up on the top

of a moving mountain of maggots, claws and remains of beetles

and various other insects. They feed also upon various kinds

of berries : I found in the stomach of the parent a berry of

which the French used to make soup when in the island, and

which the negroes use at this day. The cat killed one of the

young after flying about the house quite domesticated : they

look upon man as their natural protector, and have become

very tame ; I have taught them to eat pottage, but they prefer

animal food. All their food is taken in the point of the bill,

and with a toss of the head as it were pitched into the throat*.

They are particularly fond of lizards, snakes, &c., and must at

times dig in the ground after insects, as I have sometimes sur-

prised one, and on examination found the bill dirty as high as

the eyes. My object in rearing the young was to ascertain if

they actually stript the two tail-feathers with their bills, which

is a common report ; but having no convenient aviary, and un-

willing to let them come altogether under the mercy of the cat,

I have them in a small cage which destroys the tail as fast as it

grows : if they succeed in thriving with me, I will send them home

alive in the spring ; they will feed well on the intestines of fowls

or anything of that nature, and I have no doubt of their living

in Europe by care.”

* This is an important fact ; the same manner of taking the food is prac-

tised by the Toucans.

80 Sir W. Jardine on the Ornithology of the Island of Tobago .

Ceryle alcyon, Linn . n.

This is properly a North American species, according to Sir

J. Richardson’s tables, reaching as far north on the Saskache-

wan during summer as the 53° and 54°, and from 600 to 1000

miles from the sea. The winter quarters are there also stated to be

the Southern States, Mexico, California within the tropics, and

even the West Indian Islands, as Mr. Swainson possessed speci-

mens from St. Vincent’s sent by the Rev. Lansdowne Guilding.

We have also received specimens from Jamaica, but these islands

may be near the limits of their range in summer ; in Tobago at

least they are not common ; the note of our correspondent being,

“ migratory, but cannot say as to the period of their arrival or

departure ; seldom seen ; this is the second within the last two

years, one in February, this in October.”

Ceryle Americana, Gmel . s.

u Tobago Kingfishers — feed upon fish, and are to be found in

great abundance on the banks of our fresh rivulets.”

Galbula leptura, Swain . s.

We refer the Tobago birds to the G. leptura , Sw. (Animals

in Menageries, No. 141), which seems to have been described

from specimens brought from Guiana by Sir R. Schomburgk.

“ Jackamar of natives : eyes dull red ; feeds on Cantharides flies ;

builds in marl banks like the mot-mot, without any preparation

except digging a hole or entrance an inch and a half in diameter ;

the distance of the eggs from the entrance about 18 inches ; they

are three in number, pure white, and nearly circular, differing only

one-tenth in longitudinal diameter.”

The forms which come next in our list are very numerous, and

from the generally dull colours of their plumage and their retired

habits very little is yet known of them, while the species remitted

from time to time to Europe are extremely difficult to make out

or reconcile with previous descriptions. Where we have had

any doubt it is marked, and to those to which a new provisional

name has been applied, a description and measurements are added ;

our correspondent will do well to give as much attention as he

can to these curious and interesting forms of the Certhiada.

ScLERURUS ALBOGULARIS, $Wain. ? S.

We have no note of this species, and have only received two

specimens S ? .

Synallaxis terrestris, Jard. s.

“ Resident ; eyes dark orange and slightly freckled ; feeds on

Sir W. Jardine on the Ornithology of the Island of Tobago . 81

insects, found either on the ground or very near it.” Length

6 inches, of wing 2T\ j both sexes nearly equal in size. $ above

yellowish brown ; shoulders, greater and lesser wing -covers, outer

webs of the scapulars and quills sienna-brown ; tail reddish um-

ber-brown. Below wood-brown, tinted with reddish on the breast

and sides of the neck, the feathers of the whole tipped and edged

with a deeper shade, giving to these parts an indistinct marking ;

chin and throat white with the base of the feathers black. ? co-

lours slightly duller, the throat and fore part of the neck pale

wood-brown, the feathers edged with grayish brown.

Dendrocincla turdina, Licht. ? s.

We have compared the Tobago birds with specimens of what

we have named D . turdina from other localities : in the former

there is a little more rufous on the wings and tail, the tint of the

plumage generally is clearer, and the bill is less powerful and

less dilated at the base, but with these exceptions, there is nothing

to separate the two*. “ Feeds on grasshoppers, winged and other

insects ; tongue slightly bifid ; legs light lead-colour : although

the tail resembles the Woodpeckers the oshyoides is entirely dif-

ferent from that tribe.”

Dendrocolaptes susurrans, Jard% s.

“ Resident ; eyes dark brown. This species seldom ascends

trees to any great height, but generally proceeds from one tree

to another, running up ten or twelve yards examining the cre-

vices ; uttering occasionally a shrill purring note peculiar to the

species, easier distinguished than described ; I found in the

stomach some parts of large insects resembling wings, probably

of grasshoppers.” Among the specimens received, the difference in

length, with one exception, amounts to about 1 inch, that of the

wing being similar in all. Bill nearly straight, slightly curving

towards the point ; mandible umber-brown ; maxilla paler ; crown,

cheeks and back of the head umber-brown, centre of each feather

having an oval ocliraceous spot ; nape and back yellowish brown,

the feathers on the nape and upper part of the back having the

central ochraceous spots elongated and narrower as they reach

the back, where they gradually disappear, each being surrounded

by a narrow umber-brown line ; rump, wings and tail dull red-

dish orange ; throat yellowish white, remaining under parts yel-

lowish brown, on the throat and breast having each feather marked

in the centre with an oval yellowish white spot surrounded with

a darker line ; these markings gradually grow more and more in-

* The Tobago bird does not agree with Lichtenstein’s character, “ capite

striolato.”

82 Sir W. Jardine on the Ornithology of the Island of Tobago .

distinct towards the lower part of the breast, where they are lost.

Entire length from 9T% to 8T% inches ; of bill about ly6^ ; of wing

in all 4-^. One specimen 8 ; wing 3T5y •

SlTTASOMUS GRISEUS, Jard. S.

“ Resident ; this bird is said to be hitherto entirely unknown

in Tobago, hence it has no provincial name, but finding it to cor-

respond exactly with Wilson’s Brown Creeper so far as regards

manners, I have applied that name to it.” Above grayish oil-

green ; scapulars, rump and tail brownish orange. Below gray-

ish oil-green, under wing- covers, base of the secondaries and

part of the inner webs of the last quills yellowish white. Lengths

of three specimens 7, 6T62, 5T9g inches ; wing of two first 3T32 ;

of last 3XV

Thryothorus striolatus, Swain. (Wood Wren, or Gray-throat

Wood Wren.) s.

“ This species has a lively and powerful whistle, pronounced

distinctly and with great emphasis, running over the notes in a

shrill voice often repeated. Feeds on spiders, &c. This bird

long remained unobserved by me ; my attention was arrested by

his sprightly notes, and I am inclined to think that frequent ex-

cursions in the woods about the season of incubation might be

the means of eliciting some new species, which at other seasons

remain mute and unobserved from the extreme height of the trees

as well as the thick foliage and impenetrable nature of our under-

woods.”

To the last three or four birds the name “ Woodpecker ” or

“ Creeper ” seems commonly applied in Tobago, though they

are known to be a form quite different from the true Woodpeckers

to be after noticed.

Troglodytes furva, Vieill. (God Almighty Bird or Wren.) s.

“ This is a beautiful warbler ; so domestic, that it builds in

general either inside our dwelling-houses or somewhere in the

vicinity, makes a coarse nest lined inside with feathers and lays four

eggs. Remarkable for its cleanly habits — carries all the excre-

ments of its young out of doors ; feeds upon insects, and is by

nature all the year what the European robin is by necessity in

winter, making our houses its constant home. It darts with ra-.

pidity on the most venomous insects — a first attack separates the

tail of the scorpion from the body, then both portions are carried

in triumph to feed its young. I have often when writing been

so annoyed with this little warbler pouring forth his song upon

a chair-back within 10 feet of my desk as to be obliged to expel

him from the house, which is not easily done, especially if they

83

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Ritbi .

have a nest. They have been known in some instances to occupy

the same corner not only throughout the year, but during the life

of the oldest inhabitant. I know not how often they build in the

year, but the young have a very short time left the nest, when the

work of relining it again commences, and it is generally during

this time of incubation that the song is poured forth with all its

sweetness.” In a subsequent letter Mr. Kirk continues, “ I men-

tioned in my supplementary letter of last year, that this little

bird built generally in our houses ; I have since found a nest in

the very interior of the woods, and at the same time neglected to

relate one very daring act of his in which I participated. One

day my attention being arrested by the more than usual vocife-

rations of this little bird quite adjacent to my window, on looking

out I observed a pair of them fluttering and hovering over a small

bush of grass in the garden ; on stepping down stairs I observed

a whip snake 4 or 5 feet long, hiding his head and drawing his

body after him under the grass ; on turning him out he was at-

tacked right and left by these little warblers, striking him on the

head and tail alternately as an opportunity offered, obliging him

to take refuge wherever he could hide. They seemed to pay no

attention to my presence, for on pressing his head to the ground

they continued to nip his tail with their bills within 3 feet of

me. After I despatched him they retired to an adjoining fence

and poured forth a thousand thanks in an ecstasy of joy.”

Sylvicola ^estiva. (Canary or Siskin.) n.

“ Migratory ; time of arrival and departure not ascertained, but

they are to be found in February, March and April. Feed upon

small ants which they pick from the blossoms of trees, especially

that of the c Cog wood/ of which they appear particularly fond,

and which is exactly the colour of the bird’s belly when in good

plumage ; they warble very prettily at times, are very unstaid, and

appear always pursuing each other.” We receive this also from

J amaica.

Sylvicola parus. n.

A single specimen only has been received and without remark.

[To be continued.]

IX. — A Supplement to “ A Synopsis of the British Rubi .” No. 2.

By Charles C. Babington, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. &c.+

9*. R . Grabowsldi (Weihe?); caule arcuato anguloso glabro, acu-

leis sequalibus valde declinatis deflexisve basi dilatatis, foliis qui-

nato-digitatis planis supra opacis glabris subtus cinereo-tomentosis

t Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Jan. 14, 1847.

84

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Ruhi .

acute dentatis,/o/zo/o terminali cordato abrupt e cuspidato infimis pe-

dicellatis intermediis incumbentibus , paniculae composite interne

foliosae ramis ascendentibus : rachi pilosa summa pedunculisque

tomentosis, fructibus pubes centibus.

11. Grabowskii, Weihe in Wimm . et Grab. FI. Sites, ii. 32 ?

R. nitidus ? var. rotundifolius, Bloocam MSS. in Fasc. of Rubi.

Stem arching, angular, furrowed when young, glabrous (young

shoots slightly hairy), ultimately purple ; prickles moderately

numerous, rather short, yellow, from a broad red base, strongly

declining or deflexed, nearly equal, confined to the angles of the

stem. Leaves quinate-pedate ; stipules almost linear ; petioles

and midribs with numerous strong much-hooked prickles ; leaflets

finely toothed : teeth pyramidal, glabrous opake and dark green

above, ashy white and finely woolly with the veins rather yellow

beneath ; terminal leaflet broader than long, cordate below, ab-

ruptly cuspidate, sides regularly rounded ; lateral similar but pro-

portionably rather longer and almost exactly round ; basal ellip-

tical-ovate, rather unequal, overlapping the lateral leaflets, which

themselves overlap the terminal leaflet. — Flowering shoot long,

nearly glabrous ; prickles numerous, rather slender, declining.

Leaves nearly all ternate, ashy green beneath ; petioles and mid-

ribs beneath with many short hooked purplish yellow prickles ;

leaflets like those of the barren stem, but the lateral ones lobed

on the lower side ; stipules very slender. Panicle narrow, com-

pound, not setose, very prickly throughout : prickles slender de-

clining or deflexed ; rachis pilose below, becoming more hairy

upwards, its summit and the peduncles and pedicels tomentose ;

about three lower branches axillary, short, racemose-corymbose,

about six-flowered ; ultra-axillary part compact, cylindrical, ab-

rupt, branches short and corymbose ; terminal flower subsessile ;

lower bracts leaf-like but inconspicuous, upper trifid hairy and

tomentose. Sepals woolly, loosely reflexed from the oblong black

pubescent fruit.

Near Cadeby, Leicestershire, Rev. A. Bloxam. August ?

Obs. 1. This plant agrees so nearly with the elaborate descrip-

tion in the * Flora Silesise 3 that that work might perhaps be

referred to without doubt. In the Silesian plant the panicle is

described as “ ampla, pyramidata, apice acuta, usque fere ad api-

cem foliosa,” but it is not so in our plant. In that the under

side of the veins of the leaves is said to altogether want any

longer hairs — in our plant those veins are clothed with longer

hairs.

Obs. 2. This is an interesting connecting link. The clothing

of the panicle and of the young lateral branches from the barren

shoot is that of R. nitidus . It differs from that species by its

hooked prickles ; very abrupt leaflets opake above and whitish

85

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Rubi.

beneath, the lower and intermediate ones overlapping ; and its

woolly fruit. Its leaves much resemble those of that form of

j R. discolor named R. abruptus by Lindley, but that has silky

barren and flowering shoots and rachis, and a very different pa-

nicle. Perhaps the most remarkable character of this plant is

found in its woolly fruit, by which it is distinguished from all the

allied species. The authors of the { Flora Silesise * have not de-

scribed the fruit of their plant. Arrhenius mentions a pubescent-

fruited variety of R. corylifolius , but our present subject can

scarcely be confounded with that species.

10. R . discolor, W. et N.

In place of the description of the varieties (Annals, xvii. 236)

it is proposed to substitute the following.

cl. discolor ; caule strigoso-sericeo, aculeis declinatis deflexisve, fo-

liolis marginem versus ssepissime decurvatis supra glabriusculis

subtus albis tenuissime tomentosis, paniculse racemosse tomentosee

ramis decompositis.

R. discolor. Rub. Germ . 46. t. 20; Arrhenius , Rub . Suec. 32.

R. fruticosus, Sm. Eng. Bot. 715.

/ 3 . thyrsoideus (Bell Salt. !) ; caule subglabro, aculeis rectis, foliolis

planis supra glabris subtus viridi-cano- vel candicanti-tomentosis,

panicula elongata thyrsoidea tomentosa.

R. thyrsoideus ( Wimm .), Arrhen. Rub. Suec. 28.

R. fruticosus, Rub. Germ. 24. t. 7.

R. discolor var. lividus, Bloxam MSS. in Fasc . of Rubi.

y. macroacanthus (Bell Salt. !) ; caule sparsim patenteque piloso,

aculeis validis pilosis rectiusculis paululumve deflexis, foliolis

planis supra pilosis subtus pubescenti-canis mollibus, paniculae

pubescentis ramis racemosis paucifloris.

R. macroacanthos, Rub . Germ. 44. t. 18.

S. argenteus (Bell Salt.) ; caule patente-piloso, aculeis rectis, foliolis

planis subtus argenteo-cano-pubescentibus, panicuhe pubescentis

ramis racemoso-compositis paucifloris.

R. argenteus, Rub. Germ. 45. t. 19.

Obs . 1. Since the publication of my former account of this

species I have seen reason to modify my views concerning its va-

rieties. I now think that Dr. Bell Salter is correct in referring

tab. 7 of the ‘ Rub. Germ/ to the R. thyrsoideus of Arrhenius ; his

and my var. /3. of this species. The former difference between us

originated from none of my specimens of R. thyrsoideus having

well-developed panicles. A plant given as R. discolor var. lividus

in Bloxan/s c Fasciculus of Rubi ; is what I consider as the true

R. thyrsoideus.

Obs . 2. The former “Obs. 2 ” (Annals, xvii. 237) is not cor-

86

Mr. C. C. Babington on the British Rubi.

rect. I believe that the lower (axillary) branches of the panicle

ascend in all the varieties, and the upper (ultra- axillary) branches

usually spread at a considerable angle to the rachis. I am not

well-acquainted with var . 8, having only one rather doubtful spe-

cimen ; the character of it is therefore a compilation from books.

12*. R. Balfourianas ; caule arcuato teretiusculo patenti-piloso, acu-

leis paulo ineequalibus tenuibus rectis vix declinatis, foliis quinatis

subtus mollibus pallide viridibus, foliolo terminali cordato ovatove

acuto, infimis subsessilibus intermediis incumbentibus, paniculse co-

rymboso-diffusse tomentosse setosae bracteis foliaceis trifidis, sepalis

ovato-lanceolatis tomentosis setosis erecto-patentibus apice foliaceis

vel filiformi-attenuatis.

R. Balfourianus, Bloxam MSS. in Fasc . of Rubi.

Stem roundish, striated ; pubescence of scattered patent hairs ;

prickles moderate, scattered, nearly equal, straight, very slightly

declining, reddish yellow. Leaves large, quinate, dull green and

pilose above, pale green soft and downy with the veins yellow

beneath, crenate-serrate-apiculate ; terminal leaflet cordate or

ovate, acute, on a long stalk ; lateral leaflets ovate, acute, shortly

stalked; basal subsessile, ovate, overlapping the intermediate

pair; general and partial petioles pilose, with few distant rather

stout depressed yellow prickles; midribs similarly armed; sti-

pules lanceolate, leaf-like, attenuated at both ends. — Flowering

shoot with scattered hairs. Leaves ternate or quinate ; leaflets

ovate, pilose above, downy beneath. Panicle corymbose or diffuse,

tomentose, pilose, setose ; lower branches axillary, upper ones

subtended by trifid leaf-like bracts. Flowers mostly on long-

stalks ; terminal one shortly stalked or subsessile ; sepals ovate-

lanceolate, very broad, attenuated into a long leaf- like or seta-

ceous point, often slightly trifid at the end like the uppermost

bracts, downy on both sides, setose, brownish green, erect-patent

when the hemispherical fruit is ripe.

Near Rugby, Warwickshire, Rev. A. Bloxam. August?

Obs. It is difficult to determine the position of this plant. Its

stem, pubescence, and prickles place it near to R. sylvaticus ,

whilst its usually much more lax and diffuse panicle, and espe-

cially the erect or embracing calyx of the fruit seem to separate

it widely from that species ; in the latter point and in some others

of less moment, it is nearly allied to R. Borreri, from which its

barren stem abundantly distinguishes it. The lower leaflets also

overlapping those of the intermediate pair distinguishes it from

both of those species.

Named by Mr. Bloxam in honour of Professor John Hutton

Balfour, M.D., of Edinburgh, and in paying this just compli-

ment to my valued friend I fully concur with him.

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta ,

87

19. R. rudis, Weihe.

e. denticulatus ; foliolo terminali quadrangulari-obovato cuspidato

basi cordato late inepteque dentato : dentibus denticulatis.

Stem angular, striated ; hairs very few ; setae and aciculi not

many, short, Terminal leaflet with a somewhat square outline

widening slightly upwards and then narrowing rapidly to a cus-

pidate termination, cordate . below. Leaflets all stalked ; mar-

gin with broad but very shallow and scarcely distinguishable

teeth, fringed with small acute prominent denticulations ; dark

green and pilose above, pale yellowish green beneath. Panicle

exactly like that of the typical R. rudis.

Loxley near Sheffield, Rev . IV, TV, Newbould ,

Obs . This is a very curious variety, in which the coarse serra-

tures of R, rudis are reduced in length but not in width, and are

thus converted into very broad and very shallow teeth ; the whole

margin is also fringed with minute points or denticulations. It

is very near in general character to R . rudis (3, Leightonii3 but

differs in the above respects.

22. R. fusco-ater, Weihe.

S, subglaber ; caulis petiolorumque aculeis subsequalibus setisque

paucis, aciculis brevibus pilisque paucissimis, foliis apiculato-den-

tatis supra glabris subtus tomentosis, foliolo terminali cordato cus-

pidato, paniculse diffuse tomentosae pilis subnullis setis aciculisque

brevibus aculeis elongatis.

Distinguished from all the other forms of R. fusco-ater by its

almost total want of hairs on the panicle, and the nearly glabrous

and more uniformly prickly stems. Its panicle is much divided

and spreads in an irregular manner. It is the plant mentioned

in the Synopsis as received from Mr. Coleman. Mr. Adamson's

plant noticed in the same place is more nearly allied to the ty-

pical R. fusco-ater ,

Mangrove Lane near Hertford, Rev, TV, H, Coleman, On the

canal bank between Claverton and the Dundas aqueduct near

Bath.

X. — The Birds of Calcutta , collected and described by

Carl J. Sundevall* *.

[Continued from vol. xviii. p. 461.]

69. Gallus alector var. domestica. Tame fowls are kept in

great numbers by the Musselmans and Portuguese f. The Hin-

* Translated from the ‘ Physiograpliiska Siillskapets Tidskrift’ by H E

Strickland, M.A. J ' ’

f The Portuguese who migrated thither in the time of Albuquerque

settled in the country, and their descendants, who are nowr numerous in and

around Calcutta, have become as black as negroes. The Hindoos in the

lowlands have nearly the same colour.

88 M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

doos also, who do not themselves kill or eat animals, real’ poultry

to sell to Europeans. These birds are similar to our own, and of

as many varieties : possibly some have been brought thither from

Europe. I often inquired whether any yellow or horn-like spots

are seen on the neck-feathers of any variety, as in the wild Gal -

lus Sonnerati of India, but nothing of the kind was detected, nor

any cocks with a blue margined or undivided comb on the head,

such as other wild species have. It is reported that wild poultry

are found in the Sunderbunds, which is very probable, as Gallus

bankiva , Temm., which is indubitably the origin of the domestic

fowl, is said to occur in many parts of India.

70. Perdix . I was informed that partridges are found near

Calcutta, and even that they are abundant ; but as I never saw

any, I cannot say what species was intended. They were said

to resemble P. cinerea .

Wild pea-fowls ( Pavo cristatus) are also said to occur in the

uninhabited districts. I saw two which were said to be caught

in the country, but nothing certain was learnt as to the place

where they were taken, except that they were from “ the jungles,”

and the same was the case with most of the wild animals which

I saw in captivity ; but whether the jungles around Calcutta or

in Nepal or the Sunderbunds were intended, could not in general

be decided. Jungle is an original Indian word which is now

adopted in English to express a forest : it commonly implies

the dense thickets of bamboos and bushes which prevail every-

where.

Pavo bicalcaratus , Linn., was also seen caged, and was said to

be from jungles far up the country. Various other gallinaceous

birds occurred tame or in confinement as rarities, e. g. gold and

silver pheasants from China. Guinea-fowls ( Numida meleagris )

are kept in some places, as at the Government garden at Seram-

pore, where some had lived and propagated for many years in

company with a flock of Axis Deer, without any other superin-

tendence than that of being prevented from escaping.

71. Grus antigone , L., Wagl. Syst. no. 10. Cinerea capite toto

nudo, rubro, vertice cinereo.

(Indiv. vetus Martio.) Collum supra medium albidum, supremo

breviter nudum, et ut caput rubrum. Iris rubra. Remiges posticoe

parum lacerse, vix penduhe. Altitudo euntis 5 ped. In hoc indi-

viduo rostrum et pedes fuscescentia, obscura ; remiges et cauda sa-

turate cinerese.

I did not see in a wild state this elegant Crane, which closely

resembles our common species, but is twice the size ; it can erect

itself to a height of full three ells from the ground. It is the

largest in the genus, and is one of the birds which come nearest

89

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

to the Ostriches in size. I saw several of this species tamed, and

especially I had an opportunity of observing accurately and closely

one which was kept in the garden at Serampore, and which had

been caught several years before near that town. These birds

are said to appear rarely so low down, but further north they

seem to occur in large flocks, probably however only in winter,

for in summer they are found, according to Pallas, in the south-

ern parts of Siberia. This Crane had as lively actions as our

own in a tame state ; it sprang, hopped, cast up straw and sticks

and caught them again, as though some person was playing with

it. The Bengalese name is Saros .

72. Ibis maceiy Cuv. R. A. ; Wagl. Syst. — 1. leucon, Temm. PI.

Col. 481 (an Tant. melanocephalus ? Lath.).

Alba, capite colloque nudis, nigris, remigibus (plerisque) totis albis ;

tarsis reticulatis, digito medio vix longioribus. j adulta (initio

Maii). Pure alba. Caput et collum cute duriori, nigerrimo tecta.

Cutis plumata corporis pallide rubra ; sed in plaga obtecta, ad latera

pectoris, et in tota ala, subtus, usque ad digitos, sanguinea, subnuda.

Iris nigricans. Rostrum et pedes nigri. Remiges primaries albse

(in hoc individuo omnes immaculatse) ; 3a reliquis longior ; 2a bre-

vior quam 4ta. Pennse cubiti 5 ultimse dilute cinerese (nec nigrse),

pogonio longissimo, laxo, pendulo fimbriatse, et apicem aloe paullu-

lum deflexo-superantes. Plumse colli infimi, in lateribus subtusque,

elongatse, acutse dependentes (collare infra partes nudas formantes,

ut in Vulturibus). Longit. 26^ poll. Ala 322 millim., tarsus 88;

digitus medius 68, cum ungue 82, cauda 130, rostrum e fronte 143.

Indiv.aliud, Mus.Stoclch. (Patriaincerta.) Simile praecedenti. Ala

316 mill., tarsus 90, digitus medius 72, cum ungue 86.

Indiv . e Java , Mus. Stockh. a prioribus tantum in his differt ; re-

miges 1 — 3 apice nigro-marginatae. Pennae cubiti ultimae vix lacerae,

apice cinereae. Collare caret plumis elongato-dependentibus. Ala

330 mill., tarsus et digitus ut proxime praecedens (verisimiliter

junior) .

Obs. Descriptio Wagleri citata differt “ remige prima apice nigra.”

Icon Temmincki (loco cit.) bene convenit cum nostro individuo ben-

galensi ; sed descriptio ad hanc figuram data paullo differt, et, ubi

de plumis alae ultimis agitur ; cum individuo javano nuper descripto

congruit.

This species of Ibis was first seen on the river bank in March

near Sucsagor, N. of Calcutta, and afterwards in the beginning

of May near Culpe, five or six miles further south near the capi-

tal. In both cases five birds were seen grouped together. They

walked steadily about like storks, which they much resemble in

their exterior. The flight and mode of rising is also like that of

the Stork, though the neck is not carried straight, but somewhat

curved in an opposite direction to the beak, yet not doubled like

a heroes. The pure white colour and the large wings made

Ann. § Mag . 2V. Hist . Vol. xix. 7

90 M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

like a stork’s with long bones, make the bird appear very large,

although it but slightly exceeds our Numenius arquata . The spe-

cimen which I shot had nothing in the stomach but small crabs.

This bird closely resembles Ibis religiosa which occurs in Central

Africa, and is found embalmed in the Egyptian catacombs, al-

though it seems not to inhabit Egypt at present. It is chiefly

distinguished by the black tips to all the remiges, and by the

pendulous, blackish, much-fringed feathers behind the wings.

73. Ibis falcinellus. Although this bird did not come into my

hands in Bengal, nor have I seen any specimen from thence, I

do not hesitate in citing it here. Three individuals were seen

on March 23, near Sucsagor, at about 200 ells distance, which

was near enough to distinguish the colours. They were pursued

and were very shy.

74. Ciconia alba , L. (vix = Mycteria asiatica, Lath. ?). The

Stork is one of the birds which occurs both in Sweden and Ben-

gal : it is probably found in the latter country only at the sea-

son when it is wanting with us. In the tree-covered vicinity of

Calcutta I only saw one, but some miles further north they occur

in flocks on the plains : about sixty were counted in one of

these flocks. This was a very unusual sight for a European,

for the storks with us live, or at least fly, solitary ; yet in our

country they assemble in flocks at certain places of meeting, in

order to migrate. There has been from time immemorial one of

these meeting-places for storks on certain hills near my native

place, Hogestad in Southern Scania. These hills lie between

Hogestad and Baldringe on a dry heath, surrounded on two

sides by marshes and peat-bogs, about 1000 paces from an open

oak-wood, where storks have always built in numbers. After the

storks in autumn have collected around in parties for some weeks,

without keeping near the nests or roosting in them at night, one

may see them some day in the middle of September coming from

all quarters to the hills in question. The number gradually in-

creases, so that many times more storks than breed in the district

are soon assembled. They are supposed to come hither from a

considerable part of Scania, perhaps from all the colonies which

are sent out at intervals from the oak-wood above-mentioned.

Two days thus elapse, during which the birds which have arrived

chiefly remain quiet, each by itself, without seeking food, which

however is to be found abundantly in the marsh close by ; but the

following morning they have all disappeared, and no stork is seen

afterwards in the district, until they, after half a year’s interval

return more gradually to their homes from their distant wander-

ings. The natives say that they hold a council before they set

out from the country. Many such meeting-places for storks are

91

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

found in Scania, near the woods which they inhabit. In the

wood just mentioned they build close to each other in the oak-

trees, and agree well together ; but in other places they usually

will not allow another bird in their vicinity, without a violent

battle arising when they come near each other’s nests.

The storks which I saw in Bengal had the beak and legs red

as with us, but it occurred to me that the black between the beak

and the eye in the males was somewhat broader.

75. Ciconia dubia. — Ardea dubia, Gm. ; Raffl. Sumatr. Ardea ar-

gala, Lath . Ciconia marabu, Temm . PL Col. 330 ; Wagl. Syst . (De

nomine vide infra.)

Cinerascens (absque nitore viridi), capite colloque nudis, jugulo

inferius caruncula conica dependente.

Adulta : Corpore supra nigro-cinereo, subtus albo ; collo pallide

rubro, caruncula longiore. Junior , tota dilutius cinerascens. De

ceteris, confer descr. Wagl. etTemm. Ala flexa long. 3 pedum.

This Stork, with the American Ciconia mycteria and the Con-

dor, comes in size next to the Struthious birds. After it follows

an African Stork, the above- described Indian Crane, the two

Vultures of South Europe, the Swan, Albatros, &c. ; our Eagles

follow, and so on. Ciconia dubia is 12 feet between the tips of

the wings, or near the size of the Condor, and 5 feet to the top of

the head when it walks, which is not more than Grus antigone ;

but the body is larger. It is a prodigy of ugliness ; gray, dirty,

with the head and neck naked, reddish, thinly strewed with hair,

which on the nape forms a ragged tuft ; on the lower part of the

neck is a loose fringe of feathers, over which there hangs from

the throat a fleshy caruncle, much like that over the beak of a

turkey-cock. The whole appearance indicates stupidity, especially

when in hot weather it sits upon its heels with the tibiae erect,

and gasps with the heat. The beak is disproportionately thick,

and so strong that it can cut off the arm from a corpse. Like

the vultures in Bengal, this Stork lives chiefly on the putrid

bodies which are cast up on the river banks, as I have often

stated. The Hindoos burn their dead, and this is done as far as

possible on the banks of the sacred river ; but as a complete

funeral pile costs more than the poorer people can afford for their

dead relatives, these are commonly laid at ebb-tide close to the

water’s edge upon some straw, which is set fire to, in order to

fulfill the ordinances of their religion, after which the slightly

scorched body is carried off by the flood- tide to drift about until

it lodges by chance upon the shore, where predacious animals

take charge of its burial. By day the vultures, crows, and espe-

cially this species of Stork, contribute to the destruction of the

corpse, and by night troops of jackals arrive to complete the

work ; dogs also often partake in the feast.

7*

92

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

The species in question is called in Bengal Hargila or Hargill,

or Gorur. The Europeans sometimes call it Eagle or Pelican ,

hut commonly Adjutant, in consequence of this bird being no-

where so abundant as at Fort William near Calcutta, and on the

roof of the Government-house in the town, where often twenty

or thirty collect in the evening to pass the night. The Hindoos

regard them as especially sacred, and the English government

has for their protection imposed a fine of sixteen rupees for the

killing of one. They have even become so tame that at Fort Wil-

liam I often got within fifteen ells of them, and the inhabitants,

whom they are more accustomed to see, can go close to them

without their moving. I believe that they would make resistance

if any one were to attack them.

The flight of the Hargill is remarkably steady and elegant,

like that of the Vulture ; in large circles with the wings perfectly

still. One often sees them gradually ascend in spiral circles to

such a height that they can hardly be perceived as fine specks ;

by the angle which they subtended I estimated the perpendicular

height at a quarter of a Swedish mile [one and a half English

mile] . They remain near Calcutta all the year, and are rather

rare at some miles* distance from the town.

Obs . A nearly allied species is found in Africa, which is some-

what less, and greenish above. It was first described by Tem-

minck and well figured in PI. Col. 301. Under the tail of both

these species are found the elegant curled feathers which are used

as ornaments under the name of Marabu* s feathers. Temminck

calls the Indian bird Ciconia marabu and the African C . argala ,

but he has here confounded these names. Argala was derived

by Latham from the Indian Hargila , and unquestionably applies

only to the Indian species. Marabu on the other hand is a name

introduced from Africa, and can least of all be applied to an In-

dian species which had two names already. The word Marabun ,

or in common parlance Marabu , means, according to the Arabic

dictionary, an assembler of the people, and is used in Barbary for

the priests of the Bedouins, who it seems use these feathers as

marks of distinction ; whence in Europe they have got the name

of Marabu' s feathers . Now that this confusion of names has

once occurred, it can scarcely be corrected in any other way than

by adopting entirely fresh names ; so that it is best to retain for

the Asiatic species the older though ill-adapted specific name of

Gmelin, C . dubia, and for the African one to adopt a new one,

viz. C. vetula .

76. Ardea nycticorax, L., Wagl. Syst. no. 31. Plumis colli elon-

gatis, tibia brevius nuda. Rostrum crassum, capite paullo longius.

Adulta : alba, capillitio dorsoque seneo-nigris, alis, dorso posteriore

obtecto, caudaque canis.

93

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta .

$ (d. 28 Febr.). Occiput caret pennis longis albis. Plumee dorsi

anterioris viridi-nitentes, laceree longee : caudam attingentes. Super-

cilia et margo frontis alba. Collum postice leviter canescens. Ros-

trum apice fuscum, basi, cum loris et orbitis olivaceo-flavescens.

Pedes virescenti-flavi. Iris sanguinea. Rostrum e fronte 70 millim.

Altit. 22. Ala 272, tarsus 65, digitus medius 64, cum ungue 76.

This single specimen was procured from the Danish merchant

Berg at Serampore, the same day that he had shot it near a small

tank. I did not see this species living myself. It was consi-

dered rare, and was unknown to Berg, who was a keen sportsman.

The stomach was empty, but smelt strongly of fish. Ardea nyc-

ticorax is one of the birds which is found all over the globe, in

the entire torrid zone and in a considerable part of the temperate

ones.

77. Ardea scapularis , 111., Licht. ; Wagl. Syst. no. 35. Plumis

colli elongatis, tibia brevissime nuda, rostro capite longiore. Adulta

cinerea ; alis virescentibus, albo-marginatis. Capillitio eeneo-nigro,

crista dependente ; dorsi plumis longis, lanceolatis, obscure cinereis,

virescenti nitidis, rhachide albida.

5 (d. 20 Febr. — adulta). Corpus cinereum. Collum totum cum

jugulo immaculato, cinereum, unicolor ; gula alba. Capitis latera

cinerea, macula oblonga atra pone angulum oris, et vitta alba sub

eodem. Rostrum et facies olivacea, maxilla inferiori et orbita flavi-

dis. Pedes (in siccata) obscure rubicundi. Rostrum e fronte 65

mill., cum cranio 115. Ala 170, cauda 60, tibia nuda 12, tarsus 42,

digitus medius 40, cum ungue 48. Differt ab indiv. americanis, quee

vidi, et a descrip tione Wagleri jugulo non rufo maculato, magnitu-

dine paullo majori, et rostro crassiori.

This small Heron, which is one of the least in the genus, not

much larger than a double snipe , was only seen twice, at some

tanks near Serampore. Like the larger species it is lazy, but shy

and wary, and often perches in trees. The specimen obtained

had the stomach empty, and smelling strongly of fish. The same

species occurs also in South America*.

78. Ardea speciosa , Horsf.,Wagl. Syst. no. 25. Plumis colli elon-

gatis, tibia brevius nuda. Rostrum tenue, capite longius. Alba,

capite leevi dorsoque plumis laceris, prolixis, obscuris.

<$ $ (junior ?) Febr. Martio. Corpus alee et cauda alba, capite

colloque plumis testaceis, late fusco-marginatis. Gula alba. Plumee

dorsi antici laceree; magnee,fusco-griseee. Scapulares ejusdem coloris,

striola media albida. Plumee immixtee, sericeo laceree, fusco-purpu-

rascentes. Plumee occipitis nullee elongatee. Iris flavissima. Rostrum

apice nigrum, basi et facie nuda flavescentibus. Pedes fuscescentes.

Rostrum e fronte 62 millim., tarsus 53, digitus medius 53, cum un-

gue 62, ala 220.

* This is incorrect, the American species being distinct. — H. E. S.

94

M. Sundevall on the Birds of Calcutta.

Ardea speciosa is the commonest of the Bengalese Herons. It

is seen everywhere near tanks and on the banks of the river, even

among houses and at Serampore. It was said to build in trees,

and is stationary the whole year. Like all the Herons it flies

with the neck doubly curved. When the large white wings are

expanded, but few of the dark feathers above the body are seen,

so that the bird seems wholly white, but when it walks it appears

dark gray. A male which was shot had the stomach filled with

grasshoppers ; in the female were found both grasshoppers and

remains of fish. The Bengalese name is Bogg or Khanni boggy

which name however I often heard applied to the other species

of Heron, both greater and less, white and coloured.

79. Ardea russata , Wagl. no. 12. Plumis colli brevibus, tibia

longius nuda. Rostrum capite parum longius. Junior tota alba.

? (in fine Martii). Tota alba immaculata, occipite non cristato.

Iris fiava. Rostrum totum et facies nuda flava. Pedes fuscescentes,

tarso superne parteque nuda tibiae flavescentibus. Unguis medius

validior, usque ad apicem pectinatus . Longit. 18 poll., rostrum e fronte

62 mill., ala 240, tarsus 87, digitus medius 57, cum ungue 75.

Plumae occipitis breves, simplices ; pectoris vix elongato-pendulse.

This small white Heron was seen rather less frequently than

the last species during all the time I remained in Bengal. Among

the many which I saw from February to April, none were ob-

served with the isabella-coloured back, neck and head, as the old

birds are described, which is perhaps owing to the old ones being

more wary, so that I did not approach them near enough to di-

stinguish the colour. The only one which I shot had been eat-

ing grasshoppers and water-larvae, but no traces of fish were found

in its stomach. This, like the other Herons with a small neck

and long legs, is often seen walking about with outstretched

neck. Those species which I have seen with long neck-feathers

and shorter feet have been more sedentary ; they conceal them-

selves and crouch, so that they are not seen until they fly up.

80. Ardea garzetta , Wagl. Syst. no. 10. Plumis colli brevibus,

tibia longe nuda. Rostrum tenue, capite longius. Tota alba, pe-

dibus nigris, tarso inferius digitisque viridi-flavis.

Senior (initio Maii). Iris flava. Rostrum et facies nuda nigra,

orbita flavescente. Occiput et pectus plumis elongatis, pendulis,

lacero-acutis. Plumse dorsi speciosse, raro pectinate, paucee, vix cau-

dam attingentes. Ungues breviores : medius 12 millim., pectine, ut

in plerisque Ardeis, ante apicem abrupte terminato. Priori dimidio

major.

Although this species was not rare, I only procured one spe-

cimen, which from various interruptions was not preserved, so

that I cannot give the dimensions. It was often seen walking

Mr. E. Doubleday on a new species of the genus Actias. 95

with long steps on the river bank, and frequently perched in

trees. Their white colour makes these species appear much larger

than they really are. On the backs of this and two other species

grow the highly-prized Egret-feathers. Ardea garzetta is also

found in South Europe.

81. Ardea cinereal Three or four times I saw (in the end of

March and the end of April) a species which could hardly be

anything else than our common gray Heron ; 1 think I cannot

be mistaken, although the bird each time arose at the distance

of 200 or 800 ells. As Ardea cinerea is found in Europe and

Africa, and is recorded to occur in Java and the Philippine Islands,

it is not likely to be wanting in the intermediate country of

India.

[To be continued.]

XI. — Description of a new species of the genus Actias of Hiibner,

from Northern India. By Edward Doubleday, Assistant in

the Zoological Department of the British Museum, F.L.S. &c.

[With a Plate.]

Ac. Mcenas. Alis omnibus pallide viridi-flavis, marginibus externis

rufescentibus, anticis costa ferruginea, cinereo lavata; lunula magna

discoidali fascia transversa baseos, alteraque postica indistincta

valde undata rufescentibus ; posticis caudatis, lunula discoidali

parva ; fascia pone medium flexuosa, obsoleta, rufescente. £ . Exp.

alar. 6^ unc. vel 165 mill.; caudee long. 3y unc. vel 90 mill.

PI. VII. fig. 1.

Hob. Silhet.

Anterior wings pale greenish yellow, the costa, except at the

apex, ferruginous, sprinkled with cinereous ; outer margin ru-

fescent : near the base a transverse narrow band of the same co-

lour, and beyond the middle a not very distinct flexuous streak :

a large lunule at the end of the cell connected with the costal

vitta, of the same colour with this at its origin, then much paler

externally, nearly black internally, marked with a very delicate

white line. Posterior wings of the same colour as the anterior,

tailed, the tails very long, wrinkled at the extremity, sprinkled

with ferruginous from the base nearly to the middle, the outer

margin of the wing and of the basal half of the tail ferruginous ;

disc with a small black lunule divided by a white line resting on

a faint cloud, darkest on the inner side : between this and the

margin a very obsolete waved striga.

Below, the anterior wings want the basal striga, the costa is

paler, the lunule wants the black, and the flexuous band is more

distinct, as it also is on the posterior wings.

96 Messrs. M 'Andrew & Forbes on new or rare British Animals .

Head and antennae pale.

Thorax greenish yellow, the front part broadly ferruginous,

sprinkled with cinereous ; legs vinous red, with pale spots.

Abdomen pale greenish yellow.

In the collections of the British Museum and W. W. Saunders,

Esq.

This fine insect is easily distinguished from Act . Selene by its

peculiar greenish yellow colour, the flexuous external striga, the

want of the white band on the prothorax, the great length of the

tails, and the more rounded anterior wings.

XII. — Notices of new or rare British Animals observed during

Cruises in 1845 and 1846. By Robert M'Andrew, Esq.

and Professor Edward Forbes*.

[With a Plate.]

I. Species of Testaceous Mollusca , new or new to Britain , from

the seas around the Zetland islands .

1. Trochus formosus, sp. nov. T. testa pyramidata, anfractibus 7,

planis, nitidis, albis, spiraliter costatis, costis in ultimo anfractu

sex, costa superiori crenulata ; basi imperforata, in medio lsevi,

prope columellam sulcis tribus cincta; apertura quadrangulari.

Animal album, oculis nigris. — Breadth at base \ an inch ; height

the same. PI. IX. fig. 1.

This beautiful Trochus resembles T ziziphinus in form and

habit. The whorls are slightly convex, smooth, shining, white,

and not covered by an epidermis. The body-whorl is encircled

by six spiral ribs, the uppermost crenate, the next fine and smooth,

the third and fourth thick and distant, the two lowermost close

and fine. The upper whorls are encircled by three spiral ridges,

those of the apex all crenate. The whorls are seven. The base

is imperforate, slightly convex, smooth in the centre, with three

spiral furrows round the columella and one round the margin.

The mouth is quadrangular.

The animal is entirely white, except its eyes, which are black.

It has long, linear, cirrhated tentacula. The eyes are borne on

sus-tentacula at their outer bases. The capital lobes are partially

developed and abbreviated. The lateral lobes are plain, and the

sides furnished with six simple long cirrhi, which are usually

carried closely appressed to the shell. The operculum is very

pale.

The only British shell with which this Trochus could be con-

founded, is the variety Lyonsii of T \ ziziphinus . But indepen-

* Communicated to the Natural History Section of the British Associa-

tion at the Southampton Meeting, September 1846.

Messrs. M 'Andrew & Forbes on new or rare British Animals . 97

dent of the characters of the shell, the animals are very distinct;

those of Lyonsii being highly coloured, like the normal form of

T. ziziphinus , whilst T. formosus is perfectly white.

We dredged it adhering to large stones in fifty fathoms on

the Ling Bank, forty miles to the westward of the mainland of

Zetland, and afterwards nearly half-way between Fair Island and

Fitful Head*.

2. Margarita undulata, var. trochiformis .

With some doubt we refer to the above species of Sowerby and

variety of Moller (Index Molluscorum Groenlandise) a Margarita ,

of which we dredged a single specimen near Lerwick. Whilst it

exactly agrees with Moller’s description, the specimen does not

so well accord with any of the examples of Margarita undulata

in British collections. It is small and probably not full-grown

(fj breadth, ^ height), and in colour and habit presents a stri-

king resemblance to Trochus tumidus , but is easily distinguished

by its rounded whorls and circular aperture.

3. Cerithium nitidum , sp. nov. C. testa subulata, alba, anfractibus

12, planis, spiraliter longitudinaliterque costatis ; costis spiralibus

tribus, fortibus, granuloso-decussatis ; basi hevi, margine incras-

sato laevi ; apertura quadrangulari, cauda brevi, lata, contorta. —

Length y^ths of an inch ; maximum breadth -^th of an inch.

PL IX. fig. 2.

A very beautiful, slender but rather strong shell, having twelve

whorls, which are nearly flat, and ornamented by three strong

spiral ridges, decussated and granulated by numerous longitu-

dinal ribs. On the last whorl there is an additional smooth

ridge, forming the margin. The base is smooth. The mouth is

quadrangular, with a short and rather wide but equal canal,

twisted suddenly to the left.

Three specimens were dredged in the same localities with the

Trochus formosus .

4. Pleurotoma brachystomum, Philippi, Enum. Moll. Sci. vol. ii.

p. 169. t. 26. f. 10.

Of this pretty little Pleurotoma we dredged a specimen be-

tween Fair Island and Fitful Head in fifty fathoms. It has been

taken by Mr. Jeffreys in the Hebrides.

5. Fusus albusy Jeffreys, MSS. F. testa minuta, lanceolata, pellu-

cida, alba, anfractibus 5, convexis, ultimo maximo, omnibus spi-

* I have recently seen a specimen in the collection of Lieut. Thomas,

R.N., who dredged it in a similar locality near Orkney. In that gentle-

man’s collection is also the rare Buccinum lineatum , dredged quite fresh in

thirty-five fathoms off' the Staples ; thus fixing with certainty the indige-

nousness of one of our most doubtful species. — E. F.

98

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

raliter crenato-striatis. — Length -^ths of an inch ; breadth -^th

of an inch. PI. IX. fig. 3.

Exactly resembling a Fusus corneas in miniature, but evi-

dently a full-grown shell, and well-characterized by its peculiar

sculpture. No described species of Fusus can be confounded

with it. We dredged it in fifty fathoms between Pair Isle and

Fitful Head. On showing the specimen to Mr. Jeffreys, he re-

cognized it as the F. albus of his manuscripts *.

6. Astarte crebricostata, sp. nov. PI. IX. fig. 4.

We have applied this name provisionally to a remarkable

Astarte of which several single valves, not very fresh, were

dredged up on the west coast of Zetland. They evidently be-

long to a species very distinct from any European form wfith

which we are acquainted. These valves are ovate, oblique, very

depressed, with numerous (thirty), very prominent, narrow, ele -

vated, regular, transverse ridges which become obsolete ante-

riorly, where they are interspersed by slightly oblique stride. The

margin is crenate. The largest valve measures 1 inch T%ths in

length and the same across.

7. Astarte borealis.

We dredged in fifty fathoms water on the Ling Bank off the

west coast of Zetland a valve of this well-known species, so

fresh that we cannot doubt that it is a living inhabitant of our

northern seas.

[To be continued.]

XIII. — Drafts for a Fauna Indica. By Ed. Blyth,

Curator of the Asiatic Society’s Museum, &c. &c.f

[Continued from p. 53.]

Subfam. Gourin^e, Ground Pigeons.

The great series of ground pigeons and ground doves presents a

marked gradation in form and character from genera allied (ex-

cepting in the form of the feet) to the Carpophagce and Ptilino-

podes of the preceding subfamily, to others which exhibit a nearer

relationship to the species of the next subfamily. The size also

varies remarkably, as both the largest and smallest pigeons

known are comprised in this group ; some attaining the magni-

tude of a hen-turkey, while others are scarcely bigger than a

sparrow. These birds are of a shorter, more full, and grouse-

like figure than that of other pigeons, having the wings more or

* Lieut. Thomas, R.N., has lately dredged it near the Orkneys,

'f From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, no. 169.

99

Mr. E. BlytVs Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

less rounded, and even bowed or hollowed in some instances ; the

tarsi comparatively elongated; and the toes long and adapted for

ground habits. Some even much resemble partridges in their

mode of life ; but even these; for the most part; prefer the cover

of low brush-wood (as do also many partridges); the haunts of

different species varying ; and other genera are completely sylvan

in their abode; feeding on the ground; more especially on fallen

fruits and berries. Such are the magnificent GouraS; or great

crowned pigeons ( Goura coronata and G. Stoursii) of the Moluc-

cas and New Guinea; which in their plumage and colouring ap-

proximate Treron cantillans and Carpophaga insignis ; and the

elegant hackled ground pigeons ( Calcenas ), one of which (C. nico -

baricus) abounds in the forests of the Malay peninsula; and in

the Nicobar; Andaman and Cocos isles; thus almost verging on

the eastern boundary of the territory whose fauna we here treat

of. The general resemblance of this bird to Ptilinopus is striking

in the living specimens of both ; and from what I have observed

of it in confinement; I have great reason to doubt the current

statement that it ever lays more than two eggS; the number so

usual in the pigeon family : indeed I think there is present rea-

son to be sceptical of the statements that any pigeon lays more

than that number ; though it is certain that several of the Gourince

are clad with down at an early age; and follow their parents soon

after they are hatched. The only Indian species is among the

least characteristic of the tribe; so much so; that it requires some

knowledge of its various Australian affines to comprehend its

classification in the present group. It ranks under

ChalcophapS; Gould (apparently a sylvan subgenus of Pliaps ,

Selby; exemplified by the common Bronze-wing* of Australia).

Ch. indica : Columba indica , Linn. : G. pileata , Scopoli ; G.

javanica (?), cyanocephala et albicapilla , Gmelin : C. cyanopileata

et griseocapilla > Bonnaterre : G. super ciliar is, Wagler. {Ram-

G'hoogoo and R' hdj-G' hoogoo, Bengal; Gyo-ngyo, Arracan.) Back

and wings emerald-green; glossed with aureous ; the feathers

distinct and scale-like; neck; breast and under -parts vinaceous-

browii; paler below; and of a duller hue in the female ; two broad

dusky bars alternating with grayish-white on the rump ; tail

dusky in the male; its outermost and penultimate feathers

whitish-gray; with black subterminal band ; primaries dusky ;

forehead of the male white; passing as a supercilium over the

eye ; the crown of the head ash-gray ; a white bar near the angle

of the wing ; and lower tail-coverts ashy; the longest brown-

black; inside of the wings reddish cinnamon-brown. The female

has a grayish-white forehead much less developed than in the

other sex; and a narrow whitish supercilium ; crown of the head

rufescent ; no white bar at the shoulder of the wing ; the tail

100 Mr. E. Blythes Di'afts for a Fauna Indica.

tinged with ferruginous; and the neck and under-parts are

browner than in the male. Irides dark ; bare skin around the

eyes deep purplish-carneous, as are also the legs ; and the beak

is bright coral-red, except towards the nostrils, where somewhat

dusky. Length 10^ inches by 17^; and of wing 5^ inches

f° °f •

This beautiful ground-dove is common in thick jungly situa-

tions, and especially among dense bamboos throughout the

country; and it is equally abundant in the Malayan Archipelago.

A writer before-cited remarks,- — “ The rapidity of flight it ex-

hibits exceeds that of any bird I am acquainted with, except per-

haps the brief decisive swoop of some of the smaller Falconidce :

as in the progress of the latter there is no apparent motion of

the wings, but gliding along a few feet from the ground, diver-

ging or rising just sufficiently to clear intervening obstacles, the

ground-dove skims with an arrow-like swiftness, and is come and

gone in an instant, scarcely giving the eye time to detect what

has crossed the field of vision. When settled on the ground,

however, it shows no unusual degree of fear, and may be ap-

proached near enough to notice its motions and brilliancy of co-

louring. Bare spots about the roots of large trees, particularly

of the tamarind, appear to be favourite resorts ; and a pair will

be occasionally found sunning themselves, arranging their plu-

mage and scraping up the earth, and beating up the dust with

expanded wings, after the manner of the Rasores upon an old

b'heetali — the artificially raised mound of a deserted village. They

soon become reconciled to confinement ; and the voice is plain-

tive and monotonous like an oft- repeated low tone on a distant

flute*.” The nest of this species I have never seen, but am in-

formed that it is built in low thorny trees and often in bamboo

jungle : the eggs are two in number ; and one taken from the

oviduct (April 30th) measures just an inch long by three-quarters

of an inch across, and is of a less pure white than those of ordi-

nary pigeons and dovesf.

There is a nearly allied species in Australia, the Col . chryso -

cklora, Wagler, which Mr. G. R. Gray conceives to be the true Col .

javanica of Gmelin. One character by which it may always be

readily distinguished, is the total absence of white on the fore-

* “ Columbidce of the Eastern Districts.” — Bengal Sporting Review,

No. 4, 1845.

f Chalcophaps indicus is common in the deep forests, always in the vici-

nity of streams, and generally upon the ground in the shelter of beds of

reeds and rank grass. When flushed it takes a short but exceedingly rapid

flight, alighting as abruptly with a sudden plunge into the herbage, so that

it is a most difficult bird to shoot. Its favourite food consists of the seeds

of the castor-oil plant. — T.

101

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

head of both sexes*. The rapidity of flight so remarkable in the

Indian species, as compared with our other Columbidce, is equally

observable in other subgenera of Phaps, which might include

even Peristera of Swainsonf.

Subfam. Columbine.

This consists of the ordinary pigeons and doves, the characters

and habits of which are familiar to all. They are mostly arboreal,

though many of them feed much on the ground, chiefly on grain

and oleaginous seeds ; some of the species also nipping the young-

sprouts of vegetables. They fall into two principal and nearly

allied series, those of the pigeons and the doves ; the latter sub-

dividing into several well-marked groups.

Genus Columba, Linn, (as restricted). Pigeons. ( Kubbooter ,

H. ; Pair a , B.)

These are of comparatively large size, and generally more ro-

bust in make, with square or subquadrate tail. The Indian spe-

cies fall into two subgenera, viz. rock pigeons and wood pigeons ;

the former exemplified by the common house pigeon, the latter

by the common Cushat of Europe.

Rock Pigeons. In these the tarse is rather longer, and the

toes are better adapted for walking on the ground. They rarely,

if ever, perch on trees, except under peculiar circumstances, as

when a dove-cot of domestic pigeons is placed near a tree, with

large and convenientlykhaped boughs, in which case the pigeons

will commonly resort to the latter to sit and roost, but never to

form their nests. In the wild state it is probable that they

never perch at all, retiring to roost and nestle in caverns and

small hollows of rocks or sea-cliffs, in the absence of which they

select buildings that offer suitable recesses, breeding in the capi-

* It is I think very doubtful whether C. chrysochlora be really distinct

from indica . The absence of white on the forehead is probably due to the

specimens being immature. — H. E. S.

f A curious pigeon, in the guise of a Pterocles, is figured among the draw-

ings prepared under the superintendence of the late Sir Alexander Burnes

and Dr. Lord, marked Fahktuk (i. e. Facktah or dove, Hind.) from Cabul,

which should be sought for in the Scindian deserts. Total length about a

foot, the wing 6J inches, and tail pointed and Pterocles- like, extending

nearly 2 inches beyond the tips of the wings ; tarsi and toes, which, though

rudely drawn, would appear to be those of an ordinary pigeon, naked and

of a pink colour. Bill dusky, being also apparently that of an ordinary

pigeon, and rather slender. General colour light isabelline, with darker

margins to the feathers of the mantle and wings ; neck, breast and under-

parts plain, the breast rufescent, and the belly and lower tail-coverts whitish ;

the outer tail-feathers would appear to have black tips; irides crimson.

Should this hereafter be verified and constitute (as seems probable) a new

genus of sand-doves , having the habits of the Gangas or Sand-grouse, it

might bear the name Psammcenas Burnesii .

102

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

tals of pillars and whatever other convenient nooks they find.

Hence, when unmolested, these house pigeons soon become fa-

miliarized with man, and require little encouragement to merge

into the domestic condition.

C. intermedia, Strickland, Ann. and Mag. N. H. 1844, p. 39:

C . cenas of India, auctorum : C. cenas , var., from Tartary, Wagler.

(, Jalalaya , H. ; Parwa , Mahr. ; Golah of the pigeon dealers.)

(Indian Bock Pigeon.) The common wild blue pigeon of

India is most closely allied to the European C. livia, but is of

rather a deeper slaty-gray, with invariably a deep ash-coloured

rump ; whereas C. livict has as constantly a pure white rump :

there appears to be no other distinction between them, unless it

be that the play of colours on the neck is finer in the Indian bird.

The same difference in the colour of the rump is observable in

the domestic pigeons of the two countries, whenever these tend

to assume the normal colouring ; for the tame Indian pigeons are

as clearly derived from the wild C. intermedia as those of Europe

are from C. livia.

Colour slaty-gray, darker on the head, breast, upper and lower

tail-coverts and tail, which last has a blackish terminal band not

well-defined; nuchal feathers divergent at their tips, and brightly

glossed with changeable green and reddish-purple ; two black bars

on the wing* ; the primaries tinged with brownish, and the outer-

* In some specimens, particularly among the semi-domestic, slight dusky

streaks occur on the shafts of the lesser wing-coverts, which, in the latter,

are often much more developed, spreading across the feathers and spotting

the whole wing; such birds much resembling (except in the rump not being

white) a race of wild pigeons that are abundantly brought at times to the

London markets — ’all of them shot birds; but the latter have not, in addi-

tion, the two black bands on the whig well-defined, as seems to be regularly

the case with this variety of C. intermedia. Moreover, in the English bird,

the spotting of the lesser wing-coverts does not occur on the shafts of the

feathers, but partly margins each web , excepting near the edge of the wing,

where the feathers are unspotted. I suspect that the wild rock pigeons of

the south of England are mostly of the kind alluded to, which may be de-

signated C. affinis ; while those of North Britain, and it would seem of

Europe generally, are true C. livia .

Here, again, we have three closely allied species, analogous to the three

yellow-footed Hurrials, Treron viridifrons , Tr. phoenicoptera, and Tr. chlo -

rigaster ; and if they are to be regarded as mere varieties of the same, what

limits can be assigned to the further variation of wild species ? Col. leuco-

nota is but a step more removed, and I doubt not would equally merge and

blend with the others in a state of domesticity. Equally allied are — Treron

sphenura and Tr. cantillans ; Tr. apicauda and Tr. oxyura ; and if we grant

also some variation of size, we have Tr. bicincta and Tr. vernans\ Tr. ma -

labarica and Tr. chloroptera ; Turtur chinensis and T. suratensis ; T.meena

and T. auritus , &c. &c., which might be regarded as local varieties of the

same, and we might thus go on reducing species ad infinitum with no useful

definite result, but to the utter confusion of all discriminative classification.

However closely races may resemble, if they present absolute and constant

103

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica .

most tail-feather having its external web gradually more albescent

to the base. Irides brownish-orange, the lids bluish-white ; bill

black, with a white mealiness at the tumid base of its upper man-

dible ; and legs reddish-pink. Length 13 by 23 inches ; of wing

8f inches.

Mr. Jerdon rightly remarks — “ The blue pigeon abounds all

over India, being occasionally found in the more open spaces of

jungles, especially in rocky districts and in the neighbourhood

of water-falls ; but more generally in the open country, inhabit-

ing walls of villages, pagodas, wells, and any large buildings,

and breeding chiefly in old walls ” Another observer, writing

of it in the eastern districts of Bengal, remarks : “ Large colonies

of these birds inhabit every moogur, mhut*, and mass of ruins

in the country, where, in company with the (house) mynah and

(rose-ringed) parroquet, they multiply to a vast extent ; and

the more so, as being held in religious veneration by some, and

in special favour by all natives, their destruction is prevented

wherever there exists the power. They are so devoid of timidity,

that even in the midst of crowded cities, they will build on the

cornices in the open verandahs of inhabited houses. When this

takes place in the dwelling of a native, their tenure is secure ; as

their making such selection is looked upon as a happy omen, and

their dismission as the sure forerunner of evil fortune. Pairs

frequently take up their quarters among the domestic pigeons of

the dove-cot ; indeed it is not an easy matter to prevent their

doing so, and intermingling the breed. In the cold weather they

flock and frequent the paddy-stubble in large numbersf.” Capt.

Hutton informs me that this bird “ is found in Affghanistan,

where, as in many parts of India, it builds in wells and ruined

buildings : the kazeezes, or Artesian wells of Affghanistan, are

sometimes crowded with them. They occur also in the Doon,

and are known as the common blue pigeon. At Mussoorie, I

have only seen them in the cultivated fields, low down on the

sides of hills, in warm situations J ”

Being the original stock of the domestic pigeons of India, some

notice of the latter should here be introduced. I have not, how-

ever, paid much attention to the several varieties ; the more choice

differences, whether of size* proportions or colouring, and if they manifest

no tendency to grade from one to the other, except in cases of obvious inter-

mixture, we are justified in considering them as distinct and separate; and

more especially if each, or either, has a wide range of geographic distribu-

tion, without exhibiting any climatal or local variation.

* Rude Hindoo temple.

f India Sporting Review, No. 4, 121.

+ Columba intermedia is exceedingly common in Chota Nagpore, breed-

ing in all the steep lofty rocks of that country. — T.

104 Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica .

of which are, besides, kept chiefly by the Moguls in the Upper

Provinces, and it is there that observations should be recorded of

them. A chapter is devoted to the rearing of pigeons in the

Ayeen Akbaree , and a number of breeds or races enumerated ;

but nothing definite can be understood of their distinguishing

characters. The different kinds are chiefly esteemed for perform-

ing sundry aerial evolutions, and returning at once from any

height at an accustomed signal. But to quote the work cited :

“ There are also many other beautiful pigeons, which, although

they neither wheel nor tumble in the air, yet perform many

pleasing tricks ; amongst these are the following : — The Kowkh,

which seems to say the words yak-roo. The Luckeh [< fantail ],

whose cooing is very agreeable, and he carries his head with

astonishing pride and stateliness. The Lowtun , who upon being-

shaken, and then put upon the ground, jumps about with strange

convulsive motions.” [This may be seen at any of the Calcutta

bird-dealers ; shaken two or three times in the hand, and the

head more especially, the poor bird tumbles about in a fit for

some seconds, when the owner recovers it by blowing hard in

its face. They are chiefly black and white and bare-legged, with

a crested occiput, but present no other marked distinction.]

“ The Kehrnee , who has such amazing affection for his hen, that

when he has flown out of [human] sight, if she is exposed in a

cage, he instantly drops down upon it : they descend either with

both wings spread, or with one open, or else with both shut.

The Ruhteh is a pigeon famous for carrying letters ; but any

pigeon may be taught to do this. The Neshwaree ascends in the

air till he is out of sight, and remains so [i. e . absent ?] for a day

or two, after which he alights on the ground. There are also

many other kinds that are valuable only on account of their

beauty, such as the Slier azee*, the Shushtree , the Shashenu , the

Jougeeah , the Rezehdehn , the Muggessee , the Komeree , and the

Gowlali ; the last [or intermedia in its natural state] is a wild

pigeon, of which, if a few are taken, they are speedily joined by

a thousand others of their kind. There are people who obtain a

livelihood by sending these pigeons to feed abroad, and making

them vomit up the grain, by giving them water strongly impreg-

nated with salt. A pigeon is said to live to the age of thirty

years.” Among the kinds commonly bred about Calcutta

are fine Powters (Gulla-p’hoola-[), both feather-legged and bare-

legged; Fantails ( Luckah ) of indisputable merit, but poor help-

less monstrosities, except in the eyes of connoisseurs, some of

* Sarajoo , Beng. A large black pigeon, with white rump, quills and

under-parts from the throat; generally very true to this colouring.

f ‘Swollen throat,’ or, literally, full gullet (gula).

105

Mr. E. Blyth's Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

which have at least thirty-six tail-feathers *, and races with an

occipital top-knot (Nuns), are common ; but I have seen nothing-

like the variety commonly bred by English fanciers , and the races

generally are less pure (at least in Lower Bengal), with their pe-

culiarities not so strongly brought out ; unless in the instance of

th efantails, and sometimes powters , which are as preposterous

caricatures of the wild race, as the most extravagant admirer of

Nature's freaks of the kind could reasonably desire, and as un-

deniably curious in showing what domestication can produce.

C. leuconota, Vigors, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831, p.22; Gould's

Century, pi. 59. (Hooded Rock Pigeon.) Size and form of

last, the wings a trifle longer : cap, comprising the throat and

ear-coverts, ashy -black ; neck, rump (as in C. livia) and the en-

tire under-parts white, with a faint shade of ashy, except on the

rump, deepest on the lower tail-coverts ; interscapularies, scapu-

laries and wings light brownish-gray, purer pale ashy on the me-

dial coverts of the wings ; the primaries dull blackish towards

their tips, the secondaries broadly tipped with dusky, and the

tertiaries and their coverts having a subterminal dusky band and

broad grayish tips, producing a series of three short bars, suc-

cessively smaller to the front, and a trace of a small fourth band

anteriorly ; tail and its upper coverts ashy-black, the former ha-

ving a broad grayish-white bar, occupying the third quarter from

the base of its middle feathers, and narrowing and curving for-

ward to reach the tip of its outermost feathers. Bill black, legs

pinkish-red, and irides yellow. Common on the rocky heights

of the Himalaya, inhabiting near the snow line.

According to Capt. Hutton, there are two races, if not species,

confounded under C. leuconota , viz. the true leuconota, as figured

by Gould, with the white of the hind-neck spreading a consider-

able way down the back, and which (he informs me) is found only

“ far in the mountains and another, of which the description

wholly corresponds with the Nepal and Darjeeling specimens

which have served for the above description, and which Captain

Hutton states “ inhabits the Doon all the year, but is there

called ‘ Hill Pigeon,' while the other is known to collectors as the

‘ Snow Pigeon.' The Doon bird flies in small flocks during sum-

mer from the hills to the Doon in the morning, and returns to

the hills in the evening." If there be really any difference, how-

ever, between the birds adverted to, I suspect it must be merely

one of age.

Subgenus Palumbus, Kaup. Wood Pigeons or Cushats.

These have feet well adapted for perching, and a shorter tarse

than in the preceding section, which also is more feathered

* While drawing up this notice, I visited the bird bazaar, and counted

thirty-four feathers in a tail which was obviously imperfect.

Ann . Mag . N. Hist . Vol, xix. 8

106 Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica.

towards the knee. They nidificate and habitually perch on

trees*.

C. palumbus, Linn. (European Wood Pigeon.) Upper

parts brownish-gray, the head, cheeks, throat, rump and upper

tail-coverts pure ashy, paler on the lower tail-coverts ; fore-neck

and breast vinaceous-ruddy, weaker on the belly, and albescent

towards the vent; nape and sides of the neck and shoulders

glossed with changeable green and reddish-purple, the former

predominating above, the latter below ; and upon each side of the

neck a great patch of subdued white, in general largely developed,

very rarely reduced to a mere trace ; coverts forming the edge of

the wing and impending the winglet white, as is also the exte-

rior margin of each primary ; tail gray at base, becoming black-

ish at its tip. Bill orange, with a white mealiness at the tumid

base of its upper mandible; feet red, and irides light yellow.

Length 17 by 30 inches, and wing 9^ inches.

This well-known European species inhabits the north-western

Himalaya, as about Simla, and in the Alpine Punjab.

C. (?) Elphinstonii : Ptilinopus Elphinstonii , Sykes, Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 149 : a Carpophaga , apud G. It. Gray.

(Neilgherry Wood Pigeon.) “ Upper parts fuscous-brown,

the head, neck and lower parts ashy ; nape black, the feathers

marked with a white spot at tip ; interscapularies ruddy ; neck

and breast glossed with emerald-green, the rump with ashy ; first,

second, third, fourth and fifth primaries having their outer web

emarginated. Irides ochre-yellow.” Length 15 or 16 inches.

I have had no opportunity of examining this fine species, but

from the above description of its plumage, translated from Colonel

Sykes's brief Latin definition, I cannot help doubting exceedingly

the propriety of arranging it as a Carpophaga, and as strongly

suspect that the present is its true systematic station f. Colonel

Sykes describes it to be “ a rare bird in the Dukhun, met with

only in the dense woods of the ghauts. Not gregarious. Stony

fruit found in the stomach. Sexes alike. Plight very rapid. The

lateral skin of its toes is very much developed.” Mr. Jerdon has

only noticed it “in the dense woods on the summit of the Neil-

gherries, in small parties, or single. It is a retired and wary

bird. I found various fruits,” he adds, “ and small shells in its

stomach.”

C. pulchricollis, Hodgson (mentioned in Mr. G. It. Gray's

* It should be remarked, that the European C. anas is completely inter-

mediate to these two groups in its form, colouring, habits and nidification ;

breeding sometimes in the cavities of trees, sometimes in rabbit-burrows.

f Mr. Blyth is right in this surmise ; C. Elphinstonii being a true Co-

lurnba , not a Carpophaga. The lateral skin of the toes is not more deve-

loped than in C. palumbus. — H. E. S.

Mr. E. Blythes Drafts for a Fauna Indica. 107

Catalogue of the specimens of Columbidce in the British Museum).

(Ashy Wood Pigeon.) Considerably smaller than the two pre-

ceding species; and general colour dusky-gray, much paler and

faintly tinged with lake below, more or less whitish towards the

vent, and subdued white on the lower tail-coverts ; tail blackish ;

head, cheeks and ear-coverts pure light ashy, passing to whitish

on the throat ; the sides of the neck and breast brightly glossed

with the usual changeable green and reddish-purple, the former

predominating ; and above this the feathers are somewhat rigid

and black at base, with broad isabelline tips whitish at the end,

forming a large patch on each side confluent behind. Corneous

portion of the bill apparently pale yellow, and legs probably pink,

but fading to amber in the dry specimen, of which colour are also

the claws. Length of wing 8L to 9 inches. Common in the

wooded region of the eastern Himalaya.

C. punicea, Tickell, Journ. As. Soc. xi. 462*. (Pompadour

Wood Pigeon.) General colour deep vinaceous-ruddy, weaker

below, and most of the feathers margined with glossy changeable

green and amethystine-purple, the former colour prevailing on

the neck and sides of the breast, the latter elsewhere : whole top

of the head, including the occiput, whitish-gray ; alars and cau-

dals blackish ; the primaries tinged externally with gray ; upper

and lower tail-coverts nigrescent ; bill yellow at tip, its basal half

blackish in the dry specimen ; “ irides orange with a red outer

circle ; feet dull lake.” Length about 16 inches, of wing 8

inches, and tail 7 inches.

This handsome pigeon inhabits the hill forests of Central In-

dia, also those of Assam, and would appear to be tolerably com-

mon in the island of Ramree, Arracan. I have never seen it

from the Himalayaf .

C. Hodgsonii, Vigors, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 16 : C. nipa -

lensis, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. v. 1221. (Speckled Wood

* Type of Alsocomus , Tickell.

t C. punicea. Length 16 inches by 2 feet spread; wing 8£ inches.

Bill greenish-yellow, with basal half livid. Iris amber-yellow in an orange-

red circle. Legs and feet dull lake. The female is similar to the male, but

rather smaller and duller in plumage. This species is not uncommon to the

south of Singbhoom, going in small parties of four or five, and always along

the banks of rivers which are shaded by large forest-trees. Up and down

these noble avenues, which the green shades of mingling boughs above, and

the clear rippling stream below, preserve at all hours and seasons pleasantly

cool, these pigeons fly, rarely taking when disturbed to the more open tracts

distant from the stream, in January 1842 I killed five specimens on the

Bytarnee river in Singbhoom. They were feeding principally on the jamoon.

These birds feed chiefly in the morning and again at evening, and during

the heat of the day roost on the uppermost branches of the huge derris trees,

common in that country. They are wary and difficult of approach. — T.

X Type of Dendrotreron , Hodgson.

8*

108 Mr. E. Blyth's Drafts for a Fauna Indica .

Pigeon.) Above dark vinaceous-ruddy, with white specks on

the medial coverts of the wing ; head and upper part of front of

neck cinereous, with a vinous tinge in some specimens ; rump,

upper and lower tail-coverts dusky-ash ; tail ashy-black ; the great

alars brownish- dusky, the first three primaries having a slight

whitish outer margin in some specimens ; exterior wing-coverts

grayish; nape, sides of neck and lower parts vinaceous-ruddy

at base of feathers, margined (more broadly on the side of each

feather of the breast) with vinous-gray, which increases in quan-

tity upwards, till the surface of the plumage appears solely of this

hue, while the dark vinous tint predominates more and more to-

wards the belly ; the red portion of each feather appears thus as

an obtusely pointed spot upon those of the breast, and on the

feathers of the neck is darker and acutely pointed, being there

uniformly edged with the pale ashy margin. Bare orbital space

livid ; bill purplish-black ; “ irides hoary or gray -white ; legs and

feet black-green to the front, yellowish elsewhere ; claws clear

lively yellow.” Length about 15 inches by 25 or 26 inches in

alar expanse ; wing 9 inches to 9^. “ Female,” according to

Mr. Hodgson, “ rather less, and differing in having the bluish-

gray of the head less pale and clear, and in wanting almost en-

tirely the purplish tinge which adds so much beauty to certain

parts of the plumage of the male, as especially the upper part of

his back and the lower part of his belly.”

“ This elegant species,” continues Mr. Hodgson, “ is found in

the woods of the valley of Nepal. It is very shy, seldom or never

entering the cultivated fields for the purpose of feeding, but

keeping almost always to the woods, and living upon their pro-

duce, in the shape of grass, seeds or berries.” It would seem to

be not uncommon near Darjeeling : and Captain Wroughton in-

forms me, that it is also tolerably numerous about Simla and

Mussooree, where it frequents the pine forests on the higher

mountains, as Whartoo and the vicinity of Kotghur. They are

generally seen in flocks of six or seven, which are particularly shy

and difficult of approach.

C. Hodgsonii is nearly allied to C . arquatrix of Southern

Africa ; but is at once distinguished from that bird by its black-

ish bill, by the gray upon its head and neck, and by the reduced

development of the nude space surrounding the orbits. Another

allied African species is the C. guinea , Linn. (v. trigonigera of

Wagler).

[To be continued.]

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 109

XIV. — On the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

By Kaiil Muller*.

[With five Plates.]

[Continued from p. 40.]

§ 5. The perfect Plant.

We have here to consider: — 1. the axis of the branch ; 2. the

roots of the branch ; 3. the leaves ; and 4. the organs of reproduc-

tion.

1. The axis of the branch . The germinating plant divides, as

we have already seen, normally into two branches, consequently it

is bifurcated. The same kind of division is exhibited throughout

the whole growth of Lycopodium denticulatum. The branches are

always dichotomous, the vascular bundle always dividing in this

manner.

The branches, as is known, are compressed on the upper and

under sides.

Interiorly they are composed of numerous layers of cells. At

first two circular spots are found in the centre, lying at some

distance from each other. In these situations are produced the

vessels, which as usual are surrounded by long, prosenchymatous

cells (PL III. fig. 12). They lie within the latter as a simple and

almost circular group. From these vascular bundles proceed out-

ward a number of tubular cells which finally come in contact

with a layer of delicate and short parenchymatous cells. These

last are the only cells throughout the whole axis of the branch

which as yet contain any of the “cell-contents” (fig. 12 a),

which consist of very small yellowish green granules, more or less

collected into groups. The whole is inclosed by several layers of

thin-walled, transparent and short parenchymatous cells. The

layers situated most externally (the cortical layers) consist of cells

which are always somewhat more elongated and more slender,

and are not hexagonal, but have the form of parallelograms.

Toward the terminal bud, the cells of the axis all become smaller

and more crowded, till at last they look like mere globules

(fig.i3).

All these conditions vary in the most manifold way in the

stems of the other Lycopodiacece . This is especially the case with

regard to the grouping of the vascular bundles. The structure

of the cell-membrane also is very variable among them. These

however are conditions of which a further examination would be

extrinsic to my design. Most of them indeed are already known,

and only individual cases require pointing out. The development

* From the ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ Aug. 28, and Sept. 4, 1846. Trans-

lated by Arthur Henfrey, F.L.S. &c.

110 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceae.

of the cells of the terminal bud remains yet to be traced. I

therefore next consider —

2. The roots of the branch . These are solid round bodies, al-

most perfectly cylindrical, which always split, like the axis, dicho-

tomously when they come in contact with the ground, penetrate

it, and attach the plant more firmly to it. When growing in pots

however, as in our green-houses, and not long enough to reach

the earth, they do not divide.

Interiorly they are made up of the same kind of cellular tissue

as the axis of the branch ; but the cells are firmer. They never

contain more than one vascular bundle, and also differ from the

axis in the fact that this bundle is not attached to the cortical

layer by those tubular cells, whereby a large empty space is formed

in the centre of the axis of the branch.

The most remarkable point about them is their extremely re-

gular occurrence upon the axis of the branch. They always make

their appearance in the situation where the axis splits into two,

and in fact immediately in the axil of the last or penultimate leaf

of the branch (PL II. fig. 17), which leaf is always a folium inter -

medium ; the root consequently is always developed upon the upper

side of the axis. Schleiden (in his Grundziige, ed. 1. part ii. 80)

expressly says of the roots, that they proceed from the under side.

He has not mentioned the species in which he observed this, and

therefore I am still in doubt as to the truth of the statement.

The rootlet appears at first as a little papilla upon the axis of

the branch. This soon developes into a conical projection, and

as soon as it has attained a certain length, which is not very con-

siderable, the little cone curves downwards. This structure begins

to be developed almost in the earliest stage of the growth of the

axis of the branch, and the rootlet itself is found in that situation

where the organs of reproduction are produced ; a condition to

which I shall have again to refer hereafter. Every joint of the

branch consequently possesses a root at its base. A successful

transverse section exhibits the history of development in the in-

terior ; at the particular point of the axis, where the root is to be

formed, the tubular cells round the vascular bundle partly dis-

appear ; with the disappearance of these the vacant spaces also

vanish, and the cortical parenchyma now immediately invests

the central vascular bundle. On the upper side of the axis

alone, consequently directly at the spot where the rootlet subse-

quently becomes visible, some tubular cells still occur, which

however are of small importance compared with the former of the

axis of the branch (PI. IV. fig. 1). Indeed they are really only

parenchymatous cells elongated upwards. Since these cells are

wanting and the parenchyma is thus brought close to the vas-

cular bundle, the nutrient fluids must naturally become con-

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. Ill

centrated at this point. This is in fact the case. In that situ-

ation where the root is to he formed, the cells soon become

filled with a matter which distends them and is reddish like

the often-mentioned material for development (cytoblastema) .

The root now begins to shoot outward, and may indeed be caused

to project out by a simple mechanical process, by the expansion

of its cells. The elongation continues to increase, the apex of

the rootlet always remains filled with cytoblastema, and the older

portions finally exhibit perfect cells, among which a delicate vas-

cular bundle then soon penetrates, being a branch from the larger

one of the axis of the branch (PI. IV. fig. 2).

3. The leaves . As to their form and position, these conditions

have already been examined in the germinating plant, to which

I have only to add, that the perfect leaf of the axis of the branch

is produced downward at its posterior face into a kind of tail, is

enlarged into a roundish projection, and has the base so detached

from the axis of the branch, that this apparent appendix looks

like that appendage which we at first found on the basis of the

envelopes of the bud (PI. III. figs. 11 d, 11^). However they

cannot be confounded, since that is always a much more delicate,

simple membrane, while here the green cellular tissue of the leaf

usually extends to the apex of the appendage. It is only neces-

sary, then, to speak of the relations of the leaf to the axis of the

branch.

When a leaf is about to be developed upon this, a little eleva-

tion may be perceived upon its terminal bud. This prominence

consists of an evident extension of the parts at the circumference

of the axis of the branch, i. e. the young leaf at its first appearance

is a flattened shoot, which has only to become extended in

length and breadth to form a perfect leaf. In the interior of this

shoot the material for development (cytoblastema) shows itself,

and as the lamina extends itself, the cytoblastema is gradually

converted into cells. At the same time, and equally keeping pace,

a branch of the central vascular bundle — which always reaches

almost to the point of the terminal bud and also keeps pace with

its elongation — proceeds across through the delicate parenchyma

in the interior of the leaf (PI. III. fig. 11), where it terminates

abruptly or in a clavate form, as in Perns. At the same time,

the long parenchymatous cells clothing the vessel naturally ac-

company it into the leaf, and around these assemble also the

tubular cells. And thus the tissue of the leaf appears spongiform

in the cross-section.

It must here be noticed, that both in the young branches and

in the terminal bud, the surface of the axis of the branch is

formed of a single layer of elongated cells (fig. 13), while at a

112 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

later period several layers of similarly elongated cells clothe it

(fig. 1U).

The surface of the young leaf of L . denticulatum therefore

consists of but one single layer of cells, which developes into

the proper epidermis, subsequently contains porous orifices , and

always remains as a membrane composed of a single layer. Its

cells are always hyaline and of flattened form. Next to it inte-

riorly follows a layer of larger, round cells, next the spongiform

tissue, and lastly, the vascular bundle with its appurtenances.

The larger, round cells originally possess a nucleus which is

firmly attached to the interior of the cell-wall : it is green and

somewhat compressed. In this form it resembles a cytoblast,

persisting in the cell, and I consider it as one, and that it has

been converted into chlorophylle. Subsequently it separates into

several granules, but not into many (fig. 11 c).

The leaves are consequently only prolongations of the paren-

chyma of the axis of the branch-axis, and never attain an inde-

pendent position, as they universally remain attached by the

whole base.

The relations of the leaves to each other is such, that the older,

the inner face of which have by this time become concave, over-

lie the younger, and so on until we arrive at the delicate termi-

nal bud which is completely inclosed by them, and, like the

young, delicate and almost transparent leaves, is thus protected.

4. The organs of reproduction. I now come to a point which

is undoubtedly the most important of all, since it exercises the

most direct influence over the systematic position of the Lycopo-

diacece . This is the morphological import of the organs of repro-

duction. Having been long known, this question has not passed

unnoticed. The first who expressed an opinion on the subject

was BischofF in his ‘Lehr. d. Bot/ 1 Th. 421. He says, “The

position of these fruit (this refers both to the oophoridia and an-

theridia) in the axil of the leaf appears to indicate that they are

buds, the leaves of which, united in the younger stages to form

the envelope of the fruit, separate when it is mature ; they do

not possess however the epidermal layer on the upper face. In

favour of this view may be instanced the two- or three-chambered

fruit of the foreign genus Psilotum , in which, at its first appear-

ance, the corresponding number of leaves may be perceived, and

which generally resembles in structure a chambered capsular

fruit.”

On the other hand, H.Mohl in his memoir above-cited (Morph.

Betr. fiber das Sporang., &c.), p. 29, opposes this, and for two

reasons : “ In the first place,” he says, “ it appears that the spo-

rangium is not actually situated in the axil of the leaf. This is

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceae. 113

shown indeed, although not very distinctly, by a careful exami-

nation of Lycopodium , in which it may be observed that the base

of the sporangium is connected equally with the mid-nerve of the

leaf, in the axil of which it is situated, and with the stem, so that

its true point of insertion remains doubtful ; this condition how-

ever is better marked in Psilotum , especially in Tmesipteris , as

here the capsule is attached in the incisure of the leaf.” The

author then comes to speak of Isoetes , where also two kinds of

spores occur, by which the affinity to Lycopodiacece is so distinctly

shown, and says that in Isoetes the sporangia are decidedly not

axillary but proceed from the leaf, whereby it is rendered pro-

bable that this is also the case in the Lycopodiacece , and that the

sporangia are productions from the leaves. He further says,

p. 30, “ The position of the sporangium on the leaf of Psilotum

might indeed be explained by an adhesion of the fruit-stalk to

the leaf, but on the other hand there is the opposing circumstance,

that in this family generally the fruit-stalk is remarkably short,

and in Isoetes no trace of it is to be found.”

A second evidence against BischoflPs view is found by this au-

thor (Mohl) in the development of the spores contained in the

fruit of the Lycopodiacece , “ since this takes place in the same

manner as in Ferns and the pollen -granules of the Phanerogamia,

in mother-cells which fill the cavity of the fruit, and therefore

indicates that it occurs in the interior of a cellular organ even as

it does on the surface of a foliaceous part.” — “This circum-

stance,” he says further, p. 31, “ appears to have led Bischoff to

the assumption that the epidermis is wanting on the upper side of

the carpellary leaf. The assumption, that in the single carpellary

leaves, the face, folded inward, disappears either at first or during

the course of development, and that the cavity of the carpel be-

comes filled with mother-cells which originate from the naked

mesophyllum there present, is not indeed impossible in itself, but

it is too little supported by any analogy to allow of our accepting

it as valid without further examination of the point, in the pre-

sent case where the position of the fruit generally renders its de-

rivation from the leaf doubtful.”

By these statements, Mohl endeavours to controvert BischofFs

view, and to render the other probable, that the sporangia of

Lycopodiacece are productions from the leaves ; for he says, him-

self, finally (p. 33), “ the fact of the sporangium of Psilotum being

two- and three-chambered, cannot, as it appears to me, be brought

as an objection to the view thus proposed ; for this structure may

be explained as well by the growing together of two or three spo-

rangia, formed like the thecae of an anther, as by the union of

carpels, and this the more that we find an analogous fusion of

sporangia among the Ferns in Dancea and MarattiaP

114 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceee.

The third investigator, whose opinions on this subject I have

become acquainted with, is Schleiden. He declares himself most

decidedly in favour of MohFs view, and says (Grundziige, ed. 1.

part ii. 81), “ that the spore-fruits are special modifications of the

parenchyma of the leaf, has been shown by Mohl as clearly as was

possible without tracing the development. This however affords

the same results.” From this last sentence we may guess that

Schleiden had founded his very definite statement on an exami-

nation of the development. This however is not to be found in

his earlier writings, and it is therefore very much to be regretted

that this author has not given us a more detailed account of it !

How far my own investigations agree with the foregoing opi-

nions, will best be seen after I have given the history of the

development so far as I have arrived at any conclusions about it ;

these I hope however may solve the questions above stated.

1. The spike (spica nonnullor., amenta et strobilus. Spring .).

The inflorescence of Lycopodia is always to be regarded as a

spike : the peduncles of the fruit may be abbreviated and the

leaves be thus brought closer together, in which case the cha-

racter of the spike appears most distinctly, or the leaves may re-

main in their original position. In this latter case the fruit is

said to be scattered on the stem. It will be evident that I here

of course only speak of the genera Lycopodium , Selaginella and

Phylloglossum.

The form of the spike naturally depends upon the arrange-

ment of the leaves of the species, and therefore has usually no

remarkable differences from the preceding whorls of leaves. In

Selaginella alone it is regularly altered in such a manner, that

while the leaves of the compressed branches, in four rows, — two

above and two below, — are distant and of two forms, the leaves of

the spike are densely crowded and thus form a four-sided spike

on the round axis ; for the little uniform leaflets are strongly

keeled, overlap one another regularly, and the keel is thus dis-

played at a prominent line on the spike (PI. IV. fig. 13). Four

such lines occur normally, and the four-sided form is thus pro-

duced as the fruit-leaves are compressed so as to form an angle.

The spike of Lycopodium denticulatum is of this form. Two cir-

cumstances have an important influence over its perfect develop-

ment. If the axis of the branch does not become attached to

the earth by its roots — and this is often the case in plants raised

in pots — the spikelet of the branch which has not attached itself

by rooting is manifestly retarded in its development, and often

to such an extent that it scarcely visibly projects beyond the

leaves ; but on the other hand, when the branches always root,

the spikelet acquires a considerable height.

On this now occur oophoridia and antheridia. The character

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 115

of their occurrence varies in three ways* Either only antheridia

appear on the spikelets (L. Selago, clavatum, annotinum, inunda -

turn, the genus Phylloglossum, &c.), or only oophoridia ( L . seta -

ginoides), or both organs together. Here belongs L . denticu -

latum, apparently together with the whole genus Selaginella and

some annual species of the genus Lycopodium, which represent,

as it were, the pigmies of the Lycopodiaceae, e. g. L. gracillimum

and pygmceum. In these two the oophoridia are situated under

the antheridia at different points on the spike. On the other

hand, in L. denticulatum and other Selaginellce in which I have

become acquainted with the formation of the fruit, only one

single oophoridium occurs on the spikelet, and that always at its

base . This becomes of very great importance when we seek to

discover the import of the oophoridium, and will be spoken of

hereafter. In development however it is the simplest case, and

therefore the most instructive.

Examining the base of the spikelet of L, denticulatum more

closely, the oophoridium is found to rest upon two leaves, two

folia intermedia . The spikelet, which beyond this point bears

only antheridia, also has intermediate leaves from its very base,

that is, on the side opposite the oophoridium, and the whole

spikelet is furnished with them.

To trace the structure of the fruit-bearing portion of the axis,

we must go back to the earliest condition of the terminal bud.

The dichotomous division is always strongly marked in this bud,

since the apex of the axis is always broader and more thickly

clothed with leaves than the inferior portion. Inquiring into

which portion is developed into the fruit-stalk, a very careful ex-

amination shows that it is always that lying to the right hand .

That there may be no doubt as to left and right, the plant must

be looked on from above. The upper side however is always that

on which the folia intermedia are attached. When the axis has

divided into two branches, that part lying to the left of the axis

elongates and always divides in a similar manner further on,

whence it generally happens, that the direction of the right-hand

branch of the left axis is always diverted a few degrees towards

the left as in all cases of bifurcation, and thus the plant is in a

condition to spread to such an extent that it covers large circular

areas.

So much for the fruit-bearing axis. I have now to explain

more specially the development of the oophoridium and the an-

theridia, in order to make out their morphological import.

2. The oophoridium. — a . The formation of the sporangium . I

do not dwell long upon the description of this, since its structure

is nearly or almost wholly similar in most species, and may also

be regarded as sufficiently understood. It is, briefly, a sporan-

116 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

gium of about the same size as the antheridia, the periphery pre-

senting four rounded projections. These projecting portions are

always opposed in pairs, so that their lines of intersection cross

(PI. IV, figs. 3 — 5). Schleiden (Grundz. ed. 1. ii. 82) calls it

a rounded tetrahedral fruit ; but the expression (C four -knobbed

(vierhiigelige) fruit ” appears to me much more indicative of its

character, as a rounded tetrahedral form does not include the

rounded projections which so distinctly occur. At its base the

oophoridium is furnished with a short pedicel, compressed on

two sides, which consequently resembles the axis of the branch

(fig. 3). Around this pedicel is a circular spot consisting of de-

licate, minute and hyaline cellular tissue (fig. 4). Prom this

runs out on each side a long, elliptical space which also consists

of the same delicate tissue (fig. 4). The latter spaces indicate

the line in which the oophoridium subsequently opens, without

being itself actually torn. In L. gracillimum these two long spaces

are dichotomously divided. The line of dehiscence also extends

over the crown of the sporangium (fig. 5). The crown however

is usually regularly depressed inward in the younger stages. The

membrane of the oophoridium is composed of a layer of dense

parenchymatous cellular tissue. On the inner wall of this is

usually found an irregularly deposited, green cellular mass,

which is apparently a secondary deposit : this is what we find

in L . denticulatum. The four germinative spores found in the

sporangium have already been spoken of in § 2 ; they form the

four projections of the oophoridium.

When the fruit-bearing axis is examined in a very early con-

dition— and this is necessary, since the organs of fructification

are very rapidly developed — a relation between the oophoridium

and antheridium shows itself, which cannot easily be detected in

the subsequent fully-developed condition. The spikelets bearing

the oophoridium and the antheridia here appear as perfectly

distinct parts (fig. 6) : they deviate from each other dichoto-

mously, just as the young forking branches of the axis do. The

oophoridium is at this time externally an almost angular, round-

ish, inflated body, the breadth not exceeding the length (fig. 6 a) ;

but very soon, after it has produced the four spores in its inte-

rior, it acquires the already-noticed four-lobed form with much

more distinctness. The oophoridium is then, generally, of a

longish shape and compressed on two sides (fig. 10). In this

ellipsoidal form it stands with the longer face on the base of the

spike, so that the angle of the spike, produced by the above-

described keel of the leaf, corresponds approximatively to the

middle of the oophoridium (13 a). If this organ is now looked

at laterally, so that the two prominences a b in fig. 10 lie on a

level with the eye of the observer who thus looks along the long

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiaceae. 117

vertex of the ellipsoid, this vertex appears somewhat depressed

inward as if emarginate (fig. 1 2 a a). If it is then looked at

again on the side which brings the long face (c d in fig. 10)

across the eye, the long side appears as a rounded trigone

(%. n « b is the other side lying behind). In all these forms

the oophoridium can externally only be made out to be a vesi-

cular projecting organ, and naturally so, since the four spores

have not yet become developed into compact masses. In pro-

portion as the spores are perfected it appears to become gradually

denser until it acquires the above-described four-lobed shape.

Here, before we know anything of the interior of the oopho-

ridium, the question proposes itself, What is the oophoridium

actually ? According to all that I have hitherto said about it,

the oophoridium is the whole , metamorphosed terminal bud of a

main axis . It is therefore an axial organ .

Most important grounds support this opinion. The first is

the independent position of the oophoridium, opposite the spike,

in the early condition (fig. 6 a ). Here we distinctly see the

oophoridium and spikelet are the two metamorphosed branches into

which a main branch has just divided. In a later condition it

does certainly appear as if both oophoridium and spikelet be-

longed to one single axis. There can however be so little doubt

about our having to do with two branches, that in the absence

of other argument, this mode of development alone would be

sufficient to warrant my opinion. All that a branch possesses is

found with the oophoridium, since we have already seen above

that it is protected by two leaves ; and these two intermediate

leaves are to be regarded as the two first of that which is here

developed into an oophoridium. We also saw above, that near

the oophoridium and the spike is often produced the same root

which appears in the bifurcation of a main axis. Moreover that

in L. denticulatum , as in most of the Selaginellce , only one

oophoridium is found on each fruit-bearing axis, speaks equally

in favour of my view, since it stands in exact connexion with the

scattered fructification of the said axis. The branches divide

too frequently in L . denticulatum for the branch to produce

many fruits. It is too thin to form a main axis out of which

oophoridia might be developed. The case is different in L. se-

laginoides . Here the axis of the fruit is very thick, and thus

it is suited to form branches which may develope into oopho-

ridia. Another proof is, that in the young condition the

oophoridia are all compressed, as the branch of L . denticulatum

always is, since the oophoridium is in fact only the transformed

apex of the branch. The internal course of the vascular bundle

is even a better evidence, for a vascular bundle runs into the

pedicel of the oophoridium (fig. 14), a condition which must be

118 M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese.

further examined hereafter. Finally, the view becomes incon-

trovertible from an anomaly which I have observed once, where

both the branches of the fruit-bearing axis had been transformed

into oophoridia . Here of course the spikelet was wanting, and

two oophoridia were opposed to each other, the most complete

proof that the terminal bud of that branch had been transformed

into an oophoridium, which properly should have produced a

branch.

It would be very interesting to trace the formation of the

oophoridia in a fruit-axis which bears these organs alone, as in

L. selaginoides . Here the axis of the branch is very slender, as

in L. denticulatum , but the formation of the oophoridia, which

takes place within a spike, is distinct. This is explained, as we

have already seen, only by the thickness of the fruit- axis, as this

increases in thickness as it proceeds upwards, and does not branch

beyond like the inferior portion of the axis of the branch. This

ramification however occurs again above in a more evident de-

gree, since the individual joints of the axis become so distinctly

shortened that the stalk of the spikes becomes diverted outwards.

Here also there is no doubt that the oophoridium is a metamor-

phosed branch, and a history of the development of this most

interesting species is very desirable.

Consequently the view of H. Mohl and Schleiden in reference

to the oophoridium, that this sporangium is a production from

the leaf, is certainly incorrect ; neither is it formed of carpellary

leaves, as BischofF endeavoured to show.

b. The formation of spores . A new question to which I now

come relates to the formation of the four germinative spores in

the interior of the oophoridium. I regret that I cannot offer a

perfect account of their development. What my researches have

hitherto made me acquainted with on this point is limited to the

following.

If we cut through the oophoridium in the direction of its

length in a very young condition, the view of the interior con-

firms what we have above concluded from its external conforma-

tion. The membrane of the oophoridium is a mere development

of the apex of the axis and is identical with the epidermis of the

leaf, both being formed by the outermost cellular layer of the

axis (figs. 7, 8). It is only at a subsequent period that the leaf

acquires an organ, the porous slit, which never shows itself in

the oophoridium. The membrane of the oophoridium is not

equally strong at all points, but much thickened at the vertex

(fig. 7 a). It is also decurved somewhat over its point of attach-

ment, the future pedicel (fig. 7 b ), whence this latter comes to

be situated in a longitudinal fold which is continuous with the

base.

M. Muller on the Development of the Lycopodiacese. 119

Projecting into the interior of this cavity may now be discerned

a more or less roundish vesicle (figs. 7 c, 9 a). This is formed

of a very delicate, homogeneous membrane, perfectly hyaline,

therefore devoid of contents, and surrounded at its base by a

great number of smaller, more or less hyaline cells. This vesicle

is now apparently only the apex of the proper central axis of the

vascular bundle, as may be seen in figs. 7 and 9 ; and those cells

occurring at the base of the vesicle are the terminal ones of the

axis of the branch, the growth of which has not nearly kept pace

with that of the external cortical layer of the branch-axis, and

thus the cortical layer has become isolated and appears as the

sporangium. These cells subsequently acquire some green con-

tents; but they undergo no further development, and exist in

the perfect oophoridium merely as a compact mass of cells out

of which project the four spores.

The four spores however are formed in the vesicle produced

from the apex of the vascular bundle, and I have hitherto only

met with them in one single stage (fig. 15). Here they all four

lay closely grouped together and occupied the greater part of the

cavity of the vesicle. Each spore was already composed of a very

delicate, somewhat reddish-coloured membrane, which however

though still so young was already cellular . This last circumstance

has as yet remained perfectly incomprehensible to me.

Should subsequent investigations show that this cellular struc-

ture is only apparent, and that this appearance coincides with the

ridge-like projections which so often occur on the pollen-grains

of the Phanerogamia, the question of the origin of the four ger-

minative spores would be very clearly solved. We should here

have in the interior of the oophoridium exactly the same law,

that the matter contained in a mother-cell in the pollen-grain is

formed, regularly, into four portions — subsequently four pollen-

grains. We should have, in this vesicle, an actual mother-cell.

The further development of the spore is nothing more than a

gradual expansion of its membrane, which soon acquires a yellow

colour . It is quite empty, the form flat and compressed, and

tetrahedral in the same way as the antheridia-spores, so that a

long ridge may be observed on it (fig. 16). Little elevations

also soon show themselves upon it, — a sign that the membrane is

becoming thickened by the deposition of membranous matter.

As the spore increases in size however, the vesicle in which it

was formed disappears, and the four spores, which were originally

situated directly on the summit of the central axis, now lie scat-

tered in the four projecting lobes of the spore (sporangium?).

They go on swelling and becoming more thickened, until they

are at last found in that condition which was described in § 2.

The course of development of these spores must be very clearly

120 Mr. J . E. Gray’s Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals .

exhibited in L . selaginoides, where it must be possible to find

a great many stages at one time on a single spike, as so many

oophoridia occur on it. They must be also very easy to prepare

for examination here, — a matter of exceeding difficulty in L . den -

ticulatum.

In conclusion to these remarks on the oophoridium, two words

on the affinities of lsoetes and Lycopodium . It appears to me

that this question involves the import which must be attributed

to the large spore-sporangia of lsoetes. Are these metamor-

phosed branches or not ? In the latter case the affinity would

be merely apparent, only inasmuch that both, lsoetes and Lyco-

podium, exhibit two kinds of spores. In the former case, how-

ever, the affinity would be perfectly proved. The compressed,

concentrated stem of the Isoeteee would not be any great evidence

against the affinity, since we have become, through Kunze, ac-

quainted with the genus Phylloglossum. This is apparently a con-

necting link between lsoetes and Lycopodium ; and if A. Braun’s

opinion be correct, that Phylloglossum is to be regarded as a Ly-

copodium acaule, lsoetes would also have to be regarded as a

plant a acaulis of the Lycopodiacece . It is readily conceivable

that the term stemless plant is not to be taken here in its strictest

sense, but rather to be understood as indicating a plant with an

abbreviated stem.

Lastly, in reference to the import of the germinative spore of

the oophoridium, Bischoff (Krypt. Gew. 126) has called them

spore-bulbels ( tubercula sporoidea), and compared them to the

bulbels of Arum ternatum and Dentaria bulbifera. It is evident

that this has no meaning till we know the whole course of de-

velopment. The same applies to the expression receptaculum

tuberculiferum, which he applied to the oophoridium. I have

preferred the latter name because it is the more simple.

[To be continued.]

XV. — An Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals .

By J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

About ten years ago, when I arranged the Corals in the British

Museum, I was struck with the difficulty of determining with

precision the proper situation in the system either of Lamarck

or De Blainville, of a large number of the specimens we then

possessed, and in the c Synopsis ’ I made some remarks on the

variation which accidental circumstances, such as localities, &c.,

appeared to have on specimens of the same species. Since that

period I have examined the collections of corals which have

come in my way, and selected for the Museum collection the

Mr. J. E. Gray's Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals . 121

specimens which showed any variation or peculiarity of structure.

Being now called, by the increased space which I have at my dis-

posal, to re-arrange the collection, I intend in the following paper

to embody the result of my experience in the study of these in-

teresting beings.

Pallas divided the Madrepores into seven groups, according to

their general forms (Zooph. 275). Lamarck gave names to these

groups, and extended their number, taking for the characters of

his genera the form of the cell, the position of the mouth of the

cell, and the distribution of the cells with regard to each other in

the mass, and also if they were distributed on both or confined

to the upper surface of the mass, and if the mass was fixed or

free.

Forskal figured the animal of several species, Savigny in the

great work on Egypt figured another, and arranged them with the

harder Actiniae ; and subsequently Lesueur in three papers pub-

lished in the Memoires of the Museum and Philadelphia J ournal,

figured the animal of some other genera. Blainville with these

materials and with the original drawing made by MM. Quoy and

Gaimard in their < Circumnavigation/ in his article Zoophytes in

the c Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles' (afterwards published

separately as a Manual) attempted to characterize the genera by

the conjoint consideration of the animal and its coral, paying

more attention to the form of the cells than to the form of the

coral and the distribution of the cells in the mass, and certainly

he succeeded in much improving Lamarck's arrangement ; and

having Lamarck's original specimens within reach, he has referred

them to their proper genera according to his view, and produced

one of the best works on these animals which has yet appeared.

Unfortunately, like Lamarck, having only isolated specimens, and

often only fragments to examine, M. de Blainville has placed too

much reliance on the general form of the corals : thus he divides

his genus Gemmipora into arborescent, explaniform and crusti-

form ; the Montipora into crateriform and explaniform species ;

the Porites into incrusting, conglomerate and branching species ;

when the same species of these genera may be found in each of

these forms, and the species founded on these characters depend

only on some accidental and often local peculiarity of the speci-

mens, or may even have been broken from the same specimen.

M. Ehrenberg in 1834 proposed an arrangement of Zoophytes,

which, though it has much the external appearance of novelty,

made very little addition to the real knowledge of the stony

corals ; for his generic characters differ very little from those

given by Lamarck and De Blainville, though they are expressed

in a very different manner, and made chiefly to depend on

the mode in which the buds are developed ; and as this circum-

Ann. §• Mag . N. Hist. Vol. xix. 9

122 Mr. J. E. Gray*s Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals .

stance is in almost every instance only to be derived from the

study of the result in the perfect coral, and not from the deve-

lopment of the buds of the animals themselves, I think it is

better to state, as Lamarck and De Blainville have done, the de-

scription of the coral as found in the collection, than to give a

theoretical account of the development of the buds, leaving one

to divine what kind of coral must result from the development

of the buds described. As was to be expected, the development

which appears from the study of the Polyphyllice , for example, in

the different stages of growth in the same specimens, does not

appear to agree with the theoretical development described by

the author ; for in the young state this coral has a single star

with regular rays, and looks like an attached Fungia, but is rather

more solid ; new mouths, indicated by smaller stars, are gradually

developed near the centre, the number increasing as the coral

increases in size, and at length the mass becomes free and as-

sumes the oblong shape. It appears to be one of the great de-

fects of this arrangement, that the stony corals which are free in

the adult state, as Fungia , Haliglossa and Polyphyllia , are sepa-

rated from the others by Pennatula and its allied genera, because

the author believes these corals to be internal and hence free j

for we now know that these genera (which belong to two very

different groups) are all in their young state attached like other

corals. M. Ehrenberg compared these free internal corals to the

bones of cuttlefish, and the plant-like or external corals, as he calls

the other genera, to the shells of the oyster : he can only mean this

as a resemblance as regards their position, for neither the inter-

nal Fungia nor the external Cladocora are deposited or formed

like a shell, but merely consist of the hardening of the cellular

substance of the animal itself by the deposition of cretaceous

matter in the cavities of its cellular substance ; and the Fungia is

not truly internal, but placed in exactly the same situation as

regards the coral as the other genera, and only covered with a

reflexed part of the edge of the body. M. Ehrenberg divides the

plant or external corals into two sections, those which have many

and those which have twelve tentacles, but these divisions exactly

agree with the sections named Madrephylles and Madrepores

established by M. de Blainville.

M. Ehrenberg in the paper above referred to has described

many new species ; they have not been figured, and unfortunately

his characters are not very clear and are difficult to understand,

so that I am not able to refer to them with certainty,- more

especially as he places great reliance on the size of the coral

and on the size of the cells. Now experience has taught me

that both are very liable to variation even in different parts

of the same specimen or group. In the ( Synopsis of the British

Mr. J. E. Gray's Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals . 123

Museum' for 1842 I observe, “the form of the masses (of coral)

appears to be greatly influenced by the position in which they

have grown, and the size of the individuals (cells) greatly depends

on the quantity of nourishment they are able to procure. This

is proved by the fact, that if all the individuals of the same mass

are equally exposed they are of equal size, but if the surface of

the coral is waved as in Explanaria, the individuals on the

convex part of the mass which could procure the most food are

large, while those on the concave or sunken parts are small,"

p. 131. Continued experience and the examination of many

hundred specimens have only extended and confirmed these opi-

nions ; consequently I expect that many of M. Ehrenberg's new

species are what are only regarded in this paper as varieties : for

example, he has described six species of Seriatopora ; I have ex-

amined many specimens from different localities presenting dif-

ferences of size and of comparative thickness and length of the

branches, but am inclined to consider them as all varieties of the

same species*.

It is a common error to regard the whole mass of a Brainstone,

for example, as a living mass ; this is by no means the case ; it is

only a very shallow coat on its outer surface, which is alive at

one time ; for as the animal increases in size above, the deposition

of calcareous matter continues advancing below, and when that is

completely deposited it is of no further use to the animal but as

a support, and has no longer any organic life, for this part is in

fact buried in its own secretion. This is the case with most of

the coral animals, it is only the end of the Caryophylla or Dendrc -

phyllce , about as deep as the cavity of the cell, that is alive ; the

other part being merely a peduncle to support the animal. This

is well seen in the Oculina virginea , where the older branches of

the coral often become tubular.

This structure is further exhibited by the fact, that when any

part of a massive coral is injured and the animal destroyed, the

injured part is healed over by the lateral development of a thin

layer of coral, which is not to be distinguished in appearance

from the normal structure of the coral.

In general the edge of the cell and the laminae within it are

calcareous nearly to the surface of the animal, and in many of

* Since this paper has been in type, Mr. Forbes has kindly lent me a

volume by Mr. Dana on the Structure and Classification of Zoophytes (Phi-

ladelphia, 1846), containing some very interesting observations on these

animals made during the United States’ exploring expedition. Mr. Dana’s

classification of the stony corals is only a slight modification of that pro-

posed by M. Ehrenberg. The three works I have quoted have each a very

different character; — the French clear, calm and minute; the German

theoretical, almost mystical, and difficult; the American oratorical and

high-flown.

9*

124 Mr. J. E. Gray’s Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals .

these animals each individual is distinctly divided, and hence each

cell has distinct parietes ; but on the contrary in the Porites the

separate animals do not secrete any calcareous matter between

themselves, hence there are no distinct cells on the surface of the

coral, and the coral is very porous, being pierced in every direc-

tion, and what are laminae in other corals in this genus are only

calcareous spicula.

The animals of the stony corals, besides being reproduced by

eggs, which are developed between the septa of the stomach and

emitted by the mouth, as in soft coralless Actinice or the coria-

ceous Zoanthi , and form new individuals or masses, also have the

power of developing buds from their sides, or of increasing them-

selves by the spontaneous division of their stomachs, and it is by

these means that the masses of coral are enlarged and continued ;

and the forms which the various kinds of coral assume in their

growth, which gives the most prominent differences between their

genera, depend on the manner in which these buds are developed,

or the body of the animal spontaneously divided, each cell or

branch being either the growth of a separate bud or resulting

from this spontaneous division.

Before the spontaneous division of the animals takes place, the

stomach enlarges and a new mouth opens near the original one in

the disc, and from the mouth new radiating lamellse arrange

themselves, forming new centres, and this process is again and

again repeated. Now as the laminse of the coral represent the

plates in the stomachs, and the centre of the plates the mouth,

this kind of development may be observed in the coral nearly as

well as if the animal was present.

The effect of this kind of spontaneous division on coral is very

different in the two forms which the animals assume during their

growth ; and as these forms gradually pass into each other, so

their peculiarities become less apparent. If the animal grows in

height, raising itself on the gradually solidified part of the former

coral, as in the branched Caryophyllia fastigiata, Lam., where

the cells are round, they at length become oblong, then separate

in the middle, the separation becomes more complete, and at

length two complete similar cells are formed*, each placed on

the end of a branch divided by a fork, and this process is repeated,

forming a forked coral. The same kind of separation takes place

in Caryophyllia sinuosa , Lam., but here the divided portions some-

times form separate stars, and at others only form new centres

in the enlarged old star, which remains surrounded by the same

edge. It is this latter kind of division which forms the elon-

gated compressed cells of the Meandrince and the sinuous con-

See Synopsis Brit. Mus. 1842, 130.

Mr. J. E. Gray’s Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals. 125

tinued cells of Monticularice ; these forms gradually pass into the

next form.

On the other hand, if the animal chiefly extends its size by

spreading out laterally, forming a thin foliaceous expanded coral,

the cell of the young animal has simple rays, as is shown in the

young Fungia Talpa , Lam., in the British Museum; and as the ani-

mal expands, new mouths forming new centres are developed in

the disc of the star. This is the mode of growth of the Agaricice,

Pavonince , &c., the animals being continually expanded towards

the margins of the corals ; and when the cavities of the stomach,

separated by the septa which form the plates on the surface, are

sufficiently expanded (or perhaps too much expanded for the

food conveniently *to reach them), then new mouths are opened ;

hence the mouths, and the stars indicating these mouths, are gene-

rally placed in concentric lines parallel with the edge of the corals.

The foliaceous corals which are thus developed are easily known

from those which are produced by buds, for in the latter instance

(as the Gemmipora) the edge of the coral is formed by the last-

formed buds or stars, while in these the edges are formed by the

extended side of the stomach, and are thin and marked above

with the laminae of the stomach, the stars being some distance

within the margin.

In these corals the animals form a common mass, the cell of

the stomach of the different mouths having a more or less com-

plete communication with each other, which is not the case with

those which enlarge by buds, the polypes and their stomach

being separate from each other, and the animal only united by

their cellular integuments.

The manner in which the buds are developed also greatly mo-

difies the form of the coral ; thus if they are developed from the

expansions of the base, the coral formed is crustiform or rounded,

as in some Astrcece ; and if from the upper part of the cell, then

the coral is generally arborescent and branched. It may be ob-

served that it is the marginal or terminal that is the last deve-

loped bud, which shows plainly the manner in which the buds are

developed, as the after- development of the coral obliterates the

separation between them ; and further, when branches of different

stems meet or cross they are frequently united together in a single

network, as is the case with the horizontally expanded Madrepores

and Oculina virginea , and if the branches are arranged parallel

and by their growth become near each other, they by the deve-

lopment of the animal are united into a single expanded mass,

as in Madrepora palmata , where the separate spike-like branches

which are gradually united together to form the fronds are to be

seen on its edges.

As in the coral animals which enlarge by the spontaneous di-

126 Mr. J. E. Gray's Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals ,

vision of their digestive cavity, so in these, there are all kinds of

intermediate gradations between the two modes of development

above described ; indeed in some corals, as the Madrepores , in the

early stages of the animal, the buds appear to be developed from

the base of the sides forming a crust, and then one of the ani-

mals which is larger and stronger than the rest, ascends above

the level, throws off buds from its upper part, and the coral

becomes arborescent.

The buds are developed in various manners from the surface

of the body ; in the Oculina axillaris , Lam., they are emitted

from each edge of the cells, and the coral becomes forked with

the stars in the axilla ; in O. prolifera , Lam., one or two buds

are produced from one side of the animal ; and hence a kind of

secund arrangement of the cell. In O.flabelliformis a single bud

is developed on one side of the animal, and then this developes

another on the opposite side ; so that the young cells form a kind

of zigzag stem, and the whole coral assumes a fan-like shape ;

while in O. virginea and liirtella the buds are so developed, that

the animal assumes a somewhat spiral direction, the cell at the

tip being the one last developed.

In other corals, as the Seriatopores , the buds are developed in

pairs on the alternate side of the branch, hence the cells appear

in longitudinal series ; and lastly, in the Porites , Pocillopora

and Sideropora , each of the animals at the end of the compressed

branches developes a bud on the upper side, and the branches

are prolonged.

In other corals a single animal continues to ascend, and as it

grows developes from its sides a succession of buds which form

lateral cells ; some of these being produced form branches emit-

ting buds like the original stem. This is well seen in Cargo -

phyllia ramea , Lam., where the lateral cells and branches are

smaller than the main stem ; sometimes, as in C. flexuosa , Lam.,

where the whole coral assumes a subglobular shape, the branches

are nearly as large as the stem. In the genus Madrepora the

original animal as it elongates gives out a succession of buds on

all sides, forming subspiral whorls of cells round its base ; some

of these cells in their turn becoming the parent of a similar set

of buds. It is this original cell which forms the “ apex per-

forate ” in Lamarck's description of these corals.

There is extreme difficulty with regard to the authority that

can be placed in the figures hitherto published of the animal of

these corals. Donati (Mer Adriat. 50. t. 7) figures the animal

of Madrepora ramea , and M. Milne Edwards, who has seen the

animal on the coast of Africa, assures us it has nothing resem-

bling the hooked appendages figured by Donati ( Lam . H. edit. 2.

ii. 354). MM. Quoy and Gaimard figure in the Voy. of the Ura-

Mr. J. E. Gray's Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals. 127

nia, t. 96, the animal of Mad. ccerulea , but in the Voyage of the

Astrolabe they found that what they had taken for the animals

must be parasites, which must have been lodged between the cells,

and not what they then regarded as the true animals of the corals.

M. Lesueur figures the animal of several species of Meandrince ,

but they all differ from the animal which MM. Quoy and Gaimard

(Voy. Astrolabe) figure as being the animal of that genus, and

both differ from M. Ehrenberg's account of the animal. Lesueur

describes Astrcea ananas as having no tentacles, and Quoy de-

scribed under the same name a coral that has small rounded

tubercle-like tentacles !

Synopsis of the Families.

1. Animal 12- or fewer rayed , with 12 or fewer tentacles placed

in a single series ; coral cells gemmiferous , circumscribed , simple ,

with 12 or fewer longitudinal ridges, and sometimes furnished with

a central style. Les Madrepores, Blainv. Fhytocorallia dodeac-

tinia, Ehr.

Fam. 1. P ocilloporidas, Gray, Syn. B . M. 1842, 130.

Coral hard, solid, brittle, spinulose or granulated; cells 6-sided,

simple, shallow, ciliated or spinulose.

Seriatopora, Lam . Pocillopora, Lam . Stylopora, Seine. (Si-

deropora, Bl., and Anthopora, Gray.)

Fam. 2. Stylasteridal

Coral minutely porous ; cells deep, cylindrical, with six grooves,

each ending in a pore and a central style.

Stylaster, Gray.

Fam. 3. Madreporidas, Gray.

Coral porous, spongy and rough ; cells deep, circular, with six

or twelve longitudinal folds, immersed or produced, subcylindri-

cal, and without any central style.

Madrepora, Lam. Heliopora, Bl. Asteriopora, Bl. Monti-

pora, Bl, Millepora, Linn . (Palmipora, Bl.)

Fam. 4. Poritid^e, Gray.

Coral very porous, spongy and rough ; cells many-sided, with

granulose edges, more or less incomplete filamentose or spinu-

lose lamellae, surrounded by pierced or netted parietes.

Porites, Lam. Alveopora, Bl.

2. Animal many -rayed, and with many tentacles, placed in two

or more series ; coral cells with 12 or more radiating plates. Les

Madrepores, Blainv . Zoocorallia and Phytocorallia Polyactinia,

Ehrenb.

128 Mr. J. E. Gray’s Outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals .

a. Coral cell circumscribed, with only a single centre ; lamince

smooth or very slightly serrated; animal gemmiferous . Ocellina,

Ehr.

Dendrophyllid m.

Coral moderately hard, porous ; surface minutely longitudi-

nally striated ; cells truncated, concave, generally with a convex

centre.

Tubastrea, Dendrophyllia, Bl. (Cladocora, Ehr.) Explanaria,

Lam. (Gemmipora, BL)

OcULINIDiE.

Coral hard, covered with an enamel surface ; cells concave, with

radia extended over the edges, or with the outer edge radiately

grooved.

Cyathina, Ehr . Oculina, Lam. Anthophyllum, Schw. (A.

fasciculatum.)

b. Coral cells circumscribed or not defined , confluent , with many

centres ; lamince serrated and extended , reflexed over the outer sur-

face of the coral , or extended from centre to centre ; coral hard ,

with a hard enamel surface ; animal growing by spontaneous divi-

sion. Daedalina, Ehr.

Caryophylliad^:.

Cells deep, round (or sinuous with many centres) ; laminae torn,

serrated, with a sinuous twisted centre, and often with interme-

diate smaller plates not reaching the centre ; animal continuing

to grow upwards and gradually to expand in diameter.

Caryophyllia, Lam. (Lobophyllia, Bl.) Tridacophyllia, Bl.

Manicina, Ehr. Dipastrea, Bl.

Meandrinidas.

Cells deep, elongate, compressed, with a single series of equal

laminae forming a single linear impressed line in the centre ; ani-

mal continuing to grow upwards and gradually to expand in

diameter.

? Fungia, Lam. Flabellum, Lesson. Meandrina, Lam. Mon-

ticularia, Lam.

Agariciadae.

Cells shallow, not circumscribed, but scattered and united to

one another by laminae on the star-bearing surface of the coral ;

animal expanding out laterally, forming a leaf-like frondose coral.

***Agaricia and Pavonia, Lam. Stephanocora, Ehr. Echi-

nastrea, Blainv. ? Astraea, Lam.

Zoological Society .

129

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 11, 1846. — George Gulliver, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

A paper was read entitled “ Notes on certain species of birds from

Malacca/' by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S.

Having lately examined a collection of Malacca birds belonging

to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, comparing them with speci-

mens in my own cabinet, and with the descriptions given by MM.

Temminck, Blyth, Eyton and other authors, I have thrown together

such remarks as appeared necessary for the elucidation of their cha-

racters and synonymy. For some of the identifications of species I

am indebted to Mr. Blyth’s letters to myself*.

Athene scutulata (Raff.), ( Strix hirsuta, Temm., Ninox nipalensis ,

Hodgs.) — This is the Athene malaccensis of Mr. Eyton, Ann. Nat.

Hist., v. xvi. p. 228.

Caprimulgus macrurus, Hors. — Differs from the C. albonotatus,

Tickell, of India, in its smaller size, being only about 1 1 inches in

total length, wing 7y, tail 5^, and in its darker colour. It appears

to be the same as the C. macrurus from North Australia figured by

Mr. Gould, except in wanting the second white patch seen on the

breast in his figure.

Cypselus affinis , Gray. — Rather larger and of a deeper black than

Indian specimens, but I do not venture to separate them. Wing

inches, tail 2£.

Ceyx tridactyla , (Pall.) — Much confusion has existed in the

synonyms of this and the next species. The present one is distin-

guished by the whole back and wing-covers being black, each feather

terminated with deep blue. It is well-figured by Mr. Jerdon in

plate 25 of his 4 Illustrations of Indian Ornithology.' It is found in

South India and the Malay Peninsula. The following synonyms

refer to it: — Ceyx luzoniensis, Steph. ; Alcedo purpurea , Gm. ; A .

erithaca, j3. Lath. ; Ceyx microsoma , Burton ; Sonn. Voy. Nouv. Guin.,

pi. 32 ; Buff. PI. Enl., 778. f. 2. ; Penn. Gen. Birds, pi. 5.

Ceyx rufidorsa, Strickland. C. capite , dorso , tectricibus cau-

ddque totis Icete rufis , splendore lilacino variantibus ; corpore

subtus aurantio-flavo y mento albo , loris et maculd aurium obscure

cceruleo-nigrd .

This species, which also occurs at Malacca, is very closely allied

to the last, but differs in having the beak larger in all its dimensions,

and in having the whole back and wing- covers, as well as the crown,

rump and tail, rufous, with a brilliant lilac tints The dark blue spot

on the front and ears is much less marked than in C. tridactyla .

Lower parts orange-yellow ; chin white. This bird was supposed

by Pallas, in his ‘ Spicilegia Zoologica,' part 6, p. 13, to be the female

* Since this paper was written I have seen some rectifications of synonyms by

Dr. Hartlaub, Rev. Zool. 1846, p. 1, which nearly agree with those here arrived at.

130

Zoological Society .

of C. tridactyla. It is figured by Messrs. Jardine and Selby in tbe

‘ Illustrations of Zoology/ ser. 1. pi. 55. f. 2. as C. tridactyla . Mr.

Jerdon, in his ‘ Illustrations of Indian Zoology/ refers this bird to

Alcedo madagascariensis, Lin. ; but as that bird is distinctly described

by the accurate Brisson as having four toes, it must be a true Alcedo,

and I have therefore given a new specific name to the present bird.

Prionochilus thoracicus, (Tern.), PI. Col. 600. f. 1. — Temminck’s

specimens were from Borneo, an island which has but few species in

common with the peninsula of Malacca. This is closely allied to

P. percussus, which I adopted as the type of my genus Prionochilus.

This genus is very near to Dicezum , and has the stoutest and shortest

beak of all the Nectariniidce . Many systematists would place it near

Pipra or Pardaloius , but the finely serrated mandibles point out its

true affinities.

Dicceum chrysorrhceum , Tern. PL Col. 478. — Judging from the

similarity of plumage in the young of Priorwchilus percussus , I sus-

pect that this bird is either the female or young of some other species

of Dicceum.

Phyllornis moluccensis (Gray), Zool. Misc. — This is the P. mala -

haricus of Tern. PL Col. 512. f. 2. and of Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng.

1843, p. 957, but is not the true malabaricus of Sonnerat and Sco-

poli, which has been rediscovered in South India by Mr. Jerdon, and

is a larger bird, with the head green and the forehead orange. The

last is the P. ccesmarhynchus of Tickell. In P. moluccensis the whole

top and sides of the head are a clear yellow, surrounding the black

of the chin and throat, and passing into golden yellow on the hind

neck. A small spot on each side of the maxilla indigo-blue. Rest

of body green ; lesser wing-covers azure, primaries and lateral rec-

trices externally greenish blue. P. aurifrons of Nepal differs from

both the above in the chin being blue, &c.

Parus flavo crist atus, Lafr. ( Melanochlora sumatrana , Less. ; Cratai -

onyx ater , and flavus, Eyton ; Parus sultaneus , Hodgs.) — One of the

Malacca specimens is fully as large and as long-crested as Mr. Hodg-

son’s Nepal ones. This is a perfectly typical Parus , and is the

largest species which I know except the so-called Oreoica cristata of

Australia, which I also consider a true Parus.

Pitta cyanura , Gm. ( M . affinis , Horsf.) — An immature specimen;

exhibits plain blue feathers in various parts of the abdomen, which

appear to be supplanting the barred black and rufous feathers com-

monly seen in this species.

Turdus modestus, Eyton. — One of the specimens before me, pro-

bably a fully adult, has the whole throat cinereous brown, and only

the tip of the chin white.

Criniyer gularis (Horsf.), (Ixos phceoceplialus, Hartl. ; Trichoplio-

rus caniceps , Lafr.; Pycnonotus rufocaudatus , Eyton). — This is a true

Criniger , though the beak is rather wider than in the type species.

Pycnonotus cyaniventris , Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. ( Malaco -

pteron aureum, Eyton) The smallest species of Pycnonotus with

Zoological Society . 131

which I am acquainted. Mr. Blyth makes it the type of his genus

Ixidia .

Pycnonotus melanocephalus (Gm.), ( Ixos atriceps , Tern. PI. Col.

147.) — This seems to be the Ixos metallicus of Mr. Eyton, in which

case the length, eight inches, assigned by him (Ann. Nat. Hist. v. xvi.

p. 228), is probably a misprint, as the specimens before me hardly

exceed six inches.

Pycnonotus crocorrhous, Strickl., Ann. Nat. Hist. v. xiii. p. 412. —

A specimen before me lias the vent pale scarlet, and is evidently the

Hccmatornis chrysorrhoides, Lafr., Rev. Zool. 1845, p. 367, but is

otherwise identical with that formerly described, in which the vent

is ochreous-yellow. These differences may be sexual. It differs

from Pycnonotus hcemorrhous of Southern India in having the ear-

covers and lower parts nearly white, and in other respects.

Myiagra pyrrhoptcra (Tern.), PI. Col. 596. f. 2. (Muscipeta plumosa,

Blyth ; Philentoma castanea, Eyton.) — This bird is intermediate be-

tween Myiagra and Muscipeta, but the development of the uropygial

feathers alluded to by Mr. Eyton is hardly sufficient to form a generic

distinction. It is probable that the long downy feathers of the lower

back and rump, which admit of being expanded laterally, like an

umbrella, over the wings, and which we meet with in many distinct

groups of tropical Insessores, as the Formicariincc of America, the

Laniariincc of Africa, and the Pycnonotince and Timaliince of Asia, may

be a provision of nature against the violent and long-continued rains

of the torrid zone. The species of Flycatcher before us, and the one

which follows, may, from their mode of life or geographical distri-

bution, be more exposed to rain than the other species of Myiagra ,

and may be provided with extra clothing accordingly.

Myiagra pectoralis, Lord Arthur Hay in Madras Journ., March

1846. — This is another species, in which the dorsal and hypochondrial

feathers are lengthened and thickened, even to a greater degree than

in the last. The whole plumage is uniform plumbeous blue, except

the lores and chin, which are blackish ; the flanks, which are streaked

with whitish ; and the inner webs of the remiges and rectrices, which

are black. Beak and legs black, the former strong, the rictal bristles

reaching two-thirds of its length. The first three remiges graduated,

the fourth and fifth equal. Total length, 7-J- inches ; beak to front,

7 lin. ; to gape, 11 lin. ; height, 2^ lin. ; breadth, 4^ lin. ; wing, 3 in.

10 lin. ; medial rectrices, 3^ in. ; external ditto, 3 in. 5 lin. ; tarsus,

7 lin. A younger specimen is marked with rufous on the wing-

covers, abdomen and lower tail- covers. According to Lord A. Hay,

the above-described is the female, the male having the breast claret-

coloured, a state of plumage which I have not seen.

Pertcrocotus modestus, Strickland. P. corpore supra cinereo

subtus albo, remigibus atris , primariis 5 ad 9 et secundariis om-

nibus fascid subbasali albd ; rectricibus atris , albo large termi -

natis.

Above uniform cinereous ; front whitish ; lores black ; remiges

blackish, the medial portion of their inner webs white ; the fifth to

132

Zoological Society.

ninth primaries and all the secondaries with a sub-basal white bar

on the outer webs ; rectrices blackish, largely tipped with white ;

chin and lower parts white. Length, 8 inches ; beak to front, 5^ lines ;

to gape, 9 lines ; breadth, 3 lines ; wing, 3f- inches ; medial rectrices,

3| inches ; external ditto, ly inch; tarsus, 8 lines; middle toe and

claw, 8 lines ; hind ditto, 5 lines.

This is a typical species, but is at once distinguished from all the

other known species of Pericrocotus by the absence of red or yellow

in the plumage.

Dicrurus malabaricus , Scop. (Z). rangoonensis, Gould ; D. retifer ,

Tern.) — Racquet- tailed Dicrurus , with a very short erect frontal

crest.

Dicrurus balicassius (D. affinis, Blyth). — This seems to be the true

balicassius of Linnaeus, judging from Brisson’s description, though I

have never seen a specimen from the Philippine Islands to compare

with the Malacca bird.

Lanius lucionensis , Lin. — Having now examined many specimens

from the Philippines, Malacca and British India, I find so many vari-

ations in the rufous tint of the upper parts, the amount of white on

the forehead, and the size of the beak, that I am compelled (con-

trary to my former opinion, Ann. Nat. Hist., v. xiv. p. 44) to regard

them as forming one widely-spread and variable species. The Ma-

lacca specimens exhibit a considerable amount of variation in the

size of the beak, and the Philippine ones are generally less rufous

than those from India. If this view of specific identity be correct,

Lanius cristatus , Lin. ; L. super ciliosusy Lath. ; L. phcenicurus, Pallas;

L. magnirostris , Belanger; L. melanotis, Valenciennes; L.ferrugi -

ceps , Hodgson; and L. strigatus , Eyton, will all stand as synonyms

of Lanius lucionensis , Lin.

Eupetes macrocercus, Tem. — This form appears to belong to the

subfamily Timaliince , a group chiefly confined to the Malasian archi-

pelago and the peninsula of Malacca, and which seems to me to in-

clude the following genera ; Timalia proper, Brachypteryx, Malaco-

pteron , Macronus , and one or two others. They are distinguished

by great density of plumage, especially on the rump, a more or less

shrike-like beak, well-developed legs, and a coloration in which

rufous and brown predominate. Little is known of their habits, but

they probably form a subfamily of the Laniidce , and may be placed

next to Formicariince , in which most of the South American Tham -

nophili and Antcatchers should be included.

Malacopteron oliva ceijm, Strickland. M. supra olivaceo-brun-

neum, remigibus fuscis , extus rufo-brunneo , intus albido marqi-

natis ; rectricibus rufo-brunneis, rvfo niarginatis ; loris superci -

liisque cinerascentibus, mento et gula sordide albidis , pectore

lateribusque pallide olivaceis, abdomine pallide fulvo , crisso pal -

Vide rufo.

Upper parts olive-brown ; remiges fuscous, edged externally with

reddish brown and internally with whitish ; tail reddish brown, mar-

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Zoological Society .

gined externally with rufous. Lores and streak over eye greyish ;

chin and throat dirty white ; breast and sides pale olive-brown ; belly

pale fulvous; vent and lower tail-covers light rufous; upper man-

dible fuscous, lower yellowish; feet and claws yellowish brown.

Total length, 6 inches; beak to front, 10 lines; to gape, 1 inch;

height, 3 lines; breadth, 3| lines; wing, 2 inches 10 lines; medial

rectrices, inches ; external ditto, 2 inches ; tarsus, 1 inch ; middle

toe and claw, 1 1 lines ; hind ditto, 9 lines.

Malacopteron macrodactylum, Strickland in Ann. Nat. Hist., v. xiii.

p.417. — Since described as Brachypteryx albogularis by Dr. Hartlaub,

Rev. Zool. 1844, p. 401. It is however a true Malacopteron , which

genus differs from the type of Brachypteryx by its shorter legs and

by the beak, in which the shrike-like form is developed to the greatest

extent of all the Timaliince. Brachypteryx sepiaria of Horsf. is a

Malacopteron* .

Timalia pectoralis, Blyth (= Malacopteron squa?natum, Eyton).

Timalia nigricollis, Tern. PI. Col. 594. f. 2. ( Brachypteryx nigrogu-

laris, Eyton ; Timalia erythronotus , Blyth), — This is atypical Timalia.

Timalia erythroptera, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. ( Timalia pyr-

rhophcca , Hartl. ; Brachypteryx acutirostris , Eyton). — A true Timalia .

Amadina acuticauda , Hodgs. in Asiatic Researches, v. xix. — A

well-marked species intermediate between A. striata , Lin., and A.

punctularia, Lin.

Agapornis ? malaccensis, Lath. sp. — In the descriptions hitherto

given of this bird no mention is made of the deep brownish red

feathers on the radial margin of the wing. Mr. Blyth makes of

this bird his genus Psittinus.

Tiga Rafflesi , Vig. — The only description which I can find of this

curious bird is in the classified list given by Mr. Vigors of the ani-

mals of Java and Sumatra, published in the Appendix to the edition

of the * Life of Sir Stamford Raffles.’ As few persons think of look-

ing into a biographical work for a treatise on zoology, this paper is

less known than it deserves to be, and I therefore extract the dia-

gnosis given by Mr. Vigors of the species before us : —

Picus rafflesi, Vig., 1. c. p. 669. P. supra flavescenti-brunneus,

subtus brunneus ; capite coccineo ; gula pallide ferruginea ;

strigis, una ab oculis, secunda a rictu extendentibus maculisque

ad latera abdominis albis ; strigis duabus ad latera genarum,

altera parva superciliari ; remigibus rectricibusque nigris.

The specimen before me is a female, and has the crown and elon-

gated crest-feathers wholly deep black ; the upper parts are yellowish

olive and the lower olive-brown ; all the remiges have three round

white spots on the inner webs of each ; the lower wing-covers are

pale yellowish, margined with brown. In all other respects the bird

agrees with the description above-quoted. Its total length is 10J

* Mr. Blyth makes my M. 'macrodactylum the type of his genus Turdinus , but

I cannot approve of genera founded on such very slight distinctions.

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Zoological Society .

inches ; beak to front, 1^ inch ; to gape, 1^- inch ; wing, 5|

inches ; medial rectrices, 4| inches ; external ditto, inches ; tarsus,

10y lines ; middle toe and claw, 13 lines ; reversed ditto, 10 lines ;

hind-toe entirely wanting.

The beak is of moderate length, the culmen nearfy straight, the

gonys ascending, the apex compressed, a slight but distinct ridge

running parallel to the culmen, and the nostrils are covered with

incumbent feathers. As the Tig a iridactyla resembles in its style of

plumage the orange-backed woodpeckers, Brachypternus and Chryso-

colaptes , so the more uniform coloration of this species calls to mind

the green woodpeckers which form the typical Gecini. But the beak

is stronger and more adapted for chopping wood than in the latter

group, and resembles more the structure of that organ in the red-

winged and yellow- crested Gecini , such as G. nipalensis (Gray), G .

mentalis (Tern.), &c.

Tig a iridactyla, — Identical with specimens sent by Mr. Jerdon

from Madras, except in being smaller. The wing measures only 5

inches, while in the Madras ones it is 5f- inches. Mr. Blyth has

already noticed this distinction, but I cannot consider it as a spe-

cific one.

Hemicercus rubiginosus , Swains. Birds W. Af. v. 2. p. 150. ( Picus

rubiginosus f Eyton.)

Hemicercus concretus (Tern.), PL Col. 90. ( Dendrocopus sordidus ,

Eyton.)

Cuculus Sonnerati , Lath. — This species, which occurs also in

Southern India, appears never to assume a typically adult plumage,

being invariably barred with brown and rufous above, and brown

and white below.

Centropus recttjnguis, Strickland. C. corpore nitide cceruleo-

nigrOy alls rufist primariis fusco terminals, ungue hallucis sub -

breviy recto .

Body and tail glossy black, with a deep blue tint on the head,

neck and breast ; wings wholly rufous, the primaries slightly tipped

with fuscous ; hind- claw short and straight. Total length, 14-15

inches; beak to front, lj inch; to gape, l~inch; height \ inch ;

width, \ inch ; wing, 6 inches ; medial rectrices, 1\ inches ; external

ditto, 6^ inches ; tarsus, 1| inch ; claw of hind-toe, \ inch. Nearly

allied in size, form of beak and coloration to C. philippensis , Buff.

PI. Enl. 824. (C. bubutuSy Horsf.) of India, Java and the Philippines;

but differs in the shorter wings and tail, and in the hind-claw being

almost perfectly straight, and only half an inch long ; while in C.

philippensis (sent by Mr. Jerdon from Madras) this claw is three-

quarters of an inch long and considerably curved : the wing measures

inches and the tail 1 0 inches.

Treron Capellei (Tern.), PI. Col. 143. — The largest of the genus,

and erroneously named militarist in many museums. I inadvertently

described this as new, under the name of magnirostris in the Ann,

Nat. Hist., v. xiv. p. 116.

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Zoological Society .

Treron fulvicollis (Wagl.), (T. tenuirostre , Eyton.)

Rollulus niger. — The female of this bird has been described by Mr.

Vigors under the name of Cryptonyx ferrugineus , and by Mr. Eyton

as Perdix ceruginosus (Proc. Zool. Soc. part 7. p. 106). It departs

from the type of Rollulus in possessing a rudimentary hind claw.

Turnix pugnax, Tern. PI. Col. 60. f. 2. — This seems to be the He -

mipodius atrogularis of Mr. Eyton, Proc. Zool. Soc. part 7, p. 107.

Rallus striatusy Lin. ( Rallus gularis, Horsf., Blyth, &c.) — I have

specimens of this species from the Philippine Islands, Malacca and

Madras, which present no specific difference, and which exactly agree

with Brisson’s description of his Rallus philippensis striatus, on

which R. striatus, Lin., is founded.

November 24. — William Yarrell, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Gould exhibited to the Meeting, named and described three

Australian Birds collected by the late Mr. Gilbert, viz. : —

Petroica superciliosa. Pet. strigd superciliari, guld, abdomine ,

et humeris infra, albis ; loris , auribus, et alarum tectricibus , atris ;

primariis et secondariis, ad basin albis, ad mediam intense atris ;

alis, cauddque fuligineis ; rectricibus, intermediis duabus exceptis,

ad apices albis .

Superciliary stripe, throat, abdomen, under surface of the shoulder,

and the base of the primaries and secondaries white ; lores, ear-

coverts, wing-coverts, and the primaries and secondaries for some

distance beyond the white, deep black ; all the upper surface, wings,

and tail, sooty-brown ; all but the two central tail-feathers largely

tipped with white ; bill and feet black ; irides reddish brown.

Total length 5 inches ; bill, f ; wing, 3 ; tail, ; tarsi,

Hab. The neighbourhood of the Burdekin Lakes, in the interior

of Australia.

Poephila leucotis. Poe . vittd in fronte, loris, guldque, et macula

magnd quoque in latere, intense holosericis nigris ; auribus, lined

attenuatd nigrum in guld colorem infra marginante , et spatio macu -

lam in latera circumdante, albis ; vertice, omni superiore corpora ,

alisque, saturate cinnamomeis ; pectore, et abdomine , pallid e vinosis ;

tectricibus caudce superioribus infer ioribusque albis .

Band crossing the forehead, lores, throat, and a large patch on

each flank, deep velvety black ; ear-coverts, narrow line beneath the

black of the throat, and a space surrounding the black patch on the

flanks, white ; crown of the head deep reddish chestnut ; all the upper

surface and wings dark cinnamon-brown ; chest and abdomen pale

vinous brown ; upper and under tail-coverts white, the former mar-

gined externally with deep black ; tail black ; irides dark brown ;

feet red; bill yellowish liorn-colour.

Total length, 4§ inches ; bill, § ; wing, 2^ ; tail, 2£ ; tarsi,

The female is somewhat smaller and not quite so brightly coloured.

Hab. The neighbourhood of the river Lynd, in the interior of

Australia.

Remark . — Nearly allied to P. personata.

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Microscopical Society .

Climacteris melanotus. Cli. strigd superciliari, guldquey albo-

cervinis ; lined ante oculum , alterd post oculum, omni superior e

corpore, alis , cauddque , saturate fusco-nigris ; primariis , secon-

dariis , tertiariisque ad basin , et humeris infra stramineis ; corpore

inferiore vinoso ; singula abdominis plumd lineis duabus spatium

album marginantibus nigris longitudinaliter prope caulem ornatd.

Superciliary line and throat buffy- white ; line before and behind

the eye, all the upper surface, wings, and tail, dark brownish black ;

the base of the primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries, and the under

surface of the shoulder buff ; under surface pale vinous brown ; the

feathers of the abdomen with two stripes of black running parallel

to and near the stem, the space between dull white; at the base of

the throat several irregular spots of black ; under tail-coverts buffy-

white, crossed by broad bars of black ; irides brown.

Total length, 5 \ inches ; bill, f ; wing, 3^; tail, 2^; tarsi,

The female differs in having the markings of the abdomen larger

and more conspicuous, and in having the spots at the base of the

throat chestnut instead of black.

Hab. The neighbourhood of the river Lynd, in the interior of

Australia.

Remark. — Nearly allied to C. melanura and C. scandens.

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Nov. 11, 1846. — J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the

Chair.

A paper was read by Mr. John Quekett, entitled “ Additional Ob-

servations on the intimate Structure of Bone/’

The author, after alluding to a previous paper on the same subject

read before the Society in March last, in which he described certain

characters peculiar to the bones of each of the four great classes of

the vertebrate kingdom, by which a bone of each class could be

easily distinguished, and after pointing out the importance of the

knowledge of this subject to the palaeontologist and geologist in en-

abling them to determine the nature of any fossil fragment of bone

however minute, went on to state that he had ascertained that the

cells of the bone bore a certain relation in point of size to that

of the blood-discs ; thus for instance the blood-discs were found to

be largest in reptiles, smallest in birds and mammalia, and were in

fishes of an intermediate size ; and he had discovered that the bone-

cells followed the same law. In the present paper Mr. Quekett

stated the results of his examination of the structure of the bone of

the perennibranchiate reptiles, viz. the Syren, Proteus and Axolotl,

which have the largest blood-discs of all the vertebrata ; and he

found that in them the bone- cells were the largest also, which

fully bore out and confirmed his former statement. Diagrams were

exhibited which represented the bone-cells in the human subject, the

Ostrich, Turtle, Syren and Lepidosteus, when magnified 450 dia-

meters, by which means their characteristic differences were ren-

dered very evident.

A second paper by John King, Esq., Ipswich, was read, “ On a

Miscellaneous . 137

Method by which all objects may be polarized under the Micro-

scope. ”

The analyser consists of a double image prism placed over the

eye-piece of the instrument, and a plate of selenite is then put upon

the stage ; the edges of the field will then appear coloured, while the

centre remains colourless. Any object introduced into the field will

exhibit the effects of polarized light with great intensity and purity

of colour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ADDENDUM TO THE BIRDS OF CORFU.

Platalea leucorodia , the Spoonbill or White Spoonbill.

Corfu, Nov. 15, 1846.

This bird, according to Yarrell, is still an occasional summer visitor

in England, has been noticed by Mr. Robert Ball in Ireland, by

Mr. Eyton in Wales, and by Sibbald and Fleming in the Scottish

islands. Of the northern regions its favourite summer resort is

Holland, and Temminck says that it is nowhere so abundant as

there. In winter it seeks a warmer abode, and flocks amongst other

southern localities to the salt-marshes or sea-coast of Italy, being

specially abundant, says Temminck, at Cagliari in Sardinia. In these

islands the naturalist has not as yet recorded the Spoonbill, and the

occurrence of the present bird, the young of the year, is therefore

highly interesting, as offering another line or belt of migration. I

received the bird with the blood quite fresh upon it on the 31st of

October, and therefore conclude it was shot in the island itself. I

was unable to ascertain from the bird-dealer (not the sportsman) who

brought it whether others had been seen, but I conclude, as the bird

was one of the year, or at least an immature bird, as shown by the

beak and quill-feathers, and by the absence of elongated occipital

feathers, that it was not alone in its flight. — J. E. Portlock.

Corfu, Nov. 23, 1846.

Platalea leucorodia. On inquiry I find that the Spoonbill re-

corded by me as appearing at the close of October was one of a

flock of about seven birds, three of which, all immature, like the one

noticed by me, were shot. Signor Gangadi informs me, that though

rare at Corfu it has been occasionally observed, and that he believes

it appears every season on the Albanian coast. It is recorded amongst

the Dalmatian birds by Dr. Carrara in his work ‘ Dalmazia descritta ’

now publishing.

I observe also in Dr. Carrara’s work, Aquila neevia, Ardea comata ,

Sterna leucoptera, birds added by me to the former list of Corfu birds.

- — J. E. Portlock.

ACHILLEA TANACETIFOLIA, ALL.

This beautiful plant has been recently added to the list of British

species by Mr. John Hardy. He has found it in two places, as he

considers, indubitably indigenous and notan escape from cultivation,

Ann, fy Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xix. 10

138

Miscellaneous.

viz. on “ Cromford Moor near Matlock, Derbyshire, July 21, 1843/’

and on “ a rough hilly bank near Ringing Low, five miles from

Sheffield, July 1844 ; the plant accompanied by Vaccinium Vitis-Idcea,

&c., and growing among a profusion of Lastrcea oreopteris ” It is

the A. dentifera (DeCand. Prod. vi. 25), but that is not separated from

A. tanacetifolia by many, of which it seems to be only a variety. —

C.C.B.

On the Characters separating the four great Divisions of the Animal

Kingdom. By J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

Great attention has been paid to the anatomical character which

separates the four great divisions of the animal kingdom, but com-

paratively little attention has been paid to the external form of the

groups and the characters furnished by their supports.

Form and Limbs. Supported

Vertebrata with two pair : two

on each side of the body for

walking or flight.

Organs of sense in pairs.

Annulosa with five pair : five on

each side of the body, for creep-

ing or flight.

Organs of sense in pairs.

Mollusca : a single central foot

for crawling.

Organs of sense in pairs.

Radiata : a circular free or at-

tached body.

The organs of sense in a circle.

by a permanent internal cartila-

ginous skeleton hardened by

age, and restored and removed

by the vessels like the rest of

the body.

by a hardened external skin

which is periodically shed.

by two lateral shelly valves* se-

creted by the skin and attached

to the body by muscles,

by horny or calcareous matter

deposited in the entire or su-

perficial part of the cellular

substance of the body, part of

which is often killed by the

excess of the deposit.

ON THE GENUS CALOPTYLUM.

To Richard Taylor , Esq.

Haslar Hospital, Gosport, January 12, 1847.

Dear Sir, — In the Ichthyology of the voyage of the ‘ Sulphur ' I

described a fish from the collection of Sir Edward Belcher which

I then considered to be the type of a new genus under the name of

Caloptylum. Mr. Thompson lately called my attention to the Breg -

maceros MacClellandi published by him in the fourth volume of your

‘ Annals/ p. 184 (April 1840), which is evidently of the same genus,

but most probably another species. Bregmaceros is therefore the

prior generic appellation. I remain, faithfully yours,

John Richardson.

* The second valve is sometimes reduced to the form of a lid or opercu-

lum, and sometimes entirely wanting, but is often found in the foetal state

when wanting in the adult animal.

Miscellaneous .

139

THE TEIN-CHING, OR CHINESE INDIGO.

When in the north of China my attention was directed to a plant

largely cultivated by the inhabitants for the sake of its blue dye. In

the southern provinces a considerable quantity of indigo (Indig of era)

is cultivated and manufactured, besides a large portion which is an-

nually imported from Manilla and the Straits. In the north, how-

ever, the plant which we call indigo is never met with — owing, I

suppose, to the coldness of the winters — but its place is supplied by

this Isatis indigotica, or the “ Tein-ching ,” as it is called by the

Chinese. I met with it in the Nanking cotton district, a few miles

west from Slianghae, where it is considered a plant of great import-

ance, and covers a large tract of country. It is grown in rows a

few inches apart, and at a distance looks like a field of young turnip

or cabbage plants. In June 1844, when I was in that country, the

plants were from 6 inches to 1 foot in height, and being considered

in perfection, the natives were busily employed in cutting them and

removing them to the manufactory. One of these places which I

inspected was close on the banks of the canal, and was placed there

for the convenience of the farmers, who brought their leaves in boats

from the surrounding country, as well as to be near the water, a

large quantity of which was requisite in the manufacture. It con-

sisted of a number of round tanks, which are built for the purpose of

steeping the leaves. The leaves are thrown into the tanks and co-

vered with water, and, after remaining for a certain length of time,

the juice is drawn off into other tanks, where I believe it is mixed

with lime. The colour of the liquid at first is a kind of greenish

blue, but after being well stirred up and exposed to the air it be-

comes much darker and very like the well-known indigo of com-

merce. I suppose it is thickened afterwards by evaporation in some

way, but that part of the process did not come under my observa-

tion. I am very much inclined to believe that this is the dye used

to colour the green teas which are manufactured in the north of

China for the English and American markets ; this, however, is only

conjecture. The plant has a half- shrubby stem covered with a fine

bloom. Its root-leaves are oval-lanceolate, on long stalks, sharp-

pointed, slightly toothed, and somewhat fleshy ; those on the upper

part of the stem, near the flowers, are linear. The stem is decum-

bent, a foot and a half long, and divided at its extremity into several

drooping racemes about 6 inches long ; on its sides it bears here

and there small clusters of leaves like those of the root. Flowers

very small, yellow. Silicles black, quite smooth, 6 lines long by

2 wide in the broadest part, oblong, obtuse at each end, a little

contracted below the middle, with a thin edge and a single median

line. — Fortune , in Journal of the Horticultural Society.

M. SCHONHERR.

M. Schonherr the celebrated Swedish entomologist has had a

distinguished mark of royal favour conferred upon him in November

last by being made Knight Commander of the Royal Order of Wasa,

having previously in 1829 by the late King of Sweden been made

Knight of the Royal Order of the Polar Star.

10*

140

Miscellaneous .

On the Minhocdo of the Goyanese. By M. Auguste de Saint-

Hilaire* * * §.

Luiz Antonio da Silva e Souza, whose acquaintance I made during

my travels, and to whom we owe the most valuable researches on

the history and statistics of Goyaz, says, in speaking of the lake of

Padre Aranda, situated in this vast province f, that it is inhabited by

minhocoes j ; then he adds that these monsters — it is thus he ex-

presses himself — dwell in the deepest parts of the lake, and have often

drawn horses and horned cattle under the water §. The industrious

Pizarro, who is so well acquainted with all that relates to Brazil,

mentions nearly the same thing, and points out the lake Feia, which

is likewise situated in Goyaz, as also being inhabited by minhocoes ||.

I had already heard of these animals several times, and I con-

sidered them as fabulous, when the disappearance of horses, mules

and cattle, in fording the rivers, was certified by so many persons,

that it became impossible for me to doubt it altogether.

When I was at the Rio dos Piloes, I also heard much of the min-

hocoes ; I was told that there were some in this river, and that at

the period when the waters had risen, they had often dragged in

horses and mules whilst swimming across the river.

The word minhocdo is an augmentative of minhoca, which in Por-

tuguese signifies earth-worm ; and indeed they state that the monster

in question absolutely resembles these worms, with this difference,

that it has a visible mouth ; they also add, that it is black, short, and

of enormous size ; that it does not rise to the surface of the water, but

that it causes animals to disappear by seizing them by the belly.

When, about twenty days after, having left the village and the

river of Piloes, I was staying with the Governor of Meiapont, M.

Joaquim Alvez de Oliveira, I asked him about these minhocoes : he

confirmed what I had already been told, mentioned several recent

accidents caused by these animals, and assured me at the same time,

from the report of several fishermen, that the minhocao, notwith-

standing its very round form, was a true fish provided with fins.

I at first thought that the minhocao might be the Gymnotus Ca-

rapa , which according to Pohi^f is found in the Rio Vermelho, which

is near to the Rio dos Piloes ; but it appears from the Austrian writer

that this species of fish bears the name of Terma termi in the coun-

try ; and moreover the effects produced by the Gymnoti are, accord-

ing to Pohl, well-known to the mulattos and negroes who often felt

them, and have nothing in common with what is related of the min-

hocao. Professor Gervais, to whom I mentioned my doubts, directed

my attention to the description which P. L. Bischoff has given of the

* This notice is taken from an unpublished work on the province of

Goyaz.

f The province of Goyaz stretches from nearly 5° 22' lat, south to the

22nd degree, and is greater than France.

I Plural of minhocao.

§ See Memoria sobre o descobrimente, etc. da capitania de Goyaz in the

* Patriota/ 1814.

|| Memorias Historicas, etc., vol. ix. p. 332.

*|T Reise, vol. i. p. 360.

Miscellaneous .

141

Lepidosiren* ; and indeed the little we know of the minhocao agrees

well enough with what is said of the rare and singular animal dis-

covered by M. Natterer.

That naturalist found his Lepidosiren in some stagnant waters near

the Rio da Madeira and of the Amazon : the minhocao is not only

said to be in rivers, but also in lakes. It is, without doubt, very far

from the lake Feia to the two localities mentioned by the Austrian

traveller ; but we know that the heats are excessive at Goyaz. La

Serra da Paranaliyba e do Tocantimf , which crosses this province, is

one of the most remarkable dividers of the gigantic water-courses of

the north of Brazil from those of the south ; the Rio dos Piloes be-

longs to the former, as does the Rio da Madeira. The Lepidosiren

paradoxa of M. Natterer has actually the form of a worm, like the

minhocao. Both have lins ; but it is not astonishing that they have

not always been recognized in the minhocao, if, as in the Lepidosiren ,

they are in the animal of the Rio dos Piloes reduced to simple rudi-

ments. “ The teeth of the Lepidosiren ” says Bischoff, “ are well-

fitted for seizing and tearing its prey; and to judge of them from

their structure and from the muscles of their jaw, they must move

with considerable force/* These characters agree extremely well

with those which we must of necessity admit in the minhocao, since

it seizes very powerfully upon large animals and drags them away

to devour them. It is therefore probable that the minhocao is an

enormous species of Lepidosiren ; and we might, if this conjecture

were changed into certainty, join this name to that of the minhocao

to designate the animal of the lake Feia and of the Rio dos Piloes.

Zoologists who travel over these distant countries will do well to

sojourn on the borders of the lake Feia, of the lake Padre Aranda,

or of the Rio dos Piloes, in order to ascertain the perfect truth — to

learn precisely what the minhocao is ; or whether, notwithstanding

the testimony of so many persons, even of the most enlightened

men, its existence should be, which is not very likely, rejected as

fabulous. — Comptes Rendus, Dec. 28, 1846.

AWARD OF MEDALS. LINNASAN SOCIETY.

A Special General Meeting of this Society was held on Friday the

8th of January, to consider the subject of the following Statement

and Resolution of Council relative to the Bequest of the late Edward

Rudge, Esq., F.L.S.

The Council, after much patient and anxious deliberation, had

unanimously come to the following resolution : —

“ Resolved, — That in the opinion of this Council, on a full con-

sideration of the terms of the bequest of the late Edward Rudge, Esq.,

of the interest of a sum of £200, for the purpose of establishing a

Medal ‘ to be awarded by the President and Council of the (Linnsean)

Society, at their discretion, to the Fellow of the said Society who

shall write the best communication in each volume which after his

(the testator’s) decease shall be published by the said Society, in

* Annales dcs Sciences Naturelles, 2me serie, tom. xiv. p. 116.

f In an article on the whole of the mountains of Brazil, 1 shall make

known the portion of the chain which should bear this name.

142

Miscellaneous .

either of the four departments of Natural History/ it is inexpedient

to accede to the liberal intentions of the testator under the conditions

expressed in his will/’

This Resolution, which received the entire concurrence of the

President and of every Member of the Council, was chiefly founded

on the following considerations : —

The great object of the Linnsean Society, as of all other bodies

similarly constituted, is the production and publication of such essays

as tend to the advancement of that branch of science which it culti-

vates. The principal question therefore in reference to Mr. Rudge’s

bequest, is the manner in which its acceptance would operate on the

Society’s publications, and the Council has arrived at the conclusion

that its tendency would be prejudicial rather than favourable ; inas-

much as while the Medal would offer no inducement to some of those

Members who have hitherto been in the habit of communicating

papers which have had a place in the ‘ Transactions/ they might,

on the contrary, be unwilling to submit their future communications

to this new ordeal; and it does not appear probable that the Medal

would prove a stimulus to the production of more valuable Essays

from any other class of the Society. On the other hand, it is pro-

bable that dissatisfaction would arise in the minds of some of those

Members, who after contributing papers to more than one volume of

the ‘ Transactions,’ should fail in obtaining the award of a Medal.

A second objection to the acceptance of the bequest arises from

the absence of any discretionary power of withholding the Medal,

which is necessarily to be awarded to the best paper in every volume,

and consequently to papers of very unequal value, thereby lowering

the character of the Medal, and consequently affecting the scientific

reputation of the Society itself.

Differences of opinion, and consequent dissatisfaction, would also

be not unlikely occasionally to arise in deciding upon the compara-

tive merits of papers in botany and zoology, the twTo branches of

natural history, of which, for many years past, the Transactions of

the Society have exclusively consisted.

Another point may still be noticed as decidedly unfavourable to the

acceptance of the bequest, namely, the not improbable award of the

Medal by the Council, in some cases to one of its own body, in strict

conformity with the conditions of the will ; conditions which neither

the Council itself, nor (as it appears from the tenor and provisions

of the will) any other party has the power to modify.

These objections have appeared to the Council so important as not

to admit of any other course but that of respectfully declining to

accept a bequest, the operation of which would in all probability be

injurious to the best interests of the Society, by lowering the cha-

racter of its publications, and endangering the continuance of that

harmony which has hitherto prevailed in all essential points. The

Council is at the same time deeply sensible of the kind and liberal

intentions of Mr. Rudge, and entertains a sincere regret that the

express terms of his will should have rendered the acceptance of his

bequest liable to such grave objections.

The meeting was numerously attended, and the President (the

Meteorological Observations .

143

Bishop of Norwich) having read from the chair the above Statement

on the part of the Council, some of the Fellows who had been Mem-

bers of the Councils of the Royal and Geological Societies stated

their opinion of the inconvenience and injurious tendency of the

awarding of medals in those Societies, and their inutility for the

promotion of science ; after which the Resolution proposed by the

Council was unanimously approved and adopted.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR DEC. 1846.

Chiswick . — December 1, 2. Foggy. S. Cloudy : frosty 4. Sharp frost : fine.

5. Cloudy : clear and fine : overcast. 6. Clear : cloudy. 7. Fine : cloudy,

8. Cloudy: fine. 9. Slightly overcast : drizzly : slight rain. 10. Rain. 11.

Frosty: snowing: clear and frosty. 12. Frosty: cloudy: clear and frosty.

13. Frosty: cloudy: severe frost at night. 14. Severe frost: clear and frosty

throughout. 1.5. Severe frost: densely overcast: clear and frosty. 16. Sharp

frost: clear and cold: frosty. 17. Densely overcast: fine : slight snow. 18. Sharp

frost : clear : overcast. 19. Rain : foggy. 20. Rain : cloudy. 21. Rain: clear

and frosty at night. 22. Slight frost and fog : fine : clear. 23. Rain. 24. Foggy.

25. Frosty: clear. 26. Clear and frosty. 27. Frosty: cloudy: clear and frosty.

28. Frosty and foggy. 29. Slight frost . overcast. 30. Densely overcast : frost

at night. 31. Sharp frost: foggy.

Mean temperature of the month 31°*26

Mean temperature of Dec. 1845 40 *41

Average temperature of Dec. for the last twenty years 40 *04

Average amount of rain in Dec 1*58 inch.

Boston. — Dec. 1. Fine : snow on the ground. 2. Cloudy : snow on the ground.

3. Fine : snow on the ground. 4. Cloudy : snow on the ground. 5. Fine : snow

on the ground: rain p.m. 6. Fine. 7. Rain 8. Fine: rainp.M. 9. Cloudy: rain

p m. 10. Fine. 1 1, 12. Snow : snow on the ground. 13 — 16. Cloudy : snowon the

ground. 17. Cloudy : snow early a.m. 18*, 19. Cloudy : snow on the ground.

20. Fine : snow on the ground. 21. Cloudy : snow on the ground. 22. Fine:

snow nearly all gone : melted snow. 23. Cloudy. 24. Snow : snow on the

ground. 25, 26. Fine : snow on the ground. 27 — 30. Cloudy : snow on the

ground. 31. Cloudy : snow on the ground : melted snow.

Sandwich Manse , Orkney. — Dec. 1. Showers : clear. 2. Bright : sleet-showers.

3. Hail-showers: sleet-showers. 4. Bright: showers. 5. Showers: sleet-

showers. 6. Sleet-showers : cloudy. 7. Rain : clear. 8. Drizzle : cloudy.

9. Drizzle : shower : clear : aurora. 10, 11. Snow-showers : snow-drift. 12, 13.

Snow-drift : snow-showers. 14. Snow-showers. 15. Snow- showers : snow-drift.

16. Snow-showers. 17. Snow-showers : snow : clear. 18. Thaw : quick thaw.

19. Frost : showers. 20. Bright : clear : hoar-frost. 21. Rain: showers. 22.

Hail-showers: frosty. 23. Hail-showers : clear : aurora. 24. Hail-showers:

cloudy. 25. Clear : cloudy. 26. Bright : cloudy. 27. Bright : rain. 28.

Bright : drizzle. 29. Drizzle : clear. 30. Fine : clear : halo. 31. Drizzle.

Apple garth Manse , Dumfries- shire. — Dec. 1. Thaw. 2 — 4. Hard frost. 5.

Wet. 6. Frost : clear. 7. Frost. 8. Frost, but dull. 9. Frost, slight.

10. Thaw: slight snow. 11 — 14. Keen frost. 15. Keen frost: slight snow.

16. Keen frost : sleet. 17. Keen frost : slight snow. 18. Frost a.m. : rain p.m.

19 — 21 Wet. 22. Frost, keen. 23. Frost, keen : slight snow. 24. Frost, keen :

more snow. 25, 26. Frost, keen. 27. Thick fog : frost. 28. Thaw : fog: rain.

29. Thaw : thick fog. 30,31. Thaw : fog.

Mean temperature of the month 33 °*5

Mean temperature of Dec. 1845 39 '5

Mean temperature of Dec. for twenty-three years 38 *3

Mean rain in Dec. for eighteen years 3 inches.

* Not so cold a day in December since 28th December 1829, which was 16°*5.

Not so cold a month of December for twenty years at least : December 1829 was

very cold — average 33°*1.

Meteorological Observations made by Mr. Thompson at the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London; by Mr. Veall, at

Boston; by the Rev. W. Dunbar, at Applegarth Manse , Dumfriesshire; and by the Rev. C. Clouston, at Sandwich Manse , Orkney.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

No. 125. MARCH 1847.

XVI.— On the Reproduction of Lost Parts in the Articulata.

By George Newport, F.R.S. &c.

[With a Plate.]

The reproduction of lost parts in animals is an occurrence of

great interest to the physiologist, when considered with refer-

ence to the function of nutrition, or with regard to the manner

in which the external parts of the body are originally formed.

It is desirable, therefore, that we should carefully record every

fact that can in any way assist us in explaining the phenomena

connected with it, or that tends to verify its occurrence in any

particular class.

Naturalists, for a long series of years, have been aware that

the Crustacea and Arachnida have a power of reproducing their

limbs when the original ones have been accidentally lost or re-

moved, but, until a somewhat recent period, this power was

believed to be confined almost entirely to those two classes of the

Articulata. It was believed that true insects were not endowed

with it, or at most but to a very slight extent.

Beckmann formerly noticed the existence of a leg of diminu-

tive size in Agrion virgo *, and Goeze a similar one in Semblis

bicaudata^ ; whence the latter naturalist concluded that these

were parts which had been reproduced. But no experiments

whatever seem to have been made by him, or by any other natu-

ralist, so far as I am aware, to test the question as to whether true

insects possess the power of reproducing lost parts, until those

which were made by Dr. HeinekeJ. This gentleman's observa-

tions however were imperfect, as they were made only on the

antennae of Blatta and Reduvius. The antennae of these species

were reproduced, but no experiments were made on the legs.

* Physikalisch-oekonomische Bibliothek, vol. iii. p. 20.

f Naturforscher, par. xii. p. 221.

X Zoological Journal, vol. iv. p. 422.

Ann. Sf Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xix.

11

146

Mr. G. Newport on the Reproduction

Dr. Burmeister indeed, in 1836*, made a general vague state-

ment that mutilated caterpillars are said to obtain new limbs,

but his remark was not accompanied by any reference to experi-

ments in support of the fact ; while he remarked of insects gene-

rally, that they “ display but very slight traces of a power of re-

production.” Subsequently to this, Professor Muller, in the excel-

lent English edition of his f Physiology* byDr.Baly inl837, stated

that the larvse of insects reproduce their antennse, and that those

of Phasma also reproduce their legsf- No observations had yet

been made to show that any of the Myriapoda possess this power,

until a specimen of ticolopendra subspinipes with the eleventh leg-

on the left side extremely diminutive, was exhibited by myself at

a meeting of the Entomological Society in November 1839, and

pointed out as an instance of reproduction in that class. In the

following February the Rev. F. W. Hope exhibited an Australian

Scolopendra with one of the posterior legs very diminutive, and

which, with me, he regarded as a structure that had been repro-

duced. This view was strongly objected to by Mr. J. Obadiah

Westwood, the entomologist, who contended that these were only

instances of retarded development ; and he maintained this opi-

nion with much perseverance. In November 1840 the same gem

tleman produced to the Society, in support of his assumption, a

specimen of Lithobius with a diminutive posterior leg, which he

regarded as an instance of retarded development, and not as one

of reproduction.

As the promulgation of erroneous opinions is a matter of

serious import to science, more especially when sheltered by ap-

parent facts, I endeavoured to put these opinions and my own

views to the test of experiment. Accordingly, I instituted a series

of experiments on the Myriapoda, both on the Chilognatha in

1841 and on the Chilopoda in 1842. These most fully verified

my formerly expressed belief. The Iulidce and Lithobii were both

found to possess the power of reproducing their antennae and

legs. This was proved to be most extensively possessed by the

very young animal, in which the legs can be reproduced even a

second time. The first of these experiments in 1841 were wit-

nessed by my friend Mr. Waterhouse, and this gentleman bore

testimony to the facts at a meeting of the Entomological Society

in January 1844 when I announced them J, on the occasion of the

reading of some observations by Mr. Fortnum on the repro-

duction of a limb, observed by himself in Phasma . On that

occasion I also pointed out the fact, that the armature of spines,

&c. on reproduced limbs is almost always imperfect, and often

* Manual of Entomology by Shuckard, 1836, p. 42 7.

f Elements of Physiology by Baly, vol. i. p. 405, 1837.

J Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist. vol. xvi, p.274.

147

of Lost Parts in the Articulata.

entirely absent; a fact which Mr. J. Obadiah Westwood after-

wards* quietly re-announced without due acknowledgement.

Mr. Waterhouse's testimony in support of my facts has also been

most strangely omitted by Mr. J. 0. Westwood, the Secretary, in

his printed report of that meeting t, notwithstanding that Mr.

Waterhouse's confirmation was duly entered in the Minute Book

of the Society. Mr. W estwood however still doubted that the

fact was common to the whole class of insects.

Mr. Fortnum's observations on Phasma confirmatory of the

statement by Muller, together with Heineke's on the antennae of

Blatta and Reduvius , and an observation then made by Mr.

Marshall, that he had once observed a specimen of the common

Blatta with one leg much smaller than the rest, were regarded by

Mr. J. 0. Westwood as showing only a power of reproduction in

those insects which do not undergo a complete metamorphosis ;

and on a subsequent occasion J he endeavoured to draw a distinc-

tion between these, and those which do undergo such change,

and announced his belief that the Lepidoptera are incapable of

reproducing lost parts.

With a view to set this question at rest, as I had already set

at rest that respecting the Myriapoda, I made a series of experi-

ments in the following summer on the larvae of two of our com-

monest Lepidoptera, Vanessa urticce and V . Id, the nettle and

peacock butterflies. The results of these were perfectly confir-

matory of the general view, and established the fact, that a power

of reproduction of lost parts is common to the whole of the In-

secta. The observations on V. urticce were communicated to the

Royal Society on the 20th June 1844, and are printed in the

‘ Transactions ' for that year. An account of these experiments

was also given a few months later, and the specimens exhibited

to the Entomological Society in October 1844, at which time

Mr. H. D. S. Goodsir also gave an account of his own experi-

ments on the Crustacea.

Thus then these experiments have established the fact as a

law, that the whole of the Articulata have the power of repro-

ducing lost parts. Every new observation on the growth of

parts confirms this view. Very recently I have received, in a

collection of insects from Melbourn, Port Philip, a specimen of

Panesthia, one of the Blattidce , in which the metathoracic leg

on the left side has been reproduced. The entire limb is not

more than one-third of that of the corresponding one on the

opposite side, but, as in the insects experimented on, it pos-

sesses the whole of the essential parts of the organ — the coxa,

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. p. 277. f Loc. cit . 274.

X Proceedings Ent. Soe. March 1844 ; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi.

11*

148 Mr. G. Newport on the Reproduction

femur, tibia, tarsus and claw, as well as rudiments of spines

(PL VIII. fig. 2). It thus agrees precisely with the new limbs

produced in Lepidoptera. I have found in every instance in my

experiments that all the primary or essential parts of a limb exist

when the new organ first makes its appearance ; but that its se-

condary parts, as, for instance, the armature of spines and the

joints of the tarsus, are later in their formation. The joints of

the tarsus usually are fewer in number in new limbs that have

not attained the normal size than in the original limbs. This is

invariably the case when the limb is first produced. As the en-

tire organ continues to grow, the tarsus becomes more and more

elongated, proportionately to the other parts ; and when the insect

next changes its tegument, the number of joints to this part

of the limb is increased by the production of a new joint at the

distal extremity of the penultimate one, interposed between it

and the joint which bears the claw ; precisely as new segments are

added to the body of the Myriapod, between the last newly-pro-

duced segment and the caudal, or penultimate, at each change of

its covering. It is in this way also that new joints are developed

in the antennse of Lithobius, always at the distal margin of a pre-

existing joint, only that in this case the new part is formed at

the distal end of each previous joint.

In the specimen of Panesthia above alluded to, there are only

three joints to the tarsus, instead of five, besides the unguis. Of

these, the basilar or true tarsal joint, as in the perfect limb, is the

longest, so that those joints which are nearest to the body are

always, at first, most quickly enlarged and elongated. Thus, as

the growth of the whole limb proceeds, first the femur and next

the tibia become proportionately elongated, and lastly the tarsus

and its subdivision into joints. This is a fact of some import-

ance in a comparative anatomical and zoological point of view,

because it shows that an increased number of tarsal joints

amongst true insects is not a proof of inferior development.

The immediate source of origin of the new limb is extremely

difficult to ascertain. My own experiments on Lepidoptera, and

Mr. Goodsir’s on the Crustacea, lead to the belief that the new

limb has its origin in a little, elevated, central point, beneath the

cicatrix which covers the surface of the space to which the old

limb was attached ; and that within this little elevated point, as

within a capsule, the microscopic rudiments of the new limb are

formed. Mr. Goodsir’s observations on the Crustacea seem to

show that even at this early period the limb is formed of distinct

articulations; but recent observations made by myself on the

original formation of the limbs in the Chilopoda and in the For-

ficulidce have led me to believe that this is not the case in the

earliest state of the limbs in the Myriapoda and in these insects,

149

of Lost Parts in the Articulata.

but that commencing as little tubercles they are first elongated

to some extent, and that their division into joints takes place at

a subsequent period.

No reproduction of limbs is manifest until the period of change

of tegument. Nor does the growth of a newly-formed limb con-

tinue apparent after the first few hours or day subsequent to a

deciduation of tegument, when the new covering has become con-

solidated. The further enlargement of parts is then arrested until

the next change. If a limb is lost by the young insect early in life,

the newly-produced one grows more rapidly at each change, and

ultimately acquires the same size and same number of joints as

the normal limb on the opposite side of the body. If, on the

contrary, the insect has approached to within one or two changes

of its perfect state, then the new part never attains to the adult

size or number of joints.

There are many circumstances which greatly influence the pro-

duction of new parts. The chief of these are — the temperature

and hygrometric state of the atmosphere, and the health, and

quantity of nourishment supplied to the animal. If the tempe-

rature of the season is below the average height, or the atmo-

sphere be loaded with an excess of moisture; or the insect weak and

unhealthy, or not supplied with a proper quantity of food, the expe-

riment, usually, will fail. Under the first of these circumstances

the insect often dies from exhaustion from loss of blood, owing to

the coagulation of effused blood not taking place ; in the latter

they have not sufficient power to undergo the change. Healthy

insects, in a proper temperature of the atmosphere, usually begin

to take food in large quantities soon after the haemorrhage con-

sequent on the excision of the old limb has ceased. A greater

quantity of nourishment seems always to be required in the re-

paration of every severe injury or lesion of structure; as every

severe injury always more or less retards, although it does not

necessarily prevent, the usual changes. These circumstances are

operative to a greater or less extent in different species of insects.

Thus some species undergo their changes at a much lower average

temperature than others. The common nettle butterfly, on which

my first experiments were performed, undergoes its changes at a

lower temperature than the peacock, V. Id, the subject of my se-

cond set of observations. Vanessa urticce is in general from thir-

teen to fourteen days in the pupa state, at a mean highest range

of temperature of from 55° F. to 60° F ; but the same insect

undergoes its changes in from eight days and a half to nine or

ten days in a temperature of from 70° F. to 75° F. The peacock

butterfly, Vanessa Id, requires naturally a higher temperature for

its development than V . urticce ; it comes forth, as is well known,

later in the season and nearer midsummer. It usually is fully

150 Mr. A. Hancock^ Notes on Buccinum undatum.

fourteen days in chrysalis at the seasonal temperature. The spe-

cimens bred by myself were developed in somewhat more than ten

days, when the mean of the lowest temperature during that period

was 71°*06 F. and the highest 75°*5 E.

In conformity with this, I found that V. urticce is the best

species for experiment, owing to its not requiring so high a tem-

perature for development. On Plate VIII. fig. 3 is represented

one of the specimens of V. Id which were the subjects of expe-

riment. It has the left mesothoracic leg reproduced precisely in

the same stage of development as the new limb in Ponesthia .

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Pig. 2. Inferior surface of Panesthia ? (magnified two diameters) with

the left posterior leg reproduced.

Fig . 3. Inferior surface of specimen of Vanessa lo, from which the left meso-

thoracic leg was removed at the end of the fourth change of the

larva.

XVII. — Notes on Buccinum undatum.

By Albany PIancock, Esq.

During a short residence at Cullercoats in 1841, I paid some

attention to the various forms of Buccinum undatumy with the

view to determine whether the several reputed species of this pro-

tean shell should retain the rank to which they have been elevated

by some naturalists, or be reduced to mere synonyms.

In furtherance of this object I collected extensive suites of the

different varieties, and soon ascertained that there are three well-

marked forms, which on this coast at least do not appear to run

into each other, and which are procured from distinct localities

and from different depths of water. These three forms are distin-

guished from each other by their general shape and habit, and

not merely by the undulations and strise, characters of little im-

portance in this portion of the genus, and on which conchologists

have placed too much reliance. In all the three varieties the

undulations and stride are very variable ; the form of the mouth

and columella, however, is constant throughout, never losing the

essential characteristics, which are retained in the most robust

and coarsely undulated as well as in the most delicate and

smooth.

At first I was inclined to think it probable that these three

varieties might prove to be distinct species; but after a length-

ened and careful investigation I feel satisfied that they are mere

varieties, though of permanent and strongly-marked characters,

resulting from locality and depth of water. The animals of these

three varieties do not appear to vary.

It is evident from what has been said respecting the undula-

Mr. A. Hancock’s Notes on Buccinum undatum. 151

tions and striae, that the surface of the shell in this species can-

not be depended on, whether these three varieties are to be con-

sidered specifically distinct or not ; but that failing the animal

we must look to the columella and mouth, and of course to the

general form and habit, for specific characters. Keeping this in

view, I have drawn together the following notes, which I trust

may assist in elucidating this intricate species.

I find by a recent number of the f Annals/ that Mr.Wm. King

has described these three varieties, giving an account of their lo-

calities and general habits as I pointed them out to him, shortly

after I had commenced the examination of the species. I was

rather surprised at this, particularly in respect of the coarse va-

riety without an epidermis, and the shore variety, as I believe he

had never collected these two forms himself, nor has he ever pos-

sessed a sufficient number of them to illustrate them peculiar

modifications and the permanency of their characters, and as he

was aware that I was about to publish on the subject. He how-

ever commits an error, when he states that the shore variety is

only found on rocks and pebbly bottoms. Had he attained an

accurate knowledge of the subject, such as might be derived from

personal experience on the coast of Northumberland, he must

have known that it also occurs on mud.

It has been stated by Mr. Gray, that “ the thickness, the

roughness, and the smoothness of the surface of shells appear to

depend, in a great measure, on the stillness or agitated state of

the water which they inhabit. The species of our own coast/’

that gentleman says, “ afford abundant instances of this : the

shells of Buccinum undatum and B . striatum of Pennant have no

other difference, than that the one has been formed in rough

water, and is consequently thick, solid and heavy ; and the other

in still water of harbours, where it becomes light, smooth, and

often coloured.”

This is scarcely corroborated by what is observed on the North-

umberland coast : there, the thickest and roughest forms are from

twenty fathoms water, and the thinnest and smoothest from much

greater depths. In both these cases the water is probably less

agitated than in harbours, where the depth is generally much less.

The third variety, however, which is intermediate in coarseness

and thickness, is procured between tide-marks, and consequently

subjected to the most violent action of the sea. The thin delicate

specimens are, I believe, always found on a soft sandy or muddy

bottom, and the strong rough individuals on hard or rocky

ground. It is therefore probable that the food, varying in loca-

lities so different, may modify development. The three principal

varieties themselves undergo considerable change on different

grounds, irrespective of depth. Thus the beach variety on rocks

152 Mr. A. Hancock^s Notes on Buccinum undatum.

is strongs rather rough and without an epidermis, but on mud

it is clothed with a thick hairy epidermis, and is comparatively

smooth and thin. No doubt many causes are in operation to

produce these changes, and the stillness or the agitation of the

water may have some influence ; but the nature of the ground

and depth would appear to be the chief agents in modifying the

forms of this species.

The mouth of B. undatum is oval, and the arch of the colu-

mella is not much interrupted at its junction with the outer lip

by the bulging of the body whorl into the mouth ; near the mid-

dle there is an obscure fold or swelling which gives to the colu-

mella the appearance of being twice bent, and before sloping off

to the left it is advanced towards the outer lip : the enamel does

not extend far over the body whorl.

Slight variations of course occur ; in some the mouth is wider

and more rounded than in others, and the columella varies a little

in length : as a general rule it is shortest in the thin and delicate

varieties, but to this there are many exceptions.

All the various forms of B . undatum concur in these characters

of the columella and mouth, and may be placed with one or other

of the three principal varieties found on the coast of Northumber-

land, which I shall now proceed to describe.

Variety 1. is found in forty fathoms water and upwards on a

muddy bottom.

Mr. Alder informs me that on the west coast of Scotland it

occurs in much shallower water.

This variety is undoubtedly the true B . undatum , and is taken

everywhere on the British shores : it is sometimes four or five

inches long ; the shell is moderately thick with the undulations

well-developed, and is always covered with a somewhat strong

hairy epidermis ; the spire is usually as long as the mouth, and

the whorls are considerably rounded. In this state it is the

j B. vulgare of Da Costa, and the B . undatum of Muller, Bruguiere,

Montagu, Donovan, Kiener, Brown and others. The B. angli-

canum of Brown and the B. striatum of Pennant also belong to

this state, varying only by having the undulations more or less

obliterated, and the spiral strise well-marked and regular. The

B . anglicanum of Lamarck is not a British species.

This variety is occasionally very thin and delicate, and has the

spire sometimes considerably produced and the whorls much

rounded. The B. undatum of Brown (Illust. Conch. 2nd. ed. pi. 3.

fig. 2) is an example of the extreme form of this state which oc-

curs not unfrequently on the Dogger-bank. It is however impos-

sible to draw any line of demarcation between these thin, delicate,

elongated shells and the more general appearance of this variety.

Fleming unites B . Humphrey sianum with his B. striatum . I

Mr. A. Hancock’s Notes on Buccinum undatum. 153

have seen nothing, however, to warrant the union of that species

with any of the varieties of B. undatum , and am inclined to con-

sider the former well characterized ; it is distinguished from the

latter by the ovate form of the mouth and the shape of the colu-

mella, as well as by the character of the surface.

The B. carinatum of Turton is a mere lusus of the deep-water

variety (var. 1.). There is in the Newcastle Museum a specimen

taken by the Rev. J. Law on the Durham coast like Turton’ s shell

with the whorls flattened and carinated above, without undula-

tions, and rather finely and regularly striated. The form of the

columella and mouth of this specimen also agrees with the figure

of B . carinatum , and proves it to be B. undatum , whilst the epi-

dermis and general form of the shell place it with this variety.

Varieties like B. carinatum occur in various species, and are

occasioned by some original malformation of the mantle, or by

injuries sustained by it. These varieties therefore frequently ex-

hibit old fractures of the shell. I possess a specimen of Lit -

torina vulgaris which has the whorls strongly flattened and cari-

nated above. The shell however was originally of the normal

form ; but a fracture is apparent in the second or third whorl,

and from thence the abnormal appearance is continued through-

out the succeeding whorls. Had the fracture been unattended

by injury to the mantle, the shell would have assumed its proper

shape, as is commonly seen to be the case in repaired shells.

Variety 2. is procured in twenty fathoms water on a hard gra-

velly bottom.

It is common on the Northumberland and Durham coasts,

where it is brought to shore by the fishing-boats. This variety is

smaller than variety 1, rarely measuring more than three inches

long ; it is somewhat fusiform, very thick, heavy and rugged,

and generally much undulated ; the spire, which is as long as

the mouth, is conical, and the whorls are not much rounded ; the

mouth is white, or occasionally of a yellowish colour : this form

has no epidermis.

The B. undatum of Pennant perhaps belongs to this variety,

judging from the figure, in which the outer lip appears to be in

a growing state. An elongated form of it is figured in Brown’s

c Illustrations of Conchology,’ 2nd ed. pi. 3. fig. 1. In Mr. Alder’s

cabinet there is a specimen from Zetland precisely agreeing with

this figure, which is stated to be from an individual procured

from deep water off the Orkney coast. The B. Zetlandicum of

Forbes also appears to belong to this variety, differing from

Mr. Alder’s shell and Captain Brown’s figure only in being de-

void of undulations, and more regularly and finely striated ; the

spire, too, is not quite so much produced. A specimen closely

resembling the B. Zetlandicum was taken on the Durham coast

154 Mr. A* Hancock's Notes on Buccinum undatum.

by the Rev. George Cooper Abbs : it is almost without undula-

tions, and is finely and regularly striated. There can be little

doubt that this individual is a mere modification of variety 2.

The B. Zetlandicum seems to be different from B. fusiforme of

Bro derip, with which Professor Edw, Forbes, however, is disposed

to unite it. It is probable that B. fusiforme occurs in the seas

around Zetland, for I have seen a drawing of a shell brought from

thence by Dr. Charlton which agrees very accurately with Bro-

derip's figure, particularly in the form of the columella and mouth,

the peculiarities of which would appear to distinguish this spe-

cies from all its allies.

In the Newcastle Museum there is a very much elongated

shell with the whorls flattened and the apex much acuminated.

This specimen was taken on the Durham coast by the Rev. J.

Law, and is undoubtedly a mere lusus belonging to variety 2 : it

is only an inch and a half long, and is imperfectly and obscurely

undulated. In other respects it is a very good representation of

B. acuminatum of Broderip ; it lacks however somewhat of the

perfect symmetry of that shell, but has the strong plait and ge-

neral form of the columella, thus proving it to be a slight modi-

fication of Broderip^s shell, which however most probably belongs

to variety 1, as it is described to have an epidermis.

After a careful examination of the specimen in the Newcastle

Museum, it seems to me impossible to insist on the specific di-

stinctness of B. acuminatum ; and it is satisfactory to observe that

Mr. Gray considers the specimen of that reputed species in the

British Musum to be merely a variety of B. undatum . The flat-

tened whorls and the shape of the spire are evidently of no

importance as specific characters ; and the form of the mouth and

columella does not distinguish it from B. undatum . It is true

the characters of these parts are considerably exaggerated, but

certainly not more so than might be expected in a lusus, whose

deviation from the normal form is mainly dependent on the ex-