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le)

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esq., F.LS.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. &e.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

eee

VOL. XVIII.—THIRD SER

Msonian Insti, a

atisonian Institgy SN

“Oy \

24L\05 |

elon Muses

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.j;

KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1866.

‘‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper zstimata; a veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”’—

LINNZUS.

“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et:le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.”—BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

pcr Mi-tb sitet hte momicren (he lsylvanmpowers

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVIII.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

NUMBER CIII.

I. Description of a new Species of Marine Worm (Phenacia pul-

Ghela)- by LDWARD)/PARFITT: (Plate. L,)°-..ccccssers sescscdercesaas

II. On the Affinities of Peridinium Cypripedium, Jas.-Clk., and

Urocentrum Turbo, Ebr. By Prof. H. JAMes-Cuiark, A.B., B.S.,

OG eae NEM ter cren nc natennsepaicade satis onsale ‘ase c¥seaes roca sanonaccen sees sce

III. On the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus of the Larve of the

Moarme @rusticen. + by Mi 7) Girne cwivs cae aesccest'ccdaartcsnaced ha ometoo

TV. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Migrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

V. Notule Lichenologice. No. VII. By the Rev. W. A.

Leicuton, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. Wm. Nylander on three European

SPE CICSIO LAO LALO GUN MOI a'lne cacti on Waaaewadtatladuensinetesseetdnathedsoucead

VI. Fifth Account of new Species of Suakes in the Collection of

the British Museum. By ALBert Gtnruer, M.A., M.D., Ph.D.

PIMC GMI A Coy WEL.) neeiet sccteten deta sel acssaccneasercoctkbcortoaretanscsseres

VII. Remarks on some Fishes from the River Amazons in the

British Museum. By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER ........... LvasBebeane eat

VIII. On the Fossils contained in a Lower Greensand Deposit of

Phosphatic Nodules m Bedfordshire. By J. F. Watkemr, F.C.S.,

Sa eoss moliere, Cambridve ii. acs deckcsndwsetaaedesnsecncacnarecedesarrss ws

IX. Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. VII.

Some Carboniferous Species. By T. Rupert Jonss, F.G.S., and

EUS ESTER NCH V5 MUSGA | Vo ctga apiaciabSaslene -atgannleieieddainsiesteaamor'sioons sia

X. Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. Berke ry,

M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Brooms, Esq., F.L.S. (Plate IL.) .........

XI. On the Rhabdocela. By E. Mecznixow. (Plate VIII)...

XII. On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides. By

IIE ASEAN cn coca va occa tae etnies CMe e <eneee tegen se na sinG as'oa'sionareesdus eine

XIII. Further observations on the Reproduction and Embryogeny

Onathe aprides, By M. GAUBTANT sesseincwesecaccc. sae bvcheceness Bae ctasee

On the Metamorphoses of the Marine Crustacea, by M. Z. Gerbe ;

On the Mi-lou or Sseu-pou-siang, a Mammal from the north of

China, which forms a new Section in the Family Cervide, by A.

Milne-Edwards ; On the Pleuronectidz of the Genus Zeugopterus,

Page

and the Structure of their Branchial Cavity, by J. Steenstrup 69—72

iv CONTENTS.

Page

NUMBER CIV.

XIV. Memoir on a new Parasitic Crustacean belonging to the

Order Lerneida, forming a new Family. By M. HESSE............0+

XV. Observations on the Development and Position of the Hy-

menoptera, with Notes on the Morphology of Insects. By A. 8.

PACKARD S SUNT SUNEND) 2 > teedaceses concen ae cnccensbetesctsGeaseeesesscsecsieics 82

XVI. On some Cetaceans. By HERMANN BurmeEtsTeER. (PI.IX.) 99

XVII. Notule Lichenologice. No. VIII. By the Rev. W. A.

LeicutTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens 103

XVIII. On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

(Third Note.) By M. BALBIANI .......scccocscecscecececscoes osent- eaten ele

XIX. Note on some new Genera of Fossil Birds in the Woodwardian

Museum. By H. SEELEY, Esq. oocscscccsssccecsrececcccsesscececcserecseecs 109

XX. On the Fossils of the Carstone Formation. By H. SEELry, ii

ISG ese cnsein cn sclew eeinconacsecneraaeamsacidksnis=emntaclsseivaeis=idsesms's sis Sineeel roceceene

XXI. Description of Calamoichthys, a new Genus of Ganoid Fish

from Old Calabar, Western Africa. By JoHN ALEXANDER SMITH,

M.D., F.R.C.P.E.; with Observations on the Internal Structure,

by R. H. Traavuatr, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy m the Uni-

versity of Edinburgh «i :6) jocstiexesct seasceece sche dvueresatheo ce eco eaee 112

XXII. On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridee and Corallinee.

By Ma Wat) DRG cen, .ac.ccsencssersrepeseaimeaehnene sons ese see ceeds Ee

XXIIL. Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. BerKELEY,

M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Broome, Esq., F.L.S. (Plates II1., [V., V.) 121

New Book :—Geological Map of England and Wales, by Professor

Ramsay, F.R.S., F.G.S......c0e-secesccsvenscsccesenscasenasseccescssscoes 129

Proceedings of the Royal Society .-2. 0c... ooecccsscaccosecocersecseccucsaseee 131

On the Morphology and Affinities of the Brachiopoda, by H. Lacaze-

Duthiers ; On the finding of a second Ribbonfish, by John Hogg,

F.L.S. ; A few words on the Mammoth, in connexion with the

Engravings recently found in Périgord and supposed to represent

this Animal, by H. Brandt; Note on the Discovery of the Dermal

Shield in Megatheroid Animals, by Prof. Reimhardt; On the

Structure of the Anthers in the Aroidee, by M. van Tieghem ;

Habits of Zosterops dorsalis, by the Rev. R. Taylor; On the

Organic Bodies contained in Ancient Egyptian Bricks, by Prof.

Unger; Interchange of Birds between America and Europe, by

Mr. 8. F. Baird ; Observations on the Microscopic Shell-Structure

of Spirifer cuspidatus, by F. B. Meek .......,,.0ss0.00 eo. L33—144

NUMBER CV.

XXIV. Notes on some Species of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon,

Leach (as limited by M. Pictet). By A. E. Ea ron, of Trin. Coll. Camb. 145

XXV. On the Dentition of Thylacoleo carniferz,Ow. By Gerard

Krerrr. (Plate XI.) ....... Spriedopococu netnrenacmnasdsacrsbarcersa.daceadone 148

CONTENTS. i

Page

XXVI. On two European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morpho- FE

logy of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a

Review of the Species of the Family at present known. By" T.THORELL 149 -

XXVII. Notule Lichenologice. No. IX. By the Rev. W. A.

LeicuTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. W. Nylander on two new Chemical

MEST Sag eMINIERETIS fear tdage stccuicacsaceassteeseesoutecepdodghsonsmastcs ceay geek 169

XXVIII. On two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa. By Mr.

PmwawereARPITT: (Plate! AIL.) cossscececstsestscnceuns cents ssntpessanaap 171

XXIX. On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride. By

rote ee SCHILOD DE yacestinensl(cosesassicae a lerigs some es acccigatioseeis salads soreneae 173

XXX. On the Homologies of the Male and Female Flowers of

Conifers. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. (Plate X.) ......-.-.--seeeee 212

XXXI. On Green Oysters. By ArTHUR W. E. O’SHAUGHNESSY,

OF The BUtish WSU, vc. sescccrepeossayteacesncans ede Subicalctbes a tadsice cose pd

XXXII. Notes on the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions Sdalaudae’

in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. «1.0.0...

XXXIIT. Recent Researches onthe Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon.

By MM. F. J. Prcrer and A. HUMBERT .........scceeseeeseeeeeveeeceees 237

New Books:—A History of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, by C.

Spence Bate and J. O. Westwood. Part XIII—A Catalogue

of Phytophaga (Coleoptera, Pseudotetramera), by the Rev.

Hamlet Clark. Part I. With an Appendix, containing Descrip-

tions of new Species, by H. W. Bates and the Rev. Hamlet ee

247—248

Proceedings of the Royal Society ...+00...sssserssseesesesessceeeeee 249—255

On a Cranium of Ziphius found at Arcachon (Gironde), by P. Fischer ;

Notes on the Domestic Animals and Plants of the Thirteenth and

Fourteenth Centuries, by James E. Thorold Rogers, M.A., &c. ;

On Posttloration, by D. Clos; Observations on the part played

by the Nucleus in Animal Cells, by M. Balbiani; On the Lateral

Canal of Lota. by Prof, Hiyrtl (3. .ccpecceacsaviecaussvseccseseses 255—264

NUMBER CVI.

XXXIV. On the Habits of the Pri OPE: By ANDREW Murray,

LIS Re ee ae ABW tanoaine elit ace deta saanaeg cddaccmansanewiedacs sep asldehinetess 265

XXXV. On two European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morpho-

logy of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a

Review of the Species of the Family at present known. By T. THo-

| 13 hee Sogtoncenonanenc Selecta echt SeeeeMetaa st take tnaier sins unica dows tevasie=es 268 -

XXXVI. On a new Species of Beech-Marten from Formosa. By

ROBERT SwInHoEk, H.B.M. Consul at Taiwan.............ssscsesceeeees 286

XXXVII. Note on the “ Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. By Dr. J. E.

Gretel Mass, WAP Po Soon LS Soe. (is. iasateds batveccassccsersaracsss-ces 287

XXXVIITI. On new British Hydroida. By the Rev. THomMas

UT NCS whe oA castronnesesaetoet akan earcocan daacassianseoeeent ta ideal habeets 296

vi CONTENTS.

Page

XXXIX. On Glyptodon and its Allies. By Dr. HERMANN Bur-

UNG NS EERE iion/s iio conten REtEM a en iemeatnn eeeuetnaer canst al pease Sedeeacete os aaierciente 299

XL. Additional Remarks on the Homologies of the Flowers of

Conifers. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.LAS........ccccccccessscnsercnsseesses 304

XLI. Notule Lichenologice. No. X. By the Rev. W. A. Lergu-

Ton, B.A., F.L.S.—L’ Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonie of the Herba-

rium of Acharius......... gestae aceusece eres revehtbaceaeecceow esate vee tentewtens 306

XLIT. On a new Species of Halmaturus from East Australia. By

FREDERICK M‘Coy, Professor of Natural Science in the Melbourne

University and irceton of the National Museum of Victoria ......... 322

XLIII. Notes on the Pronghorn Buck (Antilocapra), and its Posi-

tion in the System. By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

REC RM tans elatam nak oe sich wala sini, ohio Sadelniap simian eees eat eaeue sway heaeRR Meee 323

XLIV. On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride. By

Er Oka diet Oats CERO DRG romeo Palsiee cncicciaeamenenan eslaslsAnoreWadusscaaceiee nals 327

On Scheuchzeria palustris, Linn., by the Rev.W.A. Leighton; On the

Long-eared or Mule Deer of North America (Eucervus), by Dr.

John Edward Gray, F.R.S. &e.; On the Development of the

Myzostoma, by E. Mecznikoff; On the Synonymy and Geogra-

phical Distribution of Jussiea repens (Liun.), by C. Martins ;

Note on a Regular Dimerous Flower of Cypripedium candidum,

by Asa Gray ; Boussingault’s Researches on the Action of Foliage ;

Observations on a Malady of the Cotton-plant called “ Pelagra,”

and on some Fungi which accompany it, by G. Gasparrini; On

Fossil Meduse from the Lithographic Slates of Eichstadt, by

Brute Prac ckelnine.s5-2 hoatsoseauas cats c-eataen ic caeecemmeasrenaest 338—344

NUMBER CVI.

XLV. Outline of a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton. By

Harry G. SEELEY, F.G.S., of the Woodwardian Museum in the

University of Cambridge g, 22.1 -c0s «ie cuse ssengsttocettoeecatcane me aeee ne 345

XLVI. Notes on the Genus Menobranchus and its Natural Affini-

MER Na VAN DIR POM VIGIN swseancnk lcecosssearasessaed teens aateenee 363

XLVII. On some new Species of Fossil Volutes from the Tertiary

Beds near Melbourne. By Frepertck M‘Coy, Professor of Natural

Science in the Melbourne Univ ersity, Goverment Palzontologist to

theMGeolopical ‘Survey, SEC.» Sisesnsmnrvenunn gccanawtorecraaccwtbe arden: Mesa oD

XLVIII. On a Phosphatic Deposit in the Lower Greensand of

Bedfordshire. By J. F. WaAuKeEr, F.C.S., Sid. Suss. College, Cam-

Bede ur (Plape, MOVULS)) sosses «casa caieceen trees <: ance etre ee eg ee 381

XLIX. Report on Dredging among the Hebrides. By J. Gwyn

DIEAGEIUMIS EE SIR Sich cas isk Uicaid sam be ak acai ks pA komme CaN emROT eee 387

L. On Hyalonema mirabilis, in reply to Dr. Gray. By Dr.

BOWER RUNGE i aesacs ai oN ovsiaas mains saiealga de dapie satecaaine Sadak EERE ee eee By

LI. On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn (Anéilocapra

CONTENTS. Vii

Page

americana). By P. L. Scuater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secretary to

the Zoological Society of London..........-2...sscsssccescscseceeescaereeeses 401

LIT. On the Existence of Hyalonema in a Fossil State. By Prof.

RS MIRO EOE VICHTIAY oo. c ss, cote sees stat ccah soustonddeens idee shandangedet eames 404

LIII. Notule Lichenologice. No. XI. By the Rev. W. A.

LerenTon, B.A., F.L.S.—On the Examination and Rearrangement

of the Cladoniei, as tested by Hydrate of Potash ...............eeeseeee 405

LIV. On Ophiodes, a new Genus of Hydroida. By the Rev.

THOMAS HONGKS; B.A. (Plate kul Vis) cis cspiciccescicides-accnedsSaeraleinctenct 421

New Book:—Annuario della Societa dei Naturalisti in Modena.

Aono lee Modena Marcio LS6672. 55: -sscvsacs.-ccssscrecseccnareress=s 423

Notes on the Capture of a Rare Fish (Ausonia Cuvieri) at Falmouth,

by Dr. W. K. Bullmore and Jonathan Couch; Additions to the

Zoophytes of Devonshire, by Edward Parfitt; Onthe Use of the

Genus Potamogale, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; Note on

West-African Species of Hemirhamphus, by Dr. A. Gunther ; On

the Organs of Secretion in the Hemiptera, by J. Kiinckel; Fos-

sil Spider from the Coal-Formation, by Dr. F. Roemer; On the

Course followed by a Fungous Mycelium in the living Trunk of

Menem acnlogin, Dy G. GAaSparrini... 5-2. <c sede: senbe sdeesne 424—428

NUMBER CVIII.

LV. On the Structure and Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory,

one of the Sedentary Monadiform Protozoa. By H. Jamres-Ciark,

PM MeN Neots te enanm nage ro wieciee cess ecur cs’ secsusdeate nes «cde a medsamedets Shay 429

LVI. On two European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morphology

of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a Review

of the Species of the Family at present known. By T.THore tt ... 436

LVII. A List of Spiders captured in the South-east Region of

Equatorial Africa; with Descriptions of such Species as appear to be

new to Arachnologists. By JoHn BLAcKWALL, F.L.S. .............4. 451

LVIII. Additional Note on the Antilocapride. By Dr. J. E. Gray,

PRGS, Qe. cesensccensase NAEP Rasa cic nce Coe Oe eee Ree Sametcleaec er eeeke 468

LIX. On the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. By FEL1x PLatgeau 469

LX. Description of a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon. By Dr.

em GUN FIRES Py PIG OX Viele raencccesoccas senckt~achdoctucasseee dees 473

LXI. On an Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii. By Prof.

LOWEN ge Ras ster Olatea Xe, itis: se cteteteree cess Reeeeteee Pecaswensece 475

LXII. Notes on Spherion and Mallocera. By Francis P.

Pascok, F.L.S., F.Z.S., late Pres. Ent. Soc.; 8&0. i:.....ccccccescscoecees 477

LXIII. Notes on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Hyalonema. By Dr.

eRe ARN oy EU, MOGs de konca castes fia a saehWosvsesastaveseseatenssccaes 485

LXIV. Venus’s Flower-basket (Euplectella speciosa). By Dr. J.

GireAcwe WAR: O anki aidvo caaeneceate ate We lames cas vacclecaeeece aaeatuccesaliscdeeseabs.s 487

vill CONTENTS.

Page

New Book :—The Record of Zoological Literature. 1865. Vol. II.

Edited by Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S. &e. 490

Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton, by Herbert Spencer ; On the

“ Fulerum” of Calamoichthys, by J. A. Smith; The Patagonian

Finner, by Dr. Burmeister; on the Phocena communis of the

North Sea, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; The Stuffed Whale in

the Swedish Museum ; Observations on the Reproduction of the

Cecidomyide, by F. Meinert; A Last Remark on the Generic

Name Potamogale, by Dr. A. Giinther ..... ......ecasceee oes 494—499

PLATES IN VOL. XVIII.

PuaTE I. Phenacia pulchella.

Il.

ie ee British Fungi.

VI. Zamenis brachyurus.—Ablabes flaviceps.—Calamaria arcticeps.

VIL. Lycophidium Horstockii.—Herpetethiops Bellii.—Atractaspis

microlepidota.

VIII. Anatomy and Developmental History of the Rhabdoccela.

IX. Arctocephalus falklandicus.—Beak of Orca magellanica.

X. Homologies of the male and female Flowers of Conifers.

XI. Thylacoleo carnifex (restored).

XII. New Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.

XIII. Sphera Sedgwickii.—Pholas Dallasi.

XIV. Ophiodes mirabilis.

XV. Arius Layardi.

XVI. Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii.

ERRATA.

Page 230, for Grinders 6/6 read Grinders ®; for O. Geoffroyia read O.

Godeffroyi.

», 235, for Grinders 6/6 read Grinders 8.

288, line 14 from bottom, and p. 291 et seq., for Polythoa read

Palythoa.

,», 9362, line 12, for diapophysis read diaphysis.

421, line 20, for Halecide read Haleciide.

5, 422, line 23, for that traverses read which traverses.

», 423, line 25, for away any invaders read away invaders.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Oe neon eecenencecen per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circim vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ecl.1.

No. 103. JULY 1866.

I.—Description of a new Species of Marine Worm (Phenacia

pulchella). By Epwarp Parrirt.

[Plate I.]

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I beg to introduce to your notice a very beautiful new species

of marine worm; it was cast up at my feet by the waves at

Exmouth, January 6th, during a heavy gale. I forwarded a

rough sketch of it to my friend Dr. Baird, of the British Museum,

who informed me it was new to him, and that he could find no

description of it. In M. de Quatrefages’s “ Classification of the

Annelides,” published in the ‘Annals’ for January last, p. 22,

he has separated the genus Sabellidis, and raised those species

with simple buccal cirri to the rank of a new genus, Phenacia;

and it is to this genus that the present species belongs: it will

therefore stand thus :—

Family XXV. Terebellea.

Genus Puenacta, Quatrefages.

Phenacia pulchella, mihi.

Body composed of about forty annulations, the anterior com-

pressed and rugose, short, but gradually growing longer

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 8. Vol. xviii. 1

2 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Affinities of

towards the posterior end, which is thickened and rugose.

The anterior annulations are armed with two fascicles of

yellow bristles, of about three or four each, placed opposite to

each other: the rest of the rings have about two each ; but the

numbers vary. Colour pale orange-red, the mouth with a

purple cast. Buccal cirri twenty, ten on each side of the oral

organ, white, beautifully maculated with oblong spots of

orange-red down the centre. Dorsal cirri reflexed, purple,

with a faint reddish tinge.

Length of the worm 2 inches, of the tube 3 inches; diameter at

larger or anterior end 2 lines.

This species constructs a rather flexuose tube made of a thin

horny substance similar to that of the polypidoms of the Sertu-

larias, and coated with grains of sand and comminuted shells,

with bits of corallines attached.

The worm is able to raise its head considerably above the first

or anterior ring, bearing the dorsal cirri, as shown in the figure

(Plate I.) on the right. Generally speaking, its movements

were slow; but when fully protruded it is a beautiful creature,

the dorsal cirri contrast so strongly with the delicately pated

buccal organs. I kept it alive for several days, and I found

that it seldom protruded itself by day ; but as evening closed in

it would then develope itself to its fullest extent.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

Epwarp Parrirt.

Devon and Exeter Institution,

April 21, 1866.

I].—On the Affinities of Peridinium Cypripedium, Jas-Clk., and

Urocentrum Turbo, Khir. By Prof. H. James-Crarn, A.B.,

B.S., Soc. Am. Acad.

In the ‘Proceedings of the American Academy’ of February

1865 I published a paper on the anatomy and physiology of

Peridinium Cypripedium, mihi. That article, with the accom-

panying plate, was copied into the ‘Annals and Magazine of

Natural History’ for October 1865. In the December Number

of the same ‘Annals’ I find some remarks on my paper by

Mr. H. J. Carter, the principal aim of which is to show that the

animal which I have described is not a Peridinium but a Uro-

centrum. I wish, through the medium of your Magazine, to

give my reasons why I did not formerly, and do not now, believe

that the identification of that gentleman can be sustained.

Let me state, in the first place, that the whole question hinges

on the identification of the animal as described and figured by

Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentrum Turbo. 3

Ehrenberg, and in no way is dependent upon the affidavit of

Claparéde and Lachmann. The latter can lay no greater claim

to correctness than Mr. Carter in this respect ; and all are equally

liable to a misapprehension of the nature of the infusorian as

described by Ehrenberg. The fact that the authors of the

‘Etudes’ found the animal in question, as they think, in Berlin,

as it were under the very eyes of Ehrenberg, renders the identi-

fication no more certain than the discovery of the same by Mr.

Carter, as he thinks, far off in England.

I cannot help deprecating the confidence with which Mr.

Carter pronounces upon what he calls my mistake, seeing that

his judgment is based upon a description at second-hand, as I

infer from his quotation of Ehrenberg’s statements from the

‘Micrographic Dictionary.’ The basis for an identification is

meagre enough in the work of the Berlin micrographer; and

how much less satisfactory in the Dictionary of Griffith and

Henfrey, every one knows who has compared the two books.

Messrs. Claparéde and Lachmann frequently find occasion to

deplore the unsatisfactory character of the descriptions and

figures of Ehrenberg; but if they never had cause to complain

before, it must have occurred when they attempted to decipher

the illustrations of Urocentrum on plate 24 of the ‘ Infusions-

thierchen.’? For my own part, I felt the same restraint when

originally working up my article; and Mr. Carter must pardon

me therefore when I say that I cannot see the necessity or

the proper basis for his ea cathedrd, even though he may

swear upon the original work itself. I am, however, far from _

attributing to your distinguished authority upon the group of

Protozoa the singular fancy, possessed by some, for deciphering

the obscure two-line descriptions of the old-time species-makers;

still less would I suppose him capable of that remarkable mania

for identifying such zoological vagaries as those of Rafinesque

with this or that animal simply because it came from the same

locality as that named by that singular enthusiast.

Since, however, Mr. Carter has so positively pronounced upon

this matter, I am compelled to assume the figures and descrip-

tion of Ehrenberg to stand in the place of the animal itself, and

not what others may happen to think it ought to be. Ehren-

berg says, in his generic diagnosis of Urocenirum, “ corpore non

ciliato, fronte ciliis coronata.”’ Now in Peridinium Cypripedium

all of the body (excepting the broader end, which is occupied

by the pseudo-cuirass) is covered with cilia, and there is no such

thing as a corona of cilia upon it. The anterior and posterior

transverse annular furrows seem to be bands of vibrating cilia

simply because these cilia are only rather more crowded along

the edges of the furrows than elsewhere. The mouth of Uro-

4 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Affinities of

centrum is stated to be at the anterior edge of the ventral face :

“Vig. 1 von der Seite gesehen, Bauchflache rechts mit dem

Munde am vorderen Rande.” In Peridinium Cypripedium this

aperture is on the ventral side and about halfway between the

two ends of the body—a position which it seems to occupy in

many of the Peridiniza.

Although I do not use the word spiral in regard to the mouth

and cesophagus, it can hardly be said that I “mention nothing

spiral” about them; for I think that the illustrations tell as

much as the text ; and any one who will inspect my figures 2 & 3

will see that the position of the mouth in the first, and the trend

and curve of the cesophagus in the second, are sufficiently indi-

cative of a spiral arrangement of these parts. The text fully

bears out this assertion, in the following words (p. 897 ; Annals,

p- 274):—*The mouth lies altogether within the posterior

obliquely transverse furrow (pf), and extends from its anterior

to its posterior edge, trending diagonally across the axial plane

of the body, from the right, backwards, towards the left ;? and

on p. 3898 (Annals p. 275), “ From the mouth the cesophagus (@)

passes obliquely backwards and towards the dorsal region, at

least halfway through the body, and then terminates rather

abruptly just before the contractile vesicle, but a little to the

right side (fig.3@) of the axial plane.” Lest, however, there

should be any further doubt in regard to my views upon this

point, [ will state now that the arrangemént of the mouth and

cesophagus is decidedly spiral, and unequivocally stamps this

animal as a member of the lxotropic division of Infusoria

Ciliata.

As to the systematic position of this Peridinium, its leotropie

character at once removes it out of the division to which the

Vorticellina belong; but yet when we see that one of the latter

family, viz. Trichodina Pediculus, Ehr., has its contractile vesicle

on the left side of the body, instead of on the right—thus par-

tially reversing the relationship of the organs as exhibited in

the other members of that group (see my paper in the Mem.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. 1. 1866), and that it totally lacks

the protrusile vibratory disk, so eminently characteristic of the

Vorticellidae—and when, again, we call to mind the ciliated body

of another Vor ticellidan, viz. Claparéde’s T'richodinopsis, the

way appears clear for the close approximation to the Vorticellina

of the totally ciliated Tintinnoidea with their terminal, depressed,

cyathiform front, bordered by the crown of cilia, which termi-

nates, according to Claparéde, by passing into the excentric

mouth: and then, as a succeeding step, it does not seem at all

improbable that the Peridiniza, judging from the characters of

P. Cypripedium, should have a not very remote affiliation with

Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentrum Turbo. 5

the same group that the Tintinnoidea border upon. The appa-

rently low organization of some of the Peridinizea does not inva-

lidate their approximation, through the higher forms, to the

Tintimnoidea, any more than the inferior organization of the

Cyclopidze depresses the whole class of Crustacea below the level

of the group of worms.

In this connexion I would mention that I do not believe that

the so-called Cilio-Flagellata are distinct, as an order, from the

Flagellata. I will not deny that the former, as well as the

latter, have more intimate relations among themselves than exists

between the two groups; but at the same time there are some

(as, for instance, Prorocentrum) among the Cilio-Flagellata which

hold their position there by a quite doubtful tenure—the few cilia

at the anterior end indicating merely a preponderance in favour

of their affiliation with that group, rather than a positive claim to

be so united. The lorica gives to Prorocentrum the habit of a

Peridinian, and may add a little to the strength of the argument

which the cilia afford; but, on the other hand, there is a new

genus of Infusoria which I have described in a recent work*

under the name of Heteromastix (H. proteiformis), which pos-

sesses all the habits, actions, mode of progression, and general

appearance of a true flagellate infusorian, very much like a

Heteromita, Duj., and is endowed with two anteriorly subter-

minal flagella—the one acting as a proboscis or tentacular organ,

and the other as a trailer or moveable keel; but at the same

time the ventral anterior half of the body is hollowed out by

a broad median furrow, which is thickly lined with locomotive

cilia—thus presenting a peculiarity not heretofore deemed ad-

missible as a characteristic of Flagellata, but, on the contrary,

as appertaining alone to the Cilio-Flagellata.

I would remark here, moreover, that in view of the fact that

Peridinium Cypripedium possesses, beside the median transverse

sulcation, an anterior annular furrow, and immediately in front

of it a low skullcap-like covering, or pseudo-cuirass (both of

which Mr. Carter appears to have been inattentive to in perusing

my article), it seems possible that this infusorian may turn out

to be generically different from any other Peridinian described

hitherto. This looks so highly probable that I will propose the

name Peridinopsis for it.

Since my commentator has gone so far as to doubt even the

specific diversity of these two infusorians, I would add, in regard

to the species Urocentrum Turbo, that Ehrenberg describes and

* ©Mind in Nature,’ by H. James-Clark, pp. 330, with over two hun-

dred illustrations. New York, 1866.

6 On Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentrum Turbo.

figures it as having an ovate three-cornered body, “ corpore ovato

triquetro,” and states that the stylus or tail equals one-third the

length of the body, “stilo tertiam corporis partem cequante ;”

whereas the American Peridinium has an “ oblique pyriform

outline,” and the so-called flagellum is at least half as long as

the body.

Between the statements of Ehrenberg and Claparéde there is

such a marked discrepancy that I am pretty well convinced that

the testimony of the latter cannot by any means be used as an

adjunct to the description of the former; for whilst Ehrenberg

speaks of the “corpore non ciliato, fronte cilis coronata,”

Claparéde states (p. 76), in the first place, that there are no

other organs than the buccal cirri, but that (p. 185) “it 1s the

inferior part of the [transverse median] furrow that carries the

buccal cirri ;”” and secondly, that “ the mouth is not placed where

Ehrenberg figures it [i e. at the anterior edge of the ventral

plane], but is lodged in the transverse median furrow which

that author represents.”

Supposing, now, the animal of Ehrenberg to be the same as

that of Claparéde, and the one described by me likewise identical

with the former, then we must believe that Claparede has com-

mifted a great oversight in not seeing the most prominent and

conspicuous cilia, in the region of the anterior annular furrow,

as described by me, and which, in this assumed case, are in a

corresponding position with the vibrating cilia-crown about the

anterior, flat, frontal plane (“um die vordere flache Stirnflaiche

einem wirbelnden Wimperkranz”’) which Ehrenberg describes.

It hardly seems possible that Claparéde should have detected

the smaller cilia in the median transverse furrow and overlooked

the larger and more conspicuous ones, whilst Ehrenberg, with

his far less powerful lenses, appeared to find no difficulty in

making out the latter. It seems therefore much more plausible

that the Urocentrum of Ehrenberg is not the same as that of

Claparéde, and certainly more likely that the latter should have

failed to appreciate the value of the observations of the former

upon the anterior cilia-crown than that he should have over-

looked it were it really present.

I scarcely need add, therefore, that I am at least equally con-

fident, if not fully satisfied, that Peridinium Cypripedium is not

the same as the Urocentrum of Claparede.

Cambridge, Mass., May 12, 1866.

Il].—On the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus of the Larve of

the Marine Crustacea. By M. Z. Grrser*,

Vascular Apparatus.—The larvee of the Crustacea, whatever

form they may present, are at first completely destitute of

branchiz ; or if they possess them, these organs are quite rudi-

mentary, and do not yet fulfil any function. Respiration, in

this state, is performed by the whole of the general envelope.

Even in the Lobsters, which are hatched with tolerably large

branchie, the primitive respiration is absolutely tegumentary ;

for these appendages are impermeable to the blood until the

third moult ; and when they begin to perform their functions, the

number of blood-globules which they admit is excessively small

relatively to the mass of those which flow to the heart without

traversing them. From this modification of the respiratory act

there results a circulation of the greatest simplicity—the blood

which the arteries have distributed in all parts of the body

returns directly to the heart without passing through any special

apparatus.

The heart, of all the organs exhibited by the Crustacea at

their birth, is that of which the general form undergoes the

least amount of subsequent change. In the larvee it differs very

little from what it is in the adult Crustacea; and it invariably

occupies in the larve its definitive position, under the superior

wall of the cephalothorax and above the pyloric portion of the

intestine. In the Zoée (larve of Brachyurous Decapods) it is

found immediately at the base of the temporary spine which

rises from the middle of the thorax.

With the exception of the larva of the Nymphon of our

coasts}, in which | have never yet succeeded in seeing the heart

distinctly, all the Crustacea of which I have been able to study

the metamorphoses{ have the central organ of the circulation

composed, at all ages, of two very distinct parts—one enveloped,

the other enveloping, and bound together only by a few mus-

cular bands, the action of which is manifested during diastole.

The enveloped portion evidently corresponds with the arterial

heart of the nigher animals. It consists of a sort of contractile

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’

April 23, 1866, pp. 932-937.

+ The larva of this Nymphon is exceedingly curious, both in its external

form and in its internal organization, and it differs from the adults as

much as the Phyllosomes from the Palinuri, or the Zoé@ from the various

Crabs to which they belong. The body is not at all articulated; and the

true legs, which are only two in number, have only two joints and a ter-

minal claw. I propose, however, to make them the subject of a special

notice.

+ See ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 26th December, 1864.

8 M. Z: Gerbe on the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus

sac, varying in form according to the species, with internal mus-

cular columns and delicate transparent walls, formed of longi-

tudinal and annular muscular fibres imtercrossed in various

directions; it presents on each side a single semilunar fissure,

to which a valve of the same form is adapted internally. From

this contractile sac issue all the arteries which perform the dis-

tribution of the blood.

The second sac, which is much larger and has its walls

thinner and less muscular, completely envelopes the arterial

heart, and communicates by two or three oblong apertures with

the same number of large venous lacune, which convey the

blood to the heart. This enveloping portion of the central cireu-

latory organ has been assimilated to the pericardium of the red-

blooded animals. In this assimilation there is an appearance of

truth, if we consider only the form; but it is far from being

exact if we take into account the function, which is very different

in importance from the form. ‘The pericardium in the Verte-

brata is an organ closed everywhere, without any communica-

tion either with the cavities of the heart or with the vessels

which run to it; here, on the contrary, the sac which has been

assimilated to the pericardium directly receives all the blood

into its cavity and transfers it to the ventricle. It is inter-

mediate between the venous lacune and the arterial heart, and

fulfils exactly the part which, under another form, the auricle,

in fishes for example, performs with relation to the vene cave

and the ventricle. By its functions, therefore, this second

cavity would be the analogue of the auricular portion of the

heart in Vertebrata.

Five arterial branches issue from the anterior extremity or

half of the central contractile sac; only one springs from its

posterior extremity. Of the five anterior arteries, one (the

ophthalmic artery) follows the median line, passes directly to

the brain, and is distributed in the ocular peduncles. In those

species in which the rostrum m the young state acquires the

form of a long spine, the ophthalmic artery is produced to the

extremity of this appendage, after having furnished a branch

to each eye. This arterial branch, which is one of the largest,

is furnished at its issue from the heart with a double valve, or

rather with two opposite flaps, separated at the base, in contact

at the apex, which alternately open and close to let pass the

globules of the blood and prevent their flowing back into the

heart. The action of these flaps, which is completely imde-

pendent of the contractions of the central organ, is sometimes

slow, sometimes rapid; frequently it is even suddenly and

momentarily suspended. ‘Two other branches, one on each

side, originating a little behind the preceding, also run forward,

of the Larve of the Marine Crustacea. 9

following an oblique line, which removes them from the median

or ophthalmic artery, emit, in passing, a branch to the rudi-

mentary czeca which represent the liver, and distribute them-

selves at the base of the outer antenne. Lastly, the two re-

maining arteries, at their issue from the arterial heart, are imme-

diately reflexed downwards and lost beneath the liver and upon

the sides of the stomach. These four arteries have their base

furnished with a simple valve.

The artery which springs from the posterior extremity is

generally as voluminous as the anterior median artery. In the

Phyllosomes it follows the dorsal line of the intestine for some

distance, and then, on arriving at the level of the nervous

ganglia of the third pair of true feet, it bends, passes on the left

side of the intestinal tube, and divides into two trunks. One

of these, which is very large, traverses the ganglionic chain,

ascends as far as the mouth, and gives off to the right and left a

branch to each of the ambulatory limbs and buccal appendages :

it represents the sternal artery. The other, which is very slender,

descends to the last abdominal segments, following the course of

the intestine, and emits, in its course, a branch to the rudi-

mentary buds which represent the fourth and fifth pairs of true

legs.

In the Zoéa-form larvee, in those of the Porcellane, Crangons,

Lobsters, &c., the posterior artery, mstead of dividing only

after passing a certain distance, bifurcates at its issue from the

heart. One of its branches runs directly down to form the

sternal artery, after having traversed the thoracic ganglionic

mass at the same point as in the Phyllosomes; the other

branch follows the intestine to its extremity, remaining of a

considerable size throughout. This branch, which answers to

the superior abdominal aorta of the adult Crustacea, presents, in

the young Lobsters, a very remarkable peculiarity : on its course,

at a distance from the heart and a little above the constriction

which separates the intestine into the duodenum and rectum, it

has a sort of sphincter or circular valve, which contracts abso-

lutely in the same manner as the pupil of the eye of the cat.

Its contractions, which occur at indeterminate periods, progres-

sively and slowly, have the effect of obliterating, entirely or

partially, the calibre of the artery, so as to suspend, for some

seconds, the circulation in the postabdomen, or to moderate

the flow of blood towards that region. This fact is so excep-

tional that I cannot but call the attention of physiologists

to it.

All the arteries, whatever be their size, have their extremities

bevelled, and terminate suddenly in a venous lacuna by an oval

opening, usually a little dilated into a trumpet-shape.

10 M.Z.Gerbe on the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus

The venous circulation in the larve, as in the perfect animals,

is rather lacunar than vascular. The blood which the arteries

have distributed to all parts of the body, returns indeed by

constant and determinate courses; but these courses consist of

a succession of cavities which the organs leave between them,

cavities in which it is difficult to ascertain the existence of

proper walls or of regular forms. Thus this mode of circulation

baffles description. All that can be said in a general way is,

that three principal perfectly limited currents, two anterior

and lateral and one posterior and median, open into the

heart. The two former, in the Phyllosomes, are caused by the

fluids which circulate in the cephalic buckler alone ; the third

is formed by those which arrive from the true feet, the thorax,

and the abdomen. In the larvee of the other Macrurous Deca-

pods and in those of Brachyura, on the contrary, the fluids dis-

tributed to the head and thorax combine to form the lateral

currents, whilst the posterior current 1s produced solely by the

blood returning from the abdomen.

The Blenents of the blood in the first age of the Crustacea

consist of a perfectly colourless liquid, and small, isolated, dia-

phanous corpuscles, some oblong or square, others angular or

virguliform, with the outlines very distinct, but always very

irregular, even when these kinds of globules affect a more or less

rounded form.

Nervous Apparatus.—The nervous system of the larve of the

Crustacea is composed, like that of the perfect individuals, of a

double series of ganglia or medullary masses, in which the

nerves of all parts of the body terminate. United to each other

by longitudinal cords, these ganglia, which are the more volu-

minous in proportion as the organs of the life of relation to

which they correspond are more developed, form a continuous

system upon the median line, extending from the base of the

ocular peduncles to the last joint of the abdomen. Neverthe-

less, taking into consideration the regions occupied by it, the

central nervous apparatus may be divided into a cephalic,

thoracic, and abdominal portion.

The cephalic portion, or brain properly so called, is composed,

both in the Phyllosomes and in the Zoé@ and other larve of

Macrurous and Brachyurous Decapods, of a single ganglionic

mass, situated between the bases of the rudimentary antenne

and symmetrically divided into three unequal pairs of lobes,

each of which furnishes a sensorial nerve. From the two

anterior lobes spring the optic nerves, which pass directly into

the ocular peduncles; from the two middle ones arise the inner

antennary nerves, and from the two posterior the nerves which

are distributed im the outer antenne and to the auditory organ

of the Larve of the Marine Crustacea. 11

situated at their base. Hach of these lobes likewise furnishes a

pair of nerves running to the muscles and the integuments.

Two cords issuing from the posterior lobe of the brain and

united by an ante-cesophageal commissure, place this organ in

communication with the thoracic portion of the central nervous

system. These two cords, which are exceedingly short in the

larvee of the Prawns, Porcellane, Maia, Portuni, &c., and rather

more extended and thickened in the Lobsters, are excessively

long and slender in the Phyllosomes, in which they also present

a second commissure behind the brain.

But it is especially in the arrangement of the ganglia of the

thorax that the larve of the Palinurt are distinguished from

those of other Decapods that I have been able to observe. In

the latter, the thoracic nervous system, represented by the five

pairs of ganglia related to the buccal appendages, and by the

five pairs corresponding with the ambulatory feet, forms a

single oblong mass, pierced at the level of the third and fourth

pairs of true feet for the passage of the sternal artery—a mass

in which the ganglia are so intimately connected that some-

times, as for example in the Porcellane, scarcely perceptible

furrows mark their separation. Hach of these gangha furnishes

two pairs of nerves: one issues directly from the central medul-

lary nucleus, the other appeared to me to be intimately con-

nected with the nervous portion which forms the commissures.

Their origin would therefore be different.

Ini-the Phyliosomes the thoracic nervous system certainly

forms a double chain as in the other species, but the ganglia,

instead of being grouped in such a manner as to form a body,

are, on the contrary, very distant from each other, their only

communications being formed by rather long longitudinal and

transverse commissures. Moreover the volume of these gangha

is excessively unequal, bemg in relation to the development of

those organs to which each of them corresponds. The masti-

catory appendages, the first pair of footjaws, and the true feet

of the fourth and fifth pairs being rudimentary or incomplete in

the Phyllosomes, the ganglia devoted to these parts lkewise

present themselves in a rudimentary state.

The concordance which I have just indicated is still more

manifest in the portion of the nervous apparatus which belongs

to the abdominal region. ‘This region, where everything in the

Phyllosomes is in the condition of a mere sketch (the segments

of which it is composed, as well as the false legs of which

the successive moults cause the appearance), instead of six

pairs of ganglia which may be detected in ~it in individuals

furnished with their abdominal appendages, presents nothing

but the prolongations of the two nervous cords or longitudinal

12 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

commissures, upon which very slight swellings, representing

the future ganglia, may barely be perceived.

In the larvee of the Lobster, on the contrary, and in those of

the Zoéa-form in which the abdomen is well developed, we see

the double ganglionic chain from the very first, formed, as it

will be subsequently, of six pairs of ganglia, already of consi-

derable size, and bound together by the longitudinal commis-

sure. Here, as in the thoracic portion of the central system, two

pairs of nerves issue from each of the ganglia and from the

cords by which they are connected.

IV.—On the Menispermacee.

By Joon Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

[Continued from vol. xvii. p. 270.]

29. STEPHANIA.

This genus, proposed by Loureiro in 1793 for two plants of

Chinese origin, was for a long time wholly neglected ; at length

it was acknowledged by botanists, and so far extended by some

as to embrace Blume’s genus Clypea; others, on the contrary,

under vague notions of its real characters, gave the preference

to Clypea, and included in it all the species of Stephania. The

authors of the ‘Flora Indica’ and of the ‘Genera Plantarum’

have united the two genera, on the authority of Prof. A. Gray,

who placed little dependence on the constancy of their relative

distinctions as I had defined them: his doubts arose from the

examination of a plant considered by him to be identical with

Cocculus Forsteri, DC., which had been referred to Stephania ;

it appeared to him that its floral parts were sometimes 3-merous,

at other times 4-merous, in the same specimen—an inference

upon which I offered some remarks in speaking of Clypea (vol. xvi.

p- 268). In all the instances examined by me, which are ex-

tremely numerous, I have found, without exception, that the

floral parts in the two genera are constantly different in number.

Stephania in its ¢ flower las six sepals in two series, three

smaller petals, and a 6-celled anther; while Clypea, as I have

shown, has eight sepals in two series, four petals, and an 8-

celled anther. In Stephania the 9 flower has three sepals, three

petals, and a putamen with a remarkable perforation in the

middle of its disciform condyle; while Clypea has four sepals,

two petals, and a putamen with an imperforated condyle, as in

Tleocarpus and Cissampelos. Many good characters also separate

this genus from Homocnemia and Ileocarpus: although the latter

has a similar number of sepals and petals, the imperforation of

its condyle renders it distinct ; the former has four sepals and

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 13

four petals in the ¢ flower, its fruit being unknown. Ignoring

these well-marked distinctions, the authors of the ‘ Genera

Plantarum ” amalgamate Clypea, Ileocarpus, and Homocnemia

with Stephania, and in the four genera thus confounded together

they recognize only three species, whereas I have here enume-

rated, under well-defined characters, twenty-six species of Ste-

phania, nine of Clypea, one of Lleocarpus, and one of Homocnemia,

making in all thirty-seven species. Much perplexity has arisen

from the incomplete characters of the several species hitherto

described by botanists, so that it has been difficult to reduce

into consistent order many of the plants that have been referred

to them; and, to add to this confusion, most of the specimens

now existing in herbaria appear to have been named at hazard :

no one seems to have taken the trouble to examine the structure

of the flowers, in which, notwithstanding their minute size,

good characters are found, corroborative of other features

obtainable from the differences that exist in the leaves, petioles,

and inflorescence.

The species are found chiefly on the Indian continent and the

islands of its great archipelago, their range extending eastward

as far as China, Japan, and Australia, and westward to the limit

of Africa: the genus is therefore quite foreign to the continent

of America. It may be here observed that the hairs of the

pubescence, whenever found in this genus, are short and articu-

lated, as they are likewise in Clypea.

Srepuanta, Lour. ;—Clypea, W. & A. (non Bl.) ;—Cissampelos

(tn parte) auctorum;—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 6, spa-

thulato-oblonga vel lmearia, biseriata, quorum 3 interiora

latiora, membranacea, zestivatione imbricata. Petala 3, sepalis

exterioribus opposita, cuneato-rotunda vel ovata, breviora,

carnosula. Stamen unicum, centrale; filamentum teres, se-

palis zquilongum vel brevius ; anthera annularis, 6-locellata,

ad marginem connectivi peltatim affixa, rima horizontali dehis-

cens.—Fam. Sepala 3, cuneato-oblonga. Petala 3, sub-

rotunda, subcuneata, carnosula. Stamina nulla. Ovarium

ovatum, gibbum, glabrum, 1-loculare, ovu/o solitario parieti

appenso. Stylus subnullus. Stigma subsessile, excentricum,

inequaliter 3—6-laciniatum ; laciniis acutis, subreflexis. Drupa

carnosa, glabra; putamen osseum, obovatum, valde compressum,

l1-loculare, loculo peripherico et hippocrepiformi circa con-

dylum voluto, utrinque seriebus 2 concentricis tuberculorum

liris seepe connexis extus armato; condylus excentralis, lamini-

formis, discoideus, utrinque subconcavus, medio foranae

distincto perforatus. Semen hippocrepiforme, dorso convexum,

ventre subplanum; inteyumentum tenuiter membranaceum,

14 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

linea longitudinali ad condylum affixum; embryo in albumini

simplici carnoso, hippocrepiformis, tenuiter elongatus, teres,

cotyledonibus semiteretibus, incumbentibus, radicule supere

tereti ad stigma spectanti zquilongis et equilatis.

Frutices scandentes, in Asia intertropica, in insulis adjacentibus,

necnon in Australia et Africa crescentes; radix sepe tu-

berosus ; caulis ramosus ; folia alterna, profunde peltata, sub-

orbicularia, deltoideo-ovata vel oblonga, integra vel sinuato-

angulata, imo rotundata, truncata vel cordato-sinuata, palmati-

nervia, sepius glabra: panicula in utroque sexu supra-axillaris,

sepe longissime pedunculata, umbellatim ramosa; umbellis

iterumque umbellulatis, multifloris ; flores minuti, in capitulas

dense aggregati, vel laxe corymbulosi.

The following species will be fully described in the third

volume of my ‘ Contributions to Botany : ’—

cw)

Stephania longa, Lour. Coch. 11. 747 ;—Cocculus Roxburghi-

anus, Wall. in parte (non DC.) ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit.

$, China (Staunton) ; in hort. bot. Cale. culta (Roxburgh) ;

in hb. Soc. Linn. hort. Cale. cult. (Wall. Cat. 4972, non

A,B,C); in hb. Hook., Khasya (Hook. & Th.).

Japonica, nob. ;—Cocculus Japonicus, DC. Syst. i. 516;

Prodr. i. 96 ;—Menispermum Japonicum, Thunb. Jap. 195;

Lam. Dict. iv. 96 ;—Clypea venosa, Bl. Bydr. 27;—Stepha-

nia venosa, Walp. Rep. 1. 96;—v.s. in hb. variis, ¢ & 2,

ins. Philipp. (Cuming, 1160); im hb. Hook. Kurg, ¢

(Hook. & Th.); ¢, Concan (Law); 9, Concan (Gibson) ;

pen. Ind. ¢& 2 (Wight, 953).

glaucescens, Walp. Rep. 1. 96;—Clypea glaucescens,

Dene. Nouv. Ann. Mus. iti. 428, t. 18;-——Cocculus Japonicus,

var. Timoriensis, DC. Prodr. 1. 96 ;—v. s. in hb. Lindl. g,

Timor (Dene).

rotunda, Lour. (non H. & T.) Coch. u. 747; Hook. &

Th. in parte, Fl. Ind. 1. 197 ;—-v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢,

China (Loureiro) ; in hb. Hook. ¢, Kumaon (Thomson,

1227).

Roaburghiana, nob. ;—Stephania rotunda, H. & T. in

parte, 1. c. 197;—Cocculus Roxburghianus, DC. Syst, i.

516; Prodr.i. (non Willd.) ;—Cissampelos hexandra, Roxb.

Fi. Ind. 11. 841 ;—Cissampelos Pata, Buch. (non Roxb.) ;—

Cissampelos Finlaysonianus, Wall. (in parte) ;—v.s. in hb.

Soc. Linn. 9, Madras (Wall. Cat. 4977 p), ¢ & 2, Siam

(ibid. 4974.4); , Moulmem (ibid. 4977 n); 9 (ibid.

1291); in hb. Mus. Brit. 92, India (Buchanan) ; in hb.

Hook., Bengal (Hook. & Th.), Bunsal (Thwaites).

glabra, nob. ;—S. rotunda, Hook. & Th. (in parte)

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacec. 15

1. c. 198 ;—Cissampelos glabra, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i. 840 ;—

Clypea Wizghti, Arn. in Wight. Ill. p. 456; ;—Cocculus

Roxburghianus, Wall. Cat. (non DC.) ; ,—Coceulus Finlay-

sbnianus, Wall. (in parte) ;—v. s. in hb. Soe. Linn. &, Nepal

(Wall. Cat. 4972 8); 9, Molung (ibid. 4972 4,6; ib.

4974 B), Sylhet (ib. 4972 c); in hb. Hook., Courtallam

(Wight, 2462), Assam (Masters), Vavao (Kay); 4, Moul-

mein (Parish), Bhootan, Kumaon (Griffiths, 1731); 9,

Himalaya (Griffiths); ¢, Kumaon (Strachey); ?, Khasya

(Hook. & Th.).

7. Stephania gracilenta, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Soc. Linn. g, Segain,

Prome (Wall. Cat. 4977 A); 9, Nepal (Wallich) ; in hb.

Hook. ¢, Rangoon (M‘Clelland) ; 3d, Martaban (Scott) ;

in hb. Mus. Brit. et alior. g, Nepal (Wallich).

glandulifera, nob. ;—Steph. rotunda, Hook. & Th. (non

Lour.) l.c. p. 197 ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. g, Khasya (Hook.

eaBhe) 3 59; Sikhim, Khasya (Hook. & Th.).

appendiculata, nob. j—v. s. in hb. meo et Hook. 9,

Nielgherries (Gardner).

‘intertexta, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & ?, Ceylon

(Walker), ibid. (Gardner, 32), Kandy (Thwaites, 2757).

hernandifolia, Walp. Rep.1.96; Hook. & Th. (in parte)

Fl. Ind.1.196 ;—Clypea hernandifolia, Wight. Icon. tab:939 ;

—yv.s. in hb. Soc. Linn. ¢, Nepal (Wall. Cat. 4977 x),

Sylhet (ib. 4977 ¥) ; f, Segain (Wallich), Goyalpoor, ¢ & ?

(Wall. Cat. 4977 a, a, 4977 3, b) ; in hb. Mus. Brit., Assam

(Griffiths, 572); m hb. Hook. ¢ & 2, Assam (Griffiths,

356, 357), Mergui (Griffiths, 823), Concan (Javin).

discolor, Walp. Rep. i. 96 ;—Clypea discolor, Bl. Bid.

26 ;—v.s. in hb. plurim. @, Java (Zollinger, 462) ; in hb.

Mus. Brit. ¢ , Java (Horsfield, 472); in hb. Hook. G& 2,

Java (Spanaghoe).

latifolia, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Mucklow,

Khasya (Hook. & Th.).

Gaudichaudu, A. Gray, Bot. Wilkes Exped. i. 37 ;—

v.s. in hb. DC. g, Port Jackson (Gaudichaud, 34).

obvia, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook., Java (Horsfield, 684),

concinna, nob. j—v.s.in hb. Mus. Brit. et Hook. ¢& 2,

Java (Horsfield).

hypoglauca, nob. ;—yv. s. in hb. Soc. Linn., Nielgherry,

2 (Wall. Cat. 4982 a, a, non a, 6) (Noton).

elegans, Wook. & Th. Fl. Ind. i. 195 ;—v. s. in hb.

Mus. Brit. et Soc. Linn. ? , Nepai (Wallich) ; in hb. Hook.

& & 3, Khasya et Sikhim (Hook. & Th.); ¢, Darjeeling

et Khasya (Griffiths, 581); ¢, Assam (Jenkins); ¢&2,

Gurwhal (Falconer, 89); 9, Mucklow (Hook. & Th.).

10.

ane

15.

“16 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

19. Stephania exigua, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. variis, 3’, ins. Philipp.

(Cuming, 1533). 2eanm

Australis, nob., in Ann. Nat. Hist. vii. 40; A. Gray

in Bot. Wilkes Exp. p. 38 ;—Stephania hernandiifolia,

Hook. & Th. (in parte) l. c. p. 196;—Stephania Hookeri,

F. Mueller, MS. ;—v.s. in hb. Heward, 2, Sydney (A.

Cunningham) ; in hb. Hook. ¢, Hastings River (Burke) ;

?, Burnett River (Mueller), Brisbane River,

21. palhidula, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Hook., Australia, Fitzroy

Range (Mueller).

20.

22. prelata, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Lindley ¢ & 9, Africa

austr. (Cooper, 904).

23. levigata, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Fernando Po

(Mann, 629).

fastosa, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Camaroon Mt.

(Mann, 2169).

25. bullulata, nob. ;—v.s.in hb. Hook. ¢, Camaroon Mt.

(Mann, 1342).

ramuliflora, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Borneo

(Motley, 1103).

24.

26.

30. CLAMBUS.

This genus was founded by me, more than twelve years ago,

upon a Mexican plant, collected by Ruiz and Pavon, its general

characters being sketched, two years since, in my synopsis (huj.

op. xii. p. 123). It belongs to the Cissampelidee, and differs

from Cissampelos in its very different habit, its inflorescence,

and the presence of six sepals and six scale-like petals in the

male flower: in this latter respect it approaches Pericampylus

and Pselium; but its anthers are combined in a peltate disk

supported on a slender filament, as in Cissampelos. It offers

some analogy towards Stephania; it has the same number of

sepals, but double the number of petals, a different kind of

inflorescence, and a dissimilar habit. The female plant is un-

known. ‘The genus differs from all others of the Cissampelidee

in its leaves not being peltate, and therefore not palmatinerved,

the nerves being all imparipinnate as we find them in Pycnar-

rhena, Penianthus, and some species of Hypserpa: the leaves are

supported upon very short petioles, and are ovate or elliptic,

with about eight pairs of alternately diverging nerves; they are

very reticulated above, glabrous on both sides, but opakely white

beneath: this cretaceous appearance, when viewed under a lens,

is found to consist of a prominent network of white and ex-

tremely minute crossing fibres, like a spider’s web, which fills

the areoles of the ordinary venous reticulations. The inflores-

cence is axillary, upon an elongated, very slender rachis longer

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 17

than the leaf; its alternate branches, bracteolated at base, are

dichotomously divided, the branches bearing many alternate

pedicels, bracteolated at base, and spicately arranged.

Cramsvs, nob. ;—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 6, biseriata, sub-

eequalia, alternatim paululo angustiora, oblonga, petaloidea,

nervo longitudinali signata, patentia, sestivatione imbricata,

Petala 6, subbiseriata, zqualia, sepalis dimidio breviora,

lineari-oblonga, apice emarginata, crasso-carnosa. Stamen

unicum, centrale; fi/amentum tenue, sepalis paulo brevius ;

anthera peltata, 3-locularis, annuliformis, circa connectivum

peltiforme affixa, loculis emarginatis, transversim bilocellatis,

extus horizontaliter 2-valvatim dehiscentibus—VF/. fem. et

fructus ignoti.

Frutex Mezicanus, forsan volubilis, glaberrimis; folia alterna,

palata, late ovata vel elliptica, nitida, subtus incana, pinnato-

nervosa, breviter petiolata: panicula 3 axillaris, glaberrima,

gracilis, folio longior, bracteolata, mox ramosa, ramis longius-

cults, ramulis spicatim plurifloris; flores minuti, brevissime

pedicellati.

The single species, Clambus araneosus, will be described in the

third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany.’

31. Cycurs.

This genus, established by Dr. Arnott, was confounded with

Clypea and Stephania, until I first pointed out the lines of de-

marcation between them. It is easily distinguished from them

by its habit, another kind of inflorescence, by having a gamo-

sepalous calyx, a turbinately campanular corolla, both of them

often toothed or cut into deeply laciniated segments, and by

having a very different putamen. The authors of the ‘Flora

Indica,’ in acknowledging the validity of Cyclea, rightly united

my genus Rhaptomeris with it: m the former the calyx and co-

rolla are tubular, with a four- or five-toothed border; in the

Jatter the segments are deeper; so that the difference is only one

of degree, and is consequently of specific rather than of generic

value. A casual observer may be misled in regard to the num-

ber of floral parts in the female flower ; for in examining a capi-

tate head of flowers, a number of persistent scales, varying from

four to twelve, may be seen sometimes surrounding an ovary ;

but these extra scales really belong to other abortive flowers

congregated on the same receptacle. The learned botanists, in

their work above mentioned (p. 200), describe the female flower

of Cyclea as having two sepals laterally placed about a solitary

ovary, without any petal; but this does not correspond with my

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. ‘

18 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

observations; in the very numerous flowers I have examined I

have never yet found a sepal unaccompanied by a petal, which is

of nearly equal size, seated upon its claw, the furmer being always

recognizable by its external pubescence, while the latter is inva-

riably more fleshy and perfectly glabrous. This fact is reduced to

a certainty in C. peltata, where the inflorescence is more spread,

each flower being supported by a pedicel of equal length, brac-

teated at its base; we there find constantly a single sepal, with

its corresponding petal, both placed on that side of the ovary

which regards the axis of inflorescence. In C. Arnottii and

in C. versicolor, where the ultimate ramifications of the racemes

are extremely abbreviated, and on which two or more sessile

flowers are closely aggregated, they are sometimes constituted

as In the case last mentioned, but very often we see as many as

three or four sepals with their corresponding petals around a

single persistent ovary, where the other corresponding ovaries

have disappeared: in such case there can be no doubt that this

increased number of floral parts is due entirely to the decadence

or abortion of the ovaries, which often fall out of a head of

flowers while under examination. We may therefore consider

that normally each female flower of Cyclea consists of one sepal,

one petal, and one ovary, as in Cissampelos, with this difference,

that in the former the sepal and petal are antical, while in the

latter they are postical. The putamen of Cyclea is smaller than

that of Stephania, and more globular; its condyle is not disci-

form, but is expanded into a large hollow chamber, convex ex-

teriorly on both sides, around which the somewhat hippocrepical

cell is circumscribed; the embryo is like that of Cissampelos,

with its cotyledons somewhat shorter.

Cyciea, Arnott.—Flores dioici. Masc. Calyx gamosepalus,

tubulosus ; tubus aut late campanulatus ore 4—5-dentatus, vel

turbimatus et profundius in lacinias totidem oblongas fissus,

eestivatione valvata. Corolla campanulata, calyce dimidio

brevior, in lacinias 4—5 plus minusve profundas fissa, laciniis

integris, truncatis aut crenulatis, glabra. Stamen unicum;

jilamentum centrale, tenue, teres, petalo equilongum ; anthera

peltata vel peltatim globosa, 4—6-locellata, loculis circa con-

nectivum spe minusculum adnatis, extus rima_ horizontali

hiantibus et singulis septo horizontaliter 2-locellatis—Fam.

Sepalum unicum, oblongum, squamiforme, extus pilosum.

Petalum unicum, dimidio brevius, orbiculare, carnosum, gla-

brum, ad unguem sepali affixum. Ovarium solitarium, gib-

boso-globosum, villosum, 1-loculare, l-ovulatum. Stylus

brevis, subexcentricus. Stigmata 3, subulata, acutissima, sub-

erecta. Drupa ovata, carnosa, sepius hirsuta, stigmate per-

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 19

sistente basi proximo notata; putamen subosseum, globoso-

ovale, paululo compressum, 1-loculare, loculo circa condylum

hippocrepice gyrato ; condylus excentralis, subglobosus, utrin-

que convexus, vacuus, in sinu basali pro vasorum introitu

pertusus. Semen loculo conforme ; embryo intra albumen sim-

plex, hippocrepicus, tenuiter teres, cotyledonibus semiteretibus,

incumbentibus, radicula supera ad stylum spectante 3-plo

longioribus.

Frutices scandentes Asie intertropice, sepius pubescentes aut.re-

trorsum hispidi; folia alterna, peltata, deltoideo-oblonga aut

obovata, subcordata, 5—7-nervia, petiolo tenui: inflorescentia

dg axillaris, aut yacemus elongatus, rachi tenui, sepe geniculatim

flexuosa, floribus numerosis minutis in glomerulos remotos

aggregatis ; aut in utroque sexu panicula racemosa, ramis

alternis, remotis, longiusculis, sepe iterum ramosis, floribus

corymbulosis aut agglomeratis.

Copious descriptions of all the following species will be given

in the third volume of my ‘ Contributions to Botany ’ :—

1. Cyclea peltata, Hook. & Th. (in parte) Fl. Ind. i. 201 ;—

Menispermum peltatum, Lam. ;—Cocculus peltatus, DC. ;

—y. 8. 1n hb. Soc. Linn. ¢ & 9, Sylhet (Wall. Cat. 4978 c),

Prome (Wallich) ; in hh. Hook. g & 2, Java (Spanaghoe,

194); 3, Assam (Griffiths, 355).

2. barbata, nob. ;—Cissampelos barbata, Wall. (in parte),

Rangoon (Wall. Cat. 4978 4, a), Taong Dong (Wall. Cat.

4978 b).

ey Arnotiu, nob.;—Cyclea Burmanni, Wight, Ill. i. 22

(in parte) ;—C. Burmanni, Hook. & Th. 1. c. 201 (in parte) ;

Clypea Burmanni, W. & A. Prodr. i. 14 (in parte) ;—v. s.

in hb. Soc. Linn. 3, Kelaben (Wall. Cat. 4978 a, 6); Singa-

pore (Wall. Cat. 4978); 9, Prome (Wall. Cat. 4978 B) ;

in hb. Hook. 9, Rangoon (M‘Clellard); 92, Kurg (Hook.

& Th.); ¢, Khasya (Hook. & Th.) ; > , Mangalore (Ward) ;

2, Ind. or. (Walker).

A., | Burmanni, Hook. & Th. 7. c. 201 ;—Rhaptomeris Bur-

manni, nob. olim;—Clypea Burmanni, W. & A. Prodr. 1.

14 (in parte) ;—Cocculus Burmanni, DC. Syst. 1. 517 ;—

v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit., Ceylon (Hermann) ; in hb. Hook. 3,

Ceylon (Walker, 194); 9, Ceylon (Gardner, 33), Ceylon

(Thwaites, 1049); g, Kandy (Champion); Ind. Penins.

(Wight, 40); ¢, Concan (Stocks, Gibson, Law).

versicolor, nob.;—Cyclea peltata, Hook. & Th. (in parte)

Ll. ce. 201 ;—Cissampelos discolor, Wall. (in parte) ;—v. s.

in hb. Soc. Linn. g, Nielgherries (Wall. Cat. 4982 8) ;

?, Trevandrum (Wall. Cat. 4982 a, b, non A, a).

20 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceee.

6. Cyclea laxiflora, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 2, Malacca

(Griffiths).

he peregrina, nob.;—v.s. in hb. Hook. ¢& 9, Borneo

(Mottley, 673 & 684).

8. debilifiora, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Khasya (Hook.

& Th.).

9. pendulina, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢ & 3, Ni-

cobar Isl. (Soc. Fratr.).

10. deltoidea, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook., Hong-Kong

(Champion).

32. PERAPHORA.

This genus was first proposed by me for a plant originally col-

lected in Bhootan by Griffiths, which had female flowers and fruit

only. Since then I found that the Cyclea populifolia described

by Messrs. Hooker and Thomson is the male plant of the same

species. It differs from Cyclea in its habit, its large, coriaceous,

cordate leaves on a rigid petiole almost palately inserted, its

different mode of inflorescence, in its floral structure, and in its

putamen. Although the male flower has a campanular calyx, it

has no petal; the female flower has two comparatively large,

opposite, sacciform, fleshy sepals, and no petal, and its putamen

bears no resemblance to that of Cyclea. It is thus certain that,

with the exception of a campanular calyx in the ¢ flower, the floral

structure in both sexes is totally at variance with the characters

of the genus to which it has been referred by the authors of the

‘Flora Indica.’ In the number of calycine parts it accords with

Antizoma; but it differs in having no petals, and in the gamo-

sepalous calyx of its ¢ flower: these differences, together with

the very dissimilar habits of the plants, will maintain the validity

of both these genera. The putamen, in its shape and its curved

spines, resembles that of some species of Stephania, but it differs

in having an imperforated condyle.

The generic name was suggested by the singularly bursiform

sepals of the female flower.

Prerarnora, nob. ;—Cyclea (in parte), Hook. & Th.;—Flores

dioici. Mase. Calyx globoso-campanulatus, ore parvo, 4—5-

dentato, glaber, carnosulus. Petalum nullum. Stamen uni-

cum, centrale, subinclusum; jilamentum breviter filiforme ;

anthera subglobosa, 4—5-locularis, loculis cirea connectivum

peltatum in annulum connatis, margine rima externa horizon-

taliter dehiscentibus.—Fwm. Sepala 2, opposita, pro mole

majuscula, suborbiculata, valde concava, imo gibboso-saccata,

ungue brevi affixa, carnosa, lateribus tenuioribus et expansis,

apice truncato et subreflexo. Petala nulla. Stamina nulla.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacce. 21

Ovarium solitarium, gibboso-orbiculare, 1-loculare, loculo lu-

nato ; ovulum unicum, loculo conforme, funiculo brevi e medio

faciei ventralis appensum. Stylus brevis. Stigma breviter 8-

fidum, laciniis linearibus, suleatis, reflexis. Drupa subglobosa,

stigmate persistente ad hilum proximo notata, carnosa; putamen

tenuiter osseum, late subovatum, compressum, peripheriam

versus utrinque spinis obtusis recurvo-hamatis in seriebus 3

circa condylum hippocrepicis concentrice dispositis echinatum,

l-loculare, loculo lunato; condylus disciformis, excentralis,

utrinque concavus, imperforatus, medio stria longitudinali

sulcatus ; semen loculo conforme; embryo ignotus.

Frutex in regionibus Himalaye scandens ; folia majuscula, vix

peltata, oblonga, imo cordata, a medio sensim angustiora,

apice acuta, e bast 7-nervia, coriacea, subtus pubescentia,

petiolo tereti, limbo breviore: inflorescentia ¢ et 2? racemi-

formi, paniculata, pubescens, ramis alternis, divaricatis, iterum

divisis, bracteolatis ; flores minimi, pedicellati, glabri.

The single species will be described in the third yolume of my

‘Contributions to Botany’ :—

1. Peraphora robusta, nob. ;—Cyclea populifolia, H. & Th. Fl.

Ind. i. 202 ;—Menispermea, Griffiths in Itin. Bootan, i.

114 & 165; Icon. Boot. tab. 22 & 23 ;—-v. s. in hb. Mus.

Brit. et Lemann, ?, Bhootan (Griffiths, 1732); im hb.

Hook. g & 2, Sikhim (Hook. & Th.), Bhootan (Griffiths,

1782).

30. PERICHASMA.

I propose this genus for a plant, belonging to the tropical

African Flora, which offers many peculiar characters. Although

the number of its floral parts corresponds with that of Stephania,

the entire aspect of the plant proclaims that it cannot belong to

that genus, as does that of Clambus for a similar reason. Its slender

branches, with very distant axils, are furnished with long, patent,

simple hairs, which I have never seen in any species of Stephania ;

its leaves are larger, and, though peltate, are pilose on both sides,

and their margins are furnished with a strong marginal nerve,

which is indented into several rounded lobes or large crenatures,

and they are supported upon unusually long and slender petioles.

The inflorescence, instead of being, as in Stephania, a compound

umbel rarely exceeding an inch or two in length, is here a very

slender pendent raceme a foot and a half long, with numerous

distant, short, alternate branches, which are again and again

alternately divided: in all these respects the general habit of the

plant is more in harmony with some species of Cyclea. The

flowers are very minute, pedicellated, with six oblong, subacute

22 ’ Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

sepals in two series, imbricated in estivation, three small, ovate,

erect petals, and a central stamen almost concealed by the pe-

tals. It is, however, in the structure of the stamen that this

genus differs essentially from Stephania: in the latter genus the

anther has three or six cells, connate in an annular ring, affixed

on the margin of a peltate disciform connective, which is sup-

ported on the central filament; these cells always burst bival-

vately by a crenated horizontal line of sutures. In Perichasma

the anther has no connective, is comparatively large, completely

globular, simply 1-celled, and dehisces- by a somewhat small

apical opercular valve, which is supported by a columella-like

extension of the filament (or placentoid of M. Chatin), round

which the grains of pollen are secreted ; the wall of the globular

cell consists of a finely reticulated membrane (apparently defi-

cient of the usual inner lining or endothecium), is very delicate

in texture, without the slightest vestige of any dissepiment

or nervure, its three indented furrows being due to the external

pressure of the petals which embrace it in the bud. This

organization of the anther is without any parallel in the Meni-

spermacee, and reminds us of the opercular theca of some of the

mosses.

. The generic name is derived from rept, circum, circa, yaopa,

hiatus, in allusion to the feature just mentioned. I have placed

it among the Cissampelidee, but I am not certain that this is its

proper place.

Pericuasma, nob.—Flores dioici. Masc. Sepala 6, biserialia,

quorum 3 interiora paululo longiora, oblonga, submembranacea,

demum expansa. Petala 3, dimidio breviora, orbicularia,

carnosula, margine membranacea, erecta, sepalis exterioribus

opposita. Stamen unicum, centrale ; filamentum tenue, petalis

brevius ; anthera majuscula, globosa, leviter 3-sulcata, apici-

fixa, septorum nullo vestigio omnino 1-locularis, theca tenuiter

membranacea et minutissime reticulata, supra medium rima

horizontali operculatim dehiscente, operculo parvo, apicali, co-

lumella centrali suffulto ; pollen simplex.— Fem. ignoti.

Frutex scandens Africe tropice ; rami longe pilosi ; folia alterna,

peltata, oblonga, imo truncata, palmati-nervia, margine grosse

crenata, sparse pilosa, longe et tenuiter petiolata: intlorescentia

3 supra-axillaris, longissime racemiformis, pendula, pedunculo

tenuissimo, puberulo, alternatim ramoso, ramis iterumque ra-

mosis, ramulis plurifloris ; floribus minutis, alternis, pedicellatis,

glabris.

The single species, Perichasma letificata, will be described in

the third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany.’

[To be continued. ]

Dr. W. Nylander on European Lichens. 23

V.—Notule Lichenologice. No. VII.

By the Rev. W. A. Letcuton, B.A., F.L.S.

In the ‘ Flora’ (1865, p. 260) Dr. Wm. Nylander describes three

European species of Thelocarpon.

1. Thelocarpon Laureri (Flot.).

Apothecia globulos formantia (diam. 0°12-0°15 muillim.) citrino

suffusos. Thecse myriospore fusiformes; spore incolores,

oblong, simplices (longit. 0°0025-0:0040 millim., crassit.

0:0015-0:002 millim.); paraphyses graciles sat parce et non-

nihil irregulares. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix tincta, sed thecz

dilutissime czrulescentes.

Vidi specimen in Anglia lectum a Rev. Leighton (1864).

Spore utroque apice obtusiores quam in figuris a Rev. Leigh-

ton datis. Paraphyses (crass. 0:0015 millim.) intus guttulas

oleosas efferentes, saepe ramoso-divise.

2. Thelocarpon intermediellum, Ny].

Extus simile precedenti, sed globuli paullo majores (diam.

0:2 millim.). Thecz myriospore; spore oblongz (longit.

0:0035-0:0050 millim., crass. 00020 millim.), vulgo medio

obsolete tenuiores et utroque apice obtuse incrassatule ; para-

physes null. Gelatind hymenea iodo vinose fulvescens ;

thecze dilute ceerulescentes.

Ad lignum alni putrescens in Finlandia media (Norrlin)

[1863].

A precedente differt magnitudine paullo majore, sporis aliis

et defectu paraphysium. Adsunt filamenta ostiolaria brevia,

gracilia, fasciculata in supera parte cavitatis perithecil (omnino

sterigmata simulantia spermogonii).

3. Thelocarpon superellum, Nyl.

Subsimile binis preecedentibus quoad faciem externam, at glo-

bulis nonnihil majoribus (diam. 0°25 millim.). Thecz poly-

spore; spore ellipsoidee (longit. 0-009-0-012 muillim.,

crassit. circiter 0°0045 millim.); paraphyses graciles, elon-

gatee, rect. Gelatina hymenea iodo non tincta, sed thece

tote bene cerulescentes.

Kola, in Lapponia orientali, ad lignum vetustum (N. I.

Fellman) [1863].

Notis allatis, sporis multo majoribus, paraphysibus &c, facil-

lime dignotum.

Dr. Nylander inclines to think that our English Thelocarpon

Laureri, described and figured by me in ‘ Annals and Mag. Nat.

24 Dy. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Hist.’ Dec. 1864, t. 9. f. 1-5, may be possibly different from

the typical 7h. Laureri, Flot. Should this prove to be the

case, the name he proposes, 7h. anglicum, must be adopted for

the English plant, limiting 7. Laureri to the German speci-

mens. Dr. Koérber, to whom I forwarded a specimen, com-

pared it with his authentic specimen (but whether micro-

scopically or merely externally, I know not), and thought

them identical. Dr. Nylander has kindly afforded me an op-

portunity of examining his Zh. intermediellum, which corre-

sponds with the characters he has given of it. Recurring

to my own specimens, I am disposed to think that the plant

found by me parasitically on Baomyces rufus (see Ann. /. c.)

will eventually prove to be another species (for which I would

propose the name Thelocarpon epithallinum). In it I find the

paraphyses to be stronger, unbranched, and shorter than in

others, the asci more elongated, lineari-cylindrical, and the

spores (which I could not disengage from the asci, and therefore

may be optically deceived by the appearance of their close ap-

proximation or packing) to be of an irregular spherical shape.

There also appears a difference in the gonidia. But the plant

was in too unsatisfactory a state to determine this decisively.

VI.—Fifth Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection

of the British Museum. By Auzert Gintusr, M.A., M.D.,

Ph.D.

[Plates VI. & VII.]

Tue followmg species of Ophidians have been added to the

Collection of the British Museum since the publication of the

last paper on the sare subject in this Journal (February 1865,

p. 89). The total number of species in that collection amounts

now to 827, and that of the typical specimens to 808. Our

numerous specimens of Typhlopides have been examined by

Prof. Peters, who has been for some years engaged upon a

monograph of this family.

In the following lists some of the species are marked with an

asterisk (*): they will be described in this paper.

I. List of Species which were formerly desiderata.

Helminthophis flavoterminatus, Pérs. Caraccas. Purchased.

albirostris, Pérs. Guayaquil. Mr. Fraser.

Typhlops tenuis, Jan. Bengal. Purchased.

— lineolatus, Jan. ¢

Milleri, Schleg. (=Pilidium dimidiatum, Blkr.). Fast-Indian

archipelago. Dr. Bleeker.

polygrammicus, Schley. New South Wales. G. Krefft, Esq.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 25

Onychocephalus Kraussii, Jan. Old Calabar and Fernando Po.

Purchased.

lalandii, Schleg. Cape of Good Hope. Purchased.

— Bibronii, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.

(Typical specimen.)

verticalis, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.

(Typical specimen.)

capensis, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.

(Typical specimens. )

mucruso, Pérs. Zambesi Expedition.

mossambicus, Pérs. Mozambique. Purchased.

Stenostoma cairi, D. f B. Thebes. Prof. Peters.

macrolepis, Pérs. Mexico. Purchased.

macrorhynchum, Jan. Euphrates Expedition.

—— bilineatum, D. § B. Martinique. Purchased.

nigricans, Smith. South Africa. Sir A. Smith. (Typical

specimens. )

fallax, Pérs. Peru. Prof. Nation.

*Calamelaps unicolor, RnArdt. Sierra Leone. Purchased.

Rhabdion torquatum, D. § B. Borneo. Prof. Peters.

Hapsidophrys ceruleus, I%scher. Sierra Leone. Purchased.

Rhagerrhis producta, Pfrs. Nubia. Prof. Peters.

multimaculata=Coronella multim., Smith=Dipsina multim.,

Jan. Damara Land. Purchased.

* Atractaspis corpulentus, Hallow. ? St. G. Mivart, Esq.

Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus, Cantor. Formosa. Consul R.

Swinhoe.

Echidna inornata, Smzth. South Africa. Sir A. Smith, (Type

of the species.)

II, List of the new Species procured and described in the course of

the year 1865.

Typhlops obtusus, Pérs. Shiré Valley. Zambesi Expedition.

Gintheri, Ptrs. North Australia. Mr. Elsey.

Stenostoma scutifrons, Pévs. Benguela. Mr. Monteiro.

*Calamaria arcticeps. Borneo. L. L. Dillwyn, Esq.?

*Ablabes flaviceps. East-Indian archipelago. Purchased.

*Zamenis brachyurus. Dekkan. Purchased.

*Herpetethiops Bellii. Sierra Leone. Lieut. Bell.

*Ahztulla nigromarginata. Upper Amazons. Mr. Bartlett, junr.

* Aspidiotes melanocephalus, Kreft. G. Krefft, Esq.

Hoplocephalus mastersii, Kreft. Flinders Range. G. Krefft, Esq.

*Atractaspis microlepidota. West Africa? A. Ginther.

Calamaria arcticeps. Pl. VI. fig. C.

Body moderately slender ; tail short; head narrow, elongate,

the froutals being longer than broad, as long as the ver-

tical. Vertical five-sided, broader posteriorly than anteriorly,

the lateral edges being slightly convergent towards the front.

26 Dr. A. Gunther on new Species of Snakes

Five upper labials, the third and fourth below the orbit; the

first pair of lower labials touch each other behind the mentale,

without forming a suture. No azygos shield between the chin-

shields. -Ventrals 151; anal entire; subcaudals 16. Brownish

above, with eight brown longitudinal lines—two along the me-

dian line of the back (that is, one on each side of the vertebral

series of scales), a broader one along the meeting edges of the

fourth and fifth outer series of scales, one of the same width

along the meeting edges of the second and third series, and,

finally, one, very narrow, along the meeting edges of the two

outermost series. A broad brown collar on the neck, edged

with yellowish; tail with two large black transverse spots.

Lower parts uniform yellowish.

Eight inches long. Borneo.

CALAMELAPS, gen. nov.

Body cylindrical, rather slender; tail short in the female, of

moderate length in the male. Two pairs of frontal shields ;

rostral rounded, moderate; nasal single, its anterior portion

pierced by the nostrils; loreal and anteorbital absent, the pos-

terior frontal forming a broad suture with the third labial;

postorbital minute or absent; the fifth labial forming a long

suture with the occipital; six upper labials. Eye very small.

Scales smooth, without apical groove, in seventeen rows; anal

bifid ; subcaudals two-rowed. ‘The posterior maxillary ‘tooth

elongate and grooved.

The type of this genus is Calamaria unicolor (Ruhrdt.), from

West Africa.

Ablabes (Enicognathus) flaviceps. Pl. VI. fig. B.

Habit rather slender; head depressed, with very short snout.

Scales im seventeen rows. Loreal rather higher than long; one

preocular, just reaching the upper surface of the head; two

postoculars. The occipital extends downwards to the lower

postocular ; temporals 2+2, the two anterior in contact with

the lower postocular. Hight upper labials, the third, fourth,

and fifth entering the orbit. Anterior chin-shields not longer,

but rather broader than the posterior, and in contact with four

lower labials. Ventrals 150; anal bifid; subecaudals 97. Maxil-

lary teeth small, numerous, closely set. Upper parts brownish

black, powdered with grey. A grey band commences on the

neck, runs along each side of the back, where it is three scales

broad, and disappears on the tail; anteriorly it is edged with

black, in the middle accompanied with black spots along the

edges ; posteriorly the black spots stand in regular intervals

within the band. Head and anterior part of the nape dark

in the Collection of the British Museum. 27

yellow; a straight, blackish longitudinal streak runs through

the eye. Lower parts yellow; each ventral with a black spot

on each side.

East-Indian archipelago. 20 inches long ; tail 7 inches.

Zamenis brachyurus. Pl. VI. figs. A, A’.

This species resembles in general habit a small Dromicus.

Rostral shield scarcely broader than high, extending to the

upper surface of the snout; anterior frontals half as large

as the posterior. Vertical of moderate size, five-sided, rather

shorter than the occipitals, which are rounded behind. Lo-

real as high as long; one preocular, large, extending to the

vertical ; two postoculars. Upper labials eight, the fourth and

fifth entering the orbit; temporals 24-2+3. Scales elongate,

narrow, in twenty-three series. Ventrals 225; anal entire; sub-

caudals 46; ventrals rounded, not keeled. Hye rather small,

with round pupil. The last maxillary tooth is the largest, and

separated from the others by an interspace. Upper parts

brownish olive; the upper side of the head and the anterior

part of the trunk are irregularly spotted with brown, the brown

spots being arranged in longitudinal series, and narrowly edged

with yellow. The posterior part of the trunk is immaculate.

Anterior ventral shields brownish, each with a yellowish poste-

rior edge ; posterior ventral shields uniform whitish.

We have obtained a single example from Poonah (Dekkan) ;

it is 17 inches long, the head measuring 7 lines, and the tail

2 inches.

Hrrrera£trutrors (gen. nov. Dryadid.).

Body and tail slender, scarcely compressed ; trunk with about

150 ventral shields, which are keeled; head somewhat elongate,

rounded in front, flat above; eye of moderate size, with round

pupil; nostril lateral, between shields. Plates of the head re-

gular; loreal present; one anterior and two posterior oculars.

Scales rather elongate, smooth, without apical groove, in fifteen

rows; ventrals strongly bent up the sides; anal entire. The

two posterior maxillary teeth are the longest, not grooved, sepa-

rated from each other and from the preceding ones by a short

interspace.

Herpetethiops Bellu. Pl. VII. fig. B.

Head rather narrow, distinct from neck. Rostral shield

scarcely broader than high, reaching the upper surface of the

snout; anterior frontals half as large as the posterior, about as

long as broad, Vertical bell-shaped, as large as a superciliary,

and not much shorter than the occipitals, which are short and

rounded behind. Loreal quadrangular, much longer than deep;

28 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

one preocular, nearly reaching the vertical; two postoculars ;

nine upper labials, the fourth, fifth, and sixth of which enter the

orbit. Temporals 2+ 2, the two anterior being in contact with

the postoculars. Scales much imbricate. Ventrals 159; anal

entire; subcaudals 85. Deep black above and below; only the

lower side of the head and the thirty anterior ventral shields are

whitish.

We have received one example only, in a collection made by

Lieut. Bell at Sierra Leone; it is 83 inches long, the tail mea-

suring 9 inches.

Ahetulla nigromarginata.

Scales in fifteen rows, slightly keeled. Head small, depressed,

with the snout of moderate length, subtruncate in front ; rostral

shield rather broader than high; loreal none; preorbital not

reaching the vertical; two postorbitals; nine upper labials, the

fifth and sixth of which enter the orbit ; temporals large, 1+2;

occipitals rounded, with some larger rounded scales. behind.

Six lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields. Hye

rather large, with round pupil. Body and tail slender and

compressed. Ventral shields 158, slightly keeled; anal bifid ;

subeaudals 115. Maxillary with a cluster of three or four en-

larged teeth, which are not grooved and not separated from the

others by an interspace. Upper parts green ; each head-shield

and scale with a black margin; sides without band. Lower

parts uniform greenish.

This species would enter the subgenus Uromacer of Duméril

and Bibron.

The British Museum possesses one example of this species,

collected by Mr. Bartlett, junr., on the Upper Amazons; it is a

female, 30 inches long, the tail measuring 10.

Ferania Sieboldi, Schleg.

This species attains to a very large size: we have received

from the late Sir R. Schomburgk a specimen 46 inches long,

the tail measurig 6 inches; the circumference of the middle of

its body is 5} inches. The spots which are so very distinct in

the young are confluent, giving a coarsely reticulated appear-

ance to the back. Lower part of the sides and belly with black

cross bands placed at regular intervals. Upperside of the head

immaculate; a black band from the eye along the temple.

This specimen, which is from Siam, has 106 ventral shields

only, and the anterior frontals are confluent into one, so that

the specimen might be taken for a Hypsirhina. However, an

original division of the plate is still indicated by an incomplete

suture. The Hypsirhina Bocourti, noticed by Jan as a new spe-

cies, is probably not distinct.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 29

Lycophidium Horstockii. Pl. VII. fig. A.

I have mentioned, in ‘ Colubr. Snak.’ p. 197, that large spe-

cimens about 2 feet long appear nearly uniformly black, a small

number of scales on the posterior part of the body retaining

bluish-white edges.

We have received a very singular variety from the Gambia,

through the kindness of Sir Andrew Smith: one of the speci-

mens is 21 inches long, and the other about half that size.

This is black, nearly all the scales having bluish-white edges.

A series of thirty quadrangular white spots occupies the back of

the trunk, each spot enclosing nine or ten scales. The series

commences with a white longitudinal streak on the neck and

occiput, and terminates with about seven streak-like spots on the

back of the tail.

This extraordinary variety might be taken as a distinct species;

but there is not the slightest structural difference from the typical

L. Horstocku.

Aspidiotes melanocephalus, Krefft.

Mr. Krefft has kindly sent to the British Museum a fine large

specimen of this snake. I could not discover any teeth on the

maxillary bone; so that Mr. Krefft appears to be justified at

present in placing this snake among the Boide. However,

there is in other points such a strong similarity to Liasis, that

I cannot help thinking that an examination of younger examples

of 2 or 3 feet in length may reveal the presence of those teeth.

Atractaspis microlepidota. Pl. VII. fig. C.

Uniform blackish brown. Body stout. Ventrals 212; sub-

caudals simple, 26. Scales in twenty-nine series. Two pairs

of frontal shields; one pre- and one postocular; six upper

labials, the third and fourth entering the orbit; temporals

rather numerous and irregular.

This is probably a West African species. Our specimen is

20 inches long, the tail measuring 18 lines.

Atractaspis corpulentus.

According to Hallowell’s notes (Proc. Acad. Nat. Se, Philad.

1857, p. 70), his specimen had one pair of frontals and 182

ventral shields; our specimen differs in having two pairs of

frontals and 210 ventral shields. However, we have seen similar

variations in one and the same species of African snakes, and

would not regard the two specimens as specifically distinct,

without further proof.

The British Museum now possesses four very distinct species

of this genus, so characteristic of the western and southern parts

of Africa.

30 Dr. A, Giinther on some Fishes from the Amazons.

VII.—Remarks on some Fishes from the River Amazons in the

British Museum. By Dr. Auzerr GUNTHER.

A coxurction of fishes made by Mr. Bartlett, junr., on the

Upper Amazons, and acquired for the British Museum, con-

tained, besides numerous examples of described species, a few

which appear to be new to science*. It afforded me also the

opportunity of comparing the true Prochilodus mgricans of

Agassiz with its congener from the Essequibo River (cfr. Fish.

v. p. 295). They prove to be specifically distinct, the species

from the Amazons having somewhat smaller scales, viz. L. lat. 48.

L. transv. 10/9. The height of the body is one-third of the

total length (without caudal). The name nigricans must be

retained for the Amazons species, whilst the Essequibo fish is

most probably identical with P. rubroteniatus (Schomb.),

Tetragonopterus Bartletti, n. sp.

Didi, A. Sl. Lh. lat. 39. i. transy.. 87%

The height of the body is contained twice and three-fourths

in the total length (without caudal), the length of the head

thrice and two-thirds. Interorbital space convex, its width

being scarcely more than the diameter of the eye, which is one-

third of the length of the head. The upper profile of the head

is very slightly concave. The maxillary extends a little behind

the vertical from the front margin of the orbit. The origin of

the dorsal fin is immediately behind the base of the ventrals.

Pectoral extending beyond the base of the ventrals, nearly to the

vertical from the origin of the dorsal. Humeral and caudal

spots distinct ; body without silvery band. One of the speci-

mens has a broad oblique dark band across the middle of the

dorsal fin.

Two specimens, 4 inches long, were in the collection.

Cynodon pectoralis, » sp.

This species is closely allied to C. scombroides, but has a

greater number of rays in the anal fin, and a much longer and

larger pectoral fin.

Daa A, a8. Pras, V1 0:

The height of the body is two-sevenths of the total length

(with the caudal), the length of the head nearly one-fifth.

Scales very small, those of the lateral line about twice the size

* I observe, in a letter of Prof. Agassiz, addressed to and published by

M. Milne-Edwards, that a new genus of freshwater Belonide from the

Amazons is mentioned. I suppose this to be the same fish which was dis-

covered by Mr. Bates some fifteen years ago, and is described in the ‘ Catal.

Fish.’ vi. p. 256, as Potamorrhaphis (Belone) teniata,

Mr. J. F. Walker on Lower-Greensand Fossils, 3I

of the cthers. Dorsal fin above the middle of the interspace

between the root of the ventral and anal, somewhat nearer to the

latter. Anal low, scaly, anterior rays imbedded in fat. Caudal

short, rounded. The pectoral extends somewhat beyond (in C.

scombroides not quite to) the vertical from the origin of the

dorsal, its length being one-third of the total without caudal

(in C. scombroides rather less than two-sevenths). Ventrals well

developed. A small black spot on the root of the lower pectoral

rays. The humeral spot and one on the adipose fin are present,

as in C. scombroides.

Seven inches long.

VIII.—On the Fossils contained in a Lower Greensand Deposit

of Phosphatic Nodules in Bedfordshire. By J. ¥, Watxer,

F.C.S., Sid. Suss. College, Cambridge.

Tue increasing demand for phosphatic manure has led to the

opening, a short time since, of new workings for the extraction

of nodules containing earthy phosphates, near Sandy, in Bed-

fordshire. A short account of this deposit was communicated

by the Rev. P. B. Brodie to the ‘Geological Magazine,’ and

published in that journal for April last. The deposit is referred

to the Lower Greensand; but nearly all the fossils contained in

it have been derived from the wreck of preexisting formations,

Mr. Brodie mentions an imperfect cast of a species of Rhyn-

chonella as the only fossil of animal origin observed by him

which appeared to belong to the bed; I have obtaimed a species

of Corbis, nearly allied to Corbis corrugata, Sby. of the Lower

Greensand of the southern counties, and have seen a species of

Terebratula, both presenting precisely the aspect of Lower

Greensand fossils, and exhibiting no traces of having been rolled.

Of the introduced fossils, the greater part appear to have been

derived from the Kimmeridge Clay. Among these are casts of

the interior of species of Cardium and of two other bivalves, and

of a large Pleurotomaria, much worn,—several fragments of the

dorsal spines of Asteracanthus ornatissimus and a small portion of

a spine of Hybodus,—numerous palatal teeth of Spherodus gigas,

and a single curved palatal tooth of Pycnodus. Several teeth of

Phosaurus and some teeth of apparently crocodilian character

also occur.

The Oxford Clay has furnished four species of Ammonites, and

a phragmocone of a Belemnite ; and several vertebree and teeth of

Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus are also probably derived from this

formation.

But the most interesting point that I have ascertained with re-

32 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

gard to this deposit, and which indeed induces me to make this

communication, is the occurrence in it of water-worn remains of

Iguanodon. Of this reptile I have obtained one of the phalanges,

a worn tooth, vertebree, and one or two other fragments. The

presence of these rolled fossils so far beyond the present area of

the Wealden, coupled with the occurrence of numerous fragments

of fossil wood strongly resembling that found in the Purbeck

beds, seems to prove that, previously to the formation of this

deposit, an extensive denudation of Wealden strata must have

taken place in this district.

IX.—WNotes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. VII.

Some Carboniferous Species. By T. Rurerr Jonss, F.G.S.,

and James W. Kirxsy, sq.

Wirtu the view of working out the characters and classification

of the Bivalved Entomostraca of the Carboniferous Rocks, we

have had to determine the specific value of the forms already

published by paleontologists. In the ‘Annals and Mag. Nat.

Hist.’ for May 1865 (ser. 3. vol. xv. p. 404, &c.) we gave the

results of our examination of some Bavarian specimens (with

which Dr. C. W. Giimbel obligingly favoured us), whereby we

were enabled to determine Count Minster’s eight Carboniferous

species—the oldest on our list, having been published in ‘ Leon-

hard’s Jahrbuch’ for 1830.

1793. Ure.—Before proceeding to discuss the species pub-

lished subsequently to 1830, we have to notice some figured but

unnamed. forms, well known to the students of Scottish geology,

who have to refer to Ure’s ‘ History of Rutherglen and Hast

Kilbride’ (8vo, 1793). In this work: the Rev. David Ure no-

ticed the existence of certain “microscopic bivalved shells”

(Entomostraca) in the Carboniferous Limestones near Glasgow,

and supplied his friends with suites of these little fossils, toge-

ther with minute Gasteropods; and tastily mounted sets, in

glazed frames, are still preserved in the Hunterian Museum in

the Royal College of Surgeons, London, and in the Museum of

the Andersonian University, Glasgow. (See the very interesting

‘ Biographical Notice of the Rev. David Ure,’ &c., by John Gray,

8vo, Glasgow, 1865.) ‘‘ Both John Hunter and Dr. Anderson

were friends of Ure; and as these microscopic fossils were found

in Hunter’s native parish, they would be the more prized on

that account.” (Mr. John Young, Lefter.)

Four or five of the little EKntomostraca were figured and de-

scribed by Ure in his ‘ History of Rutherglen,’ &. One of

them (pl. 14. fig. 15), a subreniform Cythere (?), small, white,

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 33

and polished, was the most numerous of those mentioned ; an-

other, also white and polished, but larger and scarcer, is sub-.

triangular, and evidently a Bairdia (fig. 20), somewhat crushed

—a condition noticéd by Ure; it was rare, in a limestone-quarry

fifteen miles west of Newcastle-on-Tyne, near the spot where

the Roman wall is intersected by Watling Street. Figs. 16,17,

and 21 are given as different views of one form, the scarcest of

all: fig. 21 is certainly a Kirkbya badly drawn ; and the other two

are Beyrichian in appearance (Beyrichia bituberculata, M‘Coy,,

sp.).

Diaaank the mounted specimens in the Hunterian Museum

are Leperditia Okeni, Minster, var., Cytherella, Bairdia curta,

M‘Coy, B. subcylindrica, Minster, and the Kirkbya roughly in-

dicated by Ure’s fig. 21, which is K. Urei, Jones (Trans. Tyne-

side Nat. Field-Club, 1859, p. 186; and Gray’s ‘ Biograph.

Notice,’ &c., p. 52).

Dr. Ure’s microscopic specimens seem to have been collected

chiefly at Lawrieston and Stuartfield (East Kilbride). It 1s only

of late that the energetic geologists of Glasgow have been able

to rediscover the exact strata which yield them. In a letter

dated July 4, 1865, our friend Mr. John, Young, of Glasgow,

states— ;

“Since I began to pay any; attention to the collecting of

Entomostraca, I have often searched for the bed in which David)

Ure obtained the specimens figured in his book, and also mounted '

in the Hunterian Museum in London and in the collection of *

the Andersonian Institution in Glasgow; but as the quarries ;

from which he got them. have been filled up, and as Ure does ,

not tell the nature of the strata from which he collected them,

I have never been able to find them until the last week or two. .

In examining some shale from the Calderside old limestone-. -

quarries, near High Blantyre, Lanarkshire, I was fortunate in :

again discovering Ure’s bed for the Airkbya, &c. It lies between »

two beds of limestone, which crop out in both Blantyre and Kast ;

Kilbride parishes.. This bed of shale is loaded with organisms .

in a more or less perfect condition, namely Corals, Polyzoa, ,

Brachiopoda, Conchifera, Crinoids, Bivalve Entomostraca, Tri-. -

lobites, &c. The shale soon breaks up on exposure. to. the

weather, and then the minute organisms can easily be extractede.

from it by washing.” Mr. John Young then refers to: some

mounted specimens of Bairdie, Kirkbye, Cytherelle, and Hora-

minifera, from this shale, that were kindly sent in his letter, and __

adds, “I find, on comparing the figures given by Ure with the ,

Entomostraca from Calderside, that he has made a mistake in ,

confounding two distinct forms as belonging to the same spe- .

cies. Figs. 16,.17, and 21 he thought were the same. I find |

Anmn..& Mag, N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 3.

e—- s

34 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

that figs. 16 and 17 are intended to represent Beyrichia bituber-

culata, M‘Coy, sp., which is sparingly found in the Calderside

shale together with Kirkbya Urei, Jones, which Ure produces

in fig. 21. It is strange that he should have made this mistake,

as the two shells are quite distinct to the naked eye under every

aspect.”

1834. Hibbert.—In 1834, Dr. Hibbert brought to the notice

of the British Association at Edinburgh, and in1836 he described,

in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ (vol.

xill.), some Entomostraca from the Carboniferous strata near

Burdiehouse, which are rich in these minute carapaces, mostly,

however, belonging to one species*. At page 179 of his memoir

he gave small woodcut figures of his Cypris Scotoburdigalensis,

and at page 180 others of his Daphnoidia. The latter received

the name of “ Hibberti” in Morris’s ‘ Catalogue of British Fos-

sils,’ first edition, 1843. Dr. Hibbert’s specimens were again

noticed by Mr. L. Horner in the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical

Journal’ for April 1836, and were regarded as indicating an

estuarine (and not a freshwater) origin for the strata containing

them.

Among the many Carboniferous specimens lent to us by our

friend Mr, KE. W. Binney, F.R.S., are several bearing minute

Entomostraca that were in Dr. Hibbert’s collection. In these,

* Cypris Scotoburdigalensis” is abundant ; but Daphnoidia, un-

fortunately, does not appear. Nor can we form a satisfactory

conclusion as to the nature of this little fossil from Dr. Hibbert’s

woodcuts. The so-called ‘‘ Cypris” is readily recognized to be

a dwarf Leperditia, with the characteristic muscle-spot, and

possessing even the hump on the back of the left valve, so

marked a feature in some members of that genus. Excepting

in relative size, no distinction can be discerned between Leper-

ditia Scotoburdigalensis and L. Okeni; and we find very many

gradations in size among these little Leperditie of the Carboni-

ferous shales and limestones, including L. Okeni as a large form

and L. Scotoburdigalensis as the smallest. Two or more of these

varieties are often associated together, sometimes probably as

young and old conditions, but often as varieties determined by

mode of growth. Some slight differences in the outline of the

valves, or in the profile of the carapace, occasionally accompany

variation in size; and, taking these together, we use them as

* In more than one of the many samples of the Burdiehouse limestone

and shale that we have examined, we have noticed what appears to be a

more elongate (and Cythere-like) form than Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis;

but the specimens are so imperfect as not to be determinable. We may

say the same in respect to other crushed specimens from this locality, that

resemble Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 35

distinctions for nominal varieties. Thus L. Scotoburdigalensis

may be allowed to stand as a sufficiently distinct variety of L.

Okeni, though possibly it really differs only in having been

dwarfed by unfavourable circumstances of growth.

In the Lower Carboniferous shales and limestone of Burdie-

house* we see Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis in company with

Spirorbis (Microconchus) carbonarius (not very abundant there),

abundant Fish-remains, Lepidodendron, Lepidostrobus, Spheno-

pteris, &c.

This smallest of the many varieties of Leperditia Okeni, oc-

curring in the Lower Carboniferous limestones and shales of

Great Britain and Ireland, has been found at Burdiehouse (by

Hibbert, Horner, Binney, Sorby, Crosskey, the Geological Sur-

veyors, and others) ; Granton (Harkness) ; Pittenweem, in Fife-

shire (Hunter) ; Bathgate (Young); Arundale, near Bathgate

(Young); Hurlet, S.W. of Glasgow (Crosskey); Carluke (Ran-

kine); Lammerton and Cockburnspath, Berwickshire (G. Tate);

and at many places in Ireland by Sir R. Griffith and the Geo-

logical Surveyors. (See further on.)

One of us long ago saw that this little Entomostracan could

not be a Cypris, nor a Cythere, and put it with Cytheropsis (a

provisional genus). Hence it appears under that name in the

‘ Monograph of the Fossil Estheriz’ (Paleontographical Society,

1862) and in some other works. It was definitely referred to

Leperditia by us m 1863 (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1863, Sections,

p- 80; and ‘ Geologist,’ vol. vi. p. 460).

1836. Bean.—In 1836 Mr.W. Bean, of Scarborough, described

in the ‘ Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. ix. p. 377, a little

Entomostracan from the Coal-measures of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

as Cypris arcuata; and illustrated it by a woodcut (fig. 55).

This is really a Beyrichia, and has been so referred to, on the

authority of one of us, for several years past.

Beyrichia arcuata is one of the most widely distributed Ento-

mostraca in the Coal-measures of England and in the “ Upper

Coal-measures” of Scotland. It has also been found in the

shales of the so-called ‘ Millstone-grit ” of Lancashire and in

the Lower Carboniferous shales of Scotland, but not in the

Mountain-limestone, or equivalent portions of the Carboniferous

Series, in England. We have it from the Ryhope Colliery, near

Sunderland, in shale, about 8 or 10 feet below the base of the

Permian strata ; from Claxheugh, near Sunderland, in ironstone ;

from Hylton, near Sunderland, in ironstone; from Prestwick,

Northumberland,in carbonaceous shale (Atthey); fromLoughton,

* For a full account of the Carboniferous Strata of Burdiehouse, see

the ‘ Memoirs of the Geol. Survey,’ &c.: ‘“ Geology of the Neighbourhood

of Edinburgh,” by Howell and Geikie, 1861, p. 36, &c. f

36 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

Staffordshire, in shale (J. Ward) ; in ironstone from the Coal-

measures near Dudley (Geol. Survey) ; from Chesterfield in

ironstone (Binney) ; from Babbington, Notts, in shale; from

Shaley Brow, Rainford (Binney) ; from Glodwick, near Oldham

(Binney) ; from Agecroft Colliery, near Manchester (Binney) ;

from Ashby-de-la-Zouch (A. H. Green) ; from Hagley Shore,

Lancashire, and from Holcombe, Bradshaw, Cranbourke, and

Brow Peel in the same county ; from Granton (Harkness) ; from

Carluke (Rankine) ; and from the shales associated with the

Shotts Gas- and Furnace-Coals, Lanarkshire (Grossart).

In the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ illustrative of the

several sheets of the Geological Survey Map, are several refer-

ences to the occurrence of Bivalve Entomostraca in the Coal-

measures. Beyrichia arcuata is quoted as occurring in shales of

the Middle and Lower Coal-measures of Lancashire and of the

“* Holeombe-Brook Series ” (referred to the “ Millstone-grit ” by

the Surveyors) in the same district : Mem. Geol. Surv., “ Geology

of the Country around Bolton-le-Moors,” by Mr. K. Hull, 1862,

pages 33, 34, 40, &c. B. arcuata is also mentioned as belonging

to the Middle Coal-measures, near Wigan, in the ‘ Geology of

the Country near Wigan,’ 2nd edit. 1862, Appendix *, by Mr.

Salter, pp. 386 and 38, and is figured in a woodcut at p. 37

(fig*.2515)'.

1836. Phillips and Williamson.—In 1836 Professor J. Phillips

(Brit. Assoc. Report, 1841, Sections, p. 64) and Professor W.

C. Williamson (Phil. Mag. new series, vol. ix. p. 351) dis-

covered numerous small Entomostraca in the Upper Coal-mea-

sures at Ardwick, near Manchester (see ‘ Monograph Foss.

Estheriz,’ Pal. Soc. p. 118). Excepting a few specimens of

Leaia, these Entomostraca were referred to as Cyprides, and

are possibly the same as Cypris inflata of Murchison, which is

found in the uppermost Coal-measures of Shropshire.

1839. Murchison and Sowerby.—in 1839 Sir Roderick Mur-

chison and Mr. J. de C. Sowerby described and figured a small

Bivalve Entomostracan (obtained by the former from the Upper

Coal-measures of Shropshire) as Cypris inflata, in the ‘ Silurian

System,’ p. 84, woodcuts figs. A 1, A2, A3, which figures were

repeated im ‘Siluria, Ist and 2nd editions (2nd edit. 1859,

p. 322, fig. 83), and have been copied in other works on geo-

logy. These illustrations are really those of a small gibbous

Leperditia,—with a straight back, strong dorsal angles, and con-

vex ventral margin. In the ‘Silurian System, p. 84, it is

* In this Appendix, p. 37, fig. 2, 4, is figured another Beyrichia (under

the name of ‘‘ B. Binneyana, Jones’’), which is B. subarcuata, Jones, Pal.

Soe. 1862, Monogr. Foss. Esth. p. 120, pl. 5. fig. 16. The name “ B.

Binneyana’”’ was intended for a different form as yet unpublished.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 37

stated that a band of freshwater limestone stretches from Nobold

near Shrewsbury to Asterley beyond Pontesbury, and is found

in the Coal-measures between Westbury and Pontesbury; and

it is described as containing Cypris inflata, together with Spi-

rorbis (Microconchus) carbonarius, and as being equivalent to the

Ardwick limestone, in which this latter little fossil also abounds.

This Spirorbis-limestone occurs also in the uppermost Coal-

measures of Warwickshire. See Geol. Survey Memoirs, 1859.

Mr. J. W. Salter has obtained for us, through the kind aid

of Mr. R. Wilding, of Church-Stretton, a specimen of the

whitish so-called “ freshwater” limestone of the Upper Coal-

measures of Lee-Botwood, Shropshire. This contained a few

specimens of a dwarf Leperditia and many minute Spirorbes *

(Microconchi). Mr. E. W. Binney has also favoured us with

specimens of the same Spirorbis-limestone from Ardwick, near

Manchester ; Prizely, Shropshire; Rough Gill near Galescales,

Carlisle ; and from the banks of the Ayr near Catrine, Ayrshire.

Some of these specimens enclose imperfect imdividuals of the

same dwarf Leperditia. In another specimen of the white lime-

stone that we have seen in the Ludlow Museum, Spirorbis

abounds, but no Entosmostraca are visible.

On account of the compact and crystalline condition of this

rock, it is very difficult to manipulate the little bivalve carapaces,

or their representative casts.in the limestone; but, though not

so successful as we wished, we had evidence of such a little

Leperditia as that figured by Murchison and mentioned above ;

and we have no doubt that this is very similar to L. Scoto-

burdigalensis, its greater breadth or ventricosity alone dis-

tinguishing it. Hence we may keep the varietal name L. mflata

for the gibbous dwarf form of L. Okeni occurring in the south,

whilst L. Scotoburdigalensis is an equally small, but less swollen,

dwarf variety, found in the north of Britain, as well as m Ire-

land.

1839. M‘Coy.—In 1839 Professor F. M‘Coy figured and

described as Entomoconchus Scouleri, in the Journal of the

Geological Society of Dublin (vol. 1. p. 91, pl. 5. figs. a—e), a

large globose bivalved Entomostracan, common in some parts of

the Mountain-limestone, both of the British Isles and the Con-

tinent. This form had already been recognized as occurring in

the Mountain-limestone of Yorkshire (Bolland) by Professor

John Phillips, and referred to by him in his ‘ Geology of the

Mountain-Limestone District of Yorkshire,’ pages 240 and 251,

as a “ Cypridiform shell,” but not described, though sketches of

* Spirorbis (Microconchus) is abundant also in some of the limestones

of the Middle and Lower Coal-measures and of the Limestone-shales

(Ireland).

38 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

it are given in pl. 22. figs. 23 & 24 of that work. In a pro-

visional notice of the Entomostraca of the Carboniferous period*,

we have been enabled to point out some of the relationships of

this curious fossil, in M‘Coy’s figures of which the hinge-line

is by mistake assigned to the anterior extremity.

This fossil is known to us by specimens from the Carboni-

ferous Limestone of Cork, Kildare, Meath, and Limerick (Grif-

fith, D. Sharp, J. Wright, British Museum, Geological Survey) ;

Bolland, Yorkshire (Phillips, Morris) ; Park Hill, near Longnor,

Derbyshire (Geol. Survey) ; Lower Scar Limestone, Settle (Bur-

row) ; Braidwood Limestone, Carluke (Hunter) ; Carboniferous

shales of West Broadstone, Ayrshire (J. Young). The Rev. J.

Cumming found it in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Isle

of Man (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 322, 3855). At

Visé, in Belgium, it is not rare in the white Carboniferous

Limestone.

1842. De Koninck.—In 1842 six species of Bivalved Ento-

mostraca from the Carboniferous Limestone of Belgium were

carefully figured and described by Professor Dr. L. de Koninck,

of Liége, in his ‘ Description des Animaux Fossiles qui se trou-

vent dans le Terrain Carbonifére de Belgique’ (4to, Liége,

1842-44). At page 585, under the name Cythere Phillipsiana

(pl. 52. fig. 1), we have the peculiar gibbous form cemmon in

some of the beds of the European Mountain-limestone, and

which had been named Entomoconchus Scouleri by M‘Coy in

1839. At page 587 De Koninck describes his Cypridina Ed-

wardsiana (pl. 52. fig. 2), and C. concentrica (fig. 4), and at

p- 588 his C. annulata (fig. 3) ; but the generic affinities are not

well determined, owing probably to the fact of the peculiar an-

tero-ventral notch in the valves of Cypridina having been omitted

in the engraving of Milne-Edwards’s typical species (as explained

in the ‘ Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostraca of England,’

Pal. Soc. 1856, p. 9), and the paleontologist having been thereby

misled im collocating the fossil carapaces with their recent

analogues. At page 589 of M. de Koninck’s work, his Cyprella

chrysalidea (pl. 52. fig. 6) is described, and his Cypridella

cruciata (fig. 7) at page 590.

These Entomostraca occur also in Great Britain, as well as the

curious Crustaceans, Cyclus Brongniartianus, Kon., and C. ra-

dialis, Phillips, sp., described and figured in the same memoir,

but of obscure relationship. A form allied to the latter has also

been found by Mr. Joseph Wright in the Carboniferous Lime-

stone of Little Island, Cork, and by Mr. J. H. Burrow at Settle;

another belongs to the Magnesian Limestone of Sunderland ;

* Report of the British Association, 1863, Sections, p. 80.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 39

and a much earlier instance of the occurrence of the genus is in

the Silurian Limestone of Keisley in Westmoreland, where it

was discovered in 1864 by Professor R. Harkness, F.R.S.

A collection of Belgian Bivalve Entomostraca presented to one

of us a few years ago by M. J. Bosquet, of Maestricht,—a col-

lection of fossil Cyprinide from Little Island, Cork, sent us by

Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S.,—and a collection submitted to us

by Mr. J. H. Burrow, M.A., of Settle, Yorkshire, enable us to

unravel some of the obscurities of this group, which had its

representatives even in Silurian times*, and is still largely

represented in the present seas. We intend, however, on the

present occasion merely to mention what we believe to be

the real relationships of M. de Koninck’s species, as already

indicated in the ‘ Neues Jahrbuch’ for 1864, p. 54, and in the

‘Canadian Naturalist and Geologist,’ new series, vol. i. p. 237,

where we have stated that M‘Coy’s Daphnia primeva is a Cy- ~

pridina, De Koninck’s Cypridina Edwardsiana and Cypridella

cruciata are Cypridelle, his Cypridina annulata and Cyprella

chrysalidea are Cyprelle, and his Cypridina concentrica is an

Entomis.

1843. Portlock.—In 1843 the late General (then Captain)

Portlock, in his Report on the Geology of Londonderry,

p- 316, treated of two Entomostraca from the Carboniferous

Shales of Derry, Tyrone, and Fermanagh, Ireland, namely Cy-

pris Scotoburdigalensis (Hibbert) and Cypris subrectus (Portlock) ;

and illustrated the former by fig. 13 c, and the latter by fig. 13 3,

of his plate 24. C.subrecta (the original specimen of which we

have seen, by the kindness of the officers of the Geological

Survey Museum, Jermyn Street) is very similar to the first-

named in shape, but is somewhat larger. Both are varieties of

Leperditia Okeni; and, together with numerous very similar com-

rades, they infested the salt and brackish waters of the early

Carboniferous period in nearly every region of the northern

hemisphere, acting as scavengers} on the decaying animal and

vegetable materials in the muddy shallows and lagoons. As

Leperditia subrecta represents a size above that of L. Scotobur-

digalensis, and does not exactly correspond to any of the Bavarian

* In the pebbles of Silurian quartzite in the Conglomerate at Budleigh-

Salterton (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 283; and Geol. Mag. vol. 1.

p- 5), Mr. Salter has discovered a specimen very closely allied to Cypridina ;

and Mr. G. Haswell has found others in the Upper Silurian beds of the

Pentland Hills.

+ Since the publication of the ‘ Monograph of the Fossil Estherie,’ Pal.

Soe. 1862, in which allusion is made to the garbage-eating habits of the

small Entomostraca, we see that Prof. Phillips, as far back as 1841, pointed

out the common association of Fish-remains with Cyprids (Brit. Assoc.

Rep. 1841, Sections, p. 65).

40 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

forms described in our former memoir, it will be convenient to

retain the name as that of a variety.

In the second part of his ‘ Verstein. Grauwacken Sachsens’

(1853), p. 23, Dr. Geinitz described a small Bivalve Entomostra-

can, which he termed ‘ Cytherina subrecta, Portlock,’ and which

he found at the Gunzenberg, near Plauen, in company with the

tail-spines of Dithyrocaris Murchisoni; and he remarked that,

as Portlock found his specimens with Dithyrocaris, the circum-

stances are alike for the Silurian and the Carboniferous organ-

isms. But Geinitz’s Cytherina subrecta, as illustrated by him at

pl. 19. fig. 20 of the work above referred to, is very different

in appearance from Portlock’s C. suwbrecta, being narrower in

proportion, zrcurved both on the dorsal and ventral margins,

bordered by a flat rim (apparently) all round, and rounded

equally at the ends. The Silurian spines of the so-called

“ Dithyrocaris ” are very probably those of Ceratiocaris.

Leperditia Okeni of the size and form of L. subrecta occurs

at Fermanagh, Ireland (Portlock); Blackwell, near Bristol

(Moore); Great Orme’s Head (Dr. Holl) ; Whorlton, Teesdale

(Parker) ; Wyebourne, Cumberland (Bland); banks of the

Wansbeek (Pecket) ; Barnard Castle (Barron) ; Carluke (Hunter);

West Broadstone, Ayrshire (Thomson) ; Orchard, near Thorn-

liebank (Armstrong); Gare, Carluke (Thomson); Howrat

Quarry, near Dalry (Armstrong); Craigenglen (Young and

Crosskey) ; Campbeltown (Thomson) ; Carboniferous Limestone,

Ashford, Derbyshire (Geol. Survey); Carboniferous Shales,

half a mile south of Mitcheldean (Geol. Survey) ; and at many

places in Ireland (Griffith and Geological Surveyors). See further

on.

1844. M*‘Coy.—In 1844 Professor M‘Coy considerably en-

larged our knowledge of the Entomostraca of the Carboniferous

Rocks by the description and illustration of twenty-two forms

(including Hntomoconchus Scouleri), besides two species of

Dithyrocaris (D. Scoulert and D. tenuistriatus), all from the

Lower Carboniferous strata of Ireland.

Thanks to the courtesy of Sir Richard Griffith, Bart., we have

been enabled to examine many of the specimens described by

Prof. M‘Coy, and thereby to make our comparisons more surely.

The localities of nearly all the specimens described by M‘Coy

(and all that we have had in hand) have been given by Sir R.

Griffith in the ‘ Journal Geol, Soc, Dublin,’ vol, ix. (1860), pp.

21 &c.; and indeed the specimens retain their original labels,

with the localities indicated,

On comparing the specimens with the figures in the ‘ Synopsis

of the Characters of the Mountain-Limestone Fossils of Ireland,’

pl. 23. figs, 4-25, we fail in recognizing several of M‘Coy’s

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 41

species on the hand-specimens bearing their names on the

labels; they may perhaps have fallen out*. Some of the

figures referred to represent, we are sure, only modified condi-

tions of carapaces, either partially imbedded in the matrix or

altered by pressure ; some are for certain badly drawn; and in

many cases the edge-views of the carapaces must, we think, have

been constructed from the lateral profiles of imbedded valves,

and are therefore rarely of much valuet.

The figures in Prof. M‘Coy’s plate 23 are not drawn on a

true scale ; so that some specimens 4 line long have larger figures

than some one line long.

Having carefully examined the several labelled hand-specimens

of shale and limestone lent to us by Sir R. Griffith, we propose

to make some remarks on the Entomostraca that we have met

with in them; and at the same time we shall offer our opinion

on such of Professor M‘Coy’s species as are figured in pl. 23 of

the ‘Synops. Charact. M. Limest. Foss. Ireland,’ but have not

reached us, or are not now to be seen on the hand-specimens.

1. “ Entomoconchus Scouleri. Lower Carboniferous Lime-

stone; Little Island, Cork.” Synops. Carb. Foss., Ireland,

p- 164, pl. 23. fig. 4. Gniffith, List of Localities (Journ. Geol.

Soc. Dublin, vol. ix.), p. 68. A cast, in grey crystalline fos-

siliferous limestone.

1*, Another cast, in similar limestone; Millicent, Clane, co.

Kildare.

1**, Another specimen (labelled “ E. Scouleri. Upper Car-

boniferous Limestone; Black Lion, Enniskillen, co. Leitrim,”

Localities, p. 80) is a dark-coloured crystalline shelly lime-

stone with a Cyclus.

2. “ Daphnia primeva.” Synops. p. 164, pl. 23. fig. 5. Statcd

to be 114 long, and ? line deep, not very uncommon in some

localities, and possibly to be the same as Hibbert’s Daphnoidia.

The specimen was not sent to us, nor is it mentioned in the

List of Localities, and has therefore probably been mislaid. It

certainly is a Cypridina as far as the appearance of the valve is

concerned, whatever Dr. Hibbert’s specimens may have been

(see above, p. 34).

3. “ Bairdia curtus. Arenaceous shale ; Granard, co. Long-

* In the ‘ Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. XIX. July 1865,

Mr. John Kelly explains that in 1853 Sir R. Griffith’s collection, compri-

sing these specimens, was removed from his house to the Great Exhibition

in Dublin, and that many of the specimens of shale crumbled away.

Hence, probably, the loss of several specimens.

+ In 1847 M. J. Bosquet, in his “ Descript. Entom. Foss. Maestricht,”’

p- 4, note, offered some criticisms on M‘Coy’s species, but not sufficiently

well founded to be of use.

42 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

ford.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 6; Local. p. 100 (“ Car-

boniferous slate and arenaceous limestone,” Local. p. 48). Grey

limestone, with Spirifer, Crinoids, &c., and some obscure Ento-

mostracan valves besides the Bairdia under notice. This is in

good preservation. In 1859 one of us carefully examined the

specimen, and, having cleared away some of the matrix, con-

sidered the carapace to have been sufficiently well shown, and

regarded it as being somewhat different from Bazrdia plebeia,

Reuss, in exhibiting less convexity in the antero-ventral edge.

Unfortunately this very convexity could even then have been

found by greater boldness of manipulation; for a year after-

wards, on again closely examining the specimen, it came out of

the stone, quite perfect, showing a fully curved hatchet-edge, as

in B. plebeia.

After the many doubts expressed as to the identity of the

Carboniferous B. curta and the Permian B. plebeia, we cannot

now recognize (with Sir RK. Griffith’s specimen clearly before us)

a real specific distinction; and B. curta stands as the oldest

name. B. plebeia, however, may conveniently remain as a term

of inferior grade for the very prevalent form with a rounded

antero-dorsal angle (and hence less hatchet-shaped anterior ex-

tremity, as depicted in Reuss’s figure of B. plebeia, Jahresbe-

richt Wetterau. Gesell. 1854, p. 67, fig. 5, and in those given

in the Transact. Tyneside Field-club, vol. iv. pl. 9. figs. 1, 2, 4,

and woodcut 1, p. 145).

4. “ Bairdia gracilis.’ Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 7. As

we have not seen this specimen, and as it is not referred to in

the List of Localities, we have nothing to add to Prof. M‘Coy’s

brief description of it, except that it seems to be the same as

B. subcylindrica, Minster, sp. (Annals N. H. ser. 3. vol. xv.

p- 409, pl. 20. fig. 13).

5. “ Cythere amygdalina.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig 8.

We have not seen this specimen ; and, not being mentioned in

the List of Localities, it has probably been mislaid. We have

seen, however, a form corresponding to fig. 8 in the hand-spe-

cimen described further on as No. 10. Prof. M‘Coy states that

“ C’, amygdalina” is “ common.”

6. “ Cythere arcuata. Yellow Sandstone ; Dromard, Drapers-

town, co. Londonderry.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 28. fig. 9; Local.

p- 48 (Arenaceous shale,’ Local. p. 100). A blackish mica-

ceous shale, rather hard but fragile, containing Modiole (?), and

abounding with small Entomostraca, Leperditia subrecta, L. Sco-

toburdigalensis, Kirkbya annectens (sp.n.), and others, but nothing

corresponding to the figure given of ‘ C. arcuata,’ which we

are inclined to believe to have been a specimen of L. subrecta

partially hidden by matrix on its dorsal region. Prof. M‘Coy

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 43

states that “ C. arcuata” is “ very common in the Carboniferous

shales.”

7. “ Cythere bituberculata. Yellow Sandstone ; Cultra, Holy-

wood, co. Down.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 10; Local. p. 48

(‘ Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Light-grey shaly shell-

grit, with Modiole (?), slightly micaceous. Leperditia subrecta

abundant, and smaller obscure Entomostraca present, but no-

thing like the figure. A very similar, if not identical Beyrichia,

however, occurs in Scotland (in the Coal-measures near Glasgow),

and will bear the name B. bituberculata, M‘Coy. Prof. M‘Coy

found his “ C. bituberculata”? common in one or two localities.

8. “ Cythere costata. Yellow Sandstone ; Cultra, Holywood.”

Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 11; Local. p. 48 (‘“ Arenaceous

shale,” Local. p. 100). Light-grey solid shell-grit (Serpule,

&c.), with crushed valves of Leperditia subrecta in abundance ;

but nothing visible to match the figure. We have, however, met

with a Kirkbyain the Carboniferous Limestone of the south-west

of England somewhat like fig. 11. Prof. M‘Coy refers to “ C.

costata”’ as being about + line in length, rare, and solitary.

9. “ Cythere cornuta. Yellow Sandstone ; Cultra, Holywood.”

Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 12; Local. p. 48 (‘ Arenaceous

shale,” Local. p. 100). Hard grey calcareous shale, with fish-

scales and Serpule; or rather a Serpula-grit, much like the

foregoing. Leperditia Scotuburdigalensis and Kirkbya annectens

are present, but not the figured specimen. This we believe to

have been L. subrecta with an extraneous morsel of matrix

attached near the middle of the hinge-line (taken for the ventral

border in Prof. M‘Coy’s description). It is stated to be about a

line long and “ not common.”

10. “Cythere elongata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra, Holywood.”

Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 15; Local. p. 48 (“ Arenaceous

shale,” Local. p. 100). Grey Serpula-grit, with Modiola (?).

There is no specimen like the figure (which appears to be an

oculate L. subrecta, with its dorsal region buried in the matrix)

now visible on the slab; but there are L. Scotoburdigalensis,

Kirkbya annectens, two Cytheres, and a Leperditia (?) like fig. 8,

** Cythere amygdalina.” M‘Coy’s “ C. elongata” is stated to be

half a line long and “very common in the shales of certain

localities ” (p. 166).

ll. “ Cythere excavata. Carboniferous Slate ; Aghnaglogh,

Clogher, co. Tyrone.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 14; Local.

p- 48 (“ Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Wark-coloured,

. Shelly, fissile shale, with Anthracomye (?) and obscure casts of

Leperditia subrecta; and the figure seems to have been based on

some such specimen.

12. “ Cythere Hibbertii. Yellow Sandstone; Larganmore,

Bangor, co. Mayo.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 15; Local. p. 48:

44 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

( Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Dark, fragile, shghtly

micaceous shale, with Crinoids, Modiola (?), &c., and containing

obscure valves and casts of Leperditia subrecta (?) and Kirkbya

annectens, but nothing exactly corresponding to the figure. Prof.

M‘Coy suggests that this “is perhaps Cypris Scotoburdigalensis

of Hibbert ; but this dwarf form of L. Okeni, smaller even than

the variety subrecta, would hardly match “ C. Hibbertii,’ which

is stated to be “ frequently upwards of a line in length,” and

“the largest species of Cythere of the Irish palzeozoic rocks”

(though “ C. inflata” is said to reach 2 lines in length), except

when regarded as one of the modifications of DL. Okeni, which

we believe to be the correct view of its relationship, though not

contemplated in the work before us.

13. “ Cythereimpressa. Yellow Sandstone; Dromard, Drapers-

town. Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 16; Local. p. 48 (‘ Are-

naceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Grey, fine-grained, micaceous,

hardish shale, with Modiola (?) and Serpula. Some obscure

casts of Leperditia subrecta and of other Entomostraca are pre-

sent; but there is nothing exactly like the figure, which is

stated to represent a form “about half a line long, and “ very

common in the slates and shales of several districts ( p. 166).

14. “ Cythere inflata. Lower Carboniferous Limestone ;

Ballyduf, Dungarvon, co. Waterford.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23.

fig. 17; Local. p. 68. Grey crystalline shelly limestone, veined.

Without any visible specimen of Entomostraca.

14, White crystalline limestone, from Laracor, Trim, co.

Meath (Local. p. 68). This has a small Entomoconchus and a

minute hollow mould where. a Leperditia subrecta has probably

been. The figure may have been taken from a small Entomo-

conchus, a Cypridella, or other nearly related Cypridine Ento-

mostracon.

Prof. M‘Coy states that his “ C. inflata” is the “largest and

most abundant ” of the Carboniferous Cytheres (from 1 to 2 lines

in length), and that it abounds in the dark fcetid limestones,

but is “ rare in the light-coloured limestone, where C. inornata

supplies its place.”

15. “ Cythere inornata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra, Holy-

wood.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 18; Local. p. 48 (‘ Are-

naceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Bluish-grey fissile shale, fine-

grained and micaceous, with numerous casts and broken valves

(s to z's mch long) of Leperditia subrecta and L. Scotoburdi-

galensis, sometimes showing the ae spot. Prof. M‘Coy states

that his “ C. mornata”’ is rarely $ line in length, and that it is

‘very common in several localities.”

The Permian Cythere referred by one of us to C. inornata,

M‘Coy, is decidedly not the same as this, which is the common

dwarf variety of Leperditia Okeni, Miinster, sp.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 45

_ 16. “ Cythere orbicularis. Yellow Sandstone; Bunowna,

Kasky, co. Sligo.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 19; Local. p. 48

(“ Carboniferous slate,” Local. p.100). Dark-grey, fine-grained

limestone, with Orthoceras, &c. There are some small, obscure,

roundish fossils, and a part of a valve of L. subrecta, but nothing

like the figure.

17. “ Cythere pusilla.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 20.

“ Yellow Sandstone; Cullion, Draperstown, co. Londonderry,”

Local. p. 48. “ Middle Limestone,” Local. p. 100. We have

not had the specimen. It may have been a very small Entomo-

conchus (?) or a Cypridella. Prof. M’Coy refers to it as “ the

smallest of the Cytheres” ... “ greatly abundant”... “length

about 3 line” (p. 167).

18. “ Cythere scutulum. Middle Carboniferous Limestone ;

Ballintrillick, Bundoran, co. Donegal.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23.

fig. 21 ; Local. p. 75. Dark, compact, but softish, fissile shale,

with Crinoidal joints, casts of Aviculopecten, &e. Leperditia

Okeni, var. subrecta and Scotoburdigalensis are here plentiful, as

single valves, of various sizes. Some have the eye-tubercle ; and

occasionally large left valves (1-4; inch long) have their peculiar

dorsal swelling. C. scutulum is doubtless Leperditia subrecta,

Portlock, sp. The figured specimen must have had its dorsal

edge partly imbedded, and the proportions are not well given.

19. “ Cythere oblonga. Yellow Sandstone; Cullion, Drapers-

town.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 22; Local. p.48 (“ Arena-

ceous. shale,” Local. p. 100). Dark-grey, fine-grained, fissile

shale, with Aviculopecten. Obscure casts of Leperditia subrecta(?),

but nothing that matches the figure. “ C. oblonga” is stated

to be “common,” and about 1 line in length. It is probably

L. subrecta.

20. “ Cythere spinigera.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23. fig. 23. We

have not seen the specimen; but there is no doubt that it is

Leperditia Okeni (probably var. subrecta), either with the eye-

spot prominent, or with a small imcrustation, such as we have

seen in one of the specimens from Cultra, and such as we believe

fig. 12 (“ C. cornuta’’) and fig. 24 (“C. trituberculata”’) to have

borne.

21. “ Cythere trituberculata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra,

Holywood.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23. fig.24; Local. p. 48 (“Arena-

ceous shale,” Local. p. 100.) Hard, grey Serpula-grit, like

No.9, but more solid. We can find nothing like the figure

(probably a small Leperditia with adventitious concretions or

bits of the matrix). L. Scotoburdigalensis is present; also a

Cythere having an outline somewhat near that of the figure ;

and there are numerous specimens of Kirkbya annectens, which,

though more or less lobed or tubercled, is not at all like fig. 24.

22. “ Cythere gibberula. Middle Carboniferous Limestone ;

46 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

Ballintrillick, Bundoran.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 28. fig. 25; Local.

p. 75. Darkish grey micaceous shale, with Aviculopecten. The

specimens are of the same form as “ C. scutulum,” and are de-

eidedly Leperditia Okeni, var. subrecta (about ='; inch long).

“ C. gibberula” is said to occur “in great numbers in the shale

of some localities.” The figure indicates a large hump on the

middle of the valves, which Prof. M‘Coy notes as remarkable ;

but the specimens before us are not characterized by any parti-

cular protuberance.

The following labelled specimen accompanied the others.

23. “ Cythere subrecta (Portlock, sp.). Yellow Sandstone ;

Larganmore, Bangor, co. Mayo.” Griffith’s List of Localities,

Geol. Soe. Dublin Journ. vol. ix. p. 48 (‘‘ Arenaceous shale,”

Local. p. 100). Hardish dark-grey micaceous shale, with abun-

dant small obscure casts of Leperditia Okent, var. subrecta (about

z's inch long)

The foliowing table shows the conclusions we have arrived at,

judging by evidences and probabilities, respecting the Bivalve

Entomostraca figured in pl. 23, ‘Synops. Charact. M. Limest.

Foss. Ireland ?—

Dimensions | No. in

in lines. |this art. Corrected Names,

Prof. M‘Coy’s Names.

Entomoconchus Scouleri.

Fig. 4. Entomoconchus Scouleri| 10x 9 1

5. Daphnia primeva ...... 13x ¢ 2 | Cypridina primeva.

6. Bairdia curtus ........064. 1 3 | Bairdia curta.

i: STAINS roe snny ss ene 3 4 |B. subcylindrica, Minster, sp.

8. Cythere amygdalina...... 3 5 | Leperditia amygdalina.

9; ATGUATA tes acceecee st 2 6 | L. Okeni, Minster, sp., var.

subrecta, Portlock, sp.

10. —— bituberculata ...... 3 7 | Beyrichia bituberculata.

11 COStata ese-ss0>m oon 3 8 | Kirkbya costata.

12. COPTER’ * Seisvece v3 1 9 | Leperditia Okeni, Miinster,

: sp., var. subrecta.

13. elongata .......0s0s: 5 10 oA 3

14. EXCAVALA, snc .cc.e0e. = 1] = -

V0 ee einen t cscs, ] 12 5 2

16. UMAPTEGS Se) ens socee = 13 | Beyrichia (2).

7. INMAED coe ceseer cones: ie 14 | Entomoconchus (?) vel Cypri-

della (2).

18. WNONMATH, fecpsceaciacs 3 15 | Leperditia Okeni, Miinst. sp.,

var. subrecta; vel var.

Scotoburdigalensis.

ee orbicularis ......... it 16 | Cypridella (?).

20. US abs seston tddass 3 17__| Entomoconchus (?) vel Cypri-

della (2).

21 Say AH Weegee ner 1 18 | Leperditia Okeni, Miinst. sp.,

var. subrecta.

22. oblonga ............ 1 19 F fi

23. —— spinigera ............ 1; 20 5 a

24 trituberculata ...... oy 21 - e

25. —— gibberula............ a 22 aS B

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 47

_ Thus it will be seen that we refer figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 21,

22, 23, 24, and 25 to Leperditia Okeni without any doubt.

They comprise the varieties subrecta (Portlock) and Scotoburdi-

galensis (Hibbert). The locality of fig. 23 is not mentioned ;

but all the others are from shales either of the ‘‘ Yellow Sand-

stone,” of the “ Carboniferous Slate ” (fig. 14), or of the Middle

Carboniferous Limestone” (figs. 21 & 25). Figs.10,11, & 16

are also in shales belonging to the “ Yellow Sandstone.”

Figs. 4, 6, 17, & 20 refer to specimens in limestone—from the

“‘ Lower Carboniferous Limestone” (figs. 4 & 17), the “ Carbo-

niferous Slate” (fig. 6), or the ‘“ Middle Carboniferous Lime-

stone” (fig. 20). Of the locality and matrix of figs. 5, 7, 8, &

23 we have no indications.

In his ‘ Notice respecting the Fossils of the Mountain-Lime-

stone of Ireland,’ &c. (4to, Dublin, 1842), Sir R. Griffith thus

divided the Lower Carboniferous formation of Ireland (p. 4).

1. Upper Limestone. 2. Calp or Calp-slate, consisting of

alternations of shale and argillaceous limestone, with occasional

beds of pure limestone and rarely of sandstone—and less per-

sistent than the Upper and Lower Limestones. 3. Lower Lime-

stone. 4. Carboniferous Slate, or schistose beds, usually calca-

reous and alternating with argillaceous limestones, similar to

those of the Calp. 5. Yellow Sandstone, consisting of sand-

stones intercalated with slate or shale and occasionally with

limestone. Nos. 4 & 5 are wanting in some localities; and

sometimes No. 4 only is wanting. (See also Sir R. Griffith’s

Geological Map of Ireland, with its marginal explanations,

1854.

ee 22, Sir R. Griffith states that ntomoconchus

Scouleri occurs in the Lower Limestone of the southern and

middle districts of Ireland.

Bairdia curta occurs in the middle and northern.

gracilis of northern.

Cythere cornuta _,, northern.

inflata Fe southern and middle.

imornata a northern.

spinigera Pe northern.

These determinations were modified probably, and corrected,

in Prof. M‘Coy’s Memoir (1844), and in Sir R. Griffith’s List

of Localities’ in 1860.

The Geological Surveyors of Ireland, however, have found it

impracticable to fully adopt Sir R. Griffith’s nomenclature of the

Lower Carboniferous formation. According to their experience,

his “ Yellow Sandstone ” is not sufficiently definite in its upper

48 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

and lower boundaries, being in some places wholly “ Carboni-

ferous,” at others wholly made up of “ Old Red,” and elsewhere

combining portions of each ; and they restrict the term to the

upper portion of the Old Red Sandstone series, distinctly below

the beds with marine fossils. They consider that the “ Carboni-

ferous Slate”? (about 150 feet thick), below the “ Carboniferous

Limestone” (3000 feet), in the north-eastern districts, is the

same as the “ Lower Limestone Shales” of England, and that

the “ Carboniferous Limestone” thins away on the south-west

and is wholly replaced by the ‘ Lower Limestone Shales”

(about 5000 feet), which are there cleaved, and therefore known

as “Carboniferous Slate.” The latter, in consequence, are in

the south-west the equivalents of the “Carboniferous Lime-

stone” and “ Lower Limestone Shales” together in the north-

east.

As this arrangement simplifies the order and succession of

the “ Lower Carboniferous” strata, we use both nomenclatures

in the annexed table of the Entomostraca that we have observed

in Sir R. Griffith’s specimens.

We have also seen other Carboniferous Entomostraca from

Ireland, which have been kindly submitted to us by the Officers

of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

I. From the “ Carboniferous Limestone.”

1. Meath (Map, Sheet 33/4); Clonalvy, near Naul. Entomo-

conchus Scouleri.

2. Meath (Sheet 27/1); Duleek. Light-grey limestone.

Cypridina primeva (gregarious).

3. Dublin (Sheet 7/1); Oldtown. Leperditia Okeni.

4, Tipperary (20/2) ; Carrig-Church, about 24 miles north-

west of Nenagh. Dark-coloured Polyzoan Limestone, with

Echinoderm fragments and Shells. Leperditia subrecta.

5. Limerick (Sheet 11/2); Ballynolan, near Pallaskenry.

Entomoconchus Scouleri.

6. Limerick (10/4); Glenbane, near Askeaton (No. 4253 a).

Leperditia Okent.

7. Limerick (29/1); Rathkeale. Grey limestone with Fenes-

tella. Leperditia subrecta.

8. Cork (76/3); Ballyvodock, about 2 miles south-west of

Middleton. Grey fossiliferous limestone. Entomoconchus Scou-

lert (gregarious).

II. “Lower Limestone Shale.”

1. Londonderry ; Ballrascreen. Hard dark-grey shale, mica-

eeous, full of small Leperditia. (Portlock’s Collection.) £. sub-

recta, L. Scotoburdigalensis, and still smaller obscure forms.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

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50 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

2. Tyrone; Tinnaglogh. Soft grey shale. (Portlock’s Col-

lection.) L. subrecta and L. Scotoburdigalensis.

3. Fermanagh; Kesh. Dark-grey hard shale, full of Ento-

mostracous valves. (Portlock’s Collection.) L. Scotoburdi-

galensis ; also Beyrichia and Bairdia?

4. Fermanagh; Clebby. Soft grey shale, with Bivalve Shells.

(Portlock’s Collection.) LZ. subrecta.

5. Wexford (42/2); Whitestown House, Drinagh, near Wex-

ford. Dark-blue hard shale, with pyrites. (H. 4821.) LZ. sub-

recta and smaller obscure forms.

III. “ Carboniferous Slate.”

1. Cork (74/2); Glen near the city of Cork. Dark-grey

schist, weathering brownish: a hardened cleaved shale, with

small Brachiopods. JL. subrecta (distorted).

2. Cork (65/4); Bilberry Hill, N.E. of Middleton. Pur-

plish and rusty schist or hardened cleaved shale, with Cypri-

cardia, Encrinital joints, and distorted Entomostracous valves.

This schist les between the “Old Red Sandstone” and real

“Carboniferous Limestone” continuous with that of Little

Island. This ‘ Lower Limestone Shale” near Cork is 1000 ft.

thick, and all cleaved into slate (“Carboniferous Slate”). LZ.

subrecta and L. Scotoburdigalensis (distorted). These com-

pressed schists, with elongated and otherwise distorted Leper-

ditie, appear to be identical with some of the so-called “ Cypri-

dinen-Schiefer” of Germany. Shales with Beyrichia arcuata (?)

distorted (from Granton and elsewhere) resemble other speci-

mens of “Cypridinen-Schiefer.” Entomis supplies the other

so-called ‘‘ Cypridinz ” of these Rhenish strata.

3. Cork (118/1); Relane Point, south side of Bantry Bay.

Grey schist, with pyrites, and weathering rusty. Gasteropods,

&e. This schist is probably 2000 or 3000 feet above the top

of the “Old Red” beds. Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis.

4. Cork (67/2) ; Youghal. Drab schist, with an ochreous

parting which is full of well-preserved Entomostraca. This is

500 feet above the “Old Red” beds, and 300 feet below the

“Carboniferous Limestone.” L. suborbiculata and L. parallela.

5. Cork (105/1) ; Coory Commane Mountain, on the east side

of the Glen of Coomhéla, Bantry Bay. Grey schist, micaceous:

a hardened squeezed shale, with small Bivalves. This specimen

was from the middle of the ‘“ Coomhdéla Grits,” 1800 feet above

the top of the “Old Red,” and where these grits are 3000 feet

thick. L. Scotoburdigalensis (distorted).

Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., has sent us a piece of “ Carboni-

ferous Slate” from Shanbally, Cork, containing casts of a Cythere

(indeterminable).

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 51

In the Museum of the Geological Survey, at Jermyn Street,

we have seen the following specimens from the Lower Carboni-

ferous rocks of Ireland :—

1. “Carboniferous Limestone,” near Kildare. Entomocon-

chus Scouleri (gregarious).

2. “ Lower Limestone Shales.”

a. Fermanagh (Sheet 18, Nos. 3 & 4; and Portlock’s ‘ Geol.

Report,’ pl. 24. fig. 13). Grey shale. Leperditia subrecta and

L. Scotoburdigalensis.

b. Kilkenny (Sheet 31/4) ; south of Knocktopher, and about

a mile west of Ballyhale. Argillaceous schist, containing

Rhynchonella pleurodon, and having rusty facings and badly

preserved casts of Leperditia subrecta.

X.—Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. Berxerey,

M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Broome, Esq., F.L.S.

[Plate II. ]

[Continued from vol. xv. ser. 3. p. 452. ]

be 1104. Agaricus (Amanita) lenticularis, Lasch in Linn. 1827,

0. 18:

Coed Coch, Oct. 1866. .

A single specimen of this magnificent species, according ex-

actly with a figure received from Fries, occurred last autumn in

the plantations surrounding the gardens at Coed Coch. It is

remarkable for the great development of the rmg and the

smooth pinkish-tan pileus.

1105. A. (Lepiota) Friesii, Lasch in Linn. 1828, no. 9.

Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1106. A. (Tricholoma) saponaceus, Fr. Ep. p. 35.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Sept. 1, 1865.

This occurred in great profusion and perfection. A. graveo-

lens, Sow., which is quoted under A. saponaceus by Fries, is

undoubtedly A. gambosus, as appears from the original drawing

and the notes which accompany it.

1107. A. (Clitocybe) pithyophilus, Fr. Ep. p. 62..

In fir-woods. Coed Coch, Oct. 19, 1865.

1108. A. (Clitocybe) trulleformis, Fr. Ep. p. 68.

On the border of a fir-wood. Coed Coch, Oct. 27, 1865.

The rather distant gills, which are connected with veins and

infundibuliform pileus, distinguish this species, which is not

hygrophanous.

*A. (Clitocybe) inversus, Scop. Carn. p. 445.

Several tufts of this species occurred late in the year at

Ack

52 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

Woodnewton, in a ditch at a distance from any fir-wood, exactly

according with Sowerby’s figure.

1109. A. (Collybia) ewsculptus, Fr. Ep. p. 93.

On old oak stumps. Apethorpe, Norths.; Badminton. On

turf, Ilford, Essex, C. E. Broome.

Allied to A. dryophilus, but tougher. The gills are sulphur-

coloured and transversely striate.

1110. A. (Collybia) protractus, Fr. Ep. p. 97.

On the ground. Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

*A. (Mycena) pelliculosus, Fr. Ep. p. 116.

On the ground. Hanham, C. HE. Broome.

1111. A. (Mycena) vitreus, Fr. Ep. p. 111.

In woods. Bryn Tyrch, Caernarvonshire, Oct. 1865.

1112. A. (Omphalia) gracillimus, Weinm. Ross. p. 121.

In marshy ground, on decaying stems of vegetables. King’s

Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

i ear (Entoloma) griseo-cyaneus, Fr. Ep. p. 145.

On lawns. Coed Coch, Oct. 1865.

1114. A. (Clitophilus) popinalis, Fr. Ep. p. 169.

On downs. Worthing, Oct. 1865, F. Currey, Esq.

A curious species, with a*strong odour of new meal, and pro-

bably esculent. The pileus and flesh are of a greyish tint, the

gills strongly decurrent, and the spores pink.

1115, A. (Chtophilus) cancrinus, Fr. Ep. p. 150.

In a grass-field. Apethorpe, Norths. Aug. 16, 1865.

Exactly agreeing with an original drawing from the Swedish

Museum. Pileus of a very pale flesh-colour or whitish, at first

umbilicate ; gills distant, at first white.

1116. A. (Nolanea) junceus, Fr. Ep. p. 156.

In a wood near Pont Gyffyng, Caernarvonshire, Oct. 24,

1865.

Exactly agreeing with a drawing from Fries.

1117. A. (Hebeloma) deglubens, Fr. Ep. p. 173.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

Exactly agreeing with a drawing from Fries.

1118. A. (Hebeloma) hzwleus, Fr. Ep. p. 175.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

Allied to A. rimosus; but the flesh turns everywhere reddish

when cut or bruised.

1119. A. (Flammula) gummosus, Lasch in Linn. 1827, no. 325.

On old stumps in the plantations round the Botanic Garden

at Cambridge, Dec. 6, 1865.

1120. A. (Flammula) carbonarius, Fr. Ep. p. 186.

In fir-woods where the undergrowth had been burnt, at Ascot,

Nov. 22, 1865.

This species, remarkable for its viscid pileus, squamulose

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. EK. Broome on British Fungi. 58

stem, and adnate clay-coloured gills, occurred in immense quan-

tities at the above-mentioned locality.

1121. A. (Naucoria) autochthonus, n.s. Pileo obtuso, hemi-

spherico, ochreo-albo, sericeo, margine flocculoso ; stipite tenui,

flexuoso, sursum basique albo-lanato incrassato; lamellis mel-

leis horizontalibus distincte dente adnatis.

On the naked soil. Woodnewton, Norths.

Pileus } inch across; stem ? inch high, not half a line thick

in the centre. Spores paler than in 4. furfuraceus, 00019 inch

long (those of A. furfuraceus ‘00022 inch long). It does not

become pallid in drying, like that species, but is of an ochraceous

white from the first. It is probably a very common species.

1122. A. (Naucoria) escharoides, Fr. Ep. p. 201.

On the bare ground. Apethorpe, Aug. 16, 1865.

Exactly the plant of Scheffer, t. 226.

Pileus campanulate, obtuse, slightly fleshy, umbonate or umbi-

licate, sometimes plane, hygrophanous, innato-squamulose, often

venulose, tawny, at length pallid; veil white, evanescent ; stem

flexuous, nearly equal, clothed with white fibrils, pale, ringless,

fistulose; gills broad, bright cinnamon, distant, fixed, acute

behind, at length seceding ; spores ‘O006--00065 ineh long, of

a pure ochre, not peroxidate. Brittle.

1123. A. (Galera) aleuriatus, Fr. Ep. p. 203.

On rotten sticks, &e. . Coed Coch, Oct. 26, 1865.

An extremely pretty species, exactly according with a figure

from Fries.

1124. A. (Galera) mycenopsis, Fr. Ep. p. 208.

In marshy ground, in a wood amongst Sphagna. King’s

Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

Our plant belongs to a variety, mentioned by Fries, with ad-

nate gills.

Pileus with the margin clothed with little white scales, the

remains of the veil; stem slightly furfuraceous above; gills

adnate, not merely fixed with a tooth.

The species occurred also in Oct. at Pont Gyffyng, between

Bettws and Capel Curig, and near Lake Idwell, where Ag. semi-

lanceatus was abundant, with pallid gills entirely devoid of

spores.

1125. A. (Galera) paludosus, Fr. Ep. p. 209.

In marshy ground in a wood, amongst Sphagna. King’s

Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

1126. A. (Hypholoma) hydrophilus, Bull. t. 511.

In woods, &c. Not uncommon in England. Coed Coch,

Oct. 23, 1865.

This species was described in the ‘ English Flora,’ but was by

some accident omitted in the ‘Outlines of English Botany.’

54 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

The veil, though fugacions, at once distinguishes it from some

other species with which it might easily be confounded.

*A, (Psathyra) corrugis, P., b. gracilis, Fr. Ep. p. 231. A.

pellospermus, Bull. t. 561. f. 1.

On the ground. Woodnewton, Aug. 20, 1865.

1127. A. (Panzolus) leucophanes, n.s. Pileo campanulato,

obtuso, viscido, sicco nitido, innato-sericeo albo, hic illic sub-

ochraceo; margine appendiculato; stipite sursum attenuato,

albo, fibrilloso, particulis farinaceis sparso, transversim sub-

undulato fistuloso, lamellis adnatis e pallide griseo-carneis atris,

margine albo.

In grass-fields. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 29, 1865.

A very pretty species, allied to A. separatus. Pileus ? inch

across; stem 2 inches high, about 1 line thick in the centre ;

spores ‘00037 inch long, somewhat cymbiform.

Puate II. fig. 1. A. leucophanes and vertical section, nat. size.

1128. Cortinarius (Incloma) camphoratus, Fr. Ep. p. 280.

On the ground in woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

*C’, (Inoloma) Bulliardi, Fr. Ep. p. 282.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

Remarkable for its bright-red mycelium.

1129. C. (Hygrocybe) decipiens, Fr. Ep. p. 312.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

1130. C. (Hygrocybe) Junghuhni, Fr. Ep. p. 314.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 30, 1865.

Spores ‘0003 inch long.

1131. Russula cyanoxantha, Fr. Mon. Hym. Suec. p. 194

(A. cyanoxanthus, Scheff. t. 93).

In woods. Fineshade, Northamptonshire, Sept. 1, 1865.

1182. R. veternosa, Fr. Ep. p. 354.

On the ground. J. Fryer, Esq., Chatteris.

A single specimen only of this species was sent from the above

locality to the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle’ office to be named.

1183. R. lactea, Fr. Ep. p. 355.

On the ground. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 29, 1865.

The thick, distant gills and milk-white pileus characterize

this fine species, which is probably widely diffused.

1184. Cantharellus radicosus, n.s. Pusillus; pileo profunde

umbilicato, floccoso, nigro; stipite pallido, radicante; hymenio

candido; lamellis angustis.

On the bank of a gravel-pit. Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

Pileus 3-1 inch across, deeply umbilicate, dark brown or

black, rough with radiating flocci; stem rooting, deeply pallid ;

gills narrow, white. Two or three pilei often grow from the

same obconical root, which is white and spongy.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 55

This agrees in some respects with C. carbonarius,Alb. & Schw.,

which is said to be a variety of C. umbonatus, and must therefore

be very different from the present species. C. anthracophilus,

Léy., appears more nearly allied, but has a very different habit.

1135. C. crispus, Fr. Ep. p. 369.

On branches of beech. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

This very pretty species has occurred two years running.

The colour of the pileus varies from a yellowish brown to white.

*Marasmius Stephensii, Bk. & Br., Ann. of Nat. Hist. ser. 2.

vol. xii. p. 403. This is probably synonymous with Marasmius

terginus, Fr.

1136. M. caulicinalis, Fr. Ep. p. 383.

On the ground, amongst leaves, in a fir-wood. Ascot, Nov.

22, 1865.

Pileus smooth, white tinged with ochre, at length sulcato-

striate; gills adnato-decurrent, connected by veins.

Our plant seems paler in colour than that of Fries, but agrees

in essential characters.

*Strobilomyces strobilaceus, Berk. Outl. p. 236.

A specimen of this rare fungus was sent from Ludlow by the

Rev. A. Bloxam.

1137. Polyporus (Anodermei) cuticularis, Fr. Ep. p. 458.

On trunks of trees. Burnham Beeches, C. E. Broome.

The hairs are curiously, trifid at the apex; the spores yellow,

as in P. hispidus.

1138. P. (Placodermei) fulvus, Fr. Ep. p. 466.

On decayed trunks of trees. Batheaston, C. E. Broome.

The specimen appears to have been gathered on a dead plum,

and exactly accords with one on poplar, from Fries, in the resu-

pinate state. It occurs on various trees, and is very distinct

from P. igniarius.

1139. P. (Inodermel) Airsutus, Fr. Ep. p. 477.

On dead trunks. Orton Wood, near Twycross, Rev. A.

Bloxam.

Certainly a very rare species in England, though one of the

most common in warmer countries. The larger pores at once

stinguish it from P. versicolor, zonatus, and velutinus.

* Craterellus cornucoproides, Fr. Ep. p. 582.

As some doubt has been raised with respect to the specific

difference of Cantharellus cinereus, it may be well to state that

both were gathered at Burnham Beeches last autumn, and that

the spores of the former are ‘0006 inch long by ‘00035, those

of the latter ‘0004 long by ‘00015. In the former, moreover,

the sporophores are forked above, and the spicules long and

often less than four in number; in the latter the sporophores

are obtuse and the spicules four.

56 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

*Sparassis crispa, Fr. Ep. p. 570; Hogg & Johns. tab. 24.

Three large specimens of this noble addition to our flora

occurred at Didlington, near Brandon, whence it was sent by

Admiral Mitford.

1140. Calocera striata, Fr. Ep. p. 582.

On a prostrate trunk. Batheaston, March 10, 1846, C. E.

Broome.

Exactly agreeing with Hoffmann’s figure. A very rare plant,

which has very seldom been seen by botanists. Spores ‘0003 inch

long, 00025 broad.

1141, Apyrenium armeniacum, n.s. Receptaculo lobato, sub-

gelatinoso, armeniaco, e filis ramosis, apice sporiferis, oriundo ;

sporis obovatis, enucleatis.

On oak sticks, bursting through Corticiwm cinereum. Charmy

Down, near Batheaston, Oct. 1865.

Spores ‘0003-0005 inch long. This little fungus, though

Tremelloid, has not the structure of Tremella. Pyrenium lig-

natile, Tode, is now pronounced by Tulasne to be a state of

Hypocrea rufa. Our plant may possibly be a condition of H.

gelatinusa ; but, even should this prove to be the case, it is well

in the meantime that it should be recorded.

Puate II. fig. 2. Spores on their sporophores, highly magnified.

1142. Reticularia applanata,n.s. Effusa, tenuis, olivaceo-

fusca; sporis olivaceis, echinulatis.

On the fallen trunk of a tree, the surface of which had been

charred. Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

Resembling in habit Licea applanata. Surface reticulated as

in R. maxima. Spores 4-7, in a fascicle, connate, echinulate,

‘0005 inch in diameter.

Puate II. fig. 3. a. part of the peridium, with the irregular flocci

proceeding from it, magnified ; a’. part of the peridium seen from above,

stretching over the processes which run down from it, ditto; 5. spores,

more highly magnified, in groups and separate.

1143. Trichia flagellifer, n.s. Globosa, sessilis, metallica ;

floccis apice flagelliferis ; sporis carneis.

On spruce fir. Badminton, Dec. 1865.

Perfectly globose, but fixed only by a small portion of the

surface, which slightly projects, smooth, bay, reflecting metallic

tints like a Physarum; flocci divided above two or three times ;

spores ‘0003—-0004 in diameter.

Perfectly distinct from every other Trichia by the colour of

the spores and metallic coat, in addition to the flagelliform

threads.

Puare II. fig. 4. a. single plant, magnified; }. threads, magnified ;

c. ditto, more highly magnified ; d. spores, magnified.

[To be continued. ]

M. EB. Mecznikow on the Rhabdocecela. 57

XI.—On the Rhabdocela. By E. Mecznixow*.

[Plate VIL. ]

In his great work on the anatomy and developmental history of

the lower marine animals, Claparéde has expressed the opiniont

that the Rhabdocela must be divided into two groups corre-

sponding with the two divisions of the Dendrocela. He founds

this opinion upon the fact that the genera Convoluta and Macro-

stomum possess two genital orifices. Although I can confirm

this observation from my own investigations, and even add a

third Rhabdoccelan with two genital apertures to those just

mentioned, I must affirm that this peculiarity of the organs

of generation, from its irregularity, cannot furnish any classifi-

catory character either for the chief divisions or even for the

genera. The following statements as to the sexual organs of

some species of Prostomum may serve as a proof of this.

I will first call attention to the common freshwater form,

Prostomum lineare, the sexual organs of which have already

been investigated by Oscar Schmidt t and Max Schultze§. In

this animal the unequal development of the male and female

organs in different individuals appears most remarkable: some-

times we meet with those which exhibit an aborted female ap-

paratus along with a fully-developed male (Pl. VIII. fig. 1) or

vice versd (fic. 2). In the former we find a large unpaired

testis (fig. 1 ¢), which communicates with a vesicle containing

seminal masses (v.s.); this opens into another thick-walled ve-

sicle, in which the zoospermia are converted into a compact

mass. After this vesicle has received several currents of fatty

corpuscles (c. ad.), which are evidently related in some way to

the zoospermia, it is connected with the spinous apparatus which

acts as the penis. In the individuals just described we find no

poison-gland, and only few traces of the female organs, namely

some isolated ovicells (o.7.) ; moreover in these individuals there

is an isolated round vesicle, or receptaculum seminis, containing

granules (7. s.).

In the other individuals of Prostomum lineare the male organs

are in a rudimentary state, as the testis alone can be detected in

them, whilst the two seminal vesicles have disappeared entirely.

The female organs of such individuals, on the contrary, are

completely developed. The ovary (fig. 2 ov.), a simple gland

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv,’ 1865,

pp- 174-181.

+ Beobachtungen iiber Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte wir-

belloser Thiere, 1863, p. 16.

{ Die Rhabdoccelen Strudelwiirmer, 1848, p. 26.

§ In Carus’s Icones Zootomice, tab. 8. fig. 16.

58 M. E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoceela.

filled with ova, lies on the side of the body. Near it there is a

pyriform uterus (wé.), which is continued into a vagina opening

outwards. The yelk-stock is also to be seen as a long band-like

structure; aud at the inferior side of the body there is a very

large double receptaculum seminis (r.s.), filled with zoospermia,

the orifice of which [ could not detect. Finally, the female in-

dividuals also possess a poison-gland, the efferent duct of which

is combined with the spinous apparatus.

The organization of the genitalia of Prostomum lineare, as just

described, does not precisely agree with the descriptions of these

objects cited above. In the first place must be mentioned the

difference in the distribution of the male and female organs in

the same individual, both kinds of organs being represented as

quite equally developed in one specimen in the figures of the

above-mentioned writers—a circumstance which may probably

be due to their having made their drawings from the observa-

tion of several (male and female) specimens. The second and

more important difference between my description and those of

Schmidt and Schultze is due to the fact that those savants re-

garded the uterus as the egg-shell, and therefore furnished the

egg with a peculiar stalk (Schmidt), or with a still more peculiar

‘ micropyle (Schultze). In consequence of this misconception the

above-mentioned authors have described Prostomum lineare as

monoporous, and have not recognized it as an animal furnished

with two genital apertures, which it really is. The other, less

important differences between my description and that of the

other observers may be seen by a comparison of the figures.

From the preceding statements it is clear that Prostomum

lineare presents in a less degree the same phenomenon of inci-

pient hermaphroditism which Claparéde observed in Convoluta.

The peculiarities in the structure of the sexual organs of

Prostomum lineare are by no means common to the whole of its

genus, and do not even extend to the most nearly allied species.

This is shown by a new marine species, also provided with a

spinous apparatus, which I discovered in Heligoland, and there-

fore indicate as P. helgolandicum. The specific characters of

this species (Pl. VIII. fig. 3), which is oval and furnished with

comparatively large eye-points and cerebral ganglia, relate chiefly

to the structure of the sexual organs. These are not so unequally

distributed as in the previously described species ; P. helgo-

landicum is perfectly hermaphrodite. The ovaries and yelk-

stocks (fig. 3 ov. & vit.) are paired organs running along the two

sides of the body; and besides these, we may distinguish a

uterus (ut.) with a crown-like inner margin. Of the male

organs I was able to observe the two symmetrically arranged

seminal vesicles (v.s.) and the unpaired thick-walled vesicle

M. KE. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoccela. 59

communicating with the spinous apparatus; the spine itself is

connected with the poison-gland.

Besides these two Prostomee I have met with Claparéde’s

Prostomum caledonicum* on Heligoland, and observed its sexual

organs. I have only to add to the accurate description of Cla-

paréde that the animal does not, as described, possess one seminal

vesicle, but three of them (fig. 4:v.s.), of which two are situated

upon the upper surface of the penis and the third near its point

of aperture. I must also remark that these vesicles are not

imbedded in the interior of the sheath of the penis, but outside

of it.

II. Schmarda+ has found in the standing and brackish waters

of North America two Rhabdoccela with a terminal pharynx

and eyes placed behind it (that is to say, with the characters of

the genus Prostomum, according to former notions, when the

proboscis was regarded as the pharynx) ; of this he has formed

a distinct genus, Acmostomum, the representative of the family

Acmostomez.

I found a marine species of this family on Heligoland. This

pale-brown species, which measures 1°5 millim. (fig. 5), possesses

at the anterior end a conical pharynx, which differs in form, and

in the absence of the marginal papilla, from the same organ of

the Acmostomez described by Schmarda. Behind this there are

two brown eyes, lying close upon the brain. The latter, which

is of the usual construction, gives off two strong nervous stems

from each side. The animal observed has the sexes completely

separated; but unfortunately I have only found a male mdivi-

dual, the generative organs of which consist of several testes

constructed exactly as in Monocelis (fig. 5 r. s.), and of a strong

seminal vesicle (v. s.) furnished with a muscular efferent duct.

The zoospermia with which the vesicle was filled are represented

in fig. 5 a.

The species just described may very well be regarded as the

representative of a peculiar genus ; but I leave it for the present

in the still imperfectly known genus Acmostomum, under the

name of A. dioicum.

III. Under the name of Alaurina prolifera, Busch} has de-

scribed an animal found by him only on one occasion, at Malaga,

upon the systematic position of which he was in doubt. It was

an elongated animal, with cilia and stiff hairs, and was met with

in process of transverse division.

A Turbellarian larva, with its caudal extremity apparently

presenting indications of a segmentation, described and figured

* Recherches sur les Annélides, Turbellaires, &c., pl. 5. fig. 5.

+ Neue wirbellose Thiere; Erste Hialfte, p. 3, taf. 1. figs. 1, 2.

{ Beobachtungen iiber wirbellose Thiere, p. 114, taf. 11. fig. 9.

60 M. E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoceela.

by Claparéde*, and found by him on the Scottish coasts, is evi-

dently very nearly allied to the animal just described.

Both these animals were found in a sexless state, and there-

fore regarded as larve. Leuckart + remarks, upon the form de-

scribed by Busch, “ Alaurina prolifera is certainly a larval

worm, although it may be doubtful to what group it belongs.”

The anatomical structure of the larva in question is very imper-

fectly described in the memoirs just cited. It was the more in-

teresting to me, therefore, to meet with several specimens of an

animal nearly allied to Alaurina, which I found, in August last,

upon the surface of the sea near Heligoland.

All the specimens found were composed of four parts (Pl. VIII.

fig. 6), of which the foremost was the longest, whilst the other

three were nearly of equal length. The total length of the

animal was 1} millim. ‘The anterior part was furnished with a

tactile proboscis, as in the animals of Busch and Claparede,—

therefore with an apparatus which may be regarded as a group-

character. Its pale-green colour distinguishes it from the rest

of the body, which is citron-yellow, and covered with a dense

coat of fine cilia, which are entirely wanting on the conical pro-

boscis. The stronger vibratile hairs described by Claparéde on

his larva are not present in my animal; but, on the other hand,

it bears a long seta at its posterior end, and this may probably

be identical with those of Alaurina prolifera.

The cilia are inserted upon the isolable spherical epithelial

cells. Under the skin the body is surrounded by a distinct

layer of annular muscular fibres. Of the nervous system I have

found no trace in my animal; but there is a pair of small black

eye-poimts behind the proboscis. The eyes do not usually occur

upon the three hinder parts of the body ; once only have I seen

a pair of such organs upon the last “ segment.”

The mouth is situated on the ventral surface, behind the eyes,

It leads into a ciliated buccal cavity, which narrows and then

leads into a pharynx (fig. 6 ph.) provided with strong muscles

(nearly as in the Mesostomee). The intestine runs straight

through the whole body; I could not observe its posterior ori-

fice (anus), any more than Claparéde, whilst Busch describes

his Alaurina as an animal provided with an anus. I believe that

these characters in my animal are very similar to those of the

Microstomee, m which I have likewise sought in vain for an

anus. In Microstomum lineare, under a moderate pressure, I

always saw the contents of the intestine issuing only from the

mouth. Do the Microstomez really possess no anus? and is

* Recherches, &c. p. 83, taf. 5. fig. 2.

+ Gottingische Anzeigen, 1852, p. 867.

M. BE. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoceela. 61

that which is described as such by previous observers perhaps

only a torn place produced by division ?

On the two sides of the body there are two very fine water-

vascular stems (fig. 6 7.a.), the opening of which, however, I

could not find.

The Alaurina observed by me is evidently not a larva, but

rather furnished with hermaphrodite sexual organs, which are

present in each “segment,” and sometimes even occur in double

number in one or more of the segments. The testes are nume-

rous and distributed in the body (fig. 6 ¢), appearing like cap-

sules containing the zoospermia. The male apparatus also in-

cludes a seminal vesicle of considerable size (v. s.), the efferent

duct of which opens into a tubular penis (pe.) composed of

chitine. The extremity of this is inserted into the male genital

orifice, which is situated on the side of the body and often sur-

rounded by a cutaneous projection.

Near each seminal vesicle there occurs an ovum furnished

with a nucleus and nucleolus, which forms the female apparatus.

I could not find the female genital aperture; but, as it can

hardly be wanting (for the male orifice 1s too narrow to furnish

room for both male organs during copulation), I am inclined to

think that it is only present at the time of copulation.

As [have now described some of the peculiarities of organiza-

tion of the animal observed, I may be allowed to draw one or

two conclusions therefrom. In the first place, I must assert that

the parts of which the body is composed are by no means buds

which would subsequently separate. This opinion is founded

upon the fact that the whole animal possesses a common pro-

boscis, mouth, and intestinal canal, as well as common aqui-

ferous vessels ; and I have never seen traces of these parts upon

the segments when already sexually mature. Perhaps, however,

the parts above interpreted as segments are to be regarded as

the joints of an animal colony analogous to the Cestoda, as was

urged upon me by Prof. Leuckart (who also first called my at-

tention to the similarity of my Turbellarian to Busch’s Alau-

rina).

As regards the systematic position of this worm, which I de-

nominate Alaurina composita, | think that, together with the

animals observed by Busch and Claparéde, it forms a distinct

family in the neighbourhood of the Microstomee, to which the

Alaurine are more or less related from the resemblance in the

structure of the sexual organs and intestine.

If my statements are correct, Max Schultze’s system cannot

remain quite unaltered, inasmuch as he describes the Microsto-

mee as Arhynchia, which, however, will not do for the Alaurine

which are furnished with a proboscis. Perhaps the Microstomee

62 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

and Alaurine are to be regarded merely as families of the Rhab-

doccela, a view which has already been expressed by Leuckart,

at least with regard to the former. The peculiarities of the

sexual organs and fission can no longer be accepted as ordinal

characters, since we have become acquainted with the proliferous

Catenula and the Rhabdoccela with the sexes separate.

XII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

By M. Baxsrani*.

Or the questions relating to the generation of animals, one of

those which are still most open to discussion is that of the

mode of propagation of the viviparous Aphides. According to

the ideas which observers have formed of the nature of the

reproductive organs of these insects, their multiplication has

been referred sometimes to the phenomena of alternate gene-

rations, sometimes to those of parthenogenesis or virgin-gene-

ration. As to the opinion which consists in assuming an

androgynous condition in these animals, which is still maintained

by some authors, as well as by Leeuwenhoek, Cestoni, and

Réaumur, it rests upon a mere hypothesis which has not yet

received its material demonstration by the detection of the male

element in the viviparous Aphides.

It is this last view that I propose to defend here by bringing

forward the positive proof for which science has waited since the

time of the illustrious observers who first pronounced in favour

of the hermaphroditism of these creatures. 1 propose, in fact, to

show that this state is the normal condition of the Aphides

throughout the viviparous period of their existence, and | shall

also show in what manner the separation of the sexes is effected

in them, when, under the influence of certain determinate

conditions, their mode of reproduction reverts to the law common

to the generality of species of animals.

The evolution and physiological function of the generative

organs commencing at a very slightly advanced period of the

embryonic life of these insects, and their history being, so to

speak, inseparable from that of the development of the ovum

itself, I shall have to trace faithfully, though concisely, the

principal phases of this development. It is by following this

course in my observations that I have succeeded in coming to

an understanding of this question which has been so long in

debate. This investigation will also, as we shall see, reveal

some remarkable facts which I regard as of high interest with

respect to the origin of the male and female generative elements,

* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 4, 1866, pp. 1231-1234.

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 63

and their relations to the rest of the organism. But, in the first

place, it is necessary to give an idea of the structure presented,

according to my observations, by the organ in which the embryo

originates—that is to say, the female sexual apparatus or ovary of

the viviparous Aphides.

This apparatus consists, as in most other insects, of a variable

number of tubes or sheaths, each of which is dilated at its

anterior extremity into a terminal cell or chamber containing a

group of small cells. One of these occupies the centre of the

group and is entirely surrounded by the others, This central

cell is the most important of all; for it represents the generative

element or the mother cell of all the ovules in each sheath which

are destined to become converted into embryos. These ovules

originate in the form of true buds, which, separating successively

from the central cell, appear at the bottom of the terminal

chamber before passing into the upper part of the sheath.

The peripheral cells, attached to the former by hollow pedicles,

are its nutritive cells, its sole function being to emit incessantly

new ovular buds.

At the moment when the ovule penetrates into the ovarian

sheath, it clearly presents a germinal vesicle and spot. A delicate

filament still attaches it fora time to the mother cell; but this

union is soon broken, and the ovule remains completely isolated

in its chamber. It is generally at this moment that the modi-

fications which are to lead to the formation of the embryo

commence in the ovum. The germinal spot first. disappears, and

is soon followed by the vesicle which contained it. During this

period some nuclei, at first rare, have made their appearance on

the surface of the vitellus, and condensed around them the

transparent homogeneous substance of which it is composed.

By this means are formed the first blastodermic cells. No

membrane as yet surrounds them. The rather wide intervals

separating them at first are quickly filled up by the appearance

of new nuclei and cells. The ovule is thus finally clothed over

the whole of its surface by a continuous layer of cells arranged

in a single series and pressed against each other. At this period

they all present a very recognizable proper envelope.

While the blastoderm has thus been completing its formation,

the ovum has increased in size and passed from a spherical form

to that of an elongated oval ; at the same time it has descended

a little in the interior of the ovarian sheath. The central vitel-

line mass enclosed in the cavity of the blastoderm has lost its

homogeneous aspect and become penetrated by fine colourless

granulations. Soon afterwards an orifice is formed at the pos-

terior pole of the blastoderm *, in consequence of the separation at

* T give the name of posterior pole of the blastoderm or ovum to the

64 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

this point of the cells composing it; and the internal granular mass

projects through this orifice. We then clearly perceive, either

directly or by means of reagents, that the whole inner surface of

the blastoderm is lined with a delicate membrane which extends

like an envelope round the central vitelline mass.

It is this membrane, with a portion of its contents, that pro-

jects, as just stated, through the orifice at the posterior extre-

mity of the blastoderm. This hernial portion attaches itself to

the corresponding epithelial cells of the ovarian chamber, which

are hypertrophied, and becomes as it were engrafted upon them.

When this connexion is established, the vitelline vesicle becomes

constricted in the interior of the cavity of the blastoderm like a

cell in process of division, and then separates into two juxta-

posed secondary cells,—the posterior adherent to the epithelium

of the chamber, the other, or anterior, being completely free in

the above-mentioned cavity. I have sometimes succeeded in

detecting a very pale granular nucleus in the posterior vesicle,

and less distinctly in the anterior one; they, therefore, present

all the characters of true cells. These vesicles or cells are to be

the origin of the male and female generative elements of the

future animal—that is to say, of the ova on the one hand, and

‘the spermatic cells on the other. In fact, by a phenomenon of

germination which I cannot describe here in detail, each of them

becomes covered at its surface by a generation of small cells,

which, when once produced, increase in size and continue to

multiply on their own account. From this results the forma-

tion of two very distinct cellular groups placed side by side in

the cavity of the blastoderm. The group produced by the

herniated vesicle engrafted upon the exterior epithelium repre-

sents the male element, and will give origin to the fecundating

corpuscles ; that which originates from the free vesicle in the

interior of the ovum is, on the contrary, formed by the totality

of the female elements—that is to say, the generative cells of the

future ovules, surrounded by their nutritive cells. This latter

group soon subdivides into a certain number of secondary groups,

corresponding with that of the ovarian sheaths which are sub-

sequently to be formed. The cells which compose it remain

always transparent and colourless, and are also smaller than

those of the first group, the cells of which, on the other hand,

are soon permeated by numerous small green or yellow granula-

tions, which enable them to be recognized with the greatest

facility*. The generative vesicles of the two sexual masses be-

extremity which is directed towards the external sexual orifice, and that of

anterior pole to that which looks towards the terminal chamber of the

ovarian sheath.

* This yellow or green mass, which is met with in most Aphides at all

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 65

have in a very different manner in the sequel of the develop-

ment: that which has given origin to the female elements dis-

appears immediately afterwards, whilst the vesicle which has

generated the male or spermatic elements, far from disappearing,

continues its development, often becomes very large, and after

forming connexions with the female generative apparatus, con-

stitutes a reservoir for the fecundative corpuscles—becoming, in

fact, a true seminal vesicle for this hermaphrodite apparatus.

When the curious phenomena just described summarily have

terminated, the embryonic development, properly so-called, has

not yet commenced. We may, indeed, observe that the cells of the

blastoderm have multiplied at the anterior pole so as to produce a

very considerable thickening there; but this modification is not fol-

lowed by the formation of any new part. This thicker layer, in

fact, soon gradually diminishes, and is at last entirely effaced*.

XIII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

By M. Barsiani. (Second Note.)+

In the viviparous Aphides the blastoderm assists to a certain

extent in the formation of the embryo, but its part is exclusively

limited to the production of the laminz which complete the ce-

phalic extremity in front. All the rest, on the contrary, results

from an entirely new part superadded to the blastoderm.

The first phenomenon which denotes the commencement of

embryonic development is a budding forth of cells upon one of

the halves of the circumference of the aperture (of which I have

already indicated the purpose and mode of formation) at the

posterior pole of the blastoderm. The result of this budding is

the production of a cellular lamina, which gradually rises from

the margin of the preceding aperture into the interior of the

ovum, folding back against the inner wall of the blastoderm,

which it appears in some degree to double for a certain extent.

When arrived within a short distance of the anterior pole, it folds

inwards, inversely to its former direction, as if to descend again

towards the aperture which was its point of departure, but with-

out passing, at least at this time, the middle of the ascending

periods of embryonic development and even after birth, has been described

sometimes as serving for the nutrition of the embryo ( pseudo-vitellus of

Huxley), sometimes as a plastic mass destined for the formation of the

vegetative organs (Leydig).

* This transitory production of the blastoderm of the Aphides is pro-

bably the analogue of the “ primitive cumulus ” described by Claparéde as

preceding the formation of the embryonal rudiment in the ova of the

Spiders.

+ Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 11th, 1866, pp. 1285-

1289

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 5

66 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

branch. This curved lamina, produced in this way by a bud-

ding of the blastoderm in the interior of its own cavity, is nothing

but the embryonic rudiment or primitive streak, less the ante-

rior part of the head; in fact the ascending branch represents

the whole of the ventral cephalothoracice wall, destined to bear

the buccal and locomotive appendages, and the descending

branch the ventral wall of the abdomen. As to the elements des-

tined to form the anterior wall of the head with its appendages,

or the antenne, these are, as | have just stated, the only ones

which result from a transformation of the blastoderm. For this

purpose the latter becomes thickened in the region corresponding

with that against which the ascending or cephalothoracic branch

of the primitive streak is applied in such a manner as to sur-

round like a hood the base of this branch, with which this thick-

ened part is continued through the orifice of the posterior pole.

In all the rest of its extent the blastoderm becomes trans-

formed into a delicate membrane, which envelopes the embryo

as it were in a sort of sac, which isolates it from the ovarian

chamber.

At this period of its evolution the embryonal streak therefore

presents in its totality the form of an 8, of which the inferior

curvature represents the cephalic hood, the superior curvature

the rudiment of the abdomen, and the intermediate branch the

combined rudiments of the head and thorax.

The primitive streak divides into two longitudinal halves by

the formation of a furrow upon each of its faces. These two sym-

metrical halves, which represent the axes of the two halves of the

body, and betray the bilateral type of the animal, are the germi-

native tuberosities (Keimwiilste of the German embryogenists).

Their formation is one of the earliest phenomena in the evolution

of the Aphides; for it takes place part passu with the formation

of the primitive streak, and consequently long before the ap-

pearance of the zomites and their appendages. As to the other

principal embryogenic phenomena, such as the formation of a

reflected superficial lamella (the Faltenblatt of Weismann), that

of the primitive parts of the head, the division of the germinative

tuberosities into transverse segments or zonites, the appearance

of the cephalic and thoracic appendages, &c., I can only men-

tion them here, leaving all that relates to these different points

of embryonic evolution to the memoir in which I propose to treat

in extenso the subject of which this note gives a summary.

In proportion as the primitive streak penetrates into the in-

terior of the ovum, the sexual masses follow it in its movement,

and place themselves against the inner face of the upper reflected

or abdominal portion of this streak. At this period nothing yet

exists resembling a visceral cavity, the streak, as in all the Arti-

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 67

culata, containing only the elements of the head and of the in-

ferior wall of the body. The sexual masses are therefore, in

point of fact, completely naked and outside the embryo. But

already we can see that the embryonic cells arrange themselves

in parallel series directed towards the extremity of the abdo-

men, to form excretory ducts, destined to place them in relation

with that region.

Development continuing under these conditions, the embryo

enlarges, and with it the whole sexual apparatus; the parts al-

ready existing become completed and perfected, the mouth and

anus are formed, and the digestive tube becomes visible at its

extremities. It is at this pomt that a phenomenon occurs

equally simple in its mechanism and important in its results

for the further progress of the development of the Articulata,

namely the reversal of the mode of rolling of the embryo. This

reversal, which is not always effected by means of exactly the

same process in all these animals, takes place in the Aphides by

an actual backward summerset executed by the embryo in the

interior of its cell. In consequence of this change of position

the head, which at first was in relation to the posterior part of

the cell, arrives at the anterior part, while the ventral surface, at

first turned inwards, now looks outwards, and is placed imme-

diately under the envelope of the egg. By the same act the

abdomen is transferred to the dorsal side, and rises, like a sort

of tail to the embryo, as far as the posterior part of the head,

leaving between it and the cephalothoracic rudiment a space,

the greater part of which is occupied by the mass of the gene-

rative organs. In this new position all that is necessary is that

the embryo should complete itself behind by the formation of a

dorsal wall, in order that these organs may be enclosed in the

cavity of the body quite naturally and without any new change

of position.

The closure of the hinder part of the bedy is effected by the

simple growth of the ventral arches towards the dorsal region,

and their fusion in the median line of the latter.

If we endeavour at this period of development to under-

stand the arrangement of the hermaphrodite apparatus of the

viviparous Aphides, we find the primitive common mass of ova-

rian cells divided into two groups, symmetrically placed in the

posterior part of the body, and each of these groups formed of

a small number of cellular masses, each of which possesses a

proper envelope. In these we easily recognize the terminal

chambers of the ovarian sheaths, with their contents, consisting

of small transparent cells. The male organ is likewise divided

into two parts, arranged, in the form of two cords of variable

form, on each side of the digestive tube, within the ovaries,

68 On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

above which they rise miore or less. The whole mass of these

organs, the green colour of which being often very intense 1m-

mediately catches the eye, is composed of large oval or poly-

hedric cells, the characters of which I shall describe further on,

im speaking of the formation of the seminal corpuscles. A very

delicate envelope extends itself round each of them, and is con-

tinued to the posterior part in an attenuated process, which

loses itself upon the sides of the rectum, and probably represents

an excretory duct. As the neck of the seminal vesicle may

likewise be followed into this region, it is probably there that

the union of these ducts with the spermatic reservoir is effected.

As to the seminal vesicle, it is formed by a sac of considerable

size situated on the median line above the intestine, with its

fundus sometimes advancing nearly to the middle of the body.

Its wall is formed by a simple structureless membrane, a true

cell-membrane, of such delicacy and transparency that m most

cases its presence is betrayed only by the seminal corpuscles and

coloured granulations composing its contents—which explains

how it has remained undetected by all observers. The seminal

vesicle terminates by a very slender duct, which represents its

neck, and which I have been able to trace to the point of union

of the two ovarian tubes, where it is probably inserted.

It remains for me, im conclusion, to say a few words about

- the spermatic corpuscles and their formation. This commences

very early; for all the embryos of the viviparous dphides at the

moment of their birth contain new generations in course of

development. Still more, it is not rare to find the spermatic

reservoir, to the early formation of which I have adverted above,

already filled with seminal corpuscles before there is any trace of

an embryo in the ovum. These corpuscles are formed, as I have

already stated, in the large coloured cells which constitute the

mass of the two organs situated in the vicinity of the ovaries.

At the moment of their appearance these cells contained only a

homogeneous and colourless substance ; but as they enlarge they

become penetrated by fine granules, which give them the green

or yellowish-green colour presented by them im most Aphides ;

at the same time their contents become converted into a multi-

tude of little daughter cells, furnished with a membrane and a

nucleus: these are the cells of development of the spermatic

elements. They are, in fact, soon replaced by innumerable

small dark corpuscles of 0°001—0:002 millim. in diameter, which,

under a strong power, appear like minute Amebe; but their

form does not change under the microscope. The large mother

cells have then lost their transparency and their green colour,

and become opaque and brownish ; they are easily disintegrated,

breaking up into a sort of powder after the destruction of their

Miscellaneous. 69

enveloping membrane. In many Aphides these Amceboid cor-

puscles undergo a further degree of evolution by their transfor-

mation into small unequal bacilli, which are straight or diversely

flexuose, immobile and colourless, and 0:005—0-:020 millim. in

length. We might easily be led to regard them as a parasitic

vegetable production, if we had not before our eyes all the suc-

cessive phases of the transformation of these elements. More-

over their rapid solubility in alkaline solutions constitutes a

character which differentiates them completely from the micro-

scopic Oscillatorie, with which they present the greatest resem-

blance. Several times I have succeeded in seeing some of these

corpuscles in the ovarian tubes, or forming small groups at the

bottom of the terminal chamber of the ovigerous sheaths.

In the third and last part of this memoir I shall investigate

the phenomena of reproduction in the oviparous Aphides, and

show how these are related to the viviparous generations which

preceded them.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Metamorphoses of the Marine Crustacea.

By M. Z. Gerse.

Tue author gives the following summary of the conclusions to

which his investigations have led him :—

1. The larvee of the species belonging to the genera Maia, Pisa,

Platycarcinus, Cancer, Xantus, Gonoplax, Portunus, Porcellana,

Palinurus, Homarus, Callianassa, Crangon, Athanas, Palemon,

Mysis, Ione, and very probably those of many other genera, undergo,

immediately after their birth, a first moult, which gives them a form

different from that which they possessed in the egg.

2. None of the marine Crustacea of the division Podophthalma,

or of the Edriophthalma, which I have observed has its organization

complete at birth or possesses forms by which it might be referred

to the species to which it belongs, and all are furnished with transi-

tory appendages for natation, which give them a locomotion different

from that which they will have in the perfect state : these appendages

persist until the fifth or sixth moult, and become atrophied in posi-

tion without falling off.

3. It is only at the fifth moult in some, and at the sixth in others,

and after having undergone modifications at each moult, that the

general form of the adult and the external organs are complete.

To these transitory external forms, so different from those of the

perfect animals, and becoming modified at each moult, are due

a multitude of false species and genera and doubtful families *, and

even, as regards the larve of the Palinuri, an entire order to be

eliminated.

* The family of the Erichthide, in the order Stomapoda, appears to me

to be chiefly founded upon Crustacea in the larval state.

70 Miscellaneous.

4. However the larvee of various species of Crustacea may resemble

each other in external form, nevertheless in the arrangement, the

form, and the number of the spots of the skin and intestine, and

especially in the number and conformation of the provisional appen-

dages which adorn the extremity of the last segment of the abdomen,

they present definite characters which enable us to say to what

species any particular larva belongs.

5. The stomach of the larvee of the marine Crustacea presents

no solid piece adapted to the grinding of food ; it is merely furnished

on its inner face with rigid spinules arranged in rows, and with vibra-

tile cilia like those found in the stomachs of a great number of the

lower animals. These cilia communicate an incessant movement of

rotation to the organic molecules upon which the animal feeds.

6. In all larve of Crustacea, the liver, at first reduced to two

simple ceeca, one on each side, is manifestly a diverticulum of the

intestinal tube, with which it has wide communications ; by ramify-

ing, it forms a hollow tree, at the base of which we may see oscillating

the vitelline globules which the umbilical vesicle pours into the

pyloric portion of the intestine.

7. The marine Crustacea, however the respiratory functions may

be ultimately performed, all have a tegumentary respiration in the

larval state.

With the exception of the Lobsters, which, when first hatched,

have a rudimentary branchial apparatus quite unfit to perform any

functions, the larve of the other genera of Crustacea enumerated

above are absolutely destitute of this apparatus; some, indeed, do

not present any traces of it until after several moults.

8. The want of the function of branchial respiration necessitates

a radical difference between the circulation of the individual in the

larval and the individual in the perfect form—that is.to say, having

acquired branchie. In all the larvee of Maza, Porcellana, Crangon,

Palemon, Palinurus, Homarus, Cancer, &c., the blood which the

arteries have distributed to the different parts of the body returns

entirely, directly to the heart, and this condition persists for a con-

siderable time. It is only after the third moult, in the most perfect

larva of the species inhabiting our seas—that of the Lobster—that a

few globules are diverted from the original general circulation to

penetrate into the nascent branchiz.

g. All the arteries open directly into the venous passages by an

aperture more or less bevelled and more or less dilated into a trumpet-

like form.

10. In some larve the abdominal artery may present a sort of

sphincter in its course, at some distance from the central organ of

circulation ; this, by contracting, temporarily suspends the flow of

blood to the hinder parts*.

* This remarkable peculiarity exists not only in the larvee of the Lob-

sters, as already indicated, but also in those of the Porcellane. tis even

probable that it will be found in many species, and perhaps in all; for

when we observe the circulation in the last segment of the abdomen of

larvee of Cancer, Carcinus, Palemon, &c., interruptions are perceived in it.

Miscellaneous. ral

11. Although the transitory spines which arm the thorax of some

species do not receive any arterial branch, a complete circulation is

established in their cavity. Some of the globules which the venous

lacunze convey to the heart make a digression into these transitory

appendages, traverse nearly their whole length, and return by a

parallel course into the lacuna from which they started.

12. The central nervous system of the larvae of Crustacea presents

differences in its arrangement and form from that of the perfect in-

dividual ; and the development of each of the medullary nuclei which

constitute the ganglionic masses is in relation to the development of

the organs to which these nuclei correspond.

13. Lastly, no larva of any species of Crustacea presents traces

of the generative apparatus.—Comptes Rendus, May 7, 1866,

pp. 1024-1027.

On the Mi-lou or Sseu-pou-siang, a Mammal from the north of

China, which forms a new Section in the Family Cervide. By

A. Mitnre-Epwarps.

Father David, a missionary at Pekin, has sent to the Museum at

Paris a zoological collection containing skins of the Mi-lou, a large

species of stag, which is regarded by M. A. Milne-Edwards as a

completely new form.

In its general aspect, in its coat, its clumsy gestures, and the

mode in which the male carries his horns, it has a certain resem-

blance to the Reindeer. It approaches the true Cervi by the posses-

sion of a naked muffle and in the anatomical characters of the skull;

but it is distinguished from all known Cervidee by the direction and

mode of ramification of the horns, and also by the structure of the

tail.

The horns present no basal anterior antler, but they are greatly

developed and much branched. The processes of the frontal bone

from which they originate are larger than in the common stag.

The beam is thick, and, at a considerable distance above the burr,

gives origin to a long posterior branch, which is directed almost

horizontally backward, so as nearly to touch the back of the animal;

this branch is almost as thick as the perche, and bears on its sub-

terminal portion several antlers arranged upon its outer margin and

very close together, so as to form a sort of palmation slightly resem-

bling that ot the brow-antler of old reindeers. The perche, instead

of being regularly curved, is twisted into an S-like form, and bears

two large antlers directed backwards and inwards; it terminates in

a fork; lastly, all the upper part of the horn is armed with a series

of large tubercles, several of which are so much developed as to form

little accessory antlers on the outer margin. The female has no

horns.

The coat of these animals is rough, brittle, very thick, and of a

uniform yellowish-grey colour, except on the median line of the back

and chest, where there is a black band.

The tail, instead of being short and thick, is very long, and fur-

72 Miscellaneous.

nished with long hairs towards the end; these sometimes descend

beyond the heel, as in the ass.

According to M. David, the Chinese often give the Mz-low the

name of Sseu-pou-siang—that is to say, the four (characters) which

do not agree, as they consider that the animal resembles the stag in

its horns, the cow in its feet, the camel in its neck, and the mule or

the ass in its tail. The author considers the characters of this animal

to be so peculiar that it forms a new generic group, and he gives it

the name of Elaphurus Davidianus.

The Mi-lou is of the size of a large stag; an adult male received

by the Museum measures 1°30 metre to the withers; and larger in-

dividuals are often seen. The animal lives in herds in the imperial

park at some distance from Pekin ; it has been there for a long time ;

but the Chinese do not know how or at what time it was brought

there. M. David thinks that the reindeer spoken of by Hue, in his

‘ Voyage en Tartarie,’ as living in herds beyond the Koukou-Noor,

towards 36° N. lat., may have been identical with the Mi-lou.—

Comptes Rendus, May 14, 1866, pp. 1090-1092.

On the Pleuronectide of the Genus Zeugopterus, and the Structure

of their Branchial Cavity. By J. STEENSTRUP.

In a monograph published in 1835 upon the Pleuronectide of the

Sound and the Cattegat, M. Gottsche established several new genera

which have not in general been accepted by zoologists. One of these

genera, Zeugopterus, was characterized by the author as presenting

a union of the anal fin to the ventrals by a fold of skin starting from

the last rays of the latter. M. Kroyer, in his ‘ Danish Fishes,’ has

rejected this genus, as being founded upon a character of secondary

importance, which can only be regarded as specific. M. Steenstrup

agrees with Kroyer as to the value of the character, but nevertheless

retains the genus Zeugopterus, because the character in question is

never isolated, but always presents itself in connexion with others.

The most important of the latter is a constant deviation either of the

anal or dorsal fin towards the blind side—a deviation which cannot

but exert some influence upon the mode of natation of the animal.

Moreover the scales of the Zeugopteri are roughened with little teeth,

and both the outline of the body and the coloration appear to present

certain peculiarities common to all the species. But the most evi-

dent proof that the group Zeugopterus really forms a well-marked

natural division, is the discovery by Steenstrup of a very remarkable

anatomical peculiarity which is not exemplified in any other Pleuro-

nectid. Thus in the Zeugopteri the vertical osseous partition which

separates the two branchial cavities from each other is perforated by

a large aperture in such a manner that the water can pass freely

from one branchial cavity to the other. The physiological bearing

of such an arrangement seems very problematical.—Oversigt, §c.,

Danske Vidensk. Selsk. 1865, p. 95; Bibl. Univ. May 1866, p. 79.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 104. AUGUST 1866.

XIV.—Memoir on a new Parasitic Crustacean belonging to the

Order Lernzida, forming a new Family. By M. Hessn*.

THE object of this memoir is to make known a new Crustacean,

which, from the simplicity of its structure and the singularity

of its habits, must, I think, excite the curiosity of naturalists.

They will judge, from the description we shall give of it, of the

embarrassment in which we could not but find ourselves, in the

absence of all definite characters, to assign it a place in the

classification of organized creatures.

§ 1. Description.

It is from 10 to 12 millimetres in length and 2 millims. in

breadth ; its body, covered with a parchment-like skin, is cylin-

drical and fusiform. It is essentially retractile in the direction

of its length; and the segments of its abdomen, in consequence

of the width of their inferior margin, can even become invagi-

nated one within the other. It is divided into five thoracic and

siz abdominal segments.

Seen from the back, the Aead terminates in a rounded point,

and presents in the middle a single eye, which, under different

degrees of incidence of light, exhibits a play of colours varying

from red to blue.

The thoracic segments are not very distinct, with the exception

of the first two, which are easily recognized. The others are

merely indicated by lateral depressions, especially when this

part is tumefied by the accumulation of eggs; they increase in

depth and width as they approach the base: the last, in parti-

cular, is much larger than the rest, is rounded laterally in the

middle, and then contracts at its junction with the first abdo-

minal segment.

_ ™ Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Annales des Sciences

Naturelles,’ série 5. tome v. pp. 265-279.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 6

74 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

The abdominal segments, when in their normal state (that is to

say, neither much contracted nor much extended), are perfectly

distinct from each other ; they decrease in depth and width from

the base to the apex, and are nearly square, being only a little

narrower above than below. The last, or sixth, does not at all

resemble the others in its form, which is nearly that ofa shield,

widened at its base, slightly emarginate at the sides, and termi-

nated by two obtuse points furnished with a few hairs. Seen in

profile, they show between them a cavity in which the anal

orifice opens. However, these forms, which are well marked

when they are in their normal state, are extremely variable and

become considerably modified according to circumstances.

The head, seen in profile, has the frontal margin truncated at

the apex and rounded and bent downwards at the sides. Upon

it we perceive the antenne, which are thick, short, cylindrical,

and composed of two or three joints, terminated by divergent

hairs. Starting from the antenne, the outer margin of the

cephalic envelope descends obliquely in a straight line to go to

the superior angle formed by the inflation presented by the

orifice of the cesophagus.

Between these two points is the buccal orifice, which is placed

in the centre of a circular platform slightly hollowed in the

middle. This apparatus, which is very complicated, presents

the following arrangement :—Immediately below the antenne,

and at the sides of the epistome, there are two pairs of footjaws,

which are solid, pectinated, and terminated by a hooked claw;

then follows, in the middle, the buccal aperture, composed of a

conical proboscidiform tube, which issues from and returns mto

a cavity formed in the centre of the platform. This tube, which

is constructed of a very firm, but very delicate and transparent,

membranous tissue, receives its impulsion from two pairs of

footjaws, one superior and one inferior, which keep it extended

or contracted according as this organ issues from or re-enters

the cavity destined for its reception. When the tube is entirely

out, we may perceive in its interior a conical appendage, rounded

at the end, ascending and descending frequently, like the piston

in the chamber of a pump: this is really the mouth with its

mandibular armament.

The latter is formed of two pairs of footjaws, which are denti-

culated and trenchant, and furnished with a corneous substance;

these, by applying themselves together, can seize and triturate

objects. They are, moreover, surrounded by a soft and mobile

labial margin, which seems to cover them when necessary ;

lastly, within these organs we see some mandibular palpi, com-

pleting this system, which may be employed, according to cir-

cumstances, both for suction and mastication.

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 75

The whole of this apparatus is strongly attached to the inte-

rior by very apparent muscular ligaments, by means of which it

is continually issuing from and returning into the proboscis.

Lastly, we also see beneath this proboscis—that is to say, at

the base of the buccal apparatus just described—a pair of very

strong footjaws, composed of three joints, and terminated by a

strong, flat, lamellar, and denticulated claw, constructed to dig

into or cut objects. These footjaws are curved inwards, so as to

be able to reach or even to pass the apex of the buccal orifice,

upon which they lower themselves in case of necessity.

We have also remarked that the eye participates in the move-

ment tv and fro which causes the buccal apparatus to issue and

return—an impulse which acts upon the tegumentary envelope

in which it is fixed; we have likewise ascertained that it is

capable of an incomplete rotation upon itself.

The body, which is very opaque, and, in consequence of its

comparative thickness, conceals from sight the details of its in-

terior organization, 1s surrounded throughout its whole extent by

a transparent border, which follows all its outlines. Even with

the aid of the compressorium we were unable to detect the

movements of circulation, which nevertheless would have been

very interesting ; we ascertained only that the intestinal tube,

which is very voluminous, especially at the middle of the body,

passes directly from the cesophagus to the anus, and that the

matters contained in it are black, thick, and syrupous; these

issue readily from the body when it is touched rather roughly,

and then, by spreading in the water, form a tolerably compact

network, which remains for some time without dissolving.

It was only by infinite patience, and by taking advantage of

an individual kept alive for more than a fortnight and reduced

by abstinence until it was nearly transparent, that we succeeded

in ascertaining the organization of the mouth and its evolutions.

We had previously attempted in vain to detect them by means of

the compressorium ; its action upon these organs, crushing them,

produced nothing but confusion, which prevented our continuing

our observations. The lobes of the diver are very large, and are

contained in the middle of the abdominal cavity. We could not

detect the organs of generation. The ova are large, enclosed

within the most spacious part of the thoracic region, and placed

above the intestine while they are still contained in the oviduct.

They are arranged in a chain in two or three rows, and form a

considerable number of loops or sinuosities; their course may

be detected, and is directed towards the orifices placed at the

base of the last thoracic segment. When they are expelled

from the body, they form a square flat mass; they are enclosed

in a special envelope, and agglutinated together. They appear

76 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

to be excessively caducous; for I have never found them adherent

to the body of the Crustacean, but always beside it in its retreat.

But as they are contained in an enclosure from which they

cannot escape, there is the less inconvenience, in the interest of

reproduction, in the fact that they detach themselves so readily

from the body of the female.

The male of this species is unknown.

The embryo resembles that of all the suctorial Crustacea: its

body is oval, with the forehead nearly square. The two sides

are nearly parallel; and the posterior extremity terminates in a

rounded point, presenting neither hairs nor terminal appendages.

Of the three pairs of natatory feet with which the body is fur-

nished, the first are simple, and the two others biramose, as in

the species just mentioned; all are armed with long flexible

setze destined to assist in natation. The articulations of these

feet are very nodulose, and well fitted to facilitate movements.

The buccal apparatus is proboscidiform and tolerably elongate ;

it is widened at its orifice, aud appears to be furnished with two

little jaws. It is erectile, and may lie along the thorax or rise

up perpendicularly.

The embryo, seen upon a white ground, appears black, but,

when illuminated, it is red. It swims slowly, and with much

less activity than those of the species with which we have com-

pared it.

Coloration.—This Crustacean varies much in colour. It is

sometimes bright yellow slightly tinged with vermilion ; some-

times it is of the latter colour but rather pale, brown, or leather-

coloured (chamois). The head, the first thoracic segments, and

the last segment of the abdomen are always white. The intes-

tine, when full, is deep black; the ova are yellow or brown;

the eye, as already stated, red changing to blue.

Habitat. Found, pretty commonly, hidden beneath the scales

of the young of the green-streaked Wrasse (Labrus Donovani*),

where it lives as a parasite.

§ 2. Mistory.

It is already a long time since, while seeking for parasites on

fishes, we first noticed that the young Green Wrasses often pre-

sented on the fore part of the sides of the body, not far from

the eye and the branchial aperture, a small tumour, the bright-

red colour of which contrasted with the green tint of the fish.

This peculiarity would not have attracted our attention so much

if we had not seen it reproduced almost constantly under similar

* The Breton fishermen call this fish Castrik. It is extraordinary that

the parasite is absolutely found only upon this species, although there are

several in the same genus which have the greatest analogy to each other.

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. V7

conditions—that is to say, exclusively upon young fishes*, always

of the same species and at the same place, and generally on the

right side, never hitherto on both sides. It occurred to us to

open one of these tumours, in the expectation of finding some

Entozoa in it, in a cyst or scirrous tube; but what was our

surprise when we found that we had to do with a being which,

although belonging to a higher class, must none the less take a

place among the lowest ranks of the Crustacea with which it

might be classed.

This tumour is of about the size of a lentil, sometimes smaller,

rarely larger. Two, or even three, may often be seen upon the

same fish; but in this case one is always stronger than the

others, and this is usually the first one, that is to say, the nearest

to the spot above indicated. On carefully examining the tumour,

it is seen to be formed by a certain quantity of scales, whjch are

deranged from their usual symmetrical arrangement, convergent

towards a centre, and superposed upon each other in such a

manner as to form a projecting and culminating point, at the

central summit of which we see a small round hole, evidently

opened to establish an issue.

By carefully removing the lateral scales which are at the base

of the cone, and have undergone no alteration, we arrive at those

which, on the contrary, have undergone a modification. These,

which are much thicker than the others, are, so to speak,

double-bottomed. If they are torn off, we see, on looking at

them from below, that they present a comparatively spacious

cavity existing between the upper wall, which is concave, and

the lower one, which is flat—an arrangement greatly resembling

that of the shells of the Anomia, if it were not that in these

Mollusca the two valves can open and close by means of the

hinge placed at the upper part of the shell, whilst in the case

now before us these two surfaces are soldered together, and are

consequently immoveable.

The scales which have undergone the modifications just men-

tioned present below (that is to say, on their flat surface) two

vertical perforations, of which that placed near the lower margin

is always the largest ; we also generally detect some other small

holes pierced in the upper surface. These scales are applied to

the side of the fish by the flat side. When we tear them off, we

see at the spot which exactly corresponds with the large perfo-

ration above mentioned, a hollow or sinus pierced in the flesh,

* We have already had occasion to indicate that it is especially to young

fishes that parasites attach themselves, probably as being less able to free

themselves. This law appears to be general for all organized creatures :

it is probably also for the same reason that old and inferior individuals

are also attacked.

78 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

and evidently the result of an erosion produced by the parasite

in obtaining its nourishment.

All these arrangements having been minutely described, it

only remains for us to seek to explain their purpose.

When the double-walled scales are extracted from the place

they occupied, and examined on their flat side, the parasite

which is enclosed in the cavity existing between the two surfaces

may be seen through the aperture pierced in the upper part.

Generally it only presents the anterior part of the body at this

orifice, and it is difficult to extract it therefrom, seeing that it

is retained by a purulent and agglutinative secretion, in the

midst of which it is immersed, and which causes it to slip when

we endeavour to seize it. This must be done with care, as the

least rough contact may wound it and immediately provoke the

emission of the substances contained in the intestine.

The ova, which are glued together and form small, square,

flat masses, also float in the above liquid.

When taken out of its refuge, the movements of the creature

are quick and repeated, but always the same; they are reduced

to contractions in a vertical direction and to nutations of the

head, which is agitated horizontally to the right and left, so as

to give rise to a certain very limited reptation, which sufficiently

indicates that it is destined only to furnish the animal with a

means of changing its position, but not its place.

The largest of the apertures, which corresponds directly, as has

been stated, with the erosion or sinus produced below, leaves no

doubt as to its nature or the purpose which has produced it ; it

is evident that it is by this orifice that our parasite, finding itself

in contact with the fish on which it lives, obtains from it its

nourishment.

As to the inferior aperture, it seems to us to be destined, by

establishing a current, to facilitate the evacuation of the excre-

mentitious matters which might accumulate im this retreat, and

to renew the water, which, in consequence of the secretions,

might be altered and no longer fit for respiration.

The small apertures pierced in the upper wall are probably

intended to correspond with the perforation produced at the

apex of the cone formed by the accumulation of the scales, and,

by admitting the external water, to facilitate also either the ex-

pulsion and dissemination of the embryos, or the access of the

male, which, concluding from the analogy of what is known to

us, must possess means of locomotion which have been denied

to his female.

Lastly, as regards the retreat in which this parasite shelters

itself, we shall content ourselves with the following supposi-

tions :—

M. Hesse on a new Parasitie Crustacean. 79

We suppose that the embryo, at its escape from the egg,

being still of extreme minuteness, penetrates by the base of the

scale, and introduces itself between the two laminz which form

its two faces ; that it raises and separates them slowly in such a

manner as to double them, and that by its successive efforts it

not only succeeds in creating a space in which it finds a lodging,

but acts in such a fashion as to exert upon the scale an abortive

influence which, by distorting its structure, modifies its form *.

In fact, if we examine the first invasions of this parasite, we find

that at first they are confined to a mere long, vertical, ampulli-

form canal, which afterwards becomes dilated at its base until it

presents a capacity of nearly the same dimensions in all direc-

tions. The scales which present these proportions are usually

not more than two or three in number; it appears that they

suffice for the shelter of all the parasites which have to seek a

refuge in them; we perceive only, generally in the same line,

some small tubular conduits, of the same kind as those of which

we have just spoken, which appear to be so many covered ways

leading to these principal retreats. Lastly, it appears that these

parasites have also a tolerably powerful active force, since they

are not only able to make themselves a way between the lamine

of scales, which must present to them a certain resistance, but

even perforate them at several points with facility ; and the holes

which they make are as if pierced by a punch and rounded with

a borer.

The vitality of this Crustacean is very great: we have kept it

more than a fortnight without giving it any nourishment, and

we have found that the strongest pressure did not prevent it

from agitating the palpi of its mouth with extreme vivacity for

a long time.

§ 3. Systematization.

From what we have just said as to the mode of life of this

parasite, it will be understood at once that, being sheltered from

all contact, and completely protected from external dangers by

the safe asylum furnished by its host, it does not require for its

protection a solid carapace (accordingly that which covers it is

a mere parchment-like envelope) ; that, having neither to defend

itself nor to attack, it has no necessity for either offensive or

defensive arms; lastly, that being reduced to a state of almost

* This deformation caused by parasitism need not surprise us, when we

consider those produced by Cynips, to the mode of life of which that of

our parasite presents some singular resemblances. These ways of com-

munication, these roads constructed by the parasite, recall the subepidermic

furrows and galleries which are formed by Sarcoptes scabiei for a similar

purpose.

80 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

complete immobility, its useless locomotive appendages have

become almost null or rudimentary; but, as it must provide

itself with nourishment, it has, on the contrary, been completely

furnished with everything that could be necessary to it for this

purpose. We remark, in fact, that round the buccal orifice,

which, from its proboscidiform structure, may furnish it with

the means of absorbing liquids, there exists an auxiliary series

of mandibles, arranged circularly and fitted, in case of necessity,

to triturate solid objects, and that this organ is not only accom-

panied by palpi, but also by prehensile feet destined to aid them.

Thus, therefore, notwithstanding its apparent nakedness, it is

not the less true that it has been very completely provided for

its needs.

And thus we have arrived at the most arduous portion of our

work, which consists in finding the place in classification which

must be assigned to our parasite.

It may be seen, indeed, from the description that we have

given of it, that the characters upon which we depend are not

very strongly marked; we may add that they were still more

difficult to ascertain, in consequence, as already stated, of the

opacity of the body of this Crustacean, which is comparatively

very thick, and of its cylindrical form, which renders it very

unstable on the slide, where it does nothing but roll about ;

hence, notwithstanding the long practice we have had with the

microscope and the compressorium, we are not quite sure of

having triumphed over these obstacles. Nevertheless, having

operated upon a great number of individuals, and repeatedly

verified our observations, we hope that in case we should have

committed some errors, these will not be of much importance.

At the first glance, seeing the simplicity of structure of the

parasite, we asked ourselves whether we really had to do with a

Crustacean. Subsequently, after having attentively examined

it, we perceived that it could only belong to this category, and,

this being the case, that, from the primitive state of its organs,

it must be referred to the lowest rank in the classification of

these Articulata, and placed among the Lerneocerea. This

opinion once admitted, we had to seek for the characters which

might justify this view; and the following are those which seem

to us to do so.

When we compared it, for example, with Lernea branchialis,

we were struck at once by the resemblance which exists between

their buccal systems: this part in each is proboscidiform, and

composed of a retractile siphon forming a sucker, which shelters

itself between the projecting rounded margins protecting the

two sides of the aperture of the mouth. We find also that, as in

Lernaa, this orifice is surrounded by auxiliary feet, and, lastly

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 81

(and this is a special character of the Lerneida), that there

exists all round the body a transparent border, which accompa-

nies its outline through all its cireumvolutions.

Moreover a circumstance which has no less attracted our at-

tention, and which, in our opinion, is most curious, is the resem-

blance existing in the mode of life of the two parasites.

We know, in fact, that Lernea branchialis, by means of its

buecal apparatus, which, as in our parasite, does not appear to

furnish any resources for this purpose, and which appears rather

destined to draw up liquid materials by suction, succeeds never-

theless, in course of time, in perforating the very thick and re-

sistant first wall of the branchial arch of fishes, in order to lodge

its radiciform frontal system in the space occurring between the

two plates of this bony part. Our parasite, by similar actions,

also, by separating and raising the two lamine which form the

scales of the fish on which it has established itself, succeeds in

altering their structure, thus creating for itself a refuge in which

it is entirely lodged, and where it lives in peace and sheltered

from all dangers.

From what has gone before, and notwithstanding the differ-

ences existing between the two species which we compare, we

do not hesitate to thik that they must belong to the same

order; and we form for our parasite a new family, which we

characterize as follows :—

Family Lernzosiphonostomea.

The females fixed upon their victim by means of the scales

of the latter, in which they hollow out a residence. Several

footjaws placed around the mouth. Head not horned. Ovi-

ferous pouch large and flat.

Genus LrerosPHitus*, nobis.

Body fusiform, divided into ten [eleven] segments, which are

very distinct, with the exception of the third and fourth; of

these, four [five] are thoracic and six abdominal ; all surrounded

by a transparent border. Head small, rounded at the apex, bear-

ing above a median eye, and beneath presenting the buccal

orifice, which emits, in a proboscidiform process, some denticu-

lated jaws adapted for the trituration of objects, and laterally three

pairs of prehensile footjaws. Antenne very small, rounded at the

end, and terminated by divergent hairs. Abdominal segments

retractile, and capable of invagination ; last segments terminated

by divergent appendages. Embryo ovulate, furnished with three

* This name ought evidently to be Lepidophilus, and the specific name

Labri, instead of Labret.

82 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

pairs of feet. Eggs agglutinated, and forming a broad flat

mass.

Sp. Leposphilus Labret.

Colour varying from yellow to pale red. Length about 10 to

12 millims. Male unknown.

Inhabits the Green Wrasse, in the scales of which it hollows

out a retreat.

XV.— Observations on the Development and Position of the Hy-

menoptera, with Notes on the Morphology of Insects. By A.

S. Packarp, Junr., M.D.*

Tue following notes form an abstract of a more extended memoir

upon the changes of the insect after leaving the egg, not touch-

ing upon the evolution of the embryo.

After the larva has become full-fed, as it is about to enter

upon the semipupa state, its body undergoes the following

changes :—The thoracic rings and head become more elongated

and fuller, so that whereas in the larva the underside of the an-

terior and posterior halves of the body are closely appressed to

each other, now the two halves begin to recede, and the grub, as

it lies in its cell, is but half doubled upon itself. With this im-

portant change of posture, the whole body becomes more cylin-

drical and rounded. Thus the sides (arthropleure) of the

thoracic ring become absorbed, and do not project out from the

walls of the body as in the larva; and later still, the corre-

sponding area in the abdomen likewise almost wholly dis-

appears.

The greatest activity, however, is observable about the cephalic

portion of the body ; for here the greatest differentiation of parts

is to occur. The head of the pupa, already partially formed

beneath the prothoracic ring, though as yet very small, by its

presence still affects very sensibly the form of this region in the

larva, the skin of which still remains unbroken, though very

considerably distended. The whole length of the head (tig. I a)

and prothorax (fig. 1] 6) together is now equal to the united

length of the head and thorax in the larva originally. To effect

this, the larval head is greatly extended forwards, and the pro-

thorax is three times as long as before, and much narrower, the

sides converging towards the base of the head. The two pos-

terior thoracic rings are also twice as long as in the larva. On

the under (sternal) side the mouth-parts are also elongated ; and

* Communicated by the author, from the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston

Natural History Society,’ Feb. 7, 1866.

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 83

the labium projects a little beyond the head, owing to the in-

creased size of the mouth-parts over those of the larva.

At this period, the two pairs of wings are very equal in size,

the posterior pair but little smaller than the anterior pair, and

inserted much higher up the ring nearer the median tergal line

of the body; and in the succeeding stage the posterior pair are

seen to be scarcely smaller than the anterior pair, and exactly

parallel in their insertions, their longitudinal diameter, and their

tips. This change in the position of the posterior pair of wings,

so important in a morphological point of view, is accompanied

by a corresponding change in the proportions of the thorax.

The metathorax has become mostly absorbed, so as to resemble

more the same part in the pupa; while the mesothorax retains

much of its original proportions, though becoming more com-

pact and presenting less of the tergal area.

During this time the head has also greatly increased, especially

in the size of the appendages; the eyes, antennz, and mouth-

parts begin to assume the size and shape of those of the pupa.

Development here, as in the thorax, begins in the most impor-

tant central parts, and proceeds outwards to the periphery.

In this stage (fig. 1), when the mouth-parts of the semipupa

have become solid enough to enable the larval head to be stripped

off without lacerating the extremities of the appendages, the head

is seen to be divided into two portions. The basal region or

body of the head, which is lodged under the prothorax of the

larva, is orbicular when seen from the front; and its sides are

continuous with the sides of the thorax, as is also the vertex,

which is likewise of a continuous slope with that of the anterior

tergal portion of the thorax. Seen from the side, there is no

separation as yet between the head and thorax. The outline of

the eyes is distinct, but they are not raised above the surface of

the head. The antenne, clypeus, and mouth-parts collectively

form a second anterior portion separated by a curved line from

the epicranium. It is this anterior portion which hes in the

larval head in this stage. The great increase of size of the ap-

pendages of the semipupa have forced forward the hard crust

of the larval head, which suggested to Ratzeburg the idea that

the head of the pupa was originally composed of the first two

rings (2. e. head and prothorax) of the body of the larva*. The

antennze are flattened down upon the surface, resting on each

side of the small trapezoidal clypeus, over the front edge of

which they again meet, when they are flexed upon themselves,

* Ueber Entwicklung der fusslosen Hymenopteren-Larven, &c.” (Nova

Acta Natur. Curios. tom. xvi. 1832). Westwood has fully shown the fal-

lacy of this idea (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, vol. ii. p. ]21); and our own

observations corroborate his statements and conclusions.

84, Mr. A.S. Packard on the Development

lying on each side of the labrum with its palpi and the maxille.

These appendages do not as yet project much beyond the an-

tennz, being short and papilliform, preserving the general form

of the same organs in the larve.

At this period the elements (sterno-rhabdites, Lacaze-Duthiers)

composing the ovipositor he in separate pairs, in two groups,

exposed distinctly to view. The ovipositor thus consists of three

pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles arising on each side of

the mesial line of the body, in juxtaposition. The first two pairs

arise from the eighth abdominal ring, and the third pair grow

out from the anterior edge of the ninth ring. The ends of the

first pair scarcely reach beyond the base of the third pair. With

the growth of the semipupa the terminal or tenth ring decreases

in size, the tip of the abdomen is gradually incurved towards

the base (fig. 2), and the three pairs of rhabdites approach each

other so closely that the two outer ones completely ensheath

the inner, until a complete distensible tube is formed, which

gradually is withdrawn entirely within the body (see fig. 4). The

male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs of non-

articulated tubercles, all arising from the ninth abdominal ring,

being sternal outgrowths, and placed on each side of the mesial

line of the body, two being anterior and very unequal in size,

and the third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. Thus, in

their position, the three pairs of tubercles destined to form the

male intromittent organ cannot be said to be strictly homological

with the female ovipositor; nor can the external genital organs

be considered in any way homologous with the limbs, which

are articulated outgrowths budding out between the sternal and

pleural pieces of the arthromere*. This view will apply to the

genital armature of all insects, so far as I have been able to ob-

serve. Itis so in the larva of Agrion, which completely repeats

the structure of the ovipositor of Bombus in its essential features

detailed above. Thus in Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair

of closely appressed ensiform processes which come out from

under the posterior edge of the eighth abdominal ring, and are

embraced between two pairs of thin lamelliform pieces of similar

form and structure, arising from the sternite of the ninth ring.

These sternal outgrowths do not homologize with the long, fili-

form, antenna-like, joimted appendages of the tenth ring, as

seen in the Perlide and most Neuroptera and Orthoptera, which,

* This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring or primary

zoological element of an articulate animal than the terms somite or zodnite,

which seem too vague; so also the term arthroderm for the outer crust or

body-walls of Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural or limb-bearing

region of the body, being that portion of the arthromere comprised between

the tergite and sternite.

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 85

arising as they do from the arthropleural or limb-bearing region

of the body, z. e. between the sternum and episternum (or lower

pleurite), are strictly homologous with the abdominal legs of the

Myriapoda and the “false legs” of caterpillars; so that in

these genito-sensory appendages we perceive faint traces of the

idea of antero-posterior symmetry first observed in Vertebrates

by Oken, and more recently by Professor Wyman and Dr. B. G.

Wilder, involving a repetition of homologous appendages at the

two opposite poles of the body. The broad leaf-like appendage

to the tenth ring in Agrion seems homologous, both in function

and structure, with the respiratory lamelle of the swimming

abdominal limbs of the lower decapodous Crustacea and the

Tetradecapods, which perform the function of gills.

During this stage, the basal ring of the abdomen of Bombus

(fig. 2 c) is plainly seen to be transferred from the abdomen to

the thorax, with which it is intimately united in the Hymeno-

ptera. This we deem the most essential zoological character

separating the Hymenoptera from all other insects. This transfer

of an entire arthromere from one region to that next in front,

involving the remodelling of the entire form of the insect, though

not uncommon in the Crustacea, is, in the class of Insects, pe-

culiar to the higher families of the Hymenoptera, as in the

lowest (the Tenthredinidz) the transition is but partial, corre-

sponding to the Lepidoptera in this respect. It is an instance

of the principle of cephalization advanced by Professor Dana, so

fully illustrated in the Crustacea, where in some groups changes

occur in the primitive number of arthromeres, proved by the

inconstant number of rings (arthromeres) forming the abdomen

and cephalothorax respectively. This transfer of the zoological

elements from the posterior end of an animal towards the head,

involving in this act the entire reconstruction of the animal form,

lies at the basis of all sound classification, and is a principle

which must be followed by every student dealing with the clas-

sification of the larger divisions of the animal kingdom.

So intimately united with the thorax is this elemental ring,

that, from its sculpturing, its coloration, and, in fine, its close

mimicry of the normal thoracic segments, our best observers

have united in calling it the metathorax, and homologizing it

with that ring in the lower insects. Latreille and Audouin

considered it as the basal ring of the abdomen, as did Newman,

who termed it the propodeum. But our best hymenopterists of

thirty years’ standing consider it to be the metathorax, with

the exception of Baron Osten Sacken, in his articles on the

Cynipide*. During the autumn of 1863, when the observa-

* Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, vols. ii., iii.

86 Mr. A.S. Packard on the Development

tions here recorded were made, our attention was drawn* to this

part. At this period the thorax is one-third smaller than in the

pupa. The position of the three thoracic spiracles can be easily

discerned. On the two posterior rings of the thorax they are

seen situated in their respective “ peritremes ” (Audouin), which

pieces lie at the base and just under the insertion of the wings,

on the posterior half of the ring, while on the prothorax the

peritreme lies contiguous to and partially under the posterior

edge of the vascular tubercle, which in position is exactly homo-

logous to that of the wings.

It is thus demonstrated that the wings grow forth, first as

vascular sacs, through the arthroderm, just above the line of

spiracles, and at the line of juncture of the lower edge of the

tergite and upper edge of the upper pleurite or epimerum;

while, on the other hand, the limbs grow out through the line

of juncture of the sternite and the lower pleurite or episternum.

In what may be termed the third stage (fig. 3), though the

distinction is a very arbitrary one, the change is accompanied

by a moulting of the skin, and a great advance has been made

towards the pupa form (fig. 4). There are seen to be two

distinct regions to the body—the anterior, consisting of the

head and thorax, which are placed close together, and the

abdomen, which is separated from the rest of the body by a

deep constriction. We cannot fail to be at least reminded of

the biregional Crustacean—an analogy which Oken has called

attention to, and which has been successfully used by that

author in comparing the pupe of Insects with Crustacea.

At this period the mode of sloughing of the larval skin is well

shown. Instead of the violent rupture of the skin at one point

on the tergum of the thorax, as in the majority of insects, ac-

companied with the great exhaustion consequent on the act,

which makes the operation a perilous one to most Insects and

Crustacea, in this species (and most probably all the Hymeno-

ptera which at this stage have a soft tegument) the skin breaks

away gradually, in shreds, from the tension due to the unequal

growth of the different parts of the body. Thus, after the skin

beneath has fully formed, shreds of the former skin remain

about the mouth-parts, the spiracles, and anus. Upon pulling

these, the lining of the alimentary tube and trachee can be

drawn out, sometimes, in the former case, to the length of

several lines. As all these internal systems of vessels are des-

tined to change their form in the pupa, it may be laid down as

a rule, in the moulting of Insects and Crustacea, that the lining

* Proceedings Essex Institute, vol. iv., ‘The Humble Bees of New

England and their Parasites,’”’ &c., April 23, 1864, p. 3, note,

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 87

of the internal organs, which is simply a continuation of the

outer tegument, or arthroderm, is, in the process of moulting,

sloughed off with that outer tegument*.

Whereas before the head and thorax together were but little

more than one-half as large as the abdomen, now they are con-

jointly nearly equal in size to the abdomen (fig. 3). The greatest

changes have gone on in the two anterior regions of the body,

They unitedly tend to assume a spherical form, while the elon-

gated abdomen is shortened and very perceptibly altered in form,

approaching near that of the pupa, and the whole body is

flexed more upon itself.

The head is still closely appressed to the prothorax, but much

less so than formerly, since the increasing size and different

proportions of the prothorax have pushed it away. This act of

separation has effected an important change in the position of

the head as related to that of the rest of the body. It is now

truly vertical. Before, its greater length was more continuous

with the longitudinal axis of the body, that is, nearly horizontal,

or rather inclined at a slight angle from the longer axis. The

horizontal position is normal in the lowest insects, as the Neu-

roptera. In the Hymenoptera the longer axis of the head is

most completely vertical.

The head in its size, and the development of the appendages,

including the mouth-parts, now begins to resemble those parts

in the pupa. The eyes are larger and more distinct than before;

the maxille and antenne, though still very short, are shaped

more like those parts in the pupa. In the antenne, the most

marked change takes place in the three basal joints, or the

“scape,” of which the second joint now becomes the longest

and somewhat contracted in the middle and round at the extre-

mity ; while the terminal joints are still doubled upon them-

selves, and rest folded upon the mouth-parts.

The thorax also resembles that of the pupa, though longer ;

and the basal ring of the abdomen (propodeum) is still exposed

to view when seen from above. At this stage the preescutum

of the mesothorax, before very distinct, is no longer seen, as in

the pupa it is mostly absorbed and passes out of sight, though

in the Tenthredinide it is a large and conspicuous portion of

the mesonotum.

Most interesting changes have occurred in the hinder part of

the thorax. Whereas in the previous stage the mesoscutellum

was immersed in the ring to which it belongs, it is now elevated

and becomes very prominent ; the thorax posteriorly falls rapidly

* It remains yet to be proved whether the biliary tubes, salivary glands,

and inner genital glands and cavities form exceptions to this rule.

88 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

away from it, at an angle of about 60°, and its hinder edge is

much thickened and folded down on itself. The metathorax is

entirely visible from above. The scutum is now entirely sepa-

rated into the two lateral halves, being transversely narrow tri-

angular pieces, the bases of which are square and closely adjoin

the insertion of the hind wings, while their apices are much

produced and extend under the mesoscutellum. The meta-

scutellum is now distinctly seen to be a linear transverse piece

reaching on each side to the middle of each half of the scutum.

The basal ring of the abdomen (propodeum, fig. 3c) is now

undergoing the process of being transferred from the abdomen

to the thorax. Whereas before it was a segment much narrower

than those contiguous, it has now become still smaller, and its

tergal portion, instead of being nearly horizontal, is now much

inclined downwards posteriorly.

The abdomen, though still larger, approaches much nearer

the form of the pupal abdomen than before, and the segments

are flatter. The second ring has become much contracted, as it

is destined to become the “ pedicel” or “ first abdominal seg-

ment” of descriptive entomology. There is now a differentiation

of the elements of the rmg. ‘Thus the tergites (notum, fig. 3 f)

are clearly distinguished from the pleurites (fig. 3, flanks) and

urites (Lacaze-Duthiers, fig. 3 d, ventral side). The spiracles are

situated on the upper edge of the pleurites, opening out just

under the edge of the tergite. As we go back towards the tip

of the abdomen, the tergites as well as the urites decrease in

width, while the pleural region or pleurites increase in size. It

is the pleural portion, however, which is afterwards to become

absorbed, by which the dorsal and ventral portions of the abdo-

men approximate more intimately and overlap each other, thus

making the tip acute, as in the pupa (fig. 4) and especially the

perfect bee.

During this time the ovipositor, owing to the diminished size,

by absorption, of the parts supporting it, has become gradually

more and more retracted, while the entire tip of the abdomen is

more acute and incurved.

The Pupa State.

In this stage (fig. 4) the whole body is shorter, and there is a

decided transfer of the bulk of the body towards the head. The

head has increased in size, the thorax is one-third larger, while

the greatly shortened abdomen is a third shorter than in the

preceding stage. At this period the longitudinal axis of the

body is less curved than before. The mesoscutellum is now

placed just in the middle of the body, when before it was situ-

ated at the anterior third. This change also carries the wings

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 89

far back, to the middle of the body, from their previous situation

very near the head and on the anterior third of the body. The

hmbs are greatly enlarged; the tarsi of the hind pair now

reach near the tip of the abdomen, whereas before they were

simply folded upon the thorax, not reaching to or resting upon

the abdomen.

Great changes have occurred in the appendages of the head.

The clypeus, labrum, and mandibles are now exposed to view.

The antenne have become straightened and greatly elongated,

and a corresponding change has occurred in the maxille and

Jabium with its palpi, which now reach to the middle of the

abdomen, while the lingua extends as far as the seventh abdo-

minal segment. This stage, therefore, is characterized by im-

portant modifications in the size and position of the extremities

and appendages of the head, thorax, and abdomen. In the

thorax the changes are not especially remarkable. The scutel-

lum is now in contact with the base of the abdomen, as if the

whole thorax had been carried backward, and the entire abdomen

brought forwards and upwards, due to the absorption of the

mnetathoracic ring and basal ring of the abdomen.

Thus each of the three regions of the body is a centre of de-

velopment, the gradual perfection of the appendages belonging

to each region proceeding from the centre towards the periphery,

beginning at the insertion of the limbs to the trunk, and gra-

dually perfecting their development towards the extremity.

Hence the wings, the tarsi, or terminal joints of the limbs, and

the abdominal appendages are the last to be developed and

perfected. The anterior part of the thorax is perfected earlier

than the posterior, while in the abdomen the development goes

on from behind forwards. Prof. Dana has shown that in the

Crustacea the cephalothorax and abdomen are each a distinct

centre of development, in which progress reaches to a wider or

narrower circumference in different species*. Researches on the

embryology of the higher Annelids show that the development

of worms proceeds from a single centre ty.

At this stage, which may be properly called the pupa state,

the eyes begin to turn dark, and a few hairs develope themselves

upon the upperside of the abdomen ; but the stage is so transi-

tory, that in a long series of individuals it is impossible to select

a single individual and denominate it a pupa, since there is no

* Introduction to the Crustacea of the U. S. Exploring Expedition,

vol. 1. p. 22.

Tt See S. Lovén, K. Vetenskaps-Acad. Hand]. 1840 (Wiegmann’s

Archiv, 1842, part 1). M. Sars, Development of Polynoé cirrata (Wieg-

mann’s Avahive 1845, part 1). Milne-Edwards (Ann. Sc. Nat. 1845).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 7

90 Mr. A.S. Packard on the Development

pause in the metamorphosis for a special biological design, such

as obtains in the Lepidoptera and the majority of lower Insects,

The terms larva, pupa, and imago are therefore not absolute

terms.

Subimago State.

Certain individuals which would upon a casual glance be mis-

taken for “pup” differed so much from what we have called

pupze above, that they may be said to be analogous to the sub-

amago state of Ephemeride. In this state the arthroderm,

owing to the rapid deposition of chitine, is denser and harder ;

the wings are as large as in the perfect bee, and the joints of

the legs are spiny, while the ovipositor has become wholly

withdrawn within the walls of the abdomen.

In some specimens, remains of a thin pellicle were found upon

the extremities ; so that we are neither justified in calling this

individual an imago nor, on the other hand, a pupa. The indivi-

duals had not left their cells. Their feet had not yet been used

for purposes of locomotion, nor their jaws to assist in making

their way out of their cells, while the hairs are nearly concolo-

rous all over the body, though very faintly shaded with yellowish

on the dorsal and lateral portion; so that the species can be

distinguished, as some of the specific characters depending on

ornamentation are at this time apparent. We have observed

facts indicating three moultings of the skin during the so-called

pupa state, in distinction from the larval and imago states ; and it

is highly probable that there are more. During the larval con-

dition it would be safe to say that there are four distinct moult-

ings, as there are five distinct sizes of larve. In some of the

eges the larval forms can be indistinctly seen through the thin

walls, which we would homologize with the skin of the insect

after birth; for the fertilized egg must be regarded as the

insect in its inception, in a state equivalent to the larval, pupal,

or perfect state of the insect. The genus Bombus, therefore,

may be considered to undergo a series of at least ten moultings

of the skin; and we are inclined to think further observations

will tend to increase the number, Lubbock * has described

twenty in Ephemera; and five have been noticed in several

genera, such as Meloé and others.

The sexes of the larve can be easily distinguished, as the

genital armature appears through the transparent skin,

The specific differences between the larve of the different

species of Bombus are of the slightest possible amount, as they

only differ in size, the rings of the body being smooth or rough,

* Trans. Linn. Soc. yol. xxiv. part 2 (1863).

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 91

and in having more or less clearly defined sutures between the

pieces composing the head. The eggs of the different species

compared presented no appreciable differences.

In the pupa state, the two sizes of male, female, and workers

can be more readily appreciated than in the imago state, as the

insects can be more easily measured and comparisons made.

Corresponding cases of dimorphism in other insects will probably

be studied to great advantage when the insects are observed at

this period of life. Between the two sizes of the 2 in the pupa

of Bombus fervidus there was a difference of ‘05 inch, and in

the § ‘03 inch. In a number of the worker pupe of Bombus

separatus there was a difference of ‘04 inch between the two

broods of workers, the more advanced brood being smaller, and

not only shorter but also narrower.

In this connexion we would present some views relative to a

theory of the number of arthromeres composing the head of

Insects (Hexapoda), and the number and sequence of their ap-

pendages, suggested by studies of the larval forms of Hymeno-

ptera, and especially the lower Neuroptera, not omitting insects

belonging to other suborders, and some forms of Crustacea.

After Savigny had shown that the mouth-parts of Insects and

Crustacea were jointed appendages like those attached to the

thorax, and therefore repetitions of an ideal jointed limb or ap-

pendage, Audouin proved that in the ideal arthromere, of which

the bodies of all Articulata are each a congeries arranged in a

longitudinal series, the periphery should be distinguished into an

upper (tergite, Duthiers), lower (sternite, Duthiers), and pleural

part, and that in the thorax the legs were thrust out between the

pleurite and sternite, and the wings grew out between the pleu-

rite and tergite. The arthropleural region is therefore the

hmb-bearing region of the body, and the different parts of the

ideal ring are developed in a degree subordinate to the uses of

the limbs and wings. Thus in the walkers, such as the Cara-

bidee, the pleural and tergal regions are most developed; while

in those insects, such as the Dragonflies, which are constantly

on the wing, and rarely walk, the pleural region is enormously

developed, and the tergites and sternites attain to their mmimum

development. The muscles used in flight are greatly increased

in size over the atrophied muscles brought into requisition by

the act of walking. In the Hymenoptera, however, which are

both walkers and fliers, the three portions of the ring are most

equally developed.

These parts of the arthromere are simplest in the abdomen,

and become more differentiated in the thorax, where the nume-

rous pieces composing them have been classified and named,

mostly by Audouin, M‘Leay, and see aes. Scarcely

92 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

an attempt has been made to trace these parts im the rings of

the head by those who have proposed theories of the number

of arthromeres in the head of insects.

As we can understand the structure of the thorax better after

studying the abdomen, so we can only homologize the different

head-pieces after a careful study of the thorax of Insects and

the cephalothorax of Crustacea, which thus afford us a standard

of comparison.

Since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in the

thorax, it must follow that this region is largely developed in

the head, to the bulk of which the sensory and appended diges-

tive organs bear so large a proportion; and as all the parts of

the head are subordinated in their development. to that of the

appendages of which they form the support, it must follow logi-

cally that the larger portion of the body of the head is pleural,

and that the tergal and, especially, the sternal parts are either

very slightly developed or wholly obsolescent. Such we find to

be the fact. As to the number of rings composing the head, it

is evident that it is correlated with the number of appendages

they are to support. Hence, as in the thorax there are three

rings bearing three pairs of appendages or legs, it follows that

in the head, where there are seven pairs of appendages, there

must be seven rings. That there are seven such appendages,

among which we would include the eyes, which, if not homolo-

gous with the limbs, or, more properly speaking, repetitions of

the ideal appendage, are at least their equivalents, in that they

are situated on a distinct ring, as are the ocelli, which are exact

equivalents or repetitions of the eye, is evident.

The larvee of Ephemera and Libellula, in the head of which

these parts of the cephalic rings, by reason of the degradational

character of the insects, appear in their simplest forms, afford

us the best material for study. In the head of the larva of

Libellula we have observed that the greatly elongated labium,

masking, when at rest, the mandibles, is in reality composed of

three sternites, immersed in and surrounded by three pleurites,

all bearing appendages, the basal pair being the mandibles, the

middle pair maxille, and thirdly, the pair of labial palpi, all of

which are placed behind the mouth-opening. Beyond and in

front of the mouth are successively placed the sensory organs,

the antenne, the pair of eyes, and what we must consider

two pairs of ocelli, since the early forms of Ephemera and the

early stages of Bombus show the three ocelli resting on three

separate pieces, the two posterior pieces (pleurites) forming a

pair, while the single ocellus in advance is placed on a trian-

gular piece which we regard as two pleurites united on the

median line of the body, as the ocellus has a double form, being

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 93

broad, transversely ovate, and not round, as if resulting from

the fusion of two originally distinct ocelli.

The antenne*, by their form and position, naturally succeed

the labial palpi. Considering how invariably in the Crustacea

the eyes are situated in front of the gnathopods, we feel con-

vinced that the same position must be allowed them in the head

of insects. This will bring the ocelli most in advance of all the

other appendages. The bulk of the head of insects must, then,

be formed by the great expansion of the eye-pleurites, which, so

to speak, are drawn back like a hood over the basal rings, while

the rings bearing the maxilla and labial palpi and the antennary

ring are thrust out, telescope-like, through the large swollen

eye-ring; as in Decapods, a single ring covers in the aborted

ring composing the rest of the cephalothorax, as Edwards and

Dana bave shown, and our investigations have taught us. Thus

the upper surface of the head is composed of expansions of the

pleural pieces of the ideal arthromere, which never developes the

sternal nor probably the tergal portions in front of the mouth.

Thus each region of the insectean body is characterized by the

relative development of the three elements of the arthromere.

In the abdomen the upper (tergite) and under (sternite) surfaces

are most equally developed, while the pleural line is reduced to

aminimum. In the thorax the pleural region is much more

developed, either quite as much as or often more than the upper

or tergal portion, while the sternite is reduced to a minimum.

In the head the pleurites form the main bulk of the region, the

sternites are reduced to a minimum, and the tergites are almost

entirely aborted, or may perhaps be identified in the centre of

the “ occiput,” or what is probably the mandibular (or mandible-

bearing) ring, and in the “ clypeus.”

In the abdomen the same abolescence of parts strikingly

exemplifies what may be called the law of systolic growth, where

certain parts of the zoological elements of a body are in the

course of development either greatly enlarged over adjoining

parts or become wholly obsolete, as stated by Audouin and,

St. Hilaire, who ascribed it to the principle of “arrest of deve-

lopment,” which is now used by physiologists in a more limited

sense. While, as we have shown above, the genital armature of

insects is not homologous with the limbs, there are, however,

* Repeated observations have taught us that the idea advanced by

Zaddach (Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Glie-

derthiere) and adopted by Claparéde (Recherches sur l’Hvolution des

Araignées), that the antenne of the larvae are not homologous with those

of the perfect insects, is untenable. In the larve of all Hymenoptera and

numerous families of Lepidoptera and Neuroptera they are identical in

position in all stages of development.

94 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

true jointed appendages attached to the ninth or tenth abdo-

minal rings or both, which are often antenniform, and serve

as sensorio-genital organs in most Neuroptera and Orthoptera.

The abdominal rings are confined, as a rule, to the two lower

suborders of Insects, and are homologous with the “ false legs”

of the larve of Lepidoptera, the abdominal legs of Myriapoda,

and, we believe, with the three pairs of abdominal appendages

or spinnerets of the Arachnids. As in the most anterior rings

of the head, so in the terminal abdominal rings, there only re-

main minute portions of the arthromere, which are tergal pieces,

the other two elements of the ring being rarely present, or en-

tirely aborted. The two opposite poles of the body are there-

fore fashioned according to the same laws, and are morphologi-

cally simply repetitions of each other.

In conclusion, we consider that twenty rings (arthromeres),

as a rule, compose the bodies of insects, of which seven are con-

tained in the head, three in the thorax, and ten in the abdomen,

and that, as thus grouped, forming three distinct regions, the

Insects differ from all other Articulates, standing as a class

above the Crustacea and Worms. The Arachnids and Myria-

pods, as Mr. Scudder* has shown, agree with the Insects in

possessing a distinct head separated from the thorax or “ pseudo-

cephalothorax ;” so that the Myriapoda do not form a class by

themselves equivalent to the Crustacea, or Worms, or Insects,

but, with Leuckart, Agassiz, and Dana, we would prefer to rank

them as an order of the class Insectsf.

In a former communication { we proposed a classification of

Insects into two series of suborders (not, however, agreeing

with the Haustellata and Mandibulata of Clairville), of which

the lower begins with the Neuroptera,and, through the Orthoptera

and Hemiptera, culminate inthe Coleoptera; while the second

series ranks higher as a whole, beginning with the Diptera and

ending with the Hymenoptera, which thus stand at the head of

the Articulata. The Hymenoptera differ from all other insects

in having the basal ring of the abdomen thrown forward upon

* Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soe. vol. ix. p. 69, May 1862.

+ The embryology of Arachnids, as worked out by Claparéde, shows

that the larva is strikingly worm-like, distinct rings (“ protozoonites”’)

appearing before the biregional Arachnid form is assumed. The embryos

of two genera of mites, Demodex and Acarus, are at first hexapodous, as

Newport has shown that of Julus, a Myriapod, to be. The close homo-

logies of the Arachnids and Myriapods with the Insects (Hexapoda) con-

vince us that the three groups, whether we call them orders or classes, are

as a whole equivalent to the Crustacea or Worms.

t “Synthetic Types of Insects” (Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist. vii. 1863) ;

“How to observe and collect Insects’ (Second Annual Report of Main

State Survey, 1863).

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 95

the thorax; in having the three regions of the body more dis-

tinctly marked and more equally developed than in other insects.

The mouth-parts are more equally developed, and at the same

time more differentiated in structure and function ; there are no

abdominal jointed appendages present in the adult form, while

the external generative organs are more symmetrically developed

and more completely enclosed within the abdomen in the highest

families than in any other suborder of Insects. They afford the

highest types of Articulates, being more compact, less loosely

put together, and thus presenting less of degradational features

than any of the other suborders; but the most valuable single

character is the transfer of the first abdominal ring forwards to

the adjoiming region, which involves an entire remodelling of

the body, throwing forwards the prime elements of the organism,

by which it becomes more cephalized, and thus the nervous

power is rendered more centralized than in all other Articulates.

Selecting the Honey-bee as the type, being, in our view, the

most perfectly organized of all insects, we find the head larger

and the abdomen smaller in proportion than in other insects,

accompanied with the most equable and compact development

of the parts composing these regions. The brain-ganglia are

largest and most developed, according to the studies of ento-

motomists. The larve, in their general form, are more unlike

the adult insects than in any other suborder of Insects, while

the pupz most closely approximate to the imago. They are

short, cylindrical, footless, worm-like grubs, which are helpless,

and have to be fed by the prevision of the parents. In under-

going a more complete metamorphosis than any other insects,

in the unusual differentiation of the sex into males and females

and sterile females or workers, with a further dimorphism of

these three sexual forms and a consequent subdivision of labour

among them—in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new

and intricate relations between the individuals of the species

and other insects—their wonderful instincts, their living on the

sweets and pollen of flowers, and not being carnivorous in their

habits as are the Neuroptera and a large proportion of the

- Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera, and their rela-

tion to man as a domestic animal subservient to his wants,—

the bees, and Hymenoptera in general, possess a combination of

characters which are not found existing im any other suborder

of Insects, and which we must believe rank them first and highest

in the insect series.

Likewise the Hymenoptera are more purely terrestrial insects

than all others. The Neuroptera are, as a whole, water-insects :

their larvee live in the water, and the perfect insects live near

streams and pools. The Orthoptera are more terrestrial. Among

96 Mr. A.S. Packard on the Development

the Hemiptera are numerous aquatic species, as there are in all

the other suborders except the Hymenoptera, of which only two

genera are found swimming, in the adult state, on the surface of

pools; and they are the low minute Proctotrupids, Prestwichia

natans and Polynema natans, Lubbock. As we have previously

shown, the Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of

other insects, but, on the contrary, their forms are extensively

copied, in the Lepidoptera and Diptera especially. There are

synthetic types or mimetic forms which bind these suborders

into a single series. As the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera,

and Neuroptera are bound together by homomorphous or mi-

metic forms into a series by themselves, so the Hymenoptera,

Lepidoptera, and Diptera possess their synthetic types linking

them together.

Another and very accurate method of determining the relative

rank of the larger groups in nature is by comparing the degra-

dational forms occurring in each group. Among the Neuroptera

the lowest wingless forms, such as Lepisma and allies, most

strikingly resemble the Myriapods in the great equality in size

of the arthromeres composing the body, and the slight dis-

tinctions preserved between the three regions into which the

body is divided. The largest, most vegetative, monstrous, and

bizarre forms of insects are found among the Neuroptera and

Orthoptera. Among Hemiptera the parasitic wingless lice, and

among Coleoptera the low Meloé and Stylopide, afford instances

of a genuine complete parasitism such as obtains more fully

among the low Crustacea and worms. While we find the de-

eraded types of Inseets belonging to the lower series of sub-

orders present elongated, worm-like, myriapodous forms, in ascend-

ing to the second and higher series of suborders, the lowest wing-

less dipterous Pulex assumes a much compacter, more cephalized

form ; while in the wingless Chionea, which wonderfully mimics

the higher Arachnids, there is a still greater concentration of

the arthromeres. This concentration of the body progresses

towards a higher type in the degradational forms of the Lepido-

ptera, such as the wingless females of Orgyia, Anisopteryx, and

Hybernia. In ascending to the wingless Hymenoptera, such as

Pezomachus, Formica, and Mutilla, there is a closer approxima-

tion to. the winged normal form of the suborder. While in the

lower Insects the loss of wings involves apparently a total change

in the form of the body, in the Hymenoptera this change is re-

markably less than in any other insects, and the tripartite form

of the insectean body is more strongly adhered to.

Again, in the degradational winged forms of the Hymenoptera

we find the antenne rarely pectinated—a common occurrence im

the lower suborders; also the wings of the minute Proctotru-

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 97

pide are rarely fissured, and when this occurs they somewhat

resemble those of Pterophorus, the lowest Lepidoptera ; and in

but a single hymenopterous genus, Anthuphorabia, are the eyes

in the male sex replaced by simple ocelli, like those in Lepisma

and other degradational forms of the lower Insects.

What we know of the geological range of Insects proves that

the Hymenoptera were among the last to appear upon the

earth’s surface. The researches of Messrs. Hartt and Scudder

prove that the earliest known forms of insects found in the

Devonian rocks of New Brunswick were gigantic, embryonic,

and, in fine, degradational types of Neuropterous and Ortho-

pterous insects. The Coleoptera appear in the Mesozoic rocks,

where the lower Hymenoptera first appear in limited numbers,

including representatives of the Formicidee and lower families,

and with them the Lepidoptera and Diptera.

We have throughout this article spoken of the Neuroptera as

a group equivalent to the Orthoptera or Hemiptera or any other

of the suborders of Insects. We-believe thoroughly in the

Neuroptera as limited by the early entomologists. The Odonata

are the types of the suborder, and the Termitide, Psocide,

Phryganeide, Perlidee, Hemerobiid, Sialidee, Panorpide, Libel-

lulidz (Odonata), Ephemeride, and Thysanura are closely inter-

dependent groups, and circumscribed by the most trenchant

characters, which they possess in common, and which separate

them from the closely allied Orthoptera, into which, by modern

German authors especially, some of their families appear to us

to have been nnwarrantably merged.

The families of this suborder differ more among themselves

than those of other suborders, by reason of the lowness of their

type, presenting an unusual number of degradational forms, the

connecting links of which have become, we must believe, extinct.

The Neuroptera are moreover true synthetic types, combining,

as do all decephalized embryonic forms, the structure of several

equivalent groups, presenting features which remind us of cha-

racters more fully wrought out in higher and more compactly

finished groups of Insects.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Bombus fervidus. The first stage of the semipupa, concealed by

the larval skin. The semipupa head lies under the head (a) and

and the prothoracic ring (b,. The basal ring of the abdomen (c),

or fourth ring from the head, is unchanged im form. ‘his figure

also will suffice to represent the larva, though a little more pro-

duced anteriorly than in its natural form.

Fig. 2, Bombus fervidus. The second stage of the semipupa. The larval

skin entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying

parallel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Neuroptera,

Mr. A. 8. Packard on the Hymenoptera.

the thoraco-abdominal ring, or propodeum (c), with its oblong

spiracle (),- essentially differmg from those on the abdomen.

At this point the body contracts; but the head and thorax toge-

ther are yet, as still more in the previous stage, much smaller

than in the pupa, and there is still a continuous curve from the

tip of the abdomen to the head. g, antenna; h, lingua and

maxille and palpi; 2, fore legs; j, middle legs; k, mesoscutum ;

1, mesoscutellum; m, metascutellum; 7, spiracle of the propodeum.

Fig. 3. Bombus fervidus. The third stage of the semipupa. The head

and thorax together now nearly equal in size the abdomen; the

propodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax.

The head has become greatly enlarged; the wings are very un-

equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlam by the

anterior pair; the three terminal pairs of abdominal rings, so

large in fig. 2, have been absorbed, and partially enclosed in the

cavity of the abdomen; and there has been a further differentia-

tion of the ring into the sternite (d), pleurite (e), and tergite (f).

a, eye; h, lingua; 0, ovipositor, two outer rhabdites expused to

view. The abdominal spiracles in figs. 2 and 3 are repre-

sented by a row of dots. In the pupa (fig. 4) they are concealed

by the tergites.

Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans. 99

Fiy. 4. Bombus fervidus. The pupa state, where the body has become

much shorter, the appendages of the head and thorax greatly

differentiated, the external genital organs wholly retracted with-

in the cavity of the abdomen, the head freer from the body,

and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, including

the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen. c¢, the pro-

podeum, nearly concealed in a side view; p, labrum; q, maxilla,

with the two-jointed palpi at the extremity; r, tip of the lingua.

XVI.—On some Cetaceans. By Hrrmann BuRMEISTER.

(From a Letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.)

[Plate IX.]

Tue Museum has received another new species of Cetacea since

my letter; it is a new Orca, which I name O. magellanica,

and now send a figure of the skull with a description. The

species is nearest to O. capensis, but more slender and different

in many respects, as you will find by comparing my figure and

description. ‘The animal was found on the shore, near the

mouth of the small river called “‘ Arroyo de Cristiano muerto,”

in S. lat. 38° 50', and was in a perfect state of preservation ;

but, by the negligence of the people who found it, the whole

skeleton was lost, with the exception of the skull and two verte-

bre (one dorsal, one caudal) which have come into my hands.

From your Catalogue I learn that you do not know the skull

of the adult Sea-Lion or that of Arctocephalus Falklandicus. We

have both in the Museum, these two species being the only ones

which are found in the Atlantic, near the mouth of the Rio de

la Plata. They were formerly very common on the small islands

north of the mouth of the river, named from them “ Islas de los

lobos,” lobo marino (sea-wolf) being the Spanish name for a

Seal; and not unfrequently they come into the mouth of the

river even as far as Buenos Ayres, where I have already twice

seen full-grown living specimens of Arctocephalus Falklandicus.

Both of these were, I believe, carried to France; but perhaps

they died on the voyage. They were kept here for a long time

in a large basin of fresh water; and I was one of the daily

visitors to these very interesting animals*.

We have in the Museum a young half-grown specimen nearly

3 feet in length. From this I have taken the skull, of which I

now send you a description and drawings (PI. IX. fig. 1 from

above, and fig. 2 from the side, one-half natural size; fig. 3, end

of the palatine bones, natural size; and fig. 4, some teeth, seen

from the inside, also natural size. The numbers indicate the

* T have no doubt it is one of these that is now alive in the Zoological

Gardens in the Regent’s Park.—J. E. G.

100 Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans.

position of the teeth—2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th molars). The

skull is not very flat, and has no crest; the upper surface is

rounded and the orbits very large, with a sharp spine on the

anterior, and a horizontal crest on the upper margin. Teeth $I.

and °° M.; the two outer incisors in the upper jaw are much

more prominent and of a conical form, like the canines; but

the other four are smaller than those in the lower jaw; the

upper with two points, one before, the other behind, of equal

size; the lower with a transverse obtuse margin, somewhat

higher than the outer edge. The canines have not attained

their full size. Of the six upper molars, the first four descend

perpendicularly, the other two are sloping, with the apex back-

wards; each of them has a large conical crown, with a small

acute tubercle on the anterior margin of the base, and the three

last have another more elevated tubercle on the posterior part of

the crown. In the lower jaw there are only five molars ; but, as

the last in the upper jaw is entirely white, and the others all

brown and less developed, it is possible that a sixth molar might

subsequently have been developed in the lower jaw. Each of

the five lower molars has a small tubercle in front, at the base

of the high conical crown; and the three hinder ones have also

a more highly developed tubercle on the posterior part of the

crown, which becomes higher and larger posteriorly. The pala-

tine bones are deeply excavated anteriorly, and flat behind. The

hinder margin is retracted forward in the middle, and has on

each side an obtuse prominent angle, as shown in my drawing.

The occipital condyles are wanting, and therefore only indicated

in my figure.

On Tursio Eurynome.

The skull of the Dolphin in our Museum which I have called

Delphinus Euphrosyne, perhaps by a change of the very similar

names, is not D. Euphrosyne of the ‘ Voyage Ereb. and Terror,’

pl. 22, but D. Hurynome, ibid. pl.17, now named Tursio Eurynome

in your Catalogue, p. 261. The skull agrees exactly with your

figure, and cannot belong to a different species. The lower jaw

is wanting, and both sides of the upper Jaw want the tops; in

the remaining parts there are twenty orifices or sockets for the

teeth, wanting the five of the top, with that part of the maxil-

lary bones; but as the intermaxillaries are completely preserved,

I can hardly be in error as to the portion wanting of the maxil-

laries. The skull is very old, and may have been brought by a

vessel from the East Indies to Buenos Ayres; but as it is very

rare for any one here to take an interest in the preservation of

such things, I supposed that it must have been obtained in this

country.

Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans. 101

On Delphinus microps.

Of this species we have now three skulls in the museum, it

being the commonest species on the coast of Brazil south of the

equator. I saw many troops of them during my voyage in the

sailing vessel which first brought me here.

The animal is of the size and colour of your Delphinus Walkeri

(fig. 100), and I think it may be the same species, if the skull is

not very different. My three skulls are of equal size, 17 Rhenish

(=18-15 English) inches in length, and 7 (=74 English) inches

in breadth at the widest point on the temporal arch, beneath the

fossa temporalis. They have from forty-seven to forty-nine teeth

in the upper jaw, and from forty-four to forty-eight in the lower;

but the number seems to be variable, as the first and last teeth

are very small, and often wanting on one side when present on

the other. The upper jaw always has some more teeth behind,

and the lower jaw probably some more in front. The form is

exactly like your figure (pl. 25), even the deep groove on the

right side of the frontal tubercle being the same, and the occi-

pital crest very prominent in front, perhaps more so than in

your figure. The teeth are six to an inch in the middle of the

aw.

In its general form the skull is nearly allied to that of Steno

attenuatus, which I received last year from a friend on his return

_from Europe in a sailing vessel. This vessel took the animal in

the middle of the Atlantic, south of the line; and my friend

preserved the skull for me, the animal having been eaten by the

sailors. The skull is exactly 17 inches long, and agrees pre-

cisely with your figure in the ‘ Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’

1, 28.

: Lastly, I have also received the skull of Delphinus Styx (Voy.

Ereb. and Terr. pl. 21) from a sailor, who captured the animal

near Madeira. I am also in expectation of an entire well-pre-

served skeleton of a Dolphin taken in the river two miles above

Buenos Ayres ; but the owner would not give me the bones till

to-day.

Orca magellanica, n. sp. Pl. IX. fig, 5.

This animal is known only by a skull found on the shore of

the province of Buenos Ayres, in lat. 38° 50'S., near the mouth

of the small Rio del Cristiano muerto. It seems to be very like

Orca capensis, but rather more slender, as is proved by the fol-

lowing measurements of the skull, compared with the same in

Orca gladiator and capensis, as given by Dr. Gray in his ‘ Cata-

logue of Seals and Whales, ed. 2. pp. 280 & 284.

102 Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans.

O. gladiator. | O. capensis. |O. magellanica.

Length, entire .-...ss..c0e0 33 363

Length of nose ...--+--sse0ee 195 18

Length of teeth-line......... 143 14

Length of lower jaw......... 273 29

Breadth at notch .........00. 103 12

Breadth at orbits ............ 18 21

Breadth of temple...........- 18 20

Breadth at middle of beak 3 10

Breadth of intermaxillaries ae 3

Breadth in front .........+++ 4 3

Breadth in middle ......... 33 4

These measurements show that the beak is longer than in the

Cape species, and relatively shorter than in the European spe-

cies, but perhaps of the same breadth; the teeth-line is longer

than in either of them, and the after part, between the orbits

and temples, rather smaller and not so broad. Other differences

are presented by the forms of the different bones.

The intermaxillaries, which in Orca gladiator are narrowed to

the apex, and in O. capensis are enlarged into an ovate figure

(as shown by the drawings in the Voy. Ereb. and Terr. pls. 8 & 9),

have a more rounded form in O. magellanica, and are broadest

at the apex; from that point they go in a straight line to the

base of the nose, only becoming rapidly narrower near the notch,

where the breadth is only 34 inches (at the anterior extremity 43),

and then are extended into the usual elliptical part surrounding

the nasal apertures. In consequence of this breadth of the in-

termaxillaries in the anterior region, the maxillaries are slender,

and narrower than in the other two species.

In the form of the occiput Orca magellanica agrees rather

with O. capensis than with O. gladiator, being larger and having

a somewhat excavated surface, and a sharp crest on the whole

circumference above. This crest has in the middle a posteriorly

protracted angle, into which enters the high protuberance of the

frontal bones behind the nasal apertures ; from the edge of this

angle a sharp elevated margin or line descends along the middle

of the occiput to the great occipital foramen. The sides of the

occiput are sloped more backward, as in O. capensis, and thus

form a larger posterior temporal cavity. The tuberosity before

and above the. orbits seems to be not so high; but the lower

angle of this tuberosity in front of the entrance into the orbit is

much sharper and more descendant, and the small notch in the

middle of the upper margin of the orbit is somewhat broader ;

but the form of the entrance of the orbit is exactly the same as

in Orca capensis. The postorbital process also shows some dif-

Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens. 103

ferences: it has the same figure as in O. capensis, but is some-

what thickened only at the lower margin, whilst the upper part,

near the suture with the maxillary bone, is deeply excavated,

so that the suture is even more elevated than the bones be-

neath it.

The fossa temporalis resembles that of O. capensis in form,

and is much more elongated than in O. gladiator ; it is acute in

front and rounded behind. It is 10 inches long, 4 inches broad

in the middle; the lower margin is of a sigmoid form, and has

a stronger protuberance over the region of the ear than in O.

capensis; but the hinder part of the occiput, corresponding with

the mastoid process of higher animals, is not so strong as it

seems to be in U. capensis, and is somewhat shorter.

The tympanic bones are wanting, and the articular cavity for

the lower jaw is strongly excavated, with a prominent lower

margin.

The number of teeth is twelve in each jaw; each of them is

situated in a large socket, the first sockets being somewhat

smaller than the following ones. In front of the first socket, in

the intermaxillary bone, there is a small and not very deep

groove, in which there has probably been a small tooth, now

wanting. The total number of teeth would then have been

thirteen in the upper jaw.

Each tooth is of a conical form and somewhat curved, with

the apex backward, and the anterior margin more perpendicular

than the somewhat inclined posterior margin. The upper half

of the crown is whitish, the lower half brown; on the former

there is a thin layer of enamel, which is wanting on the lower

brown portion.

lurateg Lote: Your sincere Friend,

May 5, 1866. H. BurMEIstTErR.

XVII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. VIII.

By the Rev. W. A. Lercuton, B.A., F.L.S.

NEW BRITISH LICHENS.

Tue following additions to our British Lichens are made by

Dr. W. Nylander in the ‘ Flora’ for February 1866, p. 85.

1. Lecidea chlorotiza, Nyl.

Thallus cinereo-virescens, tenuis, subleprosus, effusus ; apothecia

carneo-flavida, convexiuscula vel convexa (latit. 0'-4—-0°6 mil-

lim.), immarginata (solum juvenilia margine obtuso), intus

incoloria; spore 8, incolores, oblong vel oblongo-fusi-

formes, 1-septatz, longit. 0-009-0:012 millim., crass. 0-002-

104 Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens.

0:003 millim. (rarius simul subbacillares et longitudinis usque

0014 millim.) ; paraphyses gracilescentes vel non bene dis-

crete; epithecium, hymenium et hypothecium incoloria.

Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens, deinde mox violacee

tincta vel violaceo obscurata.

Ad corticem ulmi prope Clifton in Anglia, 1865. (C. Lar-

balestier, Esq.)

Facie est Lecidee luteole, var. chlorotice, Ach., sed affinitate

accedit ad L. globulosam, Fik.

2. Verrucaria antecellens, Nyl.

Similis V. epidermidis f. tremule, sed sporis (ovoideo-oblongis,

l-septatis) multo majoribus, longit. 0-032-0°035 millim.,

crassit. 0-009-0:011 millim.; paraphyses graciles vel vix

ulle.

Ad corticem Ilicis in Anglia (Tilgate Forest, Sussex) legit

Larbalestier.

Varietas sit V. epidermidis. Apothecia conferta, sat parva.

3. Lecidea dispansa, Nyl.

Lecidea expansa, Nyl. in Leight. L. Br. Exs. 186, memorata in

‘Flora’ 1865, p. 355, non omnino eadem est ac Americana

corticola L. my iyriocarpoides, Nyl. in litt. ad Tuck; hoe corri-

gere liceat ex examine accuratiore. L. myriocarpoides tha-

lamium habet dilute lutescens et epithecium luteo-fuscescens ;

in dicta Z. expansa thalamium est subincolor, epithecium

nigricans; etiam thalli et hypothecu differentize obveniunt.

Ob nomen expansa ali ante datum a Chevalier mutandum,

proponere liceat ejus loco novum. Dicatur tum nostra ex-

pansa posthac Lecidea dispansa. Male. ad hane dispansam

relata fuit L. sylvicola, Flot. Krbr. Lich. Sel. 75, cui apothecia

vulgo convexa, thalamium (lamina tenui visum) cerulescens,

epithecium non obscuratum, hypothecium medio nigricans,

gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens, spermatia tenuiora, etc.;

fa differentize plurimee.

On the Cephalodia in Peltidea venosa. By Dr. W. NyLanpEr.

(Flora, 1866, p. 116.)

Dr. Nylander has at various times in his writings pointed out

the existence of cephalodia of divers sorts upon Lichens. On

the upperside of the thallus granuliform cephalodia occur in

Lecidea paneola, placodioid ones in Placopsis, fruticulose ones

in certain Stictei, besides others in Stereocaulon, Usnea, &c.

On the lower surface of the thallus peculiar pyrenodine (“ ob

formam imitantem apothecia pyrenocarpea obtecta”) cephalodia

are present in some Sfzctei and in Nephroma expallidum.

Dr. W. Nylander on Lichens. 105

He now makes known those which he has recently discovered

on the lower surface of the thallus, and most frequently on the

fuscous tomentose nerves of Peltidea venosa. These cephalodia

are granular, cartilaginous, glaucous or glauco-cinereous (at

length becoming dark or blackish), small (commonly 0°2—0°5

millim. broad), superficial, subglobose or somewhat depressed,

not unfrequently clustered. They contain granula gonima, of

moderate size and moniliform, in a thin cellular texture.

GONIMIA, LEPTOGONIDIA, OR GONIDIMIA.

Dr. Nylander (/.c.) suggests that it may be advisable to call

the granula gonima by the term “ gonimia,” to distinguish them

from true gonidia. Perhaps, also, the gonidia of peculiar type

which are observable in Peltidei, Solorine, Nephroma expallidum,

and which are of small size and furnished with a thin cellular

wall, may deserve a distinct name, which he proposes to be

“leptogonidia” or “ gonidimia.”

CLADONIA, CLADINA.

Dr. Nylander (in Flora, 1866, p. 178) proposes to divide the

genus Cladonia thus :—

Those species which have a thallus leafy or squamaceo-foliolose

at the base, and podetia (with a cortex partially split up and

powdery) often more or less furnished with leaflets or scales,

and still oftener more or less scyphophorous, he retains in the

genus Cladonia.

Those species which have a leafless thallus, podetia commonly

without scyphi, branched, the branches sharply pointed, a cortex

not splitting up, and powdery (although sometimes evanescent,

and thus denuding the subarachnoid stratum medullare) , he

comprises in a new genus, Cladina. In this he arranges C.rangi-

ferina, peltasta, uncialis (et amaurocrea), medusina, candelabrum,

gorgonea, Salzmanni, divaricata, leporina, aggregata, retipora,

schizopora, and perhaps also papillaria.

Cladonia furcata and its allies approach to Cladina, but differ

by possessing leaflets.

SPERMOGONIA.

To show the value of the spermogonia as a distinctive cha-

racter, Dr. Nylander states (/. c. p. 181), “Platysma subperlatum,

spermogoniis neglectis dignosci fere non potest a Parmelia

latissima; Platysma commizxtum vix nisi spermatiis distat a Pla-

tysmate Fahlunensi ; Physcia adglutinata similiter distincta a

Physcia obscura, quarum (spermatiis non examinatis) ante juncta

fuit ut varietas.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 8

106 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

IODINE.

Dr. Nylander says (/. c.), “ D. Fries affert me reactionem iodo

effectam attulisse tanquam signum Lichenes omnino a Fungis

distinguens, etsieam nunquam aliter eo respectu proposui quam

sicut adminiculum accedens in certis casibus, ubi dubium re-

stitit in formis Lichenaceis infimis a Fungis simillimis distin-

guendis.”

XVIII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

(Third Note.) By M. Baxsrani*.

Havine described in my two previous communications the phe-

nomena presented by the viviparous Aphides in their reproduc-

tion and development, I now come to the examination of the

same facts in the oviparous Aphides, which represent the last

generation produced by the preceding individuals towards the

close of the year. This autumnal generation consists, as is well

known, of males and females, which copulate, when the females

lay eggs which pass through the winter and are hatched only in

the following spring.

The oviparous Aphides are produced under conditions exactly

similar to those which governed the development of the vivi-

parous forms. Not only does the embryo originate in an ovule

differing in no respect from that producing the latter, but all

that I have said with regard to the first modifications of the

ovum, the formation of the blastoderm and embryos, and the

production of the male and female generative elements is per-

fectly applicable to them. From this it results that these ani-

mals, which, after their birth, will give the most manifest signs

of the separation of the sexes, appear during a great part of

their embryonic existence lke truly hermaphrodite creatures,

which it would be impossible to distinguish from their oviparous

[?viviparous] congeners. It is only when their development

has become considerably advanced that the first tendency to the

separation of the sexes is manifested. How this separation is

brought about, is what we shall now proceed to examine.

Of all the means at the command of nature for the attainment

of this end, the most simple would evidently be to affect with

atrophy one of the sexual apparatus, the other continuing its

normal development. But this is not what takes place. The

male apparatus does not disappear, and is found, after birth, in

individuals of both sexes, with characters scarcely differing from

* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 25th, 1866, pp. 1390-

1594. See Annals, ser. 3. vol. xviil. pp. 62-69.

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 107

those which it presented in the viviparous Aphides*. All the

transformations, therefore, affect only the’ female apparatus,

which, according to the sex which the embryo is to possess,

retains its primitive character or undergoes such modification as

to become a true testis.

The changes which this organ undergoes in order to become

a well-characterized ovary, such as we meet with in the female

when adult, are reduced to a simple growth of all its parts, the

form and arrangement of its elements not presenting any fun-

damental difference from those which they present in the vivi-

parous individuals. We may then recognize in it, in a most

evident manner, the mode of grouping of the cells in the ovarian

chamber which I have described in the latter.

When, on the contrary, the female element of the hermaphro-

dite apparatus is destined to become a testis, the small cellular

masses surrounded by a proper envelope of which it consists

become converted into so many fusiform capsules or follicles

containing rounded masses composed of numerous small cells,

which are only the developmental elements of the spermatozoids

of the male. In the embryo these capsules form at first two

groups symmetrically placed in the two halves of the body ; but

after birth they become confounded into a single group by their

coalescence in the median line. At the period of reproduction

these capsules are found to be filled with long filiform spermato-

zoids arranged in parallel bundles, as in other insects.

I have already stated that the embryonic male organ occurred

almost without any modification in individuals of both sexes

after birth. It is easy, in fact, to ascertain that this is the case

by the existence of the two cellular cords (of a green colour in

most species), which are found arranged in the same way as in

the viviparous individuals, both in the females and males—that

is to say, in the interior of the ovaries in the former, and in that

of the testes in the latter. The persistence of this element in

animals in which the separation of the sexual functions in

different individuals is shown so evidently, does not, at first

sight, appear to be capable of explanation except by that familiar

tendency of nature to retain a part, even when it is of no use to

the organism, and solely to recall a typical or primitive condition.

It is, in fact, difficult to interpret otherwise its preservation in

the male, where it appears to be supererogatory to the well-

* T shall have, on another occasion, to explain my notion of the nature

of this male embryonic organ, which must not be confounded with an

ordinary testis. I have found its analogue in several other animals, the

phenomena of reproduction in which, hitherto enveloped in obscurity,

have led to their being classed among the species which are propagated by

parthenogenesis.

108 On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

developed testis; but in the female it is otherwise, and we shall

see, in speaking of the development of the egg, that its presence

in this sex has a much more important signification.

The conditions which influence the determination of the sexes

in the Aphides are probably of the same kind as those which

act in a more general manner to bring on a change in their

mode of propagation ; that is to say, they are probably depen-

dent upon the phenomena of nutrition in these insects. The

following observations support this opinion.

At the period when the production of the dicecious genera-

tions commences we find that at first females are almost exclu-

sively generated, the males being still comparatively rare. But

the latter soon become more and more numerous, and at last

are even produced in greater abundance than the female indivi-

duals. A single hermaphrodite mother may, moreover, contain

at the same time embryos of both sexes, succeeding each other

without apparent order in the interior of her ovarian sheaths.

It is curious to observe the difference of coloration of the male

and female embryos of the same species. The latter alone pre-

sent a colour which resembles that of their mother: thus, for

example, in a species of which the viviparous individuals are

brown, the oviparous females are also brown, whilst the males

are constantly green*, and vice versd. This difference of colour

is due to the oleaginous globules which fill the cells of the fatty

body, and is, no doubt, connected with a different chemical

composition of the nutritive fluids in the embryos of the two

Sexes.

After this brief exposition of the embryogenic phenomena

connected with the determination of the sexes in the Aphides,

it remains for me, in order to traverse the whole reproductive

cycle of these animals, to describe in few words what I have

been able to observe of the development of the ovum destined to

reproduce the viviparous generations with which we commenced

this vestigation. Notwithstanding the considerable differences

as to its elementary constitution and the conditions of its deve-

lopment presented by the voluminous ovum of the oviparous

Aphides when compared with the little ovule of the viviparous

individuals, there is nevertheless a striking analogy in the phe-

nomena of which both are the seat. Although the formation of

the embryo does not commence in the former until after it has

been fecundated by the male and brought into the world, it

nevertheless, whilst still enclosed in the ovary, exhibits pheno-

mena which indicate that genetic operations have already begun

in its interior. Thus we observe, at the posterior pole of this

* At least in the embryonic and larval states; the adult male is aimost

always blackish.

Mr. H. Seeley on some new Genera of Fossil Birds. 109

ovum, a rounded mass composed of a group of small, pale, and

scarcely visible cells, enclosed in a common envelope, which

become more and more apparent in proportion as the egg ap-

proaches the term of its maturity. At this moment it is impos-

sible not to recognize in these elements the analogues of the

spermatic cells of which I have described the mode of formation

in speaking of the development of the viviparous Aphides.

These cells, indeed, present all the characters, even to the green

coloration due to numerous small pigment-granules, which I

have indicated in the latter ; and we may also recognize in them

even the little daughter cells in which the seminal corpuscles

will afterwards be developed. These facts evidently indicate

that the egg has already, while in the ovary, undergone a first

fecundation, with which the male has nothing to do, and the

effect of which is limited to the production of the generative

elements of the future animal. Now the agents of this fecunda-

tion are nothing but the seminal corpuscles developed in the

hermaphrodite apparatus of the embryo, and which are trans-

mitted by the latter to the adult female.

After fecundation by the male, and the deposition of the egg

which succeeds this, the embryogenic work, properly so-called,

commences. The blastoderm appears in the form of a continuous

layer of cells surrounding the whole surface of the egg. This

blastoderm opens widely at its posterior part, and the mass of

spermatic cells penetrates towards the middle of the vitellus. A

wide canal, which extends from the posterior pole to the centre

of the egg, marks this passage for some time ; then the orifice of

the blastoderm closes, and the walls of the canal are effaced.

But, unfortunately, the egg, which, while these phenomena are

taking place, has acquired a darker tint at its anterior pole, due

to the coloration of the chorion, soon becomes covered from one

end to the other by a blackish veil, which conceals from the

observer the further phenomena taking place im its interior.

XIX.—Note on some new Genera of Fossil Birds in the Wood-

wardian Museum. By H. Seeiey, Ksq.

TERTIARY BIRDS.

Ptenornis.

Sternal end of a right coracoid from the Lower Tertiary of

Hempstead, Isle of Wight. It has much the size and form

seen in the Mute Swan; but the exterior angle is rounded and

thickened, as in Bubo. The bone is compressed; the sternal

articulation is convex. There is nothing to show whether the

110 Mr. H. Seeley on some new Genera of Fossil Birds.

bird was raptorial or natatorial. It bears evidences of having

been eaten.

Macrornis tanaupus, Seeley.

Proximal end of right tibia of a large Struthious bird from

Hordwell. It is as large as the Emu, but is further removed

from the Emu than the Ostrich, in the struthious direction.

Both pairs of sides are subparallel. The patelloid prominence

arises from a narrower base than in the great Struthionide,

and is produced into a considerable process on the inner side of

the leg. There is an inflation at the back of the proximal end.

The shaft is compressed, and the fibula-ridge is sharp. The

points in which it is unlike known struthious birds are those

which characterize some genera of waders and gallinaceous

birds.

Megalornis, Seeley.

Lithornis emuianus, Bowerbank, Ann. Nat. Hist.

Cast of original specimen in the British Museum ; and distal

end of a right tibia exactly corresponding to it, from the London

Clay of Hastchurch, in the Isle of Sheppey. Taking the Ostrich

as a type, this bird diverges from the typical Struthionide on

the other side of the Emu, yet appears to conform to the Casua-

rine allies. The shaft is set on to the extreme back of the

trochlear end, and is more robust than in the Emu. Also its

posterior side is more rounded, and the inner side more angular.

CRETACEOUS BIRDS.

Mr. Lucas Barrett, in 1858, discovered bones in the Upper

Greensand which he recognized as those of a bird allied to the

Natatores. They are described, in Sir C. Lyell’s Supplement to

the fifth edition of the ‘ Elements,’ as rather larger than those of

a common pigeon. And Prof. Owen, in the second edition of

the ‘ Paleontology,’ speaks of a trifid tarsus showing the outer

toe-joint much higher up than the other two. Of neither of

these are there any examples at Cambridge. But we have col-

lected or seen a number of cervical, caudal, and dorsal vertebre,

proximal and distal ends of tarsal bones, proximal ends of tibia,

proximal and distal ends of femora, humeri, metacarpal bones,

&e., which demonstrate the existence of a very distinct genus of

birds in the Cambridge Greensand, of which I have named the

typical species Pelagornis Barretti.

Descriptions of these new genera will appear in the ‘ Cata-

logue of Fossil Vertebrata in the Woodwardian Museum.’

Mr. H. Seeley on the Fossils of the Carstone Formation. 111

XX.—On the Fossils of the Carstone Formation.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In April the ‘ Geological Magazine’ contained a short paper

on the phosphatic nodules of Bedfordshire, which I first observed

in company with my friend Mr. Knowles, of Emmanuel College,

several years ago, when the cuttings for the Bedford Railway

were being made. Both before and ever since then I have been

gathering material for a memoir on the Carstone and its southern

extension, in which this phosphate-bed is found; but I should

not have been tempted to refer to the bed yet, had not the

paper in the ‘Geological Magazine’ called forth another, from

an old friend, which you have inserted in the last Number of

your Journal.

The author of the former paper asserts that “every organism

of this phosphatic bed is evidently extraneous, and probably

was derived from the destruction of the Oxford and Kimmeridge

Clays and intervening Coral Rag, from which the phosphatic

matter must have been obtained, while the Lower Greensand

was in process of formation.”

To any one who knew the fauna of the bed in question (the

Carstone) this would seem remarkable; for, instead of every

fossil being extraneous (and I have dozens of genera), I have

never obtained one that is extraneous: they all appear to me

denizens of the old sea-bed where they abound. The multitudes

of Saurians are chiefly Cretaceous species ; and among the shells

I seek in vain for fossils from the Oxford or Kimmeridge Clay,

or for blocks of Coral Rag. The Gryphea dilatata is perversely

wanting ; the Ostrea deltoidea cannot be found ; the Ammonites

will not answer to any of their Oolitic names, or show a trace

of iron pyrites. And yet when fossils endurable like these, and

abundant, are wanting, it is imagined that the fragile and very

rare argillaceous casts of shells—no firmer than the clay they

rest in—have withstood with impunity ages of buffetting on a

gravelly beach.

The truth is, the “Sandy nodule bed,” as this bed in the

Carstone may be called, reproduces, earlier in time, the conditions

of the Cambridge Greensand. There are specimens in it of other

rocks in hundreds; but they are old rocks, like those the Carstone

was derived from.

And if the fossils had been extraneous specimens from a clay,

it would have been no more astonishing to have found that the

alumina, magnesia, and fluorine in the nodules only make up

4 per cent. together than to have discovered Oxford or Kim-

112 Dr. J. A. Smith on Calamoichthys,

meridge Clay, or even Coral Rag, so stored with phosphoric

acid that its denudation would furnish nothing but a magnificent

crop of nodules of phosphate of lime, like these.

The wood which occurs in the bed is like that which occurs

in the Gault of the southern counties and Carstone here, and is

mineralized with phosphoric acid, and therefore no more requires

an appeal to extensive denudation of Purbeck beds to account

for it than the occurrence of remains of [guanodon can be held

to prove denudation of Wealden beds ; for the chief fame of that

beast is from its occurrence in the Shanklin Sands in the Igua-

nodon quarry.

Like the Cambridge Greensand, the deposit offers many new

facts of interest in the distribution of life. Thus Pliosaurus, so

characteristic of Oxford Clay, Coral Rag, Kimmeridge Clay (and

probably Portland), is now found in the approximate equivalent

of the Shanklin Sands. Dinotosaurus, a new genus of the

Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays, also abounds here, and thus,

like Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Megalosaurus, &c., helps to con-

nect into one great life-system the lower and the upper Secondary

Rocks.

I am, Gentlemen,

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Faithfully yours

July 17, 1866. H. SEELEY.

XXI.—Deseription of Calamoichthys, a new Genus of Ganoid

Fish from Old Calabar, Western Africa. By Joun ALEXANDER

Smitn, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.; with Odservations on the Internal

Structure, by R. H. Traquair, M.D., Demonstrator of Ana-

tomy in the University of Edinburgh*.

In the beginning of January 1865, the author received from the

Rey. Alexander Robb, Old Calabar, a package of specimens of

natural history preserved in spirits. Among these were two

small ganoid fish. They were, however, imperfect, having been

torn across near the anal region, and their caudal extremities were

wanting. The characters of the fish could not, therefore, be

completely determined. The author, however, exhibited them

at a meeting of the Royal Physical Society, on the 22nd March,

1865, and stated that they were allied to the genus Polypterus ;

but from various differences in character, to be afterwards de-

tailed, and especially the great relative length of their bodies,

and the apparently total absence of ventral fins, he would place

them in a new genus, which, from their general aspect and form,

* Communicated by Dr. Smith, from the Proceedings of the Royal

Society of Edinburgh.

anew Genus of Ganoid Fish. 113

he designated Erpetoichthys*, the reptile- or serpent-fish ; and

the species, from the locality where it was found, he named

E. calabaricus.

Since that time the author had received perfect specimens

from Old Calabar, and found that the accuracy of his previous

conclusions were coufirmed.

The fish is got in the freshwater streamlets which run into the

main rivers or creeks of the great Calabar River, and in the pools

of the marshy lands. It is occasionally sold in the markets, and

eaten by some of the natives. Its native name is U-nyang,

which the Rev. Mr. Robb explains by suggesting that it may be

derived from a verb signifying to struggle or scuffle for the

possession of a thing, and he therefore supposes it to mean the

struggler, or, using a Scottish word as more appropriate, the

“wambler,” the name being probably given to it on account of

the apparent struggling, wriggling, or undulating movements

of its elongated body as it swims in the water or mud of the

river.

Summary of characters of the genus Calamoichthys, and its

relation to the genus Polypterus :—

Genus Calamoichthys.—Head small, depressed above, some-.

what oval in shape (rounded and narrow in front, expands late-

rally behind orbits, and contracts again at the back part, towards

neck). Suboperculum wanting. (No small plates below pre-

operculum.) Body much elongated, anguiform (cylindrical for

about half its length, then becoming gradually more compressed

laterally, and tapering slightly towards its caudal extremity).

Caudal extremity short, tapering rapidly. Caudal fin rounded,

homocereal ; fin-rays hard. (Scales osseous, rhombic, sculp-

tured.) Fins small; pectorals obtusely lobate; fin-rays soft ;

dorsal finlets numerous, separate; anal (with fulcrum at base

anteriorly) im male large, in female small; fin-rays hard; ven-

trals wanting.

The last character is rather an important one, as this fish thus

appears to be the only living ganoid yet known which has no

ventral fins. Van der Hoeven, in his ‘ Handbook of Zoology,’

gives the presence of ventral fins as one of the characters of his

great Section III. of the class Pisces, the Ganolepidoti; and

older naturalists, as Cuvier, place the Ganoids, for a similar

reason, among the Malacopteryw abdominales. The discovery of

this fish will therefore necessitate a change in this character of

the whole section.

* Since this paper was sent to press, the author has learned that a closely

corresponding name to Erpetoichthys had been already used in ichthyology ;

and accordingly he now changes the designation to Calamoichthys (kddapos

and iy@vs), which still bears a relation to the cylindrical shape of the fish.

114 Dr. R. H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys.

In the genus Polypterus, on the other hand, the head is rela-

tively larger (with apparently little or no lateral expansion and

subsequent contraction towards the neck) ; its gently swelling

outlines gradually expand and run backwards into those of the

body. Suboperculum present; several small plates below pre-

operculum. Body relatively much shorter, generally tapering

gradually from behind region of pectoral fins, and becoming

more compressed laterally towards its caudal extremity. Caudal

extremity longer. Scales generally smooth (?). Fins larger ;

pectorals, fin-rays osseous; anal apparently alike in size in

male and female; ventrals present.

The genus Calamoichthys agrees, however, with Polypterus in

the general character of its numerous dorsal finlets ; lobate pec-

torals, two nasal cirri, a spiracle on each side of the head above,

and a large flat branchiostegous ray, or jugular plate, on each

side of the mesian line below; and also in the hard, osseous, rhom-

boidal-shaped ganoid scales, arranged in rows running obliquely

backwards, and in the tapering caudal extremity of the body.

The new genus belongs, therefore, to the same family as Po-

lypterus, and would accordingly fall to be placed next to it in

the family of the Polypterini.

Family Polypterini.

I. Genus Potyprerus.

II. Genus CatamorcatuHys.

1. Species C. calabaricus.

(The specimens described measured from 8 to nearly 13 inches

in length.)

Hab. Old Calabar River, and the Camaroons, West Africa.

(A female sent by Mr. G. W. Mylne from the latter locality,

and recently received by Dr. Smith, was also exhibited.)

On dissecting those specimens of Calamoichthys entrusted to

the author by Dr. Smith, the greatest similarity was found to

exist between their internal organization and that of Polypterus,

the chief differences bemg dependent on the great elongation of

the body of the former fish, while the abdominal cavity extends

proportionately still further back towards the caudal extremity

than is the case even in the genus last mentioned.

The vertebre resemble in construction exactly those of Poly-

pterus, but are very much increased in number, amounting, in the

specimen which was used for the preparation of the skeleton, to

110, the first of which has no body, consisting merely of neura-

pophyses, spinous process, and a pair of ribs. These latter form

Dr. R. H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys. 115

the first of the series of well-developed upper ribs, which extend,

in the horizontal intermuscular septum, as far back as the ninety-

eighth vertebra. But ribs of the lower series are very deficient in

development i in comparison with those in Polypterus, where the

whole series of abdominal vertebre, except the first, is furnished

with those appendages, which posteriorly attain a considerable

length. In Calamoichthys, on the other hand, those lower ribs are

very minute, and no trace of them was found in advance of the

sixtieth vertebra. The number of abdominal vertebra, in the

specimen alluded to, is 100, of caudal 1U—showing the very great

proportional elongation of the abdominal and shortening of the

caudal region. The vertebral column projects beyond the last

caudal vertebra, as a notochordal continuation or “ urostyle”

concealed among the rays of the caudal fin. The bones sup-

porting the fins agree in their general conformation with those

in Polypterus, there being, however, a less ossified state of the

radius, ulna, and carpus, “while the ‘pelvic bones, along with the

ventral fue are completely absent. The first dorsal finlet is

placed opposite the forty-ninth vertebra.

As regards the form and arrangement of the bones of the

cranium and face, the most complete correspondence is found

with those of Polypterus, a space being found, however, below

the preoperculum, which, in various species of Polypterus, is

defended by a variable number of bony plates. The suboper-

culum is also completely absent. The arrangement of the

mucus-canals on the head is similar to that in Pian

The arrangement of the muscular system corresponds in the

two genera. In Calamoichthys, owing to the great increase of

the number of vertebree, the number of transverse segments of

the great body-muscle is also much larger. The muscular layer

along the belly is very thin.

Viscera.—The cesophagus dilates into a flask-shaped stomach,

which terminates behind in a cul-de-sac. From the interior part

of the stomach, and close behind the entrance of the cesophagus,

issues the intestine, which passing first slightly forwards, makes

almost immediately a turn on itself, and then proceeds straight

back to the anus. A small cecal appendage, with the apex di-

rected forwards, is seen i connexion with the intestine shortly

after its backward flexure; and a little further down, between

this and the anus, a spiral valve of about five turns is developed

in the interior. The liver was in none of the specimens exa-

mined very voluminous, but much elongated, being continued

as a narrow stripe the whole length of the abdominal cavity.

The gall-bladder is distinct, and opens into the intestine imme-

diately after its flexure, and in front of the caecum.

The heart is conformed as in Polypterus, with muscular bulbus

116 Dr. R. H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys.

arteriosus, which is furnished internally with numerous valves, of

unequal size. The branchial artery gives off first a large lateral

branch on each side, which divides into three for the three pos-

terior gills; the trunk then bifurcates, giving off a branch for

the anterior gill of each side. As in Polypterus, the posterior

gill has only one row of leaflets, and the cleft behind it is want-

ing. No trace of a ‘‘pseudobranchia” was found, an organ

likewise absent in Polypterus. The spleen is very long and

slender, lying closely along the great air-bladder. The air-

bladders are two in number, opening by a common orifice into

the lower aspect of the throat, behind the gill-clefts. That of

the left side is small, being only 22 inches in length in a fish

of 10 inches; it is closely adherent to the side of the cesophagus

and commencement of the stomach. That of the other side

measures 8? inches in the same fish, and extends through the

whole length of the abdominal cavity, lying closely along the

under surface of the vertebral column.

Like the rest of the abdominal organs in general, the kidneys

are very slender and elongated ; each consists of a number of little

lobules, which lie in the concavities on the under surfaces of the

vertebral bodies. The excretory duct or ureter lies along the

outer border of the organ, and passes straight backwards to

unite with the genital duct, and, with its fellow of the opposite

side, at the urogenital pore. The ovaries and oviducts corre-

spond exactly with Miiller’s description of these organs in Po-

lypterus (Trans. Berlin Acad. 1844). Each ovary is in the form

of a flattened plate, suspended in front of the posterior part of

the kidney by a mesentery, is solid, and consists of a stroma

imbedding ova of all sizes, up to 74; inch diameter. The ovi-

duct, proceeding forwards from the urogenital pore as a pretty

wide tube, crosses beneath the ovarian mesentery, and opens

into the peritoneal cavity, on the outer side of the gland, and

closely above its lower extremity. The ovaries are not sym-

metrical in position, one being in advance of the other, so that

also one oviduct is longer. In a female measuring 82 inches

the right ovary was 14 inch in length, its anterior extremity

being placed 43 inches from the top of the snout, and the length

of the oviduct 1% inch, while the left measured 12 inch, was

situated at its anterior extremity 53 inches from the tip of the

suout, and had a duct of 1,3; inch. The testes are very mi-

nute, and situated very far forwards, each being a small oval

body ;8; inck in Jength in a male of 10 inches; and in the same

specimen the right one was situated 24, and the left 244 inches

back from the tip of the snout. A very minute duct runs back-

wards parallel with and close to the ureter, which it joins near

.the urogenital pore.

On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridex and Corallinez. 117

On opening a number of specimens, it was found that all

those with a large anal fin were males, while those in which that

organ was small were females. The females are, however, to be

distinguished from the males by another character, namely the

much larger size of the urogenital pore, which is situated imme-

diately behind the anus.

XXIIL—On the Amylaceous Globules of the Florideze and Coral-

linee. By M. van TirGuEm*,

Kiurzine first indicated} the existence in the cells of certain

Floridee of amyloid grains, sometimes endowed with a con-

centric structure; but in assimilating them to the _proto-

plasmic globules of the green and olive Algz, in including

under the general name of cellular globules or gonidia the whole

of the intracellular formations of the Algz, however dissimilar

they may be, and in ascribing to them, as is implied. by this

name, a reproductive faculty, the illustrious algologist seems to

me to have misunderstood their nature and function. M. Nageli,

also, in his great work on starch-grains{, hesitates to pronounce

an opinion as to the existence of starch in the Floridee. His

own observations, indeed, showed him, in Cystoclonium purpu-

rascens, Kiitz., some globules to which iodine communicates a

coloration varying from ‘red to brown and violet; but he took

them for slightly amylaceous parietal grains of protoplasm, and

he remained so uncertain upon this point as to declare, in

another part of his memoir (p. 382), that starch-grains are

wanting in the Floridez, and finally to leave to fears investi-

gations the care of deciding whether these Alge do possess

starch, and of what kind it is. It is this point that I have

undertaken to clear up by a series of observations, of which I

have the honour to present the Academy with the first results.

For the sake of clearness I shall take as an example Halo-

pithys pinastroides, Kutz., which is found in abundance on our

coasts. In the cylindrical and much branched frond of this

Floridean, the thickened joints of the axis contain only a finely

granular liquid ; the joints of the five siphons, on the contrary,

and the cortical cells are filled with transparent globules, which

are colourless in the interior tissue and of a rosy tint in the

peripheral zone, although readily deprived of their colour by

alcohol; these are scattered in the liquid which bathes the

sections, forming therein white streaks. Their most general

* Translated from the Comptes Rendus, Noy. 6, 1865, pp. 804-807.

+ Phycologia generalis, p. 40.

f Pflanzenphysiolozische Untersuchungen : Die Stiirke-Korner, 1858.

118 M. van Tieghem on the Amylacecous Globules

form is spherical or ovoid ; sometimes they are flattened and dis-

coidal or lenticular in form, sometimes irregular. They are

formed by a very distinct colourless or rose-coloured membrane,

filled with solid greyish contents, most frequently without any

eentral space, but sometimes with a cavity im the centre, which

it is not unusual to see divided into several compartments. The

full globules are of two kinds: some, and by far the greater

number, have a circular outline and are simple; their contents,

apparently homogeneous, are formed of very delicate concentric

zones, and give a very clear black cross in the polarizing ap-

paratus; the others, variable in form and aspect, are composite,

and show a system of concentric layers and a black cross in each

of their compartments, when these are sufficiently large.

The very variable dimensions of these globules is in relation

to their degree of development: the ordinary diameter of the

well-developed grains is from 0:0138—0:015 millimetre; the

maximum observed was 0:025 millimetre. Iodine gives them

a reddish-yellow colour. This tint persists upon all the globules

whatever be the quantity of tincture of iodine employed; but

when we renew the liquid which bathes the grains im proportion

as it evaporates, replacing it alternately by a drop of tincture of

of iodine and a drop of water, at the edges of the covering glass,

where the osmotic movements produced by an alternate disic-

cation and humectation with liquids of different densities are

most active, we see the globules become altered in a remarkable

manner at the same time that their colour changes. Sometimes

there appears at the centre a small circular space, which enlarges

by degrees, the layers becoming dissolved successively from

the centre to the periphery, at the same time that the globule

enlarges and becomes discoidal; it is reduced at last to a

membrane, which becomes more and more delicate, entire or

irregularly torn, and as the granule becomes empty its tint

passes to pure violet. In other cases the solution commences

by a circle of small holes, which increase radially, remaining

separated by solid rays; the centre is at the same time hollowed,

and the outer membrane, being unable to yield equally to the

inflation, becomes undulated; the globule is then of a fine

violet, and presents the aspect of a wheel, of which the nave,

the spokes, and the undulated felly are of a deep violet, and the

intervals of a lighter tint. In the composite globules, formed of

compartments arranged in a circle round a central chamber,

the contents of each compartment become dissolved by de-

grees, the granule swells, becomes of a fine violet colour, and

presents the radiated appearance which I have just described,

with still more distinctness. This disorganization of the gra-

nule with blue coloration may, however, be produced rapidly.

of the Floridez and Corallinez. 119

If iodized water be brought into contact with globules placed in

alcohol, we see a certain number of the granules situated on

the line of meeting of the two liquids suddenly burst, and throw

out around them their contents, reduced to the form of very

small granules, which become blue, whilst the torn membrane

is of a pale violet colour.

When heated in water to near 158° Fahr. the globules swell,

become partially dissolved, and at the same time acquire a fine

violet colour. A drop of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid immedi-

ately gives a violet or blue tint to the granules which have been

reddened by iodine, but at the same time dissolves them partially,

swells them up, and tears them. Potash also dissolves them.

Hypochlorite of lime alters them rapidly ; in twenty-four hours

there remain of most of the granules only the outermost layers

isolated from each other; in thirty-six hours all has disappeared.

Acetic acid and ammonia have no action upon them.

Thus these globules present all the characters of starch in

their form, structure, and optical properties, and in the action

exerted upon them by hot water, acids, and alkalies; but they

differ from amylaceous grains as these are defined, by their

acquiring a red colour with iodine. However, they are easily

converted into common starch under the ordinary influences

which I have just described, but with the condition that they

become disorganized and partially dissolved. This difference,

which is not sufficient to warrant the employment of a new

name, leads to the supposition that we have to do with a hydro-

carbonated principle isomeric with cellnlose and starch, but in-

termediate between them by its cohesion.

After the details mto which I have entered with regard to

Halopithys pinastroides, Kiitz., 1 can only say a few words of

the starch-grains of other Floridee; but I must make special

mention of the Polysiphonia, because the amylaceous formation

in them presents a new character, which, indeed, occurs very

frequently elsewhere, but less evidently. In Polysiphonia ni-

grescens, Grev., which I shall take as an example, the joints of

the axis never contain anything but a finely granular liquid;

the flattened cells of the siphons, on the contrary, and the corti-

cal cells each contain a coherent mass of spherical globules, which

entirely fills them. These globules, the diameter of which is

pretty uniformly 0:007 millim., do not scatter themselves in the

liquid which bathes the sections, but the entire masses issue in

their cells. By applying pressure to them we may succeed in

breaking them up into several fragments; but their elements,

which have a strong mutual adherence, do not separate; when

their margin is carefully examined, they are seen to be surrounded

by a continuous membrane, which is rendered yellow by iodine ;

120 On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridez and Corallinee.

a drop of sulphuric acid renders the globules violet, whilst the

envelope remains yellow; the prolonged action of the acid dis-

solves the granules, and all that remains of the mass is a yellow

reticulated membrane, with circular or polygonal meshes, pro-

duced by a fold which the membrane sends between the globules

of the peripheral layer. A reticulated envelope of the same kind

exists also in Halopithys ; but, the elements not having a strong

mutual adherence, it is torn under the knife, and is only met

with here and there in fragments carried away by the peripheral

globules, which are inserted upon it by small pedicels. I have

ascertained its presence in most of the species that I have inves-

tigated ; it is therefore very frequent, if not universal.

The amylaceous formation which is clearly defined by the two

preceding examples, recurs with the same characters in the im-

mense majority of the Floridez and Corallinez, as is proved by

observations which I have already extended to more than thirty

species belonging to twenty-five genera. ‘The differences relate

to the mode of distribution of the globules in the tissues, and the

form-and dimensions of the granules, which I have not as yet

found superior to those of Halopithys, and which are sometimes

scarcely 0-001 millim. I cannot enter here into the details of

these observations; but they explain why certain large species,

such as Iridea edulis, Bory, which are very rich in this sort of

starch, may furnish a nutritive food to the poor inhabitants of

our coasts; and at the same time they demonstrate in most of

the Florideze and Corallineze an abundance of amylaceous matter

which may be compared with that of the potato or the cereals.

In the cellular Cryptogamia, starch in grains rendered blue

by iodine accompanies chlorophyll; and its production appears

to be correlative with the mode of life, which results from the

functions of the green matter; where the latter is wanting no

starch is found. The preceding observations acquire a fresh in-

terest by showing, in a vast group of cellular plants deprived of

chlorophyll and consequently endowed with an_ exclusively

comburant respiration, the formation of a principle very nearly

related to ordinary starch, but apparently not identical with it.

Do these globules fill the vegetative cells at all periods of the

year? and what is their part in the mode of life of these plants,

of which so little is yet known? These are questions which I

shall endeavour to solve as soon as circumstances will permit.

M. Decaisne has been kind enough to verify the principal results

of this investigation, and I beg him to accept my best thanks

for having done so.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 121

XXIII.— Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M.J. Berxevey,

M.A., F.L.S., and C. KE. Broome, Esq., P.L.S.

pPlates TI; IV. V.]

[Continued from p. 56.]

1144. Gleosporium umbrinellum, n.s. Maculis irregularibus

angulatis brunneis; sporis pallidis. ,

‘tae fallen oak-leaves. Charmy Down, near Batheaston, Oct.

65.

Forming minute brown spots; spores binucleate, ‘0004—

‘0006 inch long, supported on long, often forked, sporophores,

at length oozing out in the form of a pale irregular tendril.

Puate III. fig. 5. Spores supported on their sporophores; and separate,

more highly magnified.

1145. Sporidesmium opacum, Cd. Fase. i. f. 115.

On stumps of wych elm, near St. Catharines, March 31, 1865.

C. E. Broome.

When young, forming small, round, cinereous tufts, sparingly

scattered over the wood.

This has been received from Mr. Bloxam under the name of

S. fasciculatum; but it does not agree with Corda’s character,

‘sors effusis.”

PuaTE III. fig. 6. Spores and sporophores, magnified.

1146. S. lobatum, n.s. Stipite articulato, deorsum hyalino,

sursum in articulos subquaternos subglobosos divisum.

On fir sticks. Lucknam, April 12, 1865.

Forming minute, black, pulvinate tufts. At first simple and

strongly swollen above. The upper articulation then divides,

and ultimately gives off the spores, which are ‘0006 inch long.

The whole plant is about ‘001 high.

Puate III. fig. 7. Spores in various stages, magnified.

1147. Puccinia Apii, Cd. Fase. vi. tab. 1. fig. 11.

On celery, about London, Sept. 1865, destroying the crops.

Plants sent down to Cambridgeshire were equally affected. For

further notice see Journ. Hort. Soc, n.s. vol. i. 1866.

1148. Thecaphora hyalina, Fingerh. in Linn. x. p. 230

(Uredo Seminis Convolvuli, Desm. no. 274).

In the capsules of Convolvulus Soldanella. King’s Lynn,

J. Lowe, Esq.

* Stilbum fasciculatum, B. & Br. no. 492.

This is clearly what is figured by Tulasne as a state of his

Sporostilbe gracilipes, Carp. iii. tab. 14. figs. 14-19.

1149. Rhinotrichum repens, Preuss in St. Deutsch. Fl. 25 &

26, no. 22.

On fallen trunks of trees. Leigh Wood, Oct. 1865. F'ine-

shade, Norths., May 31, 1866. On very rotten oak-branches.

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3, Vol. xvii. 9

122 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

Probably extremely common ; but, as it looks like a mere bloom,

it may easily escape notice.

1150. Psilonia discoidea, n.s. Pallide cervina, dein fusca,

disco prolifero ; sporis oblongis, margine discreto roseo-alutaceo.

On very rotten rails. Langley, Wilts, Jan.—Feb. 1866, C. E.

Broome.

Whole plant 1-2 lines across, variously shaped, orbicular,

elongated, flexuous, &c. In the early stage the disk is quite

covered by the shaggy coat, which afterwards folds back or

cracks, and leaves the stratum of spores naked, precisely as in

Myrothecium. Spores oblong or, seen laterally, subcymbiform,

"00035 inch long. Our plant, however, wants the gelatinous

element of that genus, and is nearer to Psilonia than any pub-

lished genus.

Pua III. fig. 8. a. plants in various stages, one of them proliferous,

slightly magnified; 5. portion from edge of a plant, showi ying the spores on

their sporophores; ce. spores highly magnified.

1151. Morchella crassipes, Pers. Syn. p. 621.

On red soil, April 1866, Miss L. E. Lott, at King’s Kerswell,

near Newton Abbot, Devonshire.

This magnificent ‘fungus attains a height of 9 inches or more,

and is remarkable for its grooved stem. It is of a soft, brittle

substance, and does not dry well like the common morel. It is,

however, sold in the market at Prague for present use, where it

occurs in autumn as well as spring. It is well figured in

Krombholz’s large work, at plate 16. fig. 1.

1152. Helvella sulcata, Afzelius in Vet. Ac. Handl. 1783,

p. 805.

On the ground. Bowood, C. E. Broome, Oct. 20, 1863.

A small but very neat variety. Spores very broadly elliptic,

with a single large globose nucleus, ‘O006—-0007 long.

1153. Peziza (Helvelloidez) phlebophora, n.s. Cupulis po-

culiformibus, obliquis, substipitatis, subtiliter pulverulentis, basi

venoso-costatis.

On clay banks. King’s Cliffe, M.J. Berkeley. Brislington,

C. E. Broome.

Cup 4-15 inch across, often rather oblique, yellow or brown-

ish, springing from a very short stem-like base, from which

branched ribs are given off, ending in little pits. Sporidia

‘0004 inch long, while those of P. leporina are ‘0006 with curved

paraphyses, and those of P. onotica ‘0005. Hymenium often

venose. Figures are added of the fruit of these species.

PuaTE III. fig. 9. a. P. phlebophora, nat. size; 6. ascus, magnified ;

c. sporidia, highly magnified.

Fig. 10. Sporidia of P. onotica, highly magnified.

Fig. 1l. a. curved paraphysis of P. leporina, magnified; 5. sporidia,

highly magnified.

Rey: M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 128

1154. P. (Helvelloidese) bufonia, P. Myce. Eur. vol. i. p. 225.

On heaps of rubbish by the side of the road. Grantham,

Mr. W. Summerby.

Resembling P. vesiculosa, but distinguished by the brown

hymenium and verrucose cup. Sporidia ‘00075-0008 inch

long; in P. vesiculosa -0009.

_ Puate III. fig. 12. Sporidium, highly magnified.

*P, (Humaria) rutilans, Fr. Ep. p. 68 (P. leucoloma, St. Deutsch.

Fl. 32. tab. 17).

It is almost impossible to make out the red Pezizas of the

tribe Humaria without specimens, as by far the best characters

are derived from the fruit. We have now authentic specimens

of this plant before us, and find that our Peziza humosa is this

species. The sporidia, when perfectly developed, are strongly

echinulate, with one or more (rarely two) nuclei, and.:001 inch

long.

Puate III. fig. 13. a. aseus with paraphysis, magnified; 5, sporidia,

highly magnitied.

1155. P. (Humaria) aggregata, nu. s. “Gregaria, confluens,

obconica, aurantia, basi albo-tomentosa; hymenio concavo;

sporidiis fusiformibus.

On heathy ground. Bewick, Dr. Johnson.

The peculiar crowded habit and fusiform sporidia, 0008 inch

long by -0008 wide, easily distinguish this species.

1156. P. (Humaria) subhirsuta, Schum. Sel. p. 433.

On the ground. Batheaston, C. EK. Broome.

Asci linear; sporidia smooth, elliptic, enucleate, ‘0006 inch

long; paraphyses slightly clavate.

Puate III. fig. 14. a@. ascus with paraphysis, magnified; 0. sporidia,

more highly magnified.

*P,(Humaria) humosa, Fr. Kp. p. 71.

This in turn is what is called P. Polytricht under no. 768.

Sporidia variable in size, ‘0006--001 inch long, by ‘0003-0005

broad; paraphyses forked. P. Polytrichi will still remain for

the Scotch plant.

Subjoined are sketches of the fruit of P. lewcoloma, of which,

it may be observed, some specimens belong to Ascobolus Crouant,

Cooke, and of P. fibrillosa, Curr., found at Hanham, which

resembles externally P. humosa.

Prate III. fig. 15. a@. ascus with paraphyses, magnified; 9. sporidia,

more highly magnified. The plant from which the dissections were taken

was gathered at Hanham. ‘

Fig. 16. a. ascus and paraphyses of P. leucoloma, magnified ; 6. spori-

dia, more highly magnified, ‘0006-0008 inch long, ‘0004 wide; c. end

view of ditto.

Fig.17. a. ascus and paraphyses of P.fibrillosa, Curr., magnified ; 0. spo-

ridia, more highly magnified, 0006-0007 inch long, *0003 os

124 Rev. M.J. Berkeley avd Mr. C. EH. Broome on British Fungi.

1157. P. (Humaria) brunneo-atra, Desm. no. 826.

On the ground. Leigh Wood, C. E. Broome.

Asei linear ; ; sporidia “ninutely echinulate, -0007—-0009 inch

long. In Desmaziére’s authentic specimen, ‘0006-00075.

Puate IV. fig. 18. a. ascus, magnified; 0. sporidia, more highly

magnified.

1158. P. (Humaria) salmonicolor, n. s. Parva, gregaria ;

cupulis subhemisphericis hymenioque salmonicoloribus ; ascis

oblongis; sporidiis biserialibus, ellipticis, enucleatis.

On the side of a ditch. Woodnewton, Oct. 1858.

Sporidia ‘0008 inch long, sometimes ‘0005 broad. Nearly

allied to P. hemastigma.

Puate IV. fig. 19. a. ascus and paraphyses, magnified; 0. sporidia,

more highly magnified.

1159. P. (Humaria) hemastigma, Fr. Syst. Mye. ii. p. 74;

Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 33. tab. 11.

On the walls of a cottage. Pen y Gwryd, North Wales, Sept.

1862, C. E. Broome.

Asci short, oblong, subclavate ; sporidia biseriate, 0006 inch

long by 0009, or nearly globose.

Puate IV. fig. 20. a. ascus, magnified; 3. sporidia, more highly mag-

nified.

1160. P. (Enceelium) fravinicola, n. Sparsa vel stipata,

cupulis extus pallide cervinis fanuaenis, intus fuscis ; ; hymenio

leviter depresso; sporidiis uniseriatis.

On ash-twigs. Northamptonshire.

Cups at first closed, then opening with an irregular aperture,

at length orbicular, slightly depressed, pale fawn-colour and

furfuraceous externally, umber-brown within ; hymenium slightly

depressed ; asci elongated clavate; sporidia uniseriate, elliptic,

‘00045 inch long.

PLATE IV. fig. 21. a. ascus, magnified; 0. sporidia, more highly mag-

nified.

*P. (Sarcoseyphe) pygmea, Fr. Syst. 11. p. 79.

On bits of dead stick, apparently gorse. Ascot, Rev. G.

Sawyer, 1863. In moss and turfy mould, on Blackdown Hills,

near Taunton, March 1866. Wimbledon, May 1866.

About + inch high when full-grown, stipitate, the stem

branching out or dividing into several heads, which form cups

resembling the genus Ditiola or Tympanis; when young and

unbranched, resembling Solenia. The cups are often proliferous,

producing smaller cups on their surface, of a bright apricot-co-

lour, but whitish towards the margin. A figure of the proliferous

state will appear in the forthcoming number of the Linnzan

Rev, M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 125

Transactions. Sporidia uniseriate, linear-oblong, ‘0005--0006

inch long.

ae IV. fig. 22. a. asci, magnified; b. sporidia, more highly mag-

nined.

*P, (Sarcoscyphe) radiculata, Sow. t. 114.

Fine specimens of this rare species have been found this year

by Mr. Jerdon near Jedburgh, in a fir-wood.

Sporidia ‘0005 inch long, rather broad, binucleate.

Puate IV. fig. 23. Sporidia, highly magnified.

Fig. 24. a. ascus of the same species in Rabenhorst, specimen no. 618;

b. sporidia of ditto (‘0007 inch long), more highly magnified.

1161. P. (Sarcoscyphe) lanuginosa, Bull. tab. 396. fig. 2.

Var. Sumnert cupula demum radiato-fissa, margine junioris an-

guste nudo.

Under cedars. Fetcham Park, Mrs. Holme Sumner. Chis-

wick House, Mr. Edmonds, Jan—May. Under a larch, Wilson

Saunders, Esq.

At first entirely buried, then forcing its way through ihe soil,

and splitting into several lobes, like a Geaster, which it much

resembles from its thick substance. The outer coat is densely

clothed with flexuous hairs, very different from those of Peziza

hemispherica. The sporidia, moreover, are shortly and bluntly

fusiform.

A large and magnificent species, acquiring frequently a dia-

meter of 2 inches, and combining in some measure the characters

of P. sepulta and P. hemispherica, from both of which it differs

materially in the subfusiform fruit. It has also a very close

affinity to Tulasne’s genus Hydrocystis. It has been observed

for many years at Fetcham, but has not hitherto been recorded

as British. Bulliard’s plant is considered by Fries a variety

of P. hemispherica, but it is really very different. In plants

which are just open a delicate veil is often found stretched over

the orifice.

A figure and analysis of this fine fungus will appear in the

forthcoming number of the Linnean Transactions.

Puare IV. fig. 25. a. hairs from outer surface, magnified ; 3. ascus

with paraphyses, ditto; ce. sporidia, highly magnified.

1162. P. (Sarcoscyphe) Geaster, n. s. Brunnea, cupula sub-

globosa, floccosa, demum radiato-fissa.

On the ground. Wentworth, Oct.9, 1858, Mr. J. Henderson.

About an inch across; hairs flexuous, branched, articulated,

often giving out little curved hyaline processes with a few straight

bristles intermixed. Hymenium brown like the rest of the

plant. Paraphyses clavate; sporidia elliptic, with the ends very

slightly attenuated, ‘0009 inch long. The sporidia of P. sepulta,

a much coarser species, are of the same length.

126 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. K. Broome on British Fungi.

This is closely related to the last, but very distinct.

Puate IV. fig. 26. a. hairs, magnified; 6. sporidia, highly magnified.

Fig. 27. Sporidia of P. sepulta, highly magnified.

1163. P. (Sarcoseyphe) umbrosa, Fr. Syst. 1. p. 85.

On the ground. Bewick, Dr. Johnston.

Sporidia ‘0008 inch long, ‘0007 inch wide.

Puate IV. fig. 28. a. hair, magnified; 6, ascus with paraphyses,

ditto ; ¢. tips of paraphyses, more highly magnified ; d. sporidia, ditto.

*P, (Sarcoscyphe) vifellina, Pers. Myc. Eur, 1. p. 257.

On the ground. Wareham, C. E. Broome.

Sporidia 0009 inch long by 0005.

Puate IV. fig. 29. a. ascus with paraphysis, magnified; 5. sporidia,

more highly magnified.

1164. P. (Dasyscyphe) calyculeformis, Schum. Sel. p. 425.

On dead wood. ‘Twycross, Rev. A. Bloxam, May 10, 1859.

1165. P. (Dasyscyphee) Acuum, Fr. Syst. 11. 95.

On leaves of spruce fir. Mossburnford, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1166. P. (Fibrina) leptospora, n.s. Cupulis primum hemi-

sphericis, dein applanatis, extus e floccis sparsis nigris minutis-

simis appressis luridis, intus albidis ; sporidiis filiformibus.

On decayed wood. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

About half a line across; at first perfectly globose, often col-

lapsed in the centre, but gradually opening and exposing the

soft, pallid, sometimes straw-coloured hymenium. Asci oblong;

sporidia very long and slender, filiform, flexuous, with a row of

globular nuclei, at length repeatedly septate.

Puate IV. fig. 30. a. ascus, magnified; 6. sporidia, highly magnified.

1167. P. (Calycine) inberbis, Bull. t. 467. f. 2.

On willow. Mossburnford, A. Jerdon, Esq.

Sporidia linear, slightly curved, about ‘0004 inch long.

1168. P. (Mollisia) erythrostigma, nu. s. Minima, stipitata,

punctiformis, pallide rubra; hymenio demum convexo; ascis

clavatis ; sporidiis uniseriatis, ellipticis vel subglobosis.

Parasitic on Spheria pheostroma. C.K. Broome.

The stem is mostly curved, distinctly cellular. Asci clavate ;

spores minute, subglobose. Very minute, but a pretty object

under the microscope.

Puate IV. fig. 31. a. plant, magnified; 4. asci with sporidia, highly

magnified.

1169. P. (Mollisia) peristomialis, n. s. Minuta, cylindrica,

pallida, ore dentibus longis triangularibus cellulosis albis or-

nato, disco planiusculo; ascis lanceolatis; sporidus biserialibus,

fusiformibus, multinucleatis.

On holly. Penzance, J. Ralfs, Esq.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 127

A most exquisite object under a moderate magnifier, resem-

bling some Actinia in miniature. Sporidia ‘001 inch long.

Puate V. fig. 32. a. group, magnified; 5. ascus, magn. ; c. sporidia,

highly magnified.

1170. P. (Mollisia) vburnicola, n.s. Subglobosa, dein hemi-

spherica, cinerea, extus granulata; margine denticulato, furfu-

raceo ; hymenio pallidiore.

On either side of dead leaves of Viburnum. Received from

England by A. Jerdon, Esq.

Minute, punctiform, externally speckled with little dark tufts

of cells, which sometimes give out a few short flexuous hairs.

Asci clavate; sporicia lanceolate, ‘0004—:0005 inch long.

1171. P. (Mollisia) nerviseguia, Desm. no. 2012.

On leaves of Plantago lanceolata. St. Catharines, near Bath-

easton, Feb. 1852, C. E. Broome.

Sporidia ‘0004 inch long.

1172. Stictis lecanora, Schm. & Kze. no. 174.

On dead willow-twigs. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1173. P. (Patellea) Resine, Fr. Syst. vol. i. p. 149.

On resin. Sparingly near Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

This appears to be a true Peziza from its mode of rooting into

the bark.

1174. Helotiwm pruinosum, Jerd.in litt. Minutum, candidum,

sessile vel brevissime stipitatum totum albo pruinosum; disco

pallide carneo ; sporidiis elongato-cymbiformibus, 3—4-nucleatis.

On Hypoxylon fuscum and stigma. Appin, Capt. Carmichael.

Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

The hymenium, which has sometimes a slight blush tinge, is

pruinose as well as the outer surface. Sporidia ‘0006 inch long.

Some of the specimens referred formerly to Peziza epispheria

certainly belong to this species, which was originally called

P. pruinosa by Capt. Carmichael. The same plant occurs at

Belvoir, with the sporidia -0004—-0005 inch long.

Puate V. fig. 33. Sporidia, highly magnified.

1175. Hypomyces Broomeianus, Tul. Carp. i. p. 108 (Hypo-

crea luteo-virens, Rabenh. no. 751).

On Polyporus annosus. Batheaston, C. E. Broome.

Puate V. fig. 34. a. thread with conidia, magnified; 6. conidia,

*0002--0003 inch long, more highly magnified; ¢. ascus, magn. ; d. spo-

ridia, ‘0005—-0006 inch long, highly magnified.

~ &H. ochraceus, Tul. Carp. ii. p. 41.

This is, in all probability, Cryptomyces aurantia, Grev. t. 78.

Blastotrichum Puccinioides, Preuss, Sturm’s Deutschl. F].25 & 26,

tab. 11, is evidently a state of this or some closely allied species,

and has occurred at Batheaston. Hypomyces aurantius has been

128 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr..C. 1. Broome on British Fungi.

found in Flintshire, on Pol. sguamosus, and has also been ga-

thered on Agaricus ostreatus. Sphaeria aurea, Grev., is a Nectria.

The species from Laxton on Boletus is H. luteo-virens.

Puate V. fig. 35. a. ascus, magnified; 5, sporidia, ‘001 inch long,

highly magnified.

1176. Hypocrea delicatula, Tul. Ann. d. Sc. Nat. sér. 4. vol.

xiii. p. 18; Carp. Fasc. ii. tab. 4. figs. 7-13.

Fir-plantations. Lucknam, April 1866.

This extremely interesting fungus is nearly allied to H. cztrina,

of which it has the habit. It forms patches which are easily

separable from the matrix, of a delicate cream-colour, studded

with the fawn-coloured perithecia.

1177. Spheria (Denudatee) Epochnii, n. s. Peritheciis pri-

mum conicis, dein subglobosis, collapsis, stipatis, atro-olivaceis,

granulatis ; ascis clavatis; sporidiis uniserialibus, fusiformibus,

medio constrictis, demum triseptatis; conidius clongatis, tri-

septatis, apice incrassatis.

On Epochnium fungorum, of which it is the perfect form.

Warleigh, near Bath, March 1866.

Perithecia at first pale bottle-green, crowded in the centre of the

Epochnium, then black green, granulated, sometimes depressed

at the summit, with a minute pore. Asci clavate, containing a

single row of triseptate fusiform sporidia, ‘O001--0011 long,

strongly constricted in the centre, at length pale brown, when

they resemble a good deal the naked spores of the Epochnium.

The sporidia are at first uniseptate, with two nuclei in each

division.

Puate V. fig. 36. a. plant, magnified; 5. portion of mycelium with

conidia (epochnium); ¢. conidia, highly magn.; d. ascus with sporidia,

magn.; é. sporidia, young and old, highly magnified.

1178, S. (Caulicole) Aliarie, Auersw. Rab. no. 261.

On Erysimum Alliaria. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1179. Dothidea melanops, Tul. Carp. 11. p. 73, tab. 10.

Abundant on beech near Jedburgh, but without perithecia.

A. Jerdon, Esq.

Mr. Jerdon’s specimens, though on beech, correspond better

with Tulasne’s typical form on oak than his variety fagicola.

The stylospores are just the same, and not comparatively short,

as in the variety.

1180. Hystertum varium, Fr. Syst. vol. u. p. 582; Duby,

Hyst. p. 28.

On decorticated branches of yew. Wynd Cliff, April 18,

1866.

Scattered over pallid spots; perithecia elliptic, subimmersed,

with a slight keel and very obscure aperture, quite even; asci

elongated ; sporidia uniseriate, elliptic, slightly pointed at either

Bibliographical Notice. 129

end, uniseptate, with a large nucleus in each division, ‘001 inch

long by ‘0005 broad.

The sporidia of this and the next species differ entirely from

those of our other British species. Duby’s plant is on Juniperus

pheniceus, that of Fries on oak.

Puate V. fig. 37. a. asci and parapbyses; 0. sporidia, highly magnified.

1181. H. repandum, Blox., Duby, Hyst. p. 27, tab. 1. f. 6.

On rotten stumps. Orton Wood, near Twycross, Rev. A,

Bloxam.

Perithecia almost free, elliptic, the lips well rounded ; aperture

gaping. Asci rather short; sporidia broadly cymbiform, the

apex at one end very slightly elongated and perfectly hyaline,

‘0006-0007 inch long*.

PLATE V. fig. 38. a, ascus and paraphyses, magnified; 4. sporidia,

more highly magnified.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Geological Map of England and Wales. By Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,

F.G.S., &. 3rd edition. 1866.

Tuar a new edition of this useful Map should be required speaks

well of the public taste for geological knowledge ; or at all events

indicates that the public find that they require and can use a map

showing at a glance to those who can read it aright the real structure

of the country, the chief characters of its hills and valleys, the courses

of its rivers in relation to the nature of the uplands, and the pro-

jections and hollows of its coasts in relation to the harder and softer

materials of its rocky skeleton, and, still more, the relative position

of its mines, coal-pits, quarries, and other. sources of mineral wealth.

The traveller may, if he will, recognize the geological character of

the country he is passing through by rail or otherwise, by referring

to this handy sheet ; the tourist may spread it out on the green

sward, the beach, or the barren hill-top, and trace cut the deep-set

roots of the mountain, the inland range of the sea-cut strata, or the

structure of hill and dale around, and take in new pleasure with his

satisfied curiosity, besides all the delight that light and shade, form

and colour, changing cloud and rippling water can give him, be he

artist or amateur. Fishing and shooting, too, have an additional

zest with the geologist ; for he is rarely too busy not to see some-

thing new; and when sport is dull, the eye is still pleasingly at work.

* Coniocybe beomyciodes, Erbario Crittogamico Italiano.

On turpentine. Lucknam, Dec. 10, 1864.

From pallid white to a bright yellow, sometimes brick-red, scattered over

some Sporidesmium (Tromera resine) which colours the turpentine black.

The genus Coniocybe is a very doubtful member of the Fungi; and the

species, which is new to Great Britain, is therefore recorded in a note.

130 Bibliographical Notice.

After a day’s hunting a geological map has explained why white

mud and brown, black clay and white chalk, peat-bog and sand-hills

have succeeded each other so quickly in the run across country,—or

why one long gallop carried along with it the uniform splashing of

yellow mud with little change. Of course, now-a-days, geological

maps are hanging up in halls and studies far more frequently than

in times past ; and instead of trying to find causes for differences of

peoples and lands in county-boundaries and political divisions, we

look to mountains and valleys, hills and dales, with their varying

geological structures, as land-marks among men, whether in counties,

provinces, or continents. The traveller in unknown lands brings

home but a meagre account of the geography of the country he would

describe if he knows not its real structure: he may make a model

even of its heights and rivers; but, without a knowledge of its strata,

his model will fall as short in actual worth as a badly painted por-

trait. Not only will a full appreciation of structural peculiarities of

hill and cliff be wanting, but none of the links of analogy or identity

that bind it on to the strata of other lands can be indicated ; and,

like the nameless ruined column, it waits for further elucidation.

At home our geological maps are progressing rapidly towards per-

fection. Amateur workers have accumulated observations for more

than fifty years; and within about twenty years a systematic plan of

geologizing the British Isles has been carried on by the State. The

Government Geologists, well trained, enthusiastic, and yet cautious,

fairly using the results of fore-gotten knowledge, have worked as

quickly as their limited numbers would permit. Thus they have

gone over Wales, the South of England, much of the Midland

Counties, some parts further north in Scotland, and a large part of

-Ireland. From these results Prof. Ramsay has carefully produced

the Map of England and Wales before us, filling up unsurveyed areas

with the results of amateur and casual work. In this third edition

we may easily see where earlier mapping has given way to the work

of adepts and professional geologists, working over every inch of the

ground, going along the whole line of an outcrop, trusting nothing

to fancy or the memory, but examining and noting with precision,

day by day. In this way the broad areas of colour, with boldly

rounded and entire boundary-lines, filled in as the result of a holi-

day’s research or rapid sketch-work, must be replaced by the labo-

rious entanglement of outlier, inlier, and jagged border of outcrops

along broken ground, carrying at once an appearance of truth to the

experienced eye. Thus in the so-called ‘‘ London Basin” more de-

tail in the northern border of the Tertiary beds is now given; and

the Bagshot formation and the alluvium of the Thames are far more

correctly delineated. The Tertiary outliers at the west of this area,

and those between it and the “ Hants basin,”’ are altogether rear-

ranged, patches of ‘‘ Drift’ apparently having formerly been mis-

taken in many instances. The Wealden area is now far better cha-

racterized in accordance with the late researches of the Geological

Surveyors, who have worked out its complicated structure as care-

fully as if it were a coal-field; nor indeed do we know but what it

Royal Society. 131

will be soon necessary to apply their knowledge in the search for

ei the old ridge of crumpled palzeozoic rocks beneath its northern

order.

The West of England has received a few touches here and there ;

but the outcrops of the Cretaceous and Upper Oolite beds through

Berks, Bucks, and Cambridgeshire have been carefully revised ; and

so have the Oolites of Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire. Still

more important is the improved work in the Warwickshire and Lei-

cestershire Coal-fields, and in Charnwood Forest, with its Cambrian

(if not older) rocks. The North-Staffordshire and Lancashire Coal-

fields become, as it were, remodelled by the now accurate outlines of

their areas; and the neighbourhood of Manchester, in particular,

passes from an artificial to a natural appearance, geologically viewed.

The great Permian range, from Durham southward, is taking its

natural form on paper ; for the Survey has reached northwards much

beyond Doncaster. The red sandstones of the Eden and of the west

coast of Cumberland now appear in their true Permian colours ; and

various spots in Northumbria also speak of the researches of several

active geologists of to-day. Lastly, in Wales a few modifications of

outlines in the Old Red and the complicated patches of igneous rocks

may be noticed. The illustrated sections are repeated (with stronger

lettering) on the margins, as heretofore.

In this new map there are additions to the railways, bolder di-

stinctive numbers to the different formations, and modifications in

some of the tints; and an important mass of information is added

in notes and remarks all around the coast.

The general result is that we have a very useful and handsome

Geological Map of England and Wales (12 miles to the inch), not

so large as the “Greenough Map ”’ published by the Geological So-

ciety of London, but constructed on the same basis, and containing

a very large amount of useful information, clearly put by the master-

hand of an accomplished geologist, and produced in good style by

an intelligent publisher.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 26, 1866.—J. P. Gassiott, Vice-President, in the Chair.

«On the Dentition of Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Owen).”’ By W.

Boyd Dawkins, M.A., Oxon., F.G.S.

The fossil remains of the genus Rhinoceros found in Pleistocene

deposits in Great Britain indicate four well-defined species, Of

these the R. tichorhinus, or the common fossil species, ranged

throughout France, Germany, and Northern Russia, and, like its

congener the Mammoth, was defended from the intense winter cold

by a thick clothing of hair and wool. Its southern limit in the

Europeo-Asiatic continent was a line passing through the Pyrenees,

the Alps, the northern shore of the Caspian, and the Altai Mountains,

132 Royal Society.

It has not yet been proved to have existed in Europe anterior to the

deposit of the Boulder Clay. The second species, the R. megarhinus

of M. de Christol, characterized by its slender limbs and the absence

of the “cloison,”’ has been determined by the author among re-

mains from the brick-earths occupying the lower part of the

Thames valley, and from the Preglacial forest-bed of Cromer. The

species ranged from the Norfolk shore southwards through Central

France into Italy. In France and Italy it characterizes the Pliocene

deposits, being found in the former country in association with

Mastodon brevirostris and Halitherium Serresti, in the latter with

M. Arvernensis. From its southern range we may infer that the

megarhine species was fitted to inhabit the warm and temperate

zones of Europe, just as the tichorhine was peculiarly fitted for the

endurance of an Arctic winter. _

The third species is the RR. etruscus of Dr. Falconer, confined to

the forest-bed of the Norfolk shore, and, like the R. megarhinus,

found in the Pliocenes of France and Italy; it ranged across the

Pyrenees as far as Malaga, and is the only species known to occur in

Spain.

The fourth, the R. leptorhinus of Professor Owen, is the equivalent

of the R. hemitechus of Dr. Falconer. It is defined as “ R. a narines

demicloisonnées,”’ and is probably not the same animal as the R.

leptorhinus or “ R. & narines non-cloisonnées”’ of Baron Cuvier, the

evidence as to the absence or presence of the cloison in the type of

the species being of the most conflicting nature. In Central France

it is identical with R. mesotropus and R. velaunus of M. Aymard,

the R. dymardi of M. Pomel, and the R. leptorhinus (du Puy) of

M. Gervais. Its dentition is characterized by the presence of the

third costa in the upper molar series, coupled with the stoutness

of the cingulum, the suppression of the anterior combing plate, the

smoothness of the enamel, and the extent to which the upper molars

overhang the lower, which causes the enamel on the outer side of

the latter to be worn obliquely. The lower molars can be deter-

mined by the flattening of the anterior area, coupled with the fine

sculpturing of the enamel-surface. In common with the other

fossil British Rhinoceroses, it possessed a molar series of six only on

either side, and was bicorn. It ranged through England, from the

Hyzena-den of Kirkdale in Yorkshire in the north, as far south as

the plains of Somersetshire, and as far to the West as Pembroke-

shire. It is very generally found in association with Elephas anti-

quus and Hippopotamus major, both species which lived in Pliocene

times. The association in Wookey Hole Hyzena-den with Hlephas

primigenius and R. tichorhinus and other characteristic Postglacial

mammals proves that it coexisted with the tichorhine species, to

which it probably bore the same geographical relation as the Elk

does to the Reindeer in the high northern latitudes. The sum of

the evidence proves that it was coeval with the Mammoth and

tichorhine Rhinoceros, and does not characterize deposits of an

earlier epoch in the Pleistocene. It has not as yet been found in

Preglacial formations. The R. leptorhinus is more closely allied to

the bicorn Rhinoceros of Sumatra than to any other living species.

133

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Morphology and Affinities of the Brachiopoda.

By H. Lacaze-Duruiers.

Tew animals are so widely diffused in the strata of the surface of

the globe as the Brachiopoda, and few consequently are so frequently

in the hands of naturalists; nevertheless, although they are repre-

sented by many species living in our seas, their zoological relations

and their general plan of organization are by no means agreed upon.

Placed in the first instance among the Acephala, side by side with

the Lamellibranchiata, they now justly form a distinct division; but

the relationships of this division are far from being the same in the

eyes of all zoologists. Thus, to dwell only upon the last opinion,

Messrs. Huxley and Hancock, two of the most eminent English

naturalists, would place them among the Molluscoida, by the side of

the Ascidia and Bryozoa or Polyzoa.

This new mode of appreciating the affinities of this group led me

to desire to study these creatures afresh ; and when the opportunity

was afforded me of investigating the faunas of great depths im the

Meditterranean, I hastened to resume observations commenced about

1858 in the sea off Corsica.

To determine the affinities of the Brachiopoda I seek in their

nervous system for the criterion that must guide me. It is to the

characteristic organ of animality that I apply myself, because, as has

been so admirably shown by Cuvier, it furnishes the characters of

highest value; and I .compare it on the one hand to that of the

Lamellibranchiata, and on the other to that of the Bryozoa.

In the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan the plan of organization is

simple. The organs are repeated symmetrically on each side of the

median line. Thus we find three double nervous centres—one near

the mouth, another in the foot, the third between the base of the

foot and the anus, near the branchize. Moreover certain organs

have an existence, a peculiar symmetry, and very precise relations

with these different centres.

Upon the median line are the mouth, the foot, and the anus. At

the base of the foot, between it and the anus, on each side, beyond

the ganglia of the third or pallio-branchial group, open the two

glandular bodies called the glands of Bojanus; lastly, to the right

and left of the mouth there are two pairs of labial vela, which vary

greatly in form in the different species.

To compare this well-known plan, which it was necessary to refer

to here, with that of the Brachiopods, we must first of all place the

animals in a comparable position. Suppose, for example, that we

have a Terebratula and an Anodonta to compare: the former must

be placed with its ligament downwards, its apophysary valve to the

left of the observer, and its perforated valve to his right; the second

must have its hinge to the left and its mouth upwards. Most

figures show the Brachiopoda in a position the reverse of that just

indicated, which renders their comparison with the Acephala more

difficult,

134. Miscellaneous.

In the animals thus placed the first difference that presents itself,

and that which has most caught the attention of observers, is this:

the Anodonta has its valves lateral ; the Terebratula has one of them

dorsal, the other abdominal.

This difference, which appears very great, has not quite so much

importance as we should be inclined to attribute to it at first sight ;

we need only free it from the secondary conditions which surround it,

so as to see only the fundamental parts. Thus the greatly developed

and multiplied muscles have become longitudinal and symmetrical,

in consequence of the arrangement of the valves, and they have at-

tracted the attention of naturalists perhaps too specially, and led

them to neglect other more important organs.

As the Brachiopod lives attached, a special locomotive organ would

be useless to it; therefore its foot is aborted, and with it the corre-

sponding portion of the nervous system. Here, morphologically

speaking, we have a great and fundamental difference, very different

from that presented by the position of the valves.

On each side of the mouth of the Terebratula we find two long

fringed arms, rolled up in a spiral form, and accompanied by a mem-

branous lip; these are the analogues of the labial vela of the Lamel-

libranchiata. The investigation of the nervous system justifies this

notion ; for there exist two small symmetrical ganglia which, with the

assistance of the long commissure uniting them, surround the ceso-

phagus like a collar, and furnish nerves to the arms, as in the

Lamellibranchiata the analogous ganglia furnish the nerves to the

labial vela.

These first ganglia, which are difficult to discover, correspond with

the cesophageal ganglia of the other Mollusca; they are united by

long connectives with the most highly developed and therefore most

evident nervous masses, which are found above the mouth, in the

median line, in the fold of the two lobes of the mantle. We know

that this last organ performs, in great part, the function of the organ

of respiration ; and as it receives its nerves from this last ganglionic

centre, this may be regarded as the analogue of the pallio-branchial

centre.

As to the pedal ganglia, they do not exist, as the organ for which

they are necessary is wanting.

The organs of Bojanus and those of reproduction open in the

Terebratula, as in the Anodonta, symmetrically outside and by the

side of the pallio-branchial nervous centre. Moreover, according to

the beautiful investigations of Mr. Hancock, the heart in the Brachi-

opoda is dorsal, which furnishes an additional feature of resemblance

between the two groups, for im this way the central organ of the

circulation is separated from the organs of Bojanus and the pallio-

branchial ganglia by the digestive tube.

Lastly, in the Brachiopod, as in the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan,

the organs just referred to are repeated symmetrically on each side

of the median line of the body.

Thus if we suppress in the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan the foot

and the pedal ganglia, there remains an organism having the greatest

Miscellaneous. 135

analogy with that of the Brachiopod, always excepting the position

of the valves. Now this is also easy to be brought under the gene-

ral plan of the Anodonta, if we suppose the two lateral lobes of the

mantle to be united above the mouth and below the anus, and imagine

that about the middle of its length an emargination is formed which

may advance as far as the hinge; for then the two halves of the

mantle are no longer lateral, but dorsal and abdominal, and the shell

reproduces the pattern upon which it models itself.

The modifications undergone by the muscles are the consequences

of the changes of arrangement which have taken place in the shell;

they cannot invalidate the zoological approximation which I am en-

deavouring to establish. Do we not, for example, find an Ascidian

(Chevreulius) presenting symmetrical muscles analogous to those of

the Terebratulz, and this merely because its tunic has become bivalve,

and without one being able to remove it from the group to which it

belongs ?

If we now compare the Polyzoan or Bryozoan with the Brachiopod,

we find some external resemblances, but profound differences of

greater importance. No doubt the Bryozoan often presents an organ

in the form of a horseshoe, placed close to the mouth, and which

may be compared to the arms of the Brachiopods; but this is not a

sufficient feature of resemblance to bring together animals so differ-

ent. If we look at the nervous system, we shall soon be convinced.

Hitherto the Molluscoida have presented only a very simple ner-

vous ganglion, without an cesophageal collar, and without any very

evident double symmetry ; consequently they are more distant from

the Brachiopoda than the latter from the Lamellibranchiata.

Thus the investigation of the nervous system legitimates the ap-

proximation which we are seeking to establish, and does not justify

that which the English authors have attempted ; but it leads us also

to recognize the necessity of making a distinct group for the Brachi-

opods, which are much rather degraded Acephala than elevated

Molluscoida.

These zoological relationships are by no means invalidated by an

organic peculiarity as curious as unexpected. Professor Huxley was

the first to demonstrate the non-perforation of the anal extremity of

the intestine in the Terebratulee, and I have myself confirmed this

observation in several other genera and species; this arrangement

forms a very remarkable exception among the Mollusca, and appears

to be especially proper to the Articulate Brachiopods, which really

represent Calenterate Mollusca.

The preceding general observations constitute a résumé of minute

and detailed investigations undertaken in 1858 in Corsica, and in 1862

in Algeria, upon thegenera Megerlia, Terebratulina, Thecidia, Argi-

ope, and Crania, which inhabit the Mediterranean, and were all ob-

served living on the spots which they inhabit.—Comptes Rendus,

November 6, 1865, pp. 800-803.

136 Miscellaneous.

On the finding of a second Ribbonfish.

Yo the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GreNTLEMEN,—Having heard in May last that another Ribbonfish,

or Gymnetrus, had been found near Whitby, and being in that town

on Monday last, I inquired for it in the museum, and I was shown

the specimen by an assistant there.

This fish is labelled “ Ribbond fish cast up at Whitby, April 23,

1866,” but its specific name is not given. It was cast upon the

sands near Whitby, and was discovered by some schoolboys. Being

unwieldy, and 10 feet long, they could not convey it with them; so

they cleverly cut it into five slices, and then carried the slices sepa-

rately. A man who stuffs birds near the museum has preserved it

very well, and sewn together the five slices. The tail is broken ;

there are no appendages about the head ; and the long dorsal fin is a

good deal injured, as well as the numerous rays. From want of time,

and the glass case being so close to the back of the fish, I could not

wait to count the number of the rays. This specimen may be, like

that cast up at Seaton Snook on the Ist or 2nd of last March, the

Gymnetrus Banksii, which was 14 feet 7 inches in length; though I

am inclined to think it is the ‘‘ king of the herrings,’’ as one of the

species is called.

The distance from Seaton Snook to Whitby Sands is some thirty

miles along the Yorkshire coast, to the south-east.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours truly,

Joun Hoca.

Norton House, Stockton-on-Tees,

July 6, 1866.

A few words on the Mammoth*, in connexion with the Engravings

recently found in Périgord and supposed to represent this Ani-

mal. By H. Branpr.

Professor Brandt, referring to the account given by M. Lartet of

a plate of fossil ivory from Périgord bearing incisions which appeared

to represent an elephant with a long mane, and to a second note by

M. Vibraye on the reproduction in reindeer-horn of a head supposed

to be that of the Mammoth, remarks that these discoveries were

particularly interesting to him, as he had been for years accumu-

lating materials towards a monograph of the Mammoth. He states

that as long as ten years ago, in his memoir on the distribution of

the Tiger, he expressed the opinion that Elephas primigenius,

Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cervus euryceros, Bos primigenius, Bos

urus, Bos moschatus, Cervus Alces, Elaphus, and Tarandus, &c.,

belonged, with man, to a single contemporary fauna, that in Asia

these large animals were pursued by the tiger at the most distant

periods, and that the remainder was in part destroyed by man.

* According to a note appended by Milne-Edwards to the title of this

paper, the proper spelling of the name of this animal is “ Mamont.”

Miscellaneous. 137

The researches made in France have shown the truth of this

opinion ; but Professor Brandt makes the following observations on

the figures of the Mammoth described by MM. Lartet and Vibraye.

The figure on a plate of ivory described by the former evidently

represents the anterior half of an elephant; and it is quite clear that,

by means of the lines observed on the neck, shoulders, and flank,

the artist has tried to indicate long hairs, which might be regarded

as representing parts of a mane. The direction of the tusks reminds

one vividly of the Mammoth; but it must be remarked, with regard

to the mane, that neither the form nor the density of this has yet

been sufficiently demonstrated by naturalists. Adams accepted the

notion of a mane, without having seen it, from the testimony of his

companions and the presence of long hairs; and Tilesius does not

oppose this conclusion. But the merchant Boltunoff, who saw the

Mammoth three years before the arrival of Adams, and in a much

better state of preservation, says nothing about a mane. Nevertheless

two pieces of the skin of the nape, still attached to the cranium of

the Mammoth at St. Petersburg, show a considerable quantity of

the basal portions of rigid hairs, which were evidently rather long,

and may at least be taken for traces of the existence of a mane.

Perhaps, however, the artist of Périgord had a better opportunity of

recognizing the mane than the Russian naturalists.

The representation of an elephant in reindeer’s horn, described by

M. Vibraye, seems to resemble the Indian elephant, at least as re-

gards the anterior part of the head. The ear is rather close to the

eye; it is oblong and coniparatively very narrow. All these charac-

ters, especially the small size of the ear, remind us of the Mammoth.

—Ann. des Sc. Nat. sér. 5. tome v. pp. 280-282.

Note on the Discovery of the Dermal Shield in Megatheroid Animals.

By Prof. Rerinuarpt.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I send you for insertion in the ‘ Annals’ an ex-

tract from a letter received from Professor Reinhardt, of Copenhagen,

and remain Yours obediently,

British Museum, A. GUNTHER.

July 23, 1866. ;

«May I also draw your attention to the fact that this ‘ discovery’

of a dermal shield in Megatheroid animals was made as much as

twenty years ago, and that Lund, in his last work on the extinct

Mammalian Fauna of Brazil, expressly states that he found a kind

of dermal shield in two different genera, Scelidotherium and Celo-

don, gives a very detailed description of them, and even draws the at

that time justifiable and natural conclusion that probably all Mega-

theroid animals were furnished with a more or less similar shield.

The shield was not so perfectly developed in Scelidotherium and

Celodon as Burmeister has found it to be in Mylodon; but that is

of small importance (see ‘Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes

Selskabs Afhandlinger,’ Kjébenhavn; 1846, 12 Deel, p. 77).”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, xvii. 10

138 Miscellaneous.

On the Structure of the Anthers in the Aroidez.

By M. van TIEGHEM.

From his investigations Chatin has deduced the general rule, that

anthers which open by terminal pores are destitute of fibrous cells.

The genus Solanum, the anthers of which have fibrous cells round

the terminal pore, forms a curious exception to this. The author

indicates the occurrence of similar exceptions in the apicilar anthers

of several Aroidee.

The sessile anther of Richardia africana, Schott, has two loculi,

each divided into two locelli by a delicate longitudinal septum ; and

these open at the apex by a small vertical tube pierced through the

thick plate formed by the connective above the loculi; beneath this

terminal pore the septum is absorbed, to enable the loculi to com-

municate. The inner wall of the chamber is clothed, when mature,

with a layer of prismatic cells perpendicular to its surface, and fur-

nished with strong spiral bands. In each locellus this layer of

spiral cells ceases at the two lines of origin of the septum, where it

curves inwards a little and unites by means of smaller cells with the

corresponding layer of the neighbouring locellus, thus forming two

longitudinal ridges. The septum is therefore destitute of fibrous

cells; when mature, it is composed only of a layer of interlaced

threads, the remains of the cells of which it was originally composed.

The delicate cellular membrane which clothes the whole interior of

the locelli in the young anther is absorbed at the moment of dehis-

cence. The layer of spiral cells is continued to the terminal pore,

the inner orifice of which it borders; but it does not line the wall

of the little tube, which is formed of colourless cells, each con-

taining a grain of starch, whilst the cells of the plate are larger and

filled with a yellow liquid. Here, therefore, we have exactly the

reverse of what occurs in Solanum, where the fibrous cells surround

the pore without extending upon the inner surface of the cell.

The mode in which the anther of Richardia emits its pollen shows

that it is a powerful agent of expulsion. Through each pore a white

thread is seen to issue and become longer by degrees, which at last

forms a little cotton-like ball, of a dull white colour, round the ori-

fice. This filament is composed of two or three parallel rows of

ovoid pollen-grains united by a gummy liquid; by exposure to the

air, this cement evaporates, and the grains, becoming free, are dis-

seminated. The author considers that the contraction of the cell

causing this expulsion of the pollen is produced by the layer of

fibrous cells; but he is unable to explain its mode of action.

In the anther of Alocasia odora and metallica, Schott, each of

the two cells arranged round the dilated connective is constructed

nearly in the same manner ; but the cell, instead of opening upon

the plate itself by a duct traversing its thickness, is bent out-

wards and opens directly beneath the plate by an orifice common to

two confluent cells; the fibrous cells predominate round the pore,

and several other rows are frequently added to the ordinary one at

the upper part of the curve.

Miscellaneous. 139

The difference is greater in Aglaonema marantefolia, Schott.

The bilocular anther is furnished with a short filament, and the

connective does not form a plate. Lach cell is divided into two

locelli by a thick septum, absorbed beneath the terminal pore where

the locelli communicate. The inner wall of each locellus is lined

throughout with a strong layer of perpendicular fibrous cells: hence

the quadrilocular structure of the anther. The fibrous layer is

produced upon the outer walls up to the orifice, where it is covered

directly by the epidermis.

Hence there is no necessary correlation between apicilar dehis-

cence and the absence of fibrous cells. The presence or absence of

these is a character of more constancy and of a higher order than

the mode of dehiscence. Thus in the Aroidez we pass by insensible

gradations from Richardia, &c., in which the apicilar dehiscence is

most strongly marked, through drum and Dracunculus, to rimate

dehiscence, either transverse (Arisarum) or longitudinal (Calla,

Anthurium, &c.), whilst the fibrous layer is still strongly developed ;

and this is further seen from the complete absence of these cells in

Lycopersicum (where the dehiscence is longitudinal), and their nearly

complete absence in Solanum (where it is apicilar). Moreover api-

cilar dehiscence is by no means common to all the genera of the

families in which M. Chatin has ascertained the general absence

of the fibrous cells: thus the Epacrideze open their unilocular

anthers by a longitudinal fissure ; among the Ericaceze Leiophyllum,

Pieris, and Epigea, and among the Melastomaceze Mouriria, Meme-

cylon, &c., open their bilocular anthers by two longitudinal fissures;

lastly, in the Monotropeze the unilocular anthers of Monotropa and

Hypopitys open by a transverse fissure, whilst the bilocular anthers

of Pterospora have a longitudinal dehiscence ; and yet the fibrous

layer is wanting in all these genera.

M. Chatin has also observed the structure of some abnormal

anthers (those of Hypowis erecta and Pittosporum Tobira), ‘* which

are destitute of fibrous cells at the same time that they are empty

of pollen, or only contain it in an imperfect state; these sterile

anthers have, no doubt, been seized by an arrest of development act-

ing simultaneously upon the tissues of the second membrane and

upon the pollen ;”’ and from this he concludes ‘that in some plants

the stamens of which have undergone an arrest of development, the

absence of fibrous cells coincides with the imperfect evolution of-the

pollen.”” The author’s observations upon Ranunculus Ficaria show

that something very different may be the case. The anthers of the

bulbiferous variety of this species produce no pollen, and this is the

sole cause of the sterility of the plant. Each anther-cell, divided

into two locelli by a septum, has its valve formed of an epidermis

thickened by a layer of spiral and reticulated cells which does not

extend over the septum or upon the inner wall of the cell formed by

the connective, as appears to be generally the case in the Ranuncult.

In the interior of each locellus there is a long mass narrowed at the

two extremities, formed of several rows of large, polyhedric, colour-

less, thick-walled cells furnished with numerous dots; these cells

140 Miscellaneous.

are united into a continuous tissue, separate from the walls of the

locellus, so that these four masses may easily be extracted from the

anthers. The mother cells of the pollen, instead of giving origin to

ordinary grains and then becoming absorbed, have become thickened

and acquired dotted walls. The layer of fibrous cells, however, has

acquired its normal structure, although the author has never seen

the anthers open, which would seem to indicate that the pollen-

grains themselves have a part to perform in producing dehiscence.

Hence two conclusions may be drawn :—

1. The abortion of the pollen in the anther does not always, as in

the two examples cited by M. Chatin, imply that of the fibrous

cells; the arrest of development may affect the mother cells of the

pollen without reaching the walls of the anther.

2. Of the two simultaneous functions assigned by M. Chatin to

the transitory membrane of the anther, which, according to him, is

at once ‘the nurse of the pollen”? and ‘the reservoir from which

the cells of the second membrane draw the nourishment necessary

for their rapid transformation,” the latter alone is confirmed by the

above observations.—Comptes Rendus, June 11, 1866, pp. 1289-

1294.

Habits of Zosterops dorsalis. By the Rev. R. Taytor.

(In a Letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.)

My pear S1r,—I have received your letter acknowledging mine

with the Zosterops dorsalis; and I am pleased to find that I am

correct in my supposition of its being an arrival from Australia or

Tasmania. It appears to increase in New Zealand in a most extra-

ordinary way, far more rapidly than any of our indigenous birds,

and flies about in large flocks of several hundreds, making an inces-

sant chattering,—quite a novelty in that respect. We hailed it as a

blessing on its first arrival, as it attacked the American blight-insect

and cleared the trees of it; but we now find it is of doubtful good,

for it feeds upon the tender buds of the tree as well; and as at the

approach of summer it retires to the high grounds of the interior, it

gives the blight time to become as bad as ever before it returns.

Several new discoveries have been lately made im ornithology in

the middle isle; but I think some of the birds supposed to be newly

discovered are in reality old acquaintances. I expected to find the

Nestor superbus to be quite new; but when I saw a specimen of it

at the Otago Exhibition last year, I found it was my old friend

figured in my work as the Korako (Nestor meridionalis) ; and lately

a far more beautiful specimen of the same bird was procured by

Mr. Buller, which was taken up the Wanganni river, with a brilliant

bright-red back as well as breast. It is probably the male Korako.

Believe me, my dear Sir,

Ever most sincerely yours,

RicHARD TAYLOR.

Wanganni, May 7, 1866.

Miscellaneous. 141

On the Organic Bodies contained in Ancient Egyptian Bricks.

By Professor UNGER.

The author lately obtained some tiles from the well-known brick

pyramid of Dashur, the building of which dates between 3300 and

3400 years B.c. These, like all the Egyptian bricks, have been

made with an addition of desert sand and chopped straw, in order to

give them greater cohesion and durability. Both with the principal

mass, the Nile-mud, and the chopped straw, seeds of various plants,

animal remains, and artificial products were accidentally introduced

into the manufacture; so that, the consistency of the enclosing

substance having remained unaltered, these bodies have also been

preserved unchanged to the present time, and are therefore to be

recognized quite distinctly.

The investigation of these bodies, which are generally small,

showed the presence, at the remote period of the building of the

pyramid, of five different cultivated plants, seven field-weeds, and

some local plants, together with several freshwater Mollusca and

remains of fishes and insects, &c., but all organisms which still for

the most part occur in Egypt, and have hitherto remained un-

altered.

Besides two cereals (wheat and barley), there were found the teff

(Eragrostis habyssinica), the field-pea (Pisum arvense), and the

flax (Linum usitatissimum) ; the last was, in all probability, employed

both as a food-plant and for textile purposes.

Greater interest attaches to the weeds, which belong to the com-

monest kinds, and have necessarily migrated with the cultivated

plants, not only over all Europe, but over the greater part of the

earth. Among them may be named Rhaphanus Rhaphanistrum,

Chrysanthemum segetum, Euphorbia helioscopia, Chenopodium mu-

rale, Bupleurum aristatum, and Vicia sativa.

Of artificial products, there were found fragments of burnt bricks

and earthen vessels, a small piece of linen thread and one of woollen

thread—all of which indicate a tolerably advanced civilization at the

time of the building of this pyramid. Moreover the condition in

which all these enclosed objects, especially the chopped straw, oc-

curred, proves that brick-making was really carried on in the manner

stated by Herodotus and described in Exodus v. 11.

The author expresses a hope that a continued investigation of this

material will furnish much important information as to the com-

mencement of civilization in Egypt, and that the damb and sealed-

up bricks of Nile-mud will tell us many things that we seek in vain

in the old buildings and sarcophagi, to say nothing of written records.

—Anzeigen der Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, math-naturw. Classe,

June 14, 1866, pp. 141, 142.

Interchange of Birds between America and Europe.

In a memoir presented by Mr. Spencer F. Baird to the National

Academy of Sciences, “ On the Distribution and Migrations of North

American Birds,” an abstract of which is published in Silliman’s

Journal for January, March, and May of this year, the author de-

142 Miscellaneous.

duces the following generalizations in regard to the interchange of

birds between America and Europe.

European birds, especially the land species, reach Greenland and

return to the continent by way of Iceland, the Faroe Islands forming

a stepping-stone from Great Britain and Scandinavia. In very rare

instances species seem to proceed direct to Greenland, without stop-

ping in Iceland, although this may be due to the fact that while

visiting Iceland they have not yet been noted there by any naturalist.

The European birds found on the continent of North America

reach it by autumnal movement from Greenland in company with

strictly North American species.

Birds of North America rarely, if ever, reach England from

Greenland by direct spontaneous migration by way of Iceland, as

shown by the fact that only three of the American birds occurring

in Greenland are found in Iceland, and that few of the American

species observed in Europe are found in Greenland at all.

Most specimens of American birds recorded as found in Europe

were taken in England (about fifty out of sixty-nine), some of them

in Heligoland ; very few on the continent (land birds in only five

instances).

In nearly all cases these specimens belonged to species abundant

during summer in New England and the eastern provinces of British

America.

In a great majority of cases the occurrence of American birds in

England, Heligoland, and the Bermudas has been in the autumnal

months,

The clue to these peculiarities attending the interchange of species

of the two continents will be found in the study of the laws of the

winds of the northern hemisphere, as developed by Prof. Henry and

Prof. Coffin. These gentlemen have shown (see Prof. Henry’s

articles on Meteorology, ‘Report of Commissioner of Patents for

1856,’ p. 489) that the ‘‘resultant motion of the surface atmosphere,

between latitudes 32° and 58° in North America, is from the west,

the belt being twenty degrees wide, and its greatest intensity

in the latitude of 45°. This, however, must oscillate north and

south, at different seasons of the year, with the varying declination

of the sun. South of this belt, in Georgia, Louisiana, &c., the

country is influenced, at certain seasons of the year, by the north-

east trade-winds, and north of the same belt by the polar winds,

which, on account of the rotation of the earth, tend to take a direc-

tion towards the west. It must be recollected that the westerly

direction of the belt here spoken of is principally the resultant of

the south-westerly and north-westerly winds alternately predomi-

nating during the year.”

From these considerations and facts, therefore, we are entitled to

conclude that the transfer of American birds to Europe is principally,

if not entirely, by the agency of the winds, in seizing them during

the period of their migration (the antumnal especially), when they

follow the coast or cross its curves, often at a considerable distance

from land, or a great height above it. Carried off, away out to sea,

Miscellaneous. 143

mainly from about the latitude of 45° (the line of greatest intensity

of the winds), the first land they can make is that of England,

whence the fact that most of the species have occurred in the British

islands, as well as Heligoland, equally well fitted to attract stragglers

and furnish them a resting-place. It is probable that, apart from

their few permanent residents, the Bermudas are supplied in the

same manner.

Iceland being in the latitude of the reverse current, from east to

west, such of its species as are caught up by the winds and carried

off would soon reach Greenland, only a few hundred miles distant.

This may be the principal agency of supply from Europe to Green-

land, as most European land birds are only met with there at rare

intervals ; although, as Greenland lies north of Iceland, there may

be a regular migration to some extent.

As remarked, the prevailing direction of the winds, whether vio-

lent or moderate, throughout the year as well as during the period

in which our birds are on either their spring or aehaaetal migration,

is from America towards Europe. Even should their direction be

reversed, and that rare phenomenon, a summer “north-easter,”

occur, it would merely have the effect of bringing the birds back

upon our own coast, or into the interior, the line of the storm being,

in fact, about parallel with the eastern shore line of the United States,

and its influence extending only a short distance from the coast, and not

involving the vicinity of Europe at all. That such storms do affect

the movements of our birds is shown in the case of the golden

plover. It is well known that this species breeds in immense num-

bers in the northern regions of America, and that the southward

migration, in summer or autumn, is principally confined to the

region along or near the Atlantic coast. Generally large flights

would seem to start directly from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia

for the West Indies, where they are met with every autumn passing

still southward into South America, and reaching almost to Pata-

gonia. Usually it is but a comparatively small number that touch

and rest along the Atlantic states; but it is well known to the

sportsmen of New England that, should a violent north-east storm

occur off the coast towards the end of August, unusual flights of

plover and curlew may be looked for*. This was the case in 1863,

when the islands of Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and other locali-

ties along the coast of Massachusetts swarmed with incredible

flights of these birds. On similar occasions immense numbers have

been carried far into the interior of the Atlantic states, furnishing

the occasion of a regular carnival for gunners, much as in the case of

great flights of the wild pigeon.

Another instance of the influence of north-east storms is in the

occurrence of the Stormy Petrel (Mother Carey’s Chickens) and

other oceanic birds far in the interior, and even across the Allegha-

nies, during and after such storms. The collections of the Smith-

* Mr. G. N. Lawrence mentions (Annals New York Lyceum, 1864, vii.

100) that the golden plover is always found at Montauk Point on the 28th

of August, should a north-east storm occur.

144 Miscellaneous.

sonian Institution embrace specimens of Thalassidroma Leachii

killed about Washington in August 1842, with hundreds of others.

I myself obtained at Harrisburgh, Penn., a fine adult Pomarine

Skua (Cataractes pomarinus), killed on the Susquehanna, near that

city, in September 1839. Adults of the species mentioned are

rarely seen within the limits of the United States at all, and in sum-

mer the latter would hardly be likely to occur south of Newfoundland.

The present is not the occasion to discuss the nature of that im-

pulse which causes the bird or the fish to retrace its steps in spring

so unerringly ; the fact is a well-established one, and of much im-

portance in reference to the multiplication or diminution of species.

A region deprived of its spring birds or fishes by extermination will

only be filled up again in the course of a long period of time. The

result, however, can be greatly accelerated by artificial propagation

in the places to be supplied.

It may be considered established that the migrations of birds

are generally more or less in a north and south direction, influenced

very materially by river-courses, mountain-chains, forests, conditions

of moisture, mean temperature, altitude, &c. Middendorf (Die

Isepiptesen Russlands) suggests that birds migrate in the direction

of the magnetic pole—a suggestion not at all borne out by the facts

in North America.

It may be further remarked that while birds proceed generally in

the spring to the very spot of birth, and by a definite route, their

return in autumn is not necessarily in the same line. Many birds

are familiar visitors in abundance, in certain localities, in either

spring or autumn, and are not known there in the other season.

This is a fact well known to the diligent collector; and I have been

inclined to think that, in very many instances, birds proceed north-

ward along the valley of the Mississippi, to return along the coast of

the Atlantic.

In general the northward vernal movement is performed much

more rapidly, and with fewer stops by the way, than the autumnal.

Birds generally make their appearance in given localities with

wonderful regularity in the spring, the Sylvicolide especially—a

difference of a few days in successive years attracting the notice of

the careful observer; this difference is generally influenced by the

season. The time of autumnal return is perhaps less definite.

Observations on the Microscopic Shell-structure of Spirifer cuspi-

datus, Sow., and some similar Forms. By F. B. Merk.

Mr. Meek shows in a paper in Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. 1865,

p. 275, that the shell of the Spirifer cuspidatus, both of American

specimens referred to this species, or closely related, and of an Irish

specimen of this species received from Mr. Davidson, is clearly punc-

tate, contrary to the decision of Dr. Carpenter. He then asks the

question whether two types—a punctate having the internal charac-

ters of Syringothyris, and an impunctate—may not be included under

the species, and suggests the importance of observations with refer-

ence to this question.—Silliman’s American Journal, May 1866.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 105. SEPTEMBER 1866.

XXIV.—WNotes on some Species of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon,

Leach (as limited by M. Pictet). By A. E. Eaton, of Trin.

Coll. Camb.

AttHoucH but little attention is paid by the generality of ento-

mologists to the Ephemeride, the following notes may prove not

altogether uninteresting. From reading Dr. Hagen’s introduc-

tory remarks to his synopsis of the British species of this family

(Ent. Ann. 1863) one might be led to imagine that in their early

stages of development they are strictly carnivorous. The exist-

ence of such a propensity is clearly seen by merely placing a

number of pup in a small vessel, when the stronger will speedily

devour such as they are able to master. But that their diet is

partly vegetable also is apparent on an examination of the con-

tents of their alimentary canal ; for, in many instances, along

with a large proportion of mud, half-digested Diatoms and

pieces of Confervee can be detected. These the animals obtain

by nibbling over the surface of water-plants and stones—an oc-

cupation to which they are much given. For this work their

jaws are admirably suited. In the front are four or five strong

sharp teeth, arranged in two rows, whilst behind these is a very

singular structure—a flattened transversely striated protuber-

ance, somewhat resembling an elephant’s tooth im miniature*.

Their subulate antenne and their unconcentrated abdomen are

not the only points in which they resemble Libellulide, as, be-

sides the branchial plates of the pupa, the rectum is subservient

to purposes of respiration. They seem to be furnished with a

muscular cloaca, which is shut off from the extremity of the ali-

mentary canal by a voluntary sphincter muscle. Its external

aperture is the anus, through which water is admitted when the

insect wishes to inspire. The cloaca being filled, this is then

‘closed, the rectum opens, the cloaca contracts and forces the

* Jaw of the pupa of Ephemera vulgata, L.

Ann. & Mag. N. Mist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 1]

146 Mr. A. E. Eaton on some Species

contained fluid into the intestine, over which ramify branches of

the tracheal trunks. The distribution of these trachez varies,

possibly according to the age of the imsect; yet the branches

(in a Cloéon) which are given off from the trunks in the seventh

and eighth segments (Dr. Schaum’s method of reckoning) are

larger than those in the other segments, especially in young pupe.

The genus Cloéon, as limited by M. Pictet, whom Dr. Hagen

follows, may be at once divided into two groups, which in reality

are genera, although not recognized as such hitherto. As it is

therefore necessary to propose a name for one of them, I will

suggest that Cloéopsis be given to C. diptera, L., on account of

a variety of the male resembling in colour Cloé or Cloéon Rho-

dant, Pict.

CLozopsis, nov. gen.

Comprises one widely distributed species, C. diptera, L.

Gen. Cuar.—Pupa with six pairs of double branchial plates

and one pair of single ones. Imago dipterous, with two aual

setee, the third abortive.

In this species the larger division of the double branchial plates

of the pupa is nearly circular; the smaller is indicated by the

dotted line in the figure. The single plates are also poe

circular. It may perhaps be unnecessary to mention “| \

that, although Dr. Hagen has included it in his dia- ~\.,5/

gnosis of the pupa, the possession of black wing- Outline of

is indicati : : a double

cases is indicative of state, and is not a special cha- _ branchial

racter; in Cloéon Rhodani, and some other species pe:

also, these organs become black shortiy before the final change

of the pupa. Dr. Hagen, too, attaches great importance to the

markings or absence of colour in the sete of the imago, as well

as to the colour of the turban of the male. But there is scarcely

any colour-character which, when fully tested, is not found to

vary more or less in the species of this family. Specimens of

this insect from Cambridge and Huntingdon often have the

turban dull greenish yellow (like the legs of C. Rhodani subim.),

instead of reddish brown (eyes of house-fly) ; and in the same

localities the female generally has colourless wings, like the male.

The sete are frequently not annulated.

CLoion (as restricted).

Gen. Cuar.—Pupa with seven pairs of single JEEP

I P & des

branchial plates. Imago with four wings and #7 |

two anal sete; third seta abortive. See le

plate of pupa(sp.?).

In this genus the form of the rudimentary hind wings is very

useful in determining the species, as it does not vary to any

of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon. 147

great extent among individuals of the same kind, whether sub-

imagos or Imagos, “and it is not much affected by drying. The

interneural veinlets on the apical margin of the fore wings are

disposed in pairs in the species with round. tipped hind wings,

but singly in that with sharp-tipped wings.

C. Rhodani, Pictet.

In the f the turban varies precisely as does that of C. diptera.

The lines on the thorax also are si-

milar to those in that imsect in

highly coloured specimens. The

anal sete are sometimes entirely ,

white, generally white, with fuscous ~

rings at the joinings and the middle Hind wing, maguitied,

of the joints, seldom fuscous throughout, and become transpa-

rent, through tenuity, towards their tips. The imago appears,

in favourable weather, throughout the year. A branchial plate

of the pupa is figured, I believe, in M. Pictet’s work on the

Ephemeride.

C. pumilum, Burmeister.

Subimago. <&. Turban yellow. Spots and lines of imago

all indicated. Legs yellowish white; tarsi, tibie, and tips of

femora tinged with fuscous. Thorax yellowish fawn-colour,

Abdomen pale yellowish grey. Wings and Rin 2 eS

sete unicolorous, fuscous. Penis black. as m Sere

Imago. Turban of male yellow, changing Sy

to red when dry. Thorax shiny yellowish HL

brown. Legs yellowish, pale; knees and 74 ™"& magnitied.

tarsi darker in the female, but paler in the male. Abdomen in

the male whitish yellow, the four apical segments brown: in the

female dull yellow brown, with the tips of the dorsal arches darker.

Setz in both sexes white, either annulated with fuscous or not.

The hind margins are more delicate, much smaller and narrower

than those of C. Rhodani, as will be seen on referring to the

figures.

C. bioculatum, L.

Turban of male cornelian-red, seldom yellow. The imago

varies but little in colour. It appears from April to November,

if not throughout the year. The figure of

the hind wing of C. bioculatum, Pict. (Hist.

Nat. des Névrop.), differs entirely from the

above. His is more like that of Stephens’s

bioculatum (i.e. C. pumilum, Burmeister), to

which insect C. bioculatum, L., when dry, is very Banlaty ae size

excepted.

Hind wing, magnified.

idles

148 Mr. G. Krefft on the Dentition of Thylacoleo carnifex.

The above notes were taken from living specimens.

It would be interesting to know more than is known at pre-

sent about the distribution of the British Ephemeride. In

Dorset and on Dartmoor Potamanthus erythrophthalmus is the

commonest of the genus, whilst P. marginatus is the most fre-

quent in the Cambridge district. On the Dart Baétis montana

predominates, but B. lutea at Little Bridy, Dorset. At this last

place, too, Cloéon Rhodani outnumbers C. bivculatum; but at

Blandford, in the same county, aud at Cambridge the converse

obtains. From this it would appear that P. erythrophthalmus

and C. Rhodani are better fitted to inhabit swift streams than

P. marginatus end C. bioculatum.

XXV.—On the Dentition of Thylacoleo carnifex (Ow.).

By Grrarp Krerrt.

[Plate XI.]

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In the December Number of your Journal you figure a tooth

which is supposed by Prof. M‘Coy to be the hitherto unknown

canine of Thylacoleo carnifex, because it was discovered “ with

part of the lower jaw and teeth of Nototherium Mitchelli, on

which it had probably been feeding.” I do not think the find-

ing of such a tooth in proximity with a Nototherium’s teeth is

sufficient proof that it belonged to a Thylacoleo, the more so as

the huge canine of that animal had never been known before—

and never will be known, because the Thylacoleo carnifex was

not furnished with canine teeth, and the dental series (in the

lower jaw at least) ended in a pair of incisors, from which fact

I venture to conclude (guided by the analogy furnished by the

dentition of our living Marsupials with two lower incisors, the

wombat excepted) that the upper jaw contained the usual six

incisor teeth, and that if it ever possessed a canine it must

have been a very small one, corresponding to the diminished

tooth found in Hypsiprymnus and Phalangista.

The tooth described by Prof. M‘Coy is not referable to Thy-

lacoleo ; and the shape of its crown proves it at once to be an

incisor, not a canine, and most likely the (incisor) tooth of the

animal with the remains of which it was discovered. Prof.OQwen

(who long ago expressed his opinion to the effect that the dental

series of the lower jaw of Thylacoleo would probably end in a

pair of incisors) has given us a full description of the teeth of

this animal, to which I have nothing to add, except that, with

the scanty material at my disposal, I have ventured to recon-

M. T. Thorell on the Argulide. 149

struct the skull and dentition of this famous marsupial lion

(Plate XI. fig. 1), which, im my opinion, was not much more

carnivorous than the Phalangers of the present time.

I also enclose drawings of sections of

Lower incisor of Thylacoleo.... Fig. 2.

a - Nototherium.. Fig. 3.

‘ a Diprotodon .. Fig. 4.

* Pa Thylacine .... Fig. 5.

x Sarcophilus . va Hag: G.

Upper i incisor of Felis tigris .. Fig. 7.

Lower SS ¥ Fig. 8.

showing the relative size of the teeth in these animals, and

proving sufficiently that the Thylacoleo was far inferior in

strength to a modern tiger, and no match for ponderous Dipro-

todons and Nototheriums. The scale of the photographed

fractions is in inches, the sections are of the natural size.

I remain, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

GerARD Krerrt,

Australian Museum, Sydney. Curator and Secretary.

May 24, 1866.

XXVI.—On Two European Argulide, with Remarks on the

Morphology of the-Argulide and their Systematic Position, to-

gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present

known. By T. Tuore*.

Amonc the various groups which, during the last few years, have

attracted the special attention of zoologists, the small Crustacean

family of the Argulide holds a prominent place. Long represented

by one species only, which is common throughout a great part

of Europe, and was already, before the time of Linnzeus, known as

Argulus foliaceus, this remarkable family has, in the course of

the last thirty years, received a sudden and unexpected acces-

sion to the number of its species. Krodyer+, whose writings are

the most recent upon the animals composing it, gives the number

of known species as thirteen, of which eight have been described

since the beginning of the year 1857, and amongst these the three

species which constitute Heller’s American genus Gyropeltis. Of

these thirteen Argulide, one (A. giganteus) belongs to Africa, and

one only (A. foliaceus) also to Kurope ; the remaining eleven are

all from America.

* Translated, by A. O’Shaughnessy, from the (fvers. af Kongl. Ve-

tensk.-Akad. Forhandlingar, 21st series, Stockholm, 1864 (communi-

cated 9th Dec. 1863).

+ “Bidrag til Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene,” Naturhistorisk Tidskrift,

3die Rekke, Bd. 11. (1863) p. 85.

150 M.T.Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

Under these circumstances it will not be uninteresting to

learn that our quarter of the globe possesses two additional

species of the family Argulide,—one a marine form, from South-

ern Europe (the Mediterranean), the other a freshwater form,

like A. foliaceus, and belonging to the middle and northern parts

of Sweden. The first of these two species, Argulus purpureus,

has certainly been already described by Risso under the name of

Binoculus bicornutus and Agenor purpureus ; but it seems to have

been altogether overlooked by later observers, the reason for which

should no doubt be sought partly in the limited circulation

which many of Risso’s works have attained, partly im that

author’s usually very insufficient descriptions, which often render

the recognition of the species intended very difficult: Agenor

purpureus is referred to the family Bopyride! A new descrip-

tion of this species, of which I found an example at Nice, on the

pectoral fin of Pagellus erythrinus, will, therefore, not be consi-

dered superfluous.

The other, the Scandinavian species, which I call Aneta

coregoni, is, on the contrary, new to science. My attention was

drawn to it through a memoir by Dr. C. L. Nystrém*, wherein

mention was made of an unusually large Argulus as one of the

parasites which infest the Coregonus in Jemtland. Specimens

of this Argulus were brought by Dr. Nystrom to the Royal

Zoological Museum in Stockholm, where also specimens exist

from Dalsland collected by Mag. H. Widegren ; and through

the united kindness of Prof, Lovén and Err. Nystré6m and

Widegren, I have had opportunities of examining both Jemt-

land and Dalsland specimens of this large and well- marked

species.

Before proceeding to the description of the animals in ques-

tion, it will be advisable to state my own conceptions of the

various divisions of the body and its accessory organs, which have

been very differently interpreted by the authors who have hither-

to handled this group. ‘The first great division of the body,

which bears the antenne, the organs of the mouth, and the fol-

lowing two minute pairs of limbs, and which in these animals is

developed into a large shield produced behind into two lobes, I

call the head or head-shield (scutum cephalicum) ; the other, to

which the cloven swimming-feet are attached, the trunk (truncus),

which is followed by a tail (cauda) transformed into a leaf-like

respiratory plate, bearing two small appendages, which, in the

newly-hatched larva, are situated at the tip of the tail (as is the

* «Jakttagelser rorande Faunan i Jemtlands Vattendrag,” Akademisk

Afhandling, &e. (1863), p. 19.

M. T. Thorell-on the Morphology of the Argulide. 151

case in the allied forms Phyllopoda and Copepoda), but, in the

adult animal, have gradually advanced upwards to the base of

the incision which divides the respiratory plate into two lobes.

The trunk is named by some authors thorax, by others abdo-

men, according as they call the first division of the body head

(cephalic shield) or cephalothorax; the last segment is, in a

similar manner, regarded either as the abdomen or postabdomen,

in descriptive works mostly called cauda. Kroyer* regards it as

the genital ring, in consequence of his having, curiously enough,

considered it to correspond only to the so-denominated foremost

segment of the “ postabdomen” in the Caligide: the append-

ages of the Argulide should, according to him, represent not

only the appendages, but the whole of the tail behind the genital

ring in the Caligide—and hence, naturally, in all the other

Copepoda. But the genital ring is nothing but the coalesced

first two segments (or only the first segment) of the tail, which

in the Copepoda is usually set apart for the functions of genera-

tion, and in the Caligide and many other (especially the pceci-

lostome and siphonostome) Copepoda attains a greater develop-

ment, especially in breadth, than the following caudal segments.

The number of these varies much, being four or less: omsetimes,

even, the tail remains unsegmented and consists of a single piece,

for instance, in some species of the genus Coryceus; and just

such, in fact, is the stage of development of the tail in Argulus.

Now, if the unsegmented tail of Coryceus corresponds to the

tail inclusive of the genital ring in the Caligide, which no one

presumes to doubt, so also must the tail in the Argulide corre-

spond to the entire tail in the Copepoda and Caligidz in general.

Still less correct than Kroyer’s is Gegenbaur’s view of the

hindmost segment of the body: Gegenbaur+ regards it as

consisting of “a pair of partly coalesced branchiz,” and takes it as

corresponding not only physiologically, which would have been

perfectly correct, but even morphologically with the branchiz of

the Crustacea. Gegenbaur’s assertion that this view is shared by

Leydig would seem to be the result of a misunderstanding of that

author’s meaning{. In the larval state the tail in Argulus has

a form which easily shows the incorrectness of Gegenbaur’s

view: it is then exactly like the tail in the older Phyllopod and

Copepod larvee, and bears, as already mentioned, the usual ap-

pendages at the tip, between which the anal opening is situated.

If the various body-segments of the Argulide have been thus

* Loc. cit. p.88.

+ Grundziige der vergleichenden Anatomie (1859), pp. 245-246.

t Vide Leydig, ‘‘ Ueber Argulus foliaceus, ein Beitrag zur Anatomie, His-

tologie und Entwicklungsgeschichte dieses Thieres,” Zeitschrift fiir wis-

senschaftliche Zoologie, Bd. 11. (1850) pp. 338-339.

152 M.T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

differently regarded, this is certainly the case in a like or even

greater degree with the accessory organs, especially the anterior

ones or those which appertain to the head. We shall treat of

those which belong essentially to the mouth further on, and

would begin by directing our attention especially to the four

pairs of members which are situated before and behind these.

The views taken of these organs, of which we call the two fore-

most pairs the first and second pairs of antenne, and the two

hindmost the first and second pairs of footjaws, have, as we have

said, been very various, doubtless through erroneous notions of a

complete correspondence between the accessory organs of the head

in the lower Crustaceans and in the Decapoda, which has rendered

the terminology of the former so confused and contradictory*.

Of the antenne one pair has usually been considered a pair of

footjaws,—the first pair by Heller and Cornalia, the second by

M.-Edwards and Kroyer. The view we have taken agrees with

that given by Dana and Herrick}; and its correctness 1s shown,

not only by the form and position of the corresponding parts in

the Phyllopods and Copepods, to which the Argulidz are most

nearly allied, but also by the history of their development. The

newly hatched larva of Argulus has, as Jurine’s{ and also

Dana’s and Herrick’s figures attest, a pair of antenne and two

pairs of swimming-feet, like the larve of the Phyllopods and

Copepods; and since the organs which are deveioped from the

antennz and first pair of jaws in the Phyllopod and Copepod larvze

are now generally regarded as the first and second pair of antenne,

the same rule should be applied to the Arguhde. <A glance at

the larva of an Argulus shows immediately that the conditions are

here just the same as in the case of the Phyllopod and Copepod

groups; the sole difference between the Argulide and these is

that the antennz in the Argulus-larva gradually attain a hooked

form, becoming hooked fixing-organs through a stronger deve-

lopment of their two first joints, while the other joints are corre-

spondingly reduced and at last form only a small appendage to

the second joint of the antenne. The first pair of feet im the

larva is, as is usual in the allied Crustacea, biramose ; the hinder

branch already exhibits the form of the adult animal’s second

pair of antenne ; the foremost branch disappears during the de-

velopment of the larva.

I should not have dwelt so long on the antenne of the Argu-

lide were it not that Kroyer§ has very lately sought to esta-

* Vide Claus, “‘ Zur Morphologie der Copepoden,”? Wiirzburger Natur-

wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, Bd. 1. (1860) p. 26 &e.

+ Deser. of Arg. catostomi, Silliman’s Journal, vol. xxxi. (1837) p. 298 &e.

{ Mémoire sur l’Argule foliacé, Ann. du Mus. t. vii. (1806) pl. 26. fig 4.

§ Loe. cit. p. 87.

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 153

blish another view respecting them, tending principally, as it

would seem, to discover a nearer affinity between the Argulide

and the Caligide, in which latter group, as in the parasitic Crus-

taceans in general, it is not the first but the second pair of an-

tenn which take the form of fixing-organs. According to

Kroyer, that which I have called the first pair of antenne con-

sists of both pairs of antennz coalesced ; the appendage would

thus be the first, the claw itself the second pair of antenne. In

accordance with this view, the real second pair of antenne is re-

garded as the first pair of footjaws. After what has been already

said relative to the history of the development of these organs, a

detailed refutation of Kroéyer’s hypothesis would be superfluous.

With regard to the other appendages of the head, a comparison

between them in the Argulidee and the groups allied thereto is

rendered difficult by the circumstance that the Argulus-larva at

its exit from the egg is much more fully developed, and already

furnished with the parts belonging to the mouth, and also with

the two pairs of limbs situated behind these, so that the origins

of these parts cannot be followed genetically. One may, how-

ever, conclude from analogy that in the Argulus, as in the Phyl-

lopods and Copepods, the mandibles are formed out of the base

of the second pair of feet in the larva, and the maxille behind

them as an independent pair of limbs. How far the two following

pairs of limbs in the-Argulide are originally, as Claus* showed

to be the case in the free Gnathostoma and in at least a part of

the parasitic Copepoda, branches of one and thé same pair of

limbs is certainly not clearly ascertained: nevertheless their

form and position (especially in the larvee) exhibit too evident

marks of correspondence with the footjaws in the higher families

of Siphonostoma to admit of their being regarded in their origin

and morphological significance as bearing no relation to these.

The first pair seems to serve exclusively as fixing-organs: they

take, as is known, in the adult state of the different species of the

genus Argulus the form of sucking-cups, while in the larvae

and in the genus Gyropeltis they are armed at the extremity with

a hook. The functions of the second pair are not equally easy

to determine; but if they serve to maintain the animal when

fastened on its prey, they probably also, and perhaps principally,

serve as organs of locomotion, and may therefore be called

“creeping-feet ” (pedes gressorii), as they have, indeed, been

named by Kroyer. Vogt} maintains that the animal avails

* Die frei lebenden Copepoden, p. 28 (1863). “ Ueber den Bau und die

Entwicklung von Achtheres percarum,”’ Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool., Bd. ix.

(1861) p. 293.

T “Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Schweizerischen Crustaceen,”’ Neue

Denkschriften der allg. Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir die gesammten

Naturwissenschaften, Bd. vii. (1849), p. 12.

154 M.T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

itself of these “for cleaning the sucking-cups and for removing

extraneous particles from the cavity.” Their first joint usually

shows on the underside a plain, sharply-defined surface, which,

posteriorly, is mostly produced into three strong teeth, and

which we therefore, in common with Kroyer, call the comb

(“kammen,” pecten).

Immediately behind the base of the second pair of antennze

is a strong chitinous tooth or hook, which is regarded by Kroyer

as a palp. In position and external appearance it agrees, indeed,

with the hook, frequently occurring in the Caligidze (the first

pair of maxillz, according to M.-Edwards and others), which

Kroyer designates ‘“ antennpalp,” but is called ‘“ accessory hook

of the second pair of antenne” (“hjelpkrok,” hamulus) by

Steenstrup and Liitken*, and is not regarded, therefore, by

them as belonging to the true series of appendages, but as a

cuticular growth appertaining to the dermal framework. This

view seems to be shared also by Claus, and is, in my opinion, the

correct one, both as regards the Caligide and theArgulide. With

respect to the latter, this is indeed evident from the circumstance

that the Argulide often possess two extra pairs of perfectly simi-

lar hooks,—the one between the second pair of footjaws, the other

behind these, before the base of the first pair of swimming-feet,

which hooks cannot easily be looked upon as reduced appendages

or parts of such. On the basal joint of both the first and second

pairs of antennz and the second pair of footjaws the chitinous

covering is also‘developed into similar hooks ; and certain parts of

the underside of the body, especially the border of the head-

shield anteriorly, are usually thickly set with small teeth, which

have a similar significance with the larger hooks previously men-

tioned, and, like them, serve to fix the creature on the spot to

which it has attached itself by suction or clinging. All these

hooks and teeth have, accordingly, the apex directed backwards,

and thus prevent the animal from sliding or being brushed from

before backwards, the only direction in which any strong pres-

sure under ordinary conditions could operate. This modifica-

tion of cuticular structure should consequently be stronger in those

species which principally subsist on the outer integument of

fishes, as, for instance, A. foliaceus, coregoni, purpureus, and

weaker in such as subsist in the gill-cavity, like A. catostomi.

It remains for us briefly to account for the true mouth-organs

in the Argulide, as far as these are known to us. Former

authors who have occupied themselves with researches concern-

* « Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs Snyltekrebs og Lerneer,

&e.,”’ Kongl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift. 5te Reekke, Bd. v. (1861)

p. 350.

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 155

ing Argulus foliaceus, and even the distinguished Jurine*, assumed

that the oral aperture was situated at the tip of the anteriorly

produced sting (“ gadd,” aculeus or stimulus) m that animal,

and consequently missed all acquaintance with the essential

parts of the mouth. For the first exact description of these

parts in an Argulid we have to thank Dana and Herrick, who,

in their admirable memoir already cited, on Argulus catostomt,

have given an accurate representation of the structure of the

mouth-tube in that American species, and have shown that it

contains two pairs of organs. ‘These they designate inner and

outer maxille ; the sheath itself which contains these they regard

as corresponding to the mandibles,—a view which is in accordance

with these authors’ attempt to show a like segmentation and

number of the appendages in the Argulide to those which obtain

in the Decapoda—consequently, as in those, one pair of mandibles

and two pairs of maxillee.

Several years later Vogt gave a description of A. foliaceus, in

which Jurine’s mistake as to the position of the mouth is recti-

fied; but the exposition which Vogt puts forth of the oral

organs is far from clear, as is the case also with the figure which

accompanies it. The following is Vogt’s description :—“ The

opening of the mouth is situated in a club-shaped projection

behind the ‘sting,’ protected on each side by two ring-like

horny plates inclined inwards; and on the inner surface of

these are seen two smaller plates of similar appearance. A sin-

gular S-shaped double lip is seen below, which is inclined up-

wards, and opposed to a single horny piece bent over the open-

ing above.”

Leydig, who has written an excellent memoir on the inner

conformation of A. foliaceus, has also briefly named the oral

organs and described them as follows :—‘‘ The opening of the

mouth is placed in a club-shaped projection bent downwards.

It is bounded posteriorly by a crescent-shaped lower lip, an-

teriorly and laterally by two broad gradually tapering plates.

Several disk-like pieces inside represent the mandibles.”

It will be seen that this description also is not satisfactory,

since it gives no further light on the form and number of those

parts which are said to correspond with the mandibles. These

two authors, Vogt and Leydig, would seem to be the only ones

who have given any exposition of the armature of the mouth in

A. foliaceus based on independent researches. Others, as

Milne-Edwards and Baird+, have, further, applied to the Euro-

pean species Dana’s and Herrick’s representation of the struc-

ture of the oral organs in the American A. catostomi ; but how

* Loe. cit. p. 440.

+ Nat. Hist. of Brit. Entomostraca (1850), p. 248.

156 M.T.Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

hazardous such a proceeding is appears at once from the fact

that, according to Heller’s des¢ription, the mouth-tube in

another American species, 4. Nattereri, only contains one pair of

chewing-organs, of an entirely different appearance from the cor-

responding parts in A. catostomi. That considerable differences

exist also between the oral organs of A. foliaceus and A. cato-

stomt is apparent at once on a comparison of Dana’s and Herrick’s

description and figures of, for instance, the mandibles and

maxille im the latter species with the account given further

on of the same parts in A. foliaceus. According to Heller and

Cornalia, the genus Gyropeltis agrees with A. Nattereri in having

only one pair of jaws in the mouth-tube. In that genus this

consists apparently of an upper lip anterior and a lower lip

posterior to the jaws; in the Argulide which have a sting

(“ gadd”’) before the mouth-tube, this latter must be formed of

the lower lip only, whereas the “sting” is a transformed upper

lip, as indeed Vogt and others have held.

Of the authors who have described the Argulidz none have ad-

vanced further than those already quoted towards a clear exposition

of the nature of the mouth; the only species with respect to whose

oral organs we possess satisfactory information are consequently

Argulus catostomi and Nattereri, together with the three species

of the genus Gyropeltis. Even Kroyer, who was the last to occupy

himself with these animals, and who gave complete descriptions

and figures of several species of them, neglects the struc-

ture of the mouth to such an extent that he does not even

inform us whether his species possess a sting (“ gadd’’) or not—

a point all the more important since, to judge from his figures,

they seem to lack that organ whose presence would constitute

one of the characters distinguishing Argulus from Gyropeltis.

As to the form and number of the footjaws no information what-

ever has been vouchsafed. It is, however, evident that a natural

arrangement of this rapidly enlarged group, without a know-

ledge of the structure of these important organs, must be im-

possible cr in a high degree difficult to arrive at.

Of Argulus foliaceus I have been able to have recourse to a

few specimens in spirits only ; consequently the following descrip-

tion of its oral organs is not so complete as I could have wished.

The structure of the sting (“gadd”’) is given with sufficient

accuracy by Vogt and Leydig, and may therefore be passed

over here. Its function is probably only that of an irritating

organ, whose puncture occasions a strong flow of blood to the

spot where the animal is about to suck.

The mouth-tube has, as is known, a recurved, conical, or

club-like appearance; in a very young specimen I have

fancied I perceived signs of a suture of some extent along

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 157

the front, whence I conclude that both borders of the lower

lip have coalesced with each other in the formation of the

mouth-tube. Above, before the middle of the front surface,

two small teeth are observable. Laterally, its diameter is

almost the same throughout ; and the club-like shape depends

consequently on the fact of its being somewhat broader at the

extremity. The tip itself is obliquely truncated, and shows

behind a hood-like extension of the wall of the tube, which

spreads itself over the back part of the oral aperture in the

form of a large, moveable, almost crescent-shaped lip. The al-

most triangular oral aperture is bounded by the two posterior

(inferior) arms of an almost H- or X-shaped chitinous structure

or apparatus, as also by two thin, oblong, chitinous lamelle,

which are rounded at the extremity, and are situated immedi-

ately beneath these, and whose direction is parallel with them :

on the inner margin these latter show some few saw-like teeth.

Both these lamelle I regard as maxille.

Somewhat higher up in the tube are placed the two man-

dibles. They are oblong, almost triangular, somewhat curved,

and end on either side in a finely poimted apex, above and be-

fore which the convex (lower and inner) margin is raised into

two smaller and two stronger teeth. These mandibles are di-

rected with their tips towards each other, inwards and upwards,

in the gullet, while the maxille diverge backwards and out-

wards.

In order to give suppleness to this armature, and at the

same time to support the mouth-tube itself, this last contains a

rather complicated chitinous framework. Such a framework is

apparent on either side of the tube, and involved in its wall,

being somewhat thickened beneath the crescent-shaped lp,

where it forms a knob on either side of the tube. This knob

furnishes the principal support for the mandible. Two other

such chitinous processes, which are placed more inwards and

backwards in the tube and do not touch its walls, extend below

the lip, whose arch they seem to support, and form here a bow

by means of which they unite with the two side processes. The

X-shaped chitinous framework which bounds the oral aperture

is also brought imto connexion with these processes by means

of its arms, and thus, at the extremity of the mouth-tube, is

formed a solid apparatus.

The gullet ascends as a slender, strongly chitinous tube, and

proceeds backwards in a bowed shape through the nervous

ring situated in the throat to the stomach, where it opens, by

means of a remarkable cup-like organ, into a cardia or stomach-

mouth (‘ mag-mun’’), which probably acts as a sucking-pump.

I think it probable that the maxille serve to effect an opening

158 M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

in the integument of the animal upon which the parasite has

fixed itself, and that the imbibed blood-corpuscles, on their way

through the narrow gullet, are broken and ground by the

mandibles.

In those forms (for instance the species of the genus Gyro-

peltis) which lack maxille, the mandibles are placed close to

the opening of the mouth, and may, being strongly toothed on

the lower border, unite the functions which we observe to be-

long to the mandibles and maxillee in A. foliaceus and the allied

species.

Within both mandibles and maxille other perfectly similar

mandibles or maxille are usually perceptible, differing from these

only in being somewhat smaller. These are probably formed to

replace the older external organs when a change of the integu-

ment takes place: a similar supplemental structure is found

in the claw of the antenne of the first pair. In A. coregoni the

oral organs exhibit almost the same formation as in A. foliaceus.

A. purpureus differs especially in having the mandibles situated

lower down, close to the opening of the mouth, and in the

maxille being destitute of teeth on their inner border. The

lip also has a different form.

After these remarks on the morphology of the Argulide we

pass on to the description of our two species, A. purpureus and

A. coregoni.

Argulus purpureus, Risso *.

Syn. meee bicornutus, Risso, Hist. Nat. d. Crustacés de. Nice, (1816)

is ae Risso, Hist. Nat. d. princip. prod. de Europe

mérid. tom. v. (1826) p. 139, pl. v. fig. 28.

Scutum cephalicum maximum, oblongum, multo longius quam

latius, in lateribus parum rotundatum, antice utrinque pro-

funde sinuatum, postice anguste et profunde incisum, pedes

omnes totamque caudam tegens; segmentum trunci ultimum

utrinque lamina foliacea preeditum ; cauda ampla, latissima,

dimidiam reliqui corporis longitudinem zequans, vix ad medium

incisa, lacmiis acuminato-rotundatis; stimulus longissimus ;

sipho subcylindratus ; cotyledones parvi, diametro {1, longit.

corporis zquantes ; pecten plaga media scabra nulla, dentibus

tribus acutis ; pedes flagello carent.—Longit. circa 18, lat.

10 millim. (2).

Hab.in Mari Mediterraneo ad Niczeam, in Selenia (Carang?) luna (Geoftr.)

* Although the name bicornutus is older than purpureus, we prefer the

latter, on the ground that the former appellation is based on a false appre-

ciation of the antenne; we have less hesitation in doing this, since no

personal right of priority is thereby affected.

M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 159

a Risso, et in Pagello erythrino Cuv. a me ipso inventus. Plerumque

in pinna pectorali piscis parasitat.

Descr. Femina. Scutum cephalicum maximum, totum truncum

cum cauda et pedibus tegens, plus dimidio longius quam latius,

zequaliter convexum, antice ad lobum frontalem abrupte sinuato-

angustatum, angulis utrinque rotundatis, lateribus subparallelis,

parum rotundatis, fissura angustiore, fere ad medium scuti longitu-

dinis ducta bipartitum, laciniis apice late et oblique rotundatis; supra

leeve, subtus ad margines antice, presertim capitis, denticulis

minutissimis dense sparsum. Pars media (cephalica) medio scuto

duplo angustior, latitudine plus dimidio longior, margine antico

(frontali) rotundato-triangulo, sulco utrinque valde manifesto, forma

fere literee S, a reliquo scuto separata et costis duabus chitinosis, in

medio appropinquantibus, ut in 4. foliaceo cet., preedita.—Truncus

convexus, postice paullo angustatus, segmentis duplo latioribus quam

longioribus; segm. quarto utrinque laminam oblongam, incurvam,

apice rotundatam, caudz dorso impositain gerentie. Cauda maxima,

eadem circiter longitudine ac latitudine, segmentis 4 trunci conjunc-

tim non brevior, 4 totius corporis longitudine zequans, in lateribus

rotundata, antice ad segm. trunci quartum excipiendum angulis

rotundatis subemarginata, postice fissura, fere ad medium longitu-

dinis ducta, in duas lacinias rotundato-triangulas divisa. Appendices

minutze, cylindratee, diametro multo longiores.

Oculi sat parvi, semilunati. Macula ocellaris ab oculis multo

longius distat, quam ili inter se.

Antenne in fovea communi utrinque ante oculos locate marginem

capitis minime attingunt. Ant. primi paris robuste ; art. 18

brevis, subtriangulus, aculeo forti armatus ; art. 2° oblongus, brevior

et crassior quam in A. coregoni et foliaceo, apice in uncum fortissi-

mum incurvo, angulo vel dente acuto antrorsum et intus directo ad

basin in latere anteriore, uncoque forti fere in medio lateris posterioris

armatus ; appendix tenuis, parum ultra apicem antennze pertinens,

articulis 2: art. 1$ latitudine multis partibus longior, in apice postice

seta brevi, lata, acuminata instructus, art. 2° fere triplo, brevior et

paullo angustior quam art. 15, subacuminatus.

Ant. secundi paris longitudine priorum, at inter se multo

longius distantes, ad basin crasse, extus tenues, articulis 5, subcy-

lindratis. Art. 18 diametro paullo longior, unco forti ad basin

postice ; art. 28 prioris fere crassitudine, sed duplo brevior, apice an-

tice rotundato-fornicato, articulum 3™ postice gerente, qui articulus

3-plo angustior est, subcurvatus, diametro 3—4-plo longior, in latere

anteriore pilosus ; art. 45 priore duplo angustior et paullo brevior est,

versus apicem pilosus; art. 5° eo etiam angustior et duplo brevior,

subangustatus, in apice subpilosus.—Pone antennas dens vel wacus

auxiliaris fortis utrinque adest, cum unco art. primi antenn. primi

paris trapezium latius quam Jongius formans.

Stimulus longissimus est, et suleo profundo, lato, antice dilatato,

in lateribus transverse striato, apice acuminato inter antennas secundi

paris ducto excipitur ; vagina verticulam ad basin ostendit et sulco

illo longior est; porrectus ultra antennas primi paris pertinere

videtur.

160 M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Sipho tenuis, subcylindratus, in lateribus subsinuatus, in apice

circa + millim. latus, diametro saltem 3-plo longior, retro et deorsum

directus, paullo pone stimulum oriens, paullo ultra basin maxillipe-

dum secundi paris pertinens. Apex Jabio transverso rotundato-

triangulo, forma fere cuculli, subtus aperto efficitur, cujus in fundo

apertura oris se ostendit, maxillis definita. Margo labii in media

parte membranula tenuissima, striata auctus. Mazille oblonge,

apice rotundatee, in margine interno non dentate, divaricantes, ad

basin costa lata, chitinosa conjunctee. Mandibule transverse posite,

in ipsa apertura oris apparentes, ad basin late, subquadrate, tum

repente supra angustatze, reliqua parte oblonga, subangustata, in

margine inferiore versus apicem et in ipso apice obtuso dentibus

paucioribus armateze.

Cotyledones (maxillipedes primi paris) parve, diametro +1, longi-

tudinis totius corporis vix superantes, radiis marginis circa 65.

Mazillipedes secundi paris breves, basi fortes, articulis 3 ultimis

tenuioribus. Ex articulis 5 constare videntur : art. 1° foras directus

crassissimus, postice”convexus, pectine postice latiore, antice rotun-

dato, latitudine paullo longiore, glabro, plaga scabra nulla, dentibus

3 minoribus acuminatis eademque fere magnitudine armato. Art.

2° angustior et brevior, subconicus, deorsum et antrorsum directus,

articulo vel patel/a quasi auctus, que instar cotyledonis supra basin

articuli proximi eminet. Articuli sequentes retro et paullo foras

directi sunt : art. 3° subcylindratus, latitudine duplo longior ; art. 48

paullo angustior, latitudine non longior, intus rotundato-dilatatus ;

art. 55 minutus, priore dimidio brevior at multo angustior, subovatus,

intus versus apicem abrupte angustatus, inermis.

Inter basin maxillipedum secundi paris adsunt dentes vel unci duo,

fortes, cum aliis duobus multo minoribus pone eos sitis trapezium

postice latius formantes.

Pedes breves, tenues, ultra marginem scuti vix prominentes,

Jflagello carentes. Par. 1-3™ eadem fere sunt forma et longitudine,

stipite compresso, subzequali, articulis 3, quorum 1S brevissimus est,

28 diametro breviore dimidio longiore, 3°ad apicem rotundato-acumina-

tus, diametro illo vix vel parum longior. Rami parvi, stipite dimidio

ad duplo breviores, ad basin crassi, extus acuminati, ramo superiore

crassiore et paullo longiore, in marginibus pilosi. Ramus inferior

pedum terti paris differt in eo, quod ex articulis 2 constat, primo

breviore et crassiore, subeylindrato, diametro fere duplo longiore.

Pedes quarti paris reliquis dissimiles, magis retro directi, et ita

segmento ultimo trunci affixi, ut angulum rectum inter se forment.

Stipes ex 2 articulis constat: art. 18 basi truncatus et subrectangulus

est, extus latitudine brevior, intus ita angustato-productus, ut duplo

longior quam latior evadat, norme formam simulans. Excipit extus

artic. 2", qui eadem fere est longitudine, subcylindratus, in latere

interiore leviter rotundatus, diametro plus duplo longior. Rami

longitudine circiter articuli prioris, forma ut in pedibus tertii paris,

art. primo rami inferioris multo crassiore et parum breviore quam

art. 25.

Color (in vivo): scutum cephalicum pallide czeruleo-virescens,

M. T. Thorell on ¢wo European Argulide. 161

rarius albo punctatum, vittis in utraque ala 3 violaceis, parallelis,

versus apicem scuti latioribus et confluentibus, et linea tenui, obscurius

violacea, antice introrsum geniculata, inter vittas duas interiores ducta.

Lobus frontalis margine subviolaceo. Rami gastrici luteo-fusci.

Ovarium in dorso perlucens album, dense violaceo punctatum, linea

media ad longitudinem ducta, purius alba geminatum. Cauda scuto

pallidior, densius albo punctata, versus apicem et in margine externo

pallide violacea, vitta violacea ad marginem internum, receptaculis

seminis obscure fuscis. Truncus subtus in medio late fuscus, in

lateribus albicans, ipso margine cum stipite pedum czeruleo-virescens,

Dentes corporis, partium oris, maxillipedum cet., cum annulo

chitinoso cotyledonum fusci. Partes oris ceterum, ut rami pedum,

hyaline.

With regard to the internal conformation of the animal, I have

only the following to communicate. It differs from A. foliaceus

in the fact that the large side branches of the stomach send out

smaller branches, not only on the outer but on the inner side

also. The outbranchings of the stomach are on the following

plan :—Immediately before the first pair of legs the stomach

sends out on either side a strong, outwardly and somewhat

backwardly directed stem, which, when it has attained almost

the middle of the wing of the shield, bends backwards at almost

a right angle, sending immediately a strong stem forwards.

This divides soon after into two smaller stems, which stretch

backwards towards the end of the shield, and on either side

send forth numerous branches and subbranches, which, however,

never anastomose with one another. Even the short anteriorly

directed stem branches forward in the same manner. In all

these vessels the rhythmical pulsating backwards and forwards

of the brownish-yellow contents is perceptible im the living

animal. The circulation of the blood is particularly evident in

the broad and thin tail.

The ovary reaches far forward between the second pair of

footjaws, and is therefore somewhat poimted at its anterior

extremity. It is long and narrow (7 millim. long, 2 millim.

broad), and contais a great many eggs, closely a and

adhering together, about } millim. in “Tength and + millim. in

breadth. The eggs show the same formation and. appearance

as in A. foliaceus and A. coregoni. In the living animal the

ovary is transparent through the back as a whitish, thickly

violet-dotted or gan, divided! lengthwise by a clear white band.

Of this fine species I obtained a single specimen in Nice on the

8th March, 1862, a female, Fadia upon the inside of the pec-

teral of Pagellus er ythrinus, Cuv. The right lobe of both the

head-shield and the tail are somewhat shorter in this specimen

than the left, which is undoubtedly only an accidental variat ion.

Risso found this species at Nice, in the month of May, on

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol.xvin. 12

162 M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Selenia luna (Geoffr.), Bonap. (le Caranx magnifique, Citula

Banksii, Risso), commonly attached to the base of the pectoral

of that fish. The female was unknown to him: the male is

distinguished by “ deux petits tubercules coniques, blanchatres

.... situés A la base de la derniére paire de pattes.” In colour

it is said to be ‘‘ d’un pourpre violdtre, traversé par six lignes

longitudinales paralléles, blanchatres.” The description in ‘ Hist.

Nat. d. Crustacés de Nice’ is extremely detailed, but contains

many inaccuracies. The description in ‘ Hist. Nat. d. prince.

prod. de l’Kurope mérid.’ would seem to be only an abstract of

the former. It is accompanied by a figure, in which it is not

easy to recognize an Argulid. In his first-mentioned work,

Risso gives correctly the affinities of the animal, and places it in

Geoffroy’s genus Binoculus, under the name of B. bicornutus.

But in the later work we search in vain for either Binoculus or

Argulus ; with his usual superficiality, Risso there removes the

animal to the family Bopyride, under the name of Agenor (n. g.)

purpureus, by the side of species of the genera Bopyrus and Ce-

crops! A. purpureus deserves, more than any other species of

Argulus, to be made the type of a distinct genus (Agenor, Risso).

Besides the unusual development of the head-shield, it is espe-

cially characterized by the absence of the “ tassel” or flagellum

(“ gissel”?) on the anterior pairs of legs, as also by the two

lamellee on the last segment of the trunk. The parts of the

mouth also show a somewhat different structure, as does the

second pair of maxillipeds, in the peculiar ‘ patella” which is

inserted between the second and third joints of these limbs.

Argulus coregoni, n. sp.

Scutum cephalicum antice utrinque subsinuatum, in 9? inverse

subovatum, vix longius quam Jatius, pedes ultimi paris non

tegens, in ¢ amplissimum, suborbiculatum, laciniis apice se

invicem et omnes pedes tegentibus ; cauda ovata, longitudine

3 reliqui corporis superans, saltem ad medium incisa, laciniis

apice lanceolato-acuminatis; art. 18 antenn. secundi paris dente

minuto armatus; stimulus minutus; sipho subcylindratus ;

cotyledones sat parve, diametro 4—} longitudinis corporis

eequantes ; pecten plaga media oblongo-rotundata scabra,

dentibusque 3 conicis, acuminatis—Long. 9? usque ad 13,

latit. ad 84 millim.; ¢ longit. 104, latit. 8 millim.

Hab. in lacubus majoribus Sueciz mediz et septentrionalis ; in Storsj6n

aliisque lacubus Jemtlandiz a Dr. C. L. Nystrém in Coregono lavareto

Linn. et Thymallo vulgari Nilss. inventus; in LaxsjOn Dalslandiz in

Coregono lavareto et in lacu Vettern in Satmone trutta Linn. a Dr. H.

Widegren quoque captus. In cute externa piscium parasitat.

Descr. Feminx. Corpus in universum eadem est forma atque in

A. foliaceo: ovatum, depressum, supra modice convexum, Scutum

M. T. Thorell on éwo European Argulide. 163

eephalicum inverse subovatum, longitudine maximam latitudinem

(paullo pone medium) parum superante, in lateribus eequaliter rotun-

datum, antice utrinque sinuatum, lobo frontali equaliter rotundato ;

postice late at non profunde (vix ad tertiam longitudinis partem)

excisum, laciniis, a parte posteriore segmenti primi ‘trunci orientibus,

in margine interiore sinuatis, apice rotundatis, fere ad medium seg-

menti ‘ultimi trunci pertinentibus. TZruncus tertiam scuti partem

latitudine zequans, quoad liberus est parum longior quam latior,

postice rotundatus et subangustatus, segmentis subzequalibus, duplo

latioribus quam longioribus, ultimotamen prioribusbreviore sublunato. .

Cauda, longit. 3 totius corporis haud zequans, + vero multo superans,

oblonga est, subovata, basi angusta trunco affixa, in lateribus sub-

rotundata profunde, plerumque ultra medium, fissa, laciniis latitudine

duplo longioribus, apice lanceolato-acuminatis. Ad basin caudee

subtus eique adnata adest lamina parva, breviter subovata, apice in

formam trianguli inciso, longitudine diametrum artic. ultimi pedum

quarti paris haud superans. Appendices supra in fundo fissuree mi-

nutissimee sunt, cylindrate, diametro circa 3-plo longiores, in apice

pilis 4—5 instructe.

Oculi rotundati, oblongi, inter se paullo longius quam a margine

capitis distantes. Maculaocularis cumoculis triangulum equilaterum

format.

Antenne utriusque lateris, e callo obliquo exeuntes, foras et an-

trorsum directz sunt; latera capitis ad eas excipiendas utrinque in

foveam sunt excavata. Ant. primi paris, inter se sat longe distantes,

ex art. 2 constant: 1° brevissimus, aculeo forti subtus armatus ; 2°

oblongus, extus angustatus et in unguem fortem, incurvum produc-

tus, tuberculo foras directo versus basin in margine anteriore, in

margine vero posteriore, paullo supra hoc, unco forti armatus. E

laterearticuli superiore et posteriore, infra medium ejus affixa, excurrit

appendix longa, tenuis, augusta, parum ultra ipsam antennam per-

tinens, articulis 2, primo longo, subzequali, in apice setam fortem et

articulum secundum gerente, hoc art. illo triplo saltem breviore, paullo

angustiore, duplo longiore quam latiore, apice rotundato, piloso, °

Antenne secundi paris prioribus paullo breviores sunt et fere duplo

longius inter se remotee, articulis 5: 2 primis crassis, reliquis tenui-

bus. Art. 1° fere eque latus ac longus, in latere postico dente mi-

nuto armatus ; art. 2° paullo angustior, et duplo fere brevior ; art. 3°

multo angustior quam art. 2°, oe duplo longior ; art. 4° etiam

paullo angustior et brevior ; art. 5° priore paulo” brevior et duplo

angustior. Ommnes art. in apice pilis aliquot brevibus istructi.

Paullo pone antennas utrinque adest wncus auxiliaris fortissimus,

eallo illo antennarum ab iis divisus, unco articuli primi antenn. primi

paris robustior. Quattuor unci, quorum meminimus, trapezium for-

mant antice latius, latitudine antica fere duplo brevius.

Stimulus in medio inter cotyledones oriens, sulco profundo,

usque inter antennas primi paris ducto receptus, tenuis est et brevis,

parum conspicuus, ad basin antennarum secundi paris, versus quam

porrigitur, nullo modo pertinens, vagina tertiam partem longitudinis

sulci fere equante.

12*

164 M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Stpho e sulco stimuli im medio inter cotyledones surgens, retro et

deorsum directus, basi innititur costis duabus crassis, postice divari-

cantibus, foveam latam et profundam definientibus. Brevis est

satisque tenuis, non ad basin maxillipedum secundi paris pertinens,

diametro plus duplo longior, subcylindratus, versus apicem tamen

paullulo incrassatus, ipso apice planitiem fere libratam formante.

Tubum format tenuem, costam _utrinque fortem chitinosam, ipsi

parieti siphonis innatam, a basi ejus versus apicem ductam, aliasque

duas ejusmodi costas liberas includentem. Qu coste omnes in

apice siphonis ad pegma satis complicatum, instrumenta manduca-

tionis gerens, formandum concurrunt. Ipsa apertura oris, que forma

fere trianguli est, postice definitur labio quodam mobili, semilunato,

euculli instar, in lateribus vero mawzillis duabus oblongis, divarican-

tibus, in apice rotundatis, in margine interno subrecto dentatis, callo

chitinoso fere H- vel X-formi ad basin (antice) conjunctis, qui callus

cum costis illis chitinosis quoque conjunctus est. Etiam profundius

observantur mandibule, transverse positee, oblongz, basi late, versus

apicem angustate et sursum subcurvate, in apice aculeis minutis

quasi pilosee, ante apicem in margine convexo (inferiore et interiore)

dentibus tribus gradatim majoribus, ultimo in apice bifido, armate.

Ipsa mandibula et maxilla plerumque aliam mandibulam vel maxillam

supplementarem includit.

Cotyledones (maaillipedes primi paris) sat parvee, } a7 longitudinis

scuti diametro apicali zequantes, a margine scuti et inter se paullo

plus quam diametro illo distantes. Radios marginis plus 80

numeravi; ipse margo plerumque inzequaliter dentatus, quasi lacerus

est.

Mavillipedes secundi paris extensi non ad marginem scuti perti-

nent. Art. 1* brevis, crassus, postice valde convexus ; pecten obli-

quus, in margine interiore fortiter sinuatus, latitudine media fere

duplo longior, plaga dentibus hispida rotundata, oblonga, subobliqua,

maximam “Jatitudinis partem occupante preeditus dentibusque 3 forti-

bus, longis, acuminatis armatus. Art. 2° versus apicem angustatus,

latit. media duplo longior ; art. 3° eo multo angustior, duplo brevior,

subcylindratus ; art. 4° etiam angustior, subquadratus ; art. 5° priore

minor, oblongus, apice in digitum, articulo minuto auctum excurrente

et 2 aculeis minutis, cur oar armato.

Inter maxillipedes secundi paris adsunt dentes vel wnci duo, et pone

eos alii duo, ante basin pedum primi paris siti, qui prioribus paullo

minores sunt et paullo magis inter se remot.

Pedes versus apicem satis eequaliter angustati, e stipite compresso

binisque ramis consistunt, primi et secundi paris flagello introrsum

directo preeterea instructi. Par. 1- 3' eadem fere longitudine sunt,

ultra marginem scuti pertinentes, primi paris reliquis t ‘amen paullo

breviores. S¢éipes, in latere posteriore versus apicem pilis plumatis

vestitus, ex 3 articulis parum distinctis compositus est. Art. 1°

omnium parium brevissimus est; art. 2° ordine gradatim paullo

brevior, art. 3° gradatim paullo ‘longior evadit : art. 2° diametro

breviore fere duplo (primi paris)—vix dimidio longior est; art. 3°

priore fere duplo (primi paris) —parum brevior, paulloque angustior,

M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 165

versus apicem subangustatus, diametro illa non (primi paris )—di-

midio longior. Rami stipite paullo longiores, equaliter angustati,

subrecurvi, pilis crebris longis, plumatis, curvatis in latere posteriore

et versus apicem vestiti, non distincte annulati; ramus superior in-

feriore parum longior est, at versus basin multo crassior. Flagellum,

quod prope apicem art. 3° stipitis in latere ejus superiore initium

capit, longitudine stipitis est, tenue et angustum, parum curvatum,

in margine postico plumato-pilesum, in apice setis 2 fortibus, cur-

vatis instructum. Ramus inferior pedum tertii paris (ut et quarti

paris) a reliquis in eo differt, quod verticula manifesta in duos arti-

culos divisus est, art. 2° altero dimidio longiore.

Pedes quarti paris, qui non a scuto teguntur, prioribus paullo

breviores sunt, stipite presertim breviore, articulis tantum 2, in

margine postico toto plumato piloso. Art. 1° latitudine brevior est,

basi postice in lobum rotundatum, oblique introrsum directum pro-

ductus; art. 2° paullo angustior, versus apicem subangustatus, dia-

metro breviore dimidiolongior. Ramus inferior paullo ante medium

verticula in duas partes divisa.

Color (in exemplis in spiritu vini asservatis) virescens, albicans

vel rufescens. In alis scuti subtus valde manifestee sunt plage dus,

colore pallidiore, nigra linea limitatz, anteriore parva, posteriore

magna, oblonga, a maxillipedibus secundi paris usque inter pedes

secundi et tertii paris pertinente. Cauda ad basin supra plagam

fuscam, interdum in duas divisam ostendit, cujus ad basin receptacula

seminis maculas duas rotundatas fusciores formant.

Mas in eo presertim a femina differt, quod scutum cephalicum

multo est amplius, eque latum ac longum, suborbiculatum, omnes

pedes et basin caudz tegens, laciniarum lateralium altera alteri ita

incumbente, ut spatium parvum, subtriangulum tautum inter se re-

linquant. Lobus frontalis latior, minus rotundatus, subtruncatus.

Cauda \amina illa parva ad basin subtus caret ; lacinize ejus acutiores

sunt, appendices angustiores : testes inverse et anguste ovati, a basi

ultra fissuram porrecti, longitudine 2 caudz non zequantes.

Pedes parium 2—4' quoque a feminze diversi sunt, izstrumentis

copulationis preediti. Art. 2° pedum secundi paris in latere postico

tres procursus rotundatos ostendit, duos infra, quorum alter prope

basin, alter versus apicem situs est, tertius supra, versus basin arti-

culi. Flagellum horum pedum longius est quam pedum primi

paris. Pedes ¢ertii paris magis etiam diversi: in latere anteriore,

supra, art. 2° ad basin eminentiam parvam, fere semicirculatam gerit,

et prope hance, ad apicem, in dentem mollem productus est ; art.

3° procursum longiorem, apice rotundatum, huic denti quasi incum-

bentem ad basin ostendit ; in latere posterviore adest eminentia major,

fere semicirculata, art. 2° et 3° conjunctis imposita (capsula seminis),

et ipse ramus superior horum pedum basi in formam dentis versus

procursum illum productus est. Pedes quarti paris art. 1" non adeo

introrsum dilatatum habent atque in 9; art. 2° brevior est, quam in

illa, in latere anteriore versus apicem procursu forti armatus, cujus

apex in aculeos vel digitos excurrit, uno (intimo) eorum subincurvo,

apice incrassato et rotundato, in latere concavo denticulato.

166 M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Internal structure.—As is the case in A. foliaceus, the cen-

tral portion of the nervous system is highly concentrated. Es-

sentially the two species agree in what concerns this portion of

the nervous system; but there are still many differences which

it is not difficult to detect. In A. coregoni the ventral series

of ganglia reaches only from the throat to the base of the

second pair of footjaws, and is about 15 millim. long. This

proceeds with two short strong arms encircling the throat to

the brain, which seen from above is almost quadrate, though

somewhat longer than broad, rounded behind, diminishing

somewhat anteriorly, and here giving off the two strong nerves

for the organs of vision. From above the brain shows the

usual portion dilated into three lobes and bears the single

ocellus. The ventral cord consists of six ganglia, which are

situated close upon one another, without any well-marked

commissure, but are all evidently separate. The first ganglion

is much longer than the others, rounded, and separated by

a stronger constriction from the rest of the series. The five fol-

lowing ganglia form a common, oblong division, which is some-

what diminished towards the extremity. The last ganglion is

rather longer and smaller than the foregoing, the breadth of

which is more than double their length. They are bent inwards

on the hinder surface, and are somewhat more transparent in the

middle part, showing thereby that they originally consist of two

lateral halves.

But it is more especiallyin the number and course of the nervous

stems proceeding from this central chain of ganglia that A. coregont

differs from A. foliaceus, at least according to the exposition of

the nervous system of this latter species given by Leydig *. In

A. foliaceus the ventral cord is similarly composed of six gan-

glia, but, strangely enough, no nerve-stems proceed from the

second, fourth, and fifth of these. The first and third each give

off one pair of nerves, the sixth three pairs, of which the inner-

most (last) passes into the head-shield, the others branching off

to the second pair of footjaws and the legs. With A. coregoni,

however, the case is quite different. The first ganglion gives off

on either side one strong stem (as in A. foliaceus, where this

stem gives off one branch to the sucking-cups, another to the

second pair of footjaws) ; from each of all the following ganglia

proceed two pairs of nerves; and these nerves unite with ¢wo

bundles extending, one on each side of the trunk, as far as the

tail. The further course of the various nervous stems I have

not been fortunate enough to make out clearly: whether some

of them branch forward or become fused together (as in A. folt-

aceus) I cannot venture to determine; for I entertain doubts on

* Ueber Arg. fol. p. 329.

M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 167

this point. That one of the anterior pairs of nerves runs into

the second pair of tootjaws, that, moreover, out of the lateral

bundles a nerve proceeds to each leg, and that the last (inner-

most) pair of nerves passes unbranching to the tail, I have, how-

ever, ascertained. No doubt certain stems proceed to the head-

shield, although I have not been able to follow them thither.

Of the two pairs of nerves which radiate from each of the second

to the fifth ganglia, the foremost, which is also the thickest, pro-

ceeds from the margin of the ganglion, the hinder one from its

underside. The nerves of the sixth ganglion are almost equally

strong ; those of one pair start from its side, those of the other

from its hinder margin.

The eyes seem to be entirely similar in structure to those of

A. foliaceus. The number of crystalline cones I have found to

vary between 40 and 50. ‘The single eye-spot consists of pig-

ment only, without crystalline bodies.

The intestinal canal.—The narrow, chitinous gullet proceeds

in a bowed shape to the stomach, where it opens, by means of a

cup-like organ, into a cardia, which, however, is longer and

narrower than in A. foliaceus. The length of this organ is about

0:33, its greatest breadth 0-15, and its least breadth 0-09 millim.

The mouth of this organ is thickly set with papilla or obtuse

teeth. Before its entrance into this latter the gullet shows an

increase of width (its greatest diameter being about 0:06 millim.,

its diameter where it enters the cardia about 0°04 millim.).

The stomach itself is a short, spacious, posteriorly rounded

sac, which passes into the intestine between the first two pairs

of swimming-feet, being, however, distinctly separated therefrom.

On either side the stomach sends forth a strong branch into the

head-shield ; the further outbranchings of this are not easily fol-

lowed in a specimen in spirits ; and therefore I cannot venture to

state whether such branches are directed outwards only, as in

A. foliaceus, or whether, as in A. purpureus, they proceed from

the larger stems inwards as well as outwards.

The intestine extends as a spacious, gradually tapering tube

from the stomachal sac to the anal opening, which is situated

between the appendages of the tail.

The heart or dorsal vessel I have not been able to separate

distinctly. I regard the tail as a respiratory organ which, on

its inner surface, shows a copious network of muscular fibres,

the contractions of which keep the nourishing fluid in quick and

powerful motion.

Generative organs.—In full-grown females the ovary forms an

oval mass, which extends from the base of the second pair of

footjaws to the base of the tail, where the opening is situated in

a low rounded projection. The surrounding membrane stretches

168 M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

along the middle line of the upper surface of the adult animal,

and is marked on either side of this median line with large dark

spots, arranged in rows. In the sae which is formed by this

membrane the eggs are closely packed together, sometimes

rather firmly attached to each other, sometimes apparently quite

free. They surround here a smaller, almost cylindrical organ

(the true ovarium), to which the innermost eggs are firmly at-

tached. I have sometimes found that this organ contained a

large number of eggs in a very early stage of development, while

those lying outside were fully matured. I conjecture that these,

after they are laidand sufficiently matured, becomesevered from the

spot where they were formed, and so come to be immediately en-

closed in the outer membrane of the ovary. Thus Leydig’s sug-

gestion that the ovaries in A. foliaceus are ‘a simple bag” does

not apply to A. coregont.

‘The number of the matured eggs is very variable. In a large

specimen I have reckoned about 350 points. In appearance

they are exactly like the eggs of A. folzaceus. Their length is

about 4, their breadth about 3 millim. The receptacula seminis

are situated, as in A. foliaceus, at the base of the tail. They

have the form of an almost spherical bladder, from which a long

channel of communication, with thick walls and a very narrow

passage, proceeds to a conical papilla situated im a concavity on

the side and somewhat behind the mouth of the ovary. In this

passage, rather nearer to the papilla than to the receptacle, 1s the

commencement or opening of another blind, crooked canal, spiral

towards the end: in A. foliaceus two such canals are found.

The receptacle itself is, im young specimens, perfectly empty, but

in the older ones it contains another bladder, of a darker colour.

Such is the case also in A. foliaceus, where, according to Leydig,

this inner bladder first shows itself after pairing, and is full of

spermatozoids. It seems to be perfectly closed, and may easily

be taken out of the receptacle without breaking. Leydig asserts

that its membrane is produced in A. foliaceus into a homo-

geneous thread, which stretches through the channel as far as

the tip of the papilla. I have not found such a thread in 4.

coregont. The passage of this channel of communication pre-

sents just the same optical appearance in individuals with or

without the spermatozoid-bladder already mentioned ; and the

passage of the accessory canal is perfectly lke that of this chan-

nel. If such a thread as that which Leydig speaks of were pre-

sent here, it would certainly produce a streak in the canal.

Moreover, when the bladder is taken out, a portion of the

thread would follow if such were really present; this, however,

does not occur, and I have been equally unable to detect it by

cutting asunder the channel of the receptacle.

Dr. W. Nylander on new Chemical Tests for Lichens. 169

The two testicles are small, ovate, and extend some distance

beneath each of the tail-lobes. The seminal vesicle in the pos-

terior part of the trunk is oblong oyate, and sends forth on either

side a capacious backwardly directed ductus deferens, which

opens at the extremity of the trunk. The accessory glands, which

no doubt exist, I have not been able to discover. Of the external

organs of generation, which are much more complicated than in

A. foliaceus, I have already given an account.

The species of Argu/lus which we have just described was first

found in the lakes of Jemtland by Dr. C. L. Nystrém, on both

the Coregonus and the Grayling. The species of Coregonus

which is most generally met with there is C./avaretus, Linn.; and,

according to the verbal communications I have received, it is on

this species that A. coregoni was found, although it undoubtedly

affects other species of that genus. Mag. H. Widegren has

found and sent me several specimens from salmon-lakes in Dals-

land, taken also from Coregonus lavaretus, and has asserted,

moreover, that it occurs on Salmo trutta in the Vettern. The

species is probably widely spread over Scandinavia.

In Dr. Nystrém’s already cited “Observations on the River-fauna

of Jemtland,” on p. 19, are the following remarks with reference

to Argulus coregoni :—One of the parasites of the Gwyniad is re-

markable from the fact of its giving a preference to a particular

fish. An unusually large species of Argulus fastens itself at cer-

tain times in summer, in large numbers, on the Gwyniad, and

also, though less readily, on the Grayling. Almost every fish

has, during this time, one or several of these blood-suckers on its

body, which bite it till the belly is quite drained of the blood.

The fishes then hurry in crowds to certain parts of the lake

where probably the currents are colder, and fall in large quanti-

ties into the nets which are there spread for them. This fishery

lasts but a short time, perhaps two days only, but produces

during*that time in some localities several tons of fish.

(To be continued. }

XXVII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. IX.

By the Rev. W. A. Lricuton, B.A., F.L.S.

Dr. Nytanper, with his usual skill and sagacity, has recently

discovered two new chemical tests or criteria which are likely to

prove of great value in the study of Lichens, not only in the

discrimination of many difficult and closely allied species, but

also in associating varieties with their proper species, and in

some instances in defining the affinities of genera. These tests

are applied to the thallus ; and their usefulness is at once demon-

170 Dr. W. Nylander on new Chemical Tests for Lichens.

strated and enhanced by the fact that the very smallest frustule

is sufficient to determine the lichen submitted to them, and that

whether in the sterile or fertile state, and even in the youngest

condition. They are the hypochlorite of lime and the hydrate

of potash ; and the details of their reaction will be found in the

‘Flora’ of May 12 and 13, 1866, and more at large in an ela-

borate paper in the Journal of the Linnean Society of London.

The reactions take place in a powder or colorable material

which is generated in the gonidial stratum of the thallus. In

the Roccelle, which are destitute of a cortical layer, the reaction

is at once visible ; but in the Parmelie and all other lichens which

possess a cortical layer it is necessary to scrape off that organ,

and to expose the subjacent medulla, in which the reaction takes

place ; and this is perfectly visible to the naked eye, and requires

no aid of the microscope. Dr. Nylander attributes the red re-

action of the hypochlorite of lime to the presence of “ erythric

acid ;” and its operation is beautifully exhibited in Combea mol-

lusca, Roccella Montagnei (soredia not coloured), R. Sinensis, R.

tinctoria, R. phycopsis (soredia not coloured), in the Dirine

(proving their affinity with Roccella), and in the Urceolaria of

the group of U. scruposa and its allies. No reaction, however,

can be detected in Roccella fuciformis (éxcept im the soredia),

R. hypomecha, R. Gayana, R. intricata, and R. leucophea.

The red reaction of hypochlorite of lime is observable in the

medulla of. the following Parmelie—viz. tiliacea, revoluta, carpo-

rhizans, olivetorum, osteoleuca, hypoleucites, polycarpa, Borreri ;

whilst no reaction can be detected in P. saxatilis, perlata, perfo-

rata, cervicornis, levigata, sinuosa, latissima, reducens, tenuirimis,

mutabilis, physcwordes, livida, hypotropa, caperata, physodes, con-

spersa, and olwvacea.

The other reactive, hydrate of potash, is of practical importance

in Lichens whose natural colour is yellow, orange, or red; and

the reaction occurs in the powder generated on the surface of the

thallus and the apothecia. The red or purple colour produced

on the application of the reagent is due to the presence of

“ chrysophanic acid,” and it is visible in Physcia parietina and

lychnea, in the species of the group of Lecanora cerina, in young

Physcie and Placodia, in the apothecia of the erythrocarpous

Cladonie, in the apothecia of Lecanora ventosa, hématomma,

erythromma, Lecidea Domingensis, flavocrocea, chrysosticta, leuco-

zantha, cinnabarina, russula, &c. On the contrary, no red re-

action is observable in Lecanora candellaria and vitellina, or in

chrysophthalma, epanora, Schleicheri, chlorophana, oreina, Derma-

tiscum, Lecidea lucida, yeographica, Thelocarpon, &c.

The hydrate of potash manifests also the presence of “ usneic”

and ‘‘lecanoric acids”? by producing a yellow colour on the

Mr. E. Parfitt on two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa. 171

thallus. Thus Lecanora subfusca, which exhibits the yellow

reaction, is distinguishable at once from ZL. umbrina, dispersa,

and conferta, in which no such reaction is visible.

The same reactive operates on other Lichens by producing a

yellow colour which quickly changes into a red or purple. Of

this a good example is Lecanora cinerea, which is thus distin-

guished from gibbosa (and its varieties calcarea, lacustris, &c.),

in which there is no reaction. The L. cinereo-rufescens, Anazi,

Langob. 73, has the same reaction as cinerea, proving it to be

only a variety of that species, whilst the true cinereo-rufescens

(and its forms diamarta and obscurata) has no reaction. The

reaction takes place also in Lecanora oculata, blanda, ochroidea,

whilst there is none in L. mutabilis and verrucosa.

To the above many other instances might be added ; but these

will be sufficient to show the applicability of these valuable tests.

XXVIII.—On two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.

By E. Parrirt, Ksq.

| Plate XII]

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I have much pleasure in introducing to your notice two new

species of freshwater Polyzoa met with by me in my investiga-

tions of the Devonshire fauna, in the compilation of which in a

catalogue form, with notes and observations, I have been engaged

for nearly two years; and I hope by-and-by to publish it.

The tracings enclosed are made from my own drawings taken

from the life, which I hope your artist will be able to use.

As an appendix to Prof. Allman’s beautiful monograph of the

Freshwater Polyzoa, I beg leave to add the description of the

statoblasts of Paludicella Ehrenbergi, as they had not been seen

by the learned author, and I have been fortunate enough to

meet with several :—

The outline is a very elongated ellipse, the cell very small as

compared with the very broad border, plano-convex; the cell

reddish brown, the annulus or border bluish purple, beautifully

reticulated and reflecting the prismatic colours.

They were arranged three in each tube, placed end to end.

I have met with a variety of Paludicella which I shall have

something to say about at some future time.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

Exeter, Aug. 3, 1866. Epwarp Parrirt,

172 Mr. E. Parfitt on two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.

Plumatella lineata, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 1-3.

Coenecium creeping, adherent, somewhat radiating, reddish

horn-colour, cylindrical, with eight or ten dark-brown longitu-

dinal lines running the whole length of the tubes.

Polype-cells barrel-shaped, hyaline, the mouth entire, each

having five or six distinct dark-brown annulations, slightly con-

stricted at each annulus. ;

The orifices or polype-cells frequently produced in pairs.

Animal white, or with a faint tinge of yellow, having the

longest tentacles of any species I have seen.

Calyx none? Tentacles sixty-two.

Statoblasts dark reddish brown, elliptical, with a broad yellow

margin.

Habitat. On the underside of the leaves of water-lilies in a

pond in Mr. Veitch’s old Nursery, Topsham Road, Exeter,

July 1866.

In habit this species is like that described by Van Beneden

and named by Prof. Allman P. stricta. The form of the stato-

blast is the same, but the description appended to that species

is so brief that I cannot pronounce the one under consideration

and P. stricta to be the same. Nothing is said of the peculiar

lineated appearance of the tubes as seen in this, which to me

marks it at once as distinct; and the peculiar dark annulations

on the polype-cells form another good distinction.

The animal is the largest and I may say the grandest of all

the species that have come under my notice, either in reading

or seeing the animals themselves ; its name ought to be Pluma,

without the diminutive termination. They have a peculiarity

of half withdrawing themselves within their cells, so that their

long flexible tentacles alone protrude; these are then made to

sweep the water, waving to and fro something like the Tere-

bellas in the sea.

Plumatella Limnas, nu. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 4-8.

Coencecium adherent, branched, the branches growing mostly

in pairs, and slightly enlarged towards the orifices, which are

somewhat conical, not occupying the extreme end of the tubes,

transparent, entire, and raised above the tubes, with three or

four folds or rings towards the base. The whole upper half of

the tubes or polypidom transparent, hyaline, showing under

condensed light a very faint line of dusky granules running the

whole length of the tubes. The inferior half of the tubes opake

and coated with grains of reddish-brown matter; these opake

walls are white inside the tube, and are made up of pentagonal

cells, the walls of which are very thick in comparison with the

size of the area of the cells.

Prof. J. C. Schiddte on Buprestide and Elateride. 173

Animal white; tentacula fifty to fifty-four. Calyx festooned.

Statoblasts elliptical, yellow, with a narrow blackish ring

dividing the cell from the narrow purple rim or annulus which

surrounds it. The cell is beautifully reticulated externally.

Two out of the three statoblasts observed had a slight constric-

tion on one side, which gave them a slightly reniform outline.

Habitat. On an old valve of Anodon cygneus, in the canal,

Exeter, June 23, 1866.

This appears to be a very distinct species, and is allied or,

rather, belongs to that section of the genus to which P. emar-

ginata belongs, viz. with a line or ridge along the upper part of

the diaphanous tube. But the line of demarcation between the

diaphanous portion of the tube in this species and the thick opake

walls of the inferior half gives it, even at first sight, a very dis-

tinct and marked appearance. Another striking peculiarity is

that the tubes grow mostly in pairs, and are very closely adhe-

rent to the matrix, except the polype-cell, which stands up con-

spicuously near the end of the tube.

Length of the coencecium 10 lines.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Plumatella lineata: coencecium, nat. size, or 2 inches in its longest

diameter.

Fig. 2. A portion of the same, enlarged, showing the animais protruded,

and one partly withdrawn within its cell.

Fig. 3. Statoblast.

Fig. 4. Plumatella Limnas: ccencecium, enlarged.

Fig. 5. Polype-cell, showing its position at the end of the tube.

Fig. 6. Showing the true polype-cell within the ectocyst.

Fig. 7. The polype expanded.

Fig. 8. Statoblast.

XXIX.— On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride, with

special regard to the Danish Fauna. By Prof. J.C. Scui6pre*.

By the well-known and valuable researches of Eschscholtz (pub-

lished in Thon’s ‘ Entomologisches Archiv,’ 11., and in Silber-

mann’s ‘Revue Entomologique,’ vol. iv.) attention was drawn toa

great number of hitherto unobserved points in the external

structure of Elateride, on which he founded an artificial classifi-

cation of that family; and since then, the remainder of Latreille’s

Sternozi have been subjected by other entomologists to an ana-

logous examination, resulting in the establishment of more than

* Translated from ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift,’ ser. 3. vol. 11, Copen-

hagen, 1865. Accompanied in the original with a plate representing the

organs of the mouth,

174 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

300 genera. The usefulness of this work in procuring at any

rate a temporary survey of the extensive collections which have

accumulated in museums cannot, of course, be doubted; but at

the same time it is but too apparent that this method is entirely

insufficient whenever it is attempted by its means to establish

and satisfactorily circumscribe natural groups. Not even for

the distinction of the two great natural families of Buprestide

and Elateridz have truly scientific characters been forthcoming ;

it has been found necessary to adopt a number of unsatisfactorily

characterized groups, forming, as is supposed, links of transition

between them; and the characters which at length have been

fixed upon as the most distinctive and most generally valid are,

as will be shown hereafter, unstable both in theory and practice,

and unable to stand the test either of morphological criticism

or of careful examination. Two excellent entomologists have

engaged in the study of Elateride, in order to bring about a

more natural view of the relationships; I mean Germar and

Erichson: but, as Lacordaire observes, both have evidently

given it up in despair ; and the last-named author himself, after

long-continued and careful investigations, cannot suggest any

other remedy than, as he expresses himself (Genera des Coléopt.

iv. p. 137), ‘to let tradition make up for the inability of science

to master the subject.”

Lacordaire’s summary of the earlier investigations, and his

general view of the structure, development, and habits of Ster-

noxi, reappears, in all essential points, together with many va-

luable contributions of detail, in the extensive and independent

treatises on these families which have appeared during the last few

years from the hands of Leconte*, Kiesenwetter+, Thomson {,

and Candéze§. In this manner certain views concerning the

principal points in the natural history of these animals have been

temporarily established by the repeated examination and assent

of the greatest modern authorities in this department.

Ll.

If we attempt to extract from all these sources the essence of

the information they offer concerning the larvee of Buprestidee

and Elateride, the result may be thus summed up.

The larvee of Buprestide are soft, elongated, blind, apod, and

live burrowing in timber. Their prothorax is discoid, laterally

distended, their head divided into two parts, of which the smaller

* Classification of the Coleoptera of North America, Part 1. Washing-

ton, 1861-1862.

+ Naturgeschichte der Insecten Deutschlands, iv. Berlin, 1858.

{ Skandimaviens Coleoptera, synoptiskt bearbetade, vi. Lund, 1864.

§ Monographie des Elatérides. Liege, 1857, &c.

of Buprestidz and Elateride. 175

anterior part carrying the organs of the mouth is chitinized,

whilst the larger posterior part containing the mandibular muscles

is soft and retractile within the prothorax. In some, however,

as in the larvee of Diphucrania (New Holland), the prothorax is

not distended ; and the larvee of Trachys, which live in the paren-

chyma of leaves, where they excavate their burrows, are said to

have hard dorsal and ventral shields, free head, two eyes, and

short legs.

Similar to the larve of Buprestide are those of Eucnemide.

The larva of Medasis is only distinguished by the structure of

the mouth, and by the head consisting of one piece only. The

mandibles are not chisel-shaped, as in the larve of Buprestide,

but short, turned outwards, with a hook on their external margin,

close behind the point; and the other buccal organs, which

are free in the larve of Buprestide, are in that of Me/asis repre-

sented by a small plate serrated in front. It is said to live in fresh

timber, forming long irregular galleries, with entirely smooth

and even walls, a piece of the burrow being rounded off in the

shape of a cylinder for the accommodation of the pupa. At the

same time, exceptions occur in the group of Eucnemide as in

that of Buprestide, the larva of Fornax madagascariensis being,

according to Coquerel, flat, depressed, and hard, the prothorax

not distended, the head hard, flattened in front, with a serrated

edge, at perceptible organs of the mouth—nay, without a

buccal orifice; the larva cress in timber, as that of Melasis.

Entirely different from these are the larve of Elateridz.

They are long, slender, with a hard skin, cylindrical or a little

depressed ; the mandibles are hooked and pointed, with an in-

terior tooth; the maxillary lobes and palpi are distinct, the

maxille coalesced with the labium into one piece; the legs are

short and powerful, and the last joint of the body often furnished

with prominent teeth. They are supposed to live on vegetable

matter, many on decaying timber ; sometimes, Poa they

feed on the other larve they happen to fall in with. For more

than a century the larve of Agriotes have been known as dan-

gerous enemies of several cereals, leguminous and other agricul-

tural plants, of which they attack the roots.

Such is a summary of what science hitherto has taught us as

to the history of these larve; but it is quite clear that these

statements do not afford the materials for an accurate estimation

of the systematic relationships of these creatures. Nay, these

statements even contain several details which, on closer exami-

nation, cannot but excite doubt and suspicion, and stimulate to

new investigations.

This: applies, in the first instance, to the statement that in the

larvee of Buprestide the mandibular muscles are not, as usual,

176 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

fixed to the firm sides of the head, but pushed back into a pecu-

liar kind of soft bag behind the head. If anybody were to state

that he knew of a group of Rodentia whose jaw-muscles were

not fixed to the sides of the skull, but accommodated in a mem-

branaceous appendage behind the occiput, the absurdity would

be apparent to every one; but that statement concerning the

mandibular muscles of the larvee of Buprestide implies a diffi-

culty if possible still greater. For as their hard mandibles are

articulated on the firm framework of the mouth by means of

complete cardinal joints, the necessity for a firm support for the

moving muscles is still greater than in Rodentia. The difficulty

is, moreover, enhanced by the fact that the membranaceous part

of the head with the mandibular muscles, when compared with

the smaller anterior part containing the organs of the mouth, in

shape and size appears as a larger circle placed behind a smaller

one, from which it follows that the relative position of the base

of each mandibular muscle and the inner angle of the mandible,

or the point on which the tendon must join the mandible, must

be such that a muscle thus placed could not inflect the mandi-

bles unless the tendon went through a pulley. But such a

pulley-arrangement would seem inapplicable where so great a

force is required as is the case with chisel-shaped instruments

destined in many cases to be used as pincers to detach piece

after piece of sound timber.

This account, which it seems so difficult to reconcile with ge-

neraFtruths, is mainly due to Prof. Erichson (in Archiv fiir Natur-

geschichte, 1841, 1. p. 81), and it has met with universal assent as

the only true solution of the problem (which is certainly not

very easy) how to interpret the peculiar-looking front part

of the body of the larva of Buprestidz. Before him Low had

turned attention to the matter, asserting (in Entomologische

Zeitung Stettin, 1841, p. 35) that the larvee of Chalcophora, “as

those of all Buprestide, are distinguished by the extension of

the prothorax, which is rendered necessary for the reception of

the enormous mandibular muscles.” Low, therefore, agreed

with Ratzeburg in assuming that not the head, but the pro-

thorax, was divided into two parts, of which the anterior part

was soft, the posterior endowed with hard skm. Against Low,

Erichson urged the great anomaly of the mandibular muscles

being placed in the prothorax ; and it seems that this considera-

tion more than any other has led him to the new interpretation

which is now generally adopted ; for in favour of this he appealed

to the fact that the muscles in question did not, as Low thought,

fill the whole prothorax, but only its anterior soft portion, which

he therefore considers to be part of the head, while he considers

that part of the body which Ratzeburg and Low looked upon as

of Buprestide and Elateride. Wan

the whole head to be merely a firm framework for the mouth,

The correctness of this view is generally assumed. Chapuis and

Candéze concur in it entirely, and even try to support it by an

additional argument, which I cannot but think is of very doubt-

ful value—namely, that the head must have soft integuments

for the purpose of being retracted into the prothorax*. On the

subject of Goureau’s theory t, according to which the whole of

the prothorax becomes head, Lacordaire observes that it does

not deserve refutation, that moreover it has been sufficiently

refuted by Léon Dukeds and Perris; he considers Erichson’s

interpretation so decidedly true that he looks upon that of

Ratzeburg and Léw as an almost inexplicable error (Genera des

Coléopt. iv. on Oe

Nevertheless Erichson’s theory offers, as we have seen, insu-

perable difficulties in a physiological point of view ; and it seems

to be quite worth our while to try whether the matter may not

be differently regarded. Let us, then, first of all try to realize

fully the conditions under which the larve have to exist in the

interior of the timber, and compare the structure of other larvee

burrowing in wood, particularly the apod larvee of Cerambycide;

we shall then soon arrive at two important conclusions. In the

first place, the mandibles must possess extremely powerful

flexors, which consequently must be too large to find room in

the proportionally small part which has hitherto been looked

upon as forming the whole head in the larvee of Lami and

Buprestide ; in ‘the second place, the great demands upon the

power and endurance of these apod larvee cannot be satisfied by

the strength of the mandibular muscles alone, however great ;

but power and accuracy in the guidance of the head—that

is, in the application and pressing of the mouth against the

timber during the act of burrowing—is required in no less de-

gree. In these sentences lies the key of the whole complicated

arrangement. A careful dissection will show, what is sufficiently

surprising, that no one has hitherto had an accurate idea of the

real extent, shape, and position of the head in the larva of

either Lamiz or Buprestide. The fact is, that the protruding

anterior part of the head is uninterruptedly continued back-

wards imto a very large skull, which, in the larve of Bupres-

tidee, is so jarge that it actually reaches the very bottom of the

prothorax, so that the neck is on a line with the first pair of

* «En effet, dans ces larves la plaque sous-céphalique, cornée a sa partie

antérieure, est devenue trés-molle dans le reste de son ¢tendue, parce

quelle doit se replier sur elle méme pour rentrer avec les parties de la

bouche dans la gaine que lui forme le prothorax.”’ (Chapuis et Candéze,

Catal. des Larves de Coléopt. pp. 131, 132.)

+ Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. sér. 2. vol. i. p. 26.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 13

178 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

spiracles. With the exception of the middle line, this large

head will be found filled by the powerful flexors of the mandi-

bles, reaching to the foramen occipitale, which is very large and

entirely transferred to the under surface of the head. The head,

then, is for the greater part hidden in the prothorax as in a

sheath, fixed all around and directed by the powerful muscles

of the neck. The whole of the part which is placed inside the

prothorax is only sparingly chitinized; but the action of the

muscles of the neck extending between the outside of the skull

and the walls of the prothorax makes up for any loss of support

which could arise to the mandibular muscles from the want of

hardness in the skull. During the act of burrowing, the pro-

thorax is firmly ensconced between the walls of the gallery, the

numerous grains of chitine with which its surface above and

below is generally beset increasing the firmness of its posi-

tion; and thus every requisite condition is provided—a firmly

placed prothorax affording support for the muscles of the neck

in guiding the head forwards and backwards and to the sides,

and the skull inserted as in a sheath giving support to the

enormous mandibular muscles.

The immense size of the head and its deep insertion into the

prothorax, of course, are the causes of the peculiar shape and

unusual size of the latter part, which has further contributed to

confound the views of entomologists on the structure of the

larvee of Buprestidee*. It has been overlooked by all that in

this case one part of the prothorax is developed at the cost of

the others—namely its anterior portion, the so-called collar (col-

lare prothoracis), which is found in all larve and all imagos of

insects with more or less inserted neck, but which in the larvee

now before us is immensely increased in size. In my paper

on the larve of Coleoptera, published in the ‘ Naturhistorisk

Tidsskrift,’ I describe the dorsal part of this collar as preetergum

pronoti. The rest of the prothorax, which is elsewhere much

the larger, and which serves the locomotory system by accom-

modating the fore legs, is in this case to such a degree reduced

that it seems to be entirely wanting, and the large spiracula

thoracica have not been able to find room as usual on the pro-

thorax, but have been transferred to the lateral folds of the next

ring, pleuree mesothoracis. The larve of Trachys being de-

scribed as possessing a free head and short legs, it will, no

doubt, be found that the larve of Buprestidee will show the same

* In the Mém. de l’Acad. des Se. de Lyon, 1851, pp. 116-120, M. Perris

has given a minute summary of the discussion between Goureau, Lucas,

and Léon Dufour on this subject. Although each of the four authors now

and then has got hold of the clue for a moment, they have always lost it

again, and none of them has succeeded in solving the problem.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 179

series of forms as those of Cerambycide, but in a less degree. In

these latter the collar of the prothorax varies not a little in ex-

tent according to groups and genera, the head being in some cases

deeply inserted into the prothorax, in others tolerably free ; but,

in all of them, so much at least of the principal portion of the pro-

thorax remains that, at any rate on the underside, it appears as a

transverse fold which carries the short legs when such are found.

To the larvee of Lami correspond those of Buprestide, to that of

Trachys the larvee of Lepturini, in which the head is sometimes

so little inserted that it seems to betray a relationship to those

larvee of Curculiones which burrow in timber. When the head

occupies such a position as in the larve of Buprestidae, being

inserted in the prothorax, the skin of the neck must necessarily

be very full, in order to afford the necessary play for the pro-

trusion and retraction of the head ; and in proportion as the in-

sertion of the head is deeper, the skin of the neck is fuller and

more protruding.

It will now appear that although none of the theories above

mentioned have hit upon the facts, they all contain in some way

an element of truth. Loéw’s view is purely anatomical, and

although wrong in a morphological sense (because the mandibu-

lar muscles cannot well be situated in the prothorax of any insect

with articulating mandibles), yet it is so far true that the head

which contains them is itself imbedded in the prothorax ; what

Low has overlooked is the walls of the head. Goureau’s view

is, so to say, that of common sense unshackled by anatomical

or morphological scruples; and from such a point of view the

prothorax might be called the head with perfect justice. Erich-

son’s view is learned and critical, with a theoretical element

inviting attention, but is neither probable in a physiological

point of view nor true in point of anatomy ; it has therefore less

of body or soul than either of those it attempts to reconcile.

What he considers the hind part of the head is merely the dis-

tended skin of the neck.

III.

The striking external similarity between the larvee of Melasis

and those of the Buprestidze has not only served as a principal

argument for looking upon Melasis as a connecting lmk between

Elateridz and Buprestide, and thus exercised a decisive influence

on all the more recent attempts at a new classification of the

Sternoxi, but it has at the same time weighed heavily against

the probability of finding in the study of the larve a sure guide

to the true classification of insects—a circumstance which Ericn-

son has not omitted to mention in the introduction to his in-

structive treatise on the larvee of Coleoptera (in Archiv f. Natur-

13*

180 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

geschichte, 1841, i. p. 62). He admits that very much will

be gained for the classification of insects by a more accurate

knowledge of their earlier stages ; but at the same time he warns

us against entertaining too high expectations as if the progress

of classification principally depended on the study of the meta-

morphoses, and he urges particularly that we must not suppose

that a classification according to the larvze would always coincide

with a classification according to imagos. He mentions -by

way of illustration that one would naturally expect a great simi-

larity between the larvee of Buprestide and those of* Klateride,

which does not really exist, and that the larva of Melasis would

make a nearer approach to the Elater-type than to the Buprestis-

type, whereas the reverse is rather the case. A couple of pages

further on he sums up his remarks in this general result—that,

although it would not be possible to build a classification on the

structure of the larve, it will nevertheless be of the greatest

importance, nay, decidedly necessary, to take that point into

consideration, as it will always do good service as a means of

testing classifications founded on other principles,—a general

statement which I have no doubt sounds so very qualified prin-

cipally because he was checked by the idea that Buprestide and

Elateridee are very nearly allied to one another, though their

larvee are so different, and by the apparently anomalous relations

of the larva of Melasis. But for these poimts being present to

his mind, his verdict would have been much fuller and more

decided. These words, like so many others which have pro-

ceeded from the celebrated entomologist—too early taken away

from his bright scientific career—have awakened an echo in many

a dark corner, and since served as a principal support for the

often repeated and convenient assertion that the earlier stages of

insects correspond in many cases so little to the relationships of

the imagos, that they even at times vary more according to spe-

cies than generally according to genera or families. And thus

it has come about that this view of the larva of Medasis now

stands as a sort of barrier in front of an immense tract of

scientific fallow land, which only by the razing of that barrier

can be made available for new culture.

And this barrier indeed seems indestructible; for how could

anybody presume to doubt that the larva of Melasis, which

presents such a striking external similarity to the typical larva

of Buprestes, also burrows in timber like the latter, seeing that

we possess minute accounts of it by such able entomologists as

Nordlinger* and Perris}, the former of these having, as eel as

Guérin t, even supplied us with drawings of its burrows, gaile-

* Stettin. entom. Zeit. (1848) pp. 225-226, t. 1. fig. 2.

+ Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de Fr. sér. 2. v. 548. = Ibid. i. pl. 5. fig. 4.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 181

ries, and beds for the pupa excavated in the solid timber? At

first sight an attack seems hopeless on so strong a scientific

fortress ; but a closer inspection will, I trust, discover more than

one weak point.

The structure of the larve of Buprestidee is easily understood,

for in every point it exhibits with great consisteney the peculiar

characteristics of an animal burrowing in wood. Such are the

large head deeply seated in the prothorax, the short thick man-

dibles formed like a hollow chisel, the large protruding labrum,

the short, freely developed lower organs of the mouth, the

powerful muscles of the neck, the broad prothorax beset with

grains of chitine, the slender body adapted for creeping through

galleries, the large anal segment, which is turned straight back-

wards. If now the habits of the larva of Melasis are really the

same as those of the larva of Buprestide, its structure must be

identical with theirs at least in these principal points. But if

the similarity only applies to the external structure, it is clearly

insufficient, however striking, to prove a true affinity between

these creatures, or even a similar way of feeding ; it merely justi-

fies us in supposing that they live in similar localities and use a

similar mode of locomotion. One would think that such a con-

clusion, of which the truth is evident to common sense at every

step in the study of living creatures, could not but be sufficiently

appreciated and generally adopted. Nevertheless, as I have often

urged on other occasions, no principle is oftener sinned against.

No souree of errors in natural history flows more copiously than

that which rises from the confusion of relationship with simi-

larity, of affinity with analogy, of typical characteristics with

biological modification ; so that it is but too clear that we have

as yet advanced but very little towards the great aim of compre-

hending the rational consistency of nature. It is this ancient,

ever recurring mistake which also in this case has obscured the

truth.

For in spite of the positive and decisive appearance of the

investigations just alluded to, they nevertheless embody a simple

impossibility. Instead of a rasp-like chitinous armour on the

prothorax, the larva of Melasis has merely a couple of narrow,

partly transversely grooved bands of chitine, and its skin is

generally thin and weak; the lower organs of the mouth are

rudimentary, and coalesce into a small plate; the labrum is

absent; the mandibles are pointed and bent outwards, they

have a tooth on their back, and their inner margin presents

merely a narrow unarmed edge; the head is free, rather soft,

with only a few firmer bands of chitine forming a frame-

work round the epistoma and hypostoma; the anal or tenth

abdominal segment, which in the larva of Buprestide forms a

direct continuation of the body, appears here merely as a small

182 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

protuberance on the ventral surface of the ninth segment; this

latter exhibits exactly the same serrated margin as in the larva

of Elateridee—a circumstance which has hitherto been entirely

overlooked, perhaps because it is very little chitinized in Melasis ;

and, finally, the larva of Melasis has no buccal cavity at all, but

only a very small opening ‘for the mouth, so small that it can

only be observed with difficulty—a point hitherto overlooked,

but of the greatest importance.

As soon as these facts are fully appreciated and properly

combined, every idea of an animal so constructed burrowing in

timber and feeding on it must at once be relinquished ; and if

we then examine the accounts before us, it will soon appear that

the investigators have not really seen what they and others

think they have seen.

Guérin had the larva and the piece of wood he figures sent to

him from the Vicomte de Lamotte-Baracé, and he therefore founds

his statements entirely on the written account of an unscientific

correspondent.

Professor N6rdlinger found the beetle sitting on an alder

branch 3 inches in diameter and perforated with galleries im all

directions. He asserts that ‘ the deposition of the « eggs certainly

takes place in the same way as in Buprestide, the mother beetle

there making use of clefts in the bark or even in the timber ;’

but as he does not say that he really has observed the process,

his assertion, in spite of its decided language, cannot be looked

upon as anything more than a mere supposition. He states, on

the other hand, that he did find a dead beetle with its head and

body half hidden in a “ fly-hole ”—that is, one of the openings

made by perfect imseects on making their escape, at the end of

their transformation, from the timber on which they lived as

larvee ; but he surmises that it only intended to hide itself there ;

for he says, if the beetle had penetrated into the timber through

old burrows and deposited its eggs in the galleries, he thinks that

he must have met with beetles in such burrows, which he has

not. He adds, however, one observation which admits of no

other explanation than that the eggs had not been deposited

from the outside on the bark, but, on the contrary, in a burrow

imside the wood—namely, that he found quite young larve in

the thick of the timber, several inches from the bark. From a

log of wood taken in one year, in November, beetles made their

appearance through several consecutive years, from which he

considers that the larva takes at least three years to complete its

development. The larva is found in the burrows in a bent-up

position, compressing the wood-dust behind itself so as to form

an arched cavity. The burrows are undulating, but only in a

horizontal plane*.

* Stettin. entomol. Zeit. (1848) p. 225-226.

of Buprestide: and Elateride. 183)

According to Perris, this larva forms broad irregular galleries

in the interior of the timber, at a depth of from 2 to 5 centimetres.

The form of these galleries is, in his opinion, as characteristic

as that of the larva itself, being different from the burrows of

any of the many other timber-larvee with which he is acquainted.

He states that the walls are so smooth that they look as if they

were produced by means of a very sharp instrument *; and as

this is indeed the only remarkable peculiarity which he mentions

in these burrows, it would appear as if he looked upon this

smoothness and evenness as their great distinctive feature.

But such are the burrows of a great many, if not all, timber-

larvee, when they are cleared of wood-dust, which, generally

speaking, is indicative of their being o/d and long left by their

original inhabitants. There is therefore nothing really charac-

teristic in this; and I am inclined to think that Perris’s expres-

sions rather proceeded from some indistinct feeling that the

appearance of the burrows did not quite agree with that of the

larvee (supposing the latter to have constructed them). For

just before, speaking of the outward-bent hooked form of the

mandibles, he says that he should have thought it a mon-

strosity if he had not found it in all the individuals he examined

and thus convinced himself of its being of constant occurrence.

‘He adds the observation that the larva moves its mandibles

horizontally, like other. larvee, but that it gnaws the wood not in

closing them, but in opening themt.

Here, then, we are placed face to face with the unheard-of

phenomenon that the mandibles of an articulated animal bite

and gnaw, not by being approached to one another, but by being

separated, not by closing, but by opening, not by the action of

their flexors, but by that of their extensors! We are called

upon to believe that a larva not only makes way for itself through

solid timber, but even constructs extensive burrows and galleries

with extremely smooth walls, lying all the while quite loose

curled up on its side without support, working in a desultory

* «Fille s’enfonce dans le bois 4 une profondeur de 2 a 5 centimetres, en

creusant des galeries larges et irrégulieres dont la forme est aussi carac-

téristique que celle de la larve méme et comme n’en pratique aucune des

nombreuses larves xylophages que je connais. Ce sont des cavités qui ont

en largeur une fois et demi celle de la téte, et pres de trois fois celle du

corps et guére plus d’un millimétre de hauteur. Leurs parois sont si

nettement taillées qu’on les dirait fagonnées par un instrument trés-

tranchant.” {Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. 2° sér. v. p. 545.)

+ “Je crus la premiere fois, que c’était une erreur de la nature, une sorte

de monstruosité, et si je n’avais vu qu’une seule larve, j’aurais certaimement

signalé avee quelque méfiance une semblable anomale...... Le jeu de ces

mandibules est horizontal comme dans les autres larves; mais c’est en

s’écartant et non en se rapprochant qu’elles rongent le bois.” (L. ¢. p. 543.)

184 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

manner, spreading out a pair of pointed hooks now in one

direction and then in another !

Nevertheless it is but justice to these observers to say that,

had they not gone to their task with their eyes blinded by

prejudice, they would not have imagined they saw what they

never really did see, nor have taken refuge in imterpre-

tations which they would otherwise have disdained; and their

prejudice was, that similarity in outward appearance always

entails similarity in habits of life. Whether the mother beetle

deposits her eggs in the clefts of the bark, or, what is far more

probable, penetrates through the openings of old burrows, and

lays her eggs in old galleries, these latter are certainly not the

work of the Melasis-larva.

The similarity in outward appearance between this larva and

those of Buprestidee means nothing more than that the former

is destined to live in the burrows formed by the latter or by

other similarly equipped xylophagous larvee. What the larva of

Melasis tears and perforates with its mandibles must be some-

thing soft, not a hard substance ; in fact it cannot be anything

else than the skin of really xylophagous larvee and pup. What-

ever be its food, it must take it in by drinking, and there is no-

thing for it to drink but blood.

LV:

A minute orifice of the mouth; pointed mandibles, placed at

a distance from the mouth; no labrum; the lower organs of

the mouth coalesced; short antenne; slender body; the ninth

abdominal segment serrated ; the anal segment placed under

the preceding ; movement by lateral winding of the body : these

were characteristics of the larva of Melasis, and these same cha-

racters are those of the larve of Hlateridee. Nor must we allow

ourselves to doubt their affinity because the former is destitute

of legs and of chitinous armour, or because the mandibles are

bent outwards instead of inwards and the second and third pair

of appendages of the mouth are rudimentary ; to lay overmuch

stress on these points would simply lead us through a byway

back to the same confusion which has done so much mischief,

and owing to which the Melasis-larva was thought more closely

allied to the larvee of Buprestidze than to those of Elateridz merely

because it was apod and soft. The larva of Melasis does not in

reality present a greater modification from the type of Buprestidze

than many of those which I have described in my Contributions

to the Knowledge of the Larvie of Coleoptera*—not more, for in-

* Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, ser 3. vol. i. pp. 193-282, pl. 3-10; vol. iit.

pp. 131-224, pl. 1-12.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 185

stance, than the remarkable larva of Haliplus, which in so stri-

king a manner maintains the type of its family, whilst so widely

differing in external appearance. At the same time, perhaps,

there is not much reason to fear such an objection just at present ;

for although it is still constantly repeated that the larvae of Ela-

teride are generally phytophagous, and only exceptionally take

animal food, I do not hesitate to assert directly the contrary—

namely, that they are carnivorous as a rule, and only exception-

ally phytophagous; and the positive affirmation of this truth

has, so to say, long been looming in the horizon. Erichson

considers the larvee of HElateridee unreservedly as phytopha-

gous, some being supposed to feed on decaying wood, others

on fresh roots: nevertheless he was not without scruples,

for he adds, in a note, that he doubts whether larve with

such a mouth really can masticate their food (Archiv f. Natur-

geschichte, 1841, 1. pp. 87-88). Nor do I doubt that many a col-

lector, when his attention is drawn to the subject, will remember

very often to have met with these larvee under bark, in decaying

wood and wood-dust, engaged in the very act of piercing the

bodies of soft larvee and pup, and thus be enabled to confirm

from his own experience those testimonies which already have

appeared at different times as to the carnivorous habits of the

larvee of Elateride. It seems that the attention of some has

already been drawn to.the analogy between the structure of their

mouth and that of the larve of Carabi; so that it may soon be

generally acknowledged, what I certainly hold to be the true

view, that they are as truly typical carnivorous animals as

the larvee of Carabi, and that they bite through the skin of

their prey, tear it to pieces, crush and suck it just like the larve

of Carabi—with which tribe they also correspond in this parti-

cular, that a certain number of them, being on purpose en-

dowed with shorter and thicker mandibles, shorter legs, less

perfect armour of the pomt of the abdomen and of the anal

segment (that is, with less power of locomotion), eat their way

into juicy and farinaceous roots, destroying them in the same

way as the animal food of the majority is treated, by crushing

and sucking. It is a state of things quite analogous to what

we find in insectivorous and carnivorous scnainclbes among

which the hedgehog, the badger, and the bear are distinguished

by modifications of the type, either in the movements of the

jaws, or in the teeth, or in both, which do not by any means

destroy the original carnivorous type, but nevertheless enable

the animal to extend its range of food to vegetable matter sufli-

ciently rich in nitrogen.

If, now, we comprise within our view the whole division of

Sternoxi, starting from this new information we find that the

186 Prof. J.C. Schjédte on the Classification

larve of that division group themselves round two, and only

two, entirely different types—that of Buprestis and that of

Elater, the former burrowing in different parts of plants and

being phytophagous, the latter being blood-suckers or living on

vegetable juices. In both divisions we meet with modifications

of the type analogous to those met with in all other natural

divisions of Coleoptera,—their body being more or less hard

or quite soft, the buccal organs, the organs of move-

ment, the limbs, the point of the abdomen and the anal

segment more or less developed—all in accordance with the

occurrence and quality of the food. The larva of Melasis thus

belongs to the Elater-type, but is modified for the purpose of

hunting xylophagous larvee living in hard wood. In the larva of

Fornaz the mouth appears, from the description of Coquerel (Ann.

de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. sér.3. iv. pp. 511-516, pl.15. fig. 37, d,m),

to be still more modified than that of Me/asis in the direction of

the organization met with in such larve of Anthata as live on

prey in galleries in wood, 2. e. in those larvee of Laphria which

suck the larvee of Buprestidee.

These larvee of Antliata correspond, within their own order,

exactly to the larvee of Melasis and Fornaw in Coleoptera, the re-

lation in point of structure between the former and the phyto-

phagous larvee of Antliata being exactly the same as that between

the Coleopterous larve in question and those of Buprestidee.

That Coquerel failed to discover the opening of the mouth in

the larva of Fornax can have been-caused only by the fact that

it merely possesses a small orifice for sucking blood, whereas he

expected to find a large cavity of the mouth, supposing as he

did that the larva burrowed in timber and fed on wood. La-

cordaire, who also supposed that it “fed on wood” and con-

structed gallerics, though only in decaying wood, is hkewise

astonished at the want of a mouth (Gen. des Coléopt. iv. p. 565).

I have on purpose limited the preceding inquiry into the

larvee of Buprestidee and Elateridz to what was absolutely ne-

cessary for the attaimment of my aim, which was nothing more

than to clear away the obstacles which that interpretation of

their structure which has hitherto prevailed has placed in the way

of that view of their mutual relationship which will be deve-

loped in the sequel. I am in possession of very rich materials

for the illustration of these larvee in detail; but I reserve that

for the continuation of my papers on the larve of Coleoptera,

published in the ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift.’

For a long time after the publication of Audouin’s well-known

treatise on the thorax of Insects, in which he had distinguished

of Buprestidze and Elateride. 187

as a separate piece a small part of the skeleton situated near the

root of the coxe and called by him the trochantin, only very

little attention was paid to it. The modern examinations of the

external skeleton of insects, undertaken for the purpose of dis-

covering useful marks of distinction for the numberless genera

and other divisions established by entomologists according to a

general impression of the habitus of the animals, have, however,

in some cases led to the trochantins being taken into considera-

tion ; and they are said to exist in some cases, but to be wanting

in others. This view, however, appears to be erroneous. They

seem never to be wanting im Coleoptera (to which we are now

particularly alluding), although they vary very much in size and

shape; and the difference in question would be more correctly

indicated by describing the trochantins as either covered by a

prolongation of those “plates of the skeleton which surround

the coxa, or uncovered and bare. At the same time, however,

eases would occur in which it might be difficult to say whether

the trochantins should be called covered or uncovered, as in

some instances they are not visible till the coxze are turned back

in their sockets. Besides this, the definition of the family of

Buprestide now generally adopted contains another still more

misleading feature—that part of their thorax which has been

called the trochantin being an entirely different piece and having

nothing to do with the coxa. In one instance the common

interpretation has been exchanged for a new one; but this new

interpretation is not only erroneous in itself, but does not agree

with a thorough understanding of the true structure of the pro-

thorax in insects.

In Buprestide, as well as in Elateride, each of the anterior

coxe is on the outside surrounded partly by a receding pro-

longation of the prosternum, and partly by a portion of the lower

edge of the epimeron. In the first group of the family of Ela-

teridze (see my classification below) these lateral laps of the pro-

sternum are veryshort; but in the second group of Elateridzeandin

Buprestidz they are so long that they occupy about the same space

as the epimera on the outer margin of the coxa. In all Elateridze

the laps of the prosternum aud the epimera join so-closely that the

upper and outer part of the coxa, and with it the trochantin, are

entirely hidden ; whilst in Buprestidae the parts in question do not

join closely, whereby the socket of the coxa receives a small and

narrow extension on the outside, and in this open groove a part

of the coxa is always seen, whilst the little round trochantin

itself is not seen, unless the coxa is turned back a little. It is

therefore better to express the difference between these two

families in this respect by drawing attention to the opening be-

tween the prosternum and epimera than by saying that the

188 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

trochantin is visible in Buprestidee, hidden in Elateride. But if

we say, as authors usually have said hitherto*, that only Bupres-

tidee possess trochantins, which are wanting in Elateridze, then the

real fact is entirely missed. And if other authors, as Lacordaire

and Thomson, go further, and state that the trochantins are

very large and prominent in Buprestide, and put this forward

as one of their principal characters, then they must have over-

looked the real trochantins, which are very far from being large

or prominent, whilst the lateral prolongations of the proster-

num just mentioned have been mistaken for trochantins. Nor

is this mistake explicable; for the laps in question are in

Buprestide separated from the rest of the prosternum by a more

or less deep groove, whereby they assume the appearance of being

connected with the cox. But any such belief is at once dis-

pelled by turning the coxa about, in fresh or softened specimens,

when it will be seen that the supposed trochantin remains quietly

in its place, instead of following the movements of the coxa as

a real trochantin would; and if the coxa is turned back in the

socket, the real trochantin will appear in the open groove. To

render the experiment still more convincing, detach the coxa

from its socket, and the true trochantin will be found sitting in

in its proper place, whilst the supposed trochantin shows itself

to form one piece with the prosternum.

The only author who has refused to regard the lateral pro-

longations of the prosternum as trochantins is Von Kiesenwetter,

who, without further explanation, describes them as episterna

(Naturg. d. Insekten Deutsch. iv. p.6). But, as already stated,

this seems to imply another mistake. What we call epimera in the

skeleton of Arthropoda are nothing but the chitinized side-folds

(pleuree) between the ventral and dorsal shields of the segments—

that is to say, (in the thorax of insects) between the pro-, meso-,

and metanotum above, and the pro-, meso-, and metasternum

beneath. In many insects having the thorax strongly chitinized

the epimera are found to be divided into two parts, of which the

foremost is called the episternum, whilst the hindmost is then

alone called the epimeron ; but this division is owing merely to

the necessity of procuring access for the air to the spiracles,

which open behind the epimera. As, however, the articulation

between the prothorax and mesothorax is so loose that the air

can always easily penetrate into the spiracula prothoracica

which are situated between them, there is no necessity for a

division of the epimera prothoracica into episterna and epimera

sensu strictiori; nor do we ever find such a division carried out,

* Lacordaire, Gen. des Coléop. iv. 1. pp. 90, 94, 130; Leconte, Classif. of

the Coleopt. of N. Amer. i. pp. 156, 158, 159; Thomson, Skandinay. Coleopt.

vi. pp. 6, 56.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 189

although a slight indication of it may be found in some cases,

where the posterior part of the epimeron is somewhat bent out-

wards. It is even very rare to find the pronotum and epimera pro-

thoracica separated by a real suture (as in Carabide) ; nay, it often

occurs that the suturesbetween the pronotum, prosternum, and the

epimera become to such a degree effaced that the entire prothorax

seems to consist of only one piece (as in most Curculionidee). In

Buprestidee and Klateridze all these parts are immoveably united,

but the seams between the prosternum and epimera are always

to be recognized, and the junction of the epimera and pronotum

is marked by the more or less sharply raised lateral edges of the

latter. It follows that the Buprestidie possess no episterna on

the prothorax, any more than any other insect, unless that ap-

pellation is to be given to the large lateral shields themselves

which are commonly called epimera. Von Kiesenwetter regards

the true epimera as laterally inflected parts of the pronotum,

and gives the name of episterna to the prolongations of the

prosternum (which other authors equally erroneously call tro-

chantins), and thus he comes to the result that the prothorax in

Buprestidee consists of pronotum, episterna, and prosternum,

but in Elateridze of pronotum and prosternum alone (Nat. Ins.

Deutl. iv. p. 217), whereas the prothorax in both families con-

sists of the same pieces as in other insects, viz. pronotum, pro-

sternum, and epimera prothoracica, as shown before.

Vi.

Anybody who has watched nature a little in field and forest

knows full well that faculty in the H/ateres which has procured

them the popular name of spring-beetles. It would therefore

be natural to expect that the peculiar contrivance by means of

which these beetles are enabled, when placed on their back, to

toss themselves up in the air and fall down on their legs, had

long ago been so thoroughly investigated and understood by

scientific entomologists that it could always with certainty be

decided whether any given species is endowed with this faculty

or not. But this is very far from being the case; it is still a

moot point with regard to many animals of the Elater-type

whether they can spring or not, so that, generally speaking, one

is not satisfied till one has seen the thing done before one’s own

eyes ; and with regard to this mechanism there is but little agree-

ment amongst entomologists, except concerning the cases where

the articulation of the prothorax and mesothorax is sufficiently

loose to allow us to inspect easily the whole structure and pro-

ceeding. This latter has been familiar for a very long time; and

short and correct accounts of it are given in old manuals, as

by Latreille in Cuvier’s ‘Régne Animal.’ It is true that some

190 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

German naturalists (particularly Burmeister and Erichson),

whose statements Lacordaire in this as in most cases implicitly

adopts, have tried to overthrow these simple results of experience

by means of utterly erroneous theories; but another German

author, Von Kiesenwetter, has again returned to the true track,

and given a correct and lucid description (Nat. Ins. Deutschl.

vi. pp. 224-226). This, then, may be considered sufficiently well

- established,—that if a bond -fide “skip-jack” finds himself lying

on his back, he at once folds up his legs and antenne, pressing

them closely to the body, so that as Tittle of them as possible

protrudes; he then pushes back the prothorax so far that the

point of the prosternal spine meets the salient middle part of

the mesosternum, for which purpose it becomes necessary to

bend the body in, so as to form an obtuse angle; the animal

then begins to contract the flexors of the prothorax with con-

stantly increasing force against the poimt of support on the

mesosternum which has thus been obtained: suddenly it lets

go; the prosternal spine glides rapidly along the groove in the

mesosternum and down in the dip which is adapted to receive

it; the most prominent parts on the dorsal surface of the ani-

mal, particularly the bases of the elytra, are thereby violently

struck against the ground, and, by the recoil, the whole body of

the animal is tossed up into the air: while in the air, it unfolds

its legs, in order to be able to catch a hold with its claws if it

comes down on its legs. [t is apparent that a very free articu-

lation between the prothorax and mesothorax is necessary for

this operation ; and accordingly we find both the pronotum and

the bases of the elytra steeply inclined towards the articulation ;

it is further apparent that the prosternal spine, the prolonged

mesosternum, with its little dip in front, its sliding plane, and

the deep excavation at its root, play a principal part ; and from

this starting-point a great many conclusions may be safely made.

It is evident why the skeleton of the spring-beetle is so hard—

because otherwise it would not possess the requisite elasticity to

effect a sufficiently strong recoil from the ground; we perceive

why the whole shape is moderately long and narrow, with

rounded points in front and behind, closely fitting edges, and

elliptical outline both in the longitudinal and cross sections,

why all the limbs are more or less completely adapted for being

received into grooves on the lower surface of the head, sternum,

and abdomen, the legs for being folded up, the hip receiving

the femur, this again the tibia, and the tibia in its turn receiving

the foot ; finally, we see the necessity of the prothorax bemg

long and shaped like a cushion above and below, far thicker than

the exigencies of the muscles of the neck and legs would require.

It is clear that in the same proportion as these arrangements

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 191

are more complete, more carefully adjusted and balanced, the

greater is the power and accuracy with which the animal exer-

cises its springing faculty, and the more often can it repeat it ;

in the same degree as the skeleton is harder and more naked,

the prothorax longer (whereby the clicking-joint is placed more

in the middle), its bind quarters longer and more pointed, the

joint between the elytron and pronotum more free, the root of

the elytra thicker and their ribs higher, the more perfect is the

performance of the clicker.

We possess even in our native species a more than sufficiently

rich series of exemplifications of all these and many more modi-

fications of the different parts composing this machinery, which

are combined in infinitely varied ways.

But if it be so (and after all that has been said I do not sup-

pose that anybody will doubt it), that this ‘ clicker-business ”

really is the fundamental peculiarity in the Elater-type, why,

then, is it that entomologists refuse to admit into the family of

Elateride a numerous series of beetles (such as Throscide, Me-

lasidee, HEucnemidze, Cebrionidz) in which the selfsame structure

recurs in all its essential points, but which are not considered

true, genuine, and bond fide clickers? What is the difference ?

If the question is put in this straightforward manner, the an-

swer is not difficult. The fact is evidently this, that the spring-

ing-apparatus has not yet been so thoroughly studied that the

type of it can be recognized with certainty in the cases where

it is not carried out to its fullest perfection. Only thus can

it have happened that this feature of the structure is so far

from having been brought forward as an essential and fun-

damental character, that, on the contrary, it has been given up

in despair, as “leading to entirely illusory characters” (Lacor-

daire, Gen. d. Coléopt. iv. 1. p. 181), and unfit to distinguish the

family of Elateridz either from the intermediate divisions just

mentioned, or even from Buprestide. But if this at present is

the whole upshot and result of scientific inquiry in the matter,

it is quite clear that neither Elateridee nur Buprestide are really

understood. That they are nevertheless constantly placed side

by side in the systems is therefore owing merely to the similarity

of their external habitus ; and then the loss of that mark of dis-

tinction, which was shown to be valueless in the preceding part

of this paper, will be severely felt. The great question which

still is unanswered, and which we shall next attempt to solve, is

this :— Does the similarity in shape of Elateridze and Buprestidee

signify one and the same thing, express one and the same type?

Only when this is answered can we hope to be liberated froin

the spell of illusion.

Let us then, first of all, on some Buprestis lift the prosternal

192 Prof. J.C. Schjodte on the Classification

spine out of its bed on the mesosternum, and we shall then find

that this bed is shaped so as to fit the spine exactly, so that there

is nothing different in the arrangement from what we find, for

instance, in Carabi and in Dytisci ; that is to say, it has no other

object than to procure a firm junction between the parts. And

this same tendency to firmness, and even rigidity, is not confined

to this point, but is carried out in the whole structure, by every

means which the elements of the body offer, along the whole

ventral surface—that is to say, in that line which in Arthropoda

corresponds to the spinal column of Vertebrata. We observe,

first, the peculiarity that not only the mesosternum and episterna

mesothoracica, but also the epimera mesothoracica, take part in

the articulation with the prothorax; secondly, the complete

coalescence of the ventral segments, save the last three ; finally,

that the abdomen prolongs itself with a very strong spine or

wedge between the posterior cox, reaching the metasternum,

embracing also the posterior coxe laterally by means of two

large lobes, which reach the epimera metathoracica. In most

Buprestide there is this further provision, that the pronotum,

by a backward prolongation, wedges itself in between the elytra.

Whilst now in Carabi the firmness and compactness of the body

is required to render them fast runners, in Dytisci to increase

their power of swimming, its significance in Buprestidz is to

render their flight strong. They are the Colibris amongst

beetles, creatures fitted for living in strong sunlight, with

markedly sculptured surface, sparingly endowed with hairs, rich

in glittering metallic colours, resplendent with green, gold, purple,

and azure—with a broad metathorax for the powerful muscles of

the wings—of ovoid figure, pointed behind, with the centre of

eravity between the wings, which are without cross folds (unique

amongst Coleoptera), so that they can be unfolded for flight

with lightning speed—with large oval eyes, presenting nu-

merous fine facets, calculated for broad daylight—short naked

antennee, with spots of pores—short folding legs which, though

not of very characteristic form, pointedly retain their character of

walking legs, being of very nearly equal length, the trochanters

of the posterior pair not supporting—the feet also, by their broad

soles and membranaceous pads, announcing themselves as the

representative of the herbivorous type of insect foot within the

series of Serricornia*. Looking to their mternal structure, we

find that their tracheal system is extremely rich in air-vesicles—

a peculiarity which does not seem to reappear amongst Coleoptera,

except in Scarabzei, which, next to the Buprestide, contain the

most powerful fliers of the order,

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xv. pp. 182-183, On the Classi-

fication of Cerambyces.”

of Buprestidze and Elateride. 193

Then let us take some species or other (it does not matter

which) of the divisions of Throscide, Melaside, EKucnemide,

Elateride, or Cebrionide, and let us lift the prosternal spine out

of its bed on the mesothorax, and we shall find that the bed is

not by any means constructed only with regard to that spine ;

so that the arrangement is entirely different from that of the

Buprestide. The place in which the prosternal spine rests

always terminates behind in a deep excavation, which would

be as superfluous for the accommodation of that spine as it is

necessary for the accommodation of the ‘ springing-spine ”

(mucro saltatorius), the essential instrument of the springing

beetle, which has hitherto been either overlooked or misunder-

stood, having been confounded with the prosternal spine. The

fact is, that when the articulation of the prothorax with the

mesothorax is not very free (that is, in most cases), the spring-

ing-spine is, on account of the limited space, placed on the

upper surface of the prosternal spine, forming an angle with it,

and therefore hidden by this when the animal is viewed from

below. It is only when drawn out by the animal for use in

springing, or when the prothorax is entirely loosened, that it is

seen. By degrees, as the articulation of the prothorax with

the mesothorax is freer, and the mesothorax more salient,

the springing-spine assumes a more horizontal direction, and

appears behind the posterior extremity of the prosternal spine ;

the boundary between the two is in this case marked by a small

tooth, which is nothing but the extremity of the prosternal

spine. Finally, in those Elaters where the joint in question is

entirely free and open below, this little tooth also disappears,

and with it the last indication of the original position of the

springing-spine, which in this last case appears simply as the

continuation of the prosternal spine.

We shall do well to pause a few moments after having gained

these results. We have seen that the larvee of Sternoxi group

themselves round two distinct types, and we now see this bifur-

cation confirmed in the perfect animals by equally decisive and

thorough-going marks of distinction. We found the type of the

Buprestide to be that of an animal organized for flight, that of the

Hlateride to be characterized by the springing-mechanism. But

the latter type is less one-sided than the former. The Buprestis-

larva and its congeners are always xylophagous, burrowing in

timber, and there is consequently not much room for variety in

shape ; whether the egg is deposited in clefts of the bark of trees,

in the tenderer stem of herbs and shrubs, or in the parenchyma of

leaves, the demands which the propagation of the species makes

upon the structure of the beetle remain upon the whole the

same; but time and strength will at the same time be to such a

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 14

194 Prof. J.C. Schjodte on the Classification

degree engrossed by this part of its activity that the beetle’s

own nutritive life cannot be expected to express itself very

strongly inits structure. The Elaterids, on the contrary, are, as

larvee, carnivorous; and consequently we find amongst them a

a great variety of forms, according to the mode of life of the

prey; and the corresponding demands for the equipment of the

perfect beetle with regard to propagation causes a far richer

variety of form among the Elateridz than among the Buprestide.

In those Elateridz which, as larve, hunt their prey in closed

galleries in timber, the faculty of springing is reduced in power

and facility, whilst that of flying is more developed, and the

animal then approaches somewhat to Buprestidze in outer form,

sculpture, &e.,—thus, particularly, in Melasini and Euenemidini,

especially in exotic genera, as Pterotarsus. Those Elateride, on

the contrary, which, in the larval state, seek their food in less

circumscribed localities are more developed as “ clickers” than

for flying, and therefore occupy a place in every respect oppo-

site that of the others: excellent instances of this combination

are afforded by many species of the group Diacanthus and con-

geners. The majority of Elateride stand between these two

extremes, inclining sometimes more to one than the other.

Elateridze are consequently to a certain extent placed under

equal conditions with true carnivorous beetles—that is, such as

live on animal food in all stages of their existence; and it is

therefore natural to expect further analogies with such beetles—

as, for instance, with Carabide. Accordingly we find that they

live in shade, or are mostly active at night, with close, fine, and

minute sculpture, regularly ribbed (striated) elytra covered with

short and fine hair; their colours are mostly dark and dull,

principally black, brown, or ferruginous; some are more

vividly coloured, red, or with checquered light and dark designs,

or even with metallic lustre; but they rarely attain and never

surpass that degree of splendour and lustre which is met with

amongst Carabide. Llateridze possess similar round eyes, and

longer antenne ; and though the legs, for the sake of the spring-

ing-faculty, cannot be very strongly developed, they nevertheless

retain the character of running-legs by the trochanters of the

third pair being large and “supporting,” asin Carabide*. Nor is

the analogy with Carabide deficient im this point—that amongst

Elateride one group (viz. Cebrionini) is calculated for digging

in the ground, just as several genera amongst Carabide. It is,

however, time to turn our attention to the structure of the

mouth.

* Latreille has already pointed this out in the Elateres properly so-

called: “ Femora postica ad basin appendice trochanteriformi instructa”

(Gen. Crust. et Ins. 1. 2. p. 248).

of Buprestidae and Elateride. 195

wal

With regard to that series of families into which the division

Sternoxi has been resolved, the constant verdict of modern au-

thors is to the effect that the organs of the mouth are destitute

of systematic value, and upon the whole are much reduced,

which seems to mean that they are rather short and do not

project much from the mouth (Lacordaire, Gen. des Coléopt. iv.

21. pp. 95, 96,131). The same assertion is often made also with

regard to other groups. Such a view, however, when properly con-

sidered, i is always found to be erroneous ; for if the structure of the

mouth really remains the same in an extensive series of animals,

this fact is not valueless, but, on the contrary, affords a never-failin g

indication of their near relationship. I say “ never-failing,”

for in no case has it ever been found at variance with the testi-

mony of the rest of the structure. If, then, the result of the

investigation of the mouth is thought unsatisfactory, the fault

lies in the preconceived views of the observer who rejects its

testimony. It is the method of so many modern authors which

leads to results inconsistent with nature; and if they find that

the structure of the mouth is at variance with these results, it

is said to be without systematic value, instead of tbat cireum-

stance being accepted as a proof that the results obtained are

erroneous. Authors are bent on distinguishing, and hunt after

marks of distinction—for what? For those groups and divisions

which are constantly being proposed on the strength of mere

external and often accidental similarity in shape. Of course,

the careful examination of every part of the animal accessible to

the pocket magnifier, which constitutes the method of so many

even of the best modern entomologists, does occasionally lead to

the discovery of good and ial characters for classification ;

but such a method has really only a limited claim to the name of

natural method which it assumes. It approaches the natural

system in many points, but it attaims merely a superficial contact ;

it never penetrates the essence of the natural system. Much

material is sifted and laid in store by that method ; but the scien-

tific edifice of a natural system makes no progress. Not even the

mere elementary task of procuring a survey of the material can

be mastered by that method: the enormously complicated animal

composition is much too intricate to be overcome by artificial

classification ; it must be realized in thought and imagination

in its unity and through all its ramifications.

In order to appreciate properly the organs of the mouth,

they, as well as. other animal instruments, must be regarded

both in their own mutual relation and in their relation to all

the other parts of the organism. In Buprestide their develop-

14°

196 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

ment depends partly on the nutritive side of the animal’s life,

partly on the requirements of propagation ; but the latter pre-

dominate. The mandibles present the appearance of short,

exceedingly strong, quadrangular, pointed, hollow chisels, with

sharp or somewhat serrated edges, with a deep and roomy

socket above, and a very prominent globular condyle be-

low, which strongly reminds us of the head of the humax

femur. Their muscles are so large as to necessitate a very large

and round skull. The mandibles are principally in the service

of the propagation of the species, since it is by their means

that the beetle, after its transformation, works its way out of the

timber; nor is it improbable that they are employed in making

preparations for the deposition of the eggs, viz. by facilitating

the application of the ovipositor to suitable parts of the bark.

They are largest m those Buprestidze which, as larvee, burrow

deepest, and the food of the beetles consists in that case of

leaves and buds*. In the group of Anthaxini, on the contrary,

they are somewhat less developed; they are flatter, their extre-

mities laciniated, and their inner margin less deeply excavated :

in this case the beetle feeds upon pollen, and possesses peculiar

bag-shaped extensions on the cesophagus for the preliminary

collection and softening of this kind of food. The maxillz are

broad and powerful, their lobes small, coriaceous, covered with

very stiff, short hairs—the outer one broader, but the inner one

more pointed, than 1n the leaf-eaters. The mentum affords, by

its clumsy shape and considerable thickness, a good support

from below for the play of the mandibles and the maxille, The

lingua is without stipes, small, thick, coriaceous, undivided,

peed in the same way as the fanes of the eats. the labial

palpi are short, with much-reduced basal joints, but with free pro-

trusible stipites. The palparium in both pairs of palpi is large

(the terminal joint truncate) in those Buprestidee which have to

choose timber for their young ; but it is small (the terminal joint

obovate) in those which place ‘their eggs in thin branches, stems,

and parenchyma.

The great variety of forms amongst Hlateride is expressed

also in the structure of the mouth. Of this we meet with two

types, one being principally calculated to serve the nutritive

life, the other to serve the propagation of the species.

* According to information from Tranquebar, the large Sternocera

chrysis swarms round certain trees, eating their Jeaves, as the cockchafers

with us. In some years it occurs in great numbers. Once it happened

that a box received from that locality contained nothing but hundreds of

bellies of this Buprestid. The native who had been sent out collecting had

understood the matter in his own way, and taken off the shiny green shields,

which his countrywomen use for ornaments.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 197

The first type is met with in those Elateride of which the

larve hunt in the fields, under leaves and moss, in meadows or

in decaying wood. The care of the offspring is here so slight

that the beetle has time for running about to seek food for it-

self; and as this consists of pollen, the mouth resembles not a

little that of those Cerambycidz which feed on the same sub-

stance, particularly Lepturini. The labrum protrudes, covering

the mouth from above. The mandibles are triangular, gradu-

ally pointed and arched, of no considerable strength, with small

socket and condyle; the joint is cleft into two sharp teeth, one

above the other; the whole inner margin is arched, and presents

a sharp edge with a marginal fringe. The maxillary lobes are

large, particularly the outer one; their skin is thin, and their

edge covered by a close beard. The mentum is short and thin ;

the stipites of the labial palpi long, very moveable; the lingua

large, broad, and bifid, with thin skin, and the margin closely

fringed with hair, the stipes narrow and strong; the terminal

joint of the palpi almost always subsecuriform, with a large

palparium. This is the structure of the mouth in the group of

Elaterini.

The other type, which is almost exclusively governed with

regard to the propagation of the species, is met with in those

Elateride which, as larve, hunt in more confined localities,

particularly in galleries in wood. The care of the eggs, together

with the considerable labour which may fall to their lot in order

to get out of the timber, leaves very little time for the beetles

to seek food for themselves ; and according to the greater or less

preponderance of these considerations, two modifications of this

type are developed, of which one is analogous to that of Callidiini

amongst Cerambycide, the other to that of Asemini and Prionini

in the same family.

The first of these modifications characterizes the group of

Euenemidini, and differs less considerably from the structure

of Elaterini. The labrum is more or less obsolete. The man-

dibles are very powerful, and still furnished with an edge; but

it is more or less clumsy and thick, and is without any fringe ;

the socket and condyle are large, the point sometimes entire,

sometimes divided into two or more sharp teeth. The other two

pairs of buccal organs are very small in proportion. Maxillary

lobes and lingua considerably shortened, and rather to be de-

scribed as covered with fine hair than as being provided with a

marginal beard. The terminal joint of the palpi is of propor-

tionally enormous size, broad, and securiform, with very large

palparium.

In the second subtype, characteristic of the group Melasini,

the labrum has entirely disappeared; the mandibles are of

198 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

enormous strength, with colossal socket and condyle; at the

base they are so much extended both upwards and downwards

that they appear as if they carried horns when seen from the

back; their inner margin is destitute of frmge, excavated like a

spoon, and the point sometimes whole, sometimes divided into

several powerful and sharp teeth. The two other pairs of buccal

organs are extremely small. The palpiferous stalk of the maxillee

is shaped like a joint, and stands out from the stipes; there is

only one lobe, which is small, with thin skin and fine hair. The

mentum is very small and thin; stipites palporum labialium not

separate; lingua small, short, obtuse, undivided. The terminal

joint of the palpi is very large, oviform.

It is a matter of course that both in Buprestidee and Elateridze

the mouth is turned more downwards, in proportion as the

beetle has more to do with wood, on account of the habits of the

larva. ‘The fore legs being, in both families, weak, with globular

coxee, the prothorax is naturally short, unless the clicking-appa-

ratus be strongly developed, in which case also the organs of the

mouth are larger, more protruding, and caleulated for eating

pollen. These, then, require protection during the work in

earth, moss, and decaying wood, where the eggs are to be placed

&c., which protection is afforded by a pecular prolongation of

the prosternum, a “chin-lobe” (mentonniére), by means of

which the beetle can hide the organs of its mouth when the head

is not protruded. Such a chin-lobe is therefore found in all

Elaterini ; but it is of varying size, more or less distinctly marked

by a transverse groove, more or less turned downwards, accord-

ing to the degree in which the Clicker-type is developed in the

species. When authors deny (as Lacordaire does in Gen. des

Coléopt.iv.p. 224) thatsuch genera as Campylus and Cebrio possess

this chin-lobe, and find one of their essential characters in this

defect, this must arise from their not having sufficiently

investigated the character of that organ, so that they are unable

to recognize it when it is somewhat different im appearance from

its most general form. For it must always be kept in view that

this chin-lobe is merely a prolongation of the prosternum

alone, which is indicated by its being separated, be it ever so

short, from the epimeron on either side by a small sharp notch,

Thus understood, the chin-lobe becomes one of the most es-

sential characters of the group of Elaterini.

VITl.

On a former occasion I gave an account of the internal

anatomy of Buprestidz*, and I shall here offer a corresponding

* Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabers Selskabs Forhand-

linger (Transactions of the Royal Danish Society of Sciences), 1847, no. 3.

pp. 24-35.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 199

account of that of Elateride, only mentioning such details of

the anatomical structure of Buprestidz as will serve to clear up

the differences between the two families. The statements I have

to offer with regard to Elateride are the results partly of my

own investigations of the anatomy of the insects, partly of a

considerable number of dissections made by Dr. Fr. Meinert.

The trachez are without vesicles; the spiral ribs of the in-

ternal membrane of the larger trunks in the head and thorax

are generally furnished with fine spines. The fat 1s not present in

great quantity, though the less active species (as Agriotes lineatus,

obscurus, sputator) have more of it; it is often of a yellowish

colour, on account of the numerous yellow cytoblasts contained

in the fat-cells.

True salivary glands are wanting, the cells secreting the saliva

being not more numerous than can be accommodated in the

walls of the pharynx, on either side of which a series of orifices

give outlet to the ducts from these large and round glandular

cells.

The digestive tube is of very simple construction, and so short

that it never much exceeds the length of the animal, often only

by a sixth or an eighth, more rarely by one-third. The pharynx

is flat, strongly narrowed behind. The cesophagus 1s very short,

gradually widened into the very small craw, which reaches a

shorter or longer way into the prothorax. The muscular mem-

brane of the cesophagus and the craw is rather weak ; the inner

membrane is covered with fine stiff hairs, which are directed

forwards, more or less conspicuously arranged in longitudinal

rows. The gizzard is very small, and in reality but little more

than a pylorus formed by the narrowing of the craw, whereby

the hair spines are made to stand closer together, so as to forin

a reversed wheel.

The stomach is cylindrical, straight, and reaches more or less

far into the abdominal cavity ; in front it is club-formed, dis-

tended, and the anterior end often protrudes so much that it

receives the gizzard in a kind of dip. The muscular membrane

of the stomach has in some cases equally well-developed longi-

tudinal and transverse muscles, forming a net of quadrangular

meshes, through which the layer of glandular cells peculiar to

the stomach protrudes like warts; but in other cases the trans-

verse muscles are weak, whilst the longitudinal ones are very

powerful and strongly striated (as in Lacon murinus, Diacanthus

eneus), through the intervals of which the cellular stratum pro-

trudes as parallel longitudinal rows of small semiglobular ceca.

The intestine is in the majority of cases straight, smooth, with-

out prominent longitudinal bands or intestinal warts, mostly

with unstriped transverse muscles, and without marked distinc-

200 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

tion between small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. But

in Cebrio it is slightly winding, with powerful transverse muscles,

the posterior half distended so as to form first a colon of con-

siderable dimensions, in its posterior part furnished with many

small ceeca, and finally a short rectum, markedly separated

from the former, and with powerful longitudinal muscles.

There are four rather short (in Throscus very short and thick)

Malpighian vessels, of which the ends are closed and quite free,

although each pair is closely held together by minute trachez.

They consequently do not form two loops such as are represented

by Léon Dufour (Ann. d. Se. Nat. 1824, i. pl. 2. figs. 3, 4).

Each of the testes consists of a bundle or tassel of shorter or

longer folliculi, which are closely united by intertwined trachez

and imbedded in fat, but not enclosed in a common bag. The

testes are situated in the anterior portion of the abdominal

cavity, close to the back, over the digestive tube, which runs

elose under them through the ring which is formed by the vasa

deferentia. The number of follicles in each testis is very variable:

in Adrastus limbatus there is only one, in Cryptohypnus quadri-

pustulatus nine, im Lacon murinus more than twenty ; but within

the natural groups their number seems to depend principally on

the size of the animals, so that it is upon the whole greater in

the larger species and less in the smaller ones. Thus, whilst

Diacanthus eneus has fifty, D. tessellatus forty, and Agriotes lineatus

and obscurus fifty, Agriotes sputator has only twenty-four, Am-

pedus balteatus twenty, Limonius minutus nine to eleven ; again,

Athous niger has seventy, A. ruficaudis forty, and A. subfuscus

twenty. All these numbers are approximate, as in each species

the number vacillates between certain limits. In Ceb;7o the testes

are distinguished by their extraordinary length and slenderness ;

they consist of more than 100 follicles placed on short stems in

longitudinal rows, round the thin vas deferens, which occupies

the middle.

The vasa deferentia are long, closely wound, and first extend

a considerable way backward, passing the vesiculz seminales,

whereupon they bend forward again to the point where they

join the ductus ejaculatorius. Near the testes they are slender,

but increase by degrees in thickness, without, however, usually

assuming very remarkable dimensions, except in species where

they are very short (as in Cryptohypnus quadripustulatus, Limo-

nius minutus, Campylus linearis) ; in species where they are very

long they do not become very stout (as in Ampedus sanguineus,

where they reach about 11°4 millims., in Diacanthus eneus,

where they attain 19:2 millims., in Athous ruficaudis, where the

length is about 11 millims.). In some species (for instance,

Agriotes aterrimus, Diacanthus tessellatus, Athous niger, but not

of Buprestide and Elateride. 201

A. ruficaudis) a short lateral branch starts from the point where

they bend forwards again. In Cedrio the vasa deferentia, though

very long, are towards their lower extremity suddenly extended

into a long winding folliculus, of which the circumference is

five or six times that of the thin part.

The ductus ejaculatorius is short, thick, and clumsy ; it re-

ceives at the top, besides the vasa deferentia, three pairs of

glandular vesicles.

The first pair of these, which are more properly described as

vesiculz seminales (spermatophorous glands), vary considerably

in size and shape, though they form generally the most conspi-

cuous parts of the interior sexual organs of the male. In

Diacanthus pectinicornis they are fusiform, unusually small,

1-2 millim. long, whilst the ductus ejaculatorius in this species

is particularly thick, club-shaped, and about 3-6 millims. long.

In Athous niger, ruficaudis, and subfuscus they are, on the contrary,

very large bags, of oval, on the inside somewhat concave form ;

in Adrastus limbatus and Diacanthus tessellatus the shape of the

bag is still more arched and the imner anterior angles some-

what produced; in Limonius minutus and Diacanthus bipustu-

latus the curvature increases, and in the last-mentioned species

the anterior angles are likewise produced ; this protraction of

the angles is further increased in another series of species,

and the angles are variously wound, as in Cryptohypnus quadri-

pustulatus, Agriotes aterrimus and mar ginatus, and Ampedus

balteatus ; in Lacon murinus the anterior angles are even divided

each into two unequal branches, which are wound in spirals each

in its own direction; in Agriotes obscurus, finally, the vesicule

seminales have the shape of a stout, arched and winding tube, to-

wards the end spiral, with a short, thick lateral branch, whilst

in Agriotes lineatus they differ by being wound in double spirals

at their end. In Cebrio these organs are slender, not stouter

than the extended part of the vas deferens, with arched and

spirally wound ends. But with regard to all these varieties

of form, it must be observed that they embrace only the outer

forms of the vesicule seminales, whilst the inner membrane is

quite independent and does not by any means follow the external

outline of the organ. This inner membrane forms a compli-

cated system of cavities and expansions communicating with one

another. In Cryptohypnus quadripustulatus its anterior part

terminates in two long, extremely fine tubes, which accompany

the anterior winding part of the vesicula. In Agriotes obscurus

it forms a long tube with various dilatations, and is accompanied

by a darker band, of alternating width, and of which the lighter

parts show themselves to be composed of perpendicular cellular

glands. The tube enters into the above-mentioned thick lateral

202 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

branch of the organ, runs through its whole length, and then

doubles back and continues into the extreme end of the spirally

wound part of the vesicula seminalis: from the point where it

doubles back, near the extremity of the lateral branch, a long

slender ceecum arises, of which the inner cavity soon becomes

obsolete, and which then becomes exceedingly thin and pointed.

The inner membrane is very firm and tough, and often pushes

through the surrounding cellular stratum and the.external mem-

brane in the process of dissection under water.

The second pair of glandular follicles partly cover the vesiculz

seminales when the sexual organs are observed from below ;

they are generally cleft into two branches—one very thick and

clumsy, behind the top of the ductus ejaculatorius, the other,

which is more slender, in front of this (Cryptohypnus quadripus-

tulatus, Lacon murinus, Agriotes aterrimus and marginatus, Am-

pedus balteatus, Diacanthus tessellatus). In other cases they are

shaped like bags, the terminal part bent like a ram’s horn

(Limonius minutus, Diacanthus bipustulatus, Athous vittatus) ;

or the terminal portion may besides be deeply bifid (A. niger)

or be furnished at the base with a tubiform arched branch

(A. ruficaudis, Campylus linearis). In Adrastus limbatus these

follicles are dilated into the shape of balloons, and are very

large, almost four times as large as the vesiculee seminales; in

Cebrio they are likewisevery large, and the bagsof elliptical shape.

The third pair of glandular follicles attached to the ductus

ejaculatorius are almost always tubiform, of very varying stout-

ness and length: only im Adrastus limbatus have they the same

considerable size and balloon-shape as the second pair of follicles

possess.

The penis is narrow, spear-shaped, with a pair of narrow

valves, which are generally furnished with a small tooth near

their extreme point.

The ovaries are divided like the fingers of the hand. The

number of fingers varies considerably, according to genera and

species, but generally according to the same rule as that of the

folliculi of the testes, so that the number is greater in the larger

species, less in those of smaller size. Their number, however,

does not generally exactly correspond with that of the folliculi

testis, as may be seen by the following series of examples :—

Diacanthus eneus has eighty to ninety fingers, Athous niger

seventy to eighty, Melanotus castanipes, Diacanthus pectinicornis,

sjelandicus, and Athous ruficaudis about fifty; Lacon murinus,

Agriotes aterrimus about forty; Diacanthus tessellatus, Limonius

cylindricus, Athous vittatus, Campylus linearis about thirty ; Car-

diophorus asellus, Ampedus sanguineus, Diacanthus bipustulatus,

Athous subfuscus twenty to twenty-six; Agrivtes lineatus, ob-

of Buprestidz and Elateride. 203

scurus, sputator, Ampedus balteatus fifteen to eighteen; Cardio-

phorus ruficollis, Agriotes marginatus twelve ; Cryptohypnus qua-

dripustulatus and Adrastus limbatus five. The oviducts are short,

and open through a short common duct into the under surface of

the vagina at a varying distance from its top; when filled with eggs,

their appearance is quadrangular. ‘The eggs are rather small,

of short oval form: mature eggs, when taken out of the ovi-

ducts, measured in Agriotes marginatus 0-25 millim. in length,

and 0:169 in width; in. Limonius cylindricus 0-304 millim. by

0°179 millim.; in Diacanthus bipustulatus 0°309 millim. by

0°184 millim.; in Diacanthus pectinicornis 0'429 by 0°232 milli.

The vagina is either long and tubiform, or short and club-

shaped. ‘The tubiform type of vagina is, in places, of varying

thickness, strongly curved (Diacanthus pectinicornis) or sharply

bent at an angle (Melanotus castanipes, Limonius cylindricus,

Ampedus sanguineus, Diacanthus eneus); when the oviducts join

the vagina far behind the end of the latter, it is wmding or even

forms a spiral (Lacon murinus, Agriotes marginatus). The club-

shaped vagina is not often gradually widened towards the fore

end (Adrastus limbatus, Agriotes lineatus) ; more frequently the

thick fore end is sharply defined, and besides is constructed so

as to assume various forms (Cardiophorus ruficollis, Cryptohypnus

quadripustulatus, Agriotes aterrimus, obscurus, Diacanthus tessel-

latus, bipustulatus, Athous niger and subfuscus). The imternal

surface of the vagina is furnished with a greater or smaller

number of spinulose plates of chitine, or with spines placed in

rows, or with both contrivances together, which do duty in the

act of copulation as retaining instruments. The most frequent

combination is a couple of lateral plates (Cardiophorus ruficollis

and asellus, Lacon murinus, Agriotes aterrimus, lineatus, obscurus,

sputator, Diacanthus. tessellatus, pectinicornis, sjelandicus, bipus-

tulatus, Athous niger, ruficaudis, and subfuscus). The plates are of

different sizes, oblong, often with ribs and marginal teeth ( Athous

niger and subfuscus) ; and in some cases a second pair of plates

over them are met with, which have spines on their inner margin

(Cardiophorus asellus, Diacanthus sjelandicus and tessellatus) ;

in Lacon murinus there are, besides the pair of plates first men-

tioned, a number of long spines at the anterior extremity of the

vagina. When plates are wanting, the spines are so much the

more abundant (Agriotes marginatus, Ampedus sanguineus and

preustus, Diacanthus eneus).

The foremost dilated extremity of the vagina receives the

semen during the act of copulation, and thus serves as a kind of

bursa copulatrix, but is rarely separated by a constriction,

which, however, is the case in Cardiophorus ruficollis and asellus

and in Campylus linearis.

204 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

The spermathece likewise assume the form of dilatations of

the anterior free extremity of the vagina. Their shapes are very

various, sometimes that of a conic protuberance (Cryptohypnus

quadripustulatus, Diacanthus tessellatus and bipustulatus), some-

times that of a tolerably long tube (Agriotes aterrimus), or of a

short bag terminating in a tubiform continuation (Melanotus

castanipes, Limonius cylindricus), or of two (Diacanthus eneus)

or three (D. pectinicornis) short thick branches ; in D. sjelandicus

they are represented by five long tubes situated inside the vagina ;

in Ampedus balteatus there are two long club-shaped tubes pro-

eceding from the top of the vagina, and five others starting from

the duct of the accessory gland. This last case effects a transi-

tion to those cases where the tubes of the spermatheca do not

open immediately into the vagina, but mto its upper tubiform

part, into the end of which the accessory gland opens, and which

therefore may be looked upon as the duct of the latter. In

Cardiophorus ruficollis this conduit is thin, towards the end

wound and twisted, and bears on one side more than sixty short

spermathecal tubes*. In Agriotes marginatus this duct carries

close before its dilated end a long spermathecal tube, from

which, again, a lateral appendix branches off towards its extre-

mity. In Agriotes obscurus, lineatus, and sputator the duct is of

extraordinary length, and near the base twisted in a double

spiral, one outside the other; beyond this part, a very long

twisted spermatheca separates itself from it, and beyond this,

again, the duct carries a varying number of shorter club-shaped

tubes along its sides; and, besides this, there is in Agriotes ob-

scurus a short cylindrical tube, and in A. lineatus a somewhat

larger deeply bifid bag, placed at the point of junction between

the vagina and the duct of the accessory gland. In Throscus,

finally, we find two small round spermathece, of which the

ducts unite into a short common duct inserted near the base of

the duct of the accessory gland; in their natural position they

are placed upon the vagina like a pair of spectacles.

The accessory gland of the spermatheca in Elaterini is large

* The structure in Cardiophorus asellus is very similar; and there can

consequently be no doubt that Stein (Anat. u. Physiol. d. Ins tab. 5. fig. 1)

has represented the sexual organs of this or an allied species of Cardio-

phorus—not, as he thinks, of Athous hirtus (niger). To his account of the

duct of the accessory gland, however, it should be added that the serrated

form he represents is caused by the great number of lateral tubes (nearly

forty), which do not join the duct at right angles, but lie along it slanting

forwards. In Stein’s drawing are also wanting the two elongated triangular

plates of chitine (united at their ends) which are situated over the larger

plates represented by him in the vagina; and, besides, the seminal groove is

omitted, which here, as is usually the case, extends from the stem of the

lateral follicle to the base of the common oviduct.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 205

and shaped like a hand. The basal part increases in size with

the number of the fingers; in Diacanthus pectinicornis it is

divided into two or three lobes, with numerous short fingers.

The number of these latter varies very much (in Cardiophorus

ruficollis two, Melanotus castanipes three to five, Diacanthus bi-

pustulatus five to six, Campylus linearis six to seven, Diacanthus

tessellatus ten, Athous subfuscus thirteen, Agriotes aterrimus,

lineatus, Limonius cylindricus twenty, Athous niger twenty to

thirty). In Lacon murius the fingers are ramified, with small

triangular dilatations in’ the angles; the gland opens with a

short stem in the side of the somewhat swollen and muscular

end of the duct. In Throscus, on the contrary, the accessory

gland is a simple, thick, but-little-wound tube, imserted at the

base of the bursa copulatrix.

Several Elateridz possess, besides, a pair of very large vaginal

glands which have more or less thick walls, are closely united at

their bases, and inserted above the oviducts in the receding

angle between them and the vagina. This is the case in Dia-

canthus sjelandicus (but not in D. pectinicornis), in Agriotes ater-

rimus, lineatus, obscurus, sputator, and marginatus.

Many Elateride possess a peculiar, rather firm, inside more

or less chitinized, funnel-shaped seminal groove, reaching from

the base of the duct of the accessory gland to the mouth of the

oviducts, or, in the cases where the vaginal glands just described

occur, to their point of insertion—for instance, Agriotes spu-

tator and marginatus, Athous subfuscus, and Campylus linearis.

Finally, many Elateride possess a peculiar kind of lubricating

glands, of which the yellow oily secretion is destined to facilitate

the sliding of the vagma in the muscular tube. In Agriofes

aterrimus, obscurus, sputator, and marginatus they are oval,

almost reniform ; in Diacanthus tessellatus very long and slender,

a little club-shaped toward their extremity. In Melanotus casta-

nipes they are long, furnished with a lateral branch, and their

end is tortuous; their walls are distinctly observed to be filled

with transparent glandular cells placed edgewise ; towards their

mouth they are abruptly constricted, and then continue them-

selves as two minute tortuous tubes inside the outer membrane

of the vagina, form a small dilatation, and finally perforate this

membrane so as to discharge their contents in the muscular

case of the vagina. The whole glandular tube can be moved by

means of striped muscular fibres.

The ovipositor is a long, thin, chitinous tube, supported by a

pair of small lateral flaps, terminating in a small joint covered

with short and stiff hairs, which carries the vaginal palpi.

The male of Lacon murinus possesses a pair of bag-shaped

scent-glands, of not inconsiderable dimensions; they are situ-

206 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

ated in the abdominal cavity, and can be pushed out behind

the dorsal shield of the penultimate segment. When they are

retracted in their natural position, numerous ducts, proceeding

from the glandular cells (which are accumulated so as to form

acini), are seen to open at their bottom. They are furnished

with striped muscular fibres, fixed to the bottom and on one

side, and when they are protruded, the greater part of the cel-

lular tissue and muscular fibres follow the walls of the bags,

and are consequently then situated inside the bags, which are

turned outside in.

With regard to the nervous system, I have to observe that

the ventral chords are not separated beyond the ganglion meta-

thoracicum ; but for the rest they are closely united, sometimes

enclosed in one and the same neurilemma. There are eight

abdominal ganglia, of which the first two are situated in the

metathorax, the foremost of them close to the metathoracical

ganglion; the seventh and eighth ganglia (the sexual ganglia)

are as usual closely united. The nervous stems for the organs

of respiration proceed as usual from particular small ganglia in

front of the abdominal ganglia connected with the ventral cords.

If, now, we institute a comparison between the inner structure

of Buprestidee and that of Elateridi, the essential results will

be the following :—

BUPRESTID.

The trachee furnished with

numerous vesicles.

Salivary glands very much ra-

mified.

The digestive tube long, two

or three times the length of the

animal.

(Esophagus long, the craw

large, situated in the hind part

of the prothorax, in the meso-

thorax, or even in the metathorax.

(Hsophagus with large lateral

dilatations in those species which

feed on flowers.

The stomach long, with two

horns on its anterior extremity,

spirally wound behind, very glan-

dulous.

The intestine bent at an angle,

with strongly developed glandu-

lous colon.

ELATERIDA.

The ¢trachee without vesicles.

No salivary glands.

The digestive tube short, very

little longer than the animal.

Gsophagus very short, the

craw small, situated in the fore

part of the prothorax.

(Esophagus simple, even in

species feeding on flowers.

The stomach. short, almost

straight, without horns, very few

glands.

The zntestine straight; the

colon not at all distinct, or, rather,

indistinctly marked; few glands.

of Buprestide and Elateride.

BUPRESTIDA.

Six Malpighian vessels, of

which the ends are fixed to the

angle of the intestine.

The folliculi testium very long,

tubular, at the base elliptically

dilated ; the ends of all the folli-

culi in each testis twisted into a

spiral ; each testis furnished with

its own enclosing membrane.

Two pairs of vesicule semi-

nales,—one thick, pear-shaped ;

the other long, tubiform, closely

twisted.

Spermatheca very simple, elon-

gated, club-shaped, without ac-

cessory gland *.

The ventral cords of the ner-

vous system separated in their

entire length.

The ganglia of the mesothorax

and metathorax coalesced.

Five abdominal ganglia ; only

the last three in the abdominal

cavity. The first abdominal gan-

glion distinct from the metatho-

racic ganglion.

207

ELATERIDA.

Four Malpighian vessels, with

free ends.

The testes free; the folliculi

short, more or less round, mutu-

ally free.

Three pairs of vesicule semi-

nales, of which two pairs vary

exceedingly in structure.

Spermatheca of extremely vary-

ing, often very complicated struc-

ture, with large ramified acces-

sory gland.

The ventral cords of the ner-

vous system separated only as far

as the metathoracic ganglion.

All thoracic ganglia sepa-

rate.

Eight abdominal ganglia; the

last six situated in the abdominal

cavity. The first abdominal gan-

glion united with the metathora-

cie ganglion.

ib.€

The investigations of which we have given the results in the

preceding pages prove that the mutual relation of these two

families is very different from what was formerly supposed.

With regard to development, structure, and habits of life, they

appear as widely separated as two families can be, within the

boundaries of the same principal division of animals. Amongst

Serricornia, Buprestidze occupy, in all stages of life, the same

place as Cerambycidze and, more particularly, Lamini (Lamia,

Saperda, &c.) amongst the phytophagous or cryptopentamerous

Coleoptera. Hlateridze, on the contrary, ave carnivorous as larve,

and in that stage of their life very like the larve of Carabide,

from which it follows (on account of the influence of the genera-

tive life on the structure) that also in their perfect state Elateridz

* In the paper above quoted on the anatomy of Buprestidae, the bursa

copulatrix is erroneously represented as spermatheca, and the true sperma-

theca as accessory gland—an error which was easily rectified by the use of

a better microscope.

208 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

exhibit analogies with Carabide, as far as their larve live in a

free state, but with Buprestide when their eggs are deposited in

timber and for that reason are developed rather with a view to

their flying-capacity than to their “clicking ”’-powers. On the

other hand, their feeding on pollen causes analogy with the phy-

tophagous Coleoptera, particularly with the Cerambycide, because

analogous food requires an analogous arrangement of the mouth.

The starting-point of the modifications of the mouth being thus

identical in both families, we find a parallelism between these

modifications in those cases in each family where the work of

propagating the species becomes so considerable as to occupy

the whole time and strength of the animal in its perfect state :

thus Melasini and Eucnemidini amongst Elateride correspond

to Prionini, Asemini, and Callidiini amongst Cerambycidz, just

as those Elateridze which frequent flowers correspond to Lep-

turini.

But if this be so, it seems that a new light is thrown on the

whole series of Serricornia through these results. Very exten-

sive investigations are necessary to place the relations of that

entire division in a perfectly clear light, as our present know-

ledge of the great majority of these Coleoptera is entirely in-

sufficient to afford us a deeper insight. But it may perhaps

even now be predicted without presumption that the other divi-

sions of that series likewise will show themselves parallel to

different divisions in other series of the order of Coleoptera, the

different elements of nutrition and propagation influencing the

structure of the animals in a corresponding manner. ‘The pe-

culiar type of Coleoptera calculated for life in free air, which we

describe as Serricornia, will most probably eventually divide it-

self into two principal series, each containing three or four families :

in one of these series (distinguished by having four Malpighian

vessels with free ends, and other characters) Elaterids would

correspond to Carabide, Cyphonide to Dytiscide, and Lampy-

ride to Silphide and Staphylinide; whilst in the other series

(distinguished by possessing, amongst other peculiarities, six

Malpighian vessels, of which the ends are fixed to the intestine)

Buprestidee would correspond to Cerambycide, Anobnde to

Curculionidee, Melyride to Chrysomelide, and Cleridze to Cocei-

nellidze.

Arguments derived from the general impression of the out-

ward form, or from isolated considerations of some single

feature in the structure or habits of the animals, would not

avail against a comparison of this kind, which must be judged

from those points of view which have been explained in the pre-

ceding parts of this article. Looking at the matter in this light,

nobody can avoid being struck with the astonishing multiplicity

of Buprestidze and Elateride. 209

of combinations which the insect world exhibits also in this re-

spect, seeing that in one single order at least four or five parallel

series of great natural families can be pointed out, presenting

so many cross combinations of characters in all their organic

systems, always different in type, always analogous in modifica-

tion, whilst the only other series of animals provided with true

limbs, in the modern creation, viz. Vertebrata, hardly exhibits

anything corresponding to this, except Marsupialia and Chon-

dropterygil.

b©

It has been explained above how the Elateridz, by degrees,

as their habits of life associate them less with timber and wood,

are less developed for flight and nocturnal life, and more for

“clicking” and daylight life. The two extreme points of this

development are indicated by Melasis and Campylus, which are

connected by an infinite series of transitions; and Campylus

approaches not a little to Cantharis.

The development of the E/ater-type in the direction of flight

and night life is characterized by the following features :—

1. The eyes become smoother, so that at last the facets pro-

trude so little that they are not to be distinguished except when

strongly magnified, and the whole cornea becomes quite shiny.

2. The sensitive pores of the antenne *-are more closely ac-

cumulated on the lower part of both sides of the joints, whereby

well-defined poriferous spots are sometimes formed, usually

from the third or fourth joint. Such spots, however, are not

constantly distinguishable, except in Melanotus, Adrastus, Agri-

otes, Sericosomus, and Ludius. Amongst Diacanthi, D. eneus is

distinguished by very small and little-depressed poriferous spots;

and amongst the species of Athous, A. rhombeus is distinguished

by double spots—namely, besides a lower series beginning on

the third joint, also an upper series beginning on the fifth joint.

The gigantic tropical species of the genera Oxynopterus, Tetra-

lobus, and Charitophyllus possess extensive naked poriferous

spots, particularly on the fan-branches of the male.

8. The forehead is more rounded downwards towards the

mouth, the antenne are more closely approached to one an-

other, the prothorax is shortened, and the “ springing-spine ”’

(mucro saltatorius) is more distinctly separated from the pro-

sternal spine; the legs are more completely arranged for being

folded up and accommodated inside the margins of the body ;

the general outline of the body assumes a higher and at the

same time more elongated oval shape, the edges are rounded off,

Fis my treatise on Cerambycide, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xv.

Ae ef

: Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvi. 15

210 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

the ventral surface more vaulted, the marginal ribs of the elytra

effaced, their deflected lateral part (epipleura) is more bent

in and diminished in size behind the cox; the legs are more

arranged for running, with delicate feet and weak claws; the

hairy covering becomes more close and silky, the sculpture less

distinct, the ribs of the elytra lower, the colour duller, yellowish,

brown, red, but never strongly metallic.

The development of the H/ater-type in the opposite direction,

towards springing and day life, is characterized by the following

marks :—

1. The eyes become less smooth, the facets protrude more,

and the appearance of the cornea becomes duller.

2. The sensitive pores are more equally spread over the whole

surface of the antenne.

3. The forehead slopes more gradually down towards the

mouth ; the antenne are further removed from one another ; the

prothorax is more elongated, the mucro saltatorius presents a

more direct continuation of the prosternal spine; the legs pro-

trude more to the sides; the animal is less arched both above

and below, the margins are sharpened, the whole outline becomes

a more elongated ellipse; the marginal rib of the elytra becomes

flatter and remains entire; the epipleura is more straight and

broader; the legs are more especially adapted for walking and

chmbing, with club-shaped terminal tarsal jot and powerful

claws ; the body is more closely haired, the sculpture coarser;

the ribs of the elytra are raised at the base; the colour is

heightened often to metallic lustre, or to distinct design.

If every combination of characters drawn from this circle were

used for the foundation of genera, we should reach that point

towards which modern classification for a long time has been

tending in this family as in others, viz. the identification in

most cases of genus and species; for all these features unite in

the most multifarious manner, constantly appearing in new

cross combinations. In the following synoptical table of the

Danish species these characters are therefore considered sub-

ordinate, and only used for the classification of species within

the boundaries of the different genera. These latter are founded

on other characters, which have been explained in all essential

points in the preceding chapters, so that but little remains to

be added here.

That Sternoxi exhibit similar differences in the composition of

the sockets of the middle pair of coxe to those observed in

Carabidze has been noticed in an earlier treatise*. Since then,

* Proe. Royal Soe. of Copenhag. 1855, p. 360. See Ann. & Mag. Nat.

Hist. ser. 3. vol. x. pp. 377-379.

of Buprestidze and Elateridee. 211

Thomson has shown with much ability the details of this point

of structure in Elateride.

Throughout the whole series up to Campylus the ventral sur-

face of the abdomen retains the same peculiarities, being horny,

hard, arched, with sharp edges, and so composed that only the

last segment is moveable—a circumstance which, even in dried

specimens, is distinguishable by the fact that the membrane

between the last two segments is bare. In Campylus, however,

the ventral surface is flatter and softer, particularly along the

side edges, where it is almost quite soft, and all the segments

are moveable. This is in itself an indication of the power of

clicking h€ving in Campylus become a subordinate point, as in

Melasini and Eucnemidini, though there it is due to a develop-

ment of the type in an entirely opposite direction ; for whilst in

Campylus the faculty of springing yields the first place to the

development of the legs, it is in the two groups just mentioned

the power of flight which is increased at the cost of the “ click-

ing.” But in Campylus we meet also with another important

circumstance—namely, that the elytra do not, as in other genera

of this family, fit into a groove on the pronotum, but protrude

freely above its posterior edge. Amongst the digging Elateridz

or Cebrionini this arrangement is only met with in Cebrio.

The preponderance which, in conformity with this, is accorded

to the legs, shows itself in several peculiarities—for instance, in

this, that the fore legs cannot, as in other Elateridze, be accom-

modated inside the hind corners of the pronotum, which there-

fore are continued backwards in the form of a spout. These

remarkable and important peculiarities in the structure of Cam-

pylus have hitherto been overlooked; and thus it has not only

been classed together with such genera as Hemiops and Plectro-

sternus, with which it has in reality nothing to do, but authors

have even placed in the genus Campylus itself such species as

E. homalismus, lig., and others, which do not resemble C. line-

aris or C. denticollis in anything except in general outline and

habitus, but entirely differ from them in the structure of the

sternum, limbs, and abdomen, and therefore must find their

proper places in other genera of Elateride.

Be8ides Campylus there ig one other Danish genus of this

family in which the pronotum is not arranged for receiving the

base of the elytra in its hind margin, and in which, therefore, in

like manner the springing-joint is without the essential support

afforded by this articulation. Campylus shows by its whole

structure that this want is connected with a reduction of the

springing-faculty in all points, and an increased development

of the limbs. We might therefore at first sight be surprised to

find the same want of support in the articulation in a genus

15*

cr)

12 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

including some of the most powerful springing beetles, namely

Cryptohypnus (circumscribed in the manner indicated below).

It is, however, clear that what is lost in firmness is gained in

freedom of movement, inasmuch as the articulation thus modi-

fied allows the animal to stretch the prosternum much further

back. We observe also that this bold feature in the structure

of Cryptohypnus is combined with and compensated by the

highest development of everything else which contributes to

the springing-process, such as the long prothorax, elytra with

raised ribs, &c., the small size (2 lines) of the animal bemg

also an important element in this respect. No doubt this

immense development of the springing-apparatus is *calculated

to suit the habits of the animal, because, living in sandy soil,

they cannot depend either on firm support for the body in

springing, or on a firm footing while running. In such locali-

ties these small “clickers” skip with such power (nearly a foot

in height), with such rapidity, and so many times consecutively,

that it is often difficult to catch them.

[To be continued. ]

XXX.—On the Homologies of the Male and Female Flowers of

Conifers. By Anprew Murray, F.1.S.

[Plate X.]

NorwitHstTaNnDING the numerous analyses to which the flowers

of Conifers have been subjected, the opinion of botanists regard-

ing the significance of their parts is by no means unanimous.

Any additional light upon the subject should therefore be wel-

come.

The hot and long continued summer of 1865 seems, by ripen-

ing the wood, to have induced a more plentiful flowering of

Conifers this year than usual—many species which had not

previously flowered, or at least not previously produced male

flowers, having done so this summer. The study of some of

these has presented the relations of the different parts to me in

a clearer light than any in which I have hitherto seen them

placed ; and I venture to submit them to the reader in the“hope

that I may thus contribute to the clearing up of the difficulties

which surround them.

If we take the male catkin of any Cypressine Conifer, say Wel-

lingtonia, which is one of those which have produced male flowers

in Britain for the first time this year, we find that it consists of

a few scales (PI. X. fig. 1), with small rounded balls peeping out

between them. These scales are obviously a mere continuation

of the scales of the branch; but on examining them minutely,

the Male und Female Flowers of Conifers. 213

we find that they are a little larger and broader, their margins

somewhat laciniated instead of being smooth, their colour, in-

stead of being green, yellowish fawn or pale brown, and their

texture, more especially at the margins, petaloid. It is often

difficult to tell whether an organ is a petal, a sepal, a bract, or a

leaf; but, speaking in a general way, there are two characters

which are rarely absent from petals, and help to distinguish

them: one of these is colour, and the other a peculiar elongated

cell-structure which does not, indeed, essentially differ from

other cell-structures, but which has a different aspect and is

easily recognized. We all know the texture of a petal; and

where that texture is present, either in whole or in part, it

furnishes a presumption that the organ possessing it is a

petal. In Conifers it often suggests the fact at once where, but

for it, the petaloid nature of the part could only be determined

in some more roundabout and difficult way. For instance, in

Cunninghamia Sinensis, where what is called the scale (but what

in that particular instance is the petal) is, as plainly as can be,

a continuation of the hard leaves of the branch, and, bearing

stomata, traces of the petaloid structure will be found in the

lacmiated margin. So in Wellingtonia and all the Cypresses,

the scales which form the male catkin, although merely the

continuation of the leaves of the branch, are the petals, each

petal being one flower, and the small rounded balls which peep

out at their base are the anthers ; these are sessile and grow at,

along, or on the inferior margin of the petal, as shown in Pl. X.

figs. 2 & 3. Of course it makes no difference physiologically

whether they are sessile or grow upon longer or shorter fila-

ments or foot-stalks. At first they grow facing inwards towards

the axis; but by-and-by, probably from there not being sufficient

space there, they are turned backwards, as shown in fig. 4. I

should here observe that figs. 2 and 4 are respectively of Wel-

lingtonia and Sequoia sempervirens (the flowers of which corre-

spond in all respects), the former being what I observed first in

Wellingtonia, and the latter what I saw at a somewhat later date

in S. sempervirens. Ihave no doubt that if I had had the oppor-

tunity of observing Wellingtonia at the same later date, I should

have found the anthers reverted as in the other, or that if I had

thought of examining S. sempervirens at the earlier date, I

should then have found the anthers facing as in fig. 2

In firs and pines exactly the same arrangement subsists: the

male flower assumes the form of fig.5 when young, and of fig. 6

when full-grown and the anthers have burst and the pollen been

shed. Fig. 7 shows the underside before it has burst; and the

longitudinal line on each anther shows where it bursts, having

previously thinned off, perhaps through having been rubbed by

214 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

resting on that point against the upperside of the next anther.

It will be seen how exactly the male flower when young (fig. 8)

corresponds with the flower of Sequoia sempervirens and Welling-

tonia. The petal in Sequoia is larger and of a stronger con-

sistence, and its anthers are rounder and comparatively smaller;

but the chief difference is that, in the firs and pines, the anthers

on each side, although still sessile, have extended themselves

backwards, and united to the flower-stalk, which has become more

elongated. The petal is now called the crest of the anther, and

its back is now spoken of as its front, the more prominent and

more highly coloured side being exposed outwards; bat the same

arrangements remain as in the Cypresses. The petal or crest

of the anther is more highly petaloid in structure than in the

Cypresses, and its colour is usually more bright and rich ; but,

as in them, it is concave towards the axis and convex on the

outer side. The stamens are sessile as before, and attached to

the inferior margin of the petal; but the union is continued

down the peduncle, which is comparatively longer; that is all

the difference. |

With the key thus given, it is impossible to misunderstand

the homologies of the male flowers: they are monopetalous and

diandrous in the firs and pines, monopetalous and polyandrous

in the Cypresses and allied genera.

The female flower is also monopetalous. In the young state

the petal is a small bract, sometimes green, sometimes even

more richly coloured than the petal of the male flower, but

always petaloid in texture, at least at the margins. Various

authors have, from considerations of development and analogy,

surmised the identity of this bract with the stamens in the male

flower; but this is rather more than the truth. It is not

with the stamens that they correspond, but solely with the crest

which surmounts them, or, rather, from the base of which they

spring. As it appears to me, it has no analogy, affinity, or

homology either with the anthers or their peduncle.

This petal or bract is always present, so far as I have seen,

although in the mature cone it is sometimes difficult to distin-

euish it. It is developed to the greatest extent in some of the

silver firs, as Picea bracteata and P. nobilis. In the mature

cedar it may be wholly overlooked, it having in it, by the pres-

sure of the seed behind it, been reduced to a mere pale ragged

scurf, interrupted in the middle. In the Cypresses it is often

reduced to a mere membrane or crust. If we open a young

green cone of Wellingtonia or Sequoia sempervirens, we see the

space between the scales filled with a bright claret-coloured

matter which looks like an exudation, fitting into the sinuosities

of the scales. This is the petal; and if examined with a lens,

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 215

the petaloid texture is very obvious: when the cone is mature, the

petal has been converted into a film or crust. In the pines the

petal takes the form of a small stiff bract, which in some is very

plain in the mature cone, in others less so, or more or less

squeezed or obliterated by the pressure of the surrounding

scales.

Another evidence that this bract is the petal is the fact that,

as in other flowers, it appears first, and remains for a short

time before the seeds or their envelopes begin to show them-

selves. It is, no doubt, persistent both in the male and female

flowers; but we have plenty of other flowers with persistent

petals; and although it does not fall off at the same stage as in

most other flowers, we can estimate the termination of its flower-

ing by the appearance of the parts connected with the fructifi-

cation inside of it.

In other plants the seeds are developed within the petal or

petals, and their envelopes take their place in a determinate

order or series of concentric layers. That order, I think, is pre-

served in the Conifers; and I shall first contrast the layers or

envelopes which encircle the seed in ordinary dicotyledonous

plants with what I consider the same parts in Conifers, and

then take each of the parts separately and endeavour to show

that they are what I suppose them to be. The envelopes, be-

ginning with the petal and looking inwards, then, are as fol-

lows :—

In ordinary

dicotyledonous plants. In Conifers.

1. Outermost envelope a" Petal. renee

its appendages.

2. Next envelope. Disk. Scale.

3. First covering of fruit. Pericarp. | Wing of seed.

4. Second ditto. Mesocarp. poles #e pabpeice at yiceH

3 and 5.

5. Third ditto. Endocarp. Testa.

The remaining envelopes of the nucleus of the ovule in the

Conifers (primine, secundine, &c.) in no respect differ in appear-

ance or function from those of other seeds, and therefore need

not be specially noticed.

An examination of the above parts shows nothing inconsistent

with the above distribution of function which I have assigned to

those of the Conifers.

l. The Scale.

As with the stamens growing on the inferior margin of the

male petal, the ovary takes its rise on the inferior margin of the

female petal. Physiologically, perhaps its ultimate origin is to

be referred further back; but this is the point where it comes

216 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

into view. Its first appearance and subsequent growth have

recently been fully traced by various physiologists; and I need

not recapitulate their observations. I refer the reader to Payer’s

observations, Baillon’s paper in the ‘Annales des Sciences,’ to

Dr. Dickson’s translation of a part of it and to his own observa-

tions on Dammara and Araucaria in the Transactions of the

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, for details on the growth and

development of the ovary.

Figure 18, copied from one of Baillon’s figures of the germ in

its earliest state, shows its appearance when the wing begins to

manifest itself. The bract les behind the scale, its margin

being just visible over the top of it. The position and appear-

ance of the germ at this stage is, to my mind, proof that it is

equivalent to the pistil. The two ears are the commencement

of the pistil.

Prof. Caspary, in a paper in the ‘ Natural Hist. Rev.’ (1862),

expresses his dissent from Baillon’s observations. He has made

similar investigations on allied species, and not got the same

results. He found, in the larch, that what Baillon calls the ovule

appeared first ‘in the shape of a hemispherical boss, around

which, some weeks later, the integument is produced, not in the

form of two distinct horseshoes, but of a complete ring, uniform

in height all round;” and therefore he held that it was the nu-

cleus of the seed, and that what becomes the wing was one of the

integuments of the ovule. So it 2s, no doubt ; but it is the outer

integument of the ovule—that is, the pistil or pericarp. All the

other integuments can be traced within. I rather look upon

Caspary’s objection as affecting the question whether the wing

&c. is a converted dicerpellary leaf or a converted single carpel-

lary leaf than whether it is a carpel at all.

I may, however, say one word in support of Payer and Bail-

lon’s observations. Founding on his observation on the larch,

Prof. Caspary says, ‘ As it is incredible that the integument of

Pinus Larix should from the first be a regular ring, while that

of the other Conifers examined by M. Baillon presents in its

earliest condition the appearance of two horseshoes, the observa-

tions of MM. Baillon and Payer appear to me more than doubt-

ful.” But it is not alone the observations of Payer or of Baillon,

nor the confirmation of them by Dr. Dickson, that would require

to be set aside; the very same thing was seen and figured by

the older writers. Lambert figures it very distinctly, in his

genus Pinus, as present in the cedar, and so does Richard in his

monograph ‘ De Coniferis, &c. ;? and as he also figures different

modifications of it, we may be allowed to hope that the different

appearances are not so irreconcilable as Prof. Caspary supposes.

I think I find an unintentional and indirect support of the

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 217

view I have taken of the nature of the scale in one of the results

announced by Baillon. No doubt we differ in some respects.

He holds, and so do I, that the fructification of Conifers is not

gymnospermatous, but that it possesses a true dicarpellary ovary ;

but he holds also that it is without floral envelopes, in which, as

already said, I do not agree. But the inference he arrived at

which has most interest to me is, that “the cupule, of various

consistence and form, which surrounds the ovary, and which in

several genera has received the name of aril, is a later produc-

tion, although anterior to fecundation, as is the case in those

floral organs (resulting from an ulterior expansion of the axis)

which have been termed disks.”

This seems to mean that the cupule of the yew isa disk. I

so hold it, and regard it as the homologue of the scale in the

pines; only, the flower being here solitary, the seed is wholly

surrounded by the disk, instead of, as in the pine (where it is

not solitary), being confined to one side, its place on the other

being supplied by the back of the next disk, on which it leans.

If Baillon also meant to include the scale of the pines under the

term cupule, then he has anticipated me in the view which I

now propound, and I must content myself with the ejaculation

“ Pereant qui ante nos nostra dixerunt.” But I think I may

(indeed, in the interest of the hypothesis, I ought to) state that

my view is neither borrowed nor adapted from that of Baillon:

I arrived at it by the route I have above pointed out; and it

was only on turning back to Baillon’s paper, in order to verify

my statement of his other views, for the purpose of this paper,

that I noticed the bearing of the passage above quoted.

Thus arrived at by independent minds, and by a different

course of reasoning, the probability of its being the true solution

is materially strengthened.

If, then, the bract is the petal and the wing of the seed the

pistil, what is the scale? It cannot be the pericarp (which is

the most tempting and natural-looking idea), because the peri-

carp must necessarily be one of the coats of the pistil. There

is only one thing that it can be; and that is, the disk. The

definition of a disk is, that it is whatever intervenes between the

stamens and the pistil. To be sure, we have no stamens here ;

but we know very well where they should be if the flower were

hermaphrodite, viz. springing from the base of the bract behind

the scale ; so that by no contrivance could they come between

the scale and the germ growing on its base.

The scale must therefore be the disk. That organ assumes great

variety of form, such as scales, hairs, glands, petaloid appendages ;

but that form which seems most parallel to the present case is the

inner lining of the hip of the rose. In fact the fruit of the Conifer

218 Mr, A. Murray on the Homologies of

is a hip whose disk, instead of enclosing the seed all round, lies,

like the petal, only on one side ; and the reason is plain. Nature

sets us all an example of economy. If she were about to build

a house, and the gable of another house would serve for one of

its walls, she would never be at the wasteful expenditure of

building a second wall parallel to it, but would use the old

gable to save space and expense. She has done so in the Coni-

fers ; she has built her wall of disk leaning on the back of the

next disk, making its back wall serve for the front of her house,

as shown in the section (fig. 17).

The same one-sided arrangement follows into the seed; but

there it appears to be the result of its position and the physical

or mechanical consequences of the growth of the parts about it.

At first a mere rounded carpel with the apex of the pistil look-

ing downwards, it is soon compressed and flattened by the

erowth of the scale outside of it and of the neighbouring scale

inside of it, and the epicarp dragged forward or pushed up (or,

what is the same thing, the growth is inclined in that direction)

so as to form the wing; and this in most cases is carried on until

it has left the endocarp itself bare on the inner side, and some-

times partially and at others wholly bare on the outer side too.

Looking at the scale in the above light, it may be desirable to

note one or two points in its structure and development which, L

think, have been overlooked. Not that they perhaps have any

bearing upon the question of its being a disk, but merely to

make a jotting of the facts.

In pines and those Conifers which have an exposed apophysis

and mucro, the first part of the scale which appears is the mucro

of the apophysis. Fig. 9 shows the young female cone of WVel-

lingtonia much magnified; and figs 10 and 11 represent an in-

dividual scale seen from the exterior and sideways, with the

young seeds hanging from it on the inner side. At this stage

it is very apt to deceive the observer as to its homology, seeing

that it is not much larger than the male petal, and, like it, ap-

parently a continuation of the seale-hke leaves of the branch :

one’s first idea naturally is that it is the homologue of the male

petal; but on examination, besides finding the true claret-

coloured petal behind it, we fail to perceive the petaloid texture

at the margin; the margin is not laciniated, and the texture is

the ordinary cell-texture of the leaf.

The subsequent growth of the scale is chiefly from the base.

This is the case with leaves too. The point of a leaf never

increases much in size; it is the middle or posterior half where

the chief growth takes place. In the male flower we have seen

that it is the peduncle which elongates, increasing and extend-

ing the dimensions of the anther with it, but carrying on the

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 219

petal or crest of the anther at its extremity without materially

adding to its size; so the same process of growth takes place

here. The apex of the scale is pushed on by the growth of the

lower part of the scale, and its shoulders are filled out and dis-

tended, by the accumulation of cell-growth behind them, until

they assume the form of a mature apophysis. It is in conse-

quence of the growth of the scale taking place in this manner

that im some Conifers, as the firs and pines, we have tne seeds

growing upright in an orthotropal manner from the base of the

scale, while in others, as /Vellingtonia and Sciadopitys, they

hang down from the upper part of the scale. The point of in-

sertion of the seeds is obviously close upon the boundary line

where the growth of the scale commences to act with vigour.

If it be below it, the seeds grow upwards, being determined in

that direction by their base or foundation being as it were

pushed downwards, and the body of the scale, by its lengthen-

ing upwards, giving an inclination to the seed resting on it to

follow in its growth the same direction. If the insertion, on the

other hand, is above the point of growth, their base, being at-

tached to the body of the scale,-is carried upwards with it, and

their apex is turned downwards by the upward growth of their

point of insertion, as, indeed, they could not well grow in any

other direction. If I am right in this interpretation of the cause

of the seeds in some species growing up, and in others growing

down, it deprives that fact of much of the significance which

systematists have sought to attach to it.

The growth of the scale is strengthened in the interior by a

woody core; but here, too, its appearance is very apt to mislead

us. Figs. 12 and 13 represent respectively the core of a scale

of Wellingtonia and of a fir. It has a strong resemblance to

the flat branches which we often see in distorted shoots of the

spruce fir, where two or three twigs have become united; and

hence many observers have adopted the view that the scale was

only a converted branch: but every part of a plant is only a

phase of another, all being referable to some modification of a

leaf; therefore the analogy to be drawn from its branch-like

core is no ground for holding the scale to be analogous to a

branch. The same objection would apply to all pericarps having

a woody core.

It is to be observed, too, that although in the pines and

spruce firs this core remains, like a branch, and does not fall off

like most other pericarps, in the silver firs it does become con-

stricted at the base and drops off as they do.

The core is double, as is well shown in Richard’s figures ;

but while apparently a double central stem, each of which we

should expect to supply respectively the inner and outer halves

220 Mr. A. Murray on the Floral Homologies of Conifers.

of the scale, it is in reality allotted wholly to the inner half of

the scale. Fig. 14 shows the apophysis of the scale in Welling-

tonia, fig. 15 a section of a scale taken from a mature cone of

that species, and fig. 16 a section of a scale of Pinus patula ;

and it will be seen that the posterior ligneous plate in both cuts

in with rather an abrupt turn just behind the mucro. It would

appear therefore as if the greater strength was apportioned to

the inner portion of the structure rather than to the outer,

which is just what we find in other nuts, such as the cocoa-nut,

&e.

2. The Wing and Envelopes of the Seed.

I assume, then, as a fact already proved, that the covering of

the sced of which the Wing is part is the carpel. In discrimi-

nating its different parts, ” the only difficulty is with regard to

the mesocarp. ‘The testa is, of course, the endocarp, equivalent

to the stone of the peach or to the pip of the cherry. The wing

is equally, of course, part of the epicarp. It is double, and, as

already said, usually covers one side of the seed entirely, and

more or less of the other side. In the firs, and especially the

silver firs, it is folded like a sheet triangularly round the seed,

leaving a portion at each end more or less exposed. There is,

however, not much mesocarp; but if the wing in some species

be cut across immediately above the seed, a moderate thickness

of cellular substance will be found there. This I consider the

mesocarp, which thins off on either side.

Within the carpel are found, in Conifers as in other plants,

the ovule, consisting of a nucleus enclosed in its two coverings,

the primine (the outer) and the secundine (the inner), as diffi-

cult to distinguish as in other plants, but not more so; and the

tercine, quartine, and quintine of Mirbel, representing respec-

tively the albumen of the cotyledons, the circumvolution of the

embryo-sac, and the embryo-sac itself, are, of course, there too.

There remains to say one word, and only one, upon the cor-

puscles in the ovule. It appears to me that their significance

has not been fully apprehended. The corpuscles or ebryo- sacs,

rightly taken, are the young cotyledons; and to say that an

ovule has only two cotyledons is merely saying in other words

that it has only one embryo-sac; or to say that it is polycoty-

ledonous, is equivalent to telling us that it has corpuscles in

the ovule. Brown says upon this point, “that each of these

opaque bodies terminating the trunk and branches of the funi-

culi are really rudimentary embryos, is proved by tracing them

from their absolutely simple state to that in which the divisions

of the lower extremity become visible, and those again into the

perfect cotyledon.”

Mr. A. W. E. O'Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 221

This, therefore, is a character of the Gymnospermata which

must be withdrawn by those who wish to retain Gnetum,

Ephedra, or Welwitschia in the same group as the Conifers and

Cycads. I donot; but to give my reasons for that would be to

open another phase of the subject, which it is not my intention

to enter upon here.

XXXI.—On Green Oysters. By AntruurW.E.O’Suavcunessy,

of the British Museum.

Puiny tells us of red oysters being found in Spain, of others

of a tawny hue in Illyricum, and of black ones at Cireeii, the

latter being, he says, black both in meat and shell. More-

over these black oysters seem to have borne the palm of excel-

lence in ancient times, being mentioned by various writers,

amongst whom we may cite Horace; and, in spite of Mucianus,

who tries hard to puff the oysters of Cyzicus as “larger than

those of Lake Lucrinus, fresher than those of the British coasts,

sweeter than those of Medulle, more tasty than those of Ephesus,

more plump than those of Lucus, less slimy than those of Cory-

phas, more delicate than those of Istria, and whiter than those

of Circeii,’” Pliny records it as an ascertained fact that there

were no oysters fresher or more delicate than those of Circeil.

So much for b/ack oysters, which we have never seen, and do

not wish to deal with at present. Green oysters seem to be a

more modern invention, and, as far as we can learn, are in many

cases thoroughbred “ young natives”—that is, Britishers, which

appear to have made a rather unfavourable impression on the

palates of our neighbours across the channel.

Some time ago a considerable excitement was created in

France by the story of certain luckless individuals, who, having

eaten of poisonous green oysters in the market at Rochefort,

suffered accordingly. Upon inquiry, it was found that these

oysters came from Marennes, on the west coast of France.

Now Marennes has long been famous for green oysters; but,

by the united exertions of the mayor of Marennes and his se-

eretary, M. Bourricaud, the fact was elicited that poisonous green

oysters came from Falmouth, in Cornwall. In a letter to the

‘Moniteur,’ on this subject, M. Bourricaud showed how “ the

enormously increased demand for the green oysters of Marennes,

so justly renowned for their delicacy, had rendered the oyster-

banks of that coast insufficient to supply the beds”—how, under

these circumstances, it had become necessary to have recourse

to Spain, Brittany, England, and Ireland—and how the young

natives from Falmouth were not deemed presentable until they

222 Mr. A.W.E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters.

had been subjected to about six months sojourn in the company

of their French brethren. Coming, after this prefatory informa-

tion, to the case in point, he related how a certain tradesman,

actuated by the lawless desire of premature aggrandizement,

had been guilty of selling, in the market of Rochefort, oysters

from Falmouth which had remained only three weeks in the

French beds. By a prompt analysis of the remaining indivi-

duals belonging to this poisonous batch of oysters, made by

M. Cuzent, it was found that an average of “23 centigrammes

(about 34 grains) of salt of copper was yielded by a dozen of

these oysters”—a dose which, as M. Crosse remarks, in the

‘ Journal de Conchyliologie,’ is more than sufficient to account

for the evil effects which are said to have manifested themselves.

The presence of so extraordinary a product as copper in these

oysters was soon accounted for by the discovery that the part of

the Bay of Falmouth whence they were brought was in the im-

mediate vicinity of a mine of copper then in process of working.

The waters which continually washed the bank, being strongly

impregnated with salts of copper, communicated a similar sea-

soning to the oysters, which, thanks to their obtuseness of or-

ganization, seem to have been very little affected by it them-

selves, and to have become in some sort acclimatized.

Very different, however, was the effect produced on the un-

suspecting dupes of the Rochefort merchant. According to all

accounts, it would appear to have been a veritable case of poi-

soning, although, we believe, fatal consequences were averted ;

and, in spite of the assurances of M. Bourricaud, that a “ com-

plete poisoning” by means of these oysters would be impossible,

we agree with the editor of the ‘ Journal de Conchyliologie’ that

an incomplete one is a sufficiently disagreeable affair.

In order to ascertain the presence of copper in the oyster,

M. Cuzent recommends that a sufficient quantity of pure am-

monia be poured upon the flesh, which will soon declare its

poisonous qualities by assuming the dark-blue tint which dis-

tinguishes ammoniacal salts of copper. Another method is to

plunge a sewing-needle into the green parts of the oyster, and

immerse it so transfixed in vinegar. In a few seconds the parts

of the needle in contact with the flesh will become covered with

a coating of red copper reduced to the metallic state. It appears

that an oyster in which the green tint is peculiarly clear is

especially to be avoided, while those which are of a bluish green

colour are not only fit to eat, but are considered very choice.

Now the green tint frequently observable in the oyster has

attracted the attention of scientific men from time to time, long

before the serious occurrences just mentioned, which took place

in the spring of 1862; and it would seem that, in nearly all the

Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 223

cases on record in wnich fatal consequences have followed their

use as an article of food, there is reason to suspect that copper

has been the chief cause of the evil.

So far back as the year 1713, mention is made of a certain

luxurious supper given by an ambassador at the Hague, who,

in order that no delicacies might be wanting, procured green

oysters from. England. All who eat of them are said to have

been immediately seized with severe colics, and to have been

cured with great difficulty. Lentilius, on whose authority this

account rests, states that it was afterwards ascertained that the

merchant, whom he anathematizes with his whole race, had

palmed upon the ambassador some common oysters tinted with

copper, for the true greens*.

Another case is recorded by Dr. Chisholm in the ‘ Edinburgh

Medical and Surgical Journal,’ vol. iv. p.400. He was informed

by Mr. William Newton, of St. Croix, that some time after the

British frigate ‘Santa Monica’ was cast away on the coast of the

island of St. John (one of the Virgin Islands), oysters grew on

her bottom, which was coppered. Many people ate of these

oysters; and although the consequence was in no case fatal, it

was dangerous and unpleasant in a very great degree, producing

cholera and excruciating tormina.

With regard to those oysters in which the green tint is not

due to any such deleterious cause, but, on the contrary, rather

enhances their value as a delicacy, many very different explana-

tions have been offered of the manner in which that colour is

acquired. It has been said that the water in the artificial beds,

remaining stagnant in warm weather, becomes green, and soon

communicates the same colour to the oysters themselves ; and

Dr. Johnston, speaking of the French oysters, says that, in order

to communicate to them a green colour, which, as with us, en-

hances their value in the market and in the estimation of the

epicure, they are placed for a time in tanks or “ parks,” formed

in particular places near high-water mark, and into which the

sea can be admitted at pleasure by means of sluices; the water

being kept shallow and left at rest is favourable to the growth

of the green Conferve and Ulve; and with these there are

generated at the same time innumerable minute crustaceous

animalcules which serve the oysters for feod, and tincture their

flesh with the desirable hue.

In 1820 M. Benjamin Gaillon made a series of observations

upon this subject, which he communicated to the Académie des

Sciences de Rouen, and which led him to the conclusion that

the green colour of oysters is due to the absorption of micro-

scopic animalcules allied to the Vibrio tripunctatus of Miiller,

* Dr. Johnston’s ‘ Introduction to Conchology,’ p. 19.

224 Mr. A.W.E.O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters.

for which he proposed the name of Vibrio ostrearius. These

creatures he described as gelatinous, linear in shape, pointed at

the extremities, rounded in the middle, being also contractile in

that part, and charged with a quantity of green fluid. He says

that they inhabit the water of the tanks or “ parks” in which

the oysters are preserved, in such immense abundance at certain

periods of the year that they can only be compared to the

grains of dust which rise in clouds and obscure the air in dusty

weather.

In a résumé of his observations on this subject which he con-

tributed to the ‘Journal de Physique,’ tome xci. (1820) p. 222,

he observes that the change of colour takes place only in the

“parks” or reservoirs of salt water, where the oysters are kept

on being brought from the sea. These “parks,” which are about

4 feet in depth, 200 to 250 feet in length by about 50 feet in

breadth, are capable of containing from 500,000 to 600,000

oysters: such are those of Marennes, Oléron, Courseulles, Caen,

Havre, Dieppe, Tréport, &e. At certain seasons of the year,

particularly from April to June, and again in September, the

water becomes, in some of these reservoirs, of a dark-green tint ;

even the small stones at the bottom of the tanks are covered

with small green points or excrescences. Then, says M. Gaillon,

the oysters which are destined to assume the same colour are

placed, with great care, one by one, and side by side, in order

that none may rest upon any of the others, and the supply of

fresh currents of water is suspended for a longer or shorter

period, according to the required intensity of the green.

M. Gaillon rejects the supposition that the change of colour

is the result of disease, on the ground that, having compared

the green oysters with those of the normal tint, he found all the

organs quite as healthy in the former as in the latter. ‘

To the opinion which has often been entertained, that the

green colour is due to the numerous minute particles of marine

plants which either themselves form the food of the oyster or

communicate their colour to the water absorbed by it, he objects

that the plants which most commonly find their way into the

reservoirs are the Ulva compressa and the Conferva littorals,

which are known to turn yellow with age, and which, if mace-

rated and left for several days in jars of salt or even fresh water,

will not communicate the least tint of green to the fluid, whereas

both the mouth and stomach of the oyster are totally unfitted

for such food as Ulvze or Confervee.

By the aid of the microscope, M. Gaillon discovered that the

little green excrescences with which the stones at the bottom of

the tank were constantly studded were nothing more than a

heap of the tiny animaleules which filled the water in myriads,

Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 225

and which, when thus collected together in a lump, became

visible to the naked eye. He says that, on placing a drop of

the water under the microscope, he perceived thousands of

Vibrios sporting about with every possible kind of motion—

sometimes with a sudden jerk or impulsion forwards or back-

wards, sometimes spinning round on their own axis like the

needle of a compass, sometimes standing straight up on one

end, or darting off with astonishing velocity at some other ani-

malcule, and sticking one of their pointed extremities into him

as if it were a Jance.

That the green colour which makes its appearance in the

oyster is really due to the absorption of these living atoms, M.

Gaillon has expressed his firm conviction, both in the ‘ Journal

de Physique’ above cited, and in the ‘ Memoirs of the Linnzan

Society of Calvados.’ He assures us that as soon as the fresh

water is again allowed to have free access to the reservoir the

oysters gradually lose both the green hue and the altered flavour

which accompanies it, although they are sometimes so thoroughly

impregnated with the green matter that they do not quite lose

it even in the winter, consequently long after the disappearance

of the Vibrios; there is, however, a gradual and sensible dimi-

nution in the tint. It is this duration of the green colour so

long after the animalcules have ceased to exist, says M. Gaillon,

which accounts for the assertion that green oysters may be ob-

tained all the year round; those, he observes, who have never

witnessed the intensity of the colour at certain seasons of the

year would probably designate as green oysters any which showed

the faintest remnant of that tint.

According to all observers, it is the region of the branchiz or

gills which exhibits this peculiarity the most strikingly. aNow

M. Gaillon assures us, from having examined these organs with

the microscope, and compared the orifices of the tubular fila-

ments with the size of the animalcules, that the latter could not

possibly enter the system of the oyster in that region.

Perhaps one of the most significant facts recorded by M.

Gaillon as the result of his laborious observations is, that at dif-

ferent seasons of the year the water of the oyster-“ parks” pre-

sents very different tints, being sometimes brown, at others

green or yellow—both the brown and the yellow being equally

the result of the abundant presence of microscopical animalcules

of a different species from the green Vibrio ostrearius. The

brown species, we are told, has as striking an effect on the colour

of the oyster as the green one, and greatly improves its flavour ;

whereas the yellow are considered prejudicial.

With reference to these so-called animalcules, we need scarcely

state that the atoms hitherto referred to the genus Vibrio are

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 16

226 Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters.

now recognized as being of a vegetable nature. The species

ostrearius appears in the last edition of Pritchard’s work on the

Infusoria as a Navicula.

In spite of the detailed observations and experiments of M.

Gaillon, we find M. Valenciennes remarking, at the commence-

ment of a paper on the same subject at the ‘Comptes Rendus

de Académie des Sciences’ for 1841, “On sait combien les

explications données jusqu’a ce jour sur la coloration des huitres

laissent encore & désirer.” The object of this paper is to prove

that the green colour is due to an animal matter which must be

quite distinct from all green organic substances hitherto known.

M. Valenciennes says that the only externally visible organs

which display this colour are the four leaflets of the branchie.

On lifting the upper part of the mantle, the inner surface of

the labial palps alone appear coloured; and on extending the

examination to the internal organs, the intestinal canal beyond

the stomach is seen to be of a bright green colour; the liver is

of a blackish green tint instead of the usual red; but neither

the muscles, nerves, heart, nor even the juices of the body exhi-

bit any change of colour.

According to M. Valenciennes, the colourmg matter offers

nothing remarkable when viewed under the microscope; but

when examined chemically it is found to possess certain proper-

ties which led him to the conclusion above quoted. His ob-

servations were made on the large green oysters of Marennes ;

but he says that like results have followed the application of

the same chemical tests to the so-called green oysters of Ostend,

which are less strongly coloured.

M. Dumas made some experiments in order to discover if the

grees matter might not owe much of its colour to Prussian blue.

The result is stated to have been in the negative. However con-

clusive the observations of M. Valenciennes may appear, Prof.

Bizio, in a memoir read before the Institute of Venice in the year

1845, calls attention to the fact that some ten years previously

he demonstrated the existence of copper in the branchial organs

of the Ostrea edulis, at the time when a similar discovery was

made with reference to the spire of the Murex. He says that he

then hinted at the possibility of the green colour observed in the

branchiz being the effect of the copper which enters into the

composition of that organ, and that he has been confirmed in

that opinion by these very experiments of M. Valenciennes,

which, he says, tend to make it evident, to anybody who knows

anything about copper, that the colouring matter is neither more

nor less than that metal combined with, and disguised in, the

organic substance of the oyster.

It might be somewhat tedious to the reader were we to give

Mr. A. W. EH. O'Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 227

a detailed account of the experiments made by Prof. Bizio with

a view to prove this assertion. These experiments, he tells us,

were begun in June and continued till the month of September ;

they appear to have been conducted with great care and precision,

and we would refer those anxious to pursue the investigation of

this curious and interesting subject at greater length than we

have space to do at present to Prof. Bizio’s paper, which will be

found in the fourth volume of the ‘ Transactions ’ of the above-

named academy.

Suffice it to say that ammonia, hich was one of the principal

tests employed by M. Valenciennes in his experiments, is also

the agent on which Prof. Bizio most relies; and the results

which the latter obtained certainly go to prove that the effects

recorded by M. Valenciennes as having been produced by am-

monia on the coloured portions of the oyster, were, in part, due

to the presence of copper.

It is remarkable that, while M. Valenciennes particularly men-

tions the presence of the colouring matter in the intestinal canal

and liver of the oyster, Prof. Bizio’s remarks refer only to the

branchiz. Whether he would imply that the green colour,

wherever it shows itself in the oyster, is due to the presence of

- copper, is a query we are not prepared to answer, but should

like very much to have answered for us, as, bearing in mind the

cases at Rochefort, we cannot but think this green-oyster ques-

tion rather a serious one.

Fortunately there appears to be very little call for green

oysters in the English markets, and the great bulk of them are,

we believe, shipped over to France. Perhaps it is a good thing

they are so sparingly appreciated in this country.

It is singular that so little should be definitely known of the

cause of a phenomenon which takes place in a creature so easily

accessible to observation as the oyster. However, public atten-

tion has lately been so frequently drawn to this “illustrious bi-

valve,” that we have no doubt there will soon be some new light

thrown upon this subject. We understand that Mr. Frank

Buckland, in reply to a question addressed to him by the House

of Lords some time since, stated that a professional chemist, to

whom he had submitted specimens of the green oyster, had

already found out the true cause of the coloration.

This, whatever it be, does not seem, however, to have been as

yet made public. Mr. Buckland himself seems to incline to the

opinion that a growth of green weed of some kind or other du-

ring certain times of the year only is the cause. It is now well

known that we have real green oysters, or rather yreen-bearded

oysters, in England. ‘These have been long exported to various

countries, where the taste for’such delicacies was more advanced

16*

228 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

than with us. It would seem that the greenness in the oysters

from the river Roach in Essex is, however, entirely confined to

the beard. The fact that another river (the Crouch), running

into the Roach, possesses oysters with white beards only renders

the whole question all the more curious and puzzling.

Meanwhile, until the actual properties of green oysters which

are neither plucked from the keels of ships nor fished up near

the copper-mines at Falmouth shall be discovered, we advise

any of our readers who are at all inclined to be nervous on the

subject to remember the valuable test afforded by ammonia,

and add a small bottle of it to the usual pepper and vinegar ac-

cessories, to be used in a case of doubt—though, if they have a

mind to eat the oyster in case their suspicions should prove

groundless, we would recommend the simple ordeal of the

sewing-needle as the more suitable.

XXXII.—WNotes on the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions (Ota-

riade) in the British Museum. By Dr. J.B. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Tue “Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes ” by Mr.

Theodore Gill, wherein he named several genera of this group,

and a paper by Dr. Peters on the Ofarie in the Berlin Museum,

in the ‘ Monatsbericht’ for May of this year, have induced me

to re-examine the skulls and skeletons in the British Museum ;

and I herewith send you the result of my observations. I may

observe that Dr. Peters considers all the Eared Seals one

genus, but has divided them into seven subgenera, to each of

which he gives a distinctive name. Dr. Peters’s paper is inter-

esting as determining the specimens described by Pander and

D’Alton, Johann Miller, and other German naturalists, as well

as describing the more recently received specimens in the Berlin

Museum, which certainly is one of the most important on the

continent.

Capt. Thomas Musgrave, in a work entitled “Cast away on the

Aucklands,” 12mo, 1866, pp. 141 and following, gives a very in-

teresting account of the habits and manners of the Lion Seal,

showing how unlike they are in their habits to the Seals without

ears (Phocidz). The female brings forth her young far inland,

and has to teach them to take to the water which is to be their

future home.

Capt. Weddell gives nearly the same account of the habits of

the Fur-Seal, as does also Mr. Hamilton (in Ann. & Mag. Nat.

Hist. 1839, p. 87).

Unfortunately, having no skull or other parts of the Lion

Seal of the Auckland Islands (the must southern of the New-

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 229

Zealand group), we are not able to determine whether it is the

same species as the Otaria jubata, the Sea-Lion of the southern

end of the American continent, or whether it is the Sea-Lion

of the southern end of the African continent (Arctocephalus

Delalandii), or the Sea-Lion of the Northern Australian seas

(Neophoca lobatus).

According to the observations of Dr. Peters, founded on the

examination of the typical skulls, Otaria ursina of Nilsson and

Otaria Lemarii of J. Miiller (Arch. f. Naturg. 1841, p. 334)

include the Arctocephalus Delalandii from South Africa and

A. cinereus of Australia.

Otaria Stellert of Schlegel (Fauna Japonica, t. 22. f. 55) in-

cludes both the Australian Hared Seals, viz. Arctocephalus cinereus

and Neophoca lobata; and it is quite distinct from the Otaria

Stelleri of Lesson and J. Miiller, which is a combination of the |

Sea-Bear and Sea-Lion of Steller (that is to say, Humetopias

Stellert and Callorhinus ursinus).

The males of these animals are described as twice as long and

broad (that is, four times as large) as the females. This may

explain the difference in size of the skulls from the same

localities.

The fur changes its colour as the animal grows, the young

being generally black; and the adult males and females also

differ considerably in the colour of the fur.

The Eared Seals (Otariade) must be considered a distinct

family from the Harless Seals (Phocide). They have more

power of using their limbs like the more typical mammalia,

walking on them with the body raised from the ground; they

rest with the hind limbs bent forwards. These habits are well

shown in Dr. Forster’s figures, engraved by Buffon; and they

have been verified by the study of the living Eared Seal in the

Zoological Gardens. Their scrotum and genital organs are ex-

posed as in the Dog.

The Morse is intermediate between the Hared and the Earless

Seals in several particulars. It rests with its hind limbs bent

forwards, but it does not use its limbs so freely as the Hared

Seals. Some of the older naturalists correctly figured the atti-

tude of the Morse when at rest, as shown in my paper on the

figures of that animal (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p.112). Buffon,

misled by the animal-preservers, figures it with the limbs extended

behind. Pander and D’Alton represent the animal and the ske-

leton in their proper position ; but they represent the skeleton of

the Eared Seal with its hind limbs extended backwards, though

the articulating surfaces of the bones of the legs should have

shown an anatomist that this is not the natural position in either

the Morse or the Eared Seal. Mr. Gould, in his ‘Mammalia of

230 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

Australia,’ erroneously figures Hared Seals with the attitudes of

the Earless ones.

I. The palate produced behind to a line with the condyles. It is deeply

concave behind, and becomes deeper as the animal increases in age.

The hinder nostril is short, with a truncated front edge.

1. Orarta, Gray, Gill, and Peters.

Platyrhynchus, F. Cuvier.

Grinders 6/6. In the adult skulls the fourth upper grinder

is under the front edge of the orbit, and the sixth or last in a

line with the back edge of the zygomatic arch. The hinder

edge of the palate is in a line with the condyles, and truncated.

In the skull of the younger animal, about 8 inches long, the

hinder edge of the palate is rather in front of the line of the

condyles. The upper grinders are also differently disposed :

the third upper grinder is under the front edge of the orbit, and

the fifth tooth is in a line with the back edge of the zygomatic

arch, and the last or sixth tooth is far behind it. The teeth in

the younger skull are more lobed than in the adult. This

change is remarkable, as the teeth of the young and the adult

Zalophus Gilliespit are similar in number and position.

Otaria jubata. Southern Sea-Lion.

Phoca jubata, Forster.

Otaria leonina, Péron.

O. chilensis, J. Miiller.

Hab. South America, Falkland Islands, Chili.

The oldest of the three adult skulls in the British Museum

differs from the other two in the pterygoid processes of the

hinder edge of the palate being closer together than in the rest;

but this character seems to depend on the greater age of the

animal, as it differs slightly in the two other specimens.

In all the younger specimens, varying greatly in size, the

pterygoid processes are far apart.

Dr. Peters considers (1) Platyrhynchus leoninus of F. Cuvier,

(2) Phoca Byronia of Blainville, and (3) an adult specimen which

is in the Hamburg Museum, and of which he described and

figured the skull as O. Geoffroyia, to be distinct species.

I cannot see any difference between the skull in the College

of Surgeons, on which Phoca Byronia was founded, and those

in the British Museum ; and the figure of the skull described as

Otaria Geoffroyia is very similar to the skull in the British

Museum collection which I have called O. jubata.

II. The palate rather produced behind. The front edge of the hinder nasal

opening in a line with the middle of the zygomatic arch.

A. The grinders 5/5, the fourth upper (in adult) under the front edge of

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 231

the orbit, and the last in front of the back edge of the zygomatic arch.

Zalophina.

In the younger skull the grinders are placed rather further

back, the hinder part of the upper grinder being behind the

back edge of the zygomatic arch. The grinders all single-

rooted, as the last or sixth grinder in each jaw, which is generally

two-rooted, is absent. The face of the skull is considerably

produced, and the forehead is flat.

2. Zatoruus, Gill, Peters.

Arctocephalus § b**, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 55.

Palate concave, narrow in front, wider at the line of the last

grinder, and then contracted behind. The hinder nares nar-

row, elongate, twice as long as wide, acutely arched in front,

front edge in a line with the front edge of the orbital process

of the malar bone. ;

Zalophus Gilliespir, Gill.

Otaria Gilliespii, Macbain & Peters.

Arctocephalus Gilliespii, Gray, P. Z. 8S. 1859, t. 70 (skull).

Hab. California. Brit. Mus.

3. NEorHocA.

Arctocephalus § b***, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 57.

Otaria, § Zalophus, part., Peters.

Palate concave, broad, as broad before as at the hinder part

of the tooth-line, then rather suddenly contracted. The hinder

nares broad, rather longer than broad, with the front edge

broadly arched, which is further back than the front edge of the

orbital process of the zygomatic arch, or malar bone, which is

thick and flat. .

Neophoca lobatus. Australian Hair-Seal.

Arctocephalus lobatus, Gray, Spic. Zool. 1828, t. 4. f. 2 (teeth); Zool. E. &

a Mamm. t. 16,17. f. 3-5 (skull); Gray, Gould, Mamm. Austr. iii. t. 49 ;

eters.

Otaria australis, Quoy & Gaim. Astrol. t. 14, 15. f. 3, 4 (skull).

Otaria Stelleri, Schlegel, Abbild. t. 22. f. 1-4.

Arctocephalus australis, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 57.

The upper grinders all single-rooted, the root of the two last

(the fourth and fifth) being rather compressed, with an obscure

central longitudinal groove on the inner side; the two front

grinders of the lower jaw with oblong, the three last with

compressed roots, and the fourth and fifth with a slight longi-

tudinal central groove on the sides.

In the younger skulls the roots of the grinders are more ob-

long, less compressed, and do not show the lateral grooves, as far

as the teeth can be seen without being drawn from the sockets.

232 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

In the front part of the younger skull, which was received

from Mr. Gould, the teeth are placed rather further back than in

the adult skull from North Australia received from Capt. Grey,

the hinder part of the fifth tooth being behind the back edge of

the zygomatic arch.

4. ArcropHoca, Peters.

Dr. Peters described this subgenus from a specimen sent

from Chili by Dr. Philippi. It chiefly differs from Zalophus in

the palate being much narrower, but rather wider behind, and

the teeth rather far apart. I have not seen any skull agreeing

with these characters.

Arctophoca Philippi, Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 276,

t. 2. a, B, c (skull and teeth).

Hab. Juan Fernandez. Dr. Philippi, Mus. Berlin.

According to the figures, the form of the skull and the large

size of the orbit are very similar to those of Phocarctos Hookert ;

but the number and form of the teeth are different.

B. The grinders 5/5, the third upper being under the front edge of the

orbit, the last or fifth separated from the rest by a broad space and

placed far behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch ; the hinder

grinders two-rooted.

5. Eumerorias, Gill, Peters.

Arctocephalus § a***, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 51.

Palate flattish or rather concave in front, as wide in front as

at the end of the tooth-line, and then slightly narrowed behind.

Posterior nares oblong, elongate, broadly truncated in front, the

front edge being behind the line of the orbital process of the

zygomatic arch. The grinders have large oblong roots; the

second, third, and fourth upper ones have a subcentral longitu-

dinal groove on the outer side, and a less marked one on their

inner surface; the inner side of all but the first of the lower

ones are similarly grooved; the fifth upper grinder (or more

properly the sixth in the normal series) has two distinct roots.

The lower jaw much more elongate than that of Otaria jubata, the

hinder angle more oblique, and the lower margin long andstraight.

The skull of the young animal, which was sent by Mr. A. S.

Taylor to Mr. Gurney from California, and which I first de-

scribed, with doubt, as A. Monteriensis, junior (P. Z. S. 1859,

p- 357), and which in the ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales’ I

named Arctocephalus Californianus (see p. 51), agrees in every

respect in its dentition with the large skull which we received

from California, and which I described and figured as A. Mon-

teriensis (P. Z. 8. 1859, p. 358, t. 72); but it differs greatly in

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 233

the form of the hinder nares, which are extended much more for-

wards, so that the front end, which is very narrow and acute, is

much in front of the prominence of the orbit of the zygomatic

arch, being, in fact, about in a line with the middle of the lower

edge of the orbital concavity.

This skull is evidently that of a very young animal, for the

bones are separate ; but it has the same number and disposition

of the teeth as the large skull. There is the same wide space

between the fourth and fifth upper grinders ; but there is at the

back edge of the fourth grinder, on the right side of the skull,

a small pit, from which, no doubt, a small rudimentary tooth

has fallen out; and there-is a much wider but shallow pit on

the other side, which may have been produced by the loss of a

rudimentary tooth; the last upper grinder has a large swollen

undivided root. If this is a young skull of Humetopias Monte-

riensis, that species is curious for having the teeth in the old and

young skulls in the same situation as regards the bones of the face.

The adult skull and the young one were from the same loca-

lity, and, I believe, collected by the same person; and this

bemg the case, I am inclined to regard them as the same, only

showing a curious peculiarity in the growth of the animal, and

also showing that the form and position of the hinder nostril

probably varies as the animal increases in age.

Eumetopias Stelleri. Northern Sea-Lion or Fur-Seal.

Arctocephalus Monteriensis, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, t. 72 (skull).

Eumetopias Californiana, Gill.

Otaria Stelleri, Gray; Peters; Miller?

Leo marinus, Steller.

Phoca jubata, Pander & D’ Alton, t. 3. f. d, e, f (skull, not good).

Phoca Californica et P. Stelleri, Fischer.

Lion marin de la Californie, Chloris, Voy. Califor. t. 11.

Hab. California; Behring’s Straits.

The Sea-Lion of Steller has been one of the zoological para-

doxes. Professor Nilsson, like most preceding authors, regarded

it as a variety of the Otaria jubata; and therefore I supposed it

might be a second species of the restricted genus Ofarta. Dr.

Peters has solved the enigma by uniting it to the Seal which I

described from California, observing that the skull in the Berlin

Museum, figured by D’Alton under the name of “ Steller’s Sea-

Lion ” (Phoca jubata), was received from Kamtschatka, and a

second skull of an old male in the Berlin Museum was received

from M. Brandt as coming from Behring’s Straits.

It is to be regretted that these skulls escaped the researches

of Professor Nilsson, who visited most museums in Europe to

examine the typical specimens.

The specimen of Callorhinus ursinus, now in the Museum, was

received from St. Petersburg as Otaria leonina, or Leo marinus

234 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

of Steller, from Behring’s Straits; so they evidently confound

two species under that name. ~

The figure of Pander and D’Alton is so imperfect that it

would have been impossible to determine the species it repre-

sents without the examination of the original skull, and then

one sees that it might be intended for the species to which it is

referred. The same observation is applicable to the figure of

the skull of Steller’s Sea-Bear.-

C. The grinders 6/5, the third upper under the Front edge of the orbit, the

jifth and sixth behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch ; the upper

hinder grinders two-rooted.

6. PHocarctos, Peters.

Arctocephalus § II., Gray, Proc. Zool. Soe. 1859, p. 109. ¥

The skull elongate, forehead flat. The palate concave, deep,

with a thickened margin on each side in front, widest in the middle

part of the tooth-line, and gradually narrowed behind the teeth ;

the internal nares oblong, longer than broad, truncate in front,

the front edge in a line with the orbital process of the zygomatic

arch. Grinders large, compressed; the fifth and sixth upper

behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch. The grinders have

compressed roots ; some of them have a very indistinct longitu-

dinal groove on the side; the fifth upper grinder has two distinct

roots. The ear-bones scarcely prominent, with a flat lower surface.

I have not seen an adult skull of this genus. The skulls

described are 10 inches long, but the bones are not knit,

Phocarctos Hookeri, Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 262.

The Southern Hair-Seal.

Arctocephalus Hookeri, Gray, Zool. KE. & T. t. 14, 15 (skull.)

The Hair-Seal of the sealers.

Hab. Falkland Islands and Cape Horn.

The skull of the young animal described and figured by Dr.

Burmeister as Arctocephalus Falklandicus (Ann. and Mag. N. H.

1866, xviii. p. 99, t. 9. f. 1 & 2) is probably the young skull of

this species. It agrees with it in the elongated form of the

skull, and in the large size and great development of the pro-

cesses of the orbits.

Dr. Peters regards the Otaria Ulloe of Von Tschudi (Fauna

Peruana, p. 1386, t. 3) as a second species of this group. There

are two skulls which he refers to it in the Berlin Museum.

7. CALLORHINUS, Gray, P. Z. 8.1859, p. 359; Peters.

Arctocephalus, Gill!

Skull elongate ; forehead rounded in front of the orbit, rather

swollen. Palate rather concave, as wide in front as at the end

of the tooth-line, rather narrowed behind. The sixth upper

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum, 235

grinder just behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch; the

grinders moderate, fifth and sixth upper and the fifth lower with

two diverging roots.

Callorhinus ursinus, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, p. 359, t. 58 (skull).

Northern Sea-Bear.

Ursus marinus, Steller.

Phoca ursina, Linn.; Pander & D’Alton, t. 7. f. 1 (not good).

Otaria ursina, Péron; Peters.

O. Kraschenninikowiti, Lesson.

O. Stelleri, part., Lesson & Miller.

Hab. Kamtschatka. B.M.

D. Grinders 6/6, the third upper grinder under the front edge of the

orbit, the hinder ones far back behind the back edge of the zygoma.

Arctocephalina.

8. ArcrocePHALus, F. Cuvier, Peters.

Halarctus, Gall.

The face of the skull elongate; forehead flat. The palate con-

cave, especially in front, with a thickened margin on each side

near the teeth, about as wide in front as between the hinder

teeth, and then narrowed behind; the internal nasal opening

elongate, longer than broad, narrow and arched in front, the

edge in a line with the orbital process of the zygomatic arch,

which is large and well developed.

In the adult skull of A. Delalandii from the Cape the fifth

hinder grinder has only very short rounded callous roots, which

are slightly divided into two lobes; and the hinder or sixth

upper grinder seems to have a root of the same character. But

not having any skulls of younger animals, I am not able to de-

scribe what are the forms of the root of these two teeth in the

younger state.

In the skulls of the other species (which are not adult, as they

have the sutures between the bones still distinct), the fifth and

sixth upper grinders have two distinct diverging roots.

* The fifth and sixth upper grinders with two roots (?); the sixth upper

partly behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch. Arctocephalus.

(Africa.)

1. Arctocephalus Delalandit, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, t. 69 (skull).

The Cape Fur-Seal.

Phoca ursina, F. Cuvier, Oss. Foss. t. 219. f. 5.

Arctocephalus ursinus, F. Cuvier.

Otaria ursina, Nilsson.

O. Peronii, Desm.

O. Delalandii, F. Cuvier.

O. pusilla, Peters.

Junior. Petit Phoque, Buffon, H. N. xiii. t. 53=Phoca pusilla, Schreb.

Hab. South Africa, Cape of Good Hope.

236 On the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions.

The two adult skulls in the British Museum differ greatly in

the width of the hinder nasal opening, in the form of the hinder

lower lateral processes of the occipital bone,*in the form of the

back of that bone, and in the shape of the condyles.

** The fourth, fifth, and sixth upper grinders with two distinct diverging

roots ; the fifth in a line with the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch.

Euotaria. (America.)

2. Arctocephalus nigrescens, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 52.

The Southern Fur-Seal.

Hab. Falkland Islands ?

The two skulls of this species in the British Museum agree

in most particulars ; but they differ considerably in the form of

the hinder nostrils. The larger one is without its upper teeth,

but the form of the roots are well exhibited by their sockets ;

the front edge of the hinder nasal opening is produced rather

further forward, and is acutely angular. The other skull, which

is rather small and has the teeth in a good condition, has the

hinder nasal opening with a slightly arched, nearly truncated,

front edge.

Dr. Peters refers Phoca Falklandica (Shaw, Zool. i. p. 256) and

Otaria Falklandica (Hamilton, Ann. & Mag. N.H.1839, p.81,t.4;

Jardine, Nat. Lib. vi. p. 271, t. 25) to this species. But as neither

Dr. Shaw nor Dr. Hamilton describes the number or position of

the teeth, it is not possible to determine if this is the Fur-Seal

of the sealers, collected at the Falkland Islands, more especially

as the fact of the skull coming from the Falkland Islands is not

well ascertained. See the other synonyma which have been

established on the sealers’ descriptions and figures or the skins

collected for the furriers at the Falkland Islands (Gray, Cat. of

Seals & Whales, pp. 55,56). Dr. Hamilton, who prides himself

on his figure, represents the hind legs as extended behind ; but

they look very awkward in that position, the stuffer having

evidently had a difficulty in extending them.

*** Fourth, fifth, and sixth upper grinders with two diverging roots ; the

Sifth upper grinder entirely behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic

arch. The palate narrow. Gypsophoca. (Australia.)

3. Arctocephalus cinereus, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 56.

Australian Fur-Seal.

Oltaria cinerea, Péron?; Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrol. p. 89, t. 12, 13, 15

(animal and skull); Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 272.

Arctocephalus nigrescens, b & c, Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. p. 147.

Black Seal, Otaria, Cat. Sydney Museum, ii. p. 36.

Hab. Australia. John Macgillivray.

Black, greyer beneath ; under-fur abundant, reddish brown.

There are the stuffed skin, with its skull, and the bones of the

On the Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon. 237

face of another young specimen of this Seal in the British

Museum, collected in the Australasian Sea by Mr. John Mac-

gillivray.

The Eared Seals are collected for their oil and skins. Most

of the species have very dense under-fur of soft erect hairs be-

tween the base of the longer hairs. These are called “ Fur-

Seals ;” and the skins, when deprived of their long hairs, are

very valuable. The dressed furs of the various species and loca-

lities are of very different commercial and economic value.

The skins of Neophoca lobata of Australia and Phocarctos Hookeri

of the Southern Ocean, being destitute of this under-fur, are

called Hair-Seals by the sealers. Their skins are of little com-

parative value, as they are only used like the skins of the Earless

Seals (Phocide).

I have not been able to identify the “Tiger Seal” of Musgrave

(‘Cast away on the Auckland Islands,’ pp. 7, 10, 18, 29, &c.),

which seems as abundant as the Sea-Lion of the same locality.

They are both probably undescribed.

XXXIII.— Recent Researches on the Fossil Fishes of Mount

Lebanon. By MM. F. J. Picrer and A. Humperr*,

Tart the fossil fishes of the coasts of Syria are among those

which have been longest known is shown by the mention of

them in De Joinville’s ‘ Histoire de Saint-Louis.’ This chro-

nicler tells us that, during the sojourn of the Crusaders at

Sayette (the ancient Sidon, now Satda), “A certain marvellous

stone was brought to the king, in appearance like a quantity of

scales, of the which when one was raised you saw beneath, be-

tween the two stones, the shape of a fish of the sea. And the

fish was of stone, but nothing of its form was wanting, neither

eyes, nor fins, nor colour, any more than if it had been living.

The king asked for one of these stones, and found a tench in it,

of a brown colour and lke any other tench.”

Various travellers, such as J. Korte, C. Lebrun, Volney, &c.,

have also mentioned these fishes; but Scheuchzer is the oldest

naturalist who, as far as we know, has paid any attention to

them. In his work ‘Piscium Querulz et Vindicie,’ published at

Zurich in 1708, we find a passage devoted to the fish figured in

Lebrun’s ‘ Voyage’ (Cornelius de Bruyn), and another referring

to a specimen in the Woodward Collection. The Zurich natu-

* Translated by A. O’Shaughnessy from a separate impression, com~

municated by the Authors, from the ‘Archives des Sciences de la Biblio-

théque Universelle,’ Geneva, June 1866. See also ‘ Nouvelles Recherches

sur les Poissons Fossiles du Mont Liban,’ 1 vol., with plates, by F. J.

Pictet and A. Humbert : Geneva, 1866.

238 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

ralist, however, teaches us nothing more than his predecessors,

as he does not describe these fossils or discuss their zoological

affinities. De Blainville was the first to study scientifically some

of the Lebanon fishes. He described two species belonging to the

genus Clupea, and called them Cl. Beurardi and Cl. brevissima.

De Blainville’s essay on the Ichthyolites was soon superseded

by the labours of Agassiz in 1833-1848. Nevertheless the

learned author of the ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles’”

possessed actually very slender materials relative to the fauna of

Lebanon. He brought to light four new species only, and added

some details respecting the two Clupee described by De Blainville.

In 1845 Sir Philip Grey Egerton described a Ray from the

limestones of Hakel; and in 1849 Heckel made known four

or five species, brought from Syria by Th. Rotschy. In 1850

one of the present authors published a special memoir on the

fishes of the two deposits of Hakel and Sahel Alma, founded upon

important materials amassed by MM. E. Boissier and Blondel.

In this memoir twenty new species were described.

Since this there has been only one work on the fishes of Le-

banon, that of M. O. G. Costa, who has described and figured

four new species.

Researches made in 1860 by one of the authors (A. Hum-

bert), in the deposits of the coast of Syria, have greatly enriched

the collection of the Museum of Geneva, both in new species

and in more perfect examples of such as had been previously

described. We have thought it advisable to pass in general

review the fishes of Lebanon, completing, whenever we could,

the descriptions of the forms already known, and inserting the

new species.

We here extract a portion of what we have said in our intro-

duction concerning the age of the two deposits as attested by

geological and paleontological evidence; and we also reproduce

our general remarks on the two ichthyological faunas of Hakel

and Sahel Alma.

Geological data.

The beds which we have been considering are situated on the

eastern slope of Lebanon, between Tripoli and Beyrout, nearer,

however, to the last-named town. ‘The nature of the rock and

the fauna of these two deposits show that they belong to differ-

ent formations; their age and relative antiquity have, however,

not yet been satisfactorily determined.

MM. Agassiz and Heckel, in default of positive information,

have done no more than put forward certain hypotheses with

respect to the formation to which should be referred the few

species which they had within reach.

of Mount Lebanon. 239

M. de Tchihatcheff has found at Makrikoi, near the gates of

Constantinople, certain fossil fishes identical with those of Hakel.

Unfortunately this traveller never saw in situ the rock whence

the specimens were obtained ; and consequently his notices are

of little value, except so far as they attest the geographical

extension of the beds of Lebanon.

We are consequently almost reduced to the stratigraphical

data furnished by M. Botta in his memoir on Libanus and

Antilibanus*. M. Botta distinguishes three principal forma-

tions in the Lebanon. He refers the lowest of them to the

Upper Jurassic period, the following to the Greensand, and the

third, which covers this, to the Lower Cretaceous series. The

Lower Chalk is composed of an alternation of limestones and

calcareous marls. It is in one of the middle beds of this latter

formation that the fishes of Hakel occur. With regard to those

of Sahel Alma, they belong, according to M. Botta, to the same

group, but may be slightly more ancient.

The observations made at Hakel by M. Humbert, although

very incomplete, tend to confirm the views of this learned French

naturalist. We have, in fact, found fossils characteristically

Cenomanian (Upper Greensand), such as Orca Tailleburgensis,

Cardium Hillanum, &c.,in layers of alternate limestones and marls,

which are immediately overlain by the fish-beds. Possibly, in

spite of this superposition, these beds may form part of the same

group, and be only a phase of the Cenomanian. A circumstance

which would lead us to suppose this to be the case is the fact

that in proceeding from the bed of the river to a point situated

between the village and the deposit of fishes, and mounting per-

pendicularly the left flank of the valley, we find a series of cal-

careous laminz more or less compact, but without a trace of

the fish-bed ; the superior laminz seem, however, to be conti-

nuations of those which overlie that bed. We must thence

conclude that this latter is superior to the Cenomanian forma-

tion, or that it forms part of that formation. If, as we suppose,

the Hippurites lumbricalis (and perhaps H. socialis) obtained

between Djebail and Hakel are superior to the fishes of Hakel,

then these are inferior to the Turonian (Lower White Chalk)

formation.

The beds of Hakel would seem to be prolonged over a very

considerable space. The Clipea Beurardi was described by De

Blainville from a specimen brought from Gibel (Djebail), and

probably emanating from Hakel; M. Agassiz studied a specimen

from Saint-Jean d’Acre. The Clupea brevissima, so abundant at

Hakel, is represented in the Museum of Geneva by specimens

* « Observations on Libanus and Antilibanus,” by M. P. E. Botta, jun.

(Mém. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tome i., Ist part: Paris, 1833).

240 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

labelled as coming from Mount Carmel]; M. Agassiz saw in the

Zurich Museum a specimen of this species sent from Saint-Jean

d’Acre*; Mr. Williamson+ found it at Gebel-Suneen (very

probably Sannina), near Beyrout; and, finally, as we have just

seen, M. de Tchihatcheff has procured it at Makrikoi near Con-

stantinople, where it is associated with Hurypholis Boisseri and

Cyclobatis oligodactylus.

The deposit of Hakel must have been formed at a very slight

distance from the land; for our late researches afforded a wing-

less orthopterous insect.

With regard to the second deposit, we have nothing to add

to what Botta has said on the subject, with the aid of certain

opportunities for comparison which we have not had at our dis-

posal.

The convent of Sahel Alma, situated 17 or 18 kilometres

north of Beyrout, is erected on a sharp declivity which descends

to the sea. It is immediately beneath the walls of the convent,

in a field of mulberry-trees, and covered solely by the vegetable

earth, that the calcareous marl containing the fishes occurs.

With them we have collected Crustaceans and two Ammonites.

These latter fossils are, unfortunately, not sufficiently preserved

to admit of a strict determination.

Valenciennes, in examining the fishes collected at Makrikoi

by M. Tchihatcheff, found a species of a new genus, which he

named, without, however, describing it, Strymonia siricat. It

comes from a light limestone perfectly identical with that of Sahel

Alma, while the other species occur in a limestone very similar to

that of Hakel. It would seem, therefore, that the two fish-beds

of Lebanon are found also at Constantinople.

Age of the two Ichthyological Faunas of Mount Libanus,

according to paleontological data.

We think we are able to establish as almost certain that both

these faunas belong to the Cretaceous period. It would be, on

special grounds, impossible to attribute them to the Jurassic.

The greater number of Teleostean fishes which they afford, to-

gether with the absence of Ganoids, show them to be unques-

tionably posterior to that period.

It seems to us no less evident that they are not Tertiary faunas.

For proof we have :—

1. The presence of two species of Ammonites in the beds of

Sahel Alma, and of an Aptychus in those of Hakel.

* It is very possible that Saint-Jean d’Acre and Mount Carmel corre-

spond to one and the same locality.

tT Proceed. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. i. p. 291.

~ Bull. de la Soe. Géol. de France, 2° série, 1851, t. viii. p. 301.

of Mount Lebanon. 241

2. The existence of a certain number of genera or groups,

which, as far as we know at present, characterize the Cretaceous

epoch. Such are the genera Scombroclupea and Leptosomus, the

groups of Dercetis and Eurypholis.

3. The great number of extinct genera which contribute to

give these faunas a special physiognomy. These are, at Hakel,

Pseudoberyx, Petalopteryx, Coccodus, Aspidopleurus, and Cyclo-

batis; and at Sahel Alma, Pyenosterinz, Cheirothriz, Rhinellus,

and Spaniodon.

4, The fact that among the genera which are still represented

by living species, those which are the most abundant at the Le-

banon are precisely such as belong also to the Cretaceous epoch.

We may mention in particular the type Bery#, which is pre-

eminently Cretaceous, although represented at the present day

by some species in the warmer seas. We may also cite the

Clupee, the existence of which is demonstrated as far back as the

Cretaceous period, and the Chirocenirites, the maximum develop-

ment of which is equally characteristic of that epoch.

The fish which are not referable to one or other of these cate-

gories are very few in number, and occupy but a subordinate

position in the Lebanon faunas.

But, although we are tolerably certain of the general fact that

these faunas are Cretaceous, we find it a much more embarrass-

ing matter to decide’to which of the subdivisions of this long

age they should properly be referred. The history of fossil fish

presents still too many breaks to admit of our applying here the

same methods as hold good in the case of Mollusks and Eehi-

noderms, and we are forced to content ourselves with a certain

degree of probability.

The first point to determine is that no species of Mount Li-

banus has ever yet been found in any other deposit, save certain

parts of Syria and Asia Minor which belong to the same epoch,

and of which we have already spoken. Consequently our com-

parisons become limited to the more uncertain relations between

genera and natural groups.

We have compared the faunas of Lebanon with that of Voi-

rons (as made known by one of the authors*), with that of Co-

men in Istria (as studied by MM. Heckel, Kner, and Stein-

dachner), with that of the Chalk of England, and finally with

that of the Chalk of Westphalia (the numerous species of which

have been described in an important memoir by M. von der

Marck).

Making allowances for insufficient data, we give the following

as the results of these comparisons :—

* F. J. Pictet, ‘ Paléontologie suisse,’ 1858, 1° série. Description des

fossiles du terrain néocomien des Voirons.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. . 17

242 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

1. The fauna of Hakel has greatest resemblance to that of

Comen in Istria. Nevertheless it presents a greater proportion

of living genera, and may thus be contluded to be the more

recent of the two.

2. The fauna of Sahel Alma is unquestionably related to that

of the Chalk of Westphalia.

3. Both one and the other differ to a greater extent from that

of the Chalk of England.

4, These differences and resemblances may be partly owing

to geographical causes, and partly to the respective ages of the

formations. The former would tend to augment the relations

with Comen, and to diminish those with the Chalks of more

northern countries, and would consequently weaken considerably

the importance to be attached to the resemblances.

In spite of doubts so engendered, the precise limit to which

it would be impossible to lay down, our general conclusion is

that the faunas of the Lebanon are, both the one and the other,

intermediate between those of Istria and those of the Upper

Chalk, and that, consequently, their position is most probably in

the Middle Cretaceous formation.

And here we have to deal with a question both difficult and

embarrassing. What is the relative age of our two Lebanon

faunas? And which is the more ancient ?

Had the labours of Botta resolved this question, and were we

already possessed of sufficient stratigraphical proofs, we should

not now be forced to have recourse to the hazard of a palzonto-

logical analysis, which is the more embarassing since it leads us

to a result quite opposed to that which the above-named author

somewhat prematurely regarded as probable. M. Botta be-

lieved the fauna of Sahel Alma to be the more ancient. The

comparisons which we have lately made, and which have brought

us to the conclusion that the fauna of Comen is more nearly re-

lated to that of Hakel, while that of Sahel Alma more especially

recalls the fauna of the White Chalk, lead us on the contrary to

consider the first the more ancient. It is to be hoped that a

complete geological survey of these countries will put an end to

this uncertainty.

General Paleontological Considerations.

The study of organic development throughout the course of

geological time shows that the different classes of the animal

kingdom are far from presenting a history uniform in this re-

spect. The epoch, in particular, during which the modifications

which have more powerfully affected the organism have taken

place would seem to have been by no means the same for the

of Mount Lebanon. 243

different classes. We see, at a given moment, a certain class be-

come modified to intensity, while a certain other class preserves

its general physiognomy intact, to become subject to a similar

process at another period.

The class of fishes is remarkable in this particular*. The last

extensive modification it has undergone corresponds to the trans-

ition between the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Now, with

regard to most classes, this transition is relatively of little im-

portance. We see the Jurassic reptiles continuing a great many of

their types in the Cretaceous period, whilst the transition between

this and the Tertiary period is marked by the most striking

changes of form. We see the Mollusks, the Echinoderms, and

the Polypes of the cretaceous seas reproducing to a great extent

the types of their Jurassic predecessors. If we were to seek the

epochs when the greatest modifications in each of these classes

have taken place, we should never find them in the interval be-

tween the Upper Jurassic and Neocomian periods.

The importance of the change which took place at the termi-

nation of the Jurassic period has already been dwelt upon suffi-

ciently by M. Agassiz. Our learned friend has laid stress in

particular on the apparition somewhat suddenly at the com-

mencement of the Cretaceous period of the most perfect group

of fishes, the Teleostei, which form the large majority of the

population of the modern seas. Saving a certain measure of

restriction imposed by later researches upon the generality of

this assertion, the fact has in the main received every confirma-

tion. It gives a particular importance to the study of the Cre-

taceous fish-faunas, since these faunas are the origin and, in

some measure, the earliest expression of our present existing

ones. It is interesting to follow the gradual series of modifica-

tions through which they have passed, to note the earliest repre-

sentative types, the forms which have continued most constant,

and those which have been the last to appear. The most gene-

rally adopted classification of fishes is that of J. Miller. Of the

six subclasses established by him, three have no fossil represen-

tatives (Leptocardii, Cyclustomi, and Dipnor) ; the three others

alone enter the domain of the paleontologist.

Among these three subclasses, the Elasmobranchi retain the

same general characters which they have presented throughout

all time. This is the group which has undergone the least mo-

dification. It is not represented very abundantly at Lebanon ;

* Prof. Heer has just called attention to a perfectly similar fact in the

history of the vegetable kingdom, ‘ Les Phyllites erétacés du Nebraska’

(Extrait des Mém. de la Soe. helvét. des Se. Nat. 1866). He has shown

that the Upper Cretaceous flora is quite different from the Jurassic flora,

and allied rather to the Tertiary flora.

244. MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

there are, however, the two principal types, Sharks and Rays.

These fishes are for the most part difficult of comparison with

other fossil species ; for, in most deposits, the Elasmobranchi are

only indicated by isolated teeth : in the Lebanon, however, the

case is quite different ; there are no isolated teeth, but some few

entire bodies.

‘The subclass of the Ganozds is, in all known faunas of the Cre-

taceous period, in rapid course of extinction. This renders all

the more interesting the fact that the faunas of the Upper Jura

which immediately preceded this period are rich in numerous

and fine characteristic species of this subclass. We have not

found at Lebanon any true Ganoid; for we no longer retain in

that subclass the order Hoplopleuridz established by one of our-

selves. This order belongs properly to the great series of Te-

leosteans.

This third subclass is consequently by far the most important.

It affords almost the total of the fauna, and it is with it that we

have more particularly to deal at present.

As we have said above, M. Agassiz did not place the existence

of the Teleostei further back than the Cretaceous period; the

greater number of authors now, however, recognize an exception to

this rule, and regard as Teleosteans in all probability the genera

Tharsis, Leptolepis, &c., with minute rounded scales. Taking

for granted the correctness of this view, which it would take us

too long to discuss here, we have to notice a very important

fact, which is that the Teleostean fishes of which M. Agassiz

forms his family Halécoides, and which we know under the

names of Salmones and Clupea, are manifestly the nearest rela-

tives of these same Jurassic genera. The numerous family to

which these precious types of our present seas belong are actu-

ally the descendants of the Jurassic Teleosteans. They have a

history longer than that of any other existing family, and may

be regarded as, in some sort, the trunk of the genealogical tree

of the fishes of our present seas.

It is, further, very interesting to find that these fishes are

the ones which present developed in the highest extent the

normal characters of their class, and that they thus in some

sort represent the archetype thereof. A theoretical anatomist,

wishing to set forth this archetype, would be inevitably led to

depict a figure almost exactly like that of a Halecoid, since he

would assign to it ventrals in the normal position far back on

the abdomen, and a mouth with the edge composed of both

maxillary and intermaxillary ; and nothing is more normal than

the fins of a salmon and its regular and fusiform body.

We may, then, assume that the most ancient Teleostean

fishes were the most normal in their forms, and that their cha-

of Mount Lebanon. 245

racters were continued in the Cretaceous and following periods

by the family of the Halecoids.

Our Lebanon faunas are rich in fishes of this family ; for out

of fifty-one species now known, nineteen belong to it.

Another important type is that of the Teleostean fishes with

serrated scales, united by M. Agassiz under the name of Ctenoids.

This denomination, which, at the present day, does not corre-

spond to an order of sufficient zoological value, may, however,

still be advantageously employed, in the general comparison in

which we are now engaged, to designate all those fish which

more or less approach the Perch-type in this serrated form of

scale, in the spinous rays of their fins, in the tendency of the

bones of the head to develope points, &e.

These fishes, less numerous at the Lebanon than the Hale-

coids, present, however, as we shall now show, certain very dis-

tinct forms ;.they have, however, a common uniform physio-

gnomy, and resemble each other much more than the recent

Ctenoids. Variation set in at a later period, and has gone on

constantly augmenting to the present day.

The types of prickly-finned fishes which we find at Mount

Libanus are the following :—

1. The group Beryz, the singular history of which has already

been made known by M. Agassiz. At the present day they form

part of a small cluster of genera (Holocentrum, Myripristis,

Beryx) specially belonging to the Indian seas, allied to the

Percoids by their more essential characters, but constituting in

that family a tribe characterized by the branchiostegal and

ventral rays, which exceed the normal number of seven. This

Beryz-group, comprising the recent genus and some extinct

ones, is the sole representative of the Percoid family during the

Cretaceous period. It then existed as the first expression of that

family, now so abundant; and after having then constituted it

entirely, now exists only as an accessory branch of the same.

2. An interesting and entirely new type, which we have de-

signated Pseudoberyx. (To the normal characters of Berya it

unites that of having the ventrals abdominal—a circumstance of

rare occurrence in true prickly-finned fishes. May we not see

in this circumstance an indication of a rule similar to that which

we have established in the case of the Halecoids, and infer that

the first manifestations of types have in general exhibited the

tendency to approach the archetypal forms more than the later

generations have done?

3. The type of Pycnosterinz, already established by Heckel,

which in its characters approaches the family Chromidz, formerly

associated partly with the Labroids, partly with the Sciznoids,

but subsequently recognized as distinct, and removed to the group

246 On the Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon.

Pharyngognathi, These fishes, im which Heckel discovered

pharyngeal teeth, belong to a type at present very distinct from

the Percoids ; they approach these, however, through the Beryx

of the Chalk, which they resemble in scales, fins, and general

appearance.

4. The genus Plataz, of the family Carangide, also remark-

able for a resemblance in fins and contour to the Bery# above

named.

Briefly, these four types, now so distinct, were related at the

epoch of their origin by certain common characters actually

diminished or effaced since then; so that we might represent

the history of the Ctenoids by means of a bundle of diverging

lines, between which should be inscribed all those families which

did not exist before the Cretaceous period.

Some other families of Teleosteans have a few rare representa-

tives at Mount Lebanon. We shall not linger over these, and

shall content ourselves with indicating one or two Sparoids, one

or two Gobioids, and a curious genus (Petalopteryx) belonging

probably to the Cataphracti.

In order to render complete this notice of the faunas of Leba-

non, it would only remain for us to say a few words relative to

an order which we have already named above—that of the Hop-

lopleuride, the relations of which have been contested: this,

however, would lead us too far. We would refer to our memoir

for the detailed treatment of this question ; it will there be seen

that all arguments in favour of their affinity with the Ganoids

are highly contestable, and that these fishes are true Teleosteans.

The Hoplopleuride characterized by longitudinal series of

shields form a group at present proper to the Cretaceous period.

They themselves contribute largely to stamp the physiognomy

of the Lebanon faunas.

These various facts may further be summed up as follows :—

The Lebanon faunas have, like the other Cretaceous faunas,

in the more essential points, their relations entirely with the

subsequent, and never with preceding faunas. The commence-

ment of the Cretaceous period has been, as concerns this class,

a period of great modification and renovation of forms. The

principal general character consists in the sudden disappearance

of Ganoids, these being replaced by an abundance of Teleosteans.

If we compare them with subsequent faunas (tertiary and

modern) we find that they are composed of the same families,

only in different proportions.

The most important is that of the Halecoids (Sa/mones and

Clupee), which may be regarded as the continuation of certain

Jurassic genera. This is the only family of Teleosteans with so

remote an origin. It is also the one which reproduces in the

Bibliographical Notices. 247

most marked degree the normal and typical forms of the Fish.

The salmon and herrings of our waters are, of all fishes, those

which have best preserved the original forms; they are also

those which have the longest known pedigrees.

The great Ctenoid division, so varied and important at the

present day, has no known root before the Cretaceous epoch.

It is represented by a certain number of types bound together

by numerous common characters, especially of general appear-

ance and external covering. These types form the base of a

large bundle or knot, the various threads of which have become,

through successive ages, gradually more and more differentiated

and widely removed from each other and the common stock.

The third group which has played an important part in the

history of these Teleosteans is that of the Hoplopleuride, more

isolated than the preceding ones. There is no indication of this

group in the Jurassic period, nor any continuation of it in the

Tertiary.

These three groups form almost the totality of the Teleosteans.

There would now only remain to add, in the present state of our

knowledge, some few isolated genera with whose history we are

but incompletely acquainted, and which would seem to be sub-

ordinate to the preceding ones as much on the ground of this

isolation as on that of the small number of individuals repre-

senting them.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A History of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea. By C. Spence Bate

and J.O. Westwoop. Part XIII. 8vo. Van Voorst. London,

1866.

THE appearance of a new part of this valuable work, after an in-

terruption of nearly three years (the twelfth part was published in

August 1863), leads us to say a few words about it, in the hope that,

however we may regret such delays, the interval in the present case

may have given time for the training of a new school of students, to

whom such a book as this will be welcome.

In the first volume, completed in 1863, the authors nearly finished

their descriptions of the British species of true Amphipoda, leaving

only the Hyperine forms for the commencement of the second vo-

lume. The Amphipoda aberrantia of Mr. Spence Bate, including

the Lemodipoda of Latreille, with the addition of the Dulichiide of

Dana, are completed in the part just published, which also contains

the general remarks on the Isopodous order.

In form, the Crustaceans here described are among the most sin-

gular of the inhabitants of the sea, although their relationship to the

true Amphipoda is so evident that one feels surprised they could

248 Bibliographical Notices.

ever have been separated therefrom as a distinct order. It seems to

us, however, that the authors have to a certain extent been in error

in placing the Dulichiide among the aberrant Amphipoda, their

true alliance being evidently to the typical section, with which they

are described as agreeing in every respect, except in having the last

two segments of the ‘‘ pereion’’ fused into one, and the last segment

of the ‘pleon’’ absent. In all other characters, such as especially the

full development of the tail, the absence of rudimentary feet, and the

separation of the coxee from the segments on which they stand, the

Dulichiide agree with the higher Amphipoda, and differ in the same

proportion from the aberrant forms, whether we take the spectral

Caprelle or the louse-like Cyami as typical of the second group.

This, however, is an objection easily got over; and we can only ex-

press a hope that the renewed publication of the book may now pro-

ceed regularly, and that it will find as many purchasers as its careful

elaboration and the beauty of its printing and illustration certamly

entitle its publisher to expect.

dA Catalogue of Phytophaga (Coleoptera, Pseudotetramera). By

the Rev. Hamuer Ciarx. Part I. With an Appendix, con-

taining Descriptions of new Species, by H. W. Bares and the

Rev. Hamuer Cuark. 8vo. London: Williams and Norgate,

1866.

During the eighteen years that have elapsed since the completion

of Lacordaire’s classical Monograph of the Phytophaga, entomolo-

gists have been most industrious in describing new genera and spe-

cies of this most attractive group of beetles. The result of this

industry is the accumulation of a vast mass of more or less scattered

descriptions of newly discovered forms, which renders it exceedingly

difficult for an entomologist not making a special study of the group

to arrive at anything like a clear notion of the number of species and

genera already known. The Rev. Hamlet Clark (the author of the

Catalogue now before us) and Mr. J. 8. Baly may be noted as among

the most active cultivators of this particular department of entomo-

logy, the latter especially exhibiting a power of production which

has already rendered his publications very voluminous. It is a ques-

tion, indeed, how far he may be regarded as doing good service to

science by the publication of such an infinity of detached notices ;

but it is quite clear that, until he begins to devote his energies to

some other group of insects, that monographiec revision of the Phyto-

phaga which has already become almost an absolute necessity, and

which will undoubtedly bring about the suppression of a host of

modern so-called genera, had better be postponed.

In the meanwhile entomologists will be thankful to the Rev. Hamlet

Clark for the catalogue with which he proposes to furnish them, and

of which the first part, including the four Crioceride groups, Sagridee,

Donacide, Crioceridz, and Megalopidze, is now before us. In this

catalogue we find the generic and specific synonymy of the insects

belonging to these groups concisely but clearly set forth, with full

Royal Society. 249

bibliographic references and statements of habitat, and under each

genus references to the published descriptions, if any are in exist-

ence, of the transformations of the species.

From the careful manner in which it has been prepared, this work

cannot but be of the greatest service to future students of the Phyto-

phaga, more especially if the author be enabled, as we trust he may,

to finish the remaining (and far more difficult) portion of his task in

the same style.

The Appendix consists of descriptions of new species (cited in

their proper places in the catalogue) by the author and Mr. H. W.

Bates, the latter describing those Amazonian species which were col-

lected by himself. These descriptions are very numerous. —

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 21, 1866.—Lieut.-General Sabine, President, in the Chair.

“Observations on the Ovum of Osseous Fishes.’ By W. H.

Ransom, M.D.

In this paper the author has communicated the details of ob-

servations of which the principal results were stated in a short paper

published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1854, and of

further researches on the structure and properties of the egg in

several species of osseous fishes. The methods employed in deter-

mining the functions of the micropyle, and in conducting the various

inquiries entered upon, are described. The development of the ova-

rian ovum is traced in two species of Gasterosteus ; and the yelk-sac

is shown to increase by interstitial growth, and not by apposition

of layers on either surface. A minute description of the germinal

vesicle and its contents is given ; and the germinal spots are shown to

be drops of a thick fluid substance so apt to change their normally

round form and to vacuolate in their interior, that no perfectly in-

different medium was found in which to examine them. The pri-

mitive yelk first formed around the germinal vesicle is shown to

differ in some of its chemical and physical properties from that of

the ripe ovum ; it is solid, and does not consist of two distinguishable

portions. On its surface a yelk-sac was found in very early ova, but

in the smallest eggs examined it could not be separated.

The reactions of a variety of albumen allied to myosin, which the

author has found in variable proportions in the yelk of all the fishes,

amphibia, and birds which he has examined, are described, the yelk

of the salmon being selected for experiment. This substance, to

which the name albumen C is given provisionally, is remarkable, in

addition to its being easily precipitable by water in excess, for form-

ing under certain conditions a solution in dilute nitric acid not

coagulable by boiling.

Some account is rendered of the reactions of an acid compound of

3) (a Royal Society :—

phosphoric acid with an organic substance also met with in the yelk

of various animals.

The phenomena which follow impregnation prior to the com-

mencement of cleavage are described, and are shown to be chiefly

due to the influence upon the yelk of water which has passed through

the yelk-sac.

Some variations which occur in this respect in different species of

osseous fishes are described; and the ova of Gasterosteus are shown

to be remarkable in having a viscid mucoid covering derived from

the oviduct, which prevents the imbibition of water through the

yelk-sac, so that it only enters and forms a breathing-chamber

after impregnation, when it passes through the aperture in the apex

of the micropyle; whereas in the eggs of salmon and in those of

most other fishes, unimpregnated ova “rapidly absorb water by the

whole surface of the yelk-sac, the yelk contracting at the same time

to form the breathing-chamber.

The concentration of the formative yelk, originally forming a thin

layer over the whole yelk-ball, at the germinal pole is also proved

to be due to the action of water, of which it requires a free supply

sufficient to distend the yelk-sac, snl to be independent of fecundation.

The contractions of the yelk are shown to be also independent of

the action of the spermatozoids, and to be reactions following the

entrance of water into the breathing-chamber—and this not only as

regards the rhythmic waves which pass over the surface of the food-

yelk, but also the fissile contractility of the formative yelk, by virtue

of which it cleaves into irregular and unsymmetrical masses, and

which the author conceives to be only regulated by the influence of

the seminal particles.

The cortical layer of the food-yelk or inner sac, which is shown to

resist ina remarkable manner osmosis, is found to be the rhythmically

contractile part, although requiring for its manifestation the presence

of acid food-yelk upon its inner surface.

Evidence is given to show that the contractile property of the yelk

of both kinds requires, as an essential condition of its manifestation,

the presence of oxygen in the surrounding medium, and that the

food-yelk, while the rhythmic waves are passing over it, consumes

less than does the formative yelk, while regularly cleaving after

fecundation,—also that some product of oxidation is formed during

these movements, which itself tends to check them, but which the

author failed to determine the nature of.

Proofs are also given that a certain moderate rise of temperature

increases the activity of these contractions. Experiments are related

which show the extreme limits the yelk will bear without destroying

them, and the temperature at which commencing chemical change

prevents further contraction.

_ The reactions of the substance of the yelk under the stimulus of

galvanism are recorded, and evidence afforded that the food-yelk

and the cortical layer alone are excited to contraction by it, attempts

made to induce fissile or other contractions of the formative yelk

resulting in electrolysis of that highly unstable substance.

Dr. J. Davy on the Congelation of Animals. 251

Experiments made to ascertain the effects produced by poisonous

substances on the contractions of the yelk are recorded, and the

general fact ascertained of the extreme indifference to such agents of

yelk-protoplasm.

Carbonic acid, however, is shown to destroy the contractility

rapidly, and chloroform to arrest it for a time.

The process of cleavage is described, and experiments are given

which show that oxygen in the surrounding medium is an essential

condition of its occurrence. The imfluence of heat in quickening it,

and the comparative indifference which it shows to the action of a

galvanic current and to most poisons, are proved by a series of experi-

ments, in which also the remarkable and destructive activity of car-

bonic acid is evidenced.

The author has considered the egg as a cell, its contents as a

protoplasm, of which the firmer cortical layer is the equivalent of

the primordial utricle, and the fluid food-yelk of the liquid contents,

while the formative yelk is represented by the granular accumulation

around the nucleus. Two stages or grades of development of proto-

plasm are conceived to be represented by the two forms of yelk;

and a parallelism is attempted to be drawn between them and the

stages of development through which many amceboid organisms

pass, and which the author believes to have a wide if not a universal

existence in the organic world,—the lower grade, represented by the

homogeneous food-yelk with a cortical layer and possessed of

rhythmic contractility, passing into the higher, represented by the

formative yelk, of a granular structure and possessed of a fissile

contractile property only.

“On the Congelation of Animals.” By John Davy, M.D.,

F.R.S. &c. Received since the end of the Session.

In a very interesting and elaborate paper by M. Puget, entitled

“Sur la Congélation des Animaux,” published in the Number of

the ‘Journal de Anatomie et de la Physiologie’ for January and

February of this year, he refers to a statement of mine, made man

years ago*, that the leech may be frozen without loss of life. The

experiments which he has instituted, and which appear to have been

conducted with great care, have led him to an opposite conclusion—

viz. that congelation is not only fatal to the leech, but to animals

generally, without a single exception. He considers the cause of

death (the vera causa, to use his own words) to be an altered con-

dition of the blood. In consequence of this statement, I thought it

right to repeat the experiments on the leech, and to extend them to

some other animals. They were begun at Oxford in May, in the

laboratory of Professor Rolleston, with the kind assistance of Mr.

Edward Chapman and Mr. Robertson ; and since then, in the fol-

lowing month, they have been continued at home in Westmoreland.

At Oxford the trials were made on leeches and frogs; at home,

on these animals, and on the toad and some insects. The freezing-

* Researches Physiol. and Anat. 11. p. 121.

252 Royal Society :—

mixture was made of pounded ice and common salt ; the temperature

by it was commonly reduced to below 10° Fahr., or at times so low

as 2° or 3°. The results obtained were briefly the following :—

1. A leech was exposed to the mixture in a small glass tube just

large enough to hold it, using the tube for stirring the mixture,

Taken out when perfectly rigid and hard, and gradually thawed,

it showed when punctured a faint indication of irritability ; there

was a just perceptible contraction of the part punctured, the oral

extremity, and nowhere else. It did not revive.

2. Another leech was similarly exposed, but for a shorter time.

When divided by an incision, it was found not frozen throughout.

When punctured, it showed marks of irritability in a slight degree

stronger than the preceding: it soon died.

3. Two leeches were similarly treated at home, and for a some-

what longer time, the temperature reduced to 3°. These, when

gradually thawed, one exposed to the air, the other left in the mix-

ture, showed no marks of revival; but they retained a certain elas-

ticity, so that when bent they shortly recovered their former attitude,

after a manner somewhat resembling a vital movement; but inas-

much as they did not respond by the slightest contraction to punc-

ture, it may be inferred that the movement was not vital. They

resisted putrefaction for many days.

4. A frog in a thin glass vessel was kept in the mixture about a

quarter of an hour. It was very rigid when taken out ; thawed, no

part, on puncture, afforded any indications of life; watched two or

three hours, it proved to be dead.

5. The heart of a frog, removed immediately after decapitation,

whilst still pulsating, was subjected to the freezing-mixture in a

small glass tube. After having been frozen, on thawing it remained

motionless, even when punctured. It had been kept in the mixture

only a few minutes.

6. The inferior extremities of a frog kept extended by a bandage

and thus introduced into a glass tube, were submerged in the mixture,

the body of the frog being held in the warm hand; taken out after

some minutes they were quite hard and motionless, whilst the body

and upper extremities did not appear to be affected. It moved

about, dragging the lower extremities as if they were dead. In about

four hours it recovered the use of its femoral muscles, on the fol-

lowing day the use of the muscles of the legs; the day after, it was

able to bend and extend these limbs ; but there was no proof that its

feet had recovered sensibility. On the fourth day it was found dead.

7. The lower extremities of a large toad were immersed in direct

contact with the mixture, the temperature falling to 3°. Gradually

thawed, the parts showed no marks of life. This toad, which before

the trial was in a dull state, afterward became almost torpid, and so

continued until the following morning, when it was apparently dead :

opened, the auricles were found feebly acting, ceasing after a few

seconds*.

* This toad was a female which had shed her ova; the oviduct was still large ;

the stomach was distended with caterpillars, slugs, &c., seeming to show that

Dr. J. Davy on the Congelation of Animals. 253

8. A similar experiment was made on the lower extremities of an

active frog, and with a similar result, except that the vivacity of the

animal was for a short time but little impaired: after four hours it

was apparently dead; opened, its auricles contracted when punc-

tured. It may be right to mention that, before exposing the toad

and frog to the freezing-mixture in direct contact, it was ascertained

that the frog bore the immersion of its lower extremities in a satu-

rated solution of common salt without any apparent loss of sensibility

or motive power*.

9. The lower extremities of an active frog of a large size were

wrapped in tin-foil, and, together with one of its upper extremities not

so wrapped, were kept in a freezing-mixture about a quarter of an

hour. The frozen parts in thawing showed no marks of life. The

frog died in about three hours.

10. A cockroach, a flesh-fly, and a minute insect, an ichneumon +

(Ceelineus niger’), confined together in a small glass tube, were kept

some minutes in the mixture. Thawed, they were found all three

dead.

there was no diseased state. It is noteworthy that the apertures of the cutaneous

glands appeared to be closed; for when the animal was irritated, there was no

ejection of the acrid fluid, a circumstance I had before noticed in a female

durimg the breeding-season, suggestive of a condition of surface favourable to

the male in the generative act. When the tubercles were incised, they were

found to contain the acrid fluid in plenty, and, judging from its bitter taste

and the ixritating effects of an extremely small portion applied to the tongue,

not deficient in activity. “Ihe same state of the cuticular glands was found in

another female toad killed by congelation, which had shed few of its ova,—this

on the 23rd of June. It was of a lighter colour than usual. It was found like-

wise in two examined in July, in which some ova remained.

* The effect of immersion of the lower extremities of a frog in a saturated

solution of common salt varies, I find, according to the length of time; if

for a very few minutes, it is inconsiderable; if for many, it is well marked ;

and if much prolonged, it is fatal. In one instance, after a quarter of an hour’s

immersion, the limbs seemed paralyzed, the animal in a state approaching to

torpor: after having been well washed in fresh water it slowly recovered its

activity, and the limbs their motive power and sensibility,—their motive power

first, their sensibility later—indeed not until the followig morning, judging

from the effects of puncture. After a longer immersion, with a fatal result, the

limbs had become rigid and somewhat hard, especially the feet, as if their

juices had been extracted by osmotic action. Opened after three hours, even

the auricles were motionless, and this when punctured. The muscles of the

limbs no longer showed a striated structure, whilst those of the upper extremi-

ties displayed this structure distinctly.

The toad, with a thicker skin, was found to bear the immersion of its extremi-

ties for a longer time; but the difference seemed to be only in degree; much

longer continued, the same effects were produced, viz. rigidity, with loss of mo-

tion and sensibility, which (the immersion not being too long) were slowly

recovered after freshwater ablution.

The blood-corpuscles, acted on by the same solution, underwent a change,

contracting slightly, and acquiring a granular appearance, commencing in their

nuclei.

+ For the name of this insect I am indebted to Dr. Gray, F.R.S. It was se-

lected on account of its minuteness : it weighed hardly 54, of a grain ; it seemed

probable, on account of the minuteness of its vessels, that its fluids might escape

congelation, after the manner of fluids in capillary tubes, which may be reduced

many degrees in temperature without being frozen.

254 Royal Society.

These results, so far as the particular instances are concerned, are

sufficiently confirmatory of M. Puget’s; and on my mind they leave

little doubt that his general proposition (his inference from his very

numerous experiments) is correct, that congelation is fatal to animal

life. Itis hardly worth while to attempt to account for the different

conclusion I had come to (that referred to by him relative to the

leech), it being partly founded on the fact that leeches which had

been enveloped in ice for many days were not thereby killed, and

partly on witnessing some marks of vitality in leeches which were

believed to have been artificially frozen, and which very soon after

died.

Whilst admitting that congelation, thorough congelation, of an

animal is incompatible with life, the cause of death from congelation

seems open to question, and more especially that assigned by M.

Puget as the vera causa—a change in the blood, and chiefly in its

corpuscles. That these corpuscles are changed by freezing in form

and condition seems to be certain. Before seeing M. Puget’s paper

I had ascertained the fact, and not only that the corpuscles were

changed, but also that the entire blood was to some extent altered,

leading me at the time to ask whether some of the injurious effects

of frost-bite may not be mainly owing to the freezing of the blood

and the changes in consequence in the corpuscles and, in a less degree,

in the fibrin * ; and since, in examining the blood of the animals

exposed to the freezing-mixture, I have had this confirmed; but the

change in these instances was comparatively slight; even ut those of

the congealed limbs of the frogs and toad the majority of the cor-

puscles appeared little altered; some few seemed ruptured, some

corrugated, and more contracted.

Judging from the effect of congelation on the heart of the frog

in experiment No. 5, and from the effects of congelation partially

produced, as in the extremities of the frog and toad, I would rather

attribute the death to the freezing of the organs, not excluding the

blood, than to the freezing of the blood alone; and I would ask, is

not this view most in accordance with the pathology of the subject,

with all that we know of frost-bite and its consequences in man, and

with the results of Mr. Hunter’s experiments on the local effects of

congelation in animals—those on the ear of the rabbit and wattle

of the cock+? and do not some even of M. Puget’s results give it

support, such as the opacity of the crystalline lens, he admitting

that, were it possible for an animal to revive after complete congela-

tion, it would be blind from cataract? Now, if the crystalline lens,

if the blood-corpuscles suffer and undergo an appreciable change

from congelation, it would be very remarkable indeed did not the

brain and nerves, and the organs generally, suffer from the same

cause, and experience changes incompatible with life. In the in-

stance of man, we know that a certain reduction of his temperature

* Physiological Researches, 1863, p. 371. See also Trans. Royal Society of

Edinburgh, 1865, vol. xxiv. p. 26.

7 Phil. Trans. 1778, p. 34.

Miscellaneous. 255

merely, not reaching to congelation, suffices to extinguish life *, and

that in the instances of other animals, especially the hybernating

and insects, a moderate reduction occasions torpor, ending in death

if too prolonged. That the organs generally suffer from congelation

M. Puget himself admits, as expressed in the subjoined paragraphy.

I have found, too, that the muscles; after having been frozen, ex-

hibit a ieceed change: thus, in one instance, that of a frog, in

which, after decapitation, an upper and lower extremity were frozen,

the muscles of these limbs, when thawed, compared with those which

had not been frozen, showed a well-marked difference under the

microscope; for whilst in the latter the striated structure was

very distinct, in the former it was no longer visible ; and after a few

hours, viz. on the following morning, whilst the unfrozen muscles

had undergone no perceptible alteration, those which had been frozen

had become of increased tenderness, yielding to a slight rending

force, and breaking short, asif the coherence of the particles forming

the fasciculi had become greatly diminished.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On a Cranium of Ziphius found at Arcachon (Gironde).

By P. Fiscuer.

A MAGNIFICENT cranium of a Cetacean, fanaa in 1864 at Lanton,

on the shores of the harbour of Arcachon, has been sent to M. Fil-

lioux. The most superficial examination of this is sufficient to show

that it belongs to an individual of the genus Ziphius of Cuvier.

If doubts have prevailed as to the origin of the Ziphius repre-

sented as fossil by the great anatomist (Ossem. Foss. tome v, 1"

partie, pl. 27. fig. 3) from an imperfect specimen dug up at the

mouth of the Gaiégeon (Bouches-du-Rhone), there can be none as

to the cranium from Arcachon. Its perfect state of preservation,

and the presence of fatty matters in its cerebral cavity, prove that

the death of this Cetacean cannot even be very remote.

The length of the cranium, from the occipital foramen to the

anterior extremity of the intermaxillary bones, is 89 centimetres ;

its breadth, from the orbital margin of the right frontal to that of

the opposite side, is 48 centimetres ; its height, from the base of the

cranium to the upper margin of the nasal bones, is 41 centimetres.

The upper surface of the head is remarkable for the enormous

development of the intermaxillaries, and their want of symmetry.

In front they surround a very thick and prominent ivory-like tu-

berosity of the vomer; posteriorly they spread out, rise up and cir-

* Instances have occurred in the Lake District of persons who have perished

on the hills from prolonged exposure to strong wind and rain, storm-stricken, in

the language of the country.

t “... La congélation compléte a méme si profondément altéré les tissus

de l’organisme que quand l’animal est tout-a-fait dégelé, son corps est flasque

et mou, ses cristallins sont blanes et opaques, et souvent sa coloration est tout-a-

fait altérée”’ (p. 24).

256 Miscellaneous.

cumscribe the anterior orifice of the nostrils, which is dominated by

the nasal bones, also unsymmetrical, soldered together on the me-

dian line, and resembling in their totality a leaf of trefoil, in con-

sequence of the two notches which deeply divide them. The right

intermaxillary is considerably broader than the left one; in con-

sequence the nostrils are thrown down to the left.

Between the crests of the intermaxillaries and the margins of the

maxillaries which are concentric with them, there exists a broad

fossa, which may be denominated suborbital. The skull, seen from

above, therefore presents three enormous excavations—namely, a

median or nasal one, limited externally by the intermaxillaries, and

two lateral or suborbital ones, limited externally by the maxillaries.

On the lower surface of the cranium we find the intermaxillaries

in front forming the beak of the upper jaw, and much more deve-

loped than in other Cetacea. The vomer appears only as a very

thin lamina, placed on the median line, at a little distance from the

intermaxillaries.

The posterior orifice of the nasal fossee is situated on the median

line, and bounded in front and laterally by broad pterygoids.

The lateral surfaces of the cranium present a reduced orbital

cavity at the margin of the frontal ; posteriorly the zygomatic apo-

physis of the temporal does not become united to the postorbital

apophysis of the frontal; in front there exists a fragment of the

jugal, united to the upper maxillary. The jugal apophysis is want-

ing, and with it the inferior boundary of the orbit.

The maxillary passing above the orbital apophysis of the frontal,

causes a change in the position of the suborbital foramen, which

becomes supraorbital in Ziphius, as in the Cachalot.

The temporal fossze are deep, but not broad.

The posterior surface of the cranium is almost entirely composed

of the occipital bones ; it is subtriangular, terminated above by a nar-

rowed portion of the frontal articulated with the nasals. The occi-

pital foramen is situated at the lower third of its height. The

cerebral cavity is spacious and of considerable transverse diameter ;

the falx is very high.

I cannot at present give more than these imperfect details, which

are the result of a first examination; but I am struck with the

affinity of Ziphius to the Cachalots and Hyperoodons. It is, how-

-ever, distinguished trom them by the extreme elevation of the poste-

rior ascending portion of the intermaxillaries; in the Hyperoodons,

on the contrary, the parts most developed are the maxillary crests.

Lastly, I shall call the attention of anatomists to the singular ivory-

like tuberosity of the vomer, the purpose of which seems very enig-

matical to me.

I suppose the cranium of Arcachon to be identical with that of

the Galégeon, although I cannot assert this to be the case, but hope

to arrive at a more positive conclusion after a comparative examina-

tion of the two specimens.

By this discovery we at least acquire a knowledge of an interesting

fact, namely the existence of living specimens of Ziphius in the

Miscellaneous. 257

Atlantic; for hitherto their remains have been found only on the

shores of the Mediterranean. In the fossil state, Ziphii ( Chone-

ziphius, Duv.) abound in the Antwerp Crag.—Comptes Rendus,

Aug. 6, 1866, pp. 271-272.

Notes on the Domestic Animals and Plants of the Thirteenth and

Fourteenth Centuries. By James E. Toorop Rogers, M.A.,

&e. &e.

In Prof. Rogers’s recently published ‘ History of Agriculture and

Prices in England, compiled entirely from original and contemporary

Records, from 1259 to 1400,’ there are some interesting facts con-

nected with domestic animals, which, being derived from contempo-

rary records, are of undoubted authority :—

* Partridges were plentiful enough, and were, it appears, generally

captured by hawks, and occasionally in nets. Hares may have

existed, probably did; but I have never seen an entry of them.

Pheasants were, it seems, unknown. Rabbits were found in some

localities, but they were very dear”’ (vol. i. p. 65).

**T do not doubt that these [hare and pheasant] existed, as they

are mentioned in chronicles and recited in deeds”’ (p. 33).

‘The banquet [the determination feast of Richard, the son of

Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent, on Shrove Tuesday, 1398] appears

to have lasted two days. The quantity of beef and mutton con-

sumed was not large ; no wonder, for the feast was held in winter ; but

pork, lamb, and veal were abundantly supplied. Kid is also found ;

a rare article of food with our ancestors. The poultry consumed in

the feast is the largest and most characteristic item. Fowls, capons,

geese, ducks, swans, and peacocks are purchased. Amongst wild

fowl we find partridges, teals, wild ducks, Gastrimargii (which I

cannot identify), snipes, plovers, ousels (that is, blackbirds), thrushes,

and fieldfares, and, lastly, Upupe, which should mean hoopoes,

though I can hardly imagine that these birds could have been found

in this country in winter time. The swans and geese were fattened

in coops on oats and peas. Rabbits, bought as usual at high prices,

are also found, forty couple of which are brought from Bushey, in

Herts” (pp. 122-123).

Chapter xvi., “The Price of Live Stock,” p. 326, contains some

most interesting particulars. We extract the following :—‘‘ The same

kind of stock which is now kept on an English farm was kept five or

six hundred years ago. Oxen, cows, horses, pigs, sheep, and poultry

were almost invariably reared, though, of course, just as now, lands

which were either not available for sheep-farming, or were more

profitably occupied in the manufacture of dairy produce, maintained

no sheep” (p. 326). ‘Pigs, too, were the most important kind of

animal food. ‘The necessity of using salted meat during a moiety of

the year led our forefathers to breed pigs largely, since no meat, it

appears, takes salt more readily or preserves its nutritive properties

after curing so fully as pork. And besides, poultry, to jadge from

the price and from the frequent recurrence of poultry-rents in the

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 18

258 Miscellaneous.

rental of estates, must have been very common. A market also was

found for capons and geese. Ducks were comparatively rare; and

pigeon-houses, kept on most manorial estates, were, no doubt, a

nuisance and a wrong, similar if not equal to the dove-cots of France

during the monarchy ”’ (p. 327).

“It will be found, on investigating the table given in the second

volume, that the price of cows was considerably less than that of

oxen. Bulls, too, were cheap, though the entries are not numerous.

These facts seem to prove that no attempt was made to improve the

breed” (p. 327). ‘There seems to be no great variety of breeds; at

least there is no notable difference of price between north and south

country cattle. In all likelihood the breed was the small ox now

found in Scotland and other mountainous regions. I have already

adverted to the fact that unless cattle had deteriorated in the six-

teenth century—a circumstance by no means probable—the carcase

was light; for the oxen bought for victualling the navy were not

more than 4 ewt. in weight on the average. Taking the hide, a very

valuable part of the animal in the middle ages, at an average of 2s. 6d.

(it was sometimes much dearer), the flesh of the average ox would

be worth 10s. 6d.” (p. 329).

‘*The horses used in medizeval husbandryare distinguished as aff77 ;

called also stotts and cart-horses. The former may perhaps be still

discovered in the coarsely shaped small horses still found in country

districts, and employed in the commonest drudgery, whose value

chiefly lies in the fact that they are able to subsist on very poor and

scanty fare, and can do a great deal of work at a very small cost.

These animals are a little, but not much, dearer than oxen, their

price being lowest in dear years—probably because when oxen were

costlier their use in draught increased, and the value of the small

horse declined. Occasionally, however, they sold at considerable

prices. Cart-horses are much more valuable than afi, and are

sometimes, speaking relatively, very dear. Saddle-horses were oc-

casionally very costly, but often sold at no higher prices than those

obtained for others employed in agricultural work only” (p. 330).

‘‘ Sheep are distinguished as muttons, 2. e. wethers, as ewes, hog-

gasts, hoggasters, hoggerels, or bidentes; hurtards or rams, and

lambs. Of these, lambs are, of course, the cheapest, though some-

times their price is so high that I have treated them as hoggasters.

Occasionally young ewes are quoted under the name of jercion. HKwes

are very low-priced. Hurtards or rams are not mentioned very often,

and are generally dear’? (p. 332). ‘‘Sheep were liable to several

diseases, and among them the rot and the scab” (p. 334).

“Towards the close of the thirteenth century sheep were for the first

time affected by a new disease, which has been handed down to our

own time under the name of scab. In the few last years of the same

century tar dressing was adopted, and has been, I believe, uninter-

ruptedly employed from that to the present time.

‘While the sheep was valuable to the richer persons in medieval

society, the most important animal in medizval economy was the

pig. Itis not easy, however, since no weights are given, to arrive with

Miscellaneous. 259

any accuracy at the money value of the animal”’ (p. 335). . “ Pigs

are occasionally said to be leprous, and are especially liable to measles

—that is, to entozoa; and the accounts frequently allude to forced

sales of animals in which the latter disease was present and suspected,

though it does not appear that such a circumstance seriously depre-

ciated the market value of the animal ”’ (p.337). ‘ Wild boars, though

rarely mentioned, are not unknown ” (p. 337).

«There is abundant evidence as to the price of poultry. Of these,

the commonest are geese, capons, hens, and pigeons. All are rec-

koned by the head except the last, which are invariably quoted in the

accounts at so many a penny ”’ (p. 338). ‘Besides the poultry, our

forefathers kept swans and peacocks ; the average price of the former

is 3s. 93d. Peacocks are bought at 2s. in 1278, and at 5s. in 1395”

(p. 340).

‘The animals [rabbits] are so dear as to suggest either that they

were at this time confined to particular localities, from which they

have subsequently spread over the whole country (a view which

seems to be countenanced by the fact that the price does not increase

in the later part of the period), or that they were, which we can

hardly believe, rigorously and effectually protected in the interest of

the great landowners. They were sold at 5d. each in 1270, and

from 3d. to 43d. afterwards” (p. 340).

“We know but little of the period at which animals now familiar

were introduced into England. Thus, though Iam far from saying that

they could not have been found, it is a little singular that I have never

met with any entry of hares or pheasants in the period before me ;

and it is the more remarkable in the earlier period, because the

Bigod and Clare accounts give considerable detail of the domestic

life and expenditure of the Earl of Norfolk and Gloucester” (p. 341).

«Fish, as the reader will discover, was by no means a cheap article

of food in the middle ages. It was so dear that in the time before

us it could hardly have been consumed by the poorer classes except

as a luxury or a relish. Nor does this observation apply only to the

better kind of fresh fish, as lamprey, salmon, pike, and eels.

Herrings and ordinary salt fish and stock fish were, on the whole,

relatively dear. The stories told of the exceeding plenty and cheap-

ness of salmon, if they are not purely local, even in later times,

would not, as far as can be inferred from the account before me, have

been true of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries” (p. 606).

** Most kinds of fish were sold salted as well as fresh ; the business

of a stock-fishmonger being a regular branch of trade in medizeval

times. Thus we not only read of salt herrings red and white, but of

salmon, eels, sturgeon, lamprey, and haddock, lyng, moruca (which

are said to be cod), mulvells, melyns, hake, hoburden, cropling, dog-

drave, and hard, stock and salt fish, all of which are cured in this

manner”’ (p. 607).

‘There may have been many other kinds of fish kept which do

not come generally into the market, or were not purchased by such

persons as supply us with information. Hence it is possible that

18*

260 Miscellaneous.

trout, perch, carp, and barbel may have been well known in the

fourteenth century; but I have seen none of these fish in my ac-

counts”’ (p. 608).

‘The few entries of oysters (some in the earlier part of the inquiry,

some in the last few years), five of them are taken from the roll of

Thorney in Sussex, the rate being uniformly a halfpenny the hun-

dred. Mussels and oysters are from Sharpness in Kent, each at 7d.

per bushel” (p. 617).

‘The manor house possessed a garden and orchard. But the former

was very deficient in vegetables. The householder of the thirteenth

and fourteenth centuries grew onions and leeks, mustard, and gar-

den or green peas. He probably also possessed cabbages, though I

have never found either seed or plant quoted. Apples and sometimes

pears are mentioned as part of the orchard produce ; but we read of

no plums, except once of damsons. A regular part of the produce

of the orchard was cider, and its low price seems to suggest that it

was made in considerable quantities. Sometimes, too, wine was

grown in England, though not, perhaps, so frequently as has been

imagined, the word vivarium having been, it appears, often read vi-

narium. Crabs were collected in order to manufacture verjuice—an

important item in medizval cookery. Bees, though honey was dear

and wax very high-priced, do not seem to have been commonly kept,

though some few entries of hives and swarms have been found’’

(p. 18).

Me The people lived on salt meat half the year; and not only were

they without potatoes, but they do not appear to have had other

roots which are now in common use, as carrots and parsnips ; onions

and cabbages appear to have been the only esculent vegetables. It

will be found that nettles (if we can identify these with Urtice) were

sold from the garden. Spices (the cheapest of which was pepper)

were quite out of their reach; sugar was a very costly luxury ; and

our forefathers do not appear, judging from the rarity of the notices,

to have been skilful in the management of bees”’ (p. 66).

‘‘The hay was gathered into ricks, and, as at present, cut into

trusses. It is hardly needful to observe that the grass was all native ;

it was long after the period before us that artificial or foreign

grasses were introduced. Hence the means of supporting winter

stock depended upon the supply of hay and such straw as was avail-

able for the animals kept on the farm. The bailiff calculated his

resources, and killed down for salting at about St. Martin’s Day

(November 11) as many sheep, oxen, and calves as exceeded his

means of sustenance”’ (p. 16).

“Tt will be seen that the largest part of the land under the plough

was occupied by crops of wheat, barley, and oats. Wheat was the

customary food of the people of this country from the earliest times.

Even if the evidence were not abundant on this point, the breadth

sown annually would be conclusive proof. Barley was sometimes

mixed with wheat in the allowances made to farm-servants ; but its

chief use was in the manufacture of beer, which seems to have been

Miscellaneous. 261

continually brewed in small quantities and for immediate consumption.

Wheat is sometimes, but rarely, malted; oat malt is much more

common. ‘The chief use of the oat was for horse-food ; but oatmeal

was made for the broth or porridge of the house. Rye was very

scantily cultivated. A peculiar kind of barley called drageum is very

generally cultivated, especially in the eastern counties ; drage, like

barley, was made into malt. The three leguminous plants, beans,

peas, and vetches, were generally not extensively cultivated, the

average being small in every case’’ (p. 27). ‘‘ Hemp was cultivated

to some extent ; it was employed for the home manufacture of ropes”

(p. 28).

On Postfloration. By D. Cros.

It was only at the commencement of the present century that

attention was first paid to eestivation and its importance in classifica-

tion was recognized. But if the relative position of the floral parts of

the same whorl before the expansion of the flower deserves to be

taken into consideration, would it not appear @ priori that their

different appearances after anthesis should also possess some in-

terest ?

In 1859 M. Fermond indicated the part played in the act of

fecundation by the perianth of certain plants. But is there in cer-

tain families, yenera, or subgenera something of a general character

in the arrangement of the floral organs, and especially of the petals,

after the accomplishment of fecundation? I have in vain consulted

the Aunals of Science on this question, and now communicate to the

Academy my first observations on the subject.

There are some plants which lose their calyx or their corolla soon

after their expansion, and which, for this reason alone, have no

postfloration. Thus the sepals of the Papaveraceze and of many

Cruciferze, the petals of the Papaveracez and Cistinex, and of Rhewxia

virginica, and the corollas of Alonzoa, of the Chinese Primrose, &e.

fall very soon.

Others have no distinct postfloration, their petals retaining, after

anthesis, the same arrangement which they possessed before ex-

pansion. Such are the Saxifrages, Lycium, Cestrum aurantiacum,

and Cajophora lateritia. In Pelargonium these organs become

slightly curled.

It is rarely that the postfloration reproduces the estivation.

Nevertheless the families Malvaceze and Oxalideze present us with

petals resuming, during their withering, the same twisted arrange-

ment that they had in the bud.

The following are the principal types of postfloration that I have

been able to distinguish :—

1. CLosep (postfloratio occlusa).—The petals of Echeveria,

after flowering, approach each other and close the orifice of the

corolla.

2. ParuLous (postft. patula).—The perianth of Boussingaultia

262 Miscellaneous.

baselloides, and of the Clematites, which is wide open in flowering,

becomes still more widely spread after fecundation.

3. REFLEXED (postfl. reflewa), presented by the Begonia, espe-

cially B. semperflorens, and by Crassule spathulata and cotyledon.

4, SHRIVELLED (postfl. crispa).—The petals retain their posi-

tion and form, but become shrivelled in drying. Ex.: Pavia, Del-

phinium, Lythrum, and the corolla of the Campanula, Linarie, &c.

Sometimes the perianths in shrivelling become twisted irregularly :

this modification of the shrivelled postfloration is presented by

Clerodendron.

5. Puury (postfl. pulposa).—In Tradescantia virginica the petals

lose their membranous aspect and become pulpy.

6. Curuep or Circinate ( postfl. circinata).—The petals of the

Capparideze (Capparis, Cleome, Gynandropsis), which are twisted in

zestivation, become rolled into a crook after anthesis. This is also

the case with the corolla of the Peruvian Heliotrope and of Verbena

Melindres, chamedrifolia, and tenera.

7. Recircinate (postfl. recircinata).—In Mesembryanthemum

and Cryptostemma calendulaceum the petals and ligule become

rolled into a crook, but from within outwards, or in an opposite

direction to the circinate form.

8. ConpupticatTe (postf. conduplicata), one of the lateral

halves of the inner surface of the petal applying itself to the other.

Ex. Ornithogalum Ecklont.

Postfloration may render some service to classification, especially

in the limitation of genera. Authors are not agreed as to the generic

denomination of the Agrostemma Celi-rosa of Linné. Desrousseaux

has placed it in Lychnis; it is a Silene with MM. Grenier and

Godron, and a Viscaria with others. It is distinguished from

Silene by the postfloration of its petals, the two borders of which

roll inwards, whilst that of Silene is shrivelled and contorted.

A Plumbagineous plant has been alternately described under the

names of Plumbago Larpente and Valoradia plumbaginoides. It

presents the same postfloration as Plumbago, namely the rumpled

arrangement of the limb of the corolla, which is in favour of its being

united with that genus.

The postfloration of the stamens deserves a special study. It is

remarkable in the genus Aloé, in which the filaments become undu-

lato-crispate in consequence of an unequal shrinking of the tracheal

system and of the long cells which surround it. The three first-

formed stamens become shrivelled before the others.—Comptes

Rendus, 26th Dec. 1865, pp. 1177-1179.

Observations on the part played by the Nucleus in Animal Cells.

By M. Bavpiant.

In 1864 the author detected in the ovules of several animals cer-

tain transparent cavities or vacuoles seated in the germinal spots,

Miscellaneous. 263

and endowed with alternate movements of contraction and expan-

sion. He has since succeeded in observing the contractions of the

spot in the living animal. Notwithstanding the analogy which these

phenomena present to those observed in the Infusoria and Rhizo-

poda, their signification remained obscure until the acquisition of a

better notion of the morphological condition of cells. Thus the

movements of the germinal spot could not be assimilated to those

of which the contractile vesicle of the animals just mentioned is the

seat, as in the ovules and other cells of animals we were unacquainted

with any canals comparable to those connected with the contractile

vesicle of the Infusoria. These the author now professes to have

discovered, from which he considers we are justified in assuming the

existence of a true circulation in these elementary parts of the

organism.

The animal on the ovule of which the author’s observations were

made is Geophilus longicornis. When the fresh ovary of this My-

riopod is placed under the microscope, and the ovules are examined

through its walls, an organ is detected which possesses more bril-

liancy than the surrounding vitellus, and appears like a prolon-

gation of the germinal vesicle. With slightly acidulated water this

appears distinctly as an infundibuliform canal, more or less recurved,

of which the wider orifice is continuous with the membrane of the

vesicle, whilst the opposite extremity reaches the surface of the

vitellus. Generally the canal seems to terminate suddenly at this

point, opening by a circular orifice under the envelope of the ovule ;

but sometimes it appears to be continued into a delicate prolonga-

tion, emitting ramifications which spread more or less over the sur-

face of the vitellus. In certain positions the axis of the canal is

seen to be occupied by a much narrower interior canal, proceeding

from the germinal spot and narrowing rapidly after penetrating

into the outer canal.

The germinal spot is occupied by a greater or less number of va-

cuoles, capable of alternate contraction and expansion. At the

moment of the extreme expansion of one of these vacuoles its walls

appear to be directly continuous with those of the canal which ter-

minates at the spot, the vacuole then looking like the enlarged am-

pulliform end of the latter. When less dilated and seen in profile, it

appears only to communicate with the canal by a narrow aperture

like a pore.

The width and apparent length of the two canals are in relation

to the degree of development of the ovules; but they are to be seen

in the youngest. In older ovules they continue visible as long as

their transparency is not obscured by vitelline elements; and they

probably persist as long as the germinal vesicle and spot.

In seeking for similar structures in other ovules, the author ar-

rived at the following results :—In the ovules of the Bitch the vesicle

and spot each present a canal, as in Geophilus. In the Skate, the

ovules of which usually contain from one to four small germinal cor-

puscles with a central vacuole, each of these emits a variable number

264. Miscellaneous.

of small canals (usually two to four), which traverse the cavity of the

vesicle in different directions, pierce its wall, and lose themselves

in the surrounding vitellus.

In the bony fishes and Batrachia, in which there are a great number

of germinal spots adherent to the inner wall of the vesicle, and the

latter is surrounded by a system of canals radiating towards the sur-

face of the ovum. Each canal is connected with one of the spots.

Multiple canals are generally met with in all ova which present

more or less numerous germinal spots. Sometimes, asin some Crus-

tacea (Crayfish, Shore-crab), these multiple spots appear also to be

united to each other in the interior of the vesicle by canals.

In many Annelides, Turbellaria, Mollusca, and Acalephs the ova

contain only a simple germinal spot, often of considerable size, con-

nected with a single canal, which is enclosed in a second canal, starting

from the vesicle. The germinal spot also very commonly contains

one or more large vacuoles possessing a very manifest contractile

power (Helix, Prostomum, Vortex, &c.).—Comptes Rendus, December

26, 1865, pp. 1173-1177.

On the Lateral Canal of Lota.

By Professor Hyrtt.

The lateral canal-system of this animal possesses no orifices in the

skin on the lateral line, but forms a closed subcutaneous tube, sup-

ported by cartilage throughout its whole course, and which acquires

a moniliform appearance in consequence of the presence of alternate

wider and narrower spaces. The absence of lateral orifices enables

us to inject this canal. By this means its cephalic ramifications are

also demonstrable, and these have not yet been detected in their

perfect connexion in any Teleostean fish. The canal reaches the

occipital region of the head above the suprascapula, and is there

connected by a wide anastomosis with that of the opposite side; it

then runs above the eye to the nose, where it becomes suddenly

narrowed, and opens externally upon a capillary papilla in front of

the nasal aperture. During its course to this point it emits, behind

the eye, a large branch downwards; this passes forward round the

orbit, emits three cecal diverticula upon the suspensorium and to

the articulation of the lower jaw, and terminates cacally beneath the

nasal pit, forming a series of ampulliform dilatations. In front of

the eyes the two lateral canals are united by a short transverse duct,

which forms a spherical dilatation (alveus communis) in its middle,

and close to this emits a blind diverticulum upon the anterior frontal

bone. When the canal is injected in a backward direction, we discover

that it has also a posterior terminal aperture, which, like the anterior

one, is to be seen upon a minute cutaneous papilla, about an inch

from the caudal fin. The canal-system of both sides of the body

has consequently only four cutaneous apertures.— Anzeiger der Akad.

der Wiss. in Wien, May 11, 1866, p. 119.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.

No. 106. OCTOBER 1866.

XXXIV.—On the Habits of the Prisopi.

By Anprew Morray, F.L.S.

Tue few entomologists who have studied the Phasmidee (“ leaf-

insects”’ and “ walking-sticks ”) are familiar with the remarkable

form and organization of the Prisopi; but, although that genus

has occupied the attention of such acute entomologists as Stoll,

Burmeister, and Blanchard, and more recently been monographed

and its structure figured by that prince of entomological draughts-

men, Westwood, no suggestion has ever been made or explana-

tion offered of the purpose and meaning of their singular

organization.

It is not long since I obtained satisfactory information on this

point from my friend Mr. Alexander Fry ; and as he is too much

occupied at present to publish it himself, and I think it too in-

teresting to be kept back, I, with his permission, send you this

account of what he knows on the subject.

It only relates to the species named Prisopus flabelliformis, a

specimen of which he had obtained while in Brazil; but as all

the species are characterized by the same peculiarities of struc-

ture, the habits of one will doubtless be the habits of all.

I may premise that Mr. Fry has the fullest confidence in the

veracity of the person from whom he received the information,

who moreover had no temptation to deceive him, and was, be-

sides, too little acquainted with entomology to know that he was

solving an entomological puzzle. The habits which he ascribes

to the Prisopus, too, are not such as would readily occur to a

romancer to endow a flying insect with, although, as it turns

out, the structure is so admirably adapted to the purpose ex-

plained by him that it seems a wonder that the very perfection

of its adaptation did not suggest to entomologists what the

purpose was.

According to this observer, then, the insect was obtained by

Ann, &§ Mag, N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol, xviii, 19

266 Mr. A. Murray on the Habits of the Prisopi.

him in the mountains of Brazil; and its habits were to spend

the whole of the day under water, in a stream or rivulet, fixed

firmly to a stone in the rapid part of the stream, but on the

approach of dusk to leave the water and to sally forth into the

night air on its own affairs, one of which undoubtedly would

be to search for its lady love, whom it is reasonable to suppose

we already know under some other form and described under

some other name—judging, at least, from other Phasmide or

leaf-insects, the perfect male of which has usually ample wings,

while the female is not so well provided with organs for

flight.

The creature is a large orthopterous insect, with wings of

unusual dimensions and, the under ones especially, of fine mem-

branous texture, apparently by no means well adapted for an

aquatic life. And yet we shall presently see they are so arranged

that they can be folded up exactly like a well-cared-for umbrella,

placed under the protection of a waterproof cover.

Before passing the structure of the little creature under re-

view and pointing out how thoroughly each part of it is fitted

to the unusual mode of life ascribed to it, we may first pave the

way by reminding the reader that this is not the only winged

insect which has been ascertained to pass a great part of its life

under water. Stoll figured a singular species, which Westwood*

thinks belongs to the family of grasshoppers (Gryllide), under

the name of the “Grillon aquatique cornu” (Henicus Stollit of

G. R. Gray) ; but Westwood adds that “it is quite evident, from

the saltatorial structure of the legs and the impossibility of the

insect executing a leap under water (from the natural resistance

of the element), that there must be a mistake in the statement

that it is aquatic in its habits.”

If I might hazard a conjecture on the subject, it would be

that Stoll, who also describes our Prisopus, had received a true

account of its habits, but had confounded it with the “ aquatic

cricket,” and transferred the story from the one insect to the

other. This is the less unlikely since we know that he had both

in his cabinet. ;

More recently Mr. Lubbock described to the Linnean Society

two aquatic Hymenoptera of small size, which he had observed

in a basin of pond-water. “Though most of the great orders,”

says he, “are more or less richly represented (in water), no

aquatic species of Hymenoptera or Orthoptera had till now been

discovered. .... Great, therefore, was my astonishment, on the

occasion to which I allude, when I saw in the water a small

Hymenopterous insect, evidently quite at its ease, and actually

* J.O. Westwood, Modern Classification of Insects, i. p. 456.

Mr. A. Murray on the Habits of the Prisopi. 267

swimming by means of its wings. At first I could hardly believe

my eyes; but having found several specimens, and shown them

to,some of my friends, there can be no doubt about the fact”’*.

For an account of the structure and economy of this wonderful

creature, as well as of another similar species found at the same

time, which, although living under water, does not use its wings,

but its legs, for swimming, I must refer the reader to Mr. Lub-

bock’s paper. I shall only observe that, although the wings in

both are largely ciliated or fringed with hair, they are not more

so than the wings of their terrestrial allies. As Mr. Lubbock

says, “There is nothing in their structure to suggest the idea

that they are aquatic.”

Not so with our species when it is fairly examined with

reference to its supposed habits and means of carrying them

out.

The whole underside, even the head, is hollowed out like the

half of a reed. The surface of that side is flexible, smooth, and

finely polished. The margins are thinned off, and the segments

of the abdomen, where not fitted to the posterior legs, are pro-

vided with flaps or quasi claspers. All the legs fit most beauti-

fully and closely: to the side of the abdomen. Their outer

margin is dentate and provided with a thick fringe of hair,

which, like the feathers of a duck, repels water. Moreover at

the knee-joint, where there is unavoidably an opening or unpro-

tected space, it is provided with a flap or side knee-pan—a

provision which occurs in no other insect with which I am ac-

quainted. This flap hangs down, filling up the opening, and is

furnished, like the rest of the outer margins of the leg and body,

with a supply of hair impervious to water. The posture of the

animal in the water is, fastened to the upper surface of a stone,

and with its head turned up stream in opposition to the current.

It sits with its fore legs extended forwards in front of the head,

and the inner side of the thighs is hollowed out exactly to fit

the sides of the head, and the thigh itself is bent down so as to

form the continuation of the sides of the long cup or saucer

which the underside of the animal represents. The antenne fold

back on the upperside of the head, where there is a depression

to receive them. In the other Phasmide the tegmina or upper

wing-cases are usually short, narrow, and coriaceous, and appa-

rently not fitted for much use. - Here they are as long as the

body, so as to cover the whole of the large under wings when

folded up; they are broad enough to do so; and. the whole are

only of a semicoriaceous texture, flexible and pergaminous, but

most so at the base, thinning away at the termination into a

* Trans. Linn. Soe. xxiv. p. 135.

Ne is

268 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

finer texture, approaching that of the lower wings. The claws

of the tarsi are strong, powerful, and well adapted for clinging.

In this animal we seem to have a combination of two plans-of

adhesion: there are the claws and claspers and flaps for hold-

ing on by; there is the hollow underside for adhering by ex-

hausting the air between it and the stone it clings to, on the

principle of the air-pump. If, when it settles on the stone and

adjusts itself, its trachez are full of air, and it then expels

the air and by muscular power draws in the skin of the abdomen

and underside generally, it must, of course, leave a vacuum,

and consequently adhere like a sucker.

‘This species from the mountains of Brazil is the only one of

whose aquatic habits any account has been received; but the

genus, although individuals are rare (as with most species which

only show themselves at night), is widely distributed.

The following are the species known up to the present time,

with their localities, taken from Westwood’s recent Monograph

of the Phasmidee :—

Prisopus flabelliformis, Stoll. Brazil; Cayenne.

—— spiniceps, Burm. Do. do.

— Ohrimanni, Licht. East Indies.

horridus, Westw. Columbia.

Horstokku, De Haan. Cape of Good Hope.

— berosus, Westw. Panama.

— phacellus, Westw. Brazil; Ega.

—— incertus, Westw. Samarang ; Java.

— cornutus,G.R.Gray. India.

— cepus, Westw. Bolivia.

Guerini, Westw. Ile Maurice.

Now that their habits are made known, we may expect that

specimens will become less rare, and that we shall receive more

information regarding their economy and mode of life.

XXXV.—On Two European Argulide, with Remarks on the

Morphology of the Argulidee and their Systematic Position, to-

gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present

known. By T. THoreLu.

[Continued from p. 169.]

DET:

As the question of the position which the family Argulide

should occupy in the system of the Crustacea is far from having

received a satisfactory solution, it will not be out of place here

to dwell somewhat further on this subject. Referred by Linné

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 269

to the genus Monoculus (which corresponds with almost all the

lower Crustacean orders or “ Entomostraca” with the exception

of the Cirripeds), the sole representative of the family Argulidz

then known (4. foliaceus) held a place in the ‘ Syst. Nat.’ ed.10,

between M. polyphemus and M. apus, consequently between a

Limulus and an Apus. In the ‘ Fauna Suecica,’ ed. 2, a Caligus

(M. piscinus, L.) was located between Argulus and Apus. In

the ‘ Entomostraca’ of Miller*, who first erected the genus Ar-

gulus, we find it between Polyphemus and Limulus, immediately

after which comes the genus Caligus.

From this time, however, it gradually became general to place

Caligus and Argulus near to each other, especially since Latreille

laid the foundation of the present prevalent division of the class

of Crustacea, and constituted the order Siphonostoma for those

forms which are provided with sucking-tubes, placing therein

the genera Argulus and Caligus in close proximity to each

other. This view of the systematic position of the Argulide

has been shared by most of the more modern authors, as Bur-

meister, Milne-Edwards, Baird, Dana, Heller, Cornalia, Claus,

Kroyer, &e. As Latreille’s Siphonostoma and Milne-Edwards’s

Lernéides have been united with that author’s Copépodes in a

single order by Zenker+, under the name Entomostraca, called

Copepoda by later authors, it is consequently among the para-

sitic suctorial Copepoda (Copepoda siphonostoma) that the

nearest affinities of the Argulide have been sought. But this

view of the affinities of the Argulide has been by no means

generally accepted: from more than one quarter have objections

to it been put forward, which render necessary a further exami-

nation of the reasons alleged in favour of it. Dana and Herrick

have already pointed out the great differences between the oral

organs of the Argulide and the true Siphonostoma, and express

their opinion that Argudus should perhaps hereafter become the

type of a new order, standing between the Siphonostoma and

the Peecilopoda or Xiphura. Their attempt to show a nearer

relationship between the Argulidz and these last must, however,

be regarded as abortive, since it is pretty generally recognized

that such conditions of organization as may ally the Argulidz

to Limulus are presented in a still more marked degree by the

Phyllopoda, especially the genus Apus. Limulus shows, more-

over, so many remarkable peculiarities in its structure, that it

must necessarily be regarded as the type of a separate order, in

spite of its being more nearly related to the Branchiopoda and

* Entomostraca seu Insecta testacea, que in aquis Dani et Norvegie

reperit, &e. O. F. Miiller (1785), p. 121.

+ Untersuchungen iiber die Organisation und Verwandtschaft der Co-

pepoden, p. 54,

270 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

Argulide than to any other group of the Crustacea. Even

Vogt expresses himself against the union of the Argulide with

the Siphonostoma, on the ground that the organization of the

mouth is very different ; but he says nothing further as to their

place in the system.

The order Branchiopoda only can claim a stronger affinity

to the Argulide on the ground of several leading points of

resemblance. The relation of these latter to that order had

already attracted the notice of authors who ranged them with

the Siphonostoma, as, for instance, Milne- Bdwands. who says,

with reference to the swimming- ee of the Argulide, that they

seem to be intermediate between those of the Branchiopoda and

of the ordinary Siphonostoma. Zenker is, however, the first

who made a decided step in this direction, and in his Crustacean

system united them with the Branchiopoda, at the same time

drawing attention to their marked agreement with these in cer-

tain important points, as the structure of the eyes and digestive

apparatus, and showing also that the greater number of the

characters which were “thought to justify their amalgamation

with the Copepoda are also to be found in many Branchiopoda.

This notion of Zenker as to the systematic position of the Argu-

lide has been shared by Gegenbaur and myself*, as also by

Steenstrup and Luetken, who ally Argulus to the Phyllopoda,

as the representative of parasitism in that group.

A renewed examination of the structure of the Argulide, as

compared with that of the Copepoda and the Branchiopoda, has

further convinced me of the correctness of Zenker’s view. I

have fancied that I could discover grounds for making the Ar-

gulide a suborder of the Branchiopoda, consequently a group of

equal value with the Phyllopoda and Cladocera, although most

nearly allied to the former; and as I shall now proceed to an

exposition of those grounds, I have only to hope that such may

in some measure contribute to the final solution of the question.

Such an examination has appeared to me all the more necessary

since Kréyer has lately become a champion of the old view of

the position of the Argulide, and has sought to prove their

affinity with the Copepoda by several considerations which lave

been more or less overlooked by previous authors, who founded

their ideas of the propriety of mserting the Argulide among

the parasitic Copepoda exclusively on the suctorial formation of

the mouth and the parasitic habits depending thereon.

In order to form a clear notion of the relations of the Argu-

lide to the Copepoda and Branchiopoda, it is necessary to

determine the reciprocal relations of these two groups; 7. e. to

* « Bidrag till kannedomen om Krustaceer, som lefva i arter af slagtet

Ascidia, L.,” K. Vetensk.-Ak. Handl. Bd. ii. No. 8 (1859-1860), p. 14.

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 271

define what is common to both types and what are the principal”

characters which authorize their position as two distinct orders

in the class, and then to see in what respect the Argulide assi-

milate to the one or the other group, or differ from both. We will,

in passing, merely recall the common bond which unites all the

lower orders of Crustacea, Xiphura, Branchiopoda, Ostracoda,

Copepoda, and Cirripedia, and which seems to us to warrant the

union of these orders into one large subclass, Entomostraca, in

Latreille’s acceptation of that term, in contradistinction to the

other, higher Crustacean orders, or Malacostraca. The Xiphura

incline towards the Phyllopods in the order of the Branchiopoda,

with which Zenker was disposed to unite them; the near affinity

of the Ostracoda with the Cladocera is pretty generally recog-

nized; moreover they are often placed in close connexion with

the Copepoda ; and these latter show not only a great affinity

with the Ostracoda, but also with the Cirripedes on the one

side, and the Branchiopods, especially the Phyllopods, on the

other.

This near relation of the Copepods and Phyllopods shows it-

self especially in their development. In both groups, the larva,

as far as is known, always goes through a Nauplius-stage, and

then shows three pairs of extremities of which the first two

develope into the first and second pairs of antennee, the third

into the mandible and its palp when such exists. The body is

always (except in the lower parasitic Copepods) conspicuously

segmented; the oral organs consist, when complete, of four

pairs of appendages s, one pair of inaxillee,

and two pairs of foot-jaws. The feet are cloven or lobed swim-

ming or respiratory organs. The Cladocera differ in their in-

distinctly segmented trunk, and in the fact that they go through

the metamorphoses which correspond to the Nauplius-stage in

the egg, and thus do not go through a (true) metamorphosis.

In this respect they approach the Ostracoda. The development

of the Argulide is midway between that of the Phyllopods (and

Copepods) on the one side, and that of the Cladocera (and

Ostracoda) on the other: their larve go through the earlier

phases of the Nauplius-stage in the egg-shell, and quit this in a

form which most nearly corresponds with what Claus calls the

final Nauplius-stage of the Copepoda ; whence the metamorphoses

of the Argulide, as compared with those of the Phyllopods and

Copepods, may be called incomplete. For the rest, we find in

the Argulide also those characters which we have mentioned as

common to Phyllopods and Copepods.

If we would determine by what characteristics the Copepods

and Branchiopods may always and with certainty be distin-

guished from each other, we cannot at the outset fail to per-

272 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

ceive that the former constitute a much compacter whole than the

latter, and that certain conditions of organization which in the

one type (that of the Copepoda) show a considerable degree of

constancy are in the other exceedingly variable. Thus the

number of body-segments in the Copepods varies within com-

paratively narrower limits than in the Branchiopods; and the

same thing is the case, and in a higher degree, with the number of

the legs. Since the trunk in Copepods always bears a definite

number, at the most (and most frequently) five pairs, of extremi-

ties, it would be an extremely remarkable variation if a form

appertaining thereto were detected with more than five pairs of

legs; whereas it is not at all surprising to meet among the

Branchiopods, which certainly are generally distinguished by

numerous extremities, with forms possessing only a few pairs of

legs (as, for instance, four in the Argulide), while their number

varies in the Phyllopods from ten to sixty, and in the Cladocera

goes down to six, five, or only four pairs. )

The oral organs also are more constant in number in the

Copepods than in the Branchiopods, where the maxillary feet

are mostly rudimentary or entirely wanting. ven in cases

where both pairs are found, as in Apus, the posterior are always

rudimentary—a condition which is seldom observed in the Co-

pepods. Amongst these it is usually only in connexion with

parasitic habits that the number of the oral organs is reduced ;

but it is here worthy of remark that the parasitic nature in

general occasions a stronger development of the maaillary feet, and

always in those groups at least which possess suctorial tubes and

distinctly segmented bodies (i.e. Ascomyzontide, Caligide). This

would lead us to suppose that if parasitic Branchiopoda be found

analogous to the Copepod families just named, the maxillary

feet of these, as constituting the seizing-organs already men-

tioned, will also have received a stronger development than in

the free forms. Notwithstanding, therefore, that the Argu-

lidze possess, as is well known, in correlation with their para-

sitic habits, particularly strong maxillary feet, this character

would not forbid their approximation to the Branchiopoda on

the ground of their further agreement with that group.

In the Copepoda both mandibles and maxille are usually

furnished with a palp, whereas this is never the case in the

Branchiopod order, excepting in the genus Nebalia, which

differs in so many respects from them, and makes an approach

to the Decapoda (Mysis, Cuma). In Copepods the palpi

are certainly sometimes wanting, especially in the parasitic

forms; but in the higher Siphonostoma (Ascomyzontide and

Caligidz) there is generally at least one pair, while these organs

are altogether wanting in the Argulide,

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 273

Here it will be proper to make the two following remarks :—

In the parasitic suctorial Copepoda, the tube never contains

more than one pair of organs, the mandibles; in the Argulide,

on the contrary, most generally two pairs, both maxille and

mandibles, and these in form quite unlike the small saw- or

lancet-like mandibles of the Siphonostoma.

In the parasitic Copepoda it is always the antenne of the

second pair which are used as seizing-organs; in the Argulidee,

on the contrary, it is the firs¢ pair which performs this function.

As something peculiar to the order Copepoda, the form of

the limbs of the trunk holds a prominent place. These consist,

as we know, of a basal piece, composed of two joints, with two

branches situated on this, each consisting of three joimts. Ge-

nerally the feet belonging to one pair are united by means of a

median plate, so that they move in unison. The structure of the

legs may perhaps be simplified by certain parts becoming fused

together or further separated; but whenever the legs attain a

full development, they present the form here described. Such

is also the case with the parasitic forms—as, for instance, the

Caligide. In the Branchiopoda the structure of the legs is

highly variable, but is still referable to a common type: it is

sufficient to notice here that they never have the form charac-

teristic of Copepoda, and that the median plate is always absent.

This is also the case in the Argulide, whose swimming-feet, as

we shall show further on, admit of an easy comparison with the

feet in Apus. The presence of “ branchial appendages” on the

feet of the Branchiopoda is not a thoroughly constant character

in this order: they are wholly rudimentary or completely want-

ing m many Cladocera, as Polyphemus, Podon, Evadne, Bytho-

trephes, Leptodera, on the extremity of the tail in Nebalia: con-

sequently the absence of such appendages in an animal (as

in Argulus) does not show that it cannot belong to the Bran-

chiopoda.

Almost as distinctive of the Branchiopoda as the form of the

feet in the Copepoda is the structure of the visual organs in the

former as compared with the latter. The Branchiopods have

two large, generally moveable, lateral eyes (in the Cladocera

these coalesce into a single eye), composed of numerous crystal-

line cones, with the cornea at least externally unfacetted. No

Copepod has eyes that can be fully compared to these; for the

median single eye in the Copepod, which often contains two or

more crystalline bodies, corresponds to the ocellus situated be-

hind the lateral eyes in the Branchiopoda, and sometimes also

provided with crystalline bodies ; and the large paired eyes in cer-

tain Copepods (as the Pontellidee and Coryezidee) show a struc-

ture entirely different from the compound eyes of the Branchio-

274 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Areulide.

poda, if indeed they morphologically correspond with these.

The eyes in Argulus are moveable, and agree in their structure,

as is well known, with those of the Phyllopods in their most

sharply defined form.

In the Copepoda we never meet with the shell armature which,

as a kind of supplementary integument on the anterior divisions

of the body, in the Branchiopoda so generally encloses or covers

the body. The large shie/d in the Argulidz shows the greatest

resemblance to the carapace in Apus, and removes them far

from the Copepoda.

With regard to the internal structure, this in many instances

affords a more uncertain criterion for judging of the affinity of |

the lower Crustaceans than do the characters which are drawn

from their external form. Thus the nervous system, the circu-

latory apparatus, &c., in nearly related forms, may show very

striking discrepancies, to adduce an instance of which we will

only mention the known fact that, even in the strictly natural

group formed by the gnathostomous Copepods, the Calanidze

and Pontellidze possess a heart, while the nearly allied Cyclo-

pide, with others, want a definite central organ of circulation.

At the same time, however, that the internal structure presents

such extraordinary variation and inconstancy even in the most

nearly related groups, it shows, on the other hand, in its general

features such striking correspondences in the Branchiopods and

Copepods, that it is difficult to fix any anatomical character as

belonging to one only of these two orders. The generative ap-

paratus in the Copepoda only furnishes two peculiarities which

are worth noticing here. The eggs are united in the Copepoda,

when they leave the ovaries, to form one or two external egg-sacs,

excepting in the spurious parasitic Notodelphyide and Bupro-

ridz, in which they are received into a matria, almost as in the

Cladocera. In the Branchiopoda such egg-sacs are never pre-

sent. In the Copepoda, impregnation takes place, as far as we

know, always by means of spermatophores, which are attached

externally to the body of the female close to the sexual orifice

or the mouth of a separate canal leading to the receptacle. The

Branchiopoda never show such spermatophores. In both these

points the Argulide depart from the Copepoda in general, and

from the analogous forms in that order, Caligidze and Ascomy-

zontide in particular, in that they lack both egg-sacs and ex-

ternal spermatophores.

Notwithstanding the agreement which the Argulide present

with the Branchiopoda in respect to conditions of propagation,

they yet exhibit in this very direction both peculiarities and

analogies with other orders. Zenker has already pointed out

this: in respect to the form and products of its generative ap-_

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 275

paratus, he says that Argulus makes a nearer approach to the

Ostracoda “in its thread-like zoosperms and the existence of

male accessory glands and of female seminal receptacles.” He

might have added that they here also approach the Copepoda,

which are also sometimes furnished with thread-like zoosperms

(I myself have observed them in Lichomolgus) ; accessory glands

are often met with in connexion with the male organs, and a

single or double receptaculum seminis apparently always, in the

Copepoda. Resemblances in these particulars, with the excep-

tion of the last named, are, however, relatively of little weight.

Meanwhile the generative apparatus in the Argulide is referable,

as we have seen, in certain points to the Branchiopods, in others

to the Copepods. But conditions in the highest degree peculiar

separate them from both these orders. Unfortunately, much

respecting the propagation of the Argulidz remains still obscure;

and even Leydig’s accurate researches on this subject* leave many

important questions unanswered. The signification of the

characteristic (probably copulatory) appendages on the two or

three posterior pairs of swimming-feet is undetermined, with

the exception of the capsule on the hinder part of the third pair

of feet, which, according to Leydig, is filled with sperm from

the opening of the ductus deferens, and afterwards, during the

act of copulation, presses its contents into the seminal reservoirs.

The function which belongs to the “hook” on the last pair of

legs, which in its structure so strongly recalls the copulatory

organ of the Spiders and Ju/us, is unknown. Leydig perceived

only that during copulation this was “closely pressed upon or

into the capsule of the last pair of legs but one,” and that it did

not serve in any way to retain the female. This latter function

may perhaps belong to the projections on the hinder part of the

second pair of legs, which occur in certain species, as A. coregont.

As to the significance of the projections on the fore part of the

third pair of feet, I do not venture to guess.

The females of the Argulidze have, as has been said, two recep-

tacula seminis, which, each by means of a proper channel of

communication, opens out on a moveable papilla near the under-

side of the tail, behind the mouth of the ovarium; and thus it

would seem that an immediate connexion between the receptacles

and the ovarium is here wanting. How the semen under these

conditions can come into contact with the eggs is still undis-

covered.

Another circumstance also brought to light by Leydig (with

reference to A. foliaceus) is of the greatest interest. ‘ The

receptacle is,” he says, “in females which have never copulated,

empty and folded inwardly. After copulation there appears in-

* Ueber Argulus foliaceus, p. 339 &e.

276 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

side this another stout vesicle, which is filled with spermatozoids.

A homogeneous sharply defined thread shows itself as a con-

tinnation of the skin of this enclosed vesicle, through the outlet,

to a papilla situated in a concavity.” On the nature of this

bladder nothing is said. But may we not see in this a sperma-

tophore which is not, as in the Copepods, attached externally to

the body of the female by means of a tubiform filament through

which the spermatozoids pass into the receptacle, but which is

altogether introduced into this latter? And if this supposition

be correct, where is the spermatophore produced? Possibly,

may we not think, in the capsule on the third pair of legs,

whence it must be supposed to have become transferred to the

receptacle ? in effecting which the “hook” on the last pair of

legs would certainly play an important part. Or may not the

two accessory glands which open each upon the lower portion

of its own ductus deferens contribute the secretion to form the

walls of the spermatophore? And how can the spermatozoids

escape from this bladder or spermatophore if the channel of

communication be filled up by a “ homogeneous thread” ?

I have dwelt upon these circumstances chiefly with a view to

drawing to them the attention of those who have opportunities

and inclination to accord them a due investigation m living

Argulids. Especially suitable for such researches 1s the large

Argulus coregoni, which would seem to be tolerably frequent in

the larger lakes of Sweden.

Proper to the Argulide is moreover the circumstance that the

eges come directly from the ovarium into freedom: they are

neither retained in a “uterus,” matrix, or any structure ana-

logous thereto, as is the case in most Branchiopoda; nor are

they attached to the projection of some of the legs, as in some

forms of this order. (See what we have said concerning the

ovarium of A. coregoni, p. 168.) This is, however, of subordinate

importance. The ovarium of Argulus may be regarded as cor-

responding to both uterus and ovarium in, for example, Bran-

chipus, forming, however, a single structure, in which the por-

tions set apart for the producing of the eggs and for their main-

tenance have not yet become separated in position from each

other.

The remaining peculiarities which the sexual apparatus of the

Argulide presents are not of very great importance, and are

always easily reducible to conditions commonly prevalent in the

Branchiopoda. They are mostly to be accounted for by the fact

that the tail is sharply separated from the trunk, whence also

the various parts of the sexual apparatus are more separated

from each other. Thus the ovarium is situated entirely in the

trunk, while the receptacles are in the tail; the testes are placed

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 277

here, while the seminal bladder and ductus deferentes lie in the

trunk. In the Branchiopods both ovarium and testes have their

position in the anterior portion of the tail *.

While*we are on the subject of the sexual conditions of the

Argulide, we must not omit to mention a circumstance which

in some measure removes them from the Branchiopoda : propa-

gation by means of parthenogenesis, which seems to be so general

in that order, seems to be as rare among the Argulide as among

the Copepoda.

Among the anatomical characters whereby the Copepoda may

pretty constantly be distinguished from the Branchiopoda, it has

been asserted, is the absence of gall-secreting branches in the intes-

tinal canal. Wowever, according to Claus, many Copepods,

especially the genus Sapphirina, possess extremely strongly de-

veloped glandular liver-appendages; and since these in many

Branchiopoda (as, for instance, the Branchipodidz) are but

feebly developed or (as in Limnadia and many Cladocera) alto-

gether wanting, we must not attribute to this character any

special importance. Still the strong branches of the intestinal

canal beneath the head-shield in Apus and Argulus certainly

afford further grounds for considering that these creatures are

nearly related. ‘

Neither in the nervous nor circulatory system do I find any

characteristics which might contribute to fix the line of demarca-

tion between the Branchiopods and Copepods. The copious

supply of blood in the head-shield in Argulus, which Zenker

regards as attesting the Copepod nature of the Argulide,

depends only on the strong development of this shield, the form

of which meanwhile points, as has already been said, to a near

relation with the Branchiopoda. According to Leydig and Claus,

blood-corpuscles are wanting in the nourishing fluid of the

Copepoda, but are found in both Phyllopoda and Cladocera, as

also in Argulus. This difference, however, is not constant ;

for they are found also, according to Dana, in abundance in the

Caligide in the first-named order. The well-marked separation

of the tail from the trunk, and its modification as a respiratory

organ, would seem to be the most prominent feature in their

* Leydig, “ Ueber Artemia salina und Branchipus stagnalis, Beitrag zur

anatomischen Kenntniss dieser Thiere,”’ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche

Zoologie, Bd. ii. p. 297 &e. Leydig is guilty of a misrepresentation when

he says that Joly did not perceive the true ovaria of Artemia salina, but

only the uterus, which he mistook for the ovary. Joly expresses himself

thus :—‘ Sur les parties latérales des deux premiers anneaux de l’abdo-

men on s’apercoit .. . deux sacs allongés, cylindriques, dont le fond est

tourné du cété de la queue. Ces deux sacs sont les ovaires proprement diis.

Ils viennent déboucher dans une matrice ou ovaire externe, qui parait étre

une dilatation considérable de leur propre membrane.”

278 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

entire organization. Leydig appears to be the first who recog-

nized in the tail-fin of the Argulide their principal and proper

respiratory organ, at the same time admitting that, as in the

lower Crustacea in general, respiration is here also effected in a

great measure by the thin integument of the body, especially

on the large membranous head-shield*. Of some use for re-

spiration are perhaps also the small leaf-like appendages which

are sometimes developed (as in A. purpureus, and, according to

Kroyer, in Gyropeltis longicauda) on the final segment of the

trunk, and which seem to be analogous to the leaf-like dorsal

plates in the Pandaride. The posterior surface of the last pair

of legs is often more or less flattened out and widened ; but this

widening cannot functionally or morphologically be compared

with the so-called branchial appendages on the extremities of

the Branchiopoda. For the rest, the legs of the Argulide lack

any trace of such appendages, but in other respects do not

differ much from those of the Branchiopoda; and as it is with

the Phyllopoda amongst these that they most agree in general

habit, so it is accordingly the extremities of these which are

most lke the swimming-feet of the Argulide.

In order, however, not to overlook this likeness, we must not

select for comparison such extremities as, by their conversion

into “ respiratory feet,” have lost the typical form of organs of

locomotion, but such as still present this form fully and com-

pletely. This is especially the case with the first pair of feet,

or the so-called swimming-feet, in Apus. They consist (in Apus

cancriformis) of a three-jointed prolonged basal part, which at

its extremity bears three long, inconspicuously jointed swimming-

branches or flagella). ‘These parts evidently correspond both

in form and function to the three-jointed stem of the feet in

the Argulide, together with the swimming-branches and “ fla-

gella”’ attached to the end of this. The sole difference is that

this “ flagellum” in the Argulidz is bent upwards and inwards ;

but even this is not always the case; for in A. funduli it is,

according to Kréyer, directed similarly to the two swimming-

branches. Sometimes the flagellum is wanting, as in A. purpureus.

The two branchial appendages on the upper surface of the foot

in Apus, as also a pair of flagelliform appendages situated on

their lower surface, together with the so-called masticatory

piece at their base, are, however, entirely wanting in the Ar-

gulide: the supposition that the flagellum in these corresponds

to the branchial appendage of the Branchiopoda is con-

sequently incorrect—a point which not only its attachment

but also its form evidently show. Moreover the parts just

mentioned are easily recognizable on the following pairs of feet

* Loe. cit. p. 338.

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 279

in Apus; but as the swimming-branches become gradually

shorter and broader, while the branchial appendage proceeds in

development, the likeness in form which the first pair of feet so

strikingly shows to the swimming-feet of the Argulidee decreases

gradually with the likeness in function.

We may now pass on to a nearer examination of the grounds

on which Kréyer* sought to prove that the Argulidz are sipho-

nostomous Copepoda most nearly related to the Caligide. His

first argument is that Gyropeltis presents a transition between

these two families in “certain essential particulars ;” by which

is meant that the species of that genus lack a sting, and have

the first pair of foot-jaws of a hooked form, not developed into

sucking-cups. To this it may be objected that the “sting” and

sucking-cups are altogether peculiar to the Argulide: they

neither occur again in Branchiopoda nor in Copepoda; and

thus Gyropeltis might as well be said to form a passage to the

Apodide, for instance, in the former order as to the Caligide in

the latter, on account of its wanting these structures. Through

the discovery of Gyropeltis, only two of the characters on which

it would be possible to base the position of the Argulidz as a

separate order have lost their importance, inasmuch as they

cease to be constant; but no reason whatever for the union of

these animals with either of the two orders in question has hence

been obtained. With respect moreover to the distinct form of

the first pair of foot-jaws, these organs in Gyropeltis have only

remained at that stage which belongs to Argu/us in the larval

condition.

Another reason for his view of the relation between the Argu-

lide and the Caligide has been drawn by Kroyer from the

structure of the antenne: he endeavours, in fact, to identify the

first pair of antenne in the former with the second pair in the

latter, on the ground of their functional agreement as fixing-

organs. We have already had occasion to point out, on the

ground of their development, the incorrectness of this view of

their relations ; and the Argulidz demonstrate, in the fact that

in them not the second, but the first pair of antenne have be-

come the fixing-organs, that they are widely separated from the

Caligide and the other parasitic Copepoda. Kréyer further tries

to show that Argulus, like the Caligidee, has two pairs of foot-

* Loc. cit. pp. 25-29. I have not been able to see the force of the

following objection against Zenker’s separation of the Argulide from the

Siphonostoma :—“ Zenker expresses as the result of his researches, that

Argulus must either form a separate order or be united with the Branchio-

poda. But, in admitting this alternative, he necessarily allows that if Argulus

may not be united with the Siphonostoma, neither may it be enrolled

amongst the Branchiopoda; else why think of erecting a new order for

this genus?”

280 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

jaws. ‘This we are the less disposed to dispute since we regard

two pairs of foot-jaws as belonging typically to all the lower

Crustacean orders; whence it follows that this character leaves

quite undetermined the question to which of these orders the

Argulide belong.

As we have already shown, Kroyer has mistaken these parts

so far as to regard the second pair of antenne as being the first

pair of foot-jaws, and the sucking-cups, or the true first pair, as

the second. Kroyer has further, by drawing a parallel between

the tail in the Argulidee and the genital ring m the Caligide,

thought it possible to establish a nearer affinity between these

families. I have already pointed out the incorrectness of this

comparison, and endeavoured to show that the tail of the Argu-

lidee corresponds to the entire tail, inclusive of the genital rmg,

in the Caligide and other Copepoda. This, however, is alto-

gether foreign to the question how far the Argulide are Cope-

poda or Branchiopoda. The Branchiopoda have a jointed or

unjointed tail like the Copepoda; and in many Phyllopoda (as,

for instance, Branchipus and Artemia) the first caudal segments

are much more subservient to the office of generation than in

the Copepoda and Argulus, since they contain, as already men-

tioned, both testes and ovaria. Even among the Cladocera,

which otherwise, with few exceptions (Leptodera, Bythotrephes),

resemble the Argulide in their unsegmented tail, we have an

example of this in Leptodera hyalina (of which, however, the

male is unknown), in which animal the ovaries at least are

situated in the anterior tail-segments*.

Kroyer further asserts that, since it is now known that the

sting ” does not belong to the mouth-tube, the oral organs of

the Argulide offer no difficulty to their union with the Sipho-

nostoma. We have, however, shown that the only resemblance

between the oral organs in the two groups is that the mouth

forms a sucking-tube, as is the case so often amongst the parasitic

Articulata, not only among Crustacea of different orders, but

also among Insects and Arachnids. That this character is of

extremely subordinate value in the determination of the sys-

tematic position of the Crustacea is shown by the circumstance,

among others, that we are forced to unite in the order Copepoda

forms with free oral organs and forms with these enclosed in a

suctorial tube. Zenker, who showed the necessity of this, rightly

observes, with respect to Milne-Edwards’s subclass Crustacés

suceurs, “Is the form of the mouth to be regarded as of such

weight systematically in a case where parasitic habits call for

and produce a certain determinate form dependent thereupon ?

* Lilljeborg, “ Beskrifning ofver tvenne miarkliga Crustaceer of ord-

ningen Cladocera,” ify. af. K. Vetensk. Ak. Forh. 1860, p. 266.

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 281

Whether the animals be related or not, the structure of their

mouth must necessarily be somewhat similar in appearance.

Circumstances which are modified in correspondence with pecu-

liar modes of life are not signs sufficient to determine original

affinity ; better as such are those taken from characters which

are as far as possible independent of the peculiarities of habits

and mode of life.”

The presence, therefore, of a suctorial organ shows merely

that Argulus is a parasitic Crustacean, but does not point out

to which order it should be referred. With reference to the

sting,” Kroyer says that it “assuredly corresponds to the

poison-weapon in many of the lower Crustacea, both free-swim-

ming Copepods (as Cyclopsine castor) and parasites, although

peculiar both in form and position.” As Kroyer here mentions

Cyclopsine castor, which has no organ comparable to the sting

of the Argulide, I suppose he means the so-called shell-gland

(skalkérteln) which has not only been observed in Argulus and

some Copepods*, amongst which is Cyclopsine castor, but which

occurs generally in the Branchiopoda, both Phyllopoda and

Cladocera}, in the Cytheride among the Ostracodat, and which

is considered to be the same organ as that known as the green gland

in Decapoda and Amphipoda. Meanwhile the determination of

this “ shell-gland ” as a secretory and specially as a poison-organ

is in the highest degree uncertain, and the more so since we do

not as yet know for certain whether any channel exists in con-

nexion with it. Zenker certainly insists that it opens externally in

Cythere through a spine on the lower antenne ; and Kroyer has

a similar suggestion where he says § that in the Caligide the

claw on the second pair of antennz ‘ shows on the concave side

very frequently (perhaps always) a bristle or fine spine, which

seems to be connected with an extensive internal apparatus

(gland, channel, and bladder).”” But he continues thus :—

“Whether this is to be referred to the category of the organs

lately pointed out in many of the lower Crustacea, and desig-

nated poison-weapon, must be left undetermined,” and adds that

he “has often found a perfectly similar apparatus on the hooked

second pair of feet,”—an addition which renders the propriety

of a comparison with the “ poison-organ” of, for instance, Cy-

clopsine very doubtful. Jf, meanwhile, these suggestions of

Zenker and Kroyer are correct, and 2f the “ shell-” or “ poison-

* Zenker, “Ueber die Cyclopiden des siissen Wassers,” Archiv fiir

Naturgeschichte, xx. (1854) p. 98; also Claus, loc. cit. p. 60.

t+ Leydig, Naturgeschichte der Daphniden, p. 23 &e.

{ Zenker, “ Monographie der Ostracoden,”’ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,

xx. (1854) pp. 18 & 29.

§ Loe. cit. p. 105.

Am. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 20

282 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

gland” in Argulus opens through the “ sting,’ which has not

yet been attested from observation, then it is only the spine

Just mentioned on the second pair of antenne in the Caligide

and Cytheridz (consequently in animals belonging to two dif-

ferent orders) which can be compared with the sting in Argulus.

As the “ poison-gland ” itself occurs in many widely separated

orders, it is easy to see that its presence in the Argulide in no

way points out their zoological affinity; and should it open

through a spine in some parasitic Copepoda, these would be in

the same relation to Cyclops and Cyclopsine (which lack such an

organ) as that which the parasitic Argulus with sting bears to

the free Branchiopoda without sting.

Kroyer produces two further reasons for his view of the sys-

tematic position of the Argulide, which it now remains for us

to remove. The first is “the absence in Argulide of external

egg-sacs—which finds its analogy in the genera Notodelphys,

Doropygus, &c.” It seems to us, on the contrary, quite obvious

that the absence of external egg-sacs goes to prove that the

‘ Argulidz are not Copepods, since these, with the exception of

the Notodelphyidee and Buprorus, generally have external egg-

sacs, as 1s also the case in particular with the Caligide and all

the other Siphonostoma with which the Argulid would be ranged

were they Copepods. The asserted analogy is, moreover, very

feeble; for in the Argulide the eggs stand on the ovary itself

until they attain freedom, whereas in Notodelphys &c. they

pass from the ovaries into a matrix comparable with the

so-called uterus in the Branchiopoda, or, still better, with the

matrix of the Cladocera.

Kroyer finds the last attestation of the Copepod nature of the

Argulide in ‘the simple eyes placed in a triangular form, which

recur not only in the free-swimming Copepods (Sapphirina),

but also in the parasites in the larval state.” With reference to

this, we have only to remark that an unpaired eye, retained after

the larval period, without or with two, three, or several crystal-

line bodies (“simple eyes’’), is quite usual, not only among the

Copepoda (where it generally constitutes the sole visual organ),

but also among Phyllopoda, Cladocera, and other lower Crusta-

ceans, and that consequently the presence of such an eye in

Argulus in no way proves its relationship to the Copepoda.

Further, Kréyer’s representation of the structure of this single

eye in Argulus is incorrect ; for what he calls three simple eyes

are in that animal a three-lobed prolongation of the brain itself,

bearing a pigment-spot, in which not a trace of erystalline bodies

or “simple eyes” is to be detected, at least in either A. folia-

ceus or A. coregoni. The unpaired eye in many Branchiopoda

(as Branchipus and Artemia) also shows itself as such a pigment-

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide, 283

spot, placed on a perfectly similar trilobed projection from the

brain-ganglion*.

We have now gone through the proofs which have been put

forward by Kréyer as grounds for the union of the Argulide

with the siphonostomous Copepoda, and shown, we hope, that

not one of them can be regarded as in any measure convincing

or decisive. We will now briefly recapitulate the results to

which we have been led during the foregoing investigation, and

thence arrive at the conclusion respecting the systematic posi-

tion of the Argulidz which those results seem to warrant.

I. The Argulide correspond with the Copepoda generally, be-

sides such points of their organization as are common to the

Branchiopoda and Copepoda, only in these particulars :—that

(1) The females possess receptacula seminis ; and that

(2) Parthenogenesis seems never to occur.

IT. But they differ from the Copepoda generally in the cir-

cumstance that

(1) Their limbs want the intermediate plate (mellanskifva),

and do not show the form characteristic of Copepoda; that

(2) They have two moveable eyes composed of numerous

crystalline stemmata in front of the unsymmetrical larval eye ;

that

(3) The integuments of the head are developed into a bi-

partite shield, very often covering the larger portion of the body;

that :

(4) The eggs are neither attached to external egg-sacs nor

are received into a matrix when they leave the ovaries; that

(5) Impregnation is not effected by means of spermatophores

attached externally to the body of the female; and that

(6) The larve leave the egg in a much more advanced state

of development than in the Copepoda.

III. Meanwhile they agree with the (higher) siphonostomous

Copepoda in certain particulars, which all, however, depend upon

their parasitic mode of life: they have, for instance,

(1) A depressed body ;

(2) A pair of the antenne modified as fixing-organs ;

(3) The mouth transformed into a sucking-tube ; and

(4) Strongly developed foot-jaws.

IV. They differ likewise from the Siphonostoma in the follow-

ing points :—

(1) The first, not the second, pair of antenne are the fixing-

organs ;

* Vide Leydig, loc. cit. p. 39 &e.

20*

284 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

(2) Palpi are wanting ;

(3) A “sting” (gadd) is present in front of the mouth-tube ;

(4) Two pairs of oral organs may be enclosed in this tube ;

(5) The first pair of foot-jaws may have the form of sucking-

cups.

V. The Argulide approach the Branchiopoda in general in

(1) The fundamental form of their extremities ;

(2) The structure of the visual organs ;

(3) The tendency to a shell-structure, expressed in the shape

of the head-shield ;

(4) The absence of palpi;

(5) The absence of external egg-sacs; and

(6) The absence of external spermatophores.

VI. To the Phyllopoda in particular they make an approach in

(1) The conspicuous segmentation of the trunk ;

(2) The non-fusion of the symmetrical eyes into a single eye.

VII. To the Cladocera in particular they make an approach in

(1) The small number of the extremities; and

(2) The unsegmented tail.

VIII. They stand midway between the Phyllopoda and the

Cladocera by virtue of

(1) Their mode of development.

IX. From both Phyllopoda and Cladocera they differ in the

following points :—

(1) They are organized for a parasitic existence ;

(2) The extremities are entirely without branchial appendages;

(3) The tail is transformed into a respiratory plate ;

(4) The generative apparatus shows some peculiarities, parti-

cularly the presence of receptacula seminis ;

(5) The eggs are ejected immediately after quitting the

ovary ;

(6) Parthenogenesis seems never to occur.

A glance over this sketch of the relations of the Argulidz to

the Copepoda on the one side, and to the Branchiopoda on the

other, will, we think, lead to the conviction that the Argulide

cannot possibly be referred to the first-mentioned order, but

that, on the contrary, they approach the Branchiopoda through

such important characters that their reception amongst these

must be regarded as fully warrantable. In our estimation, the

Argulide are parasitic Branchiopoda; and consequently we

cannot share the view that they ought to constitute a separate

order, in spite of the many points in which, as we have shown

above, they differ from both Phyllopoda and Cladocera. Thus

the characters which are both necessary and sufficient for de-

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 285

fining strictly the limits of the Branchiopoda among the other

lower Crustaceans—the compound eyes with unfacetted cornea,

the absence of palpi or branchial appendages on the oral organs,

lobed or cloven respiratory or swimming-feet without median

plates, distinct sexes—occur in the Argulide. The discrepancies

which depend on their parasitic habits cannot be put forward as

reasons for the isolated position of the Argulide, at least as long

as parasitic and free Copepoda are unanimously referred to the

same order. If we look at these differences, we find that be-

tween the Argulide on the one side, and the Phyllopoda and

Cladocera on the other, no greater dissimilarities exist than

those which separate these two groups from each other. Al-

though indeed it must be admitted that the Argulide stand

nearer to the Phyllopoda than to the Cladocera, it seems to us

nevertheless that the differences we have mentioned (we would

recall in particular the form and function of the tail, and the

presence of receptacula seminis), in conjunction with the cha-

racters which are correlative to their parasitic nature, are suf-

ficiently strong to set aside the notion of the introduction of

the Argulidae among the Phyllopoda. We regard them con-

sequently as a group of the same systematic value as these and

the Cladocera—that is to say, a suborder, on a par with these, in

the order of the Branchiopoda,—and propose, since Argulide or

Argulinad are only suitable as family names, foy this suborder the

appellation Branchiura, drawn from the characteristic condition

of the tail in these animals. Just as the Cladocera are composd

of one family only (the Daphnidz), the Branchiura for the pre-

sent comprise only one family (the Argulidz).

We think that the Branchiopoda (if we reserve the fossil

Trilobites, which undoubtedly belong to them, and with whose

oral organs and feet we are not sufficiently acquainted) may be

characterized as follows :—

BRANCHIOPODA.

Oris partes palpis fere semper carentes, appendicibus branchialibus

nullis; maxillarum par 1-0, maxillipedum 2-0. COculi duo magni

laterales, seepe in unum coaliti, e multis bacillis crystallinis compo-

siti, cornea supra eequali preediti. Segmentorum et pedum numerus

valde varians: pedes fissi vel foliacei, appendicibus branchialibus

plerumque instructi, nulla lamina intermedia bini conjuncti. Corpus

testa membranacea, plerumque bivalvi, szepissime inclusum. Sexus

distincti.

I. PHYLLOPODA.

Oculi compositi plus minus sejuncti. Pedum paria 10-60. Meta-

morphosis completa. Libere natantia.

1. BRancuipopips. 2.Aropipa. 3. Limnapipa. 4, NE-

BALIDZ.

286 Mr. RB. Swinhoe on a new Species of Beech-Marten.

Il. CLADOCERA.

Oculi compositi in unum coaliti. Pedum paria 4-6. Metamor-

phosis nulla. Libere natantia.

1. DAPHNID.

Ill. BRANCHIURA.

Oculi compositi sejuncti. Pedum paria 4. Metamorphosis in-

completa. Parasitantia.

1, ARGULID.

[To be continued. ]

XXXVI.—On a new Species of Beech-Marten from Formosa.

By Rosrrr Swinnor, H.B.M. Consul at Taiwan.

Wuen I read my paper “On the Mammals of the Island of

Formosa” before the Zoological Society (December 9, 1862), I

I noted that I had not at that time been made aware of the

existence of any species of Mustela in the island. Since then,

from the mountains of the interior towards the south, I have

procured, through my hunters, a fine species of forest-Marten,

which is perhaps the handsomest animal that I have had the

good fortune to obtain. Dr. J. E. Gray’s invaluable epitome of

the known species of the Mustelide (Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan. 24,

1865) has enabled me to determine, without much troublesome

research, that thesFormosan animal is an undescribed species.

The Formosan Marten has, as might be expected, its nearest

ally in Martes flavigula (Bodd.), of the Nepal Hills. I would

propose to distinguish our species as the

Martes chrysospila.

Head blackish brown, the hairs on the occiput being tipped

with white. Centre of inside of ear white. Chin, sides of

head, throat, and central streak of underneck also white.

Sides of neck a fine bright golden colour. Body, above and

below, bright purplish brown, becoming nearly black on hind

quarters, hind legs, and tail. Fore legs blackish brown, pale

down their fronts. Claws whitish. Length, from muzzle to

base of tail, 203 inches ; from base of tail to tip of hairs at its

end, 17 inches. Top of shoulder to tip of fore foot about

8 inches.

Habitat. Mountain-forests of central Formosa.

Martes flavigula is thus briefly described by Dr. Gray, in the

paper above referred to: “ Yellowish; head, nape, rump, legs,

and tail black; chin and lower parts white.” I cannot remark

on the difference of the cranium and dentition of the two species,

as I have no specimen of the Nepalese species to compare with.

Amoy (China), June 22, 1866.

Dr. J. EK. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 287

XXXVII.—Note on the “ Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. By Dr.

J.B. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., F.L.S. &c.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1835, p. 63,

I described and formed the genus Hyalonema for a specimen

that had been sent from China to the India House in London,

under the name of the Glass Plant. I afterwards procured a

specimen from Leyden, and found that it was an inhabitant of

the Japan seas, whence it had been procured by Dr. Siebold.

Since the trade with Japan has been opened, many specimens

of the coral have been received from the latter country, where

they do not seem to be uncommon, and where at least they are

collected, on account of their beauty, as objects of commerce.

In 1857, Prof. John Frederick Brandt, of St. Petersburg, de-

scribed a coral that had been brought from Japan by M. Possiet,

one of the officers of the Russian Expedition, which agrees with

the Glass-Rope of Japan in many particulars, but has the po-

lypes much more produced and crowded; therefore he formed

it into a genus, which he described under the name of Hyalo-

cheta Possieti, Bull. Scien. de Acad. d. Science. d. St. Pétersb.

xvi. n. 5, Mélanges, Biolog. 11. 606.

Both these Japanese corals and a species: of Hyalonema which

he calls Hyalonema affine are described in detail and well figured

in a special work on the subject, entitled ‘ Joannes Fredericus

Brandtii Symbol ad Polypos Hyalochetides spectantes, tabulis

iv. illustrate, Petropoli 1859,” large folio.

My Ayalonema Sieboldi, of Japan, has been well figured and

described by Professor Max Schultze in ‘ Die Hyalonemen, ein

Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Spongien,’ von Max Schultze,

mit fiinf zum Theil in Farbendruck ausgefiihrten Tafeln: Bonn,

1860, 4to.

These works leave very little more to be said on the structure

of these corals.

Very recently a species of the genus has been discovered on

the coast of Portugal, which has been described and figured in

the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ in two papers by

Professor J. V. Barboza du Bocage, of Lisbon :—1. “ Note sur la

Découverte Vun Zoophyte de la Famille Hyalochetides sur la

cote du Portugal” (P. Z. 8. 1864, p. 265); 2. “Sur P Habitat

du Hyalonema lusitanicum” (P.Z. 8. 1865, p. 662).

The Japanese species, according to the observations of Prof.

Brandt, have only twenty tentacles, while Prof. Bocage describes

the Portuguese species as having forty, and also as seeming to

differ in its habits.

I may note that Dr. Leidy, who agrees with Valenciennes in

thinking the bark of Hyalonema a parasite, says there is a sponge

288 Dr.J.E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema.

in the Museum of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia

which has a corona of twisted siliceous spicula, about 2 mches

long, which mainly differ from those of Hyalonema in size (Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 1860, p. 85). It is said to have come

from Santa Cruz. May this not be a young Hyalonema in the

sponge? The two specimens of the genus Hyalonema which

Dr. Leidy examined appear to have been without the sponges at

the base; and as the genus is found on the coast of Portugal as

well as Japan, there is no reason one may not be found at Santa

Cruz.

Before proceeding to make some observations on the extra-

ordinary theories that some zoologists, and some even of high

repute, have entertained respecting this genus, I wish to correct

an error into which I have fallen.

Misled by the dry and imperfect state of the bark of the

specimen which I first described, and also perhaps by a pre-

conceived opinion that then existed that a bark-coral must be

an Alcyonaria with pinnate tentacles, in the Synopsis of the

British Museum (1840), and in a paper, on the arrangement

of Corals, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’

for 1859, I arranged the genus with the Barked Aleyonaria,

and formed an order for its reception, under the name of Spongi-

cole or Hyalophyta (Aun. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. iv. p. 441).

Professor Brandt in his work has shown that they are Zoan-

tharia allied to Corticaria, or Polyzoa having many simple conical

tentacles in two rows; and Professor Bocage has also shown this

to be the case in the species found on the coast of Portugal.

The Japanese species have twenty, and the Portuguese forty

tentacles.

Professor Schultze also figured the conical tentacles of the

Japanese species, and shows that they are, like other Zoantharia,

furnished with stinging darts (t.5.f. 4&5). This latter author

goes so far as to describe the animal as a species of Polythoa,

under the name of P. fatua; but of this more hereafter.

I admit that I ought not to have made this mistake; for a

closer inspection of the contracted cell of the polypes ought to

have shown me that probably they had more than eight tenta-

cles; and now my attention is called to the fact, I am asto-

nished how it could have escaped my observation before.

The specimens which I first described from Japan had the

thinner tapering lower end of the coral inserted in a sponge of

the genus Halichondra, the lower end of the axis forming a

pencil of spicula at the base of the sponge.

Professor Max Schultze figured three specimens similarly at-

tached to a sponge, the outer surface of the sponge being in a

much more perfect condition, showing the oscula, than in the one

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 289

I described (t. 1, & t. 2. f. 1 & 2)—all the sponges having a flat

base, by which they were evidently attached to some ‘marine

body.

Troteuate Brandt also figured (t. 1. f. 4&5) a specimen which

has the basal part surrounded by a slender oblong mass of

sponge ; but this sponge does not show any expanded base, and

seems only like a parasitic sponge attached to the base of the

coral, as sponges are often found on sea-weeds; and the figure

shows a sponge of a much finer texture, so that it does not seem

to be the same kind of sponge as that attached to my specimen

or those described and figured by Professor Schultze.

Observing that the polypes on all sides of the cylindrical coral

were equally developed, I came to the conclusion that the coral

must have grown in an erect position, so that the animals could

all have equal access to the sea and an equal opportunity of pro-

curing their food.

Again, the specimens being sunk in a sponge that had a flat

base by which it was attached to some marine body, I concluded

that the natural habit of the animal was to develope itself in a

sponge, so as to support itself in an erect position ; and this idea

was strengthened by finding that the sponge near the part where

the coral perforated it was of a more condensed and harder tex-

ture than the other parts of it. I concluded that there was a

kind of mutual understanding (such as we often find between

animals that are parasitic on one another) between the sponge

and the coral.

It was for that reason that I formed for the genus the order

before referred to, which I called Spongicole or Hyalophyta.

(See Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1859, iv. p. 439.)

It is true that the larger number of the specimens that are

imported from Japan are without any appearance of a sponge

at their more slender base; but I think it is very probable

that the Japanese, who collect them as ornaments for sale, and

who generally take off the larger part of the bark of the upper

portion of the coral, may also carefully remove any sponge which

they may think disfigures the specimen.

This habit of living sunk in a sponge does not seem to be-

long to all the species of the genus, and may not be univer-

sal, or even general among the species found in Japan; and

that may explain why the specimens imported are generally

destitute of any appearance of ever having been immersed in a

sponge.

Professor Barboza du Bocage specially observes that the Por-

tuguese species has never been found living in a sponge; his

words are,— La cohabitation ou l’existence simultanée sur le

méme axis de polypes et d’éponges, qu’on a remarquée sur quel-

290 =Dr.J.E. Gray on the “ Glass-Rope”’? Hyalonema.

ques spécimens du Japon, n’a pas lieu sur aucun des exemplaires

du Portugal ;” and he further observes that the thin basal por-

tion of the axis which is inserted in the sponge in some of the

Japanese specimens is covered with the polype-bearing bark,

the polypes near the base being smaller. “Chez ces derniers

(les exemplaires du Portugal) le coriwm polypigerum enveloppe

Vaxis d’une maniére uniforme, il recouvre parfaitement lune

des extrémités de Vaxis, la plus étroite, et de la il sétend

sans aucune interruption jusqu’aux 2 ou les 3 de la longueur

totale. Les polypes placés sur l’extrémité de Vaxis sont les

plus petits de tous” (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 663, & 1864,

t. 22. f. 2).

These observations seem to have been carefully made; and

they not only show that the hving sunk in the sponge is not

universal in the genus, but they completely dispose of the theory

to which I shall have to refer, that what is called the axis of the

coral is in fact an integral part of the sponge, in which the

coral lives, and that what is called the bark is only a parasitic

Polythoa that accidentally grows on the elongated spicula of the

sponge.

It would be very interesting to know how the Portuguese

species lives, and how it keeps itself erect in the sea, as in those

species also the polypes seem to be equally developed on every

side of the cylindrical coral ; and this could not be the case if it

did not live erect or nearly so. It cannot float like the cylin-

drical compound Meduse, as the axis renders the coral too

heavy for that purpose, and there is no inflated float to overcome

the specific gravity of the coral.

It is to be hoped that Professor Bocage, who is still studying

the subject, will be able to explain this part of the history of the

animal.

The Japanese, who collect these “Glass Ropes” as ornaments,

are in the habit of inserting a bunch of them in the holes made

in the rock by the Pholades. A series of specimens so stuck

into a Pholas-hole was exhibited by Mr. Huxley at the Linnean

Society last year. Professor Brandt has figured a similar group

(t.2.f.1). But it is quite a mistake to suppose that this is the

way in which the ‘‘ Glass Rope” lives in the sea. In the speci-

men which I examined, the cement could be seen by which they

were attached to the holes; and the specimens in the same

group varied from 2 inches to 16 inches in length, and they

all had the bark pushed down so as to be near the surface of

the hole. I saw one specimen placed in a hole, affixed with

the thick end of the spicula and the broadest end of the rope

downwards.

In 1857, MM. Milne-Edwards and Haime, in the first volume

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 291

of the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires, ou Polypes propre-

ment’ etc., observe, ‘ Nous sommes portés a croire qu’il faudra

ranger dans ce sous-ordre des Zoanthaires sclérodermes, a la suite

des ” Antipathiens, un zocphyte trés-remarquable des mers du

Japon, qui se compose dun coenenchyme cortical, renfermant

un faisceau de baguettes siliceuses trés-gréles, tordu en spirale

comme une corde dont les crins seraient faits avec du cristal. Le

ccenenchyme est farci de petits spicules, et porte des tubercules

déprimés dont le sommet est perforé et parait étre le calice du

polype. Souvent laxe fasciculé se dénude par sa base, et se

trouve implanté dans une éponge; mais, d’aprés M. Gray, celle-ci

y est étrangére. Je dois ajouter cependant que suivant M. Valen-

ciennes ce singulier zoophyte appartiendrait & la famille des

éponges ” (p. 324). And in their Monograph of British Fossil

Corals, p. Ixxxi, they observe, “The genus Hyalonema established

by Mr. Gray is also referred by some zoologists to the tribe

Gorgonie ; but the recent observations of M. Valenciennes tend

to establish that the fasciculus of siliceous thread which consti-

tutes the axis of this singular production belongs to the class of

Spongie ; and the polypes which we have observed in a dried

state on different parts of the axis appear to be parasites belong-

ing to the order Zoantharia.”’

In 1860 Professor Max Schultze published the elaborate essay

above quoted ; and he regards the rope of siliceous spicula as

part of a sponge, and the polypes as parasitic on it, calling the

polypes “ Polythoa fatua mihi” (pp. 28 & 42).

Dr. Bowerbank, adopting the same view, in his lately pub-

lished work on British Sponges, gives the following as the ge-

neric character of the genus Hyalonema :—“ Skeleton an inde-

finite network of siliceous spicula, composed of separate elon-

gated fasciculi, reposing on a continuous membrane, having the

middle of the sponge perforated vertically by an extended spiral

fasciculus of single elongated and very large spicula, forming

an axial skeleton of a columnar cloacal ‘system ” (vol. 11. p. 9).

I must confess that I do not understand this description. If

the fasciculus of fibres is “a cloacal system,” how is it that the

fibres have no connexion with the sponges, but are separated

from the spiral fascicle by a hardened coat most closely

attached to the elongated spicula? And if the rope is entirely

covered with the zoophytes, as we have every reason to believe

is the case, and as M. Brandt’s figures show, what is the use of

a “cloacal system” which has no exit? It has occurred to me,

as Dr. Bowerbank does not take any notice of the polype-bear-

ing bark that covers the axis, that he confounds the polypes

witli the oscula of the sponge, and, believing them to be oscula,

thinks they are the exits from the ‘cloacal system he describes.

292 Dr. J.E. Gray on the “ Glass-Rope”’ Hyalonema.

The only pretence of a reason that Dr. Bowerbank gives for

considering “the basal sponge” an “undoubted part of the

animal” is, that “the sponge in the specimens that I described

and the one attached to the specimen at Bristol are identical in

structure,’—as if it were not to be expected that the sponge

from Japan to which the various specimens of the Japan coral

are attached would most probably be of the same species. (See

vol. i. p. 196.)

On referring to the explanation of the plates in the first vo-

lume, I see my suspicions are verified. Dr. Bowerbank observes,

“ Figure 371, plate 35, represents a portion of the great. cloacal

column, exhibiting part of the spiral axial fasciculus surrounded

by the remains of the dermal (!) coat with numerous oscula

projecting from its surface. Copied from the ‘ Zoological Pro-

ceedings’ for 1857” (vol. i. 197).

Unfortunately Dr. Bowerbank does not seem to have con-

sidered it necessary to examine the specimens, but simply copies

the plate, or to examine other genera of corals; or he would have

found that what he calls oscula are, as I called them in the de-

scription he quotes, polype-cells containing polypes having ten-

tacles and all the internal organization, including a distinctly

plicated stomach, exactly like the zoanthoid polype named Poly-

thua or Corticaria. Other naturalists, as Dr. Max Schultze, who

have considered the axis as belonging to the sponge, have

avoided this extraordinary error, and have regarded “the dermal

coat with oscula” of Dr. Bowerbank as a parasitic Polythoa.

Dr. Bowerbank also observes, “There is a close approximate

alliance to the forms of the cloacal appendages of Hyalonema in

the corresponding organs of the British genus Ciocalypta, Bower-

bank” (vol.i. p. 197). If this comparison is correct, possibly

Ciocalypta is not a sponge; and the figure (vol. i. t. 30. f. 860

& 861) renders it doubtful. But all the descriptions of this

work are so indistinct and crowded with technicalities peculiar

to the author, that they are very difficult to understand, and

render a new examination of the species and a new work on the

subject requisite.

I am not aware that any reason has been assigned for the

theory above referred to, unless the enigmatical description of

the genus above quoted of Dr. Bowerbank can be considered

one; and I can only suppose that it arose in M. Valenciennes’s

mind from the fact of the spicula being siliceous and in che-

mical composition like the spicula of the sponge to which some

of the Japanese specimens are attached.

Professor Max Schultze enters into a long description of the

spicula of the sponge, and figures several of them; but I cannot

see what bearing that has on the subject; for he does not

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema, 293

show that any spicula of a true sponge are like the spicula that

form the axis of the coral. They certainly have little affinity

to the elongated siliceous spicula of the genus Alcyonellum or

Euplatella, with which they have been compared.

The chemical part of the question I do not think of much

importance : we know so little of the power of animals to secrete

different substances. It is true that Hyalonema is the only

Zoantharian yet discovered that sccretes siliceous spicula ;

but if the marine and freshwater sponges secrete both calca-

reous and siliceous spicula, and a horny axis more or less hard-

ened with calcareous matter, and the Aleyonaria and Zoantharia

secrete a horny axis more or less hardened with calcareous

matter and abundance of calcareous spicula, why should we say

that these much more highly organized animals have not also

the same power as the sponges to secrete from the sea-water

silica, and therefore that a Zoantharia-polype that lives on a

siliceous axis is a parasite, especially when we find that this

Zoantharian polype has its bark and polype-cell strengthened

by siliceous spicula, some of. them exactly similar in form and

structure to the spicula of the axis, which must have been

secreted by the animal? And therefore it is, to my mind, most

unphilosophical to believe that the spicula of the axis are formed

by the sponge, and the similar spicula in the polypes formed by

the animal which the advocates of this theory regard as a para-

site having only an accidental connexion with the axis.

The discovery of a species of Hyalonema on the coast of Por-

tugal has proved that there is a species of the genus (and a most

distinct one) that secretes siliceous spicula exactly like the spi-

cula of the Japan species, that has no sponge attached to it or

forming part of its body ; so that it cannot be the “cloacal sys-

tem” of a sponge that does not exist.

Professor Max Schultze, who regards the bark and polype of

the Japanese species as a parasite, describes it as a species of the

genus Polythoa, under the name of Polythoa fatua; but it dif-

fers from all the species of the genus Polythoa that I have ex-

amined in having the parietes of the polype-cells strengthened

with siliceous spicules which are exactly similar in structure and

form to the spicula of the axis.

This peculiarity, which I should consider conclusive that the

axis is formed by the same animal as the bark, is common to

the Japanese and Portuguese species.

Professor Barboza du Bocage observes :—

“ Le corium polypigerum et les polypes sont formés de plu-

sieurs tissus en couches superposées, dans lesquels on trouve

une quantité trés-considérable de spicules siliceux, dont les

caractéres morphologiques varient pour chaque couche.

294 Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema.

“T/aspect granuleux, chagriné, que présente la surface exté-

rieure du corium et des polypes n’est pas le résultat d’une simple

incrustation de détritus de sable (comme on l’affirme pour les

individus du Japon), mais il est di A la présence d’un nombre

infini de spicules réguliers, en forme de massue et hérissés de

pointes. Ces spicules font partie intégrante de la couche la

plus extérieure ou tégumentaire.

“‘Chaque polype est soutenu par une charpente siliceuse de

spicules filiformes, disposés longitudinalement et & intervalles

égaux sur la paroi interne de la cavité du corps.” (Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1865, p. 663).

The thickness of the elongated spicula of the axis is com-

mensurate with the size of the entire coral, they being thin in

the short young specimens, and thicker in the longer and more

developed specimens. As they increase in length, they gra-

dually become thicker by the deposit of fresh layers of sili-

ceous matter on the outer surface, which is, doubtless, deposited

by the flesh of the bark that surrounds each of the fibres;

and new spicules also appear to be developed as the coral be-

comes thickened, as there are intermixed between the thicker

spicula thin ones of different degrees of thickness; but gene-

rally they are of the same length as the rest. This seems to

show that they are developed by the animal that lives in the

bark, and are not shot out from the sponge at the base. But I

might go on giving reasons without end, showing that the theory

of those that believe the animal is a parasite is at variance with

all parts of the organization of the coral and the animal that

forms it.

If we note the number of persons who have expressed an

opinion on this subject, there is no doubt that the general opinion

of zoologists, including some of high scientific reputation, as

Valenciennes, Milne-Edwards, Max Schultze, Leidy, Bowerbank,

and others, is against my view of the subject; but it is to be

observed that I am supported by Professor Brandt and by Pro-

fessor Barboza du Bocage, both of whom have paid great atten-

tion to the subject, and have given the reasons for their belief ;

while most of the others above quoted have only expressed an

opinion, without giving the facts on which it is founded.

I may add that, after much calm consideration of the ques-

tion, and with the utmost willingness to change my opinion, if

I found any evidence to induce me to do so, I still believe that

the bark and the axis are parts of the same coral, and made by

the same animal. In a former paper I observed that ‘the idea

(that the bark of the coral is a parasite) requires the belief in

the existence of two peculiar bodies which are always found to-

gether and are unknown in any other state, instead of regard-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “ Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 295

ing them as parts of the same animal” (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.

1859, iv. 441). And the discovery of a second species in Japan,

and a third on the coast of Portugal, in all of which the bark

and axis are found together, I think entirely destroys any idea

that there is the slightest reason for believing the theory

propounded by Valenciennes, and which has been so readily

adopted, I may almost say without re-examination, by other

naturalists,

This theory has had the effect of confusing the nomenclature

of the Japanese species, which I first described as under :—

I. The coral consisting of the bark and azis.

Hyalonema Sieboldii, Gray, P. Z. 8. 11. 1835, p. 63 ; Brandt, Sym-

bole, &c. t. 1. f. 1, 10.

Halinema, Ehrenb. Monatsb. Berlin, 1840, p. 2 & 3 (a misprint ?).

II. The bark only, without the axis or sponge.

Polythoa fatua, Max Schultze, Hyaloneme.

III. The sponge without the rope-like axis or bark.

Spongia octancyre, Brandt, Symbole, 14, note; Ehrenberg,

Monatsb. 1860, p. 170.

Spongia crucigera, Khrenb. Monatsber.

IV. The sponge and the elongated united axis without the bark and animal.

Hyalonema Sieboldii, Max Schulize, Die Hyalonemen, 9.

Hyalonema mirabilis, Gray, Bowerbank, Brit. Spongiade, 49.

Hyalonema, Valenciennes, Milne-Edwards and Haime.

This coral, which was first regarded as a plant and then as a

sponge, has been considered by one of the first microscopists

an artificial production! Thus Professor Ehrenberg, in an

elaborate paper in which he gives an abstract of the various

essays that have been written on the Hyalonema Sieboldii, con-

cludes thus :—

“‘Glass-corals must be considered an artificial production, not

less than those Indian idols produced in the shells of mother-of-

pearl. The long siliceous threads, widely distributed over the

Pacific, are with much labour collected in small quantities, pro-

bably from an unknown large species of Tethya; they are

formed into bundles, which are forced into or through the tubular

leather-corals allied to Polythoa, so that the fine end of the

bundle, which is first pushed through, remains simple, whilst

the remainder obtains a spiral form through the rotatory mani-

296 Rey. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida.

pulations. It is also possible that the bundles of fibres with

polypes attached are immersed into the sea, so that the leather-

corals (which always cover other objects) continue their develop-

ment, forming a larger or smaller covering. At all events, the

siliceous axis appears to be foreign, and not living. It is an

innocent fraud, which became a branch of industry, and which,

like the transplanted spur on the head of a living cock, may be a

source of silent pleasure to the sentimental speculating Japanese”

(Monatsb. Berlin, 1860, pp. 181-182).

XXXVIII.—On new British Hydroida.

By the Rey. Tuomas Hincks, B.A.

Tue species that are briefly characterized in the following paper

will be more fully described and figured in the general history

of the British Hydroid Zoophytes on which I am now engaged,

and which I hope will soon be ready for the press.

Subkingdom CHLENTERATA.

Class HYDROZOA.,

Order HYDROIDA.

Suborder TUBULARIDA.

Family Corynide.

Genus CoryneE.

C. vermicularis, n. sp.

Zoophyte forming dense shrubby tufts; hydrocaulus smooth,

branched dichotomously, of a very light straw-colour and deli-

cate texture, wavy, annulated, especially towards the base, the

branches and upper portions of the stem often smooth or

slightly wrinkled ; polypites of great length (about 4 inch when

mature), stout, almost cylindrical for half their length, when ex-

tended, and then tapering off very gradually towards the oral

extremity ; tentacles in irregular and very distant whorls, rather

stout, with large capitula, about twenty-five in number. Repro-

ductive sacs borne at the base of the tentacles over the lower

part of the body, spherical, shortly stalked.

Height of the tufts about 2 inch.

Distinguished by the great size and worm-like appearance of

its polypites and the sparing distribution of the tentacles over

the body.

Hab. Shetland, from deep water.

Rev. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida. 297

Suborder CAMPANULARIDA.

Family Campanularide.

Genus CAMPANULARIA.

a. With free gonozooids, of the Obelia type.

C. flabellata, n. sp.

peaetnen cist ae gelatinosa, Van Beneden, ‘ Les Campanulaires,’ 33,

pl. Ze

Hydrocaulus filiform, somewhat zigzag, branched, strongly

annulated above the origin of the branches, of a dark horn-

colour; branches given off at each bend of the stem, alternate,

flexuous, rather short and fan-shaped, divided and subdivided

dichotomously, and ringed above each division, forked imme-

diately above the point of origin, the arms of the fork tending

in opposite directions, and giving a subverticillate appearance

to the ramification. Hydrothece alternate, short and subtri-

angular, with a wide aperture and an entire margin, borne on

ringed and tapering pedicels of variable length. Gonothece

axillary, ovate, pedicellate, slightly flattened at the top, with a

short tubular orifice. The gonozooids are probably, like those of

C. geniculata and dichotoma, of the Obelia type.

This species seems to have passed as a variety of C. dichotoma.

It is, however, separated from it by a group of distinctive cha-

racters—the subverticillate habit, the flabelliform branches, the

flexuous stem, the short subtriangular calycle, and the much

larger size. C. flabellata attains a height of 8 or 10 inches.

Hab. Tenby, on rocks in tide-pools (Alder) ; Scotland (Sir J.

Dalyell).

* Gonozooids unknown.

C. gigantea, n. sp.

Stem delicate, of a very light horn-colour and papyraceous

texture, annulated at the base and below the calycle, irregularly

and sparingly branched; branches erect, copies of the primary

shoot, sometimes themselves branched. Hydrothece of enor-

mous size, deeply campanulate, very wide at the top and for

some way below it, and then tapering off gradually; length

about double the greatest width, the rim cut into numerous

broad and blunt teeth. Gonothece unknown.

Height about an inch.

The calycles of this well-marked form are many times as large

as those of any other British species.

Hab. Uamlash Bay, on shell (Prof. Wyville Thomson),

Genus GonotHyraa, Allman,

G. hyalina, un. sp.

Shoots densely clustered on the creeping stolon, tall and

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol. xviii, 21

298 Rev. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida.

much branched; main stems very slightly flexuous, of a deep

horn-colour below, becoming white and very delicate towards

the upper extremity, strongly annulated at the base and above

each division, giving off branches at each bend; branches erect,

flexuous, very tender and hyaline, sometimes of great length

and much ramified, ringed above every calycle and ramule.

Hydrothece alternate, much elongated, slender, of very thin

texture, with nearly parallel sides for two-thirds of the length,

and then tapering off to the base, borne on ringed pedicels, the

rim cut into numerous shallow denticles of castellated form,

slightly indented at the top. Gonothece axillary, irregularly

ovate, flattened at the top, and supported on a ringed stalk.

Height about 2 inches.

I place this fine species provisionally in the genus Gonothyrea.

From the structure of the capsule I infer that this is its true

position ; but I have not traced the history of its reproduction.

Hab. Profusely investing Tubularia, Halecium, &c., from

Shetland. I am indebted to J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., for my

specimens.

CUSPIDELLA, nov. gen.

Hydrothecz cylindrical or subcylindrical, sessile on a delicate

creeping stolon, with a conical operculum, composed of many

pieces. Polypites cylindrical, with a single verticil of filiform

tentacles. Reproduction unknown.

C. humilis, n. sp.

- Hydrothece very minute, subcylindrical, the upper portion

divided into ten or twelve convergent segments, which form an

operculum. Gonothece unknown.

The calycles of this curious species are little cylinders, termi-

nating in a point above, and rising directly and without any

trace of a pedicle from the creeping stolon.

Hab. On the stems of zoophytes: North Wales, Yorkshire,

Northumberland, Shetland, Connemara. ,

Suborder SERTULARIDA.

Family Sertularide.

Genus SERTULARIA,

S. attenuata, n. sp.

Syn. Sertularia rosacea, Ellis, Corall. 9, pl. 4. fig. C; Johnston, Brit.

Zooph. 470. (Specimen from Orkney, Lieut. Thomas.)

Sertularia pinaster, var., Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 72, figs. ¢, d.

Aydrocaulus straight, somewhat rigid, pinnately branched, often

running out above into long tendril-like filaments, thickened

Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies. 299

and bifid at the extremity; branches simple, or bearing one or

two ramules, alternate, inclined upwards, sometimes furnished

with tendrils. Hydrothece opposite, tubular, slender and grace-

fully curved, about half their length free and divergent, but not

abruptly bent, with a plain suberect aperture. Gonothece (fe-

male) elongate-pyriform, tapering off below and expanding gra-

dually upwards, bristling with strong spines above, arranged on

six longitudinal ridges and extending down the upper third of

the capsule; (male) ovate, with six longitudinal ridges, termi-

nating above in angular points, the aperture central and sub-

conical.

Allied to S. rosacea, with which and S. pinaster it has been

confounded. It is more robust and rigid and of larger growth

than the former of these species, and wants its delicate mem-

branaceous texture. The reproductive capsules of the two are

totally dissimilar.

Hab. On other zoophytes : North Devon, Cornwall, Brighton,

Yorkshire coast, Peterhead (C. W. Peach).

I have also to record the occurrence of the following species

on our coasts :—

Clava leptostyla, Agassiz.

On a mussel-shell from Morecambe Bay; obtained by Mr. F.

H. West, of Leeds.

Gonothyrea gracilis, Sars.

Birterbuy Bay, Connemara; dredged by G. S. Brady, Esq.

XXXIX.—On Glyptodon and its Alles.

By HerMann BurMEISTER.

From a recent French publication I learn that you have published

in your valuable Journal a translation of my observations on the

species of Glyptodon in the public museum of Buenos Ayres,

which I published here in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Review’ for 1863.

That paper was written in the beginning of the year 1863, when

I had in my possession only the entire skeleton referred to and

a very few portions of the two other species, at that time the only

ones known to me. Now, aiter the lapse of three years, I am

acquainted with eight species found in this country ; and I there-

fore send you these further remarks on the specific differences, in

order to complete and correct my first publication.

I begin my further notices of the skeleton by correcting an

error into which I have fallen in saying that the second bone of

the neck, which M. Serres has now named “ os mesocervicale,”

91%

300 Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Aliies.

is composed of five anchylosed vertebre. It consists only of

four, namely the second to the fifth; and the sixth is free; but

the seventh is united with the first and second dorsal vertebra

to form a large piece, which Professor Huxley has named the

trivertebrated bone, and M. Serres the ‘os metacervicale.” This

piece has always the same general construction in the four dif-

ferent species of which well-preserved examples are now before

me; but the mesocervical bone is not always composed of four

vertebrae, but in some cases of five. The sixth vertebra is then

united with the four preceding ones, in the same way as these

with each other, and the animal has no free vertebra between the

meso- and metacervical bones.

Out of the four specimens of necks which I have seen belong-

ing to the same number of distinct species of Glyptodon, only

one is constructed in this way, of five united vertebre ; the other

three have only four vertebra anchylosed.

As we have other portions of the skeletons of these same indi-

viduals with scales of the carapace, I can affirm with certainty

that these three species with four anchylosed vertebre have a

short conical tail with large rings of conical tubercles, exactly of

the form described by me in the species which I have named

G. spinicaudus. As this is the case, I have decided to abandon

my first name, as indicating not a specific, but probably a generic

character, and to supply another name of more specific significa-

tion. Among the species described by other authors, I find in

the work of M. Nodot on Glyptodon (which was unknown to me

when I wrote my observations) that this author has formed

those with short conical tails of tuberculated rings into his genus

Schistopleurum; that his first species, S. typus, which is very

fully described, is the same that I had named in ow: museum

G. elongatus, on account of the narrow and elongated form of

the carapace, and especially of the pelvis; that the second spe-

cies, S. gemmatum, Nod., which has the surface of the carapace

much smoother, was therefore named by myself G. levis; and

that the third species, described by me as G. spinicaudus, is un-

known to Nodot, unless it be his G. subelevatus (p. 94, pl. 11.

fig. 1). As this species is smaller, and has the carapace of a

more spherical form and the surface of the scales very rough, I

now propose to name it G. asper.

Nodot’s S. tuberculatum is not a Schistopleurum, but a true

Glyptodon; for I suppose the tip of the tail figured in the ‘ Os-

téographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 5, and copied by Nodot, pl. 8. figs. 7 &8,

to belong to this species. We have in the museum here such a

tail as is figured in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 4 (copied by

Nodot, pl. 8. fig. 6), and I am much inclined to affirm that this

and the other are of the same species, the construction of our

Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies. 301

tail being somewhat intermediate between the two French

figures.

The mesocervical bone of four united vertebre was figured and

briefly described as containing from,the second to the fifth ver-

tebra, by Lund in the Transactions of the Academy of Copen-

hagen, where the author names the animal to which this bone

belonged Hoplophorus euphractus. The genus Schistopleurum

must therefore be named Hoplophorus, the two genera being

perfectly identical, and Dr. Lund’s name the older one. Tis

other figures of the same animal prove its identity with Schisto-

pleurum as completely as that of the mesocervical bone.

As regards the fourth mesocervical bone, with five united ver-

tebre, Ido not know exactly the species to which it belongs; but

from the general construction of the bone I am inclined to think

that it may belong to Glyptodon clavipes, Owen. We have of

this species a carapace not so well preserved as that figured by

Owen, awell-preserved pelvis, and some other bones. Somemonths

ago I communicated to Professor Owen figures of this pelvis and

of the pelvis of Schistopleurum gemmatum, then named by me

Glyptodon levis, as also of my G. spinicaudus, now to be named

Hoplophorus asper, m order to show him the great differences in

the construction of the pelvis in these three species. The pelvis

of G. clavipes is the .strongest—the branch of the os pubis,

which forms the superior boundary of the foramen obturatorium,

especially being much thicker than in the other two species, in

which it is as thin as a pencil and much longer, and the foramen

obturatorium is much larger. As all these characters of the

pelvis in G. clavipes indicate a stronger and more solid construc-

tion of the skeleton, I think we are justified in believing that the

construction of the neck in this species was also stronger than

in the others.

The same character of strength, but still more strongly marked,

is presented by a pelvis of which I have only one side before me.

This pelvis is more than one-half larger than that of G. clavipes,

has the same strong pubic branch, anda much narrower foramen

obturatorium. From the construction of the bone, as well as from

the general size of the animal, I conclude that the pelvis belongs

to a very large species, of which we have in the Museum the

complete tip of the tail. This was described by me in my first

memoir as belonging to G. tuberculatus, Owen; but having since

seen this author’s figures copied in Nodot’s work (pl. 9), I find

that this was a mistake, and that this tail is identical with that

figured by Nodot, pl. 8. figs. 83-5, copied from the ‘ Ostéographie.’

Nodot has described, but not named, the species as belonging to

two different kinds (pp. 102 & 103). Ife also gives (p. 100) a

short description of two scales, figured (pl. 12. figs. 6 & 7) as G.

302 Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies.

verrucosus ; and these scales belong, in my opinion, to the same

animal, to which therefore this name may be applied.

The pelvis in question, which I regard as belonging to this

G. verrucosus, is well figured in Robin’s ‘ Journal d’Anatomie et

de Physiologie’ for March 1866, pl. 2, where M. Pouchet de-

scribes it as belonging to a new species, G. giganteus, founded

by M. Serres in a paper which I do not know. This well-

executed figure gives a good idea of the strength of the pelvis

and the great size of the animal. As the very well-preserved tip

of the tail in our public Museum is 2 feet 8 inches long and 7

inches in diam. at its commencement, we may calculate that the

animal was 10-12 feet in length, if not more, and that its body

was an enormous mass, like a large oval rock. Nevertheless

this species was not the largest of the family—the tail of G. tu-

berculatus, figured in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 4, and pre-

served in our Museum, being of double the size, comparing its

general figure with that of the former. From the precise similarity

in the position of the elliptical and radially striated figures on

the two tails, I was at first inclined to believe that both belonged

to the same species; but as I have now seen three other speci-

mens of both tails of the same form, I must regard them as be-

longing to different species. To understand their difference in

general size, it is sufficient to compare the smallest lateral ellip-

tical figure, like a rosette, on the tails of the three species. In G.

clavipes this rosette measures 21 inches, in G. verrucosus 44 ches,

and in G. tuberculatus 52 inches. If this difference be truly

indicative of the general size, as I believe to be the case, the

last-mentioned species was one-fifth larger than that named G.

giganteus by M. Serres.

With regard to the general form of the tail, I will only repeat

what I have already said in my first communication—namely,

that the tail of every true Glyptodon had rings, probably six in

number, before the large cylindrical apex which alone was pre-

viously known. This apex contains in its interior ten small ver-

tebree ; and beyond the sacral vertebra the skeletons have always

three or four free vertebra covered by the hinder part of the cara-

pace. On comparing the size of the bodies of these vertebre

with the first of the apex of the tail, it is evident that there was

between them a series of from six to eight vertebrae which were

covered by the free rings of the tail. In this way I calculate

the total number of the caudal vertebree of G. clavipes at 20-23.

As I am engaged upon extended descriptions of the species in

the Museum, to be published in the second part of the ‘ Anales

del Museo publico de Buenos Aires,’ which will soon be sent to

press, I will not here enter upon any further details, but conclude

this communication with a short revision of the species in question.

Dr. H. Burmeister on Giyptodon and its Allies. 303

I. Guiyrropon.

Tail elongated, conical, the rings before the apex formed of

flat shields or scales, the apex more or less cylindrical, with a

bulbous swelling at its commencement. Mesocervical bone with

five united vertebre.

A. Scales or shields of the carapace with uniform warty sculp-

ture, only the marginal row of the carapace before the mar-

ginal tubercles with an elliptical rosette.

1. G. tuberculatus, Owen, Nodot.

2. G. verrucosus, Nodot (G. tuberculatus, nob.,.in former com-

munication),

B. Scales or shields of the carapace with a central subhexagonal

rosette, and six smaller subpentagonal ones on the circum-

ference; the scales of the margin of the carapace before the

marginal tubercles with a very large central rosette, occu-

pying nearly the whole shield.

3 & 4. G. clavipes auctorum.

Note.—We have in the Museum two different kinds of tails,—

the one shorter, broader, and flatter, with an elliptical transverse

section; the other longer, thinner, and higher, with a more cir-

cular section. I believe they belong to two different species ;

but as I do not know the exact form of the tail of Professor

Owen’s G. clavipes, I must leave it doubtful which of my species

is the true clavipes.

Il. Hortornorvs, Lund.

Schistopleurum, Nodot.

Tail short, conical, with six rings of large conical tubercles on

the end of each ring of the upper side of the tail*. Mesocervi-

cal bone consisting of four united vertebra, the sixth free. Scales

of the carapace with one hexagonal figure m the centre, and six

pentagonal ones on the circumference.

5. H. elongatus, nob. (Schistopleurum typus, Nodot).

6. H. gemmatus, nob. (S. gemmatum, Nodot).

7. H. asper, nob. (G. spinicaudus, nob. anted).

8. H. pumilio, nob., Anales del Museo publico de Buenos

Aires, i. p. 77. Of this last species I know only the lower jaw,

but, from its general figure, I suppose the species to belong to

this section.

* As we have in the Museum a well-preserved tail of the species which

has been described by Nodot as S. typus, with moveable central tubercles

on the rings, I can affirm that this construction is not natural, but caused

by the imperfect healing of the broken tubercles during the life of the

animal. This process is denominated in surgery artificial articulation.

304. Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

Note.—To the description of H. asper (=G. spinicaudus) I

will add that the number of ribs in this species is thirteen pairs,

not fourteen, and that the first two pairs of ribs are united to the

large excavated manubrium sterni. Thisis followed by a smaller

piece, to which two pairs of ribs are also attached, and which is

united with the manubrium by a synchondrosis. Then follow two

small sternal vertebra, to which three pairs of ribs are attached;

and then comes the processus xiphoideus. Thus there are seyen

pairs of true, and six pairs of false ribs.

XL.— Additional Remarks on the Homologies of the Flowers of

Conifers. By Anprew Murray, F.L.S.

On looking over my paper on the above subject in last month’s

‘Annals,’ I see that I have scarcely sufficiently unbosomed my-

self on one point, which, on reperusal, seems to me to deserve

more remark than I gave it.

The point is, whether the bract is the equivalent of the petal

or of the calyx. That it is part of the floral envelope I have no

doubt; and all that I said regarding it in that capacity (which

was the most important point of view in my inquiry) would

apply equally to it as either.

The main purpose to which I put it was to prove that the

scale was equivalent to the disk, as lymg between the pericarp

and the petal or floral envelope; and on that point I do not

think more need be said. But the question remains,—What

particular part of the floral envelope is represented by the

bract ?

In my last paper I pointed out that the appearance of the

scale of the female flower of Wellingtonia gigantea might lead

to the belief that it was the equivalent of the male scale, and

consequently must be the female petal; and I warned the reader

against adopting that view, because I considered that the more

petaloid character of the bract (a claret-coloured crust in Wel-

fingtonia) rendered it improbable that it should be the calyx,

and the green scale the petal. Having arrived at this conclu-

sion, I omitted to give, or, rather, I deleted from my paper,

an explanation which had occurred to me of the mode in which

the scale combined the functions of disk and petal.

On reconsideration, that explanation appears still to have so

much to recommend it that I now briefly submit it to the

reader as an alternative view of the homology of the bract.

We have seen that the petal of the male flower is merely a

continuation of the leaf-scales growing on the twig which bears

the flower. That the scale of the female flower seems to be in

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 305

exactly the same relation to the leaf-scales on its twig is a strong

argument in favour of that scale being a petal too.

If it really be so, then, of course, the bract must be the calyx.

Its texture (wholly or partially petaloid) is suggestive of no

character so much as that of part of the floral envelope.

There is nothing inconsistent with this being the case in the

bract appearing before the scale: the calyx always precedes the

corolla in development. But it would be inconsistent with the

process of development were the scale, if it be a petal, to con-

tinue increasing in size pari passu with the seed, as it in fact

appears to do; but the explanation of this srowth may be, that

it is the disk which grows at the base of the petal. I pointed

out that the growth of the scale was not equal all over, but took

place chiefly towards the base; the apophysis, in short, may be

the outer coat of the petal resting like a mantle on the top of

the disk which has grown up under it, in the same way that the

hip of a rose increases in size, bearing up upon its crown the

decayed rose-petals, only that in the Conifers the substance has

penetrated between the outer and inner walls of the petal, and

filled out the space between them. And if we refer back to

the structure of the scale, as shown in Plate X., we shall see

that there is nothing in it inconsistent with this notion. The

scale is composed of two layers, as it were, with an indication of

an intermediate line running backwards between them from the

prickle in the midst of the apophysis—in other words, from the

supposed point of the petal. And if we examine a rose-hip, we

find it is composed of two layers also, with an intermediate one

wedged in near the apex, on which the petals and stamens grew.

In the Conifers the inner layer has a double woody core, like a

set of branches separated into blades. The rose-hip has a similar

set of hgneous fibres branching through its inner layer or disk ;

and what is noteworthy is, that these too are disposed in double

layers or blades.

The scale and bract of Cunninghamia Sinensis and Sciadopitys

verticillata come nearer to the hip of the rose than those of any

other Conifer which at present occurs to me. In these the

bract is united to the scale; so that we have the calyx, petal,

and disk all united, as in the rose, the petal being represented

by a woolly fringe on the crown of the scale.

Thus, as we have in some Conifers the bract united to the

scale, and in others not, it is plain that the union of these dif-

ferent parts is not essential to the relations of a disk, as indeed

we know from other facts ; and accordingly in the yew we have

the other extreme, in which the calyx, petal, and disk are all

separate and distinct.

The yew also shows us that although in cone-bearing Conifers

306 L’ Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

the flower is monopetalous, theoretically it is dipetalous, the half

of it only being present in them; for when, as in the yew, we

have the whole present, we then find a petal or scale on each

side, opposed to each other at the base of the disk, which only

begins to grow after the petals or scales have attained their full

dimensions.

It may be that I am wrong in referring the claret-coloured

crust of petaloid texture which I observed between the scales in

Wellingtonia to the bract, and that it has not this relation at all,

and also that cypresses have truly no bract. Should that be so,

it would furnish a good distinctive character for separating the

cypresses from the pines.

I owe some apology to the reader for desiring to give ad-

ditional explanation on an opinion expressed so recently; but

in all new lines of thought the mind is at first apt to veer back-

wards and forwards as new objections or doubts suggest them-

selves; and although it may not be better for the scientific

reputation of the thinker, it is certainly better for the progress

of truth, that these vibrations should be candidly acknowledged,

so that the real weight of the objections may be estimated by

fresh and impartial minds.

XLI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. X.

By the Rev. W. A. Leicuton, B.A., F.LS.

CLADONIZ ACHARIANA,.

Tue Rev. PAbbé Eugéne Coémans, of Gand, Belgium, has re-

cently published, in the ‘Bulletins de Académie royale de

Belgique,’ sér. 2. t. xix., the results of an investigation of the

herbarium of Acharius, so far as regards the Cladonie» The

herbarium of Acharius is preserved in the Museum of the Uni-

versity of Helsingfors; and its arrangement is precisely that of

the latest work of this author, the ‘Synopsis methodica Liche-

num,’ 1814. The collection comprises 43 genera and about

980 species, besides innumerable varieties. The localities

whence the specimens have been gathered are generally noted ;

but the specimens themselves are often small, and with respect

to those communicated by others we have no other clue to

whence they came than the peculiar handwritings of the corre-

spondents of the illustrious lichenographer. The Cladonie con-

stitute about a fifteenth part of the collection, and, although not

the most beautiful portion, is nevertheless exceedingly precious,

and contains a great number of the types of Flérke, Scherer,

and Léon Dufour.

The object proposed in this revision of the Acharian herba-

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 307

rium (and also of those of Délise, in the Museum of Paris, and

of Flérke, at Rostock, the results of which will form separate

papers) is to fix the synonymy of the species and the diverse

varieties of these authors, to simplify the nomenclature by

the suppression of a great number of useless varieties, and to

indicate some new ideas on a certain number of the species,

—thus constituting a prodromus for a new monograph of the

genus Cladonia.

1. Cladonia papillaria, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 248 et hb. ejusd.

This species, although poorly represented in the Acharian

herbarium, is found there in all states of development, except

with perfect apothecia. The localities indicated, as for most of

the other species, are France, Germany, and Sweden.

2. Cladonia retipora, (Ach.) Syn. p. 248.

No specimen. Acharius knew it only from the description

and figure of Labillardiére.

3. Cladonia cespititia, (Ach.) Syn. p. 249 et hb. ejusd.

The specimens are very insignificant. A specimen from Lap-

land merits notice by reason of the high latitude of its habitat.

Most modern lichenographers consider C. cespititia to be a

distinct species, whilst others regard it as a variety of C. squa-

msoa. Frequent study and observation of this plant in the

woods of Héverlé, near Louvain, and in the pine-forests of

Meirelbeke, near Gand, convince me that it is only a variety of

Cladonia pyaidata, pityrea. On some oaks in the wood of Hé-

verlé, now unfortunately felled, | have for many years observed

all the transitions between C. fimbriata (Ach.) and C. pityrea

(Ach.), and between this latter and C. cespititia. I believe,

therefore, we must henceforth regard C. cespititia as a variety

of C. pyaidata (L.).

4, Cladonia strepsilis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 249 et hb. ejusd.

This Acharian species has always been problematical. Dr.

Nylander, who had examined the Acharian herbarium, refers it

to C. cespititia (Lich. Scand. p. 57, and Syn. p. 211); on the

contrary, Flérke, who had also examined the Acharian specl-

mens, recognizes it only as a sterile and macrophylline form of

C. cariosa (Comm. p. 14). In reality, both these learned li-

chenologists have foundation for their opinions. The principal

specimen of C. strepsilis of Acharius (alone preserved entire, for

the others have been mutilated) is positively the C. cespititia ;

but the variety plumosa (Ach. Syn. p. 250) is a sterile form of

308 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

C. cariosa. Dy. Nylander refers it to C. delicata, Fik. (Ny).

Syn. p. 211).

In the herbarium of Flérke, preserved in the museum of

Rostock, there are a great number of specimens of C. cariosa

with sterile and macrophylline thalli, perfectly similar to the

C. strepsilis b. plumosa of the Acharian herbarium. He has

therefore confounded two neighbouring forms, but belonging to

two different types.

The C. strepsilis (Ach.) represents only an insignificant form

of C. cespititia, and may therefore be neglected in lichenography.

As to the variety plumosa, it may be mentioned as a sterile form

of C. cariosa, without elevating it to the rank of a variety.

5. Cladonia alcicornis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 250 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name many different species are preserved in the

Acharian herbarium :—

(1.) Divers specimens of the true C. alcicornis, collected in

France, Germany, and Switzerland. There is no specimen from

Sweden, notwithstanding that this species grows in the Scandi-

nayian peninsula, even to the 6Oth degree of latitude. I have

found it abundantly this summer, especially on the west side of

Sweden.

(2.) Two specimens of C. cervicornis received from Germany.

This error of determination is very easily explained by the diffi-

culty which very often exists of distinguishing with certainty

the thallus of C. cervicornis from certain sterile forms of C. alct-

cornis which have the inferior surface of their leaflets rose-

coloured or purplish.

(3.) Hight tufts of C. pungens, Fk. This error seems almost in-

explicable ; but the examination of the herbarium of the celebrated

Swedish lichenographer has proved to me that, to the end of

his life, he never rightly knew the C. pungens, and that the re-

proach which Flérke formerly addressed to him, that he did not

know the Cladonie well, was sometimes not without foundation.

Lastly, amongst the specimens of C. alcicornis in fructification

there is a specimen of C. degenerans, and another of C. pyxidata,

fertile. Could it be through carelessness that Acharius placed

here these lichens?

The C. gentilis, (Ach.) L. U. p. 580, which Acharius at first

made a variety of C. alcicornis, but which he withdrew in his

‘Synopsis,’ in consequence of the criticisms of Flérke, most

certainly belongs to C. alcicornis. It constitutes, according to

the two small specimens in the herbarium at Helsingfors, a form

or even a variety with simple narrow leaflets having long black

fibrille on their margins. The aspect of this variety reminds us

of that of Physcia leucomela, Mich.

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 309

6. Cladonia endiviefolia, Fr. (Ach.) Syn. p. 250 et hb. ejusd.

Two specimens of this species deserve to be cited here—one

from the isle of Aland, the most northern station known, and

the other from Tiflis, by the late Stevens, whose rich herbarium

is also in the museum of Helsingfors. The Acharian herbarium

comprises also some specimens from France, received from M.

Léon Dufour, and bearing this inscription: “ Affinis Cen. con-

volute, ast semper subtus cervino.” Acharius has ticketed these

thus: “var. major Cen. endiviefolie.” They are perfectly refer-

able to the var. firma of C. alcicornis (Nyl. Syn. p. 191).

There is also a pretended variety of C. endiviefolia or of C.

alcicornis, concerning which we have no certain information—

the variety cladomorpha. In his first works Acharius regarded

this as a variety of C. alcicornis; afterwards, in his ‘Synopsis’

(p. 259), he attaches it to C. degenerans ; and lastly, in the Sup-

plement to that work (p. 342), he joins it to C. endiviefolia.

The Acharian herbarium demonstrates undoubtedly that this

variety is only a form of C. degenerans, var. lepidota. For the

future, therefore, this variety must be suppressed. As to the

C. alcicornis, cladomorpha (Ach.), Rabenhorst, ‘Cladonize Eu-

rope,’ tab. i. no. 5, it scarcely differs from the type of this

species.

The C. endiviefolia itself is not a good species, but forms only

a variety of C. alcicornis, as I have shown in my ‘ Cladoniz

Belgice,’ No. 7 (1863).

7. Cladonia cervicornis, Scheer., (Ach.) Syn. p. 251 et

hb, ejusd.

This lichen is badly represented in the Acharian collection.

The var. prodiga, Ach. L. U. pp. 5381-532, is, according to

the fragments still in the Acharian herbarium, only a small, in-

significant proliferous form of the type.

8. Cladonia verticillata, Flk., (Ach.) Syn. p. 251 et hb. ejusd.

This species, or, more correctly, this perfect form of the pre-

ceding type, has, in the herbarium at Helsingfors, representative

specimens from the principal countries of Europe, and even from

North America.

Flérke did not separate the C. cervicornis from C. verticillata,

and that justly. Acharius himself did not always know how to

distinguish these two forms from each other, as is proved by

certain hesitating determinations in his herbarium and the con-

fusion of the two types in this collection.

I regard, therefore, the C. verticillata as the type of the

species, and the C. cervicornis as a simple macrophylline variety.

310 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

9. Cladonia pyxidata (L.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 252 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius, in his Synopsis, distinguishes four forms and one

variety of C. pyaidata, all of which ave found in his herbarium.

And first as to the forms. He designates under the name

simplex, spermogoniferous non-proliferous individuals; under

that of staphylea, apotheciferous mdividuals ; under that of syn-

theta, proliferous plants; and, lastly, under that of lophyra,

squamiferous specimens. These distinctions appear to me very

useless, and only serve to overload the nomenclature with new

names, and in effect only indicate that each species has a sper-

mogoniferous, fertile, proliferous, or squamulose state. These

Acharian forms may therefore well be rejected.

With regard to the form lophyra, Acharius has applied this

name to two distinct forms, at first to C. pyaidata (Syn. p. 253),

and afterwards to C. fimbriata (Syn. Suppl. p. 342). The typi-

eal Acharian specimen belongs nevertheless to C. py«idata.

Amongst the C. pyxidata of the Acharian collection are found

many different species,—a Swedish specimen of C. cariosa; an-

other of C. cornucopioides from Switzerland ; a third of C. pi-

tyrea (Ach.), received from France; and, lastly, a specimen of

C. decorticata, Fr., collected in Norway. We must not infer,

however, from this inexactitude, that Acharius confounded all

these species. It merely shows that in reviewing his herbarium,

towards the close of his life, he did not always give the requisite

attention to the work.

As to the var. 8. coralluidea (Syn. p. 258), it is very difficult

to decide with certainty to what species it belongs, because the

specimens, or rather fragments in the Acharian herbarium are

particularly small and altogether insufficient. These specimens

are of the height and have nearly the aspect of C. papillaria

molariformis, and have short, abortive, granulose, and spermo-

goniferous branches. Acharius had only once met with a small

tuft of this variety*. No one since his time has rediscovered it;

moreover it is only an accidental form of C. degenerans or cris-

pata, and consequently may be neglected. The only developed

specimen which permits us to distinguish any characters exhibits

the summits of the branches perforated, as in this last species.

The C. coralloidea (Ach.), Rabenhorst, Clad. Europ. t. xi.,

has no resemblance to the plant of which we are speaking, and

is in fact C. decorticata, Fr., Ny).

Acharius has not mentioned in his works a very important

variety of C. pyxidata, named by Florke var. chlorophea; so

* The two small fragments from Switzerland, which equally bear the

name of C. coralloidea in the Acharian herbarium, do not belong to the

same type.

of the Herbarium of Acharius, 311

that I was very curious to ascertain to what species he had re-

ferred it in his herbarium—+to C. pyaidata or to C. fimbriata.

I found that he had not distinguished this variety, and that he

had placed it sometimes under one, and sometimes under the

other of these Acharian species.

All lichenographers know of the controversy which existed

so long between Florke and Acharius on C. pyxidata (L.). I

have examined the herbaria of these two masters, and I am

bound to say that, although Florke in general knew the Cla-

donie better than his rival, nevertheless he was wrong on this

question.

10. Cladonia pocillum, (Ach.) Syn. p. 253 et hb. ejusd.

It is long since lichenographers considered C. pocillum as a

distinct species, they having more recently made it a variety of

C. pyxidata (L.). I find nevertheless that this form does not

differ sufficiently from the type to enumerate it as a variety,

especially in so polymorphous a group as the genus Cladonia.

When a station is examined where C. pyaidata grows in

abundance, we see that all the young individuals approach more

or less to C. pocillum, and that intermediate forms passing into

pyxidata are much more common than the two types. Acharius

himself had often a difficulty in distinguishing these two forms ;

and more than one specimen in his berbarium bears at the same

time the two names C. pyaidata and C. pocillum. I would

therefore recommend the var. pocillum to be erased from our

floras.

11. Cladonia pityrea, (Ach.) Syn. p. 254 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian types, although not numerous, are nevertheless

good and very characteristic; but his two varieties acuminata

and decorticata differ very little from each other, and represent

the same type. The former has the thallus subuliform, granular,

simple, or branched; the latter is a little more decorticated,

whiter, and sometimes bears squamose leaflets. This latter ap-

proaches sufficiently near to C. decorticata of Florke to be

regarded as synonymous. ‘The plants of Florke have, however,

all the characters so well defined that I can easily conceive how

this author was tempted to make of it a distinct species.

The variety acuminata, Ach., is not sufficiently distinct from

the type of the species to deserve mention in our floras, as may

be seen in my ‘Cladonie Belgice,’ Nos. 93 & 94. The form

decorticata, on the contrary (not that, however, which is found

in the Acharian collection, but that which is represented in the

herbarium of Flérke), deserves to be cited. It may be easily

confounded with C. macilenta in a sterile condition, or, in the

squamulose forms, with C. squamosa frondosa of Délise.

312 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize

Flérke (Com. p. 81. obs. 2) accuses Acharius with having

described, under the name of Cen. pityrea acuminata, only a

form of Clad. furcata; but the Acharian herbarium shows that

this reproach is unmerited.

The C. pityrea (Ach.), which, in my opinion, is nothing but a

variety of C. pyaidata, gives rise to a great number of forms,

which are found nearly alike in all the countries of Europe.

These forms are, for the most part, wanting in the Acharian

herbarium. I have found therein only the form Isignyi sca-

brida, Dél., mixed with the var. acuminata, Ach., or designated

by M. Léon Dufour under the name of Cen. delicata.

Some specimens of C. sguamosa from Switzerland are marked

in the Acharian herbarium, Cen. pityrea?

12. Cladonia fimbriata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 254 et hb. ejusd.

All botanists know how polymorphous this species or, rather,

this var. of C. pyxidata is. Thus Acharius, in distinguishing

the different modifications, established eight subvarieties or

forms of the type, and two varieties more remarkable. Never-

theless this au did not know many important forms of this

Cladonia, e. g. C. glauca, Flk., ochrochlora, Flk., pyxidata fruti-

culosa, Elk. Pp nyaidata fasitg giata, Fik., and pya«idata pterygota,

As to the two Acharian varieties, they are so little remarkable,

that they may be, without any inconvenience, referred to the

type. The var. conista, especially, with its two subvarieties

exilis and macra, is in reality altogether insignificant. The var.

carneo-pallida is distmguished enly by its pale or rose-coloured

apothecia—a peculiarity which is observable in many species of

this genus, e.g. in C. gracilis, furcata, furcata var. pungens,

squamosa, and degenerans, and which is frequently only the

result of a kind of etiolation. Moreover Acharius has con-

founded with this variety the C. carneola, Fr.

As to the forms of the type, they may be reduced to two—

the form ¢ubeformis, comprehending the subvarieties carpo-

phora and prolifera of Acharius, and the form cornuto-radiata,

comprising the subvarieties radiata, abortiwva, fibula, cornuta, and

nemoxyna of the same author.

In species so polymorphous as the present one, it is incum-

bent on us to avoid the creation of varieties with too narrow

limits, since otherwise the characters are applicable only to a

certain number of selected forms, whilst science is embarrassed

and our herbaria encumbered with the host of remaining inter-

mediate forms. Thus, although Flérke has established more

than twenty varieties or forms of C. pyaidata, I have found in

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 3138

his herbarium at Rostock hundreds of specimens which he was

unable to refer to any one of his types.

Some faulty determinations here also disfigure the Acharian

herbarium : thus we find in it an entire series of C. deformis,

from Sweden, under the name of C. jimbriata; and C. macilenta,

from Switzerland, under that of C. fimbriata fibula; the typical

C. pyxidata and its variety chlorophea are intermingled with

fimbriata; and some specimens of C. cenotea bear at the same

time, though with a mark of doubt, the two names of cenotea

and of fimbriata.

13. Cladonia gonorega, (Ach.) Syn. p. 258 et hb. ejusd.

When I examined, in the Acharian herbarium, and still more

in that of Flérke, the long series of specimens intended to justify

the varieties created by these authors, I could not refrain from

asking what advantage science could possibly derive from such

numerous and subtle distinctions. They rather serve to em-

barrass than facilitate lichenology, and are by no means suffi-

cient to denote all the forms of a species so variable as C. dege-

nerans. Moreover the herbarium at Helsingfors contains, under

the name of forme variantes, more than forty specimens of this

species which Acharius was unable to compress into his classi-

fication.

In my opinion, the forms aplotea, euphorea, anomea, pleolepis,

lepidota, cladomorpha, polyphea, scabrosa, virgata, and graciles-

cens do not deserve to be distinguished as particular forms ; and

this is also the opinion of Acharius himself (Syn. p. 258), “ vix

sub nominibus singularibus denotari merentur.”

The form trachyna is more remarkable, and especially more

easily recognizable ; it may therefore be retained by uniting

with it the forms lepidota, pleolepis, and virgata.

As to the variety nivea, Ach. (Syn. p. 260), it belongs to C.

pungens, Flk.; and Acharius, on revising his herbarium, after

his Synopsis was printed, unites it with that species.

Notwithstanding these diminutions, C. degenerans will still

reckon a certain number of varieties; for the forms hypophylla,

pleolepidea, and basima, recently described by Dr. W. Nylander

(Lich. Scand. p. 54), appear to me sufficiently remarkable to be

elevated to the rank of varieties. I have this summer found all

these forms in great abundance on the borders of the Baltic Sea,

both in Sweden and Russia.

The Acharian herbarium here also contains many erroneous

determinations: thus, under the name of gonorega appear a

specimen of C. turgida, from Sweden, two of C. pywxidata, ina

proliferous state, from Switzerland, and a tuft of C. furcata

crispatella, F\k., from Sweden. Two forms of C. glauca, Fik.,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 22

314 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize

from Central France, and one of C. cenotea, from the Pyrenees,

are marked, by the hand of Acharius, Cen. gonorega virgata,

and Cen. gonorega vetusta. C. squamosa is also intermingled

with the forms scabrosa and gracilescens. Lastly, three speci-

mens, branched and tortuous, of C. furcata are ticketed Ceno-

myce gonorega? var. palmacea; and a small specimen of C.

amaurocrea from Switzerland is also marked Cen. gonorega. It

is very difficult to understand how the learned lichenographer

could possibly have united all these species with C. degenerans.

14. Cladonia peltasta, (Ach.) Syn. p. 261 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian herbarium contains only one specimen of this

rare species, gathered in the Isle of Bourbon and received from

Bridel. The specimen has been partially removed, but sufficient

still remains to recognize the characters of the species.

Acharius has erred in placing this Lichen amongst the sey-

phiferous lichens: its proper position is near to C. rangiferina.

15. Cladonia ecmocyna, (Ach.) Syn. p. 261 et hb. ejusd.

This species is now more generally known as Cladonia gracilis.

As in other species, so here also, many of the Acharian varie-

ties are of too little importance to be retained: e. g. amaura,

floripara, leucochlora, valida, elongata, and exoncera.

The var. corymbosa, Ach. (Syn. p. 263), does not belong to

C. gracilis, but to C. furcata, as Dr. Nylander has already re-

marked, and as the Acharian herbarium confirms.

Making the var. hybrida (Ach.) the type of the species, four

forms or principal varieties may be distinguished, viz. :—

The form chordalis (gracilis, Ach.) for plants which are slen-

der, subuliform, or with narrow scyphi.

The form macroceras, to characterize those robust and gigantic

forms which attain, in arctic or alpine localities, to 25 centims.

in length.

The form aspera, to designate folioliferous specimens with

crisped, lacerated scyphi, and which remind us, by their general

appearance, of the var. trachyna of C. degenerans.

Lastly, the form cornuta, to indicate those forms which have

the upper portions of the stems subpulverulent, and which have

heretofore constituted a separate species under the name of

Cladonia cornuta, Fr.

The incorrect determinations observable in the Acharian

herbarium are as follows :—

1. Under the name of C. ecmocyna a. gracilis are found some

specimens of C. furcata, var. surrecta, Fk. (from France), and

three others of C. pyazdata cornuta (from Switzerland).

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 315

2. A robust specimen of C. furcata (from Switzerland) and

another of C. amaurocrea appear amongst the C. ecmocyna y.

macroceras e. exoncera.

3. A C. crispata (from Sweden) and a fragment of C. amauro-

crea (from France) are labelled as C. ecmocyna 6. corymbosa.

4. Amongst the C. ecmocyna ¢. aspera we meet with a C. fur-

cata (fertile), which Acharius has marked subsequently Cen.

alcicornis ?

16. Cladonia oxyceras, (Ach.) Syn. p. 262 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius has confounded here, in his Synopsis, two species,

or at least two very distinct forms, C. uncialis (L.) and C. amau-

rocrea. Ata later period he recognized this error, and in the

herbarium has consequently indicated in pencil all the speci-

mens referable to C. uncialis. Bearmg in mind these correc-

tions, the C. ovyceras of the Acharian herbarium may be re-

garded as synonymous with C. amaurocrea of Florke.

To regulate the synonymy, the specimens of the different

varieties of the Synopsis are here referred to their proper spe-

cies, viz. :—

Var. cladonioides (Syn. p. 264) is referable to typical C. amau-

rocrea in a sterile state.

Var. cetraroides (Syn. p. 264) is the same species in fructifi-

cation.

Var. dicrea (Syn. p. 265) is synonymous with typical C. un-

cialis (L.).

Var. obtusata (Syn. p. 265) is a very robust form of C. un-

cialis (i.) with swollen extremities.

Var. medusina (Syn. p. 265) constitutes a proper species—

Cladonia medusina (Bory). The small specimen of the Acharian

herbarium has been removed.

Var. spiculata (Syn. p. 265). The specimen of this in the

Acharian collection has also been abstracted; it is therefore

impossible, in the absence of other information, to mdicate the

species to which this variety may belong.

Besides these specimens, I have moreover found in the collec-

tion at Helsingfors a remarkable specimen of C. amaurocrea,

sent from the Grimsel by the late M. Scherer, having nearly the

appearance of Cladonia portentosa (Duf.), and named by Acha-

rius Cen. oxyceras crassipedia, and another of the same species,

with short stems swollen at the summits, called turgescens by

the Swedish lichenographer.

17. Cladonia sulphurina, (Ach.) Syn. p. 265.

I have not found this species either in the Acharian herba-

rium or in that of Flérke; but I refer it to C. deformis, Hftm.,

22%

316 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize

after Dr. Nylander, who has seen the authentic specimens of

Michaux.

18. Cladonia baccilaris, (Ach.) Syn. p. 266 et hb. ejusd.

The name Cladonia macilenta is now most generally used for

this species.

Amongst the Acharian varieties, the first three (styracella,

carcata, and monocarpa) ought, in my opinion, to be neglected,

as approaching too closely to the type.

The var. clavata presents a modification more remarkable, and

may be retained.

The var. coronata is, according to the Acharian specimens,

synonymous with C. polydactyla, Flk., as also another variety,

designated in his herbarium under the name of Cen. baccilaris

radiateformis.

I have not discovered amongst the Cladonia macilenta of the

herbarium at Helsingfors any specimen which is referable to

C. Florkeana. Acharius therefore never knew this latter plant.

Dr. Nylander has already remarked the resemblance between

C. macilenta and digitata; and I am myself inclined to unite

these two species, and to regard C. macilenta as only a variety

analogous to C. pyxidata cornuta and fibula. The Ardennes, in

Belgium, has, during the past year, furnished me with beautiful

transitional forms between these two types.

19. Cladonia digitata (L.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 267 et hb. ejusd.

Of the five forms or varieties of this species mentioned in the

Synopsis of Acharius, good examples are found in his herbarium,

but they only prove that nowhere is the distinction of varieties

less necessary than here. I therefore propose to erase the forms

brachytes, denticulata, cerucha, cephalotes, and monstrosa,

A specimen of C. deformis (from Sweden) is found intermixed

with C. digitata in the Acharian herbarium. This collection,

however, does not possess the intermediate forms passing into

C. macilenta; but I have found them in the herbarium of the

Museum of Finland, in the herbarium of Florke, and in great

quantity on the rocks of the Ardennes.

20. Cladonia deformis (Iu.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 268 et hb. ejusd.

We may here also suppress the varieties crenulata, gonecha,

and pulvinata, proposed by Acharius.

21. Cladonia coccifera, (Ach.) Syn. p. 269 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius is here more moderate in making varieties than his

rival Florke; and for this he is deserving of praise. The only

two varieties which he makes do not, however, deserve to be

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 317

maintained, inasmuch as they depend solely on slight modifica-

tions in the mode of prolification.

The herbarium at Helsingfors contains many folioliferous

specimens of this species, and amongst them I observed a spe-

cimen of C. degenerans.

22. Cladonia pleurota, (Ach.) Syn. p. 270 et hb. ejusd.

This species is nothing more than a variety of the preceding.

All the Acharian specimens are referable to C. coccifera; and

Florke (Com. p. 91) has wrongly reproached him for having

confounded C. pleurota with C. deformis.

23. Cladonia bellidiflora, (Ach.) Syn. p. 270 et hb. ejusd.

The C. bellidiflora is the least polymorphous species of the

genus, and preserves sufficiently well in its diverse modifications

the typical characters of the species. Nevertheless Acharius

has mentioned four varieties ; but I must confess that his herba-

rium exhibits very little real difference between his forms am-

pullifera, ventricosa, and gracilenta, and that his var. polycephala

appears to me tobe only the type in fructification. For simplicity’s

sake, therefore, it is necessary to reject these artificial distine-

tions.

Some specimens of C. bellidiflora v. polycephala, sent from

Grimsel by Scherer, seem to me to be rather C. degenerans.

24. Cladonia ceratophylla, (Ach.) Syn. p. 271 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian herbarium contains only a well-characterized

fragment of this species.

25. Cladonia cenotea, (Ach.) Syn. p. 271 et hb. ejusd.

The typical Acharian specimens present nothing remarkable.

As to the var. crassota, it differs so little from the type, that it

may be erased.

26. Cladonia parecha, (Ach.) Syn. p. 272 et hb. ejusd.

This Acharian species is synonymous with Cladonia turgida,

Hffm.

The Acharian specimens are not numerous, but sufficiently

pure, except a specimen of C. uncialis obtusata (Ach.).

The Lichen candelabrum of Bory de Saint Vincent, cited here

as a synonym, differs considerably from C. turgida, and consti-

tutes a distinct species—Cladonia candelabrum (Bor.).

27. Cladonia crispata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 272 et hb. ejusd.

All the specimens of the Acharian herbarium are perfectly

typical, and exhibit no approach to any other species.

318 T’?Abbé KE. Coémans on the Cladoniz

My learned friend Dr. Nylander regards C. crispata as a

probable hybrid of C. furcata and gracilis. Is it not, rather, an

intermediate product of C. furcata and squamosa? The herba-

rium of Florke at Rostock possesses many mixed forms between

these two species.

28. Cladonia sparassa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 278 et hb. ejusd.

This species is more generally known under the name of

Cladonia squamosa, Hffm.

The Acharian herbarium contains only the most common

forms of this species, which probably explains why Acharius,

who was fond of multiplying forms, is here so sparing of his

varieties.

Amongst his specimens are two beautiful specimens of C. de-

corticata, Fr.

29. Cladonia cariosa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 278 et hb. ejusd, ~

This species is represented in the Acharian herbarium by a

dozen specimens, from different localities, and all perfectly

typical.

There is a young and undeveloped form of C. cariosa, which

is ordinarily given in Exsiccata under the name of C. cariosa,

var. symphycarpa (Ach.). This is not found in this place in the

Acharian collection, because he regarded it as belonging to the

following species.

Some authors still unite C. cariosa with C. pyxidata. Iam,

however, fully convinced that it forms a good and excellent

species.

30. Cladonia symphycarpa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name I found in the Acharian herbarium—

(1) Some young examples of C. cariosa from Sweden. This

is the form which Scherer, Desmaziéres, Rabenhorst, Hepp, and

Massalongo have published under the name of C. cariosa, var.

symphycarpa (Ach.). It does not differ sufficiently from the

type to constitute a variety.

(2) A fructiferous specimen, with small imbricated leaflets, of

C. alcicornis, var. firma, Nyl., from Switzerland.

(3) A small specimen of the same plant, gathered in ancient

Lusatia (environs of Gorlitz), and altogether similar to No. 13

of my ‘ Cladoniz Belgice.’

(4) Some fragments of a short condensate form of C.macilenta

from North America.

(5) Lastly, a specimen of C. turgida, reduced to a dense and

microphylline thallus, as in my ‘ Cladonie Belgice,’ No. 19.

Amidst this diversity, it is naturally very difficult to say what

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 319

this author intended by his Clad. symphycarpa. Nevertheless,

as the young specimens of C. cariosa of which I have first above

spoken were gathered in Sweden, and are the most ancient in

the herbarium, it is reasonable enough to consider them the

primitive types of Acharius. That which also confirms me in

this opinion is, that the types of C. symphycarpa in the herbarium

of Flérke, which have been compared with those of Acharius in

the herbarium of Willdenow at Berlin, are precisely this small

form of C. cariosa. Neither had Florke a clear idea of the

typical symphycarpa, for he has intermingled his specimens with

many different species, as I shall have to remark in my forth-

coming work on the Cladoni@ existing in the herbarium of this

author.

I therefore regard the C. symphycarpa (Ach.) as only an in-

significant form of Cladonia cariosa.

31. Cladonia delicata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

This plant is, in the Acharian herbarium, placed under Sée-

reocaulon. Until 1824, Acharius had considered it a Cladonia,

but im arranging his herbarium, after the publication of the

Synopsis, he placed it under Stereocaulon, by inscribing on the

old ticket Stereocaulon delicatum.

This species is, in the estimation of most modern lichenolo-

gists, only a variety of C. sguamosa; and I participated m this

opinion until, during this summer, I had the opportunity of

studying it better in the herbarium of Florke, at Rostock. I

have never seen so many or such beautiful specimens. I then

remarked the affinities of C. delicata to C. pityrea, and I am

now convinced that the former is nothing more than a variety

of the latter. In the monograph of the genus Cladonia which

I am preparing I shall propose as a variety of C. pyaidata the

C. pityrea with its two subvarieties delicata and cespititia.

32. Cladonia botrytes (Hag.), Ach. Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

This beautiful little species, so common in Sweden and in

Finland on decaying fir-stumps, is very richly represented in

the Acharian herbarium.

33. Cladonia leptophylla, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

The herbarium of Helsingfors contains only two specimens of

this variety of Cladunia cariosa—one from England, the other

from Switzerland. The leaflets of their thalli are very small

and very dispersed.

34. Cladonia capitata (Mich.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 275.

This species is neither found in the herbarium of Acharius

320 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize

nor in that of Flérke. I am therefore unable to supply any

information concerning this problematical plant.

35. Cladonia acicularis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

This plant was generally regarded as belonging to C. maci-

lenta; but now there is no doubt that it ought to be referred

to the genus Pilophorus, and form the P. acicularis of Th. M.

Fries.

36. Cladonia aggregata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

The Cladonia aggregata of Acharius and that of Florke are,

according to the herbaria of these authors, two entirely different

plants. That of Acharius is the true C. aggregata, Eschw.

Brasil. p. 278, and that of Flérke the C. gorgonea of the same

author, Brasil. p. 271.

The collection at Helsingfors contains only a miserable speci-

men of this species; another specimen has been abstracted.

37. Cladonia racemosa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name is found, in the Acharian herbarium, the

large and robust form of C. furcata known under the name of

the var. racemosa, and also a specimen of C. pungens nivea, Fik.,

from Guadeloupe.

38. Cladonia furcata, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 276 et bb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimens represent the ordinary type. The

var. subulata is not distinguished in his herbarium, but is found

intermixed with other specimens. Many tufts of C. furcata

bear here also, some with a sign of doubt, some with that of

affirmation, the name of C. alcicornis, which proves that Acha-

rius entertained doubts, even to the end of his life, as to the true

characters of this species.

39. Cladonia uncialis, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 276 et hb. ejusd.

Here is found the true C. uncialis, which Acharius had con-

founded before with C. amaurocrea. The var. adunca is scarcely

different from the type, and may therefore be erased.

It must be remembered that the varieties dicrea and obtusata

of C. oxyceras (Ach.) are referable to this species.

40. Cladonia rangiferina, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 277 et hb.

ejusd.

The first two varieties of Acharius, gigantea and cymosa, may

be suppressed; for both represent the type—the first as the

sterile form, the second as the fertile or spermogoniferous form.

The largest specimen of the form gigantea in the Acharian her-

barium measures 12 or 13 centimetres im Jength.

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 321

The var. 8. sylvatica is a good variety, or perhaps even a dis-

tinct species; but the var. alpestris must not be separated from

it. This form is by no means alpine, but merely that of most

individuals which grow isolated instead of in crowded tufts.

The var. 6. pungens, marked in the Acharian herbarium rangi-

cornis, belongs to C. furcata; and it is astonishing that Acharius

did not recognize its affinity to this latter species.

As to the var. pumila, it is nothing more than a small form of

C. rangiferina sylvatica.

Besides these varieties described in the Synopsis, I have found

also in the Acharian herbarium an old specimen of C. rangi-

ferina sylvatica, deformed and glomeruliferous, marked by

Scherer C. rangiferina, var. deformis, and a form of C. rangi-

ferina with short erect branches widened and united at the

summit, ticketed by Acharius var. incrassata. I have frequently

met with this form in the fir-woods of Sweden and Finland;

but it is not sufficiently notable to be distinguished from the

type. Acharius has confounded, in his herbarium, some of Cla-

donia pungens, F\k., with this latter form.

Lastly, the herbarium at Helsingfors contains also a beautiful

tuft of C. portentosa (Duf.), which Acharius must have received

after the publication of his Synopsis, for otherwise he would not

have failed to notice this remarkable form.

41. Cenomyce? vermicularis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 278 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimens were obtained from Lapland, Siberia,

Germany, and Switzerland.

The var. ¢awrica, in my opinion, does not deserve to be pre-

served distinct, since it is merely a swollen form of the type.

Acharius has proved his sagacity by placing this plant doubt-

fully among the Cladonia; it constitutes at the present day the

type of the genus Thamnolia, of the tribe Stphulez, Nyl.

42. Cenomyce? ceratites, (Ach.) Syn. p. 279 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimen was gathered in Lapland.

This species, which Acharius has wisely placed provisionally

among the Cladonia, is the sole Kuropean representative of the

genus Siphula, Fr.

Lastly, on the last sheet of the Cladoniacee of the Acharian

herbarium, we see pellmell many specimens of C. degenerans

and of C. pungens, Flk., which the learned lichenographer pro-

bably did not know what to make of, and which bear, with a

sign of doubt, the names of C. rangiferina, var. incrassata, C.

crispata, C. gonorega, and C. ecmocyna, var. exoncera.

322 Prof. F. M‘Coy on a new Species of Halmaturus.

XLII.—On a new Species of Halmaturus from East Australia.

By Freprrick M‘Coy, Professor of Natural Science in the

Melbourne University, and Director of the National Museum

of Victoria.

Halmaturus Wilcoxi (M‘Coy).

Male. Fur long and soft, grey at the base (everywhere except

on the breast, where the base is whitish), of a rich dark brown

slightly grizzled with grey and black on the back (from some

hairs grey at base having a white ring beyond the middle, and

black tip), more uniform and slightly lighter on the shoulders,

back and sides of the neck, and becoming lighter still on the

cheeks, sides of the muzzle, and arms; the anterior feet, chin,

a band from the nostril to the eye, and the mid line of the head

darker brown ; the apical two-thirds of the ears and the nape

of the neck very dark rich brown; basal third of the ears, and

a rounded space in front of the base of them, and a spot over

each eye of a very bright rusty chestnut, chestnut, or bay; a

very faint greyish band on hinder half of upper lip. The brown

of the back becomes more rusty on the flanks, changing to the

same bright rusty reddish brown as the base of the ears on the

back of the hind legs, and also, though not so bright, where

the brown of the flanks joims the greyish white of the belly,

front margin of hind legs, underside of base of tail, and throat

nearly up to the chin; upper side of tail dark brown, grizzled

with black and white hairs like those of the back, but highter in

general tint at the base, darker towards the end, and whitish at

the tip; underpart and ‘sides of tail scaly and very sparingly set

with short fur-hairs.

Female. Smaller and slightly paler than the male, and the

whitish fur of the breast as grey at the base as that of other

parts of the body.

Male. Female.

Length from tip of nose to tip of tail 3 feet 4 inches | 3 feet 23 inches

sh. a HOLME bao inh ame te | Las ee 1A ae

s, of tarsus and middle toe, in-

cluding nail .... Gyre. 52,

a OL veanaa and hance in-

cluding the nail........ har: 55 ss

», from tip of snout to base of ear AS iss Atl < ras,

», of ear from anterior basal

PUMPS cts 1s sis sto: 225 oe ae

Locality : Richmond River, New South Wales. Collected by

Mr. Wilcox, who forwarded a male and female to the Museum

at Melbourne, as probably new.

This beautiful species most nearly resembles the H. parma,

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Pronghorn Buck. 323

H. Thetidis, and H. Derbianus, but is easily distinguished from

them by the bright rusty red brown of the basal third of the

ears, the space about their base, the spot over the eye, and the

back of the hind legs, as well as by the greyish brown colour of

the neck and fore limbs. The proportional measurements are

also different.

XLIII.—Notes on the Pronghorn Buck (Antilocapra), and its

Position in the System. By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray,

F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., &e.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1855, when

describing a pair of horns in the collection of the late Earl of

Derby, I mentioned that the horn of the Prongbuck was “ formed

of agglutinated hair, that it was lined internally with a close velvet-

like coat of short hairs, which were directed towards the top of the

cavity, and that the edge of the base of the horn was furnished

with a rig of hair.” I observed that the “ peculiarity in the

internal structure of thé horns of the genus showed, like the

branched external form, a similarity to the horns of the deer,

the hairy horns being the analogue of the deciduous velvet of

the deer and the permanent hairy coat [on the horns] of the

giraffe.” ;

1. The peculiarity in the structure of the horn which isolates the

Cabrit or Prongbuck from the other hollow-horned Ruminants

seems to have been overlooked by the American naturalists; and

the spoils of the animal are very rare in European museums.

The hunters of America stated that the Prongbuck shed its

horns; but the systematic zoologists, who depended on the ex-

amination of the preserved skin and head for their facts, did

not believe the assertion; and, indeed, some went so far as to

deny the fact.

When the hunters at Fort Union said that the prong-horned

Antelope dropped its horns, Messrs. Audubon and Bachman

(Quad. North America, p. 198) considered it a sufficient reply

to show them that “the bony part of the horn and the hard

spongy membrane beneath were well attached to the skull and

perfectly immoveable.” They evidently had the deciduous

horn of the deer in their mind, and could not conceive any

other manner of shedding the horns, not foreseeing that the

horny sheath might drop off the cores, which, if they had ex-

amined the structure of the horn and observed its internal fur,

they might have anticipated as probable.

Cassin, in the ‘ United States Exploring ‘Expedition’ (p. 63),

under Antilocapra americana, remarks, ‘‘ Dr. Pickering, in _ his

824. Dr. J. E. Gray on the Pronghern Buck,

note under 24th August 1841, observes, ‘ Dr. Marsh assures me

that the horns of this animal are shed annually, like those of

the deer.’ ” ;

Dr. Colbert A. Canfield, who resides in California, sent an

account of the habits of the Prongbuck, in which he states as a

fact that “the horns drop off annually,” to Dr. Spencer Baird,

of the Smithsonian Institution; but his paper (which is dated

Sept. 10, 1858) was not published until after Mr. Bartlett had

recorded his observation of the same fact, observed on the ani-

mal in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.

Dr. Colbert Canfield’s paper is printed im the ‘ Proceedings

of the Zoological Society,’ 1866, p. 105, and contains many

very interesting particulars on the habits and manners of the

animal.

Dr. Canfield truly observes that the horns of sheep and goats

always have rings showing the growth of the horns, and that

such rings are not to be observed on the horns of the Prong-

buck.

When Dr. Canfield says that “the horns drop off annually,”

and observes to Dr. Spencer Baird, “To convince you of

this singular fact is my principal object in making you this

communication,” he only intended to say that the horny sheath

of the horns fell. The American hunters and Dr. Marsh must

have intended the same, though Dr. Bachman and M. Audubon

were deceived by the vagueness of the hunters’ words ; and even

Dr. Marsh, when he added “like the deer,” could only have in-

tended to say that the case of the horns falls annually, and not

that the entire horn or antler falls, as is the case with the deer.

Mr. Bartlett, in the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society ’

for 1865, p. 718, gave a very interesting and detailed account

of the manner in which the horny case of the horn separates

from the core, and how the new horny case is formed between

the inner surface of the old case and the core.

Mr. Bartlett in this paper endeavours “to prove that the Prong-

buck’s affinities are closer to the genus Cervus,” to which he

thinks ‘it is more nearly allied than to the Antelopes.” Indeed

he thinks he is “ able to show that the horns of the Prongbuck

are a modification of the horns of Cervus.”

In this view I think that Mr. Bartlett is entirely mistaken,

and that this theory obscures the otherwise very interesting de-

tails which he gives of the peculiarities of this animal.

2. In the hollow-horned Ruminants the bony processes of the

frontal bone, which form the true horns of this group of animals,

are permanent, and are covered, in the oxen, sheep, goat, and

antelopes, with a horny case, which is increased in size as the

core enlarges by the addition of new lamime of horny matter to

and its Position in the System. 325

the inner surface, especially near the edge of the sheath. The

giraffes, on the other hand, have the same permanent cores, which

are covered with a hairy skin, like the rest of the body, which

covers the horn during the entire life of the animal.

The horns of the deer, with which Mr. Bartlett compares those

of the Prongbuck, on the other hand, are only developed at a

certain season of each year; and while they are being expanded,

they are covered with a soft velvety skin containing a number of

large blood-vessels: these vessels become obliterated and the

skin falls off when the horns are fully developed; and at the

end of the season the horns themselves fall off, leaving only a

burr on the frontal bones.

Now in the Prongbuck the core of the horn is permanent,

vascular, and exactly like the core of the horns of the true hol-

low-horned Ruminants, very unlike the deciduous horn of the

deer, and showing the true affinity of the genus to the antelope

and goat, with which it has been usually associated. It indeed

only differs from the normal structure of that of the animals of this

group in the core being covered with a case formed of aggluti-

nated hair, which falls off annually, and is replaced by another

case formed between its cavity and the outer surface of the core.

The surface of the core is covered with a vascular skin, which

secretes this deciduous coat of agglutinated hair, like the vascu-

lar coat that secretes and gradually enlarges and thickens the

horny permanent case of the horns of oxen, sheep, and goats.

It is to be observed that the horny case of the core of all these

animals is formed of agglutinated hair; but the hairs of the

horns of the oxen, sheep, &c. are more closely agglutinated

and regularly placed, forming a denser substance than the

porous horny case of the Prongbuck, in which the several hairs

of which it is composed are to be seen by the naked eye, and

some of them projecting beyond its surface.

I think that the above observation proves that the Prongbuck

is more nearly allied to the typical hollow-horned Ruminants,

with which it has been placed, than with the deciduous-horned

deer, with which Mr. Bartlett proposes to unite it. Indeed it

only differs from them in the outer case of the horn being po-

rous and formed of loosely agglutinated or, rather, felted hairs,

and in the case being deciduous and renewed annually, instead

of being permanent and strengthened by internal laminz so as

to form a hard horn.

There is no doubt that this peculiarity of the structure and

derivation of the sheath, or rather case, of the horns affords a

very good character to separate the Prongbuck from the other

hollow-horned Ruminants; and I suggest that it should be formed

into a family, which should be called Antilocapride, of equal

326 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement of the Ruminants.

rank with Bovide and Giraffide, between which families it

ought to be placed.

The Ruminants may be divided, according to their horns,

thus :—

I. The males and generally the females furnished with a

bony process on each frontal bone, which is permanent during

the lives of the animals.

In the Bovipa this bony process is covered with a permanent

horny coat.

The horn (coleocera) has the same appearance, form, struc-

ture, and is enlarged in the same manner as the hoofs over the

toes.

In the ANtILocaPrip® the bony process is covered with a

porous horny coat, which falls off and is renewed annually.

The horn or pseudo-horn (komecera) of the Cabrit is sui generis.

It seems to be formed of the matted or felted hair of the skin that

covers the core. It loosens and falls off in the mass when the

new coat of matted hair is formed beneath it. The horns may

be compared to the annual coat of matted hair which is shed by

the American bison and some other ruminants; but in that

animal the hair only forms a kind of blanket, and falls off in

flakes of different sizes.

In the Girarripz the bony process is covered with a skin

like the rest of the body, and equally permanent, and the horn

(dermocera) covered with hair that is shed and renewed like the

hair of the body.

II. The males and sometimes the females are periodically

furnished with horns, which, during development or expansion,

are covered with a vascular skin coated with down, the skin

falling off when the horns are perfect and solidified, and the

horns themselves falling off at the end of the season. In some

few the horns spring from the end of a permanent elongated

bony process, as in the Muntjac. (Cexvip2.)

The antlers (epochocera) of the deer differ from the horns of

the other ruminants in being periodical developments of bone,

which is at first covered with a hairy skin, that dries up and

falls off.

III. Neither sex provided with any horn-like process of the

frontal bone, as the musk (Moscuip#), camels, llama (CameE-

LIDZ).

Prof. J. C. Schiédte on Buprestide and Elateride. 827

XLIV.—On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateridee, with

special regard to the Danish Fauna. By Prof. J.C. Scur1épte.

[Continued from p. 212. ]

Systematic Table of the Danish Buprestide and Elateride.

BUPRESTIDZ.

(Tarsi quinquearticulati. Antenne filiformes. Corpus durum.

Coxze antice globose. Coxe postice transverse, fixe. Pro-

sternum processu postico producto.)

Epimera mesothoracica inter episterna et humeros elytrorum

ad epimera prothoracis ascendentia et cum lis articulata.

Prosternum mucrone saltatorio nullo, mesosterno receptum.

Segmenta ventralia duo priora concreta.

Procursus ventrales laterales epimera metathoracica attin-

gentes, spiracula metathoracica in segmento mediali sita extror-

sum cingentes; procursus ventralis medius inter coxas posticas

ad mesosternum usque procedens.

Mandibule tetragonz, crassee, cochleariformes.

Ale in longitudinem plicatee.

Pedes ambulatori trochanteribus posticis simplicibus, tarsis

pulvillatis.

Oculi oblongi.

Tracheze vesiculose: Glandulz salivales im capite site, fili-

formes, fasciculato-ramosee. Ventriculus chylificus bicornis,

parte postica in spiram convoluta. Vasa malpighiana terna,

apice intestino ileo affixa. Folliculi testiculorum scroto inclusi,

gracillimi, longissimi, apice conjunctim in spiram contorti; ve-

sicule seminales bine. Receptaculum seminis femine simplex,

glandula appendiculari nulla. Systema nervorum: ganglion

mesothoracis, cum ganglio metathoracis concretum ; ganglia ab-

dominalia quinque, duo priora in thorace sita; ganglion abdo-

minale primum a ganglio metathoracico discretum.

Mandibule acie et fimbriis carentes, fovea articulari superiore

ampla, condylo inferiore magno, prominente, collo distincto,

capite globoso. Maxille malis coriaceis, dense breviter spinu-

losis. Lingua coriacea, crassa, pulvinata, integra, obtusa, spinu-

losa, stipite nullo, Antenne porifere. Prosternum procursu

labiali proprio nullo,

Tribus Anthaxiini.

Mandibule depressiuscule, apice lobate, lobo terminali in-

trorsum sub apicem profunde excavato.

Partes oris graciliores ; male maxillarum triangule.

Sulei antennarii nulli.

328 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

Are poriferze antennarum in parte articulorum inferiore site,

deorsum spectantes.

(Gsophagus sacculis utrinque appendiculatus.)

Curysoporuris, Eschltz.

Palpi mazillares articulo secundo elongato, terminali subcylin-

drico, truncato, peenultimum non complente. Palpi labiales clavati,

articulo ultimo truncato. Mentum trapezoideum, transversum, fulcro

brevi. Lingua ampla, late rotundata. Antenne articulo primo et

tertio productis, deinde profunde serratz, areis poriferis concavis.

Femora prima dentata. Tibie prime et mediz incurve. Pronotum

basi lobatum.

(The space between the eyes in front much narrower towards the top. The

coxal process of the prosternum broad. Scutellum elongated, triangular,

pointed. First tarsal joint elongated. Second, third, and fourth abdominal

segments with denticulated hind corners; fifth joimt with a keel in the

middle.)

(C. affinis, Fabr., r.; C. chrysostigma, L., r.)

Metanopruita, Eschltz.

Palpi maxillares articulo secundo brevi, terminali cylindrico, trun-

cato, peenultimum superante. Palpi labiales clavati, articulo ultimo

brevi, crassissimo, truncato. Mentwm transversum, utrinque rotun-

datum, fulcro amplissimo. Lingua apicem versus angustata. dn-

tenne graciles, ab articulo tertio vel quarto obtuse serrate, areis

poriferis convexis. Tvbie rectze. Pronotum basi lobatum.

(The space between the eyes in front slightly narrower towards the top.

The coxal process of the prosternum broad, with three points. Scutellum

small, triangular, with round corners. The abdominal segments without

teeth.)

(M. cyanea, Fabr., in timber-yards ; M. appendiculata, Fabr., r.)

Anruaxta, Eschltz.

Palpi mazillares articulo ultimo ovato, apice truncato. Palpi

labiales filiformes, articulo ultimo conico, sesqui minore quam pe-

nultimo. Mentum trapezoideum, transversum, fulcro brevissimo.

Lingua \ate rotundata. Antenne inde ab articulo quarto profunde

serrate, areis poriferis convexis. Z%bie rectze. Pronotum basi

truncatum.

(First pair of femora without tooth. Scutellum equilateral, triangular.

Prosternal spine broad, with truncated point. Abdominal segments eden-

tate.)

(A. quadripunctata, L., in timber-yards.)

Tribus Buprestini.

Mandibule cuneiformes, apice integre, parte interiore tota

profunde excavata, margine cavernze utroque denticulato.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 329

Mentum breve, transversum, utringue rotundatum, medio

profunde emarginatum, fulcro labii amplo.

Maxille mala exteriore ampla, fornicata, cardine piriformi,

libero.

Palpi maxillares articulo secundo brevi, terminali clavato,

truncato, penultimum superante.

Palpi labiales integri, clavati.

Arez poriferee antennarum in parte posteriore vel in utroque

latere articulorum site.

Burrestis, L.

Antenne breviores, profunde serrate ; areze poriferae minute, ro-

tundatze, profunde foveolatz, sub angulum inferiorem lateris poste-

rioris articulorum site. Prosternum pone coxas anticas utrinque

angulatum. pimera mesothoracica margine priore subrecto.

(B. meesta, Fabr., in timber-yards.)

Cuatcopuora, Sol.

Antenne graciliores, obtuse serrate; arese poriferze ample, ob-

longze, vix excavatee, marginem inferiorem articulorum zequo inter-

vallo sequentes, in utroque latere obvize. Prosternum pone coxas

anticas utrinque angulatum. Lpimera mesothoracica margine ante-

riore angulato.

(Ch. mariana, L., in timber-yards.)

Ancy ocuira, Eschltz.

Antenne graciliores, obtuse serrate: ; areze poriferee majores, pro-

funde excavate, in angulo inferiore lateris posterioris articulorum

site. Prosternum sensim acuminatum. pimera mesothoracica

margine anteriore subrecto. bie anticee maris uncinate.

(1. A. splendida, Payk., r.; 2. A. rustica, L.; and 3. A. punctata,

Fabr., all three in timber-yards; 4. 4. flavomaculata, Fabr., r.)

Tribus Agrilini.

Mandibule cuneiformes, apice integra, parte interiore tota

profunde excavata; marginibus cavern inermibus.

Maxille cardine gracili, elongato, sub mentum condito, malis

obtusis.

Fulcrum labii evanidum.

Palpi labiales manci, articulo primo vel binis prioribus evanidis.

Sulci antennarii capiti sub oculos impressi.

Arez poriferee antennarum profunde excavate, in latere pos-

teriore articulorum sub apicem sitz.

Pronotum basi lobatum.

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 23

330 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

Aeritus, Meg.

Mandibule acute. Palpi mazillares filiformes, articulo ultimo

fusiformi, truncato. Mentum triangulum. Palpi labiales biarticu-

lati, articulo ultimo elongato, subcylindrico, truncato. Antenne inde

ab articulo quarto serrate. Sulci antennarti brevissimi, in tempora

non continuati. Tarsi postici longitudine tibiarum, articulo primo

producto. Unguiculi dentati. Scutellum manifestum, basi trans-

versum, postea subito acuminatum. Lpipleure prothoracice cari-

nate. Corpus productum.

(1. A. viridis, L., m. fr.; 2. 4. angustulus, Illig., m. fr.; 3. A.

laticornis, Illig., r.)

Tracuys, F.

Mandibule obtuse, foveola interiore amplissima. Palpi mazil-

lares clavati, articulo ultimo magno, ovato. Mentum triangulum,

latere utroque angulato. Palpi labiales biarticulati, subcylindrici,

articulo ultimo brevi. Antenne inde ab articulo septimo serrate.

Sulet antennarii in tempora continuati. Tarsi brevissimi. Ungui-

cult dentati. Scutellum minutissimum triangulum. Corpus breve.

(1. 7. minuta, L., m. fr.; 2. T. troglodytes, Gyll., r.)

Apuanisticus, Latr.

Mandibule acutissime. Palpi mavzillares clavati, articulo ultimo

ovato. Mentum breve, transversum, utrinque rotundatum. Palpi

labiales unico constantes articulo elongato, subcylindrico. Antenne

inde ab articulo octavo serrate. Sulci antennarii in tempora et

epimera prothoracis continuati. Jarsi brevissimi. Unguiculi in-

ermes. Scutel/um minutissimum, triangulum. Corpus productum.

Tempora producta, oculis multo longiora. Femora dilatata.

(A. pusillus, Oliv., r.)

ELATERIDZ.

(Tarsi quinquearticulati. Antenne filiformes. Corpus durum.

Coxe antic globose. Cox postice transverse, fixe. Pro-

sternum processu postico producto.)

Epimera mesothoracica epimera prothoracica non attingentia,

articulo cum prothorace non conjuncta.

Prosternum aut supra sub apicem mucrone armatum salta-

torio, aut in mucronem saltatorium sensim transiens. Meso-

sternum fovea profunda mucronem excipiens.

Procursus ventrales epimera metathoracica non attingentes,

spiracula metathoracica extrorsum libera, inter epimera et pro-

cursus ventrales sita; procursus ventralis medius brevis, ad

metasternum vix procedens.

Mandibule triquetre, fornicate, apicem versus extenuate.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 331

Ale in longitudinem et transverse plicate.

Pedes cursorii trochanteribus posticis fulcientibus.

Oculi rotundati.

Trachez vesiculis carentes. Glandule salivales propriz nulle.

Ventriculus chylificus simplex, subrectus. Vasa malpighiana

bina, apice libera. Folliculi testiculorum scroto carentes, ob-

longi vel globosi; vesiculz seminales tern, structura maxime

variantes. Receptaculum seminis femine structura valde va-

rians, sepissime duplex aut multiplex, glandula appendiculari

magna, sepissime ramosa. Systema nervorum: ganglia tho-

racica discreta; ganglia abdominalia octo, duo priora in thorace

sita; ganglion abdominale primum ganglio metathoracico appli-

catum.

Sectio Prima.

Mandibulz fimbriis carentes. Scrobiculi antennarii genis im-

pressi. Prosternum procursu labiali nullo.

(Epimera mesothoracica coxas attingentia. Epipleura ely-

trorum costa laterali obtusa. Segmenta ventralia preter termi-

nale immobilia).

Tribus 1. Melasini.

Mandibule basi tumide, parte interna excavata; condylo in-

teriore maximo, fovea articulari superiore amplissima.

Maxille stipite palpigero distante, articuliformi, mala unica,

tenui, apice brevissime barbata.

Lingua minuta, integra, obtusa, stipite nullo.

Palpi clavati, articulo ultimo magno, ovato.

Prothorax sulcis antennaris nullis; prosternum processu

postico acuto, mucrone saltatorio valde discreto, sursum ascen-

dente.

Metasts, Oliy.

Mandibule acute, basi valde tumide, tumore supra rotundato.

Palpi maxillares articulo ultimo apice summo truncato, articulum

terminalem palporum labialium duplo superante. Palpi labiales ar-

ticulo primo tenui, secundum longitudine superante. Mentum breve,

transversum. Antenne serrate, basi distantes. Tibie compresse

dilatatee ; ¢arsi compressi, articulo quarto integro. Coxe postice

lamina femorali ampla, extrorsum emarginata. Segmentum ultimum

ventris apice compresse carinatum.

(M. Buprestoides, L., m. fr.)

Xyxosivs, Latr.

Mandibule trilobz, lobo intermedio introrsum excavato, basi tu-

mide, tumore dorso corniculato. Palpi subzequales, articulo ultimo

maximo. Mentum trapezoideum. Antenne teretes, basi vicine.

23*

332 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

Tibia teretes. Tarsi graciles, articulo quarto trilobo. Segmentum

ultimum ventris apice rotundatum.

(X. Alni, Fabr., m. fr.)

Tribus 2. Eucnemidini.

Mandibule introrsum carinatze.

Maxillze malis binis, membranaceis, breviter barbatis.

Lingua lata, tenuis, membranacea, emarginata, stipites palpo-

rum labialium non multum exccdens, stipite evanido.

Palpi securiformes.

Mentum transversum, trapezoideum.

Sulci antennarii in epimera prothoracis plus minusve con-

tinuati.

Prosternum mucrone saltatorio sursum ascendente.

Evcnemis, Ahr.

Mandibule acute, integree, fovea articulari superiore amplissima,

condylo inferiore maximo. Palpi mavillares articulo terminali

maximo, peenultimum sesqui superante, apice recte truncato. Palpz

labialesarticuloterminali maximo, articulum ultimum palporum maxil-

larium sesqui superante, angulo interiore producto. Sule antennari

epimerorum marginales, valde profundi. Cow@ posticee lamina femo-

rali ampla, post acuminata. Prosternum processu postico acumi-

nato. Mentum subquadratum.

(LZ. capucinus, Ahr., r.)

Microruacus, Chevrol.

Mandibule trilobe, dorso inferiore corniculato. Palpt mawillares

articulo terminali maximo, pznultimum duplo superante, apice

oblique truncato, angulo exteriore valde producto. Palpz labiales

articulo terminali dimidiam palporum maxillarium articuli ultimi

magnitudinem vix superante, angulo exteriore producto. Sulet an-

tennarii epimerorum ad suturas prosternales levius excavati. Cove

lamina femorali brevi, introrsum dilatata, post rotundata. Proster-

num processu postico acuminato. Mentwm trapezoideum.

(M. pygmeus, Fabr., r.)

Turoscvus, Latr.

Mandibule integre, acute, acie tenui, utrinque minute mucronu-

lata. Palpi articulo terminali magno, oblique truncato. Suler an-

tennarit prothoracis angulati, integri. Cove posticee lamina femo-

rali brevi, truncata. Prosternum processu postico marginato, apice

rotundato, mucrone saltatorio obtecto. Mentum subquadratum,

processu medio acuto. Tarsi articulo quarto bilobo. Antenne ab

articulo nono tantum serrate, clavam simulantes.

(1. 7. dermestoides, L., fr.; 2. T. obfusus, Curtis, r.)

of Buprestidz and Elatcride. 333

Sectio Secunda.

Mandibule fimbriatze. Scrobiculi antennarii capitis nulli.

Prosternum procursu Jabiali manifesto, ab epimeris incisura

acuta utrinque discreto.

Tribus 3. Elaterini.

Mandibule bifidee.

Maxille malis binis, triangulis, dense barbatis.

Mentum trapezoideum.

Lingua ampla, tenuis, membranacea, barbata, stipites palpo-

rum labialium valde excedens, biloba, lobis arcte contiguis, sti-

pite angusto, corneo.

Prosterni processus posticus plerumque acuminatus, mucrone

saltatorio retroverso, processum superante, vel in mucronem

saltatorium sensim transicns.

I. Segmenta ventralia cornea, preter terminale immobilia. Scrobiculi

femorales prothoracis foris occlusi. Mesosternum apice bifidum.

Oculi immersi.

A, Epimera mesothoracica coxas non attingentia.

a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.

Carprornorvs, Eschltz.

Prosternum processu postico brevissimo, mucrone saltatorio crasso.

Coleoptera prothoraci innata. Scutellum cordatum, sulcatum.

(1. C. ruficollis, L., m. fr. ; 2. C. asellus, Erichs., m. fr.)

Cryrtouyrnvus, Eschltz.

Prosternum processu postico elongato, in mucronem saltatorium

sensim transiens. Coleoptera prothoraci superposita. Scutellum

triangulum, integrum.

(1. C. quadripustulatus, Fabr., fr.; 2. C. sabulicola, Bohemay, r.;

3. C. pulchellus, L., fr.)

b. Sulci antennarii prothoracis profundi, antennas curvatas excipientes.

Lacon, Latr.

Prosternum processu postico elongato, mucrone saltatorio pro-

ducto. Coleoptera prothoraci innata.

(L. murinus, L., fr.)

B. Epimera mesothoracica coxas attingentia.

a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis profundi, antennas totas excipientes.

Lissomus, Dalm.

Sulei antennarii prothoracis decurtati, antennas curvatas exci-

334 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

pientes. Prosternum processu postico marginato, apice rotundato,

mucrone saltatorio obtecto. Tarsi articulis ternis intermediis pul-

villatis.

(L. equestris, Fabr., r.)

ADELOCERA, Latr.

Sulet antennarii prothoracis integri, antennas directas excipientes.

Prosternum processu postico elongato, in mucronem saltatorium

sensim transiens. Tarsi pulvillis carentes. Hpisterna metathoracica

epipleuris elytrorum tota obtecta.

(A. lepidoptera, Panz., in timber-yards, r.)

b. Sulci antennarii prothoracis brevissimi, obscuri vel nulli.

@. Unguiculi serrati. Antenne areis poriferis manifestis. Elytra

costa laterali evanida.

Me tanotvs, Eschltz.

Palpi securiformes. Prosternum processu postico crasso, in mu-

cronem saltatorium sensim transiens. Sulcei antennari prothoracis

brevissimi. rons laminata.

(1. M. niger, Panz., r.; 2. M. brunnipes, Germ., r.; 3. M. cas-

tanipes, Payk., fr.')

Aprastus, Meg.

Palpi articulo terminali acuminato. Prosternum processu postico

acuto, mucrone saltatorio valde discreto. Sulci antennarii prothoracis

nulli. Frons deflexa.

(A. limbatus, F., fr.)

8. Unguiculi inermes.

+ Tarsi pulvillis carentes.

Exater, L.

TABULA SYNOPTICA SUBGENERUM.

1. Prosterni processus posticus mucrone saltatorio manifesto, discreto.

Elytra costa laterali evanida.

A. Sulei antennarii prothoracis brevissimi.

a. Frons deflexa.

* Epimera prothoracis dentata. Anguli antici prothoracis defl exi.

Antenne utriusque sexus areis poriferis manifestis.

I ites Eschltz.

ke E. aterrimus, L., fr.; 2. E. pilosus, Panz., r.; 3. £. pallidu-

1 A. The eyes granulated ; posterior corners of the pronotum with short

dorsal ridge ; hind feet not longer than tibiz ; hairy covering of antennz

the same in both sexes (M. niger, M. brunnipes). B. Eyes smooth, the

ridge on the hind corners of pronotum continued forwards along the sides;

hind feet longer than tibia: ; antenne of male woolly underneath (J. cas-

tantpes). Prof. Schiddte does not admit Cratonychus rufipes, Erichs.

(Germar, Zeits. ili. 96. 8) as a species distinct from M. castanipes, Payk.,

and states that EH. bicolor, Fabr., is a very different, southern species.

of Buprestide and Flateride. 335

lus, Illig., fr.; 4. H. sputator, L., fr.; 5. FE. obscurus, L., fr.

6. E. lineatus, L., fr.; 7. EH. ustulatus, Schaller, r.; 8. H. margi-

natus, L., fr.) ;

** Epimera prothoracis inermia. Anguli antici prothoracis por-

recti. Antenne maris poris mndigestis, feminis areis poriferis

manifestis.

2. Sericosomus, Serv.

(Z. brunneus, L., m., fr.)

6, Frons laminata. Coxze postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte

acuminata. Antenne poris indigestis, infra crebrioribus.

3. Ampedus, Meg.

(1. #. sanguineus, Fabr., m. fr.; 2. EH. coccineus, Germ., r. ;

3. HE. dibaphus, Schiddte, m. fr.; 4. E£. cardinalis, Schiddte, r.?;

5. EH. preustus, Fabr., m. fr.; 6. 2. ephippium, Oliv., m. fr. ;

7. E. crocatus, Castelnau, r.; 8. E. elongatulus, Fabr., fr.; 9. E.

elegantulus, Germ., r.; 10. EH. balteatus, L., fr.; 11. #. nigrinus,

Payk, fr.; 12. #. ethiops, Boisd. & Lacord., r.)

B. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.

a. Frons deflexa. Coxze postice lamina femorali magna, sensim an-

gustata. Antenne areis poriferis manifestis.

4, Ludius, Latr.

(EZ. ferrugineus, L., rv.)

b. Frons lammata. Coxe postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte

acuminata. Antenne poris indigestis.

5. Ischnodes, Germ.

(EZ. sanguinicollis, Panz., r.)

1 The species are thus arranged :—A. Prosternal spine gradually pointed.

Femoral lamina of posterior coxe gradually narrowed. Pronotum longer

than broad; a. lateral edges of pronotum entire, hind corners with sharp

ridge. *Antennz deeply serrated, as long as head and pronotum; eyes granu-

lated (£. aterrimus). **Antennee filiform, as long as head and pronotum ;

eyes smooth (2. pilosus). 6. Side edges of pronotum interrupted in middle,

hind corners without ridge; antennee filiform, longer than head and pro-

notum; eyes granulated (H. pallidulus). B. Prosternal spine compressed

behind the coxe; antenne filiform; +femoral lamina of posterior cox

gradually narrowing; a. antenne longer than head and pronotum; * pro-

notum longer than broad (EH. sputator); ** pronotum broader than long

(E. obscurus and E. lineatus). 6. Antenne shorter than head and pro-

notum ; pronotum of equal length and breadth (E. ustulatus) ; t+ femoral

lamina of posterior coxie pointed (#. marginatus).

? Prof. Schiddte rejects the earlier attempts at a separation of the spe-

cies of this subgenus with entirely red elytra: he shows that the characters

adopted are unstable, and more particularly that the triangular form of the

third joint of the antennz, on which Kiesenwetter founds his A. satrapa,

is a sexual peculiarity, the second and third joints of the antenne varying

considerably in shape and size according to the sexes. The synonymy of the

336 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

2. Prosterni processus posticus in mucronem saltatorium sensim trans-

iens. Elytra costa laterali manifesta.

A. Epipleurz elytrorum pone coxas posticas evanide.

a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.

a, Frons deflexa. Coxe postice: lamina femorali ampla.

6. Meyapenthes, Kiesenw.

(£. tibialis, Boisd., r.)

B. Frons laminata. / :

* Coxe postice lamina femorali angusta, sensim acuminata.

7. Pheletes, Kiesenw.

(EZ. Bructeri, Fabr., r.)

** Coxe postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte acuminata,

8. Hypolithus, Steph.

(EZ. riparius, Fabr., m. fr.)

b. Suleci antennarii prothoracis brevissimi. Frons Jaminata.

9. Limonius, Eschltz.

(1. FE. minutus, L., fr.; 2. £. nigripes, Gyll., m. fr. ; 3. E. eylin-

dricus, Payk., fr.)

B. Epipleure elytrorum manifesta. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli

vel levissimi. Frons descendens.

10. Diacanthus, Latr.

(1. Z£. tessellatus, L., fr.; 2. L. bipustulatus, L., m. fr.; 3. LE.

two first-named species is uncertain. FE. cardinalis was first discovered by

Prof. Schiddte in Italy, but occurs also in Denmark. . dibaphus 3 has

the third jomt of the antennz triangular. The four red species are dis-

tinguished principally by the proportions of length between pronotum,

elytra, and antennz. The elytra are in £. sanguineus twice and a half

as long as the pronotum, in J. cardinalis rather less; in E. dibaphus

the proportion is twice and three quarters, and in E. coccineus about three

times. The antenne are always about one-sixth shorter in the 2? than in

the ¢; in LE. sanguineus 8 they equal the pronotum to the point of the

hind corners; in EH. dibaphus 3 and FE. coccineus g they exceed this mea-

sure not alittle; but in HL. cardinalis $ they are not longer than the pro-

notum measured along the middle line; in E. cardinalis the pronotum

equals in length its own width measured over the hind corners, whilst it is

shorter inthe three other species, from which. cardinalisis also distinguished

by the punctures being much coarser on the head and pronotum, which are

quite dull, and by the sides of the body being parallel in the middle. The

transversal dip at the base of the pronotum is very marked in all these species

except E. coccineus, where it is strikingly flat and shiny; but the extent

and depth of the middle groove varies im all four species. Nor is the co-=

lour of the hairs of any value for the distinction of these difficult species.

The antennze are black in FE. sanguineus and FE. dibaphus, brown in E.

cardinalis, and light brown in FE. coccineus.

1 Linneé’s E. tessellatus (Fauna Suec. 739) has, since the time of Olivier,

of Buprestide and Hlateride. 337

cinctus, Payk., m. fr. ; 4. L. quercus, Gyll.,r.; 5. Z. eneus, L., fr. ;

6. LZ. cruciatus, L., m. fr.; 7. H. impressus, Fabr., r.; 8. E. metal-

licus, Payk.; 9. LE. sjelandicus, r.; 10. 2. pectinicornis, L., fr. ;

11. £. castaneus, L., m. fr.’)

+t Tarsi pulvillati.

Arnovs, Eschltz.

Prosterni processus posticus in mucronem saltatorium sensim

transiens. Zlytra costa laterali manifesta. Sulcei antennarii pro-

thoracis nulli. Fons laminata.

(1. #. mutilatus, Rosenhauer, r.; 2. L. niger, L., fr.; 3. HB. rhom-

beus, Oliv.,r.; 4. #. ruficaudis, Gyli., fr.; 5. HL. vittatus, Fabr., fr. ;

6. L. subfuscus, Gyll., fr.)

generally been misunderstood; and the species thus named by Linné has

been called FE. holosericeus, Oliv., whilst the Linnean name has been given

to a different species, which Linné most probably confounded with KH. pec-

tinicornis 2, but which Miller describes in his ‘ Fauna Fredrichsdalina’

under the name of FE. sjelandicus. Prof. Schiédte has now restored the

original names to the proper species, and corrected the error which seems

to be founded on a mere mistake of Olivier’s.

1 The species are thus classified :—A. Indistinct antennal grooves near

the margins of the prothorax; antennz serrated from the fourth joint;

the anterior corners of the pronotum prominent, pointed, somewhat flat-

tened, the posterior corners short, obtuse, with obsolete ridge. The pos-

terior margin of epimera prothoracica slightly arched and undulated; pro-

sternal spine short, thick ; claw-joint of third pair of tarsi longer than their

first jomt (E. tessellatus). B. No antennal grooves; a. antenne serrated

from the fourth joint; * hind corners of pronotum without ridge; anterior

corners of pronotum deflected, the postericr margin of pronotum obtusely

bidentate; prosterual spine short, thick; legs slender; claw-joint of hind

tarsi a little longer than the first jomt (H. bipustulatus) ; ** hind corners

of pronotum with sharp ridge; 7 posterior margin of epimera prothoracica

bidentate, the inner tooth pointed; anterior corners of pronotum more or

Jess deflected ; prosternal spine long, thin, pointed; legs slender; claw-

joint of third pair of tarsi longer than the basal joint (2. cinctus, E. quer-

cus); }f posterior margin of epimera prothoracica angulate or obtusely

bidentate ; anterior corners of pronotum pointed, produced ; prosternal

spine long, gradually acuminated, with a more or less prominent knob

before the pomt; legs powerful; claw-joint of hind tarsi club-shaped,

longer than basal jomt; claws long and powerful ; § posterior margin of

epimera prothoracica angulate; antennz with small, lightly impressed,

poriferous spots (E. eneus); §§ posterior margin of epimera prothoracica

obtusely bidentate ; antennze without poriferous spots (E. cruciatus, E.im-

pressus, E. metallicus). b. antennz serrated from the third joint ; anterior

corners of pronotum produced, pointed; scutellum cordate; legs power-

ful; claw-joint of third pair of tarsi club-shaped, longer than basal joint ;

claws long. powerful ; * posterior margin of epimera prothoracica arched,

slightly undulated; prosternal spine long; posterior corners of pronotum

ridged (H. sjelandicus, E. pectinicornis); ** posterior margin of epimera

prothoracica obtusely bidentate ; prosternal spe short; hind corners of

pronotum without ridge (E. castaneus).

338 Miscellaneous.

IT. Segmenta ventralia margine laterali membranacea, mobilia. Scrobiculi

femorales prothoracis foris aperti. Mesosternum apice acutum. Oculi

exsertl.

Campylus, Fisch.

Elytra prothoraci superposita. Hpimera mesothoracica coxas at-

tingentia. Oculi exserti, granulati. rons laminata. Sulei anten-

narii nulli. Prosterni processus in mucronem saltatorium sensim

transiens. Cove postice lamina femorali angustissima. L/ytra costa

marginali integra, planiuscula, recta, post coxas posticas non inflecta.

Segmentum quintum abdominis in femina post rotundatum, in

mare truncatum, medio productum, segmentum sextum haud ob-

tegens.

(1. C. linearis, L., fr.; 2. C. denticollis, Fabr., r.)

MISCELLANEOUS.

Scheuchzeria palustris, Linn.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural Mistory.

GENTLEMEN,—With great pleasure I am enabled to record that

the Rev. O. M. Fielden, incumbent of Welsh Frankton, Shropshire,

has this summer (1866) detected this rare plant growing in Welsh

Hampton Moss, Shropshire, and thus has added a second Shropshire

locality, and a fifth British one. Only three specimens were found,

one of which is now before me.

I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c.

W. A. LEIGHTON.

Shrewsbury, Sept. 24, 1866.

On the Long-eared or Mule Deer of North America (Kucervus).

By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., &e.

The Long-eared or Mule Deer of the Western States of North

America are very imperfectly known in Europe; and the examina-

tion of the horns, which I had not before seen, has shown me that

they have been very erroneously placed with the genus Cariacus.

Dr. Spencer Baird, in his excellent work on the Mammals of North

America, has formed for them a distinct section of his genus Cervus.

The Cariaci or Savanna Deer have the upper part of the beam

of the horns curved forward, with the upper branches arising from

its hinder edge ; they generally have a single subbasal snag some

distance from the base; and the outside of the metatarsus has a

short broad gland. The skull is elongate, narrow, and the subor-

bital pit is small. The Mule Deer, on the contrary, have a doubly

forked suberect horn, like the genera Blastocerus and Furcifer of

South and tropical America. They differ from both these genera in

having a large elongated gland on the outside of the metatarsus,

rather differently formed horns, and a broad short skull.

To this group I propose to give the generic name of Eucrrvus.

Miscellaneous. 339

It is characterized by the horns being doubly forked, the forks being

nearly equal. There is sometimes a small snag on the inner side of

the lower part of the beam; but this is often wanting. ‘The outside

of the metatarsus has a large elongated gland. Hoofs triangular,

narrow. The skull broad; suborbital pit large, triangular. The

skulls of both sexes are described in my ‘Catalogue of Ungulate

Mammalia in the British Museum,’ p. 283. There are two well-de-

scribed species found in the Western States of North America, viz.:—

1. EUCERVUS MACROTIS.

Cervus macrotis, Say; Spencer Baird, Mamm. N. A. 657, f. 19, 20

(horns), t. 23. f. 1 (feet).

C. auritus, Warden.

Rump white. “Tail cylindrical, a little longer than the ears, very

slender, naked beneath, except at the end, which is a black tuft.”’

2. Evcervus CoLuMBIANUS.

Cervus Columbianus, Richardson, F. B.-A. t. 20; Spencer Baird, Mamm.

N. A. 659, f. 22, 23 (horns), t. 23. f. 2 (feet).

2C. Lewisii, Peale.

Rump like back. “Tail cylindrical, hairy and white beneath,

almost entirely black at the base.”

Mr. Titian Peale describes the hoofs of his Mule Deer as different

from those of the Black-tailed Deer ; but Dr. Spencer Baird says that

the hoofs of both the species he describes were alike and slender ;

so that perhaps Mr. Peale’s animal may be a third species of the

genus, characterized by the hoof, like the Elk and the Wapiti.

On the Development of the Myzostoma. By E. Mecznixorr.

The Myzostoma, parasites of the Comatule, notwithstanding re-

peated investigations, still occupy an uncertain position in the zoo-

logical scale. The most recent observers, such as M. Semper, seem

inclined to approximate them to the Arthropoda.

The author has arrived at a different conclusion. It is among the

Annelids that he seeks the nearest allies of the Myzostoma, found-

ing this view upon the development of the parasite, which he has

been able to investigate partially by the aid of artificial fecundation.

The young larva, which is at first ciliated, soon presents rudiments

of setigerous pedal rami. Such a larva certainly presents no resem-

blance to a Nauplius, nor does it possess the facies of an Acarian or

Tardigrade, which has been supposed to be recognizable in the figures

given by Semper.

The Myzostoma would therefore be parasitic Annelids. Their

skin, moreover, presents a structure similar to that of Annelids, in-

asmuch as its cuticle is set with bundles of vibratile cilia, a character

which is not presented by other classes of worms. The papilliferous

trunk of the Myzostoma is hardly to be discriminated from that of

the Geryones or Phyllodocee. ‘Their ramified intestine is merely a

40 Miscellaneous.

repetition of that of the Aphroditacee. Their feet are simple rami,

which have no relation to the limbs of the Arthropoda.

It must, however, be admitted that the reproductive organs of the

Myzostoma differ considerably from those of the true Annelids.

Leaving out of consideration their hermaphroditism, which occurs

also among certain polycheetous Annelids, the existence of a cloaca

deserves to be especially indicated.

The deferent canals are also exceptional, at least unless we com-

pare them with the segmentary organs of those Cheetopoda which

have only a single pair (Parthenope). The existence of ventral

suckers is a peculiarity of little importance, and in accordance with

the conditions of parasitism. Moreover a sucking-disk is met with

in the Leucodore among Cheetopoda.—Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. xvi.;

Bibl. Univ. 1866, Bull. Sct. p. 153.

On the Synonymy and Geographical Distribution of Jussivea repens

(Linn.). By C. Martins.

Having for the last four years cultivated one of the species of

Jussica under the most varied conditions of dryness and moisture

and shade and light, I have been able to demonstrate how the form,

the size, the pubescence of the leaves, the size of the flowers, and,

indeed, the entire habit of the plant were subject to vary. After

having familiarized myself with all these forms, I consulted the her-

baria, and personally visited those of the museum and of MM. De-

lessert and Cosson at Paris, of Delile and Cambessides at Montpel-

lier, and of M. de Candolle at Geneva. Dr. Hooker, at my request,

was good enough to go through that of Kew, and M. Boissier that

which he possesses at Geneva. From this examination it results

that Jussica repens, described by Linné in 1747*, has since received

twelve different names: namely, J. adscendens, Linn.; J. diffusa,

Forsk.; J. grandiflora, Mich.; J. peploides, H. J. Kunth; J. fluvialis,

Blume; J. ramulosa, De C.; J. swartziana, De C.; J. stolonifera,

Guill. et Per.; J. alter nifolia, E . Meyer; J.austr alatica, Ferd. Miill. ;

and J. fluitans, Hochst.

I am not the first botanist who has perceived that some of these

names do not represent species, but simple varieties. Linné, De

Candolle, Sir William Hooker, Schiede and Ehrenberg, Torrey and

Asa Gray, Hasskarl, Miguel and Grisebach each united some of

them, but without regarding them all as mere modifications of one

and the same specific ‘type.

This multifarious synonymy has nothing extraordinary in it ; it

may be explained by the immense area which Jusste@a repens occu-

pies on the surface of the globe, as much as by the variability of its

form, every botanist hesitating to recognize an Indian species in an

African, American, or Australian plant. This great extension jus-

tifies the law laid down in the first place for Lapland alone by Linnéf,

and since extended to the whole world by A. de Candolle{—namely,

* Flora Zeylanica, p. 75. t Flora Lapponica, Prolegomena, § 31.

{ Géographie botanique, p. 1005,

Miscellaneous. 341

that the aquatic plants have the most extended area. Setting

books aside, I have been able to follow this species from station to

station, by means of the authentic specimens deposited in the her-

baria, in Asia, Oceania, Africa, and America. In Africa it extends

without interruption from Bone (in Algeria) to the Cape of Good

Hope, over 61 degrees of latitude, and in longitude from the mouths

of the Senegal to the islands of Mauritius and Réunion—that is to

say, over 73 degrees. In Asia I have myself collected this plant in

the marshes of Alexandretta in Syria, and it may be traced into

India as far as Ceylon, and across the archipelago of the Philippines

and the Sunda Islands as far as the south of Australia. This area

includes 112 degrees of longitude and 73 degrees of latitude. In

America the extreme points are, in the north Kentucky, and in the

south the Rio de la Plata, giving 72 degrees ; and from east to west

Mexico and Bahia, or 60 degrees of longitude.

Thus Jussie@a repens occupies a broad band passing all round the

globe, of which the two extreme borders parallel to the equator, in

the northern and southern hemispheres, are distant each 35 degrees

from the equinoctial line.

Further investigations pursued in the same spirit will probably

show that this example is not isolated; and already M. Ernest Cos-

son* has indicated an aquatic grass, Leersia hevxandra, Swartz, the

geographical extension of which is not less, and its botanical syno-

nymy equally complicated.—Comptes Rendus, 9th July, 1866,

pp. 39-41.

Note on a Regular Dimerous Flower of Cypripedium candidum.

By Asa Gray.

Mr. J. A. Paine, junr., of New York, who two years ago de-

tected an interesting monstrosity of Pogonia ophioglossoides, has

now brought to me, preserved in spirit, a monstrous blossom of

Cypripedium candidum, which demands a record.

The plant bears two flowers: the axillary one is normal; the

terminal one exhibits the following peculiarities. The lower part of

the bract forms a sheath which encloses the ovary. The labellum

is wanting ; and there are two sterile stamens, the supernumerary

one being opposite the other, z. e. on the side of the style where the

labellum belongs. Accordingly the first impression would be that

the labellum is here transformed into a sterile stamen. The latter,

however, agrees with the normal sterile stamen in its insertion as

well as in shape, being equally adnate to the base of the style.

Moreover the anteposed sepal is exactly like the other, has a good

midrib and an entire point. As the two sterile stamens are ante-

posed to the two sepals, so are the two fertile stamens to the two

petals, and the latter are adnate to the style a little higher than the

former. The style is longer than usual, is straight and erect; the

broad, disciform stigma therefore faces upwards; it is oval and

symmetrical, and a light groove across its middle shows it to be

* Flore Algérienne, 4to, t. i. p. 18.

342 Miscellaneous.

dimerous. ‘The placente, accordingly, are only two. The groove

on the stigma and the placentze are in line with the fertile stamens.

Here, therefore, is a symmetrical and complete, regular but

dimerous orchideous flower, the first verticil of stamens not antheri-

ferous, the second antheriferous, the carpels alternate with these ;

and here we have clear (and perhaps the first direct ) demonstration

that the orchideous type of flower has two stamineal verticils, as

Brown always insisted.—Silliman’s Journal, September 1866.

Boussingault’s Researches on the Action of Foliage.

A full abstract of the first part of these investigations, communi-

cated to the French Academy of Sciences, is given in the ‘ Comptes

Rendus,’ vol. lx. no. 18 (May 1865). Theodore Saussure had long

ago ascertained that, while plants prosper and decompose carbonic

acid gas in an atmosphere containing as much as one-twelfth or even

one-eighth part of that gas, they promptly perish in unmixed car-

bonic acid, apparently without decomposing any of it. Boussingault

made his experiments in a better form, upon leaves only, avoiding all

complication of the action of the roots or other parts of the plant.

His results are :—

1. That leaves exposed to sunshine in pure carbonic acid do not

decompose this gas at all, or only with extreme slowness.

2. But in a mixture with atmospheric air, they decompose carbonic

acid rapidly. The oxygen of the atmospheric air, however, appears

to play no part.

3. Leaves decompose carbonic acid in sunshine as readily when

this gas is mixed with nitrogen or with hydrogen.

Although this decomposition of carbonic acid by green foliage must

be a case of dissociation—a separation of carbon from oxygen—yet

Boussingault recognizes an analogy here with an opposite pheno-

menon, viz. with the slow combustion of phosphorus at the ordinary

temperature. Phosphorus in pure oxygen emits no light, does not

sensibly undergo combustion, but does so in a mixture of oxygen with

atmospheric air, or with nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic acid. The

analogy may even be carried further ; for while a stick of phospho-

rus is not phosphorescent in pure oxygen at ordinary or increased

pressure, it becomes so in rarified oxygen. And Boussingault equally

ascertained that leaves which exerted no sensible action upon pure

carbonic acid at ordinary pressure, decomposed it, with the liberation

of oxygen gas, under diminished pressure. That is, rarefaction and

mixture with an inert gas act alike in mechanically separating the

atoms, whether of carbonic acid, as in the one case, or of oxygen, as

in the other, so as to determine the action either of combination or

of dissociation.

In acontinuation of these investigations (Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixi.,

Sept. 25, 1865), Boussingault shows that carbonic oxide, whether

pure or diluted, is not decomposable by foliage, and that this inert-

ness of green foliage upon carbonic oxide goes to confirm the opinion

maintained in his ‘ Economie Rurale,’ that leaves simultaneously de-

Miscellaneous. 343

compose carbonic acid and water, CO°, HO=CO, H, O*: the O°

being liberated, CO, H expresses the relation under which carbon is

united with the elements of water in cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., 7. e.

in the important principles elaborated by the leaves, the composition

of which is represented by carbon and water. He goes on to prove

that a leaf which has been decomposing carbonic acid and water all

day long is capable of doing the same work the next day, if not

allowed to dry; but the losing of a certain amount of water annihi-

lates this faculty, and irremediably destroys the life of the cells of a

leaf, vegetable life in this state being far less tenacious than that of

some of the lower animals (Tardigrades, Notipes, &c.), which bear

wonderful desiccation.

The third instalment of the investigation is given in Nos. 16 and

17 of the same volume (Oct. 16 and 23,1865). It appears that de-

tached leaves, kept in shade for many days, with the cut end of the

petiole in water to prevent desiccation, preserve the power of decom-

posing carbonic acid whenever brought into sunshine. But for this

they must be kept in an atmosphere containing a supply of oxygen ;

without this they soon die, as Boussingault thinks, from asphyxia.

This oxygen in darkness is slowly transformed into carbonic acid,

through an operation which is presumed to go on continually, whether

in light or darkness, and to answer to respiration. Of course a healthy

and active leaf decomposes far more carbonic acid in the light than

it forms in darkness. In eighteen experiments with oleander-leaves

exposed to the sun from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. in an atmosphere rich in

carbonic acid, a square metre of foliage decomposed on the average

over a litre of carbonic acid per hour, while in darkness only >> of

a litre of carbonic acid was produced per hour. In air which con-

tains oxygen and carbonic acid, leaves will go on indefinitely pro-

ducing oxygen in the presence of carbonic acid, and carbonic acid in

the presence of oxygen. But the latter, though relatively small in

amount, seems to be necessary to the preservation of their vitality.

In hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, or nitrogen, as well as in pure

carbonic acid, they soon lose their decomposing power, and die from

the impossibility of respiration, 7. e. are asphyxiated.

Leaves confined in a limited portion of atmospheric or other air

over mercury Jose the power of decomposing carbonic acid; and the

experiments pretty clearly show that they lose it through the dele-

terious action of the vapour of mercury. It is thought remarkable

that the leaf does not under these circumstances at all lose the power

of transforming oxygen into carbonic acid; but that is what we

should expect; for the carbonic acid so evolved (whether its evolu-

tion be called respiration or not) must be a product of decomposition

of the leaf’s contents or substance.

We owe to Boussingault and his assistant Lewy the idea of deter-

mining the composition of the air contained in a fertile soil, and the

fact that this air in a strongly manured soil contains a very large

percentage of carbonic acid. Boussingault has now devised an ex-

periment by which the air contained in a branch of an oleander in

full vegetation was extracted. It proved to be, nitrogen 88°01 per

344 Miscellaneous.

cent., oxygen 6°64 per cent., carbonic acid 5°35 per cent., being about

the composition of the air from a well-manured soil. This carbonic

acid carried into the leaves with the sap, and also that which they

may absorb directly from the atmosphere, decomposed along with

water under sunlight, must be the source of the glucose (C° H” O”)

which it is the principal function of foliage to produce. This glu-

cose, in fixing or abandoning the elements of water, becomes sugar,

starch, cellulose, or other hydrates of carbon, which, in whatever part

of the plant accumulated or deposited, and however transformed or

retransformed, must always have originated from carbonic acid and

water in the green parts of plants. In closing his present paper

with some illustrations of this now familiar view, Boussingault an-

nounces that his more recent experiments will enable him to demon-

strate the direct formation of saccharine matter by the green parts of

vegetables exposed to the light.—Silliman’s American Journal, July

1866.

Observations on a Malady of the Cotton-plant, called ‘‘ Pelagra,’”’

and on some Fungi which accompany it. By G. GASPARRINI.

In the summer of 1863 some cotton-plants cultivated in the pro-

vince of Naples were attacked by a disease which alarmed the culti-

vators, who have become frightened about the attacks of Mucedinee,

in consequence of the ravages of Oidiwm. The author examined the

blackened stems of the plants attacked, and detected several Fungi

of the family Mucedineze—amongst others Alternaria tenuis. This

production did not appear to him to be autonomous, but one of the

conidic forms of a small fungus of higher order, namely Pleospora

(Spheria) herbacea. Ue regards Penicillium glaucum as a gonidie

form of Alternaria. 'These, however, are pure hypotheses.

M. Gasparrini does not attribute the disease of the cotton-piant

to these plants, but considers it to be due to meteorological condi-

tions. — Bibl. Univ. 1866, Bull. Sct. p. 167.

Fossil Meduse.

Professor Haeckel of Jena, who in 1865 called attention to the

existence of well-preserved Medusze in the lithographic slates of

Eichstadt, belonging probably to the families of Auquoride and Tra-

chynemidee, has published, in a recent number of ‘ Leonhard und

Geinitz’s Jahrbuch,’ a second notice of two other species of Medusze

so well preserved that the family to which they belong can be ascer-

tained beyond doubt. They are from the same locality, and belong

to the Discophore, to the family of Rhizostemidee. The restoration

which Professor Haeckel has been able to make from the specimens

in his possession is quite satisfactory ; and the attention of geologists

having been called to this subject, we may expect further interesting

developments in the history of Acalephee, since it is now well known

that even at the present time a kind of petrifaction of jellyfishes,

when thrown upon sandy beaches, readily takes place.—Silliman’s

American Journal, July 1866.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. |

No. 107. NOVEMBER 1866.

XLV.—Outline of a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton; being

an Epitome of a Paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical

Society, Feb. 26,1866. By Harry G. Szrxey, F.G.S., of

the Woodwardian Museum in the University of Cambridge.

By a theory of the skull I mean a way of presenting a set of

well-known facts so that they explain themselves; for a theory

should ever be a continuity of facts.

The value and homology of bones varies so much with the

theoretical views used to interpret them, that, with the number

of cranial theories on record, it were hard clearly to describe a

skull without attempting to co-ordinate the rival views of its

structure. Differing in detail, these all affirm, and some attempt

to prove, one side or other of the antithesis, that either the skull

is a chain of vertebre or that it no more consists of a series of

vertebree than the vertebral column consists of a series of skulls.

There is much to be said in favour of both these views, from

every consideration they involve. Every one is familiar with the

beautiful way in which Professor Owen brought together brain

and brain-case from the whole vertebrate province, till the con-

viction dawned on his reader that a skull was but another name

for the first four of an animal’s vertebree. Nor will Professor

Huxley’s lucid demonstration be less remembered, reiterated

through one vertebrate class after another till we willingly be-

lieve, as he would have us, that a skull is a skull—a complex

structure, with three segments forming one organ, a brain-case,

and two segments forming a face, while sets of bones for special

senses close up the eyes and the ears. To the human anatomist

considering the human skull it may be a very trivial matter

whether he accept one view or the other; but with the compa-

rative anatomist, ever discovering new animals, and often only

guided to their true affinities by the skull, different theories

give a very different value to arrangements and bones which are

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol, xviii. 2

346 Mr. H.G. Seeley on a Theory

new. And hence, until an attempt is made to discover how far

these theories may be different ways of presenting the same

truth, and how far they fall short of being true, it will be im-

possible to compare the facts which they attempt to explain.

When one master examines the lowest form of Vertebrate life,

the cranium appears to be a continuation of the vertebral column;

when another master expounds the highest forms of life, it ap-

pears to be a distinct structure, and not to consist of vertebree.

I do not propose to offer anything in this paper which shall be

in antagonism with either of these theories.

But it is no less remarkable than patent that, although one

Professor has long battled to show that the skull is so many

vertebrae, and another Professor battles to show that it is not,

no one has discussed the nature of vertebra, or considered whe-

ther it were possible to have a theory of the skull founded in

truth before making a theory of a vertebra. In all these specu-

lations a vertebra is regarded as a fundamental principle, as ele-

mentary as hydrogen or oxygen to the chemist; and though

Professor Owen has classified it into exogenous parts and auto-

genous parts, no attempt is made to show why it has these

parts; and until this is done, I fail to see how it is possible to

effect any kind of comparison between a vertebra and a skull;

for vertebree from different animals and from different parts of

the same animal vary so much among themselves, that until the

principle of the law of variation as well as the law of persistence

in structures is known, it will be hard to say whether the ele-

ments of vertebre are or are not modified into skulls, and whe-

ther, if so modified, the segments of skulls can in any rational

sense be called vertebre.

Now vertebre consist of several ossifications, 7.e. of bones

which in various degrees grow. This change and substitution

of structure is obviously due to force, and must either be of the

kind which assists the first development of seeds (in which

case it may perhaps at present fitly be called the embryonic or

developmental force), or it must be due to the mechanical force

of the atmosphere or water, or of one structure or function of

the animal modifying another. If it is found, from abstract

mechanical principles, that growth must take place under the

influence of certain mechanical forces, and if it is found, from

pathological observation, that growth does occur under these in-

fluences, then, should it be found in healthy structures that in-

tensity of growth varies with the intensity of the forces, it will

be proved that their action is a cause of normal growth. Then

it would be possible, from morphology, to show that the same

causes which developed the bones originally called them into

existence. And therefore, if it is found, in the development of an

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 347

animal after birth, that the developmental force and the other

forces jointly tend to produce growth in the same direction,

which depends on the morphology of the animal, coimciding in

results, they will be admitted to be different forms of the same

force, originally due to the same cause, namely motion. In

this way I shall first try to account for the growth of bone.

The forces acting on bones must be from within or from with-

out ; and therefore every such force will in its effect be either of

the nature of an impact or of an explosion. The forces acting on

the animal are the media in which it lives (as air and water), the

air it breathes and the food it eats; while the mechanical forces

acting within the animal will be the muscles, vessels, viscera, &c.

All these can only produce alternations of pressure and tension

and rest. These, therefore, are the stimulants to growth. But

growth is an enlargement in which the particles expand and in-

crease externally. And as this cannot be favoured, but rather

resisted, by pressure, it becomes evident that the actual increase

must take place when the pressure is removed. Therefore, since

rest must be purely negative as a force, the stimulant to growth

is pressure and tension.

The first and most obvious source of these powers is the

muscles; while the more they are used to propel the animal

through the resisting air or water, the greater will be the equi-

valent of general pressure on the bones.

Thus if we take a limb-bone (the humerus, for instance), it

will be found most extended in the direction between the radius

and the scapula, in which it has to support the weight of the

carcase ; and if the ends of the bone are examined, where mus-

cles are attached or press tightly, it will be found that growth

has extended outward more rapidly than in the body of the

shaft, where there is no direct tension, but only a lateral pres-

sure.

But the resistance of the atmosphere produces a different

series of modifications. It appears to be a mechanical principle,

that if pressure be applied to the outside of a cylinder, it will in

effect be relatively equivalent to reducing the pressure within.

And it is found, from observations in paralysis and other affec-

tions, and in the aged skeleton, that when, from failing vitality,

motion is less and the muscles become less powerful (that

is, when the pressure is reduced), the bone to some extent

dies, and, from the dead part being carried away, becomes

smaller and lighter. Now, the effect of motion through the air

is relatively to diminish the pressure in the interior of the bones.

And therefore it is found, in the sluggish Sloth, that the limb-

bones are solid, that the active Mammals have large medullary

cavities, while in the more active class of Birds the cavities be-

2476

348 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

come larger still. In this class, as in the subclass Saurornia,

founded on the Pterodactyles, the process goes on till even the

marrow disappears in the bones most used in motion, and their

wonderfully thin walls become filled with hot air from the

lungs.

Now it becomes necessary to consider in what manner pres-

sure from muscles and other internal forces can act on the bones

so as to produce growth; and here I would draw the illustration

from pathology. Inflammation, in- effect, is pressure; and

whenever inflammation extends to the periosteum, that struc-

ture is excited to a morbid rapidity of action, and the bone

immediately beneath is thickened: hyperostosis is defined to be

a thickening and condensation of the shaft from inflammation.

Nor is the pathology of the heart and the lung less suggestive

where it shows, as is well known, that muscle may be inflamed,

indurated, and changed into cartilage, which undergoes a partial

change into bone, though, from the nature of the case, the last

change can never advance very far, except in the lung, which

may be replaced by muscle and well-developed bones.

Therefore, seeing that the effect of motion is a succession of

falls, every one of which gives a powerful blow to the bones, and

that no muscle can be moved without both pulling and pressing

bones, we have an irritating cause, similar in kind though less

in degree to that which results in abnormal growth. And

accordingly it is found that the greater the activity (that is, the

nearer the approach to an inflammatory condition) the more

extensive will be the ossification.

Thus in the wild animal, which uses its muscles more vigo-

rously than the tame animal, the ridges and processes for the

attachment of muscles are more developed. In the limbs a

trochanter appears as a separate ossification, where powerful

muscles are attached. The marsupial muscles, which are small

in man, become largely developed in the Didelphia, and create

the marsupial bones.

Now it remains to show that the intensity of growth depends

on the amount of the pressure and tension in the direction of

the increase. Dr. Humphrey tells us that bones are densest in

those parts which are subject to the greatest mechanical stress,

and hardest in those persons who are strongest and most active.

Here the intensity of ossification clearly depends on the pres-

sure. And, again, it is observed that bones are most curved in

those persons whose muscular strength is greatest—that is to

say, where the pressure resulting from muscular action is the

greatest ; while weak persons, on the contrary, have compara-

tively straight bones. And thus it is seen that, even in the

individual, the form of the bone varies with the relative power

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 349

of the muscles. And so when the humerus of an active burrow-

ing animal, like the mole, is compared with a humerus where

the limb is merely used as a prop and does not meet with the

like lateral resistance, it is found that it is so enormously

expanded laterally as to be nearly as broad as it is long, instead

of presenting a simple cylindrical shaft. But the best examples

will be found in animals which use the limbs differently. Thus

in the frogs, which use the hind limbs chiefly in leaping, it is

found that they are longer than the fore limbs: this, too, is

characteristic of the kangaroo and jerboas, of struthious birds,

and of man; nor can an example be cited where an animal uses

its hind limbs more than the fore limbs without their attaming

to a greater length,—bhecause, as we saw at the outset, to use a

limb is to bring to bear on it the pressure of all its muscles and

the carcase, which were seen to be the stimulants to growth.

Thus, too, birds of powerful flight have the fore limbs developed

enormously ; while in those which do not fly, and therefore

where but little pressure can be brought to the bones, these

limbs are extremely small.

Thus it has been attempted to prove by various arguments

that pressure and tension is a cause of growth in bones.

To show that the same cause which developes bones originally

calls them into existence, it is only necessary to reverse the

argument, and show that the less the pressure the less the

ossification, until at last, where pressure and tension cease, the

bones are lost.

But there are a few simple facts which, exhibiting the forma-

tion of osseous particles where they are normally absent, are

worth mentioning: one is ossification of the heart, and another

the union of fracture in the costal cartilages by bone, just as in

birds they become ossified normally ; and a third is the signifi-

cant fact that ossification in the foetal cartilage first appears

around the artery which supplies it—that is, at the first place

where pressure can be exhibited. And it seems indisputable

that if there had been no inflammatory pressure the heart would

never have ossified, and that, but for the pressure of the artery,

the fcetal cartilage would not have been converted into bone.

This, therefore, I take to be proved ; and we shall presently see,

when considering the ribs, that pressure is capable of producing

not only growth, but new bones also.

It remains now to show that the developmental force (if such

a power exist distinct from vitality, of which I see no easy proof)

is the same in effect as pressure, and must be regarded as

only an inherited result of pressure and tension. Thus Dr.

Humphrey tells us that in the foetal cartilage the curves and

processes are already modelled which afterwards characterize

350 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

the bones. Now this may either be a result, as by all analogy

would seem natural, of the formation of the foetal muscles

which are attached to it, or may be referred to the same force

(if such is assumed to exist) which gives the individual his form.

But the foetal cartilage is a minute model of the adult bone. I

therefore cannot but conclude that the same forces which deve-

loped the adult bone also developed the foetal cartilage, and that

the pressure of the uterus and the tension of the muscular fibres

could not have failed to produce the same result at one period

of life as similar pressure and tension do at another.

Having thus glanced at the nature of growth in the abstract,

as seen in a single ossification, we will now briefly examine the

conditions exhibited by the more complex bones, which show

several distinct osseous parts. Thus, as is well known, the

humerus or femur or the bodies of vertebrze consist, as a rule, of

three pieces, each of which ossifies from a distinct centre, and is

therefore in that sense a distinct bone. Now, since it has been

seen that all ossification takes place under the influence of pres-

sure and tension, we have no other forces at command to which

to attribute the formation of these terminal parts called epi-

physes.

The turtle shows no epiphyses in its limbs; and in a section

of a femur of a young crocodile, kindly made for me by Mr. J.

W. Clark, I was unable to distinguish epiphyses ; and it is well

known that these sluggish animals do not subject the bones to

enormous pressure in their crawling motion: but when the ac-

tivity becomes greater and the pressure is increased, then epi-

physes appear, as in the frog, where they long remain separate.

And in the case of a limb-bone, it is worth considering that

when the limb comes to the ground, it receives a blow at each

of its ends, equivalent to the weight it supports, and varying

with the power with which the limb strikes the ground. Here,

then, it is seen that special pressure, if powerful enough and

maintained, developes special ossification, just as the ordinary

pressure of the atmosphere, the muscles, and the weight of the

body developed the original bone. And hence it is found that

in the phalanges, metatarsals, and metacarpals there is commonly

but one epiphysis, because, from the way m which the bones are

applied to the ground, the pressure takes place at one extremity

only.

iebebver there can be no doubt that atmospheric pressure,

which holds the bones together so well, must also be a powerful

stimulant to ossification.

The ligaments, too, by their resistance all help the epiphysial

formation.

And when it is seen that the trochanters appear under the

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 351

influence of the muscles, it is obvious that those muscles which

are inserted at the extremities of bones must exercise a powerful

influence on the formation of epiphyses. Therefore epiphyses

and processes are to be looked for wherever the pressure and

tension on a bone become more than sufficient to continue ossi-

fication. Now just as ossified epiphyses are not to be found in

bones where the pressure at the ends is small, so it would be

expected that in cases where the pressure and tension of the

bone is almost entirely at the ends, and the shaft does not

support the animal, the epiphyses should be enormously large,

while the shaft would be smal]. And in Plesiosaurs this is

actually found to be the case; for the large limbs, swimming

powerfully through the yielding water, have experienced an

enormous lateral tension at the ends of the long bones without

any greater pressure in the direction of length. And therefore

it happens that the ends of the epiphyses which are attached to

the shaft become conical and penetrate down the girdling shaft

till they meet im the middle of the bone; and, as might be anti-

cipated, that of the distal end is much the larger one. There-

fore it would seem possible, if the muscles attached were small,

and the bones so placed as only to experience tension and no

direct pressure, that the shaft might altogether disappear, and

only the two epiphyses remain, as I am inclined to suggest

may be the case with the bones which are called tarsal and

carpal—a conclusion to which I am led by a consideration of

the bones called the tarso-metatarsus in birds, which may be a

case in which the tarsus does develope a shaft; and if so, then

the metatarsals, like the phalanges, as is usual in the other

Sauropsida, will be applied to the ground. There can be no

@ priori reason for supposing that the tarsals and metatarsals

should unite together to form one bone; and all the facts of

osteology point ‘to their remaining separate ; while an erect po-

sition for the metatarsal bone in a clawed animal is unusual,

and only partial even in jumping jerboas, which it characterizes.

The careful dissections of the leg in the ostrich and crocodile

&e. by Dr. S. Haughton enable me to add a little evidence from

the: muscles. The gastrocnemius muscle in the crocodile, as is

usual, is inserted in the os calcis (and tarsal bones). It weighed

0:14 oz., while the tibialis anticus and extensor digitorum com-

munis weighed 0°11 oz. But in the ostrich the gastrocnemido-

soleus is inserted into the middle of the so-called tarso-meta-

tarsal bone, and weighs 1154 oz., while all the other muscles of

the limb and those attached from it to the body only weigh

220 oz., the tibialis anticus and extensor digitorum communis

weighing 14 0z. Now there is nothing to induce us to expect

that the gastrocnemius would be inserted in the metatarsal bone,

352 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

as it would be if the tarso-metatarsal explanation were accepted ;

for, terminating in the Achilles tendon, it is eminently the

muscle of the os calcis. And, seeing how the os calcis is elon-

gated by it in ordinary mammals, one cannot be blind to the

fact that, if the tension were increased to a power many times

as great as it is in mammals, the bone would be extended to

a much greater length. And therefore, when there is such

a great power as this huge muscle present in birds, capable of |

elongating the tarsal bones, I fail to see any reason for supposing

that the laws of osteological development liave been departed

from in birds. Therefore, when the muscles become of sufficient

power, there is every reason to believe that the tarsal bones will

follow the same law as other bones, and become elongated, de-

veloping a shaft; and hence, and for reasons indicated, under

ordinary circumstances they present the condition of epiphyses

of bones where the shafts are never formed.

And all these considerations point alike to the same general

conclusion, that one ossification may develope another, if suffi-

cient pressure and tension can be applied to its surface. And

this law appears to be equally true for the entire animal as for

a single bone. Thus in serpents, where the tension on the

vertebree is enormous, the number of vertebrz increases pro-

digiously ; while in the frog, where progression is so carried on

as scarcely to affect the spinal column, the vertebre are sur-

prisingly few. Among birds, too, where the number of vertebree

is extremely variable, it is found that those genera which use

their cervical or sacral regions most, have in those regions most

vertebrae: thus the emu and cassowary have each nineteen sacral

vertebra, while the emu has as many in the neck. And while

the swan has twenty-three cervical vertebra, and the average of

this region in Natatores, Grallatores, and Cursores is much

higher than in the other orders, on the other hand, in birds of

great flight the number of vertebrze is small. Such facts appear

to lead to the conclusion that the different regions of the body

most used experience in consequence a tendency to increase in

development.

With these remarks on the relation of structures to functions

we may now examine the constitution of the vertebre.

The body of the vertebra, or centrum, follows the law of a typi-

cal bone, and is therefore made up of two epiphyses and a shaft.

And when it is seen with what ligaments the vertebre are con-

nected, to what vibrations they are subject in motion, and what

muscles bind them together and pull them about, these powers

are the forces which develope and account for the epiphyses.

The rib in a typical animal, as a Plestosaurus, whether called

pleurapophysis or heemapophysis, is extremely short in the neck,

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 353

and supported on the lower part of the centrum. In the pec-

toral region, where the viscera first enlarge, it becomes a little

longer, and by the enlargement of the organs has its articula-

tion forced higher up the centrum. In the back, where the

viscera are at their maximum, it is found that the ribs are

longest, and that they are entirely attached to the neural arches.

In the tail these hemal arches ultimately disappear, and there

the vessels dwindle almost to nothing. Here there appears to

be an incontestable demonstration that as the internal pressure

increases so do the bones lengthen, and so do they give way be-

fore it, changing their articular place; and when the pressure

becomes reduced in the tail, the arch dwindles to two lateral

eminences, and at last is utterly lost. In other words, it is de-

ducible from observation that the development of the ribs de-

pends on the pressure to which the base of the centrum is sub-

jected hy the vessels, counteracted, of course, by pressure from

the outer muscles and media. This, indeed, we are led to ex-

pect from the fact that the ribs are not developed in relation to

the same function in animals where the lungs are rudimentary.

Thus the frog has no ribs. And thus it is found that caries of

the ribs is often associated with disease of the lungs; while the

deformity of the chest called ectopia cordis consists in a partial

or complete absence of the sternum and ribs with more or less

deficiency in the pericardium, pleura, heart, and lungs. In ser-

pents the ribs are functionally innumerable limbs. The rib in

many animals terminates at its head in an epiphysis, which arti-

culates with another epiphysis on the neural arch; while at its

distal end, in birds, where the tension of the pectoral muscles on

the sternum pulls with great power, an epiphysis is ossified and

developed to a great length. Thus the rib appears to follow the

same general Jaw as other bones; for the distention of the

thorax, both by growth and muscles and function in breathing,

performs the office of ever-acting muscles, while other muscles,

and the skin, and the atmosphere act as a great opposing power.

And in accordance with the same general law which produces

the simple ribs, it is found that between their distal ends there

is usually developed a common epiphysis, called the sternal arc.

In Plesiosaurus and animals where the exterior force acting on

them was not great, they are arranged one behind another like

the rounds of a ladder; but in Saurornia and birds, where they

came to give attachment to an enormous overgrowth of the pec-

toral muscles, all are cemented together and modified into a

sternum, the greater muscular force having produced a larger

amount of ossification. The epiphyses of ribs appear only to be

developed when the costal girdle is large and somewhat complete.

And therefore, while cervical ribs may well be regarded as epi-

354 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

physes of the body of the centrum, dorsal ribs, though the same

in origin, assume the appearance of separate bones. And thus to

alternations of pressure and tension and rest, growth of all kinds

seems to be due.

If the upper arches of the vertebral column are now examined,

they will be found united by a much more elaborate system of

hgaments than the ribs. There is the posterior common liga-

ment at the base of the arch, the supraspinous ligament above

the neural spines, the interspinous ligament, the capsular liga-

ment, and the ligamenta subflava ; and hence it is not surprising

to find that the neural arches often come close together and

underlock each other, and that the neural spines are much more

expanded in antero-posterior extent than is generally the case

with the ribs. But the neural arches present no correspondence

with the ribs in size, remaining small and singularly constant in

character. Development shows that they grow upon the first

appearance of the film of the nervous column, which growing

within and resisted by structures without produces the condi-

tions under which epiphyses are developed. Hence I conclude

that the lateral halves of the neural arch are also of the nature

of epiphyses. But the neural spine, in those animals where I

have had an opportunity of examining it, seems to be quite as

fortuitous an element as, and less constant than, the sternal are.

That bone was seen only to be developed under the combined

expansive and contractile action of the thorax or an equivalent

force ; and therefore its homologue is not to be looked for in con-

nexion with an organ of such fixed character as the spinal column,

But separated bones for the neural spine unquestionably occur,

and seem rather to owe their existence to the spinalis dorsi

muscle and the supraspinal ligament.

It has been already remarked that in certain ribs of some

animals, as the buffalo and rhinoceros, there are well-marked

epiphyses at the ends. Now I conclude from this, that just as

these ribs behave themselves like separate bones in this circum-

stance, so we are justified in believing that, hke the centra and

limb-bones, they would have produced epiphyses in any other

direction if the forces had favoured it ; and, indeed, the lateral

processes of the ribs of birds may be cited as examples of such a

modification. And it is quite possible to explain the formation

of the Chelonian carapace by regarding the plates as external

epiphysial overgrowths of the vertebral elements. And I sup-

pose that the neural arches do not develope such structures be-

tween each other only because, owing to the weakness of at-

tachment to the centrum and the absence of ligaments and

muscles of sufficient power, the strain was never great enough

to produce active ossification and the vibrating tension in which

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 355

the epiphysis takes its origin. But if it were possible that the

tension on the neural arches were ever sufficient to produce an

impact, then we might reasonably expect that the neural arch

itself, like the centrum, should have epiphyses, as, indeed, appears

sometimes to be the case between the zygapophyses. And in

fishes, where the head is very large and the connexion with the

body powerful, there appears sometimes to be such an epiphysis

developed, though it is, as perhaps was to be expected, rather an

epiphysis of the skull than of the atlas. Thus we are told, by

Mr. Robertson and others, that in the carp, for instance, if the

bar of bone which bounds the posterior extremity of the exocci-

pitals be traced from above downwards, distinct traces of sutures

will be seen between it and the exoccipitals on which it rests ;

and following it upwards another suture is found dividing it

from the supraoccipitals, so that the bars do not meet above to

form a complete arch, the supraoccipitals being prolonged back

between these two plates and forming the upper part of this

neural arch, which has no centrum of its own, but rests on the

basioccipital. Thus it is seen that epiphyses are not limited to

the limb-bones and centra of the vertebrae, but that they may

be developed on any bone if it is subjected to the requisite ten-

sion and pressure.

And from these considerations I deduce the following theory

of the vertebra—viz., that it consists of a centrum or centre of

ossification which normally developes three (or more) pairs of

epiphyses, any of which may assume the appearance of separate

bones and develope epiphyses themselves. Thus in the majo-

rity of animals there are, 1st, one pair of epiphyses at the front

and back ends of the centrum ; 2ndly, one pair above, to enclose

the neural canal; and, 3rdly, another pair to enclose the viscera.

The upper epiphyses are observed to change their position a

little with function, while the lower epiphyses may ascend the

centrum and become articulated to, and seemingly developed

from, the upper epiphyses; all of them may be absent, and

the simple original osseous centre will still be accounted a ver-

tebra. But, as we shall hereafter see that the whole skeleton

may by this law be accounted for and derived from a single

ossification, it would be impossible to admit as a vertebra any

structure which varied in plan and function from that which is

found in the spinal column.

With this conception of a vertebra it will now be possible to

determine what the skull and spinal column have in common,

and how far they differ.

Amphioxus lanceolatus appears to demonstrate that in certain

vertebrata, where the vertebrate structure is scarcely assumed, a

skull need not exist, and that there may be nothing in structure to

356 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

distinguish the more anterior or sensory part of the neural column

and canal from the part which is always more or less uniform,

and is called the spinal column; it also exhibits the fact that

a mouth may exist without having the least connexion with the

cranium,—thus showing that just as a skull must be a result of

functional development of the organs of sense at one end of the

nervous column, so by modification the apparatus around the

commencement of the digestive canal takes the form of jaws and

facial bones. Thus, however close the jaws may be brought in

contact with the cranium, and however the primitive cartilages

which form the prehensile end of the digestive canal may be

modified by adaptation to other ossifications, they constitute a

structure which can only owe its development, like everything

else, to the higher requirement, or differentiation, of the func-

tion in which it took its rise; and so, though forming no part

of the original structure of the cranium in the lowest vertebrata,

it constitutes by adaptation in higher forms of life an essential

part of the skull. And, on the other hand, since the cranium

is sometimes wanting (and in Amphiovus there is nothing which

can be separated from the spinal cord as a brain), it would be hard

to regard any brain as more than a functional overgrowth of the

end of the spinal cord, and therefore to do otherwise than believe

that its osseous case would be originally formed on the same plan

with the vertebra, yet speedily and enormously modified by the

different functions which it subserves. Then, just as the brain,

from being inseparable from the spinal cord at first, comes

at last to be a structure as distinct as may be, there is here a

modification not unlike that which separates the segments of a

limb (only greater), so that, though both are parts of the same

organ, their structure and functions are very different. And there-

fore, although the covering of the brain may in some organisms

be inseparable from the vertebre, there can only be expected to

be the same degree of correspondence between the skull and the

vertebral column that there is between the brain and the spinal

cord. Ifa brain has parts which have no representatives in the

spinal cord, it will not be surprising if the brain-case has parts

which are not found in the case for the spinal cord.

If a skull is examined, it will be found to be the outlet for, or

rather the entrance to, the nervous system ; this part is occupied

by the bram. Secondly, it is the entrance to the digestive sys-

tem; and this part is constituted by the jaws. And, lastly, it is

the entrance of the lungs, respiration being carried on through

the nasal apertures. All these several forces of eating, breathing,

and observing and thinking exercise great pressure and tension

on the regions they affect ; and it is precisely these which we have

already seen ossifying the skeleton. Seeing how the small epi-

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 357

physial elements of the neck in Plesiosaurus were observed to put

on an enormous and complex development under the increasing

pressure of the viscera in the thorax, I cannot but point out

that the brain presents to the spinal cord precisely the same

sort of relation which the viscera of the thorax do to those of

the neck, and therefore to anticipate that the formation of the

cranium will follow an analogous law. And it has already been

seen how, under the action of the lungs, &c. the ribs elongated

and formed epiphyses ; and therefore when this force used in

breathing comes to be narrowed to a small aperture it accounts

for the often osseous condition of the trachea, and, coming in

contact with other ossifications, could hardly fail to develope epi-

physes: and accordingly we shall see that the nares are gene-

rally surrounded by the same set of bones, quite regardless of

the place where they open in the skull, whether at the tip of the

jaws or near to the brain. And, finally, it would be superfluous

to insist on the force manifested in using the jaws; and thus we

shall see that the degree of development in the maxillary and

premaxillary bones will be entirely proportionate to the pressure

and tension allowed by the presence or absence of teeth, and

the mode in which the jaws are used.

If an ossified brain-case is examined, it will be seen to be

more or less easily divisible into three segments, as, indeed, is

generally admitted. - The first of these, following Professor

Huxley, I take to consist of the basioccipital, the exoccipitals,

and the supraoccipital; the second consists of basisphenoid,

the alisphenoids, and the parietals; while the third is made up

of the presphenoid, orbitosphenoids, and frontals.

As compared with vertebree, it will be seen, as is remarked by

Mr. Robertson and others, that these segments differ in being

roofed in by bones (the supraoccipital, parietals, and frontals) to

which there is obviously nothing corresponding in the covering

of the spinal cord; and they also differ from most vertebre in

the arches touching each other at every point.

Thus, remembering that the brain was originally but the

anterior end of the spinal cord, and so far, as evidenced by the

law of pressure and tension which has been considered, must

have been roofed in by similar structures, we find that when the

brain expands in height and size above the proportions of the

spinal cord, it becomes roofed in by additional bones, just

as the thorax was when it expanded in depth below the limits

of the small neck. So that the alisphenoids are epiphyses of

the basisphenoid, just as the neurapophyses are epiphyses of

an ordinary centrum, and the parietals are epiphyses of the ali-

sphenoids, just as the sternal ribs or sternum in birds, for

instance, are epiphyses of the ordinary ribs; and it will hardly

358 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

be maintained that the inferior arch of a cervical vertebra of a bird

differs less from the inferior arch of a dorsal vertebra than does

the ordinary upper arch of a vertebra from the upper arch of a

segment of the skull. In the thoracic region the growth and

development of viscera is chiefly in depth, as is the weight of the

lungs; and in Amphioxus lanceolatus the notochord extends

anterior to the neural cord, whereas in mammals, even in a very

early embryonic state, the neural rudiment which becomes the

brain is prolonged far in front of the notochord; and thus it is

seen that with its development in height the brain undergoes a

development in length, which the thorax did not. And nothing

can be more evident than that, restrained by the structures in

front and by the vertebra behind, the growth in length must

exercise a pressure and tension in that direction exactly corre-

sponding to the forces which gave rise to the epiphysial bones

which roof in the brain as it developes in height. And there-

fore, since by the influence of such enormous and equable

pressure and tension epiphyses are developed in height, exactly

the same forces exerted in length cannot but have produced

epiphyses at each end; and so, remembering how, up to a

certain point, the plan of the brain and the spinal cord must

have been the same, it is curious to observe that while the basi-

sphenoid developes the basioccipital and presphenoid for its

epiphyses much after the plan of an ordinary centrum, the bones

of the neural arch also develope epiphyses in length just as they

do in height, as we saw was the case with some fishes—the en-

tire occipital segment answering to the posterior epiphysis, and

the entire frontal segment beg the anterior epiphysis of the

parietal segment of the skull. And accordingly it is found that

the elementary bones of these epiphyses converge and close in

the brain at both ends, thus demonstrating that they owe their

growth to its growth, and extend no further than they are forced

by its pressure; and therefore, though the skull will obviously

develope quite regardless of the degree of growth in the several

parts of the brain, by the simple law of inheritance, yet in many

cases the relative size of several bones will be found to vary with

the size of the division of the brain which is underneath them.

Thus Mr. Robertson remarks that fishes may be divided into a

sluggish group, typified by Lophius, in which the cerebellum is

small, and an active group, in which the cerebellum is large,

typified by the Tunny; and finds that in skulls of equal length,

the occipital segment of-the skull measures 42 inches long in the

Tunny, while in Lophius it only measures 2 inches: and, ascend-

ing in organization, it is seen that as the brain rapidly expands,

bones which before, in the lower forms, were quite exterior to

the skull become gradually introduced to form part. of the

cranial walls.

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 359

Thus, excluding the sense-bones and dermal bones, I would

interpret the neural part of the skull as having been originally

developed from a single vertebral centrum and neural arch, fol-

lowing in its development, only in a more perfect way, exactly

the same laws as govern the formation of ordinary vertebral

arches. That it is a vertebra is not affirmed, because it presents

modifications of structure which are nowhere seen in vertebree ;

but these, which are the development of epiphyses by a neural

arch, are of a kind quite consistent with the vertebrate plan, and

certainly to have been expected under the influence of pressure.

Indeed it is not too much to say that, under the influence of

the requisite pressure, any other neural arch could have simi-

larly been developed into a cranial cavity; and therefore a

definition by Professor Huxley, ‘that the skull no more consists

of a chain of vertebre than the vertebral column consists of a

chain of skulls,” more faithfully expresses the kind of relation

between the neural regions of the two structures than any

statement that I have yet met with. And if the neural part of

the skull is considered to be a vertebra at all, it can only be an

ideal typical vertebra, where every possible part is present, and

to which, therefore, the ordinary uniformity of imperfect develop-

ment of most vertebral arches offers no near parallel. On the

whole, the differences and affinities are perhaps so well marked

as nearly equally to justify those who would call it part of a

skull and those who prefer naming it a transformed and

thoughtful vertebra, both of which statements would be equally

true.

If the cranium of a full-grown Gallus domesticus be boiled,

from the great intensity of ossification in the animal, it readily

separates into two portions—an anterior part, which is made up

of the bones of the face and jaws, and a posterior part, namely

the brain-case. And here it is seen that the interorbital septum,

which is formed from the trabecul, is embraced by the pre-

sphenoids and frontals reaching the orbitosphenoids so as to close

up the brain as in Mammals; so that the ethmoid presents the

relations of a cranial bone, and might be regarded as an ossifi-

cation produced by the olfactory ganglia—a sort of special

epiphysis. The bones which have been considered, it will be

remembered, only correspond to the neural arch of a vertebra.

Of the inferior arch, or that which corresponds to the ribs, it is

at first hard to see any indication. There are under the basi-

sphenoid of most animals two ossifications which Mr. Parker

has named basitemporals, which are clearly epiphyses of the

basisphenoid. In the subclass of birds called Pterodactyles,

these bones are anchylosed to the anterior margin of the basi-

occipital, and in Plesiosaurus they appear to form the inferior

360 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

surface of that bone, and to enter into the condyle. But they

differ from the inferior epiphyses of vertebre in being united and

never surrounding any vessels; and therefore, perhaps, they are

rather to be regarded as distinct ossifications peculiar to the skull.

As we have already remarked, the mouth is the prehensile end

of thedigestive canal, and in Amphioxus it is surrounded by jointed

rings of cartilage. And, ascending in organization, it were easy

to trace, by way of the lampreys and sharks, the gradual union

between the jaws and the skull; and therefore we have to dis-

cover the origin and the law which governs the uniformity of

development of these bones of the face.

And here I seek the aid of embryology to resolve the bones

into their natural groups, though somewhat reluctantly, because

the results from one tribe of animals cannot hold quite true for

another tribe where the organization differs ; but it is so conclusive

on the significance of the jaws, that I will give, in a translation

of Professor Rathke’s own words, his remarks on their origin.

He says, “ That part of the investing mass of the notochord in

which the basisphenoid is developed in many animals, sends

out a ‘ray’ or band downwards on each side, which presents

a remarkable similarity to a rib, not only in its mode of origin,

but in its original position and form.” These, then, it will be

seen, are the true epiphyses which correspond to ribs, and, as was

to be expected, they grow out of the basisphenoid, which was

the original centrum of the skull; and as the true ribs grow

down to enclose the posterior part of the digestive organ, so we

shall see these ribs grow down to embrace its anterior end, and

become modified into prehensile organs. Professor Rathke goes

on to say, “ But very early there grows out from near the

upper end of the ray a long thin process, which passes off at

an obtuse angle to it and applies itself to the inferior wall of the

future brain-case.” Thus the ribs, growing down on the diges-

tive canal, appear to become split, and the upper parts run along

the top of it and the lower parts run down the sides, thus

eventually coming to embrace the mouth without bringing it in

contact with the centrum ; but it ought to be remembered that,

in the adults of all the animals in which this is observed, union

has already taken place between the face and the brain-case.

That the ribs really become split as they apparently do,

I do not see any reason for believing, and should rather regard

the upper portions of the forks as connate growths produced by

causes presently to be considered. The proximal end of the

cranial representative of a rib ossifies and becomes the quadrate

bone or incus; an intermediate part becomes the os articulare ;

while the distal end remains unossified, but developes bones on

its surface which become the lower jaw.

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 361

So far, then, in its general plan the skull follows the vertebral

type. But by the narrowing down of the bronchial tube, and

the resistance of the surrounding organs, the mouth below and

the brain-case behind, a powerful ossifying force, of which we

have already seen evidence in the trachea, comes into play,

different to that of the chest; for there the digestive canal is

enclosed by the breathing-apparatus, while here the breathing-

canal is small, and nearly shut in by the digestive canal below

and by the resisting vertebral centrum above. So that, seeing

what the result of the thoracic action was in the development of

ribs and in the development of the trachea, it must be antici-

pated that ossifications will likewise take place in the skull from

the same cause in the direction of greatest resistance, 7.e. above

and below the termination of the trachea in the skull; and accord-

ingly we find a triple series of bones above and in front, and

another triple series below and behind. The first series consists

of the nasal bones, the ethmoid, and the vomer, the nasal bones

and vomer being in the position of epiphyses of the ethmoid ;

and below these are the pterygoid and palatine bones, and an

unossified blastemous extension of the latter anteriorly, on which

the maxillary and premaxillary bones are developed, just as the

prehensile bones of the lower jaw were developed on a cartila-

ginous extension. ‘This, then, is clearly a distinct region of the

skull, to which there is obviously nothing even analogous in a

vertebra; and in reviewing its comparative osteology, I find no

reason for considering it less a fundamental essential of a deve-

loped skull than the neural region itself. And just as the brain-

case is known as the neural region, so this part may well be

called the bronchial region ; for just as the former is a modified

neural arch and its centrum, so the latter is a modified termina-

tion of the trachea: and thus, although the skull appears in this

matter to deviate from our conception of a vertebra as merely

an ossified structure, yet it conforms even in that deviation to

the plan of a segment of the body, and so brings the skeleton

into a closer and more natural unity.

The lower jaw and its upper appendages being a modified rib,

we thus exhaust all the vertebral elements without accounting

for the maxillary or premaxillary, or the distal elements of the

lower jaw exterior to Meckel’s cartilage. The maxillaries, by

development no less than by function, are the anterior epiphyses

of the palatines ; while the premaxillaries appear to be the lateral

epiphyses of the ethmoid. Such is the circumstance of their

origin, though no doubt their development is due to the same

pressure by which we have seen that all bones are formed. Thus

in the elephant, where the premaxillaries have to support the

enormous tusks, they attain an enormous development, covering

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 25

362 On a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton.

the face, extending over the maxillaries, but entering, as in birds

and Ichthyosaurs and most animals, into the anterior nares. In

ruminants and pachyderms, where the pressure from the teeth

is more uniform than in some animals, it is seen that the maxil-

laries are deep and their upper and lower margins subparallel ;

and, as though illustrating the community of origin, in some

animals the palatines and pterygoids both bear teeth. The

bones forming the elements of the oviparous lower jaw I believe

to have been. developed as epiphyses of Meckel’s cartilage by

pressure ; the dentary element presents the aspect of a terminal

epiphysis, and the four other bones a superior and inferior and two

lateral epiphyses, which functionally are a diapophysis. And now,

of the important elements of the skull, there only remain the eyes

and the ears, which correspond, in their relations to the ali-

sphenoid, with the intervertebral nerves. The growth of the

eye is a sufficiently evident cause of pressure to account for

sclerotic, superorbital, and lachrymal bones; but the periotic

bones, which have been so laboriously elaborated by Pro-

fessor Huxley, appear to me to be nothing but ossifications

around the auditory canals which have afterwards grown by

contact with other ossifications. The quadrate bone is large

when placed between the jaw and the skull, but dwindles to the

incus when the pressure 1s removed; and so the mastoid, squa-

mosal, and petrosal obviously owe their development to their rela-

tions with the jaw. They are clearly sense-bones, and therefore,

forming no part of the skull except as such, may be here passed

over without further notice.

Such, then, is an outline of the mechanical theory of the skull;

and such are some of the chief points which I hope to illustrate

and demonstrate in the collections of fossil vertebrata which are

among the best treasures of the Woodwardian Museum. ‘This

theory differs from others in the subordination of structure to func-

tion, and the belief that, except for the variation in organization,

similar functions will always develope similar structures. It differs

from other theories in giving a mechanical reason for the presence

of every bone. Its final conclusion is, that the skull is the terminal

segment of the body, and that, just as the adjacent segments

consist of the pharynx, the larynx, and a vertebra enclosing part

of the neural column, so also the skull, which is the termina-

tion of these three organs, and where their outlets are visible,

must consist of them also; that the brain-case, therefore (the

termination of the neural system), is a modified vertebra, that

the bronchial circle of nasal and palatine bones is a modification

of the trachea, and that the lower jaw is a modified rib developed

by the mouth. The respiratory circle of bones is the key to the

skull.

Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus. 363

XLVI.—Notes on the Genus Menobranchus and its Natural

Affinities. By J. van DER Horven*,

One of the most important improvements in the natural distri-

bution of Reptiles is undoubtedly the separation, effected by

Merrem and F. S. Leuckart in 1820.and 1821, of that class into

two groups, named by the former Pholidota and Batrachaa.

(‘Tentamen systematis Amphibiorum, auctore Blasio Merrem,

Marburgi, 1820.) The Batrachians have the skin naked, while

the Pholidota have the body covered with scales or enveloped in

two bucklers (Chelonia). Leuckart, by introducing the appel-

lation Dipnoa for the Batrachians, has seized and made use of a

more essential character, viz. the double respiration, the presence

of branchiz at an early stage, or the existence of branchiz perma-

nently with lungst. We owe to M. Fitzinger the name Monopnoa,

corresponding to that proposed by Leuckart, and serving to dis-

tinguish the other great division or that of the Pholidota of

Merrem ft.

The researches of various authors have contributed more and

more to confirm this primary division. The celebrated physio-

logist Miller has, above all, by drawing attention to certain

anatomical characters which had not been sufficiently regarded,

demonstrated the perfectly natural character of these groups§.

There is, in fact, so great a difference between the reptiles of

these two divisions that Merrem considered them two distinct

classes—an opinion shared by De Blainville. It does not enter

into our present purpose to discuss this view; we would, how-

ever, remark that the doctrine advanced by a modern author,

according to which the Dipnoa should be united with the Fishes,

seems to us an exaggeration, and opposed to a truly natural

classification.

Among the reptiles with double respiration we must place

* Translated from a separate impression, communicated by the author,

from the ‘ Archives Néerlandaises, tome i. (1866), by Arthur O’Shaugh-

nessy.

+ Oken’s ‘ Isis,’ 1821, Litterarischer Anzeiger, 257-265 : “ Einiges tiber

die fischartigen Amphibien.”

+ Neue Classification der Reptilien, von L. J. Fitzinger : Wien, 1826.

§ “Beytraige zur Anatomie und Naturgeschichte der Amphibien,”

Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie, herausgegeben von F. Tiedemann, G. R. Tre-

viranus, und L. C. Treviranus, iv. Bd., 2 (1832), p. 190 &e. This remark-

able work dates at the commencement of the author’s scientific career ; he

then occupied the chair of Physiology at the University of Bonn. Amongst

the anatomical characters of the Dipnoa must be cancelled that of the

simple auricle formerly attributed to the heart of Batrachians. (See the

author’s supplementary note, pp. 274-275.) It is, however, especially

worthy of remark, as a twofold embryological character, that both amnios

and allantois are here wanting, while they are present in all other reptiles,

as well as in birds and mammals.

25%

864. Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

also a genus left by Cuvier among the Ophidians, but the

Batrachian affinities of which had not escaped that illustrious

naturalist, and had been remarked already at the commencement

of our century by his friend and collaborateur Prof. C. Duméril.

This genus, that of the Cecilie, was placed by Oppel* and

Merrem in the subclass which we are dealing with at present.

The important discovery of two branchial apertures, one on each

side, in a small specimen of Cecilia hypocyanea, made by Miller

in 1831, effectually confirmed this view of their affinities, and

now consigns the genus to the vicinity of Amphiuma and Siren,

whose movements are effected by dragging the body along the

bottom of the waters which they inhabit, and whose very small

feet could not be of any assistance for walking.

The Batrachians furnished with extremities have been divided

by Duméril into Anoura and Urodela. The first, of which the

frogs and toads of our fauna may serve as examples, will not

detain us at present. Suflice it to observe that the external form

of these Anoura (Batrachians properly so called) departs entirely

from that of the Urodela (that, for example, of the aquatic

Salamanders), and that this difference shows us the slight value

due to external form in regard to primary groups in the natural

classification of the animal kmgdom. We are now far from the

time when Linnzeus united the salamanders with the crocodiles

in his undigested genus Lacerta; but it is possible that the

vulgar eye and judgment unassisted by science will find this

union less strange than that of our actual systems. The frog,

with its enormous head, its stunted trunk, and long claws, pre-

sents no resemblance whatever to the salamander, and less still

to the Proteus, while these latter genera would seem to be inti-

mately allied to the lizards, and, above all, to the scincoids.

The scalpel forces us, however, to alter our judgment; and the

transitional forms of the frogs during their development prove

indisputably that such appearances are deceptive, and that we

may not give credence to them without strict examination.

Amongst the Urodela it is well to make a principal division.

There are two groups or families of these Batrachians. One

comprehends the genus Salamandra, i. e. the terrestrial sala-

manders and the numerous subgenera of the aquatic salamanders

or tritons. The other might borrow its name from the genus

Proteus: such is the family of the Proteide or Ichthyoide.

At the commencement of our century Cuvier published a me-

moir on some reptiles of this division, which is inserted in the

* Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien, von M. Oppel,

(Miinchen, 1811, 4to) p. 76. These naked serpents are indicated by the

authors above named under the title of Batrachia apoda,

and its Natural Affinities. 365

“ Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée ”

of the Voyage of Humboldt and Bonpland*. The title of this

memoir gave occasion to naturalists to make use of the term

“doubtful reptiles” to indicate this group. That which was

then doubtful is not so, however, at the present day. Doubts

there will always be: what field of human research is free from

them? but these doubts at present affect other points. That

which was then unascertained, and which Cuvier sought to de-

termine, was whether the reptiles with branchiz were not larvee

destined to lose those organs. He examined the Axolotl, of

which Humboldt had given him two specimens which he had

brought from Mexico, and he compared it with the Siren of

South Carolina and the Proteus of the lakes and subterranean

waters of Carniola and Dalmatia. All these animals possessed

branchiz and lungs.

As the result of his researches, Cuvier was convinced that the

Siren and the Proteus were adult animals, always retaining the

double organs of respiration}, while he regarded the Axolotl as

the larval state of some large unknown Salamander}. Sub-

sequently, however, he placed the Axolotl among the genera

with permanent branchiz, along with Proteus and Siren§.

To these three species, which form as many genera, we must

now add some others, coming, like the Siren and Axolotl, from

North America. But, besides these genera with persistent ¢ gills,

we cannot refuse a place i in this natural group for certain animals

very similar, but in which we find no gills, although there is a

branchial orifice on either side of the neck. A large reptile of

this division was already known to Cuvier when he published

* I., Paris, 1811, pp. 93-126: “Recherches anatomiques sur les Rep-

tiles regardés encore comme douteux par les naturalistes, faites a occasion

de Axolotl rapporté par M. de Humboldt du Mexique.”’ This was read

at the Institut National, January 19 & 26, 1807.

+ Prof. B. Smith Barton had mdependently arrived at the same convic-

tion.—‘ Some Account of the Siren lacertina’ (Philadelphia, 1807), abrochure

in the form of a letter to J. G. Schneider, and of which only fifty copies

were printed, one of which I obtained at the sale of Blumenbach’s library.

{ Loe. cit. p. 116. This was still the opinion of Cuvier when he pub-

habe the first edition of his ‘Régne Animal’ (1817, 1 ii. pe bon):

§ Regne Animal, 2nd ed. 18 27, i. p- 119, note: “So many persons

affirm that it does not lose them, that I feel obliged to acquiesce.” How-

ever, more recently still, the distinguished American, Spencer Baird, re-

tained similar doubts (Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. of Philadelphia, Oct. 1849,

vol. i. ser. 2. p. 281, “ Revision of the North American Tailed Batrachia’’).

The author expresses himself as follows :—“ It is only because there is no

positive proof to the contrary that I retain the genus Siredon as real,

placing it at the bottom of the series. It so much resembles the larva of

Ambystoma punctata, in both external form and internal structure, that I

ane a. believe it to be the larva of some gigantic species of this genus”

p. 292),

866 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

his researches on the doubtful reptiles. This is the species to

which the inhabitants of the United States of North America

apply the name of Alligator or Hell-bender*, while the Delaware

_ Indians call it Tweeg or Tweche. At the commencement of our

century a specimen of this species, from the Leverian Museum,

was described by Dr.Shaw under the name of “ Leverian Water-

Newt”+. An individual of the same species, which the traveller

Michaux had obtained on the Alleghany Mountains and pre-

sented to the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, was described

by Latreille under the name of “ Salamandre des monts Allé-

ganis 7’.

It is surprising that, throughout these descriptions, the

branchial orifice is not noticed. It is described in the tract of

Barton which we have just cited, and is apparent in the figure,

otherwise very mediocre, which accompanies the same§. Cuvier

speaks of a “cicatrice” on the sides of the neck, in precisely

the same position as the gills in Siren||.

All the naturalists who have recognized the two distinct groups

of the Urodela have placed the Hell-bender in the same division

with the doubtful reptiles. But it is necessary to seek for

further characters for this group of Ichthyoids than the persist-

ence of the gills. Such characters are found in the absence of

eyelids, in the conformation of the vertebree (the bodies of

* In a tract by Prof. Barton, printed for his correspondents and friends

(Memoir concerning an Animal of the class of Reptilia or Amphibia,

which is known in the United States by the names of Alligator and Hell-

bender: Philadelphia, 1814), and which I procured from the same source

as that on the Siren, we read that the latter name was applied to this ani-

mal by the negroes of Virginia, on account of its slow oscillatory motions

in its natural habitation the water, and which the slaves thought suggestive

of the horrible tortures of the infernal regions.

+ General Zool. vol. iii. pt. 1. pp. 303-304 : Lond. 1802.

{ Hist. Nat. des Reptiles, par Sonnini et Latreille, (Paris, 1802) ii. p. 53,

pl. 54. fig. 1; Daudin, Hist. Nat. des Reptiles. tom. vii. (An xi., 1803)

pp. 231-232; (Bose) Nouveau Dictionn. d’Hist. Nat. tom. xx. (An xi.)

p- 48. The same lines occur, unaltered, in the last edition, revised and

augmented, of this Dictionary, tom. xxx. (Paris, 18]9) p. 61; the figure of

this species, pl. xii. fig. 1, in tom. xxxi. p. 317, the same as that of Latreille,

scarcely deserves reference.

§ This has been copied by Leuckart in his notice of the Ichthyoid

Amphibians (Isis, 1821, pl. 5), who adds another and much worse figure,

taken from a specimen stuffed with straw (!) in the Museum of Vienna.

We owe a better figure to J. R. Peale, appended to the observations on the

Salamander genus by Dr. Harlan (Annals of the New York Lyceum of

Nat. Hist. 1825, vol. 1. pl. xvii. p. 234). This figure has been copied in

the English remodelled and augmented edition of the ‘Régne Animal? by

Griffith (1831, vol. ix. p.475). I would also crave permission to cite that

published by me in the ‘Tijdschrift voor Natuurlijke Geschiedenis en

Physiologie,’ 1838, iv. pl. 5B. fig. 7.

|| Recherches, /. c. p. 101.

and its Natural Affinities. 367

which are concave at both ends, as in fishes), in the cartilaginous

condition of the pieces forming the carpus and tarsus, and

probably also in the extraordinary size of the blood-corpuscles

(remarked in the first instance in the Proteus, but since then

found to prevail in all species the blood of which has been sub-

jected to microscopical examination). In 1821 a new genus was

added to the division of the Proteide. It is a North-American

genus, the elongated form of which has a certain resemblance

to that of the Proteus, and which also possesses four feet, but

even smaller than those of the Proteus. Without these indica-

tions of four extremities, the genus would present strong affini-

ties with Siren. But that which above all distinguishes it both

from Proteus and Siren is the fact of its not possessing gills,

but having a branchial aperture on each side of the neck. This

genus has been designated by the name Amphiuma*.

Our knowledge of the Proteidz had arrived at this point,

when Miiller took upon himself to unite this new genus, under

the name of Derotreta, in a subdivision with the Hell-bender+.

This union was an artificial one; for all that was then known

relative to the genus Amphiuma tended to secure it a place in

the vicinity of Siren. The Hell-bender, named successively

Abranchus, Menopoma, and Cryptobranchus, was imperfectly

known as regarded its internal structure. Moreover the cra-

nium, of which Cuvier had given an exact figure, presented only

remote relations with that of the Amphiumat. A large reptile

from Japan, the knowledge of which we owe to the zeal of M.

de Siebold, who succeeded in bringing over a living specimen §,

appearing to me to show a strong affinity with the Hell-bender

of North America, I felt driven to regard the former, not as a

species of a new genus, but as a new species of a genus long

known. Instead of proposing a new generic denomination, I

* It is worthy of note that this genus was really discovered before the

Hell-bender or Great Salamander of Michaux, by the same Dr. Alexander

Garden who made known the Siren. He sent this animal to Linnzus

in 1771, under the name of Amphiuma. “These documents remained

among the papers of Linnzus, and were never brought to light but

through the edition published in 1821, by Sir James Edward Smith,

of the Correspondence of the great Swedish naturalist.” (Cuvier, “ Sur le

genre de Reptiles batrachiens nommé Amphiuma, et sur une nouvelle

espéce de ce genre, Mémoire lu a l’Acad. des Se. Nov. 13, 1826,’’ Mém.

du Muséum, 1827, tome xiv. p. 2).

+ Derotremata, Miiller, Zeitschr. f. Physiol. iv. p. 203.

{ Miiller, who knew these skulls only through the figures of Cuvier,

himself made a similar remark (loc. cit. p. 204). The hyoid has been

figured by Harlan, /. c.

§ This reptile is still living im Holland, and has been for many years in

the rich zoological garden of Amsterdam. Several other zoological gardens

now possess specimens.

368 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

thought it more proper to use the name Cryptobranchus, proposed

for the Hell-bender by Leuckart in 1821*.

It seems to me beyond doubt that, even if we demur to this

union, the two species in question cannot be referred to two

different families. As socn as we unite them, we must renounce

the distinction of the Derotreta. I would defer to the judgment

expressed in so clear and decided a manner by Prof. Hyrtl in

his ‘ Schediasma anatomicum’+.

In order to place this gigantic Batrachian in the family of the

Proteidz or ichthyoid Urodela, it would be necessary to strike

out from among the characters of that division that of the

possession of permanent branchie or branchial fissures. The

genera are not numerous enough to render advisable a further

division. But there would still remain to be determined the

actual disposition to be given to these genera in order that their

various relations might be clearly set forth according to the

several degrees of their reciprocal affinity. I entered upon this

question more than thirty years ago, when engaged upon the

class of Reptiles in connexion with the second edition of my

‘ Manual of Zoology.’ I considered it a second time when oppor-

tunity was offered me for studying two specimens of Meno-

branchus through the liberality of the Smithsonian Institution

of Washington.

I have not as yet spoken of this genus, which deserves a dis-

tinct place in the family which we are engaged upon at present.

It was constituted under its present name by Harlan, who at

* Oken’s ‘Isis,’ 7.c. The name Menopoma was proposed by Harlan,

who had previously given the name Abranchus to this genus, which he

fancied was “‘ destitute of branchize at all periods of its existence’ (p. 233),

This notion, contrary to all probability, has been refuted by facts. Mayer,

formerly Professor of Anatomy at Bonn, found branchial tufts, which,

however, were already on the eve of disappearing, in a specimen of 4 inches

6 lines, obtained through the Prince de Wied. (Analecten fiir vergleichende

Anatomie, von Dr. A. F.C. J. Mayer : Bonn, 1835, p. 95.) It would seem

that the name Menopoma owes its origin to the persistence of an oper-

culum, 7. e. of a prolongation of the skin extending over the aperture on

the sides of the neck (from pevew, to remain, and m@pma, operculum).

As there is not any operculum properly so called, I think that the name

Cryptobranchus deserves to be retained, and that there is no necessity for

introducing a new name. ‘Tritomegas, proposed by the authors of the

‘ Erpétologie générale’? (Duméril et Bibron, 1854, ix. p. 153), even though

its actual composition were better than it is, would be inadmissible, as

having been previously employed, though according to a very different

etymology, for a genus of Hemiptera (Hist. Nat. des Insectes Témiptéres,

by C. J. ‘Bp: Amyot and Audinet-Serville: Paris, 1843, p. 98).

+ Cryptobranchus japonicus, ‘Schediasma anatomicum,’ Vindobone,

1865, 4to, p.4. “Cum Menopomate affinitas tanto argumentorum pon-

dere vindicata fuit, ut nulle amplius circa hance questionem lites moveri

possint.”’

and its Natural Affinities. 369

the same time designated by the name Abranchus the genus

which we now call Cryptobranchus*. As its name implies, the

Menobranchus presents a character afforded also by the Proteus

and Siren, viz. that of the persistence of the branchie. It has,

in common with the Proteus, another character which distin-

guishes it from the Siren, viz. the possession of four feet. It

was on this account that Lacépéde, who, in 1807, published a

description, accompanied by an indifferent figure, of a specimen

of this species, thought proper to give it the name of Protée

tétradactyle, adding, however, that in case it should turn out to

be a larva destined to lose the branchie, it might be called

Salamandre tétradactyle+. This creature has four toes on the

hind feet, while the Salamanders have five; now, however, we

know of some species of Salamanders which also have four toes

on all the feet t.

The origin of the specimen in the Paris Museum was uncer-

tain: Lacépéde knew only that it had been received from a na-

turalist of Bordeaux. However, the notice published by Lace-

pede did not give the first description of this doubtful reptile.

The learned naturalist J. G. Schneider had most certainly seen

a specimen of the same species in the cabinet of Hellwig at

Brunswick, which specimen the latter had received from North

America (Lake Champlain). As the description given of this

by Schneider is both’ concise and at the same time sufficiently

explicit, it will perhaps be worth while to insert it entire, in a

note §.

* Annals of the New York Lyceum, i. p. 233. It had, however, been

previously named Necturus by Rafinesque (Blainville, Journ. de Physique,

tom. Ixxxvilil. p. 418). Those who would restore the earlier names of

. genera should consequently adopt this name of Necturus, unless, indeed,

they would prefer that of Sirena, which we find applied to the same rep-

tile by this very Rafinesque, in 1818 (Amer. Monthly Mag. iv. p.41). I

know this journal only through the citation of Mr. Spencer Baird (Journ.

Acad. Nat. Se. of Philadelphia, 1849, i.).

+ ‘‘Sur une espéce quadrupéde ovipare non encore décrite,” Annales du

Muséum d’Hist. Nat. x. (1807) pp. 230-233, pl. 17.

{ These species form the genera of aquatic Salamanders—Salamandrina,

Fitzinger, and Hemidactylum, Tschudi, or Desmodactylus of Duméril and

Bibron. See the ‘ Erpétologie générale,’ tome ix. pp. 68 & 117-120.

§ This description dates from 1799, and seems to be the earliest notice

we possess relative to the Menobranchus. ‘Corpus ultra 8 pollices

longum et fere pollicem crassum, molle, spongiosum, multis poris pervium,

in utroque latere tribus macularum rotundarum nigrarum seriebus varie-

gatum ; cauda compressa et anceps, utrinque maculata, inferiore acie recta,

superiore curvata, in finem teretiusculum terminatur. Caput latum et

planum ; oculi parvi; nares anteriores in margine labii superioris ; maxilla

superioris gemine ut inferioris dentes conici, obtusi, satis longi; lingua

lata, integra, anterius soluta; apertura oris patet usque ad oculorum lineam

verticalem ; labia piscium labiis similia, Pedes dissiti, quatuor, tetradactyli

870 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

A figure much more characteristic than that of Lacépéde has

been given by the naturalist Harlan, in the first volume of the

‘Annals of the New York Lyceum?’ already cited (pl. 16, Me-

nobranchus lateralis*).

Fitzinger, without adding anything to our knowledge of the

genus, gave it the new name of Phanerobranchus instead of

Menobranchus.

There can be no doubt that the first impression made by a

comparison of the Menobranchus with the Hell-bender is that

the two animals have a very great resemblance, and that it is

almost solely by the presence of the branchial tufts and the

tetradactyle hind feet that the Menobranchus is distinguishable

from the Cryptobranchus of the Alleghanies or from that of

Japan. Without having the enormous bulk of these two reptiles,

the Menobranchus is yet a very large species as compared with

the Tritons and Salamanders, and attains the length of fourteen

inches.

If we except the character of the branchial tufts and the lateral

fissures on the neck, we may arrange all these doubtful reptiles

in two groups,—one of which, by its elongated and cylindrical

form, approaches the Siren; the other, by its more depressed

and much shorter body, more nearly resembles the Salamander.

It was this method that I adopted in my Manual. The “Angui-

form” subdivision contains the genera Siren, Hypochthoa (or

Proteus), and Amphiuma; while that of the Cordylini{ embraces

the genera Menobranchus, Cryptobranchus, and Siredon (Axolotl).

However, as the result of my subsequent examination of Meno-

omnes, absque unguiculis. Ani rima in longitudinem patet. Branchize

utrinque tern extus propendent, apposite superne totidem arcubus car-

tilagineis, quorum latus internum tubercula cartilagiea, veluti m piscium

genere, exasperant. Branchialis apertura gemina utrinque adest tantum ;

infimus enim et supremus arcus branchiarum cuti adnatus est.” (Historia

Amphibiorum naturalis et litterariz Fasciculus primus, Jenz 1799, 8vo,

pp. 50-51.) Cuvier was acquainted with this description, and speaks of it

in connexion with the Axolotl, to which he seemed rather inclined to apply

it, supposing that some error had arisen as to the number of the toes. It

is astonishing that, although attached to the same establishment, and

residing in the Jardin des Plantes, Cuvier was ignorant of the existence of

the animal which Lacépéde described almost about the same time.

* Copied in Griffith’s ‘ Animal Kingdom,’ Rept. p. 476.

+ Lacépéde’s specimen was only 150 millimétres; but the smallest of

the two which I have received measures more than double that, and the

other one 362 millims. The best figure of this great Batrachian which I

am acquainted with is that published last year by Prince Maximilian of

Neuwied in the ‘ Nova Acta Acad. Cesar. Leopoldino-Caroline,’ tom. xxx.

1. tabs.

+ “We may apply to the larve: of the Salamanders the name of ‘ cor-

dyles,’ which, according to M. Schneider’s remark, they bore among the

Greeks.” (Cuv. Rech. sur les Rept. dout. p. 93.)

and its Natural Affinities. 371

branchus, I became convinced that this genus is much more in-

timately connected with Proteus than with Cryptobranchus. I

would again repeat that appearances in these matters are ex-

tremely deceptive, and that they are by no means to be depended.

on in a natural system of classification. Such a system should

be the result of serious study and conscientious investigation.

I may hereafter give publicity to some results of my examina-

tion of Menobranchus—an examination undertaken, in the first

instance, solely with a view to my own instruction. It is to be

hoped that Dr. Fischer, of Hamburg, will soon bring out the

continuation of his researches on the anatomy of the doubtful

Reptiles*.

Some details relative to the anatomy of Menobranchus are to

be found in Mayer’s ‘ Analecten fiir vergl. Anatomie,’ Bonn,

1835, 4to, pp. 82, 85, together with figures of the skull, brain,

and organs of generation of the male. This latter figure hardly

corresponds with my own actual observation. M. Gegenbaur

has given a description and figure of the carpus and tarsus

as well as of the claviculo-scapular apparatus in the Menobran-

chus. (Untersuchungen zur vergl. Anatomie, I. Heft. Carpus

und Tarsus: Leipzig, 1864; II. Heft. Schultergiirtel der Wir-

belthiere : 1865.)

Meanwhile I will be content to notice that the skull and the

hyoid apparatus, the’ conformation of the bones or cartilages of

the shoulder, the disposition of the viscera, the form of the

lungs, and the structure of the organs of generation appear to

indicate that the subterranean and, so to speak, atrophied Pro-

teus of Kuropey finds its representative im a robuster and larger

creature which inhabits the lakes of the United States. It is,

however, proper to remark that the number of the vertebre

is greater in Proteus, which thus more nearly approaches the

Siren; while the attachment of the pelvis at the thirtieth or

thirty-first vertebra in Proteus shows a still greater departure

from the Menobranchus, in which the pelvis is attached to the

eighteenth or nincteenth vertebra, as in the Cryptobranchus Alle-

ghaniensis : this latter condition differs but little from that found

in the Japan species, in which the pelvis adheres to the twentieth

or twenty-first vertebrat, and in the Axolotl and Tritons, in

* Anatomische Abhandlungen tber Perennibranchiaten und Derotremen,

von Dr. J. G. Fischer. Erstes Heft. Hamburg, 1864.

+ “Tl ([M. Schreiber] ajoute qu’il est plutét porté a regarder les Protées

comme des espéces d’albinos ou de crétins, que comme des larves; mais il

faudra toujours convenir que ce ne peuvent pas étre des albinos d’espéces

connues, puisque leur ostéologie n’a rien de commun, pour le nombre et la

forme des pieces, avec celle d’aucun autre reptile.” (Cuv. Rech. sur les

Reptiles douteux, p. 123.)

~ In the specimen of the Japan Cryptobranchus dissected some years

372 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

which there are sixteen or seventeen vertebrae between the skull

and the pelvis.

We must therefore guard against expressing this relation

too strongly; and, while asserting that the nearest affinity of

the Menobranchus is probably with Proteus, we must, at the

same time, admit it as intermediate between this and Crypto-

branchus. I should incline even to regard Menobranchus as oc-

cupying the central position in the ichthyoid group. In fine,

we have in the present only another instance of what nearly

always occurs in families and groups composed of but few spe-

cies, and these spread over various and remote countries: there

are almost as many genera as species; and, in spite of the com-

mon bond of affinity, there is a very marked difference in the

general form and in the proportions of the body and its parts.

Those who would prefer to dispose the genera in a single

series, might perhaps do so by allowing Siren to follow Cecilia,

and the Axolotl to occupy a corresponding position on the other

side leading to the Salamanders (Urodela with eyelids). .The

ichthyoids afford a very interesting illustration of the proposi-

tion that some animals present as permanent a form which is

only transitory in others; and Lamarck might have said that,

in the Axolotl, nature was on the point of forming the Triton.

Cuvier already in 1807 made use of the happy expression larve

permanente ; and it was in accordance with this that he said that

the Siren might be regarded as a permanent larva of this family*.

We should thus have the following succession :—

Siren,

Amphiumat,

Proteus,

Menobranchus,

Cryptobranchus,

Sirenodon,

since at Rotterdam, the pelvis was found to be suspended, on the right,

from the twentieth, and on the left from the twenty-first vertebra. (Aan-

teekningen over de Anatomie van den Cryptobranchus japonicus, door Dr.

F. J. J. Schmidt, Dr. Q. J. Goddard en Dr. J. van der Hoeven, Jun. :

Haarlem, 1862, 4to, p. 11.) The authors of this memoir cite an observa=

tion of C. A. Schultze, attesting a similar inequality or asymmetry as ob-

served in the skeleton of a Triton cristatus. They might also have added

that the anatomist Mayer had recorded a like circumstance with regard to

the other species of Cryptobranchus, that from the Alleghanies. Although

it would seem to be normal in this species that the pelvis be thus suspended

from the twentieth vertebra, Mayer observed, in one of the skeletons pre-

pared by him, that it adhered only on the left side to this vertebra, but on

the right to the nineteenth (Analecten, &c. p. 78).

* Recherches sur les Reptiles douteux, p. 109.

+ These two genera depart more particularly from the true Salamanders

and its Natural Affinities. 373

a succession which I believe to be sufficiently natural, although,

strictly speaking, every arrangement in a single series is de-

fective.

Finally, since the anatomical materials respecting the genera

of North America are very much dispersed (being contained

partly in journals and memoirs of societies and academies not

always to be found in the very largest of public libraries), it

would be very desirable to have collected together all that has

been published upon these doubtful reptiles of America. There

would then remain another undertaking, viz. to arrange in a

systematic form all that we now know concerning the various

forms of this small group*; and this, though a work of com-

pilation, could be executed only by an able naturalist.

The labours of Rusconi with reference to the Proteus are well

known ; but, as regards the other genera, the Cryptobranchus of

Japan is almost the only one of which we have any complete

anatomical details, viz. those which we obtain through the re-

searches of the three physicians of Rotterdam, published by the

Société Hollandaise, and from the admirable work of one of the

greatest anatomists of our time, Professor Hyrtl of Vienna.

It is to be lamented that there still reigns some confusion

throughout much of what has been published respecting these

doubtful reptiles, and even in works of well-merited celebrity.

It is stated in the ‘Erpétologie générale’ that I have figured

the nuchal fissure in the Cryptobranchus of Japant+, whereas the

entire plate, and consequently also the figure cited, refers to the

North-American species. The work of Duméril and Bibron

having certainly a much more extended publicity than my

Dutch memoir, I have thought it advisable not to neglect the

present occasion to remove this error, and the more so since I

by the great number of their vertebrae. Cuvier counted 86 vertebra in

the Siren, 99 in Amphiuma tridactyla, and 112 in Amphiuma didactyla

(Mém. du Muséum, xiv. p. 8).

* Unless we suppose that the genus Proteus contains several species

(Fitzinger, “‘ Ueber den Proteus anguineus der Autoren,” Sitzungsberichte

der mathem.-naturw. Klasse der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenchaften, October

1850), the entire group numbers scarcely ten species. I know not what

to think of the eight species of Necturus which Rafinesque affirms to

exist in the United States (Journal de Physique, Ixxxviii. p. 418); but

they have not been noticed by those who have written about the fauna of

North America since his time.

t “Il n’y aurait done de différence que dans l’absence du trou collaire

que M. van der Hoeven a figuré pl. 2. fig. 8,” &c. (ix. p. 164).

{ I regret extremely that Prof. Duméril, the venerable veteran who

honoured me with his friendship, did not consult my “ Fragments zoo-

logiques,” in the third volume of the ‘ Mémoires de la Socicté de Stras-

bourg’ (1840), where my memoir on the Pseudosalamander, the great

Japan reptile, is translated entire.

374 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus.

myself have insisted strongly upon this very difference between

two species which otherwise present so many points of reciprocal

relation. We would also remove a confusion which exists relative

to the reptile in the Museum of Hellwig, described by Schneider.

We have cited this reptile as a Menobranchus ; and the authors

of the ‘ Erpétologie’ give it also among the synonyms of Meno-

branchus lateralis (p. 184); but they have at the same time

translated Schneider’s description into French and applied it

in the case of Siredon Harlanii, affirming that it accords per-

fectly with this latter (p. 181). In order that it might do so,

however, the authors of the ‘Erpétologie’ have added to the

account of the feet (tetradactyli omnes) the words “les pattes

postérieures en ont cing.” There is no reason whatever for accre-

diting Schneider with this error; and in any case his descrip-

tion should not be cited for two different species: it applies

properly to Menobranchus without any such modification.

It is perhaps not inadmissible to terminate a notice of the

doubtful reptiles by a speculation. There is a species of Batra-

chian from California, known to me only through the figure and

description in the Zoological Atlas* of Prof. Eschscholtz, and

which that author has named Triton ensatus.

This species has been referred to the Salamandra Jeffersoniana

of Green, of which Tschudi has constituted the genus Xiphonura.

Such, however, is not the opmion of one author, who is well

acquainted with these species from the United States of America,

Mr. Spencer Baird, and who does not place this figure of

Eschscholtz among the synonyms of his Ambystoma Jeffersoniana

(p. 283), but refers to Triton ensatus among the species which

are doubtful or known only through the descriptions of authors.

It is very desirable that this Californian species should receive

further examination. Its dimensions of 114 inches would lead

us to suppose that it belongs to the group we are at present

engaged upon; and its skull, figured in the Atlas of Eschscholtz

and described by Rathke, presents (as this latter author has

already remarked) many points of relation to the Crypto-

branchus of the Alleghanies. It is to be lamented that the eyes

were ill preserved, and that the description does not inform us

whether they were furnished with lids or not. I am almost in-

clined to suppose that eyelids did not exist, but on this point I

feel a certain amount of doubt. In fine, I should be in no way

astonished were this animal, when better known, to call for the

establishment of a new genus, akin to Cryptobranchus.

* Zoologischer Atlas: Abbildungen und Beschreibungen neuer Thier-

arten wahrend des Flott-Capitains von Kotzebue zweiter Reise um die

Welt beobachtet von Dr. F. Eschscholtz, 5tes Heft. Berlin, 1833.

Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes. 375

The following is a synoptical table of the genera of the family

Proteide :—

Feet four or only two anterior ones. Eyes small, and without lids.

Vertebre biconcave.

much elongated,

cylindrical ; feet<

very smal]. Feet

| two; branchiz persistent...... Siren.

four; no persistent branchie ;

two nuchal fissures .......+. Amphiuma.

(four; branchiz persistent ... Proteus.

| ( persistent throughout life; four

Body’ toes on all the feet ......... Menobranchus.

moderately elon- | persistent throughout life, in

gated, more or the form of long tufts; four

less depressed.{ toes on fore feet, five on

Feet four. Bran- mind feete vee eesoreereenceees Sirenodon.

CRI seek vecaeads

| in early stages only; four toes

on fore feet, five on hind

DES ree benrBoeleaeencneatnetere Cryptobranchus.

XLVII.—On some new Species of Fossil Volutes from the Ter-

tiary Beds near Melbourne. By Frepuricx M‘Coy, Professor

of Natural Science in the Melbourne University, Government

Paleontologist to the Geological Survey, &c.

Fieurss of the following species, collected by the Geological

Survey under Mr. Selwyn, will shortly appear in the Decades I

am preparing on the recent and fossil zoology of Victoria. As,

for some years, I have prepared descriptions of nearly all the

known fossils of the colony, I have been pressed to send descrip-

tions of the more remarkable forms to the ‘ Annals’ for prelimi-

nary publication.

Voluta macroptera (M‘Coy).

Shell fusiform until nearly adult, when the outer lip becomes

dilated into a very large, thin-edged, triangular, flattened wing,

the outer margin of which is slightly convex, the posterior mar-

gin concave, running up halfway to the suture of the penultimate

whorl in a slight channel; the approximately rectangular junc-

tion of the outer and posterior margins broadly rounded. Apical

angle about 55° in middle-aged specimens, and 35° in young

ones 14 inch long. Spire with a concave outline of four rapidly

enlarging whorls and a mammillary cap-shaped pullus of one

and a half turn, the basal halfturn of the pullus less than half

the width of the next succeeding turn of the spire, the remain-

376 ~~ Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes

ing turn nipple-shaped, with a small eccentric projecting apex ;

the length of the pullus equalling once and a half the width of

the next following turn of the spire. Each turn of the spire

embracing the next preceding one at the suture, near which they

are concave, then forming a convex shoulder and nearly parallel

with the axis of the shell below; body-whorl fusiformly narrowed

in front, and marked with a broad siphonal notch, without an-

terior crest or ridge. Inner lip excessively thin, moderately

spreading ; plaits of the columella four, widely separated, very

prominent, narrow, one smaller, Aperture moderately wide,

oblong, narrowed above and below, becoming effuse with age.

Pullus smooth ; the next two turns of the spire with exces-

sively fine spiral strize, only visible with the lens (about ten or

eleven in the space of 1 line) ; rest of the spire and body-whorl

smooth or marked with fine lines of growth. Length of pullus

4 lmes, width of ditto 3 lines; length of adult (including the

pullus, which is 3 lines) 6 inches; proportional length of body-

whorl -+3;; length-of wing ;22;; width of body and wing 73%;

width of body on inside of base of aperture 58.8;.

There is no living or fossil species at all like the present in

the large, thin, angular, wing-shaped outer lip and fusiform

body. Young specimens an inch and a half long are irregularly

fusiform, of two whorls in addition to the pullus of nearly two.

The layer of shell bearing the microscopic spiral striz seems

very liable to fall off, leaving the whorls only marked by the

lines of growth.

Not uncommon in the passage-beds of the tertiary sands,

Ad. 22, at Bird Rock, near Geelong.

Voluta Hannaford (M‘Coy).

Fasciolaria Hannafordi, olim, MS.

Broad, fusiform ; pullus at apex of spire, very large, smooth,

spheroidal, of little more than one turn and a quarter; spire

conical, apical angle 70°, of four whorls (besides the pullus),

each obtusely angulated in the middle and bearing on the angle

from twelve to seventeen large nodose tubercles, obtuse and

conoidal on the body-whorl, on which the smaller number is

found, more elongate on those of the spire, on the upper of

which the greater number occur ; the oblique space between the

tubercles and the suture marked with narrow, slightly undulating,

thread-like, spiral ridges, irregularly alternating in thickness;

below the tubercles the body-whorl is smooth or marked with

obtuse lines of growth as far as the anterior extremity, which is

marked by thick obtuse spiral striz crossing the lines of growth;

but the young whorls or vertical portions of the smaller turns

of the spire are marked with spiral striz slightly larger and less

from the Tertiary Beds near Melbourne. 377

distinct than‘those of the posterior portion ; and, finally, in very

large old specimens, the spiral strize on the space above the tu-

bercles are reduced to a few near the suture. Outer lip in

adults greatly dilated into an oblong wing, with a broadly

rounded auriculate posterior margin rising up for attachment

nearly to the suture of the penultimate whorl; outer margin

nearly straight, thin, and slightly inflected, ending at the nar-

rowed end with three large, equal, very prominent, compressed,

widely separated, oblique plaits, besides which, in some examples,

are one or two closer and smaller ones (usually absent); aperture

moderately large, oblong.

Length of small perfect specimen 6 inches, proportionate

length of body-whorl =72;, of penultimate whorl +43, ante-

penultimate whorl +2,, preceding whorl ;4,; length of pullus

;3,, diameter of pullus ;4°,; diameter of succeeding whorl at

suture =; length of wing ;°°,; greatest width of body-whorl

and wing ;%3;, of penultimate whorl ;32,; ordinary length of

pullus 6 lines, diameter 7 lines.

So disproportionately large and smooth does the pullus or

young nucleus on the top of the spire appear, that it looks like

a comparatively large Natica or Helix artificially stuck on the

comparatively slender, regularly nodulated, and striated spire,

its disproportion far exceeding the greatest living instance of

such an incongruity, the recent Voluta mamilla. The first very

large specimen seen was presented by Mr. Hannaford, of

Warnambool, an enthusiastic naturalist, after whom I have great

pleasure in naming the species. This specimen, having the

apex absent and the outer lip and the anterior end of the colu-

mella broken off, as well as possessing two unusual small plaits

behind the others, looked so much more like a Fasciolaria than

a Voluta, that in my manuscript I used the former generic name,

until I saw other specimens showing the true characters of the

notched anterior end, mammillary spire, &c.

There is no known recent or fossil species at all approaching

it in general characters.

Rare in Tertiary clays of Muddy Creek, near junction of

Grange Burn, five miles from Hamilton.

One very imperfect specimen, presented by Mr. Hannaford,

from the clays of Port Fairy, Warnambool, where it occurs with

several other species of the Mount Eliza beds. Rather rare in

the clays near the foot of Mount Eliza, in Hobson’s Bay, whence

the perfect specimen was obtained, as well as a few fragments of

the spire with the large nucleus attached. are in clays of the

Orphan Asylum Reserve, Fyan’s Ford, Ad. 28; rare in clays

near Mount Martha.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 26

378 — Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes

Voluta antiscalaris (M‘Coy).

Ovate, moderately ventricose, rather abruptly attenuated to-

wards the front ; spire moderately acute, apical angle 65° to 70°,

of four to five whorls, and a rounded, swollen, smooth, oblique

nucleus at the tip, of one turn and a half; body-whorl with

about sixteen to twenty-four angular, slightly sigmoid longitu-

dinal ribs extending rather less than halfway to the front, narrow

and sharp in the young, wider and more obtusely angular in

adults, becoming gradually obsolete im front, each ending in a

sharp conical tubercle crowning the obtusely angulated shoulder;

a second row of smaller, pointed, conical tubercles surmounts the

larger on each whorl; the space between the two rows is deeply

concave and rather wider than the interval between the correspond-

ing larger tubercles; the space between the upper row and the

suture is flattened, nearly horizontal, and about half as wide as

the space between the two rows, both spaces marked only by the

coarse lines of growth ; whorls, anterior to the tubercles, crossed

by deep, narrow, spiral sulci having flat spaces between them

about equal to half the distance of the longitudinal ribs from

each other; usually about three of these spiral strize visible on

each of the whorls of the spire, crossing the longitudinal ridges.

Pillar-folds slender, widely separated, oblique, three or four, the

third (or fourth, where it exists) posterior, abruptly smaller than

the two anterior plaits; outer lip thin, smooth. Length of large

specimens 2 inches; length of body-whorl 5485, penultimate

whorl 51,2; ; greatest width 4°, to =3,%. A specimen 8 lines long

gives all the same proportional measurements.

A careful comparison of specimens of the true V. scalaris

(Sow.), from the Middle Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight and

Barton, will show (what none of the existing figures or descrip-

tions would) that our species, which I have named V. antiscalaris,

is not identical, but a most remarkable instance of a representa-

tive form, distinguished with apparent doubtfulness by a slightly

longer spire, less ventricose body, and the ribs less twisted at

their anterior end, but with perfect certamty by the spire, which

in the European species is sharply pointed (in accordance with

the genus Volutilites, Swa.) and of eight or nme gradually and

regularly tapering whorls, the apical two or three smooth ; while

in the Victorian species it terminates in an obtusely rounded,

smooth, swollen nucleus or “pullus” of one turn and a half,

below which are only five sculptured whorls in adult individuals.

In accordance with the slightly more slender form, the pillar is

less curved than in the English species, and the plaits slightly

thinner and more oblique; the number of ribs in a whorl is

greater (being about fourteen or fifteen in the English species) ;

Jrom the Tertiary Beds near Melbourne. 379

but in all other characters the coincidence or representation of

characters is so complete that, if the tip of the spire were in

each case absent, the nicest eye could scarcely separate them ;

yet the distinguishing character is one of such importance, and

so invariable, that there cen be no doubt of its marking a per-

fectly distinct species.

This species is also closely allied to the V. nodosa (Sow.) of

the Hampshire Eocene Tertiary, Barton Clay, and Bracklesham

beds, but may be distinguished by the upper row of tubercles of

the spiral whorls being distinctly separated from the suture by

a space equalling about half the width of the space between the

upper and lower rows of tubercles on each whorl, as in V. sca-

laris : one or two very old thick specimens show a spreading inner

lip, and a very faint indication in some lights of a crenulation on

the edge of the outer lip; and the plaits are thickened, and in

one case an intermediate fifth plait appears.

Common in the Tertiary clays of (Ad. 14) parish Moolap; a

variety not uncommon in Tertiary clays of Orphan Asylum

Reserve, Fyan’s Ford, Ad. 28, not uncommon in blue clays and

limestone near Mount Martha. Var. a. levior has the apical angle

65° to 70°, often a fourth small columellar fold, and the spiral

transverse sulci become nearly or quite obsolete near the spinous

shoulder, and sometimes over more than half of the body-whorl

as well as on the whorls of the spire ; it is also a little stronger, but

is certainly only a variety. In clays and limestone, Mount Martha.

Voluta anticingulata (M‘Coy).

Ovate; spire moderately acute (apical angle varying from 55°

to 65°, usually 60°), of five slightly convex, sculptured, gradu-

ally increasing whorls, and a smooth, rounded, small, swollen

nucleus of one turn and a half; sutures twisted or subcanalicu-

lated by a narrow flattened or hollow space separating the su-

tural line of conoidal tubercles, which are on the other side

separated from the obtuse tubercular ends of the nearly straight

longitudinal ribs by a deep spiral constriction or channel seem-

ing to eut the ribs to the depth of the spaces between them ;

body-whorl obtusely rounded at the shoulder, rounding abruptly

to the subsutural channel, and conoidally attenuated to a narrow

slightly emarginate front ; ribs thick, obtusely rounded (usually

nineteen, rarely fifteen, and in one case twenty-four in the last

whorl), usually becoming obsolete at about half the length of

body-whorl (sometimes shorter and often somewhat longer), but

becoming very prominent, and separated by rather wider, deep

concave spaces, at the shoulder, where each terminates in an ob-

tusely rounded end at the constriction or subsutural groove,

above which each rib seems continued as a blunt conoidal tu-

26%

380 Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes.

bercle ; a narrow, step-like, undulated, flattened or slightly con-

cave space extends to the suture perpendicular to the axis;

lower or anterior half of body-whorl strongly marked with trans-

verse or obliquely spiral deep narrow sulci, having broader flat-

tened spaces between them, occasionally extending more faintly

a further variable distance towards the suture; mouth with a

slight posterior channel, oblong, narrowed in front; outer lip

smooth within (edge sometimes very faintly crenulated in old

individuals) ; inner lip slightly curved, with four slender, oblique,

nearly equal plaits about the middle, the anterior slightly longer

than the posterior ; occasionally traces of a very small fifth plait

occur. .

Usual length 1 inch 9 lines; body-whorl 532; to 7825, penul-

timate whorl +3, to 3,; width 523, to =22,. Young, 5 lines

long, body-whorl =23;, penultimate whorl 35 ; width 332,: at

this size only three sculptured whorls at the pullus, twenty-two

ribs on body-whorl. Some species show that the mouth was

dark violet within.

From the examination of a great number of specimens from

the Lower Miocene or “ Tongrien” beds of Lattorg, near Bem-

berg, | long ago satisfied myself that the V. suturalis and V.

cingulata of Nyst were only extreme varieties of one species; and

Beyrich seems somewhat inclined to the same opinion, from ex-

amination of a larger number of specimens from other localities,

of one of the varieties at least, than Nyst seems to have had of

either, as he marks them both as rare in his ‘ Coquilles et Poly-

piers Fossiles de Belgique ;? and the latter name would be the

best to retain, as it indicates the remarkable girdling of the

whorls by the deep sulcus or constriction which seems to cut off

a subsutural row of tubercles from the ends of the longitudinal

ribs in the most common variety; still, as in the V. bulbula,

Lam., to which Nyst likens the V. suturalis, specimens may be

found showing all the transitions between the most strongly

marked subsutural sulcus and its entire absence. The latter

variety I mark @. indivisa; and in it the ribs are often fewer and

more sigmoid, and the shell narrower, than in the ordinary forms,

though none of these characters are constant; in this variety,

too, the spiral striz are often confined to the anterior base of the

shell, leaving the body intact and the ribs smooth and polished.

Var. a. perstriata has the ribs rather more numerous and

straighter than in the ordinary type, and the spiral strie very

strongly marked over the whole body-whorl and spire, so as to

be in this respect intermediate between the Hampshire Barton

Clay V. ambigua and V. digitalina. In this variety the teeth

sometimes reach six or seven; the obtuse swollen papillary

“‘pullus” to the top of the spire readily separates it on compa-

Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit. 381

rison of specimens; and the sutural space of the Australian

species is never so deep or concave as in its European prototype,

in which also the plaits on the columella are very much less

conspicuous and more oblique, the anterior one alone approach-

ing the size of the four on V. anticingulatum. The spire has

one sculptured whorl, fuller than in the V. cingulata of Ger-

many. ‘There is no living species like it.

Very abundant, with occasionally the @ variety and more

rarely the a variety. ee in the Tertiary sands of the

Bird Rock beds, Ad. 22 to 21, less so in Ad. 23. Both varieties

common in the sandy beds Ad. 24.

XLVIII.—On a Phosphatic Deposit in the Lower Greensand of

Bedfordshire. By J. F. Waker, F.C.S., Sid. Suss. College,

Cambridge*.

[Plate XIII. ]

Tuer Lower Greensand formation in Bedfordshire consists of

extensive beds of variously coloured sands, more or less indu-

rated into stone.

In the vicinity of Sandy there exists a conglomerate which it

is proposed to discuss in this paper. A short account of this bed,

by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, appeared in the ‘ Geological Magazine’

for April. I sent a short paper on the discovery of some fossils

in it to the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for July;

Mr. H. Seeley this month (August) also communicated his views

on this bed in a letter to the Editors of that Magazine.

This conglomerate was formerly quarried for mending the

roads, until ‘two or three years since, when it was discovered that

it contained nodules of phosphatic matter, for which it is at pre-

sent extensively worked. Ata cutting near the Potton Railway

station the bed is from 9 inches to | foot in thickness; and the

following is the section, the strata-here being slightly inclined.

1. Sand of different colours, in some places white.

2. Conglomerate bed, 9 inches to 1 foot in thickness.

3. Sand of various colours, containing layers of oxide of iron, 12 feet.

* Communicated by the Author, having been read before the British

Association, in Sections B. and C., at Nottingham, 1866.

382 Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit

At a coprolite-working on the left side of the line, looking

towards Cambridge, a few yards from the edge of the cutting,

the bed increases in thickness to 2 feet.

At a large working on the hill the conglomerate bed is about

6 feet thick; the section is as follows :—

1. Sandstone, on which conglomerate rests.

2. Conglomerate bed, 6 feet.

3. Flaggy sandstone, not exceeding | foot in thickness (often less), and

surface soil.

The lower part of the conglomerate is here darker in colour

and more indurated than the upper.

On the other side of the road is another working, where the

nodules lie in loose sand, and the phosphatic bed is about

1 foot thick.

There are several other workings in the neighbourhood.

The conglomerate contains phosphatic nodules and pebbles in

about equal proportions. The bed is dug out and sifted, washed

and laid in heaps, and then conveyed into sheds, where the no-

dules are picked out by hand. The quantity of phosphoric acid

in the nodules varies from fifteen to twenty-two per cent.

It seems to be the opinion of Mr. H. Seeley that this bed is

the southern extension of the Carstone, which, in a former

paper*, he has stated to represent the Gault and the Shanklin

Sands. But the Gault in this district is represented by a clay

lying beneath the Upper Greensand. Therefore, if his views

be correct, the term Carstone is inapplicable to this bed.

Mr. Seeley states that this deposit “reproduces earlier in time

the conditions of the Cambridge Greensand.”

The Greensand of Cambridge consists of a fine marl which

effervesces briskly with hydrochloric acid ; it also contains green

grains, angular boulders, and hard dark-coloured nodules of

phosphatic matter, often covered with Plicatule ; lumps of iron

pyrites are occasionally found. All the fossil shells are filled

with the same material of which the nodules are composed.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. Noy. 1864.

in the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire. 383

The conglomerate of the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire con-

sists of ferruginous sand more or less indurated (which does not

effervesce with hydrochloric acid), rolled pebbles, and light-brown

nodules of phosphatic matter, which have an earthy fracture and

often contain fragments of shells*. The nodules are often co-

vered with perforations, which Mr. A. Wanklyn discovered to be

the work of small bivalves+. Concretions of peroxide of iron

are also found in this deposit.

The fossil shells found in this bed exist in two different con-

ditions, some being casts composed of the same material as the

nodules, whilst the shells of others are replaced by oxide of

iron, and are filled with the same material of which the bed is

composed ; the indurated part of the bed also contains numerous

impressions of shells. It is difficult to see how two formations

presenting such marked points of difference can have been de-

posited under the same conditions.

The remains of organized bodies contained in this bed, as I

have before stated, exist in two different states of mineralization,

viz. as ferruginous shells and as phosphatic casts. The bed being

very porous (a well has been sunk 50 feet deep for water) and

largely impregnated with ferric oxide, shells (which, as is well

known, consist chiefly of animal matter and calcic carbonate)

would by the action of water have their calcic carbonate replaced

by ferric oxide. In cases where the action was more rapid, only

internal casts of the shells would remain.

Shells which lived in the sea whilst this bed was being formed,

and also shells derived from older formations, if deposited in

this bed, would undergo this change.

The phosphatic casts of shells must have been formed, or, at

least, the shells must have been filled with phosphatic matter, be-

fore they were deposited here, and the calcic carbonate afterwards

dissolved by the action of water. The tricalcic phosphate would

be protected from the solvent action of water by the presence of

calcic carbonate, as proved by the experiments of Mr. R. War-

rington, junr., described in a paper read to the Chemical Society.

The ferruginous shells and phosphatic casts are found inter-

mixed.

The conglomerate contains lumps of hardened clay; and the

so-called coprolites contain a much larger percentage of alumina

than those of the Cambridge Greensand. ‘The analysis of the

coprolites is made from a commercial sample, which contains the

shells, nodules, teeth, and bones, all ground up together. The

* Jn the interior of the nodules there are sometimes found specimens

of a small species of Lima and of Cardium.

+ Mr. Wanklyn has obtained several of these shells, which appear to be-

long to two or three different species.

384: Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatie Deposit

amount of alumina with the fluorine and magnesia, in one ana-

lysis, is 6°64 per cent.; of course, if a special analysis of the

nodules and phosphatic casts (the adhering sand having been

carefully removed) were made, the percentage of alumina would

doubtless be greater. This would indicate that the phosphatic

nodules had been formed of clay soaked in decomposing animal

and vegetable matter, since the alumina could not be derived

from either animal or vegetable sources.

The question now to be considered is, whether all the remains

of organic life found in this deposit are coeval with the deposi-

tion of the bed.

Mr. Seeley states that he has never obtained from this bed a

fossil that is extraneous, and that they all appear to him to be

“ denizens of the old sea-bed where they abound.”

There are obtained from this deposit large masses of silicified

wood resembling those found in the Purbeck, also small pieces

of wood mineralized with phosphoric acid, and often bored by a

new species of Pholas, which I have named Pholas Dallasit.

It seems improbable that wood existing in two such different

conditions should have been derived from the same source*.

Amongst the remains of animal origin we find rolled bones

and teeth of reptiles and fishes, also shells of Mollusca, existing

(as before mentioned) in two distinct conditions.

The phosphatic casts of shells are generally so much worn

that it is impossible to identify their species with precision. In

their general aspect they resemble those of the Kimmeridge and

Oxford Clays. They consist of casts of Rhynchonella, of Car-

dium, Arca, Pholadomya, &c., of Pleurotomaria, Chemnitzia,

Natica, &e.; three or four species of Ammonites occur, of

which Ammonites biplex is found in great abundance; several of

the Ammonites retain their nacreous lustre. Phragmacones of

large Belemnites have also been found.

Part of the ferruginous shells also appear to have been derived

from extraneous sources: amongst these I have obtained a spe-

cimen of Hxogyra virgula and numerous specimens of Gryphea

dilatata. These shells, on account of their shape, could not

contain phosphatic mud when they were deposited. They are

in a bad state of preservation, which may be due to two causes,

—first, to their having been rolled; and secondly, to their having

at the time of their deposition. lost part of their animal matter;

therefore the removal of their calcic carbonate would be more

rapid, and its replacement by the ferric oxide less perfect.

The other ferruginous shells appear to be of the age of the

* Since this paper was read, I have obtained a fine specimen of a cone

probably belonging to a Cycadaceous plant of the Wealden age. Its

length is 2°6 inches, and its circumference is 2°75 inches. (Pl. XIII. fig. 5.)

in the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire. 385

Lower Greensand, and do not present any traces of having been

rolled. Amongst these I have determined

T. (Waldheimia) Tamarindus, Sow. Pleurotomaria DeLahayesii, D’Orb.

celtica. Pecten Robinaldinus, D’Orb.

Sphera Sedgwickii, ». sp. Ostrea macroptera, Sow.

1 have also found ferruginous casts of other shells*. I have no

doubt that this list will be largely increased.

The remains of fishes seem to be principally derived from the

Kimmeridge Clay. I have obtained the following species, which

have also been found in the Kimmeridge Clay of Ely, specimens

of which may be seen in the Woodwardian Museum and in the

collection of James Carter, Esq., who kindly informed me of the

occurrence of these fishes at Ely :—

Spherodus gigas, dg. (Palatal teeth.) Very common.

Pycnodus, sp. (Palatal teeth.)

Gyrodus, sp. (Palates.)

Asteracanthus ornatissimus, 4g. (Dorsal spines.) Common.

Leptacanthus. (Spine.)

Hybodus, sp. (Spines and teeth.)

Sphenonchus.

Lepidotus, sp. (Scales.)

Psammodus reticulatus, 4g. (Palatal teeth.) Common.

Edaphodon, sp.

The remains of reptiles consist chiefly of rolled bones and

teeth of Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus ; water-worn teeth of

Plhosaurus (which reptile is characteristic of the Upper and

Middle Oolites) also occur in considerable quantities. Some

teeth of crocodilian character are found here as well as at Elyt.

I announced in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ the discovery

in this bed of water-worn remains of the Iguanodon, which pro-

bably have been derived from the denudation of a deposit of

Wealden which formerly existed near this district. Since then,

I have obtained several more bones and teeth of this reptile.

Mr. Keeping has likewise collected some fine specimens for the

Woodwardian Museum, which previously contained no fossils

from this deposit.

Further evidence of the existence of the Wealden at some

period in this part of England has since been obtained by Mr.

Keeping, whose practical acquaintance with this formation is

well known: amongst the fossils collected by him are several

* Terebratula depressa, Lamk. Modiola zqualis, Sow.

Exogyra conica, Sow. Myacites plicata, Sow.

Plicatula, sp.

+ Mr. H. Woodward, of the British Museum, kindly informed me that

these teeth probably belong to a species of Dakosaurus (Quenstedt), which

genus occurs in the White Jura.

386 Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit.

pieces of the shelly limestone containing Cyrene, which in the

Wealden occurs in layers varying from | to 6 inches in thickness.

From a careful consideration of these facts, the conclusion

seems unavoidable, that the fossils contained in this deposit con-

sist of some coeval with its formation, and also of organic re-

mains derived from the denudation of the Wealden and of the

Kimmeridge and Oxford Clays.

The following are descriptions of the new species referred to

in this paper :—

Sphera Sedgwickii, n.sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 1 & 2.

Shell globose, nearly equilateral, slightly gibbous, concentrically

striated, the striz finer and more distinct towards the ventral

margin; ligament prominent ; lunule large, distinct, cordate.

This shell is very plentiful, though it is rarely found perfect.

The largest specimens hitherto obtained do not exceed the fol-

lowing dimensions :—length 1°6 inch, breadth 1-5 inch, thick-

ness 1°3 inch.

In its general form this shell closely approaches S. corrugata,

Sby. (= Corbis cordiformis, D’Orb.); the striation of the surface,

however, is much finer, especially towards the margin; the

lunule is very distinctly marked. The anterior margin is also

destitute of the opening at the lower end of the lunule, repre-

sented in D’Orbigny’s figure. I have obtained two specimens

with the valves united, which show no traces of having been

rolled. The other specimens are generally more or less frag-

mentary.

The fossil is named in honour of the venerable Professor who

first discovered Sphera corrugata.

Pholas Dallasii, nu. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 3 & 4.

Shell somewhat ovate, short, inflated, attenuated at the anal ex-

tremity, transversely divided by a single, nearly horizontal,

punctate furrow; the surface on each side of the furrow finely

striated; the striz on the buccal side nearly parallel to the

margin, those on the anal side less distinct, abbreviated, and

obliquely directed towards the dorsal margin.

This little Pholas, which occurs in small pieces of wood mine-

ralized by phosphatic salts, is very nearly allied to P. Cornue-

liana, D’Orb., from which, -however, it seems to differ abun-

dantly in its shorter form, which is more attenuated towards the

anal extremity, the more horizontal direction of its single punc-

tate furrow, and apparently the greater prominence of its um-

bones.

I have great pleasure in naming this fossil after my friend

W.S. Dallas, Esq., F.L.S.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 387

XL1IX.—Report on Dredging among the Hebrides.

By J. Gwyn Jrerrreys, F.R.S.

[As this Report embodies important and recent papers by

Professors Sars and Lovén, on the existence of animal life in

great depths of the sea, which do not appear to be known in

this country, I thought the subject would be sufficiently inter-

esting to publish it at once in this form, without waiting for the

appearance of the annual Report of the British Association for

the Advancement of Science.—J. G. J.]

This exploration lasted nearly two months, viz. from the 24th

of May to the 14th of July in the present year. It comprised

Sleat Sound, Lochs Alsh, Duich, Slapin, and Scavaig, and the

Minch from Croulin Island to Loch Ewe. I had a good cutter

yacht, the master of which had been employed by me for many

years as dredger and took considerable interest in the work, an

active and willing crew, four serviceable dredges, 8300 fathoms

of new rope, machinery for hauling up the dredges, a large tub,

sieves, and various other apparatus. The Hydrographer of the

Navy obligingly supplied me with such charts as I required, to

show the depths and nature of the sea-bottom in the district

which I proposed to examine; and these were of great use in

dredging, as well as. for navigation. The weather was too fine ;

we were often becalmed for many hours together: and instead

of steady breezes, we had too many of those squalls which are so

prevalent, and occasionally dangerous, in the Hebrides.

The Hebridean seas have often been searched, but not explored,

by zoologists. Their great extent, and the number of lochs and

inlets which indent the coast in every direction, would render

necessary an immense deal of money, time, and patience for a

complete investigation. There is little probability that the

subject of the present Report will ever be exhausted.

The invertebrate fauna of this district is of a northern charac-

ter, although there are a few exceptions. Such are, among the

Mollusca, Trochus umbilicatus, Phasianella pulla, Rissoa can-

cellata or crenulata, Odostomia lactea or Chemnitzia elegantissima,

and Pleurobranchus plumula. These may be regarded as south-

ern forms. The first and third occur as far north as Stornoway;

the second ranges to Dunnet Bay in Caithness ; of the fourth I

dredged a single specimen in the upper part of the Minch; and

the last lives between tide-marks in the Isle of Mull. As a set-

off to the above, I would mention the following species, which

have now for the first time been found so far south as the

Hebrides, viz. Montacuta tumidula (a new species, which I will

presently describe), Zrochus occidentalis, var. pura, Jeffreysia

globularis, and Odostomia eximia. ‘The first is Swedish; the

388 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

second is Zetlandic, Scandinavian, and North American, although

it has also been procured in the Orkneys and on the Aberdeen-

shire coast ; the third is Zetlandic, and the fourth Zetlandic also

and Norwegian. It must be borne in mind, as regards the

extent of geographical distribution, that the southern extremity

of the Shetland Isles is distant about 200 miles from the north-

ern extremity of the Hebrides “as the fish swims.” Besides

the four last-named species, the following seem to reach their

most southern limit in the Hebrides :—Luma elliptica, Leda

pygmea, and Trochus Grenlandicus. Leda pygmea has indeed

been dredged on the coast of Antrim; but I am now inclined to

regard the specimens thus obtained as quaternary fossils.

Tethea cranium (a sponge not before known south of Shetland)

occurred in tolerable numbers on the Ross-shire side of the

Minch. Species of Mollusca, inhabiting the Hebridean seas,

which are in the main northern (although they have been found

somewhat further south, and some of them occasionally even in

the Mediterranean), are—Argiope cistellula, Pecten striatus,

Mytilus phaseolinus, Modiolaria nigra, Crenella decussata, Nucula

tenuis, Leda minuta, Arca pectunculoides, Montacuta ferruginosa,

Cyamium minutum, Cardium minimum, Cyprina Islandica, Astarte

compressa, Tellina pusilla, Scrobicularia nitida, Thracia convexa,

Mya arenaria, M. truncata, Chiton Hanleyi, C. albus, C. ruber,

C.marmoreus, Tectura testudinalis, T. fulva, Propilidium ancyloides,

Puncturella Noachina, Emarginula crassa, Scissurella crispata,

Trochus helicinus, Lacuna divaricata, L. puteolus, L. pallidula,

Rissoa albella, Jeffreysia diaphana, J. opalina, Odostomia minima,

O. albella, O. imsculpta, O. diaphana, Velutina plicatilis, V.

levigata, Trichotropis borealis, Purpura lapillus, Buccinum unda-

tum, Trophon Barvicensis, T. truncatus or Banffius, Fusus antt-

quus, F. gracilis, Nassa incrassata, Mangelia turricula, Defrancia

scabra, Cylichna nitidula, Amphisphyra hyalina, Philine scabra,

P. pruinosa, and P. quadrata.

For certain species, which are almost peculiar to the Hebrides,

I am not aware that any locality has been recorded between that

district and the Mediterranean. Such are Aainus ferruginosus,

Poromya granulata, Neera abbreviata, N. costellata, and Cylichna

acuminata. The first three of these were described by the late

Professor Edward Forbes, in the Report to the Association in

1843 on Aigean Invertebrata. Another Hebridean species

(Nucula sulcata) is not found southwards nearer than the coast

of Spain.

Some of our most conspicuous and prized shells, that are also

of a northern type, are wanting in the Hebrides. Saaicava

Norvegica, Natica Grenlandica, Buccinum Humphreysianum,

Buccinopsis Dalei, Fusus Norvegicus, F. Turtoni, and F. Berni-

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 389

ciensis are in this category. All the above (with the exception

of Buccinum Humphreysianum, which inhabits Shetland and the

coasts of county Cork) are met with on the Dogger bank; and

the first two are fossil in the Clyde beds. Six out of the seven

being univalves, I would venture to surmise that their non-exist-

ence in the western seas of Scotland may have arisen from the

circumstance that the diffusion of univalves is slower than that

of bivalves. The spawn of the former is attached to the spot

where it is shed, or in a few cases (e. g. Capulus and Calyptrea)

it is hatched within the shell of its sedentary parent ; so that the

fry forms a colony, and need not roam to any distance, provided

their station yields a sufficient supply of food and has the other

requisites of habitability. Not so with bivalves. ‘These shed their

ova into the water, or else (as in some of the Kellia family) hatch

them within the folds of the mantle, whence they are excluded

on arriving at maturity. Their fry swim freely and rapidly by

means of numerous encircling cilia. The metamorphic state lasts

many hours. During that period they can voluntarily traverse

considerable distances, or they may be involuntarily transported

by tidal and oceanic currents. Time is the only element neces-

sary for their widest dispersion over the adjacent seas, if no

barrier intervenes. Should, however, such an obstacle present

itself, whether im the shape of previously existing dry land, like

that which separates the North Sea from the Atlantic, or from

an upheaval and drying-up of the neighbouring sea-bed by

geological or cosmical causes, the further diffusion of any marine

animals in that direction must necessarily be stopped. An

opposite result would doubtless be produced by a.sinking and

submersion of dry land below the level of the sea, whereby the

diffusion of such animals would be greatly facilitated. This

appears to have been the fluctuating course of events since the

formation of the Coralline Crag, which was probably the cradle

or starting-point of our molluscan fauna—a period long antece-

dent to the last glacial epoch, and incalculably far beyond the

advent of man, unless his origin is much more remote than it is at

present supposed to be. Iam not inclined to attribute the north-

ern character of some of the Hebridean mollusca to the persist-

ence of what have been called “ boreal outliers.” The idea savours

more of poetry than of philosophy or fact. The boreal or truly

arctic species which once flourished in this district have become

quite extinct, probably in consequence of one of those revolutions

above suggested, by which the sea-bed was converted into dry

land. These boreal species consist chiefly of Rhynchonella psit-

tacea,Pecten Islandicus, Astarte crebricostata or depressa, Tellina

calearia, Mya truncata, var. Uddevallensis, Trochus cinereus, and

Astyris Holbolla ; and I have lately, as well as on a former

390 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

cccasion, dredged them on the coasts of Skye and West Ross,

at depths of from 30 to 60 fathoms, or 180-360 feet. They

had a semifossilized appearance. Not one of the above-named

species has ever, to the best of my knowledge and belief, been

found in a living or recent state in any part of the British seas.

All of them occur in post-tertiary or quarternary deposits on the

west coast of Scotland, from a few feet above high-water mark*

to 820 feet above the present level of the seat. The greatest

subaérial height (320 feet) being added to the greatest submarine

depth as above (360 feet), gives an extent of elevation and sub-

sidence equal to 680 feet. But as Pecten Islandicus, for example,

now inhabits the arctic ocean at depths varying from 5 to 150

fathoms, let us take the average of these depths, viz. 774 fathoms

or 465 feet, and add it tothe 680 feet. This would make 1145

feet, and probably represent the height at which the sea-level

may be supposed to have stood when P. Islandicus lived on

the highest fossiliferous spot noticed by Mr. Watson. The

non-fossiliferous boulder-clay, indicating the simultaneous pre-

sence of arctic Jand which was also subject to glacial conditions,

is stated by Mr. Watson { to be about 800 feet higher than the

marine deposit. The height of the layer of sea-shells on Moel

Tryfaen in Carnarvonshire (evidently the remains of an ancient

beach) exceeds that of the similar deposit at Cardigan by more

than 13800 feet ; and the difference of height observed in the

case of other fossiliferous deposits in the north of England

(e.g. Manchester and Kelsey Hill) shows that the disturbing

movement has been unequal, and probably not synchronous, over

the samearea. It would seem that the extent of such oscillation

has not altogether amounted to 2000 feet in the British Isles,

taking Moel Tryfaen as the greatest height, and the Shetland

sea-bed as the greatest depth at which quaternary shells of

recent species occur. The Scotch and Irish deposits, however,

are on the whole far more ancient than those of Wales and

England, judging from their geographical nature; the former

are chiefly arctic, and the latter merely northern. Whether

other parts of the North Atlantic sea-bed have undergone a

much greater change of level since the tertiary epoch is not so well

established. Dr. G. C. Wallich, in his admirable and philosophical

treatise §, with which all marine zoologists and geologists are, or

ought to be, familiar, believed that certain starfishes which he

* British Association Report, 1862, Trans. Sect. p. 73 : Jeffreys, *‘ On an

Ancient Sea-bed and Beach near Fort William, Inverness-shire.”

+ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1864, p. 526: Rev.

R. B. Watson, “ On the Great Drift-beds with Shells m the South of Arran.”

+t Loe. cit. p. 524.

§ The North Atlantie Sea-bed, 1862.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 391

had procured at a depth of 1260 fathoms (7560 feet) in lat. 59°

27' N., long. 26° 41! W., about halfway between Cape Farewell

and the north-west coast of Ireland, were originally a shallow-

water species, but had gradually, and through a long course of

generations, accommodated themselves to the abnormal conditions

incident on the subsidence of the sea-bed*. The starfishes in

question, which he refers to the Ophiocoma granulata of Forbes

(Asterias nigra of O. F. Miller), appear, however, to belong to

a different species, which inhabits deep water. In an important

paper by Professor Sars, on the distribution of animal life in the

depths of the seat, he states that Ophiocoma nigra (O. granulata,

Forbes) is certainly found in shallow water, viz. from 2 to 30

fathoms, on the coast of Norway, but never at a greater depth

so far as is yet known, and that it does not range north of the firth

of Drontheim. He is of opinion that Dr. Wallich’s species is

Ophiacantha spinulosa of Miller and Troschel, a well-known and

Greenlandic species, which is not littoral, but rather a deep-water

kind, viz. from 20 to 190 fathoms; and he infers from Wallich’s

own account that the last-named species, instead of Ophiocoma

nigra or granulata, was the one taken by the ‘ Bulldog’-sounding

in 1260 fathoms. Dr.Wallich also adduces his discovery, at a

depth of 682 fathoms (4092 feet), in lat. 63° 31’ N., long. 13°

41’ W., of two testaceous Annelids, which he assumed to belong

to “known shallow-water forms,” as further evidence of an

extensive submergence of the North Atlantic sea-bed. These

Annelids were named by him Serpula vitrea and Spirorbis nau-

tiloides. But Professor Sars disputes their being shallow-water

species. The former he identities with his Serpula polita

(= Placostegus tridentatus, Fabricius) ; the latter is referred by

Morch{ to the Serpula spirorbis of Linné. The one is regarded

by Sars as a deep-water and not littoral species, being found on

the Norwegian coast in 20 to 800 fathoms; the other has a

wide bathymetrical range, from low-water mark to 300 fathoms.

I suspect, moreover, that there has been some mistake in the

determination of the Spzrorbis, and that it belongs to another

species than that to which Wallich has assigned it. As to the

accuracy of his statement that he procured living starfishes from

a depth of 1260 fathoms, under the circumstances which he has

described (viz. “ convulsively embracing a portion of the sound-

ing-line, which had been paid out in excess of the already

ascertained depth, and rested for a sufficient period at the bottom

to permit of their attaching themselves to it”), no reasonable

* Locxcit..p. 41.

t Vid.-Selsk. Forhandl. 1864: Hr.Sars, “Bemzrkninger over det dyriske

Livs Udbredning i Havets Dybder.”

t Naturhist. Tidsskr. 1863: ‘‘ Revisio critica Serpulidarum.”

392 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

doubt can be entertained. I have myself seen a number of

Antedon (or Comatula) celticus clinging to the rope several feet

from the dredge when it was taken up from about 60 fathoms.

These starfishes must have crawled up the rope while the dredge

was in motion or being hauled in, because no part of the rope

had lain on the ground. Dr. Carpenter tells me that Antedon

rosaceus has the same habit of crawling up and clasping a rope

in shallow water.

The greatest dently marked on the Admiralty charts in any

part of the Hebridean sea-bed which I examined is 182 fathoms.

Here I got several kinds of living Foraminifera. Nineteen

years ago I dredged near the same ground, in 116 fathoms, a fine

cluster of one of the compound Tunicata, Diazona Hebridica,

of a greenish-pink colour. I do not mention this as a great or

even considerable depth. Sars* and Koren+ have done much

more on the coasts of Norway; their dredging-explorations

extended to 800 fathoms. In the paper from which I have

extracted the above remarks as to the distribution of animal life

in the depths of the sea, Professor Sars has enumerated no less

than 52 species and distinct varieties of animals found by him

at the depth of 300 fathoms. They may be thus classified :—

Porifera (Sponges) 2; Rhizopoda (Foraminifera) 19; Polypi

(Actinozoa) 7; Mollusca (Polyzoa 8, Tunicata 1, Mollusca proper

10) 19; and Vermes (Annelida) 5. He has also specified several

Echinoderms, Cirripeds, and Crustacea, as inhabiting somewhat

less depths, viz. from 200 to 250 fathoms. The observations

of the learned Norwegian zoologist confirm those of Sir James

Ross and Dr. Wallich, namely :—

lst. That the temperature of the sea is uniform (39°°5 Fahr.)

over the whole globe, below a certain line which forms an isother-

mal curve, with but slight oscillations caused by changes of the

atmosphere. This curve has its greatest depth at the Equator,

but reaches the surface of the ocean in lat. 56° 62', and dips

again as it approaches the pole from this point.

”Ond. Although the pressure of the water is enormous at great

depths, and in 300 fathoms is equal to about 56 atmospheres

or 840 lbs. on the square inch{, yet the most brittle and delicate

animals (such as Polyzoa and Polyps) inhabiting such depths do

not appear to suffer the slightest mjury. Their structure is

porous and permeable by liquids, or accessible to an endosmotic

influence by which the pressure is easily resisted.

* Reise i Lofoten og Finmarken, 1849.

+ Nyt Mag. Naturw. 1856.

{ The Norse skaalpund is 10 per cent. more than the English lb. avoir-

dupois. Sixteen Norwegian square inches are equal to seventeen English

square inches.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 898

3rd. The want of light has always been considered an obstacle

to the existence of animal life at great depths—not so much

because light is directly essential to animal life, as on account of

its indirectly contributing to its maintenance. It is generally

supposed that animals are dependent on vegetable life. This

latter, as is well known, cannot exist without light, under the influ-

ence of which the absorption of carbonic acid and the evolution

of oxygen are effected. Light, however, exerts no such influ-

ence on animal life. Sea-weeds (the true Algze) disappear in

about 200 fathoms; and the only vegetable organisms which

descend to a greater depth, say 400 fathoms, are Diatomacez.

It may be observed, with respect to the action of light in pro-

ducing colour in animals, that although intensity of light may

produce a corresponding intensity of colour under ordinary cir-

cumstances, yet the diminution or absence of light in the sea is

not necessarily followed by a diminution or absence of colour in

marine animals. Those taken from considerable depths have

frequently vivid colours. The animal of Lima excavata (a com-

paratively gigantic species), from 300 fathoms, is of the same

bright red colour as those of L. Loscombii and L. hians from

shallow water. It has been shown that red rays of light (7. e.

actinic contradistinguished from luminous rays) penetrate deepest

in the water. I will not here repeat what I have already pub-

lished* on this interesting subject ; but I may add that all the

animals recorded as living at great depths are zoophagous, none

of them phytophagous. The deep-sea dredgings of the Swedish

Expedition to Spitzbergen in 1861 yielded some valuable results.

Adjunct Professor Thorell and Professor Keferstein communicated

some short and imperfect notices to the northern journals; but

Professor Lovén has lately given us fuller information, which is

published in the ‘ Transactions of Scandinavian Naturalists’ at

their ninth meeting held in 1863+. A Brooke’s lead and a

‘Bulldog’ machine, with several improvements, were used on this

occasion. Depths from 6000 to 8400 feet (1000-1400 fathoms f{)

were thus explored. The sea-bottom at these depths was covered

with a fine greasy-feeling material of a yellow-brownish or grey

colour, rich in Diatomaceze$ and Polythalamia, and nearly devoid

of sand. Professor Lovén was furnished with the notes of

* British Conchology, vol. i. Intr. pp. xlviii-l, and vol. ii. Intr.

pp: Vill—X1.

+ Stockholm, 1865: p. 384.

+ The Swedish foot makes only 0°974 English foot. The Scandinavian

fathom is 6 feet.

§ This does not quite agree with the accounts of Wallich and Sars, which

give 400 fathoms as the limit of vegetable life; but it does not appear that

the Diatomacez observed by Lovén had actually lived on the sea-bottom.

They might have been pelagic and floating kinds.

Am. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol. xvii. rel

394 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

Messrs. Chydenius and Malmgren, made during the expedition,

and with all the animals discovered in those ereat depths. The

latter comprised:—Annelida, viz. species of Spiochetopterus and

Cirratulus ; Crustacea, viz. a Cuma which appeared to be iden-

tical with C. rubicunda, Lilljeborg, and an Apseudes; Mollusca,

viz. a Cylichna; Gephyrea, viz. a fragment of Myriotrochus Rinki,

Steenstrup, and another allied form with large and fewer star-

wheels, and of smaller wheels of the Myriotrochus-type ; a spe-

cies of Sipunculus resembling S. margaritaceus, Sars ; and, lastly,

a sponge, in which were found a Copepod or Ostracod, and a

fragment of a Cuma resembling C. nasica. In the opinion of

Lovén these animals indicate, so far as can be judged by so

small a number, that in the abysses of the glacial seas there lives

a fauna which does not greatly differ from that which lives on

the same kind of bottom at much less depths. Proceeding up-

wards to the surface, from 50 or 60 fathoms the regions or zones

have a greater variety of animals, even over the same kind of

bottom. Taking this into consideration, and also recollecting

that in the Antarctic seas, at measurable depths, there are forms

of Mollusca and Crustacea which exhibit partly generic, partly

almost specific identity with northern and hyperborean forms, the

idea occurs to him that, from 60 or 80 fathoms down to the

greatest depth known to be inhabited by animals, the bottom is

everywhere covered with a soft and fine mud or clay, and that

there exists from pole to pole, in all latitudes, a deep-sea fauna

of the same general character, many species of which have avery

wide distribution. He also thinks it probable that in the vici-

nity of both poles such a uniform fauna approaches the surface ;

while in tropical seas it occupies the depths of the ocean, the

coast-line there being represented by vast regions of distinct

faunas, the circumferences or areas of which are much more li-

mited. But, in the face of the discovery made by Professor Sars

that large Brachiopoda, stony corals, and Polyzoa, as well as cer-

tain Mollusca (e. g. Anomia and Sazicava) which are peculiar to

a hard or even toa rocky bottom, inhabit a depth of 300 fathoms,

and seeing that Dr. Wallich found a living Serpula attached to

a stone at the depth of 682 fathoms, I am not prepared to accept,

without considerable qualification, Professor Lovén’s notion that

the sea-bottom from 60 or 80 fathoms downwards is everywhere

formed of soft material; indeed we need not go far from home

to seek a refutation of this idea. Captain Beechey’s dredgings

off the Mull of Galloway, in 145 fathoms (as reported by the

late Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of

Natural History’ for September 1842, p. 21), yielded live speci-

mens of Chiton fascicularis, C. cinereus, Trochus millegranus, and

Trophon Barvicensis, all of which are inhabitants of hard or

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 395

stony, and never of soft ground, besides dead shells of the same

and similar species. Thatis more than twice the average depth

supposed by Professor Lovén to be the limit of hard ground.

The Hebridean sea-bed, at very moderate depths (which Dr.

Wallich would call “ shallow water’), mainly consists of a soft

and more or less tenacious mud, mixed with stones of different

sizes, and resembling in its composition the boulder-clay or gla-

cial drift of Scotch geologists. It tells us of rocks ground down

by glaciers year after year in an arctic region—of the mud pro-

duced by such attrition being carried into the sea in the thawing-

season by overwhelming floods, “‘non sine montium clamore ”

(see Dr. Kane’s description of the great Humboldt glacier)—of

its dispersion over the sea-bed by the action of tides and cur-

rents—of the deposit thus formed being inhabited by a variety

of animals of a high northern type during a long and quiet

course of time—of the sea-bed being elevated by slow degrees

above the surface of the water by an agency which we cannot satis-

factorily explain, but which may be volcanic, or perhaps caused

by steam*—of the consequent extermination of these marine

animals—of an interval during which the raised sea-bed was

dry land—of a gradual amelioration of the climate—of another

oscillation of the earth’s crust in a downward direction, when

the surface of the land, covered by its former deposit, again be-

came the bottom of the sea—and of a fresh succession of life,

which is still in existence. Thus a cycle of similar events con-

‘tinually recurs. Nothing is lost or altogether perishes; all the

old materials are used up, and assume new forms. It is the

fashion to quote Lucretius. I will only indulge in two lines;

they seem not to be inapplicable to the present subject :-—

* Hue accedit uti quicque in sua corpora rursum

dissoluat natura neque ad nilum interemat res.”

The kind assistance of Mr. Alder, Dr. Carpenter, the Rev. A.

M. Norman, Messrs. Henry and George Brady, Dr. M‘Intosh,

and Mr. Peach—all of them experienced zoologists—enables me

to supplement this Report with notices of other departments of

the invertebrate fauna, which have resulted from the last grant

made to me. Several new species, especially among the smaller

Crustacea, have occurred ; and our knowledge of geographical

distribution has been not a little advanced by the work. Mr.

Norman’s services especially deserve acknowledgment.

I have made my usual contribution to the British Museum.

* Vide Mr. R. A. Peacock’s pamphlet ‘On Steam as the Motive Power

in Earthquakes and Volcanoes, and on Cayities in the Earth’s Crust.’

Jersey, 1866,

27%

396 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

Description of a new species of Montacuta.

Monvracuta TUMIDULA*, Jeffreys.

Suexi rhomboideo-oval, rather gibbous, thin, semitransparent,

glossy, and prismatic: sculpture, numerous and _ close-set

delicate, microscopical concentric striz: colour yellowish:

epidermis fine and silky: margins, on the posterior side

extremely short and sloping downwards, without any of the

angularity which characterizes M. bidentata ; in front gently

curved; on the anterior side considerably expanding and

rounded ; on the back rising towards the anterior end: beaks

small, calyciform, blunt and prominent, incurved, but not

having any indentation below them; they are placed close to the

posterior side, which is the shortest and not one-sixth the size

of the anterior side: hinge-line rectangular, occupying about

one-third of the circumference: cartilage as in M. bidentata :

hinge-plate narrow and strong, thicker in the middle, not ex-

cavated so deeply as in the last-named species, and scarcely at

all in the right valve: teeth, in the right valve short, trian-

gular, slightly inclming inwards, not widely separated; in the

left valve long, erect, laminar, and parallel with the hinge-

line; the anterior teeth are the largest in both valves: inside

iridescent and polished, very finely marked (more distinctly

on the anterior side) with slight lines which radiate from the

beaks: scars irregularly oblong, conspicuous. L. 0:075.

BrOu:.

Hasirat. Muddy ground in the Minch off the north-west

coast of Ross-shire, in 50-60 fathoms. I there found only a

single dead specimen ; but twenty years ago I dredged another

in Skye, which I deferred noticing until I was quite satisfied of

its differing from M. bidentata. [Since this Report was pre-

sented, Mr. Dawson has found two more specimens in some

of the ‘dredge d sand which I had sent him.] Among the shells

procured by Professor Lilljeborg in Bohuslan, on the south coast

of Sweden, I observed two or three specimens of the present

species, one of which he kindly gave me.

This shell is smaller than MM. bidentata; it may also be dis-

tinguished from that species by its narrower shape, being con-

vex instead of compressed, having a glossy surface, and by the

posterior side being extremely small, with almost a perpendicular

truncation. That side in M. bdidentata is invariably squarish,

and more or less angulated. The teeth in the right valve of

M. tumidula are much smaller, and less widely separated by the

* Somewhat swollen.

Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis. 397

cartilage-pit ; they are triangular instead of leaf-like, and slightly

incline inwards instead of being erect.

M. truncata of Searles Wood, from the Coralline Crag, is a

comparatively large, squarish, and flattened shell, and has long

cardinal teeth.

L.—On Hyalonema mirabilis, zn reply to Dr. Gray.

By Dr. Bowrrsank.

[In the ‘Annals and Magazine’ for October 1866, p. 287, Dr.

Gray has published a note “ On the ‘Glass-rope’ Hyalonema,” in

which he has criticised the short observations on that genus in

the first volume of my Monograph of the British Spongiade.

Those observations were never meant to be taken as a history of

the anatomy and physiology of that curious animal, but simply as

an introduction to the genus Hyalonema among the Sponges, and

as a reason for figuring the numerous interesting forms of its sili-

ceous spicula among those of various other species of Sponges.

The detailed account of these organs, except as far as it was neces-

sary to illustrate the specimens selected for figuring, was reserved

for a paper shortly to be published, and especially devoted to a

minute investigation of the whole of the organization of the

animal, including the basal mass of sponge-tissue, the spiculous

axis, or rope, and its coriaceous envelope, with a view to establish

the organic unity of these parts as portions of one and the same

animal.

The criticisms of Dr. Gray are therefore somewhat premature ;

and in some respects he has so far misrepresented my opinions

as to render a reply to his observations necessary. But in thus

answering his remarks it must be understood that I shall not at

present attempt to decide the questions in dispute, as to whether

it be a single animal or two animals, the one parasitical on

the other, and that I shall reserve the structural proofs and the

reasonings necessary to such a decision for a paper on the sub-

ject, which I have long had in preparation and which [ hope

shortly to be able to publish.

In page 289 Dr. Gray writes, “Again, the specimens being

sunk in a sponge that had a flat base by which it was attached

to some marine body, I concluded that the natural habit of the

animal was to develope itself in a sponge, so as to support itself

in an erect position ; and this idea was strengthened by finding

that the sponge near the part where the coral perforated it was

of a more condensed and harder texture than the other parts of

it. I concluded that there was a kind of mutual understanding

(such as we often find between animals that are parasitic on one

398 -Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis,

another) between the sponge and the coral.” But, if this theory

of Dr.Gray’s be correct, the “ mutual understanding” must have

-been carried very much further than the Doctor supposes—even

to the extent of sharing the spicula of their respective skeletons

between them, as the remarkable cylindro-cruciform siliceous

spicula, so abundant in the inner coat of the envelope of the

siliceous rope of spicula, are still more so in the body of the

basal sponge. This uniformity in their anatomical structure, to

an unprejudiced naturalist, would seem rather to identify them

as parts of the same animal than of two distinct species, how-

ever closely attached by ties of “ mutual understanding.” But

the truth appears to me to be, that, although Dr. Gray has had

the British Museum specimen with the spongeous base under his

care for many years, he has never yet made a careful micro-

scopical examination of the tissues of its basal mass.

In page 291 he writes, “ In 1860 Professor Max Schultze

published the elaborate essay above quoted; and he regards

the rope of siliceous spicula as part of a sponge, and the

polypes as parasitic on it, calling the polypes Polythoa fatua

mihi;” and he continues, ‘‘ Dr. Bowerbank, adopting the same

view, in his lately published work on British Sponges, gives the

following as the generic character of the genus Hyalonema.”

This asertion is incorrect, as I have always maintained that the

siliceous axis, its envelopment, and the basal sponge were all

parts of the same animal, as the following generic characters I

have proposed will prove.

Hyatonema, Gray.

“ Skeleton an indefinite network of siliceous spicula, composed

of separated elongated fasciculi, reposing on continuous mem-

branes, having the middle of the sponge perforated vertically by

an extended fasciculus of single, elongated, and very large spi-

cula forming the axial skeleton of a columnal cloacal system ”

(vol. i. p. 196).

I will not at present follow the author of the paper through

all his reasonings on the subject, as mere opinion or mere

argument form by no means the best mode of settling such

disputes, and as I shall shortly publish a full detail of my

examinations of the anatomy and physiology of Hyalonema, in

which, I trust, I shall be able to prove that the basal sponge, the

spiral axis, and its coriaceous envelope are really parts of one and

the same animal. There is another misrepresentation which I

cannot allow myself to pass without comment. Dr. Gray, in

page 292, writes, “ Unfortunately Dr.Bowerbank does not seem

to have considered it necessary to examine the specimens, but

‘simply copies the plate, or to examine other genera of corals; or

in reply to Dr. J. E. Gray. 399

he would have found that what he calls oscula are, as I called

them in the description he quotes, polype-cells containing polypes

having tentacles and all the internal organization, including a

distinctly plicated stomach, exactly like the zoanthoid polype

named Polythoa or Corticaria.’ How the stomach of the sup-

posed polype can be like that of Corticaria, a genus of Coleo-

pterous insects, is beyond my comprehension; but it may be

that the author meant to write Corticifera, a generic name

of Lesueur for Zoanthus. The assertion that I did not seem

to have considered it necessary to examine the specimens is also

inaccurate ; and it must have escaped the memory of Dr. Gray

that in 1860 the specimens alluded to were, by his direction,

placed in my hands for examination, that for two days, during

nearly four hours of each, I was engaged in the Entomological

Department in a careful microscopical examination of their

anatomical structures, and that a portion of the results of those

examinations were published in the second part of my paper “On

the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiadz”’ in the ‘ Philo-

sophical Transactions’ for 1861, and were illustrated by no less

than thirteen figures in two of the plates accompanying that

Part. In plate xxxi., figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, and in plate

Xxxvl. figures 12, 20, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38, are all from the

specimen of Hyalonema in the British Museum, excepting fig. 7,

plate xxxi., which is from the specimen in the Bristol Museum.

I did not deem it necessary to refigure the specimen in the

British Museum, as it had been so accurately and beautifully

drawn by Mr. Ford for the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ for 1857, plate ix.

Radiata. :

Dr. Gray blames me for supposed hasty conclusions and

inaccuracies, and at the same time exhibits the like symptoms

in his own observations: thus in page 288 he writes Halichondra

in place of Halichondria, Alcyonellum (p. 298) instead of Alcyon-

cellum, and Euplatella in place of Huplectella, and, throughout the

whole of the paper, Polythoa* apparently instead of Polyzea, or

of Palythoa, Lamouroux, a genus of Zoanthidee.

Dr. Gray adopts the idea of M. Barboza du Bocage, that the

protuberant bodies from the bark of Hyalonema are allied to

Zoanthus, and that they bear on their summits the tentacles of

the polypes; and the figure of those parts by M. Barboza du

Bocage in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1864,

plate xxxui. fig. 3, if he thinks fit to assume that as a correct

representation of tentacula, would seem to justify him in that

idea; but a little consideration would have informed him that

the tentacles of polypes are always situated on the oral portion

of the animal, and not on the surrounding portions of the

* [For this mistake the printer is to blame. It should have been

Palythoa throughout, instead of Polythoa.—Ep. }

400 Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis.

polypidom ; and it may be observed that Dr. Gray, in p. 292,

himself designates the protuberances which I have termed

oscula as “ polype-cells,” and not as polypes. I have abundant

specimens of Corticifera, and have had several of the polype-cases

of Zoanthus Couchii in my possession, and in all my examina-

tions of them I could never ascertain that the polypidoms of

either secreted siliceous spicula. These bodies, in every case

that has come under my observation, have been formed of

ageregated adventitious materials, principally sand, with occa-

sionally a stray spiculum amidst the heterogeneous material

adhering to, and incorporated in, the fleshy cases of the

polypes.

Dr. Gray is also mistaken in his belief that I have not paid

sufficient attention to the structure of corals to enable me to

escape such errors of judgment as he imputes to me; but the

truth is, that in the course of the preparation of my paper “ On

the Organic Tissues in the Bony Structure of the Corallidee,”

published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society,’ vol. exxvil. p. 215, I examined microscopically speci-

mens of a great number of corals belonging to different genera,

as well as many of the Gorgoniade, but have never succeeded

im finding a single species of either of them which secreted silex

as a material of its skeleton. Nothing was more common than

to find a mixture of various forms of siliceous sponge-spicula

deeply buried in the interstices of corals, and minute siliceous

coating-sponges covering the bases and sometimes surrounding

the stems of Gorgonias ; but in both cases such spicula were

decidedly either adventitious or parasitical; and I think I may

safely challenge Dr. Gray to produce a single instance of either

a true coral or a Gorgonia secreting siliceous matter as the

base of its skeleton, or, indeed, of any other polype-bearing

animal the earthy base of which is siliceous. The fact of the

presence of siliceous spicula in the inner coat of what he terms

the bark of Hyalonema should have warned him that it could

not belong to either of the genera “ Corticaria” (qu. Cortici-

fera) ov Zoanthus. Hxcepting among the Protozoa, I do not

think Dr. Gray will find a single animal which secretes silex

in its skeleton.

Dr. Gray writes, p. 290, that’M. Barboza du Bocage states

that the basal portion of the axis which is inserted in the sponge

in some of the Japanese specimens is covered with the polype-

bearing bark, the pelypes near the base being smaller; but the

passage quoted from M. Barboza du Bocage’s paper by no

means bears out this assertion of Dr. Gray. The quotation is

as follows :—‘ Chez ces derniers (les exemplaires du Portugal)

le corium polypigerum enveloppe l’axis d’une maniére uniforme,

il recouvre parfaitement ?une des extrémités de Vaxis, la plus

On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn. 401

étroite, et de la il s’étend sans aucune interruption jusqu’aux 2 ou

les 3 de la longueur totale. Les polypes placés sur Pextrémité

de Paxis sont les plus petits de tous (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865,

p. 663, and 1864, t. 22. fig. 2).” This misunderstanding of the

passage quoted by Dr. Gray tends more than ever to confuse our

ideas on the subject, whether we consider Hyalonema a coral,

a zoanthoid polype, or a sponge. M. Barboza du Bocage cer-

tainly does not mean in the passage to infer that the thin ‘end of

the column covered with protuberances was the basal end, and

was accordingly originally immersed in the basal spongious

mass.

Dr. Gray has been pleased to say of my recently published

Monograph of the British Sponges, “But all the descriptions

of this work are so indistinct and crowded with technicalities

peculiar to the author, that they are very difficult to understand,

and render a new examination of the species and a new work on

the subject requisite.’ I regret that I cannot furnish the

learned author with any means of comprehending my descrip-

tions except those contained in my volumes; but it is consola-

tory to know that there are other naturalists who can do 80.

No one has advocated the necessity of every newly discovered

animal having a definite name more strongly than Dr. Gray ;

but that which is applicable to the whole animal does not, in

his opinion, seem equally so to its parts. On tlis question I

must beg leave to differ from him. I found a great portion of

the British Sponges were new to our I’auna, and nearly all of

their parts without names by which to designate and describe

them. I was therefore compelled to name and describe both

the component parts and the species; and whether I have or

have not succeeded in employing suitable designations, I can

assure the author of the paper that I should hail the accom-

plishment of a similar work to mine, exhibiting a greater

amount of talent and research, with unfeigned pleasure, for the

sake of the advancement of a branch of natural history the

study of which has afforded me many years of pleasure and

satisfaction.

LI.—On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn (Antilocapra

americana). By P. L. Scrater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secre-

tary to the Zoological Society of London*.

Tue author stated that his chief object in the present commu-

nication was to bring into more prominent notice a very impor-

* Abstract of a paper read before the British Association, Section D.,

Aug. 23, 1866. Communicated by the Author.

402 ‘Dr. P. L. Sclater on the Systematic Position

tant discovery regarding this animal, that had been made in the

Zoological Society’s Gardens in the Regent’s Park during the

past year, and had formed the subject of a paper read by Mr.

Bartlett, the Superintendent of the Gardens, at one of the So-

ciety’s meetings in 1865*. This discovery was, that the horns

of the Prong horn were natur ally shed every year—a phenomenon

hitherto quite unknown among the Bovide or hollow-horned

Ruminants, with which the Pronghorn had always hitherto been

associated, and only occurring in the allied Deer-family or Cer-

vide. Mr, Bartlett’s observations had been made upon a young

male of this scarce mammal, which had been acquired for the

Society in January 1865+, and had since lived in good health

in the Menagerie. This animal had shed both its horns on the

7th of November, 1865; and a finer pair had since grown, which

would, no doubt, be shed in like manner in Nov. 1866. Since

Mr. Bartlett’s publication of this novel fact, full confirmation of

it had been received by the Zoological Society, in a communica-

tion from their Corresponding Member, Dr. Colbert A. Canfield,

of Monterey, California, who had come to the same conclusion

as Mr. Bartlett, from observations on this animal in a state of

nature made in the county of Monterey, in some parts of which

the Pronghorn was very common f.

The author exhibited a skull of the Pronghorn with the horns

fully developed and ready to be cast off shortly, and explained

the mode in which he supposed the shedding to be effected.

After the old horn was cast off, the horny matter, which was

at first entirely confined to the upper end of the new horn,

gradually spread itself down to its base, enveloping the nu-

merous hairs with which the new horn was clothed when. first

appearing, and ultimately checking their growth and destroying

their vitality. After the horn was perfected and hardened,

new hairs developed themselves beneath the epidermis, and,

not being able to force their way through the horny co-

vering, became, as the author believed, the chief agent in

eausing the shedding of the horn. As regards the general

structure of the horns of the Pronghorn, it was quite evident

that they had little or nothing in common with those of the

Deer. The latter were formed of bone developed upon a

process of the frontal bone, and were more correctly termed

antlers, whereas the horn of the Pronghorn consisted of true

horn (like those of the ordinary Bovide) gradually developed

* “Remarks upon the Affinities of the Prongbuck,” by A. D. Bartlett,

Superintendent of the Society’s Gardens. (Proc. Zool. S06) 1865, p. 718.)

tT See notice and figure, Proc. Zool. Soe. 1865, p. 60, pl. 3.

~ See Dr. Canfield’s paper “On the Habits of the Prongbuck, and the

periodical shedding of its horns,”’ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. "105.

- of the Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). 403

from the epidermis, the skin remaining complete underneath

them.

Two other points in which the Pronghorn differed from all

the other known Bovide were the furcation of the horns and in

the absence of the “ false hoofs,” as the stunted terminations of

the rudimental second and fifth digits of each foot are termed,

in which latter respect it resembled the Giraffes (Camelopardalis).

These three important modifications of structure, when taken

together, induced the author to believe that it would be neces-

sary to raise the genus Antilocapra to the rank of a family in

the series of Ruminantia, which he proposed to arrange some-

what as given in the subjoined table.

Order ARTIODACYLA.

Division RUMINANTIA,

I. RUMINANTIA PHALANGIGRADA.

Placenta diffusa. Stomachus tripartitus: dentes

3 ; 1-1 - . l—l iat 6—6 5—5

primores 3—,3; canlml ;—, Molares g¢—-G aut 5-6:

pedes didactyli ............. Socenacaeuioncn sartessccsseces |, Cometide.

II. RUMINANTIA UNGULIGRADA.

a. Placenta polycotyledonaria.. Stomachus quadri-

ian deat : ; oO 0n - « 0O—0 t

partitus: qdentes primores 3-3? caninl T=1 au

tT 6

ae molares =a

a’. Pedes didactyli, ungulis succenturiatis nullis.

a", Cornua in sutura coronali posita, ossea,

brevia, pelle tecta ......ss.ssscesseeee fenke eh 2. Camelopardalide.

b”. Cornua ex osse frontali orta basi ossea,

parte superiore cornea, furcata, decidua . 3. Antilocapride.

6’. Pedes tetradactyli, ungulis succenturiatis

duabus.

(c”. Cornua ex osse frontali orta, basi ossea,

parte superiore cornea, non furcata, per-

SAGMERGIAG ebiicnvoaaretéstadacacss nas sortves ase 4. Bovide.

< d''. Cornua ex osse frontali orta, omnino

OSSGAe OC CIOM EAT ose ac cists esses sels sferae sielacicly eoratta 5. Cervide.

e’. Cornua nulla, dentes canini marium

WP CeMSE RENT ef diees sdcadhonedeeesenccarageeelass 6. Moschide.

b. Placenta diffusa. Stomachus tripartitus; dentes

, 0—0 Ses 6—6

primores 3-33 canini;—,, molares g—G; pedes

tetradactyli; cornua nulla ......ceccceceeees sccsscsee /. Pragulide.

In conclusion the author called attention to the geographical

distribution of the Ruminants, as shown in the subjoined table,

in which the geographical divisions employed were the same as

those used by the author in his paper on the distribution of

404

Prof. EH. Suess on Hyalonema in a Fossil State.

Birds*, but which he believed to be equally applicable to the

class of Mammals.

Table of the Distribution of Ruminants.

ORBIS NOVUS. ORBIS ANTIQUUS,

Regio Regio Regio Regio Regio Regio

Neotropica.| Nearctica. || Palzearctica.| | @thiopica. Indica. | Australiana.

Her @amelidcemescnccnse|secneoronce| tases: Saeceeaien |Camelus

5 Auchenia

Py. 2

Ramelopardalidre) 540) nooesl| aaocogedodsabe (If socdd BiRoA00R Camelopardalis

3. Antilocapridz.....|.........00. Antilocapra

Spaoonec6 Adc (Haplocerus) || Antilope | Antilope Antilope

Baaoonodasbs|| ascoane scacnase Capra Capra Capra

Ba nG@ese Soaadnance |ropasceneooe Ovis Ovis PBEGASRDE RAB RAE Ovis

Masioteeaniee Ovibos

Pemeecakeicts Bos Bos Bos Bos

Walieeereaecece Tarandus | Tarandus

DEROCEVIGGE see eesises Cervus ...| Cervus Corvus lscaacecs cade sees Cervus

sae reaseecee| se Face ae ca balonll |/tieldseescesasl| Seaee ses welecs secs CONBELSE

Go MOSCHIAH sovececes|cvecscvcsees| cosscsncsesssre || Moschus |

5 oa. |i honacoosde Bl] auosadiosabaoucs || /oSaqad50dade || GosuosaSsacmendccn | Tragilus

7. Tragulide ...... { Pee ate casa eae es earateciere all eleiemielalete stots Hyomoschus |

LII.—On the Existence of Hyalonema in a Fossil State.

By Prof. E. Surss, of Vienna.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

A very interesting note on the “ Glass-Rope Hyalonema,” by

Dr. Gray, in your last Number induces me to give the following

supplement.

A very common fossil of the Yorkshire Mountain Limestone,

described by M‘Coy under the name “ Serpula parallela,” is, in

fact, a true “Glass-Rope.” Specimens of this curious fossil

were first given to me by my excellent friend Mr. Edw. Wood,

of Richmond, in 186] ; and | took a good number of specimens

with me to Vienna, because the siliceous nature of the fossil, in

a rock the other fossils of which are not changed into silex,

seemed to me to deserve some closer observation. I soon found

out the cause of this curious difference, and published a note on

the true relations of Serpula parallela in the ‘ Verhandlungen’ of

the Vienna Zoological Society for 1862 (vol. xu. pp. 85 & 86).

I hope that English palzontologists, after having read this note

and reexamined the fossil, will agree in naming it Hyalonema

parallelum.

Yours most respectfully,

Epwarp SvgEss,

Vienna, Oct. 13, 1866. University, Vienna.

* Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. ii. p. 130.

Determination of the Cladoniei by Hydrate of Potash, 405

LIII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XI.

By the Rev. W. A. Leicuton, B.A., F.L.S.

On the Examination and Rearrangement of the Cladoniei, as

tested by Hydrate of Potash.

In no case is the new reactive, hydrate of potash (see Annals &

Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xvi. p. 169), of greater practical

utility than in the difficult tribe of the Cladoniei, that crux of

lichenologists, where its application enables us with admirable

precision and exactness to determine the various species, to re-

distribute the confounded species, and to refer to their proper

systematic places the innumerable varieties and forms and endless

modifications which may resemble each other in external charac-

ters. This will be amply manifest to the student by the follow-

ing result of its application to the specimens in my herbarium.

Where the reactive produces a yellow colour, it may be indicated

by this sign, K+; where no reaction takes place, or only a slight

fuscescence, thus, K—.

Tribe CLADONIEI, Ny].

I. Pycnorwetta, Ach., Duf., Nyl. (K+).

1. P. papillaria (Hoffm.) (Dill. t. xvi. f. 28, E. Bot. t. 907)

=Scher. L. H. 511,512; Nyl. Lich. Paris. 107; Moug. &

Nestl. 259; Leight. Brit. Lich. 208; Mudd, Brit. Lich. 22;

Mudd, Brit. Clad. 80; Coémans, Clad. Belg. 1, 2, 8, 4; Anazi,

Clad. Cisalp. 27; T. M. Fr. Lich. Scand. 16; Spruce, Lich.

Pyren.

In addition to the above published collections, my herbarium

contains the plant from Bagnéres (Dr. Philippe), Genoa (Prof.

DNtrs.), Smoland, Femsjé (Dr. T. M. Fries), Eperjes, Hungary

(Dr. Holzinger), Westmoreland (Mrs. Stanger), Yorkshire (Mr.

G. Dixon), Bournemouth, Hants (Rev. A. Bloxam).

2. P.mascarena, Nyl. Of this plant I have seen no specimen;

but Dr. Nylander informs me (i Uitt.) that it has the same

reaction (K+) as P. papillaria.

II. Craponta, Nyl. (thallus leafy: see Flora, 1866, p. 178,

and Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 3 ser. xvii. p. 105.)

* Pheocarpe (K+).

1. C. endiviefolia, Fr. (Mich. Gen. t. 24. f. 3, E. Bot. t. 2361).

The under surface of the thallus becomes of a faint yellow with

hydrate of potash, which is not the case with C. alcicornis, thus

showing them to be distinct. =Nyl. L.P.106; Scher. L. H.

456; M.& N. 1062; Anzi, C.C. 1,2; Coém. *620; Welw.

Crypt. Lusit. 35. 105; Mudd, B.C. 1.

My herbarium has it also from Rome (Dr. Deakin), Médling,

406 ‘Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the ~

Lower Austria (Dr. Holzinger), Algeria (Mr. G. Bentham),

Genoa (Prof. DeNotaris) ; and, in Great Britain, from Gilton

Point, Tenby, South Wales, and Haughmond Hill, Shropshire.

2. C. cervicornis, Scher. (E. Bot. t. 2574) = Scher. L. H.

457; M.& N.749; Bohl. Br. Lich. 88; Anzi, C.C. 12,18, 19;

Mudd, L. Br. 9.

Under this name two plants, alike externally, have been com-

prised hitherto, but must now be separated as distinct species.

The one has the reaction K +, the other is destitute of reaction,

K—. Dr. Nylander (in ditt.) mforms me that the C. cervicornis

of Délise’s herbarium in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, has K+,

whilst the C. sobolifera of the same herbarium has K—,

and to this latter Coém. Cl. Belg. 14, 15, 16 are referable.

The C. cervicornis K+ is, of course, kept distinct from gracilis

and verticillata by the reaction.

I possess this plant also from Bruyéres (Scherer), from

Gotteborg and Christiania and Klippan, from ? Abbé Coémans (as

“ C. degenerans v. basima, Nyl. L. Scand. 54”), and from Shrop-

shire, Yorkshire, and Barmouth, North Wales.

3. C. cariosa, Flk. (EK. Bot. Suppl. t. 2761) =Fr. L.S. 149 (fide

specim. a Nyl.); Fellm. Lapp. 27; Coém. Cl. Belg. 20; M. &

N. 850; Massal. L. Ital. 54; Anzi, C. C. 4; Hepp. 541, 542 ;

Scher. L. H. 510; Richardson, Arctic Amer. Lich. 10.

I possess this also from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Holm (Dr.

Nylander), and from near the 49th parallel of latitude, Oregon

Boundary Commission (Dr. Lyall).

The reaction K+ keeps this quite distinct from C. pyzxidata,

K—.

4. C. lepidota (Ach.)=Fellm. Lapp. 35. This Acharian var.

of degenerans has K+, and, in Dr. Nylander’s opinion, ought

probably to be distinguished as a distinct species.

5. C. eemocyna, (Ach.) Syn. p. 261=Fellm. Lapp. 28, 29;

Anzi, C. C. 104 &B (in part); Scher. L. H. 65. 271.

I have it also from Peklin (Dr. Harslingsky). Dr. Nylander

(in litt.) remarks that this species grows as far as Greenland and

Siberia. It is distinguished from gracilis by the reaction.

6. C. dactylota, Tuck. = Wright’s Lich. Cub. 30. Distin-

guished from fimbriata, gracilis, and botrytes by reaction (K +),

but may be probably added as a form to eemocyna.

7. C. turgida, Hoffm. = Fr. L. 8. 147 (fide specim. a Nyl. &

T. M. Fries); Fellm. Lapp. 87; Tuck. L. Am. Sept. 24.

This also may be added to ecmocyna as a state.

8. C. pungens, Fr. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 80) = Fr. L. 8. 318 (fide

Nyl.); Scher. L. H. 459; M. & N. 754; Bohl. Br. Lich. 23;

Coém. 1035; Cl. Belg. 189; Bourgeau, Pl. Can. 605; Mudd,

Br, Clad. 54, 55,56; Anzi,C.C.24; Leight. Exs. 16, 369, 374;

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 407

Wright, Cuba, 33; Wel. Cr. Lus. 26; Massal. It. 191, 196;

Dietrich, Lich. |

This I have also from Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin) ; Blae-

berry Hill, Perth (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), and from Barmouth,

North Wales; also from Untersontheim (Kemler), Basingstoke,

.Kent, and Winchfield, Hants (Mr. R. 8. Hill).

Distinguished from furcata (K—) by the reaction (K+).

Dr. Nylander communicates (in /itt.) the following notes of

reaction in specimens in the herbariuin of Délise, “which are

referable here :—C. racemosa, Dél., K+ (this Dr. Nylander con-

siders to be a C. pungens validior, and not belonging to the true

racemosa). C. racemosa, var. rangifera, Dél., represents two

species,—(1) pungens major spermogonifera (K+); (2) corym-

bosa (K—). C. racemosa var. macropoda, Dél., has K+.

Fries, L. S. 318, “ C. pungens,” has K+.

Var. foliosa, Flk.=Coém. 1036; Coém. Cl. Belg. 181, 183.

I possess this in addition from Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam),

Launceston (Sir W. J. Hooker), Hampshire (Mr. R. 8. Hill),

and from Algeria (Mr. G. Bentham), Salzburg (Dr. Schwartz).

Var. coralloidea (Ach.) = C. muricata, Dél. (Nyl. Syn. i. 207).

‘Dr. Nylander (in hit.) says that muricata, Dél. herb., has K+,

-and is identical with coralloidea, Ach.

9. C. corymbescens, Nyl. (Nov. Caled. p. 40). This, Dr. Ny-

lander says (in tt.), has the reaction K+ very distinct, and is

much nearer to C. pungens than to C. degenerans.

10. C. diplotypa, Nyl. in Flora, 1862, p.475. This has a beau-

tiful reaction (K +-), and, according to Dr. Nylander (in Uitt.), is

near to C. furcata in appearance, but altogether distinct.

1]. C. delicata, Pik. (EH. Bot. t. 2052)=Scher. L. H. 75; M.

& N. 753; Nyl. L. P.14; Hepp.112; Tuck. 29; Mass. 217,

2928; Spruce, L. Pyren.; Anzi, C. C. 21D; Coém. Cl. Bele.

106, 107; Mudd, L. Br. in Br. Clad. 43 ; Leight. 382,

The reaction (K+) distincuishes this from “caspiticia, Fik.

(K—), from squamosa, Hoff. (K—), and from pyw«idata, var.

pityrea (Ach.) (K—).

I possess specimens also from Smolandia, Femsj6 (Dr. T. M.

Fries), Germany (C. Fuisting), and from Oswestry (Rev. T.

Salwey), Bagot’s Park, Staffordshire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Cold

Weston, Shropshire, and Aymestry, Herefordshire.

Var. subsquamosa, Nyl. (KH. Bot. t. 2862)=Scher. L. H. 74

Anzi, C.C. 21 8; Bohl. Br. L. 16; Mudd, Br. L. 14, Br.

Clad. 41 (part.) ; Leight. 405.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Tatra, Hungary

(Dr. Harslingsky), Stogdale, High Cliff, Cleveland, Yorkshire

(Mr. Mudd), Bolsley, near Thirsk (Mr. J ae Baker), Leicester-

shire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Northern Island, Australasia (Dr. J. D.

Hooker).

408 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

The yellow reaction (K+) is observed in C. delicata and its

varieties in the herbarium of Délise and also in his C. syrtarum

and C. squamosa var. anomea, Dél. (Dr. Nylander in Litt.)

See remarks under C. squamosa, Hoffm. posted.

12. C. Santensis (Tuck.). Of this Dr. Nylander says (in litt.),

“Decidedly, after a renewed examination, C. Santensis, Tuck.

Suppl.! and Nyl. Syn., is a Cladonia near to delicata, and not a

Pycnothelia. Its reaction is strongly K+.

*k Pheocarpe (K—).

13. C. alcicornis, Flk. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 12 a; Vaill. Paris. t. 21.

f. 3) = Scher. L. H. 455; Leight. Exs. 15; Coém. Cl. Belg.

DAO +7,19,,9;, 10.

My herbarium contains this also from Bagni di Lucca and

Rome (Dr. Deakin), Pont du Gard (Mr. G. Bentham), Lheris

(Dr. Philippe), Ayton, Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Aberdovey (Rev.

A. Bloxam), and from Bodbury Ring, near Church Stretton,

Shropshire.

The want of reaction (K—) separates this from C. endivie-

folia (K+).

14. C. firma, Nyl. (Syn. p. 191). This, according to a spe-

cimen from Dr. Nylander himself (gathered by H. de la Perrau-

diére on Teneriffe in 1855), has a peculiar red-brown, almost

sanguineous, reaction, which I have noticed in no other plants.

=Coém. Clad. Belg. 11, 12, 13.

I possess similar specimens from Tatra, Lower Austria (Dr.

Harslingsky), and from Christmas Harbour, Kerguelen’s Land

(Dr. J. D. Hooker). :

15. C. ceratophylla, Eschw. = Wright’s Cuba, 25; Spruce

Lich. Amaz. 151.

I have it also from Mount Corcovado, near Rio de Janeiro

(M. Casaretti).

16. C. verticillaris, Mnt. (fide spec. a DNtrs. collected by

M. D. Casaretti in sylvulis Restinga de Taypu prope Rio de

Janeiro, labelled C. perfoliata, Flk.) (Dill. t. xvi. f. 23) =

Wright, Cuba, 27; Spruce, Amaz. 29.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Hong Kong (Mr.

Wilford) and New Granada (Mr. Blagborne).

Var. Dilleniana, Fk. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 23) = Wright, Cuba,

34, 35.

The reaction here is peculiar, being, as Dr. Nylander remarks

(in hit.), “thallus (vel podetiorum cortex) hydrate kalico fere,

mox dilute fuscescens,” as is the case also in C. furcata and C.

calycantha. In the var. Dilleniana I should mention that the

podetia exhibit no reaction, whilst the folioles become slightly

tinged with yellow, which dries into a pale tawny colour.

Species ‘of the Cladoniei by the aciion of Hydrate of Potash, 409

17. C. calycantha, Dél. Of this Dr. Nylander has commu-

nicated a specimen from Bolivia, and informs me (in /ifé.) that

the reaction is similar to that in verticillaris and furcata.

18. C. pyxidata, Fr. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 6 a, f.6c, f. 6 1-M, f. 9 a)

=Tuck. Am. Sept. 25; Scher. L. H. 53, 54, 268, 270; Coém.

Cl. Belg. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29; Mudd, Br. Clad. 6; Nyl.

L. P. 19; Rich. Arct. Am. 7, 12; Anzi, C.C.34,c; M.&N.

1235, 1236 (part.),1155 (part.); Massal. 128, 129; Arnold, 264;

Leight. 407.

Specimens in my herbarium from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),

Eperjes (Dr. Harslingsky), Sweden (Dr. T. M. Fries), Norway

(Dr. W. L. Lindsay), and from Kent, Cumberland, Hants,

Leicestershire, and Shropshire.

f. leptophylla (Flk) = Coém. Cl. Belg. 22; Hepp. 543.

Dr. Nylander writes (in /itt.) that Fellm. L. Arct. 25 is that.

which he has called cervina in his Syn. p. 193.

f. pityrea (Ach.) = Mudd, Br. Cl. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33;

M. & N. 1235 (part.),1155 (part.); Mudd, Br. L. 7,8; Coém. Cl.

Belg. 47; Bohl. 32; Wright, Cub. 31; Scher. L. H. 266, 267.

Specimens in my herbarium from Salut (Dr. Philippe),

Leicestershire, Shropshire, Yorkshire, Hants, and North Wales.

f. decorticata (Flk.) = Coém. Cl. Belg. 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,

93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,99, 100, 101, 102,103,104; Wright, Cuba,

32 (part.) ; Coém. 63, 1016, 1024.

Specimens in my herbarium from Untersontheim (Kemler),

Engstlen Alp (Scherer), Grimsel (Scherer), and from Aberdovey,

North Wales, and Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Kilmory,

near Fermoy, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll).

f. chlorophea, Flk. = Scher. L. H. 51*, 52, 54 (part.), 55 ;

Mudd, Br. Cl. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; Spruce, Amaz. 28; Coém. Cl.

Belg. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 29,40; M.& N. 1235

(part.); Leight. 399.

Specimens in my herbarium also from Shropshire.

f. cespititia, Flk. (EB. Bot. t. 1796) = Leight. Exs. 368; Anzi,

C.C. 21; Mudd, Br. Cl. 44; Coém. Cl. Belg. 105; Bohl. 72;

M. & N. 1154; Spruce, Lich. Pyren.; Hepp. 544; Arnold, 271;

Scher. 269, 280.

Specimens in my herbarium from Holyhead Mountain, Angle-

sea, Caradoc, Lawrence, and Haughmond Hills, Shropshire;

Pamber Forest, Hants (Mr. R. S. Hill) ; Bagni de Lucca (Dr.

Deakin) ; Louvain, Bois de Héverlé (Abbé Coémans).

f. fimbriata, Hoffm. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 8, t. xvi. f. 16, a, B,

D, F, G; Vaill. Par. t. xxi. f. 6-8; E. Bot. t. 2488) = Mudd,

Br. Cl. 12, 138, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22; Richardson,

11; Coém. Cl. Belg. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51,

52, 58, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Serv. 3, Vol, xvii. 28

410 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80; Anz, C.C.

7; Scher. L. H. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 265, 589; Leight.

Exs. 825, 376, 377; Bohl. 24; Fellm. Lapp. 26; M, & N.

1157, 1156; Nyl. L. P. 20, 21, 47, 48; Massal. 154, 155.

Spruce, Lich. Pyren.

Other specimens in my herbarium from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),

Salut (Dr. Philippe), Hperjes (Dr. Harslingsky), Genoa (Prof.

De Notaris), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Australasia (Dr. J. D.

Hooker), Fermoy, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll), Leicestershire and

Aberdovey, North Wales (Rev. A. Bloxam), Hants (Mr. R. S.

Hill), Yorkshire (Mr, Mudd), Scotland (Dr. W. L. Lindsay),

and Shropshire.

~ In all the polymorphous forms and states of C. pyaxidata the

reaction was K—, leaving a brownish stain when dry.

19. C. subdelicata, Nyl. Dr. Nylander writes (en litt.) that

he is acquainted with a lichen from Tropical America which

he has named C. subdelicata, analogous to delicata, but. the

cortex of whose podetia exhibits the reaction K—. Before

knowing the difference of reaction he had mistaken it for delicata.

This subdelicata is known to him as coming from the West Indies

and Brazil. This is a correction which he wishes to be made

in his Syn. p. 211.

20. C. gracilis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t. 1284) = Richardson, Arct.

Amer. 18, 14, 15, 16,17; Mudd, Br. Cl. 34, 35, 36, 37; Mudd,

Br. L. 10, 11, 12; Bohl. 7; Fellm. Lapp. 80; Coém. 1021,

1022; Scher. L. H. 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 641; Massal. It. 18,

19; Tuck. Am. Sept. 27*, 28; Anzi, C. C. 10 a (part.) c, D, B,

F,G; Leight. Exs. 296, 402; M. & N. 849; Welw. Lusit. 119.

_ The above references comprise the forms chordalis, macroceras,

and aspera, which I have also from the Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin),

Lisponner (Dr. Philippe), Province of Pallantiensi (Prof. De No-

taris), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), Grimsel (Scherer),

Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Unterson-

theim (Kemler), Aldershot, Hants (Mr. R. S. Hill), Yorkshire

(Mr. Mudd), Shropshire (Rev. T. Salwey), Keswick (Mrs.

Stanger), Sedan, in Ardennes (Dr. C. Montagne), Barmouth,

North Wales; Long Mynd, Stiperstones, and Wrekin, Shropshire.

Dr. Nylander states (in itt.) that Fr. L. S. 58, “ C. gracilis,”

has K—, and comprises hybrida and chordalis.

Var. cornuta (C. cornuta, Fr. Nyl. Syn. i. p. 198) = Fr. LS.

116 (fide spec. a Nyl.); -Anzi, C. C. 9; Fellm. Lapp. 31;

Richardson, Arct. Am. 18.

My herbarium contains also specimens of this form from

Jerkin and Sneelhatten, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Upsal

(Dr. T. M. Fries), Holm (Dr. W. Nylander), Salzburg (Dr.

Schwarz), Untersontheim (Kemler).

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 411-

Var. ochrochlora, Flk. (Nyl. Syn. i. p. 198) = Arnold, 265 ;

Scher. 640; Anzi, C. C. 8; Coém. 1019; Hepp. 540; Coém.

Cl. Belg. 54, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 110; Mudd, Br. Cl. 23,

24, 25, 26.

I possess also specimens from Austria (Dr. Holzinger),

Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin).

21. C. verticillata, Flk. (Vaill. Par. t. xxi. f.5; Dill. t. xiv.

f. 6, cg, u) = Coém. 1020; Tuck. Am. Sept. 26; M. & N. 644;

Coém. Cl. Belg. 17; Wright, Cuba, 28; Scher. L. H. 458;

Mudd, Br. Cl. 3.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Untersontheim

(Kemler), and Barmouth, North Wales.

Var. sobolifera, Dél. (in Dub. Bot. Gall. p.631) = Scher. L. He

62, 63, 274,275; Tuck. Am. Sept. 27; Coém. Cl. Belg. 14, 15,

16; Leight. Exs. 14; Mudd, Br. Cl. 2.

I have also specimens from Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky),

Subat (Dr. Philippe), Caer Caradoc and Lawrence Hill, Shrop-

shire, Barmouth, North Wales.

The reaction K— is in the above fuscescent. Coémans (Clad.

Achar.) regards verticillata as the type of the species, and cer-

vicornis (our sobolifera) as a simple microphylline variety. The

true cervicornis has a reaction K+, which separates sobolifera

(K—), which has hitherto, from external aspect, been confused

and intermingled with it. Dr. Nylander (im litt.) informs me.

that C. cervicornis of Délise herb. has K+, and C. sobolifera of

the same collection has K—.

22. C. decorticata (Fr) (Nyl. Syn. i. 199) = Scher. 279;

Hepp. 545; Anzi, C. C.5; Coém. Clad. Belg. 21.

. This I possess also from Upsal (Dr. T.M. Fries), Dageré, Fin-

land (Abbé Coémans). Distinct from cariosa (K+) by reaction

K—, and from pywidata var. decorticata (Flk.) by the different

squamules.

Dr. Nylander (in Witt.) says C. decorticata (Fr.), Nyl. (of

which C. Mougeotii, Dél., is a spermogoniferous state), has K—.

23. C. degenerans, Fk. = Fr. L. 8. 54 (fide spec. a Nyl.);

Richardson, Arct. Am. 19, 20, 21, 22, 28, 24, 25; Anzi, C. C.

13; var. trachyna(Ach.) = Fellm. Lapp. 34.

Of this species I have specimens also from Holm (Dr. Ny-

lander), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Untersontheim (Kemler),

Mount Spliigen, Grimsel, Vall. Gastern (Scherer), Leicestershire -

(Rev. A. Bloxam), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr. R. 8. Hill).

Dr. Nylander (in Mit.) says C. degenerans, Fr. L. 8. 54, has

K—, and that C. coralloidea, Ach., which in his Lich. Scand. -

p- 54, he regarded as a variety of degenerans, is identical with

‘ muricata, Dél., and a variety of C. pungens (K+). All the

degenerans of herb. Délise have K—,

28%

412 | Rev. W.A. Leighton on the Determination of the

— 24. C. conchata, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in Litt.)

this has K—.

25. C.carneola, Fr. = Fr. L. 8.115 (fide spec. a Nyl.); Hepp.

1; Anzi,C.C.6; Zwackh. 878.

This I possess also from Upsal (Dr. Nylander and T. M. Fries), .

Onega (Kullhem), Untersontheim (Kemler).

. Var. bacilliformis, Ny).

Var. cyanipes, Fr='. M. Fr. L. Se. 15.

Var. cerina, Nag. (Koérbr. Par. 11). This, according to a spe-

cimen communicated by Dr. Holzinger, as received from Nagel

himself, with the locality “near Dresden,” has K—.

Dr. Nylander (in Mitt.) says, “Ex rev. Coémans in litt. C7.

straminea, Smef. non specie differt a Cl. carneola.”

26. C. botrytes, Hoffm. (Hag. Hist. Lich. t. 2. f.9)=Fr. L.S.

80 (fide spec. a Nyl.); Hepp. 539; Massal. 180; Fellm. 36;

Korbr. 242; T. M. Fr. L. Se. 14. .

Upsal (Dr. Nylander and T. M. Fries), Gratz, Austria (Dr.

Holzinger), Onega (Kullhem).

_ 27. C. pileata, Mont. This, according to Dr. Nylander, has

K—. =Spruce, Amaz. 37 (non typica); 27 (f. lepidotella, Nyl.).

28. C. mitrula, Tuck.= Wright, Cuba, 40.

The reaction K— keeps this distinct from C. cariosa K+.

29. C. substraminea, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.)

this has K—.

30. C. athelia, Nyl. (Syn. i. p. 204) = Spruce, Amaz. 26;

Wright, Cuba, 26 (f. macrophylliza, Nyl.). Dr. Nylander writes

(in itt.) that this is a true Cladonia and not a Pycnothelia, and

that its reaction is K—.

ol. C. furcaia, Hofim. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 27. a & c) = Tuek.

33; Coém. Cl. Belg. 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182,

184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198;

Mudd, Cl. Br. 49, 50,51, 52, 53; M. & N. 852; Leight. Exs.

16, 401 ; Richardson, 26 ; Coém. 1029, 1033, 1084; Anzi, C. C.

23, BE, F; Scher. 81; Mudd, Br. L. 16.

Also from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Liibeck (Dr. Holzinger),

Inniscary, Cork (Mr. I. Carroll), Leicestershire (Rev. A.Bloxam),

Kent (Mr. R. 8. Hill), and Shropshire.

- Var. racemosa, Fik. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 27 B). = Tuck. 82; Nyl.

L. P.23; Mass. 158; Mudd, Br. Cl. 46?, 47; Anzi, C. C. 23,

A, B,D; M.& N. 851; Scher. 80.

Also from Subat (Dr. Philippe), Stundschiipf (Scheer.), Rome

(Dr. Deakin), Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Hperjes (Dr. Hars-

lingsky).

Dr. Nylander notes (in litt.) the following in herb. Délise :—

Dél, K—,

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 413

f. adspersa, Flk. = Coém. Cl. Belg. 175. In my herbarium

I have this state from Gand (Abbé Coémans), Isus, Sima (Wil-

ford), Australasia (Colenso).

f. recurva (Hoffm.) (Dill. xvi. f. 27 pv) = Richardson, 26;

Mudd, B. C. 48, 49; Coém. Cl. Belg. 185.

This state I have from Louvain (Abbé Coémans), Bagni di

Lucca (Dr. Deakin), Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin and Mr. Spruce),

Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), and

Shropshire.

Var. corymbosa, Nyl. = Coém. Clad. Belg. 184, 187, 188,

190, 191, 192, 198, 194, 195 ; Coém. 1030; Ny]. L. P. 22.

This I have from Northern and Middle Islands and St. Pa-

trick’s River (Colenso), Australasia (Dr. J. D. Hooker), British

Columbia (Dr. Lyall), Subat (Dr. Philippe).

Dr. Nylander notes these reactions in herb, Délise :—C. race-

mosa, var. microcarpa, Dél., K—= (mihi corymbosa); C. racemosa,

var. thyrsoidea, Dél.. K— = (corymbosa) ; C. tortuosa, Dél.,

K— = (corymbosa); C. racemosa, var. rangifera, Dél., is

partly corymbosa, K—; and that Fries, L.8.58, “C. racemosa,” has

K dilute fuscescens (= corymbosa) ; and also Fries, L. S. 117,

“ C, subulata,’’ K dilute fuscescens, and comprises (1) subulata

(=<), (2)corymbosa (= @), and (3) furcata, tenuis fuscescens

Var. spinosa, Flk. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 25) = Coém. Clad. Belg.

180, 186.

This I have also from Kifferschwyl (Scherer), Genoa (Prof.

De Notaris).

Dr. Nylander (in litt.) remarks that it will be necessary to

separate the C. spinosa (Flk.), given in Coém. Clad. Belg. 180,

under the name C. furcata, and with the synonym “ C. fur-

cata n racemosa suby. spinosa in hb. Flk.,” and again in No. 186

under the name of “ C. furcata,” imasmuch as these two numbers

have the free reaction K+, which here indicates only a distinet

variety ; for there is frequently in-furcata and corymbosa a slight

yellowish reaction which quickly turns to fuscescent. See also

remarks under C. verticillaris, antead.

Var. crispata, Flk.=Scher. 276, 277 ; Tuck. 31; Mudd, Br.

C.45 ; Coém. Cl. Bs 199, 200; Richardson, 27,28, 29; Fellm.

32, 33; Anzi, C. C. 22.

Dr. Nylander (in Ut.) remarks that he considers crispata

to be nothing more than a variety of furcata; just as amau-

rocrea is of uncialis.

I possess also specimens of crispata from Lheris (Dr. Philippe),

Peklin (Dr. Harslingsky), Bagni di Lucea (Dr. Deakin).

32. C. grypea, Tuck. (in Agass. Journey to Lake Superior,

App.), 1s, according to Dr. Nylander (in Jitt.), distinct from ¢ur-

414. Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

gida, and approaches C. furcata in the same way as turgida

approaches to pungens. C. grypea has K—.

33. C. cenotea, Scher.= Fr. L. 8. 55 {fide spec. a Nyl.); Anzai,

-C. C. 20; Zwackh. 829; Massal. 156; Scher. L.H.71; Coém.

Cl. Bele. 116, 117, VES, a1:

“My herbarium also comprises specimens from Upsal (Dr. W.

Nylander and Dr. T. M. Fries), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L.

Lindsay), Untersontheim (Kemler), Mahourat, Pyrenees (Mr.

Spruce).

Var. glauca, Flk. = Scher. L. H. 460; Zwackh. 330; Coém.

Clad. Belg. 111, 112, 118, 114, 115 ; Coém. 1028.

I have it also from Untersontheim (Kemler).

34, C. squamosa, Hoffm. (BE. Bot. t. 2862) = M. & N. 645;

Anzi, C. C. 21, a, ¢; Scher. L. H: 72, 73; 278: Massal: 292,

A. C.; Mudd, L. Br. 138; Tuck. 30 ; Coém. *1025, 1026, 1027 ;

Zwackh. 379 ; Mudd, Br. Cl. 40, 41 (part.), 42.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Upsal (Dr. T. M.

Fries), Kirjavalaks, Finland (Kullhem), Untersontheim (Kemler),

Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin), Mount Gaillard, Pyrenees (Mr. Spruce),

Subat (Dr. Philippe), Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin), Nisay

(Breutel), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), and Shropshire.

Here is another instance of two different plants being united

by external characters under the same name, but which are

readily separated and arranged properly by the hydrate of

potash.

Dr. Nylander ( litt.) remarks that the name squamosa, being

the best-known and the most common one, ought to be defi-

nitely reserved for that lichen which is the most developed, 7. e.

that which does not manifest the yellow reaction with the

hydrate of potash. The lichen, on the contrary, the cortex of

whose podetia becomes yellow with this reactive (K+), and

which has frequently the aspect of squamosa, but is much more

rare, can be nothing more than a variety (uurians or subsqua-

mosa) of C. delicata, which, by the reaction (K+), shows itself

to be distinct from sguamosa (K—).

In the herbarium of Délise, Dr. Nylander has noted with the

reaction K— the following varieties of his squamosa, viz. tenui-

uscula, scabrosa, simpler, muricella, crassa, elegans, paschals,

frondosa, flabellata, rigida, as well as his type of this species.

The same absence of reaction is visible in his C. cwcullata (which

scarcely differs from squamosa, var. frondosa, and which Dr. Ny-

lander says he has, in his Syn. p. 210, incorrectly referred to

delicata) and speciosa.

On the other hand, the yellow reaction (K+) is observed in

C. delicata and its varieties in the herbarium of Délise as well as

in his C. syrtarum and C, squamosa, var. anomea, Dél.

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 415

*kK Hrythrocarpe (K+).

35. C. digitata, Hoffm.=Fellm. 45; Anzi, C.C.18; Scher.

L. H. 48, 44,46; Tuck. 39; Nyl. L. P. 25; M.& N. 751 (in

part); Mudd, Br. Cl. 68, 69, 79.

This I also possess from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Unterson-

theim (Kemler), New Zealand (Mr. Allan Cunningham), Kotze-

‘bue Sound (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Subat (Dr. Philippe), Salzburg

(Dr. Schwarz), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), EHichstatt

(Dr. F. Arnold), Popertfort (Dr. Harslingsky), Canaries (P. B.

Webb), Australasia (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Wallington (Sir W. C.

Trevelyan), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Oswestry, Shrop-

shire (Rey. T. Salwey).

Dr. Nylander writes (2 litt.) that the digitata of Délise’s

herbarium, with its varieties, has the yellow reaction with hy-

drate of potash (K+), except the variety mucronata, Dél.,

which does not manifest any reaction (K—). This mucronata

belongs to bacillaris.

Var. * macilenta, Hoffm., p. p.= Hepp. 113; Bohl. 8; Anzi,

C.C.19 38, c; M.& N. 750; Scher. L. H. 33, 34; Mudd,

‘Br, Li 25, Br. Cl. 72, 74, '75,.76.

’ Subat (Dr. Philippe), Austria (Dr. Holzinger), Craigforda,

‘Shropshire (Rev. T. Salwey), Westmoreland (Mrs. Stanger),

Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Moel y Golfa and Barmouth,

North Wales, Wrekin and Long Mynd Hills, Shropshire.

f, clavata, (Ach.) E. Bot. 2028; Diil. t. xv. p. 14 8=Scher.

35; Leight. Exs. 297, 371, 275, 403; Mudd, Br. L. 29, Br. Clad.

No; OY, 79.

Also from Austria (Dr. Holzinger) , Leicester (Rev. A. Bloxam),

Guisbro’ Moor, Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Nescliffe Hill, Wrekin

Hill, Long Mynd, Laurence Hill, Shropshire.

f. polydactyla, Flk.= Mudd, Br. L. 28, 27, 26; Hepp. 537;

Mudd, Br. Cl. 77, 78; Leight. Exs. 274; Scher. 454.

Also from Fontainebleau (Abbé Coémans), Untersontheim

(Kemler), Cumberland (Mrs. Stanger), Leicestershire (Rev. A.

Bloxam), Craig-y-Barns, Dunkeld (Dr. W. L. Lindsay).

Here is another instance of two different plants having been

confused under one and the same name. On detecting their

distinction by the hydrate of potash, I communicated with Dr.

Nylander as to the proper nomenclature, and he replies ( Lit.)

thus :—“ The ‘ macilenta K—’ is more common and better de-

veloped than the ‘ macilenta K+,’ and is most frequently found

‘in the ancient herbaria under the name of C. bacillaris. Call it,

then, C. Flérkeana *bacillaris, Ach. et auct. pro max. p.

The name *C. macilenta, Hffm. pr. p. will then be appropriated

to the other (K+), which certainly passes into digitata. The

416 — Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the -

C. bacillaris var. clavata, Dél. hb. gives K+, which proves that

it must be united with macilenta. In Fries (L. Suec. 52) the

specimens of macilenta and bacillaris are intermingled, but the

ticket bears the name ‘ C. macilenta.’? There exists also a state

of macilenta with granulated cortex and with the reaction (K +)

analogous to Mdérkeana.” C. albicans varr. carcata and pseudo-

cornuta of Délise have K+.

36. C. rigida, Tayl. (in Lich. Antarct. 119; Nyl. Syn. 1.

224 n.).

Of this antarctic species I have seen no specimen. Dr. Ny-

lander (in litt.) says it belongs to the series K+, and is near to

C. digitata.

meek Merythrocarpe (K—).

37. C. sanguinea, Flk. Of this I only possess a small fertile

specimen from Dr. J. D. Hooker, without locality.

Var. anemica, Nyl. (Syn.i. 219). This, Dr. Nylander informs

me (i Uitt.), has the reaction K—.

38. C. insignis, Nyl. This, Dr. Nylander says, has K—.

39. C. cornucopioides, Fr. (Ki. Bot. t. 2051) = Richardson, 80,

31, 32, 33, 47, 48, 49; Scher. 50,51; Heppe, 5388; Fellm.

43; Anzi, C.C. 14,15; M. & N. 751 (in part), 752; Massal.

It. 213; Tuck. Am. Sept.37; Mudd, Br. Cl. 65, 66, 67; Leight.

Kxs. 376, 404; Spruce, Amaz. 32, 33 (f. gracilescens, Nyl.).

My herbarium contains also specimens of this, in its various

modifications and states, from Untersontheim (Kemler), Upsal

(Dr. T. M. Fries), Labrador (Breutel), Australasia (Dr. J. D.

Hooker), Subat and Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Leicestershire and

Aberdovey, North Wales (Rev. A. Bloxam), Yorkshire (Mr. G.

Dixon), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr.R.S. Hill), Barmouth and Cader

Idris, North Wales, Wrekin, Caradoc, Long Mynd, Stiperstones

Hills, Shropshire.

40. C. bellidiflora, Scher. (KE. Bot. t. 1894) = T. M. Fries,

L. Scand. 12; Massal. 173; Anzi, C.C. 16; Scher. L. H..39,

40, 41, 42; Fellm. 46.

Of this my herbarium contains specimens also from Savoy

(Dr. W. Nylander), Newfoundland (Sir W. J. Hooker), Tatra,

Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), Grimsel (Scherer), Ben Lomond,

Scotland, 1823 ft. (Sir W. J. Hooker).

Var. Hookeri, Ny]. (Syn. i. 221) =Spruce, Amaz. 36, 38.

I incline to think that this and the following, deformis, may

be united with cornucopioides, as being states only of the same plant

under different development resulting from locality, situation,

and humidity. ‘

41. C. deformis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t.1894; Dill. t. xv. f.18a)=

Fellm. 44; Anzi, C. C. 17; Richardson, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54;

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 417

Scher. L. H. 45, 47, 48, 49; Mudd, Br. L. 25; Bohl. 39;

Tuck. 38.

This I possess also from Mount Spliigen and Engstlen Alp

(Scherer), Jerkin and Sneelhatten, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay),

Kotzebue Sound (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Subat (Dr. Philippe),

Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Untersontherm (Kemler), Leicester-

shire (Rev. A. Bloxam).

Is not this also a state of cornucopioides ?

42. C. muscigena, Eschw.= Wright, Cuba, 42 ; Spruce, Amaz.

34.

43. C. gracilenta, Tuck. (Obs. Lich.) = Wright, Cuba, 49.

44. C. Flérkeana, Fr.=T. M. Fr. L. Scand. 13 (in part).

My herbarium contains it also from Bahusia (Dr. T. M. Fries),

Lochrmoos (Scherer), Germany (Dr. Dietrich), Yorkshire (Mr.

G. Dixon), Doveraile Mountains, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll).

Var. *bacillaris, Ach. & auct. pro max. p. = Scher. L. H.

36, 37; Mudd, Br. L. 24, Br. Cl. 70, 71,73; Leight. Exs. 56.

This also I have from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Austria (Dr.

Holzinger), Belgium (Abbé Coémans), Leicestershire (Rev. A.

Bloxam), Cheshunt, Hants (Mr. Archer), Basingstoke, Kent

(Mr. R. S. Hill), Craigforda, Shropshire (Rev. T. Salwey), Bar-

mouth, North Wales, Long Mynd, Wrekin, Stiperstones, Lau-

rence, Caradoc, Abdon Burf Hills, Shropshire.

This has been hitherto, by external aspect, confused with C.

macilenta (K+), but is separated by different reaction (K—),

and is only a var. of Flérkeana analogous as pleurota is to cornu-

copivides. For various remarks connected with it, see under C.

macilenta, antea.

The followimg remarks are from Dr. Nylander’s annotations

on the types of Cenomyce of Délise, in his herbarium at the

Jardin des Plantes, Paris, which he has liberally communicated

(in litt.) to me :—C. digitata var. mucronata, Del. hb., has K—,

and C. albicans, Dél., has K—, and therefore are referable to

bacillaris. The C. bacillaris, Dél., and his varicties styracella,

macrocarpa, densiflora, paleata, coronata, according to the speci-

mens in herb. Délise, have K—, and belong to C. Florkeana

* bacillaris.

Var. ostreata, Nyl. (Syn. 1. p. 225)=Nyl. L. P. 108.

Of this Dr. Nylander writes (in litt.), “Ob podetia Cladonie

bacillaris immixta squamis parum evolutis Lecidee ostreate ste-

rilis, olim credidi Lichenem in L. P. 108 datum varietatem

sistere Cladoni@ illius squamis recedentibus. Quod corrigendum

est, et varietas nomine ‘ ostreata’ delenda.”

| 45. C. spherulifera, Tayl.=Spruce, Amaz. 31. K—.

46. C. cetraricides, Schwein. =Spruce, Amaz. 35,39. K—.

418 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

III. Cuapina, Nyl. Thallus leafless. (See Flora, 1866, p. 178,

and Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. xviii. p. 105.)

* Pheocarpe (K+).

1. C. rangiferina, Hoffm. (E. Bot. 173; Dill. t. xvi. f. 29

A & 8)=Scher. L. H. 76,77; Anzi, C.C.25 « (in part) ; Spruce,

L. Amaz. 17; Richardson, L. Arct. Am. 31, 32; Wright, Cub.

38, 39; Mudd, Br. L. 19; Wagner, Lich. 22; Fellm. Lapp.

38; M. &. N. 72 (part.) ; Mudd, Br. C]. 58; Coém. Clad. Belg.

134, 135, 1386, 187, 188, 140, 141, 142, 148, 144, 145, 146,

147, 149, 172.

It has long been suspected that rangiferina and sylvatica,

although classed together, were in reality two distinct species ;

and the different reaction in the two plants proves this suspicion

to have good foundation.

The reaction (K+) separates this from sylvatica, portentosa,

and alpestris (K—), and unites pycnoclada (K+) with it.

My herbarium has it also from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),

Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Holm (Dr. Nylander),

Bagni ‘di Lueca (Dr. Deakin), and from Leicestershire (Rev. A.

Bloxam); Glen Callater, Braemar (Dr. W. L. Lindsay).

Dr. Nylander says (en litt.) the C. rangiferina is decidedly a

distinct species from C. sylvatica. That which M. Abbé Coé-

mans calls “ C. rangiferina, var. sylvatica forma intermedia inter

typum et var. sylvaticam.—C. rangiferina, y. tenuis, 6. fuscescens,

Flk. Comm. p. 165,” and gives in his Cl. ‘Belg. 149, is evidently

a form of rangiferina, and exhibits the reaction Ka:

2. C. gorgonea, Eschw. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.)

this tha Kea:

**k Pheocarpe (K—).

3. C. sylvatica, Hoffm. = Leight. Exs. 57; Richardson, 30,

33, 385; Massal. 192, 193; Welw. Lusit.30; Scher. L. H. 78;

Mudd, Br. L. 20; Br. Clad. 57, 59,60; Bohl.6; M. & N. 72;

Anzi, C. CU. 25 a (in part) B; Coém. Clad. Belg. 129, 130, 131,

132, 183, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,

162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171.

Of this in my herbarium are also specimens from Untersont-

heim (Kemler), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),

Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Algeria (Durieu), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W.

L. Lindsay), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Yorkshire (Mr.

G. Dixon), Blaebery Hill, Perth (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Basing-

stoke (Mr. R. 8. Hill), Forfarshire (Rev. T. B. Bell), and Shrop-

shire.

’ Some of the above specimens exhibit a slightly fuscescent

reaction ; nevertheless none of them have the decided yellow

‘Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 419

reaction (K+) which satisfactorily distinguishes the true rangi-

ferina from all the other plants which have hitherto been con-

founded with it. See remarks under rangiferina, antea.

f. alpestris, Scher. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 29 E, r)=Anzi, C. C. 25n;

Fellm. 89; Krbr. 272; Scher. 79; M. & N. 1063; Richard-

son, 34; Coém. Cl. Belg. 155.

Of this state my herbarium comprises specimens also from

Kroten (Dr. Harslingsky), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Holzinger),

Jamaica (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Northern Island, Australia (Sin-

clair), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Balliton, Kildare

(Mr. I. Carroll).

f. pumila, Ach. = Anzi,C.C.25 c ; Coém. Clad. Belg. 150, 151.

_ Of this also my herbarium contains specimens from Leicester-

shire and Shropshire.

f. portentosa, Duf.=Coém. Clad. Belg. 165.

This very remarkable form also I have from Leicestershire

(Rev. A. Bloxam).

4. C. peltasta, Spr.=Spruce, Amaz. 25.

5. C. Salzmanni (Dél.). According to Dr. Nylander (2

hitt.), this has K—.

6. C. divaricata, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.),

this has K—.

7. C.uncialis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t.174) = Leight. Exs. 58; Fellm.

40; Anzi, C.C. 26; Scher. 82, 83, 84,513,514; Tuck. 34, 35 ;

M. & N.165 ; Coém. 1039; Massal. 69; Bohl. 15, 31; Mudd,

Br. L. 21, Br. Clad. 61, 62, 63,64; Coém. Clad. Belg. 120, 121,

122, 128, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128.

My herbarium comprises also specimens from Upsal (Dr. T.

M. Fries), Saeblen (Dr. Philippe), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Hars-

lingsky), Arschot, Belgium (Abbé Coémans), Jerkin, Nor-

way, 4595 ft. (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Austria (Dr. Holzinger),

Vosges (Dr. C. Montagne), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr. R.S, Hill),

Yorkshire (Mr. G. Dixon), Crookham Common, Hants (Mr. R.

S. Hill), Ben Mac Dhu, Braemar (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Kildonery

and Coachford, co. Cork, and Doneraile Mountains (Mr. I. Car-

roll), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Blaebery Hill, Perth,

Ben Nevis, 4406 ft. (Dr. W.L. Lindsay), and Barmouth, North

Wales and Shropshire.

Var. lacunosa, Nyl. (Syn. 1. 215) =Tuck. Am. Sept. 36.

Var. amaurocrea, Scher. (Nyl. Syn. i. 216) =Anzi, C. C. 11;

Fr. L. S. 347; Fellm. 41, 42; Scher. L. H. 70. 272, 273;

Richardson, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46.

I have also specimens from Upsal (Dr. W. Nylander and

Dr. T. M. Fries), Jerkin, Norway, 4594 ft. (Dr. W. L. Lindsay).

Dr. Nylander regards amaurocrea as only a variety of wncialis.

8. C. medusina, Bory =Spruce, Amaz. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.

420 On the Determination of the Cladoniei by Hydrate of Potash.

9. C. schizopora, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (zn hit.),

this has K—.

10. C. aggregata, Eschw.=Spruce, Amaz. 18.

Of this fine species my herbarium contains specimens from

Middle Island and Port Nicholson (Dr. Lyall), Australasia (Dr.

C. Knight), St. Patrick’s River, Australia (Colenso), Pavians-

kloof, South Africa (Breutel), Valparaiso (Dr. Puccio).

11. C. retipora, Flk. Of this beautiful species I have speci-

mens from Tasmania, Australia, Mount Wellington, Van Die-

men’s Land.

* Hrythrocarpe (K—).

12. C. leporina, Fr.= Wright, Cuba, 44.

Of this Dr. Nylander (in litt.) says that it is a Cladina, Nyl.

IV. Prropnoron, Tuck.

1. P. robustum, Th., Fr. (Ster. Pil. t. 10. f. 3)=T. M. Fries,

L. Scand. 11.

This has the reaction K+.

2. P. aciculare, Tuck. (Ach. Meth. t. 8. f.4; Th. Fr. Ster.

Pile. VO1. 4):

The only specimens I have seen of this were collected by

Dr. Lyall in Sumass, British Columbia, 1859, and have K+.

3. P. fibula, Tuck. Of this I have seen no specimens; but

Dr. Nylander says it has K+.

V. Hereropza, Nyl.

1. H. Mullerii, Ny}. (Lich. Nov. Caled. p. 39) has K—.

Of the following Cladonia, described in Dr. Nylander’s Syn-

opsis, I have seen no specimens, and am also ignorant of their

reaction :—

Pheocarpe.

C. stenophylla, Nyl., C. candelabrum, Bory, C. Caroliniana,

Tuck.

Erythrocarpe.

C. leptopoda, Nyl., C. areolata, Nyl., C. angustata, Nyl., C.

cristatella, Tuck., C. macilenta var. seductrix, Nyl.

Rev. T. Hincks on a new Genus of Hydroida. 421

LIV.—On Ophiodes, a new Genus of Hydroida.

By the Rey. Tuomas Hincxs, B.A.

[Plate XIV.]

Wuite dredging this autumn in Swanage Bay, on the coast of

Dorset, I have obtained a new Sertularian Hydroid, which offers

some very interesting peculiarities. Of these the most remark-

able is the presence of an organ which takes the place of the

nematophore, but is unique in appearance and structure. The

polypite, too, differs in form from that of any other Hydroid

with which I am acquainted, and is furnished with webbed ten-

tacles—a character which has only been noticed hitherto among

the Campanularida.

This very curious Zoophyte must be referred to a new genus,

to which I shall assign the name Ophiodes. It may be thus

characterized :—

Subkingdom CHLENTERATA.

Class HYDROZOA.

Order HYDROIDA.

Suborder SERTULARIDA.

Family Halecide.

OruiopEs*, nov. gen.

Hydrocaulus simple or branched, rooted by a creeping stolon.

Hydrothece vase-shaped, terminal ; polypites not retractile within

the calycle; the body deeply constricted a little below the base

of the tentacles ; tentacles in a single verticil, muricate, webbed

for about a quarter of their length, and surrounding a conical

proboscis ; tentaculoid organs borne singly on the hydrocaulus

(near the calycles) and on the stolon, highly extensile, protected

at the base by a small chitmous cup, and terminated at the

upper extremity by an enlarged capitulum, armed with thread-

cells. Reproduction unknown.

The remarkable tentacular organ with which the Ophiodes is

furnished, and which may be regarded as the equivalent of the

nematophore, consists of a very extensile, snake-like appendage,

with an enlarged head, attached at the lower extremity by an

extension of the coenosarc. The base is protected by a small

chitinous tube, which expands from its point of origin upwards,

and answers to the theca of the ordinary nematophore. The

capitulum contains numerous thread-cells, from which a barbed

sheath and a very long thread are emitted.

* Der, odiwdys, snake-bearer.

422 Rey. T. Hincks on a new Genus of Hydroida.

These organs are capable of great elongation and contraction,

and execute the most vigorous movements, stretching themselves

out with apparent eagerness, and twisting in all directions. My

attention was first drawn to the zoophyte by a number of them,

disposed on the creeping stolon, which were in a state of most

lively excitement, and manifesting a large amount of muscular

energy.

One of these organs is almost always attached to the hydro-

caulus a little below the calycle, and when in a state of exten-

sion it rises above it; and as it twists itself about, with its for-

midable armature ready for instant action, it has all the appear-

ance of a purveyor to the polypite. Many of them are also

distributed upon the hydrorhiza.

A striking feature of the genus Ophiodes is the constriction

of the body of the polypite, dividing it into two well-marked

regions—the oral, including the mouth and the tentacular

circle and a kind of quasi pharynx, and the aboral, traversed by

the digestive cavity.

The polypite does not extend to the bottom of the hydrotheca,

but rests on a membranous diaphragm that shuts off the upper

third of it and forms a cup-shaped chamber. This diaphragm

is perforated in the centre, and through the orifice the body is

linked on to the ccenosarc, that traverses the lower portion of

the calycle.

O. mirabilis, nu. sp.

Hydrocaulus erect, slightly branched, rudely annulated at the

base, and jointed at intervals throughout. Hydrothece in the

form of a vase, bulging slightly immediately above the base ;

the sides incurved, expanding gradually towards the top, with

an everted rim ; a single ¢entaculoid organ on the stem a little

below the calycle, and many distributed on the stolon ; polypites

tall, the inferior portion of the body clavate, the oral funnel-

shaped; tentacles about fifteen, a brownish cluster of thread-

cells between each pair on the connecting web. Reproductive.

organs unknown.

Height about 71, of an inch.

The branching of the Ophiodes mirabilis, as I have seen it, is

of the simplest kind, usually consisting of a single division of

the stem. It may possibly attain a more luxuriant growth; but

I have examined a considerable number of specimens, and have

always found it to be either simple or furnished with one or two

short branches.

The polypite, when fully extended, is a singularly beautiful

object, imitating to some extent the form of a tall and graceful

candelabrum. Only the base of the body is within the calycle.

Bibliographical Notice. 423

Immediately below the constriction there is a slight tinge of

yellowish colouring.

The web that unites the lower portions of the tentacles forms

a rather deep cup round the proboscis, and is coloured by the

batteries of thread-cells that occur between each pair of arms.

These intertentacular thread-cells are similar to those which

thickly cover the capitulum of the snake-like organs. They

emit a very long thread, with a barbed sheath at its base.

These slender filaments may be seen cast forth beyond the ten-

tacles, and intermingling with them, and must constitute an

effective auxiliary force for the capture of prey. The arms are

held alternately elevated and depressed.

The chitinous tube that encloses the base of the tentaculoid

appendages is small and somewhat trumpet-shaped.

The Ophiodes, it will be seen, combines a large number of

interesting characters ; and one or two of its most striking fea-

tures are unique. It presents a really remarkable array of

curious structures—the distinct funnel-shaped head crowning

the tapering body, and itself crowned by the tentacular verticil

with its battery of thread-cells at every embrasure, the elegant

calycle, the strange snake-like organ near it, either resting

motionless and sentinel-like or twisting vehemently about,

bristling above at times with barbs, and casting abroad its fatal

threads, and the number of similar organs below, twirling them-

selves about in the maddest fashion, as if to scare away any

invaders.

- Hab. On weed, dredged in shallow water (5-8 fathoms),

Swanage Bay, Dorset. Not uncommon.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

Figs. 1 & 2. Ophiodes mirabilis, Hincks, highly magnified.

Fig. 3. One of the tentaculoid organs.

Fig. 4. A portion of the tentacular circle, showing the connecting web

with its clusters of thread-cells.

Fig. 5. A calycle, showing the cup-shaped chamber which encloses the

base of the polypite.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Annuario della Societa dei Naturalisti in Modena. Annol. Mo-

dena, Maggio 1866. 8vo, pp. 152, with 8 plates.

Tue political development of Italy is attended by a gradual and

steady progress of science. Scientific publications have been until

lately comparatively few in number; and such as have appeared have

been more or less marked by some irregularity in the manner of their

4.2.4 M iscellaneous.

publication, many being most difficult to obtain, and apparently

reserved for private circulation. In consequence of the limited in-

tercourse between Italian naturalists and those of other countries,

the labours of the former have remained sometimes for years un-

known to the latter. Among those who have been most influential

in effecting a change in all this, we must mention Professor Canestrini

of Modena. He started the ‘ Archivio per la Zoologia, l’ Anatomia,

ela Fisiologia,’ a work by this time weil known to most biologists,

from the original and important articles contained in the four vo-

lumes which have as yet appeared. Among his numerous zoolo-

gical and archeological memoirs, we would direct special attention

to that on Italian Freshwater Fishes *, invaluable on account of the

author’s acquaintance with the literature, and critical discernment of

species. There is now a Society of Naturalists of Modena, under

the presidency of the same gentleman, which, by publishing the

memoirs read at the meetings in an annual volume, promises to be a

source of general benefit to science. The volume now before us

contains the following memoirs :—

Prof. Canestrinii—Archeeological objects from the Modenese dis-

trict.

Prof. Generali.—On a case of Induration of a Bovine Fetus.

Prof. Rondani.—On Hymenopterous Parasites of Ceccdomyia fru-

mentaria.

Prof. Salimbeni.—Practical hints on the Culture of the Silkworm.

Prof. Ragona.—On the “ iseeoric”’ Lines (/inee iseoriche, from icos,

equal, and aiwpa, oscillation) of the Italian Peninsula, and some

other questions regarding the distribution of temperature in Italy.

Prof. GhiselliimNew views on Madness of Dogs.

Dr. Boni.—-Descriptions of objects of Art of high antiquity re-

cently discovered in the Modenese district.

Prof. Generali.—On the Changes of Colour in the Blood of some

Insects when exposed to Atmospheric Air.

Prof. Canestrini.—Catalogue of the Freshwater Fishes of Italy.

MISCELLANEOUS.

** CAPTURE OF A RARE FISH (dusonia Cuviert) AT FALMOUTH.

** To the Editor of the ‘West Briton,

*‘S1r,—lIt affords me great pleasure to be able to record the capture

of another rare and interesting addition to the fauna of the British

Isles. Yesterday, about noon, as some fishermen were scanning the

bay with their glasses, carefully watching for the approach of pil-

chards, their attention was attracted to a strange commotion about

low-water mark, between the Castle Point and Gyllyngvase. They at

* * Prospetto critico dei Pesce d’ Acqua dolee d@ Italia,” Archiv. per la

Zool. 1866, iv. pp. 47-187.

Miscellaneous. 4.25

once proceeded to the spot, where to their astonishment they found

a large fish, in about four feet of water, lashing away with its powerful

tail, evidently intent on beating a hasty retreat. After an obstinate

resistance, in which the men were half drowned, and one of them

severely wounded, this strange visitor was secured, and brought with

all dispatch into the Falmouth fish-market. Fortunately I was close

at hand when sent for, and consequently had an excellent opportunity

of making a minute examination of the creature while still alive. It

measured 4 feet in length, and weighed over a hundredweight. It

was without exception one of the most beautiful sights the eye could

light upon, the whole surface of the body presenting the appearance

of most highly polished silver, having a most brilliant coating of the

richest scarlet. The silvery colour of the belly, as in the mackerel,

&c., presented a variety of evanescent tints, which with the death of

the fish totally disappeared. A month or so since, a scarlet and

silver fish was taken at Gorranhaven and examined by Mr. Couch;

but of this example I have never seen a detailed or authenticated

report, consequently I am wholly at a loss to decide as to whether

the two examples are identical or not. Iam strongly of opinion

that the fish captured here yesterday is no other than the scarlet and

silver fish of the Mediterranean, although there is a strange discre-

pancy in the size of this and Mr. Couch’s example. I have taken a

sketch and also a minute description of the creature as it appeared

whilst alive; so that I have no doubt whatever of being able ina

day or two to assign it its legitimate place in our British fauna.

“Yours very truly,

“W.K. Butumore, M.D.”

**] Stratton Place, Falmouth.

Oct. 1, 1866.”

[To Dr. J. EB. Gray, F.R.S. §c.]

Dear Si1r,—It will be a matter of interest to you, and perhaps of

surprise, to be informed that another example of Cuvier’s Ausonia

has presented itself to us. It came among the rocks close to Fal-

mouth, and, after a stout resistance, was safely landed. It is about

the same size as the former example, and resembles the drawing I

sent for comparison, but with some differences, mostly, however, as

regards colour, which was a bright scarlet over silver, the dorsal,

anal, and border of the tail blue. A coloured figure of it is in my

possession, and the fish itself will be preserved at Penzance.

It seems not a little remarkable that two examples of so rare a fish

should run themselves ashore, at places not distant from each other,

within comparatively so short a time.

I am, dear Sir,

Yours truly,

JONATHAN Coucnu.

Polperro, Oct. 6, 1866.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvui. 29

426 Miscellaneous.

Additions to the Zoophytes of Devonshire.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—lI observe a notice from the Rev. T. Hincks in the

‘Annals’ for last month, respecting the finding of Sertularia attenuata,

Hincks, in North Devon and Cornwall. Mr. Hincks must have for-

gotten that he had a specimen of mine, for twelve months at least,

which was found on the south coast of Devon, and which was not

returned to me in time for publication in my ‘Catalogue of the

Zoophytes of Devonshire.’

I must ask those gentlemen who kindly purchased my ‘Catalogue’

to add the South Coast to the geographical distribution of this spe-

cies, and also to add to the freshwater species Plumatella emarginata,

Allm., and P. fruticosa, Allm., both of which I met with in the river

Clyst, Bishop’s Clyst, September 5, 1866.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

Devon and Exeter Institution. Epwarp Parritt.

Oct. 6, 1866.

On the Use of the Genus Potamogale.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Dr. Giinther, in the ‘Record of Zoological Literature,’ 1865,

vol. ii. p. 33, observes, ‘We fully agree with Dr. Gray as regards

the principle on which he objects to the name Potamogale ;’ and

then proceeds, “but since he has adopted the specific name of veloz,

given by Du Chaillu at the same time, and as in this case the generic

and specific names refer to the same individual specimen, succeeding

naturalists have no other choice but to recognize or to reject both

alike.”

The latter observation is incorrect, and, like several other remarks

on mammalia and reptiles in the work, must have been made on a

very imperfect recollection of the paper to which they refer. A very

cursory inspection of Du Chaillu’s paper in the Boston Society’s

Proceedings (which is copied in the paper commented on in the

‘Annals,’ vol. xvi. p. 426) would have shown Dr. Giinther that the

generic name of Potamogale and the specific one of velox do not

rest on the same basis. The animal is described in the paper, with

some details, under the name of Cynogale velox, quite sufficiently,

especially when one has the type specimen to confirm the descrip-

tion, to establish the specific name of velox. In a note to this de-

scription, Du Chaillu observes that, on account of its African habitat

and a difference in the shape and proportion of the tail, he thinks it

may be the representative of another genus, for which ‘I proposed

the name of Potamogale, preferring, however, to wait until I can

procure the skull and skeleton ;”’ so that the statement that ‘‘ succeed-

ing naturalists have no other choice but to recognize or to reject both

alike’’ is a most erroneous one. I regret to have to make these

observations ; but a ‘ Record’ is of little use unless it is prepared

with care, so that naturalists can place confidence in its accuracy.

Miscellaneous. 427

Note on West-African Species of Hemirhamphus.

By Dr. A. GUNTHER.

I have just observed that I omitted, in my account of Hemirham-

phus, to mention the West-African species described and figured by

Dr. Bleeker in ‘ Poissons de la Céte de Guinée,’ Mém. Soc. Holl.

Haarlem, 1862.

1. The species described by him (p. 118, tab. 21. fig. 2) as H.

vittatus (Val.), and identified with Esox brasiliensis (Brown), is most

probably the Linnean Esowv brasiliensis (see Catal. Fish. vi. p. 270),

but distinct from H. vittatus (Val.).

2. Hemirhamphus guineensis, n. sp., Blkr. p. 119, tab. 25. fig. 2,

is identical with H. vittatus (Val.), Ginth. Fish. vi. p. 269.

3. Hemirhamphus Schlegelii, Blkr. p. 120, tab. 25. fig. 1, is a

very distinct species, to which I have, unfortunately, given another

name, viz. H. calabaricus (Fish. vi. p. 266).

On the Organs of Secretion in the Hemiptera.

By J. KiNncKEL.

The most voluminous of the salivary glands are supported on the

stomach, and occupy the whole upper part of the thoracic cavity,

and extend into the abdomen. Each of them is divided into two

parts by a constriction, and from this point the ejaculatory duct issues

beneath. This duct divides at once into two branches, the largest

of which runs almost directly to the head, passing beneath the

cesophagus, where it approaches that of the opposite side. These

ducts become fixed in a small cylindrical piece, of solid texture, and

finally open by distinct orifices. The smaller branch descends into

the abdomen, forming numerous sinuosities, and then ascends towards

the head; on arriving in front of the cesophagus, being suddenly

turned aside, it passes beneath a large coriaceous piece, which plays

a great part in the movements of the parts of the mouth and in the

acts of suction and deglutition.

The glands of the second pair, concealed beneath the principal

glands, are formed each of a simple czecal tube rolled upon itself

and terminating at the outer angle of the coriaceous piece just men-

tioned.

The superior salivary apparatus contains a secreting membrane

covered throughout with utricles of equal size. The anterior part,

often inflated, looks as if it formed a reservoir for the hinder part,

which is generally racemose ; but this is not the case, as the histo-

logical constitution shows that the same functions are performed by

both parts. The second salivary apparatus shows much analogy with

the preceding in its structure, but its utricles are more scattered.

The two glands of which it is formed are the seat of a special secre-

tion, and not, as supposed by Léon Dufour, reservoirs for that of the

superior glands. The salivary secretion, when introduced into plants,

produced none of the effects ascribed to the attacks of Hemiptera.

428 Miscellaneous.

The liquid is probably exclusively an agent in digestion ; it is alkaline,

and renders reddened litmus-paper slightly blue.

The odorific apparatus, which has long been well known in the

adult Pentatomites, is a sac situated at the base of the abdomen, and

opening in the metathorax by two ostiola, at the level of the last

pair of legs. In the larvee and nymphe this organ does not exist,

and yet, like the perfect insects, they diffuse their peculiar odour.

In the young individuals, from phere hatching to the period of their

last transformation, there are, in the upper part of the abdomen, below

the skin, two glands presenting the same characters as the inferior

gland of the adults. The presence of these organs is indicated upon

the arches of the dorsal region by two shields; and each of these

shields presents two ostiola, through which the liquid is ejaculated.

—Comptes Rendus, September 3, 1866, pp. 433-436.

Fossil Spider from the Coal-formation. By Dr. F. Ramer.

Dr. Roemer has ‘described and figured, in the ‘Jahrb. Min. of

Leonhard & Geinitz,’ 1866, p. 136, a very perfect specimen of a

Spider from the Coal-formation of Upper Silesia. It is called the

Protolycosa anthracophila, a name that implies a near relation in

general habit to the modern Lycosa. The body is about an inch

long. Appended to this paper is a notice of a specimen of Arthro-

pleura armata, Jordan, from the Carboniferous beds of Zwickau, by

Dr. Geinitz. The specimen is sufficient to show that the animal was

a Crustacean ; it is evidently part of the carapace, and probably of

a Decapod.—Silliman’s American Journal, July 1866.

On the Course followed by a Fungous Mycelium in the living trunk

of Acacia dealbata. By G. GAsPaRRINI.

The author examined the trunk of a fine plant of Acacia dealbata

which, when in full flower in the Botanic Garden at Naples, was broken

at the level of the soil by a slight gust of wind. The heart of the

wood, from the collar for 2} decimetres upwards, was found to be

rotten and blackish, whilst the alburnum and bark were in good con-

dition. A microscopic examination showed in the altered part a

brownish, ramose, articulated mycelium. This mycelium was traced

up into the branches as far as about 5 metres above the soil. It

did not attack the medullary rays, or the pith, or the spiral fibres

surrounding it, or the fibrous cells, but only the dotted ducts.

M. Gasparrini inquires how this mycelium could have introduced

itself into the trunk of the Acacia. He refers to the observations

made by him upon the radicles of various Liliaceze, several of which,

having lost their spongioles, were open to foreign bodies of extreme

tenuit

Ha chinks that the extremely minute filaments of the mycelia :

occurring in the soil surrounding the Acacia might penetrate by the

opening of the fibrous filament of the centre of these radicles into

the interior of the bush, and thus ascend even to the summit of the

trunk.—Bidl, Univ. 1866, Bull. Sci. p. 168.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 108. DECEMBER 1866.

LV.—On the Structure and Habits of Anthophysa Miulleri, Bory,

one of the Sedentary Monadiform Protozoa. By H. James-

Crark, A.B., B.S.*

Dvrine the last five years, and more especially within the

latter eighteen months, I have been engaged largely upon an in-

vestigation of the relations of the monadiform animalcules to

the zoospores of the true Alge; and of all the numerous in-

stances of the former that I have more or less thoroughly stu-

died I have never met with one which could be said to bear but

very moderate resemblance to the latter: I refer to the true Alge ;

I scarcely need add that I mean by this to except those doubtful

forms which seem to be related to Volvox and Gonium, such as

Pandorina, Protococcus, Stephanosphera, Chlamidococcus, &c.

Those who have become accustomed to these creatures, and

have learned to look upon them, through long years of patient

study, as old and familiar friends, know well the value of using

the best lenses that the opticians of the present day can afford,

and never doubt for a moment the utter worthlessness of an

opinion which is founded upon a few fitful glances through a

so-called ordinary working microscope. There is no other group

of animals which so essentially seems to need the prolonged de-

votion of a specialist as the Protozoa—and above all, the lower

members of that grand division. ‘To write a monograph upon

any single one of these flagellate forms may seem like devoting

a volume to the structure and phases of a dot ina sunbeam ; but

no good microscopist need be told that the optical instruments

of the present day are no less efficient than was the scalpel in

the hand of Cuvier when he displayed to the world the organi-

zation of the larger and more elevated animals which he found

on the southern shores of France.

Moreover it is particularly desirable that elaborate investiga-

tions should be made, and unstinted minutiz set forth in illus-

* From Silliman’s American Journal for September, 1866,

Ann. &§ Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3, Vol. xvi. 30

430 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Structure and

trations and descriptions, because there are yet among zoologists

those who suppose that there is so little in the organization of

Protozoa that no tangible characters can be found by which

they may be typified or assimilated in a group by themselves. —

The taxonomic relations of the organs of the [nrusorIA FLA-

GELLATA have received so little attention from investigators, that

there is no small difficulty, with our present knowledge of them,

in tracing the typical plan which is so eminently exemplified

among the crurata. I hope I shall be pardoned, therefore, if I

attempt to give a strict topographical view of the positions of

the various organs of one among the most lowly of the whole

group of animalcules.

A considerable portion of the second volume of the great

work of Messrs. Claparéde and Lachmann, ‘ Etudes sur les Infu-

soires,’ &c., is occupied by a discussion of the animality of cer-

tain doubtful forms of Monad-like Infusoria. The tests which

these authors offer as determinatives of the zoological relations

of the forms in question are, the possession by them of a con-

tractile vesicle, and the introception of food. By means of either

the one or the other of these criteria they succeed in satisfying

themselves that the Volvocina, Astasie (Huglene included), and.

the Dinobrya are true animals ; but in regard to other forms

they are unable to decide. Among those which are left in the

latter category, there is a singular infusorian which, as is usually

supposed, was originally named Kypistylis vegetans by Ehrenberg,

and Anthophysa Miilleri by Bory de St. Vincent. Dujardin gives

a scarcely recognizable figure of it in the atlas of his work on

Infusoria, but very properly places it among the monadiform

animalcules. This is done, however, upon its general resem-

blance to the latter (alike undetermined at that date as to their

animal nature), and not because he had by direct observation

decided it to bea genuine animal. The figures of Cohn (‘ Mikro-

skopische Algen und Pilze,’ Nov. Acta Acad. Cees. Leop. 1854,

taf. xv. figs. 1-8) are not much better than those of Dujardin.

Habitat and general appearance.—I have been so fortunate as

to determine the animality of Anthophysa by both of the tests

above mentioned; and there rests not the least doubt in my

mind that this infusorian is as truly a member of the zoological

kingdom as any of the well-known Protozoa. I would state,

for the information of those who are not acquainted with the

habits of this animalcule, that it is quite common among the

freshwater weeds. It may be most advantageously studied

when it is attached to Myriophyllum or Ceratophyllum—a small

piece of the tip of the filiform leaf of either (which seems to be

covered by an irregular floccose deposit) usually affording abun-

dant specimens.

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri. 431

Under a low magnifying-power this floccose matter appears

to consist of clusters of very jagged, irregularly branching and

contorted, semitransparent, intertwined stems, and projecting

tapering and flexible twigs. Hach of the tips of the latter sus-

tains a single more or less globose mass of spindle-shaped

bodies, which radiate from a common centre of attachment, and

are kept in a constant agitation by the spasmodic jerks of a

long, stout, usually rigid, arcuate filament, with which the free

end of each one is endowed. The whole bristling mass revolves

alternately from right to left and from left to right, whirling

upon its slender pivot with such a degree of freedom that one

might almost suspect that it merely rested upon it and had no

truer adhesion to it than the juggler’s top to the end of the

bdton upon which it spins. The largest of these twirling groups

contains as many as fifty fusiform bodies ; but most frequently

not more than half that number are grouped together, and from

this they vary in decreasing quantities down to “only one or two

upon each filamentous twig. In the last instances the bodies

are comparatively quiet, scarcely moving out of focus at each

spasmodic twitch of the arcuate filament. On this account, and

because they offer an unobstructed view, the latter are by far

the most available as objects for the investigation of their internal

organization.

The relationship of the individual monads to the whole colony

must, however, be studied where they are more numerously con-

erevated, since, as will be shown presently, each monad sus-

tains a definite relation to every other one, and to the twig to

which it is attached. The larger colonies are frequently to be

found swimming freely, with a rolling motion similar to that

with which Volvox progresses. As a natural concomitant to this

fact, twigs are to be met with here and there which do not bear

anything at their tips. The colonies seem to break away very

easily ; and on this account the specimens should not be lifted

out of the water when transferring them to the watch-glass or

whatever sort of observing-trough is used.

Form, &e.—The adult monads have a truncate fusiform shape,

and are slightly but quite appreciably flattened on two opposite

sides, so that in an end view they appear to be broadly oval

transversely. The attached end tapers gradually to a point;

and on this account it is difficult to determine where the body

ends and the twig begins. All of the members of a group radiate

from a common point of attachment, to which they adhere by

their tapering filamentous ends. The free end is truncate; but

one corner of it, as if in continuation of the line along which

the opposite flattened sides meet, projects in the form of a

rather blunt triangular beak. At the inner edge of the base of

30%*

432 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Structure and

this beak lies the mouth, to which the former (as frequent ob-

servation has proved) acts asa lip or prehensile organ when food

is taken into the body. The prevailing tint is a more or less

uniform light gamboge, without the least trace of an eye-spot

of any colour.

A most singular uniformity prevails in the arrangement of

the several members of a group. Each monad is attached to its

mooring in such a position that its flattened sides lie parallelwise

with those of its nearest neighbour; and the beak projects from

that corner of the head which is most distant from the twig.

To give a full idea of the peculiarity of this arrangement, it

must be stated here that the rigid, arcuate, spasmodically twitch-

ing filament mentioned above is attached close to the mouth,

and invariably curves away from the beak, and consequently

always toward the pedicel of the colony. One is forcibly re-

minded by this of the systematic relation of some of the flowers

of Labiate, with their stamens projecting far beyond the upper

lip of the corolla. The globose heads of the Menthe are particu-

larly good examples for illustrating this similitude.

Prehensile organs.—The only motile organs which this animal-

cule possesses are preeminently prchensile in character; and

their apparent appropriation to the office of propulsion, when a

colony breaks loose from its attachment, I can scarcely doubt is

an accidental one, inasmuch as the arcuate cilium continues its

spasmodic twitching without any apparent deviation from its

usual mode of action.

There are two cilia, of very unequal size, attached to the trun-

cate end of the body. The larger one of these has already

been mentioned casually, as a rigid, arcuate filament. It does

not taper, but has a uniform thickness from base to tip, and is

about half as long again as the body. It arises near the base

of the triangular beak, but appears to be separated from the

latter by the mtervening mouth. When quiet it appears like a

bristle, and projects in a line with the longer axis of the body—

at the base bending slightly toward the beak, and then sweeping

off in a moderate but distinct curve in the opposite direction, so

that on the whole it presents a long drawn-out sigmoid flexure.

The plane of this curve lies in strict parallelism with the plane

of the greater diameter of the body ; in fact it may be said to be

a direct continuation of it. It does not appear to have the cha-

racter of a flagellum, except when assisting the smaller cilium to

convey the food to the mouth; and then it lays aside its rigid

deportment and assumes all the flexibility and wavy vibration

of the prehensile organ of an Astasia.

The smalier cilium 1s an excessively faint body, and almost

defies the detective powers of the highest objectives, This is

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri. 433

partly due to its almost incessant activity ; for when it is quiet,

or nearly so (which happens when food is passing into the

mouth), it becomes comparatively quite conspicuous under a

one-eighth-of-an-inch objective. It is scarcely as long as the

greater diameter of the truncate end of the body. It arises

close to the base of the larger cilium; but whether on the right

or left, or nearer or more distant from the mouth than the latter,

cannot be said positively. Most frequently it was observed to

be flexed in the same direction as its companion ; and occasion-

ally it seemed to be quite evident that it was attached nearer to

the mouth than the latter. It is highly flexible, and vibrates

with great rapidity in what appears to be a gyratory manner.

The mouth.—This organ is never visible except when food is

passing through it. It then may be seen that it hes close to the

beak, which acts as a sort of lip by curving over the introcepted

particles as they pass into the body. The mouth is highly dis-

tensible, at times allowing particles as wide as two-thirds the

greater diameter of the body to pass in without any apparent

extra effort. It seems undeniable that it possesses discrimina-

tive powers in regard to the quality of its food. This one may

readily judge of for himself, by seeing the unerring precision

with which the particles of floating matter are thrown, by the

spasmodic incurvature of the larger flagellum, against the mouth,

where, if they are not swallowed, they are detained but for an

instant by the smaller cilium, quickly adjudged to be worthless,

and then thrown off with a twirl of the organ which held them

in temporary abeyance. If, however, the captured morsel prove

to be agreeable, the larger cilium assists the operations of the

smaller one and the lip, by abruptly bending itself at its point

of attachment and laying its basal part across the food and

pressing it into the mouth, while the terminal portion is kept in

a constant wavy vibration, and curved toward the posterior end

of the body. This is usually done in three or four seconds ; and

then the cilia return to their usual positions, while the intro-

cepted edible passes toward the centre of the body, and is there

immediately enclosed in a digestive vacuole. For a while the

food dances about in this vacuole with a very lively motion, but

finally it subsides into quietude.

The contractile vesicle—There is a twofold difficulty in dis-

covering the presence of this organ. In the first place, it is com-

paratively quite small; and secondly, it pulsates so slowly that

it is very rarely possible to see it contract twice in succession

between any two of the abrupt lateral deviations of the body

which the spasmodic twitching of the arcuate flagellum pro-

duces. On this account it has not been possible to determine

the precise rate of its systole and diastole. It seems to contract

454: Prof. H. James-Clark on the Structure and

from three to four times a minute. It lies near the surface,

about halfway between the two ends of the body, and nearly

midway betwixt the two extremes of its greater diameter. At

the completion of its diastole it has a circular outline, and ap-

pears like a clear colourless vesicle in the midst of the yellowish

tissue of the body. Upon contraction it disappears and leaves

no trace of its presence. The systole progresses slowly, as in

Anisonema (A. sulcata, Duj.?, and A.nov. sp.) , Cyclidium (C. nov.

sp.), and Phacus pleuronectes, Duj., and in this respect contrasts

strongly with the same process in Heteromita fusiformis, Jas.-Clk.,

Astasia tricophora, Clap., and Cryptomonas (C. nov. sp.), in which

the last half of the systole is very abrupt and marked.

The stem.—In addition to what has already been said of the

general appearance of this part of the organism, it may be added

that the older and basal portions of the branches are flat, and

have a distinct longitudinal irregular striation, to all appear-

ance made up of the older, laterally agglutinated twigs. The

youngest, terminal portions of the branches which, under the

name of twigs, have been described in this paper as the imme-

diate supporters of the colonies of monads, are evidently tubular.

They appear to be as flexible as a spider’s thread, and are usually

quite irregular in outline, and in the calibre of the canal which

permeates them. The wall of these tubular twigs is quite thick,

and is alike rough on the exterior and interior faces. The sub-

stance within the tubes appears homogeneous, but whether it is

solid or fluid could not be determined. ‘The oldest part of the

stems is of a reddish-brown colour; but as they taper off into

branchlets they gradually assume a gamboge-colour, and finally

terminate in scarcely coloured twigs.

Reproduction by fissigemmation is the only method of propa-

gating individuals which I have observed. As a preliminary

to this process the monad gradually loses its fusiform shape,

assumes at first an oval contour, and finally becomes globular.

During this transition, both of the prehensile cilia become much

more conspicuous than usual, and the kody developes a closely

fitting hyaline envelope about it, thus passing into a sort of en-

cysted state. The contractile vesicle, however, does not seem

to cease its pulsations during this period, and moreover it be-

comes quite conspicuous. This arises mostly from the fact that

the body is in a nearly quiet state, and allows the observer to

obtain a prolonged and undisturbed view of it. Unfortunately

the rate of the pulsations of this organ was not ascertained when

the following observations were made, because the whole time

was occupied in watching and drawing the various and rapidly

changing phases of self-division.

After the body assumes a globular shape, as above mentioned,

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri. 435

both the larger and smaller cilium scems to be undergoing a

change, and becomes indistinct in outline*. Presently two larger

flagella burst upon the view, apparently by the longitudinal

splitting of the previously single one of the same kind, and rapidly

separate from each other by the broadening of the body, and

leave between them the smaller cilium. The latter at this time

appears much thicker than usual, and seems to be composed of

two closely approximated parallel threads. By this time the

contractile vesicle has also divided into two, which lie closely side

by side.

At this moment the time noted in one series of observations

was 2.30 p.m. By 2.85 p.m. the larger flagella had separated

still further, and the smaller cilium had split into two very con-

spicuous filaments, as yet, however, attached to a common point

of the body. From this time forth to the completion of the

process of fissigemmation all of the cilia kept up a slow vibra-

tion, in which they undulated from base to tip with a sort of

snake-lke motion. By 2.45 p.m. the body had become quite ap-

preciably broader than long, the contractile vesicles were widely

separated, and the smaller cilia had left between them a consi-

derable space, and each one had approximated quite near to the

base of a larger flagellum. At 2.50 p.m. the body had become

nearly twice as broad as long, and the space between the two

pairs of cilia was nearly twice as great as in the last phase, and

considerably depressed in the middle, so that the body had a

broadly cordate outline. By 2.52 p.m. the posterior end of the

body (at a point a little to one side of the spot where it was

* In a new freshwater genus (see note 2) of sedentary, monadiform

Protozoa (possessing two contractile vesicles, and only the sigmoid flagellum,

the latter arising within a deep bell-like flange or projecting rim which

embraces the anterior end of the body) this arcuate filament disappears

altogether, by a sort of withering down from tip to base, reminding one of

the shrivelling of the end of a cotton thread in the flame of a lamp, pre-

liminary to the commencement of the longitudinal fissigemmation of the

body and its bell-like flange ; and then the new flagellum of each resultant .

of self-divisicn grows out in about twenty minutes.

2 Codosiga: kody, a bell, cvyde, to be silent. C. pulcherrima, n. sp.

Body obliquely obovate, and tapering at its posterior end into a slender

pedicel; truncate and abruptly constricted in front where the base of the

bell meets the body. -Sigmoid arcuate flagellum as long as the body and

bell. The two contractile vesicles in the posterior third of the body;

superficial, large, and quite conspicuous, each contracting, alternately

with the other, once in about half a minute. Bodies attached, in groups

of from two to eight, by their pedicels to the tip of a slender stem ; erect

or divergent, but not pendent. Mouth at the base of the fiagellum, 7. e. ter-

minal. Anus near the mouth. No eye-spot. Bell slightly flaring ; half

again deeper than broad ; fully as deep as the length of the body; highly

contractile. Colour of the body (excepting the hyaline bell), pedicels, and

stem deep yellow. Common on fresh-water weeds about Cambridge, U.S.

436 M. 'T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

attached to the pedicel) was also slightly indented, so that in

outline it presented a guitar-shaped figure, each rounded half of

which bore a pair of unequal cilia, and contained a contractile

vesicle. In one minute more the contraction had increased to

such an extent that the body was divided about halfway through.

By 2.54 p.m. the animal had a dumb-bell shape, and the pedicel

was attached to one of the segments near the point of con-

striction. Still the process went on very rapidly, and by 2.55 p.m.

the new bodies were widely separated, but still attached to each

other by a mere thread. At 3 p.m. the body which was attached

to the pedicel was left alone, and its companion swam away to

seek a new attachment and build up its stem.

To the last moment the hyaline envelope remained about the

segments, and in fact so long afterwards that time and circum-

stances did not allow me to ascertain its final disposition. I

would remark, however, that when the ovate bodies of the half-

grown monads are contracted temporarily into a globular shape,

they appear identical (excepting that they lack the hyaline en-

velope) with these recently fissated forms. In all probability,

therefore, the latter lose their envelope and assume the shape of

the former.

As to the development of the stem, I think it quite certain

that it grows out from the posterior end of the body. The best

proof of this is, that I have frequently found a monad (especially

in the condition of the one which I described above as breaking

loose from its companion) nearly sessile upon a clean spot, and

attached by a very short, faint, film-like thread. From this

size upward I had no difficulty in finding abundant examples as

gradually increasing in diameter as they did in length—thus

furnishing a pretty strong evidence that the stem grows under

the influence of its own innate powers, and is not, therefore, a

deposit emanating from the body of the monad, except, perhaps,

as far as it may be nourished by a fluid circulating within its

hollow core.

LVI.—On Two European Argulide, with Remarks on the

Morphology of the Argulidee and their Systematic Position, to-

gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present

known. By T. THore.

[Concluded from p. 286.]

Ty.

I sHALL now pass in review the species of Argulide hitherto

known, although many of them are so incompletely described

that it is not without difficulty that they can be determined.

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulidee. 437

The arrangement which I have adopted can therefore be only

provisional, and is put forward merely with a view to draw

attention, on the part of those who have opportunities for

examining new or incompletely known Argulidz, to the cha-

racters which have seemed to me the most important for the

systematic arrangement of these animals. Excepting in the

case of the three European species, which I have had occa-

sion to examine myself, the diagnoses are compiled from the

descriptions and figures cf others. I shall first range the fifteen

(or sixteen) known Argulids in the order which seems to me the

most natural, and then briefly particularize each species sepa-

rately.

BRANCHIURA.

Corpus depressum, capite in scutum magnum, postice ple-

rumque bifidum dilatato; oculi compositi longe sejuncti. An-

tenne breves; primi paris unco incurvo armate, cum maxilli-

pedibus primi paris ad figendum apte ; secundi paris simplices,

articulis paucis (4-5). “Os in siphonem productum, mandi-

bulas et, si que adsunt, maxillas quoque includentem ; maxilli-

pedes fortissimi, anteriores plerumque cotyledones formantes.

Truncus segmentis 4, distinctis; pedum paria 4, natatoriorum,

biramium, appendicibus branchialibus carentium. Cauda non

segmentata, plana, foliacea, respiration inserviens, testes aut

receptacula seminis includens. Metamorphosis incompleta.

Animalia in cute externa, in cavitate branchiali vel in bran-

chiis piscium (et batrachiorum) parasitantia.

Fam. AreuLip#, Leach, cet. (Argulina, Kr., Burm., cet.),

Character subordinis etiam familiz unice.

Gen. I. Arcuxus, Miiller (1785).

Monoculus, Linn., cet.; Binoculus, Geoffr., cet.; Ozolus, Latr.; Agenor,

Risso.

Maxillipedes primi paris in adultis cotyledones formantes.

a. Pedes flagello carent. Stimulus ante siphonem adest.

Sipho mandibulas et maxillas continet. (4genor, Risso.)

1. A. purpureus (Risso).

?2. A. giganteus, Lucas.

(3. Pedes parium 1™ et 2" flagello instructi. Stimulus adest.

Sipho mandibulas et maxillas continet. (Argulus, Mill.)

3. A. foliaceus (Linn.).

4. A. coregoni, Thor.

5. A. pugettensis, Dana.

6. A. catostomi, Dana et Herr.

438 M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

y. Pedes parium 1™ et 2 flagello instructi. Stimulus adest.

Sipho mandibulas tantum includit. (Camulus*, nob.)

7. A. Nattereri, Hell.

o. Pedes parium 1™ et 2% flagello instructi. Stimulus nullus?

Sipho?

8. A. salmini, Kr.

9. A. chromidis, Ky.

10. A. funduli, Kr.

?1l. A. alose, Gould.

212. A. elongatus, Hell.

Gen. II. Gyrorrxtis, Heller (1857).

Maxillipedes primi paris apice unco forti armati (cotyledonibus

nullis). Pedes parium 1-3™ flagello instructi. Stimulus nullus.

Sipho mandibulas tantum includit.

1. G. longicauda, Hell.

2. G. doradis, Corn.

3. G. Kollari, Hell.

[? 4. G, Lacordaire: (Aud.)]

I. Arcuuvs, Miiller.

1. A. purpureus (Risso).

See p. 158.

2. A. giganteus, Lucas.

Syn. Argulus giganteus, Lucas, Exploration scientifique de lAlgérie ;

Hist. Nat. d. Animaux Articulés, Premiére Partie : Crustacés, (1845)

p. 83, pl. 8. fig. 9.

“4, ovatus, flavescens, subtiliter rubro punctatus; testa dilata-

tissima, membranacea, utrinque fusco-rubescente unilineata.

Long. 11 millim., latit. 7 millim.”

Hab. in Mari Mediterraneo, ad oras Africz (Algeriz), in Raj@ sp. inventus.

I have been obliged to present the above diagnosis as Lucas

has given it: it is certainly accompanied by a sort of description,

but from this we get no further knowledge respecting the ani-

mal. The description, which is taken from a dried specimen, is

so defective that, were it not that the author expressly says that

he observed “de chaque cdté de la base du bec, un appendice

gros et court terminé par une ventouse,cupuliforme,” we should

hardly be able to recognize the animal as belonging to the Ar-

eulide. “Il ne me reste,” says he, “de ce crustacé curieux

que le test.... Les antennes n’existent plus, et les organes de la

* Nomen propr. mythol.

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 439

locomotion ainsi que abdomen étant en trop mauvais état pour

que je puisse en décrire la forme, je n’en parlerai pas.” By the

word bec is probably meant the sézng, not the mouth-tube. All

further information respecting this animal is summed up as

follows :—“ Cette espéce est bien moins discoidale que l’A. folia-

ceus.... Jaunitre, la téte est grande, trés-allongée, et parait

arrondie & ses parties antérieure et postérieure; elle est forte-

ment sillonnée longitudinalement entre les yeux, et ceux-ci, qui

sont noirs, affectent une forme discoidale. Le test est trés-dilaté,

membraneux, transparent et paratt postéricurement ne pas étre

dépassé par Vabdomen; il est jaune, finement pointillé de rou-

gedtre, et parcouru longitudinalement, de chaque cOté, par une

higne d’un brun rougeatre.”

Of more value than this description is the statement that the

animal was procured “en mai sur une Raie qui avait été prise

dans la rade d’Alger, entre Je fort de Eau et le cap Matifou.”

The figure gives no clearer idea of the characters of the animal

than the description. I have placed it next to A. purpureus on

the ground of the elongated form of the shield, and because, as

would seem to be expressed above, it appears to stretch over and

cover the tail, as in that species. Both occur, moreover, in the

same sea.

3. A. foliaceus (Linn.).

Syn. Monoculus foliaceus, Linné, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, tom. i. (1758) p. 634.

Argulus Charon, Miller, Entomostraca, (1785) p. 723, tab. 20. figg.

1, 2 (larva). }

delphinus, id. ibid. p. 123.

foliaceus, Jurine, Ann. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome vi. (1806)

p-. 431, pl. 26. fige. 1-21; Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. d. Crus-

tacés, ii. p. 444; Baird, British Entomostraca, p. 255, pl. 31.

figg. 1, 2a-l.

Scutum cephalicum subovatum, antice utrinque parum sinuatum,

pedes onines, ultimi paris exceptis, tegens; cauda ovata, lon=

gitudine circa + reliqui corporis, vix usque ad medium incisa,

laciniis apice rotundatis; stimulus longus; siphe subclavatus;

art. primus antennarum secundi paris aculeo valido armatus ;

cotyledones parvi, diametro circiter } corporis longitudinis

eequantes; pecten plaga media oblongo-rotundata scabra,

dentibusque 3 fortibus acutis; ali dentes 2 imter maxilli-

pedes secundi paris adsunt.—Longit. 6-7 millim., latit. circa

34 millim. (¢ ?)..

Hab. in aquis dulcibus fere totius Europe, in cute externa et in cavitate

branchiali (2) piscium (Gasterosteorum, Cyprini carpionis, Abramis

brame*, Leucisci rutili, Tinee vulgaris, Esocis lucii, Perce fluviatilis,

_ Salmonis truite), et in larvis Ranarum payasitans.

For a more complete synonymy we would refer to the works

* According to Mag. Widegren.

4.40 M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

of Milne-Edwards and Baird above cited. It is not impossible

that, under the appellation A. foliaceus, two separate species

have been confounded. The figures which Vogt * has given of

this animal differ from the Swedish (and consequently from the

genuine) form in having the tail much smaller and almost bent

inwards laterally. Jurine and Baird represent the tail such as

I haye found it in my own specimens.

4. A. coregoni, Thor.

See page 162.

5. A. pugettensis, Dana.

Syn. Argulus pugettensis, Dana, United States’ Explormg Expedition,

Crustacea, (1853) il. p. 1351, pl. 94. fige. 2 a et d.

Scutum cephalicum oblongum, ellipticum, pedes omnes tegens ;

cauda magna, oblonga, longitudine circa 2 reliqui corporis,

et latitudine 2 latit. scuti fere eequans, usque ad medium in-

cisa, laciniis subacuminatis; stimulus Be sipho sub-

clavatus; cotyledones sat magni, diametro 1-1 corporis lon-

gitudinis eequantes ; pectinis “dentes 3 3 subconici; dentes 2

inter maxillipedes secundi paris adsunt.—Long. circa 17,

latit. 10 millim. (9 ?).

Hab. in America boreali (ad oras occid.: “ Puget’s Sound”). Hospitium

ignotum.

This very scanty description contains nothing respecting the

oral organs; but the accompanying figures, which seem to be

good, and which present the animal both from the dorsal and

ventral aspects, show so strong a likeness to the two species im-

mediately preceding, that I have not hesitated to place it in the

same subdivision of the genus with them. The tail is propor-

tionally larger, and especially broader at the base, than in A,

coregont.

6. A. catostomi, Dana et Herr.

Syn. Argulus catostomi, Dana et Herrick, Silliman’s Amer. Journ. (1837)

xxxi. p. 297. figg. 1-11; Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. d. Crustacés,

il. p. 445.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, paullo latius quam

longius, antice utringue subsinuatum, pedes quoque ultimi

paris ad partem tegens ; cauda lata, rotundata, longitudine

circa } reliqui corporis, postice non usque ad medium i incisa,

laciniis late rotundatis ; ; stimulus longus; sipho ovatus ; coty-

ledones mediocres; pecten plaga media scabra subtriangula,

dentibusque 3 late truncatis ; inter maxillipedes secundi paris

dentes null, Ramus inferior pedum primi paris articulis 3,

* Loc. cit.

M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 441

quorum 2 ultimi brevissimi; flagella pedum verticula media

predita.—Long. circa 10, lat. 9 millim. (?¢).

Hab. in America boreali (Connecticut, New Haven), in flumine Mill River,

etiam ubi aqua marina stu crescente aque dulci admiscetur. In cavi-

tate branchiali et in ipsis branchiis Catostomi sp. (C. bostoniensis, Le-

sueur, aut communis, ejusd.) inventus.

7. A. Nattereri, Hell.

Syn. Argulus Nattereri, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad, d. Wis-

sensch., Math.-~Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 103, taf. 1.

figg. 4-12; Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) ii.

pp: 97, 103, tab. 1. fig. 3 a—d.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, paullo latius quam

longius, lobo frontali paullo prominenti, supra denticulis et

setis scabrum, pedes omnes et basin caude tegens; cauda

parum prominens, brevissima, longitudine circa 4, reliqui

corporis, transverse elliptica, vix usque ad medium incisa;

sipho magnus, subclavatus ; cotyledones magni, diametro fere

+ longit. corporis equantes; pectinis dentes 3 longi, sub-

acuminati.—Longit. circa 12, lat. 13 millim. (?).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia) : in branchiis et cute Salmini (Hy-

drocyonis) brevidentis, Cuv. (Salmini Cuvieri, Val.), inventus.

This well-marked species is fully described and figured both

by Heller and Kroyer. The former has given special attention

to the oral organs; and his description is more complete on this

point than Kroyer’s, which, however, is in other respects ampler

and accompanied by better figures.

8. A. salinini, Kr.*

Syn. Argulus salminet, Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) ii.

pp- 89, 103, tab. 1. fig. 2 a—e.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, parum latius quam

longius, lobo frontali lato, prominenti, pedes omnes, exceptis

ultimi paris, tegens; cauda rotundata, paullo latior quam

longior, fere ad tertiam longitudinis partem incisa, longit., 1-1

reliqui corporis sequans ; cotyledones magni, diametro circa +

totius corporis longitudinis equantes; pectinis dentes trun-

cati, latiores quam longiores.—Long. circa 13, lat. 11 mil-

lim. (2).

Mas ditfert magnitudine plus duplo minore, scuto cephalico el-

liptico, cauda paullo longiore quam latiore.

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia, Minas Geraés), in branchiis Sal-

mint sp. inventus.

Of both this and the two following species Kroyer has given

* Kroyer has Salmineus, Argulus salminez, which is probably a mistake.

442 M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

exact and complete descriptions. It is only to be regretted that

the oral organs have been neglected.

9. A. chromidis, Kr.

Syn. Argulus chromidis, Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rakke, (1863)

i. pp. 92, 102, tab. 1. fig. 2 a—c.

Scutum cephalicum breve, ad segmentum trunci tertium tantum

pertinens, fere inverse ovatum, parum longius quam latius,

labe frontali angustius rotundato; cauda subovata, longit.

3—z reliqui corporis, paullo longior quam latior, postice vix

ad tertiam longitudinis partem excisa, laciniis apice subro-

tundatis ; cotyledones mediocres, diametro circa + corporis

longitudinis equantes ; dentes pectinis multo longiores quam

latiores, medio acuto, lateralibus obtusis; ova non truncum

tantum, sed totum fere scutuin occupantia——Longit. circa 6,

latit. 4 millim. (¢).

Hab. in America centrali (Nicaragua), in branchiis Chromidis sp. ex lacu

Nicaragua semel inventus.

10. A. funduli, Kr.

Syn. Argulus funduli, Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Reekke, (1863) ii.

pp. 94, 103, tab. 2. fig. 1 a-e.

Scutum cephalicum parvum, longitudine circa dimidii corporis,

paullo latius quam longius, antice angustatum, stipitem pedum

primi paris saltem tegens, dorso postice g gibbo ; cauda longa,

dimidiam reliqui corporis longitudmem ‘fere cequans, duplo

circiter longior quam latior, postice profunde, at non usque

ad medium incisa, laciniis apice rotundatis; cotyledones

magni, diametro circa + corporis longitudinis eequantes ; ; art.

primus maxillipedum secundi paris dentibus caret.—Long.

circa 3, latit. versus 2 millim. (¢ ?).

Hab. in America boreali (Louisiana, New Orleans), in cavitate branchiali

Funduli sp. inventus.

ll. A. alose, Gould.

Syn. Argulus alos@, Gould, Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts,

comprising the Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida, and Radiata, (1841)

p. 340.

Seutum cephalicum parvum, dimidio corpore paullo longius, in-

verse ovatum vel subcordatum, parum longius quam latius,

stipitem pedum primi paris tegens; cauda longa, 3 reliqui

corporis longitudine superans, circiter duplo longior quam

latior, usque ad basin fissa, laciniis subacuminatis; cotyle-

dones mediocres; truncus angustus, pedes longi.—Longit.

circa 18, latit. 6 millim. ( 9 ?)

Hab. in America boreali (Massachusetts), in branchiis Alose sp. (A. tyrannt

Dekay?) semel inventus.

M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 443

This extremely short and meagre description is accompanied

by a coarse woodcut representing the animal from beneath, but

in which we can distinguish neither antenne, “sting,” nor shape

of the mouth-tube. There seem to be no comb-like teeth on the

hinder foot-jaws. The tail is described in the following words :-—

“Then [on the abdomen] follow two short folia, covered by two

others, each of them nearly as long and as broad as the exposed

part of the abdomen.” The species undoubtedly stands near

A. funduli, but seems to be distinguished by a somewhat longer

head-shield, a longer and more deeply cloven tail, with more

pointed lobes and smaller sucking-cups. Whether the feet

possess flagella (gissel) or not, is not to be learnt from either

description or figures.

This Argulus is, according to Gould, found on the “ Alewife,”

which he identifies with the European Alosa vulgaris. Probably

the fish in question was an Alosa tyranntus, Dekay, which, ac-

cording to Valenciennes *, is the Alewife of the United States.

In ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ (1839) vol. xxxvi. p. 393, under the

title “ New Species of Argulus; notice from Dr. T. W. Harris,”

we find the following remarks :—‘“ It may interest some of your

readers to be informed of the discovery of another species of

Argulus in this country. It was found in the gills of a herring

caught upon Brighton Bridge, from Charles River, during the

month of June last. It differs from Argulus foliaceus of Europe,

and from the species described in a former number of your

Journal, vol. xxxiv. p. 225+, in the size and form of the body and

in the shortness of the legs. Having presented the specimen to

Dr. A. A. Gould for description, I shall not attempt to anticipate

him by giving a detailed account of its specific characters at this

time.”

It is undoubtedly A. alose which is here alluded to; for

Gould says, with reference to this specimen, that it was presented

to him by Dr. T. W. Harris, who found it on the branchiz of the

“ Alewife,” which fish in America, like the Alosa vulgaris with us,

is often confounded under the general name of “herring” or

“sill.” Gould has described no other species of Argulus. That

the species differs from A. foliaceus in the shortness of the legs,

is a mistake. See the diagnosis.

12. A. elongatus, Hell.

Syn. Argulus elongatus, Heller, Sitzungsber. d. Kais. Akad. d. Wissensch.,

Math.-Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 106, taf. 3. figg. 1-4.

Scutum cephalicum minimum, longitudine trunci, inverse sub-

* Cuvier et Valenciennes, ‘Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,’ (1847)

tom. xx. p. 421.

+ This probably means vol. xxxi. p. 297, where A. catostomi, Dana, is

444, M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

cordatum, postice parum sinuatum, non excisum, neque trun-

cum nec pedes tegens; cauda circa } longitudinis reliqui cor-

poris sequans, profunde incisa, iene sat longis, lanceolatis ;

cotyledones parvi; art. primus maxillipedum secundi paris

dentibus caret.—Longit. 10 millim., latit. 6 millim. (9).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia). Hospitium ignotum.

Amongst all known species of Argulids this one has the head-

shield least developed, and its appearance is therefore very dif-

ferent from that of the others. THeller’s description is very

brief, and leaves undetermined, as does also his figure, whether

the animal has a sting (gadd), and whether its feet are provided

with flagella or not.

Obs. Argulus armiger, Mill. (Entomostraca, p. 124) = Mono-

culus armager, Slabber*, is no Argulus, but the larva of a Cirri-

pede.

II. Gyropextts, Heller.

1. G. longicauda, Hell.

Syn. Gyropeltis longicauda, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad. d.

Wissensch., Math.-Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 191, taf. 1.

fige. 1-19; Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) i.

pp. 99, 103, tab. 1. fig. 4 a-e.

Scutum cephalicum suborbiculare, amplum, omnes pedes tegens ;

cauda longissima, 14—2-plo longior et duplo angustior quam

seutum et reliquum corpus, fere usque ad basin in duas laci-

nlas angustas, sensim lanceolato-acuminatas fissa; pectinis

dentes 3 conici, acuti.—Longit. 28, latit. 11 millim. (3 @).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia), in branchiis Salmini brevidentis

(Cuv.) inventus.

2. G. doradis, Corn.

Syn. Gyropeltis eras Cornalia, Mem. del R. Istit. Lombardo, (1860)

vill. pp. 161, tab. 2. figg. 1-18.

Scutum cephalicum suborbiculare, pedes ultimi paris vix tegens;

cauda sat longior, reliqui corporis dimidiam longitudinem

circiter zquans, fere usque ad basin in duas lacinias : angustas,

sublanceolatas fissa; pectinis dentes 3 breves, acuti.—Longit.

22, latit. 11 millim. (9).

Hab. in America zequinoctiali, in corpore Doradis nigri Valenc. inventus.

described. That described in vol. xxxiv. p. 225 is a Caligus (C. ameri-

canus, Pickering & Dana), not an Argulus.

# Natuurkundige Verlustigingen, behelzende microscopische Waarnee-

mingen, &c. (1769), cited from P. L. St. Miiller’s German translation :

Physikalische Belustigungen, &c. (1775) p. 19, tab. 6, fig. 1.

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. AAS

3. G. Kollari, Hell.

Syn. Gyropeltis Kollari, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad. d. Wis-

sensch., Math. -Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 102, taf. 1.

fige. 20, 21; taf. 2. figg. 1-3.

Scutum cephalicum inverse subcordatum, amplum, omnes pedes

et basin caudz tegens; cauda brevis, g-z reliqui corporis

longitudinis zquans, inverse rotundato-ovata, postice parum

profunde incisa, laciniis brevibus obtusis ; pectinis dentes 3

breves, obtusi.—Longit, 12, latit. 9 millim. (¢).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia). Hospitium ignotum.

?4. G. Lacordairei (Aud.).

Syn. Dolops Lacordairei, Audouin, Annales de la Soc. Entomol. de France,

sér. 1. t. vi. (1837), Bull. p. 13.

Long. plus 15 millim.

Hab. in America meridionali (Cayenne), in pisce Aymara dicto parasitans.

Concerning this animal we have the following remarks from

the above-cited source :—

“ M.Audouin présente deux individus deel crustacé singulier,

qui a beaucoup d’analogie avec lArgule foliacé de Jurine, mais

qui en différe surtout par ’absence de ventouses aux pattes an-

térieures, et par sa taille, qui dépasse un centimétre et demi.

“Ce crustacé a été trouvé 4 Cayenne par M. Lacordaire; il

est parasite sur un poisson nommé Aymara, dont la chair est

trés-estimée, et qui vit dans toutes les riviéres. M. Audouin

en donne la description et le regarde comme le type d’un nou-

veau genre, auquel il assigne le nom de Dolops. 11 dédie cette

espéce & M. Lacordaire :

“ Dolops Lacordairei. Ce nouveau genre sera décrit en détail

et figuré.”

That this Dolops Lacordarei is a Gyropeltis, or at least stands

very near this genus, may be regarded as certain. But although

the name Dolups is older than Gyropeléis, 1s seems to me in every

respect more desirable to retain the latter appellation, inasmuch

as Audouin did not determine or clearly point out the characters

on which he founds the genus Dolops. No description of the

species has, as far as I can discover, been published.

As at the most sixteen species of the family Argulidze are as

yet known, and as this number will undoubtedly be “considerably

increased, it would be premature now to attempt to draw, from

what is known of the localities of these species, any general

conclusions as to the geographical range of the family. We may,

however, suppose with Kroyer that the great American continent

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, xvii. ol

446 M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

is its proper habitat, since three-fourths of the species which be-

long to the genus Argulus, together with all the species of the

genus Gyropeltis, are limited thereto. The greater number be-

long to the warm parts of that continent: only one species (A.

pugettensis) is known from the west coast of (North) America.

Of the four non-American species enumerated in our list, Hurope

has afforded three, and Africa one species (inhabiting the Medi-

terranean).

It is further of importance to note the relative numbers of the

species which live in fresh and in salt water. We perceive

at once that, as in the other Branchiopoda, the number of

freshwater forms preponderates. If we except the four species

(A. pugettensis, funduli, and elongatus, witheGyropeltis Kollari)

concerning which information in this respect is wanting, it will

be seen that of the remaining species only two (A. purpureus

and giganteus) are found on fishes which live exclusively in the

sea; all the others are procured from fresh water. It would be

of great importance to learn whether or not some of these fresh-

water forms can also live in salt water, and, in particular, whether

the species (A. coregoni and alose, for instance) which live on

fishes which undertake journeys from the sea up the rivers

follow their hosts when these betake themselves again to the

sea. We have already stated that A. catostomi lives also in the

brackish water near the mouths of rivers.

In close connexion with the consideration that the larger

number of the Argulide belong to lakes and rivers, and only a

small portion to the sea, is the result which we obtain from an

inquiry how they are distributed amongst the various groups of

fishes. That the Argulids are not always (perhaps never)

confined to a single sort of fish is shown in the case of the

three European species, which live on fishes of different genera,

even of widely separated families—especially A. foliaceus, the only

Argulid of whose habitat and mode of life we have a tolerably

satisfactory knowledge. This species not only attaches itself

to freshwater fish of wholly different orders (Acanthopteri,

Pharyngognathi, and Physostomi), but even attacks the larve

of frogs, which is not known to be the case with any of the

other species. We are ignorant as to the animals on which

three of these (A. pugettensis, A. elongatus, and G. Kollart)

occur. The rest have all been found on fishes, and, with

the exception of a single species, on Teleostei or bony fishes.

Of the other subclasses only one (viz. the Selachia) has figured

in our list. A. giganteus is found upon a Ray. Amongst bony

fishes it is, as we might almost conclude @ priori, especially the

order Physostomi which is affected by these parasites. A spe-

cies of the Siluroid family harbours G, doradis ; many Cyprinoids

M. T. Thorell on the Arrangement of the Copepoda. 447

are attacked by A. foliaceus, one by A. catostomi. Cyprinodonts

have afforded A. funduli; the Characinide A. Natterert, A. sal-

mini and G. longicauda. Salmonoids are affected by A. coreyont

and A. foliaceus, which has also been taken on an Ksocoid; the

Clupeide finally have contributed a species, 4. alose. Among

the Pharyngognathi the family Chromide has a parasite in A.

chromidis ; and among the Acanthopteri it is the families Scom-

bride (for A. purpureus and foliaceus), Sparide (for A. pur-

pureus), and Percide (for A. foliaceus) on which representatives

of the Arguloid family have been hitherto observed.

I avail myself of this occasion to refute some objections which

have lately been put forward by Claus* against the attempted

arrangement of the order Copepoda communicated by me in my

memoir above cited—“ Contribution to our knowledge of the

Crustacea which live on the species of the genus Ascidia, L.”’+

This arrangement (in three parallel series, Gnathostoma, Peeci-

lostoma, and Siphonostoma) is based upon the structure of the

organs of the mouth, which, he says “in the first division are

adapted for chewing, in the other two for piercing and sucking.

The arrangement of the free and parasitic in parallel series

renders the formation of the subordinate groups more difficult,

the three forms of mouth presenting numerous cases of transi-

tion. It separates nearly allied forms, and, if strictly adhered

to, produces an unnatural and one-sided system. Further, the

character imputed to the Peecilostoma—‘ Os mandibulis et si-

phone carens, maxillarum paribus 3—-1(-O) instructum ’—rests

on an error, since the mandibles are very well developed.”

To begin with the last remark, which seems to contain a charge

of especial weight, since it would appear that Claus represents

me as overlooking in the Pecilostoma the presence of the very

organs (the mandibles) on the presence or absence of which the

differences between the Gnathostoma and Peecilostoma depend.

That such, however, is not his meaning, is apparent from an

expression on p. 28, where we read, “ Here [in the Coryceide]

the maxille are reduced to very simple plates furnished with

several bristles, and have been regarded by Thorell as appendages

of the mandibles.” In effect the differences between Claus’s and

my notions of the oral organs of the Peecilostoma reduce themselves

* Die frei lebenden Copepoden, p. 9.

+ Prof. Kroyer (Bidrag til Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene, p. 82) also,

but more summarily, attacks this attempt. -As, however, he brings for-

ward no sufiicient objection, either against the principle adopted or the

mode of its application, but rather confines himself to bitter invectives

against those zoologists who, not troubling themselves with “mere de-

scriptive work,” are yet bold enough to “put forward systems,” I shall

treat his criticisms as they deserve.

ol*

448 M.T.Thorell on the Arrangement of the Copepoda.

to the circumstance that what he calls mandibles I regard as

maxilla, and his maxillz are, according to my view, the appen-

dages of the maxille, maxillary palpi. The reasons on which I

base my view are the following :—First and foremost, the organs

in question are sometimes fused together, as in the genera Cory-

ceus and Lichomolgus ; and it is more especially apparent in the

last genus that the posterior ones are nothing more than appen-

dages of the anterior ones, from the fact that they are not di-

rected towards the opening of the mouth, but have their free

border turned backwards. Now, since I know of no example in

the Copepoda of the maxille taking the form of mandibular

appendages, but several (among the parasitic forms) in which

the palp separates itself from its union with mandible or maxilla,

I have thought this sufficient reason for the supposition that the

organs mentioned belong to the same pair. That I explain them

as maxille,and consequently regard the mandibles as wanting, not

the opposite, depends partly on the fact that they are situated

further backwards than the mandibles of the Gnathostoma, partly

and principally on the circumstance that I have found in two

species of the genus Lichomolgus, precisely in the position occupied

im the Siphonostoma by the proboscis with its enclosed man-

dibles, a half-rostrum, which I conceive should be regarded

as a rudimentary sucking-tube. Were Claus’s view correct, it

would follow that ‘the mandibles” in the Copepoda in question

must always want the mandibular palpi, and the “ maxilla”

similarly always be without maxillary palpi. On the other hand,

there is no lack of instances among the lower Crustacea of. the

absence of the mandibles. Among the Ostracoda the mandible

is represented in Cypridina by an appendage on the maxilla, and

is altogether wanting in Philomedes. In the Copepoda I will

only recall (to say nothing of the parasitic forms) the genera

Sapphirinella, Claus, which for oral organs possesses only a

pair of maxillary feet, and Monstril/a, Dana, which wants al/ the

oral appendages.

I have not been able to find, either among the forms known

to me from autopsy or representations, any instance of actual

transition between the oral organs of the Gnathostoma and

Peecilostoma. Certainly, in the genera Candace, Dana, and

Hemicalanus, Claus, the mandibles, in their longer and slenderer

shape, and in offering only two teeth at the extremity, differ not

a little from the usual form of the mandibles in the Gnathosto-

mous series; and it is probable that they are used more as

piercing- than as chewing-organs. But the presence of a strong

two-branched maaillary palp, besides separate many-lobed maxille

of the usual nature, shows at once that this genus cannot be

referred to the Poecilostoma, but is essentially Gnathostomous.

M.T. Thorell on the Terminology of the Argulide. 449

Neither am I acquainted with any transition between the Peeci-

lostoma and Siphonostoma. It is freely granted that, in such

forms as lack the appendages of the mouth, it may be sometimes

difficult to determine to which series they should be referred ;

but in such instances correspondences in other parts of the ge-

neral structure must decide the question: for example, it is

easy to see that Monstrilla is a Poecilostome and approaches the

Coryceeidee, to which family it is, indeed, referred by Claus.

From what has now been said, it follows that I cannot admit

that my arrangement of the Copepoda renders difficult the forma-

tion of subordinate groups, families, and genera. On the other

hand, it is conceded that it sometimes removes from each other

forms which in habitus stand tolerably near together; but this

inconvenience is in a great measure compensated by the paral-

lelism of the series. Certain it is that by the division of the

Copepoda into Copepoda carcinoidea and C. parasitica, adopted

by Claus, this inconvenience is not avoided : any definite limita-

tion of these two groups based upon characters drawn from the

form is not to be thought of. Claus himself admits this, but

consoles himself with the consideration that the impossibility of

a sharp definition of limits lies in the very nature of any system

which would be true to nature. Many, however, will be found

who will agree with me in not resting content with such reason-

ing, but in regarding fixed principles for the forming of divisions

as necessary for any systematic arrangement. And if the source

of such division be sought in the modifications of organs which

are constant in their nature and significance throughout the

entire life of the animal, which has seemed to me to be the case

with the oral organs, a sharp definition of the limits of groups

will not necessarily make the system one-sided and unnatural.

[Note. Ina rather lengthy footnote appended to the preceding

paper, Prof. Thorell makes the following important remarks re-

lative to the nomenclature of the various portions of the body

in the Argulids. Reverting to p. 150, we find that Prof. Thorell

applies the terms head or head. shield, trunk, and tail to the prin-

cipal divisions of the body in Argulids, calling the pieces at-

tached posteriorly to the latter appendages, not postabdomen, In

connexion with this he says :-—

“ Such a terminology differs somewhat from the now generally

received division of the Crustacean body into head, thorax, abdo-

men, and pustabdomen. ‘There are several objections to this divi-

sion. Jhorax and abdomen are divisions founded (throughout

the greater portion of the Articulate series) on notions almost

exclusively drawn from the class of Insects, and are not. properly

applicable to any but that class and the Arachnids, where they

450 M.T.Thorell on the Terminology of the Argulide.

correspond to distinct sections of the bodily functions. This is

not the case in either Myriopods or Crustaceans, where, how-

ever, the head is distinctly separated from the trunk; and, in

Crustaceans at least (as in the Scorpions), the hindmost segment

of the trunk is usually distinct, both in form and function, from

the others, thus forming a ¢ai/ or postabdomen so called. With

the first three segments of the trunk, corresponding to the tho-

rax of insects, this, however, is by no means the case; conse-

quently the term ‘thorax’ seems quite inapplicable, since there

is really no definite division of the body to apply it to; and with

the rejection of the appellation ‘thorax,’ the terms ‘ abdomen’

and ‘ postabdomen’ also must necessarily be laid aside.

“The anterior segments of the trunk, on the contrary, show

here, as in the Myriopods, a strong tendency to coalesce with

the genuine head, and their extremities are thus most generally

metamorphosed into organs used for chewing or holding food,

1.e. foot-jaws. Hither it is only one such segment which thus

loses its own independent character, and becomes tributary to

the head (Edriophthalma), or it is two, unless both pairs of foot-

jaws belong to the same segment, as in Copepoda and Argulide,

or all three of the so-called thoracic segments (Decapoda).

Sometimes these segments, with their appendages, become more

or less rudimentary, or would seem to disappear altogether, as

in the Branchiopoda. (In the Squillidee all the first five segments

of the trunk are subordinate to the head.) In all these cases

it seems better to call any anterior division of the body, however

formed by such fusion of one, two, or three posterior segments,

head. In the Decapoda, where three segments are united with

the head, the term cephalothorax is perhaps a suitable one, if not

that of cephalocormus, which I would apply to designate the

complete fusion of the whole trunk with the head as a single

piece. There is, however, even better reason for using ‘ cephalo-

thorax’ in connexion with the Argulids and many of the para-

sitic Copepods, as the. Caligide, where the extremities or “ foot-

jaws ” which have become coalescent with the head are not ac-

cessory oral organs, but genuine fixing- or seizing-organs. It

should, however, be observed that every possible transition is

found between such fixing-organs and the ordinary foot-jaws,

and that only one, or at most two, segments of the trunk can

be regarded as entering into the composition of any such cephalo-

thorax.

“ Often, indeed, amongst the Copepoda one of the trunk-seg-

ments is united with the head and the foregoing ones; but in

this case the extremities of the segment are always of the same

form as those of the preceding trunk-segments, 1. €. swimming-

feet, not foot-jaws, and such a segment belongs consequently to

Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders. 451

the same division of the body as those preceding it. It may

even be taken as a rule that all the dower Crustaceans (Xiphura,

Branchiopoda, Ostracoda, Copepoda, and Cirripedia) have typi-

cally ¢wo pairs of foot-jaws, never more, while the Malacostraca

have either three pairs or only one pair,—and, further, that the

former have only one pair of maxille, while the Decapoda and

other Malacostraca have generally ¢wo pairs.

“Thus in order to obtain at the same time a uniform and prac-

tically useful terminology for the class Crustacea, it seems to

me advisable to abolish in that group the utterly meaningless

divisions thorax and abdomen, and to adopt those which I have

now put forward, viz. head, trunk, and tail.’’ |

LVII.—A List of Spiders captured in the South-east Region of

Equatorial Africa; with Descriptions of such Species as ap-

pear to be new to Arachnologists. By Jonn Buackwatt,

F.LS.

My friend Mr. Meade having transmitted to me for examination

a second collection of spiders, made in the south-east region of

equatorial Africa by the late Mr. Richard Thornton and Mr.

Horace Waller, the result of my investigation of the specimens

contained in it is givén in the following list.

Tribe Octonoculina.

Family Lycosipz.

Genus Crenus, Walck.

Ctenus vagus, 0. sp.

Length of the female 14 inch; length of the cephalothorax 4,

breadth 4; breadth of the abdomen 2; length of an anterior

lez 22; length of a leg of the third pair 14.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax in three transverse rows ; the two anterior ones, with the

two intermediate ones of the four constituting the second row,

describe a trapezoid whose shortest side is before; and each of

the two eyes forming the posterior row, with a lateral one of

the second row, is seated on a tubercle; the intermediate eyes

of the second row are the largest, and the lateral ones, which

are in a line with them, much the smallest of the eight. The

eephalothorax is compressed before, truncated in front, rounded

on the sides, which are depressed and marked with furrows

converging towards a narrow indentation in the medial line of

the posterior region; it is clothed with short brownish-yellow

hairs, and is of a dark reddish-brown colour, with narrow, brown

lateral margins. The falces are powerful, conical, vertical, and

452 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

armed with teeth on the inner surface ; the maxill are straight,

enlarged at the extremity, which is rounded on the outer side

and obliquely truncated on the inner side, where it is supplied

with long hairs; the lip is short, broad, and somewhat quadrate,

but rounded on the sides; the sternum has a broad oval form,

with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These

parts are of a dark-brown colour, the falces, which are much

the darkest, being supplied with red hairs at the base, im front.

The legs are long, robust, provided with brownish-yellow hairs

and strong sessile spines, and are of a red-brown colour; the

first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is

the shortest ; the metatarsi and tarsi have brown hair-like papille

on their inferior surface, and the latter are terminated by two

curved claws, pectinated at their base. The palpi are long

and rather lighter- coloured than the legs, with the exception of

the digital joint, which has a brown hue. The abdomen is-ovi-

form, densely covered with brownish-yellow hairs, convex above,

and projects a little over the base of the cephalothorax ; a series

of broad, curved, angular lines of a brown coiour, having their

convex sides towards each other and their vertices directed for-

wards, extends along the middle of the upper part ; and on each

side of it there is a row of four depressed dark-brown spots:

the sexual organs, which are well developed, and of a red-brown

colour, have a large process directed backwards from their an-

terior margin, whose extremity is dilated.

This large Ctenus was the only individual of the species in-

cluded in the collection.

Genus Spuasus, Walck.

Sphasus pulchellus, n. sp.

Lene of the female } of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax =8;, breadth -2,; breadth of the abdomen ars length of

an anterior leg 35 length of a leg of the third pair -2,.

The abdomen is oviform, somewhat pointed at the spinners,

very convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax ; it is clothed with adpressed hairs, and is of a red-brown

colour ‘mingled with yellowish white ; the under part, which is

of a yellowish- white hue, has a dark-brown band extending

along the middle; the [eal organs are moderately developed,

with a longitudinal septum,in the middle; they are of a dark

red-brown colour, the posterior margin being much the palest,

and that of the branchial opercula is brown. The eyes are dis-

posed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, high above the

frontal margin; the four posterior ones form a greatly curved

transverse row, whose convexity is directed upwards and some-

what backwards, and the other four describe a trapezoid whose

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 458

shortest side is before; the posterior eyes of the trapezoid are

the largest, and the anterior ones are much the smallest of the

eight. The cephalothorax is slightly compressed before, trun-

cated in front, rounded on the sides, convex, glossy, with a slight

indentation in the medial line; it is of a brown colour tinged

with red, and has an irregular dark-brown band on each side,

and a spot of the same hue behind the medial indentation ; the

space comprised between the posterior eyes of the trapezoid and

those of the transverse curved row, and a spot on each exterior

angle of the frontal margin, are of a dark-brown colour; the

lateral margins and the front are provided with yellowish-white

hairs, and some of a pale-red hue occur on the abruptly sloped

base. The falces are powerful, subconical, vertical, supplied

with dull-yellowish hairs in front, and armed with one or two

minute teeth on the imner surface; the maxille are long,

obliquely truncated at the extremity, on the outer side, and

slightly inclined towards the lip, which is broader towards the

extremity than at the base, and truncated at the apex; the

sternum is heart-shaped, and clothed with short yellowish-

white hairs intermixed with long ones of a darker hue. These

parts are of a brown colour tinged with red. The legs are

slender, provided with hairs and long spines, and are of a pale-

brown hue, with a few annuli of a deeper shade; the first pair

is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest;

each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones

are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near

its base. The palpi, which are without annuli, resemble the

legs in colour, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their

extremity.

A single specimen of this species was included in the collec-

tion.

Family Crn1FrLonip2.

Genus Oriruyra, Blackw.

Orithyia Wiltamsiz.

Orithyia Williamsii, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. ii. p. 331,

and vol. vill. p. 443,

The collection contained three females ot this species. Both

sexes of Orithyia Williamsii have been received from Pernambuco.

Genus Erssus, Walck.

Eresus africanus, n. sp.

Length of the female 43 of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;3;, breadth +; breadth of the abdomen -3,; length of an

anterior leg 2; length of a leg of the third pair 3.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax;

454: Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

a large quadrilateral figure, formed by the four exterior ones,

whose anterior side is the longest, includes a small trapezoid

described by the four intermediate ones; the posterior eyes of

the trapezoid are the widest apart and the largest of the eight,

and the anterior ones, each of which is seated on a small tuber-

cle, form with the anterior eyes of the quadrilateral figure a

transverse row in front. ‘The cephalothorax is large, very con-

vex in the cephalic region, depressed behind, clothed with

brownish-yellow hairs, and of a red-brown colour, the lateral

margins being the palest. The falces are short, powerful, cu-

neiform, vertical, densely covered with reddish-yellow hairs at

the base, in front, and of a red-brown colour, the extremity

being much the darkest. The maxille are straight, enlarged at

the extremity, which is rounded on the outer side and somewhat

produced on the inner side; the lip is triangular, and the ster-

num is oval. These parts have a pale red-brown hue. The legs

are moderately long, robust, clothed with hairs, and are of a

yellowish-brown colour, the under part of the femora and tibiz

of the first and second pairs having a dark-brown hue; the first

pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the

shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two

superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is

inflected near its base, where there are several minute teeth;

the metatarsus of each posterior leg is provided with a calamis-

trum. The palpi, which are short, resemble the legs in colour,

and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The

abdomen is oviform, convex above, projecting over the base of

the cephalothorax ; it is clothed with brownish-yellow hairs, and

is of a yellowish-brown colour, the under part being much the

brownest ; four dark-brown depressions, connected by a sinuous

line of the same hue, extend along each side of the medial line

of the upper part : the sexual organs are moderately developed,

and of a red-brown colour; the spinners are cight in number;

those of the inferior pair, which are the shortest, consist of a

single jot each, and are united throughout their entire

length.

An adult and an immature female of resus africanus were

included in the collection. This species is provided with eight

spinners and calamistra; and I am informed by the Rev. O. P.

Cambridge that Dr. Ludwig Koch, of Niirnberg, has observed

that some other species of the genus are similarly organized.

Should all of them be found to be provided with these parts,

the entire genus should be comprised in the family Ciniflonide ;

but if they are possessed only by a portion of the species, a new

genus, founded on such species, should be transferred to that

family.

Jrom the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 455

Family Saurictpm.

Genus Satricus, Latr.

Salticus cornutus, n. sp.

Length of the female (not including the spinners) + of an

inch ; length of the cephalothorax ~3,, breadth 4; breadth of the

abdomen +; length of a leg of the third pair z+; length of a

leg of the second pair +.

The cephalothorax is somewhat quadrate, but rounded on the

sides; it is convex and glossy, but slopes abruptly at the base,

and gradually to the front, which projects a little beyond the

mandibles; it has a small indentation near the middle, and is

provided with a few scattered black hairs, eight, longer than the

rest and closely grouped, having the appearance of a slightly

curved horn, situated near the minute intermediate eye of each

lateral row on its outer side; the falces are short, subconical,

and vertical ; the maxille are straight, and enlarged and rounded

at the extremity; the lip and sternum are oval, the latter being

broader at its posterior than at its anterior extremity; the legs

are robust, particularly those of the first and second pairs, and

are ‘provided with hairs and spines, two parallel rows of the

latter occurring on the inferior surface of the tibiz and meta-

tarsi of the first and second pairs; the third pair is the longest,

then the fourth, and the second pair is the shortest ; each tarsus

is terminated by two curved, slightly pectinated claws, below

which there is a small scopula; the palpi are slender, and are

supplied with numerous whitish hairs, especially on the digital

joint. These parts are of a yellowish-brown colour, the sternum

and palpi being the palest. The eyes are nearly encircled by

short, coarse, white hairs; the lateral eyes are seated on tuber-

cles placed on dark reddish-brown patches, the minute one of

each row being nearer to the anterior than to the posterior eye

of the same row. The abdomen is oviform, pointed at the spin-

ners (which are prominent), densely clothed with hairs, mode-

rately convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax; the upper part is of a brownish-yellow colour tinged

with red on its margins, the posterior margin forming a curve

above the spinners whose convexity is directed forwards ; a line

composed of minute black spots borders each lateral margin of

the upper part, and a band of the same hue, which is supplied

with white hairs having a silvery lustre, extends along the mid-

dle ; this band increases in breadth to its extremity, which is

crescent-shaped ; the sides and under part have a pale dull-

yellow hue; the former are clothed with white hairs, and have

a broad, irregular, brownish-black band extending along each,

whose continuity is interrupted at its posterior extremity; a

456 | Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

short fine line in the middle of the under part, a rhomboidal

spot near its extremity, and the superior pair of spinners have a

dark-brown hue: the sexual organs are well developed, have a

dull pale-yellow septum in the middle, and are of a red-brown

colour.

Two females of this remarkable Salticus were comprised in the

collection, one of which was adult, and the other immature. It

appears to have a near relation of affinity to the Attus bos of

Sundevall, ‘ Conspectus Arachnidum,’ p. 27.

Family Toomisipa.

Genus THomisus, Walck.

Thomisus candidus, n. sp.

Length of the female 52, of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax 1, breadth:; breadth of the abdomen -3,; length of a

leg of the second pair =2,; length of a leg of the third pair ;3,.

The abdomen is broad, oviform, somewhat pointed at the

spinners, corrugated on the sides, glossy, convex above, project-

ing over the base of the cephalothorax, and has a white hue; a

transverse line in front of the upper part, two transverse sinuous

lines situated above the spinners, the anterior one being the

longer, two spots on “each side of the medial line, describing a

large quadrilateral figure, whose shortest side is formed by the

anterior pair, which are much the smallest, two spots on each

side of the posterior extremity, the coccyx, and the upper sur-

face of the two superior spinners are of a dark red-brown colour:

the sexual organs, which are not highly developed, have a red-

brown hue; and a row of minute, indented, pale-brown spots,

on each side of the medial line of the under part, extends to the

spinners, where the two meet. The eyes are disposed on the

anterior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse, slightly

curved rows, forming a crescent whose convexity is directed

forwards; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated on white tu-

bercles united at their base, the anterior one being the largest,

and the two intermediate ones of the posterior row the smallest

of the eight. The cephalothorax is shghtly compressed before,

truncated in front, rounded on the sides, very convex near the

middle, depressed at the base, gradually sloped to the front, and

glossy; the falces are strong, cuneiform, and vertical; the

maxillz are enlarged where the palpi are inserted, obliquely

truncated at the extremity, on the outer side, and inclined to-

wards the lip, which is triangular, but rounded at its apex; the

sternum is heart-shaped; the legs are provided with a few

spines ; the first and second pairs are longer and more robust

than the third and fourth pairs, the second pair rather surpass-

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 457

ing the first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is

terminated by two curved, pectinated claws ; the palpi are short,

and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The co-

lour of these parts is pale dull-yellow, the sternum being the

palest ; there is a minute brown spot near the base of the falces,

in front, and their extremity is whitish ; two small black spots

occur on the under side of the femora of the first pair of legs,

one near the base and the other near the extremity, and there is

a black transverse streak, which does not form an annulus, at

the extremity of the genual, tibial, and metatarsal joints of each

leg.

Only one specimen of this pretty Thomisus was included in

the collection.

Genus Ottos, Walck.

Olios leucosius.

Olios leucosius, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 566,

Thomisus venatorius, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 114.

Numerous specimens of both sexes of this species, in various

stages of growth, were comprised in the collection.

Genus Sparassus, Walck.

Sparassus abnormis, i. sp.

Leen of an immature female 54- of an inch; length of

the cephalothorax 4 3, breadth $; breadth of the didenan oa

length of a leg of the second aie 2; length of a leg of the third

pair 3.

The legs are slender, provided with hairs and long spines,

and are of a brownish-yellow hue; there are two minute black

spots on the upper surface of the tibize, three on the metatarsi

of the first and second pairs, and two on the metatarsi of the

third and fourth pairs ; the second pair is the longest, then the

first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is term1-

nated by a single slender, curved, pectinated claw, below which

there is a small scopula. ‘The eyes are seated on black spots,

and are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in

two transverse rows; the four anterior ones, which are the

largest, form a straight row, situated near the frontal margin,

and the other four constitute the posterior row, which is rather

the longer and shghtly curved, having its convexity directed

backwards. The cephalothorax is compressed before, truncated

in front, greatly rounded on the sides, convex in the middle,

sloped to each extremity, with a narrow longitudinal indentation

in the medial line of the posterior region, and is of a yellow-

brown colour, the lateral margins being much the palest. The

falces are powerful, conical, vertical, and armed with teeth on

458 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

the inner surface; the maxillz are short, straight, and rounded’

at the extremity ; the palpi are robust, and terminated by a fine

minutely pectinated claw; the lip is semicircular ; and the ster-

num is heart-shaped. These parts are of a yellowish-white co-

lour, the base of the lip being tinged with brown, and the ster-

num with green. The abdomen is oviform, convex above, and

projects over the base of the cephalothorax; it is of a pale-

yellow colour, reticulated with pale brown, the under part being

the least distinctly marked, and has a ramified band of a brown

hue extending from the anterior extremity of the upper part

about half its length.

This Sparassus, the only specimen of the genus in the collec-

tion, is especially remarkable for having only a single claw at

the extremity of each tarsus.

Family THEripiipsé.

Genus THERipIon, Walck.

Theridion trahax, un. sp.

Length of the female 3, of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax +1;, breadth 1; breadth of the abdomen ~+5; length of

an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair -3,.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax in two transverse rows, high above the frontal margin ;

the four intermediate ones nearly form a square, the two anterior

ones (which are placed on a slight protuberance, and are rather

nearer to each other than the two posterior ones) being the

darkest-coloured of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are

seated on a tubercle, and are contiguous. The cephalothorax is

compressed before, rounded on the sides, convex, glossy, with

an indentation in the medial line of the posterior region; the

falces are conical and vertical ; the maxille are obliquely trun-

cated at the extremity, on the outer side, and inclined towards

the lip, which is semicircular; the sternum is heart-shaped,

pointed at its posterior extremity, and has small eminences on

the sides, opposite to the legs ; the legs are long, and provided

with hairs; the first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and

the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is terminated by three

claws ; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the

inferior one is inflected near its base; the palpi are short, and

have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. These parts

are of a brownish-red colour; the extremity and inner margin

of the maxilla and the apex of the lip have a yellowish-white

hue, and the digital joint of the palpi is tinged with brown.

The abdomen is oviform, clothed with longish scattered hairs,

convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax ;

from the South-east Reyion of Equatorial Africa. 459

it is of a dull-brown colour, the sides and under part being the

palest, and has two irregular yellowish-white spots on each side

of its posterior half, and three others of the same hue disposed

in a longitudinal row above the spinners: the sexual organs are

well developed, rather prominent, and of a dark reddish-brown

colour, that of the spinners being pale brown.

The only specimen of this species comprised in the collection

was an adult female.

Genus Puotcus, Walck.

Pholcus pallidus.

Pholcus pallidus, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. i. p. 433,

and vol. vu. p. 444.

A single female of this species was included in the collection.

Both sexes of Pholcus pallidus have been received from Pernam-

buco.

Genus Artema, Walck.

Artema convexa.

Artema convexa, Blackw., Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. ii. p. 332.

Length of the female 2 of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax %, breadth $; breadth of the abdomen ?; length of an

anterior leg 2,5, ; length of a leg of the third pair 1,7.

The sexes are similar in colour; but the male, though the

smaller, has longer legs, an anterior one measuring 2,7, inches,

The falces are short and irregular in figure, being hollowed on

the inner side, and having a strongly arched, tuberculated, dark-

brown ridge in front, which terminates in a point; below the

ridge they are of a brownish-red hue, and their extremity is

armed with a short, slightly curved fang, and a single, pointed

tooth on the inner surface. The palpi are glossy, very robust,

and their prevailing colour is brownish-yellow, the axillary joint,

the base and extremity of the humeral joint, the remarkably

short cubital joint, the inferior surface and extremity of the

radial joint, and the entire digital jomt having a dark-brown

hue tinged with red; the axillary jomt is short, and produced

at its extremity, on the under side; the humeral joint 1s greatly

dilated, convex on the upper side, with a pointed protuberance

at its base, on the outer side; the radial joint is nearly hemi-

spherical; and the digital joint is small, with a large apophysis

on its outer side of a dark-brown colour tinged with red; this

apophysis has a prominent process near its base, on the upper

side, and its broad, somewhat depressed extremity is irregular in

form; the palpal organs, which are connected with the inferior

surface of the digital joint, are subglobose, glossy, of a brownish-

yellow hue, and project from their outer side a large curved

460 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

process having a short pointed spine in contact with its base, on

the inner side, and have a strong obtuse process in front; these

processes and the spine are of a dark-brown colour tinged with

red.

The large brown-black spots in the medial line of the upper

part of the abdomen of both sexes are commonly bisected, and

form two distinct longitudinal rows.

Adult and immature females and an adult and immature

male of this species were comprised in the collection. Adult

females and an immature male of Artema convexa have been

received from Pernambuco. On a comparison of the dimensions

of females from Africa and South America, the African specimens

will be found to be somewhat the larger, and to have longer legs.

Family Linyeuip 2.

Genus Linypura, Latr.

Linyphia lepida, u. sp.

Length of an immature female 5 of an inch; length of the

cephalothorax -5, breadth ~-; breadth of the abdomen vo :

length of an anterior leg 4; length of a leg of the third pair $e

The cephalothorax is slightly. compressed before, rounded in

front and on the sides, convex, glossy, with an indentation in

the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of a brownish-yel-

low colour, with a broad brown band extending from each lateral

pair of eyes nearly to its base. The eyes, which are seated on

black spots, are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones form

a square, the two anterior ones being rather the largest of the

eight ; and those of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a

small tubercle, and are near to each other, but not in contact.

The falees are conical, vertical, armed with a few teeth on the

mner surface, and of a brownish-yellow hue, the extremity being

the darkest. The maxille are somewhat quadrate, having the

exterior angle, at the extremity, curvilinear; the lip is semi-

circular, and slightly pointed at the apex; and the sternum is

heart-shaped. These parts are of a dark-brown colour, the

extremity and inner margin of the maxille, the apex of the lip,

anda broad band in the middle of the sternum, which is pointed

at its posterior extremity, having a brownish-yellow hue. The

legs are long, slender, and of a pale- yellow colour, the extremity

of each joint being tinged with brown; the first pair is the

longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ;

each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones

are curved and slightly pectinated, and the inferior one is in-

flected near its base. The palpi are short, rather paler than the

Jrom the South-cast Region of Equatorial Africa. 461

legs, and the digital joint, which is tinged with brown, has a

slender, slightly curved claw at its extremity. The abdomen is

somewhat oviform, the posterior part, which is rather the broadest,

sloping abruptly downwards at its extremity; it is moderately

convex above, projects over the base of the cephalothorax, and is

of a yellowish-white colour, faintly reticulated with brown; a

dark-brown spot, which comprises a small yellowish-white one,

occurs near the middle of the upper part, and is succeeded by

two curved lines, which meet in an angle whose vertex is directed

backwards; the abruptly sloped posterior extremity is of a

brownish-black colour, with a series of minute yellowish-white

spots on each side of the medial line; a brownish-black spot

occurs on the anterior part of each side, and is followed by

oblique curved lines, of a browner hue, whose lower extremities

are enlarged and more or less confluent; a broad, deeply

indented, brownish-black band, bordered with white, extends

along the middle of the under part, and the branchial opercula

and spinners have a dark-brown hue.

An immature female of this Linyphia was the only specimen

of the species contained in the collection.

Family Epririp2.

Genus Errira, Walck.

Epeira solers.

Epéira solers, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p.41; Blackw.

Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, part ii. p. 336, pl. 24. fig. 243.

agalena, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band ui. p. 29, tab. 47. fig. 115.

Atea sclopetaria, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p.4; Koch,

Die Arachn. Band xi. p. 134, tab. 390. figs. 934, 935.

All the specimens of Epeitra solers contained in the collection

were females, and were larger and darker-coloured than those

which are indigenous to Britain.

Epeira decens, n. sp.

Length of an immature male -3; of an inch; length of the

cephalothorax =!,, breadth =; breadth of the abdomen +5;

length of an anterior leg -; length of a leg of the third pair 3.

The abdomen is oviform, moderately convex above, and pro-

jects over the base of the cephalothorax ; a yellowish-white band,

that tapers to its extremity, and is bisected longitudinally by an

obscure yellowish-brown band, extends along the middle of the

upper part, and comprises a fine, black, angular line, whose

vertex is directed forwards, situated about a third of its length

from the coceyx; on each side of this band there is a broad,

parallel, brownish-olive band, whose exterior margin is sinuous,

Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 32

4.62 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

each convex curve of the sinuosity including a black spot; the

sides have a yellowish-white hue, their lower part being densely

marked with pale-brown streaks and spots; the under part is of

a dull-yellow colour, and comprises three longitudinal dark-

brown bands, which meet at the spinners. The eyes are seated

on black spots, and are disposed on the anterior part of the

cephalothorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate

ones describe a trapezoid, the two anterior ones, which are placed

on a protuberance, and are much wider apart than the posterior

ones, being the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral

pair are seated obliquely on a minute tubercle, and are near to

each other, but not in contact. The cephalothorax is compressed

before, rounded in front and on the sides, convex, glossy, with

an indentation in the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of

a yellowish-brown colour, the cephalic region being much the

palest, and has a narrow brown band extending along the mid-

dle. The falces are conical, vertical, armed with teeth on the

inner surface, and have a pale brownish-yellow hue. The

maxille are straight, and rounded at the extremity; and the lip

is semicircular, but slightly pointed at the apex. These organs

are of a brown colour at the base, that of their extremities being

pale yellow. The sternum is heart-shaped, with eminences on

the sides, opposite to the legs, and has a dark-brown hue tinged

with red. The legs are moderately long, sparingly provided

with hairs, and of a dull brownish-yellow colour; the first pair

is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest;

the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and

structure. The palpi are short, and paler than the legs. The

very tumid digital joint of this specimen indicates that it had to

undergo its final ecdysis before it arrived at maturity.

The immature male described above was the only individual

of this species comprised in the collection.

Epeira dorsuosa, n. sp.

Length of the female 4 an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax +, breadth +; breadth of the abdomen 4; length of an

anterior leg ;7,; length of a leg of the third pair 2.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones, which

are the largest, are seated on a prominence, and nearly form a

square ; and the eyes of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on

a tubercle, and are separated by a moderately wide interval.

The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded in front and

on the sides, convex, clothed with hoary hairs, and has an in-

dentation in the medial line of the posterior region; it is of a

yellowish-brown colour, with a longitudinal dark-brown band in

the middle, which is broadest in the cephalic region, and anothe

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 468

of the same hue parallel to each lateral margin. The falces are

powerful, conical, vertical, armed with teeth on the inner sur-

face, and are of a yellow-brown colour tinged with red at the

extremity. The maxille are short, straight, and broadly rounded

at the extremity; and the lip is semicircular, but somewhat

pointed at the apex. These parts are of a dark-brown colour,

that of their extremities being yellowish-white. The sternum is

heart-shaped, pointed at the extremity, and has prominences on

the sides, opposite to the legs; it is clothed with hoary hairs,

and has a yellowish-brown hue, the medial line being the palest.

The legs are robust, provided with hairs and spines, and are of

a brown colour, with annuli of a darker hue; the first pair is

the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ;

the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and struc-

ture. The palpi resemble the legs in colour, and have a curved,

pectinated claw at their extremity. The figure of the abdomen

is ‘somewhat quadrilateral, but the sides are rounded, and the

anterior is broader than the posterior extremity; it is clothed

with short hairs, projects over the base of the cephalothorax,

and has two prominent tubercles on each side, and two large,

parallel, obtuse ones situated above the spinners; the upper

part, on which there are numerous circular glossy convexities,

of various dimensions, in bas-relief, is of a yellowish-brown

colour, an obscure, strongly dentated, yellowish-white line pass-

ing from each anterior tubercle to the two obtuse posterior tu-

bercles ; the lower part of each side is strongly tinged with dull

yellow, and the under part has a dark-brown hue mingled with

dull yellow, and a curved yellow band on each side: the sexual

organs are well developed, and of a dark-brown hue tinged with

red; their anterior margin is semicircular, and below it there

are two glossy protuberances placed transversely ; the branchial

opercula are of a pale brown colour, and on each side of the

spinners there are three dark-brown triangular spots, which are

united at their bases.

Three females of Epetra dorsuosa, two of which were adult

and the other immature, were comprised in the collection. This

species differs from the petra opuntie of Dufour (see Walcke-

naer’s ‘ Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.’ tom. ii. p. 140), to which it

is closely allied, in various particulars, and may readily be dis-

tinguished from it by the glossy convexities on the upper part

of its abdomen.

Genus Gasreracantaa, Latr.

Gasteracantha frontata.

Gasteracantha frontata, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.ser.3.vol.xiv. p.40.

The collection contained two females of this species, specimens

32%

A6 4 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

of which, of a somewhat smaller size, have been received from

India.

The numerous instances of the distribution of spiders of the

same species over extensive and widely distant regions of the

globe may be explained by their having been conveyed across

intervening oceans in ships and by the action of currents of air,

especially of those known as the trade-winds and monsoons, on

the silken filaments emitted from their spinners.

Genus Arcyorrs, Savigny.

Argyopes gracilis, n. sp.?

_ Length of an immature female = of an inch; length of the

cephalothorax 3, breadth 3; breadth of the abdomen +; length

of an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 2.

The abdomen is of an elongated slender figure; its anterior

extremity, which has the appearance of having been cut directly

across, has a minute tubercle on each side, and projects over the

base of the cephalothorax ; the posterior extremity, which almost

tapers to a point, extends greatly beyond the spinners, and has

a small protuberance on each side; the upper part is of a yel-

lowish-white colour, with a dark-brown crescent-shaped mark at

its anterior extremity, whose convexity is directed upwards, and

spots and irregular streaks of the same hue on each side of the

medial line, the latter being most conspicuous on its posterior

half; three strong, conical, yellowish-white prominences, marked

in front with a curved, oblique, dark-brown line that passes over

their summit, project from each side, and below them there are

numerous irregular longitudinal lines of the same hue; from

each minute anterior tubercle a dark-brown line passes below

the first lateral prominence ; the under part, which is irregularly

bordered with white, is of a brownish-black colour, and com-

prises some small white spots, three of which are disposed in a

triangle near the spinners ; these latter organs, with the branchial

opercula, have a red-brown hue, and the inferior surface of the

elongated tail-like extremity is densely freckled with black spots.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax

in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones are placed

on a protuberance, and nearly form a square; and the eyes of

each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a tubercle, and are near

to each other, but not in contact, the anterior one being much

the smallest of the eight. The cephalothorax is compressed be-

fore, rounded in front and on the sides, slightly convex, with a

shallow, brown indentation in the medial line of the posterior

region ; it is of a pale dull-yellow hue, with a broad brown band

extending from each side of the cephalic region to the base,

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 465

where the two are united by a transverse bar of the same hue ;

two pale brown spots eccur behind the posterior pair of eyes,

and the whole is clothed with white hairs having a silvery lustre.

The falces are powerful, conical, vertical, armed with teeth on

the inner surface, and of a pale dull-yellow colour, with an ob-

scure brown line extending along their inner side, and passing

obliquely above their extremity. The maxille are short, strong,

and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extremity; the lip is

semicircular, but somewhat pointed at the apex; and the ster-

num, which is heart-shaped and hairy, has eminences on the

sides, opposite to the legs. These parts are of a dark-brown

colour; the extremity of the maxille and the apex of the lip

have a brownish-yellow hue; and a band extending along the

middle of the sternum, from each side of which a streak is directed

obliquely backwards and outwards, is of a pale dull-yellow co-

lour. The legs are long, slender, provided with hairs and a few

spines, and are of a dark-brown hue, with broad brownish-yellow

annuli; the first pair is the longest, then the second, and the

third pair is the shortest; the tarsi are terminated by claws of

the usual number and structure. The palpi are long, of a pale

dull-yellow colour, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their

extremity.

Although this spider differs remarkably in form and in some

other particulars from Argyopes caudatus (see the ‘Annals and

Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3. vol. xvi. p. 346), yet it possibly may

be an immature individual of that species, to which it bears

some striking pomts of resemblance.

Genus Eurysoma, Koch.

Eurysoma vicina, n. sp.

Length of the female 1+; inch; length of the cephalothorax +,

breadth ~2,; breadth of the abdomen 58,; length of a posterior

leg 155;; length of a leg of the third pair 12.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones are

seated on a protuberance, and form a trapezoid, the two anterior

ones, which are nearer to each other than the posterior ones,

being the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are

placed apart on a strong tubefcle, and are distant from the four

intermediate ones. The cephalothorax is large, compressed be-

fore, truncated in front, and rounded on the sides, which are

marked with furrows converging towards the middle; the

cephalic region, which is greatly elevated above the posterior

part, has four conical glossy tubercles disposed im a transverse

466 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

row behind the eyes, and is densely clothed with hoary hairs ;

the falces are short, very powerful, subconical, vertical, and

armed with teeth on the inner surface; the maxille are short,

strong, straight, and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extre-

mity; the lip is semicircular; and the sternum is heart-shaped,

with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These

parts are of a brownish-black colour, the base and lateral mar-

gins of the cephalothorax being tinged with red. The legs are

moderately long and robust, the genua, tibiz, and metatarsi

being somewhat depressed; they have a very dark brown hue,

are provided with hoary hairs on the upper surface, and have a

patch ‘of white hairs at the base of the tibie, and at the base

and extremity of the metatarsi on the under side; the fourth

pair, which is the longest, very slightly surpasses the first pair,

and the third pair is the shortest; the tarsi are terminated by

claws of the usual number and structure. The palpi are rather

short, somewhat depressed, of a very dark brown hue, provided

with hoary hairs intermixed with some of a brownish-red colour

on the upper surface, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their

extremity. The abdomen is circular, without spines, truncated

in front, moderately convex above, and projects greatly over the

base of the cephalothorax; the upper part is of a brownish-

yellow colour; three conspicuous, depressed, brown spots form

a row on each side of the medial line, and numerous smaller

depressed spots of the same hue occur in front and on the sides;

four conical tubercles form a curved row on each side of the

anterior part, the anterior one being much the smallest; three

other tubercles form a transverse row between the posterior ones

of the two curved rows; two others are placed wide apart on

the posterior half, and four more, nearly describing a square,

are situated above the spinners; the sides and front are paler

than the upper part, and are densely clothed with hoary hairs ;

the under part has a brown hue, the sexual organs and spinners

being the darkest, and the branchial opercula the palest, and

there is a transverse pale-buff band immediately behind the

sexual organs, which are well developed, with a convex protube-

rance on each side, and between them a fine, pointed process

connected with their anterior margin.

The collection contained a single adult female of this fine

Eurysoma, which is very closely allied to the Epetra imperialis

of Walckenaer, ‘Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.’ tom. 11. p. 147

(Eurysoma sexcuspidata, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst., fiinftes

Heft, p. 10), but differs from it in various particulars, and espe-

cially in the number and disposition of the tubercles on the

abdomen.

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 467

Genus Nepuiza, Leach.

Nephila geniculata.

Epeira geniculata, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 96.

Adult and immature females of this handsome Nephila were

included in the collection.

Genus TETRAGNATHA, Latr.

Tetragnatha festiva, n. sp.

Length of the female ;2; of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax +, breadth 2,; breadth of the abdomen +.

The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded in front and

on the sides, slightly convex, glossy, with a large indentation in

the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of a yellowish-brown

colour, with a red-brown band parallel to each lateral margin,

and another in the medial line, whose greatly enlarged anterior

extremity comprises the whole of the cephalic region. The

falces are powerful, conical, vertical, very convex in front, glossy,

armed with teeth on the inner surface, and have a red hue tinged

with brown. The maxillz are straight, enlarged at the extremity,

which is somewhat angular on the outer side, and of a brownish-

red colour. The lip is-semicircular and prominent at the apex;

and the sternum is heart-shaped, with prominences on the sides,

opposite to the legs. These parts are of a dark-brown colour

tinged with red, the apex of the former and the lateral margins

of the latter having a yellowish-red hue. The legs are long,

slender, provided with hairs, and of a brown colour, the base of

the femora being the palest ; their relative length could not be

ascertained, as they were detached and mutilated; but, judging

from the relative size of the coxe, the first pair should be the

longest, then the second, and the third pair the shortest. The

palpi are long, slender, of a brownish-yellow hue, and have a

slightly curved, minutely pectinated claw at their extremity.

The eyes are seated on black spots on the anterior part of the

cephalothorax; the four intermediate ones nearly form a square ;

the two anterior ones, which are placed on a slight protuberance,

are rather nearer to each other than the posterior ones, which

are the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are

seated near to each other on a small tubercle, the posterior one

being the smallest. The abdomen is subcylindrical, tapering

somewhat to the extremity, which is obtuse, slightly curved

upwards, and extends beyond the spimners; and there is an ob-

tuse protuberance on each side of the anterior extremity, which

projects over the base of the cephalothorax ; the upper part and

sides have a silvery lustre, with a slight golden tinge, and on

468 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Antilocapride.

each side of the medial line there is a red band having a bright

golden lustre; in the space between these bands another band

extends, that projects from each side three short streaks directed

obliquely backwards, and has a small spot on each side, near its

posterior extremity; the band, streaks, and spots, with the two

anterior protuberances, have a black hue; the under part has a

silvery lustre, with a slight golden tinge, and is bounded on

each side by two longitudinal dark-brown bands, comprising

between them another of a dull-red hue: the sexual organs

form a transverse oval; a small process is ccnnected with their

posterior margin, and their colour is pale reddish-brown; the

branchial opercula have a yellow hue, and that of the spmners

is brown.

The collection contained an adult female of this brilliant

Tetragnatha.

Tribe Senoculina.

Family Scyropipz.

Genus Scyropzs, Latr.

Scytodes thoracica.

Scytodes thoracica, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 270;

Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 99; Blackw. Spiders of Great

Britain and Ireland, part 2. p. 380, pl. 29. fig. 272.

—— tigrina, Koch, Die Arachn. Band y. p. 87, tab. 167. fig. 398.

One adult female of this species was included in the collection.

LVIII.— Additional Note on the Antilocapride.

By Dr. J. EH. Gray, F.B.S. &c.

ArrER my notes on this family were written and the manuscript

sent to the printer, I heard that Dr. Sclater had made some

observations on the genus at the British-Association Meeting at

Nottingham. The paper is published in the last Number of

the Annals. I am very glad to find that Dr. Sclater agrees

with me in the necessity of forming the genus into a peculiar

family.

Dr. Sclater has adopted Dr. Sundevall’s division of the Rumi-

nants into two groups, according to the form of the foot; but

I think his change of Sundevall’s term Digitigrada into Pha-

langigrada is to be regretted, as adding a useless synonym.

There is no doubt that the form of the placenta is an interest-

ing physiological fact ; but I doubt its applicability to zoological

classification. It is only to be observed at one period of the

animal’s life, and is only known in a very few species: for ex-

ample, I am not aware that it is known in Antilocapra, the

M. F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. 469

genus under consideration; and if it differs in two genera so

nearly allied as Tragulus and Moschus, which many modern

zoologists consider only species of one genus, what right have

we to assume that it is similar in all the genera of Bovide and

Cervide, more especially as the placenta of very few species of

the large group of Antelopes and Deer is known.

Dr. Sclater proposes to divide the Ruminantia unguligrada

with placenta polycotyledonaria into pedes didactyli and pedes

tetradactyli; but this character will not separate Antilocapride

from Bovide, unless he proposes to arrange several animals

which have been called Antelopes, and which have simple horns

with a permanent horny sheath, and which therefore do not agree

with his other characters of the group, in the family Antilocapride;

for the genera Nesotragus and Nanotragus, and one species of

the genus Calotragus are as destitute of false hoofs as the genus

Antilocapra. Dr. Sundevall considers the absence of this false

hoof of so little importance that he places two species in the

genus Calotragus, one having large and the other being en-

tirely without false hoofs. Dr. Sclater must have overlooked

this fact when he says, “two other points in which the Prong-

horn differs from all the other Bovide,” and proceeds, “in the

absence of the ‘ false hoofs,’ as the stunted terminations of the

ruaimental second and fifth digits of each foot are termed.”

LIX.—On the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.

By Fruix Piatgau*.

Tur eyes of animals have formed the subject of a great number

of investigations, which, however, have been almost always di-

rected to a purely anatomical end. In studying the physiology

of vision, observers have, so to speak, confined themselves to man,

and the question of the vision of animals, interesting as it is,

has only been lightly touched upon; moreover physiologists

have generally proceeded by analogy, very rarely supported by

experiment. There are especially two groups of living creatures

which, differmg so much in their habits from man, merited in-

vestigation from the point of view of their vision, namely the

Fishes and Amphibia; and it is these which I determined

specially to examine.

In order to show to what kind of investigations and experi-

ments I have subjected the eye of these animals, let us conceive

for a moment an ideal typical eye of a fish. Its cornea will be

perfectly flat, its crystalline spherical, and the aqueous and

* From the Mém. Cour. et Mém. des Savants Etrang. de l’Acad. Roy.

de Bruxelles, tome xxxiii. Communicated by the Author.

470 M.F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.

vitreous humours of the same density as water and in small

quantity. Let us place this eye successively in water and in the

air, and examine what will be the course of the rays traversing

the organ in these two different media. In water, whatever be

the form of the cornea, as the aqueous and vitreous humours

have, by hypothesis, the same density as this fluid, the cornea

will play the part of a transparent lamina with parallel faces

bathed with water on both sides; it will therefore by no means

serve to render the luminous rays convergent or less divergent,

and the crystalline alone will remain to combine in one point

upon the retina the rays of each bundle. It must therefore be

very convex and of relatively considerable density.

Will this eye, organized for distinct vision in water, be un-

fitted for distinct vision in the air? By no means. Let us

suppose, in the first place, a bundle of parallel rays falling upon

the anterior surface of the eye; these rays will arrive at the erys-

talline retaining their parallelism, as the two surfaces of the cornea

are flat and parallel, and it will be seen that, both in air and water,

it is solely to the crystalline that is deputed the function of

picturing the image at the bottom of the globe of the eye.

Let us suppose, further, that the axis of the eye is of the proper

length for the vision of objects sufficiently distant to allow the

rays composing each bundle to be regarded as parallel. A fish

furnished with a visual apparatus constructed on the above plan

would see as distinctly in air as in water objects situated at a

great distance, of course assuming the water to be of perfect

transparency.

Let us now examine the case of near objects. Although Fishes

in general have very large eyes, the orifice of the pupil never

presents a very great diameter; hence, supposing the object

looked at to be near the eye (a few centimetres from it for

example), the cones of rays emanating from each point of this

object would still present a very small base in comparison to their

length, and the rays constituting them will form but very small

angles with the axes of these same cones. From this it follows

that, even if we ascribe to the axis of our typical eye a length

corresponding with the distinct vision of objects at a few centi-

metres’ distance, this vision will still be as distinct in air as in

water, except that the distance of the object must be rather less

in the air. There, in fact, the slight divergence of the rays

emanating from one point of the object will be necessarily some-

what diminished as they penetrate into the aqueous humour, and

consequently, after their refraction by the crystalline, they will

converge at a point somewhat nearer the cornea than if the object

were in water. It will therefore be necessary to diminish slightly

the distance of the object in order to give the rays a greater di-

M. F. Plateau on"the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. 471

vergence and thus compensate the slight refraction produced at

their entrance into the eye.

As I shall show hereafter, the actual eye of Fishes closely

approaches our ideal type, so that we are entitled to conclude

theoretically that these animals can see distinctly in the air, and

that their distance of distinct vision must be nearly the same in

this medium and in water. Although Fishes, with the excep-

tion of some privileged species, such as the Hel, the Chironectes,

and the climbing Perch, have hardly any need for combining

the faculty of seeing distinctly in water with that of seeing dis-

tinctly in the air, this double faculty is evidently indispensable

to the Amphibia.

It will be easily understood that if we suppose the eye of

these latter animals to be constructed exactly like that of animals

living exclusively in the air, their vision in water will be con-

fused. In fact, as I have already said, when once the eye is im-

mersed in water neither the cornea nor the aqueous humour has

any action, and the crystalline remains alone ; but, as in the sup-

position which we have just made its curvature would be slight,

it would no longer suffice to cause the rays to converge upon the

retina, or, in other words, its focus would be far behind this.

This, as is well known, is what happens in the eye of a man, for

example, when diving in the water.

Have the Amphibia so great a power of adaptation as to render

their crystalline spherical? This appears, @ priori, to be

doubtful.

It is, on the other hand, very easy to assume that the eye of

the Amphibia is organized exactly, or very nearly, like that of

creatures living exclusively in water, since in that case the

distance at which the animal sees distinctly without effort of the

eye must be pretty nearly the same in water and in air.

The purpose of my investigations is to show that the eye of

Fishes closely approaches our ideal type, and that that of the

Amphibia is almost exactly like it, and, finally, to prove experi-

mentally that distinct vision takes place at sensibly equal

distances in air and in water, and with the same perfection in

both media, in all the animals under consideration.

I therefore, in the first place, examine what is the exact form

of the cornea in Fishes. By simple examination, by the reflec-

tion upon this membrane of a dark rectilinear object standing

out from a luminous ground, and the image of which, when the

eye is looked at from the side, is incurved by the curvature, and,

finally, by the actual measurement of the radius of this curve

upon a model of the eye taken immediately after the death of

the animal, I find that the cornea of Fishes, although rather

variable as regards its projection upon the surface of the head,

472 M.F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.

is always flat, or at least much flattened in front of the crys-

talline and over a space equal to the diameter of that lens, whilst

the lateral portions may be much curved. As to the crystalline,

I have always found it very nearly a sphere, as, indeed, is well

known. Lastly, Cuvierand Monrolong since proved that in Fishes

the humours of the eye may be assimilated to water. In other

words, I prove, by a sufficient number of measurements detailed

in one of the tables of my memoir, that the eye of Fishes is

always constructed evidently on the plan of the ideal type which

I have described above, even in those species which some authors

have indicated as exceptional.

I subject the eyes of the Amphibia (that is to say, of the

animals which must make use of their organs of vision indif-

ferently in water and in air) to the same investigations, and I show

that in all, Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Batrachia, &c., the eyes,

with the exception of some slight differences, exhibit a structure

identical with that of these organs in Fishes. As regards

Insects, whether terrestrial, aquatic, or amphibious, they all,

according to modern researches, possess eyes with flattened

corneze and the crystallines very convex, at least on the inner

surface. Here the anatomical portion of my investigation ter-

minates ; and then follows the experimental part, in which I de-

termined the distances of distinct vision of ten species of

Fishes of different genera, and of some Batrachia, in air and

in water.

The method which I have employed is, in few words, as follows,

supposing we have to do with a fish, and the process is the samewith

other animals. After rapidly killing the individual to be experi-

mented on, one eye is carefully removed from its orbit without

alteration of its shape, and then fixed by means of pins and of

the fragments of the conjunctiva and muscles upon a plate of

cork, in such a manner that the cornea shall be vertical. A suit-

able aperture is then made at the bottom of the eye, by removing

with fine scissors a portion of the sclerotic and retina, and in

this aperture is fixed a small glass cup slightly roughened, upon

which the image of an external object may be depicted as upon

an artificial retina. The object employed is the extremity of a

fine iron wire thrown out by the flame of a lamp. The experi-

ment must of course be made at night, or in a room with closed

shutters, and the image of the iron wire on the hinder part of

the eye is observed by means of a lens. By varying the distance

from the iron wire to the cornea, we may always at last attain a

position in which the image is distinct. The experiment is re-

peated a certain number of times to give a mean, and is per-

formed successively in air and water ; in the latter case, of course,

the iron wire is also immersed in the water. I need hardly add

Dr. A. Giinther on a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon. 478

that this liquid is contained im a little box, of which the anterior

and posterior surfaces are made of thin glass.

The numbers which I have obtained in the same medium and

for the same individual are very close, which justifies our having

confidence in the results of experiments so delicate ; but, more-

over, as may be seen from the table which I give in my memoir,

the distances of distinct vision in the air and in water are always

very nearly the same. Fishes, therefore, as I have already said

from the consideration of the structure of the eye, see as well

in the air as in water.

Hence, also, the vision of Amphibia finds a natural explana-

tion, as the visual organs of those animals resemble those of

Fishes. Nevertheless, as a confirmation of the theory, I have

subjected to the same experiments the eyes of some Batrachia ;

and in these also the distances of distinct vision in air and in

water are, so to speak, identical. I shall only remark, in con-

cluding this analysis, that, in the Amphibia, distinct vision, which

is necessarily very short in water in consequence of the imper-

fect transparency of that medium, must, on the contrary, be able

to extend itself in the air to very variable distances, which ne-

cessitates the existence of a faculty of accommodation; and ac-

cordingly the presence of the ciliary muscle, the chief agent of

that faculty, has been recognized in their eyes.

LX.—Description of a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon.

By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER.

[Plate XV.]

A sMALL collection of freshwater fishes, made by the Rev. Ban-

croft Boake in Ceylon, and kindly submitted to my examination

by F. Layard, Hsq., contained two Siluroid fishes of the genus

Arius, which are of great interest, inasmuch as they prove that

the peculiar habit which I have described in an American species,

A. fissus (Fish. v. p. 178), viz. the mode in which the parent fish

takes care of its progeny, is not confined to South-American spe-

cies, but exists also in the East-Indian ones. The mature ova are

of the same large size in all these fish ; and in all it is the male

which carries them in the spacious cavity of its mouth. Accord-

ing to Mr. Boake, who has published an account of the habits

of these fish, they are called Angaluwa. Three specimens were

in the collection, belonging, however, to two very distinct

species, new to science. Two of these, a male and a female,

14 inches long, are Arius Boakii, so named by Mr. W. Turner,

who also had received examples, and read an account of them

at the last meeting of the British Association. We may there-

474 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon.

fore be satisfied with mentioning here that this species is, cu-

riously enough, so closely allied to the A. fissus, that, but for

the remoteness of their respective habitats, we should almost

have hesitated to separate them specifically. The female may

be externally distinguished by a broad oblique fold of the skin

on the inner side of the ventral fins. The second species is

Arius Layard, sp.n. Plate XV.

-This species is closely allied to A. tonggol and A. argyropleu-

ron, from the East-Indian archipelago, but differs in having no

trace of vomerine teeth, and in possessing longer maxillary

barbels.

D735} \AmiSar AP yaya,

The height of the body is contained four times and four-

fifths in the total length (without caudal), the length of

the head three times and one-third; head depressed, broader

than high, its width being three-fifths of its entire length,

or equal to its length without snout. Head above nearly

entirely covered by skin, only the ridge of the occipital pro-

cess being granular. Occipital process triangular, with the

lateral margins straight, longer than broad; it is raised into a

median ridge along the middle, which, on the head, is continued

as a narrow, deep, uninterrupted groove, terminating on the

snout. Basal bone of the dorsal spine narrow. Vomerine teeth

none; teeth on the palate coarsely granular, in two pear-shaped

groups, situated as far back as in A. tonggol (see Giinth. Fish.

v. p. 164), and much convergent behind. Snout much de-

pressed, produced; the upper jaw somewhat prominent, but

rather shorter than the postorbital portion of the head. The

maxillary barbels extend to the root of the pectoral. The

soft dorsal fin is as high as the body; its spine is rather slen-

der, as long as the head without snout; granulated in front

and serrated behind.: Pectoral spine as strong as, and rather

shorter than, that of the dorsal fin. Caudal deeply forked, with

the lobes subequal in length. Colour immaculate.

A male, 11 imches long, is in the collection.

We may add the Ceylonese names of several species seut by

Mr. Boake :—Rallia= Etroplus maculatus; Corallia=Etroplus

suratensis ; Loola = Ophiocephalus striatus; Connia= Ophioce-

phalus Kelaartii ; Hoonga= Clarias Teysmanni; Kamaya= Ana-

bas oligolepis ; Pooloota = Polyacanthus signatus; Kanaya =

Channa orientalis.

The Cyprinoids will be described in the seventh volume of

the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes.’

Prof. Owen on an Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii. 475

LXI.—On an Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii.

By Professor R. Owen, F.R.S.

[Plate XVI.]

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I have received, through the kindness of Sir Daniel Cooper,

Bart., from the freshwater beds of Gowrie Creek, Darling Downs,

Queensland, an upper front incisor, right side, of the Nototherium

Mitchell (P1. XVI.), which so closely accords in size with the

dimensions of the tooth described and figured in the December

Number of your volume xvi. (1865) p. 448, by Prof. M‘Coy,

that I am disposed to ascribe that tooth also to the species near

the remains of which it was found, “at Murchill, not far from

Geelong, Victoria.”

My specimen is 5 inches 1 line long in a straight line,

1 inch 73 lines in the greatest (fore-and-aft) diameter, which is

about the middle of the root; 10 lines in greatest transverse

diameter. The enamelled crown, e, is 1 inch in length, be-

velled off, chiselwise, from before downward and backward,

and shows the partial application of enamel usual in such

teeth ; the free margin on the outer side of the crown (fig. 4)

extends further back than that on the inner side (fig. 1 e),

and is slightly everted: it is also thicker than the even

inner border. The breadth of the unenamelled back part of

the crown (figs. 1, 3, 4d) at its base is 64 lines: owing to the

difference in extent of enamel on the sides of the crown, the

abraded surface slopes from without imward and backward, as

well as from above downward and backward. The enamel is

1 of a line in thickness at the outer side of the crown: the

whole outer surface is smooth. The crown is broadly convex

anteriorly, rather flatter on the inner than on the outer side.

The root is more thickly covered by cement, and increases in

every dimension, chiefly from before backwards, as it recedes

from the crown, until at a little below its midlength it attains

the dimensions above given: it then diminishes to the pulp

end. The outer side begins to be impressed by a longitudinal

shallow channel about an inch and a half below the crown;

and this channel increases in breadth, but not in depth, be-

coming, indeed, shallower near the pulp end of the root. On

the inner side, the longitudinal channel begins somewhat

nearer the crown, and sinks deeper as it recedes, besides

becoming wider. The tooth is “compressed and gently in-

curved,” or, rather, “recurved,” the front margin describing

a greater convexity, lengthwise, than the hind margin: the root

476 Prof. Owen on an Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellu.

contracts to an antero-posterior diameter of 1 inch 3 lines,’

and a transverse diameter of 44 lines, at the end of which it is

excavated by the shallow remnant of the pulp-cavity (fig. 6).

The breadth here, owing to the opposite lateral channels, is

least at the middle of this end, where it contracts to 3 lines ;

the part anterior to this gives the breadth of 44 limes. Thus

the present tooth is less “fusiform” than Prof. M‘Coy’s spe-

cimen, which may be due to its having come from a less aged

individual. The Professor’s description of the “crown, worn

down obliquely almost to the base, only about an inch of it re-

maining,” applies, however, equally to my specimen. The

cement-covered outer surface of the root is marked by the same

“short, irregular, interrupted longitudinal grooves,” with mter-

vening ridges about a line in breadth.

The difference between the Professor’s specimen and the

homologous tooth of Thylacoleo carnifex is, first, in dimensions.

The figure given at p. 448, doc. cit., is reduced to nearly half the

natural size of the tooth there described, and of the Professor’s

original “ pen-and-ink sketch ;” and a notice of such reduction

in the woodcut has been omitted. As it stands, it nearly re-

presents the natural size of the upper front incisor of Thylacoleo

carnifex, the root of which is about 2 inches in length, and

10 lines in greatest breadth. But the crown is relatively

longer, the enamel is twice as thick, and its free end is not

bevelled off chiselwise, as in Professor M‘Coy’s specimen and

in mine of Nototherium Mitchelli. /

Reduction of figures of single or detached teeth should, if

possible, be avoided: it detracts much from the facility of com-

parison. The figures of the tooth here described are of the

natural size.

I may add that the tooth supposed to be a canine of Thyla-

coleo is shown to be an incisor, in my second memoir on that

genus in the Philosophical Transactions for 1866.

{ am, Gentlemen,

Yours faithfully,

Ricuarp Owen.

British Museum.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1. Side view of anterior incisor, right side, upper jaw, of Nototherium

Mitchellit.

. Back view.

. End view of crown.

. Outer-side view of crown.

. Section of middle of root.

. Free extremity of root.

Fig.

Or to bo

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spheerion and Mallocera, 477

LXII.—WNotes on Spheerion and Mallocera.

By Francis P. Pascosz, F.L.S., F.Z.S., late Pres. Ent. Soc., &c.

Many of the tropical American genera of the Longicorn family

Cerambycide are crowded with discrepant species, most of which,

although undescribed, have manuscript or catalogue names in

collections. As a rule, these species seem to have been referred

to such of the comparatively few published genera to which they

appear most approximate, without regard to their technical cha-

racters. I have been recently examining Spherion and Mallo-

cera, two allied genera belonging to the same subfamily as the

typical Cerambyz, and I find under each of those names forms

that could never be held together by any definitive formule.

The following notes are only the results of the working out of

my own limited number of examples, aided, however, by the

examination of those in the British Museum, including M.

Chevrolat’s, in which so many of the celebrated Baron Dejean’s

“catalogue-types” are found.

Mr. Newman’s genus Nephalius*, which has been regarded

almost invariably as purely synonymous with Spherion, ought,

I think, to be preserved for those of his species which have the

elytra imperfectly embracing the abdomen, or, in other words,

elytra without or with very slightly deflected sides. The

type would then be N. cassus, and the genus would include

N. serius and N. exutus; of his other species, N. amictus is un-

known to me, and N. blandus is a true Spherion. 'The remain-

ing species of Spherion which I have examined are :—S. cyani-

penne, Serv. (the type), S. armigerum, Wh., S. terminatum, Per-

roud, S. suturale (De}.), S. plicicolle, Germ., S. geniculatum, n.sp.,

S. pubescens, Ol., S. Hrichsonii, Wh., S. subpiceum, Wh., and

S. Poéyi, Chev. SS. orientale, Wh., S. merme, Wh., S. triste,

Guér., and S. insulare, Wh., may be regarded as degraded mem-

bers of the genus. Two species (S. melanura and S. procerum),

described by Erichson in Schomburgk’s ‘ Reisen in Britisch-

Guiana,’ are unknown to me; so also is S. rusticum, lately

published by Prof. Burmeister in the ‘ Stettiner Entom. Zeitung’

(1865, p. 167). Of the undescribed Spheerions I have selected

those only for description for which new genera will be neces-

sary, and have characterized two species hitherto only known by

their catalogue-names.

* Entom. p.93. The genus, however, can scarcely be said to be charac-

terized by Mr. Newman. M. Thomson afterwards described ‘‘ Nephalius”

in his ‘ Essai’ (p. 245), but in his later work, ‘ Systema Cerambycidarum,’

he revokes the name with the note ‘nec Newman,” and proposes ‘ Peri-

beum’ for the generic name of the species previously published by him as

Nephalius acuminatus.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 8. Vol, xviii. 33

478 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

In the genus Mallocera, which Serville places between Eury-

merus and Purpuricenus, we may include M]. opulenta, Newm.,

although the apices of the elytra are not in accordance with

Serville’s description ; but the three Peruvian species described

by Erichson (Wiegmann’s Arch. 1847, pp.140-141) must remain

doubtful for the present. M.undulans and lateralis of White have

been separated by M. Thomson to form his genus Appula: but

this seems to me to be synonymous with Stizocera, Serv.; indeed

M. lateralis stands under the name of “ Stizocera armata, Serv.”

im some collections, but the species scarcely agrees with that

author’s description. Appula, or rather Stizocera, only differs

from Mallocera in the four posterior femora terminating in

spines—a character of possibly only specific importance. Mal-

locera eburioides, Wh., is better placed among the allies of Eburia,

as the fourth joint of the antenne is as long as the succeeding

one, which is not the case in the Spherion set; and it has the

habit of Hburia, including the raised ivory-like spots of that

genus. A species well known as Mallocera obliqua (Dej.), but

described by Serville as a Trichophorus, is now the genus Eury-

sthea, Thomson. Another well-known species, Mallocera virgata

(Chev. MS.) I have here separated under the generic name of

Limozota. M. simplex, Wh., can only be regarded as a very

aberrant member, if one at all, of the genus in which Mr. White

has placed it.

Before describing the new genera, the following short dia-

gnostic formula will serve to distinguish Spherion as it is here

limited :—

SPH#RION.

Antenne elongatz (in fem. corpore zequales); art. 3%°—6"™ vel 7™

spinosis.

Prothorax subdepressus.

Tibie posticee subcompresse vel vix subcompressee, calcarate.

It should be observed that the prothorax, except in being

cylindrical, as opposed to depressed, affords no characters of

generic value, for it is found to vary considerably in closely

allied species: the basal antennal joints are often longitudinally

grooved ; but this character also is not to be relied on. Nearly

all the species referred to Spherion and Mallocera are natives of

the tropical parts of North and South America*.

The first of the two species here described is, I believe, S.

suturale of Dejean’s Catalogue.

* S. orientale, Wh., represented by a single specimen in the British

Museum, is said to be from India.

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera. 479

Spherion suturale.

S. leete rufo-castaneum, nitidum ; elytris testaceis, sutura spinisque

nigtis ; antennis, scapo excepto, tibiis tarsisque nigris.

Hab. Brazil.

Head, prothorax, femora, and body beneath bright glossy

reddish chestnut ; elytra testaceous, the suture and apical spines

black; prothorax subcylindrical, the disk with four obtuse tu-

bercles; elytra finely punctured, with three scarcely apparent

pale lines on each; antennz, except the scape, tibie, and tarsi,

dull black. Length 10 lines.

Resembles in general coloration S. ¢erminatum, Perroud, but

with black antenne, suture, tibie, &c., and the prothorax en-

tirely different in form, and without the central tubercle ; above

all, with the posterior femora nearly linear, as in Hlaphidion.

Spherion geniculatum.

S. testaceum, nitidum ; capite prothoraceque castaneis, hoc oblongo-

ovato ; disco transversim plicato ; femoribus apice nigris.

Hab. Brazil.

Testaceous, shining; head and prothorax reddish chestnut,

the latter oblong ovate, without spines or tubercles, finely plicate

across the disk; elytra with small distant punctures, the suture

near the apex and spines black; body beneath pale chestnut ;

femora with their apices glossy black ; antennze pale testaceous.

Length 7 lines.

Spherion plicicolle, Germ., its nearest ally, has a broad pro-

thorax, scarcely shining, with much coarser sculpture, the punc-_

tures on the base of the elytra larger and crowded together, and

the femora nearly unicolorous.

Merrurirtvs.

Caput inter antennas projectum.

Prothorax subdepressus.

Tibie compress, posticee apice haud spinosie.

The compressed tibie, which are strengthened by a strong

ridge on each side for their whole length, and the absence of a

true spine to the hinder pair (replaced, however, by a broad

angular process) cut off this genus from all its allies. The

head is very short, and between the bases of the antennz there

is a prominent roll, formed apparently by the antennary tubers,

which are otherwise obsolete; the antennz are longer than the

body, fimbriated beneath, the third, fourth, and fifth joints

deeply grooved, and they are also spined at the apex; the pro-

thorax is slightly transverse, obscurely tuberculate on the disk,

the sides projecting into a short spine nearly in the middle ; the

30%

480 Mr. I. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

elytra are flattish, terminating in a median spine; the femora

are rather fusiform than clavate, and the basal joint of the pos-

terior tarsi is as long as the rest together. The type is a toler-

ably large insect, and is the Spherion cinerascens of Dejean’s

Catalogue, but has never, I believe, been described.

Mephritus cinerascens.

M. brunneus, pube subtili cinerea omnino indutus.

Hab. Rio Janeiro.

Reddish brown, everywhere covered with a delicate ashy or

ashy-grey pubescence ; head and prothorax nearly free from

punctures. Scutellum semicircular; elytra rather closely and

finely punctured, towards the apex impunctate ; antenna, tibia,

and tarsi blackish. Length 14 lines.

CASTIALE.

Antenne clongate, art. 3°-6™ apice spinosis ; tuberibus antenniferis

horizontalibus.

Prothorax breviter ovatus, subdepressus.

Femora tenuiter fusiformia, quatuor posteriorum apice bispinoso.

In this genus the femora are slender and fusiform, the four

posterior bispinous at their apices; the head has a little more

muzzle than usual, and the antennary tubers are projecting in

front, and divided by a narrowly impressed line; the antenne

are much longer than the body, and the third to the fifth joints

are grooved and spined, as in the preceding genus; the pro-

thorax is oblong, with a slightly raised central line, and four

obscure tubercles on the disk ; the elytra terminate in an exterior

spine; the tibiz and tarsi are slender, the basal joint of the

posterior tarsi not longer than the two following. The type is

a beautiful insect bearing the name of “ Spherion elegantulum,

Buq.,” in the British Museum collection.

Castiale viridipennis.

C. rufescens; elytris leete viridibus ; antennis pedibusque fuscis.

Hab. Columbia.

Brownish red, clothed with scattered pale-greyish hairs; head

sparsely punctured ; prothorax transversely corrugated, the disk

with four flattish unicolorous tubercles, and a short central ele-

vated line; scutellum semicircular; elytra rich green, shining,

minutely shagreened, the scattered punctures each giving

origin to a long slender hair; body beneath reddish; legs and

antennee blackish, with scattered slender hairs, the latter nearly

twice as long as the body. Length 7 lines.

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera. 481

GORYBIA.

Caput fere ad oculos insertum.

Antenne corpore vix longiores, inermes.

Prothorax subdepressus.

Tarsi postici breves.

The retracted head and unarmed antennez are the chief dia-

gnostic characters of this genus; the former is very short, with

the eyes prominent and adding considerably to its breadth; the

antennee are unarmed, but the third, fourth, and fifth joints

have each above half a dozen longitudinal ridges ; the prothorax

is very much constricted posteriorly, and is without tubercles

and spines; the elytra have the usual external spine at their

apices; the femora are clavate ; the posterior tarsi shorter than

the intermediate ; the first abdominal segment is twice as long

as the second, instead of being only about the same length or a

little longer. The specimen here described is probably a female.

Gorybia martes.

G. ferruginea ; capite, prothorace, pedibusque fuscis, opacis; apici-

bus elytroram nigricantibus, nitidis.

Hab. Espiritu Santo.

Ferruginous, with sparse greyish hairs; head and prothorax

opaque, brown, the former obscurely, the latter very distinctly

reticulately impressed ; scutellum rounded ; elytra rather coarsely

punctured at the base, ferruginous towards the apex, impunctate,

blackish, and glossy; propectus dull brown, rest of the under

and clavate portions of the thighs glossy reddish brown ; an-

tenn, tibize, and tarsi dull brownish. Length 4 lines.

PsyRassa.

Antenne breviuscule, vel corpore vix longiores, art. 34°-6"™ apice

co)

spinosis.

Prothorax oblongus, subcylindricus, haud tuberculatus, basi an-

gustior.

Elytra angusta, elongata, apicibus bispinosis.

Femora haud clavata.

This is a narrow form, more resembling Jdzdion in habit than

Spherion; the antennz in the typical species are much shorter

than the body, distant at their base, with their tubers nearly

obsolete ; the eyes are prominent, and give the head a greater

breadth than the prothorax; the latter is elongate, subcylin-

drical, and without tubercles or spines; the elytra are narrow

and nearly parallel, the apex of each terminating in two spines ;

the femora are a little thickened in the middle, but not clavate ;

482 Mr. F, P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

the tarsi are rather short, with the basal joint of the posterior

not longer than the two next together. The type is an insect

collected in some abundance in Central America by M. Pilate,

who gave it the MS. name of Spherion basicorne. What the

specific name is in allusion to, I am not aware; as, however, it

is so known in collections, I have not altered it. Stenocorus

unicolor, Randal, may be referred to this genus. .

Psyrassa basicornis.

P. ferruginea, nitida, dimidio apicali elytrorum nigricante.

Hab. Yucatan.

Ferruginous, shining, with sparsely scattered hairs, rather

coarsely punctured above, less so on the head; scutellum equi-

. laterally triangular, covered with a close silvery pubescence ;

elytra with the posterior half blackish, each apex with two short

spines; body beneath brownish, the abdomen darker, very

glossy ; legs with long stiffish hairs. Length 6 lines.

Limozora.

Antenne mutice ; tuberibus antenniferis approximatis.

Prothoraz cylindricus, elongatus, lateraliter inermis.

Hilytra parallela; apicibus emarginatis, haud spinosis.

The type of this genus is well known under M. Chevrolat’s

name, Mallocera virgata; but from Mallocera it differs in every

one of the above diagnostic characters. The head is very short

in front, its breadth being considerably increased by the large

prominent eyes ; the antennz are twice as long as the body in

the male, and without any trace of spines; the prothorax is

slender and cylindrical, with three small tubercles on the disk,

giving it that “ personate” appearance of eyes and nose, and

sometimes of mouth, so common in this subfamily; the elytra

are narrow, parallel, and rounded at the apices; the legs are

somewhat slender, the femora slightly thickened, but uot cla-

vate ; the basal joint of the posterior tarsi slender, and not longer

than the two next together.

Limozota virgata.

L. pallide flavescens ; elytris lineis flexuosis brunneis ornatis.

Hab. Columbia.

Pale yellowish or straw-colour ; head and prothorax with a

close greyish pubescence mixed with long hairs; the prothorax:

with two black, round, shining tubercles on the disk, and an

oblong one behind them; scutellum smooth, cordate; elytra

with scattered hairs only, irregularly punctured, one principal

Mr. F, P. Pascoe on Spheerion and Mallocera. 483

flexuous line from the shoulder to near the apex throwing off

two transverse branches, one behind the. shoulder, the other

near the middle; body beneath, legs, and antenne fulvyous,

covered with long slanting hairs. Length 8-10 lines.

The genus Centrocerum (Dej.), described by M. Chevrolat in

‘the French ‘ Annales’ (1861, p. 189), and which has for its type

Elaphidion exornatum, Newm., approaches in coloration some

species of Spherion—S. Poéyi, for example. A Bolivian Longi-

corn was afterwards distributed by the late M. Deyrolle under

the same generic name. It belongs, however, to a very distinct

form, which, in its entire anterior acetabula and elongated pro-

thorax, approaches the Ibidionine. It may be named and cha-

racterized as follows :—

RuHyYsIumM.

Antenne mutice.

Prothorax oblongus, subdepressus.

Elytra angusta, apicibus rotundatis.

Mesosternum declive.

The head is short and concave in front ; the antennary tubers

are stout and divergent ; the eyes are broadly emarginate; the

antennee are without spines, as long as the body in the female,

and half as long again in the male, the scape is subpyriform,

the third joint 1s twice the length of the scape in both sexes;

the rest of the joints in the female are not longer than the

scape, in the male they are considerably longer; the prothorax

is oblong, broader in the middle, its disk marked with three

nearly obsolete tubercles; the elytra are narrow and elongate,

and rounded at the apices; the legs are compressed, the femora

thickened, the four posterior tarsi equal; the pro- and meso-

sterna depressed, the latter elongate. For the only known spe-

cies I have adopted M. Deyrolle’s name.

Rhysium bimaculatum.

R. brunneum, nitidum, sparse griseo pilosum; singulis elytrorum

macula mediana flava.

Hab. Bolivia.

Glossy brown, inclining to umber, clothed with short, scat-

tered, greyish hairs; the elytra with a large yellowish spot on

the middle of each; head roughly punctured on the vertex ;

prothorax nearly impunctate, covered with a loose greyish to-

mentum ; elytra finely and irregularly punctured ; body beneath,

legs, and antenne with a short greyish pile. Length 7 lines.

484 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

The position of the following genus must for the present be

considered doubtful.

ALCYOoPIS.

Caput valde exsertum ; collo constricto.

Antenne mutice; tuberibus antenniferis validis, intus productis,

basi contiguis.

Prothorax elongatus, cylindricus, irregularis.

Mesosternum antice productum.

Femora clavata.

I have received the species constituting the type of this genus

under the name of “ Spherion cyanipenne, Serv.” But it is not

that insect, nor can it be regarded as belonging to Spherion at

all in any sense, its head constricted behind the eyes giving it

the aspect of a Leptura-form, and especially, if also we regard its

colour, of Rhamnusium salicis ; it has, however, entirely rounded

anterior acetabula, and globose coxee. The head is very short in

front, the antennary tubers so projecting as to give that part of

it a vertical direction; the scape is pyriform, the third joint the

longest, and the fourth shorter than the fifth ; the eye is broadly

emarginate, the lower lobe large and prominent, the upper small

and remote from its fellow on the vertex; the palpi have the

terminal joint triangular ; the prothorax is broader behind, its

length half as much again as its breadth; the elytra are flattish,

and nearly parallel at the sides, the apices each terminating in a

median point; the femora are rather abruptly clavate, and the

posterior and intermediate are equal and a little longer than

the anterior ; the mesosternum is strongly produced.

Alcyopis cyanontera.

A, flavo-castanea, nitidissima ; elytris lete cyaneis.

Hab. Brazil.

Bright yellowish chestnut, very glossy, nearly glabrous ; head

sparsely and finely punctured; prothorax impunctate, deeply

and broadly constricted anteriorly ; the disk behind the constric-

tion with five prominent tubercles—one anterior and median,

the two external prolonged beneath at the side; scutellum semi-

circular; elytra rich blue, very glossy, minutely and irregularly

punctured, each apex terminating in a short median spine ; legs

and antennz with scattered hairs, the latter rather longer than

the body; sterna ferruginous; abdomen blackish. Length

10 lines.

485

LXII.—Notes on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Wyalonema.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

I HAVE no desire to enter into a controversy with Dr. Bower-

bank on this subject, for I have always highly estimated him as

an enthusiastic collector, a good microscopist, and always willing

to communicate all he knows; and I shall be glad to study his

promised paper, premising that I am not aware that there is

much to be added on the subject to what has been said by Dr.

Max Schultze, Dr. Brandt, and Senhor Bocage. At present I

only wish to explain what Dr. Bowerbank calls my “ misrepre-

sentations.”’

To establish the first, Dr. Bowerbank, doubtless unintention-

ally, misquotes my paper, and makes me appear to say what I

did not intend to convey. After referring to the zoologists who

have regarded the “glass rope” of the coral as part of the

of the sponge, in a separate paragraph I observed, “ Dr. Bower-

bank, adopting the same view,” &c.; and, as I am always anxious

to fairly represent what any one who differs from me on a scien-

tific subject has to say, 1 quoted at length the characters that

Dr. Bowerbank reprints in his note, and his other observations

on the genus. So I do not see how I could misrepresent him.

Secondly, Dr. Bowerbank says I ‘“ misrepresent him,” as I

ought to have recollected that he examined the specimens of

Hyalonema in the British Museum in 1860. I may observe

that I do not keep any note or record of what specimen any

visitor examines. Dr. Bowerbank appears to have confined his

examination to the structure of the spicula, and it is only the

spicula that are figured in the plates in the ‘Philosophical

Transactions’ which he quotes. I can hardly call such a study

of the specimens “a careful microscopical examination of their

anatomical structure.’ If Dr. Bowerbank has examined anato-

mically the animal structure, it 1s most extraordinary that he

did not discover that what he calls “the oscula” of his “ cloacal

system” were social Zoanthz with plicated stomachs, retractile

conical tentacles, and all the anatomical structure of that type

of animals—more especially as Professor Brandt, in his essay

published in 1859, a year before Dr. Bowerbank’s examination,

had described and figured these parts in detail; and Brandt’s

observations have more recently been confirmed by Senhor

Bocage.

Dr. Bowerbank is unfortunate in his observations on my

paper. Thus he observes, “The fact of the presence of siliceous

spicula in the inner coat of what he [Dr. Gray] terms the bark

of Hyalonema should have warned him that it could not belong

to either of the genera ‘ Corticaria’ (qu. Corticifera) or Zoan-

486 Dr. J. E. Gray on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Hyalonema.

thus.” It is Professor Max Schultze, MM. Milne-Edwards,

Haime, and Valenciennes (all zoologists of great eminence) who

regard the animal of Hyalonema as a parasitic species of Cor-

ticifera or, as they call it, Palythoa, or of Zoanthus; so it is

these zoologists, and not I, that should have been warned;

for I have always regarded the animal of the Glass Rope as a

peculiar genus for the very reason Dr. Bowerbank assigns, and

called it Hyalonema, the name he quotes! I can only consider

this, like the other charges in his paper, a proof of the haste

in which he must have penned his reply to my observations ;

and I am convinced that, when he has properly examined the

anatomy of the specimen, and considered the subject, he will

find that he cannot establish his theory against the unanimous

opinion of such experienced zoologists. Indeed one cannot

understand how Dr. Bowerbank ever could have fallen into the

unaccountable zoological blunder of describing as an osculum of

a sponge the large well-developed zoanthoid polype which had,

before he published a word on the subject, been referred to its

proper group by the celebrated naturalists above named, while

its anatomy had been figured by Professor Brandt, unless it be

assumed that he is very imperfectly acquainted with the litera-

ture of the subject on which he writes—an assumption that

would explain many lacunze in his work on British Sponges, and

the fact of so many names in that work being followed by

“ Bowerbank :” in some entire pages the name occurs as every

third word.

I think, if Dr.’Bowerbank will read Senhor Bocage’s paper

with care, he will find that he has misunderstood it, and that

Senhor Bocage does mean by the thin end the one that in the

Japan specimen is inserted in the sponge; otherwise I should

fear that Dr. Bowerbank lays himself open to the accusation

which he makes against Professor Owen in his description of

Euplectella.

Whatever theory may be entertained about the rope-lke

bundle of spicula which I consider the axis of the coral, there

can be no doubt that the bark on the axis is a zoophyte allied

to Zoanthus. Dr. Bowerbank alone amongst naturalists denies

this fact: he considers that “the basal sponge, the spiral axis,

and its coriaceous envelope are really parts of one and the safe

animal,” and that animal a sponge. He should recollect that

this is not the first time he has made a mistake of the kind,

as when he described the case of the egg of a leech as a sponge.

I cannot but regard the “columnal cloacal system and its

oscula” in Hyalonema as the myth of a microscopist.

Is Dr. Bowerbank certain that none of the Gorgoniadee secrete

silica? Some French zoologists have stated that they do.

Dr. J. H. Gray on Euplectella speciosa. 487

LXIV.—Venus’s Flower-basket (Kuplectella speciosa).

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

Tue British Museum has lately received a very beautiful speci-

men of this interesting siliceous Sponge. There are several

other specimens in London; they were obtained from the Phi-

lippine Islands. The specimens are subcylindrical, varying a

little in the extent to which they are dilated upwards, and in

the width of the fringe round the upper aperture of the tube;

they are all more or less curved on one side near the base. The

base is evidently attached to some marine body, perhaps small

shingle, as it is more or less dilated imto a swollen oblong bag,

formed of interwoven siliceous spicula, similar to but closer

together than the longitudinal spicula of the body of the vase:

this bag encloses a number of fragments of shells, small stones,

and some sand; and in the fresh specimens it may be an ex-

panded base attached to the mud and sand. The broad end of

the tube is covered with a reticulated convex lid, which is also

to be found in a sponge from Malacca, described by me under

the name of Aphrocallistes Beatrix (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 115,

ft).

Like all showy and beautiful natural productions, it has had

many describers; and there is a confusion in its history which,

it is to be hoped, is not shared by that of many others.

This sponge was first described and figured, in 1833, by

MM. Quoy and Gaimard, in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe,’ p.302,

Zoophytes, t. 26. f. 3, under the name of Aleyoncellum speciosum,

from a very imperfect specimen which had lost the netted lid,

the fringes on the outside, and a considerable portion of the

smaller, lower end of the tubes. It was given to the travellers

by M. Merkus, the Governor of Molucca. They observe: * En

voyant l’élégante blancheur et la régularité d’un tel tissu on a

de la peme a se persuader, quwil est le produit d’une réunion

animaux. On aime mieux en voir un seul au fond de la mer

travailler & se faire ce logement pour un but quelconque, en

tirant de sa propre substance, comme le font certaines chenilles,

la matiére qui se pétrifie aussitét qu’elle est en contact avec

Peau” (p. 303).

There can be no doubt of the imperfect state of this sponge,

from a comparison with a worn and crushed specimen in the

British Museum, that was obtamed by Capt. Sir Edward Belcher,

and purchased at the sale of his shells.

MM. Quoy and Gaimard refer the sponge to the genus Aleyon-

cellum of De Blainville, and quote at length the generic charac-

ter given by that author. A very cursory reading of that character

shows how little it fits their specimen; and it is very difficult

488 Dr. J. E. Gray on Euplectella speciosa.

to understand how and why they referred it to that genus,

which seems to have been established on another sponge

which they brought home, and which is not noticed im the

‘ Zoology’ of their ‘Voyage ;’ hence we can only suppose that it

was overlooked.

In 1836, M. Milne-Edwards, in the second edition of Lamarck’s

‘Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres,’ vol. ii. p. 588,

adds, at the end of the Sponges, a note on the genus Alcyon-

cellum, obviously compiled from Quoy and Gaimard’s imperfect

figure: he refers to <Alcyoncellum speciosum of the ‘Voyage

of the Astrolabe’ as the type, evidently overlooking the original

description of the genus in Blainville’s ‘ Zoophytes,’ quoted in

Quoy and Gaimard’s work.

In 1841 Professor Owen, in the Transactions of the Zoological

Society (vol. i. p. 203, t. 13), deseribed and figured a nearly

perfect specimen, under the name of Huplectella aspergillum,

which was obtamed by Mr. Cuming in the Philippines, and is

now in the British Museum; and in the Transactions of the

Linnean Society (vol. xx. p. 117, t. 21) he describes and figures

a very nearly allied species, under the name of Huplectella

cucumer, from a specimen (in the collection of Dr. Farre) which

was obtained from the Seychelle Islands.

The genus Alcyoncellum was established by De Blainville, in

1882, in the ‘ Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles,’ and again

in his ‘Manuel d’Actinologie,’ p. 529, on a marine specimen

brought to Paris by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, with the following

characters :—“ Body fixed, soft, gelatinous, solidified by tricuspid

spicules, tree-like, with few branches, cylindrical, fistulous, with

a terminal orifice; the substance thick, composed of regular

granules, polygonal, alveoliform, pierced with an exterior and

internal pore.” The type is Alcyoncellum gelatinosum, figured at

t. 92. f. 5 of the Atlas of plates tothe Manual. It is clear from

the above description that it has nothmg in common with A.

speciosum; and A. gelatinosum seems to be most probably a cal-

careous sponge nearly allied to the genus Grantia of Fleming.

Professor Owen’s description and figure of Huplectella asper-

gillum leave little to be desired. The cornucopia is put on the

plate with the broad end downwards. Perhaps the artist was

deceived by the name “Aspergillum,” and thought that, like the

shell so named, the sponge lived with its broader, fringed, and

perforated end sunk im the sand. In the figure of E. cucumer

the sponge is represented erect and attached. Professor Owen,

by a slip of the pen, writes Quoy and Gaimard’s Aleyoncellum

as Alcyonellum, and then says the name cannot be used for the

sponge, because Lamarck has applied the name Alcyonella to a

genus ‘of freshwater Polypes.”

Dr. J. E. Gray on Euplectella speciosa. 489

Professor Owen, from the manner he quotes Aleyoncellum gela-

tinosum of De Blainville and A. speciosum of Quoy and Gaimard,

evidently considers that they are synonyms of the same species

instead of two genera belonging to different families of sponges.

He gave a new name to the genus because the specimen figured

by Quoy and Gaimard had neither a netted lid to the tube nor

fringes; but this only arose from the imperfect state of their

specimen ; the new name, however, was required in consequence

of their mistake in referring it to the genus Alcyoncellum of

De Blainville.

Dr. Bowerbank, in the ‘ Introduction to the British Sponges,’

which is chiefly a reprint of his papers in the ‘ Philosophical

Transactions,’ makes some observations on this beautiful sponge,

and is very severe on Professor Owen, accusing him of a mis-

take he did not make, because he called the widest part of a

cone its base. As usual, when he leaves his microscope and

goes to the book, he is in confusion. He at once sets aside

Professor Owen’s generic name, and adopts that used by MM.

Quoy and Gaimard; but it is easy to see how this mistake

arose. In consulting their work he entirely overlooked the

generic character quoted from De Blainville. He evidently does

not know, or at least quote, the ‘Manuel’ of M. de Blainville;

nor does he recognize the figure of the sponge on which the

genus Alcyoncellum is established, either under the name of

Euplectella or Grantia. Dr. Bowerbank quotes the generic cha-

racter of Alcyoncellum given in Lamarck as “the generic de-

scription of Quoy and Gaimard.” He gives, as the type of the

genus Huplectella, “ EH. corbicula, Quoy and Gaimard,” a name

not to be found in their work; he goes on to regard E. corbicula

and H. speciosa as two species, and he thinks that Huplec-

tella is a parasitic sponge, and clings to other marine bodies.

But it is useless to continue to quote “the singular number of

errors into which he has fallen in the description of this beautiful

sponge,” as he says of Professor Owen.

A crab is generally found in the cavity of the sponges. The

Spaniards in Manilla regard them as formed by the crabs for

their protection, and they do not consider the specimens perfect

unless a crab is contained therein. I have, within the last few

days, had a pair offered to me for an extravagant sum (£200),

because they contained the crab that formed them. The crab

must take up its place in the tube before the network in the

upper end of it is formed, as, when that part is added, it

becomes imprisoned in the tube.

490 Bibliographical Notice.

The synonyms of the genus and species are as follows :—

Alcyoncellum, sp., Quoy & Gaimard; not Blainville, ‘ Zoophytes,’ 1832,

nor ‘ Manuel,’ 1834.

Aleyoncellum, Milne-Edw., Lam. An. s. Vert. ed. 2. ii. 389 (1836) ;

Bowerbank, British Sponges, i. 174.

Alcyonellum, Owen (misprint).

Euplectella, Owen, Trans. Zool. Soe. iti, 203 (1841); Trans. Linn. Soe.

xxi. 117.

1. Euplectella speciosa (Venus’s Flower-basket).

Alcyoncellum speciosum, Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, iv. 302

(Zoophytes, t. 26. f.5); Lam. Anim. s. Vert. 11. 389.

Euplectella aspergillum, Owen, Trans. Zool. Soe. ii. 203, t. 13.

Alcyoncellum aspergillum, Bowerbank, Brit. Sponges, i. 177.

Alcyoncellum corbicula, Valenc. Mus. Paris; Bowerbank, British

Sponges, 1. 176.

Hab. Philippines.

2. Euplectella cucumer, Owen, Trans. Linn. Soc. xxii. 117,

taro.

Hab. Seychelles.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Record of Zoological Literature. 1865. Vol. II. Edited by

Axupert C. L. G. Gintruer, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S8., &e.,

Van Voorst, 1866.

Our readers, from the review which we last year gave of the first

volume of this work, will know that the ‘the object of the ‘ Record’

is to give, in an annual volume, reports on, abstracts of, and an index

to, the various zoological publications which have appeared in the

preceding year; to acquaint zoologists with the progress of every

branch of their science in all parts of the globe; and to form a re-

pertory which will retain its value for the student of future years.”

In all these respects the second volume fully bears out the promise of

the first. The ‘ Record’ is, in fact, invaluable ; and zoologists owe

a debt of gratitude to Dr. Ginther and his coadjutors for the able

way in which they carry out the task which they have proposed to

themselves, and for the benefit which they thus confer upon their

brother naturalists. The volume now before us contains a brief

(necessarily very brief) summary of all that has been written in 1865—

the cream, in fact, of no less than 35000 pages of zoological literature.

It consists of a bulky octavo of 800 pages, and thus exceeds in size

the ‘ Record’ for 1864 by nearly one fourth. The reports on the

Cceelenterata and Protozoa, which were omitted in the first volume, are

now supplied for the year 1864 as well as for 1865. A slight change

has been made in the list of Recorders : Dr. Cobbold and Mr. J. Reay

Greene have ceased to take part in the work; and the cooperation

of Dr. E. P. Wright has been secured, who has taken in hand

Bibliographical Notice. 491

those classes on which the previously named gentlemen had last year

reported, as well as the Coelenterata and Protozoa.

We would especially call the attention of the editors of scientific

journals and that of the secretaries of the learned societies to a very

important plea urged by Dr. Giinther in his Preface. Probably there

is no zoologist among our readers who has been in the habit of

writing on any branch of natural history who has not experienced

the gr reat inconvenience which arises from the fact that the separate

copies of authors’ papers have, in this country, always been repaged,

instead of retaining, as they ought to do, the original pagination

either alone or side by side with “the repaging of the separate pam-

phlet. In order to quote such papers, therefore, it has hitherto been

necessary to refer to the journal from which each paper has been

extracted. Now such additionally required reference is in all cases

attended with inconvenience, and to the naturalist resident in the

country often impossible. The result is (a paper received by us this

very morning supplies an instance), when such authors’ copies are in

the hands of subsequent writers they are frequently treated and

referred to as separate publications, and no allusion whatever is

made to the original work in which the paper appeared, and where

alone it can be generally consulted. Most warmly, then, would we

commend the suggestion of Dr. Giinther, that, ‘‘as regards separate

reprints of papers from Journals, Proceedings, or Transactions of

learned societies, a most excellent plan, adopted for many years by

the K. K. Zoolog.-botanische Gesellschaft of Vienna, and lately by

the Zoological Society of London, should be more generally followed,

viz. that of indicating the original pagination. either at the bottom of

the page or at the top within brackets. The value of separate copies

is much increased thereby, as the time wasted in searching for the

original pages is saved.”

In the following table we give, first, the number of pages which

relate to each class of animals in the volume before us, and, “secondly,

within brackets, the number of pages in the original publications

of which the foregoing supply an abstract :—

Mammalia........ 53 (2400) Insecta. .tsccicces 330 (14500)

BMVOR F415 18 20 3. ote 85 (3500) Annelida sissies. 28 ~=(800)

Reptilia ...6.++.: » 24 (1800) Seolecida si iseies 12 (450)

PPARGES «13. <8 Ace 2 48 (5100) Echinodermata..., 17 (600)

WEGIEUSCE) oy 58 ein 87 (4400) Ceelenterata ...... 16 (750)

Molluscoida ...... 8 (300) Protozo0a® s.5..0% 14 (1050)

Crustacea ...,.... 60 (1500)

Arachnida and é

Myriopoda...... pees)

It would be easy enough, no doubt, for a reviewer to find points

for criticism as to imperfection in the analysis given of some particu-

lar work or paper, or to cavil at some expression of opinion on the

part of the Recorder himself; but to do this would be most unfair.

It would be difficult to find men more competent for their work than

the several Recorders have proved themselves to be ; and it is mere

492 Bibliographical Notice.

justice to say that they have conscientiously, honestly, and ably dis-

charged a most difficult task.

On a previous occasion we pointed out to our readers that it is

impossible this work can be continued unless it be upheld by a large

amount of support. Its publication is necessarily very costly ; and

an extensive sale is required to prevent a heavy loss falling upon

that most enterprising of publishers, Mr. Van Voorst, from whose

publications natural history has already received so great an im-

petus in this country. We cannot too strongly again insist upon

the fact that it is the duty of every person interested in science, who

can possibly afford to do so, to purchase the ‘ Record.’ Dr. Giinther

and Mr. Van Voorst have commenced this annual solely in the inter-

est of the progress of zoology; it remains for others, by their sup-

port, to enable them to continue it. The real student requires no

instigation to purchase a book which he cannot do without, and the

continued publication of which he knows to be of the greatest im-

portance to himself; but, alas! the real scientific workers are few

in number, and a sale among them alone would not suffice to prevent

a heavy loss falling on the publisher, which would, of course, neces-

sitate the discontinuance of the work. Let every friend of science,

then, come forward and support the ‘ Record.’

It will give some idea of the character of the summaries of papers

in the ‘ Record,’ if we conclude this notice by giving an example.

We shall select for this purpose what is told us in the two volumes

on the migration of the mollusk Dreissena polymorpha. There are

two mollusca, the steady diffusion of which has been the subject of

most interesting and careful investigation for many years past. One

of these, a marine Gastropod, is Lottia testudinalis, of which the

gradual migration southwards down the eastern and western coasts

of Great Britain has been clearly and distinctly traced. The other

is one of the Acephala, Dreissena polymorpha. This is a freshwater

species, nearly allied to the Mussel, which is rapidly spreading

itself throughout the rivers and canals of this country, as well as

those of the continent of Europe. The first volume of the ‘ Record’

supplies us with the following particulars :—

“The immigration of Dreissena polymorpha into parts of Europe

where it was originally unknown, has continued during the year

1864. Its occurrence in tributaries of the Rhine, Mosel, and Main

is recorded by Messrs. Noll, Mandel, and Greim (Zoolog. Gart.

Frankf. 1864, pp. 30, 89, and 124), with the addition of the dates of

its first detection (1855-61); its presence in the middle part of the

Rhine, at Knielingen near Carlsruhe, is testified by Hr. Kreglinger

(Verh. ntrw. Verein. Karlsr. vol. i.); its appearance higher up in the

Rhine, near Huningue, where it was found by Hr. Seul, is announced

by Hr. P. Merian (Verh. ntrf. Ges. Basel, iv. 1864, p. 94); and,

finally, its immigration into the Loire near Orleans, by way of

canals, in 1864, has been observed by Capt. Morlet (Journ. Conch.

pp. 309-314). Towards the end of last year the Recorder” (Dr. E.

von Martens) “collected all the facts and observations concerning

the immigration (or rather importation) of this mollusk which had

Bibliographical Notice. 493

come to his notice, but the paper was not published until this year

(Zool. Gart. Frankf. 1865, pp. 50-59, 89-97). Dreissena poly-

morpha is, according to Hr. Merian (/. c.) accompanied by Neritina

fluviatilis in the Upper Rhine, where it never occurred before. The

Recorder is enabled to confirm this by a communication from Prof.

Braun, who says that it was not found in the Rhine near Carlsruhe

some twenty years ago”’ (pp. 191-192).

In the second volume of the ‘ Record,’ pp. 216-217, we have the

following additional particulars on this most interesting subject :—

“Martens, E.v. Hine eingewanderte Muschel. Zoolog. Gart.

Frankf. 1865, pp. 50-59, 89-95. Dreissena polymorpha was not

known in the northern and western halves of Europe some forty

years ago. The numerous treatises on the mollusk-faunas of these

countries published at the close of the past and in the first two

decades of the present century do not mention it. All at once it

was observed for the first time in tributaries of the Baltic, the

Niemen and Weichsel, in the year 1825, in tributaries of the Elbe in

1828, in the terminal branches of the Rhine in 1826, and in England

in 1824. Several direct observations, and the comparison of the

localities and times in which it has been observed for the first time

in the several countries, establish the fact that it has been introduced

into all those parts of Europe, along artificial, navigable canals, by

means of ships or timber, and even across the Channel to England.

The belief that it was observed already towards the close of the past

century in south-western Germany is founded on a very superficial

description of a shell by Sander and contradicted by the negative

evidence given by Prof. Alex. Braun for the years 1824-46, and by

Hr. Gysser for the present time, both agreeing in never having met with

Dreissena in that part of Germany. As regards the rivers near to the

Black and Caspian Seas, no reliable or sufficiently complete record

of their faunas has been preserved from the commencement of this

century; and there is consequently no reason to think that a

recent migration has taken place into the Danube and the rivers of

Southern Russia. At present it inhabits nearly all the tributaries

of the Baltic, the Elbe upwards to Halle, the Rhine upwards to

Huningue, the rivers of northern France, including the Loire, the

British Islands, Hungary, a part of European Turkey, and almost

the whole of Russia. It is very desirable that the attention of

conchologists should be directed to the further advance of this shell,

and that accurate statements should be made as regards the time

at which it first appears in the lists of local faunas, not having been

mentioned by previous accurate observers. This species is really a

freshwater shell; it does not live in the Baltic itself, but only in the

brackish water near the mouths of the rivers. The breakwater

leading to the lighthouse at Swinemtinde, for instance, is occupied

on the river side by Dreissena, on the sea side by Mytilus edulis.

“Hr. Jackel, Hr. C. Staude, and Dr. Fr. Buchenau have con-

tributed further observations on this subject in the same journal,

pp. 196, 228, and 278, in which they state that this shell is found

at present in the Weser and in the Bavarian tributaries of the Main,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 34

494. Miscellaneous.

even in the canal by which the Main has been connected with a

confluent of the Danube; so that Dreissena will shortly be an

inhabitant of the upper and lower portions of the Danube without

being found in the middle part of its course.

‘Prof. E. A. Rossmassler, in his popular journal ‘Aus der Heimath,’

pp. 71-78 and 347-350, alludes to the same subject, principally its

first appearance in Northern Germany, and states that the animal is

able to detach the filaments by which it fixes itself to other objects,

and that it is frequently found attached to the tail of crayfishes.

“Dr. Morch (Ueber Pinna fluviatilis (Sander), Malak. Blatt. il

pp. 110-117) defends his opinion (alluded to in the preceding note),

viz. that a shell described by Sander in the year 1780 from a rivulet

near Carlsruhe, is Dreissena, by an analysis of Sander’s account, and

by the analogous fact that the occurrence of the genus Unio in

Denmark remained unknown to so careful an observer as O. F. Miller

(1773). But we cannot accept this as a very convincing argument,

inasmuch as Unio has been included in all the faunas of the sur-

rounding countries published at that time (of the Baltic provinces,

Russia, North Germany, and England) ; whilst Dreissena is not

mentioned in any of them.

“Hr. A. Gysser (Mal. Blatt. 1865, Literatur-Blatt, p. 38) also

discusses this question. He lives at the place indicated by Sander,

and expresses it as his opinion that the rivulet is a locality unfit for

Dreissena, that Sander’s shell is a Unio batavus, his description

entirely agreeing with specimens from that locality, with regard to

size (two inches) as well as to coloration. A Dreissena of two

inches would be a great rarity.”

MISCELLANEOUS.

Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—In the ‘ Reader’ newspaper for the 24th of March

of this year, Mr. Seeley published a letter containing an abstract of

the paper, then recently read by him, which was published at length

in the last Number of your Journal. After reading Mr. Seeley’s

communication, I wrote to the editor of the ‘Reader’ the following

note, which was published on the 3lst of March :—

** March 27, 1866.

«Sir, —If Mr. Seeley will refer to the ‘ British and Foreign Medico-

Chirurgical Review’ for October 1858, he will find, at the close of a

criticism on Prof. Owen’s ‘ Archetype and Homologies of the Verte-

brate Skeleton,’ a brief outline of the theory that the vertebrate

skeleton is a product of mechanical actions, the effects of which have

been continually accumulated by inheritance.

«The doctrine which I had there space to present in general out-

line only, is more fully worked out in the last number of the ‘ Prin-

ciples of Biology,’ issued in December 1865.

* HERBERT SPENCER.”

Miscellaneous. 495

Mr. Seeley having published his view in the ‘ Reader,’ I concluded

that he would see my letter; but I presume that he has not done so,

since, in his contribution to your last Number, he makes no reference

to the facts alleged in that letter.

Let me add that, while there is identity between Mr. Seeley’s

doctrine and my own, in so far as both ascribe the formation of bone

to tensions and pressures, there is but little community between our

interpretations of the physical process by which tensions and pressures

have produced their effects.

HERBERT SPENCER.

37, Queen’s Gardens, Bayswater,

Noy. 8, 1866.

On the “ Fulcrum” of Calamoichthys.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I shall feel obliged if you can find space in your

valuable Magazine for the following note.

In the abstract of my paper on the new Ganoid Fish from Old

Calabar (Calamoichthys calabaricus), published in the ‘ Annals’ for

August last (No. 104), the word fulcrum has been unfortunately

used, and may lead to a mistake. The anal fin is described as fol-

lows :—‘“‘anal (with fulcrum at base anteriorly) in male large, in

female small, &c.” The fin has a triangularly shaped and thickened

portion, covered with scales, at the anterior base of the fin-rays ;

there are, however, no true fulcral scales or bones. The words

within parentheses had therefore better be deleted. A detailed descrip-

tion of the fish is published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society

of Edinburgh,’ vol. xxiv. part 2

aT am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

Joun Avex. SmirTH.

Edinburgh, Oct. 29, 1866.

The Patagonian Finner. By Dr. BurmMetsTER.

In August last a large Finner Whale was taken at the mouth of

the River Plata, which I thought might be a Sidéaldius; but after

studying the body more exactly, I think it is the same as the Phy-

salus named P. Patachonicus in the Catalogue of Seals and Whales

in the British Museum. I have made a good drawing of the animal;

but the skeleton is lost, because it was impossible to preserve such a

large animal, upwards of 58 feet long, without any assistance of

good workmen, who are entirely wanting in the locality.

On the Phocena communis of the North Sea.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Professor Lilljeborg writes to me that the Porpoise (Phocena

communis) of the North Sea has “the front edges of the dorsal fin

496 Miscellaneous.

finely denticulated near the end ;” so that it appears to be the same as

the species, described by Pliny and figured by Camper, that we have

in the Thames, and which I described under the name of Phocena

tuberculifera. In the last edition of the ‘Catalogue’ (p. 402) I

stated that the species without the spines on the dorsal fin appears to

be very rare; and it is doubtful if it is a distinct form, and if my

name will not have to sink into a synonym.

The Stuffed Whale in the Swedish Museum.

In reply to my inquiry, Professor Lilljeborg observes, ‘ Vous

m’avez prié de vous instruire de la méthode au moyen de laquelle la

Baleenoptére du M. Malm a été conservée. La peau de Ja méme a

été divisée en plusieurs morceaux, et a été depuis étendue sur un

modeéle‘de bois exactement de la méme forme et grandeur que de l’ani-

mal lui-méme. L’épiderme est conservé sur la peau, et il est pour-

tant trés-peu lésé. La couche graisseuse de la peau a sans doute

été trés-menue, autrement |’ épiderme en se desséchant aurait été plus

plein de fentes et de rides quil ne présente maintenant.” —J.E. Gray.

Observations on the Reproduction of the Cecidomyidee.

By F. Mrertnert.

In an article ‘On the Orgin of the Germs in the Larvee of Mias-

tor”? (Naturhist. Tidsskr. ser. 3. vol. ii.) I maintain, in opposition

to the opinion of M. Pagenstecher, that the germs of the larvee ori-

ginate in the adipose tissue. In another paper, entitled “A few

more words on Miastor,” after some remarks upon the formation of

germs in another Cecidomyide larva, and on the formation and de-

velopment of the ovum in animals in general, I more particularly

indicate the relations of the germs to the adipose tissue. Here it

must be remarked that we have to do with two different forms, spe-

cies of two genera differing widely from each other, which have been

the subjects of investigations made by different authors. I have

been fortunate enough to be able to examine both forms; and as I

was the first to classify the Cecidomyide examined by M. Wagner

(Miastor), I have also succeeded in rearing the perfect imsect from

the larva referred to by MM. Pagenstecher and Leuckart, to which

I give the following name and diagnosis :—

Oxicarces. Haustellum nullum; palpi nulli. Tarsi 2-articulati.

Antenne moniliformes, 1l-articulate. Ale costis binis vel ternis

abbreviatis, evanescentibus.

O. paradoxus. Ochraceus, capite atque mesonoto nigrescentibus.

Femina: antennz corpore quadruplo breviores. Ovipositor brevis-

simus. Long. 1°25-1°5 millim. Larva habitat sub cortice populi

gregatim.

The cells which become developed into ova and germs, are usually

in connexion with the adipose tissue, of which they form part; but

whilst this union persists for a certain time in Miastor (Wagner’s

Miscellaneous. 497

larva), these cells, on the contrary, separate speedily to a certain ex-

tent from the adipose tissue in Oligarces (the larva of Pagenstecher

and Leuckart), although they do not, as Leuckart maintains, constitute

a true ovary either in Miastor or in Oligarces. In fact, all the cells

become developed into ova and larvee, and none of them serves for

the formation of the stroma, for the formation of the envelopes of

the ova, or for any other analogous purpose.

In order to explain the peculiarities of these animals, I have en-

deavoured to establish a theory of the formation and development of

the ova in the whole animal kingdom, of which the following is an

abridgemnt.

The ovum is composed either of a single cell, “the germinal cell,”

or of the germinal cell accompanied by several other ‘‘ vitelline cells,”

or by the secretion of the latter, ‘the vitelline mass.’ The ovum

of the Mammalia, and that of most of the inferior animals, belongs to

the first category; that of other animals, and especially that of

Birds, belongs to the second; and that of most Insects to the third

kind. The “germinal cell’? alone, the nucleus of which is the

“germinal vesicle,” is subject to the vitelline segmentation which is

so often discussed. The ‘“‘vitelline cells” and the ‘ vitelline mass”’

are not segmented, but pass, without any other form of development,

into the nutritive vitellus. The germinal cell divides by segmentation

into minute cells (embryonal cells). A portion of these, not absorbed

by the formation of the embryo, furnish material for the new ovaries

and testes, inasmuch as_in general some of the cells form a stroma

which separates and encloses a greater or smaller quantity of the

other cells. The remaining non-separated cells form, in Insects,

what is called the adipose tissue.

A second element, the semen, is necessary in most animals, to en-

able the ovum, or rather the germinal cell of the ovum, to develope

itself; but this stimulus is not always necessary in a great number

of the inferior animals. The development of the ovum without

stimulus or fecundation is by no means dependent upon a certain

more or less advanced point of development of the maternal animal,

or of its ovary ; for sometimes the maternal animal attains a com-

plete development even with external and internal genital characters

(parthenogenesis, as in the bee), sometimes it propagates only in

the state of a larva without genital characters, and this may be re-

peated through several generations, either under the same larval

form (as in our Cecidomyides) or under a different exterior form

(alternate generations or metagenesis—Trematoda). I by no means

assume that there is any well-marked limit between parthenogenesis

and metagenesis; for example, the mode of reproduction in the

Aphides might be explained in both ways.

As compared with other insects, I also regard it as characteristic

that, whilst in general we must make a distinction between the epi-

thelial and vitelline cells, and the latter serve only for the nourish-

ment of the embryo, in the present case the epithelial cells serve at

once as epithelium and as vitelline cells to these larve.

— 498 Miscellaneous.

I have thus given a summary of the principal results of my inves-

tigations, and shall only add that in the first part of my last treatise

I have endeavoured to maintain my diagnosis of Miastor in opposi-

tion to Schiner, Siebold, and Loew. Whatever might appear to be

remarkable in the fact that Miastor had only four joints in the tarsi

and two joints in the palpi, vanishes before the circumstance that

Oligarces has only two joints in the tarsi, and possesses no palpi at

all. Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5. tome vi. pp. 16-18.

A Last Remark on the Generic Name Potamogale.

By Dr. A. GtnrHEr.

Dr. Gray, in a note “ On the Use of the Genus Potamogale,” pub-

lished in the preceding Number of this Journal, p. 426, refers to the

following remark, in which I had expressed my view on the same

subject :—‘‘ Since he [Dr. Gray] has adopted the specific name of

velox, given by Du Chaillu at the same time [as Potamogale|, and

as in this case the generic and specific names refer to the same indi-

vidual specimen, succeeding naturalists have no other choice but to

recognize or to reject both alike” (Zool. Record, ii. p. 33). He

states that “the latter observation is incorrect,’ and “that the

generic name of Potamogale and the specific one of velox do not rest

on the same basis.”

By this time all zoologists interested in the subject must be so

fully acquainted with the history of this case, that the matter might

have been safely left where it stands; however, as Dr. Gray says

that I had come to this conclusion ‘on a very imperfect recollec-

tion of his paper,”’ I must add a few words in further explanation.

In questions of this kind I am guided by a rule which is adopted

by the majority of naturalists, viz. that ‘a name which has never

been clearly defined in some published work should be changed for

the earliest name by which the object shall have been so defined.”

Accordingly I asked myself, would it have been possible for a

zoologist like Dr. Bocage or Prof. Allman to recognize Potamogale

from Du Chaillu’s original description, if the typical specimen (a

mutilated skin, without skull) had been lost. I thought, and am still

inclined to think, that identification would have been, for these

zoologists, impossible or at least a matter of uncertainty, and there-

fore, that the first binomial name given by one of them should have

superseded that proposed by Du Chaillu. In this respect I am so

fortunate as to agree with Dr. Gray when he says, ‘‘ M. du Chaillu’s

description of the Cynogale velox is so incorrect that, if the skin had

not fortunately come into the possession of the British Museum, the

animal must have remained .. . . one of the puzzles of zoologists” (this

Journal, 1865, xvi. p. 426). For this reason I was and am still of

opinion that both names might have been rejected alike, and that a

new binomial name given by Dr. Gray would have been upheld by

all naturalists adhering to the rule quoted above.

But in his last note Dr. Gray states, ‘‘ The animal is described in

Miscellaneous. 499

the paper (of M. du Chaillu), with some details, under the name of

Cynogale velox, quite sufficiently, especially when one has the type

specimen to confirm the description, to establish the specific name

of velox.’ Although this may appear, at first sight, a contradiction of

the previous passage, it is not so in reality, as in the first Dr. Gray

argnes on the assumption of the possible loss of the type specimen,

and in the second this specimen is admitted as an essential item in

the consideration of the matter. Ifthe description, with the addition

of the type specimen, be sufficient to establish the fact that the ani-

mal is swift, and therefore to justify the specific velox, that descrip-

tion with the type specimen was alike sufficient to establish the fact

that it was a river-animal, and therefore to justify the generic

Potamogale; for if a mys be admitted as a generic name for

a carnivorous animal, a gale cannot be rejected for a suspected

Rodent. Dr. Gray draws a line of distinction between the part of

Du Chaillu’s description referring to the species and that referring

to the genus. I need not quote the passage again in which Du

Chaillu justifies his proposal of the genus Potamogale: however

unfortunate his comparison with Cynogale may have been, it im-

_ plied at least that it was a carnivorous mammal; and he appealed to

the shape and proportion of the tail and its West-African habitat.

Surely, many a generic name proposed and adopted by naturalists

has been introduced into the system with less accurate elements of a

generic diagnosis! Look, on the other hand, at his detailed descrip-

tion of the species Cynogale velox: it contains all those errors

pointed out by Dr. Gray; nay, it is even perfectly insufficient as a

specific description, such descriptions requiring considerable detail to

ensure the distinction of a species from its congeners. If the type

specimen had been lost, a succeeding naturalist, who might have re-

cognized the genus Potamogale, would still have been at a loss to

know whether he had to deal with the same species or not. And

yet, although the chances of a recognition would have been more in

favour of the generic than of the specific name, Dr. Gray prefers

to use his advantage of having the type specimen for confirming the

description and name of the species, rather than that of the genus.

It was for these reasons that I stated my opinion that if one name

be adopted, the other cannot be rejected ; and for these same reasons

I now state that the generic name has (ou the merits of the original

description alone) a better right to be adopted than the specific.

If zoologists should ever wnite in the proposed revision of the

“rules of zoological nomenclature,” I shall not regret having been

forced to this discussion, which may induce them to give a share of

their attention to cases like the present.

509

INDEX to VOL. XVIII.

A srazss, new species of, 26.

Acacia dealbata, on the course fol-

lowed by a Fungous mycelium in

the trunk of, 428.

Acmostomum, new species of, 59.

Agaricus, new British species of, 53.

Ahzetulla, new species of, 28.

Alaurina prolifera, observations on,

59.

Aleyopis, description of the new ge-

nus, 484.

Amphibia, on the vision of, 469.

Animals, on the congelation of, 251;

on the domestic, of the 13th and

14th centuries, 257.

Anthers, on the structure of, 138.

Anthophysa Miilleri, on the structure

aud habits of, 429.

Antilocapra, on the position of, in

the system, 323, 401, 468.

Aphides, on the reproduction and

embryogeny of the, 62, 106.

Apyrenium, new British species of, 56.

Arctocephalus Falklandicus, on the

skull of, 99.

Argulidz, on the morphology and

systematic position of the, with de-

scriptions of new species, 149,268,

436.

Argyopes, new species of, 464.

Arius Layardi, description of, 473.

Aroidez, on the structure of the an-

thers in the, 138.

Aspidiotes, new species of, 29.

Atractaspis, new species of, 29,

Ausonia Cuvierl, on the capture of,

near Falmouth, 424.

Baird, S. F., on the mterchange of

birds between America and Eu-

rope, 141.

Balbiani, M., on the reproduction and

embryogeny of the Aphides, 62,

106; on the part played. by the

nucleus in animal cells, 262.

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on British

Fungi, 51, 121.

Blackwall, J., on new species of Afri-

can spiders, 451.

Birds, on some new genera of fossil,

109; on the migration of, 141.

Books, new:—Ramsay’s Geological

Map of England and Wales, 129;

Spence Bate and Westwood’s Ses-

sile-eyed Crustacea, 247; Clark’s

Catalogue of Phytophaga, 248 ;

Annuario della Societa dei Natu-

ralisti mm Modena, 423; Record of

Zoological Literature for 1865, 490.

Boussingault, M., on the action of

foliage, 342.

Bowerbank, Dr., on Hyalonema mi-

rabilis, 397.

Brachiopoda, on the morphology and

affinities of the, 133.

Brandt, H., on the Mammoth, 136.

Broome, C. E., on British Fungi, 51,

12s

Bullmore, Dr. W. K., on the capture

of Ausonia Cuvieri near Falmouth,

424.

Buprestidee, on the classification of

the, 173; 327.

Burmeister, Dr. H., on some Ceta-

ceans, 99; on Glyptodon and its

alhes, 299; on the Patagonian

Finner, 495.

Calamaria, new species of, 25.

Calamelaps, on the new genus, 26.

Calamoichthys, description of the

new genus, 112, 495.

Campanularia, new British species of,

297.

Cantharellus, new British species of,

Castiale, description of the new ge-

nus, 480.

Cecidomyidz, on the reproduction

of the, 496.

Cells, on the part played by the nu-

cleus in animal, 262.

Cetaceans, observations on some, 99,

495, 496.

Cladonia, on a proposed division of

the genus, 105.

Cladoniz of the herbarium of Acha-

rius, on the, 306.

INDEX.

Cladoniei, on the examination and

rearrangement of the, as tested by

hydrate of potash, 405.

Clambus, characters of the genus, 16.

Cloéon, notes on some species of the

genus, 145.

Clos, D., on postfloration, 261.

Codosiga, description of the new ge-

nus, 435.

Coémans, L’Abbé E., on the Acha-

rian Cladoniz, 306.

Conifers, on the homologies of the

male and female flowers of, 212,304.

Corallinez, on the amylaceous glo-

bules of the, 117.

Coryne, new British species of, 296.

Cotton-plant, on afungoid disease of

the, 344.

Couch, J., on the capture of Ausonia

Cuvieri near Falmouth, 424.

Crustacea, on the vascular and ner-

vous apparatus of marme,7; on

the metamorphoses of the, 69.

Ctenus, new species of, 451.

Cuspidella, description of the new

genus, 298,

Cyclea, characters of the genus, 17.

Cynodon, new species of, 30.

Cypripedium candidum, on a regular

dimerous flower of, 341.

Davy, Dr. J., on the congelation of

animals, 251.

Dawkins, W.B., on the dentition of

Rhinoceros leptorhinus, 131.

Delphinus microps, observations on,

101.

Dredging among the Hebrides, re-

port on, 387.

Eaton, A. E., on some species of the

genus Cloéon, 145.

Elaphurus, new species of, 71.

Elateride, on the classification of the,

173, 327.

Entomostraca, on the carboniferous,

Epeira, new species of, 461.

Eresus, new species of, 453.

Eucervus, on the North-American

species of, 338.

Euplectella speciosa, observations on,

487.

Eurysoma, new species of, 465.

Ferania, new species of, 28.

Fischer, P., on a cranium of Ziphius

found at Arcachon, 255.

Fishes, new, 30, 473, 495 ; recent re-

501

searches on the fossil, of Mount

Lebanon, 237 ; on the ovum of

osseous, 249 ; on the vision of, 469.

Floridez, on the amylaceous globules

of the, 117.

Foliage, researches on the action of,

342.

Fossils, new, from the Lower Green-

sand of Bedfordshire, 31, 381.

Fungi, notes on British, 51, 121.

Gasparrini, G., on a malady of the

cotton-plant, 344; on the course

followed by a fungous mycelium in

the living trunk of Acacia dealbata,

328.

Gerbe, Z., on the vascular and ner-

vous apparatus of the marine Crus-

tacea, 7; on the metamorphoses

of the marine Crustacea, 69.

Gleeosporium, new British species of,

121.

Glyptodon and its allies, observations

on, <

Gonothyrea, new British species of,

2o7

Gorybia, description of the new ge-

nus, 481

Gray, Dr. A., on a regular dimerous

flower of Cypripedium candidum,

341.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the skulls of Ota-

riadze in the British Museum, 228 ;

on Hyalonema, 287, 397, 485; —

on the Pronghorn Buck and its

position in the system, 323, 468 ;

on the Long-eared Deer of North

America, 338; on the genus Pota-

mogale, 426; on Venus’s Flower-

basket, 487; on the Phocena

communis of the North Sea, 495.

Giinther, Dr. A., on new species of

snakes in the collection of the

British Museum, 24; on some

new fishes from the river Amazons,

30; on West-African species of

Hemirhamphus, 427; on a new

Siluroid fish from Ceylon, 473; ~

on the genus Potamogale, 498.

Gymnetrus Banksii, note on the cap-

ture of, 136.

Gyropeltis, on the species of, 444.

Haeckel, Prof., on fossil Medusz,

344.

Halmaturus, new species of, 322.

Halopithys, on the amylaceous glo-

bules of, 117.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 35

502

Helotium, new British species of, 127.

Hemiptera, on the organs of secre-

tion in the, 427.

Hemirhamphus,

species of, 427.

Herpetiethiops, characters of the new

genus, 27.

Hesse, M., on a new parasitic Crus-

tacean, 73.

Hincks, Rev. T., on new British Hy-

droida, 296; on Ophiodes, a new

genus of Hydroida, 421.

Hogg, J., on the capture of Gymne-

trus Banksii near Whitby, 136.

Humbert, A., on the fossil fishes of

Mount Lebanon, 237.

Hyalonema, observations on, 287,

397, 485; on the existence of, in a

fossil state, 404.

Hydroida, on new British, 296, 421.

Hymenoptera, on the development

and position of the, 82.

Hyvrtl, Prof., on the lateral canal of

Lota, 264.

Insects, on the morphology of, 82.

James-Clark, Prof. H., on the affini-

ties of Peridinium Cypripedium

and Urocentrum Turbo, 2; on the

structure and habits of Anthophysa

Miilleri, 429.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, on dredging among

the Hebrides, 387 ; on a new spe-

cies of Montacuta, 396.

Jones, T.R., on the paleozoic bi-

valved Entomostraca, 32.

Jussizea repens, on the synonymy and

geographical distribution of, 340.

Kirkby, J. W., on the palzozoie bi-

valved Entomostraca, 32.

Krefft, G., on the dentition of Thy-

lacoleo carnifex, 148.

Kiinckel, J., on the organs of secre-

tion in the Hemiptera, 427.

Lacaze-Duthiers, H., on the morpho-

logy and affinities of the Brachio-

poda, 133.

Lecidea, new British species of,

103.

Leighton, Rev. W. A., Notule Li-

chenologice, by the, 23, 103, 169,

306, 405; on a new locality for

Scheuchzeria palustris, 338; on

the examination andrearrangement

of the Cladoniei, 405.

Leposphilus, on the characters and

habits of the new genus, 73.

on West-African

INDEX.

Lichens, descriptions of new, 23, 103,

on new chemical tests for, 169, 405.

Limozota, description of the new ge-

nus, 482.

Linyphia, new species of, 460.

Lota, on the lateral canal of, 264.

Lycophidium, new species of, 29.

M‘Coy, Prof. F., on a new species of

Halmaturus, 322; on some new

species of fossil Volutes, 375.

Macrornis, new species of, 110.

een observations on the genus,

ay fi

Mammoth, observations on the, 136.

Martes, new species of, 286.

Martins, C., on the synonymy and

geographical distribution of Jus-

sizea repens, 340.

Mecznikow, E., on the Rhabdoccela,

57; on the development of the

Myzostoma, 339.

Medusz, on fossil, 344.

Meek, F. B., on the microscopic

shell-structure of Spirifer cuspida-

tus, 144.

Megatheroid animals, on the disco-

very of the dermal shield in, 137.

Meiert, F., on the reproduction of

the Cecidomyide, 496.

Ea ate on the genera of the,

Menobranchus, notes on the genus

and its natural affinities, 363.

Mephritus, description of the new

genus, 479.

Miers, J., on the Menispermacee, 12.

Milne-Edwards, A., on the Mi-lou or

Sseu-pou-siang from the north of

China, 71.

Montacuta, new species of, 396.

Murray, A., on the homologies of the

male and female flowers of Coni-

fers, 212, 304; on the habits of

the Prisopi, 265.

ee ene on the development of,

339,

Nototherium Mitchellii, on an upper

incisor of, 475.

Notule Lichenologicz, 23, 103, 169,

306, 405.

Nylander, Dr. W., on three new spe-

cies of Thelocarpon, 23; on new

British Lichens, 103; on two new

chemical tests for Lichens, 169.

Oligarces, description of the new ge-

nus, 496.

IND EX. 503

Ophiodes, description of the new ge-

nus, 421.

Orca, new species of, 101.

Otariade, notes on the skulls of

some, 228,

Owen, Prof., on an upper incisor of

Nototherium Mitchelli, 475.

Oysters, on green, 221.

Packard, Dr. A.S., on the develop-

ment and position of the Hymeno-

ptera, 82.

Parfitt, E., on a new species of ma-

rine worm, 1; on two new species

of freshwater Polyzoa, 171; on

some Zoophytes of Devonshire,

426.

Pascoe, F. P., on Sphzerion and Mal-

locera, 477.

Peltidea venosa, on the cephalodia

in, 104.

Peraphora, characters of the genus,

20.

Perichasma, characters of the genus,

21.

Peridinium Cypripedium and Uro-

centrum Turbo, on the affinities

of, 2.

Peziza, new British species of, 122.

/. Phenacia, on a new British species

of, il

Phoczena communis, note on, 495.

Pholas, new species of, 386.

Physalus Patachonicus, note on, 495.

Pictet, F. J., on the fossil fishes of

Mount Lebanon, 237.

Plants, on the domestic, of the 13th

and 14th centuries, 257.

Plateau, F., on the vision of fishes

and Amphibia, 469.

Pleuronectide, on the, 72.

Plumatella, new British species of,

eas

Polyzoa, on two new species of fresh-

water, 171.

Postfloration, observations on, 261.

Potamogale, on the genus, 426,

498.

Prisopi, on the habits of the, 265.

Prostomum lineare, on the organiza-

tion of, 57.

Protolyeosa anthracophila, note on,

428.

Protozoa, on a new genus of, 435.

Psilonia, new British species of, 122.

Psyrassa, description of the new ge-

nus, 481.

Ransom, Dr. W. H., on the ovum of

osseous fishes, 249.

Reinhardt, Prof., on the discovery

of the dermal shield in Megathe-

roid animals, 137.

Reticularia, new British species of,

56.

Rhabdoccela, on the, 57.

Rhinoceros leptorhinus, on the denti-

tion of, 131.

Rhysium, description of the new ge-

nus, 483.

Reemer, Dr. F., on a fossil Spider

from the Coal-formation, 428.

Rogers, J. E. T., on the domestic

animals and plants of the 13th and

14th centuries, 257.

Royal Society, proceedings of the,

131, 249.

Salticus, new species of, 455.

Scheuchzeria palustris, new locality

for, 338.

Schiodte, Prof. J. C., on the classifi-

cation of Buprestide and Elate-

ride, 173, 327.

Selater, Dr. P. L., on the systematic

position of the Pronghorn, 401.

Seeley, H., on some new genera of

fossil birds, 109; on the fossils of

the Carstone formation, 111; on

a theory of the skull and the ske-

leton, 345.

Sertularia, new British species of, 298.

Shaughnessy, A. W. KE. O’, on green

oysters, 221.

Skull and skeleton, outline of a

theory of the, 345, 494.

Smith, Dr. J. A., on a new genus of

Ganoid Fish from Old Calabar,

112, 495.

Snakes, new species of, 24.

Sparassus, new species of, 457.

Spencer, H., on a theory of the skull

and the skeleton, 494.

Spermogonia, on the value of, as a

distinctive character, 105.

Spheera, new species of, 386.

Spheeria, new British species of, 128.

Spherion, new species of, 478.

Sphasus, new species of, 452.

Spider, on a fossil, from the Coal-

formation, 428.

Spiders, new, from Equatorial Africa,

Spirifer cuspidatus, on the micro-

scopic shell-structure of, 144.

504

Sporidesmium, new British species of,

‘

Steenstrup, J., on the structure of

the branchial cavity of the Zeugo-

pteri, 72.

Stephania, characters of the genus,

13.

Suess, Prof. E., on the existence of

Hyalonema im a fossil state, 404.

Swinhoe, R., on a new species of

Martes, 286.

Taylor, Rev. R., on the habits of

Zosterops dorsalis, 140.

Tetragnatha, new species of, 467.

Tetragonopterus, new species of, 30.

Thelocarpon, new species of, 23.

Theridion, new species of, 458.

Thomisus, new species of, 456.

Thorell, T., on the morphology and

systematic position of the Argulide,

149, 268, 436.

Thylacoleo carnifex, on the dentition

of, 148.

Tieghem, M. van, on the amylaceous

globules of the Floridez and Co-

rallinez, 117; on the structure of

the anthers in the Aroidez, 138.

INDEX.

Traquair, Dr. R. H., on the anatomy

of Calamoichthys, 114.

Trichia, new British species of, 56.

Tursio Eurynome, note on, 100.

Unger, Prof., on the organic bodies

contained in ancient Egyptian

bricks, 141.

Urocentrum Turbo and Peridinium

Cypripedium, on the affinities of,

Van der Hoeven, J., on the genus

Menobranchus and its natural affi-

nities, 363.

Verrucaria, new British species of,

104.

Volutes, new species of fossil, 375.

Walker, J. F., on some Lower-Green-

sand fossils, 31, 381.

Whales, notes on some, 495.

Zamenis, new species of, 27.-

Zeugopteri, on the structure of the

branchial cavity of the, 72.

Ziphius, on a cranium of, 255.

Zoophytes of Devonshire, additions

to the, 426.

Zosterops dorsalis, on the habits of,

140.

END OF THE EIGHTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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