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Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and

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Koun, A. J. 19606. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of

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(continued inside back cover)

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM

Volume 100 Band

February 1991 Februarie

Part 1 Deel

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA

(MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA

BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION

OF THE ORDER

MICHAEL R. COOPER

Cape Town Kaapstad

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D43

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA)

FROM THE ALGOA BASIN,

WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER

MICHAEL R. COOPER

Department of Geology, University of Durban-Westville, Natal

(With 25 figures)

[MS accepted 8 October 1989]

ABSTRACT

The diversity of trigonioid bivalves makes their assignment to a single family inappropriate.

On phyletic grounds it is proposed to recognize the suborders Trigoniina and Myophorellina

nov. to include the superfamilies Myophoriacea Bronn, Trigoniacea Lamarck, Myophorellacea

Kobayashi, and Megatrigoniacea van Hoepen. In addition, the following new taxa are

introduced: family Gruenewaldiidae, subfamily Steinmanellinae, tribe Heterotrigoniini, and

genera Skwarkoella and Lambertiella.

The late Valanginian trigonias of the Sundays River Formation, last reviewed as a group in

1908, are revised and shown to comprise 11 species in seven genera (Trigonia, Myophorella,

Steinmanella, Iotrigonia, Megatrigonia, Pisotrigonia and Pterotrigonia). These taxa represent six

subfamilies in four families.

CONTENTS

PAGE

JURIST ROYCHULCN SION es cece Minnetnrcer usa Sane cunt Mteute ns agin bn oe aint nas ca eee 1

Gc Ol ORN eae a rr ee alent, A oaths o oeeuminnty GER the a SrA ae oe tue Ca) gf Pet 2

Systematicmalacontolopyi eee cece oo fuente tonal cme eee 3

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Supentannly;Wiyoplorellaccar. es: Goes tiie Micka oe een ee ee 9

SupeniamuiulyaWlegatnigomiacean 0 4.)92.00 4. 9) aes ei ance a ed 24

ENCKNOWICE SEMEN ae er euN teehee Cantos.) Sache lela towmuidhartees 48

I PNSWSIRETINS Sip aya pene me ae tees st re wen aie. BABE gle 48

INTRODUCTION

The trigonioid bivalves comprise a generally highly ornate group of infaunal

burrowers that dominated Mesozoic shallow-marine environments. They display

a bewildering and unsurpassed diversity of morphology that, because of a strong

substrate control, involves rampant homoeomorphy and parallel evolution.

Relationships have been further obscured by a general failure to appreciate that

in each region evolution occurred in isolation for long periods of time,

punctuated by periodic regional interchange (at times of high sea-level) and

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (1), 1991: 1-52, 25 figs.

Z ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

faunal replenishment. As a result, although there are general similarities

between the trigonioid faunas of different regions, species are almost invariably

endemic and are descended from and most closely related to species from the

same region. Consequently, a conservative taxonomy (cf. Cox 1969) and

attempts to apply a few well-established names to taxa from different regions

has served merely to obscure and confuse the phylogeny of the group, and to

mask one of the great radiations in the animal world.

Trigonioid bivalves are particularly well represented in the Sundays River

Formation of the Uitenhage Group (Goldfuss 1837; Krauss 1843; Sharpe 1856;

Holub & Neumayr 1881; Kitchin 1908; Pringle 1960; Cooper 1979a). This fauna

was last revised as a group in 1908, when only the genus Trigonia was recog-

nized, and it is now in need of modern revision. This is all the more desirable

given the major changes in trigonioid classification and nomenclature over the

past 20 years.

The South African Museum holds large collections of trigonias from this

formation. These include the material described by Kitchin (1908), the early

Geological Survey collections, and subsequent collections made by the late E.

C. N. van Hoepen and the writer. There are also small collections in the Port

Elizabeth Museum, the Albany Museum, and the University of Zimbabwe,

which the writer has studied. .

The repositories of material cited herein are as follows:

AM = Albany Museum, Grahamstown

PEM = Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth

SAM = South African Museum, Cape Town.

GEOLOGY

The Cretaceous deposits of the Algoa Basin are assigned to the Uitenhage

Group. At the base are fanglomerates and coarse fluviatile clastics of the Enon

Formation. These grade vertically and laterally into finer clastics of the Kirk-

wood Formation, deposited by high-sinuosity streams in a marginally marine

environment. A marine tongue of the Infanta Shale, known as the Colchester

Member, is intercalated within the Kirkwood Formation and reflects earliest |

Cretaceous transgression. The occurrence of the Berriasian belemnite Belem-

nopsis gladiator Willey, in the Algoa Basin (Willey 1973; Cooper 1981) may

serve to date this intercalation. The Sundays River Formation rests with toplap

relationship and basin-margin disconformity on the Kirkwood. It is a strongly

transgressive marine unit of richly fossiliferous mudstones, siltstones and fine-

grained sandstones deposited in an intertidal to littoral situation (Shone 1976).

The ammonite fauna, dominated by Olcostephanus, with occasional Distoloce-

ras, Neohoploceras, Partschiceras, Eodesmoceras, Bochianites and Umgazani-

ceras (Cooper 1981, 1983), indicates a latest Valanginian age for surface

exposures, though Hauterivian microfossils are reported from the subsurface

(McLachlan & McMillan 1979).

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 3

SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY

Order TRIGONIOIDA Dall, 1889

Discussion

If taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, it is clear that the current subdivision of

the Trigoniidae into as many as 19 subfamilies is inappropriate. It implies that

this evolutionary radiation is devoid of phyletic lines and that no two subfamilies

are more closely related to each other than to any other subfamily. This is

spurious. On phylogenetic grounds these subfamilies are here distributed

among two suborders and four superfamilies (Fig. 1).

Myophorellacea

Megatrigoniacea

Myophoriacea

Trigoniacea

Fig. 1. Hypothesized relationships among the proposed superfamilies of Trigonioida. Charac-

ter states: 1 = prominent marginal carina,« myophorian hinge, radial ornament to area

subordinate to transverse ornament; 2 = hinge trigonian, radial ornament to area predominant;

3 = marginal carina relatively fine, nodate, area with transverse ornament, flank costae

predominantly nodate, mostly oblique or V-shaped; 4 = escutcheon carina generally obsolete

and marginal carina commonly restricted to umbonal region, shell often pyriform or posteriorly

rostrate, also somewhat produced and often inflated anteriorly.

Suborder TRIGONIINA Dall, 1889

Discussion

Since strict application of the phylogenetic principles of Hennig (1966) leads

to almost as many supraspecific taxa as there are species, the writer prefers a

more utilitarian approach in which paraphyly is preferred to a burgeoning and

unwieldy higher taxonomy. Consequently, the suborder Trigoniina is here held

to comprise the superfamilies Myophoriacea and Trigoniacea.

4 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Superfamily MYOPHORIACEA Bronn, 1849

(nom. transl. herein ex family Myophoriidae Bronn, 1849)

Diagnosis |

Generally small to medium-sized trigonioids with prosogyrous beaks, rarely

orthogyrous or opisthogyrous. Dentition myophorian or schizodian, with smooth

or weakly ribbed teeth. Main tooth of left valve opithsocline, simple or bilobed;

two main teeth of right valve asymmetrical, posterior one generally longer and

narrower. Additional teeth may be present in left valve, on one or both sides of

main tooth, whereas additional relatively weak teeth may also be present

anteriorly in right valve. Myophorous buttress generally weak or absent; pallial

line distinct, mostly entire. Area not usually discriminated ornamentally from

flank. Age: Upper Silurian—Triassic.

Discussion

Although Myophoriacea are absent from the present fauna, they are dis-

cussed because of their relevance to the revised classification presented here.

The superfamily comprises the following taxa: Schizodidae (Schizodinae and

Eoschizodinae), Scaphellinidae, Myophoriidae, Pachycardiidae (Pachycardiinae

and Eoastartinae), and Minetrigoniidae (including Costatoriidae).

Superfamily TRIGONIACEA Lamarck, 1819

Diagnosis

Umbones orthogyrous to opisthogyrous, rarely prosogyrous; escutcheon

usually present; bipartite area and flank differently ornamented in most genera;

respiratory margin obliquely truncate or subtruncate; left valve with broad

median tooth, strongly concave to deeply emarginate below in most genera;

posterior left tooth marginal, weak or obscure; anterior left tooth moderately

strong; right valve with two subequal, more-or-less symmetrically divergent

teeth not borne on hinge plate; anterior marginal tooth very obscure in some

species; main teeth with strong transverse ridges except in a few primitive forms;

anterior myophorous buttress generally well developed.

Discussion

At present this superfamily comprises the families Gruenewaldiidae fam.

nov., Trigoniidae (Pleurotrigoniinae and Trigoniinae), Neotrigoniidae (nom.

transl. herein ex subfamily Neotrigoniinae Kobayashi) (Nototrigoniinae and

Neotrigoniinae) and Prosogyrotrigoniidae (Praegoniinae and Prosogyrotrigonii- ,

nae) (Fig. 2).

The most primitive trigoniaceans are assigned to the family Gruenewaldii-

dae nov., in which the hinge is myophorian, with only partially striated teeth,

and the areal ornament is predominantly transverse (Newell & Boyd 1975). At

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 5

Gruenewaldiidae

Neotrigoniinae

Nototrigoniinae

Pleurotrigoniinae

Prosogyrotrigoniinae

Trigoniinae

ie Praegoniinae

Fig. 2. Hypothesized relationships within the superfamily Trigoniacea. Character states:

‘1 = shell trigonal with prominent marginal carina and escutcheon, flank costae concentric,

radial ornament to area subordinate to transverse ornament, hinge myophorian; 2 = hinge tri-

gonian, area with radial ornament, at least in nepionic stages; 3 = shell ovate, marginal carina

obsolete, beaks prosogyrous; 4 = area with concentric ornament; 5 = antecarinal sulcus very

broad, shallow; 6 = area very broad, flanks wholly or partly with radial costae; 7 = marginal

carina and ornament to area restricted to nepionic stages, flank costae terminate at antero-

lateral shoulder in prominent tubercles.

present only Gruenewaldia and Lyriomyophoria are assigned here and both are

very small.

The trigonian hinge (Newell & Boyd 1975) first appeared in the mid-Triassic,

derived from the gruenewaldiid condition. Almost immediately there was a

fundamental dichotomy into the Trigoniidae and Prosogyrotrigoniidae. Whereas

the latter taxon preserves the primitive condition of prosogyrous beaks, a pre-

dominantly transversely ornamented area (in all but Praegonia), and a weak

hinge with the main tooth of the left valve ungrooved, the loss of the prominent

marginal carina and the generally trigonally ovate to suborbicular shape, with

rounded respiratory margin, are derived characters. The Trigoniidae, on the

other hand, preserve the pronounced marginal carina of Gruenewaldia while

accentuating the radial costation of the area. Their conspicuously striated main

teeth and orthogyrous to opisthogyrous beaks are derived characters.

The Neotrigoniidae evolved from the Trigoniidae in the late Jurassic

(Nakano 1970) by broadening and shallowing of the antecarinal sulcus. The

6 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

primitive subfamily Nototrigoniinae Skwarko, 1963 (including the Austrotrigo-

niinae Skwarko, 1968), is widely distributed in the Australasian Realm and is

descended from Opisthotrigonia. The link between the Nototrigoniinae and

Neotrigoniinae is provided by the late Cretaceous Mesotrigonia (Freneix 1958;

Fleming 1964). Even should Mesotrigonia prove to be based upon juvenile Paci-

trigonia (Nakano 1961), its ornament is sufficiently similar to that of Eotrigonia

to support a phyletic relationship. Additional evidence is the predominantly

Australasian distribution of both the Nototrigoniinae and the Neotrigoniinae.

Darragh (1986) has recently suggested derivation of Eotrigonia from Neocomian

species such as Trigonia vertistriata Skwarko and T. marumbiana Skwarko, via

the late Cretaceous T. miriana Skwarko. The writer is unaware of any Senonian

Trigonia s.s. and the long time gap between the last appearance of Trigonia

(?Cenomanian) and the first appearance of Eotrigonia (Palaeocene) makes such

a phylogeny untenable. Trigonia miriana differs substantially from all other 77i-

gonia species in its small, inflated, quadrate shell with subterminal umbones, its

steeply inclined, shallowly excavate escutcheon with faint radial costellae, its

broad area that is wider than the flank, and in having pustulose flank costae that

terminate posteriorly in a low node at the smooth antecarinal sulcus (Skwarko

1963). These differences warrant generic separation and 7. miriana Skwarko is

here designated type species of Skwarkoella gen. nov. It is believed to be a

member of the Nototrigoniinae. :

Contrary to Newell & Boyd (1975), the writer believes that radially orna-

mented Permo-Triassic forms such as Costatoria, Procostatoria and Minetrigonia

are unrelated to Neotrigonia, and that the similarities are due to convergence.

This is supported by the long time gap between the last appearance of Minetri-

goniidae and the first appearance of Neotrigoniinae.

Family Trigoniidae Lamarck, 1819

Diagnosis

Trigonal to rhomboidal, very inequilateral trigoniaceans; dentition trigo-

nian, with conspicuously striated main teeth; escutcheon prominent; broad area

with obliquely truncate respiratory margin; posterodorsal margin straight; flank

ornament nontuberculate, subconcentric; carinae prominent, generally persist-

ing to maturity, with prominent antecarinal sulcus; area typically with radial

ornament, but in some may become smooth in maturity.

Discussion

As restricted here, the family Trigoniidae comprises only the nominate sub-

family and the Pleurotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, in which the very narrow

escutcheon is unornamented, the marginal carina becomes obsolete in maturity,

the radial costellae to the area are restricted to the nepionic stages, and the flank

costae bear a tubercle at the anterolateral shoulder.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN i!

Subfamily Trigoniinae Lamarck, 1819

Diagnosis |

Small to moderately large trigoniids; umbones well developed; carinae and

radial costellae to area persisting to maturity; marginal carina corded; antecari-

nal groove variable, often restricted to left valve.

Genus Trigonia Brugiére, 1789

Type species. Venus sulcata Hermann, 1781; ICZN Opinion 327 (1955).

Diagnosis

Escutcheon with radial ornament; flank costae terminating at the antecari-

nal sulcus or marginal carina.

Discussion

Neuquenitrigonia Leanza & Garate (1987) has transverse costellae to the

escutcheon, whereas Guineana Skwarko, 1967, has flank costae that continue on

to the area to produce cancellate ornament. The Upper Triassic Heslingtonia,

which is here elevated to generic status, differs from Trigonia in the effacement

of costae from the posterior part of the flank, and in the fine radial sculpture of

the area and narrow escutcheon (Fleming 1987). Given the vast number of Tri-

gonia §.8. species now known, if taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, current

perceptions of the genus are too broad and this taxon requires further phylo-

genetic subdivision.

Trigonia tatei Neumayr, 1882

igse3

Trigonia cassiope d’Orbigny. Tate, 1867: 158. Lycett, 1877: 172.

Trigonia tatei Neumayr (in Holub & Neumayr), 1881: 275, pl. 2 (fig. 3). Kitchin, 1908: 125.

Lambert, 1944: 371.

non Trigonia (Trigonia) aff. tatei Neumayr. Rennie, 1947: 58, pl. 2 (figs 11-13) (= Trigo-

nia sp.).

Type

By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by

Neumayr (in Holub & Neumayr 1881, pl. 2 (fig. 3)).

Material

A total of 22 specimens were examined: SAM-—4646, D1876 (2 specimens),

D1881-—82, D1893 (9 specimens), D1896, D1932 and D1973 (2 specimens), as

well as 4 unnumbered specimens also in the South African Museum collections.

Description

Shell medium sized (maximum length about 70 mm), trigonally ovate,

elongate (H/L = 0,71-0,73), with moderately elevated umbones situated about

8 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 3. Trigonia tatei (Sharpe). A-C. Dorsal (x 1 and xX 2) and lateral views of an unnum-

bered right valve in the South African Museum. Note the absence of an antecarinal sulcus.

D-E. SAM-D1876, a right valve. D. Lateral view showing obliquity and crowding of flank

costae anteriorly. E. Dorsal view of umbonal region, x 2. Note the beaded radial costellae to

the escutcheon which curve to meet the dorsal commissure. F. Lateral view of an unnumbered

left valve in the South African Museum, xX 1. Note the distinct antecarinal sulcus.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 9

one-quarter of the shell length from the anterior and weakly inturned, opistho-

gyrous beaks. The valves are moderately weakly inflated (W/H = 0,28-—0,33),

with an almost straight posterodorsal margin at right angles to the broadly

convex anterior margin. The ventral margin is broadly convex and the moder-

ately short respiratory margin obliquely truncate.

The escutcheon is lanceolate, slightly more than half the shell length, and is

ornamented with radial rows of fine tubercles that, on D1876, curve inward to

meet the commissure. The trigonal area is relatively narrow and almost flat. It is

ornamented by finely beaded radial costellae, one of which corresponds to the

escutcheon carina. There is no median groove to the area. The marginal carina

is marked by a prominent rib that thickens posteriorly and is crossed by growth

lirae that give it a scaly corded appearance.

The flanks are ornamented with up to 28 pronounced, subconcentric costae

that are slightly narrower than the interspaces on the posterior half of the shell.

In maturity, the ribs flex slightly upwards anteriorly, becoming slightly oblique,

crowded and broader than the interspaces. Posteriorly the ribs terminate against

the marginal carina of the right valve, but there is a narrow antecarinal sulcus to

the left.

Discussion

Rennie (1947) compared material from the Lower Aptian of southern

Mogambique with this species, but it differs in being slightly more elongate, with

a more convex anterior margin, and in having maximum downward convexity of

the flank costae more anterior than in Uitenhage material. It probably rep-

resents a new species.

Occurrence

Trigonia tatet Neumayr is known with certainty only from the Upper

Valanginian of south-east Africa, where it is an uncommon element of the

faunas.

Suborder MYOPHORELLINA nov.

Discussion

This monophyletic suborder is here held to comprise the superfamilies Myo-

phorellacea and Megatrigoniacea.

Superfamily MYOPHORELLACEA Kobayashi, 1954

(nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954)

Diagnosis

Small to very large trigonioids, suborbicular to ovate, trigonal and subquad-

rate; strongly inequilateral; posteriorly produced, with subterminal umbones;

marginal and inner carinae prominently nodate, generally persisting to maturity;

10 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

area broad, typically with transverse ornament and longitudinal groove often

marked by row of nodes; respiratory margin generally broadly truncate; escut-

cheon smooth, nodate, or with transverse ornament; flank ribs primitively

subconcentric and entire but mostly strongly oblique and nodate, in derived

forms may form chevrons.

Discussion

This superfamily comprises the families Frenguelliellidae (Frenguelliellinae

and Laevitrigoniinae) with subconcentric, more or less entire, flank costation,

Myophorellidae (Myophorellinae and Steinmanellinae subfam. nov.) with

obliquely nodate flank costation, and the derived Vaugoniidae (Vaugoniinae

and Quadratotrigoniinae) with nodate, V-shaped flank costae. The Frenguelliel-

linae (Fig. 4) preserve the primitive condition of subconcentric flank costae and

Soe

Steinmanellinae

0) Laevitrigoniinae

a Frenguelliellinae

Myophorellinae

Vaugoniinae

Quadratotrigoniinae

Fig. 4. Hypothesized relationships within the Myophorellacea. Character states: 1 = flank

costae subconcentric, beaded inner and marginal carinae which persist to maturity, escutcheon

smooth, area with fine transverse ornament; 2 = antecarinal sulcus virtually obsolete; nodose

flank costae oblique, escutcheon sometimes with transverse costellae, longitudinal furrow to

area often delimited by row of nodes; 3 = flank costae form chevrons near umbo; 4 = large, .

massive, carinae breaking up into rows of nodes or becoming obsolete in maturity, area often

with transverse growth rugae in maturity; 5 = large, massive, carinae replaced by prominent

nodes, longitudinal furrow delimited by prominent nodes, escutcheon with radial rows of

nodes, area with transverse growth rugae in maturity, comprises Quadratotrigonia homoeo-

morphs; 6 = shell ovate, very broad antecarinal sulcus shallow and unornamented, weak

irregular flank costae commonly pustulose or with oblique rows of pustules.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 11

prominent antecarinal sulcus, linking it to ancestral trigoniaceans, but have the

myophorelline synapomorphies of nodate marginal and escutcheon carinae,

smooth escutcheon and transversely ornamented area, whereas the ribs in some,

e.g. Jaworskiella, show a tendency to become nodate. The Laevitrigoniinae

Saveliev, 1958, are frenguellielline descendants in which the subconcentric flank

costation is irregularly nodate and the antecarinal sulcus is very wide and

- shallow. The Myophorellinae are frenguelliellid descendarits in which the flank

costae are oblique in maturity and ornamented with conspicuous nodes.

Jaworskiella is an intermediate stage. The Steinmanellinae subfam. nov. are

myophorelline descendants that evolved in parallel with the Quadratotrigonii-

nae. The latter are derived from Vaugoniinae that evolved from Myophorellinae

by the development of V-shaped flank costae in the early and middle growth

stages.

Family Myophorellidae Kobayashi, 1954

(nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954)

Diagnosis

Myophorellaceans with generally conspicuously nodate flank costae that are

subconcentric near the umbo, commonly becoming strongly oblique in maturity.

Subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954

Diagnosis

Small to moderately large myophorellids; trigonally ovate to suborbicular;

escutcheon smooth or transversely ornamented; area with fine transverse costel-

lae; costae oblique over much of flank, often discontinuous anteroventrally or

joined by intercalatories.

Discussion

Morphologically the most primitive myophorelline is Jbotrigonia Kobayashi

(in Kobayashi & Tamura, 1957), which preserves subconcentric flank costae that

are broken up unevenly into tubercles, and with an irregularly serrated marginal

carina. Although it has been included (Poulton 1979) in the synonymy of Myo-

Phorella, Cox (1969) and Hirsch (1980) are followed in regarding it a valid

taxon.

Pseudomyophorella Nakano, 1961, stands in the same relationship to Myo-

Phorella as Paranditrigonia does to Anditrigonia and Arabitrigonia to Scabro-

trigonia. It is here considered a valid genus within the Myophorellinae

characterized by radial costellae to the area. Scaphotrigonia Dietrich, 1933, is a

widely recognized genus within the Myophorellinae, characterized by its nearly

straight flank costae, enlarged nodes to the anterolateral shoulder, and short

subhorizontal costae to the flat anterior face.

2 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Genus Myophorella Bayle, 1878

| Type species. Trigonia nodulosa Bayle (= T. nodulosa Lamarck, 1801); by

the subsequent designation of Crickmay (1932).

Diagnosis

Escutcheon smooth; area relatively broad, with or without nodes demar-

cating the longitudinal furrow; marginal carina persisting to maturity; flank

costae evenly curved, nodes predominating, without greatly enlarged nodes or

intercalatories anteriorly.

Discussion

Within Myophorella it is possible to recognize several subgenera:

M. (Myophorella)—escutcheon smooth; flank costae distinctly curved, essen-

tially uninterrupted, with prominent nodes.

M. (Promyophorella)—\ike Myophorella, but with ribbing dominant and fine

tuberculation.

M. (Scaphogonia)—like Promyophorella, but with a vertical row of enlarged

nodes on the anterolateral shoulder and anterior ribs that are separated by a gap

from the flank ribs; apparently endemic to North America.

M. (Clavotrigonia)—like Myophorella but relatively large, subtrigonal; anterior

face almost straight, with subangular anteroventral margin; flank costae distant,

weakly curved, not crowded dorsally, meeting the marginal carina almost at

right angles, or with a very short, strongly upcurved taper; a predominantly

Tethyan subgenus.

Although Scaphogonia was treated as a strict synonym of Myophorella by

Cox (1969) and Poulton (1979), the latter worker observed that its diagnostic

characters serve ‘. . . to distinguish these (North American) species from nearly

all otherwise similar Middle and Late Jurassic European Myophorella species’

(p. 27). On this basis Scaphogonia is retained as a valid subgenus of Myopho-

rella, apparently endemic to North America. Similarly, there are a host of

European Myophorella species that are closer to the type of Clavotrigonia (of

which Clavitrigonia Leanza, 1942, is a junior objective synonym) than they are

to the type of Myophorella s.s. The subgenus M. (Clavotrigonia) is here applied —

to this predominantly Tethyan group.

Although Haidaia Crickmay, 1930, has been rejected (Cox 1952, 1969;

Poulton 1979) as a junior objective synonym of Myophorella, it was regarded as

subgenerically distinct by Leanza (1981) and Leanza & Garate (1987). The type

species, M. dawsoni (Whiteaves) was redescribed by Poulton (1979: 33, pl. 1

(figs 12-21), pl. 2 (figs 1-4)) and the writer concurs that its features are essen-

tially those of Myophorella s.s.

The taxonomic position of the mid-Jurassic Awadia Hirsch, 1980, is cur-

rently uncertain. It is assumed to be a myophorellacean that, in its broad, radial,

nontuberculate flank costae and smooth area, is convergent toward the Pterotri-

goniinae.

ks ee eT Ne ne as

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 13

There are, however, still many species of Myophorella that do not fit com-

fortably into any of the above taxa (cf. Leanza & Garate 1987) and the species

to be described below is one of these. Until a major phylogenetic study of the

Myophorellinae is undertaken, the writer hesitates to apply a new subgeneric

name to the present species.

Myophorella first appeared in the Lias and attained a cosmopolitan distri-

_ bution in the later Jurassic, becoming extinct in the Hauterivian.

Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979

Fig. 5

Myophorella (Myophorella) oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979a: 22, fig. 1.

Types

The holotype, SAM—PCU5941 (RO-300), together with four paratypes, all

of which are in the South African Museum, Cape Town, as well as SAM—D1875

(2 specimens).

Description

Shell small (maximum length about 60 mm), trigonally ovate, longer than

high (H/L = 0,79), moderately inflated (W/H = 0,42), and somewhat produced

posteriorly. Umbones subterminal, elevated, with moderately inturned, opistho-

gyrous beaks. Posterodorsal margin shallowly concave, anterior and ventral

margins broadly rounded forming a semi-circle, respiratory margin obliquely

truncate.

The sunken escutcheon is large, lanceolate, smooth, and extends almost the

entire posterodorsal length of the shell. The marginal and escutcheon carinae

are marked by rows of large, regular, obliquely clavate tubercles that increase in

size posteriorly; those of the escutcheon carina are elongated anteromedially

and those of the marginal carina posteromedially. Each tubercle of the marginal

carina corresponds with a flank costa. The area is trigonal, rather narrow and

Ornamented with uniform, fine, transverse costellae that show no sign of

strengthening posteriorly. There is a well-developed longitudinal groove that is

situated close to the escutcheon carina.

The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises subconcentric ribs that

pass with an inflexion across the marginal carina on to the area. The remaining

flank costae are strongly oblique, posteriorly meeting the marginal carina at an

angle of c. 30°. Except for the posterior few ribs, most flank costae curve

strongly forwards to meet the anterior and anteroventral commissures almost at

right angles. All flank costae bear rather sharp, pointed tubercles and nodes

that, on the anterior part of the valve, are concentrically elongated. There is a

gap in some of the ribs terminating along the anteroventral margin, with some

irregularity of tuberculation, in Scaphotrigonia fashion. The entire flank surface

is ornamented with conspicuous growth lirae that are continuous with the costel-

lae of the area.

14 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 5. Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, X 1. A-C. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of the

holotype, SAM—PCU5941. D. Left valve of a paratype in the South African Museum. E. Left

valve of a paratype in the South African Museum.

Occurrence

Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper is known only from the Upper Valangi-

nian of south-east Africa, where it is a very rare element of the faunas.

Subfamily Steinmanellinae subfam. nov.

Diagnosis

Generally very large, massive, trigonally ovate to quadrate and elliptical

myophorellids; escutcheon narrow, lanceolate, with irregular, radially elongated

tubercles; median groove to area marked by rows of coarse nodes; area of early

and middle growth stages with transverse growth striae, later remaining smooth

or with coarse, irregular growth rugae, which may extend on to the flanks; flank

costae tend to become crowded ventrally, where they may bend sharply for-

wards and coalesce to form irregular concentric growth rugae.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN - ey

Discussion

Poulton (1977, 1979) included Steinmanella in the synonymy of Myophorella

but such treatment cannot be justified morphologically or phyletically. As here

interpreted, the Steinmanellinae arose from a myophorelline ancestor late in the

Jurassic by an increase in size, with the shell becoming massive and robust,

losing its delicate gracile character. The longitudinal groove to the area is

- marked by a row of conspicuous nodes, of similar strength to those forming the

marginal and escutcheon carinae, whereas the transverse growth striae of the

area are replaced in maturity by coarse, irregular growth rugae. The earliest

genus in the subfamily is Steinmanella itself, which first occurs in Tithonian rocks

of South America (Leanza & Garate 1987). Simply by failure to produce coarse

irregular growth rugae across the mature area, Steinmanella gave rise to Yaadia,

a predominantly North Pacific genus (Saul 1979). The latter lineage persisted

into the Upper Cretaceous with the replacement of Yaadia by its subgenera

Yeharella and Setotrigonia, both of which have been interpreted previously (Cox

1969) as subgenera of Steinmanella. Although Saul (1979), Tashiro (1988) and

Tashiro & Kano (1989) included Yeharella within the strict synonymy of Yaadia,

it seems to be phyletically important and is here retained at the subgeneric level.

Significantly, Tashiro & Kano (1989, fig. 4) showed the Japanese species of

Yaadia as having evolved in parallel with their North American counterparts.

Yeharella differs from ancestral Yaadia in the early effacement of the radial rows

of nodes from the area, leaving the latter smooth for most of its ontogenetic

development. In addition, the flank costae of Yeharella are not interrupted

anteroventrally or accompanied by enlarged tubercles at the anterolateral

shoulder (Saul 1979). Setotrigonia was said to differ from Yaadia (Yeharella) in

that the flank costae are broken into segments of various lengths and continue

on to the area as narrow, wavy, transverse ridges (Cox 1969). Tashiro & Moro-

zumi (1982) questionably included it in the synonymy of Yaadia. As here envis-

aged, the Steinmanellinae comprise Steinmanella, Yaadia s.s. and Y. (Yeharella).

The suprageneric placement of Mediterraneotrigonia Nakano, 1974a, is

uncertain.

The morphologically similar Quadratotrigoniinae are a convergent, pre-

dominantly Tethyan group; they are phyletically distinct and can be dis-

tinguished from the Steinmanellinae nov. by the V-shaped costae of the

umbonal region and their conspicuously ornamented areas (Nakano 1968).

Genus Steinmanella Crickmay, 1930

Type species. Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908; by original designation.

Diagnosis

Steinmanellines in which the escutcheon is ornamented with radial rows of

irregular nodes, which may be continuous with the coarse growth rugae of the

posterior part of the area; flank costae generally weakly curved, uninterrupted,

and coarsely nodate. Age: Tithonian—Neocomian.

16 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin, 1908)

Figs 6-8

Trigonia sp. 2 Sharpe, 1856: 202.

Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908: 103, pl. 4 (fig. 2). Stoyanow, 1949: 68.

Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) Crickmay, 1930: 50. 1932: 458. Cox, 1969: N487, fig. D74.6.

Levy, 1969: 66: Cooper, 1979b: 63, fis: 12: Saul, 1979: 6; fig: 2.

Steinmannella holubi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195.

Trigonia (Steinmanella) holubi Kitchin. Rennie, 1936: 346.

Yaadia holubi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 57. Pringle, 1960: 89.

Myophorella (Steinmanella) holubi (Kitchin) Poulton, 1977: 9.

Steinmanella cf. holubi (Kitchin) Cooper, 1983: 63.

Type |

By lectotype designation of Rennie (1936: 350), the original of the specimen

figured by Kitchin (1908, pl. 4 (fig. 2)), SAM—PCU3981 (Fig. 6).

Material

A total of 59 specimens were available for study in the South African

Museum; SAM-D1881 (25 specimens), D1977 (3 specimens), D1979, D1989,

D2541, and 28 without catalogue number.

Fig. 6. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. The lectotype, SAM—PCU3981, in lateral view.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 17

Fig. 7. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral view of an unnumbered topotype in the

South African Museum.

Description

The shell is large (maximum length 128 mm), massive, quadrate, somewhat

longer than high (H/L = 0,59-0,78), with inconspicuous terminal umbones and

an abruptly truncate anterior face. The dorsal and anterior margins are straight,

the ventral margin broadly rounded, and the broad respiratory margin subtrunc-

ate. The valves are weakly inflated (W/H = 0,27-0,34) and the inturned beaks

orthogyrous to slightly opisthogyrous.

The escutcheon is very narrow, lanceolate, and ornamented with irregular

rows of bullae that follow the growth lines and are continuous with the growth

rugae of the area. There is a narrow lunule, about one-third of the shell height.

The ligament pit is well developed, lanceolate, and may extend 40-50 per cent

of the length of the escutcheon. The positions of the escutcheon and marginal

carinae are marked by rows of prominent nodes, as is the dorsal edge of the

longitudinal groove to the area. In maturity the tubercles of the escutcheon and

marginal carinae are drawn out and eventually coalesce to produce irregular

transverse ridges that parallel the growth lines. The longitudinal groove to the

area persists to maturity, and is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The

broad trigonal area is essentially flat; in the nepionic stages it is crossed by sub-

concentric flank costae but in the middle growth stages is ornamented only by

18 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 8. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), < 1. A-—B. Lateral and dorsal views of an aberrant

individual in which the flank costae are interrupted anteroventrally. C. Lateral view of a frag-

mentary left valve from the Mngazana Formation of Transkei, in the South African Museum.

D-E. Dorsal and lateral views of a juvenile, PEM-—1208c.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 19

growth striae and the median row of tubercles. These are replaced by irregular,

transverse growth rugae in maturity.

Flank ornament comprises c. 16 distant rows of prominent nodes that curve

slightly to the anterior, the nodes becoming more crowded ventrally with an

occasional intercalated row along the anteroventral margin. The interspaces are

slightly narrower than the rows of nodes. Along the ventral margin of mature

shells, the tubercles tend to become elongated and may coalesce to form concen-

tric growth rugae. In many individuals, the distal terminations of the ribs curve

strongly to the anterior. Ornamentation does not extend on to the flattened

anterior face and the latter is ornamented only by deep grooves and ridges par-

allel to the growth striae.

Occurrence

Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) is endemic to the Upper Valanginian of

south-east Africa. It abounds in the more argillaceous units of the Sundays

River Formation and also occurs in the Mngazana Formation of Transkei

(Cooper 1983).

Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss, 1837)

Figs 9-12

Lyrodon herzogii (Hausmann MS) Goldfuss, 1837: 193, pl. 137 (fig. 5). Krauss, 1850: 453,

pl. 48 (fig. 3).

Trigonia herzogi (Goldfuss) Steinmann, 1882: 220, pl. 7 (figs 1-2), pl. 9 (figs 1-2). Paulcke,

1903: 309. Kitchin, 1903: 102; 1908: 8, pl. 5 (fig. 1). Hatch & Corstorphine, 1905: 245,

fig. 66 (left-hand side). Stoyanow, 1949: 68. Levy, 1969: 66.

Trigonia (Steinmanella) herzogi (Goldfuss) Rennie, 1936: 346.

Steinmannella herzogi (Goldfuss) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195. Reyes et al., 1981: 35, pl. 1

(fig. 13).

Yaadia herzogi (Goldfuss) Pringle, 1960: 89.

?Steinmannella (Steinmannella) herzogi (Hausmann) Reyes, 1970: 15, pl. 3 (fig. 2), pl. 4

(figs 1-3).

Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) Cooper, 1979b: 63.

Type

The whereabouts of Goldfuss’ (1837) type material is unknown; it may

prove necessary to designate a neotype.

Material

In addition to 106 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-4416,

4994, 5035-36, 7498, 7520, D164, D1840, D1881, D1892 (13 specimens), D1911

(40 specimens), D1914, D1916, D1940 (3 specimens), D2541 and 41 specimens

without number, PEM-—1463/52-3 and AM-2428 were also available for study.

Description

Shell very large (maximum length 150 mm), massive, posteriorly very

elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,63), with moderately inflated valves (W/H =

eT me db A 8 eat een ete hee eee

; ‘OLpPNOd-WVS ‘edAjoou Jeuorstaosd oy) Jo MaIA [e1o}eT ‘T x ‘(ssnjypjoD) 180Z4dY DJaUBWUIAIS ‘6 “SIA

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

“CS/EMVI-Wd JO MalA [e19}B JT “6°09 x ‘(SsNJp[oH) 180z4ay vjjauDUMIaIS “QT ‘S14

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN

2D ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 11. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), X 1. A-B. Lateral and dorsal views of a specimen

in the Port Elizabeth Museum. C. Lateral view PEM-1463/53.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 23

Fig. 12. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), x 1. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of AM—2428

in which the tubercles are diagonally elongate. Note the lack of tubercles to the anterior face.

24 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

0,29—-0,36). The straight dorsal and weakly curved anterior margins form an

acute angle, with terminal umbones and weakly inturned, orthogyrous to slightly

opisthogyrous beaks. The ventral margin is very long, weakly convex, and the

broad respiratory margin subtruncate.

The escutcheon is fairly narrow, and about two-thirds the length of the

shell. It is ornamented by irregular oblique rows of elongate tubercles that vary

in size and follow the growth striae. Posteriorly these tubercles are continuous

with the growth rugae of the area. There is a very narrow lunule, about 40 per

cent of the shell height. The ligament pit is moderately developed, lanceolate,

and about 40 per cent of the length of the escutcheon. There are three rows of

tubercles to the area, corresponding to the escutcheon and marginal carinae and

the dorsal margin of the longitudinal groove. The number of tubercles in the

marginal row approximates the number of flank costae. At lengths of

50-100 mm the tubercles of the area become elongated transversely to form

coarse, irregular, growth rugae. The concentric flank costae of the nepionic

stages pass on to the area, whereas the longitudinal furrow persists almost to

maturity and is situated closer to the escutcheon than the flank.

The flanks are ornamented with coarse nodes that form almost straight rows

directed posteroventrally over much of the shell surface. Anteriorly the tubercle

rows are narrower than the interspaces but posteriorly they are as wide as, or

slightly wider than, the interspaces. There may be some irregularity in the

tubercle rows anteroventrally, with a few tubercles intercalated between rows.

Occurrence

Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) is abundant in the Upper Valanginian of

the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the early Hauterivian of southern Chile.

Superfamily MEGATRIGONIACEA van Hoepen, 1929

(nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929)

Diagnosis

Small to very large myophorellines, commonly pyriform to very produced

and rostrate posteriorly, frequently strongly inflated anteriorly; carinae obsolete,

or entire and restricted to umbonal region; antecarinal sulcus lacking; area

narrow, bipartite, with ridge marking longitudinal groove internally; area com-

monly smooth but in some with transverse, oblique or radial ornament; flanks

variably ornamented, with subconcentric, V-shaped or strongly oblique costae,

which may be entire, weakly nodate or strongly tuberculate; posteroventral shell

margin generally crenulated internally.

Discussion

As here interpreted, the superfamily Megatrigoniacea comprises the famil-

ies Megatrigoniidae (Megatrigoniinae, Apiotrigoniinae and Pterotrigoniinae),

Rutitrigoniidae and Iotrigoniidae (Fig. 13).

SYN 28

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN J)

‘ lotrigoniidae

Apiotrigoniinae

Megatrigoniinae

Pterotrigoniinae

Rutitrigoniidae

Fig. 13. Hypothesized relationships within the Megatrigoniacea. Character states: 1 = escut-

cheon carina obsolete or restricted to nepionic stages, marginal carina often restricted to

umbonal region, anteriorly produced so that umbones are generally not subterminal, area rela-

tively narrow with concentric ornament in nepionic stages later smooth, flank costae

subconcentric; 2 = beyond nepionic stages flank costae V-shaped, with tendency to form nodes

at anterolateral shoulder; 3 = posterior part of flank with straight, steeply inclined, finely

crenulated and often crowded costellae, inner margin of shell crenulated posteroventrally;

4 = escutcheon with transverse costellae; 5 = posteriorly produced to rostrate, often inflated

anteriorly, in some with subterminal umbones, flank costae strongly oblique varying from

finely crenulated to spinose, respiratory margin generally rounded, escutcheon with transverse

costellae.

Family Megatrigoniidae van Hoepen, 1929

(nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929)

Diagnosis

Commonly pyriform to subovate megatrigoniaceans that are generally

weakly inflated anteriorly; carinae lacking or generally restricted to the nepionic

stages; escutcheon smooth or with transverse costellae; area smooth or with

transverse or radial costellae; flank costae V-shaped or oblique, weakly nodate,

entire or tuberculate.

Discussion

As interpreted here, the family comprises the nominate subfamily, the Pte-

rotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, and the Apiotrigoniinae Tashiro, 1979.

26 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

_ Anditrigonia is the earliest megatrigoniine (Levy 1967b; Reyes & Pérez

1982); its diversity and abundance in South America leaves little doubt as to its

Gondwanic origin. Megatrigonia is descended from Anditrigonia by a straighten-

ing of the flank costae from V-shaped to strongly oblique. Although

Columbitrigonia Poulton, 1977, can be assigned to the Megatrigoniidae without

difficulty, its subfamilial placement is more problematical. It was placed in the

Megatrigoniinae by Poulton (1977) and the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro (1979).

Contrary to Tashiro (1979), however, it lacks the fundamental apiotrigoniine

characters of relatively small size, weak inflation, V-shaped flank costae and

transversely costellate escutcheon. On the other hand, Columbitrigonia is

strongly reminiscent of Megatrigonia in its large, robust shell, oblique flank

costae, and smooth escutcheon, while resembling Pterotrigoniinae in its strong

anterior inflation and posteriorly rostrate valves. Until its phylogeny is better

understood, Poulton (1977) is followed in assigning it to the Megatrigoniinae.

Heterotrigonia and its allies are included in the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro

(1979), but from virtually the first appearance of the subfamily there are two dis-

tinct phyletic lines (cf. Tashiro 1979, figs 17-18). Skwarko (1970), Nakano

(1971) and Tashiro (1979) consider Trigonia calderoni Castillo & Aguilerae from

the Oxfordian—Tithonian of New Mexico and Arizona (Stoyanow 1949; Reyes &

Pérez 1982) to be the earliest apiotrigoniine. Whereas Skwarko (1970) and

Tashiro (1979) referred this species to Apiotrigonia, Nakano (1971) assigned it

to Heterotrigonia, Reyes & Pérez (1982) questionably included it in Anditrigo-

nia, and Pérez & Reyes (1983) placed it in Anditrigonia (Paranditrigonia).

Given the smooth escutcheon and fine radial costellae to the area of T. calde-

roni, the latter assignment is followed here. Anditrigonia (Paranditrigonia)

calderoni is thus the common ancestor to two phyletic lines that persisted until

the close of the Cretaceous (Tashiro 1979). Since treatment of Paranditrigonia

as a subgenus of Anditrigonia emphasizes primitive characters, when it is the

derived characters (radial ornament to the area) that are phyletically important,

Paranditrigonia is elevated to generic status and included as the most primitive

representative of the Heterotrigontini new tribe. As such, the subfamily Apiotri-

goniinae is divided into the nominate tribe Apiotrigoniini (comprising

Apiotrigonia, Dampietrigonia, Turkestanella and Microtrigonia) and the tribe -

Heterotrigoniini nov. (with Paranditrigonia, Heterotrigonia and Nakanotrigonia).

The origins of the Pterotrigoniinae are more cryptic. The subfamily first

appeared in the Lower Tithonian of India (Spath 1935; Kobayashi & Amano

1955; Cox 1961) and rose to dominance in the Cretaceous. Although widely

interpreted as descended from the Myophorellinae (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957;

Nakano & Numano 1961; Nakano 1974a; Tashiro & Matsuda 1986), this view is

based upon a comparison with relatively derived members of the Pterotrigonii-

nae, viz. Pterotrigonia and Ptilotrigonia, when it is the characters of the most

primitive representatives, i.e. Pisotrigonia, that must carry the most weight phy-

logenetically. Some individuals of Megatrigonia (cf. Figs 15B, 16B) closely

approach the Pisotrigonia condition, differing mainly in being larger, less-

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN . 27

inflated anteriorly and pyriform in outline, with a strongly convex anterior

margin.

Subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929

_ Diagnosis — eS

Shell generally large, massive, pyriform; respiratory margin rounded and

anterior margin convex; escutcheon carina lacking, marginal carina restricted to

nepionic stages; bipartite area initially with concentric ribs, later smooth; flank

costae primitively subconcentric anteriorly and subvertical and crowded pos-

teriorly, hence V-shaped; later strongly oblique anteriorly and weakly nodate.

Discussion

Megatrigonia is known with certainty only from Tithonian and Neocomian

rocks of the east coast of Africa. However, its close morphological resemblance

to Anditrigonia Levy, 1967b, many species of which have been included

(Nakano 1965) in Megatrigonia, leaves no doubt as to its ancestry. Although

Tashiro (1979) included Columbitrigonia and Megatrigonia conocardiiformis

(Krauss) in the Apiotrigoniinae, their unornamented area and escutcheon sug-

gests better placement in the Megatrigoniinae.

Genus Megatrigonia van Hoepen, 1929

Type species. Megatrigonia obesa van Hoepen, i929; by original desig-

nation.

Diagnosis

Very large, robust megatrigoniids with nontuberculate flank costae that

pinch and swell irregularly without forming discrete nodes. Anterior flank costae

strongly oblique, distant.

Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss, 1843)

Figs 14, 1I5SA-C, 16

Lyriodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1843: 130.

Lyrodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1850: 454, pl. 49 (figs la—d).

Trigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Lycett, 1879: 210, 211, 230. Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin,

1908: 119, pl. 7 (figs 2-4). Lambert, 1944: 392. Stoyanow, 1949: 80. Reyes, 1970: 9.

non Trigonia aff. conocardiiformis (Krauss) Burckhardt, 1903: 72, pl. 13 (figs 1-2) (= Anditri-

gonia eximia (Philippi)).

non Trigonia conocardiiformis Lange (non Krauss), 1914: 235, pl. 19 (figs la—b) (= M. staffi

- (Lange)).

Trigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Rennie, 1936: 332. Leanza, 1941: 232.

Megatrigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 58. Da Silva, 1966: 68, pl. 4

(fig. 2); Levy, 1967b: 136. Nakano, 1965: 17. Cooper, 1979b: 58.

Apiotrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Tashiro, 1979: 183.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

‘016INOd-WVS ‘adKjo0u JeuoIstAold oy} JO META [eIO}e] YOT “TX ‘(ssnery) siumtofipavd0uod

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 29

Type |

The whereabouts of Krauss’ (1843) type material is unknown; it may be

necessary to designate a neotype.

Material

A total of 75 specimens were available for study, 70-in the South African

~ Museum, SAM-—4642-3, 4644, 4649, 5033-4, 5042, 7107, 7492, 7524, 7494,

7591, 9841-3, 12444-5, D1897, D1898 (11 specimens), D1910 (23 specimens),

D1934, D1937, D1939 (3 specimens), D1991, and 12 unnumbered specimens, as

well as 5 in the Port Elizabeth Museum, PEM—1464/72, 1463/51 and 3 unnum-

bered specimens.

Description

Shell very large (maximum length about 165 mm), massive, pyriform,

inequilateral, strongly produced posteriorly (H/L = 0,50-0,61). Umbones fairly

prominent, rounded, situated about 30 per cent of the shell length from the

anterior, with moderately inturned, slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Valves

moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,40-0,57). Anterior margin strongly

convex, passing imperceptibly into the broad, gently convex ventral margin; the

posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave and the respiratory margin rounded.

The very elongate, lanceolate escutcheon is sunken and smooth. There is a

very narrow but rather deep lunule that extends about one-third of the shell

height. An escutcheon carina is lacking whereas, beyond about 8 mm from the

umbo, the marginal carina passes into a rounded umbonal ridge. The area is

narrow, unornamented beyond the nepionic stage, with a prominent longitudi-

nal groove that is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The nepionic stages

show crowded, simple, subconcentric ribs running from the anterior commissure

to the marginal carina, where they flex strongly forwards, forming an acute

angle with the flank costae, to cross the area obliquely and pass weakly on to the

outer part of the escutcheon. Later flank costae are discrepant, with a coarse,

robust, distant, strongly oblique anterior set of about 10—13 ribs that pinch and

swell irregularly but do not form true nodes. These costae curve strongly

upwards posteriorly to become subvertical, whereas anteriorly they may zigzag

or break up into pustules; in large specimens they become effaced anteroven-

trally. Then follow about seven similar ribs that are subvertical and only weakly

curved. The posterior set of c. 18 costae are narrow, crowded, somewhat undu-

latory, broader than the interspaces, almost straight, and inclined postero-

ventrally. Ribbing is effaced posterodorsally, just before reaching the area, to

leave a small portion of the flank smooth.

Occurrence

Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) is reported from the Upper Titho-

nian of northern Mocgambique, the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin,

fe)

22)

< E

Note

lateral view

beth Museum.

A. Left

iza

the Port El

(Krauss)

imen

conocardiiform

PEM-1463/51, x 1. B. Left lateral view of a spec

igonia

Megatr

A-C.

Fig. 15.

the more rounded

ing

fference be

anterior and lack of anterior inflation. C. Right valve of an unnumbered spec

f this individual to Pisotrigonia, the ma

imilarity o

the s

the Port

imen in

le,

juveni

Left valve of a

D. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), X 1.

Elizabeth Museum.

SAM-PCU7623.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN BI!

Fig. 16. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss), X 1. A-—B. Dorsal and lateral views of a

juvenile, PEM-—1464/72. C-—D. Right lateral views of two unnumbered topotypes in the Port

Elizabeth Museum.

where it is a moderately common element, and from the Robberg Formation,

the age of which is under debate but probably late Valanginian.

Subfamily Pterotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929

Diagnosis

Small to moderately large megatrigoniids, ovate to club-shaped and

posteriorly rostrate; umbones prominent, often with strongly incurved, opistho-

gyrous beaks; escutcheon sunken, lanceolate, with transverse costellae;

escutcheon carina obsolete; marginal carina generally restricted to umbonal

region; area crossed by concentric ribs in nepionic stages, later ribbing effaced,

oblique, V-shaped or radial; flank costae oblique, prominently tuberculate or

finely crenulated, often differentiated into anterior and posterior sets.

32 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Discussion

The earliest representative of the subfamily is Pisotrigonia which, at the

beginning of the Cretaceous, gave rise to Pterotrigonia. The latter, in turn, is

believed to have given rise to the Scabrotrigoniini Cooper, 1989, which rose to

dominance in the Upper Cretaceous. The Scabrotrigoniini comprise the weakly

inflated and lunate pterotrigoniines such as Ptilotrigonia, Scabrotrigonia, and

Acanthotrigonia, culminating in Linotrigonia in which tuberculation is reduced

and the ribs are finely crenulated. Arabitrigonia is similar to Scabrotrigonia but

with a straight dorsal margin, an obliquely truncate respiratory margin, and

radial costellae to the nepionic stages of the area. Its relationship to Scabrotrigo-

nia is the same as that between Anditrigonia and Paranditrigonia.

Although there are marked similarities between Apiotrigoniinae and Ptero-

trigoniinae, including transverse costellae to the area and escutcheon, finely

tuberculate costae in some, and an internally crenulated posteroventral margin,

the phylogeny depicted by Tashiro (1979) suggests the similarities are the result

of convergence.

Genus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929

Type species. Pterotrigonia cristata van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig-

nation.

Diagnosis

Club-shaped pterotrigoniines, much longer than high, with a concave

posterodorsal margin; valves strongly inflated anteriorly, rostrate posteriorly;

area smooth in maturity; flank costae conspicuously tuberculate, poorly discrimi-

nated into anterior and posterior sets; those to the anterior are curved whereas

those to the posterior are straight, inclined, and finely crenulated.

Discussion

The above diagnosis of Pterotrigonia is more restricted than that of Cox

(1969), since it excludes Scabrotrigonia, Acanthotrigonia, Ptilotrigonia and Piso-

trigonia, which are regarded as generically distinct. Differences with Pisotrigonia

are noted below.

Like the genera Trigonia and Myophorella, there are numerous species of

‘Pterotrigonia’ that only vaguely approach the type species and which must, in

the future, be assigned, on phyletic grounds, to other taxa. Several represen-

tatives in the present fauna fall into this category but, until a more thorough

phylogenetic analysis of the genus is attempted, no new names are introduced.

Subgenus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929

Diagnosis

Small to large, generally much longer than high; flank ornament discrepant,

with tuberculate anterior set and finely crenulated, straight posterior set.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 33

Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle, 1960)

Figs 17-18

Trigonia knighti Pringle, 1960: 90, pl. 1 (figs 1-3).

Pterotrigonia (Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) Cooper, 1979b: 55.

Types

The holotype is in the Port Elizabeth Museum (Figs 17-18). There are two

paratypes in the British Museum (Natural History), and a third in the Natal

Museum (Pietermaritzburg). The whereabouts of two other specimens referred

to by Pringle (1960) is uncertain.

Description

The shell is large (maximum length at least 109 mm), club shaped, as high

as long (H/L=0,99-1,01), massive, strongly inflated anteriorly (W/H=

0,37—-0,43) and rostrate posteriorly. The very prominent umbones are subtermi-

nal, with strongly inturned, opisthogyrous beaks. The straight, subvertical

anterior margin passes evenly into the almost straight ventral margin. The

posterodorsal margin is broadly concave and the respiratory margin seems to

have been narrowly rounded. The oval, flattened anterior face meets the flanks

at prominent anterolateral shoulders.

The escutcheon is very broad, sunken, and extends almost the entire postero-

dorsal length of the shell. It is ornamented with numerous, finely beaded,

transverse costellae that are narrower than the interspaces. The area is narrow,

unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and has a persistent longitudinal

groove. As in P. tocaimaana (Lea), there is a prominent marginal carina that per-

sists to the middle growth stages.

Flank ornament is moderately discrepant. It comprises a flexuous set of

about 12, rather coarse, flared anterior costae that curve strongly upwards and

extend to the anterior commissure. These ribs are irregularly tuberculate, with

3—4 large tubercles on the anterolateral shoulder. The ten or so costae of the

posterior set of ribs are finely crenulated, subparallel, narrower than the inter-

spaces, and meet the posteroventral margin at right angles.

Occurrence

Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) is known only from the

Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin, where it is a very rare component of the

faunas.

Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin, 1908)

Figs 19-20

Trigonia rogersi Kitchin, 1908: 99, pl. 3 (fig. 3), pl. 4 (fig. 1), pl. 5 (fig. 2).

Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Pringle, 1960: 89. Cooper, 1979b: 57, fig. 7.

Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Nakano, 1965: 17.

? Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 8, pl. 1 (figs 1-2), pl. 3 (fig. 1).

‘UNaSN] YISQeZI[_ WoOg oy} ut odAjofoY Oy} Jo SMOIA JOLIO\Ue puR [elo}eT “[L‘O x ‘(e[sULId) NYsiUy (DIUOSI4NOJaj}q {) DIUOZINOLAIg LT Ly

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN. aS

Type

By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by

Kitchin (1908, pl. 3 (fig. 3), pl. 4 (fig. 1)), SAM-—3974 (Fig. 19C).

Material

A total of 108 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-—5088, 12950-

53, 12955-58, 12960-—62, D1882 (73 specimens) and 22 without number, as well

as PEM-1465/61.

Description

Shell moderately large (maximum length 135 mm), strongly inequi-

lateral, moderately inflated anteriorly (W/H = 0,35-0,44), longer than high

Fig. 18. Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle), X 1. Dorsal view of the holotype.

36 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 19. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), x 1. A-B. Dorsal and lateral views of PEM-1465/61.

C. Lateral view of the lectotype in the South African Museum.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN Sy)

(H/L = 0,63-0,71) and posteriorly produced. Umbones prominent, broad,

strongly incurved, situated about one-quarter of the shell length from the

anterior, with slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Anterior margin broadly convex,

flattish, passing into the very broad, gently convex ventral margin. The postero-

dorsal margin is shallowly concave, and the respiratory margin subtruncate with

a distinct posterior gape.

The ligament pit is about 17 per cent of the shell length. The sunken escut-

cheon is very broad, conspicuous, lanceolate, with fine, beaded, obliquely

transverse costellae that become obsolete before reaching the commissure. In

the nepionic stages, the costellae of the escutcheon extend to the median longi-

tudinal groove of the area, giving the inner area a beaded appearance for up to

15 mm from the beak. A beaded marginal carina may extend for the same dis-

tance, becoming rounded theseafter. The area is narrow, with a prominent

longitudinal groove that persists to maturity and is positioned slightly closer to

the escutcheon than the flank. In the nepionic stages it is ornamented by fine,

oblique costellae that are more numerous than the flank costae, which they meet

at the marginal carina in an anteriorly directed chevron. Beyond 15 mm from

the umbo, the area is unornamented.

Fig. 20. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), X 1. Left valve of a topotype in the South African

Museum.

In the nepionic stages the distinctly tuberculate flank costae are subconcen-

tric. Later flank costae are strongly oblique but not sharply discrepant and

extend to the anterior commissure. The anterior 12 or so costae are narrower

than or as broad as the interspaces, finely but prominently tuberculate, and

weakly curved until they reach the anterior face where they curve strongly

upwards to meet the anterior commissure almost at right angles. On the pos-

terior half of the flanks the costae are straight, rigid, and inclined slightly to the

posterior, with slightly narrower interspaces.

38 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Discussion

~ The side-by-side occurrence of two species of Pterotrigonia, Pterotrigonia

(?Pterotrigonia) knighti and P. rogersi points to an early Neocomian radiation of

the Pterotrigoniinae. Although P. rogersi does not fall easily into any of the

available genera and subgenera, it is referred to Pterotrigonia pending further

phylogenetic study.

Occurrence

Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) is a common element in the Upper Valangin-

ian faunas from the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of

southern Chile.

Genus Pisotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929

Type species. Pisotrigonia salebrosa van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig-

nation.

Diagnosis

Like Pterotrigonia but as high as long, often extremely inflated anteriorly

and with broadly flattened anterior face. Posterodorsal margin deeply excavate.

Umbones very conspicuous, subterminal, with beaks exceptionally incurved,

opisthogyrous; escutcheon with transverse costellae, which may be very weak or

absent in early representatives; area smooth except in nepionic stages; flank

costae markedly discrepant, with generally thick, robust, distant, coarsely tuber-

culate, anterior costae and narrow, straight, crowded, finely serrated posterior

costae. Age: Tithonian—Cenomanian (?Maastrichtian).

Discussion

Although most workers have rejected Pisotrigonia as a junior subjective

synonym of Rinetrigonia (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957; Skwarko 1963; Nakano

1974b), the former genus has page priority (Cooper 1988, 1989).

Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss, 1843)

Fig. 21

Lyriodon ventricosa Krauss, 1843: 130.

Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850: 456, pl. 49 (figs 2c—f only).

Trigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Stoliczka, 1871: 315, pl. 15 (figs 9, 9a). Lycett, 1875: 119, plus

text-figure. Miller, 1900: 543, pl. 19 (figs 4-5). Paulcke, 1903: 308. Rogers, 1905: 291,

fig. 25,2. Kitchin, 1908: 91, pl. 3 (fig. 1). Woods, 1917: 21. Spath, 1931: 542; 1933: 798.

Dietrich, 1938: 97. Stoyanow, 1949: 88. Reyes, 1970: 9.

Rinetrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) van Hoepen, 1929: 22.

Pterotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 59; 1961: 23. Pringle, 1960: 89.

Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) ventricosa (Krauss) Crickmay, 1932: 461. Kobayashi & Nakano, —

1957: 230. Skwarko, 1963: 20; 1966: 99; 1968: 173. Levy, 1967a: 102.

non 7rigonia ventricosa Kitchin (non Krauss), 1903: 104, pl. 10 (figs 4-8) (= P. parva van

Hoepen).

non Trigonia ventricosa Etheridge (non Krauss), 1907: 76, pl. 1 (figs 7-8) (indeterminate

pterotrigoniine).

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN _ 39

Type |

The whereabouts of Krauss’ (1843) type material is unknown; it may be

necessary to designate a neotype.

Material

Hundreds of specimens in the South African Museum, many unnumbered

‘or with the Van Hoepen number D1841.

Description

Shell medium sized (maximum length 50 mm), strongly inequilateral, as

high as long (H/L = 0,91-1,13), anteriorly extremely inflated (H/W =

0,47—0,54) and rostrate posteriorly. Conjoined valves are wider than long.

Umbones very prominent, extremely incurved, with opisthogyrous beaks.

Anterior margin weakly curved to almost straight, very high, with broad, flattish

anterior face, passing rather sharply into the broad, straight to slightly concave

ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is deeply concave and the narrow

respiratory margin rounded.

The escutcheon is broad, deeply sunken, lanceolate, with weak oblique

costellae along its outer margin, the inner margin being smooth. In some

individuals the escutcheon is entirely ribbed or entirely smooth. Carinae are

restricted to the nepionic stage. The area is narrow, bipartite, with oblique

-costellae in the umbonal region but later smooth.

The flank costae of the nepionic stages are subconcentric, with fine trans-

verse ridges. Later costae are markedly discrepant, divided into a coarse, distant

anterior set that curves markedly only on the anterior face to meet the com-

missure at right angles, and a fine, crowded posterior set. The anterior costae

are as wide as or narrower than the interspaces; those closest to the umbo are

coarsely tuberculate throughout. Posteriorly, however, the coarse rounded

tuberculation is increasingly restricted to the ventral part of the costa, leaving

the dorsal extension as a thin, wavy, vertical, finely crenulated costella. It is with

final loss of coarse tuberculation that the change to the posterior set occurs in

which the wavy, crowded, subvertical costellae are finely crenulated throughout.

There are about 10—12 costae in the anterior set and 8-12 in the posterior set.

Discussion

Kitchin (1903: 104, pl. 10 (fig. 4)) identified material from the Tithonian of

Cutch with 7. ventricosa (Krauss). Van Hoepen (1929: 38), however, considered

the anterior ribs of the Cutch species to be too coarse, with larger and more

prominent nodes, and the posterior ribs too uneven for assignment to 7. ventri-

cosa. Consequently, he renamed the Cutch species Pisotrigonia parva (Fig. 22).

Although Rennie (1936) was highly critical of Van Hoepen’s (1929) taxonomy,

the writer has—through the courtesy of Drs N. J. Morris and R. J. Cleevely,

studied topotype material of P. parva van Hoepen and concurs that it is a dis-

tinctive Tithonian species. Also closely allied is Pisotrigonia tuberculifera

40 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ep ee pel in

Fig. 21. Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss), X 1. A-D. Lateral, posterior, anterior and dorsal

views of the provisional neotype. E-F. Dorsal and lateral views of a topotype. G—H. Lateral

and dorsal views of a topotype. I-J. Internal and external views of a left valve. All the speci-

mens are in the South African Museum.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 41

Fig. 22. Pisotrigonia parva van Hoepen, X 1. The holotype (after Kitchin 1903).

(Stoliczka) (1871: 315, pl. 15 (figs 10-12)), which was said to differ ‘... by

being of a more regularly rounded triangular shape, less attenuated and pro-

duced posteriorly, and possessing a narrower and not so deeply excavated area’

(Stoliczka 1871: 315).

Occurrence

Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) abounds in the Upper Valanginian of

south-east Africa. It questionably also occurs in the Tithonian of India (Cutch)

and East Africa (Tanzania).

Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin, 1908)

Figs 15D, 23

Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850, pl. 2 (fig. 2a—b only).

Trigonia kraussi Kitchin, 1908: 95, pl. 3 (fig. 2).

Rinetrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 22.

Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) kraussi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Nakano, 1957: 230, fig. 1. Skwarko,

1968: 174.

Type

The holotype is, by monotypy, the original of the specimen figured by

Kitchin (1908, pl. 3 (fig. 2)) (Fig. 23), in the South African Museum.

Material

In addition to the holotype (SAM-—3999), there are three other specimens in

the South African Museum, SAM-—D1942 and D1883 (2 specimens).

Description

Shell large (maximum length about 90 mm), higher than long (H/L = 0,82),

strongly inequilateral, extremely inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,54) and rostrate

42 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

posteriorly. Umbones very prominent, massive, subterminal, with extremely

incurved, opisthogyrous beaks. The anterior margin is very high, weakly convex,

and with a very broad, flattened anterior face. It passes rather abruptly into the

straight to shallowly concave ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is mark-

edly concave and the respiratory margin presumably narrowly rounded. The

anterolateral shoulders protrude significantly beyond the anterior commissure.

The escutcheon is relatively broad and deeply excavate, without oblique

costellae. The marginal carina is restricted to the nepionic stages, quickly

becoming rounded and indistinct. The area is very narrow, with a prominent

longitudinal groove, and lacks ornament for much of its growth. .

On the nepionic stages the flank costae are subconcentric. Later they

become strongly oblique and markedly discrepant. The eight ribs of the anterior

series are very robust, exaggerated, narrower than the interspaces, almost

straight, but curving upwards on the anterior face. They are generally coarsely

tuberculate but on SAM-—D1942 the anterior costae seem to be nontuberculate.

These anterior ribs approach the anterior commissure obliquely but pinch out

before reaching it; the anteroventral ribs are the first to reach the commissure,

which they contact at right angles. The finely crenulated, crowded costellae of

the posterior series are initially subvertical, but become increasingly inclined to

the posterior, and are about as narrow as the interspaces.

Fig. 23. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral and anterior views of the holotype in the

South African Museum.

a he a

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 43

Occurrence

Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) is a very rare component in the Upper

Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa.

Family lotrigoniidae Saveliev, 1958

(nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Iotrigoniinae Saveliev, 1958).

Diagnosis

Medium to large megatrigoniaceans; pyriform to subovate; posteriorly

strongly produced, inequilateral; respiratory margin narrowly rounded to

obliquely truncate; escutcheon crossed by weak transverse costellae in nepionic

stage, later smooth; carinae generally restricted to nepionic stage; area narrow,

bipartite, smooth except in earliest growth stages; flanks with generally fine sub-

concentric costae anteriorly meeting fewer, broader, subvertical posterior costae

in a chevron; ornament may be replaced by concentric growth rugae in maturity.

Discussion

Although this taxon is included by many within the synonymy of the Mega-

trigoniinae, the subfamily is present already in the Upper Bajocian of

Argentina, contemporaneous with the most primitive megatrigoniines, 1.e. Andi-

trigonia kiedeli (Weaver) (Leanza & Garate 1987). Since Jotrigonia persists into

the Maastrichtian of New Zealand (Fleming 1964, 1987) it is an important phy-

letic line that merits recognition. Its origins are cryptic. Saveliev (1958)

suggested derivation from Vaugoniidae of the Myophorellacea, but the writer

follows Kitchin (1903) in regarding the similarities as due to convergence. The

importance of V-shaped flank costae to primitive Megatrigoniinae, together with

a smooth escutcheon and impersistent carinae, suggests a common ancestry for

the Iotrigoniinae and Megatrigoniinae.

Genus Jotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929

Type species. lotrigonia crassitesta van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig-

nation.

Diagnosis

Area unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and with a rounded respir-

atory margin. Anterior flank costae often irregular, zigzagging, pinching and

swelling, and forming prominent tubercles at the anterolateral shoulder in some;

anterior face smooth; chevrons persist to large size but may become effaced in

maturity when they are replaced by concentric growth rugae.

Discussion

The earliest species to be assigned to Jotrigonia is I. radixscripta (Lambert)

(1944: 369, pl. 1 (figs 7-8), pl. 6 (fig. 1); Leanza & Garate 1987: 225, pl. 2

44 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

(fig. 7)) from the mid-Bajocian to early Callovian of Argentina. This species

differs in several noteworthy aspects from typical Jotrigonia, notably in its

straight posterodorsal margin, obliquely truncate respiratory margin, relatively

prominent marginal carina, and the presence of a carina marking the longitudi-

nal furrow to the area, as well as conspicuous growth rugae to the adult area.

These differences are here considered to warrant generic separation and the

name Lambertiella is proposed, with Trigonia radixscripta Lambert as type

species. Jotrigonia attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Tithonian—

Neocomian. In the Australasian province it gave rise to Zaletrigonia Skwarko,

1963, which is distinguished by the rapid replacement of chevrons by two sets of

oblique ribs that converge ventrally but do not meet. |

Totrigonia vau (Sharpe, 1856)

Fig. 24

Trigonia vau Sharpe, 1856: 194, pl. 22 (fig. 5). Tate, 1867, pl. 7 (fig. 8). Paulcke, 1903: 309.

Kitchin, 1903: 67; 1908: 110, pl. 6 (figs 1-3). Stoyanow, 1949: 79. Skwarko, 1963: 17.

Reyes, 19702312.

Totrigonia vau (Sharpe) van Hoepen, 1929: 9. Nakano, 1965: 19.

Trigonia (Iotrigonia) vau Sharpe. Rennie, 1936: 343.

Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) vau (Sharpe) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89.

Totrigonia cf. vau (Sharpe) Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 2.

Type

By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by

Sharpe (856. ple 22 (fig >):

Material

In addition to 25 specimens available for study in the South African

Museum, SAM-—653, 4645, 4650-2, 4655, 5039-40, 5089, 7454, 7567, 7569,

7571, 7572 (2 specimens), 7573-74, 7575 (2 specimens), 7595, 12776, D574,

D1944 and two unnumbered specimens, there are also several unnumbered

specimens in the Port Elizabeth Museum.

Description

Shell medium sized (maximum length about 65 mm), trigonally ovate,

elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,61), with the moderately elevated umbones situated

about one-third of the shell length from the anterior. The posterodorsal margin

is shallowly concave, the anterior margin strongly convex passing imperceptibly

into the broadly convex ventral margin, and the respiratory margin narrowly

rounded. The valves are moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,33-0,36).

The sunken escutcheon is narrow, lanceolate, smooth, and extends about

50 per cent of the posterodorsal shell length. It rises shghtly at the commissure.

The area is narrow, smooth beyond the nepionic stages, and with a longitudinal

groove that weakens and may become obsolete posteriorly. Inner and marginal

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN — 45

Fig. 24. Jotrigonia vau (Sharpe), X 1. A. Lateral view of the specimen in the South African

Museum figured by Kitchin (1908). B-—C. Lateral and dorsal views of a right valve in the Port

Elizabeth Museum. D. Right valve of a posteriorly elongate individual in the Port Elizabeth

Museum. E-F. Lateral and dorsal views of a left valve in which the posterior branches of the

flank costae are unusually swollen.

carinae are lacking. The area is ornamented by transverse costellae for about

7 mm from the beak, after which the ribs are restricted to the angulation separ-

ating the area and escutcheon.

The flank ornament of the nepionic stages, up to a distance of 10 mm from

the umbones, comprises fine concentric ribs, about as wide as the interspaces.

These pass obliquely across the area with a slight inflexion at the position of the

marginal carina, and continue weakly on to the outer edge of the escutcheon.

46 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Beyond this stage the adult ornament is developed abruptly, with the flank

costae forming deep chevrons whose axial trace is inclined to the posterior. The

broad, low, ribs of the posterior branches are much wider than the interspaces

and, except perhaps at the extreme posterior, are directed anteroventrally. The

much finer oblique ribs of the anterior branches meet the posterior ribs almost

at right angles in a ratio of 3 : 2 in the later growth stages. Anteriorly the ribs

bend sharply upwards and become sinuous, with irregular zigzags, but become

obsolete on the anterolateral shoulder, leaving the anterior face impressed only

by growth striae. The flank chevrons become obsolete at the largest growth

stages, when the anterior branches form coarse concentric growth rugae that

interfere with and crenulate the posterior ribs, giving them a nodate appearance.

Anteroventrally the ribs become irregular, zigzagging and pinching and swelling.

Occurrence

Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe) is a common element in the late Valanginian faunas

of south-east Africa. It is probably also present in the Robberg Formation, and

has been reported from the Tithonian of East Africa.

Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin, 1908)

‘Fig. 25

Trigonia sp. Kitchin, 1903: 74.

Trigonia stowi Kitchin, 1908: 115, pl. 6 (figs 4-5), pl. 7 (fig. 1).

Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 8. Nakano, 1965: 19. Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 4.

Trigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Rennie, 1936: 343.

Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89.

?Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 11, pl. 2 (fig. 3).

?Totrigonia stowi var. aisenensis Reyes, 1970: 13, pl. 2 (figs 1-2).

Type

By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by

Kitchin (1908, pl. 6 (fig. 5)), SAM—PCU3979 (Fig. 25A).

Material

Two unnumbered specimens in the South African Museum, as well as

PEM-1465/62 and AM-721.

Description

Shell moderately large (maximum length about 110 mm), very elongate

(H/L = 0,52), variable in outline, but typically subtrapezoidal, with weakly

inflated valves (H/W = 0,16). The fairly prominent umbones are situated

between one-quarter and one-third of the shell length from the anterior, and the

beaks are weakly incurved and slightly opisthogyrous. The posterodorsal margin

is shallowly concave, almost straight and forms an obtuse angle with the straight,

strongly produced anterior border. The long ventral margin is gently convex and

the siphonal margin narrowly rounded.

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 47

Fig. 25. Jotrigonia stowi (Kitchin), x 1. A. Lateral view of right valve figured by Kitchin

(1908). B-C. Dorsal and lateral views of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Note the

swollen tubercles near the anteroventral margin.

48 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

The escutcheon is relatively long, lanceolate, shallowly concave, and

smooth. The ligament pit is relatively short and broad. The area is narrow,

convex, and with a pronounced longitudinal furrow that persists to maturity.

Marginal and inner carinae are lacking at all observable growth stages.

The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises fine concentric ribs

that cross the line of the marginal carina with an inflexion and continue across

the area and escutcheon. The adult flank costae form deep acute chevrons

whose axial trace curves posteriorly, the anterior branches being fine and

oblique whereas the posterior branches are broad, low, and directed anteroven-

trally. The number of ribs in the two branches are approximately equal,

although an occasional rib may be intercalated anteriorly. In maturity the

anterior costae become relatively broad, swollen, and irregular, zigzagging and

forming upwardly directed chevrons, or breaking into weak nodes. In some indi-

viduals ribbing becomes obsolete anteroventrally. Close to the ventral border

the posterior ribs are intersected by deep, irregularly developed growth striae

causing them to break up into weak nodes. Large specimens show exaggerated

swollen tubercles anteroventrally that replace the zigzagging costae.

Occurrence

lotrigonia stowi (Kitchin) is a rare element in the Upper Valanginian faunas

of south-east Africa. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of southern

Chile.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Drs M. A. Cluver and H. C. Klinger for access to the collections of

the South African Museum, Mr W. Holleman for allowing me to study the col-

lections of the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, and Mr Barney Newman for

assistance with the collections of the Port Elizabeth Museum. Drs E. Pérez

d’Angelo (Santiago) and M. Tashiro (Kochi) critically reviewed the manuscript,

for which I am grateful, and Betsie Greyling provided general assistance.

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"wee eS ee eee ee ee ee: 6K Se ey

6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the Jnternational code of zoological nomenclature (particu-

larly Articles 22 and 51). .

Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed

by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. nov., syn. nov.,

etc.

An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation

and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s name and year. The

author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if aspecies or subspecies is trans-

ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated

from the scientific name by a colon.

Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific

names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all

references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.:

Family Nuculanidae

Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845)

Figs 14-15A

Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37.

Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50.

Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b).

Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87.

Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9.

Note punctuation in the above example:

comma separates author’s name and year

semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author

full stop separates references by different authors

figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures

dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers.

Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is

placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable.

In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens

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SAM-—A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region, King’s Beach, Port Eliza-

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MICHAEL R. COOPER

LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA

(MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA

BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION

OF THE ORDER

232

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BuLLouaH, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan.

FiscHER, P. H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de la vitalité des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140.

FiscHER, P. H., Duvat, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie

Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and

Koun, A. J. 1960b. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of

THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: SCHULTZE, L. Zoologische und anthro-

expérimentale et générale 74 (33): 627-634.

Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320.

the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51.

pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Stid-Afrika ausgefiihrt in den Jahren

1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270.

(continued inside back cover)

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM

Volume 100 + £4Band

May 1992 Mei

Part 2 Deel

THE BASKETWORK OF

SOUTHERN AFRICA

PART I

TECHNOLOGY

E. M. SHAW

Cape Town Kaapstad

The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material

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D839

THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

PART 1

TECHNOLOGY

E. M. SHAW %

Department of Ethnography, South African Museum, Cape Town

(With 110 figures and 1 table)

-[MS accepted 30 September 1988]

ABSTRACT

This account of the indigenous basketwork of southern Africa is the result of some years of

study of basketwork specimens in collections in southern Africa and overseas, and of investi-

gation in the field. The literature has been searched and records have been made of some 2 500

specimens, and of information gained in the field.

The study is confined to southern Africa, that is, Africa south of the line made by the

Cunene, Okavango and Zambesi rivers. There are several modern political divisions within the

area, but they are only indirectly relevant to the study.

Part 1 is a study of the techniques and materials that have been recorded throughout the

area. The objects made, their names when these are known, the techniques and materials that

are used, and the division between the sexes in the type of object made, will be studied ethno-

graphically in subsequent parts.

CONTENTS

PAGE

GROG LO ties eee Tey Se Teen ee anon PAN Ee mE Te eee SPT Oe ad. oh 54

HC EhinGlO pyr meena ete eee oe teen oe en, Reem eee et TM aS 5D

Evel ipl Capea ok ein ante MAG Pie RCUB Near Va Tne er eee e MOe eS 55)

|B Sa NAITO Oat, Ac ee al Rane hia as REAL IRR GA ane ae RC oe 87

SUEY DUAR BOSE Saale, Mee caudate acl © EMA ical SUeNe Shiga Agere Pel ua ant ae 102

IBGIIEG: suite... santorltany cor Ga VEAt capes a Rae aa ibe i AB heal A te Rt ll i ea ean ae dae ne 106

| PUGS) OVI, ooo 8 2 conan Lt che reeks mata centaterenahy. >. Chel. Uh mad idl ane Se te ra 139

DECOM Ae Piety on WE ghee ee net rc eee Re Us a eee wee eee 146

(ONAMEY TSA TE COTO RE, eRn ere ote Ata 3 BiB ekohegie Ok eaten Ae ok Wah orn Sok ea era 164

Sia PES mney me PetemP nn hn ech inr Haake ome me Ms Le kN 168

Roo lShiees ar aera a ecient rer coger ici Ae: fica ge Nar ee See 181

IWAIGHISTO Rais Saas Clara ar rales. cht SDT bs Beci cess Kr fo hata RA erate an SR OE 183

| ORWS SE a Besa a Seas beta oF iy MRA aM Fa Ale Ay a 8 a ed Al 202

Giri SlUistomere i, teehee ee eae ce Ma Um Ce hee Meiers ee Pie adits 208

/S16] SFUON PME IEREN TUTTO IS Be eps A ei Ug er a at 208

NCTC RENCE Se materi mr Snedeker Maho Maem se Aree cerimla Vide aM os Oe ee 209

GIGS Say ea weess Mees ate PE ee Oey hn Mec a de Uae A) Soils, igue dw Siw whch Qas 210

Appendix 1: Summary and index of basketwork techniques.............. 214

Appendix 2: Summary and index of materials used in basketwork......... 246

MC TCO Ree EME INT Lenser s IEE Gs ROM Ate tdci, Ne Wier enw od aes 247

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (2), 1992, 53-248, 110 figs, 1 table.

54 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

INTRODUCTION

The account does not claim by any means to be exhaustive. For one thing

the coverage is very uneven. For another, as was made clear by visits to overseas

museums where the collections tend to be older, many styles have died out and

the account is, therefore, likely to be inadequate with regard to the earlier types

of basketwork used in southern Africa and, most of all, in any attempt to indi-

cate the styles brought into the sub-continent by the various peoples when they

first arrived. The gaps are, however, likely to be more numerous in subsequent

parts—the sections on ethnography—than in Part | on technology, because the

number of techniques, though extensive, is not unlimited, and many of them are

found consistently enough to seem to form a basic pattern.

The term basketwork is taken here to include all such objects as are made

by the interlacing of two or more sets of elements, usually both flexible, and in

addition, plaiting which interlaces only one set. It is differentiated from netting

and knitting by the use, except in plaiting, of more than one set of elements, and

from other weaving by the use of coarse and unspun material and the absence of

a loom.

In southern Africa, the number of objects to be included under basketwork

as defined above is very large and varied. Besides actual baskets, there are mats

for several purposes, hut-doors, hut-walls, roof-frames, fences, sledges, traps,

grain-bins, strainers, spoons, trays, hats, bags and personal clothing and orna-

ments. These are not all made everywhere. Their distribution belongs to

ethnography rather than technology, and will be considered under the headings

of the peoples by whom they are made. There may be some surprise at some of

the work included, but a close consideration of the technique will, it is sug-

gested, justify the decision that it was reasonable to include the use of

basketwork techniques in objects other than baskets.

There are certain qualities to basketwork that are probably responsible ior

the wideness of its use, and for the strength of its resistance to ready-made

store-goods. It is usually light to carry and does not add greatly to the weight of

its load; it is light for wear as hats or ornaments; and it is light and airy for

roofing. It can be made close enough to hold liquids or open enough to strain

them. It allows great variety of size and shape, from small bags to hold a snuff-

box or pipe, to large grain-bins to hold part of the season’s harvest. By its tough-

ness and, in some cases, flexibility, it is durable, wears slowly, and does not

break if dropped. It is in no danger, when being made, of being ruined at the

last moment, like pottery by bad firing, or woodwork by an unfortunate cut of

the knife. Lastly, except in actual desert, it is hard to imagine a stretch of

country that would not furnish at least some suitable materials, however

sparsely, so that, given the knowledge of making, it would be available to all.

Latterly, however, and with increasing speed since this study was com-

menced, other containers, mainly plastic, with similar useful qualities, have

become available, and the practice of basketwork has declined. “The young

people are not interested’ say the mothers and grandmothers.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 55

On the other hand, an even more recent trend, is the very widespread

desire among industrial societies for hand-made articles, which has stimulated

the growth of home industries where baskets are made not for use but for sale.

The extent to which this particular cultural trait can, at this stage, be

expected to show relationships, other than those of recent proximity, between

the various groups of people, or their former movements, is limited by present-

‘day ease of movement of individuals, and by the increasing rate of change in the

old societies. Nevertheless, basketwork is a conservative craft and some indica-

tions of these things can be seen.

TECHNOLOGY

In basketwork there are two main techniques, which may be called woven

and sewn, and these differ according to the way in which the elements are put

together. In woven work the sets of elements are interlaced by crossing over and

under each other. Plaiting is included here because the interlacing is essentially

the same, although with only one set of elements. In sewn work one set of

elements is sewn together by the other.

Attempts have been made (summarized by Balfet 1952 and translation

1957) to cut across these two simple categories so as to class the warps of woven

work and the foundation of sewn work together as the passive elements or ‘stan-

dards’ (‘montants’) and the wefts of woven work and the sewing strand of sewn

work as the active elements or ‘threads’ (‘brins’). While one follows the logic,

this seems to me to remove the classification from the reality of how the work is

done, the technique in fact. Accordingly, each of the techniques classified here

relates back to one or other of the two major techniques, woven or sewn. As far

as possible vernacular terms—whether European or African—for a particular

technique, have been avoided in favour of descriptive terms.

Only those techniques recorded so far in southern Africa are described

below.

FABRIC

The following are the techniques of the body of the work. The descriptions

are given as viewed by the maker, who generally works from left to right with

the outside of the work towards the body, except when making shallow baskets

in which the inside is the side seen.

WOVEN

Woven work may be flat, cylindrical or ascending. The two sets of elements

are, by analogy with weaving, called warps and wefts, the warps being the

straight, sometimes taut, passive elements, whether vertical or horizontal, and

the wefts those elements that are woven across the warps. The same techniques

can be used whether the work is flat, cylindrical or ascending and the main dif-

ferences in technique are in the way the wefts proceed to cross the warps.

56 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Check or chequer

This is the simplest form of all, in which the warps and wefts pass over and

under each other singly, as in darning or plain woven cloth. In many cases, both

are the same width and thickness, which gives the true close chequer effect. The

work is usually straight (la, Figs 1A, 2) but a few examples of pouches were

seen in which it proceeded diagonally (1b, Fig. 1B). The chequer stitch may also

be used at wide intervals in mat-making. This is called open chequer (Ic,

Fig. 1C). Chequer weave has a great variety of uses but, although widespread in

southern Africa, is less commonly used than some other weaves.

Twilled

Each element passes over and under two or more of those of the other set,

but in each successive row the element goes under one element further on. This

gives a herringbone effect (Fig. 3). By varying the number passed over, and by

introducing a different colour or width of element into one set, an endless

variety of decorative effects can be produced. The work may be straight (2a,

Fig. 3A) or diagonal (2b, Figs 3B, 4). Twilled weave is very common in south-

ern Africa. Its most frequent use is for winnowing trays (straight) in the

northern and central regions, where the elements are thin, flat strips of wood or

reed, and for beer-strainers (see Fig. 107) and pouches (diagonal) among the

eastern people of the coastal palm-belt, where the elements are strips of

palm-leaf.

Wrapped

Very flexible wefts are wrapped once right round each warp in passing.

Plain wrapped weave (3, Figs 5, 6) has been seen on a variety of objects but

is very uncommon in southern Africa.

Twined

In each row two or more wefts pass alternately one in front of and one

behind each warp, taking a half-twist round each other between the warps. A

warp may consist of one strand or two taken together, or of a bundle of strands;

it may thus be described as single, double or multiple warp. This is the common-

est variety of the woven technique in southern Africa and, in addition to

forming the main fabric, it is often used ornamentally or as a strong edging. Its

distribution shows, however, that it is favoured particularly by the south-eastern

people, the Nguni and Tsonga, and those who have been in contact with them.

Several styles are known.

Plain. (i) Close. When only two wefts are twined at a time and the warps are

straight and the rows of weft are placed immediately next to each other. Warps

may be single (4a, Fig. 7A) or multiple (4b, Fig. 8). (11) Open. In which the

rows of twining are separated so that the warps, which are generally single, are

left uncovered for a certain space. Warps may be single (4c, Fig. 7B) or multiple

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

A. Straight close chequer weave, Ja. B. Diagonal close chequer weave, Jb. C. Open

chequer weave with twined edge, /c.

Fig. 1.

58 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 2. Straight close chequer weave basket of palm-leaf; reinforced

selvedge and additional ornamental reinforcement; stiff handle.

Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-—6126). Height 205 mm.

(4d, Fig. 7C). (ii) Chain. Plain close twine in which the direction of twine is

reversed at each row, thereby making a chain-stitch effect over the whole fabric.

The warp may be single (4e) or multiple (4f, Fig. 7D).

Twilled. Close twine in which the wefts go over and under two warps but in

each successive row move one warp further on to make a twilled effect (4g,

Fig. 7E). The warps may be single or multiple. Only one example was seen.

Split warp. A double or multiple warp may be divided after each row of the

twining and the two sections joined to sections from the adjoining warps for the

next row of twining. There seem to be two ways of doing this. (1) Zigzag. When

the warp is divided equally and the two sections, together in one row, part to

right and left in the next, and come together again in the third row, in such a

way that each section follows a vertical zigzag line. The weaving may be close

(4h, Fig. 9A, B)—with the twining rows next to each other, or open (4,

Fig. 9C)—with twining rows at wide intervals. (ii) Diagonal. When the left

section of the warp goes off to the left, but the right section remains vertical and

receives the left of the adjoining warp; then having become the left section

itself, goes off to the left to rejoin its former mate, so that each warp section

follows a stepped diagonal line across the work. The weaving may be close (4j,

Figs 9D, E, 10), or open (4k) and the warps equally or unequally divided. When

the weaving is close, the difference between zigzag and diagonal split-warp

5 5: “alk red tiench ipeheats agen Enechineividiideinee’ oxdh- ote de one anata eat acl nceke aie

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

B. Diagonal twilled weave, 2b.

Fig. 3. A. Straight twilled weave, 2a.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Venda, Louis

th dyed elements of same material.

ion wi

Trichardt, 1962 (SAM-12084). Height 289 mm.

coloured decorat

Fig. 4. Diagonal twilled weave basket of wood slivers, shaped by moulding and holding edges

between hoops

Sa:

d outer appearance

inner an

d weave

in wrappe

5. Plai

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | | 61

Fig. 6. Plain wrapped weave bird cage of withies and bark strands, shaped

by tension. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6176). Height 430 mm.

twining can scarcely be seen on the finished surface of the object unless, as has

been recorded in the Transkei in the diagonal style, the warp is divided

unequally (4/, Fig. 9F), which gives a twilled appearance. The difference may be

very noticeable in this case when the warp consists of a bundle of grass, and only

a small section is carried to the left each time. This can give the superficial

appearance of a diagonal strand having been run through the work afterwards.

Split-warp twine seems to have been characteristic of the eastern Southern Nguni

and the southern Transvaal Ndebele. Latterly the technique has been seen a

little in the western Transkei.

Lattice. When there is a horizontal as well as a vertical set of warps, single

(4 m) or (Figs 9G, H, 11) double (4 n), and one or more wefts that twine at the

crossings of the warps. This technique, with all flexible elements, is very rare.

Wickerwork

Wickerwork is distinguished by the fact that the warps are rigid whereas the

flexible wefts bend in and out. The weave may be chequer, wrapped or twined.

62 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

LZ, 4 Wir

eee

Sanwa:

eeeses

“AA

t ee See

& S

wma pf

i Lil,

Satyeiag ul Ainge phage RENE

Dee

Says mS

Tl see

7 Th Mele = tite

TM Z As ad aN

Ohne ut gal Pty, lo — Ny Tx] XIX psp =

= UE cling le WU ile “exe ete

~ 2p Simply yplige ogc (| | 2

es | ~ Si AP Lee me

| Adnan

Gadd dags L eS

Bites 44 pis atti

a ae be ma me a lm

SAPP Ae

E ) > ———" Bp Ps »— p-f- §-$- g- os ye $-p- g-

eee a a a ee ae

—@, Bi--8 =e 6- Br &ee 86-8 P-P-- is

f- . aS es IS, . oer *s ee

__ “Gi, @ > —-@ p< ee pr > a es — ob ‘ee b

Aplistulatstatetslslstgtstc=

See ei hei te

Fig. 7. A. Close plain twined weave, single warp, 4a. B. Open plain twined weave, single

warp, 4c. C. Open plain twined weave, multiple warp, 4d. D. Plain chain twined weave, mul-

tiple warp, 4f. E. Twilled twined weave, single warp, 4g.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | 63

Fig. 8. Food-mat of close plain twined weave, multiple grass warp, sedge weft; scalloped sel-

vedge; looped warp beginning; added warps for shaping; decoration—same material dyed.

Mpondo, Mevana, Libode, 1969 (SAM-—9564). Diameter 330 mm.

Twilled wickerwork has not been recorded in southern Africa. By its nature

wickerwork is suited to heavy articles, such as hut doors and traps, but it is also

used in lighter form for baskets and fish traps. It is therefore widely distributed.

It is not very common, however, and for actual baskets is seldom used except by

the Shona peoples of the north-east and the southern Tsonga of Mozambique.

(The wicker influence seems to come from the north-east.)

The following varieties have been recorded:

Chequer. Plain straight chequer (5a, Figs 12A, 13) is the most common

variety recorded.

‘Wrapped. (i) Plain (5b); (ii) Lattice wrapped with one (5c) or two (Sg) lat-

tices, is a second, more common variety in which there is a horizontal as well as

a vertical set of warps, one or both of which is generally rigid, and the weft is

wrapped round the crossing of the two warps. As far as recorded, in southern

64 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

it uf ( UL s

i } AR “y 7 i

ey DY QRS os= LS Zi

: Zh

~Q.— “N23 oe BEX SS

\ ==\77 > Hs 4s ~ Yo

Z Z

S ZV =x :

> SS SS » =

re Ls z

S < " = =

7 WW Bh i lana

YY A ATTY

OUT AI KTR ATID F

AISI rin

SSIS OL AO AOI

Fig. 9. A-B. Close zigzag split-warp twined weave, double warp, 4h. C. Open zigzag split-

warp twined weave, double warp, 41. D-—E. Close diagonal split warp twined weave, double or

multiple warp, 47. F. Diagonal split-warp twined weave, multiple warp unequally divided, 4.

G-H. Three-strand lattice twined weave, single lattice, outer and inner appearance, 4m.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 65

Fig. 10. Basket of close diagonal split-warp twine; multiple warp; both elements of sedge; dec-

orative band of plain twine, one of the strands same material dyed; scalloped selvedge.

Mpondomise, Tshixo, Tsolo, 1969 (SAM-—9579). Height 365 mm.

Africa at least, the vertical set of warps is straight and the horizontal set may be

single (Sc) or double (5g), one on each side of the upright. In the latter case the

wrapping may enclose a row of plain twine (5h, Fig. 12F). In chain lattice

wrapped the wrapping strand is hitched in loops that make a chain stitch effect.

It has been seen with one lattice (Sd, Fig. 12B, C). In figure-of-eight lattice

wrapped, the wrapping strand makes a figure-of-eight (Se, Fig. 12D); and in

hitched lattice wrap the weft, after wrapping and emerging to the front, hitches

under the stroke below before proceeding, thereby holding the lattice (5f). This

was seen among the Ndau with a circular grass lattice and gave the impression of

sewn coiled work, but there is no stitching.

Twined. (i) Plain twine, close or open (Si and 5/). (ii) Lattice twine, with

one lattice and one or more twining strands (5k, 5/, Fig. 14). (111) Lattice twine,

with two lattices and one or more twining strands (5m, Fig. 12E; 5n).

(iv) A combination of (i) and (ii1) in which a row of double lattice wrap is placed

over a row of plain twine (So, Fig. 12F).

Wattlework

This is a form of wickerwork in which the warps are stakes that are planted

in the ground or in a heavy base. It is used for fencing and for the framework of

66 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN. MUSEUM

Fig. 11. Basket of lattice twine, single lattice, all elements palm-leaf; reinforced selvedge.

Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6129). Height 205 mm.

huts and sledges, and is found for these purposes over most of southern Africa.

In wattlework the varieties so far found are chequer (6a), plain lattice wrapped,

with one or two lattices (6b, 6c, Fig. 15), hitched lattice wrapped (6d) (when the

strand takes a turn round itself at each crossing), figure-of-eight lattice wrapped

(6e), and varieties of lattice twine (6f—6k). Lattice wrapped wattlework is used

on hut walls in the north and east, and there may be two sets of horizontal lat-

tices holding one set of vertical warps, or two sets of vertical warps with one set

of horizontal lattices between them. The latter demands a different way of wrap-

ping the weft, which takes a figure-of-eight instead of a simple course.

Plaiting

Plaiting is the process by which three or more strands of a single set of ele-

ments are interlaced to form a flat, round or square braid. It is used mostly for

ornaments or hanging loops for articles and for decorating other basketwork,

and is found mainly in the east and south. There are several sorts of plaiting:

Simple plaiting (7a, 7b, Fig. 16A, B). When three or more strands are

interlaced in a diagonal chequer weave to form a flat braid.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 67

hes

Dsl |

iit

oat

x AIA

E ra

sy be

= ACEO.

bes

—

= ——}

feos

sf |

Wu \

may

}

>) — <

bed lel a} ame

Ee Og ees ee ee eee dale

—_ 4

Fig. 12. A. Chequer wickerwork, 5a. B-C. Chain lattice wrapped wickerwork, single lattice,

5d. D. Figure-of-eight lattice wrapped wickerwork, lattice between two sets of warps, Je.

E. Double lattice one strand twined wickerwork, 5m. F. Double lattice wickerwork, one

strand twine over plain twine, So.

68 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 13. Basket of chequer wicker weave, warp wood slivers, weft split creeper stems; stapled

edge. Mari, Chibi, Zimbabwe, 1963 (SAM-8952). Height 176 mm.

Extended plaiting (7c, 7d, 7e, 7f, 7g). When a simple plait of three, four or

more strands is continued in a flat or ascending coil to make a fabric. Each

round of the coiling is joined to the next by bringing in a new strand at the

beginning of each plaiting movement in the first round (and later at intervals to

increase the size), and letting it continué in the braid, while the strand whose

place it is taking goes out at the end of the movement, and in the next round is

picked up as a new strand. The two adjoining rounds may be drawn close (7c,

Fig. 16C), or an open space may be left between them (7d, Fig. 16D, E). A dif-

ferent appearance may be given to the latter by tightening the strands unevenly

(7e) but, in the only instance recorded, the decorative effect was on the wrong

side and not exploited as decoration. The same varieties of plait may be used

with more than three strands (7f, 7g, Fig. 16F).

Twilled plaiting (7h, Fig. 17A). Similar to simple plaiting, but the strands

go over and under two or more strands instead of one.

Multiple plaiting (71, 7j). A flat braid formed of any number of strands

divided into groups. Each strand is treated singly at the edge, but the groups are

interwoven as a so-many-strand plait. If the groups of the strands cross at the

centre a plain plaited effect is obtained (77, Fig. 17B). By having an unequal

number in the groups they can be made to cross at the edges and a zigzag effect

is obtained (77).

Herringbone (7k, Fig 17C). A flat braid formed of any number of strands

divided into two groups which start in opposite directions. Each strand is treated

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 69

Fig. 14. Fish trap of open lattice twined wickerwork, 5/, warps and lattices withies, two wefts

of bark; shaped by tension; to finish, warps gathered into a bound bundle, held by figure-of-

eight seizing. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6124). Height 710 mm.

singly at the edge, and goes under the opposite strand at the centre. This pro-

duces a herringbone effect.

Open (71). A flat braid formed from a number of strands which instead of

crossing at the centre, plait only at the edge, which gives the appearance of one

group always on top and the other underneath.

Angular. (i) A flat braid in which the elements are interlaced only at the

edges where they turn at a sharp angle to make an angular product, in a manner

best indicated by the figure (7m, Fig. 17D). (ii) A rounded braid in which the

elements are interlaced in a regular but uneven rhythm and take a sharp turn at

each side (7n, Fig. 17E).

Round (7o, Fig. 17F). Four strands are plaited simply to make a round

braid. Those on the left go under two to the right and over one to the left,

whereas those on the right go under two to the left and over one to the right.

70 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 15. Sledge of plain lattice wrapped wattlework, single strand, warps and lattices withies,

wefts bark. Ndebele, near Empandeni, Zimbabwe, 1967. (Mrs Masuku standing.) Height

c. 1 780 mm.

Square (7p, 7q, Fig. 17G, H). Seven or more strands are plaited simply, to

make a square (four edged) braid, each side of which looks like a simple three-

strand plait.

Hitched (7r, Fig. 171). Each of a number of strands, usually four, is hitched

round a central strand, proceeding in turn for the desired length to make a

round cord.

Three- or more strand spiral (7s, 7t). Three or more strands are plaited

across and surrounding a central strand to make a round plait with a spiral twist

and ridge.

SEWN

In sewn work the two sets of interlacing elements may be called the foun-

dation and the sewing, and the major division is according to whether the

foundation is straight or coiled. Each division has further varieties, according to

the type of foundation and, in coiled work, the manner of sewing as well.

Straight foundation: flat or cylindrical

In straight work a number of separate foundation strands is laid side by side

longitudinally and the sewing strand, which joins them together, passes through

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA __ 7 71

Qa SY

RIIITIS

WTS

—-, eS

Se SSS

SIS/SS /S/8]5/S/s/—18

LI LLL DIL A.

Fig. 16. A. Three-strand simple plait, 7a. B.Many-strand simple plait, 7b. C. Four-strand

close extended plait, 7c. D-—E. Outer and inner appearance four-strand open extended plait,

strands tightened unevenly, 7d. F. Many-strand open extended plait, 7g.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

‘dz ‘ywejd poyouy ‘] “bz ‘wed orenbs puesjjs-jysiq “Y-H “o7 ‘veld punoy “4

‘uz ‘\ejd ejnsue punoy “q “wz ‘weld sejnsue yep -q ‘yz ‘Weld ouog-suIeY ‘OD 1Z ‘uejd ojdnjnw urejg “g “YZ ‘IWeId pony “Vv

ESEEEREER EERE

wie

I ‘31

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | ) i

Fig. 18. A. Straight sewing, single foundation, 8. B. Straight sewing through each twist of a

two-ply twisted cord foundation, 9a. C. Straight sewing through each twist of a three-ply

twisted cord foundation, 9c.

74 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 19. Straight sewn cylindrical beer-strainer, foundation of three-ply cords of twisted sedge;

sewing sedge, edge fringed above knots. Mpondomise, Tsolo, Transkei, 1936 (SAM-5564).

Length 521 mm.

them horizontally at intervals. The work may be flat or cylindrical. When the

work is flat, the sewing strand may cross it only once and then be fastened off, or

may turn back and re-cross it once or several times, according to the width of

the fabric. When the work is cylindrical, the sewing strand travels in a continu-

ous spiral. It is possible to join the straight foundation strands by oversewing,

but this technique does not commonly occur in southern Africa. One poorly

authenticated example was seen.

There are two sorts of straight foundation:

Single. When the foundation strands are single and simple. Very commonly

smooth sedge stems (8, Fig. 18A) are used, but in Zimbabwe split and flattened

reed stems are used. This is only known in flat work. It is a common foc unignie

for sleeping-mats and is widely distributed.

Composite. When each foundation strand is composed of a number of

twisted elements. These may be two- or three-ply twisted cords, between the

strands of which the sewing strand, which may also be twisted, passes. Only cyl-

indrical work is known. When two-ply cord is used for the foundation the sewing

strand passes over one and under one strand, generally through each twist of the

cord (9a, Fig. 18B), although in examples from the Transvaal Tsonga it only

passes through every fourth or fifth twist (9b). When three-ply cord is used the

sewing strand passes through each twist of the cord, under two and over one

strand (9c, Figs 18C, 19). This technique is used for one of the two most

common sorts of beer-strainer made in this country.

Coiled foundation

Coiled work is circular and may be flat or ascending. A continuous foun-

dation is sewn together in a flat or an ascending coil and, in all but the two sorts

of flat work seen, the sewing strand passes right round the new coil foundation

at each stitch.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 75

See”

tees

Fig. 20. A-—B. Straight sewing through flat coiled plaited foundation, /0a. C, D, E. Tacking

through flat coiled plaited foundation, /0b.

76 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

| i

——S ea &

= = =

= SS ==

=| —

= —— & &-

= —— = —S—

Si I = =

S| =

| -S

—— ——|

SS | Ee =

= = — ==

=——_Lb

AEE

SS SS SS

————SSE ——————

= SSS EEE

SSeS SSS

———$—$—$—$—$—$—————————

Fig. 21. A. Simple oversewing over simple coil foundation, //a. B. Simple oversewing over

one coil of multiple coil foundation, 1/6. C-D. Corded oversewing over simple coil foun-

dation, diagram and finished effect, 12a. E. Plain beeskep oversewing over multiple coil

foundation, /7a. F. Diagonal beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, /7b.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Wy

i i iy

TI,

ABB EESSVESS VEIRIG)

By, ai

Shs j Ye; | He

ws ey

Fig. 22. A. Basket, simple oversewing over one coil of multiple foundation; chequer square

Start; triple oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing palm. Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961

(SAM-8397). Diameter 210 mm. B. Basket, corded oversewing over two coils of multiple

foundation; diagonal oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing twisted sedge. Kgatla, Mochudi,

Botswana, 1933 (SAM-4799). Diameter 400 mm.

78 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 23. Grain-bin, diagonal beeskep sewing over one coil of multiple foundation; foundation

grass, sewing plaited grass. South Sotho, HaSouru, Lesotho, 1978. Height c. 1 200 mm.

Coiled foundation: flat

This is only known with a single composite foundation of plaited grass. The

plaits are laid face to face and joined in one of two ways: (a) By sewing right

through as in straight sewn work. The use of this technique has only been

recorded for personal ornaments of the south-eastern area and Lesotho (J0a,

Fig. 20A, B). (b) By tacking with a running stitch that passes only through the

new coil and the one before, a stitch which seems to be of recent origin, prob-

ably in Zululand, and is becoming increasingly used, especially for floor mats

(10b, Fig. 20C-E).

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | | 19

=| j= |

== | eal oat) a

ASA SAS ASERE

sees SA RASS

LSS EE SARS

SANSA SEATEASS

Fig. 24. A-—C. Stages in ribbed beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, /7c.

D. Basket, ribbed beeskep sewing over multiple foundation; neck simple oversewing with

decoration of columns of lengthened stitches over two coils; foundation and sewing palm-leaf.

Natal, isichuma, (British Museum 337a). Height c. 170 mm.

80 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

awe

ANN

> |

lees al

KOO

ees

J SL ANNARANAN

<4 BETTE

>» ——

AAA

ANT AN BN 2

ll |

Sri

sii

A |

ear Laney)

yes, | p

ay |

s INN

wr P

= alliliit

Ile

}

— mM & Ew BA) Bry 2

= et =| | se = C-

SS), 5) FS). SS eS || ——

= ra Ne anil ea | pore lie

— | ce ty ——3 I ee

Shap Sahay az

S| EN EE ele

=I =| = eed Rect aw WE

eS = -—F — = -— ———

== Sh =H === =

Bix —

rig. Dy,

A. Close interlock sewing over simple coil foundation, /3a. B. Close interlock sewing

over multiple coil foundation, piercing foundation, J3c. C. Close interlock sewing over mul-

tiple coil foundation, round two coils, 13d. D-—E. Open interlock sewing over multiple

foundation, stitch passing between the coils, /3g.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 81

Fig. 26. Basket, close interlock sewing over two coils, single foundation; foundation root

stem, sewing split root stem; herringbone edge. Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, Transvaal, 1936

(UCT 38/70). Diameter 341 mm.

Coiled foundation: ascending

The ascending oversewn coiled work is probably the most widespread bas-

ketwork technique in southern Africa and it would seem to be the main

technique for all except the Shona, who use wickerwork, and the Southern

Nguni, most of whom nowadays use split warp twine. The varieties of the work

may be differentiated according both to the foundation and the sewing. In

southern Africa only two sorts of ascending coiled foundation have been

noted—a simple foundation, consisting of a single rod, and a multiple foun-

dation, consisting of numerous thin strands or even a soft plaited element. There

are several methods of oversewing. To a certain extent they depend on the type

of foundation used. In each method of oversewing the stitches may be close

together so that the sewing covers the whole foundation, or widely spaced so as

to show the foundation. Many different effects can thus be produced by using

essentially the same technique. The sewing strand may be flat, single or mul-

tiple, twisted or a plaited strand, and this too produces different effects with the

same way of sewing, but some of the stitches limit the choice of strand. It should

be noted that most workers in most areas proceed from left to right and the fol-

lowing descriptions are based on this fact, but it should be borne in mind that

some do work from right to left. Whether the worker faces the right or the

wrong side of the work is a matter of convenience and depends on the object

being made.

The following methods of sewing and the foundations on which they are

used have been recorded:

~ On simple or multiple foundation

Simple oversewing: each stitch, coming out at the back of the work, i.e.

away from the worker, passes over the new portion of the foundation slightly

82 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

: A Sraratatadah

FEEEEEE 2 (ZILT4 TL Sig) ae:

ae oe pees

| WIN t

Stoascaratctuis

ae Cpe

Fig. 27. A. Openwork sewing over multiple foundation, /4b. B—C. Knot stitch over simple

coil foundation; outer and inner appearance, /5a. D. Knot stitch over multiple foundation,

15b.

diagonally, goes in at the front ahead of the stitch below, i.e. in the direction the

work is proceeding, and passes straight under or through the previous coil. This

is perhaps the most widely used of all the sewn techniques.

When a simple foundation of a single rod (/la, Fig. 21A), generally the

pliable stem of a creeper or a root, is used, the sewing must of necessity pass

round the previous coil since it cannot pierce it. This technique is used mainly in

the eastern Transvaal and Mozambique.

If the simple foundation is soft, or when the foundation is multiple and con-

sists of a bundle of thin strands of, for example, grass or shredded palm-leaf, the

sewing, after passing round the new coil, pierces only a small portion of the top

of the last coil (J1b, Figs 21B, 22A). This latter is by far the more common type

of foundation of the two in southern Africa. Sometimes, however, the stitch

passes right round the last coil as well as the new (//c), and the effect 1s then the

same as when a single rod foundation is used.

Simple oversewing gives no special decorative effect to the finished surface,

whether closely or openly worked. |

Corded. When the stitching is markedly diagonal and the stitch is put in

ahead of or behind (i.e. either to right or left) the one below it and goes straight

through to the back without interlocking and when a thick or twisted sewing

strand is used, a vertical corded effect is obtained that is often exploited for dec-

oration. The foundation may be simple (12a, Fig. 21C, D), in which case the

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 83

Fig. 28. Basket, openwork sewing with palm-leaf over multiple foundation of

palm-leaf; no edging, herring-bone finish. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939

(SAM-—5998). Height 77 mm.

sewing is over two coils, or multiple, where the stitch may go over one (/2b) or

two coils (2c, Fig. 22B), and for purely decorative purposes over more. The

sewing may be close or widely spaced. This technique seems to be favoured

especially by Natal Nguni, Central Sotho, Venda and Tswana.

Interlock. When the new stitch is brought straight over the new coil and

passes diagonally through the loop of the stitch below. On a simple foundation it

must also go round the coil below (/3a, Figs 25A, 26). The sewing may be close

or open (1/35). On a multiple foundation the stitch generally, but not always,

pierces the top of the foundation below (J3c, Fig. 25B) but it may go round

it (13d, Fig. 25C). On either foundation it may go between the two coils (/3g,

Fig. 25D, E). Open stitching of this sort gives the effect of a series of diagonal

lines across the work; close stitching gives a checked effect of stitches and spaces

alternating in adjoining coils. This technique was rarely found.

Openwork (14a, 140, Figs 27A, 28). When the sewing strand, after passing

round or through the top of the preceding coil, is wound round the new coil

once or several times between stitches. The stitches and the windings are gener-

ally regulated to make a pattern. This would seem to be an introduced stitch,

though the Zimbabwe Ndebele deny this, and claim that it is the first stitch

taught to children, which may be, but several generations have passed.

Knotstitch (15a, 15b, Fig. 27B—D). In this method, the sewing passes round

both coils, but breaks its journey up the back to come out to the front between

the two coils—either to the left or to the right of itself depending on whether

the work is from the left or the right—crosses over its own last stitch and goes

through to the back again to continue diagonally its journey upwards. The work

is done closely and gives the appearance of a row of knots between the coils.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

\ y

sWnillS YY, :

( ee y/

\ NUL ay

N ou Cy “ |

eaee es é | oY

Nap

\ SW, J ; | (

NLD N

,§EZ N ty

j y h

Lt Ny

oO ||

p> ——

F-G. Outer

18c.

C. Close furcate split-stitch oversewing on multiple coil foundation, /8a.

rcate sewing, twice into one hole, on multiple coil foundation

appearance of open split-stitch furcate sewing on multiple coil foundation, 18d.

E. Close fu

and inner

Fig. 29. A-—B. Inner and outer appearance of three-strand sewing over multiple coil foun-

dation, J6b.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 85

was But

RASS

the oh

Fig. 30. Basket, close furcate sewing with sedge, over multiple foundation of grass or stripped

sedge, twice into one hole. (Lid is of hide.) ?Lesotho, early twentieth century (SAM-6536).

Height 153 mm.

Often, however, an extra encircling of the foundation of the new coil separates

the knots. This does not seem to be a southern African technique and was prob-

ably first taught in schools, as it still is.

Three-strand. Oversewing done diagonally with three separate strands, each

stitch of each strand missing two stitches of the previous coil. In the only

example recorded, a Southern Sotho hat (SAM-—2261), the sewing is interlocked

and over a multiple coil (6b, Fig. 29A, B).

On a multiple foundation only

Beeskep. The stitches are like simple or corded oversewing, but widely

spaced with each stitch placed just behind (/7a, Fig. 21E), or just in front of,

the stitch of the coil below (7b, Figs 21F, 23). The effect of the latter is often of

radial lines on the fabric. Comparatively few examples have been recorded,

from widespread localities, and only with a multiple foundation. The technique

may not be indigenous. A variety seen on a basket from Natal (an isolated

example) has the stitch coming out and going over an external semi-circular rib

of grass before going in again (/7c, Fig. 24A—D).

Furcate sewing. When the new stitch splits the stitch below it of the pre-

ceding coil, (18a, Figs 29C, 30) or when the successive stitch is sewn into the

same hole (JSc, Fig. 29D, E), it gives a forked effect. This is often done

inadvertently in simple oversewing, but when done systematically a vertical

chain-stitch effect is produced, which is the more marked when the stitches are

widely spaced (J8d, Fig. 29F, G). Closely sewn modern work is not very

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

B-C. Outer and inner

A. Plain cross-stitch sewing on multiple foundation, 19a.

lao)

le foundation, 19D.

appearance of interlock cross-stitch sewing on multip

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 87

remarkable, but on some old examples of Xhosa and Thembu baskets, of a type

no longer made, the work is so fine as almost to look like another technique

(Fig. 29E). This latter has not been recorded from any other area in southern

Africa.

Cross-stitch. When the sewing strand is so stitched as to form a plain cross-

stitch or herring-bone effect, the same on both sides. The stitch passes diag-

onally forward over to the front from the last stitch, through straight between

the coil from front to back, returns diagonally over to the front, crossing its first

stitch, through the previous coil and first part of the stitch below from front to

back, and diagonally forward to commence the next stitch (19a, Fig. 31A). Ina

variety of this the sewing strand passes through the old coil and interlocks with

_the stitch below in its first wrapping, and either round or through the new coil in

its second wrapping. This gives a rather different effect and is different on each.

side (19b, Fig. 31B, C). This has been seen only on baskets from Ovambo and it

too may have been introduced, possibly by the Finnish missions.

BEGINNINGS

Beginnings are to a certain extent influenced by the eventual shape of the

object.

FLAT AND STRAIGHT WORK

Woven or sewn

The manner of beginning scarcely needs description. In twined or wrapped

woven work or in straight sewn work, the warps or foundation strands that are

to be used are laid out first and joined together by the first row of weft or

sewing. The weft strand may start with a knot (20a) or be doubled over in a loop

(20b). The latter may start several foundation strands from the edge, go to the

edge, and then turn back (20c, Fig. 32). A sewing strand starts with a knot.

This is the way of beginning mats and also some brooms, where small

bundles of the grass are taken separately, bent over for about 25 mm at the root

end (which is to be the handle) and held so by twining, each bundle being added

on separately until a long fringe of grass is formed, held by one twined row. The

fringe is then rolled to form a broom. In the case of sleeping-mats, the first row

of weft or sewing is generally at one edge but certain practitioners were seen to

start at the centre of the mat.

In the isolated instance of the Northern Nguni skimming spoons (Fig. 106),

the midrib of a palm foliole is bent at its centre to form the bowl and held in

shape by twining.

. In all other flat woven techniques except plaiting, the work is generally

started at one corner with one warp and one weft, and others are added alter-

nately (27). A Tsonga maker of twilled winnowing baskets, however, first

twined six warps together for the start, in a corner that was subsequently cut off.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

| 88

Fig. 32. Loop start to flat open twine, some distance from the edge, 20c.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 89

Plaiting

In plaiting, all the strands are taken together at the start and may

be knotted to hold them in place (22); sometimes the knot is left on as a

decoration.

CYLINDRICAL WORK ;

For cylindrical work, that is work with open ends unless closed by other

means, the following beginnings have been noted.

Woven

Chequer weave

(a) The warps are bound tightly in position at the base of a cylinder and the

binding string continues as the weft to weave in and out (23). This is the begin-

ning of a chequer covering to a stick. It is also the beginning for a spoon-bag,

which is woven on a form, nowadays a bottle, that is removed when the weaving

is complete.

(b) Another way of beginning chequer work is to lay the warps out and,

after the first row of weft, bend into a cylinder so that the edges meet and the

weft continues in a spiral (24). (This was seen on one example of the flat-

bottomed seroto with wicker sides made by Kalanga in Serowe.)

begin, and a diagonal chequer weave continued (24 bis).

Twilled weave

There are several ways of beginning a cylindrical twilled weave, but the

most common is to knot the strands together in pairs of one warp and one weft at

a slightly obtuse angle (25, Fig. 33A). The pairs are then twilled together in a

row and either then, after one row, or later, when a good bit of the fabric has

been woven, bent round so that the two ends or edges meet and are woven

together to make the circlet or cylinder. Alternatively, the warps and wefts may

be knotted together as a bundle and then woven (26). This is used for twilled

beer-strainers or pouches. Another method is that, instead of knotting two

strands, one wide strand may be folded diagonally to make the warp and weft

pair and then each split into two or more (27, Fig. 33B, C); this makes a pleas-

ing flat edge. The work then proceeds as above. This is seen on a Manyika fez-

shaped cap.

Twined weave

_ The warps are joined by the first row of weft, which starts with a knot. The

work is bent round so that the edges meet and the weft continues in a spiral (28,

Fig. 33D). Or, as in chequer weave, the warps may first be bound round a

mould of the desired diameter.

90 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ry on

> 2

CONE

iB 24 2 oy

Vi 4 AX

NC << On \\

= Unb

eri Bai

Fig. 33. A, Start to cylindrical twill, warps and wefts knotted in pairs, 25. B-C. Start to cyl-

indrical twill, warps and wefts split from folded wider strand, 27. D. Start to cylindrical

twine warps joined by first row of weft; work curved so that edges meet and wefts continue in a

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 91

Fig. 34. Garden basket, lattice twined wicker—one lattice, two wefts, start at open base later

covered with a small mat; all elements palm. Ronga, Lebombo, 1954 (UCT 54/15). Height

285 mm.

Sewn

Straight foundation

The beginning is as for a flat object but at the end of the first row of sewing

the work is bent round so that the two edges meet. The sewing strand then starts

the second row and continues in a continuous spiral (29, Fig. 35). This is the

beginning of one type of beer-strainer in which the foundation elements are two-

or three-ply cords. The cords are knotted at one end and the knots are left on to

form an edge. The work is begun by threading the sewing strand through the

cords just above the knots (from the worker’s point of view) and, finally,

through the first foundation element to make the circle. It then continues in its

spiral course. Sometimes an end is left to be joined by the ends of the cords to

make a fringe (29b, Fig. 35). Sometimes the end of the sewing strand is knotted

(29a, Fig. 35A) but more often it is left long and turned up to become a cord in

the fabric (29c, Fig. 35B). Very rarely the sewing starts from a decorative

feature at the narrow end (29d).

The foregoing beginnings are in no way notable; they are merely the most

obvious ways of beginning the work and do not influence the rest of the body.

CIRCULAR WORK: FLAT OR ASCENDING

For circular work, however, the beginning is more important because it is

the point from which the rest of the work radiates and it must be equally avail-

able to all sides. There is not a great deal of variety in these beginnings.

S SSS en GEE: ae a

LESS ELS

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= SEEN

PSS SSS =

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WL) Y NARA

INS a= SES Ft

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SS SEE

— Li

=TAS,

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mW ACL)

‘

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D en { \ \ Ts y

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=a D> Ly 5 ge iN [x

be am Nem\

a r ft

work. A. End of sewing strand i

B. Sewing strand left long and worked in with foundation, 29c.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 93

Woven work

In woven work it is necessary to commence at the centre of a number of

warp strands, which then radiate. Other strands can be inserted between them

to increase the size. The following woven beginnings have been recorded in

southern Africa:

Crossed warp

A few warps are taken, fewer than are necessary for the completion of the

basket, and crossed at their centres (30, Fig. 36A). They are held together by

one or two rows of the weft and then made to radiate, and other warps are

inserted. It is essential that for chequer weaving the final number of warps be

_ odd. One recorded type of this is on the wicker baskets of the Shona. Two warp

elements (each of which will make two warps) are crossed, then two more added

on top and held by two rows of weft; two more pairs are added in the same way

and then a single one, to make the odd number seventeen. Each of these is

doubled by adding another to it after 25 mm or so of weaving and, as they turn

up for the sides, all but the odd one are divided and redoubled by the addition

of further warps, thereby making thirty-three double warps. (This doubling and

re-dividing is a common way of increasing circular woven basketwork.) A

similar beginning is seen on an Ambo granary, which is lattice twined; two lots

of five vertical warps are crossed and then held by the first ring of the horizontal

warp. This beginning is suitable for any type of weaving and has been recorded

on chequer, twine and, especially, wicker. It is mainly seen among the Shona,

where woven work predominates.

Bound warp

A few warps are taken and bound together at their centres by the weft

strand, which then commences to weave in and out. The warps radiate and

others are added as the work progresses (31, Fig. 36B). This is the usual com-

mencement of the circular twined work of the peoples of the south-east and

seems only to be used there. Wrapped bird-cages also begin in this way, but the

correct number of warps is used from the start.

Looped warp

As a variation of the above, the warps, instead of being bound together

straight, are looped (32, Fig. 36C).

Twined warp

The warps are laid side by side and joined by one or more rows of twining

at their centre. They are then bent about their centre and the twining continues

spirally to make a round or elliptical bag (33a, 33b, Fig. 36D).

Square mat

Sufficient warp strands to make the basket are chosen and woven together

at their centres into a square mat, which forms the base of the basket. In its sim-

94 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

A ZisaEON B

y y

Ys Ss %,

LS mie BING

i] ye NY

| 2

\\ “eZ “ Z

Be HELBJaL iain,

8 SSS eS eee

Fig. 36. A. Crossed warp beginning, 30. B. Bound warp beginning, 31. C. Looped warp

beginning, 32. D. Twined beginning to elliptical container, 33b.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 95

plest form it is of single thickness (34a—d, Fig. 37A, B). Any type of weave

would serve but only chequer, twill, twine and lattice twine have been noted.

The strands are then turned up and become the warps of the sides, and a new

continuous weft is woven through them. It is essential for circular chequer

weaving that there be an odd number of warps, so that an extra one must be

inserted at the base or one of the basal warps must be bent up on one side only.

The basket could be kept square in section but, in the only examples seen in

southern Africa, it is allowed to become round, except in the case of lattice

twine baskets. There, a few strands of two sets of warps, each set held by a

double row of twining, are laid across each other at right angles and other warps

are added, tucking under each other singly, in such a way as to form increasing

squares, making a square base of double thickness (34d, Fig. 37C). These begin-

nings are used only by Ambo and Kavango people. An alternative method is

that two sets of warps are taken (in the example seen there were eight strands in

each set) and in each set the strands are laid side by side and held together by

enough rows of twining to make a small flat square. The two squares are super-

imposed, with the warps at right angles, and the twining is continued over the

free part of all the warps to make the sides of the basket, new warps being

added where necessary for width (34e, Fig. 37D). This is used only by immi-

grants to the Kavango territory. Finally, one set of warps is held in groups

between a double set in the opposite direction to make triple thickness (34f).

They are held together by a row of twining between the groups in the same

direction. The twine starts with a loop and the free end, when the base is formed,

continues as the weft of the sides. The base may be strengthened by rods tied to

it. This has only been seen in Mozambique and may not be indigenous.

Open base

Ronga lattice twined garden baskets flange from an open base (Fig. 34)

begun in the same way as twined cylindrical work (Fig. 33D), and covered later.

Extended plait

For the start of the extended plait, the first four elements are looped and

plaited together in a way that cannot be described (35, Fig. 38).

Fancy

Fancy starts to South Sotho hats: a bundle of warps is taken and divided

into groups. At one end of each group the elements straight away become the

multiple warps of the hat, and at the other end of each group they are plaited or

bound (figure-of-eight) into braids that are looped over to make an ornamental

top-knot, before re-entering the fabric of the hat as extra warps (36, Fig. 39).

Sewn work

There is no record of sewn circular work on a straight foundation, which

would be very impractical. In sewn work in which the coiled technique is used,

. 96

l UN THe

\ ia

INA Lec la Lrdls

WL IN

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

wh / ges

47 J

| SX |

FRR:

a PRK

ft soy,

q d) OS €é

Fig. 37. A. Square mat start to chequer, 34a. B. Twilled square mat start to twine, 34b. C. Lattice twined square

mat start, 34d. D. Superimposed square mat start, 34e

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Ui <n

» SILL

9 7

OE ia

Eis?

\ WA

Fig. 38. Start of extended plait, 35.

the beginning is most commonly, but not always, at one end of the foundation.

There is not much variety. The following beginnings have been recorded in

southern Africa:

Bent foundation

The end of the foundation is bent over, for a short distance, and the sewing

begins at the bend (37a, Fig. 40A); sometimes it is first bound a little with the

sewing strand (37b, Fig. 40B); for an oval shape a longer piece is bent over and

runs flat along the other for a little way. When knot-stitch is used for an oval

shape, a longer piece is bent over and knot-stitch commences at the bend and

continues to the end of the bent part, quite straight, and then continues round

the coil (37c, Fig. 40C).

Sometimes a short length of the foundation is plaited and then it is bent and

sewn round the plait (37d, Fig. 40D).

98 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 39. Start of Southern Sotho hat, 36.

Foundation ring

The end of the foundation is bent into a ring—generally round but oval has

been seen—and closely oversewn all round so that sometimes a hole is left (385,

Fig. 40F) and sometimes the sewing is so thick that the hole is filled up (38a,

Fig. 40E). Then the coiling continues.

Knotted foundation

A thick knot is made at the end of a multiple foundation and the coil is

sewn round it (39, Fig. 40G).

Knotted sewing

A knot is made at the end of the sewing strand and forms a pad into which

the first round of stitches over the foundation is caught (40, Fig. 40H). This may

be a single or multiple foundation.

Sewing strand start

The sewing strand is bent to a ring before the foundation is introduced. The

sewing strand then encircles it and its own end (4/, Fig. 401).

Starting pad

The end of the foundation (42a, Fig. 40J) or of the sewing (42b, Fig. 40K) is

roughly stitched into a pad.

Chequer square

A chequer square is made by folding wide strips of the sewing material

alternately, to interlock in a chequer square, two or more layers thick according

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 99

’

os (Tih Y

CLEAN

Fig. 40. Start of coiled sewing. A. Foundation bent, 37a. B. Foundation bent and bound, 37).

C. Foundation bent and held with knot stitch, 37c. D. Foundation plaited and bent, 37d.

E. Foundation bent to a ring, hole closed, 38a. F. Foundation bent to a ring, hole open, 38).

4]. J. Start with stitched pad of foundation, 42a. K. Start with stitched pad of sewing, 42b.

100 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 41. Start with double chequer square of sewing material, 43a.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | 101

102 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

to choice. The strips are then split and the thin strands form the beginning of the

sewing (43a, b, Fig. 41). This is almost always made of palm-leaf and almost

entirely confined to the Zulu, Tsonga and Ambo. It is most probably an intro-

duced technique.

SHAPING

INCREASES AND DECREASES

There is nothing in any way remarkable about the methods of increasing or

decreasing the size of the fabric.

Woven and straight-sewn work

Natural

A natural increase or decrease in the width of flat elements may be exploited

in shaping the object being made (44a, 44b). This has been recorded in twilled

beer-strainers and pouches of palm-leaf, and in a San sieve where the thick

nodes of the reeds used as warps are placed at the same edge to make a flanging

shape.

Artificial before use

It can also be achieved artificially (45, Fig. 42A) before the weaving begins,

as, for example, by the Venda and others, who whittle down the ends of the

slivers of wood with which they twill winnowing baskets. The narrowing of the

fabric edge that thus ensues causes the fabric to turn up at the edges, which are

secured between hoops.

Dividing, adding and subtracting

A common method of increasing woven work 1s by dividing the existing

warps (46a) or adding new warps (47a, Fig. 42C), either put in straight, in which

case they are generally doubled with the old warps for a few wefts, or in a U-

bend. Wefts can also be added in this way (47c). The corresponding method of

decrease is by pairing one or both elements (46b, Fig. 42B) or by taking the

warps (47b) or foundation strands (48, Fig. 42E) out of the fabric, knotting or

sewing them, and cutting off the remaining piece. This latter method is used

very commonly in straight-sewn beer-strainers.

Thickening and thinning

Increases or decreases can also be made by thickening or thinning a multiple

warp (49a, 49b), but this is not very common unless it is preparatory to dividing

the thickened warp.

Altering tension

The tension of the work is used to widen or narrow the shape (50a, 50b,

Fig. 14), particularly in wickerwork, and less commonly in twilled work and

sewn beer-strainers.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 103

A | B

ane al Sp DWV NG

eee a

eee aX

RRS

( po

P - ; . ant ley ty Lr

Et Aa tad a Abc?

Ce Sat lt Sic iain

tek

CT ei, f G md al Care j Z| oe Pai

“AC dl NE (amon a: /

INI )) +7

NON

IN N WI

SAPPryy

Fig. 42. A.Chequer weave showing artificial decrease and increase of elements, 45.

B. Twilled weave showing artificial decrease by pairing elements, 46b. C. Twined weave

showing increase by adding warps, 47a. D. Decrease in coiled sewn work by placing of coil,

51b. E. Decrease in straight sewing by removing foundation elements, 50.

104 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Coiled sewn work

Placing coil

In coiled sewn work, the shaping is achieved by the placing of the coil to

enlarge or reduce the diameter (5a, 51b, Fig. 42D).

Thickening or thinning

Certain alterations may be made by thickening or thinning the coil foun-

dation for one or more coils, but this is not common (52a, 52b).

MOULDING OR CUTTING

This occurs in woven work and straight sewn work only.

Moulding

A loosely woven fabric may be moulded into shape and held in shape by

oversewing the edge to a hoop or holding it between two hoops (53, Fig. 43).

Examples of this are the winnowing baskets and especially the waisted mufharo

basket of the Venda (Fig. 4), in which the bowl is hollowed by forcing each edge

of the fabric into a band that is smaller than the natural diameter of the bowl. A

curved upper portion is then moulded in the same way. Craftsmen aid the

process by working with damp material. One who was visited made a shallow

depression in the ground and forced the mat into it to set the required curve,

and another used a basin of water in the same way.

Gathering

A cylindrical fabric may be shaped by gathering into a knot or bound bundle

at one end (54, Fig. 14). This is seen in traps and some beer-strainers.

Fig. 43. Winnowing basket, shaped by cutting and moulding and edge held between hoops.

Straight twill, warp and weft of wood slivers, hoops wood. Manyika, Mutare (Umtali), Zim-

babwe, 1963 (SAM-8968). Greatest diameter, 378 mm.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 105

Move to right

In a special instance, that of shaping the bulbous top-knot on some South

Sotho hats, the warps are moved one to the right or left, depending on the direc-

tion of work, with a twist round the next one to make the ridge stand out before

narrowing (55, Fig. 44).

Fig. 44. Shaping by moving warps to right for ridge of hat, 55.

Bend warps

Warps may be bent into shape during the weave (56), as in the somewhat

specialized case of woven spoons, where the warps are bent at their centre to

form the bowl and then come together to form a central core that is wrapped or

plaited to form a handle (58, Fig. 106).

Bend fabric

A fabric may be bent into shape after the weave, for example, in pouches

and spoon-bags where a cylindrical fabric is pressed flat and held by sewing; or

the shallow straight-sided baskets of the Kalanga in Botswana, where a flat

narrow fabric is bent to form a shallow cylinder, sewn at the overlap of the ends,

and the shape held by hoops and a hide base (57, Fig. 45); or the ornamental

knobs on South Sotho hats.

Cut fabric

A certain amount of shaping is done by cutting the fabric (59, Fig. 43), par-

ticularly where a round object is made from a square piece of fabric. This may

106 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 45. Chequer wicker basket, shaped by bending fabric to shape after weave. Warp split

reed; weft and stitching bark; hide base and binding of rim. Ngwato (Kalanga), Serowe,

Botswana, 1904 (SAM-586). Height 154 mm.

be seen in the winnowing baskets, where a round hoop 1s attached to a square of

fabric (Fig. 43). As soon as the first fastening is done the four corners are cut

off.

Shorten wefts

The ends of some Xhosa sleeping-mats are rounded by shortening the wefts

and trimming the warps off to shape (60).

JOINING OF PARTS

In certain baskets, two or more pieces of fabric are prepared and have to be

joined together (6/7). Examples are the mufharo baskets of the Venda, where

the upper and lower parts are joined at the centre by a band of sewing over a

hoop on each side of the fabric (Fig. 4). Similarly, the walls of the straight-sided

Kalanga and Ndau baskets have to be joined to a woven or hide base (Fig. 45).

EDGES

_ There is a great variety in edges, which differ mainly according to whether

the body of the work is woven or straight sewn, or, on the other hand, coiled

sewn.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 107

WOVEN AND STRAIGHT SEWN WORK

On woven and straight sewn work there are two edges to be considered: the

warp edges, where the warps or foundation strands end, and the weft edges,

where the wefts or sewing strands end.

Warp or foundation edges

No edging :

The warp edge of some chequer wicker- and wattlework and of finely

twined work frequently has no edging at all. The warps are merely cut off short,

but not so short that the wefts will slip off (62a, 62b, 62c).

Changed weft

The use of a different and sometimes thicker material for the last weft (63)

has been recorded on twined work, but is not very widespread.

Selvedge

The most common edging of close woven work, whether chequer, twilled,

twined, lattice twined or plaited, might be considered a form of selvedge, in that

the warps are turned back and tucked in. There are very many varieties of this.

On straight chequer the last row of weft may be tucked straight back (64a),

or into the next gap (64b), or may be reinforced by thickenings or by the

addition of an extra element before or after (64c, Fig. 46A) the warps are bent

over and tucked back on their tracks. All these are rare.

On diagonal chequer both warps and wefts continue over the edge and are

threaded through the check on a natural course and cut off invisibly (65).

On straight twill the warp ends are turned back and tucked in, without

reinforcement of the last weft (66).

On diagonal twill both sets of elements, before being cut off, continue over

the edge on a normal course—front down back and back down front—to make

a single edge (67a). Or, both sets are turned over to the front when they have

reached the top and are threaded through the twill on a natural course; when

done without further complication this makes a slightly thickened front edge

(67b, Fig. 47A). This is the most common edge but there is some variation in

the way in which it is done. Alternatively elements of each set are turned over at

right angles and threaded through on the same side to make a double edge (67c,

Fig. 47B). The effect of a raised edge on the finishing side is made by turning

down those elements that are in front before they complete their course to the

back (67d). On a pouch, the lower portion may have the elements turned to the

back and those of the lid to the front so that the smooth sides are together when

closing. On a bag of modern style with a pointed flap, the edges of the flap are

finished by turning one set of elements back on its tracks over a reinforcing

strip—reinforced edge (67e). A further variation is for one set of elements to be

cut off at the edge and for the other set to bend over to the back, hiding the cut

elements, and making a thin edge (67f, Fig. 47C).

108 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

On twined work the warps may simply be bent under and held either by a

single row of twining (68a), or by a strand made by twisting some warps to the

right to continue, one after the other (68b, Fig. 48A). More commonly in the

south, the warps may be turned over from back to front or front to back, and

tucked into the stitches of a final row of twining and through to the back again

to give a scalloped effect (68c—680, Fig. 52, right). Several ways in which this is _

done, sometimes with the full warp, part warp, or alternate warps, are demon-

strated by the illustrations (Figs 48, 49). This edging appears to be characteristic

of the Nguni, especially in the south. Another selvedge gives a plaited effect and

this too has a number of varieties (68p—68w, Fig. 50). Twined work sometimes

has a reinforced edge when a lattice is added on each side of the fabric, above

the last row of the weft. Each warp then passes round both lattices, and out to

the front below the front lattice, where it is cut (68w, Fig. 50G). This is not very

common. On another edge an extra strand is wrapped round the twining strands

(68x).

On lattice twined work a selvedge is made by turning the warps back on

themselves, either to hold and be held by the twining strand (69a, Fig. 51A),

or to hold the lattice (69c, Fig. 51B); either may be reinforced (696, d). This

was recorded only from the Hlengwe and Ndau of Zimbabwe and from the

Kwanyama.

On wickerwork the warps may be bent sideways and tucked in next to the

following warp (70, Fig. 46B).

The isolated body technique of the extended plait is edged with another plait

close to the last, with the inner ends that should go through again, cut off and

the end from the previous plait going through alone (7/, Fig. 51C). This is a

South Sotho technique.

Tucked edge

Straight sewn work may be given a tucked edge by bending the foundation

elements to the side and tucking them either under the last sewing strand or into

one or more rows of twining above the last sewing strand (72a—72g, Fig. 53A).

Chequer edge

The mouth of a lattice twined granary of the Ambo has a rounded edge that

is made by laying a number of horizontal strands over the tops of the vertical

strands and holding them by chequer weave with the bark weft (73, Fig. 53B).

Whipped edge

A Lobedu twined sleeping-mat has its edges finished with a double row of

twining and then, at one edge only, the warp bundles are whipped with single-

ply twisted sedge (74, Fig. 53C), formerly part of the warp.

Twined edge

The most common warp edging is of two or more rows of close plain twining

with the warps or foundation elements cut short (75a). This is used when the

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 109

——_——_,

Fig. 46. A. Straight selvedge on warp edge of chequer, with reinforcing strand, 64c. B. Plain

sideways selvedge on warp edge of chequer wicker, 70.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

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1 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

s— Ge ss Seas a 2 a

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I ee

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Fig. 49. A—B. Front and back of scalloped selvedge on twine, multiple warp; part up to edge

and cut, part from back to front to back and cut, 68d. C—D. Scalloped selvedge on twine; part

up to edge and cut, part from back to front to back and up to edge and cut, 68h. E-F. Scal-

loped selvedge on twine, full multiple warp from front to back and down through two rows of

twine, 68n.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA _ | 113

body is of a fancy twine, or of a widely spaced open twine, as on mats. On a

Naron sieve of open twine, several rows of close twine are placed just below the

nodes of the reeds that form the warps. It is also used on a body of chequer and

is used very frequently on straight sewn work; sleeping-mats in the latter tech-

nique are generally edged with two or three rows of plain twining as are, among

some people, the sewn beer-strainers described above. These latter nearly

-always start with the cords knotted and some makers leavé the knots on as an

edging; others start the work with four or five rows of plain twining and cut the

knots off. It is sometimes used in the opposite diagonal to the main body of

twining (755, Fig. 54A). Similarly, plain twined work may have a border of two-

or three-strand fancy twining, over two and under one (75c, 75d, Fig. 54B), or a

chain stitch effect on the front only, by twining with three strands, one of which

turns round the other two between warps and comes out in front again (75e,

Fig. 54C).

A twined food-mat is edged by weaving or sewing one or two extra wefts

through the first and last row of twining in the same (75f, Fig. 54D, E), or in the

opposite (75g) direction. The warps are cut short on a Mpondo mat or, on a

Xesibe example, bent over on the right side and held down by the extra weft.

Sometimes, on straight sewn mats, a fibre cord on each side of the edge of

the fabric is lattice twined to it (75h).

Wrapped edge

A wrapped edge is seen very often on straight sewn sleeping-mats, but tends

to be more common in the east and north, especially amongst the Shona. It may

be plain wrapping with a single strand over two, three or four foundation ele-

ments or warps, and under one or two (76a, Fig. 55A, B); or two strands are

used and one or both of them twine as well as wrapping (76c, 76d, Fig. S5E, F);

or the edge may be hitched (76b, Fig. 55C, D), when a single strand is given a

full- or half-hitch after each wrap; or it may be wrapped in a figure-of-eight (761):

or taken over three foundation strands to give a chain effect (76/). Sometimes a

lattice, in the form of fibre cord, is added to the plain and hitched wrapping

(76g, 76h, Fig. 56A, B). Only the plain and hitched varieties are at all common.

An isolated instance from the Fue in the Okavango area is tied with a half-reef

knot at each wrap (76e, 76f).

Plaited edge

An elaborate plaited edging is given to some Zulu grain-bins of twined

fabric. First of all the warps are bent outwards almost at right angles and held by

three rows of twining; then the warps are twisted sideways and finished off with

a plait (77a, Fig. 57). In a similar example from the Chopi, the edge is double

(77b). A different sort of plaited edging is seen on similar grain-bins of the

Ndebele in Zimbabwe, where the thinned warps—after separation into groups

of three strands—are plaited and hang down (77c, Fig. 58A, B).

114

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

¥(

VEN

.\i

——$___.

NVC

;

C-D. Plaited selvedge on twine, part

G. Reinforced selvedge on twine

warp, 65q. E-F. Twilled plaited selvedge on twine, 68u.

A-B. Plaited selvedge on twine, full warp, 68p.

r1¢g

68w.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 11S

2S PSE SSS

ili K<p<ecKhic(s

SE DAS

i Z P A SASASS.

LKR EKKERE.

Ne NS

Ne SSN

RE RRL

KIA KY

116 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

——

{p= Gan eT: N

1 Ah

——eeeee = SS ————— 5

_——— ———— _———— ———— =

———— = SS SS 5

ESS Se

—— SS _————— —SS ee ————_——————S ~

= Ce ——— SS Sa

—=<" ee ———— ae ——

————— _—— eee —————— —<—<<<_—_———— SS Z

—— ——~ SS _—— ——— ed _—$<$<$<—— ~ +

———— —__—_—} —4 ——— i _——————— ty $$$ —_~

aN =v > ———) ———————} ———— ws ——|

—— ————— ——_—— ———S —- =

—

= ———————t = _————— ———————— ——————— SSS ————s

SS —— ed —— ——— SSS — — ——

— SSS _———

A — See —— ————— \_——$—$_$_____ —— ———

———;—~>yEEE aoa

———— —— SS

—— —— ——

EE,

———— Se See —— ; —

_—_—————" SS

Se — — et

SSDS

LL IFS

SSSR ESSEC

POPOS WSU SU SU. s

SIRO yt

— DPI SONS

Ji, ZA MM MM Mh Y

g Lb LAD ADDL AAAI IS

TIS SSS

Fig. 51. A. Selvedge on lattice twine; warps turned back on themselves, holding, and then held

by single twining strand, 69a. B. Selvedge on lattice twine, holding, and then held by one or

more lattices; extra lattices added later, 69c. C. Selvedge on extended plait, 7/.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 117

€¢ COVECECREEEEUAOEL

CE CCELERER CHK ETEOEE

PIT ARALALALALA ALLL AA

crcadrcercceetegete?

CHET ACELCEEREEET

LOOKER OE TOCOLECOMT EOF

RURATAAR ALAA

CHALCENFEREELN CE TE

4 Paha ap ahh I

PERL

di ecereeet eral fq) J

Fig. 52. Corner of twined food-mat. Scalloped selvedge, multiple warp back to front and cut,

68k (right), and wrapped weft edge on twine, 86d (below).

_ Oversewing

An oversewn edge, similar to that on coiled work, is sometimes used,

mostly in the east of the area. The sewing may be direct (78a, 78b) or over

additional wefts (78c, 78d), in plain or fancy stitch or over one or more thick-

ened coils added above the last wefts (78e, 78f). This latter is commonly sewn

with a three-strand plait (78e, Fig. 59A, B) or with plain bark (78f). An over-

sewn edging on chequer wicker with widely spaced warps, is made by bending

the remaining warps sideways and twisting them round the edge, where they are

held in place by oversewing at intervals (78g). This is seen more commonly than

elsewhere in the extreme north-east of Zimbabwe. Oversewing on wicker may

be over and into the warps only (78h), and sometimes only into alternate warps

(78i, Fig. 59C), or the edge may be reinforced and oversewn at intervals (787),

or all round (78k). The reinforcing may be with one or more lattices on each

side (781, Fig. 59D).

Knotted edge

Beer-strainers, whether sewn or woven, usually have a knotted edge. This

generally results from the manner of starting. The varieties are: a plain knotted

edge (79a, Fig. 60B); a fringed edge in which either the knots are between fringe

and fabric (79b, Fig. 60A, 107) or the fringe is between knots and fabric (79c,

Fig. 60D). In the latter, the fringe may be twisted (79c, Fig. 60D) or plaited

“ll

LLE

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

118

1 UNIAN ce |

Fae =

Fig. 53. A. Tucked selvedge on straight sewn work, 72a. B. Chequer edge on lattice twine,

73. C. Whipped warp edge on twine, 74.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

ae 2

y Pica

Kp fap

= Se

SOR

Keg

= NY,

TT ig

A\/

mai

119

120 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 55. A-B. Outer and inner views of plain wrapped warp edge to twine, with single strand

over two double warps and under one, 76a. C-—D. Inner and outer views of warp edging of

hitched wrapping with single strand on straight sewn, 76b. E-—F. Outer and inner views of

edging of wrapped twining on straight sewn, 76d.

ipl

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

127 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

(79d), and an edge on which the knots are tucked under the last sewing strand

and may be cut off plain or end in a fringe too (79e, 79f, Fig. 60C).

Stapled edge

For wickerwork, a purely utilitarian type of edging seen on Shona garden

baskets and Mpondo meat trays is the insertion of a hoop of the same material

as the wefts, between each pair of warps, crossing the cross of the wefts (80,

Fig. 61A).

Fig. 56. A. Lattice wrapped edge on straight sewn, 76g.

B. Hitched lattice wrapped edge, 76h.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 123

Rims

Flat twilled work that is cut to a round after weaving is edged in a similar

way throughout the centre, east and north-east of the country, and the edge is as

important for determining the shape of the object as for giving it strength

(Fig. 63). One or more thin hoops of wood or reed are fixed on one or both

sides ofthe edge of the fabric in such a way that the fabric has to turn up to fit

the size of the hoop and the whole is oversewn closely with a strong material

(81a, 81c, Fig. 61B—D). Sometimes another hoop is placed on top before the

oversewing (8/6). Winnowing trays, both twilled and chequer weave, are edged

like this. As a variation of this, occurring only in the north and in Mozambique,

an extra upstanding rim, wide or narrow, and of wood or bamboo, may be sewn

on in addition to the hoops, (S/d, Sle, Figs 62A—B, C—D, 63). In one example

seen, two outside hoops are projected as a ridge (8/f, Fig. 62E). Sometimes

deep, lidded baskets are made in this way.

Hems and flat bindings

Edgings to twilled work that seem to point to external influence are a

turned down hem (82) stitched with fine string, and a flat binding (83) sewn on

with string.

Weft or sewing edges

The weft edges are rather different, since for the most part their finish

depends on the fact that the wefts or sewing strands have to be carried back to

continue the weaving or sewing along the next row. The main difference

depends on whether wefts or sewing strands are close together or far apart. In

some cases, the last warp on each end is either reinforced or made of a thick

stick, e.g. sieves of the San of northern Cape. Sometimes, however, the wefts

are not taken back, but are cut off at the end and secured in various ways.

Wefts or sewing strands end off singly

The simplest of the weft edge techniques is for wefts or sewing strands to

end off when they reach the edge. They may be knotted at the edge and cut off

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

SG SSS

Se ee Wa a A : Owe EX Ve es

a Sok = = = S UJ tl N <r os

Re Oe Ste pS oe ae Me Rol Cas —— Ava

a a ee ee ea

aa es ese eset

| | I] 7) } 1) |

i 0 0

Fig. 57. Plaited edge on twine, 77a.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

124

ANN

z Shi) ae

iN y =

IP{LIEIIIES =)

B. Grain-bins with ends of warps

plaited to hang down. Ndebele, between Nyambi and Humbani, Zimbabwe, 1967.

Fig. 58. A. Warp edge of hanging plaits on twine, 77c.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 15

ETS WARE RRA ARES Fg an LN |

SEER RAAB RA AN RAR RN WaeaGer

aE NA ASA AR Re oe A Qa CA TTITNI

SoU R BBR REAR EIS ES SS RRR Aa. A\\) Che

(ek SR ey § EEE

We ae Vis

CA CATA, \ 7G

Pe ALES

ay \r\ \ yah

A\ WEEN

= GE )

WAY Lo, po

lay

y SS A)

LIA

ao Ss

cH HY WR co at Yi Ye

AAHATA TA] ik

—_—— Ee! fH ||

SSS ee

eet) ih — Ne Ds UY!

Gea ae : : WD AY

a ir er eens) Pal

eee << aes

, 4 | it

canes |e 3 : pa

EDD

pete

ae RE a A

| ]

Fig. 59. A-B. Edge of circular work oversewn with plaited strand over thick multiple coil,

78e. C. Edge of oversewing into alternate warps on chequer wicker, 781. D. On wicker, edge

reinforced above weaving by one lattice on each side, and oversewn all round and through

warps, 78!.

ONISES SS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

SET ET ENS i

a if i ie UN NEaA

— a

nn AZANYYOPY IT zit if ¢ 1

a a We

0, in knotted edge

on straight sewn, 79a. C. Knotted edge on straight sewn, knots tucked under last sewing strand

rile thine Anglin rata aor ithe s SINS Cath cheer, SR Re annie GOR

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 127

eS f= ee

2S =

tri en oe

bh a=

Jee ==

ES ees BO

ee ae

earn eee S\N) a ae

Lt | | ES one Ss

Se ey ne es i

Se Ere

as (el oes © eeepc (GS |

Bale

| TES

Fig. 61. A. Stapled edge on wicker chequer, 80. B-—C. Rim formed by one hoop on one side,

oversewn, S8Ja. D. Rim formed by one hoop on each side, oversewn, 8/c.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

128

. df ¥

)

cy) “|

va Nitra

E. Wide wooden band outside, two hoops inside, two extra hoops oversewn

oversewing on twill, 87d. C—D. Wide wooden band outside, hoop inside, spaced oversewing

outside as outstanding rim, spaced oversewing of band and hoops; on twill, 8/f.

Fig. 62. A~—B. Hoop inside and outside, extra rim covered by wide band on outside, spaced

on twine, 8/e.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 129

Fig. 63. Basket, diagonal twill; fabric held between narrow hoop inside and wide wooden band

outside, spaced oversewing. Ndau, Chimanimani (Melsetter), 1964 (SAM-—9104). Diameter

335 mm.

(84a, Fig. 64A). Alternatively, they may be sewn over the last warp or warps

several times (84b), or wound round one or more of the last warps or foundation

strands before being knotted and cut (84c, Fig. 64B). Or the loose end may,

after or without knotting, be threaded, twined or sewn back parallel to itself for

a short distance (84d, Fig. 64D; 84e, Fig. 64C). In straight sewn work, the

sewing strand may be wrapped round the last foundation element, threaded up

and cut (S4f), or finished with a fancy knot (84g).

Wefts or sewing strands taken back

It is more common in a close weave for the wefts or sewing to turn straight

back (S5a—85c). The corresponding form in open work is for them to be twisted

together and carried down the edge to the place where the next row is to com-

mence. They may be carried down taut (85d), or left slack to form a series of

loops on the edge (85e, Fig. 65A), or they may be half-hitched at the beginning

and end of each row (85f—85i, Fig. 65B). Quite frequently they are wound

(85j-85m, Fig. 65C) or twined (85r) round the outside warp or an extra

reinforcing warp, or twined back and forth several times until the starting point of

the next row is reached (85j—m). In southern San sieves they turn straight back

(S5n), sometimes with an extra twist round the last warp (850), but sometimes

take a diagonal direction (Figs 65D, 66), and sometimes every second row of

weft is knotted and cut off at the edge. The edges may be reinforced (5p,

Fig. 66). On Mpondo and Mpondomise sleeping-mats of sedge stems, held

together by twining with fibre cord, the ends of the cord are twined back on

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

130

Se eee

more A)

Fig. 64. A. Wefts knotted and cut at the end of the row, 84a. B. Sewing strand wound round

three foundation elements before being knotted, 84c. C. Twining wefts taken back parallel for

D. Sewing strand wrapped round and threaded back a short distance,

a short distance, 84e.

84d.

131

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

ee eae | aa

age Seu et

I DES CASE ITE (

(oa

ya (0 Eee tome TET PATA y)

ast warp

ched, carried

hit

85f. C. One strand of weft wound round |

eft half

Bo W

ight down, 85k. D. Weft taken straight back

to next starting place, one strand carried strai

with extra twist, 85n.

diagonally,

Fig. 65. A. Sewing strands carried down slack to next row, SSe.

down to next row and half hitched again,

132 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 66. Sieve, open twine; wefts taken back diagonally in three places, straight in two; warp of

twigs, wefts of thick sinew; two lattices wrapped; edges reinforced. San (Bushman), Gordonia,

Cape, 1911 (SAM-1552). Length 615 mm.

their tracks for a few. warps, which may be doubled, before being wound down a

warp to the next row (85q). The same method is put to decorative use on a

Mpukushu sleeping-mat of sedge stems sewn together, where the ends of the

sewing strands, when they emerge at the edge of the work, are twined back for

10-15 cm, in irregular lengths, making a fancy border at each end of the mat,

before continuing across the work.

Wefts wrapped

In close twined food-mats there are a few characteristic side edges, the basis

of which is for one of the weft strands to be wrapped once or more often around

the last warp, while the other turns back without going round the last warp, but

passing over the other weft in a variety of ways to form a decorative edging

(S6a—86), Figs 67, 52).

Edge oversewn

The weft edge may be oversewn over the last warp (87), either plain or with

a fancy stitch, after the work is complete. Neither of these methods is common.

Lattice wrap

The ends (weft edges) of straight sewn work may be reinforced with a lat-

tice and the sewing wrapped over and under before going back along its row (88).

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Iss Il . Lm, a ee

134 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

DENS PAA TPALIS ie

TUSLEPRA NA

Qs}

val

eS fl

_ a

Seley

=!”

SA AWWA WA UW A cee

MA\S\e a ee

eee

Fig. 68. A. Edge of close simple oversewing over thinned coil, 90. B. Edge of close oversewing

over thickened coil, 9J. C. Final coil reinforced and sewing material changed,

93. D-E. Front

and back views of alternating oversewing, coil partly encircled, then pierced, 94b.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 135

COILED SEWN WORK

On coiled work, the edging is of necessity some sort of oversewing, often

different from the technique of the rest of the body. It may be done with the

same or with different material, or with the coil unchanged, thickened or thinned,

or with or without a change of stitch.

No change of stitch | ee

An edging gives added strength to the final coil, but that it is not absolutely

necessary is shown by the fact that very many of the coiled baskets have no

special edging, the last coil being sewn in just the same way as the others (89a).

In simple oversewing over a simple foundation, however, the spaces between

the long stitches in the last row may be filled with a short stitch, which gives the

impression of an edging (9b). Sometimes, however, the stitch remains the same

but the material (92) or the thickness of the coil (90, 9/7, Fig. 68A, B) is

changed. The coil may also be reinforced and the material of the sewing strand

changed (93, Fig. 68C).

Change of stitch

A simple and fairly common edging is plain oversewing, closely worked and

often used when another stitch or more widely spaced oversewing has been used

for the body (94a). In the latter case, the edge oversewing strand may sew into

the space between the stitches only, and the last coil may be alternatively

pierced and encircled one (94b, Fig. 68D, E) or more times, the latter in the

manner of openwork sewing. |

Nauhaus (1881) described Nguni coiled work edge as being like ‘fine

buttonhole-stitch’. The plain buttonhole or blanket stitch does not now seem to

. occur on coiled work, but a fancy variety is used on Himba baskets in the Kaoko-

veld (95a, 95b, Fig. 69).

Peart ITT

Fig. 69. Top and side views of fancy blanket-stitch edging, 95.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

136

eae

mie

—“-

(

‘

w\\

SAN

I \\ 9

i \

\) 0)

4 (il r

he ee

Hill

ATU

UY TN

THIN

\ WII

PTI

, 96g.

B. Round coil, 96a.

6e. D. Once half round and once through new upper coil and

E. Once round upper coil and once through lower coil

Fig. 70. Herring-bone edging on coiled sewn work, with flat material.

once through lower coil, 96f.

C. Long stitch on top of coil,

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 137

7] \

SS =

yoelaae

FeSO

SS HB

Z a = IS

—

~ = 3 ~

Fig. 71. A. Two-coil herring-bone edge, 96h. B. Raised herring-bone edge, 96. C. Diagonal

oversewing of edge, round coil, 97a. D. Diagonal oversewing of edge, raised on top of coil,

97c. E. Diagonal oversewing of edge, round coil in opposite direction, making cross stitch,

97e.

138 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

A very common decorative edging for coiled baskets is oversewing that

gives a herringbone effect (96). This method of sewing is shown in Figures 70

and 71. It is generally done with a fairly wide flat strand but sometimes with a

cord. The stitch may be long, i.e. over many sewing stitches, or short. The coil

foundation of the fabric may be multiple or single, unchanged, thickened or

thinned, or a new coil may be added. The sewing may be close or open, and the

stitches may pass round the final coil (96a—d, Figs 26, 70A, B) or through the

top of it (96e, Fig. 70C). Or a new coil may be attached and the sewing pass

once round and once through the new coil (96f, Fig. 70D), or round the new coil

and through the old coil (96g, Fig. 70E).

A slightly different effect is obtained by sewing in a similar way alternately

over two coils—the new and the old, and then one—the new (96h, Fig. 71A).

By using the identical stitch to this over one coil and the sewing only, a raised

herringbone effect is obtained (96i, Fig. 71B). In plain open sewing a cross-

stitch effect is obtained (96/).

An edging that is frequently used by the Nguni, some Tsonga and the

Tswana is a diagonal oversewing round (97a, Fig. 71C) or on top of the last coil,

each stitch passing over several of the straight stitches of the coil. When it is on

top, it may be done so that it lies flat (97b), is raised (97c, Fig. 71D), or it may

make a cross-stitch by being sewn in the opposite direction through (97d) or

round (97e, Fig. 71E) the coil. It may be used on a multiple or a single rod foun-

dation, and with one or more sewing strands.

A chain stitch effect is obtained by reinforcing the edge with two strong ribs

of palm-leaf, and oversewing with three strands, the first with straight stitches

SESE E

= =preiil! ii ete a=

Fig. 72. A-B. Triple oversewing, 98.

—_—_——_"

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 139

over both reinforcing strands, and each of the others diagonally over one

reinforcing strand, so that the stitches pass between the straight stitches (98,

Fig. 72A, B). This edging of triple oversewing appears to be a Natal Nguni style.

Added edge

Sometimes the edge is strengthened by the addition of an extra coil or two

of foundation on top of or side by side with the last one (99a). This may be

attached by simple oversewing or with a different stitch (99b).

A variety of added edging that seems to be Sotho is for one or more com-

plete rings of foundation to be sewn on after the last coil has been ended off.

This may be done in the same sewing stitch (99c) or a different one (99d), and

the foundation may or may not be thickened.

Very occasionally the edge is strengthened by placing a hoop round one or

both sides of the edge and oversewing it into place (100, Fig. 73), or by making

the last coil a withy and oversewing it at intervals (07).

Finally, the edge may be bound, generally with leather (J02)—this is poss-

-ibly a modern innovation.

Many of these edgings, particularly those on coiled work, may be made

more decorative by the introduction of coloured strands.

Fig. 73. Hoop added to the inner side of last coil, 100; cross-stitch oversewing.

FINISHINGS

In general, the finishing off, both of the loose ends in the work and of the

whole piece of basketwork, is purely utilitarian and not turned to decorative

ettect:

No special finishing

The usual finishing of ends of material in the body is to cut or break them

off close to the work (103), generally with the new strand overlapping a little, or

to thread them back into the work before cutting off (/04), where the stiffness of

140 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

the material prevents them from unravelling. The Ndebele in Zimbabwe, in

coiled work, sew over the end with the new strand and consider it poor work if

this is visible.

Oversewn

The strand at the end of sewn work, whether straight or coiled, is oversewn

once or twice, either simply or in figure-of-eight or herringbone (105a—105c,

Figs 74A, 78).

Knotted

In either coiled or woven work the finishing and restarting ends may be

knotted, either together (J06a, 106b, Fig. 74B) or separately, or plaited and

knotted (J06c), but this is more common in woven work.

_ Taken back diagonally

A rare, and perhaps not important, decorative finish to an oversewn edge is

used by the Kalahadi in the Molepolole area. Each strand of the oversewing of

the edge is taken back diagonally, threaded through and cut off (107, Fig. 74C).

In woven circular work the edgings already described act as finishings.

Strands back on tracks with fringe”

The ‘hemmed’ edge of a Manyika twilled fish bag has the ends of each set of

elements turned back on themselves outwards, threaded through and cut off, at

the level of the edges, about 15 mm. This makes a fringe in between the two

sections (108, Fig. 74D, E).

Ends bound together

To finish off plaited bangles, the usual method is to make the ring by /aying

the two ends together, either in the same (J09a, Fig. 74F) or in the opposite

(109b, 109c) direction, and then bind them with a strand of the same material

for a length of about 15 mm. The join may also be made by winding the plaiting

strands round the join in turn, tucking them under in a half-hitch and cutting

them off (109d, Fig. 74G, H). The winding may be done with a new strand.

Spiny finish

An extension of this idea is used for finishing off the ends of sewn beer-

strainers. The twined foundation strands that remain after the narrowing by

knotting inside, are brought up in front and over the sewing strand and put

through to come out below it on the outside. As several rows are necessary to

end off all the strands, the effect is of a spiny cone (110b, Fig. 75A, B, F).

Sometimes this method of finishing is also used on flat plaited grass bracelets

and necklets and on brooms, and it was seen on one twilled beer-strainer. Some-

times, instead of a cone, the spiny finishings make a narrow band (//0e, 110f,

Bip. 75C, 1):

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 141

Fig. 74. A. Finishing of figure-of-eight oversewing, /05b. B. Ends knotted together, 106d.

C. Ends taken back diagonally, 707. D-E. On diagonal twill, strands taken back on tracks.

turned up again and cut, 708. F. Ends laid together in same direction and bound, /09c.

G-H. Ends laid together and half-hitched, 109d.

142 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

SaaS

& AN 1 S|

RNY Xt 6

nit

SSE

Fig. 75. A-—B. Spiny cone on straight sewing, //0b. C. Spiny band on central core of straight

sewing, //0e. D. Spiny finishing plus whipping, on central core of diagonal twill, //0f. E. Seiz-

ing on sewn beer-strainer, //7. F. Whipping and spiny cone on straight sewn beer-strainer,

ILE,

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 143

Seizing and whipping

Great use is made of various types of wrapping—seizing (J/1, Fig. 75E),

whipping (112, Fig. 75F), and woven figure-of-eight seizing (113, Fig. 76A). This

may be seen on broom-ends, spoon handles and beer-strainers. Sometimes two

methods of finishing are combined (Fig. 75D, F).

Ng BLEEP PLL A DL)

eo fe Sea 1 Cx UES See —

Bes SS INS : qj NN S < < P ,

Big. 76. A: Figure-of-eight seizing round end of broom, 7/3. B. Elements of twilled beer-

strainer turned inside and knotted together, 7/4. C. Invisible sewing on cylindrical twilled

work, J/5a. D-E. Two views of double tacking to join two edges of flattened cylindrical twill,

117b.

144 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Elements turned inside

While the base of most sewn beer-strainers is bound several times in one of

the foregoing styles, with a cord similar to those that form the foundation, the

woven beer-strainers and some sewn ones are finished at the bottom, by turning

the elements inside and knotting them, or knotting them first and pushing them

inside (114, Fig. 76B). Generally the hanging loop is knotted in with them. |

Sewing on twilled work

One of the most ingenious finishings is used on nearly all twilled palm-leaf

pouches, from whatever part of the country they come. When the weaving is

finished, the cylinder is pressed flat and the knots with which the work was.com-

menced (see p. 90, Fig. 33A) are turned under inside to form the lower end. A

strong thread is then sewn through from the outside, picking up one of the bent

strands on each side alternately, in such a way that when pulled tight the thread

is invisible and the twill appears to be uninterrupted (//5a, Fig. 76C). An Ndau

example had the knots cut off and the ends woven back on themselves before

the thread went through, thus making a neat ridge inside. This invisible method

is also used to join twilled edges on a sleeping-mat from Mozambique, which is

made up of a great number of twill-plaited strips, 50 mm wide. The whole

appears to be a continuous twill with horizontal ridges. This appears to be a

technique that has spread south down the East African coast. It is found mainly

at the coast. 3

The Tsonga do not always use this method on cylindrical work, but leave

the sewing visible (115b) or oversew (116) or tack twice (117a, 117b, Fig. 76D,

E) on the outside with bark fibre thread. A Ronga specimen used by diviners

has the closed ends folded and sewn together in three points instead of two.

On cylindrical work .

At the base of Zulu cylindrical spoon-bags, the warps of the chequer fabric

are knotted together in twos and threes to join the two edges made by flattening

the cylinder (J/8a); this is often followed by a row of twining (J/8b). Alter-

natively, the warps are crossed, sometimes after an initial row of twining, and a

row of twining holds each edge separately (//8c—/18g, Fig. 77A, B). In this case

the edge is sometimes sewn together with fancy stitching or beadwork, or each

side of it may be bound (1/8h—118i). Sometimes the warps are simply knotted in

pairs after crossing.

Open base

A cylindrical basket made with the base open may have it closed by a round

of hide (119a), or a square of matting sewn or woven on (//9b, Fig. 77C, D).

Closed base

Baskets with closed bases, particularly conical baskets, often have a round

of dressed skin, bark, palm midrib, wood or, latterly, cloth or even cardboard,

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

OSs

IS §,

Ss zi Cones

p+ each

Ct Ay

Wo"

Fig. 77. A-—B. Finishing of crossed warps held in position by twining after the crossing, /78c. C-D. Open base

covered with twilled mat, attached by half hitches of each element around the lowest warps of basket, //9b.

146 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

plastic or inner tubing, sewn on the outside of the base to protect it from wear

(120a—120g). This is very much Tswana practice.

Side edges joined by half-hitches

The two cones that are fitted one inside the other to make a fish trap are

joined together by half-hitches (121).

Fig. 78. Herring-bone finish to sewing of coil. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939

(SAM-5998).

DECORATION

This section deals with decoration in the body of the work, exclusive of the

often decorative body techniques and decorative as well as utilitarian edgings

already described. It should be noted that decoration takes place during the

work as a modification of the fabric and, further, that ornamental adjuncts (see

below) may themselves be made in one of the main techniques.

South African basketwork is not highly decorated. A good deal of it is quite

plain, but the majority does show a simple line decoration or some geometrical

pattern. The latter is more common in the extreme north, where there is influ-

ence from Angola or Zambia. Naturalistic patterns do not occur south of the

Zambezi, except as a result of foreign influence.

It is interesting to note that basketwork differs from many other crafts in

that the decoration, bound as it is by the technique, is based on the accentuation

and enhancement, rather than the disguising or obliteration, of the technique of

making. In many cases, the technique itself is decorative and always it is the

actual strokes or stitches of which the work consists that are used, with or

without the addition of colour, to form patterns on the surface. The choice of

decoration is therefore largely dictated by the stroke or stitch being used and

may either be planned beforehand or as the work proceeds.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 147

Decorative patterns may be produced either in self-colour by a change in

the weave or stitch or even in the material, or by the introduction of a contrast-

ing colour. Sometimes these are combined.

CHANGE OF WEAVE OR STITCH

Woven work

On chequer

Chequer weave does not lend itself easily to decoration in the weave unless

colour is used. The following methods of introducing decorative bands or pat-

terns, often in relief or diaper, have, however, been recorded: by changing to a

different technique—twill or twine (122a, Fig. 79A), by changing the width of

one set of elements (122b), which can be done only if the elements are soft; by

lengthening certain strokes (122c); or by twisting warps across each other (122d).

Only isolated examples of these styles have been recorded.

Twill

The weave itself is very decorative and gives infinite opportunity for variety

in pattern, by altering the apparent direction (123a, Fig. 79B) or width of the

twill, i.e. by going over more strokes (/23b, Fig. 79C) or by altering the width of

the elements (123c). (In one of the few examples of the latter that has been

recorded, a separate band made with narrower elements was added.) Compara-

tively little use is, however, made of this opportunity, and the examples so far

recorded come from Mozambique or its neigbourhood, and from the eastern

Okavango, where decorative bands of a different twill from the body of the

work are used on palm-leaf pouches. In one isolated example from Natal, a dec-

orative band was made by a change of weave, i.e. by a few rows of twining over

crossed twill elements (/23e). In another isolated example from Natal, one set of

elements is overlaid and the overlay twisted at the intersections to give a spiny

effect (123d).

Wicker

There is little opportunity for this sort of decoration on wickerwork and the

only examples that have been recorded were made by the Vazezuru, who in

general show a great deal of outside influence. In these examples a band was

made of several rows of twining on chequer (/24, Fig. 79D).

Twine

Most twined work has some form of decoration, although the types of

pattern are fairly uniform and consist most commonly of bands. As in chequer,

it would be possible to introduce a band of a different weave but this has so far

not been recorded.

The use of a different sort of twine is, however, very common. This may be

a plain band on a fancy ground (/25a) or vice versa, or a pattern on a plain

148 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Qe! &

LL,

= |

ae —S ——_ = = —

Se =o

aoe (ase | (ee SSS ss

=! a

—_

Fig. 79. A. Change of weave on chequer, 122a. B. On diagonal twill, altering length of

strokes gives band of apparent change of direction, 123a. C. On straight twill, a pattern is

made by changes in the width of the twill, 723b. D. Change of weave from chequer to twine on

wicker chequer, 124. (In B and C shading is used here merely to show up the pattern).

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 149

ground (125b). The Southern Nguni split-warp technique is decorative in itself

(4h—41). Sometimes the whole work is carried out in this and sometimes alter-

nate bands of plain and split-warp twining are used for decorative effect, or

bands (125c, Fig. 80A) or geometric patterns (125d) of split-warp are used on

the plain twine.

Another decorative effect, frequently seen on food-mats, is obtained by

twining alternately in the opposite direction (of twine, not of row) thereby

‘giving a chain-stitch effect. This is sometimes used all over (4f), or in bands

(125e, Fig. 80B) or patterns (125f). Sometimes several styles are used in one

piece of work (125h, Fig. 80C).

The above twine decorations are very characteristic of the eastern Cape,

Natal and Lesotho, and are also found among the Zambian immigrants.

Bands of lattice twining (one strand) are put on to Fue plain twined

baskets. By putting the lattice on the outside the bands are raised (125g).

Very commonly the decoration is achieved by the manipulation of one or

other of the sets of elements.

The diaper patterns so frequently worked on twined food- and grain-mats

are made by lengthening the stroke, i.e. by putting the wefts over two or three

warps instead of the usual one and even crossing these wefts. Very often these

patterns consist of bands (125i, Fig. 81C) or merely of regular or haphazard

lines in any direction but, on finely worked specimens, regular patterns of

chevron, zigzag, herring-bone or triangles are made (125), Fig. 81A). On circu-

lar ascending woven basketwork, this type of diaper pattern does not seem to

have been used. Decorative lines, bands and, less commonly, patterns may be

made by introducing a third weft strand into the twine, in which case each weft

goes over three warps on the front and one on the back and makes a raised line

on the front (125k, Fig. 81C). By introducing two extra wefts or one looped to

work as two and threading them in and out of the twining, a line or a pattern

(125n, Figs 81B, 82) of raised chain stitch effect is formed.

The appearance of a line of knots may be given by interrupting the twine to

wind the back twining weft round the front one and through to the back again

(1250).

The ornamental bulbs on top of South Sotho hats sometimes show a decor-

ative change of stitch and the ridge at the widest circumference may be

accentuated by tucking each warp under the next before moving each of them

one or two warps to the left or right (55, 125p, Fig. 44).

Close twined work may have open bands with the warps crossed (/25r,

Fig. 81D).

Sleeping-mats composed of long warps held together by rows of open

twining, allow of decoration by alternating bands of twining with free spaces

(125q), by bands of crossed warp (125s), or by twining a pattern in between

two pairs of straight rows (125t). In one example from Natal, the fabric

has been doubled in thickness by overlaying the warps. But this is hardly a

decoration.

150 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

DAWAALAGARUITOTE TAURI

temersnemenr ce

LB Ped ee ee My GSE ee

4 PelEc ee py Ro Pepe psy

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ifs

ear,

ae eS

eee

eee ee

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SSeS

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ee ee gee Rees

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epee q

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Cana as — Tht kr Bs SS

C fi ee

ee ee ee

SSS SSS SS>

EEC EE EE EEE EEL

TSS DSS SSSSSSSSSS ASS

Fig. 80. A. Band of split-warp twine on plain twine, /25c. B. Band of chain stitch twine on

plain, /25e. C. Band of several twined weaves on plain, 125h.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 151

Alp

)

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TIEN SESS SE pp} EEG

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SENN EES

BOSSE Ee A EN

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qs syst pty Soy —

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5 FE So gia ses a

\ Wh} \\ 77

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ri Spe

ee So So = < , Ati «tits

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+ mo ib

HIN ti |

Fig. 81. A. Decorative pattern by lengthening the stroke on twine, /25j. B. Raised chain

pattern on twine, /25n. C. Decorative band on split-warp twine by lengthened stroke and an

extra weft, 125i, 125k. D. Crossing warps in spaces of open twine, /25r.

(52 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

wBszeee

pSceeteerescess

eee

SS. pssst

ead ewer :

a wan Oe eee

= te Se

Pe Ce

ae ee a a

= i am

So GLC

5 EE

4, an Er

oenem 35°,

Fig. 82. Food-mat showing pattern of raised chain on twine; warp and weft of sedge. South

Sotho, Leribe, Lesotho, 1958 (SAM-—7995). Width 382 mm.

Lattice twine

On lattice twine decorative bands and patterns may be made by introducing

a third weft (126).

Plaited work

In straight plaited work there is no opportunity for further decoration

beyond that of the type of plait itself.

In open extended plaited work, which is more or less confined to Lesotho, a

more decorative effect may be obtained by lengthening and/or crossing the

extensions (127a, 127b, Fig. 83A). A different appearance may be given to both

of these by tightening the strands unevenly (/27c). Plain close extended plaiting

may be decorated with a band of extended multiple plaiting (127d).

Sewn work

Straight sewn

In straight sewn work with single foundation strands the only recorded dec-

orations are:

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 153

‘s

ISGLLLILLIE

Q sEgSe & aa ARR KEE SER

lala AL ns

| Hf Aibite cine A i

LP Clolag

POGLELLLELLT

XN YAW AYN

= aA SACS NW va WS YT

z ENN

SN wes ACE

BANA WON We :

ANN

Fig. 83. A. Crossed elements on open extended plait, 127b. B. Decorative chain-stitch stripe

on straight sewing with composite foundation, 29a

C. Decorative stripe by changing direction

of twists of composite foundation in straight sewing, 129d. D. Vertical lines by change of stitch

in coiled sewn work, 130.

154 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

by crossing the foundation strands between the lines of sewing. This is done on

sleeping-mats, especially in Lesotho and also on South Sotho bale masks (for girl

initiates), which are exactly similarly made (/28a).

by putting a 25 mm depth of /attice wrap at each end of a straight sewn mat (an

isolated instance from the Northern Transvaal Ndebele) (/285).

by arranging in a design the nodes of the split reeds used as straight sewn foun-

dation by the Shona (/28c) (this may be accidental).

In straight sewn work with composite foundation strands, the only decor-

ations recorded are on beer-strainers with foundation strands of two-ply or

three-ply. Stripes may be made at fairly equal intervals by lengthening the twist

of two or three strands (129b), or by twisting them in the opposite direction

from the prevailing one (129d, Fig. 83C), or by doing this with alternate strands

of two-ply cords only, which gives a chain-stitch effect (J29a, Fig. 83B), or by

putting in one or more strands of a different ply (J29c). These styles are found

mainly among the Sotho-Tswana.

Coiled sewn

In these techniques there is considerable opportunity for decoration

through stitching. The most common is a series of vertical or radial lines, gener-

ally fairly evenly spaced on the surface of the basket, but open lines (by missing

one stitch), spiral lines, concentric bands and geometrical patterns equivalent to

the diaper patterns of woven work, or an irregular mottled effect, may be made.

The following methods have been recorded; with the exception of the

lengthened stitch none is very common, but all are widespread:

by change of stitch, e.g. vertical furcate stripes on simple oversewing (/30,

Fig. 83D).

by sewing one or more stitches at the required intervals in each coil over an

extra coil, thereby making a Jong stitch, which may also be in a different stitch

from the main body (131, Fig. 84A). A decorative effect seen only on a Mpuku-

shu coiled basket of simple oversewing is obtained by sewing a stitch over two

coils at frequent but irregular intervals. There is no pattern but the mottled

effect is very pleasing. The long-stitch method is very commonly used for radial

stripes, which may be solid, by lengthening successive stitches, or open, by

making a short stitch between two long stitches. This technique is very typical of

Natal, but it is widespread and by far the commonest form.

by splitting the stitch with the new stitch unevenly, but always in the same place,

which gives the appearance of a little stripe going off at an angle (/32).

by doubling the stitch on single rod foundation, i.e. by sewing twice instead of

once round the foundation into the space left (/33).

by. wrapping a series of stitches each round its neighbour in a half hitch (/34a,

Fig. 84B) seen on a Mpondo beer basket where the motifs so made are spaced

between vertical lines of lengthened stitches. An openwork pattern may be

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 155

{uo wl eaten ear

mits eae

malt APEC E aN Nl

on aos =eat pocern seis

rah == Heth, | vairaieetoat s\n

nN eat <= “Tt Num = ehhh nt rt

TE TESTU

Eee

wt Se

yaaa scan

Fig. 84. A. Open stripe on sewn work by lengthening stitch, 737. B. Pattern by half-hitching,

134a. C. Beading, 135.

made by wrapping the sewing round the foundation strands for a space and

bending them into openwork patterns, which are held between two plain coils

(134b). This is surely a modern innovation.

by beading, i.e. by allowing a flat strand to weave in and out of the sewing

stitch, which gives a chequer effect (135, Fig. 84C). It is a. seen and 1

pected to be of foreign influence.

by overlaying, i.e. by laying a flat strand over the foundation before the sewing,

so that the foundation shows through particularly smoothly (/36).

156 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

In addition to these specific patterns, the sewing itself is often decorative

and by judicious spacing can be made more so (137). Furcate sewing, particu-

larly, is often widely spaced to make a pretty radially or spirally striped effect.

A very slight decoration seen on an Ambo basket was made by ending the

sewing strand in the same place in each row and cutting it off not quite close to

the surface, thereby making slight radial lines (138).

If the sewing is done with tapering strands the effect is decorative (139).

CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR

Woven and sewn work

This is not common. It has been recorded in twined woven work on a Mpu-

kushu coiled basket, where concentric bands of a different, twisted material

were used on a plain ground (/40); on a Huruthse coiled sewn basket, where

concentric bands (141a) of untwisted different material were used on a ground of

twisted material, and on an Ambo coiled basket, where a radial pattern (141b)

was made by sewing with two-ply twisted cord of the palm fibre that is used

plain for the rest of the sewing.

INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR

Coloured patterns are not very common, except in recent work where there

has been foreign inspiration. Coloured patterns, which generally gain their effect

by accentuating some aspect of the technique of the work, may be obtained

either by using materials naturally different in colour or by turning the material

inside out when the two sides have different colours, for example bark, or by

dyeing the strands before use. In a specialized case, coloured beads may be

introduced. The pattern is worked into the fabric and it is interesting to note

that colour is nearly always introduced in the weft or sewing and not in the warp

or foundation, but there are exceptions. Baskets that have a flat wooden mm

may have a pattern branded on the rim, but there is no painting or stencilling of

patterns in southern African basketwork.

Frequently there are slight variations in shade in the same lot of material

and these may be used to make some simple patterns or may do so accidentally.

One interesting example of this is on a South Sotho coiled grain basket, where

one end of each piece of sewing strand is considerably lighter than the other, so

that in each ten or twelve centimetre section of each coil, there is a shading from

light to dark and then a sharp recommencement at light (Fig. 88).

The introduction of naturally different coloured materials is confined in this

country to various reddish brown barks very common in the central area, a

brown sedge, a light yellow reed as a contrast for brownish wood, occasionally

ox- or horse-tail hair, or two slightly different shades of the same material as the

ground-work.

The colours obtained by dyeing are black, various shades of brown, yellow,

mauve and red (see Materials).

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 157

Woven work

Fabric

In woven work the decoration may be either by having the two sets of ele-

ments of different colours, which makes a decorative effect over the whole

surface, or by the introduction of only a few coloured strands to make linear

designs.. a

; In chequer work most of the examples so far recorded have a check effect

over the whole surface and most of them come from KwaZulu (/42a). In each

case, except one, the warp and weft are of different materials as well as different

colours. In Zulu purses or spoon-bags, the weft is often of fine cord and

the warp wider sedge or grass stems. A few examples with decorative bands

(142b) have been seen, for example, Zulu spoon-bags, a Chopi mat, and a Mari

basket.

An isolated example from KwaZulu has an open diamond pattern made by

whipping the warps with different material and colour for a distance at the

requisite places (142c).

In twilled work there is endless scope for pattern by introducing coloured

strands in place of a certain number of others. Nevertheless, it is not very much

used, and most of the examples, both of all-over pattern (143a, Fig. 85A) and of

designs (143b), come from the Tsonga and Chopi, who use it particularly on

pouches and sometimes on winnowing baskets, from the Venda, who use it on

the mufharo baskets, and from the Okavango immigrants, who use the all-over

pattern on winnowing baskets. In recent examples of this, coloured plastic has

been used.

In wickerwork only one example of a coloured pattern has been recorded,

except among the Vazezuru of Botswana, where it is almost certainly intro-

duced. The one example is a band of the same material dyed black on a Mari

chequer wicker garden basket (144, Fig. 85B).

In twined work very simple colour decoration has been noted— generally a

solid or broken line made by introducing a pair of coloured strands or one in a

pair or three. Decoration of the whole surface by using one or both wefts of a

different colour has been recorded only from Natal and the Okavango (/45a,

145b). In circular work concentric rings or bands may be made in this way

(145c). If both of the pair of wefts or each of three wefts are coloured, and several

rows worked, a solid band is made (145d, 145e). In the Transkei ox- or horse-

tail hair or a dark brown sedge is used, and, for solid bands, slightly different

shades of the same material as the ground work. Sometimes the stroke is altered

as well as the colour (145f, Fig. 85C).

Twining is a quite suitable medium for squares or geometrical patterns in

colour of one or both wefts, as the wefts can be finished off and need not com-

plete a row (145c, 145d, Fig. 86A). This is often seen on Zulu food-mats. One

isolated example from KwaZulu has a pattern made by overlaying one of the

pair of wefts with different coloured material (145g, Fig. 86B).

KAS

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ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

S ‘ 2

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RS ?

158

4 G4

“SSS

B. Band of colour in

chequer wicker, 144. C. Decorative band of different colour and material, and lengthened

A. Introduction of colour over whole surface of twill, 143a.

ig. 85.

stroke on twine, 145f.

159

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

; boy b

aaa

[i ‘ ap

my NOG

MLS SOL

mo 07 oY IS

TSA LAW

Begin Begin

brown white

Wil,

a @\\ mua s

‘ ee

Ie eG I ts

Sie tk

)

wine with two different coloured wefts, 145d. B. Overlaying

in colour on twine, 145g.

Fig. 86. A. Geometric design on t

Warps may also be whipped with a strand of a different colour, to make a

design (145h).

In plaited work chevron patterns in either direction could be made by the

introduction of coloured strands. This has, however, not been found. The only

example found of decoration in a plaited fabric is on the sleeping-mat from

plaits are joined together to form the whole, horizontal stripes of plain colour

Mozambique already described (p. 144). In this special case, where separate

can be made by making some of the plaits entirely coloured (1/46).

- In three-strand lattice twined work, bands and patterns are made by having

one or more of the strands in a different material dyed. This was recorded

among the Subia of the Okavango (/47a-c).

160 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Coloured edges on woven work

The only example recorded is from the Lala of Natal where the edge of a

food-mat is oversewn in blanket stitch with a material of different colour (148).

Sewn work

In the fabric of straight sewn work there is little scope for the introduction

of colour, either in foundation or sewing. The only instances of coloured foun-

dation recorded are on beer-strainers from the Nguni, Tsonga and Sotho, where

a series of stripes is made by using coloured foundation strands (/49a,

Fig. 87A). The examples look influenced. There is no instance recorded of

coloured sewing. In the south, however, certain belts and headbands, in which

the technique is straight sewn with composite foundation of twined cords or

plaits and only two or three foundation strands, have the sewing strand dec-

-orated with beads that hold the foundation strands widely apart (/49b,

Fig. 87B). The narrow headbands may have an edging of beads made by thread-

ing one bead on the sewing strand whenever it emerges at the edge (Fig. 87B,

C). Patterns are introduced by means of the colour of the beads, generally alter-

nating stripes or blocks of different colour.

On a Zulu mat, a decoration that seems to be modern is the wrapping of

the end foundation strands with material of a different colour—in the only

instance recorded this is brown cord (149c).

In coiled work there is ample scope for coloured bands and radial patterns,

or all-over light and dark patterns. In most cases the colour is introduced by

making a certain number of coloured stitches in every coil or every few coils,

according to plan. The following are the ways so far recorded of introducing

colour in coiled work—each way naturally allows of numerous variations.

Foundation: concentric bands may be made by changing the colour of the

foundation for one or more coils. The sewing must then be spaced to let the

foundation show through (/50a). Only two examples of this were seen, from the

Thembu and the Tshangana-Tsonga, and these may well have been influenced

by overlaying—that is, the laying of a coloured strand over the foundation

before the stitch, which thus goes over it. This is suitable for bands or designs,

but has only been recorded on two hats, one Southern Sotho and one Tswana

(150b, Fig. 87D, 150c).

Sewing: by sewing the whole basket with a strand of colour that contrasts

with the foundation and by spacing the stitches widely. This is often used with a

furcate stitch, which lends itself well to striped effects. So far this has been

recorded among the Natal Nguni and Swazi, the Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and

Mpukushu (/5/a). The Sarwa near Serowe were making similarly decorated

baskets, but these were Ngwato style and made for sale to the Ngwato.

by using a sewing strand that varies in colour from one end to another. This

makes a natural mottled effect, with a change of colour at the beginning of each

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 161

’ ¥) E

Y Z:

g ty me

f Yiig J l-§s

Wf APA a | ot ER

Y Ze

of ZZ AE

47 Z

SSS

irnttren

tg ee

. \ —~ Laat

Kanne

AAR

SSS

var! \

SYAY

SSS

AY \

TaN

At Ty

= SSSS

— bg, SS

SSSA

ROT YR UTRAL

Tati et

geet ey al

W aLt MANY

Wik;

NET nl

uw ITN eth

~ oie

WA Ae:

pension OT Sake ue

Se UREN <a

SPSS I SOR,

WING

AIL ted

WN A

AINhC

——,

: RAT

CUT

A\\\

HU a

Ae’

y's

—————— eS eee

fet Ne

Fig. 87. A. Decorative stripes of coloured foundation strands, straight sewing, 149a.

B-C. Introduction of beads on straight sewn work, 149b. D. Band of overlaying in different

colour, different material, 750b.

162 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

new strand (15/b, Fig. 88). This was only recorded among Southern Sotho and

Tswana and the people of the eastern Kavango.

by sewing one or more coils of the basket with a different colour from the rest to

make single or concentric rings, or bands of colour (J5/c). If wide spacing or

knot-stitching is used, the line or band becomes striped in two colours (151d).

This has a fairly wide distribution, except in Zimbabwe.

by putting one or two coloured stitches directly or diagonally above the other at

intervals in succeeding coils, to make radial stripes or to trace a thin line pattern

(15le). This is not commonly seen, but has a wide distribution.

SRR ‘ Ore key :

+ Ya SNARE RAY.

KAY ay ‘ SR a

Fig. 88. Basket showing natural variation in colour in sewing strand, giving mottled effect,

151b. South Sotho, Leribe, Lesotho, 1958 (SAM-—8005). Height 179 mm.

by sewing with coloured strands, for requisite short distances, to make a series

of motifs—squares, rectangles, triangles, or odd shapes, generally geometrical,

either regularly over the whole surface or in concentric radial patterns (/5/f,

Fig. 89A; 151g), or at odd irregular intervals. The concentric patterns are fre-

quently seen and widespread, but especially favoured in Botswana. The

irregularly spaced patterns are uncommon and mostly confined to Botswana.

by beading—that is the insertion of a strip of coloured material so that it passes

over and under one or more stitches of the sewing (/52a, 152b, Fig. 89B, C). If

several rows are made, patterns analogous to those of twilled weaving may be

created. Only isolated instances of this have been found—so far apart as to

make one suspect foreign influence.

by the introduction of beads—by threading beads over the sewing strand before

use. Only one example was seen, among the Ndau, where the beads were intro-

duced on the last coil (153).

by wrapping the edges of straight sewn articles (154) or oversewing the final or

last two rows of coiled baskets (155) with material of a different colour.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 163

ine

Sy int i ait

sé aan ae oo

ay itl ‘ aie

ait at ii

at gi = AM

aati

iN We}

na ine te i

vi H my

| il

Tica ot

=a Ee

age

ROAOHARARARARAR AR SA

ive AAO OTTO

= -: : <s

=n — =

aN ae cs

A \\\\\ S

eee -

ae nnn

ee Z

aaa

niE==

Fig. 89. A. Geometric motifs in a different colour, /5/f. B. Band of beading in different

colour, /52a. C.’Geometric motif by beading in different colour, /52

ALTERATION OF SHAPE

A purely decorative modern tendency in Southern Sotho conical hats is to

alter their shape by surmounting them with fancy knobs (156). The technique of

these is generally the same as the body of the work, but sometimes plaited or

hitched bands are taken out in loops to enhance the knob. The origin of the

latter is said to have been Queen Victoria’s crown as seen on coins.

164 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ORNAMENTATION

‘Ornamentation’ as distinct from ‘decoration’ is used here to mean some-

thing added after the work and separate from it. It is comparatively rare on

southern African basketwork and nearly always indicates foreign influence. It is

often utilitarian. |

Ornament may be made of the same materials as the body or of different |

materials.

Colouring

Colour is sometimes painted on the outside or underside of baskets, but it is

hard to say whether this is purely ornamental or intended, as in the case of the

use of dung, as a protective or water-proofing treatment. The only people

amongst whom this has so far been noted are the Tsonga, Chopi and Tswana. In

one case of an Ngwato basket, the colour was definitely ornamental (157). The

Tsonga in Mozambique use a paste obtained from mangrove bark. One basket

' was seen in Zimbabwe where two rings of colour had been applied to the wefts

of a wicker basket.

Embroidery

A type of ornament that was very popular on the grass arm-bands and belts

of the south-eastern people, is a series of raised bands of twisted grass or sinew

cord, knotted on the outside of the object (J58a).

Coloured wool, braid and other materials have been used latterly as orna-

mentation on hats, spoon-bags and the edges of mats. This is a modern

development and not very common (/58b).

Sometimes the coloured material is tied on, but more often it is oversewn or

whipped on (158c, Figs 90A, C). This latter is sometimes seen on straight sewn

sleeping-mats, where wrapping or twining with coloured materials is also. done

after the work is finished.

Whipped and sewn embroidery with palm-leaf was seen in huts of the

Tembe in northern KwaZulu (158c, 158d, Fig. 90B, C). This was said to have

been done by an itinerant builder. It is usually found in the homes of important

people (Cunningham & Gwala 1986).

An example of sewn embroidery (158d) has been recorded on a coiled Zulu

basket, on which an arrowhead shape had been sewn, each stitch being taken

over five coils.

Most rarely recorded of all is embroidery with the same or similar material

to that of the fabric; this has been seen on a Himba basket and a Mpukushu

mat.

Carved or branded

_ Where baskets have a wooden band or rim, there is opportunity for carved

(159, Fig. 91A) or branded (160, Fig. 91B) ornamentation, but so far this has

only been recorded from among the Hlengwe and the Ndau of Zimbabwe.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 165

Fig. 90. A. Whipped embroidery in colour, /58c. B. Cross-stitch oversewing with palm-leaf,

over lattices of hut wall, 758d. C. Whipped embroidery with palm-leaf over circular lattices of

the ceiling of the same hut, /58c. Tembe, Mselini, KwaZulu, 1970.

166 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

err eo eo eee

oS,

LATINA

~ Cora a

Sx La

La a mm S777

A tees i 2

SSS Se

enetn caes i

rae

Daas

eee

Fig. 91. A. Carving on rim, /59. B. Branding on rim, 160.

Extra lattices

On a chequer basket of the Ambo, and on a lattice twined basket of the

Fue with the lattices inside, extra lattices were put on the outside, as ornamental

bands (161).

Beads and buttons

Beyond these, the only pure ornament so far recorded is beadwork (163,

Fig. 92A—D) and the use of brass buttons (162, Fig. 92A). On actual baskets it is

rare. One specimen recorded is a small basket bowl from Maun, Botswana;

round the outside of the mouth are four rows of beads, in alternate patches of

blue and pink. From this band small, hanging, beadwork ornaments are sus-

pended at intervals. The Nkuna of Tzaneen area make twilled lids for coiled

conical baskets and both lid and basket are beaded in strands and fringes, or a

cover of beadwork fabric may be put over the lid. These seem to be made as

presents, especially for weddings.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 167

eS poe GO

Z OlOEMS SEES

2 W@RCORECESEREEE =< -2

AOE OR EB OR EE EZ

Dorr AE

LLBRAE AS SARA

NESS NGG REG OCCPOC

pt oe eS oe AS SES

PAN SSIS

WASSER

IWS A VBS SESS x

SRO Hr nos

CUCU

(

UUUCC

CCC

| 4)

(C(

NEN se Ss

= PPPDHDVM DOP PPD Own

Pete Cee Che Ot

a \ VEDI Daa Sev:

4 Cz

dit wat

~) a

COCR

CCG

CEG

NES

Ds 2g) RN

Fig. 92. A. Ornamentation with brass buttons, 162, and beads, /63b. B. Spoon-bag orna-

mented with beads, /63a. C-—D. Belts with beads sewn on after completion, /63b, as well as

during work, /49b.

168 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

On the small bags, purses and spoon-bags made in KwaZulu, and also on

small mats for various purposes, rows or fringes of beads are sometimes used

(163a, Figs 92B, 101).

The most common use of beads for ornament on basketwork, however, is

on personal ornaments (163b, Fig. 92A, C, D), which occur for the most part in

the south. In some cases it is hard to draw the line between basketwork and

beadwork. On the basketwork belts worn in Natal, KwaZulu and Lesotho, and

which are straight sewn with a composite plaited foundation element, beadwork

(163b) and brass buttons (162) seem to have taken the place of the presumably

older knotted ornament (/250, see p. 149). Sometimes beads or brass buttons

are sewn on the outer surface in striped patterns, and sometimes the whole

outer surface is covered with beads. When beads are used alone there is no sign

of their attachment on the back of the work, which is perfectly smooth, but if

brass buttons are used their eyes are pushed through the work and secured on

the back, sometimes with a bead. Headbands from the Lesotho border, of

straight sewn technique with edgings of beads, one bead being threaded on to

the sewing strand whenever it emerges, may have another row of beads sewn

down the centre of the outer surface (Fig. 92D). Finally, rows and fringes of

beads often decorate the small straight sewn mats used as masks by the girl

initiates in Lesotho. Bead ornamentation is at its most vigorous in the east of the

country. -

SHAPES

In southern African basketwork, shape is rarely ornamental and, for the

most part, is dictated by the use to which the object is to be put and, to some

extent, by the material as well. The former is obvious in such things as huts,

mats, sledges, fish-traps, birdcages, bracelets, bags, hats and strainers, but it can

also be seen in actual baskets.

UTILITARIAN ADDITIONS

Lids

When they occur, lids are generally plain rather than ornamental (164,

Figs 93, 94). They are frequently separate from the body and serve some other

purposes as well, such as winnowing trays or drinking cups. In the south, when a

lid is needed, a shallow basket bowl is generally inverted over the top of the

other vessel. In Botswana, lids with small, more or less ornamental knobs are

used. This latter is possibly a recent development.

Handles

Loops. The apparently indigenous form of handle, if such it can be called,

is'a loop of twisted sedge, grass or other fibre or of thong, attached either to the

edge, or to the centre bottom of the article, by means of which it can be hung up

(165).

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 169

)))

}

TU WAN \\

Fig. 93. Lid on coiled sewn basket, 164.

Cords are almost exclusively seen on twilled pouches. They serve

both as handles and to hold in place the lid, which slides up and down the cord

(166a—166f, Fig. 95A). They may be attached in a variety of ways, most of

which are on the outside of the lower portion and ornamental. They always run

up inside the lid, finishing outside on top, sometimes through a flat piece of wood.

Stiff handles (167a, 167b, Fig. 95B, C), as distinct from cords, have not

been recorded on uninfluenced indigenous work. They occur quite frequently in

influenced work which is, however, commonly used. In woven work they may be

made by extending two opposite warps, and in coiled work by taking a loop out

of the coil foundation. In either woven or coiled work they may be sewn on.

Some skimming spoons have been recorded with an ornamental ring handle at

the end of the shaft; this is, in fact, an extension of the warps, sewn into a ring.

Hinges

The lid of certain types of basket may be hinged on to the body in one or

two places, either by means of simple strands (/68, Fig. 96A) or by means of a

170 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Pe eilers ad

Fe a ppd); Ly a

ry es

Ws, EG, ME; UMMM 3

oo SSS SS SS SS SS SES

Se se

Dy a <<

2 yyy> yy Sy

OK Se

AK CKECCUNW YN >

MOS

Fig. 94. A, C. Lids on twilled baskets, 164. B, D. Cross-sections illustrating fit.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

OCG

nD»

> > OS =

)

A iy SS" Sy)

, —— at 7 LV} Le

YA a ae

CLA\8 eae aero ig

og oe coe ee eek eee Hee

RY “WG. Wy) = PEG Neer Al pee

SOS Sy 4) ae 7 eee

rotate Ua result ee hr say see | | ee

=\ RAR Re wee SLA

=" - f aN AN \ I rh |

a yvesisunut : : 3 &

_—<— — ~~ — ——

—

— en

Fig. 95. A. Cord handle on pouch, knotted outside, runs inside, /66a. B. Stiff handle on

woven work, /67a. C. Stiff handle on sewn work. /67b.

171

172 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

4 Y

we @, d

4D SKS PL rl

A AA, — F- ap WLA q 4)

353 SPL PLL LESS

= ; “

NN}

‘

EES

A) iz

a JES |:

NSEC

iN SZ

A) ~

\ cal

‘ Wie L

WANS a

Fig. 96. A-B. On twined work, lid hinged by three strands, 168. C. On sewn work, lid hinged

by corresponding loops and a ring, 169.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 173

loop in corresponding positions on each and fastened with a ring (169,

Fig. 96C). In the latter case, as used by the Ronga near Maputo, the loops are

made of the ordinary grass or split palm-leaf foundation, closely bound round in

chequer weave with palm-leaf. They are decorated with beading in black.

Rims

Rims consisting of flat wooden hoops have already -been discussed under

‘edges’ (80). They may be termed ornamental if they are ornamented or if they

are made wider than is functionally necessary, to give an ornamental effect (170,

Fig. 63).

Feet

An addition that may be modern and is fairly rare is a foot or stand, seen

occasionally on small baskets in the Kavango territory. It is coiled, like the rest

of the basket and is, in effect, a straight or slanting rim at the bottom of the

basket (171). It seems to be a foreign element from north of the Okavango.

In KwaZulu, three small pieces of wood may be sewn on to the bottom of a

small basket to act as feet when it stands on its own, or as a handle when it is

used as a lid (172, Fig. 97A). Or a solid ring of wood (173, Fig. 97B) or a thick

plait may be attached (174, Fig. 97C).

BASKETS

Garden baskets

Throughout the southern African region, these are small at the base and

wide at the top, thus allowing a good load to be packed in, and helping to

balance the basket on the head (/75, Fig. 98). They may be conical, flanging or

bowl-shaped. They frequently have a concave base to fit the head. This base is

commenced as it were inside out and, when deep enough, the warps are turned

up or the sewn coils similarly placed, so that the cone is inside.

Other utensils and containers

Food bowls are shallow and wide-mouthed. Beer baskets, for drinking beer,

are fairly straight-sided and wide-mouthed (176, Fig. 99); containers (/77) for

storing beer, like bins for storing grain, close in at the top to a small mouth

(Fig. 100), and usually have a lid.

Otherwise, the only baskets in which the shape is not entirely conditioned

by the use are the Venda and Lobedu twilled carrying baskets, where the waist

is ornamental, but at the same time not unconnected with the technique—there

would have to be a join somewhere (Fig. 4).

Certain shapes have been adopted from the fashions of other cultures with

which the people have come in contact. Examples of this are rectangular

baskets, baskets with hinged lids, and the addition of handles.

174 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 97. A. Small pieces of wood at base of basket, as feet or handle, 772. B. Wooden ring

sewn on base of basket as a foot, 173. C. A plaited ridge as foot on a basket, 174.

175

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

“WIL SCZ IYSIOHY *(S668-INVS)

€96[ “OSuRARYO ‘OFMIG ‘q ‘Ww OZ IYSI9H, “(ES/8E LON) SEI ‘XAURY ‘eUeMST “D “UU Cgz IYsIOHY “(TSOLI-WVS) 8261

‘nnyuezey ‘esuos], “gq “WU Cg¢e IYSIOH] “(SZLZI-INVS) P86 “OLISIP spoqry ‘opuod|] “vy “CZ] ‘s}oyseq UdpIeH °g6 “BIA

176 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 99. Utensil, 176. Beer-beaker, Mpondo, Flagstaff district, Transkei 1932 (UCT 32/41).

Height 292 mm.

OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS

Bags

Bags (178, Fig. 101) are of different sizes, but differ in shape only acCOneie

to the ratio between length and width.

Bracelets

Bracelets (179, Fig. 102) are straight bands and differ only in width.

Birdcages

Birdcages (180, Fig. 6) have no special shape.

Fish-traps

Fish-traps (J81, Fig. 14) are nearly always conical in shape, but there are

some like little fences.

Food- and grain-mats

These (182, Figs 8, 82; 183) may be round, half-oval, rectangular—which is

most common—square, or apron-shaped.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 7

Fig. 100. Containers, 177. A. Small lidded basket, Natal Nguni, Nkhandla, 1941

(SAM-6201). Greatest diameter 160mm. B. Large container, Zulu, Melmoth, 1965

(SAM-9215). Height c. 550 mm.

178 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 101. Bag for spoons, 178, decorated with white beads, /63a,

Zulu, no locality, 1938 (UCT 38/19). Length 255 mm.

Fig. 102.) Bracelet. 170: “Mpondo, Flagstaff, Transkei, 1901

(SAM-249). Width of fabric 30 mm.

Hats

It used to be said that the shape of South Sotho hats (154, Fig. 103) was dic-

tated to some extent by whether they were to be worn in sunshine (in which case

they were wide brimmed) or rain (in which case they were conical), but this

seems to be no longer the case, if ever it was, and the conical hat has become a

national symbol. In other groups, hats are mainly wide-brimmed.

Huts

Before the spread of mud walls, the frames of walls and roofs of huts were,

with some exceptions, wattlework (185, Fig. 104). In some places there was a

woven top-knot on the roof.

Sledges

Sledges (186, Fig. 15) have wattlework walls built on to the V-shaped

wooden base.

Sleeping-mats

Sleeping-mats (187, Fig. 105) are rectangular, although some Xhosa some-

times make one end rounded.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 179

Fig. 103. Hat, 784, Southern Sotho, Leribe, 1958 (SAM-7987). Height 320 mm.

Fig. 104. Framework of hut, 785, Karanga, Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, 1967.

180 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 105. Sleeping-mat, 787, Tswana, Thaba Nchu, 1978.

Fig. 106. Skimming-spoon, /88, Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961 (SAM-8398). Diameter of bowl

100 mm.

Spoons

The basketwork spoons used as skimmers for beer (/88, Fig. 106) are gen-

erally rather more ornamental in shape than is strictly necessary for their

purpose.

Strainers

Strainers are tubular and their shapes differ only at the narrow base (189,

Figs 19, 107), which may be tucked in, bound or sewn into a straight projection.

They are used mainly for straining beer, but small examples for straining por-

ridge have been seen.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 181

Fig. 107. Beer-strainer, 189, Xolo, Port Shepstone, 1939 (SAM-—6010(3)).

TOOLS

Basketwork is done by hand and very few tools are used.

PREPARATION

In preparation of the materials, a Anife (nowadays often a penknife) or

spear blade is necessary to cut them and split them ready for use. For heavy

stakes that are the warps of wattlework hut frames or sledges an axe or an adze

is needed. The splitting of small strands may be done with an aw/ (Fig. 108A)

or, nowadays, even a pin may be used. Where reeds have to be flattened before

use, they are cut once down the length and opened out and, at least among the

Mpukushu and Kuangari, hammered flat with a mallet (Fig. 108C). A mallet or

a piece of wood is used by Tsonga to flatten the ridges made by sewing plaited

strips together to make a mat or basket.

182 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

—

Yj;

WW§

oes :

Fig. 108. Tools. A. Awl, Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, 1936 (SAM-9742). Length 147 mm.

B. Core of grass for beer-strainer, Zulu, Nongoma, 1970. C. Mallet, Kuangari, Lupala,

Kavango, 1961 (SAM-8512). Length 384mm. D. Needle, Nama, Fransfontein, Namibia,

1923 (SAM-UCT 23/138). Length 255 mm.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 183

WORKING

Woven work

In the actual work, woven techniques need no tools, but a knife or blade is

used for cutting off the loose ends. A core of grass is used for shaping woven

beer-strainers (Fig. 108B) or Zulu chequer weave spoon-bags; latterly a bottle

has been used for this purpose.

Sewn work

Sewn techniques, however, need an awl or needle (Fig. 108A, D) for the

actual sewing. In straight work, a needle may be used to pierce the foundation

strands; it has an eye through which the strand is passed and by means of which

it is drawn through the foundation strands. It is recorded of the Khoi that a

needle and an awl were used, the latter to pierce the foundation strands and then

turn on its side to hold the hole open while the needle was pushed through. This

method was seen among the Hlubi too. Sewn beer-strainers are made on a core

of grass (Fig. 108B), at least in Lesotho and Transkei.

In coiled sewn work, the choice of an awl or a needle depends on the close-

ness of the work. If it is loose and the foundation is of grass, a needle may be

used to pull the sewing strand through. If it is close sewing of hard materials, an

awl will be used to make a hole through the foundation and the stiff sewing

strand will be inserted through the hole. Sometimes the forward end of the

sewing strand will be cut to a point to facilitate this, or the stiffer root portion of

sedge left on for this purpose.

Both straight and coiled work have to be trimmed when finished and a knife

is used to cut off the loose ends. Latterly the Thembu have used shears for this

purpose.

The material of which awls and needles are made varies. Most awls are of

iron nowadays, but wood, bone and thorn, especially the sharp point of an aloe

leaf, or the sharp spike of a palm-leaf, are used. Some have handles, some not.

Nails are often put into handles for use as awls. Umbrella spokes, flattened and

pointed at one end, make very good needles.

MATERIALS

The materials used in Southern African basketwork are as numerous and

varied as the tools are few, and are obtained almost entirely from plants.

Dressed skin is sometimes used for bindings or for bases, sinew thread is some-

times used for sewing, and ox- or other tail hair, brass buttons and beads are

sometimes used for decoration and ornamentation, but the bulk of the materials

come from plants.

In many cases the materials are available near or not impossibly far from

the maker’s home, but many areas are being over-exploited and the need to

import from another part of the country is sufficient to encourage some people

in the suitable environments to grow material for sale.

184 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

The preparation of each type of material varies but, in general, most of

them, before use, are soaked in water for a certain time; this varies according to

material and custom. The materials are used damp, to prevent splitting or crack-

ing. In addition, the worker usually has a container of water nearby and keeps

wetting the hands. Thin material is often kept in this water until used, or

wrapped in something to keep it damp. One woman was seen to warm the water

for the start of the basket.

Record of the materials used is far from complete, for which reason it has

been thought best to list them according to the parts used rather than to make

an alphabetical list of the botanical names of the plants so far identified.

Materials collected in the field are marked by the place name, and were

identified by the National Botanic Gardens, Kirstenbosch. The names listed

under ‘Author’ are those of other informants or sources.

STEMS

Grass: family Gramineae—various genera

True grass stems are comparatively seldom used for either element in

woven work; there are few objects for which the majority of grasses would be

strong enough. However, grass stems, that is the stems of the inflorescence, are

used for the plaited grass bracelets and necklets popular throughout the country.

For these a shiny yellow-stemmed grass is preferred. Thin tough grass stems are

used for South Sotho sun-hats of extended plait technique.

By far the most common use of grass is as a coil foundation for coiled bas-

ketry. When the foundation is to be completely or almost completely covered,

the choice of grass need not be so particular, but on hats of boater shape and on

certain baskets shiny stems are carefully selected for the foundation, so that in

showing through the stitches they add to the decorative effect.

Fine grass stems may be plaited as a sewing strand for coiled work. Stronger

grass is plaited to make ropes.

Grass stems need little or no preparation. They are sometimes used green,

particularly for ornaments or hats, and sometimes dried first and dampened for

use. :

The following grasses have been identified:

Species Use Group Place Author

* Andropogon amplectans Nees sewing of coiled work Zulu Melmoth

* Andropogon cymbarius L. sleeping-mats Zulu Natal Gerstner

Aristida sp. coil foundation; weft of Zulu Melmoth

grain-bin Hlabisa

warps Biyela Nkhandla

broom Zulu Babanango

coil foundation Ambo Oshikango

Aristida congesta Roem. & baskets, food-mats Zulu Grossert

Schult. (1967)

*_See Appendix 3 for current name.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Species

Aristida junciformis Trin. &

Rupr.

*Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens

Cymbopogon sp.

Cynodon sp.

Digitaria‘eriantha Stend.

* Digitaria littoralis Stent.

Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle)

Stapf.

Eragrostis curvula Nees

Eragrostis gummiflua Nees

Eragrostis pallens Hack

Eragrostis plana Nees

Festuca costata Nees

Hyparrhenia sp.

Hyparrhenia filipendula Stapf

Hyparrhenia hirta Stapf

Use

brooms

sewing strand for coiled

work

coil foundation of bin for

groundnuts

bangles

ornaments

sewing of coiled work

baskets, beer-strainers

sewn beer-strainers

sewing of coiled work

ornaments

plaited bangles

ropes and grain-bins

baskets, ornaments, grain-

bins, plaited rope

coil foundation

ropes, mats

coil foundation

sewing

sewn baskets

grain-mats

coil foundation

warp of grain-mats

coil foundation

sewing for grain-bin

roof mat

part of initiation costume

large grain-bin

grain-bins, bangles

bangles

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

Group

Swazi

Lenge

Hlengwe

Zulu a

Zulu

Thulini

Tembe

Thembu

Ndebele

Zulu

S. Sotho

S. W.

Tswana

Ngwato

general

Sarwa

Zulu

Swazi

Ndebele

Swazi

Hlubi

Venda

Zulu

Lobedu

Venda

Zulu

Tlokwa

N. Sotho

Place

Pigg’s Peak

Masiyene

Sabi-Lundi

Natal

Hlabisa

Appelsbosch

Sodwana

Zimbabwe

Melmoth

Lesotho

Botswana

Serowe

Botswana

Nata R.

Melmoth

Nongoma

Mahlabatini

Ohlangotini

Esigodini

(Essexvale)

Pigg’s Peak

Sigogo

Ndzehele

Duiwelskloof

Ndzehele

Natal

Bochum

Lydenburg

185

Author

Earthy

(1933)

Gerstner

(1938:

223)

Grossert

(1967)

Beukes

. (4937)

Gerstner

(1939:

58, 1941:

381)

Grossert

(1967)

Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Ebert

(1978)

Grossert

(1967)

McCalman

(pers.

comm.)

Grossert

(1967)

Davison

(1984)

Grossert

(1967)

186 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Species Use Group Place Author

Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf grain-bins Zulu Grossert

(1967)

Ischaemum fasciculatum plaited rope Zulu Natal

Brongn.

*Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) _ baskets, beer-strainers Zulu Grossert

Stapf (1967)

Loudetia simplex (Nees) C. E. _ plaiting bangles Ndebele Zimbabwe

Hubbard

*Miscanthidium capense Stapf rough mats Xhosa Umtata

Oplismenus sp. ‘baskets’ Zulu Natal Gerstner

(1938:

314)

food-mats, baskets Zulu Natal Grossert

(1967)

Pogonarthria falcata Rendle garden baskets S. Sotho —_ Lesotho

Pogonarthria squarrosa (Licht.) coil foundation Ndebele Esigodini McCalman

Pilger (Essexvale) (pers.

S. Sotho Teyateyaneng comm.)

Rhynchelytrum repens C. E. coil of nest for hens Lobedu Duiwelskloof

Hubb

*Rhynchelytrum setifolium baskets Zulu Grossert

Chiov. (1967)

“Sporobolus indicus Stapf coil foundation Zulu Nongoma

Zulu Hlabisa

Sporobolus pyrimidalis Beauv. coil foundation of hats, S. Nguni ‘Transkei

coil foundation of baskets Hlubi Sigogo

with plaited sewing

coil foundation Ximba Mahlabatini

coil foundation Koni Northern

Transvaal

Themeda triandra Forsk. grain-bin Zulu Grossert

(1967)

*Tricholaena setifolia Stapf coil foundation; wefts of Zulu Melmoth

grain-bins

*See Appendix 3 for current name.

Reeds: family Gramineae—genera Phragmites and Arundenaria

The stems of river reeds (Phragmites australis (Cuv.) Trin. ex Steud.), the

indigenous bamboo (Arundenaria tesselata Munro), and the introduced bamboo

(Bambus vulgaris Schreb.) are used in various types of basketwork, especially in

the north.

Thin reed stems were used by the Naron of Sandfontein for the warps of the

reed sieves that they used for sieving white ants’ larvae, and are said to have

been used by the Southern San for fish traps.

Reed stems are split and flattened out for weaving coarse twilled matting in

the north-west. This seems to be an Angolan style and is found among people

with Angolan affinities: Kuangari, Bunja, Sambiu, Diriko, Mpukushu. The

matting may be used for sleeping mats, roofing mats, screens, grain-bins and

sledges. Reeds are used for another type of sleeping mat, made in Zimbabwe, in

which the reeds are flattened out, but are sewn through side by side instead of

being woven.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 187

Strips of split reed are used quite extensively for baskets—generally in

check or twilled weave—in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and the north of Botswana,

where influence from Zimbabwe and Angola is apparent. Winnowing baskets

and similar shapes, which further south are always twilled of slivers of wood, are

there frequently made of reed strips, which are also used for strengthening rims.

Reeds and bamboo are prepared by drying, cleaning, sorting, and splitting

or slitting and beating flat. They are used whole, especially for one or more ele-

- ments of doors, or for filling in walls in the north and east, and also as the warps

of fish traps. Their shiny yellow surface is very decorative.

The following species have been identified so far:

Species Use Group Place Author

Pennisetum purpureum warp and weft of twilled Ndau Ngorima,

Schumach baskets Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Phragmites mauritanus Kunth. Zimbabwe

Sedges: families Cyperaceae (Fig. 109) and Juncaceae

These are probably the most fruitful source of material for basketwork in

southern Africa—particularly so in the south where in some parts they are used

almost exclusively. The long, smooth, tough stems of the inflorescence are emi-

nently suited to many types of work. Many species of both families are used. So

important are they that they form an item of trade to areas where they do not

naturally grow. For this purpose they may be collected or actually cultivated.

Sedge stems are used whole, most commonly for sleeping mats or for the

roofing mats of the San and Khoikhoi. They form the single warps or the foun-

dation elements, with twined wefts or straight sewing through. The material is

used in the same form and technique for the veils worn by girls at their initiation

ceremonies in Lesotho. Less commonly, and in twined work only, several sedge

stems go to each warp.

Whole sedge stems also furnish the warps for most of the woven baskets

and bags in the south-east, and for many of the food- and grain-mats wherever

these are made. Sedge stems are used practically exclusively for the wefts of

these woven baskets, bags and mats, but it varies according to the thickness of

the stem and the taste of the maker, whether they are used whole, split in half,

or split in half and the pith removed.

Split and de-pithed sedge stems are used in various parts of the country for

oversewing in coiled basketwork, including hats, where a flat stitch is wanted.

They are also plaited into braids for certain types of ornament. A Shona bag is

twilled of split, de-pithed and flattened sedge stems, and so is a Pedi beer-

strainer.

Stems of thinner smaller sedges are greatly used in the centre and north and

are twisted into one- or two-ply cords for oversewing in coiled work. Sedge stem

188 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 109. Sedge (Cyperus textilis Thunb.), Cape.

cords of rather stronger species furnish the material for the beer-strainers of the

straight sewn type.

The sedges are generally cat and carried home in bundles, then laid out in

the sun to dry, sometimes on the roof of a hut. The Nama soak the stems in

water to draw out the tannin and make them more durable. When dry, the

unsuitable stems are sorted out. It depends on the use to which they are to be

put whether they are then used as they are, split, beaten flat, de-pithed or

twisted into cords. They are dampened before use.

The species so far recorded are:

Species Use Group Place Author

Cyperus alternifolius L. subsp. __ warp of sleeping-mats, Ndebele Zimbabwe McCalman

flabelliformis (Rottb.) warp and weft of food- (pers.

Kikenth. mats, sewing of coiled comm.)

baskets

“Cyperus compactus Lam. ornaments Naron Sandfontein Bleek

(1928)

Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. beer-strainers Lobedu Modjadji,

Duiwels-

kloof

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

Species

Cyperus esculentus L.

Cyperus fastigiatus Rottb.

Cyperus immensus C.B. CL

Cyperus latifolius Poir

Cyperus margaritaceus Vahl

Cyperus natalensis Hochst.

Cyperus papyrus L.

Cyperus sexangularis Nees

Cyperus textilis Thunb.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Use

sleeping-mats, food-mats,

baskets

sleeping-mats

mats

baskets

food-mats

sleeping-mats

girls’ ritual dresses

sleeping-mats

baskets

sleeping-mats

sleeping-mats ~

food-mats,

sewing of coiled baskets,

grain-bins

sleeping-mats

roofing mats

weft of garden baskets

baskets

sewing of grain-bins

warps of sleeping-mats

warp and weft of food-

mats

beer-strainers

warp and weft of shrimping

basket

sleeping-mats

baskets

sewing of garden basket

foundation of beer-strainer

sleeping-mats

Group

Zulu

Ndebele

Zulu

Tsonga

S. Tsonga

Natal

Nguni

Xhosa

Mpondo

Zulu

Venda

Zulu

S. Tsonga

Mbukushu

Mpondo

Koni

Tlokwa

Lobedu

Venda

Khoikhoi

Fingo

S. Nguni

Hlubi

S. Nguni

Mpondo

Swazi

West

Tswana

Rolong

Huruthse

Thlaping

Ngwato

East

Tswana

Tsonga

Place

Zimbabwe

Eshowe

_ Gazankulu

*Sodwana

Natal

Willowvale

Umvume

Springs

Eshowe

Hlabisa

Mahlabatini

Nzhelele

Manguzi

Botswana

Pondoland

Sekhu-

khuneland

Bochum

Modjadji

Nzhelele

Transkei

Sigogo

Umvume

Springs,

Pondoland

Nelspruit

Tlhakgameng

Moshane

Moretele

Serowe

Gazankulu

189

Author

Grossert

(1967)

McCalman

(pers.

comm.)

Marianhill

(1900-

1910)

Bryant

(1949)

Bryant

(1949)

Mayr

(1906-

1907)

Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Velcich

(pers.

comm. )

190

Species

Kyllinga alba Nees

Mariscus sp.

*Scirpus inclinatus (Del.)

Aschers & Schweinf.

Scirpus nodosus Rottb.

*Scirpus paludicola Kunth.

Scirpus rogersii N. E. Br.

*Scirpus tegetalis Burch.

Juncus effusus L.

*Juncus maritimus Bak

Juncus punctorius L.f.

Use

small baskets

foundation of mats

part of initiation costume

warps of sleeping-mats,

baskets

sleeping-mats

ornaments

beer-strainers

belts

sewing of doormats

sleeping-mats

beer-stirrer

beer-strainers

warps of grain-bins

sleeping-mats

sitting-mats

?spoon-bags, sleeping-

mats, food-mats

sleeping-mats

stirrers

warps of sleeping-mats

baskets

*__See Appendix 3 for current name.

Rushes: family Typhaceae

Group

Zulu

Nama

Lobedu

Ndzundza

Tlokwa

Naron

Ximba

Thulini

Ndebele

Cape

Khoikhoi

Zulu

Ngwane

Zulu

Ngwane

Zulu

Swazi

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Place Author

Grossert

(1967)

S. Kalahari Schultze

(1907)

Duiwels- Davison

kloof (1984)

Bronkhorstspruit

Silwerkrans

Sandfontein Bleek

(1928)

Mahlabatini

South Natal

Zimbabwe

Burchell

Fraserberg (1824)

Tugela Ferry

Mahlabatini

Bergville

Melmoth Dept.

Agric.

(1940)

Tugela Ferry

Bergville

Mahlabatini Gerstner

(1938:

323)

Nongoma

Gerstner

(1938:

228)

Melmoth

Tugela

Ferry

Pigg’s Peak

Mbabane

Rush stems, when used, are cut and dried in the same way as sedge stems.

They are used as warps for a common type of sleeping-mat in Natal and for

a tobacco-mat in Mozambique. The Southern San are said to have made a

cord for fish traps from them, but the word ‘rush’ is very loosely used in the

literature.

The only rush identified is the bulrush:

Species

*Typha latifolia subsp. capensis

Rohrb.

Use

sleeping-mats

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

Group

Zulu

Tswa

Place Author

Natal Gerstner

(1938:

228)

Mozam-

bique

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 191

Creepers

The stems of creepers are used extensively in the northern and eastern

Transvaal, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, either as foundation rods for

coiled basketwork or split for use as the sewing strand. They are also used, in

the same areas, as strengthening rods for the rims of woven baskets.

Thicker creeper stems are used as wefts over rigid warps for meat trays and

hut doors by Mpondo and Zulu. “, |

The creeper stems are generally stripped, dried and soaked in water for use,

but in some cases, for example the meat trays, they are used green and

untreated.

The following species have been recorded:

Species Use Group Place Author

Combretum zeyheri Sond. warp and weft of conical Manyika Mutare

basket (Umtali)

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels oversewing edge of Tsonga Gazankulu

winnowing basket

sewing strand Lobedu Duiwels-

kloof

Dalbergia obovata (E. Mey) basketwork Zulu Natal Gerstner

(1941:

291)

Dioscorea sp. coil foundation and sewing Venda Venda

Flagellaria guineensis Schumach _ hut doors and baskets Zulu Natal

Jasminum streptopus E. Mey. _ coil foundation; edge of Venda Mpephu

woven basketwork

Menispermaceae sp. coil foundation Tswana Botswana Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Pharnacium sp. warp Ambo Ovambo

Rhoicissus rhomboidea (E. oversewing edge S. Nguni ‘Transkei

Mey) Planch.

Xesibe East

Griqualand

Bhaca East

Griqualand

“Salacia zeyheri P\. oversewing edges Ndau Chipinge

(Chipinga)

Smilax kraussiana Meisn. hut doors Zulu Natal

Tecomaria capensis Spach. coil foundation Lenge Masiyene

*Xylopia antunesii Engl. & oversewing winnowing Budjga Mutoko

Diels baskets (Mtoko)

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

LEAVES OF PLANTS

Leaves of various plants are dried and split into strands of suitable width for

various sorts of basket work.

Palm: family Palmae (Fig. 110)

The most widely used leaf is the palm-leaf. Wherever the palm grows it is

used; the most commonly used are the two species of the fan palm Hyphaene

192 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

natalensis Kunze (= *H. crinita Gaertn.) and *H. ventricosa Kirk. Among the

Nguni speakers the fan palm is called ilala, and elsewhere by various forms of

the same root word, but in Botswana it is known as mokola, mokolane and mo-

kolwane. In the south-east, the wild date Phoenix reclinata Jacq, known as

isundu (Xhosa, Thembu, South Tsonga), is used. Along the east coast, where

the coconut palm has been introduced, its leaves are used.

For certain purposes the palm-leaf is used whole, in which case the leaf

folioles are merely separated and woven on the midrib. Such is the cover made

for covering the cups in which palm sap is collected, made of a small leaf of a

fan palm with the folioles woven chequer. This may be done while the leaf is still

green. |

For the most part, however, palm-leaves are dried, then the folioles are

stripped off the midrib, which is also kept for use. The folioles may be used

whole or split, if necessary, and sorted. Before use they are soaked in water.

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

a a a 7 2 x CA ae Ky ea ae oy “4 % 5

: ee, 4 - 2 oe od On . |

eae r :

eas 2 : my — : g ee

Fig. 110. Palm (*Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk), Ovamboland.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 193

The initiation costumes of the Southern Nguni are made of whole Phoenix re-

clinata folioles taken off the midrib and secured with lattice wrapping over a

cord. Far more commonly, and particularly those of Hyphaene spp., the folioles

are split to the required width for use.

In woven work, strips 5—25 mm wide are used for weaving chequer or

twilled baskets (Ambo), mats (Ambo, Tsonga), winnowing trays (Tsonga and

Chopi), ankle rattles (?Mpondo), and especially for the pouches that are found

all along the east coast and in the Kavango territory. For twilled beer-strainers

that are found in the south-east, the strips are split to follow the natural

decrease of the leaf and their use provides the required decrease in the beer-

strainer. Stripped leaves of Hyphaene are said to have been used sometimes as

wefts of Zulu grain-bins.

The only instance recorded where the midribs of folioles are used in woven

work is in the skimming spoons for beer, which are used in Natal and neighbour-

ing territories. The midribs are used both for warp and weft, but sometimes for

warp with a weft of another material—sedge or fibre or modern string.

In coiled sewn work palm-leaf is very largely used throughout a large part of

the country for sewing strands and for the oversewing of edges. The folioles are

dried and split into strips 1-5 mm wide. Generally, the best strands are used for

sewing and the remainder used with the midribs for the coil foundation; some-

times they are mixed with grass for this latter purpose, which is frequently made

of grass entirely.

More rarely, for example among the Valenge, palm-leaf strands are used

for sewing over a single foundation of the stem of a creeper.

Family Iridaceae

Second in importance to palm-leaf are the leaves of numerous species of the

family Iridaceae. Many members of this family have long, tough, fibrous leaves,

like shoe laces, which make very suitable material for sewing strands in coiled

work. No woven work using these plants has been recorded so far, except

plaited cords for various purposes.

The following have been identified:

Species Use Group Place Author

*Cyanotis nodiflora Kunth ~° _ wefts of grain-bins Natal Dept.

Nguni Agric.

(1940)

Hypoxis spp. ornaments Fingo Kawa

(1929)

cords, ropes Natal Gerstner

(1939:

323)

cords, baskets, ropes for Natal Grossert

thatch (1967)

*See Appendix 3 for current name.

194 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Other plants

The Venda, particularly, use the leaves of a Strelitzia or Ensete sp. for over-

sewing the join in the centre of their mufharo baskets. The leaves are dried and

split into wider strips than palm. They give only a short strand.

The smooth folded leaves of one of the Amaryllidaceae— Vellozia retinervis

Bak (bobbejaan-stert), are split in half and used by the Lobedu of the Transvaal

to weave twilled beer-strainers, like the palm-leaf strainers elsewhere. The Pedi

plait them into cord.

The following other plants of which the leaves are used have been iden-

tified:

Species Use Group Place Author

Anthericum sp. baskets Zulu Grossert

(1967)

Dicoma zeyheri Sond. girls’ skirts Zulu Krige

(1950)

bridal veils Zulu Krige

(1950)

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. for sewing delicate baskets Ndebele Zimbabwe

Ensete ventricosum Cheesm. sewn beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelskloof

sewing together parts of Venda Ndzehele

twilled basket

Strelitzia augusta Thb. penis sheaths Zulu Mahlabatini

penis sheaths Zulu Natal Gerstner

(1938:

326)

rope for hut building Zulu Natal Gerstner

(1938:

218)

Strelitzia sp. sewing together parts of Venda Ndzehele

woven baskets

Zea sp. (maize) sewing strand in coiled Ndebele Zimbabwe ___ Davies

work (1934)

WHOLE PLANT

Rather more rarely the whole plant is used, but only in the case of grass and

reeds.

The whole tuft of grass, stripped of its roots, may be used as a warp

element in woven work. This occurs more especially in twined work, where the

weft is of some other material, as for example, in the Mpondomise and Bhaca

garden baskets and South Sotho grain-mats.

Whole grass plants are used for the plaited ropes with which South Sotho

and Nguni tie down the thatch of their huts and which are used generally for

many purposes. Similar to this is the plaited grass cord with which loose-coiled

grain-bins are oversewn.

Whole grass plants may also be used as a coil foundation. This is seen

particularly in the soft granary baskets.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 195

The following plants have been identified:

Species Use Group Place Author

Aristida sp. coil foundation Ambo Oshikango

*Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens __ plaited coil foundation Swazi Pigg’s Peak

Cymbopogon sp. rope Bomvana_ Elliotdale

Eragrostis curvula Nees grain-bins Zulu Natal Gerstner

: : (1938:

Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn. plaited Zulu Natal

*Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv. coil foundation Zulu Natal

Pogonarthria squarrosa Pilger coil foundation Ndcbele Zimbabwe

Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv. coil foundation Hlubi Herschel

Mpondo Transkei

Ximba Mahlabatini

S. Sotho Matatiele

Koni Transvaal

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

BARK

Thin bark is widely used for basketwork in many areas. It is stripped from

the stem and dried; it may be boiled to toughen it. The Chopi finally rub the

bark of Brachystegia with Trichilia emetica seeds to make it soft.

Natural coloured bark may be used as a weft element, especially over stiff

warps, and is very frequently used as the ordinary sewing element in coiled sewn

work. It is also much used for oversewing of rims and edges and for sewing

joins.

Coloured barks, generally reddish brown, are frequently used for the intro-

duction of colour.

Very thin strips of bark may be twisted to a single- or two-ply cord and used

for sewing or twining sleeping-mats, for twining open fish baskets, for sewing

coiled baskets, or as both elements in a woven cloth made in Zimbabwe.

Wide strips of bark are used especially in Mozambique to cover and protect

the base of conical baskets.

The following species have been identified:

Species Use Group Place Author

“Acacia capensis Burch. soft outer bark for sewing Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell

. mats (1824)

Acacia polycantha Willd string for sewing mats Nama Fransfontein Hoernlé

(1913-

1922)

Acacia sp. inner bark for sewing mats Nama Andersson

(1854)

Annona senegalensis Pers. sewing hoop to basket Ndau Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Bauhinia galpinii N. E. Br. oversewing coiled baskets Swazi Hlatikulu

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

196

Species

Boscia albitrunca Gilg. et

Bened.

Brachystegia boehmii Taub.

Brachystegia spiciformis Benth.

Bridelia micrantha Buill.

Colophospermum mopane

(Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex J.

Leonard

*Dombeya natalensis Sond.

Ficus sp.

“Ficus capensis Thunb.

Grewia bicolor Juss.

Grewia flava DC.

Grewia monticola Sond.

Grewia subspathulata N. E. Br.

*Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd.

Pterocarpus angolensis DC.

Salix capensis Thunb.

*Sclerocarya caffra Sond.

Sterculia rogersii N. E. Br.

Terminalia sericea Burch.

Use

oversewing coiled baskets

weft of food-mats

2-ply cord of inner bark

base of basket

outside supporting bands

protecting base of basket

weft of fish trap

sewing hoop to basket

weft of fish basket

weft of grain-bin

oversewing edge of

baskets

sewing coiled baskets

oversewing edge

decorative-sewing

weft for mats

bark for whipping handle

of bag

sewing coiled basketwork

sewing of hats

oversewing winnowing

basket

decoration of basket

oversewing of basket

wefts of thatching mats;

oversewing edge of baskets

sewing coiled baskets

cover to base of basket

sewing of mats

sewing (pattern)

sewing of coiled basket

sewing of coiled baskets

“See Appendix 3 for current name.

Group

Huruthse

Ngwato

S. Tsonga

Manyika

Tsonga

Lenge

Chopi

Karanga

Ndau

Kwanyama

Zulu

Swazi

Zulu

Tsonga

Sarwa

Korana

Thlaping

Rolong

Huruthse

Ndebele

Tswana

Ndebele

Chopi

Nama

Ndebele

Koni

Tswana

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Place Author

Mangodi

New Town,

Serowe

Manguzi

Mutare

(Umtali)

Manjacaze

Masiyene __ Earthy

(1933)

Makupulane

Mberengwa

(Belingwe)

Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Chipinga

(Chipinge)

Oshikango

Rodin (1985)

Natal Gerstner

(1938: 236)

Hlatikulu

Oswatini,

Natal

Hlabisa

Melmoth

Sodwana

north and

west of

Serowe

Bloemhof

Ebert (1978)

Engelbrecht

(1936)

Moretele

Stad

Mafikeng

Dinokana

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe McCalman

(pers.

comm.)

Botswana

Zimbabwe

Zavala

Keetmans-

hoop

Tjolotjo,

Zimbabwe

Sekhukhune-

land

Botswana

Schinz (1891)

Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 197

FIBRES

Except for one instance in Sekhukhuneland, where the root fibres of Vello-

zia retinervis are used in their natural state as a coil foundation, the vegetable

fibres so far recorded are used twisted into two-ply string.

The fibres are separated by scraping and may be softened in water, or very

often by chewing, before being rolled on the thigh, first into two one-ply cords,

then into one two-ply cord, in a continuous movement.

Fibre cord has many uses. In basketwork it is mostly used for sewing or

twining sleeping-mats, and also for twining fish traps and for oversewing edges

of baskets.

The most common source of fibre is the Sansevieria plant (wild sisal), which

is indigenous to many parts of the country. Where it is not available, some sort

of aloe usually is and for the last century or so the agave (sisal) has been planted

in many areas. The inner bark (bast) of the acacias is also a very good source of

fibre. Latterly, the threads of grain-bags have been twisted into cord for sewing.

The following species have been identified:

Species Use Group Place Author

*Acacia capensis Burch. sewing mats Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell

(1824)

“Acacia horrida Willd. sewing mats Nama — Schapera

(1930)

Acacia zizyfolius oversewing edge of baskets Mpukushu Andara

Agave americana L. oversewing of edge of Vundla Quthing

baskets

weft of sleeping-mats Zulu Natal

weft of sleeping-mats Swazi Ingwavuma

wefts of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe

sewing strand of mats Chopi Makupulane

sewing strand of beer- widely

strainers and mats used

Aloe sp. binding; brooms Ximba Mahlabatini

foundation coil Ngwaketse Kanye

Brachystegia boehmii Taub. sewing for mat Ndau Mutare

(Umtali)

Roswi Rusape

Ficus sp. sewing or twining mats Bhaca Matatiele

*Ficus vogelii (Miq.) Miq. oversewing hoops Tembe Sodwana

sewing bands on baskets Lenge Masiyene Earthy

(1933)

Grewia flava D.C. inner bark for wefts or Rolong Ganyesa

sewing of mats

Hibiscus canabinus L. sleeping-mat Venda Mpephu

*Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. = rope Zulu Natal Gerstner

H. natalensis Kunze (1941:

277)

Rhus sp. warps of fish traps S. San Orange R. Barrow

(1801)

Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing edge of baskets Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin

(1985)

sewing baskets Mpukushu Andara

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

198 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Species Use Group Place Author

Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing mats Lobedu Duiwelskloof

(cont. ) sewing beer-strainers Pedi Sekhukune-

land

weft of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe

twining sieves Naron Sandfontein Drury

(1935)

*Sansevieria desertii N. E. Br. binding (?sewing) of coil Tswana Botswana Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Sansevieria pearsoni N. E. Br. sewing edge of basket Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin

(1985)

*Sclerocarya caffra Sond. coil foundation Ndebele Tjolotjo

Vellozia retinervis Baker coil foundation Pedi Sekhukune-

land

sewing basket Pedi Schoonoord

sewing mats Pedi Schoonoord

brooms Ndebele Zimbabwe

beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelskloof Davison

(1984)

| beer-strainer Venda Ndzehele

Vigna sp. root fibres used for making Zulu Natal—in

string many

places,

especially

in south

*See Appendix 3 for current name. -

WOOD

Three sorts of wood are used in basketwork—thin withies (or stems of

creepers) used whole or split in half, timber cut as required, and thin root stems

used whole or cut in half.

Withies

These are stripped, dried, and soaked. Thin stems may be used as

foundation rods for coiled basketwork, in which case they may be used whole or

split in half. They are also used in the northern Transvaal and Mozambique par-

ticularly, as strengthening hoops for woven work, and are split for use as the

pliable wefts in the wicker baskets of the Shona. Thin twigs are used as warps

for fish traps (Southern San, Tsonga, Ambo), sieves (Southern San), beer-

strainers (Ambo), grain-bins and other baskets.

The species recorded are:

Species Use Group Place Author

Acacia sp. basket coil foundation Tsonga

Acalypha glabrata Thunb. warps of fish traps Tsonga Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

199

Species Use Group Place Author

Colophospermum mopane coil foundation Ambo

(Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex

J. Leonard.

lattice of grain-bin Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin

(1985)

Combretum parvifolium Dinter reinforcement of basket Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin

af rim - (1985)

Combretum engleri Schinz reinforcement of basket Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin

rim (1985)

*Grewia deserticola Ulbr. warps of fish traps Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin

(1985)

Grewia flava DC. coil foundation Tlaping

rim of winnowing basket Rolong Stad

Mafikeng

Grewia flavescens Juss. warps of smoking frames Herero Ghanziland, Campbell

Ngami- (pers.

land, comm.)

Botletli,

Mahala-

pye

Rhus lancea L.f. oversewing edge Huruthse Duiwels-

kloof

Terminalea sericea Burch. ex _ warp and lattice of grain- Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin

DC. bin (1985)

Triomfetta sp. beer-strainer Lobedu

*__See Appendix 3 for current name.

Timber

Timber may be used as thick stakes for warps in wattlework, for example,

doors, fences or the sides of sledges. Or it may be cut from branches into thin

slivers of wood about 6-10 mm wide and 2 mm thick and used for both warp

and weft in check or twilled woven work—mostly twilled. It is particularly com-

monly used for shallow winnowing trays in the central area and the rather

deeper trays that are commonly used for various purposes throughout Zim-

babwe. Thin slivers of wood are also used as warps for wicker baskets in

Zimbabwe. The Venda and Lobedu of the Transvaal make a special sort of

carrying basket (see Fig. 4) of this material. Rather thicker slivers are used for

the strengthening rims of baskets of this type that hold the work together for the

Oversewing. Wider pieces (2—8 cm wide) are sewn on to the body of baskets of

this type as rims for the edges.

The following species have been recorded:

Species Use Group Place Author

Acacia ataxacantha DC. fabric of winnowing Nkuna Tzaneen

baskets

fabric of winnowing Tsonga Hans

baskets Merensky

Reserve

200

Species

Acacia ataxacantha DC.

(cont. )

*Acacia detinens Burch.

Acalypha glabrata Thunb.

Brachylaena discolor DC.

Brachystegia spiciformis Benth.

*Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb.

Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kunze

“Commiphora fischeri Engl.

Craibia brevicaudata (Valke)

Dunn

Grewia flava DC.

*Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk

Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC.

Macaranga mellifera Prain

Oxtytenanthera abyssinica

(A. Rich) Munro

Rhus lancea L.f.

Rhus pyroides Burch.

Trichilia emetica Vahl

Use

fabric of winnowing

baskets

fabric of winnowing

baskets

fabric of winnowing

baskets

fish-trap

hoop of winnowing baskets

hoops of baskets

warp and weft of conical

baskets

winnowing baskets

warp and weft of baskets

winnowing baskets

warp and weft of conical

basket

winnowing baskets

midribs for building huts;

rafts

hoop and slivers of

winnowing baskets

hoop of basket

winnowing basket

warp and weft of conical

basket

winnowing basket

winnowing baskets

hoops of winnowing

baskets

warp and weft of

winnowing basket

hoops

*“—See Appendix 3 for current name.

Group

Lobedu

Venda

Ngwato

Tsonga

Venda

S. Tsonga

Manyika

Chibi

Mari

Lobedu

Ndau

Karanga

Rolong

Manyika

Ndau

Mari

Ndau

Huruthse

Kgatla

S. Tsonga

Tsonga

Lenge

Tsonga

Chopi

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Place Author

Duiwelskloof

Sibasa and

Louis

Trichardt

New Town,

Serowe

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Sinthumule

Manguzi

Inyanga

Victoria,

Zimbabwe

Mahango,

Victoria,

Zimbabwe

Duiwelskloof

Ngorima,

Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Chipinge

(Chipinga)

Charter

Tlihakgameng

Inyanga

Kosi Bay Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Mutare

(Umtal1)

Ngorima,

Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Victoria

Reserve

Gondola,

Mozambique

Marico

Mankwe

Manguzi

Makupulane

Masiyene Earthy

(1933)

Chibuto

Makupulane

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 201

Root wood

Thin root stems, stripped and dried, are used extensively in the north for

coil foundations. Split in half they are used for oversewing in coiled work, for

oversewing of edges, and for weaving the necks to the skin vessels of the

Korana. Thicker roots, split into flat pieces, are used for woven work (winnow-

ing baskets) by Ndebele of Zimbabwe, and Chopi, Tsonga and Shona.

Species recorded are:

Species Use Group Place Author

Asparagus laracinus Burch. oversewing edge of win- Huruthse Dinokana

nowing basket

Boscia albitrunca Gilg. & Ben. warp and weft of winnow- Tswana between

ing baskets Mochudi

and

Kwarape

Pan

Combretum zeyheri Sond. wefts of wicker basket Roswi Rusape

wefts of wicker basket Karanga Charter

Mberengwa

(Belingwe)

wefts of wicker basket Govera Charter

Grewia flava DC. oversewing edge of win- Rolong Tlhakgameng

nowing basket

Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. warps of wicker basket Budjga Mutoko

(Mtoko)

warps of wicker basket Roswi Rusape

Lycium hirsutum Dunal. foundation and sewing of Korana Bloemhof Engel-

(‘katbos’) basketwork neck brecht

(1936)

Rhus lancea L.f. fabric of winnowing Rolong Stad Mafikeng

baskets

fabric of winnowing Tlharo Gadiboyi

baskets

Rhus tenuinervis Engl. & Gilg. frame of winnowing Sarwa Nata R. Ebert

baskets (1978)

ANIMAL MATERIALS

Animal sinew

Animal sinew is comparatively little used and almost exclusively as a sewing

element. It may be first twisted to a two-ply cord or used as it is. Stow (1907)

mentioned San use of it for sewing sleeping-mats; specimens of San sieves in the

South African Museum have unspun sinew as wefts. Where articles are orna-

mented with beads the latter are usually sewn on with sinew thread.

Animal hair

_ Ox, horse or other animal tail hair is sometimes used to introduce decor-

ative patterns in twined, woven and coiled sewn work, or to oversew an edge. It

may be rolled into a two-ply cord, plaited, or used as it is. This has only been

202 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

recorded among the Southern Nguni, the Southern Sotho and the Western

Tswana. Ndebele in Zimbabwe use elephant or giraffe tail hair for sewing coiled

hats.

Leather or dressed skin

Leather is seldom used in the actual fabric of basketwork. In some South-

ern and Central San wicker mat sieves, the wefts are strips of leather, as may be

the wefts of Herero smoking-frames. In one recorded example from Lesotho a

thin thong was used as the sewing for a beer-strainer. A round or a square of

leather or dressed skin is, however, very commonly sewn to the bottom of

conical grain baskets of the Sotho, Tswana and others to strengthen them and

make them less slippery on the head. The entire base of a certain type of

Kalanga basket (Fig. 45) is leather. Leather thongs are frequently used for

adding straps or handles to baskets.

IMPORTED MATERIALS

It was inevitable that imported material should have found its way into

indigenous basketwork to a certain extent, but so far comparatively little has

been used. :

String is often used as the weft-in mat-making and for finishing off edges of

mats. As early as 1772, pack-thread was being used (Sparrman 1785: 209).

String has also been recorded as used for the weft element on a skimming

spoon, which is generally made entirely of palm-leaf.

The woven cylindrical spoon-bags or purses of the Zulu usually have cotton

or fine string for the weft, and have latterly come to be decorated with coloured

wools or beads.

Coloured wools are much used for the decoration of mats.

Conical baskets sometimes have a piece of cotton material sewn over the

bottom in place of the usual leather or bark.

Beads are used for decoration and ornamentation.

Grain-bag fibres are very much used for making a two-ply sewing strand,

where sinew, plant fibre or a thong would have been used before.

DYES

The subject of dyes is as yet far from being fully investigated— most of

those known seem to be vegetable. The question of mordants, in particular,

needs investigation.

Strands of material are dyed before use, to provide colour where no suit-

able naturally coloured materials exist. What information has been recorded so

far is presented in Table 1.

203

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

}I JIM spurns

SsiInoO]OS

JUDIOIJIP

DAIS SOTOLIVA

“OWeU

judLINd Jo} ¢ xIpusddy s0g—,

osyININY pejyssuidng suIMoas [10g Udy) ‘pouleip ‘payioq yUdIOJJIp juejd sjoym ‘J VIVINIULOD SIVXQ “ZI

epesy oMyuUr/

VAYOLL SUBIYIONTIS [elIo}eW YIM poyiog uUMOIQ YysryuId jueld sjouM ‘ds puafosipuy ‘{IT

(Od vssaiduod ‘CG =)

osy nny OOLILA] pinbi ul poyeos [euojeur = ejuaseu [np soyouriq yory “VW vaiuuiskqv sudsC, ‘Ol

(‘WIWOS

‘s1ad) :

jjeqdues / euRMS}Og YON [el19}eU YIM poJOWIUITS yuid syed SUID}S

oquy OquIeAC pol |jnp SUIO}S

equirKy luneqeye peyioqg uooIeU SARs] «= Ava ‘gq winsoaffvd winys105 6

esuos |, nynyuezey [e119}eW YUM poyloq ysIppol SOARZ] ‘Iq sisuajosuv sndivz0Aa1g_*8

(Te ‘ou

JO} 9ynINsSqQns)

ajdood o3due10 ‘[3uq

Jesvoo [[Y suo\sdoys 10g UddIB UDYM poaloq JO UMOIG 14ST] SOARO] (‘yuIog) vyofisuo] snysojoig *L

syoom

onbiquiezofy =—d OA}. JO: 9ZOO YSIeUWI UI Poyeos

(L761) poung esuoYy yinos AJSNOTASI [elI9}eW YUM pojlog yor]q JURA SOAR] poynusp! jou (uynqvsdu) 9g

osynInY OOLIe IAI ojdind SOAR] eBSOUA, °C

JYSII SyOo]

osyynIny eURYSOJY INO]OS [UN jeLIA}eW YUM pojiog uUMOIQ YsTyuUId SOABD] ‘ds nuafosipuy ‘hp

opeys polisop

(‘Www09 94} 0} HI YIM poylog Jeoj}ew

‘s1od) Udy} ‘sisuajvIvU vajon| 10 sisuadvo

TUeynA NINZ eulesUON DIJO JO SJOO1 YUM poylog

n[nz YJOUWI]OYAI [el1o}eUl YIM pojlog UuMOIG Yep SOABO] ‘\SYOOH] VJIa4dv vAafosipuy °¢

IMSOXY odesny peyioq pol SOABO] ‘AIRF VUSIVS VaAND “7

oquid |, BUBMPOS [el1oyeUl YIM poyiog SARI] B19g “YW 1yjopAvu aojpy

plat uvyj pasn

4ayjo aoanog = woym kg DIAY quUaUvad J 4nojo) _—s pasn avg jv1ajvpy ON

‘soAp SUTYeUI IOJ pasn [eLIa}eW IOyI0 puke soldeds jueyd jo Ist]

‘| aTav

22.

2B)

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

TABLE | continued

Bridelia micrantha Baill.

Colophospermum mopane Leon.

Commiphora sp.

*Lannea stuhlmanni Engl.

Mangrove (probably

Rhizophora mucronata Lam.

Piliostigma thonningi

(K. Schum.) Milne-Redhead

*Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.)

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich)

Hochst.

Trichilia emetica Vahl

Euclea divinorum Hiern

Pterocarpus angolensis DC.

Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch)

Hemsl.

Aeschynome nodulosa (Bak.)

Bak. f.

*Elephantorrhiza burchelli

(Benth.)

Euclea natalensis A. DC.

root bark

bark

root bark

inner bark

of root

heartwood

of root

wood

root

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

reddish brown

dark brown

(the most

common dye)

red

brown

red

red brown

reddish brown

red

bluish black

dark brown

red, maroon,

tan

purple

brown

red

dark brown

red

brownish red

brown, purple

red

black

dark brown

. Material Part used Colour Treatment

*Acacia decurrens var. mollis bark red, red brown boiled first, then material boiled

Lindl. or mauve with it

Acacia sp. (‘wattle’) bark brown

Berchemia discolor (Klotsch) bark red, brown,

Hemsl. (formerly Phyllogeiton purple

discolor)

bark reddish brown

bark near

root

simmered with material

crushed and boiled with material

and allowed to stand for several

days

boiled with material

?boiled with material

made into varnish for coating

certain baskets

material simmered in it

boiled, dried and powdered;

powder added to boiling water

and material placed in it

boiled with material

simmered with material

crushed or chopped fine before

boiling to make colour

pounded and boiled

Area

Port Shepstone

Mahlabatini

Ovambo

Odibo

Namibia

Kavango

Oshikango

Chimanimani

(Melsetter)

Gazankulu

Louis

Trichardt

Gazankulu

Maputo

Ovamboland

Northern

Botswana

Zimbabwe

Mahlabatini

Sodwana

Bushbuck

Ridge

Gazankulu

Pigg’s Peak

Sibasa

Chibuto

Kavango

Ovambo

Kavango

Oshikango

Mberengwe

(Belingwe)

Senthumule,

Louis

Trichardt

Bergville

Zululand

stamped then boiled with material Hlabisa

until desired colour

By whom

used

All coastal

people

Ximba

Ambo

Kwanyama

Ndau

Tsonga

Venda

Tsonga

Ambo

Ndebele

Ximba

Tembe

Nhlanganu

Tsonga

Swazi

Tsonga

Ambo

Mpukushu

Kwanyama

Karanga

Venda

Zizi

Zulu

Source other

than field

Loeb (1962),

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972),

Rodin

(1985)

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Rodin (1985)

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Campbell

(pers.

comm. )

Campbell

(pers.

comm.)

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972),

Rodin

(1985)

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Rodin (1985)

Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

Vukani

(pers.

comm.)

407

WNaSAW NVOIAV HLNOS AHL dO STIVNNV

VOINAY NYFHLNOS JO YAOMLANSVA

S02

TABLE 1 continued

By whom Source other

No. Material Part used Colour Treatment Area ne a eee

root black brown skin scraped off, root chopped up, Sodwana Tsonga

boiled with material

31. Euclea schimperi (A. DC.) root dark brown boiled, then material boiled Port Shepstone All on

: : : “aL people

Dandy in it

32. Eucleas root red roots chopped and boiled with Sodwana Tembe

j P- material

1 boiled, material put into boiling Hlabisa Zulu Vukani

33. Harpephyllum caffrum Bernh. root purple ave P (pers.

comm.)

34. Hypoxis sp. root Sodwana Tsonga

: : +]. Vukani

, root brown boiled with material; some say Nongoma Zulu

SB, HAG GATT Wee pounded and boiled for 3 days (pers.

comm.)

Hlabisa Zulu Vukani

(pers.

comm.)

Mahlabatini Zulu

Mvula Zulu

; : F P ; Venda

36. Peltophorum africanum Sond. root black boiled with material Seale e

Trichardt

5; be

* d. root brown dried, cleaned, stamped and Sodwana Tem

37. *Sclerocarya caffra Son NGAI EEE

38. Acacia karoo Hayne gum red ; ; Ssrowe Nee in (1985

39. Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) _ fruit orange crushed and boiled with material Oshikango Kwanyama Rodin ( )

: left to stand

Hemsley and : ; :

40. Euclea divinorum Hiern fruit purple boiled to make dye, and material Oshikango Kwanyama Rodin (1985)

: (not fast) stood in it

41. Indigofera sp. fruit, leaves pinkish brown boiled with material until colour © Moshana Huruthse

: or whole looks right

Plant Silwerkrans Tlokwa

Mankwe Kgatla

42. Piliostigma thonningii pods and bluish black Botswana Tswana Campbell

(K. Schum.) Milne-Redhead seeds (pers.

comm.)

Namibia Palmer &

Pitman

(1972)

43. Pterocarpus angolensis DC. fruit yellow (the mashed, with sorghum as mordant Ovambo Kwanyama Rodin (1985)

preferred dye)

44. *Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Zimbabwe Ndebele

Suesseng. brown boiled, dried, powdered and

added to boiling water, fibres

placed in it

45. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. brown Bergville Zizi

46. “Indigofera pretoriana Harms purple Sodwana Tembe

47. Carbon paper boiled with material Inhambane Chopi

48. Dye from store boiled with material Eshowe Zulu

Nongoma Zulu

49. Indelible pencil purple broken into small pieces and Mokgola Huruthse

boiled with material

Gopane Huruthse

Ha Popolosi, Taung

Lesotho

Serowe Ngwato

50. Ink blue/black Malaissa Chopi

51. Permanganate of potash Mahlabatini Ximba

52. Typewriter ribbon blue boiled with material Maputo Ronga

Makumbe Tsonga

53. Water black soak material overnight Venda Stayt (1931)

Chibi Mari

54. Wet manure dark brown soaked in water with material Louis Trichardt Venda

55. Wet sand or kraal soil material buried in it Nzhelele Venda

56. Rusty iron (car springs or red brown soaked with material Kavango Campbell

building rods) (pers.

comm.)

*—See Appendix 3 for current name.

902

WAASAW NVOIWAV HLNOS FHL JO SIVNNV

VOINIV NYAHLNOS AO WAOMLAASVA

LOC

208 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

CONCLUSION

_ The main factors that govern the distribution of the techniques described

are the type of material available in different parts of the country and the tra-

ditions of work of the respective groups. Some quite striking differences in

technique have been noted, for example, the split-warp twine with sedge wefts

that is characteristic of the eastern Transkei, the coiled sewn work that is used

throughout southern Africa but in which the different materials available modify

the style, and the influence of the palm-belt on both woven and sewn tech-

niques. The materials used for dyes have not yet been researched thoroughly

and it is suspected that, with the rise of the new basketwork, experiments are

being made to find and use new dye materials and this may make it difficult to

isolate those that were used earlier. Considerable influence has been exercised

by contact with people of several different cultures. An attempt will be made in

the following parts of this series to plot the distribution of techniques and

materials and to note the extent of foreign influence.

The rapid rise of basketwork as a commercial craft or home industry is now

causing anxiety about the depletion of the local material resources on which it

depends (Cunningham 1987a, 1987b). In the early 1970s, when the craft began

to be encouraged as a home industry, one of the advantages was that the plant

materials were close at hand; now practitioners are having to go quite far afield

for their needs, or to import matertals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgement is made with thanks for the financial assistance of the

Human Sciences Research Council towards the field research for this study

and the Centre for Science Development towards the publication of this work.

Opinions expressed or conclusions reached are those of the author and should

not be regarded as representative of those of the HSRC or CSD.

In a survey of this kind, where a study of other people’s property is

involved, one is dependent on the goodwill and helpfulness of many people. It

would be invidious to single out any among the numerous individuals— museum

and herbarium officers, government officials, missionaries, guides and interpret-

ers, owners of basketwork, craftsmen and craftswomen—whose assistance has

made the work possible. I am deeply indebted to them all.

The contribution of the late Miss Leonie Phillip who gave much of her

spare time to illustrating the techniques, is gratefully acknowledged, as is that of

Mrs A. C. Lawton (van Jaarsveld)—who was involved in the early stages of the

study, and of Mr Cedric Hunter and Mr V. Branco for compiling the figures.

Mrs M. Carey and Mr A. C. Campbell gave advice on the text.

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 209

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ANDERSSON, C. J. 1854. Lake Ngami or explorations and discoveries during four years’ wan-

derings in the wilds of South West Africa. London: Hurst & Blackett.

Ba.reT, H. 1952. Vannerie: Essai de classification. L’Anthropologie 56: 256-280. (Trans-

lation: BAUMHOFF, M. A. 1957. Basketry: a proposed classification. Papers on Cali-

fornian Archaeology 47-49: 1-21.)

BeEuKEs, W. T. 1937. Ethnography Collections, Transvaal Museum.

BLEEK, D. F. 1928. The Naron, a Bushman tribe of the central Kalahari. Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press.

BriITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 1929. -,Notes and queries in Anthro-

pology. 5th ed. London: Royal Anthropological Institute.

BrYaANnT, A. T. 1949. The Zulu people. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter.

BURCHELL, W. J. 1824. Travels in the interior of Southern Africa. 2 vols. London: Batch-

worth Press. (Reprinted in 1953.)

CARSTENS, P., KLINGHARDT, G. & WEsT, M. (eds.) 1987. Trails in the thirstland. The anthro-

pological field diaries of Winifred Hoernlé [1913-1922]. Communications of the Centre for

African Studies, University of Cape Town 14: 1-198. (See also HOERNLE, A. W.)

CUNNINGHAM, A. B. 1987a. Commercial craftwork: balancing out human needs and

resources. South African Journal of Botany 53 (4): 250-266.

CUNNINGHAM, A. B. 1987b. Effects of basket-weaving industry on Mokola palm and dye

plants in north-western Botswana. Economic Botany 41 (3): 386-402.

CUNNINGHAM, A. B. & Gwata, B. R. 1986. Building methods and plant species used in

Tembe-Thonga hut construction. Annals of the Natal Museum 27 (2): 491-511.

Davies, C. S. 1934. The Amandebele habitat. Nada 12: 74-79.

Davison, P. J. 1984. Lobedu material culture. Annals of the South African Museum 94(3):

41-201.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1940. Survey of native methods of storing grain. Report.

Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Entomology). Unpublished MS.

Drury, J. 1935. Preliminary report on the anthropological researches carried out in South

West Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 24 (2): 89-109.

Eartuy, E. D. 1933. Valenge women. London: Oxford University Press.

Expert, M. 1978. Patterns of manufacture and use of baskets among the Basarwa of the Nata

River region. Botswana Notes and Records 9: 69-83.

ENGELBRECHT, J. A. 1936. The Korana. Cape Town: Maskew Miller.

GRAUMENT, R. & HENSEL, J. 1946. Encyclopedia of knots and fancy rope work. New York:

Cornell Maritime Press.

GERSTNER, J. 1938. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 12 (3): 215-236; (4): 321-342.

GERSTNER, J. 1939. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 13 (1): 49-64; (4): 307-326.

GERSTNER, J. 1941. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 15 (3): 277-301; (4): 369-384.

GrBBs RUSSELL, G. E., REID, C., VAN Rooy, J. & SNook, L. 1985. List of species of southern

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1-152.

Gripes RUSSELL, G. E., WELMAN, W. G., RETIEF, E., IMMELMAN, K. L., GERMISHUIZEN, G.,

PIENAAR, B. J.,. VAN Wyk, M. & NicHoias, A. 1987. List of species of southern African

plants. Part 2. (2nd ed.) Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 56: 1-270.

GrosseErT, J. W. 1967. Zulu names of grasses and grasslike plants. Unpublished MS.

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Archives. (See also CARSTENS, P. et al.)

Junop, H. A. 1927. The life of a South African tribe. 2 vols. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan.

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ooter.

Logs, E. M. 1962. In feudal Africa. Publications. Research Center in anthropology, Folklore,

and Linguistics, Indiana University 23: 1-383.

MARIANNHILL. c. 1900-1910. Photographs.

Mason, O. T. 1904. Aboriginal American basketry: studies in a textile art without

Saeraaes Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insitution 1902 (2): 171-548,

pls.

Mayr, F. 1906-1907. The Zulu Kafirs of Natal. Anthropos 1: 453-471 (1906); 2: 392-398,

633-645 (1907).

Naunaus, G. 1881. Ethnographische Gegenstande aus Siid-Afrika. Zeitschrift fiir Ethno-

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Notes & QUERIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY—SEE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

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210

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

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ScHAPERA, I. 1930. The Khoisan people of South Africa. London: Routledge.

ScHINZ, H. 1891.

Deutsch-Sitidwest-Afrika. Oldenburg und Leipzig: A. Schwartz.

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Oxford: Clarendon Press.

SPARRMAN, A. 1785. A voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. Dublin: White, Cash & Byrne.

StayT, H. A. 1931. The Bavenda. London: Humphrey Milford.

Stow, G. W. 1907.

The native races of South Africa. London: Swan Sonnenschein.

GLOSSARY

Definitions as used by: M—Mason (1904); N—Notes & Queries (1929); Q—Quiggin (1912);

S—Shaw.

Q,S

ASCENDING

BAND

BASKET

BASKETRY

BASKETWORK

BEADING

BEESKEP

BINDING

BLANKET STITCH

BORDER

BRAID

BRAND

BUNDLE

CHAIN STITCH

CHECK

CHEQUER

CHEQUER-WORK

CHEVRON

COIL

FLAT COIL

ASCENDING COIL

Raised up as distinct from flat.

A flat line of colour, change of weave or other material,

arranged concentrically on a circular object (as opposed

to stripe on flat or straight objects).

A vessel (or receptacle) made of interlaced flexible

material.

The process or art of making baskets and allied products.

(Synonymous with basketwork.)

1. The technique, strokes or stitches used in making

baskets or other objects.

2. A collection of finished baskets or objects made in the

same technique.

An element run in and out through the spaces in woven,

or the stitches in sewn, basketwork.

Widely spaced oversewing in coiled work, each stitch

passing just behind the stitch below.

A strip of material sewn over the edge of the work to

secure it.

Oversewing in which the thread is caught once behind

each new stitch, i.e. half-hitched.

A decorative band or stripe near the edge of the work.

A narrow strip formed by plaiting.

To mark by burning.

A number of things bound together loosely.

A type of stitch in which the thread, having passed to the

back of the material, passes through a loop in itself as it

re-emerges in front. In a series this gives the effect of a

chain stretched across the surface of the material.

A single square of a pattern in squares; where warp and

weft cross in chequer work.

Technique of woven basketry in which the warp and weft

pass over and under each other singly.

Work made in the above technique.

Geometrical motif in which two lines meet at an angle to

make a V or inverted V.

(v) To wind into a circle or spiral.

(n) A continuous element wound into a spiral.

When the element is wound in the same plane so that the

work remains flat.

When at each turn the element is put above the turn

below, so that the work ascends and the object becomes

hollow and circular or cylindrical.

le)

2D pe ee ZZoe Oo ZASCAD OAa7e

Zann

nN N

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DA

COILED BASKETWORK

COIL FOUNDATION

COMPOSITE ELEMENT

CONCENTRIC

CORD

CROSS-STITCH

CROSSED WARP

CYLINDRICAL

DARN

DECORATION

DESIGN

DIAGONAL WEAVING

DIAPER

EDGE

ELEMENT

EMBROIDERY

END

EXTENSION

FABRIC

FIBRE

FIGURE-OF-EIGHT

FINISHING

FOOT

FOUNDATION

FRINGE

FURCATE

HALF-HITCH

HALF HOOP

HEM

HERRINGBONE

HITCH

HOOP

INTERLACE

INTERLOCK

INTERSTICE

Type of basketwork in which a foundation of hard or soft

material, arranged in a flat or ascending spiral, is held to-

gether by means of oversewing.

The element which is coiled in coiled basketwork and

round which the stitches pass.

Element made up of distinct parts.

Having a common centre.

A string composed of several strands twisted together, in

the same direction.

Two stitches crossing each Other to make an X.

When the warp is crossed between strokes of the weft.

In the shape of a hollow tube.

To sew or embroider with interweaving stitches.

The embellishment of the surface of the work, made

during the work.

(i) By the addition of elements that are not essential to

the construction but which are worked into it.

(ii) By special treatment of elements that are essential to

the construction. é

An item of decorative work or the general effect of such

items.

Running the weft and warp at an angle.

A raised pattern in the weave.

The extreme margin of anything.

One of the simple constituent parts of anything, in this

case the wefts, the warps, the coil foundation, or the

sewing strand.

Embellishment with needlework after the basket is

finished.

The extreme point of anything that has more length than

breadth.

An enlargement in breadth or a continuation in length.

An interlaced texture; the work.

A filament in plants or animals; a substance composed of

a collection of such filaments.

A stitch the outline of which makes an eight.

Securing of the loose ends in woven or coiled work.

The lower part, on which an object rests.

The base or ground work; the element in sewn basket-

work which the sewing penetrates, and which controls the

shape.

A border composed of separate loose strands.

Forked, used of stitches in coiled sewing intentionally and

symmetrically split or sewn twice into one space to give a

forked or chain effect.

A half interrupted movement in stitching.

A strip of wood or other solid material bent into half a

ring, round or oval.

A border or edging made by turning an edge over on

itself to strengthen it.

A series of parallel chevrons.

A full interrupted movement in stitching.

A strip of wood formed into a ring.

To lace together; to insert one thing with another, to

cross and intertwine elements.

To hold two elements together by looping one through

the other.

A small space between things closely set.

DAA IATA WA

N N

DZ Ze BS OPT OZ Z,

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

KNOB

KNOT STITCH

LATTICE

LATTICE WEAVING

LOOP

MORDANT

NODE

MOTIF

MOTTLE

MOULD

MULTIPLE

ORNAMENTATION

OVERLAY

OVERSEW

PATTERN

PIERCED WARP

PLAIT

PLY

RADIAL

RIM

ROD

SCALLOP

SEIZING

SELVEDGE

SEWING

SIDE

SIMPLE ELEMENT

SLIT

SLIVER

SPACING

SPINY

SPIRAL

SPLINT

SPLIT

SPLIT WARP

A small rounded protuberance on the surface of the

work.

Sewing of coiled work when the sewing strand comes out

between coils, crosses the last stitch and goes round a

former stitch to give the appearance on one surface of a

tied knot.

A strip of wood or other firm material added to the inner

or outer surface of the fabric, most frequently in the same

direction as the weft.

Work in which two sets of rods cross at right angles and

are held together by wrapping or twining one or more

strands round the intersections.

A doubling of flexible material; a bend.

A substance that has a chemical affinity for colouring

matter and serves to fix dyes.

The point of a stem from which the leaves spring.

The distinctive feature of an ornamental design.

One of a number of spots by which a surface is vari-

egated; to mark or cover with spots.

To bend into shape.

Consisting of many components, e.g. stems of grass.

The embellishment of objects by the addition of separable

elements after the work is completed — as distinct from

decoration.

To place over certain elements a decorative element.

To sew over the edge of an object or round a foundation;

to sew one round of foundation to the next in coiled bas-

ketwork.

The surface effect produced by various strokes.

The form of weaving in soft materials where the wefts

pass through the warps.

To interlace three or more continuous strands in the same

ultimate direction, to form a narrow strip of material so

interlaced; a braid.

A strand of a twisted cord.

Moving outwards from a centre.

An extended, raised or projecting margin.

A long slender twig. :

One of a series of rounded projections on the edge of an

object; to trim the edge with such.

To fasten together by binding round with a thin strand.

Edge of woven work on which the ends of the warp are

turned back into the fabric.

The fastening together of elements with a thread or

strand.

The broad part of a thing; an edge. One of the two longer

(usually vertical) edges of an object.

An element consisting of one part.

Cut open lengthwise.

A piece cut or split off lengthwise.

Division into sections.

Having stiff processes sticking out from the surface.

A curve which continually recedes from a centre round

which it revolves.

A thin piece of wood split off.

Divided lengthwise.

When the warps are divided lengthwise into two or more

parts which are treated singly.

STAPLE

STITCH

STRAND

STRING

STRIP

STRIPE

~ OPEN STRIPE

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA ZA3

A short rod or twig bent into the form of an inverted U.

The complete action of a (needle and) thread or strand

when sewing. A completed movement in coiled basket-

work corresponding to ‘stroke’ in woven work.

A thin simple flexible element.

A thin twisted line or cord of two- or more ply; used for

fastening anything.

A long narrow piece; to pull or tear off.

A line or long narrow division of anything of different

colour or texture from the groundwork.

A narrow division made by two parallel lines different

from the groundwork, with the groundwork showing in

between.

S STROKE A complete movement in woven work.

S TACKING A long slight stitch used in fastening elements together.

S TECHNIQUE Method; manner of work.

S TENSION The action of stretching or condition of being stretched.

N THREAD A thin line used for sewing; a twisted filament; any thin

filament.

N TIMBER Wood—the body or stem of a tree.

N, Q,S_ TWILy A woven technique in which each weft passes over and

then under two or more warps, starting alternately over

one or over two, so that the crossings make diagonal lines

across the fabric.

Q,S TWINE Twist two or more elements together in the same direc-

tion. In basketwork, a woven technique in which two or

more wefts are twisted together in the same direction so

that they enclose a warp at each half turn by passing alter-

nately in front of and behind it.

S WAIST A narrowing of the body.

S,Q,M warp Group name for the elements in woven basketwork which

are vertical and more or less passive and about which the

wefts are woven; also a single one of these elements.

N,Q WATILING, WATILEWORK A Special type of woven basketwork in which the warps

are rigid stakes planted in the ground, or in a frame. ©

N,S WEFT One of the elements that cross the warp in woven basket-

work; the actively woven element; the horizontal ele-

ments; group term for these elements.

S WHIP To bind round; to cover with a cord or the like bound

closely and regularly round and round.

N, Q, M wickKERWORK Woven basketwork with strong rigid or almost rigid

warps, between which the flexible wefts bend in and out.

N WIND To turn round some fixed object.

N WINDING A turning.

N,S WITHY A twig; a flexible twig.

N, Q, S WOVEN BASKETWORK Made by the interlacing by crossing of two or more sets of

elements.

N,S WRAP To wind something round.

N,S WRAPPED A type of woven work in which a single weft element

wraps right round a warp element before continuing.

N,M,S = ziGzac A line having short sharp turns, generally of equal length

and equal angular proportions. A series of short lines

inclined at angles in alternate directions. A line or course

having sharp turns of this kind.

WOVEN

1 Chequer

2 Twilled

3 Wrapped

4 Twined

5 Wicker

6 Wattlework

7 Plaiting

a close

b open

a straight

b diagonal

plain

a plain

b twilled

c split-warp

d lattice

a chequer

b wrapped

c twined

APPENDIX 1

SUMMARY AND INDEX OF BASKETWORK TECHNIQUES

FABRIC

i straight

ii diagonal

i close a single warp

b multiple warp

il open a single warp

b multiple warp

ili chain a single warp

b multiple warp

i zigzag a close

b open

ii diagonal a close

b open

c unequal

divisions

i single lattice

ii double lattice

i plain

ii lattice a single plain

b single chain

c single figure-

of-eight

d single hitched

e double plain

f plain over

twine

a close

b open

a one strand

i plain

ii one lattice

a chequer

b wrapped

c twined

a simple

b extended

c twilled

d multiple

e herring-bone

f open

g angular

h round

i Square

j hitched

k spiral

b more than one

strand

a one strand

b more than one

iii two lattices

strand

iv combination

of i and iii

lattice a plain i one lattice

il two lattices

b hitched

c figure-of-eight

i plain

ii One lattice a one strand

twine

b more than

one strand

ill two lattices a one strand

wrap

b more than

One strand

iv open

i three strand

ii more strands

i four strands a close

b open

c uneven tension

ii more strands a close

b open

i plain

il zigzag

i flat

ii round

i seven strand

ii more strands

i three strand

ii more strands

12F

PIC

WNASAW NVOIWdAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOINAY NYAHLNOS JO YUOMLANSVE

CI?

SEWN

1 Straight a single

foundation

(flat or

cylindrical)

b composite

2 Coiled plaited

foundation

(flat)

3 Coiled a simple or

foundation multiple

(ascending) foundation

b multiple

foundation

only

ON FLAT STRAIGHT WORK

1 Woven or a all warps

straight laid out

sewn work first and

Joined by

first row

of weft or

sewing

strand

start with

one pair

and add

alternately

2 Plaiting all elements

start

together,

maybe with

a knot to

hold them

in place

ON CYLINDRICAL WORK

1 Woven a chequer

FABRIC (continued)

i twisted a two ply

b three ply

ii plaited

i straight sewn

ii tacked

i simple a simple

oversewing foundation

b multiple

foundation

ii corded a simple

b multiple

ili interlock a simple

6 multiple

iv openwork a simple

b multiple

Vv knot-stitch a simple

b multiple

vi three-strand a simple

b multiple

i beeskep a plain

—_—_ > & aiagonar

' c ribbed

ii furcate a split stitch

b twice into

one

lii cross-stitch a plain

b interlock

i with knot

ii with loop a at edge

b further in

i warps bound

round cylin-

der and the

binding con-

tinues as the

weft

i sewn every

twist

ii sewn less

often

i Over one

ii over two

i Over one

ii Over two

i close

ii open

i close a pierced

b round

il open a pierced

b round

c between

i close

ii Open

1 close

ii open

BEGINNINGS

Tech

10a

10b

Ila

11b

IIc

12a

12b

12c

13a

13b

13c

13d

I3e

13f

13g

14a

14b

15a

15b

l6a

16b

17a

17c

18a

18b

18c

18d

19a

19b

20a

20b

Fig.

18A

18B

18C, 19

20A-B

20C-E

21A

21B, 22A

21C-D

22B

25A, 26

25B

25C

25D-E

27A, 28

27B-C

27D

29A-B

21E

aireesn

24A-D

29C, 30

29D-E, 30

29F-G

31A

31B-C

Page

917

WAASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL AO SIVNNV

VOINAVY NYAHLNOS JO MAOMLAASVA

LIZ

2 Sewn

CIRCULAR WORK

BEGINNINGS (continued)

ii warps laid

out, joined

by first row

of weft, work

curved so

that edges

meet and

weft con-

tinues in a

spiral to

make an

open cylinder

ili warps and

wefts knotted

in pairs

b twilled i warps and

wefts knotted

in pairs at

obtuse angle

ii warps and

wefts knotted

in bundle,

knots turned

inside

iii warps and

wefts split

from folded

wider strands

c twined warps joined

by first row

of weft which

may be knot-

ted, work

curved round

so that edges

meet and

weft con-

tinues in a

spiral

Straight —« foundation a sewing strand

foundation elements starts with

knotted one knot

end and

joined by

first row of

sewing; work

bent to a

circle, sewing

continues in

(flat or ascending)

1 Woven

a spiral

b sewing strand

left as part of

fringe

c sewing strand

worked in

with foun-

dation

d sewing starts

at narrow

end

a crossed warp

b bound warp

c looped warp

d twined i true circular

ii elliptical

e square or i single a chequer

rectangular

mat base;

warps and

wefts become

warps of

sides with

one added to

make an odd

number

b twill

c twined

d lattice

Tech.

24 bis

29b

29c

29d

33a

33b

34a

34b

34c

34d

Fig.

33A

33B-C

35A

35B

36A

36B

36C

36D

37A

37B

37C

Page

81z

WAGSAW NVOINdV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOIddV NYAHLNOS JO WAOMLANSVA

617

2 Sewn (coiled

foundation)

BEGINNINGS (continued)

ii superimposed

ili triple

f extended plait

g South Sotho

hat

a foundation i plain

bent

ii bound

ili knotted

iv plaited

b foundation i closed

bent to a ring

ii open

c end of

foundation

knotted

d end of sewing

knotted

e beginning with

sewing

strand,

foundation

introduced

f stitched start- i of foundation

ing pad

ii of sewing

g chequer i double

square of

sewing strand

ii multiple

SHAPING

INCREASES AND DECREASES

1. Woven and

straight

sewn work

2. Coiled sewn

a natural

increase

or decrease

in width of

elements

oat — = a

decrease in

width of

elements

c dividing exist-

ing warps

or pairing

one or both

elements

d adding new

warps or

taking warps

out, knotting

and cutting

off or adding

new wefts

e decrease by

removal of

foundation

elements

f thickening or

thinning of

multiple warps

g slackening or

increasing

tension

a placing coil

to widen

or narrow

the diameter

b thickening

or thinning

the coil

foundation

MOULDING OR CUTTING

Woven

a moulding

fabric and

holding

between

hoops

Tech. Fig.

34e 37D

34f

35 ~ 38

36 39

37a 40A

37b 40B

37c 40C

37d 40D

38a 40E

38b 40F

39 40G

40 40H

4] 401

42a 40J

42b 40K

4a 41

43b

44a 44b

Se LVN

46a 46b 42B

47a 47b 42C

47c

48 42E

49a 49b

50a 5S0b 14

5la 51b 42D

52a 52b

53 4, 43

Page

102

104

OCC

WNdasAW NVOIddV HLNOS FHL JO STVNNV

VOINAVY NYAHLNOS 4O AUOMLAASVA

Wa6

b gathering

into a knot

or bound

bundle

c moving warps

to right

or left to

shape bulb

d bending warps

to shape

during weave

e bending to

shape after

weave

f binding

handle to

shape

g cutting woven

fabric to

shape

h shortening

wefts and

trimming

to shape

JOINING SEPARATE

PIECES

ON WOVEN OR STRAIGHT SEWN WORK

1. Warp or a no edging

foundation

edge

b changed weft

(warps

tucked in)

i on chequer

ii on twine

iii on wattle

Ton-strargne

chequer

ii on diagonal

chequer

iii on straight

twill

iv on diagonal

twill

Vv on twine

SHAPING (continued)

@ piam

b reinforced

end tucked

Straight

a single edge

b front edge

c double edge

d raised edge

e reinforced

edge

f thin edge

a bent warps

b scalloped

EDGES

Pr straight back

ii into next gap

i held by single

row of twine

ii held under a

strand made

by twisting a

few warps

to continue

one after

the other

i multiple warp a full warp

from back

to front to

back and

cut

b part warp

c alternate

warps

ii as above a full warp

but warps

threaded up

to edge

before

cutting

b part warp

c alternate warp

i near side

il far side

Tech. Fig. Page

54 14 104

55 44 105

56 105 a

57 45 105 cS

106 105 u

58 g

59 43 105 &

te 9)

106 >

60 z

61 4, 45 106

62a 107

62b 107

62c 107

63 107

” oFa = You =

64b 107

64c 46A 107

65 107

66 107

67a 107

67b 47A 107

67c 47B 107

67d 107

67e 107

67f 107 @

68a 108 a

68b 48A 108 2

eo}

v2)

[e)

68c 48B-—C 108 z=

v2)

ie)

68d 49A-B 108 g

68e 108

68f 108

68g 108

68h 49C-D 108 S)

681 108 wo

vi on lattice

twine

vii on wicker

viii on extended

plait

d tucked edge on straight

sewn

EDGES (continued)

c plaited

d reinforced

e wrapped

iii single warp

from back

to front

and cut

iv multiple warp

from back

to front

and cut

v single warp

from front

to back

and cut

a each warp

b alternate

warps

vi multiple warp

from front to

back and

down

through one

or two rows

of twine at

back and cut

vii single warps

twisted

together in

pairs and

pushed

through last

twine from

front to back

i over and a full warp

under two

b alternate

or part warp

ii over and

under two

a full warp

b alternate

or part warp

Y v v

iii (S. Sotho hat)

iv twilled plait

v simple plait

a warps back on 1 plain

themselves

holding then

held by a

single twine

strand

ii reinforced

b warps back i plain

on themselves

holding then

held by one

or more

lattices

il reinforced

warps bent side-

ways and

tucked in

next to

following

warp

a single

foundation

elements

bent from

back to front

diagonally

and back

under last

sewing strand

between 2nd

and 3rd

elements

further on

and cut

Tech.

68]

68k

681

68m

68n

680

68p

68q

68r

68s

68t

68u

68v

68w

68x

69a

69b

69c

69d

72a

Fig.

48D-E, 52

49E-F

50A-B

50C-D

SIA

SIB

46B

51C

53A

Page

108

VCC

WAasAW NVOIddv HLNOS AHL 4O STIVNNV

VOINdVY NYAHLNOS JO AUOMLANSVE

e chequer edge on lattice twine

f whipping

g twined

h wrapped

on twine

i plain twine on

body of fancy,

or on chequer

or straight

sewn

ii close plain

twine in

opposite

diagonal on

plain or fancy

ili two-strand

fancy on body

of plain or

fancy twine

iv three-strand

fancy twine

on body of

plain or fancy

v extra row of a same direction

twine through

first and last

row

vi lattice twin-

ing; string

lattice in front

and behind,

twined to

foundation on

straight sewn

mats

i plain

wrapping with

single strand

over two

(three or

four), under

one (or two)

ii hitched

wrapping with

single strand

ili twined

wrapping,

strands twine

as well as

wrapping

EDGES (continued)

b single

foundation

elements

bent over

from front to

back behind

elements on

right and

through to

front

c elements

held in pairs

by twining

and tucked in

diagonally to

right

d single or

double row

of twining

with

elements

bent over

and caught

into next

twine

a over two,

under one

b chain effect

b opposite

direction

a one strand

i singly

ii one of pair,

the other

cut off

ili pair twisted

together

i singly

ii in pairs

Tech.

72b

72c

72g

75a

75b

75c

75d

75e

75f

758

75h

76a

76b

76c

Fig.

53B

53C

S4A

54B

54C

54D, E

SSA-B

Page

108

113

WNASAW NVOIdsV HLNOS AHL tO SIVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLAASVE

i plaited

j oversewn

k knotted

1 stapled—on

wicker- or

wattlework

m rim

EDGES (continued)

b both strands

iv tied a one

b both

v lattice- a plain

wrapped b hitched

vi figure-of-

eight

vii chain effect

i three rows of

twine with

warp twisted

in and finished

off with a plait

ii double edge

iii hanging

plaits of

thinned warps

i direct a plain

b fancy

ii over a furcate

additional

wefts

b simple with

three-strand

plait

iii over thick a with plaited

multiple weft strand

coil

b with bark

iv at intervals

over warps

bent sideways

and twirled

round mouth

vonchequer a each warp

wicker, over,

and into warps

only

S > Md o -

b alternate

warps

c reinforced i sewn at

intervals

ii sewn all

round

vi edge

reinforced

above weaving

by one or

more lattices

on each side,

and oversewn

all round but

through the

warps as well

i plain

ii fringed a above knots

b below knots __i twisted

ii plaited

ili knot tucked a plain

round last

sewing strand

b fringed

i one or more

hoops on one

side, oversewn

ii same with

extra hoop on

top, oversewn

iii One or more

hoops on each

side, oversewn

iv one or more

wooden bands

and hoop

outside, and

hoop inside

Tech.

76d

76e

76f

76g

76h

76)

77a

77b

77¢

78a

78b

78c

78d

78e

78f

78g

78h

79a

79b

79c

79d

79e

79f

8la

81b

8Ic

81d

Fig. Page

S5E-F 113

113

56A 113

56B 113

113

Si/ 113

113

58A, B 113

117

S9A-B 117

117

59C 117

117

59D 117

60B 117

60A, 107 117

60D 117

122

60C 122

61A 122

61B-C 123

123

61D 123

62A-B 123

877

WNdasnaW NVOIdV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLANSVA

677

y wide wooden

band with or

without hoop

outside and

hoop inside

vi one or more

hoops outside

wide band,

making

projecting rim

n hem

o flat binding

2 Weft or a wefts or sewing i knotted

sewing edges _ strands end off and cut

singly

ii oversewn

iii wound round

last warp

before

knotting

iv threaded

back

v twined, sewn

or darned

back parallel

to last row

vi sewing strand

wrapped

round last

element,

threaded up

and cut

vii fancy knot

b wefts or i straight

sewing strand back

taken back

ii carried

down to next

row in open

work, and

then back

iti half-hitched,

carried down

and half-

hitched again

iv wound

round last

warp to next

Starting place

V straight

back

diagonally

EDGES (continued)

a plain

b with extra

twist

c wrapped round

last three

foundation

elements

a taut

b left slack as

loop

a single sewing

strand

b both wefts

c one weft, other

taken straight

down

d twined back

and forth

between half-

hitches

a over last i both strands

warp

il one strand,

other straight

b over extra i at edge

warp

il a few warps

back

a plain

b with extra

twist to weft

c reinforced

last warp

Tech.

8le

Sif

84a

84b

84c

84d

84e

84f

84g

85a

85b

85c

85d

85e

85f

85g

85h

851

85j

Fig.

62C-D, 63

62E

64A

64B

64D

64C

65A

65C

65D

Page

123

129

0E7

WAASAW NVOIWdVY HLNOS AHL JO SIVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WYOMLANSVA

TEZ

c wefts

wrapped—

one weft is

wrapped once

or more round

last warp

which may be

thickened; the

other weft

goes back into

the next row

vi twined back

and forth for

short distance,

then continues

across work

vii twined down

outer warp

i back weft

ii front weft

ili each weft

wraps last

warp with

double or

triple row of

half-hitches

between 3rd

and 2nd, and

2nd and final

warps. The

appearance is

of two or

three knots in

alternate

rows.

EDGES (continued)

a across front

weft and

behind second

warp

across front

weft and in

front of

second warp

over returning

weft

c across front

weft and

between 2nd

and 3rd warps,

over returning

weft

d half-circle i front weft

across front wrapped back

and returning to front

wefts to back

between Ist

and 2nd warps

ii front weft

wrapped front

to back

e circle; loop i between first

made front to and second

back round warps

other weft

going and

coming, then

behind into

next row

ii between

second and

third warps

a across 2nd

warp over

returning weft

between Ist

and 2nd warp

b one and a half

circles through

to back

encircling

back weft

going and

coming and

then forward

to next row

between 2nd

and 3rd warp

Tech. Fig.

85q

85r

86a 67A

86b 67B

86c

86d 67C, 52

86e

86f

86g 67D

86h 67E

861 67F

86]

Page

132

129

132

CET

WNASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS 40 WUOMLANSVA

€€7

d oversewing i plain

over last warp

ii fancy

e lattice wrap over two and

under one,

back along

row at each

end of straight

sewn row

ON COILED SEWN WORK

1 No change of a coil i multiple

stitch unchanged foundation

ii simple

foundation

b coil thinned

c coil thickened

d material

changed

e coil

reinforced and

material

changed

2 Change of a oversewing i close

stitch (with

same or

different

material, with

coil

unchanged,

thickened or

thinned)

ii alternately

piercing and

encircling coil

b blanket stitch i plain

li fancy

cherring-bone i round coil

il on top of

coil

iii once round

upper coil and

once through

iv two-coil

Vv raised

Vi cross-stitch

d diagonal i round coil

ovérsewing

il on top of coil

ili in Opposite

direction

making cross-

stitch

e triple

oversewing

3 Added edge a extra coil i no change of

added on top _ stitch

of or at side of

last coil

ii change of

stitch

b one or more i no change of

complete rings — stitch

of foundation

sewn on

separately

after last coil

ii change of

stitch

EDGES (continued)

FINISHINGS

a multiple i close

foundation

il Open

b round one

single

foundation

c round two

single

foundations

a upper and

lower coil

b lower coil

a flat

b raised

a through coil

b round coil

Tech.

87a

87b

89a

89b

94a

97e

99a

99b

99c

99d

Fig.

68A

68B

68C

68D-E

70C

70D

T0E

TIA

71B

71C

71D

TIE

Page

132

135

138

139

VET

WNaASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOIdNdY NYFHLNOS JO XYYOMLANSVA

SET

c one or more

hoops

d withy added

e binding

1 No special a ends simply cut

finishing off

b ends threaded

into work and

cut

2 oversewn a simple

b figure-of-eight

c herring-bone

3 knotted a together

b separately

c plaited and

knotted

4 ends taken

back

diagonally,

threaded and

cut off

5 Strands back

on tracks to

make two

edges, with

fringe between

6 Lay ends a same direction

together and

bind

b opposite i old strand

ii new strand

c half hitched

i on plaiting

ii on straight

sewing

7 spiny finish a cone

ili on diagonal

twill

iv as fastener in

itself

b band on i straight

central core sewn

ii twilled

8 Seizing on

sewn beer-

strainers and

brooms

9 Whipping on

sewn beer-

strainers and

brooms

10 Woven

seizing

11 Elements

turned inside

and knotted

together

12 Sewing on a invisible

twilled work

b visible

13 Oversewing

to join edges

on cylindrical

work

14 Double a folded

tacking to join

edges on

cylindrical

work

b flattened

15 On cylin-

drical work,

bag flattened

and warps

joined to

make base

a knotted in 1 plain

pairs and

threes

FINISHINGS (continued)

Tech.

100

101

102

103

104

105a

105b

105c

106a

106b

106c

107

108

109a

109b

109c

109d

110a

110b

110c

110d

110e

L0f

111

112

113

114

115a

115b

116

117a

117b

118a

Fig.

T4A

74B

74C

74D-E

74F

75C

75D

76B

76C

76D-E

Page

139

140

143

144

9ET

WNasSAW NVOIdAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOIddV NYAHLNOS JO WAOMLANSVA

LET

OVI

orl

9r1

bri

brl

bri

brl

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

byl

230d

238

Gi Oyee

a-VLL

‘Sho

9611

D6TT

ISTT

Y8TT

39TT

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98 TT

P8TT

9S TT

q8IT

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dUl}}0Uy

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pue d10jaq gq

SUISSOIO TOJe VD

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ylompeaq

JO yo}s Aouey

YIM SUIMAS AI

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sired

ul 8uj0Uy TI

SUIUIM) I

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preoqgpies f

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(6¢7 e8ed Jo WO} Je WSSUT) NOLLVUYOOAA

-ADOTONHOSL I LUVd VOIMAV NYAHLNOS JO WUIOMLANSVE AHL

¢ LaVd 001 ANNTIOA

‘dl1IS WOLVaUa

6rl

Zao

6rl

Lvl

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Lvl

VI8

OI8

O08

V08

d6L

O6L

a6L

V6L

suioq}jed 1

spurq |

susaqjed i

spuegq |

suiojjed i

spueq |

sulojjed i

spueq |

NOILVYOOAd

dYONS 34} SJUSUII]9 JO

SsuIUdY\sUS] Y UOTe[NdiweU I

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poylosse I

S9TIe] P

yo}t}s-ureyo 9

diem-yyds g

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dAPOM JO OsURYO

dAvOM

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SUIAPTIOAO AT

JUDO

JOUIPES

UI odURYO II

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UOT}ONIIP

UI aduUeYO 1

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HOLLLS YO AAVAM AO ADNVHO

e on lattice extra strands

twine

f on plaited i straight

work

ii extended

2 Sewn a straight i single

foundation

ii composite

foundation

b coiled

- ® © ° . ° «

CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR

1 Woven concentric

bands

2 Sewn i concentric

bands

ii radial

patterns

INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR

1 Woven a fabric i chequer

ii twill

iii wicker

iv twined

DECORATION (continued)

d twisting warps

across each

other

e spacing of

groups

f crossing warps

in spaces

g twining a

wavy pattern

none

a open extended

b open crossed

c uneven tension

d extended

multiple

a crossed strand

b lattice wrap

c arrangement of

nodes

a chain stitch

b lengthening

twists

c changing ply

d change of

direction of

twists

a change of

stitch

> - *

b lengthening

stitch

c split stitch

d doubling stitch

e wrapped

f beading

g overlaying

h spacing

i cutting off

sewing strand

long

j tapering sewing

strand

a over whole

surface

b designs or

bands

c whipping

warps

a over whole

surface

b designs or

bands

designs or bands

a over whole

surface

b designs or

bands

i half-hitched

ii openwork

a close twine

b open twine

130

131

132

133

134a

134b

135

136

137

138

139

140

14la

141b

142a

142b

142c

143a

143b

144

145a

145b

145c

Fig.

81D

83A

83B

83C

83D

84A

84B

84C

85A

85B

Page

149

152

154

155

156

157

Ove

WNdasSAW NVOIdV HLNOS AHL dO SIVNNV

VOIdsV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLANSVA

Wwe

2 Sewn

ALTERATION OF

SHAPE

1 Colouring

2 Embroidery

3 Carving

4 Branding

5 Adding bands

or lattices

outside

6 Brass buttons

7 Beads

b edges

a fabric

v v .

v plaited

vi lattice-

twined

i straight

ii coiled

. §

i straight

ii coiled

a raised bands of

knots

b tying on

coloured wool

c whipping,

wrapping or

twining

d sewn

embroidery

a on utensils

b on ornaments

UTILITARIAN ADDITIONS

1 Lids

2 Handles

a loops

b cords

i knotted

outside, runs

inside

ii knotted

inside, runs

outside

ili continuous

loop outside

and inside

DECORATION (continued)

ii two wefts

ili three wefts

iv different

stroke

v overlaying

c whipping

sewing different

pieces of

fabric together

designs or bands i one weft

ii two wefts

ili three wefts

a foundation

strand

b beads

c wrapping end

foundation

strand

a foundation i concentric

bands of

normal coil

ii overlaying a bands

b motifs

b sewing i whole

ii mottled

iii concentric a close

bands

b spaced

iv radial stripes

v geometric a concentric

motifs

b spaced

c beading i bands

ii designs

d introduction of

beads

v v7] g y 9 Y g

wrapped

oversewn

ORNAMENTATION

SHAPES

a plain

158a

158b

158c

158d

159

160

161

162

163a

163b

164

165

166a

166b

166c

Fig.

86A

85C

86B

87A

87B-C

87D

89A

89B

89C

90A, C

90B

91A

91B

92A

92B, 101

92C-D

93, 94

95A

Page

157

159

160

164

166

168

169

(G%6

WOASAW NVOINAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO AAOMLANSVA

€V7

c stiff handles

3 Hinges a strings

b loops

4 Rims

5 Feet a woven ridge

b small pieces

of Wood

c wooden ring

d plait

BASKETS

1 Garden

baskets

2 Other utensils

3 Containers

OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS

1 Bags

2 Bracelets

3 Bird cages

4 Fish traps

5 Food-mats

6 Grain-mats

7 Hats

8 Huts

9 Sledges

10 Sleeping-mats

11 Spoons

12 Strainers

PREPARATION

a cutting

b splitting

c flattening

WORK

1 Woven a trimming

b shaping

2 Sewn a sewing

b shaping

c trimming

SHAPES (continued)

b through strip

of wood on

top of lid

iv sewn round

sides and/or

base of pouch,

inside lid

v cord made of

twill elements

near edge of

pouch

a on woven

b on sewn

TOOLS

i spear

ii knife

ill axe

i spear

ii knife

ili awl

mallet

knife

core

i awl

ii needle

core a bundle of grass

b bottle

i knife

il shears

Tech.

166d

166e

166f

Fig. Page

169

95B 169

95C 169

96A-B 169

96C 173

63 173

173

STA 173

97B 173

97C 173

98 173

99, 11 173

100, 2, 4, 30 173

101 176

102 176

6 176

14 176

8, 82 176

176

103 178

104 178

15 178

105 178

106 180

19, 107 180

181

108A 181

108C 181

183

108B 183

108A 183

108D 183

108B 183

183

vee

WNaSAW NVOIAV HLNOS AHL SO SIVNNV

VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WAYOMLANS VA

246 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

APPENDIX 2

SUMMARY AND INDEX OF MATERIALS USED IN BASKET WORK

Material Figure no. Page no.

STEMS

1 Grass 184

2 Reed 186

3 Sedge 109 187

4 Rush 190

5 Creepers 191

LEAVES

1 Palm 110 191

2 Iridaceae 193

3 Other 194

WHOLE PLANT 194

1 Grass

2 Reed

_ BARK 195

PLANT FIBRES 197

WooD

1 Withies 198

2 Timber 199

3 Root wood 201

ANIMAL MATERIAL :

1 Sinew 201

2 Hair 201

3 Skin 202

IMPORTED MATERIALS 202

DYES (Table 1)

1 Leaves/stem 203

2 Bark 204

3 Root/wood 205

4 Fruits 206

5 Synthetic materials 207

BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

APPENDIX 3

The names of some of the plant species mentioned in the text differ from the

currently accepted names. An alphabetical list of those names names and their

current equivalent, according to Gibbs Russell et al. (1985, 1987), is provided

below.

Name used in text

Acacia capensis Burch.

Acacia detinens Burch.

Acacia decurrens var. mollis Lindl.

Acacia horrida Willd.

Andropogon amplectans Nees

Andropogon cymbarius L.

Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb.

Commiphora fischeri Engl.

Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens

Cyanotis nodiflora Kunth

Cyperus compactus Lam.

Digitaria littoralis Stent

Dombeya natalensis Sond...

_ Elephantorrhiza birchelli (Benth.)

Ficus capensis Thunb.

Ficus vogelii (Migq.) Miq.

Grewia deserticola Ulbr.

Indigofera pretoriana Harms

Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) Stapf

Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. =

H. natalensis Kunze

Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk

Juncus maritimus Bak.

Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC.

Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl.

Miscanthidium capense Stapf

Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv.

Osyris abysinnica A. Rich =

O. compressa DC.

Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Suesseng.

Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd.

Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.)

- Rhynchelytrum setifolium (Stapf)

Chiov.

Salacia zeyheri Pl.

Current name

Acacia karroo Hayne

Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. subsp.

detinens (Burch.)

Acacia dealbata Link

Acacia karroo Hayne

Diheteropogon amplectans (Nees)

Clayton |

Hyparrhenia cymbaria Stapf

Caesalpina decapetala (Roth.) Alston

Commiphora mossambicensis (Oliv.)

Engl. :

Styppeiochloa gynoglossa (Goossens)

de Winter

Cyanotis speciosa (L.F.) Hassk.

Cyperus obtusiflorus Vahl

Digitaria natalensis Stent

Dombeya tiliacea (Endl.) Planch.

Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch. )

Skeels

Ficus sur Forssk.

Ficus lutea Vahl

Grewia retinervis Burret

Indigofera setiflora Bak.

Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn.

Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn.

Hyphaene petersiana Klutzsch

Juncus rigidus Desf.

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.

Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl.

var. stuhlmanni (Engl.) Kokwaro

Miscanthus capensis (Nees) Anderss.

Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) Beauv.

Osyris lanceolata Hochst.

Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov

Pouzolzia mixta Solms

Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov

Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch. )

Chiov.

Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kuntze

247

248 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

APPENDIX 3 (continued)

Name used in text

Sanseveria desertii N. E. Br.

Scirpus inclinatus (Del.) Aschers &

Schweinf.

Scirpus paludicola Kunth

Scirpus tegetalis Burch

(= S. spathaceus Hochst.)

Sclerocarya caffra Sond.

Sporobolus indicus Stapf

Tricholaena setifolia Stapf

Typha latifolia subsp. capensis Rohrb.

Xylopia antunesii Engl. & Diels

Current name

Sanseveria pearsonii N. E. Br.

Schoenoplectus corymbosus (Roth. ex

Roem. & Schult.) J. Raynal

Schoenoplectus paludicola (Kunth) Palla

ex J. Raynal :

Scirpus inanis (Thunb.) Steud.

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.

caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro

Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns &

Tournay

Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch. )

Chiov.

Typha capensis (Rohrb.) N. E. Br.

Xylopia odoratissima Welw. ex Oliv.

; e ci

y -

" - ny

= - ‘

= ‘

iF < =

, \ -

—s = 1

6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the Jnternational code of zoological nomenclature (particu-

larly Articles 22 and 51).

Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed

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Family Nuculanidae

Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845)

Figs 14-15A

Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37.

Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. ~

Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b).

Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87.

Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9.

Note punctuation in the above example:

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OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN

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BuLLouGH, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan.

FiscHER, P. H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de la vitalité des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140.

FiscHer, P. H., DuvaL, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie

expérimentale et générale 74 (33): 627-634.

Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and

Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320.

Koun, A. J. 1960b. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of

the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51.

THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: ScHuLTzE, L. Zoologische und anthro-

pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Siid-Afrika ausgefiihrt in den Jahren

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(continued inside back cover)

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM

Volume 100 °+#£4Band

April 1992 April

Part 3 Deel

THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.

STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND

SOFT CORALS

(COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA)

GARY C. WILLIAMS

Cape Town Kaapstad

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Fig. 1. Living soft corals of southern Africa. A. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921)

(Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. B. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910

(Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. C. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson,

1900) (Alcyoniidae). D. Anthelia sp. (Xentidae). E. Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906

(Alcyoniidae). F. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a (Alcyoniidae). G. Pieterfaurea

khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) (Nidaliidae). H. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865)

(Nephtheidae). I. Capnella thyrsoidea and Alcyonium fauri (white morph).

THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.

STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS

(COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA)

Gary C. WILLIAMS*

Department of Marine Biology, South African Museum

and Department of Zoology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch

(With 45 figures and 1 table)

[MS accepted 28 July 1989 |

ABSTRACT

Of the eleven families of stoloniferous octocorals and soft corals recognized worldwide,

seven are represented in southern Africa. These are the families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae,

Coelogorgiidae, Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae, which are recorded from

African coastal waters south of the 20°S. Twenty-five species representing twelve genera are

illustrated and described in detail from material housed in the collection of the South African

Museum, Cape Town. The majority of this material has been collected since 1983 using dredges

and SCUBA diving. This has allowed for many observations of living material in situ and in

aquaria. Thirty-three additional species are mentioned that appear in the literature but for

which satisfactory material is presently not available for examination. Presently undetermined

species representing 15 genera are also mentioned. Four soft coral genera are here considered

southern African endemics: Acrophytum, Malacacanthus, Pieterfaurea, and Verseveldtia. Six

genera are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time: Sarcodictyon, Telestula,

Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia and Nephthea.

~ Scanning electron micrographs of sclerite form accompanies the descriptions of almost all

species. New information has allowed re-evaluation of several species and the alteration of their

taxonomic status. This includes recent observations on intraspecific variation. A key to all iden-

tified genera and species presently known to occur in southern Africa is provided.

This account of the regional soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna comprises seven

families, 32 genera and 78 species, which includes 28 genera, and 26 identified species that are

here considered valid and to occur in southern Africa. At least 12 additional species have

recently been collected that represent undescribed species; these have not been included in the

present study.

From an assessment of all collected material and literature sources, as well as the numbers

of new records and new species recently obtained by dredging and diving surveys, it is esti-

mated that at least 90 species of soft corals and stolonate octocorals occur in southern Africa.

CONTENTS

PAGE

RTO RCLGNUNG INCHES eer roan eee cee hohe eM Rennes Sa dn ane oeusise baat asset veeseee 250

Meier eMC NOS. ines ten oot cteatGe ss ae'scienle cs esicbaase steams vnesstatlseeassaves 251

SN USUD EME EIS TIN a eT OR ace ane, ea Nee eo 252

Key to the families of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals in southern

MULE ALM ERAS AUN VEU TG Meek te eyir eee tha ae eds eis ce picis Feel votive dokee ts savosane ves ovat eis 252

DV CSC rR eres Pte, Oe eS season Ruka ty cub lrac ees lupe deed dasdeveseede aces 253

ea mil ip Oa AUT SELIL CNS ae SP icleiinatih «cede Saeed Sadoe'us wap Raina cles ol abac sat cedevens 255

SUPE MN UA EAI TOTINGLAG tected cre mic 2h, seis orc Ate Orie We Scie Hors oe cin weed dec tins dune eeceeness 265

* Present address: Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of Sciences,

Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118, U.S.A.

249

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (3), 1992: 249-358, 45 figs, 1 table.

250 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

PAGE

Family Coclogorendacc.cose ice acaccre odsecnas “Leen eC eee 265

Family Alcyomiidacicc 2 snc. : ane qose soem one ere eee 266

Family Nidalitdae si c.cgras.c ccs. ae sccae tee nee acc ee ere ee eee ee 323

Family Nephtherdae 2. 5005s. ccon eee es eee 328

Family Xemitdae sa oc 5 Soca seen ech ee ee 340

Key to the soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals of southern Africa..... 345

List of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals recorded from southern

ATTICA. sie osc the e abione ec Saeed coe cag heer estate ee a as Seen Oa aera 350

Summiary and conclusiOm'.4.. 2.00: «seen esaceene oe saeee acer eee ne eer ener 352

Acknowledgeme mts is. :25..02 ce seek. «0s coment quasar eae aie eee eee 555

ISAS) ie) ol 86: oh re ee rR roe NORM AA Cc Warr Shir dbiacnaasceisade Soca suyscodesocadsde 354

INTRODUCTION

Coastal southern Africa, from the Skeleton Coast of Namibia to the region

of Beira in Mozambique, has a remarkably rich and diverse benthic fauna. The

octocoral cnidarians are no exception, as at least 200 species may be present,

with an extremely high percentage of endemism, perhaps 60-70 per cent. Many

species are restricted to the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Natal,

whereas the extensive Agulhas Bank is probably a centre of adaptive radiation

for the region.

The regional fauna has one other primary component in addition to this

endemic constituent: the Indo-Pacific element. This component, along with

Atlantic, cosmopolitan, widespread, or scattered species, account for the

remainder of the fauna (30-40 per cent).

The present survey represents the second paper in a series of three covering

the octocorals of southern Africa that have been identified and recorded to date.

The pennatulaceans have been described in a previous paper (Williams 1990a).

Stoloniferans and soft corals are dealt with in the present paper. Gorgonian

octocorals will be dealt with in a subsequent paper.

The stoloniferans (families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, and Coelogorgiidae)

are relatively simple octocorals characterized by having low and rounded or cy]l-

indrical to tubular polyp calyces that are separate and individually placed. These

arise from a thin ribbon-like or reticulating stolon that adheres to the sub-

stratum. Colonies have separate or fused sclerites. The soft corals (families

Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae) are characterized by

having polyps aggregated or concentrated into polyparies. The colonies are

fleshy and the gastric cavities of the polyps extend to near the base of the colony

through soft coenenchymal tissue which may or may not be impregnated with

sclerites. An internal medulla or axis is absent. The stoloniferous families

Taiaroidae, Cornulariidae and Pseudogorgiidae, and the soft coral families

Paralcyoniidae and Asterospiculariidae, are not known to occur in southern

_ Africa and are therefore not included in the present study. The old ordinal

names ‘Stolonifera’ for the stoloniferans and ‘Alcyonacea’ sensu stricto (i.e.

reserved for soft corals) are considered by Bayer (1981b: 943) to be of no taxo-

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Ds

nomic value. The ordinal name Alcyonacea, as used here, follows the proposal

of Bayer, and includes all non-helioporacean and non-pennatulacean octocorals.

The first large-scale collecting of South African octocorals was made by the

S.S. Pieter Faure during dredging and trawling surveys between 1898 and 1907.

The most important literature sources describing species from the regional soft

coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna include Hickson (1900, 1904), Kiikenthal

(1906), Thomson (1910, 1921, 1923), Molander (19296), Broch (1939), and

Tixier-Durivault (1954, 1960). Day et al. (1970) and Day (1974) listed the distri-

butions of many common species; Branch & Branch (1981) provided colour and

black-and-white photographs of a few of the most common intertidal and

shallow subtidal species; and Williams (1986a, 1986b, 1987a, 1987b, 1988,

1989b, 1990b) gave detailed descriptions of several species.

The benthic environment of southern Africa is extremely varied. A very

high percentage of endemism is evident. Day et al. (1970: 2) reported that

approximately 66 per cent of the benthic invertebrate species from False Bay are

South African endemics. Millard (1978: 182) concluded that, with regard to the

hydroid fauna, zoogeographical characteristics point to an active centre of evol-

ution in the South African region. This can be applied to other invertebrate

groups as well. Williams (1986), in press a, in press b) provide a more detailed

account of the regional zoogeography and geographical definition, particularly

regarding the octocoral fauna. Species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals

in this study have been collected from the littoral (e.g. Alcyonium fauri) to a

depth of 468 m on the edge of the continental shelf (e.g. Anthomastus gigan-

teus). Areas of concentrated collecting with regard to recently procured material

include (from west to east): the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Penin-

sula, False Bay, the Danger Point—Dyer Island region, Cape Agulhas and the

Agulhas Bank, Algoa Bay, the offshore region between East London and south-

ern Natal including Transkei, the Durban area, and Sodwana Bay. Older

records include scattered localities along the west coasts of the Cape Province

and Namibia, many south and east coast localities, Inhaca Island, and southern

Mozambique.

The classification system used in this study at the ordinal and familial levels

conforms to Bayer (19815). Nomenclature conforms to the trilingual glossary of

Bayer et al. (1983). The abbreviation SAM refers to the South African Museum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Recently procured material was collected by means of intertidal collecting,

snorkelling, SCUBA diving, or dredging from the littoral zone to 500 m in

depth at many localities between Cape Columbine on the west coast of South

Africa to Sodwana Bay, northern Natal.

- Live material was relaxed in a solution of magnesium chloride and sea-

water, then preserved in 70 per cent ethanol. Some particularly delicate colonies

were first fixed in buffered 10 per cent formalin before transfer to ethanol.

Dy) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Sclerites were isolated by excising a small piece of tissue (<10 mm?) and

placing it in a small vial with a few drops of concentrated sodium hypochlorite to

disassociate the sclerites from the tissue. Sclerites were then washed repeatedly in

water, and finally transferred to ethanol. The sclerite and alcohol suspension was

then pipetted on to microscope slides. Canada balsam was used as a permanent

mounting medium, whereas glycerine was used for temporary purposes. Draw-

ings from dissecting or compound microscopes were made using a camera lucida.

Scanning electron micrographs were made with a Cambridge S180 or S200

SEM. Alcohol suspensions of minute sclerites were pipetted on to circular pieces

of exposed and developed black-and-white photographic paper, which were

glued to the surface of a stub. Larger sclerites were arranged individually on a

stub with a fine camel-hair brush and SEM glue. |

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS

IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN COASTAL WATERS

1A. Colonies attached to substrata by narrow basal stolons, or stolon reduced

to a spreading holdfast, or stolons form multi-layered platforms

(Figs LDS. 7A): + ake eee Pe errr ee ye oes boy oo a eo « 2

1B. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by basal hold-

fast or membranous sheets: (Eig. WOA), 2520 ye +

2A. Colonies with stolons forming multi-layered platforms above the sub-

2B. Colonies arborescent with a spreading holdfast or colonies forming a single

layer with separate polyps arising from a basal stolon.................. 5

3A. Colonies arborescent, polyps not retractile, distinct anthosteles not present.

Stolon reduced toca spreading holdiast-e 2) 4- 4s eee Coelogorgiidae

3B. Colonies composed of separate polyps arising from a basal stolon, anthoco-

diae retractile into distinct anthosteles or into base of polyp. Stolons well

developed, rounded, flattened, ribbon-like or reticulate..... Clavulariidae

4A. Mesenterial filaments two. Sclerites, if present, are reduced to minute cir-

cular or oval platelets (<0,05 mm in diameter). Shallow water, usually

littoral to 30 m; Indo-Pacific, central Transkei to Mozambique .. Xeniidae

4B. Mesenterial filaments eight. Sclerites usually present, conspicuous, densely

distributed, and of variable form. Littoral to 500 m; entire coastline..... 5

5A. Polyps grouped together in clusters or catkins, adjacent polyps sharing a

common base. Polyps with a non-retractile base (a stalk) composed of

dense sclerités.. 0... nos a ee ee re ee Nephtheidae

5B. Polyps separate, not grouped together into clusters or catkins. Polyps some-

times with a basal calyx composed of sclerites, but often totally retractile

into.coenenchyme-ofcolomy 23 ya 2 7) eee nae ea 6

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DSS

6A. Colonies usually fleshy, sclerites usually <1 mm in length and not generally

longitudinally disposed, sclerites sometimes reduced or absent. Calyces

RCSeH OG AOSCMUR er ets ce lle eee ERO ae ee Alcyoniidae

6B. Colonies with a rigid consistency, outer surface rough, containing large

tuberculate sclerites, longitudinally placed, permanent calyces present......

oy lente ele & Ale caps cue cea "lege Pil (Rae ae cnr Cs Eis aN ARS a ree ae ee a ae Nidaliidae

DESCRIPTIONS

Family Clavulariidae Hickson, 1894

Stoloniferous octocorals that encrust hard or firm objects such as rock,

mollusc shells, coral fragments, sponges and worm tubes. Anthocodiae retractile

into low conical, cylindrical, or tall tubular anthosteles. In addition to basal

stolons, polyps may be linked laterally by some elevated stolonic bars but not by

an elevated series of transverse calcareous platforms. Sclerites numerous;

usually thorny or tuberculate rods, spindles, or needles; sometimes fused.

Three subfamilies are currently recognized with 14 genera of cosmopolitan

distribution.

Subfamily Clavulariinae Bayer, 1981la

Anthosteles longer than wide; cylindrical, tubular or slightly clavate. Polyps

usually solitary; secondary, lateral polyps rarely if ever bud from main polyps.

Sclerites tuberculated rods, spindles, and crosses; sometimes fused.

Four genera.

Genus Clavularia de Blainville, 1830

Clavularia de Blainville, 1830: 464. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 19. Weinberg,

1978: 143.

Diagnosis

Calyces cylindrical, arising from band-like or spreading stolons. Sclerites

numerous, usually spiny spindles, rods, or needles.

Approximately 40 described species; widespread, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Clavularia viridis Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards &

Haime, 1850; Indo-Pacific.

Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889

Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889: 258, pl. 43 (figs 9-10). Tixier-Durivault, 1954:

124. Day et al., 1970: 16.

Remarks

Tixier-Durivault (1954) merely listed this species, without description or

figures, from south of Cape Point at 547 m. Day et al. (1970) listed the same

without description along the south coast from Cape Point to Jeffrey’s Bay up to

20 m depth. Wright & Studer (1889) originally described the species from

254 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Tristan da Cunha at 183-274 m. Because of the lack of descriptions and lack of

material for examination, it is impossible to determine if the subsequent records

actually pertain to this species. According to Wright & Studer, the cylindrical

calyces are 4-6 mm in height with 8 longitudinal ribs. The calyx sclerites are

stout thorny spindles up to 0,43 mm in length. Tentacle sclerites are blunt,

straight, spiny spindles up to 0,2 mm long. Colour yellowish-white.

I consider the presence of C. cylindrica in southern Africa to be dubious.

Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939

Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939: 5, figs 2-5.

Remarks

This species was described from a single small colony from Table Bay at

20 m depth, and has not been recorded since the original description. Broch

(1939) assigned this material to the genus Clavularia with hesitation and dis-

tinguished the species by the presence of 16 points in the anthocodia—

8 tentacular (or primary) and 8 inter-tentacular (or secondary) ones. The

8 primary points are joined proximally by a transverse band of tuberculate

needles or slender spindles up to 9,4 mm long. The tentacles have a few rod-like

sclerites arranged longitudinally. The stolons and calyces have numerous needle-

like tuberculated sclerites 0,5—0,6 mm long.

Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889

Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889: 257, pl. 42 (fig. 11).

Clavularia elongata var. africana Thomson, 1921: 153.

Remarks

Thomson (1921) named a new variation of this species, C. elongata var.

africana from Cape Infanta at 77 m, without description or figures. Wright &

Studer (1889) described the type locality as 1829 m off the Azores. It is not

possible to determine if Thomson’s specimen is in fact C. elongata without a

comparison of material. According to Wright & Studer, the species is

distinguished by having tentacles strongly beset with sclerites, and the calyx wall

flexible but with numerous large spiny spindles, which are often curved and

somewhat club-shaped.

I consider the presence of C. elongata as a dubious record for southern

Africa.

Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964

Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964: 46, figs 7-8.

Remarks

This species was described from Ponta Zavora, southern Mozambique, at

590 m depth. Tixier-Durivault (1964) distinguished the species by the low

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 235

rotund anthosteles with eight longitudinal ridges, long tubular anthocodia and

neck zones strongly impregnated with sclerites of tuberculated spindles, some

curved and up to 0,26 mm long. Some sclerites of the stolons may be club-

shaped. The species has apparently not been recorded since the original

description.

Clavularia spp.

~ Remarks

Material assignable to the genus Clavularia, representing perhaps two or

three species, has recently been collected in False Bay (western Cape), Algoa

Bay (southern Cape), off the Transkei Coast, and Sodwana Bay, at 6-490 m

(Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Because of the uncertain status of many of the

species described in this genus and the present unavailability of. certain

specimens for examination, it is not possible to identify this material to species

level. Part of the material may be conspecific with species already described for

southern Africa and part may represent undescribed species.

Tixier-Durivault (1954: 124, figs 1-2) identified material from a shore

station at Port St Johns (Transkei coast) as Clavularia capensis (Studer, 1879).

Examination of Tixier-Durivault’s material has shown that this material actually

represents an undetermined species of Clavularia and cannot be aligned with

Studer’s Anthelia capensis. Material conspecific with that of Tixier-Durivault has

recently been collected from the sublittoral coral reefs of Sodwana Bay,

12—20 m in depth (Williams 1989a, in press 5).

Remarks on the genus Clavularia

Approximately 40 species have been described world-wide. Many of the

original descriptions lack sufficient detail to clearly assign diagnostic features.

Thus accurate determination of material to species is very difficult. A revision of

the genus, involving a detailed comparison of available type material, is needed.

Genus Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a

Telesto (Telesto) Wright & Studer, 1889: 260 (part.).

Telesto Laackmann, 1908: 41 (part.). Kikenthal, 1913: 229 (part.). Deichmann, 1936: 40

(part.).

Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a: 884. Williams, 1989b: 622.

Diagnosis

Secondary polyps sometimes arise from walls of primary polyps. Antho-

steles long and slender, flaring slightly toward distal ends; walls composed of

inseparably fused tuberculate sclerites. Proximal portion of anthostele cavity

may or may not be filled with spiculiferous mesogleal intrusive material. Base of

anthostele without calcareous lattices.

Two species, one from the northern Atlantic and one from the south-

western Indian Ocean.

256 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Type species. Telesto rigida Wright & Studer, 1889, by subsequent

designation; Azores.

Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b

Figs 2-3

Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b: 622-632, text-figs 1-5, pls 1-3.

Material

SAM-H3747, off Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'’S 28°45,2'E), 450 m,

14 July 1984, many polyps attached to sponge and dead coral, dredge, coll.

G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3748, off Rame Head, Transkei

(31°50,0'S 29°22,7'E), 65-70 m, 15 July 1982, several polyps attached to bits of

shell, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3749, off East

London (33°10,3’S 28°06,2’E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, several polyps attached to

rock, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3750, off Sandy

Point, Transkei (32°39,2’S 28°45,2'’E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, many polyps

attached to sponge, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Description

The polyps examined range from 5—13 mm in length, 1 mm in width at the

base and 1,5—2,0 mm in width at distal end. Anthosteles are clavate or trumpet-

shaped, straight, curved or bent. Primary polyps with or without secondary

polyps budding from anthostelar walls. Stolons flattened, encrusting surface of

rocks sponges, dead corals, or shells. Wall of polyp tube brittle and inflexible;

composed of inseparably fused sclerites that do not disassociate in concentrated

sodium hypochlorite. Free and partially fused sclerites are highly irregular in

shape and variously tuberculated, mostly rods, spindles, and antlers. Antho-

codiae are capable of complete retraction into anthosteles and have 8 strong

interseptal points, and slender and sparsely thorny spindles arranged more-or-

less longitudinally; no crown is developed. Free sclerites up to 0,3 mm in

length. Basal region of polyp tube filled with a matrix of intrusive mesogleal

material containing partially fused, branched sclerites; no calcareous tubules or

canals present. Colour of colonies white or greyish-white to brownish-white.

Distribution

Presently known only from the eastern Cape, Transkei, and Natal coasts of

South Africa, depth 65—450 m. Type locality is Transkei.

Remarks

The species differs from Bathytelesto rigida (Wright & Studer, 1889) and

Rhodelinda gardineri (Gohar, 1940) by the following combination of charac-

teristics: highly irregular form of the free sclerites, possession of spiculiferous

mesogleal matrix in the proximal region of the gastric cavities, possession of

secondary and tertiary polyps in some colonies, and anthocodia with 8 strong

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 257

interseptal points, sclerites arranged longitudinally, crown not evident.

Bathytelesto rigida is known from west of the Azores at 3 064 m, whereas

R. gardineri has been collected from Subantarctic islands (Tristan, Gough, and

Macquarie), 40-180 m in depth. See Williams (1989) for a discussion of

problems in distinguishing the several genera related to Bathytelesto.

Fig. 2. Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b. A. Colony growing on a dead coral

fragment; total length of figure 20mm. B. Single anthostele with anthocodia retracted,

proximal portion of anthostele cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total length of

figure 10 mm. C. Transverse section through base of anthostele showing a non-partitioned

gastric cavity filled with spiculiferous mesogleal matrix; total diameter of figure 1 mm.

D. Three sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. E. Free and partly fused sclerites

from the anthostele .and interior of stolon. Scale bar for D-E=0,2 mm. F. Two anthocodial

sclerites; scale bar=1,0 mm. Abbreviations: aw—anthostelar wall, g—gonad, gc—gastric

cavity, mf—mesenterial filament, ph—pharynx, s—stolon, smm-—spiculiferous mesogleal

matrix.

258 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Genus Scyphopodium Bayer, 1981a

non Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868: 415.

Cyathopodium Madsen, 1944: 11.

Scyphopodium Bayer, 1981a: 880.

Remarks

The genus was named by Bayer (1981a: 880) to accommodate the species

Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen (1944: 12), since Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868,

applies to a different genus.

Apparently monospecific and widespread, known from the North Atlantic,

Mediterranean, and South Africa, from 500 m to over 1 000 m in depth.

Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944)

Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen, 1944: 12, figs 9-14.

Scyphopodium ingolfi Bayer, 1981a: 881, fig. 2.

Material

SAM-—H3795, off Leven Point, northern Natal (27°59,5'S 32°40,8’E),

550 m, 22 May 1976, heavy dredge, coll. S.A. Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Determinations by F. M. Bayer and H. Zibrowius.

Description

According to Madsen (1944) and Bayer (1981a), the species is characterized

by rigid encrusting stolons and cylindrical anthosteles usually less than 5 mm in

height with rigid body walls composed of fused, branching sclerites. Basal

portion of anthostele with 8 longitudinal canals formed by thin calcareous

septae. Canals filled with intrusion of fused sclerites. Upper part of anthostele

and anthocodia with free sclerites of tuberculated rods and crosses less than

0,1 mm in length. Colour white.

Distribution

The species is reported from the Azores, Crete, Iceland, Agulhas Bank

south of Knysna (Cape Province), and northern Natal, South Africa (Bayer

198la: 883; Williams in press a). Type locality is south of Iceland.

Remarks _-

The proximal portion of a single anthostele and part of a stolon

(SAM-—H3795) attached to the base of a dried skeleton of the solitary sclerac-

tinian coral, Trochocyathus rawsonii (sensu Gardiner 1904, non Pourtales, 1874)

(SAM-—H3191), is held in the SAM collection. This partial specimen is insuffi-

cient material to give an adequate description of the species. (See Bayer (1981a:

881) and Madsen (1944: 11) for detailed descriptions and figures.)

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b.

A. A single anthostele, 3,0 mm in length, with anthocodia removed. B. Same, showing under-

view of stolon. C. Another anthostele, 4,6 mm in length. D-H. Free anthostelar sclerites.

D. 0,15 mm. E. 0,054 mm. F. 0,10 mm. G. 0,15 mm. H. Both 0,13 mm.

260 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Subfamily Sarcodictyinae Bayer, 198la

Polyp calyces low, often retracting almost completely into stolons; or

calyces non-retractile, conical to tall cylindrical. Polyps do not bud secondary

lateral polyps. Sclerites often slightly flattened to plate-like.

Five genera.

Genus Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847

Evagora Philippi, 1842: 36. Kikenthal, 1916: 458. Molander, 1929a: 40.

non Evagora Péron & Lesueur, 1810 (Hydrozoa). Laporte & Gory, 1839 (Coleoptera).

Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847: 179. Hickson, 1930: 210 (part.). Deichmann, 1936: 37.

Bayer, 1956: F184: 198la: 885. Manuel, 1981: 36.

Rolandia Lacaze Duthiers, 1900: 424. Weinberg, 1978: 166.

Diagnosis

Polyps retractile into stolons forming rounded or conical protuberances.

Stolons narrow, often forming reticulating network. Sclerites often somewhat

flattened six-radiates or tuberculated rods and crosses. Anthocodial sclerites

sparse or absent.

A genus of perhaps 7 species, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Sarcodictyon roseum Philippi, 1842 (by subsequent desig-

nation); Europe. z

Remarks

Several examples have recently been collected off the Transkei coast

between 240 m and 360 m depth. The reticulating stolons encrust hard objects

such as shells, coral rubble and rock. Expanded polyps up to 5 mm in height,

cylindrical. Sclerites are six-radiates and rods, very few crosses present. Colour

reddish-orange.

The southern African species is indeterminable at present as pertinent titer:

ature sources are unavailable. It differs markedly from S. catenatum of the

Atlantic and S. roseum from the Mediterranean by possessing a very low pro-

portion of cross-shaped sclerites.

This study establishes the first record of the genus for southern Africa.

Genus Scleranthelia Studer, 1878

Scleranthelia Studer, 1878: 137. Molander, 1929: 29. Aurivillius, 1931: 33. Tixier-Durivault,

1966: 19. Bayer, 1981a: 890.

Skleranthelia Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200.

Diagnosis

Calyces rigid non-retractile; conical, cylindrical, or tubular. Anthocodia

completely retractile. Stolons often reticulate or membranous. Stolons and

calyces covered with large pavement-like layer of contiguous, often flattened,

plate-like sclerites.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 261

Two species of the Mediterranean, north Atlantic, and south-western

Indian oceans.

Type species. Sarcodictyon rugosum Pourtales, 1867 (by subsequent desig-

nation); Cuba, 494 m in depth.

Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a

| Figs 4—5 ;

non Skleranthelia musiva Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200.

non Scleranthelia musiva (Studer, 1879) Thomson, 1921: 153, text-fig. 1, pl. 5 (fig. 1).

Scleranthelia sp. indet. Molander, 1929a: 29.

Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a: 207-218, figs 1-8.

Material

SAM-—H3687, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°10,3’S

28°06,2'E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, many polyps attached to coral and sponge

rubble, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Description

Mature colonies consist of many crowded polyps arising from band-like or

spreading stolons. Calyces rigid, conical, cylindrical, to elongate-tubular, up to

15 mm in length and 3 mm in width. Anthocodiae completely retractile into

calyces. Surface of calyces covered with a mosaic of close-fitting (but not fused)

plate-like sclerites, 0,5—1,6 mm long. Abcalicular surface usually with rounded

protuberances <0,1 mm in diameter. Calicular surface usually densely covered

with minute prickly tubercles. Anthocodiae possess narrow rod-like sclerites

with sparse rounded tubercles; sclerites 0,20—0,45 mm long. Proximal region of

gastric cavities contain a matrix of mesogleal material and numerous unfused

irregular and thorny sclerites 0,16—0,32 mm long. These sclerites may be found

sparsely impregnating the gastric cavity wall of the calyx and underlying the

pavement-like plates of the stolons. Entire surface of calyces and stolons

covered with a thin, brownish, horn-like cuticle. Colour of colonies dull yellow-

ish to pinkish-tan or brownish or greyish-white.

Distribution

East London to Durban, 85-340 m in depth (Williams in press a); probably

endemic to southern Africa. Recorded from Tulear, Madagascar by Tixier-

Durivault (1966, 1972): an examination of this material is necessary to validate

its status. Type locality Gonubie, eastern Cape Province.

Subfamily Telestinae Bayer, 198la

Primary polyps tall and cylindrical, often with secondary polyps budding

laterally; with monopodial branching. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and

spindles or robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles.

Four genera.

262 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Genus Carijoa F. Miller, 1867

Carijoa F. Miller, 1867: 330.

Diagnosis —

Axial region of colony interior hollow. Primary polyp long and thin with

many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and spindles,

often branched. Some sclerites may be fused forming clumps. Colour whitish.

Several species of primarily tropical distribution.

Type species. Carijoa rupicola F. Miller, 1867 (by original designation).

Remarks

Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889, has been recorded by Tixier-

Durivault (1954: 126; 1960: 359) from southern Natal to Inhaca Island, Mozam-

bique, and by Day (1974: 33) from Port Shepstone, Natal, to Inhambane,

Mozambique. However, recently collected material from 52 m depth off Dur-

ban, and other material labelled Telesto arborea and T. trichostemma (Dana,

1846) in the South African Museum collection, all possess characteristics

common to the genus Carijoa (as defined by Bayer 19816: 906): slender, branch-

ing sclerites of the calyx body wall with some sclerites fused forming clumps;

sclerites with thorns or prickles; colony colour white. .

The two generic names Telesto_and Carijoa, have often been applied to the

same species by various authors, whereas Wright & Studer (1889: 262) consid-

ered Carijoa as a subgenus of Telesto. According to Bayer (19816: 906), Telesto

differs from Carijoa by having robust, blunt spindles, often with ornamentation

of outer surface rounded or smooth, and with coarser tuberculation on the

opposite surface; walls of axial polyp with one ring of solenia; colony colour

reddish to orange.

Because of the need for a revision of these taxa, it is at present not tenable

to identify this material to species. The present study establishes a new record of

the genus for southern Africa.

Genus Telestula Madsen, 1944

Telestula Madsen, 1944: 16. Bayer, 1956: F186.

Diagnosis

Polyps long and tubular. Base of calyx interior filled with mesogleal

intrusion material mixed with sclerites. Polyps commonly solitary but may bud

lateral secondary polyps. Stolons may form multi-layered platforms or sheets.

Four species of northern Europe, West Indies, and Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Telestula septentrionalis Madsen, 1944 (by original desig-

nation); Iceland.

Remarks

Material recently collected from the Transkei coast at 460 m depth is

assignable to this genus. The largest anthostele is 25 mm long and 2,5 mm

OO ——— L/S

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 263

wide. The stolon encrusts the surface of a rock and forms a broadened

expansion 6 mm in width from which four cylindrical anthosteles arise. The

interior of the base of one polyp examined is densely filled with a spiculiferous

mesogleal matrix. Sclerites of the body wall are slender to broad spindles or oval

plates 0,12-0,54 mm in length, thickly set with coarse tubercles. Colour of

colony brownish.

Fig. 4. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A. An entire colony; scale

bar=10mm. B. A single anthostele with anthocodia retracted, 12 mm length.

C. Three anthocodial sclerites. D. Four sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal

matrix contained in the basal interior of the polyps. C-—D. Scale bar =0,2 mm.

E. Five plate-like sclerites from anthostelar wall, sclerite at left shows outer surface,

other four sclerites show inner surface; scale bar = 0,5 mm.

264 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A—C. Three

plates from the calyx wall showing the inner surface. A. 0,95 mm. B. 1,14 mm. C. 0,9 mm.

D. Detail of inner surface from a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,22 mm.

E. A calicular plate showing the outer surface; 0,9 mm in length. F. Detail of outer surface

of a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,165 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 265

This study represents the first record of the genus to the southern African

region. The material has at present not been identified to species as not all

pertinent literature sources are presently available.

Family Tubiporidae Ehrenberg, 1828

Polyps with lateral connections of multi-layered stolons or transverse

_ platforms, placed at regular or irregular intervals. Anthocouia retractile.

Two genera of the Indo-Pacific.

Genus Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758

Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758: 789. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 22.

Diagnosis

Anthocodia retractile into calcareous, tubular anthostele. Anthostele walls

form rigid tubes of solidly fused sclerites. Polyp tubes joined laterally by an

elevated series of transverse platforms that contain solenia. Sclerites of antho-

codia free to partly fused; mostly tuberculate spindles. Colonies form rounded

clumps. Colour red to reddish-violet.

A monotypic genus of the Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 (by monotypy); Indo-

Pacific.

Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758

Fig. 6

Remarks

Characters of the genus. A variable species. Beach-worn skeletons of the

organ-pipe coral may be encountered washed ashore in Mozambique and

possibly Natal. Living material has been observed at Santa Carolina, Mozam-

bique (G. M. Branch pers. comm.). The diameter of the tubes ranges from 0,7

to 2,0 mm. Distance between adjacent platforms may vary from 5 to 10 mm.

Branch & Branch (1981: 151) reported the species as being commonly washed

ashore on southern African beaches.

Family Coelogorgiidae Bayer, 1981a

Polyps contractile, but not retractile. Polyps not divided into delimited

anthocodia and anthostele. Stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast. Colour

white.

Monogeneric.

Genus Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857

Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857: 191. Bayer, 1956: F186. Tixier-Durivault,

1966: 24.

266 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Diagnosis

Colonies bushy, arborescent. Axial polyps very long. Lateral polyps short

and numerous. Axial regions of colonies hollow. Primary polyp wall thickened

and penetrated by numerous solenia. Sclerites are tuberculated spindles, some

club-shaped.

Presumably a monotypic genus; western Indian Ocean.

Type species. Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 (by

monotypy); Indian Ocean.

Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857

Remarks

Tixier-Durivault (1960: 359) recorded this species from Inhaca Island,

southern Mozambique. Tixier-Durivault (1972: 17) listed it from Zanzibar,

-Inhaca, Aldabra (Seychelles), and Madagascar. The species is not known from

any Other southern African locality.

Family Alcyoniidae Lamouroux, 1812

Colonies membranous or fleshy and upright. Polyps monomorphic or

dimorphic; placed singly, not joined into catkins or clusters. Sclerites usually

present; most commonly spindles although radiates, capstans, rods, needles, and

clubs also occur.

About 15 genera of cosmopolitan distribution, very common in the Indo-

Pacific.

Genus Acrophytum Hickson, 1900

Acrophytum Hickson, 1900: 74. Bayer, 1981b: 913.

Diagnosis

Colonies digitiform: unbranched, finger-like. Stalk length usually less than

one-half of total length. Polypary conical, elongate, tapering distally with

rounded terminus. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites are primarily tuberculated clubs,

or club-shaped spindles, coarsely warty, up to 0,35 mm long. Sclerites dense in

surface coenenchyme of polyparium and stalk, sparse or absent in the interior.

A monotypic genus of the southern and eastern coast of South Africa.

Type species. Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 (by monotypy); South

Africa.

Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900

Figs 7-8

Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900: 74, pl. 4 (figs 4, 4’). Thomson, 1921: 170; 1923: 47, 69.

- Broch, 1939: 11. Bayer, 1956: 188. Alderslade, 1985: 105, figs 1-6.

Metalcyonium natalensis Thomson, 1910: 559, pl. 1 (fig. 2), pl. 3 (figs 15, 18), pl. 4

(fig. 39a—c).

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 6. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758. A. Lateral view of a beach-worn skeleton of a

colony; length of photograph=105 mm. B. Dorsal view of same; length of photo-

graph = 95 mm.

268 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Material

SAM-H967 (paralectotype), Algoa Bay (33°53'15"S 25°51'43"E), 47 m,

6 December 1898, 1 colony, coll. not known. SAM-—H910, off Great Fish Point,

eastern Cape Province (33°30'S 27°10’E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 2 colonies, large

trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18703. SAM-—H911, off Cove Rock

south-west of East London (33°06'S 27°49’E), 36-55 m, 6 June 1905, 1 colony,

large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18706. SAM-—H1039, off Great Fish

Point (33°30'S 27°10'E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter

Faure survey, PF 18703.

Description

Colonies examined are up to 150 mm in length. The stalk varies from one

fourth to one-half total colony length, but commonly less than one third. Col-

onies digitiform, tapering distally, apex rounded. Sharp demarcation between

-polyparium and stalk. Polyparium elongate-conical or finger-like. Polyps

dimorphic although siphonozooids may not be apparent in smaller or tightly

contracted colonies <70mm in length. Autozooids completely retractile.

Calyces absent. Extended autozooids approximately 6 mm in length. Siphono-

zooids between two adjacent autozooids often about five in number in colonies

>70 mm, and often up to 1,0 mm in height. Polyps numerous and completely

covering polyparium, evenly distributed. Anthocodial sclerites apparently

absent. Oral surface of tentacles covered with several rows of pinnules,

appearing clustered in contracted specimens. Surface of colony densely

spiculated. Interior coenenchyme with very few irregularly-shaped rod-like

sclerites and spindles, or internal sclerites totally absent. Sclerites of the

polyparium are tuberculated clubs, 0,17—-0,35 mm in length. Tubercles mostly

large, prickly to rounded and almost smooth. Sclerites of stalk are also mainly

clubs but are more pronounced with spheroid heads, 0,20—0,35 mm long,

tubercles numerous. Colony colour in life light mauve-purple with flesh-coloured

polyps and brownish stalk. In alcohol, colour fades to dull brownish.

Distribution

Apparently endemic to South Africa; Cape St Francis and Algoa Bay to

Port Durnford, Natal; depth range 30-146 m (Williams in press a). Type locality

is Algoa Bay.

Remarks |

The genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957, is known from the western Pacific

(Japan and the Australian Great Barrier Reef). Two species are described at

present. Species of Minabea are also digitiform and dimorphic. The genus differs

from Acrophytum by possessing surface sclerites of double heads or double stars

and capstans, and interior sclerites of capstans and narrow spindles. |

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 269

Fig. 7 Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A. Colony with exerted autozooids. B. Colony

with retracted autozooids. A—B. Scale bar = 30 mm. C. Detail of polyparium surface showing

autozooids, siphonozooids, and sclerites; scale bar = 2 mm. D. Sclerites from the polyparium.

E. Sclerites from the stalk. D-E. Scale bar=0,3 mm. Abbreviations: a—autozooid,

s—siphonozooid, sc—sclerite.

270 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

ee GEE LOTT

By Y Yui

Lg Ly

Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrographs of Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A—G. Clubs

from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,58 mm. B. 0,42 mm. C. 0,3 mm. D. 0,27 mm.

E. 0,39 mm. F. 0,36mm. G. 0,37 mm. H-I. Clubs from the surface of the stalk.

H. 0,22 mm. I. 0,17 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PFA

Dimorphism in smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger is usually not

apparent. It may be that siphonozooids are present only in large colonies, where

greater facility of internal water circulation is needed, or that siphonozooids

develop in large breeding colonies only. Colonies less than 70 mm in length that

are apparently monomorphic are distinguished by the lack of non-retractile

calyces, sclerites that are clubs (<0,35 mm long) densely distributed in the

surface layer of the polyparium, and stalk and internal sclerites very sparse or

altogether absent. : |

Genus Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758

Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758: 803. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 28. Manuel, 1981: 40.

Parerythropodium Kikenthal, 1916: 461. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 101. Manuel, 1981: 44.

Diagnosis

Colonial growth form highly variable: colony may be upright, with a

definite basal stalk, and with a multi-lobed, digitate, capitate, digitiform, or disc-

shaped polyparium; or colony prostrate, without a definite stalk, with a

membranous to encrusting or globular polyparium. Polyps monomorphic.

Sclerites are often tuberculate spindles; capstans, rods, clubs, and needles also

common. |

A cosmopolitan genus of many species.

Type species. Alcyonium digitatum Linnaeus, 1758.

Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988

Figs 9-10

Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988: 2-7, figs 1-4.

Material

SAM-—H3910, off Cape St Francis, Cape Province (34°16’'S 24°50’E), 35 m,

15 January 1986, one whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-—H3909

(paratype), same data as SAM-3910. SAM-—H3911, off Cape Agulhas, Cape

Province (34°52’S 20°05’E), 54m, 23 February 1985, single colony cut

longitudinally into two halves, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries

Research Institute, Line Fish Survey).

Description

Colonies examined measure 30-50 mm in height and 30-60 mm_ in

diameter. Colonial growth form is lobate. Stalk short and thick (10-15 mm in

height and 30-40 mm in diameter). Polyparium with 2—5 main branches that

further ramify distally to produce rounded, swollen or spheroid terminal lobes

(5-12 mm long). Polyps concentrated on lobes, sparse on surfaces of branches.

Polyps usually preserved exerted (1-2 mm in length), but capable of total

retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent. Sclerites restricted to the surface

region of the stalk, absent from all other parts of colony. Sclerites are

DID ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

tuberculate spheroids, some approaching barrels or eight-radiates, 0,08—

0,15 mm in length. Colony colour vivid purple in life, fading to cream or

brownish-white in alcohol.

Distribution

The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa—Cape

Agulhas and Cape St Francis, 35-54 m in depth (Williams 1988; in press a);

apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape St Francis.

Fig. 9. Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony, 46 mm in height.

_B. Paratype specimen cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; height of

specimen 52 mm. C. Four sclerites from the surface of the stalk; scale bar = 0,1 mm.

Abbreviations: gc—gastric cavity, s—sclerites.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988. Sclerites from

the surface of the stalk. A. 0,13 mm. B. 0,13 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D. 0,10 mm, 0,14 mm and

0,11 mm. E. 0,09 mm. F. 0,14 mm.

274 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Remarks

_ This species is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium species

by the possession of lobate growth form and the restriction of sclerites to the

surface region of the stalk.

Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902) comb. nov.

Figs 11-12

Anthomastus elegans Kikenthal, 1902: 301; 1906: 64, pl. 2 (figs 6-7), pl. 11 (figs 63-66);

1910: 8. Thomson, 1921: 169; 1923: 48, 70. Jungersen, 1927: 13.

Material

SAM-—H3802, Shixini Point, Transkei (32°31,2'S 28°52,2’E), 300 m,

11 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring

Naude). SAM—H3803, Mendu Point, Transkei (32°21,8’S 29°00,0’E), 300 m,

12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

SAM-H3804, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9'S 28°45,0’E), 360 m, 12 July

1984, several colonies, dredge coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

SAM-—H3805, Qolora River, Transkei (32°47,2’S 28°36,2'E), 290-300 m,

14 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring

Naude). -

Description

Colonies examined range in length from 4 mm to 18 mm. Colonies are

attached to pieces of coral rubble, small stones, or shell fragments by flattened

lobate extensions of the proximal region of the stalk, forming an often elaborate

holdfast. Stalk broad and often compressed, giving rise to the distal polyparium.

Polyps restricted to distal terminus of colony. Polyps large, conspicuous, up

to 6 mm in length and usually numbering <12 per colony. Calyces absent.

Polyps capable of total retraction into polyparium. Polyps heavily impregnated

with finely tuberculated sclerites. Anthocodiae with crown and points of

slender spindles or needles <0,30 mm long. Shorter rod-like sclerites are also

present. These are often curved with ends drawn out to needle-like points.

Sclerites of polyparium and stalk are capstans and some double stars, usually

<0,11 mm long. Gastric cavity walls impregnated with stout capstan-like

spindles and also slender spindles approximately 0,10 mm in length. Stalk white

or rose, polyps rose to deep red; colour due to permanent pigmentation of

sclerites.

Distribution

Apparently endemic to southern Africa—Agulhas Bank, Transkei and

southern Natal, depth 126-360 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is the

region of the Agulhas Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 2D

SNE SABES DUS EDS ee

Fig. 11. Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902). A. Colony growing on a stone; total

height of figure 15,5 mm. B. Polyp-bearing distal region of a colony cut

longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total height of figure = 6,2 mm.

C. Sclerites from crown and points of anthocodia. D. Stalk sclerites. C-D. Scale

bar =0,1 mm. Abbreviations: a—anthocodia, c—crown, g—gonad, gc—gastric

cavity, ic—interior coenenchyme, mf—mesenterial filament, p—points, ra—

retracted anthocodia, sc—surface coenenchyme.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Yate y

ihe

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DTT

Remarks

Kikenthal (1902) originally described this species in the genus Anthomastus

in spite of the fact that he did not detect the presence of siphonozooids,

believing his material to be young colonies. Anthomastus is characterized by

having dimorphic polyps and capitate colony shape with capitulum sharply

delimited from stalk. The present species is neither markedly capitate nor

_ dimorphic. Jungersen (1927: 13) first pointed out that this species was wrongly

placed in the genus Anthomastus since siphonozooids are absent and because the

body shape differed significantly from other members of the genus. He also

pointed out that in very young colonies of Anthomastus grandiflorus, distinct

siphonozooids are evident. Jungersen therefore suggested that Kukenthal’s

species be excluded from Anthomastus but did not propose an alternative. I

have examined several whole specimens and sectioned colonies and have found

no indication of siphonozooids either externally or internally. I therefore believe

them to be monomorphic. At least two members of the genus Alcyonium

possess polyps restricted to the distal terminal regions of unilobate, unbranched

colonies: A. complanatum Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a.

The nature of the sclerites (capstans in the coenenchyme and needles in the

polyps) are similar in shape and distribution to those of other Alcyonium species

such as A. variabile (Thomson, 1921). I therefore believe that the present

species can be accommodated in the morphologically diverse genus Alcyonium.

Superficially A. elegans most closely resembles A. clavatum Studer, 1901,

which was originally described from 318 m depth off the Azores. However, the

latter apparently lacks sclerites of eight-radiates (capstans) in the stalk, which

are common in A. elegans.

Alcyonium elegans differs from other southern African Alcyonium species

by the restriction of polyps to the distal terminus of the colony, anthocodial

sclerites that are mostly spindles, and stalk sclerites that are mostly capstans.

Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 sensu lato

Figs 1B, I, 13-15

non Alcyonium purpureum Lamarck, 1836: 608.

Alcyonium purpureum (non Lamarck, 1836: 608) Hickson, 1904: 215, pl. 7 (fig. 1), pl. 9

(fig. 18). Thomson, 1921: 156; 1923: 47, 68. Day et al., 1970: 15.

Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910: 568, pl. 1 (fig. 5), pl. 3 (figs 16, 24, 25), pl. 4 (fig. 44);

1923: 47, 68. Liittschwager, 1922: 535. Broch, 1939: 8.

Alcyonium fallax Littschwager, 1922: 534 (nom. nov).

Parerythropodium purpureum: Day, 1974: 34, fig. p. 34. Branch & Branch, 1981: 152,

pls 34, 37.

Parerythropodium wilsoni (non Thomson, 1921: 160): Day, 1974: 34.

Parerythropodium wilsoni (non Thomson, 1921: 160): Branch & Branch, 1981: 152.

Fig. 12. (see opposite.) Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium elegans (Kiikenthal,

1902). A-F. Anthocodial sclerites. A. 0,14 mm. B. 0,215 mm. C. 0,27 mm. D. 0,09 mm.

E. 0,135 mm. F. 0,31 mm. G-—J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. G. 0.06 mm.

H. 0,065 mm. I. 0,09 mm. J. 0,05 mm.

278 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 13. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A. Two membranous colonies growing on

axes of dead gorgonians; longest linear dimensions of figures 48 mm (left) and 75 mm

(right). B. Digitate colony, 52 mm in height. C. Lobate colony, 33 mm in height.

D. Two capitate colonies, 12 mm in height (left) and 4mm in height (right).

E. Globular colony, 11 mm in height.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 279

Fig. 14. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A-C. Variation in sclerite content of

anthocodiae from three different colonies; all anthocodiae 2mm in _ length.

A. Sclerites dense. B. Sclerites sparse. C. Sclerites absent. D. Coenenchymal

sclerites; scale bar = 0,3 mm.

280 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Material

SAM-—H3712, Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth (33°50'S 25°41'E), 15-16 m,

16 August 1980, large colony encrusting dead gorgonian axis, trawl, coll. W. R.

Liltved (R.V. T.B. Davie). SAM-—H3328, Algoa Bay (33°0'S 25°40’E), 11 m,

20 May 1984, 3 colony fragments encrusting hard objects, SCUBA, coll. G. C.

Williams. SAM—H3330, Algoa Bay (33°50’S 25°40’E), 11 m, 15 May 1984,

several fragments, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3168, Hottentots

Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21’E), 13-16 m, 18 August 1983, one large

colony, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3772, Malgas Island (33°03'S

17°56'E), intertidal rock pools, 26-29 September 1983, one small colony, coll.

S. L. Burke. SAM-—H3773, Buffels Bay, False Bay (34°19’S 18°28’E), 6-10 m,

17-18 March 1984, several colonies on dead gorgonian axis, SCUBA, coll.

G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3774, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09’S 18°27'E), 7 m,

17 February 1985, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams.

Description

Growth form highly variable; colonies may be membranous, globular to

capitate, or lobate; often asymmetrical. Entire colony often covered with

polyps. Sometimes there is a clear demarcation between base and polyparium,

distinct stalk rarely well defined. Polyps generally <8 mm in length, completely

retractile into coenenchyme. Sclerites numerous and dense in surface coenen-

chyme, sparse to dense in between gastric cavities of the interior. Sclerite distri-

bution in polyps highly variable. In some colonies polyp sclerites are very scarce

or totally absent. Other colonies have polyps with dense sclerites in the proximal

region forming eight contiguous longitudinal bands resembling a calyx. Amount

of sclerites in the anthocodiae also varies greatly: some may be devoid of

sclerites, whereas others may contain numerous sclerites of the neck zone and

bases of tentacles, forming eight points. Sclerites are tuberculated to thorny

spindles and capstans with varying numbers of globular or ovoid spheroids and

radiates. Some spindles may be distinctly clubbed. Most sclerites do not exceed

0,25 mm in length. Colony colour extremely variable; often vivid purple, but

can be pink, white, golden yellow, orange, or dark smoke-grey to dark brown.

Sclerites are white or somewhat translucent. Some colonies may be mottled with

two colours such as purple and white. The purple pigment is alcohol-soluble and

varies from magenta or red-purple to blue-purple.

Distribution

Endemic to southern Africa; known from Saldanha Bay on the west coast, to

Richard’s Bay in Natal; littoral to 90 m in depth (Williams in press a). This is one

of the most common and conspicuous octocorals of the rocky intertidal and shallow

sublittoral of southern Africa. Type locality Cape St Blaize near Mossel Bay.

Remarks

Hickson (1904) erroneously determined Alcyonium purpureum from Mossel

Bay, South Africa. Thomson (1910) described A. fauri from Cape St Blaize,

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 15. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910; coenenchymal

sclerites. A. 0,17 mm. B. 0,18 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,175 mm. E. 0,21 mm. F. 0,24 mm.

G. Detail of surface tuberculation from a single sclerite; total length of

graph = 0,052 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F; total length of

micrograph = 0,054 mm.

micro-

282 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

South Africa. However, Liittschwager (1922), not recognizing that Thomson’s

and Hickson’s material were conspecific, applied the new name, A. fallax, since

A. purpureum was found to be used previously by Lamarck (1836) for a species

from Australia. Broch (1939: 8) observed many intergrading features and

considered A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fauri to be conspecific, thus

eliminating the need for the name A. fallax. I agree with Broch and consider

A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fallax as synonyms of A. fauri. The genus

Parerythropodium was described by Kikenthal (1916) for membranous or

encrusting forms. Day (1974) and Branch & Branch (1981) used the name

P. purpureum for the South African species. Groot & Weinberg (1982) showed

the type species of the genus Parerythropodium to be inseparable from

Alcyonium, therefore the former must be considered congeneric with the latter.

Alcyonium fauri is perhaps the most highly variable soft coral species in

southern Africa. Groot & Weinberg (1982) described the extreme degree of

variability found in Alcyonium coralloides from Europe. Like A. coralloides,

A. fauri is highly variable not only in regard to colour but also in colonial

growth form, size, and sclerite distribution. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921,

and A. wilsoni Thomson, 1921, are superficially similar species (see remarks for

A. wilsoni).

Membranous colonies may grow on a variety of hard or soft substrata—the

axes of dead gorgonians, rocks, coral rubble, worm tubes, sponges, or algal

stipes and holdfasts are common. Lobate colonies may be erect and upright or

with lobes lying prostrate adjacent to substratum. Globular or capitate colonies

may be attached to the surfaces of a variety of hard or firm objects. In February

1984, off Cape Agulhas at 26-36 m depth, SCUBA divers observed the purple

membranous form of Alcyonium fauri growing upon the bared axis of living

gorgoniids, Eunicella tricoronata Velimirov, 1971. Hughes (1983: 46), in

referring to corals of tropical reef regions, stated that colony death can result if

naked areas of coral axis are colonized by fouling organisms. In this case,

A. fauri appears to act as a fouling organism. Some living colonies of E. tri-

coronata were observed to be almost entirely covered by purple, encrusting to

lobate growths of A. fauri (W. R. Liltved and A. Penny pers. comm.).

Alcyonium fauri is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium

species by the possession of robust, ovoid to subspheroid spindles with coarse

tuberculation. Some of the spindles may be slightly clubbed.

Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921

Figs 16, 17A-E

Alcyonium (Erythropodium) foliatum Thomson, 1921: 158, fig. 2; 1923: 47, 50, 69.

Material

SAM-HS561 (holotype), off Cape Morgan, border of Cape Province and

Transkei (32°45’S 28°20'E), 82 m, 13 August 1901, 1 colony on sponge, dredge,

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 283

coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13364. SAM-—H3690, off Gonubie, eastern

Cape Province (33°04,7'S 28°07,2'E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies on separate

sponges, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H840, off

Umtwalumi River mouth, Natal (30°30’S 30°40’E), 91m, 11 March 1901,

12 colonies on sponges, dredge, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 12282.

Description 2

Colonies membranous on external surface of an unidentified species

of clavate sponge. Base of colony often thin (<0,3 mm), and sheet-like.

Fig. 16. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921. A. Colonies growing on two clavate

sponges; length of figures = 75 mm (left) and 67 mm (right). B. Coenenchymal

sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm.

284 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Aggregations of polyps form globular or somewhat digitate polyparies up to

5mm in height and diameter. Some individual polyps arise directly from the

membranous base. Retracted polyps <1,0 mm in diameter. Membranous base

may form stolon-like bands joining polyparies, or base may form a continuous

sheet with swollen aggregations of polyps forming polyparies. Coenenchyme

sclerites of the membranous bases and polyparies are predominantly leaf clubs

and double heads, 0,07—0,12 mm long. Anthocodiae with crown and points of

slender tuberculated spindles, 0,06—0,12 mm in length. Colour of colonies in

life: polyparies vivid pinkish-magenta, with membranous bases white to pinkish.

Colour fades to cream or brownish-white when preserved. Pigments are alcohol

soluble. :

Distribution

Known only from the above material—the border region between Cape

Province and Transkei to the Natal south coast; 82-91 m in depth. Apparently

endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape Morgan, border of Cape

Province and Transkei.

Remarks

The host sponges are clavate, upright, unbranched, 45-100 mm in length,

with a smooth external surface, and yellowish-grey to tan in colour. Spicules are

styles and isochelas.

Alcyonium foliatum differs from other southern African members of the

genus by the possession of many sclerites that are leaf clubs and double heads.

Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) comb. nov.

Figs 17F—H, 18

Nidalia morifera Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 128, figs 3, 4.

Eleutherobia rotifera (non Thomson, 1910): Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 36 (part.).

Material

SAM-H1271, Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°50’'S 31°15’E), 73 m,

18 December 1900, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10863.

SAM-H1581, east of Durban (29°50'S 31°15’E), March 1963, dredge, coll. not

known. SAM-—H3826, Park Rynie, Natal (30°20'S 30°51’E), 96 m, 10 July 1984,

dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H3827, Umlaas

River, Natal (30°01'S 31°03’E), 100 m, 10 July 1985, dredge, coll. G. C.

Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Description

Colonies are digitiform, 3—22 mm in length. Stalk and polypary clearly

differentiated, each of approximately equal length. Polyps relatively few and

large: <25 per colony and calyces 1,5—2,0 mm in diameter. Polyps uniformly

covering surface of polypary, completely retractile. During polyp retraction,

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 285

Fig. 17. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921; coenen-

chymal sclerites. A. 0,1mm. B-D. 0,75 mm. E. 0,12 mm. F-H. Alcyonium moriferum

(Tixier-Durivault, 1954); sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. F. 0,09 mm.

G. 0,07 mm. H. 0,09 mm.

286 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

calyces may form prominent rounded protuberances on the surface of the

polypary, but these are also capable of total retraction into the polyparium,

becoming flush with the external surface. Sclerites are dense and numerous in

the surface of the polypary, stalk and calyces. Sclerites are present throughout

the colony, dense on the surface, fewer and sparser in the interior. All sclerites

are globular, tuberculate spheroids resembling the shape of fruits of the

mulberry tree (genus Morus, family Moraceae), hence the specific epithet,

A. moriferum; they are 0,04—0,09 mm in diameter. Colony colour is yellow or

orange with yellow, orange, or red calyces.

Distribution

Known only from Durban to Cape St Lucia along the Natal north coast,

27-100 m in depth (Tixier-Durivault 1954: 128; Williams in press a); commonly

encountered in the Durban region; apparently endemic to the southern African

east coast. The collected colonies are attached to pelecypod shells, dead coral

fragments, and small stones. Type locality is off St Lucia, northern Natal.

Remarks

Because the entire polyp including the calyx is capable of complete

retraction into the polyparium, this species must be allocated to the genus

Alcyonium, as Nidalia possesses firm, projecting calyces. It differs from other

southern African Alcyonium species by digitiform growth habit, prominent

stalk, and sclerites of tuberculate spheroids.

Verseveldt & Bayer (1988: 36) maintained that Nidalia morifera is

synonymous with Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910). However, the two

species can be differentiated as follows. In the former, the colonies are

digitiform, the polyps are capable of complete retraction into the polyparium

without retaining permanent calyces, and the sclerites are predominantly

tuberculate spheroids without medial waists. In the latter species, the colonies

are digitate, the polyps retract into permanent calyces, and sclerites are mostly

compact radiates with medial waists.

Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988

Figs 19, 20A—D

?Metalcyonium molle (non Burchardt, 1903: 31) Thomson, 1921: 162.

Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988: 14-19, figs 11-14.

Material —

SAM-—H3716, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21’E),

15-18 m, 11 November 1984, 4 whole colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams.

Description

Colonies upright, unbranched, up to 40 mm in length; digitiform when

expanded, capitate when contracted. Polyp-bearing distal portion arising from

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 287

prominent stalk. Stalk approximately one-half length of expanded colony.

Polyparium and stalk distinctly delimited. Stalk covered with a thin cuticle.

Polyps monomorphic, capable of retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent.

Sclerites few; thin, flattened rods with little surface ornamentation; 0,06—

0,26 mm long; restricted to neck region of polyps and portion of polyparium

Fig. 18. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954). A. Entire colony with

anthocodiae retracted into basal portions of polyps; total colony length 15 mm.

B. Entire colony with polyps completely retracted into polyparium; total length of

colony 20 mm. C. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm.

288 | ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 19. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988. A. Entire colony, contracted,

preserved, 12 mm in height. B. Single polyp showing placement of sclerites, length

of polyp 1,5 mm. C. Entire colony, expanded in life, 25 mm in height. D. Polyp

sclerites; scale bar = 0,2 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 289

surrounding polyps; usually sparsely scattered. Colour of colonies rust-orange in

life, reddish-brown in alcohol.

Distribution

Presently known only from the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope

Peninsula, 15—21 m depth (Williams 1988, in press a).

Remarks

See Williams (1988) for a discussion of material identified by Thomson

(1921) as Metalcyonium molle Burchardt, 1903.

Alcyonium mutabiliforme differs from other southern African species in the

genus by having only a few thin rod-like sclerites restricted to the regions of the

anthocodiae.

Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a

Figs 1F, 20E—J, 21

Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a: 53-63, figs 1-7.

Material

SAM-—H3280, off Llandudno, Atlantic side of Cape Peninsula (34°01’S

18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams.

SAM-—H3713, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8’'S 28°04,9’E),

90 m, 17 July 1984, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring

Naude).

Description

Colonies examined range in length from 12 to 30 mm. Colonies clavate to .

subcapitate, upright and unbranched. Stalk prominent, expanding distally and

giving rise to a more-or-less flattened, disc-like polyparium. Polyps completely

retractile, and restricted to this terminal disc; <10 mm in length preserved, <20

in number. Calyces absent. Sclerites dense and usually confined to outer

coenenchyme of stalk and sides of capitulum; a few may be scattered in surface

of polyparium and in the interior coenenchyme at base of stalk. Sclerites are

large robust spindles (1,0—2,5 mm in length), finely to coarsely tuberculated.

Sclerites evident through transparent cuticular epidermis of stalk. Stalk covered

with a rough cuticular envelope upon which epizoic organisms and foreign

particles may be attached. Colour in life: polyparium and bases of some polyps

rose-purple, magenta, or vivid red-purple; polyps white to cream with bright

golden-yellow tentacles; stalk brownish. Pigments are alcohol soluble; preserved

colonies fade to greenish-grey or yellowish-brown.

Distribution

Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known only from the type locality

on the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula, off Cape St Francis,

290 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 20. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988; polyp

sclerites. A. 0,16 mm. B. 0,18 mm. C. 0,17 mm. D. Detail of surface from a polyp sclerite;

total length of micrograph = 0,022 mm. E-J. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a; sclerites

from surface of stalk. E. 1,1 mm. F. 1,0 mm. G. Detail from surface of a sclerite with thorny

tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite shown=0,185 mm. H. 1,3 mm. I. 1,7 mm.

J. Detail from surface of a sclerite with simple tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite

shown = 0,25 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 291

and off East London, in the eastern Cape Province; depth range 21-90 m

(Williams in press a).

Remarks

Alcyonium planiceps differs from other southern African members of the

genus by the restriction of polyps to the flattened distal terminus of the colony

and sclerites that are large robust spindles with varying tuberculations;

anthocodial sclerites are absent. ; |

PR oe

Fig. 21. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a. A. Entire colony, 30 mm length.

B. Sclerites from surface of stalk; scale bar = 1,0 mm.

292 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906

Figs 1E, 22-23

Ae valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906: 42, pl. 3 (fig. 11), pl. 8 (figs 39-41). Verseveldt &

Williams, 1988: 316, figs 1, 2A, C—D, 3.

Alcyonium pachyclados (non Klunzinger, 1877) Hickson, 1900: 72. Thomson, 1910: 570, pl. 2

(fig. 14), pl. 4 (figs 33, 34); 1921: 155-156, pl. 5 (figs 6-8); 1923: 48.

Lobularia rutila Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 261, figs 1-3.

Material

SAM-—H3249 (holotype of Lobularia rutila), off Cape St Lucia, Natal

(28°28'S 32°26’E), 27m, 15 May 1948, 1 colony, dredge, coll. University of

Cape Town Ecological Survey. SAM—H3732, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Penin-

sula (33°59’S 18°21’E), 14m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll.

G. C. Williams. SAM—H3822, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S

18°21’E), 23m, 15 June 1983, 5 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved.

SAM-—H3832, off Cape Agulhas (34°55'S 20°20'E), 54m, 23 February 1985,

4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line

Fish Survey). SAM-—H3349, off Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay (33°50’S 25°40’E),

15 m, 14 May 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H4201, off

Port Durnford (28°58,7'S 32°08,0'E), 52 m, 13 June 1988, 3 colonies, dredge,

coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H4202, off Jesser Point

(Zululand, northern Natal) (27°35,0’S 32°41,8’E), 70 m, 9 June 1987, 1 colony,

dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Description

Colonies examined are 12-100 mm in diameter and 15-110 mm in height.

Stalk conspicuous, relatively thick, variable in length. Tightly contracted col-

onies with terminal lobes globular or conical, 4-5 mm in length. Expanded

colonies with terminal lobes finger-like, 2-4 mm in diameter and up to 15 mm in

length. Terminal lobes numerous, arising from several branches that diverge

from distal region of stalk. Polyps numerous and crowded; retracted polyps

often form small rounded protuberances on the surface of the polyparium,

expanded polyps mostly 0,5 mm in length and diameter preserved. Polyps

without conspicuous or permanent calyces but may form hemispherical pro-

trusions on the surface of the polyparium when retracted. These protuberances

are capable of retraction into the polyparium. Sclerites from surface of lobes are

predominantly compact eight-radiates (capstans), 0,040-—0,065 mm in length,

with angular or thorny tubercles. A few sclerites are triradiates or modified

capstans, approximately 0,035—0,040 mm long. Sclerites of the stalk are also

primarily capstans, 0,03—0,05 mm in length, with tubercles markedly angular to

deltoid.

Colony colour highly variable: white, yellow, pink, orange, orange-red,

reddish-brown, deep cherry red or brick red. Some colonies may be bicoloured.

Polyps white. Colour is permanent due to sclerite pigmentation, restricted to

surface of colony, interior white.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 293

BE OGe

Fig. 22. Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906. A—C. Lateral views of three entire colonies.

A. 38 mm in height. B. 37 mm in height. C. 55 mm in height. D. Coenenchymal sclerites

from the polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bars = 0,1 mm.

294 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 23. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906; polyparium

sclerites. A. 0,046 mm. B. 0,042 mm. C. 0,04 mm. D. 0,057 mm. E. 0,05 mm. F. 0,045 mm.

'G. 0,059 mm.

Distribution

Apparently a southern African endemic; known from the west coast of the

Cape Peninsula to Boteler Point (northern Natal); 10-100m in depth

(Verseveldt & Williams, 1988; Williams in press a). Type locality is the Agulhas

Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas.

Remarks

This is a highly variable species with regard to coloration. Colonies from the

west coast of the Cape Peninsula are commonly bright orange, less frequently

yellow, and some colonies exhibit both yellow and orange colour. They form a

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 295

common constituent of subtidal rock walls and reefs at 14-18 m depth. Colonies

from the Cape Agulhas region are white, pink, or yellow. Colonies from Algoa

Bay are vivid orange-red, common at 10 m depth. Colonies from the eastern

Cape Province near East London are mostly white or yellow, sometimes

reddish-brown with yellow-tipped lobes, frequently encountered at 30-40 m.

Colonies from northern Natal are commonly bicoloured with stalks brick red

and polyparia golden yellow. Some are red with only the terminal tips of the

lobes yellow. Some colonies from the western Cape Province are orange with

yellow-tipped lobes.

Alcyonium valdiviae differs from other southern African Alcyonium species

by having lobate growth form and sclerites of capstans approximately 0,05 mm

in length. Common at depths of 30-78 m.

Hickson (1900) and Thomson (1910) misidentified material from the Cape

Province as Alcyonium pachyclados. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 52)

and Verseveldt (1971: 10), sclerites of this species have rounded to slightly

angular, tubercles and are large dumb-bells (double stars) up to 0,12 mm in

length. The species was considered by them to belong to the genus Cladiella,

and has a widespread Indo-Pacific distribution, from the Red Sea and

Madagascar to the south-western Pacific. I believe that Hickson’s and

Thomson’s material can be considered conspecific with Alcyonium valdiviae,

as their descriptions agree well with characteristics of this species. At present,

I do not consider Cladiella pachyclados as a constituent of the South African

fauna.

Lobularia rutila was described by Tixier-Durivault for a specimen from off

St Lucia (27 m in depth). The specimen can easily be included within the wide

range of colour variants in Alcyonium valdiviae. The genus Cladiella (Lobularia,

Microspicularia, and Sphaerella are synonyms) possesses sclerites of double

heads or double stars, not capstans (eight-radiates). Since Tixier-Durivault’s

specimens contain capstans rather than double heads, the correct generic name

is Alcyonium.

Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921)

Figs 1A, 24, 25A-E

Alcyonium antarcticum (non Wright & Studer, 1889) Hickson, 1900: 73, pl. 4 (fig. A, A’).

Alcyonium (Metalcyonium) patagonicum (non May, 1899) Kikenthal, 1906: 47 (part.).

Metalcyonium patagonicum (non May, 1899) Thomson, 1910: 562, pl. 1 (fig. 8), pl. 2 (fig. 12),

pl. 3 (figs 22, 26-29), pl. 4 (figs 30-32).

Metalcyonium variabile Thomson, 1921: 152; 1923: 47, 69.

Metalcyonium variabile var. molle Thomson, 1921: 162, pl. 5 (fig. 2), pl. 6 (figs 1-3); 1929:

47-69.

Metalcyonium variabile var. durum Thomson, 1921: 165, pl. 5 (figs 3, 4); 1923: 47, 69.

Alcyonium paessleri (non May, 1899) Molander, 1929b: 4.

Alcyonium fungiforme Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 385, figs 1-3.

Alcyonium luteum Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 388, fig. 4.

Alcyonium variabile Williams, 1986b: 241-270, figs 1-15.

296 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Material

SAM-H3166, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21'E), 23 m,

15 June 1983, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM—H3167, Hotten-

tots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21’E), 13-16m, 18 August 1983,

10 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3770, off Hout Bay, Cape

Peninsula (34°05’S 18°20'E), 39 m, 27 April 1985, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll.

G. C. Williams.

Fig. 24. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921). A. Entire colony, 40 mm length.

B. Single polyp, 12 mm length. C. Sclerites from the capitulum. D. Sclerites from

the stalk. E. Sclerites from the anthocodia. C—E. Scale bar = 0,2 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 25. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921); sclerites

from surface of capitulum. A. 0,066mm. B. 0,055 mm. °C. 0,072 mm. D. 0,096 mm.

E. 0,115 mm. F-I. Alcyonium wilsoni, coenenchymal sclerites. F. 0,21 mm. G. 0,24 mm.

H. 0,15 mm. I. 0,23 mm.

298 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Description

Colonies examined are 20-50 mm in length. Colony mushroom-shaped,

unbranched, capitate; a spherical capitulum arises from a conspicuous stalk.

Polyps covering entire surface of capitulum. Stalk and capitulum strongly

delineated. Polyps completely retractile into capitulum. Polyps with proximal

region strongly impregnated with sclerites forming a calyx-like base. Sclerites

dense and varied. Polyps with crown and points in neck region, slender spindles

and rods in tentacles, capstans in calyx, tuberculate spindles, clubs, and capstans

in coenenchyme of capitulum and stalk. Colour highly variable: red, red-purple,

orange, yellow, pink, white, grey or various combinations of these. Colour

permanent, originating within the sclerites.

Distribution

Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known from the Atlantic coast of

the Cape Peninsula to the Tugela River mouth, Natal; depth range 13-468 m

(Williams in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape Province.

Remarks

This is perhaps the most commonly encountered soft coral of the South

African continental shelf. The species is commonly observed by SCUBA divers

in the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas regions, but not in False Bay. It is

a common benthic species of subtidal horizontal rock reefs and vertical walls.

Strikingly different colour varieties may be encountered within a few centi-

metres of each other. Numerous colonies representing several distinct colour

varieties may be brought up in a single dredge haul. For a detailed account of

this species, including variability and a historical survey of systematics and

synonymy, see Williams (1986b).

Alcyonium variabile differs from other southern African Alcyonium species

by capitate growth form and sclerites of spindles, needles, rods, clubs, and

capstans.

Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921

Figs 25F-I, 26

Alcyonium (Erythropodium) wilsoni Thomson, 1921: 160, fig. 3; 1923: 50, 69.

Material

SAM-H558 (holotype), off Knysna Heads (34°12’S 23°02’E), 73 m,

11 October 1900, colony attached to brachiopod shell, large dredge, coll.

S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10219. SAM—H3820, off Llandudno, west coast

Cape Peninsula (34°00’S 18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, colony attached to

brachiopod shell, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 299

Description

The two colonies examined are attached to the valves of brachiopods,

probably of the genera Kraussina and Megerlina. Globular polyparies (up to

5 mm in diameter) arise from thin and membranous, often spreading bases that

adhere to the brachiopod shells. Retracted polyps are 1,5 mm in diameter.

Usually 6-20 polyps per polypary. Polyps restricted to polyparies, none arise

directly from membranous base. Sclerites of the polyparies and coenenchyme of

Fig. 26. Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921. A. Entire colony growing on a

brachiopod (Kraussina sp.) that is attached to a fragment of stylasterine coral; length

of coral fragment 23 mm. B. Sclerites from polypary and base of colony; scale

bar = 0,3 mm.

300 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

the membranous base are predominantly tuberculated spindles and clubs 0,10-

0,33 mm in length. Globular forms are rare. The autozooids have crown and

points of mostly slender spindles approximately 0,15 mm long. Tubercles of all

sclerites are usually dense and coarse, often low, but sometimes thorny. Colour

of colonies in life not known; cream-white or brownish-white when preserved.

Distribution

Known only from the above material—Cape Peninsula to Knysna, 21-

73 m in depth; apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality off Knysna,

south coast of South Africa.

Remarks

Alcyonium wilsoni, A. fauri, and A. foliatum are superficially similar

species and may be confused; all three may have membranous growth forms

with polyparies of more-or-less globular aggregations of polyps, and alcohol-

soluble pigments. Accurate identification can only be made by examination of

coenenchymal sclerites. The three species possess coarsely tuberculated sclerites

and can usually be distinguished by sclerite shape only. Alcyonium wilsoni has

elongated clubs and spindles predominant (Figs 25F—I, 26). Alcyonium fauri has

spindles and clubbed spindles (see Figs 14, 15) as well as many globular to oval

spheroids or compact capstans; and A. foliatum is characterized by having

distinct double heads and leaf clubs predominant (see Figs 16, 17A—E).

Six membranous colonies in the South African Museum collection are

problematical: a colony attached to a brachiopod shell, 51 m depth in Sebastian

Bay (34°29'S 21°00'E) (SAM-—H879); two colonies from 11 m depth in Algoa

Bay (33°50'S 25°40’E), which were blue-violet in life (SAM—H3326, H3350); a

colony from 20 m depth off Onrus River (34°29’S 19°12’E), mottled purple and

white in life (SAM—H3807); and two colonies from 14-33 m depth off the

Atlantic side of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula (34°00'S 18°20'E), salmon

pinkish-orange in life (SAM—H3806, H3808). These colonies mainly have

elongate clubs and spindles but, some sclerites are more robust and ovoid to

spheroid, and may have large thorny tubercles characteristic of Alcyonium fauri.

It may be that A. wilsoni is in fact yet another variant of the extremely variable

A. fauri. A detailed comparative examination of a large suite of specimens from

throughout coastal southern Africa is necessary to determine the true nature of

these taxa.

Other species of Alcyonium

Six additional species of Alcyonium have been described or recorded from

southern Africa.

Alcyonium membranaceum was originally described by Kiikenthal (1906:

53) from St Francis Bay (34°7’S 24°59’E) at 100 m depth. Kiikenthal charac-

terized the species by its membranous growth form and sclerites of spindles in

the polyps with capstans and spindles in the coenenchyme. Since Kukenthal’s

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 301

material is not available presently for examination, I cannot determine the status

of this species. The possibility exists that it represents yet another variant of the

highly variable A. fauri complex. If this were proved valid, then the name

would have priority over all other names applied, since it precedes them all with

the exception of A. purpureum Hickson, 1904, which Liittschwager (1922)

found to be preoccupied. Thomson (1921: 159) listed A. membranaceum

without description or figures, from several South African south coast localities:

Mossel Bay (18-22 m), Cape St Blaize (22 m), and Algoa Bay (46 m). Tixier-

Durivault (1954: 263) listed the species from Plettenberg Bay, South African

south coast, without description or figures.

Thomson (1921: 158) equivocally identified a small and incomplete colony

from northern Natal (165 m) as Alcyonium reptans Kikenthal (1906: 53),

originally described from Bouvet Island (457 m). Tixier-Durivault (1954: 264)

identified two colonies from 200 km south of Cape Infanta, Cape Province

(177 m) as Parerythropodium reptans. Neither author gave descriptions or

figures, but merely listed the species. This material is not presently available for

examination. It is therefore not possible to determine the validity of Thomson’s

or Tixier-Durivault’s identification, and I consider these to be dubious records.

Thomson (1921: 157) identified a specimen (SAM-—HS560) from the Cape

Town region (40 m depth) as Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer (1889: 240),

originally described from the Straits of Magellan (100 m depth). The material is

fragmentary and badly damaged through desiccation. An examination of scler-

ites reveals that they are superficially similar to those of A. wilsoni. However,

considering the unsatisfactory condition of Thomson’s material, I must consider

it unidentifiable and his identification of it as A. sollasi to be dubious. Thomson

did not give a description or figures for the material.

A single colony in the SAM collection (H562) was described and identified

by Thomson (1921: 157) as Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt (1903: 671),

originally described from the eastern Malay Archipelago. The golden-yellow

specimen is about 80 mm in length and digitiform with a well-demarcated stalk

and an elongate, smooth and unfolded polyparium. Many sclerites from the

surface coenenchyme of the polyparium are very thin, slender needles up to

0,35 mm in length. These do not resemble any sclerites described or figured by

Burchardt. At present, I consider this material to be of an undetermined

species.

Tixier-Durivault (1954: 265, figs 4, 5) described Parerythropodium roseum

from depth 27—28 m in False Bay (34°07'S 18°31'E). Groot & Weinberg (1982)

have shown that the genus Parerythropodium must be considered a synonym

of Alcyonium. According to Tixier-Durivault, the species is distinguished by

rose-carmine coloration that is conserved in alcohol, and diverse sclerites that

are mostly irregularly-shaped radiates and branched forms that are less than

0,24 mm in length. A specimen in the South African Museum collection

(SAM-—H3811), also from False Bay resembles Alcyonium roseum but possesses

a markedly different growth form with small polyparies of one to four polyps

302 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

arising from a stolon-like base. Tixier-Durivault did not designate a holotype

for A. roseum. A comparison of type material of A. roseum with SAM-H3811

is necessary since Tixier-Durivault’s description lacks sufficient detail for

comparison.

Thomson (1921: 155) identified a colony from off Durban (155 m depth) as

Alcyonium glomeratum Hassall, 1843, a species known from the British Isles,

France, and possibly the western Mediterranean (Manuel 1981: 42). Recently

acquired material from Durban (133-165 m depth) is conspecific with Thom-

son’s specimen. This species cannot be considered a member of the genus

Alcyonium because of the possession of permanent calyces into which the polyps

retract. A comparison of the Durban material with type specimens of the

European A. glomeratum is necessary to ascertain valid taxonomic status but the

latter material is not presently available for comparison.

Genus Anthomastus Verrill, 1878

Anthomastus Verrill, 1878: 376. Kikenthal, 1910: 3.

Diagnosis

Colonies fungiform; a broad capitulum usually arising from a narrower

stalk. Holdfast often with long projections. Capitulum smooth, rounded

spherical, or somewhat flattened. Polyps dimorphic restricted to distal capitu-

jum. Stalk and polyparium distinctly delimited. Autozooids relatively large

and few in number. Siphonozooids numerous between autozooids, usually

conspicuous. Sclerites are mainly double stars, double heads, and capstans, with

sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum. Colour often red, rarely

white.

A genus of about nine species, north Atlantic to Bovet Island and the Indo-

Pacific, mainly in deep water, 50—2 800 m; includes some of the deepest known

of all soft corals.

Type species. Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878, northern Atlantic.

Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954

Figs 27-28

Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 526, figs 1, 2. D'Hondt, 1988: 271, text-fig. 5,

pl. 1 (figs 9-12).

Material

SAM-H3246 (paratype), off Cape Columbine (32°53,3'S 17°30’E), 309 m,

27 September 1947, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. University of Cape Town Eco-

logical Survey. SAM—H3666, Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'’S 28°45,2'E),

450 m, 14 July 1984, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring

Naude). SAM-—H3667, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9’S 28°45,0’E), 360 m,

12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 303

Fig. 27. Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954. A. Two entire colonies,

40mm in length (top) and 138mm in length (bottom). B. Stalk sclerites.

C. Sclerites from pinnules of tentacles. B—C. Scale bar = 0,1 mm.

304 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 28. Scanning electron micrographs of Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954; stalk

sclerites. A-B. 0,11 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,12 mm. E. 0,08 mm.

Description

Colonies examined range in length from 30-110 mm. Each colony is

unilobate, unbranched, with an upright and well-developed stalk. The capitulum

arises from the distal end of the stalk and may be rounded or spheroid, or only

slightly flared from the rest of the stalk. Surface of stalk smooth and uniform.

Autozooids generally less than 12 per colony; very large, up to 35 mm in length

and 10 mm in diameter preserved. Calyces absent. Autozooids capable of par-

tial if not total retraction into capitulum. Siphonozooids numerous on surface of

capitulum between autozooids, <0,5 mm in diameter. Autozooid tentacles with

needle-like sclerites <0,2 mm long, particularly numerous in pinnules. Body

walls of anthocodiae with sclerites filling spaces between siphonozooids; these

are thorny rods and double stars similar to those of the stalk. Surface of stalk

and stalk interior with numerous thorny double stars <0,15 mm long and

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 305

slender elongate needle-like sclerites with simple thorny processes (which may

be hook-like), up to 0,55 mm long. Colonies cream-white to rose or pale red.

Autozooids often greyish in alcohol. .

Distribution

Apparently endemic to southern Africa, known from the south-west coast

of South Africa to Transkei. This species is one of the deepest known identified

soft corals in southern African waters, ranging from 309m to 450 m depth.

Alcyonium variabile was recorded by Thomson (1921: 164) at 468 m off Cape

Recife. The type locality of Anthomastus giganteus is off Cape Columbine, west

coast of South Africa.

Remarks

Anthomastus giganteus is distinguished by its relatively elongate stalk, the

capitulum that is only slightly wider than the stalk, and by stalk sclerites that are

needles with hook-like tubercles, together with thorny double stars.

Remarks on the genus Anthomastus

Hickson (1904: 217) identified a single specimen from 450 m off Cape

Recife, near Port Elizabeth as Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878. Junger-

sen (1904: 13) maintained that Hickson’s material does not resemble any known

specimen of A. grandiflorus and therefore does not belong to the species. Bock

(1938: 44) gave the new name A. hicksoni for this specimen. It is possible that

A. giganteus is synonymous with A. hicksoni since colony shape of the two

species is similar, but a comparison of type material is necessary because

Hickson’s description does not include figures of sclerites. D’Hondt (1988: 271)

discussed the systematics of four species of Anthomastus, including A. giganteus

and A. hicksoni.

Genus Cladiella Gray, 1869

Lobularia (non Lamarck, 1836). Ehrenberg, 1834: 281. Tixier-Durivault, 1943: 437.

Cladiella Gray, 1869: 125. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 35.

Sphaerella Gray, 1869: 122. Bayer, 1956: F188.

Microspicularia Macfadyen, 1936: 28.

Diagnosis

Colonies with a distinct basal stalk. Distal polyparium is multi-lobed or

many branched to form many short, rounded, knob-like lobes during contrac-

tion; these are often elongate and finger-like with acute tips during expansion.

Polyps are restricted to this multi-lobed polyparium. Polyps monomorphic,

capable of complete retraction into polyparium, without permanent calyces.

Sclerites are primarily compact double heads or double stars, usually <0,12 mm

in length. Colour often white or cream in alcohol.

306 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

A genus of over 40 species, from the tropical Indo-West Pacific, in rela-

tively shallow water. Cladiella species are common constituents of shallow-

water coral-reef regions in the Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Alcyonium tuberculosum Quoy & Gaimard, 1833.

Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944)

Remarks

Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-

Durivault, 1944) from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique, without description

or figures. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 47), the species is characterized

by possessing sclerites of double stars (0,07—0,11 mm long); colony colour

greyish-white; distribution—Comoro Islands, Madagascar, and southern

Mozambique.

Pople (1960) recorded the genus Cladiella from intertidal rock pools near

Durban, Natal, and tentatively identified the species as Sphaerella krempfi

(Hickson, 1919). No description or figures were given and thus the identity of

the material must be considered dubious.

An unidentified species of Cladiella is occasionally encountered on the coral

reefs at Sodwana Bay, northern Zululand at 13 m in depth (Williams 1989a:

142; in press b).

Genus Eleutherobia Pitter, 1900

Eleutherobia Pitter, 1900: 449. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 27.

Diagnosis

Colonies unbranched; digitiform, capitate, or digitate. Polyps monomor-

phic. Retracted polyps form distinct hemispherical, cup-like or dish-like per-

manent calyces on the capitulum surface. Anthocodia completely retractile into

calyx, sometimes forming a low rounded eight-rayed protuberance inside the

calicular cup. Sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans.

A genus of perhaps 15 species of the Indo-West Pacific; three species in

southern Africa.

Type species. Eleutherobia japonica Pitter, 1900, Japan.

Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910)

Figs 29, 30D-—F

Alcyonium rotiferum Thomson, 1910: 573, pl. 1 (figs 3, 4), pl. 4 (fig. 38); 1923: 47, 50, 68.

Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 36, figs 18c, 29 (part.).

Material

_ SAM-H566 (type material) Keiskamma Point, eastern Cape Province

(33°15’S 27°30’E), 60 m, 27 August 1901, 2 colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure

survey, PF 13553. SAM-—H849 and H850, Great Fish Point, eastern Cape

307

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

1910. A. Entire colony, 30 mm in length.

D. Stalk sclerites.

35 mm in length. C. Polyparium sclerites.

Fig. 29. Eleutherobia rotifera Thomson

B. Entire colony,

0,1 mm.

C-—D. Scale bar

308 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Province (33°30'S 27°10’E), 90 m, 4 September 1901, 11 colonies, dredge,

S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13727 and PF 13727B.

Description

The colonies that were examined range in length from 20 to 35 mm.

Colonies are upright, digitate; 3—8 finger-like unbranched lobes arise form a

prominent robust stalk. Lobes are up to 15 mm long and 4 mm wide. Stalk with

a broad base forming an extended holdfast. Surface of preserved colonies

markedly wrinkled or pustulate. Polyps restricted to lobes. Anthocodiae com-

pletely retractile into prominent, rounded calyces up to 1,5 mm in diameter.

Sclerites numerous in stalk, lobes and calyces; almost exclusively compact

6-8 radiate capstans, 0,030—0,065 mm in length. Colour golden yellow.

Distribution

Apparently endemic to South Africa, known only from the eastern Cape

Province south-west of East London, 60-120 m depth (Williams in press a).

Type locality is Keiskamma Point.

Remarks

Eleutherobia rotifera differs from other southern African Eleutherobia

species by digitate growth form, prominent stalk, and sclerites that are

tuberculate spheroids and capstans.

Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910)

Figs 30A-C, 31

Bellonella studeri Thomson, 1910: 550, pl. 1 (fig. 1), pl. 3 (fig. 23), pl. 4 (figs 45a—e); 1921:

AE N9232 505 7A chart

Eleutherobia studeri Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 41 (figs 33, 36, 37).

Material

SAM-—H1249 (holotype), St Francis Bay, Cape Province (34°10’S 24°50’E),

42-64 m, 3 May 1906, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18831.

SAM-H909, off Flesh Point, Cape Province (34°18’S 21°55'E), 60m,

29 January 1904, 2 colonies attached to a large gastropod shell (Fusinus

ocelliferus Lamarck, 1816), large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18423.

Description

Colonies examined are 40—95 mm in length. Colonies are capitate, the

polyp-bearing capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Stalk length approximately

40-50 per cent of total colony length. A distinct demarcation is present between

the stalk and polyparium. Capitulum usually slightly elongate or conical, rarely

spheroid. Polyps retractile, crowded, and distributed over entire surface of

capitulum. Preserved expanded polyps <12 mm in length. Anthocodiae with

crown and points of needle-like spindles 0,15—0,30 mm long. Wall of pharynx

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 309

often densely spiculated. Wall of calyx with capstan-like radiates, 0,05—0,08 mm

long. Surface region of polyparium with mostly spindles and radiates 0,04-

0,13 mm in length. Surface of stalk with capstan-like radiates 0,04—0,1 mm long.

Stalk interior with thorny spindles 0,12—0,20 mm long. Preserved colony colour

yellow or pink.

Distribution .

Known only from south and east coasts of South Africa, Mossel Bay to

central Natal, 42-121 m in depth. Thomson (1921: 171; 1923, chart 2) recorded

Fig. 30. Scanning electron micrographs. A—C. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910); sclerites

from surface of polyparium. A. 0,05 mm. B. 0,065 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D-F. Eleutherobia

rotifera Thomson, 1910; sclerites from surface of polyparium. D. 0,052 mm. E. 0,054 mm.

F. 0,047 mm.

310 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

the species from Umtwalume River mouth (Natal) at 46 m depth and off Great

Fish Point (eastern Cape Province) at 121 m. Type locality St Francis Bay (south

coast of Cape Province).

Remarks

Eleutherobia studeri is distinguished by the possession of pliable dish-like

calyces that are formed during the retraction of polyps; the terminal ends of the

polyps form eight-rayed protuberances inside these calyces; sclerites are radiates

and spindles; anthocodial sclerites are present.

Remarks on the genus Eleutherobia

A third species of Eleutherobia is encountered in southern Africa. Thomson

(1921: 155) identified a colony from Durban (155 m in depth) as Alcyonium

glomeratum (Hassall, 1843). Recently collected material from Durban to Cape

St Lucia, Natal (depth 100-164 m), has been compared with Thomson’s

‘specimen, with which it appears to be conspecific. However, the colonies possess

permanent calyces in which the anthocodiae retract, and the coenenchymal

sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans. Because of these characters, I

consider the material to represent an undetermined species of the genus

Eleutherobia, that cannot be attributed to A. glomeratum.

Genus Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886

Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886: 352, 362. Pratt, 1903: 514: Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 55.

Verseveldt, 1983: 4.

Diagnosis

Colonies encrusting, dish-shaped or stalked and upright. Polyp-bearing

capitulum arises from a basal region or distinct stalk. Capitulum relatively

smooth or variously lobed, folded, or plicate. These are closed folds which may

be digitate or plate-like, resembling ridges or crests. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites

of capitulum are tuberculated spindles, usually somewhat club-shaped with ill-

defined heads. Sclerites of stalk are generally capstans <0,3 mm in length.

About 47 species from the Indo-Pacific, usually in warm shallow water, and

often associated with coral reefs. See Verseveldt (1983) for a detailed revision of

the genus, with a key and descriptions for the recognized species.

Type species. Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886; Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Lobophytum crebiplicatum von

Marenzeller, 1886, and L. crassum von Marenzeller, 1886 (as L. crassospicu-

latum Moser, 1919), without descriptions or figures, from Inhaca Island,

southern Mozambique. Verseveldt (1983: 32) considered Tixier-Durivault’s

identification of L. crebiplicatum as a misidentification, and considered the

species to be confined to the western Pacific Basin. Several unidentified species

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 311

"y,

Fig. 31. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910). A. An entire colony, 55 mm in length. B. An

entire colony, 90 mm in length. C. A single exsertile polyp, 8 mm long, tentacles contracted.

D-F. Three cup-like calyces with retracted anthocodiae; 1,0—1,4 mm in diameter. G. Sclerites

from the crown and points of the anthocodia. H. Calyx sclerites. I. Sclerites from the surface

region of the polyparium. J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. K. Sclerites from the stalk

interior. G—K. Scale bar = 0,1 mm:

312 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

of the genus are found on the coral reefs and coral assemblages at Sodwana Bay

and Kosi Bay (northern Natal), 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press

b). Material representing these species is in the South African Museum

collection. The alcyoniids Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia are three of

the most abundant and conspicuous soft coral genera in the warm and shallow

coral reef regions of the Indo-Pacific. Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983: 3) reported

that these genera, together with the nephtheid genus Litophyton, often form

monospecific carpets at depths of 1-6m in the Red Sea. In the shallow

sublittoral of northern Natal and southern Mozambique, the most commonly

encountered soft coral genera are Sinularia, Sarcophyton, Lobophytum,

Dendronephthya, Cladiella, Xenia, and Anthelia. |

Genus Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910

Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910: 583. Williams, 19876: 1337.

Diagnosis

Colonies capitate, broad capitulum arising from a columnar stalk. Stalk

enveloped by rough cuticle. Polyps dimorphic, restricted to distal surface of

capitulum. Capitulum retractile into distal portion of stalk. Autozooids and

siphonozooids numerous and crowded. Autozooids capable of complete retrac-

tion into capitulum. Calyces absent. Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per

side. Sclerites absent from all parts of colony.

A monotypic genus, endemic to southern Africa.

Type species. Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900; South Africa.

Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900)

Figs 1C, 32

Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900: 70, pl. 4 (fig. C); 1931: 172. Thomson, 1923: 47, 66-67.

Broch, 1939: 4. Day et al., 1970: 16.

?Xenia uniserta Kikenthal, 1906: 22, pl. 1 (fig. 5), pl. 6 (figs 25-29). Thomson, 1923: 47,

66-67.

Malacacanthus rufus Thomson, 1910: 583, pl. 1 (fig. 6); 1921: 171; 1923: 48, 71. Broch, 1939:

12, fig. 8. Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 390. Day et al., 1970: 15.

?Heteroxenia uniserta: Day et al., 1970: 16.

Malacacanthus: Bayer, 1981b: 912.

Malacacanthus capensis Williams, 1987b: 1338, figs 1-7.

Material

SAM-—H3192, off Llandudno, west coast Cape Peninsula (34°01’S 18°20’E),

25-31 m, 24 September 1983, 6 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-—

H3864, off Llandudno (34°01'S 18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 2 colonies,

SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3865, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09’S

18°26'E), 12 m, Dec. 1980, 1 colony, SCUBA, G. M. Branch.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 313

Description

Preserved colonies 12-80 mm in height. Colonies fungiform, a broad

capitulum arising from a prominent cylindrical stalk. A tough horn-like cuticular

envelope surrounds the stalk and proximal portion of the capitulum. Polyps

restricted to the distal surface of the capitulum. Polyp-bearing surface of cap-

itulum is plainly delimited from the stalk and proximal region of the capitulum

by a distinct boundary, which is formed by the distal termination of the cuticle.

Polyps dimorphic. Polyp calyces absent. Autozooids often over 100 per colony,

up to 25 mm in length. Siphonozooids conspicuous in mature colonies, crowded

between autozooids, approximately 1,0 mm in diameter. Autozooids retractile

into capitulum. Capitulum capable of almost total retraction into distal region of

stalk. Colonies in this state assume a cylindrical shape. Tentacles with one row

of pinnules per side. Sclerites altogether absent.

. Ke 2

i 4

} N J

~ 4 >,

f N ¥

x 3

& yf ¥

= Son arrees xy

ore 2 ae ‘ x B

= = rm i Daal | 2]

e c St Ne 4 wy

fa ce- = 4 ns ee OS ha Kg Pe t

anes =< rg mot Lite. J ry aS

= Sa ee — Loew Es (

carrie bite ENS ros tAhchos

= ~ = vert ee le it Si ,

* > 3 ie ety

ioe ae

i 5

Fig. 32. Malacacanthus capensis Hickson, 1900. A. Entire colony with polyps

expanded, total length 80 mm. B. Entire colony with polyps retracted, 80 mm.

C. Single autozooid with fourteen siphonozooids at base; length of figure = 22 mm.

314 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Distribution

_ Known from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula to the Gonubie region,

eastern Cape Province, between 10 and 93 m in depth. Apparently endemic to

southern Africa. A locally common species on vertical rock walls and reefs. One

of the few species that is common both on the Atlantic and False Bay sides of

the Cape Peninsula. Type locality is False Bay.

Remarks

The cuticular covering of the stalk provides a substratum for epizoic

organisms such as encrusting white didemnid ascidians.

Malacacanthus capensis is distinguished by the presence of siphonozooids,

total lack of sclerites, and horny cuticle surrounding the stalk. Branch & Branch

(1981: 152), illustrated this species and referred to it as the ‘sun-burst soft coral’.

Genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957

Minabea Utinomi, 1957: 139. Utinomi & Imahara, 1976: 206. Bayer, 1981b: 913.

Diagnosis

Colonies digitiform. Finger-like polyparium gradually tapers distally from a

stalk that is short and thick. Apex of colony broadly rounded, not markedly

pointed. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids completely retractile into polyparium.

Siphonozooids not densely distributed between autozooids. Sclerites are mostly

capstans, with some spindles.

At least three species from the Indo-Pacific: Japan, Australian Great

Barrier Reef, and south-eastern Africa.

Type species. Minabea ozakii Utinomi, 1957, by monotypy; Japan.

Remarks

Several colonies of two undetermined species of Minabea have recently

been collected from Transkei and northern Natal (Zululand), 250-370 m in

depth. The colonies are either pale brownish-orange in colour or white with

pinkish retracted polyps.

This account represents a new record for the genus to southern Africa and

to the south-western Indo-Pacific.

Genus Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834

Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834: 517. Pratt, 1903: 505. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 106. Verseveldt, 1982: 5.

Diagnosis

Colonies mushroom-shaped to somewhat funnel-shaped or cup-shaped. A

broad capitular disc arises from a distinct stalk. Surface of capitulum smooth,

usually with open folds on the disc margin. Disc spreading and wider than distal

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 315

portion of stalk. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids numerous, often several hun-

dred per mature colony; capable of total retraction into capitulum. Siphono-

zooids minute, contained on surface of disc between autozooids. Sclerites often

numerous and dense, usually tuberculated clubs and spindles.

A large genus in warm tropical seas of the Indo-Pacific; mostly shallow

water, often inhabiting coral reefs; about 36 valid species; see Verseveldt (1982)

for a detailed revision of the genus and a key to the recognized species.

Type species. Sarcophyton lobulatum Lesson, 1834, by monotypy; Indo-

Pacific.

Remarks

Several presently unidentified species occur on the submerged platform

coral reefs of northern Natal at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12-27 m depth

(Williams 1989a: 142; in press b), and representative material is present

in the South African Museum collection. Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed

Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886, from Inhaca Island,

southern Mozambique.

Genus Sinularia May, 1898

Sinularia May, 1898: 24. Luttschwager, 1915: 5. Kolonko, 1926: 293. Tixier-Durivault, 1945:

56; 1951: 1; 1966: 164. Verseveldt, 1980: 4.

Diagnosis .

Colonies low, flat, and encrusting or erect with a definite stalk. Polyp-

bearing capitulum arises from an encrusting basal portion or a distinct stalk.

Surface of capitulum relatively smooth to plicate, forming crests or ridges, or

intricately lobate with many crowded upright finger-like lobes. Polyps mono-

morphic. Sclerites of capitulum usually clubs with distinct heads and thorn clubs,

0,06-1,5 mm long. Sclerites of stalk are generally large robust spindles,

>2,0 mm in length.

A large genus with about 105 species of the tropical Indo-Pacific. Common

in warm and shallow waters of coral reef regions. See Verseveldt (1980) and

Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983) for a revision of the genus with a key and

descriptions for the recognized species.

Type species. Sinularia brassica May, 1898, by monotypy; Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg,

1834), without description or figures, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozam-

bique. Single specimens of two distinct species have been collected from

Sodwana Bay, northern Natal (18 m depth) and are in the South African

Museum collection. The two specimens are partial, freeze-dried, and somewhat

damaged. Many presently unidentified colonies representing several species are

also present in the South African Museum collection and occur on the coral

316 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

reefs at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12—27 m (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b).

Some colonies from 12 m depth can attain a diameter of over 2 m.

Genus Verseveldtia Williams, 1990b

Verseveldtia Williams, 1990b: 22.

Diagnosis

_ Colonies unbranched, capitate. Stalk narrow, elongate. Polyps dimorphic.

Anthocodiae capable of total retraction into capitulum. Permanent calyces

absent. Coenenchymal sclerites are mainly double stars, barrels, eight-radiates,

or tuberculate spheroids. :

A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa.

Type species. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900), by subsequent desig-

nation; South Africa.

Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900)

Figs 33, 34F-I

Sarcophytum trochiforme Hickson, 1900: 77, pl. 3 (fig. C), pl. 6 (fig. C). ?7Thomson, 1921: 168;

1923: 48, 70.

Anthomastus trochiformis Kikenthal, 1910: 6. Verseveldt, 1982: 10.

Verseveldtia trochiforme Williams, 1990b:-22-28, text-figs 1-3, pl. 1, pl. 2 (figs a—e).

Material

SAM-H724, off Ncera River Mouth, eastern Cape Province (co-ordinates

unknown), 91m, 7 August 1901, 3 incomplete colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter

Faure survey, PF 13329. SAM—H742, same data as SAM—H724, 1 incomplete

colony, PF 13329@:

Description

The partial colonies do not exceed 60 mm in length. Colonies are capitate,

an enlarged capitulum arises from an elongate and narrow stalk. The largest

specimen has a capitulum measuring 12 mm in width, whereas the stalk is

2-3 mm in width. The capitulum is dome-shaped or elliptical with the polyps

covering the entire surface. Polyps are dimorphic. The retracted anthocodiae of

the autozooids may form small protuberances on the surface of the capitulum

but these are not true calyces, since the protuberances are capable of complete

retraction into the capitulum. Autozooids are small and numerous (50-100 in

number and 0,9-1,2 mm in diameter). Siphonozooids crowded between the

autozooids, 0,3-—0,5 mm in diameter. Sclerites of the capitulum surface and

interior, as well as the stalk sclerites are predominantly eight-radiates, 0,05—

0,11 mm in length. A few girdled spindles (0,110—0,114 mm) may also be

present in the capitulum. The autozooid anthocodiae possess flattened plates,

0,04—0,07 mm in length, and girdled or tuberculate spindles, 0,10—0,17 mm in

length.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Sag.

Fig. 33. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900). A. Entire mature colony, 65 mm

in height. B. Young colony attached to a foraminiferan fragment, 9 mm in height.

C. Sclerites from the anthocodial wall. D. Tentacular sclerites. E. Sclerites from the

capitulum. F. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm.

318 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Colonies are light grey or brownish-white to cream, retracted autozooids

are rust orange, siphonozooids are grey or cream in coloration.

Distribution

Eastern Cape Province, the vicinity of East London, 82-97 m in depth

(Williams 19905, in press a).

Remarks

Hickson (1900) assigned this species to the genus Sarcophyton (mis-spelled

as Sarcophytum). Kiikenthal (1910) recognized this as incorrect and placed the

species in the genus Anthomastus. Verseveldt (1982) repeated Kikenthal’s

opinion and considered it an invalid species of Sarcophyton. Verseveldtia

trochiforme does not have the sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk that are

characteristic of the genus Anthomastus.

_ Thomson (1921: 168) identified eleven specimens from Natal (46-165 m in

depth) as Sarcophytum trochiforme. He did not give descriptions or figures for

the material, other than stating that most of the colonies are reddish in colour.

Because of this, it is possible that at least some of the specimens may be

Verseveldtia bucciniforme. Examination of Thomson’s material is necessary to

establish valid taxonomic status.

Verseveldtia trochiforme is differentiated by a convex, dome-shaped polyp-

bearing portion of the capitulum, coenenchymal sclerites that are primarily eight

radiates, and colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted autozooids

and greyish-white siphonozooids.

Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b

Figs 34A-E, 35

?Anthomastus granulosus (non Kikenthal, 1910) Thomson, 1921: 169.

?Anthomastus trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) Thomson, 1921: 168.

Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b: 28-34, text-figs 3-5, pl. 2 (figs f-i), pl. 3.

Material

SAM-—H3799, off Gonubie, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8'S 28°04,9’E),

90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring

Naude). SAM-—H3800, off Mbotyi, Transkei (31°29,2’S 29°45,4’E), 50m,

21 July 1982, 1 colony, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude).

SAM-H3801, off East London (33°15,0’S 27°58,0’E), 85m, 17 July 1984,

1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude).

Description

Colonies examined range in length between 12 and 20 mm. Colonies are

funnel-shaped, markedly capitate with a long, slender stalk. Polyps restricted to

the somewhat flattened capitular disc at the distal terminus of colony. Polyps

dimorphic. Autozooids capable of total retraction into capitulum, usually 10-20

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 34. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b.

A-B. Sclerites from bases of polyps and surface of capitulum. A. 0,075 mm. B. 0,048 mm.

C-E. Stalk sclerites. C. 0,058 mm. D. 0,08 mm. E. 0,08 mm. F-I. Verseveldtia trochiforme

(Hickson, 1900). F. An eight-radiate from the capitular surface, 0,072 mm. G. Girdled spindle

from the capitular surface, 0,114 mm. H. Sclerite from the interior of the capitulum,

0,060 mm. I. Stalk sclerite, 0,064 mm.

320 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

per colony, 1,5—2,0 mm in diameter when retracted. Siphonozooids crowded

between autozooids, usually around 0,5 mm in diameter. The autozooids of all

material examined have the anthocodiae totally retracted. Partly retracted

autozooids may produce hemispherical protuberances on the surface of the

capitulum but these are not true calyces since they too are capable of complete

retraction into the capitulum. Sclerites of the capitular surface and interior, as

well as the stalk are barrels, double stars and tuberculate spheroids, 0,06—

0,08 mm in length. The anthocodiae contain rods and irregularly-shaped

flattened platelets, 0,03—0,08 mm in length. Colonies orange, red or pink in

colour with retracted autozooids and siphonozooids bright yellow.

Distribution

Apparently endemic to South Africa, known from the eastern Cape,

Transkei, and Natal coasts between East London and Durban, 50-90 m in depth

(Williams 1990b, in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape

Province.

Remarks

Thomson (1921: 169) identified a specimen from 58 m off East London as

Anthomastus granulosus Kikenthal, 1910. From his brief and unillustrated

description, it seems probable that the colony actually belongs to V. buc-

ciniforme. Like the two species of Verseveldtia, A. granulosus (from Japan) does

not have sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum that are

characteristic of the genus Anthomastus.

Verseveldtia bucciniforme is distinguished by a somewhat flattened or disc-

shaped polyp-bearing portion of the capitulum, sclerites that are barrels, double

stars, and tuberculate spheroids, and red colony colour with yellow siphono-

zooids and retracted autozooids.

Digitiform and capitate species of the families Alcyontidae and Nidaliidae

Approximately 18 species of southern African alcyoniids and nidaliids have

digitiform or capitate growth forms. Many digitiform species have in the past been

plagued with considerable confusion in the literature as to proper generic

placement. Verseveldt & Bayer (1988) recently provided a much needed revision

of four genera that contain digitiform species: Bellonella Gray, 1862, and Eleu-

therobia Pitter, 1900 (Alcyoniidae), and Nidalia Gray, 1835, and Nidaliopsis

Kikenthal, 1906 (Nidaliidae), and named two new genera, Inflatocalyx

(Alcyoniidae) and Pieterfaurea (Nidaliidae). This re-assessment has shown that

Metalcyonium Pfeffer, 1888, is not a valid genus because the type species

M. capitatum Pfeffer, 1888, can be accommodated in Bellonella. All of the

above-mentioned genera have polyps that retract into permanent calyces or at

least into protuberances composed of palisade-like arrangements of sclerites.

Some digitiform alcyoniids do not possess permanent calyces but rather the

polyps retract directly into the polyparium or into basal protuberances that are

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 321

Fig. 35. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b. A. Entire colony growing on a

foraminiferan fragment, length of colony 13 mm. B. Entire colony, 17 mm in length.

C. Sclerites from tentacles. D. Sclerites from polyps and capitulum. E. Stalk

sclerites. C-E. Scale bar =0,1 mm.

322 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

capable of complete retraction into the polyparium. Williams (1986a: 61; 1988: 18)

maintained that the genus Alcyonium should be considered a morphologically

diverse assemblage of species and that certain digitiform or capitate forms with-

out permanent calyces can be accommodated within it. The southern African

Alcyonium moriferum and A. variabile and the Japanese A. muricatum Yamada,

1950, and A. pacificum Yamada, 1950, are examples of such species. Eight of

the digitiform or capitate southern African forms have been included in the pres-

ent work: Alcyonium mutabiliforme, A. moriferum, A. planiceps, A. variabile,

Acrophytum claviger, Eleutherobia studeri, Pieterfaurea unilobata and P. khoisa-

niana. Of the ten or so remaining undetermined species or those with unverified

identifications (many of which have recently been collected from the southern

African coast), the following names have been recorded by previous authors.

Bellonella rubra Brundin, 1896, was recorded by Thomson (1910: 554)

(eastern Cape Province, Transkei, central Natal; 44-100 m). Utinomi (1957:

149) questioned Thomson’s identification of the South African material. Bello-

nella rubra was originally known from the western Pacific. Tixier-Durivault

(1954: 127) placed the species in the genus Nidalia. More recently, Verseveldt &

Bayer (1988: 37) transferred it to the genus Eleutherobia. The South African

material possesses sclerites that resemble those figured by Brundin. However,

the colonies do not have non-retractile calyces, which are characteristic of the

genera Nidalia and Eleutherobia. In fact, the polyps are capable of totally

withdrawing into the polyparium without forming protuberances or permanent

calyces. Because of this, I presently consider this taxon to be an undetermined

species of the genus Alcyonium. The colonies vary from pink-magenta to deep

wine-red, both in life as well as in alcohol.

Metalcyonium clavatum Pfeffer, 1889, was recorded by Thomson (1910:

556) from central Natal, 66-73 m. Thomson considered this southern African

material (SAM-—H550) to be conspecific with M. clavatum from the Subantarctic

island of South Georgia. This identification cannot be validated without a

comparison of Pfeffer’s type material, since the original description lacks

sufficient detail.

Thomson described three digitiform species with large sclerites: Met-

alcyonium natalensis Thomson (1910: 559—Durban, Natal, 71-73 m depth);

Metalcyonium lanceatum Thomson (1921: 167—eastern Cape Province, 40 m

depth); and Sinularia unilobata Thomson (1921: 172—East London to Durban,

40-93 m depth). Metalcyonium natalensis was later considered by Thomson

(1921: 170) to be conspecific with Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. Sinularia

unilobata is-synonymous with Pieterfaurea unilobata. Metalcyonium lanceatum

possesses finely tuberculated needle-like spindles in both the stalk and

polyparium, whereas P. unilobata has large robust spindles with ornate

tuberculation.

The holotype of M. lanceatum (SAM-—H793) has unfortunately been pre-

viously dried and somewhat damaged, thereby making detailed redescription

and comparison difficult.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA aes

Kiikenthal (1906: 48) described Metalcyonium novarae from the Cape of

Good Hope in a brief description, without any figures of the colony or sclerites.

Many colonies recently collected from the Cape Agulhas region (24-54 m

depth) show characteristics that conform to Ktkenthal’s description. However,

a comparison of these specimens with Kiikenthal’s type material is necessary for

a positive identification; the latter is at present not available for examination.

Family Nidaliidae Gray, 1869

Colonies unbranched (capitate or digitiform) or arborescent, with still and

cylindrical branches. Texture of colonies rough and rigid. Polyps monomorphic

or dimorphic. Anthocodiae retractile into permanent, spiculose calyces or

‘palisade-like’ protuberances. Sclerites are primarily large, tuberculate spindles,

mostly longitudinally aligned.

Six genera of widespread distribution, but concentrated in the Indo-Pacific,

West Indies, central Atlantic, and southern oceans. Two genera in southern

Africa.

Genus Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988

Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 66.

Diagnosis

Colonies unbranched, digitiform. Polyps monomorphic. Anthocodia retrac-

tile into a permanent conical calyx composed of a palisade-like arrangement of

spindle-like sclerites. Sclerites of the colony are robust coarsely tuberculated

spindles and clubbed spindles, densely distributed in the surface region of the

stalk and polyparium. Similar sclerites are common in the colony interior.

A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa.

Type species. Sinularia unilobata Thomson, 1921; South Africa.

Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) comb. nov.

Figs 1G, 36, 37A—D

Alcyonium khoisanianum Williams, 1988: 7-14, figs 5-10, 14, 165A.

Material

SAM-—H3411 (holotype), off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°43'4,94"S

19°20'30,19"E), 48 m depth, 29 April 1984, 1 sectioned colony, SCUBA, coll.

W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey.

Description

The holotype is 82 mm in length. Colonies are digitiform; a finger-like

polyparium arises from a prominent stalk. Polyps are numerous, completely

retractile, relatively large (up to 12 mm long and 3 mm wide), calyces absent.

Sclerites of the anthocodiae are small rods up to 0,33 mm long, sparsely

324 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

distributed in crown and points. Sclerites from surface region of polyparium and

stalk are robust, densely tuberculated spindles or slightly club-shaped spindles,

somewhat crowded but not exceedingly dense. Sclerites from the polyparium are

0,5—1,4 mm in length, whereas those from the stalk are 0,4—1,9 mm long. Most

elongate spindles from the stalk are widest in the middle and taper toward both

ends. Only a few scattered spindles may be present below the surface sclerites of

the polyparium and stalk, contained in between gastric cavities. These sclerites

are totally absent from the central interior region. Colour in life is vivid purple

or magenta with polyps whitish, tentacles bright yellow, and stalk whitish.

Colours fade to uniform dull greyish-yellow in alcohol.

Distribution

This species is presently known from the Cape south coast, Danger Point to

the eastern Cape Province, 30-50 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Type

locality is Danger Point.

Remarks

This species may be confused with smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger

that are 70 mm in length, in which siphonozooids are not apparent. Larger

colonies of A. claviger show obvious dimorphism. Colonies of A. claviger have

densely set clubs and slightly clubbed spindles in the surface layer of the polyp-

arium and stalk, 0,17—0,35 mm in length. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana, on the

other hand, has comparatively sparsely set spindles in the surface of

the polyparium. Many of these are slightly club-shaped. In the surface region of

the stalk are many robust spindles that are widest medially with ends that taper

markedly. All spindles are densely and ornately tuberculated, and vary from 0,4

to 1,9 mm in length. Anthocodial sclerites are absent in Acrophytum CANE EE

but are present in Pieterfaurea khoisaniana.

This species is here provisionally transferred to the genus Pieterfaurea

because of the possession of large tuberculate spindles in the surface of the stalk

and polyparium as well as in the bases of the polyps, even though ‘palisade-like’

arrangements are not distinct.

Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921)

Figs 37E-G, 38

Sinularia (Sclerophytum) unilobata Thomson, 1921: 172, fig. 5.

Bellonella unilobata Verseveldt, 1980: 11.

Metalcyonium unilobatum Williams, 19866: 263, fig. 2B.

Pieterfaurea unilobata Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 67, figs 62-64.

Material

SAM-H741 (paralectotype), off Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°40'S

31°10’E), 73 m, 18 December 1900, 1 colony, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure

survey, PF 10880.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 325

Fig. 36. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988). A. Entire colony (paratype),

preserved, 90 mm total length. B. Single polyp showing arrangement of sclerites,

total height of polyp 5mm. C. Polyp sclerites. D. Sclerites from surface of

polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. C-E. Scale bar = 1,0 mm.

326 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Description

The colony examined is slightly damaged due to lengthy desiccation. The

colony is 35 mm long and finger-like; a cylindrical polyparium arises from an

upright stalk. Stalk length approximately 40-50 per cent of total colony length.

Stalk and polyparium distinctly delineated. Anthocodiae retractile into perma-

nent calyces. Anthocodial sclerites absent. Calyx sclerites are spindles 0,7—

1,0 mm long. Surface of polyparium is densely spiculated with spindles or slightly

clubbed spindles, mostly 0,4-1,0 mm in length. Surface of stalk with large

robust spindles or slightly clubbed spindles 0,25—2,6 mm long. Similar large

sclerites are common throughout the interior of the colony. Preserved colony

colour brownish, sclerites white.

Distribution

The species is known only from the east coast of southern Africa, from East

London (eastern Cape Province) to the Durban region (Natal), 40-93 m

(Williams in press a). Type locality unspecified.

Remarks

Pieterfaurea unilobata is distinguished by the possession of conspicuous

permanent conical protuberances formed by a palisade-like arrangement of large

spindles; large tuberculate spindies and clubbed spindles are present throughout

the surface as well as in the interior of the colony; anthocodial sclerites are

absent.

The two species of Pieterfaurea can be differentiated as follows: P. khoi-

saniana has sclerites in the anthocodiae that form well-defined crown and points,

in which the sclerites may be sparsely or densely disposed; the maximum length

of the coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm; sclerites are more sparsely disposed in

the surface of the stalk and polyparium giving the colonies a softer, more

flexible appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps are sparsely spiculated

with a ‘palisade-like’ arrangement not well defined; the maximum size of

colonies is 130 mm long by 50 mm wide; the colonies are mostly stout with the

stalk usually comprising half or less of the total colony length; the species is

apparently restricted to the Cape south coast from Danger Point to the eastern

Cape. Pieterfaurea unilobata, on the other hand, does not possess sclerites in the

anthocodiae; the maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6 mm; sclerites

of the surface of the colony are very dense giving the colonies a relatively stiff

and rough appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps have sclerites that are

densely arranged in a ‘palisade-like’ fashion; the maximum size of colonies is

50 mm long by 10 mm wide; the colonies are mostly narrow with the stalk

usually comprising one-half or more of the total colony length; the species is

apparently restricted to the South African east coast from East London to

central Natal.

The placement of the genus Pieterfaurea in the Nidaliidae is here considered

nominal as it also shares characteristics with the family Alcyoniidae. The

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA i DH |

Fig. 37. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988).

A-B. Sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,85 mm. B. Detail of surface

tuberculation from a polyparium sclerite, total length of micrograph represents 0,24 mm.

C_D. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. C. 0,28 mm. D. 1,0 mm. E-G. Pieterfaurea

unilobata (Thomson, 1921), sclerites from the surface of a colony. E. 1,0 mm. F. 0,70 mm.

G. 0,24 mm.

328 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

‘palisade-like’ arrangement of sclerites at the base of the polyps do not represent

true calyces (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47, 66). Alcyonium complanatum

Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a, also do not possess calyces

but do have large multi-tuberculate spindles that are longitudinally placed in the

outer surface giving the colony a rough appearance, a feature used to define the

Nidaliidae (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47). Even though Verseveldt & Bayer

(1988) considered Pieterfaurea to be a genus of the Nidaliidae, they at the same

time included it in the key to the genera of the family Alcyoniidae, and not in

the key to the nidaliid genera.

Genus Siphonogorgia Kolliker, 1874

Siphonogorgia KO6lliker, 1874: 18. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 48.

Diagnosis

Colonies branched and arborescent. Slender branches arise from a well-

defined stalk. Surface of colonies brittle and rough. Polyps arise from the ends

of terminal branches but are not present on the main branches or on the stalk.

Polyps armed with well-developed crown and points. Sclerites are mostly

tuberculated spindles. :

A genus of perhaps twelve or more species from the Red Sea and Indo-

Pacific.

Type species. Siphonogorgia godeffroyi Kolliker, 1874; Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

A single undetermined species has been collected by dredge from northern

Natal between 62 m and 142 m in depth. This account represents a new record

of the genus for southern Africa.

Family Nephtheidae Gray, 1862

Colonies lobate or arborescent, upright, with a distinct stalk. Polyps

monomorphic, arranged individually or in clusters or catkins, along surface of

branches and/or at the tips of ultimate branches. Sclerites often dense, mainly of

spindles, clubs, and radiates.

A family of about 20 genera known world-wide; at least four genera repre-

sented in southern Africa.

Genus Capnella Gray, 1869

Capnella Gray, 1869: 129. Utinomi, 1960: 28. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 233. Verseveldt, 1977:

184.

Eunephthya Verrill, 1869: 284. Utinomi, 1951: 28.

Paranephthya Wright & Studer, 1889: 227.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 329

MI)\

LO,

YON

PAYTTAR

Me 4

Fig. 38. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thompson, 1921). A. An entire colony, 35 mm in

length. B. A single polyp showing palisade-like arrangement of sclerites to form a

permanent calyx; diameter of base of calyx = 2 mm. C. Sclerites from the calyx and

surface of polyparium. D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale = 0,6 mm

330 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Diagnosis

Colonies often arborescent, usually with multiply branched polyparium

arising from a prominent stalk. Polyps in clusters, curved inward, without crown

and points arranged en chevron. Sclerites scattered throughout polyps. Polyp

sclerites include leaf-clubs and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites include leaf-clubs

and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites are often irregular and compact radiate-like

structures, frequently thorny.

A genus of perhaps 19 species, primarily Indo-Pacific and extending into the

south-eastern Atlantic (Cape of Good Hope Peninsula).

Type species. Alcyonium imbricatum Quoy & Gaimard, 1833, by

subsequent designation. |

Capnella susanae Williams, 1988

Figs 39—40

‘ Capnella susanae Williams, 1988: 19—26, figs 14-15, 16B, 17-19.

Material

SAM-—H3717 (holotype), Hottentots Huisie, Cape of Good Hope Penin-

sula, South Africa (33°59'S 18°21'E), 15-18 m depth, 11 November 1984,

1 whole colony, SCUBA, G. C. Williams.

Description

The holotype is arborescent and somewhat digitiform, not luxuriantly

bushy, <50 mm total length. Stalk and polyparium strongly demarcated.

Polyparium inconspicuously and sparsely branched. Lateral branches <6 mm

long. Polyps sometimes solitary but often clustered into groups of 2-20

(commonly 3-7). Polyps of these clusters joined proximally. Polyps elongate

clavate, 2-3 mm in length, curved adaxially, non-retractile, but tentacles

‘retractile into body of polyps. Polyparium sclerites are caterpillars, leaf clubs,

and thorny spindles, <0,33 mm in length. Surface sclerites of stalk tuberculate

spheroids of irregular shape, and capstan-like radiates, <0,15 mm in length.

Radiates are densely set in gastric cavity walls of the colony interior, <0,12 mm

in length. Colony colour pink in life, fading to dark grey or brown in alcohol.

Distribution

Known from the west coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula to

southern Transkei, between 15 and 70 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a).

Type locality is the west coast of the Cape Peninsula.

Remarks

Capnella susanae differs from other southern African nephtheids by

digitiform growth habit, polyps 2-3 mm long distributed along finger-like

polyparium, and sclerites <0,33 mm long.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 331

Fig. 39. Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. Entire colony 25 mm in length. B. Group

of three polyps; central polyp is 3 mm in length. C. Sclerites from polyp wall.

D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale bar = 0,2 mm.

332 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 40. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. A-E. Sclerites

from polyp bases. A. 0,15 mm. B. 0,125 mm. C. 0,035 mm. D. 0,20mm. E. 0,14 mm.

F-H. Sclerites from surface of stalk. F. 0,07 mm. G. 0,07—0,09 mm. H. Both 0,075 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 333

Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865)

Figs 1H-I, 41-42

Nephthya thyrsoidea Verrill, 1865: 1982.

Nephthya rugosa Kiikenthal, 1902: 299.

Capnella rugosa Kiikenthal, 1906: 68, pl. 3 (figs 12, 13), pl. 11 (figs 67-69). Thomson, 1910:

575, pl. 2 (fig. 10), pl. 4 (figs 42a—c). Broch, 1939: 12, fig. 9.

Capnella gilchristi Thomson, 1910: 578, pl. 2 (fig. 11), pl. 4 (figs 40a—c).

Capnella-thyrsoidea Utinomi, 1960: 31. Verseveldt, 1977: 185. England & Robson, 1984: 313,

figs 4C, 5C-D.

Material

SAM-H917, Mossel Bay, Cape Province (22°15’S 34°10’E), 38 m, 24 June

1898, 2 colonies, shrimp trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 88. SAM-—

H3385, off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°39’S 19°20’E), 39 m, 12 April

1984, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute,

Line Fish Survey. SAM—H3415, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S

18°21’E), 14 m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams.

Description

Colonies examined are 15-170mm long. Colonies upright, bushy

arborescent, with an intricately branched polyparium arising from a prominent

stalk. Stalk often robust, up to 30 mm in diameter and 40 mm in length.

Polyparium wider than stalk, exuberantly branched. Polyp clusters arising from

sides and apexes of ultimate branches. Polyps extremely numerous, cylindrical

or tear-shaped with distal portion sometimes slightly expanded; c. 1,0-—2,0 mm

in length. Sclerites of stalk are compact six-radiates (capstans), some

approaching irregular spheroids with prominent tuberculation, 0,04—0,09 mm in

length. Sclerites of the polyp clusters and calyces are elongate coarsely-

tuberculate spindles, clubs and leaf-clubs, 0,12—1,2 mm long. Colour variable,

brown to dark brown, light grey to smoke-grey, white to salmon to pinkish, or

cream to yellowish.

Distribution

Apparently endemic to South Africa, west coast of the Cape of Good Hope

Peninsula to the Durban region of Natal, 10—240 m in depth (Williams in press

a). This species is one of the commonest octocorals in southern Africa, often

seen by divers on vertical rock walls and reefs. It is probable that the

distribution of this species extends into northern Natal (England & Robson

1984: 315). Type locality South Africa, detailed locality unspecified.

Remarks

The appearance of colonies of C. thyrsoidea differs remarkably depending

on degree of contraction or expansion. Underwater observation of the species

off the west coast of the Cape Peninsula (12—20 m depth) during daylight hours

in turbid water, has revealed that in feeding posture the colonies are greatly

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

334

partially contracted,

total length of figure

105 mm in length. D. Sclerites from

polyp wall. Scale bar =0,3 mm. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar =0,1 mm.

Fig. 41. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A. Entire colony,

135 mm in length. B. Detail from a group of five polyps

2,5 mm. C. Entire colony, tightly contracted

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 335

expanded and elongated, reaching up to 300 mm in length and 200 mm in width,

very limp and flexible. The colonies have all branches elongated and exposed

with the ultimate branches containing polyp clusters forming protuber-

ances along the surface of the branches. During severe contraction, as in

daylight hours in clear water or during preservation, the colonies are tightly

compacted, stiff and rigid, resembling stalks of cauliflower, usually not more

than 80 mm in total length. | “ 3

A recently described and unusual species of ptychodactiarian anemone,

Preactis millardae England & Robson, 1984, representing a new anthozoan

family (Preactiidae), has been shown to be a species-specific predator on

C. thyrsoidea (England & Robson 1984: 313). The large anemone (up to

200 mm in length) is relatively mobile, using the lateral vesicles and pedal disc

to temporarily adhere to various substrata. Preactis millardae is at present

known only from the south-western Cape Province, in less than 20 m of water.

The anemone apparently engulfs and digests whole polyparies of C. thyrsoidea,

often leaving only the basal portion of the stalk remaining.

Macfadyen (1936: 51) recorded C. rugosa (a junior synonym of C. thyr-

soidea) from the Australian Great Barrier Reef. This is probably a misidenti-

fication; examination of Macfadyen’s material is necessary for verification.

Verseveldt (1977) considered at least eight species of the genus Capnella to

occur in Australia, C. thyrsoidea (= C. rugosa) not being one of them.

Capnella thyrsoidea is distinguished from C. susanae by the presence of

bushy arborescent form with intricately branched polyparium, polyps 1-2 mm

jong, and sclerites up to 1,2 mm long.

Genus Dendronephthya Kikenthal, 1905

Dendronephthya Kikenthal, 1905: 667. Utinomi, 1952: 161; 1954: 319.

Diagnosis

Colonies are bushy and arborescent with a prickly or bristly appearance.

Colonial growth form is umbellate, glomerate or divaricate. Polyps arranged in

groups. Each polyp has a conspicuous supporting bundle of sclerites that usually

projects far above the polyp. Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spindles.

A very large genus of over 250 described species, distributed in the Red Sea

and the Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Nephthya savignyi Ehrenberg, 1834, by subsequent desig-

nation; Red Sea, Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

At least four undetermined species of this genus occur in Natal between

Durban and Kosi Bay, 12-50 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press).

Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek (1962: 70) described Dendronephthya muta-

bilis as Morchellana mutabilis from the Durban region of Natal, at 64-91 m in

depth. Verseveldt (1960: 511) described Dendronephthya inhacaensis from

336 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Fig. 42. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A—I. Sclerites

from polyp bases. A. 0,29mm. B.0,17mm. C. 0,28mm. D. 0,24 mm. E. 0,09 mm.

F. 0,25 mm. G. 0,40 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F; total

length of micrograph = 0,07 mm. I. 1,0 mm. J—L. Sclerites from surface of stalk. J. 0,10 mm.

K. 0,09 mm. L. 0,10 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 337

Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique; depth not recorded. The two species can

be distinguished as follows: D. mutabilis has supporting bundles of one large

projecting spindle whereas in D. inhacaensis the supporting bundles are

composed of 3-5 large projecting spindles.

Genus Litophyton Forskal, 1775

Litophyton Forskal, 1775: 139. Bayer, 1956: 188; 1981b: 913.

Ammothea Savigny in Lamarck, 1816: 410.

Litophytum Agassiz, 1848: 616. Kikenthal, 1903: 105. Shann, 1912: 511. Light, 1915: 1.

Diagnosis

Colonies arborescent, branches arise from a single erect stalk. Polyps

clustered in lappets or catkins on the terminal branches only, not present in

other portions of colony. Colonies repeatedly branch distally. Surface of stalk

and branches smooth. Polyps non-retractile, without supporting bundles.

Sclerites of various types, but leaf clubs are not present.

Twenty or more species of the Indo-Pacific and the south coast of South

Africa.

Type species. Litophyton arboreum Forskal, 1775; Indo-Pacific.

Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988

Figs 43-45

‘Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988: 321-327, figs 2B, E, 4-8.

Material

SAM-—H3400, off Danger Point (34°38’'S 19°20’E), 39 m depth, 12 April

1984, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research

Institute, Line Fish Survey. SAM—H3863, off Cape Aguihas (34°52'S 20°05’E),

54 m depth, 23 February 1985, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved,

Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey.

Description

Colonies examined are 56-110 mm in height. From a common base several

stems may arise, which repeatedly ramify distally. Colonies are cauliflower-like,

with polyp-bearing regions of distal branchlets arising from a tall branching

stalk, which is smooth and fleshy. Polyps are contained on the sides and apices

of short lateral branches, as well as on the distal-most branchlets. The finely

divided ultimate branchlets usually contain 3-12 polyps, giving the colony a

luxuriantly bushy appearance. Ultimate branchlets are 3—8 mm long and 2-

5mm wide. Polyps are concentrated on distal portions of these branchlets.

Tentacles are retractile into the body of the polyp. Polyps are tear-shaped

(clavate) with global distal portions when contracted, or elongate-cylindrical

when expanded, 1,5-3,0 mm long and 0,8-1,5 mm wide. Several ultimate

338 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

branchlets were observed with young polyps budding laterally from near the

bases of adjacent polyps.

Sclerites are of three general types. The tentacles possess small irregular

rod-like structures that may branch near the ends. These sclerites are 0,05—

0,10 mm in length. Their arrangement in the tentacles was impossible to

determine due to contraction. The polyp walls and branchlets contain spindles

with fine but sparse tuberculation. These sclerites are 0,09—0,25 mm in length.

Some of these may be slightly club-shaped. Those of the polyps are relatively

robust spindles that may be somewhat curved with marginal protuberances more

Fig. 43. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony,

110 mm in height. B-E. Four groups of polyps from terminuses of four separate

ultimate branches. B. Group of four polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies of

"polyps, length 3,3 mm. C. Group of three polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies

of polyps, 2,5 mm in length. D. Group of seven polyps; total length of figure 6 mm.

E. Group of three polyps, total length of figure = 4,5 mm.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 339

pronounced and numerous on the convex side. Sclerites of the ultimate branches

are often slightly shorter than the polyp sclerites, usually <0,15 mm long. The

surface region of the stalk contains stout and irregular modified capstans,

0,05—0,13 mm long.

Colony colour is pale cream-white, both in life and in alcohol.

Distribution

The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa— Danger

Point, Cape Agulhas, and Cape St Francis; 30-54 m in depth (Verseveldt &

Williams 1988; Williams in press a); apparently endemic to southern Africa.

This species is locally common on vertical rock walls off Cape St Francis, with a

relatively dense population (approximately 5—8 colonies/m’—W. R. Liltved

pers. comm.). Type locality is Danger Point, south-western Cape Province.

Remarks

Litophyton liltvedi is distinguished from other southern African nephtheids

by having polyps clustered in catkins at ends of terminal branches, and sclerites

of spindles and double stars.

Genus Nephthea Audouin, 1826

Nephthea Audouin in Savigny, 1826: 230. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 271.

Nephthya Ehrenberg, 1834: 284. Kiikenthal, 1903: 141. Shann, 1912: 510.

Diagnosis

Colonies copiously branched. Polyps are contained in lappets, catkins or

bundles on the many branchlets. Each polyp has a supporting bundle of usually

slender and more-or-less similarly-sized tuberculated spindles.

A large genus of the Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Nephthea chabrolii Audouin, 1826, by monotypy; Red Sea

and Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

One unidentified species has recently been collected on the sublittoral coral

reefs of northern Natal at 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press 5).

This account represents a new record of the genus to southern Africa.

Other species of Nephtheidae

Only five nephtheid species have been identified and recorded from south-

ern Africa, these being Capnella thyrsoidea, C. susanae, Litophyton liltvedi,

Dendronephthya inhacaensis, and D. mutabilis.

Material from at least three other species not presently identified to genus

or species, occur from Saldanha Bay, False Bay, the eastern Cape Province to

Transkei, and Sodwana Bay. This material is held in the South African Museum

marine invertebrate collection.

340 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Family Xeniidae Ehrenberg, 1828

Colonies membranous, lobate or capitate. Polyps monomorphic or

dimorphic. All mesenterial filaments except the two asulcal ones are absent or

rudimentary in mature polyps. Pinnules are in several rows on each side of

tentacles. Sclerites are minute flattened oval rods or discs that are smooth,

knobbly or granular and rough in appearance (<0,1 mm long), or are com-

pletely absent. Many species possess symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in the

gastrodermal tissues of the tentacles. Colour of tentacles in life is often blue,

green, brown, grey, or yellowish.

Seven genera recognized world-wide, primarily in warm shallow seas of the

Indo-West Pacific.

Genus Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816

Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 407. Roxas, 1933: 59. Gohar, 1940: 88. Utinomi, 1958: 98.

Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 348.

Diagnosis

Colonies form membranous sheets from which individual polyps arise.

Polyps not retractile. Sclerites, if present, are small ovoid or rod-like platelets

<0,05 mm in diameter, often granular or rough in surface texture.

Perhaps twenty or more species of the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific; littoral or

shallow water.

Type species. Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

Three species of Anthelia have been recorded from southern Africa

(Table 1). In addition, Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879, was described from the

Cape of Good Hope at 91 m in depth. Studer gave only a brief description and a

very generalized figure that lacked sufficient detail to define diagnostic

characters or even to assign to a genus with certainty. According to him the

outer polyp wall is smooth and soft, without grooves or ribs. The cylindrical

polyps are weakly thorny spindles 0,2 mm long, and are thus consistent with

those of the genus Clavularia (Clavulariidae) but quite unlike sclerites of the

family Xentidae. The colony colour is described as vermilion red. Studer’s

material is presently not available for examination.

Two presently undetermined species of Anthelia have recently been col-

lected from Natal: a slate-grey species common on the sublittoral coral reefs of

Sodwana Bay, 9-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b); and a vivid

blue species that is frequently encountered at Durban from the littoral to at least

3 m in depth (see Fig. 1D).

Genus Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850

Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850: Ixxviii. Hickson, 1931: 162.

Roxas, 1933: 103. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 351.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 341

Fig. 44. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. Sclerites from polyp

walls and ultimate branches. B. Sclerites from tentacles. C. Stalk sclerites. Scale

bar = 0,1 mm.

342 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Diagnosis

Colonies are lobed and digitate; several lobes or branches arise from a

common stalk. Polyps arise from different levels of the polyparium on several

lobes and are non-retractile. Sclerites if present are minute, usually smooth

round to oval rods or discs.

Perhaps ten or more species of the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Cornularia multipinnata Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards

& Haime, 1850, by subsequent designation; Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

A single species of Cespitularia has been recorded from South Africa

(Table 1), but no new material has been collected representing this genus.

Genus Heteroxenia KOlliker, 1874

Heteroxenia Kolliker, 1874: 12. Hickson, 1931: 168. Roxas, 1933: 95. Gohar, 1940: 101. Tixier-

Durivault, 1966: 368.

Diagnosis

Colonies capitate; capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Polyps arise from

a distinct terminal disc on the capitulum. Polyps dimorphic at least during

breeding periods, non-retractile.

Type species. Heteroxenia elisabethae KOlliker, 1874, by subsequent

designation, Red Sea and Indo-Pacific.

Remarks

Four species of Heteroxenia have been recorded for southern Africa

(Table 1), but no new material has been collected that is assignable to this

genus.

Genus Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816

Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 409. Hickson, 1931: 148. Roxas, 1933: 76. Gohar, 1940: 93.

Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 358.

Diagnosis

Colonies are lobed and capitate; several polyps arise from the top of upright

stalks or lobes. There may be one or several lobes in a colony but they do not

arise from a common stalk. Polyps always monomorphic, non-retractile. Scler-

ites, if present, are mostly minute smooth rounded or irregular plates.

A genus of perhaps 30 or more species from the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific.

Type species. Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Red Sea, Indo-

Pacific.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Fig. 45. Scanning electron micrographs of Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988.

A-E. Sclerites from the bases of the polyps. A. 0,235 mm. B. 0,26mm. C. 0,208 mm.

D. 0,19 mm. E. Detail of a single tubercle from a polyp sclerite; total length of micrograph =

0,09 mm. F-I. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. F. 0,74 mm. G. 0,09 mm. H. 0,07 mm.

I. 0,052 mm.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

344

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SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 345

Remarks

Four species of Xenia have been recorded from Natal (Table 1). Material

representing one or more undetermined species of the genus has been collected

from Durban (shore station), Umtwalumi (shore station), and off Kosi River

mouth (47 m in depth).

Other species of Xeniidae in southern Africa

Twelve species representing four genera have been recorded from southern

Africa. These are summarized in Table 1.

The known distribution of the family Xeniidae in southern Africa is along

the Indian Ocean coast from Port St Johns in Transkei to Inhaca Island,

Mozambique; presence of the family is to be expected north of Inhaca.

KEY TO THE SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

1A. Colonies attached to substrata by basal stolons that are mainly ribbon-like

or reticulate; or stolons form multi-layered platforms. Polyps separate,

not grouped together by common swellings or globular polyparies ..... Z

1B. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by a basal

holdfast or membranous sheets; if base stolon-like then adjacent polyps

grouped together by a common swollen or globular polyparium, or base

Spreadime and membranous, notribbon-like. of... s ee oe 10

2A. Colonies arborescent. Anthocodiae not retractile into anthosteles......

RP ar erate dec seen os Nats i, de nce at hes oh ECT et NE AE Coelogorgia palmosa

2B. Colonies not arborescent; polyps solitary or with secondary lateral polyps.

Anthocodiae totally retractile into anthosteles 2 2226.8 ese. sa. 3

3A. Walls of anthostele brittle and inflexible, composed of permanently fused

sclerites, or a mosaic of tightly fitting, flattened plates ................ +

3B. Walls of anthostele flexible, not brittle, composed of numerous free

Sclerites OF cClumaps Of partly fused Sclemites\)2 2. ss ee oe ce we es i)

4A. Colonies heavily calcified, with lateral connections of multi-layered

stolons that form successive platforms. Colonies form rounded clumps.

Colo unewiMe eG. vats week re cogs aia one ae Tubipora musica (Fig. 6)

4B. Polyps arise from stolons which adhere directly to substrata in one layer,

not forming multiple layers. Colour whitish, pinkish, or brownish...... 5

5A. Anthosteles composed of separate flattened plates, tightly fitting together

I CRAsMI@OSANC Pe ate ony cu, Whee aes at aaha Scleranthelia thomsoni (Fig. 4)

5B. Anthosteles composed of inseparably fused, tuberculated sclerites ..... 6

6A. Anthocodia with 8 points of sclerites arranged longitudinally. Base of

gastric cavity open, not forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals........

Uh hari eae ee wee tnt wet eam yielesto: tubuliporoides (Fig..2)

6B. Anthocodial sclerites not arranged in 8 points. Base of gastric cavity

forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals .......... Scyphopodium ingolfi

346

7B.

8A.

SB.

9A.

OB.

10A.

10B.

‘LIA.

11B.

IZA.

12B.

13A.

13B.

14A.

14B.

ISA.

ISB.

16A.

16B.

17A.

17B.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Za

Long axial polyps produce many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites of

polyp walls sometimes partly fused forming clumps ......... Carijoa sp.

Polyps solitary or sometimes producing one lateral secondary polyp.

Sclerites of polyp walls are free, not fusing to formclumps ............ 8

Retracted polyps form low rounded or conical anthosteles, polyps may

retract intO StOlONS, 22 heg. wae Woe ee ee ee Sarcodictyon sp.

Retracted polyps form prominent cylindrical or tubular anthosteles .... 9

Polyps long and tubular (often >10 mm), sometimes with lateral

secondary polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavity filled with mesogleal

PUALORAL eae ee we wae ay ees teers oe pe eee Telestula sp.

Polyps cylindrical (usually <10 mm long), never with lateral secondary

polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavities open........... Clavularia spp.

Polyps'of one type:(monomorphic) 222525. 6.3.2. 19

Polyps of two-distinct types.(dimorpiic);. 4.2... 2 eee eee 11

Sclerites entirely absent or, if present, then of inconspicuous, flattened,

ovate structures (usually <0,05 mm long), with smooth surfaces ..... 1

Sclerites conspicuous, numerous and dense; of diverse form (>0,05 mm in

length); with surface.tuberculationsy 2-5.) ee 13

Tentacles with pinnules in several rows per side. Stalk without a rough

horn-like cuticle. Sclerites present or absent. Polyps not retractile.......

bw nll SQLS occ ep Ags Aten a the esa tata ee ge Heteroxenia spp.

Tentacles with pinnules in a single row per side. Stalk covered by a rough

horn-like cuticle. Sclerites altogether absent. Polyps retractile...........

ree ee mb seri gs Tire yh mints he Malacacanthus capensis (Fig. 32)

Colonies digitiformr cco no eee ee eee 14

Colonies distinctly capitate or with broad capitulums that are folded,

lobed, or plicate. ieee eek en es tener ey steals)

Sclerites ase mostly clubs -. 51... aes Acrophytum claviger (Fig. 7)

Sclerites are mostlycapstams.. ss A snen ee ee ee Minabea sp.

Colonies clavate to capitate. Capitulums spheroid or funnel form without

open folds on margins. Deeper water (>50 m depth)............... 16

Colonies with broad capitulums that are folded, lobed, or plicate. Shallow

sublittoral (<30 m depth) of Natal and Mozambique............... 18

Colonies with sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum... .

wa dy PN NOE gk geass aN ks TEC get ee Anthomastus giganteus (Fig. 27)

Colonies without sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum

Colony colour red-orange with yellow retracted polyps. Coenenchymal

sclenites are barrels-and tuberculate spncroidS a aes er ee

«aye soles ah Tie Orbe apes ue ee eee Verseveldtia bucciniforme (Fig. 35)

Colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted polyps. Coenen-

chymal sclerites are eight radiates .... Verseveldtia trochiforme (Fig. 33)

18A.

18B.

19A.

19B.

20A.

20B.

21A.

21B.

22A.

22B.

23A.

23B.

24A.

24B.

2A.

25B.

260A.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 347

Colonies fungiform or funnelform. Capitulum smooth or with open folds

GHIBLIN Meer Legs ce CP ene ae No he eB ee Sarcophyton spp.

Colonies often low and encrusting or dish to bowl-shaped. Capitulum with

closed folds or lobes or ridge-like plications .......... Lobophytum spp.

Sclerites are absent, or are very sparse flattened rods (0,06—0,26 mm

long); or if numerous, then are smooth, flattened ovate or rod-like forms

ease mrnri Mie) 2 ee oe coke de eral Fb cele ca oD eee yaa 20

Sclerites numerous, dense, and conspicuous (>0,10 mm long), usually

with conspicuous suriace tuberculation.. oc. we oe ee ee De,

Sclerites are rods (0,06—0,26 mm long) confined to the neck zones of

polyps and sometimes forming rings surrounding the bases of polyps.

Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per side. Colour orange or

DORMS ee 0 VBS Gis ae, 0c Son Bae, Alcyonium mutabiliforme (Fig. 19)

Sclerites absent or reduced to minute smooth circular, oval, or rod-like

bodies, usually <0,05 mm long. Tentacles with two or more rows of

pinnules per side, often vivid blue, slate grey, or greenish. Littoral or

shallow sublittoral of the Indian Ocean (family Xeniidae)............ 21

Colonies membranous and flattened, without a basal stalk.............

Eee ee er ee we nope int uA uate meant, Sieg Anthelia spp. (Fig. 1D)

Colonies capitate or digitate, usually with a distinct stalk ............ dips

CoOlomicsiCapi ales rae ele ee as ete Re IE Pk Xenia spp.

Colonies digitate.. = 22). 2 LEAR OSCE URI R AINE Aa RE od Cespitularia spp.

Colonies branched repeatedly or multilobate (>10 ultimate lobes or

Bolen INC s)ateeeiara tices Sucre Mr aPern ot Male tatemertiy en Miele LEMMA SE RUG fs. 5 24

Colonies membranous or creeping, capitate, digitiform, digitate, or few

fomare suo nmicimrate ODEs). sae, en Hye eine sees SL ee 33

Surface of colony rough and stiff, due to large, narrow finely tuberculate

spindles, densely packed and longitudinally placed. Polyps with conspicu-

ous crown and points, retractile into calyces composed of elongate

SpinGlcsiee iri chiereie Acre Cnet yE Seem cI Lt. id Siphonogorgia sp.

Surface of colony usually smooth and soft, not packed with large, narrow

longitudinally placed spindles; polyp calyces, if present, not composed of

laneennely tuberculatespindles::4/ oan aes acsecae Swe le oe Zs

Entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium, or antho-

codiae retractile into base of polyp that is either sparsely set with sclerites

or without sclerites altogether. Polyps arise singly from surface of lobes or

ultimate branches, adjacent polyps not joined together proximally .... 26

Anthocodia retractile into a permanent calyx that is densely set with

sclerites of variable form. Adjacent polyps clustered together, often

forming a common base and joined proximally, polyp clusters distributed

on sides and distal tips of branches (family Nephtheidae) ............ 30

Sclerites are mostly spindles and/or clubs, 0,05-—5,0 mmlong......... 27

348

26B.

DPX

27B.

28A.

28B.

29A.

29B.

30A.

30B.

31A.

SB:

32A.

32B.

SVEN

S)o18).

34A.

34B.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Sclerites are mostly small capstans, double stars, or tuberculate spheroids,

0,03=0 1S mmlong 23.2 oo: ae ee Pe ee ee 28

Polyparium with complex plications or with digitate lobes often long, thick

and tapering distally. Polyps cover entire surface of lobes or plications,

often preserved totally retracted. Sclerites are small clubs (0,06—0,2 mm

long); and large, robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles (0,5-5,0 mm long)

ara tere a oh wie seater Mr ae nM oe So Sinularia spp.

Polyparium repeatedly ramifies distally. Polyps confined to ultimate

branches in the distal-most portion of colony. Sclerites are spindles with

sparse tuberculation (0,09—0,25 mm long), and irregularly shaped, modi-

fied capstans (0,05—-0,13 mm long)...... Litophyton liltvedi (Figs 43-44)

Sclerites are primarily double stars or double heads (0,03—0,08 mm long)

Nee er Poe rar eo Cladiella spp.

Sclerites are primarily capstans or tuberculate spheroids (0,03—0,15 mm

long)... fae eset. pee Ey ee 29

Sclerites are capstans distributed throughout the surface region of the

polyparium and’ stalk (0;03—0065 mmlone))y se

Oe EE RS Re ee ee Alcyonium valdiviae (Fig. 22)

Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spheroids restricted to the surface of

the stalk (0,08—0,15 mm long) .......... Alcyonium distinctum (Fig. 9)

Individual polyps each with a supporting bundle ofspindles.......... 31

Individual polyps without a supporting bundle of spindles ........... 32

Supporting bundle of spindles conspicuously projects beyond the polyp.

Colonies brightly coloured; white with red, orange, yellow, or maroon

PE tare Ae eee nN EIN G Gn ben’) GclSyn 6 9p Dendronephthya spp.

Supporting bundle of spindles does not project beyond each polyp.

Colonies uniform: cream-coloured ear cee ees ee Nephthea sp.

Sclerites of the polyps and branchlets are mostly leaf clubs and robust

tuberculate spindles (0,12—1,2 mm long) .. Capnella thyrsoidea (Fig. 41)

Sclerites of the polyps ahd branchlets are mostly leaf clubs, caterpillars,

and thorny spindles (0,12—0,33 mm long).... Capnella susanae (Fig. 39)

Polyps relatively few (usually <20) restricted to distal and sometimes

flattened terminal surtace of colomyas 4 weiner ee ee 34

Polyps numerous (usually <20), dispersed over entire surface of a

globular; lobate; or finger-like polypanum 2-3. 2s ee 35

Polyps with numerous red needle-like sclerites. Sclerites of polyparium

and stalk are mostly capstans. Stalk without a cuticular envelope. Colony

colour permanente sar ae ee irae eee Alcyonium elegans (Fig. 11)

Polyp sclerites absent. Colony sclerites are exclusively large, robust

tuberculate spindles restricted to surface of stalk and sides of capitulum.

Stalk covered with a thin cuticular envelope. Colony colour alcohol-

soluble3 3920 cee ee eee ee Alcyonium planiceps (Fig. 21)

3 5/8

35B.

36A.

36B.

37A.

57 B:

38A.

38B.

39B.

AOA.

AOB.

41A.

41B.

42A.

42B.

43A.

43B.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 349

Colonies digitate, polyparium of several slender finger-like processes aris-

ing from a prominent basal stalk......... Eleutherobia rotifera (Fig. 29)

Colonies capitate, digitiform, lobate, globular, membranous or encrust-

re eee ys ate ia ee ee nd Oe RNR ee das 36

Colonics GicttionmlOn, Capltate. 2 hoi e es ele ee ee ee eee be ne tee 37

Colonies lobate, globular, membranous to encrusting............... 45

Colonies excluding polyps are digitiform (finger-like) es 38

Colonies excluding polyps are capitate (fungiform) ................. 43

Bases of retracted polyps often form globular swellings or conical to

cylindrical calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like sclerites

te Ee eh el hotly ee Mon MOE dla bom 5 5 eas 5 ak 39

Polyps without calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like

sclerites; entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium . 42

Polyp bases form conical calyces by the palisade-like arrangement of large

spmdic-shaped-sclenites (073 mmilone) A) 5: 3 i ee ws role ee} AO

Polyp bases globular, low and hemispherical or tall and cylindrical to

clavate. Calyx wall filled with small sclerites (<0,3 mminlength).... 41

Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps strongly devel-

oped with sclerites erect and densely set. Anthocodial sclerites absent.

Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6mm...........

Wri hips Nia een, oo fe as aes Picterjeurea untiobata (Fig: 38)

Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps is weakly

developed with sclerites sparsely or irregularly arranged. Anthocodial

sclerites present. Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm

ols ERIS Cae Meet rT Sto Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Fig. 36)

Polyp bases low and globular, low and rounded. Adjacent polyps are

solitary and arise directly from polyparium. Colony colour permanent

Ped are Pres eee Ah eevee wie AMR Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18)

Calyces elongate cylindrical or slightly clavate. Adjacent polyps often

clustered together with common bases. Colony colour alcohol-soluble

Zs pity Reeth icra aie cute A Mae SE gpg eee a ee ee Capnella susanae (Fig. 39)

Sclerites are exclusively tuberculated spheroids (<0,1 mm long).........

Le Tap ie SR mae Ae RN eRe, Pe AN Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18)

Sclerites are predominantly clubs with spheroid heads and narrow pointed

neanelkc Sr Onsale ONG) Surg. 2 ee Ale ee oe ie aN sess a we

esr ene ak gee gay ay Acrophytum claviger (monomorphic colonies) (Fig. 7)

Fully retracted polyps from flexible and circular cup-like or disc-like

CANN Sipe rues meee ae aes patito tet se aos Eleutherobia studeri (Fig. 31)

Fully retracted polyps form low rounded, protuberances on the surface of

the capitulum or are completely retractile into the capitulum; not forming

SURE SG AIDS SS, OTe tla een RPC 0 a hs PO nt 44

350

44A.

A4B.

ASA.

ASB.

46A.

46B.

ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Some sclerites are tuberculate spheroids, double heads, or ovoid forms.

Colony :colour-alcohol-soluble =. °. 20.0) aac0 ei

Me Me an Se ee St hoi Alcyonium fauri (capitate form) (Figs 13-14)

Sclerites are clubs, capstans, spindles, and needles; no globular or ovoid

forms. Colony colour permanent ......... Alcyonium variabile (Fig. 24)

Sclerites are entirely elongate, tuberculated clubs and spindles; no globu-

lar, ovoid, or foliate forms or double heads present..............

er eer Main, Stelter yo. u Alcyonium wilsoni (Fig. 26)

Sclerites diverse, but many are globular, ovoid, or distinctly foliate forms

or double heads... ee oe oe a ee 46

Many sclerites are distinctive foliate forms and double heads. Colonies

usually encrusting soft substrata such as sponges....................---

Ai ee re ete nea PONE er. Alcyonium foliatum (Fig. 16)

Some sclerites are globular or ovoid tuberculate forms or double heads,

no foliates present. Colonial growth form variable: globular, lobate, or

membranous; usually on hard substrata such as rock, shell, and dead or

living Corals: 46). en ee ee Alcyonium fauri (Figs 13-14)

LIST OF SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS

RECORDED FROM SOUTHERN AFRICA

Order ALCYONACEA Lamouroux, 1816; amended by Bayer, 1981b.

Family Clavulariidae

Subfamily Clavulariinae

Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889

Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939

Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889

Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964

** Clavularia spp.

ie)

Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b

+ Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944)

Subfamily Sarcodictyoniinae

** Sarcodictyon sp.

Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a

Subfamily Telestinae

** Carijoa sp.

Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889

** Telestula sp.

Family Tubiporidae

Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Family Coelogorgiidae

Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857

Family Alcyoniidae

Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900

* Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988 te

Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902)

Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910

Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921

Alcyonium ‘glomeratum’ (Hassall, 1843)

Alcyonium membranaceum Kikenthal, 1906

Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954)

Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988

Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a

Alcyonium reptans Kukenthal, 1906

Alcyonium roseum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954)

* Alcyonium ‘rubrum’ (Brundin, 1896)

* Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt, 1903

* Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer, 1889

Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906

Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921)

Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921

Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954

Anthomastus hicksoni Bock, 1938

Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944)

** Cladiella sp.

Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910)

Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910)

Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886

Lobophytum crebiplicatum von Marenzeller, 1886

Lobophytum spp.

Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900)

‘Metalcyonium’ ‘clavatum’ Pfeffer, 1889

‘Metalcyonium’ lanceatum Thomson, 1921

‘Metalcyonium’ molle Burchardt, 1903

‘Metalcyonium’ novarae Kikenthal, 1906

* Minabea sp.

Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886

Sarcophyton spp.

Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg, 1834)

Sinularia spp.

Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b

Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900)

351

352) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM

Family Nidaliidae

° — Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988)

° Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921)

** Siphonogorgia sp.

Family Nephtheidae

Capnella susanae Williams, 1988

Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865)

Dendronephthya inhacaensis Verseveldt, 1960

Dendronephthya mutabilis (Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek, 1962)

** Dendronephthya spp.

° Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988

** Nephthea sp.

Family Xeniidae

* Anthelia flava (May, 1899)

Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816

* Anthelia profunda Tixier-Durivault, 1964

Anthelia spp.

Cespitularia coerulea May, 1899

* Heteroxenia elisabethae Kolliker, 1874

Heteroxenia fuscescens (Ehrenberg, 1834)

Heteroxenia membranacea (Schenk, 1896)

“ Heteroxenia rigida (May, 1899)

* Xenia dayi Tixier-Durivault, 1959

* Xenia florida (Lesson, 1825)

* Xenia spp.

Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816

* Xenia viridis Schenk, 1896

Incertae sedis

* Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879

* Literature record only; adequate material not available for study.

** Species indeterminate; material available but status uncertain or unidentifiable at present.

° Described and illustrated in the present work.

+ Identified, but material is partial or damaged or otherwise not adequate for full description.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The present study represents the first comprehensive survey of the known

soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna for all of southern Africa. Of at least

sixty species presently recorded in the literature, 26 species, 27 genera, and

seven families are here considered to be valid.

SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 353

Several species remain indeterminate or of uncertain status due to one or

more factors: (1) the lack of availability of type material for comparison with pre-

viously described species, either because of lack of response or co-operation from

a particular source, or not knowing the whereabouts of type material or even if a

type specimen exists; (2) the lack of sufficient detail pertaining to the original

descriptions of many species; (3) the lack of availability of certain literature

references and problems such as delays or lack of co-operation from sources of

inter-library loans; (4) the damaged or inadequate nature of available material

pertaining to a given species, or (5) in some cases a large-scale revision of a given

group may be necessary in order to accurately identify an individual species.

The genera Sarcodictyon, Telestula, Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia, and

Nephthea are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time.

Approximately 90 species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals are

presently estimated to occur in southern African coastal regions. This number is

subject to change as future studies will undoubtedly reveal many unrecorded

and undescribed species. Detailed examination of the fauna from the west coast

Atlantic and east coast Indian Ocean regions is still necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the late Dr J. Verseveldt of Zwolle, the Netherlands, for

the identification of some material and for his comments regarding the status of

the genera Acrophytum and Metalcyonium; Dr F. M. Bayer of the Smithsonian

‘Institution for his ideas concerning the taxonomy of Malacacanthus and for his

critical comments on the manuscript; Dr M. Grasshoff of the Senckenberg

Institute, Frankfurt, for critically reading the manuscript; and Phil Alderslade of

the Northern Territories Museum, Darwin, Australia, for his comments per-

taining to the status of Alcyonium, Metalcyonium, and Acrophytum.

I particularly thank W. R. Liltved of the South African Museum for his

keen underwater observations and copious material; also Dr R. N. Kilburn, Dr

D. Herbert, and Ruth Fregona of the Natal Museum, Susan Burke, Philip

Coetzee, Alan Connell, Dr T. M. Gosliner, the Sea Fisheries Research Institute

Dive Survey Unit (particularly Andrew Penney, Rob Tarr, and Paul Williams),

and the crew of the R.V. Meiring Naude (particularly Captain George Foulis)

for help in the collection of material.

Dane Gerneke and Klaus Schultes of the University of Cape Town Electron

Microscopy Unit provided assistance in the preparation of scanning electron

micrographs. Liz Hoenson, Michelle van der Merwe, and Sheryl Ozinsky

provided curatorial assistance and prepared photographic prints. Marcelle

Scheiner and Sandra Saven typed the manuscript. Figure 42C was prepared by

Virgilio Branco (South African Museum).

I thank Prof. G. M. Branch and Dr J. A. Day of the Department of

Zoology, University of Cape Town, for reading the manuscript and for their

helpful comments.

354 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM fe

Field work for this paper was funded in part by the Foundation for

Research Development and the South African Museum. SANCOR and FRD

provided partial funding for SEM work through a grant to Prof G. M. Branch.

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1856. Collected by Dr. Wm. Stimpson, naturalist of the Expedition. With descriptions of

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Institute, Salem, Mass. 4: 181-196.

VERRILL, A. E. 1868. Critical remarks of the halcyonoid polyps in the Museum of Yale

College with descriptions of new genera. American Journal of Science and Arts (2)

45: 411-415.

VERRILL, A. E. 1869. Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps. No. 3. American Journal of

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VERRILL, A. E. 1878. Notice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of

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VERSEVELDT, J. 1960. Two new species of the genus Dendronephthya Kiikenthal (Coelente-

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511-517.

358 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM a

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VERSEVELDT, J. 1977. Australian Octocorallia (Coelenterata). Australian Journal of Marine

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VERSEVELDT, J. 1980. A revision of the genus Sinularia May (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea).

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VERSEVELDT, J. 1982. A revision of the genus Sarcophyton Lesson (Octocorallia, Alcyo-

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VERSEVELDT, J. 1983. A revision of the genus Lobophytum von Marenzeller (Octocorallia,

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VERSEVELDT, J. & Bayer, F. M. 1988. Revision of the genera Bellonella, Eleutherobia,

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6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the International code of zoological nomenclature (particu-

larly Articles 22 and 51).

Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed

by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. nov., syn. nov.,

etc.

An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation

and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s name and year. The

author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a species or subspecies is trans-

ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated

from the scientific name by a colon. a

Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. _ all published scientific

names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all

references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.:

Family Nuculanidae

Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845)

Figs 14-15A

Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37.

Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50.

Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b).

Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87.

Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9.

Note punctuation in the above example:

comma separates author’s name and year

semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author

full stop separates references by different authors

figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures

dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers.

Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is

placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable.

In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens

mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material not regarded

as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, depository, descrip-

tion of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes must be recorded, e.g.:

Holotype

SAM-—A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region, King’s Beach, Port Eliza-

beth (33°51’S 25°39’E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973.

Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers and date.

7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES

Capital initial letters

(a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text

e.g. “. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus .. .’: ‘. . . in C. namacolus (Fig. 10). . .’

(b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by

initials or full names

e.g. DuToit but A.L.du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene

e.g. Therocephalia, but therocephalian

Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary

Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person

Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a book or

article, such as

‘Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.’

Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial

capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should

not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph.

Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract,

counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts.