ioe ee : is) ; sup fh thet

* S08" be, 3 ¥ 7 j= 4 a

the este dhe (Pi ‘ A ‘ b on

co (be ite te ¢ \ i

Ni ibe ee b

Bi eeihe lo |, pak i

Fh yt det

art = ole 4

Five

Fee

€

way

‘ tay

De Pe ho De Beige Ae be Us %

ME Ie Bem EY pe he bata be Hue tis th f

(iver

iPr be The SADR Ha Dobe Ses bets be : i ya Fs

he bathe Fens Oe he Theis be vicina 4) i

PEE ihe Fy oe Abe 2 Bey My Ms bia

abet Leese us 4 ally f Zi ee bre beds "je tie

Pata (AM

baa

a Heeb fan

Peieahewe de

share Bats

Fy d=

eel}

vies

ured

se nese a

h jaeal ue"

A Heide)

sti

echt

ee gone hots

bet Ly

Jute

Hy) see,

rhe sali

ban 8

TL,

fateh h

ai 5

4 “A

4 as ats CA EY a : : MOE 5 date l

ree a a ite P hapa * ‘ pa, Th)

a) we ha} i taead be hs ; brio ae cs

; a en

. . i . Crentet es im A : ey dee ieee

CEL ral it vind ane aed ee Saae e ape ae

ieee Com " Sb 9) ie tly be iS JA 27 aad TEES 2 * amet eas

PRC ATEN Weller g 6s 8) Peokepits yaa ttt By tiat ; ap

oom fai! * ;

he fe thin Sa Se

rel pt gtd) Te ETE ES Os OB: Oe

nes aR A hy iat emaies

sooo ie Rai . ; ; Wasdale eats bpeednrtelt

Meter net tT i he ‘ FE to Lt) ae ef)

PYRO Ne vel te ee ercrieeni at ey Ca

phe ae vr A ely ie ae

| RA ES A A A ea

Od pe + ves Gs

i jou

ies ae iret

i Fats

ai hs me He fea

etek! Behn

5 bbe, &

x ee he

AA,

» ey

am Ue Be

42 yee hate po ha Tet ‘ y) | % uty

i ME H " . , ee alts (ie

eae hs Hate a ae hes Sak WOE " ‘i on ge by we Yes fa A "hoe i

te By ao eae peg Agha ‘ , ; s dishes it

1M ie nae pk Rats 4 ' tp gts ort sib} aye a a ‘ wewh

We te a ‘ » ie pate tee u be 7 1 7 :

Tae. ? ik ft NL: be ae Mf ai > eit ae) oie was Ce te

AARAARAAA AAPAARAA a ana nin'n

ae aaa EANSTTTTY AAA

VAAAA ARR, ARN

Ve [ f | | ¥ ! y |

G'a' A\alalale\e\a : aA > Ve a\a| ala (A | | VO

| NAIA AA IAAAA AAAS Ainal| | ||

Z E\ NN GN \NA-AAAA ~ ml! NPS oe | pan

AIAN / aN SAARA 7 wz yy AA AR A AA aR AN a Ap ‘\; sm \VAX| y_

RA AV \- AAACYY.\.' ~\ VAAN VANIANIA A

| / AR ARAAA AAA

AAWAAAAAR

y | ‘4 y y Y \

¥ F

AAAAAA lan

Saaneeeees ace a AAA AAA AAA. wane

AAAAAAAN

\) | lie

} Py

f f |

| y ‘i \¢g ‘i

\ ’ i= —} _ y —, \

Y \ \ 6 \! \ } A lf

| ] j } 7 i H

i ; :

a! ~

Hl | fi

Y 1)

»\ = \A\ = VF

| on \ I

}

; scauuiouneseaan

RaRRaeRaneys Aa 3 A A

flatts

Sones

aia

a tee

AF2 Ze

14 Bi Bim

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXVI

NOS. 1 & 2

Price oe Rs. 2-4-0.

Zan way = .

2 \

(JAN 23 M4 Hy

yp 304029 :

MADRAS mm ‘Kees

PRINTED AT THE D10oCcESAN PRESS

1933

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page = BS any

Contents of Nos. 1 and2 of Vol. XXXVI

List of Contributors

Yo follow frontis-

List of Plates ... Mee ie | 2

Index to Illustrations = piece in this order.

Errata 5 se soe

Index of Species en

List of Office Bearers, ) To go at the end of

Life Members and Members two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SIR REGINALD SPENCE, Kt., M.L.C., J.P., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., J.P.

& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XXXVI

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 18 Coloured Plates, 47 Black and White Plates,

31 Text-figures, and 1 Map.

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages I1to291) .,. 15th November, 1932.

IH. ( 4 293t0 520) ... 15th April, 1933.

LONDON AGENTS

DULAU & CO., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W.I.

eae

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1933

~4 ! _—

Li A N >) 7 10:

COND EN IES! OF OL ONLE DOO.

No. 1

PAGE

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. ype Ce

SiC IBA Reins 4125, Cts, 18 VF Sioy 18g) Goan, WG) OhIUog 1861 9a OnE

Part XVIII. (With a coloured plate) of Marsh Sandpiper

Tringa stagnatilts, Wood Sandpiper 7rixga glareola and

GiscempoanGolpen 77700 @ CCNVOPNUS. 201 sae dances sce seus vas 1

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

IB? 1B), ISIS, Sating EID, dS. Teena DG (Uae 2

(DUDS ee SOBER TREO SLED BOR CAIRN CO a ETE rT 1)

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY, THE DECCAN AND THE NEIGHBOUR-

ING DISTRICTS OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By Sir

INeoinaldi opencen Kay, (MeL«C., “h«AS., J.P. Ande oe ble

JERENSIE,, Wie Soe Vinal) Wicl2e (With LD PUALES a anon st 29

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE Pctea Guat

(Ornithological section). By Hugh Whistler, m.B.0.U.,

assisted by IN. b; Kinnear, w.B.o.u. Part 11)...2;...0.1.-0 4s 67

THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY. By S. B. Setna, M.Sc.,

OOS (VA: DUDA) aortas boon bee BEE COO RHEE HAE BeOS a senor 94.

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF HUROPE AND i

By hla Pocock) HRs, sPart Il, (W272) 2 plates and 12

text-figures.) .. Ba IS BRR BOO Oe Bee a ramen 08

SoME BEAUTIFUL increas aT RReee By E. Blatter, s.5., ph.p.,

F.L.S., and W. 8. Millard, F.z.s. Part X. (With 1 coloured

NOC, Jl WUTC Cel LCBO UOTE Chae), ZOE OOS Norm copocncho, LASS

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. By Lt.-Col, F. C. Fraser, I.M.s., F.E.S.

ita Oe VAs Se CCU Lt U0 CS) terested ae kde tans datesaneeccene -) Lok

NoTEs ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS. By C. McCann, F.L.S.

(With 10 plates and 2 text-figures.)... sneigeveainess 2

MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING Sear Peee Erion.

By Colin Campbell Sanborn.. at Suit TO

THE HoOT-WEATHER FERNS’ OF EAN aey eri By

Repel nine Co Ital. ©1694 EIS. 9.5 seie, .ctiascsinetes state tee) , (188

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN. By _ Brigadier

Wile sais 1C.S.ls,. Cis, Ds6.O..8 F.ROG.S-.1F.Z.S., F.E.S2) . 196

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA.

(Limnocnida indica, Annandale.) By H. Srinivasa

IO; M.Ae DSC (MUL @, Plate and A 1eXt-172UVE)\iak.e.ss-... 210

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI

PAGE

\/EARTH-FATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INpIA. By J. F.

Caius; $:3., P.L.8., and K. H. Bharteha. BA) Bseaw 218

OBITUARY. “Chomas Burcess: Fry )1850-19si eee Doe

An APPEAL TO ANGLERS. By Ae Macdonald...) 226

REVIEWS :—

1. HAND-LIST TO THE BIRDS OF SAMOA........... weal)

2. HAND-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA. 227

o: “ELE URED DEE OF MiGRATIONS.csccus eee ee 228

f TSIZE AND NORV elN see AONGRGE pert ee ee ee 230

a. POCKET UENG LELAND CORBI. sn eee ee Zonk

‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. The Balinese Tiger (Panthera tigris balica). By

Hod V. Sody.. ae ate Sete ee 2983

II. Remarkable Betewiout of a Tietess: ne ViS; ba

Personne, NEB OU cise cee fon Ree eee 235

Ill. The Skin of a Persian Panther (Panthera pardus

Sa20C0107)...) BY R: 1. POCOCK, HoRts 1-0 aoe eee OO

IV.) Black Heopards, By ke win Pigey - 236

V. A Carnivorous Bear. By Madensiah: on eaten: 238

VI. Wild Dogs killing by night. By Lt.-Col. T. H.

Carlisle; RASS. 2 eee ee ac ee 239

VII. Wild Dogs hunting and killing by night. By V. 58.

Tea Personne, MiBsO0U (50) ise Sends cod (os alee 240

VIII. Carcases of Animals dying of Rinderpest avoided

by Jackals and other Carnivora. By Randolph

C. Morris.. Se ree as 242

IX. Death of an Biephant feotn. Rabies. ‘By J. Beckett. 242

X. Sounds made by Gaur or Indian Bison. By R. M.

PABOY vec 5 less ada cea o RN an FR ees PE EEN tote 243

XI. Duration of Life of some Indian Mammals. By

Cedric Dover.. aaa . 244

XII. The Duration of lie of some : idea: Marmianls.

Tigers. By Randolph C. Morris, F.z.s.. 250

XIII. Record of Big Game shot in the Nileit Arh,

| 1905-1931... By Randolph C: Morris; r2cs55..s 25%

X1V. Small bore rifles and Big Game. By Capt. L. D. W.

THRE ATSOY 16 34, ck25 he cee aha cA EEL ER BI MINER dai Ales 254

XV. Game Reserves and Flashlight. By F. W. Cham-

DIODE” WEBic25.0s de PRA Reae bee antec bunts Sec eee

XVII.

SWE:

XIX.

XXIV.

XXYV.

XXVI.

KAVA.

POOV IEE

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

, XXXII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI

The Penduline Tit (emzz coronatus, ae

in the Punjab. By H. W. Waite.. j acl

Notes on some Ceylon Birds. By P. 'N. Bee eters

The Status of the Indian Black-headed Shrike

(Lanius nigriceps, Franklin) in Lower Bengal.

By oatva Churn Way Ph D., P:Z.S:, MeBO2U........

Occurrence of the White-throated Babbler (Argya

gularis, Blyth) in Lower Burma. By J. K.

SAMO AI C1S erasers sock eee io aes sales cekag ok RAE:

A note on the Buntings of Burma. By J. K.

Sram onGe le CeSassecccee Sean Map at neh onc Neco tae

The Short-eared Owl (Aszo fF.

Burmese ye d Mu Sramiongdi I. CSon ss vey pescegect

The occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchne/s

naumannt) and Knot (7vinga c. canutus)

Bunmas: by J. Ke Stamtond: 1 C:Si:

Distribution of the Eastern Grey Duck ee os

Zonorhynena).. tay J. C. FU SgiNs): U.C.Sv0:... a0:

Flower-Birds and Bird-Flowers. By H. G.

ICH EVEL Pay OL CHOI a any Ph even oor cltN a era Ue eter Ne aa soa er a ad

A ease of Twin Embryos in the Egg of a

Domestic Fowl (with a text-figure). By B. N.

tlammeus)

Notes on Monitor Lizards. By E. A. D’ Abreu, F.z.s.

The Family of a Russell’s Viper or Chain Viper

(Vipera russelliz). By A. L. Flynn, v.p., C.M.z.s.

Snakes in Ahmednagar. By Lt.-Col. K. G.

COBVRE OUST CS Vargas ll Aen a Ren tre ae A ip ee ie

Gases: of Snakes “Bite. “By Lt.-Col. kK, .G

(ST AVENIE: OS DIRETS Set I FACS pacman oO

A Fish Pest of Fields along the Coromandel Coast

(Ophichthys bore, Hb.) (With a plate). By T.

V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, B.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S.. :

The Food Supply of Trout in the NG. “Ss

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.4. (Aid.).......

Methods of dealing with plagues of Ants. By The

PC AEONG shen ee DAE Unb se Sevag s tule ge Sash cv! els

Behaviour of the Red Tree Ant (C&cophyla

smaragdima). By S, H. Prater, M.1.C., ¢..z.S,

A Scorpion (Buthus) feeding on a Galecd Spider

(Galeodes agilis, Pag.). By C. McCann, F,L.S....

NeCure ior Dapeyorm. By ©: MeCanm, B.LiS.... :..

eye)

262

263

265

266

267

268

269

271

272

274

276

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI

PAGE

XXXVI. Some Seagrasses from the Presidency of Bombay.

By S. C. Dixit, m.sSc.,; M.A.. 284

XXXVII. Glimpses of the Vegetation of Seantih Bure (With

3 plates). By K.-Biswas; MAG. & nese eS

XXXVIII. Scent in Relation to Flower-Colour. By ‘I. C. N.

Singh... ee Tene cee En ec ent: Mav enee han hceee 287

XXX TX: y Seanae Nunes ae Brig.-Gen. R. G. Burton. 288

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING HELD ON 141TH JuLy, 1932.... 290

No. 2

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. By E. C. Stuart

Baker, o.P.. (Cle, PeZicn, Holes... Me BeOnWs HE ARORUE

Part XIX. (With a cotoured plate) of The Redshank

Tringa totanus totanus and The Greenshank Glottis

MCOUAT TM ore ener or menos om OG Cee SG Te 298

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

By Nev. 2.) Blatter, S:., 20.0.) H.o.m tani Oe maa

2 DMT )oor es : ; 307

SOME DeeRe ee AMONGST Coe AND OTHER ine

GAME OF BURMA FROM 1887-1931. By W.S. Thom.

(CUA 2 MES» oo Soltis Sal

THE VERNAY SCIEN Te SuRgET OF THE Ease Grane

(Ornithological Section). Part 1V. By H. Whistler,

MABLO.U > 2SSisteds Dy INI bs Kinmicain Mob @nUeny eee eee — 334

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. Part XI. By Rev.

B. Blatter SJ., Phiw., Fos: ands Wess Millandh = u-zas-

(With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate and 2

TART ALOR) OIE EBA RESARPL IonRC nr Se SENET 8 HEB AHO MARINO ANDO OS tise boatodc Se)

Tur HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY. Part I.

By Salim Ali. With Notes by Hugh Whistler. (W27th a

Wap ANA —PPlAles.\ ies Micon Cente cote ee RE OOS

‘ Non-POISONOUS SNAKES.’ By 2S. ie eR AE Ree Mrslen Cae

OY ay AR rains trea de are ee MMI TH Venta nae SACI A Can a: atc 391

NOTES ON THE COLOURATION AND HABITS OF THE WHITE-

BROWED GIBBON OR HOOLOCK (fylobates hoolock, Hari.) J

By. C) McCann, rcs (Wain 2 plates) een eee 3959 if

~fur GAME Brrps AND ANIMALS OF THE MANIPUR STATE é

witH NOTES ON THEIR NUMBERS, MIGRATION AND

PARTS. Ratt le) Byrd Ce riigoimeminesses :

THE Civet Cars or ASIA. By KR. weocock, (ER. s. (With

F MOKEATE O UVES. Voc Oih vee cee tan oc tnerede ae emEN Meese iee ham iinet enna |

406

/ 493

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI Vii

PAGE

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.

Bains A Seale Seats peck Seren men oo moa Sey Re 450

ADDITIONS TO THE DRAGONFLY (Odonata) FAUNA OF INDIA

WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. By Lt.-Col.

1De (Cy IOWANS, MIS ISS (UAE ee AEBS GUA Oon ss toecononc: 460

THE SOCIAL LirE OF SNAKES.. By S. H. Prater, m.1.c.,

CaNIEZ. Sty Uieke Ben ioaeh cee ed Siac aaa e RTL Ae oat gore mianeie 469

NEw PLANTS FROM WAT teen in ‘By Rey. 2 Blatter, s.s.,

MDE ele Gera Mek toa ine thule Vilaaen eultee dca ts Gila se bans dad oe ET

REVIEWS :—

1. Les OISEAUX DE L’INDOCHINE FRANCAISE.......... 485

2. Tuer NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN

TEINS Ws eater sees G bath ah Peat tev yee ae Ns PAS fee ee 485

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. How does a Tiger make a ‘Kill’. By R. K. M.

TB Ey sm eee eS TA an Sa eo ee ee a in ene 488

II. Panthers of the North-West Frontier. By R. I.

POCOCK, FR Gaiac tae: etgiee © “469

III. Jackal attacking Goat. By M. ea eee 490

INA Wile Docs) a) By Re CeoMoOrs WE.2iS.. EORiG:S.c...0..0 49

Vi White? Bison. By. R. ©i Mortis, ¥.z.S:, F.R:G.S.:. 492

\WI. Age of Bison. By R. C. Morris, F.z.S., F.R.G.S..... 493

VII. Elephants—Age to which they live in captivity.

. By. De iNichmond, igh bE.S. Gay ~ 494

VIII. Elephants eating earth. By Te Cc; Moras Bez.Sy,

AR KOS Ne ea a Shien apenas ees ee aay Fee ERNE ee eRe 496

IX. Habits of the Muntjac (AZ malabaricus). By R. C.

Morris, F.zZ.S., F.R.G.S.. By 497

X. The migration of the Paradise Bivcehe (7; eiptres ea

paradisiy. By Tea histler, <F:Z-S-;)MoB.O.Ur.. sca. 498

XI. Further notes on the nesting of (Lanius nigriceps,

Frank.) With observations on juvenile plumage.

Byre ow C. eawi MA. oePMADs, @E.Z:S.4.) M.B.O.U.

(With one plate.)... ; 99

x<.; eihe-status: on (ee eae. ate 21a, may: (e

the District of 24-Parganas with a note on the

nestling colouration). By S. C. Law, M.A., Ph.p.,

BUZnSey Vio HeOe Wn ACUI 20). ONE DIATE) ch 1d vw Watees canst S01

Vili

XIU.

XIV.

XVIII.

XX.

XXII.

MXIT.

AXITI.

XXIV.

XXV.

LOVE

XXVIT.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI

Extended Distribution of the Wynaad Laughing-

Thrush (Garrulax delesserte Jerdon) in North

Kanata:. .By Vi. 8. baPersonmes...5.0.405- ee

The Occurrence of the Common Ruby-Throat (Ca/-

liope calliope, Pallas) in the Godavery Delta. By

V. S. LaPersonne..

Nesting of the Thaw -eye gen Pe

Semm,) By it.-Col. B. &. Doyle, 1.s.s.

Note on the Indo-Burmese Pied Hornbill Cae:

cissa malabaricus leucogastra). By E. P. Gee.

CW ith Lo Plate.) srsswariesue a sen che oe a ee eee

The migration of Wild Fowl. The Society’s Bird

Ringine Scheme, By The lditors....2.. 4...

Early Arrival of Snipe in the Andamans. By

J. Miles Stapylton, I.c.s..

The Common Central hear ete thse Wear

atthts pallasiz, Reichenb.) in Nepal. By V.S.

LaPersonme w acsssn ese oe yen eee eee ee

The Occurrence of The Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis

naumannt, Fleisch) in Burma. By C. B. Ticehurst

Some Observations on the Nesting of a pair of

Ceylon Shikra Hawks (Astur badius badtus,

Gmelin). By W. W. A. Phillips, F.z.s,., M.B.O.U.

Nesting of the Grey Partridge (/Francolinus

pondicerianus, Gmel). By Lt.-Col. D. B. Edwards

The Occurrence of the Green Pit Viper (7vimere-

surus gramineus, Shaw) at Nagpur. By E. A.

DA bret, Bi 75S. 2 Os oie ee Rg ee Ae | aaa ay.

Intestinal Parasites of the Python. By R.C. Morris,

The Occurrence of the Common Chameleon

(Chameleon calcaratus) in Gujarat. By Hari

Narayan G. Acharya, aS. Gare eee

A note on the Occurrence of (Rana hexadactyla,

Lesson) in Bengal, - By J. Bhadum) 2:2...

Hresh Water Hels. : By S. As, Strip... .c.gecees sone

Notes on an Acridzzd Grasshopper (Gesonia punctz-

frons, St.) ovipositing into stem of Colocasia

plant. By TT. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar and N.

Krishna Menon, (With a plate.)... ele Uae

Phosphorescence in a Bombay Nee anudae By

A, IN. (Galati SMG) ban es ated tee diee ceesnee caste lee

PAGE

503

504

505

507

508

509

SN}

513

514

516

517

519

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XXXVI

Nos. 1 and 2

ACHARYA, HARI NARAYAN G.,

F.Z.S.; The Occurrence of

the Common Chamaeleon

(Chameleon calcaratus) in

Gujarat wis st

Atl, SaAtim ; The Hyderabad

State Ornithological Survey

with notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part Il. (With a map and two

plates.) Re

AVVAR, T. V. Rimini.

ByAae Pose Zao. e Bishi

Pest of Fields along the Coro-

mandel Coast (Ophichthys

boro, Hb.) (With a plate.) ..

AND Menon, N. KRISHNA ;

Notes on an Acriditd Grass-

hopper (Gesonia purctitrons,

St.) ovipositing into stem of

Colocasia plant. (With a

plate. ere

BAKER,’ E. “€. Say ane, Je e,.

O.B.Bi; FiZsSi, Pas,

NERO“ ecb. Ac O.-Ur=

The Game Birds of the Indian

Empire, Vol. V., Part XVIII.

[With a coloured plate of

The Marsh Sandpiper (7vznga

stagnatilis), The Wood Sand-

piper, (Zringa glareola) and

MWhe~ Green - Sand pipes

(Tringa ochropus) .|

Viole Wey Pant xe Van @

coloured plate of The Red-

shank (7ringa totanus totanus)

and The Greenshank ( Glottis

nebularia) . | ” vee

BATTtve; -Liewut.-. KR. .K. M.;

How does a Tiger make a

SG? -

BECKETT, J.; Beaty oe pleahont

from rabies

PaGE

513

276

517

293

Berts, F. N.; Notes on some

Ceylon Birds

BHADURI, J. L.; A note on ae

occurrence of (Rana hexa-

dactyla, Lesson) in Bengal ...

BHARUCHA, K. H. See Catus,

eed ale

Biswas, K., M.A.; Glimpses of

the Vegetation of South

Burma. (Wzth three plates.)

BEATTER, Riv. .E., S.J., PH.

D., F.L.S. ; New Plants from

Waziristan

—.

AND, MCCANN. Ca. Ey bess.

Revision of the Flora of the

Bombay Presidency, Part

XIX... (Orchidacee) . (With

nine plates) Be

Part XX. (Balsamtuacee)

(With two plates.)

————

AND MILLARD, W.S., F.Z.S.;

Some Beautiful Indian Trees,

Part X. (With one coloured

plate, one black and white

plate and two diagravis.)

Part XI. (With one coloured,

one black and white plate

and two diagrams.)

BURTON, BRIGADIER- Gasman

R. G. ; Vernacular names

— = ee,

Calus, J. F., S.J., F.L.8. anD

BARUCEAS KG rH) BAe

BSC: Earth-eating and

Salt-licking in India a

CAREISER, |) Iam.-Con, « T, SEV.:

R.A.; Wild Dogs killing oy)

Renee :

CHa pie F. W.. EOF: S..

Game Reserves and Flash-

light

PAGE

257

ol4

285

476

307

139

353

288

218

239

255

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

CHAMPION, H. G.; Flower-

Birds and Bird-Flowers

D’ ABREU, E. A., F.Z.S.; Notes

on Monitor Tae i

ee - The

occurrence of the Green Pit

Viper. ( 7rimeresurus gramt-

meus, Shaw) at Nagpur

Dian 3S. Ce, NMeEScee EAS

Some Seagrasses from the

Presidency of Bombay

DovER, CEDRIC ; The Duration

of Life of some Indian

Mammals ae ae

DovLz#, Ltr.-Cozi. E.E., I.M.S8.;

Nesting of the White-eye

(Zosterops bal peobrosa,

Temm.) sie

Epitors ; Black Leopards

Food of Himalayan

Black Bear (Selanarctos thibe-

tanus)...

— A cantive female “of

Russel’s Viper (Vipera rus-

sellit) ...

—— The ood Supply of

Trout in the Nilgiris

—— Methods of Deane

with Plagues of Ants

—-—_-—— Note on the Indo-

Burmese Pied Hornbill (A/y-

drocissa malabaricus leuco-

See)

—— Micraton of Wild-

Fowl. The Society’s Bird

Ringing scheme ..

-—— Intestinal Baradtes

of the Python His

—— Fresh Water Eels .

EpwARDbS, LtT.-CoL. D. Be: ;

Nesting of the Grey Partridge

(Francolinus pondicerianus,

Gmel.) ee as

EVANS, BRIGADIER W. H.,

(Ga allss CaliEs, D.S.O.,

PRK og | IeASa, JE IDSs. 3

The Butterflies of Balu-

chistan

EwBANK, R. B., C.LE., LC.S.,

E.bes.;) Lhe sHot- Westies

Ferns of Mahableshwar

PaGE

267

269

284

244

504

239

oie

279

505

507

513

517

oiliZ

196

188

PYINNG eae Aeelearmathicn: amnilly,

of a Russell’s Viper, or Chain

Viper (Vipera russellit)

ERASER, Linur,-Commhen

MES.) Foss. ; lndian! Dra-

gonflies, Part XL. (With

three text-figures)

——- -__

Additions to the Dragonfly.

(Odonata) Fauna of India,

with Descriptions of New

species (Withfour text-figures)

Fry, THOMAS BURGESS; Obi-

tuarial notice of .

GEE, E.I.; Nete on aie tide

Burmese Bed Hornbil! (A/ya-

roctssa malabaricus leucogas-

tra) (With a plate)

GHARPUREY, Lt7.-CoL. K.G.,,

I.M.S.; Snakes in Ahmed

ee core OS CC

Cases of Snake-Bite Sats

GuLATI, A.N., M.Sc.; Phospho-

rescence in a Bombay Myria-

poda.s., ae acc

HEARSEY, Capt. L. D. W.;

Small bore rifles and Big Game

HIiccrmns, J. C7. LC. See Distiri=

bution of the Eastern Grey

Duck (Anas. p. zonorhyncha.)

eae

Game Birds and Animals of

the Manipur State with notes

on their numbers, Migration

and Habits. Part I. :

KINNEAR, N. B. See Whistler,

Hugh.

KutcH, MADANSINH OF;

Carnivorous Bear ...

ILA PERSONNE, V.S., M.B.O. U..

Remarkable Sebawiour of a

Tigress

Wild Dogs hunting and ne

ing by night as

Extended Distribution of the

Wynaad Laughing Thrush

(Garrulax delessertt, Jerdon)

to North Kanara...

PacE

271

141

272

274

519

254

266

406

238

235

240

503

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

LA PERSONNE, V.S., M.B.O.U.;

The occurreuce of the Com-

mon Ruby-Throat (Calliope

calliope, Pallas) in the Goda-

very Delta

The Common Central Asian

Kingfisher (Alcedo aitthis

pallasii, Reichenb.) in Nepal.

Law, SATYA CHURN, M.A, PH.

‘D., F.Z.S., M:.B.O.U.; The

Status of the Indian Black-

headed Shrike (Lanius nigrt-

ceps, Frank.) in Lower

- Bengal eae

a SS | Gy NNR

Further notes on the Nesting

of (Lanius nigriceps,Frankt.),

with observations on Juvenile

Plumage ( With one plate) ..

The Status. of [G-orietle

citrina citrina Lath.) (in the

district of 24 Parganas, witha

note on nestling colouration.)

MacpDONALD, A. ; An _— to

Anglers

McCann, C., F.L. S. Ss iokes ¢ on

Indian Patrachians (With ten

plates and two texi-figures.)...

——_—_—_—__—_—_—_—; A Scor-

pion (Buthus) Recdiae on a

Galeod Spider (Galeodes

agilts, Poe.)

—_— —_—_—_-——_—_; A cure

for Tapeworm Us

——__ ___--____—__-—__-; Notes on

the Colouration and Habits

of the white-browed Gibbon

or Hoolock (Hylobates hoolock,

Harl. ) ( eee two plates)

; See Blat-

ter, E.... BS we

Menon, N. KRISHNA. See

AvVAR, T. V. RAMAKRISHNA.

MILLARD, W. S. See BLATTER,

KE,

MorRRIS, RANDOLPH C., F.Z.S.;

Careases of animals dying of

rinderpest avoided by Jackals

and other Carnivora

PAGE

504

259 |

499 |

152

395

242

OS ee

508 |

- Pocock,

| Morris, RANDOLPH C., F.Z.S.;

The Duration of Life of

some Indian Manmals.

Tigers

= é °

ee er os

Record of Big Game shot in

the Nilgiri area 1905-1931

Wild Dogs

‘White’ Bison

—_—— es oe de ——— > 0

om |

Age of Bison

-——$__

Elephants eating Earth

Habits of the Muntjac (J/.

malabaricus)

——$__s

Intestinal Parasites of the

Python hy

| PHILLIPS, W. W. ro F.Z.S.,

M.B.O.U.; Some Siders died

on the nesting of a pair of

Ceylon Shikra Hawks (Astur

badius badius, Gmelin)

| PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,MAJORE G.,

I. A. (Réetd.); The Food

Supply of Trout im the

Nilgiris ate

PizEv, R. M. ; Sounds made By

Gaur or [ethan Bison (&z60s

gaurus)

; Black Leopards.

RE, FF. Rv s.2 Pre

Black and Brown Bears of

Kurope and Asia. Part II.

(With two plates and twelve

teat-figures) eas ote

_—— ; Obi-

tuarial notice of Thomas

Burgess Fry

; The

skin of a Persian Panther

(Panthera pardus saxicolor)...

; The

Civet-Cats of Asia (Wzth four

text-figures)

a — - -

; Pan-

thers of the North-West Fron-

tier

re ee a

PaGr

497

513

509

278

243

236

101

236

423

489

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xii

PaGrE Pack

PRATER, Seep Mine SPENCE, SIR REGINALD, KT.,

C.M.Z.S., J.P.; Behaviour of M.1L:C., F:Z:S., and PRATER,

the Red Tree Ant (4cophyla SoH MEIC 5 ere vie Ss.

smaragdaina) 280 Game Fishes of Bombay, The

St a Se Deccan and the neighbouring

‘‘ Non-Poisonous Snakes ”’ 391 Districts of the Bombay Presi-

—— —- —— —_— — ——_— :; dency (W1th nineteen plates)... 29

The Social Life of Snakes STANEORIDs Nag Ke Gres

(With one plate) ..- 469 Occurrence of the White-

= ah acarae throated Babbler (Argya

See Spence, Sir Reginald. gularis Blyth)in Lower Burma 262

Rao, H.- SRINEVASA, M.A., A Note on the Buntings of

D.Sc.; Further Observations Burma 263

on the Fresh-Water Medusa The Short-eared oul (Ast

(Limnocnida indica, Annan- _tlammeus) in Burma 265

dale) (With a plate anda text- The occurrence of the Lesser

figure) 210 Kestrel (Cerchneis nau-

REVIEWS— manni) and Knot (7ringa

Hand-List of the Birds of c. Canutus) in Burma 265

samoa 227 WAS TAP EON MINES, Coser,

Hand-List of the Birds of Early Arrival of Snipe in the

Eastern China... 227 Andamans 507

The Riddle of Migration 228 | Strip, S. A.: aie Ae ates Bele. 516

Size and Form in Plants 230 | THom, W. a: Some Experi-

Pocket-Lens Plant Lore Oe ences amongst Elephant and

Les Oiseaux de l’Indochine the other Big Game of Burma

Francaise : 485 from 1887 to 1931 (With two

The Nidification of Birds a plates)... SV

the Indian Empire .. 485 | TICEHURST, cous Bo M. ne

RICHMOND, R.D., Cole E., M-.D., M.B.O.U.; The occur-

I.FS.; Elephants—Age to rence of the Lesser Kestrel

which they live in (Cerchneis naumannti, Heisch)

Captivity : .. 4904 in Burma sae Se S08

SANBORN, COLIN CAMPBELL ; Waite, H. W.; The Penduline

Mammals of the Suydam Tit (Remtz coronatus Severt-

Cutting Sikkim Expedition... 181 | zoff) in the Punjab ey RL

SIDINGS Se 1s IWS Cog IPsID)se WHISTLER, HuGH, M.B.O.U.,

The Andaman Shel! Fishery AND KINNEAR, N. 13}, -

(With five plates) 94 M B.O.U.; The Vernay Scien-

Simmons, R. M.; Jackal ie tific Survey of the Eastern

ing Goat noe a 40 Ghats. Part ILI. 67

SINGH een Cr 'N. Scent vackanes ee

in Relation to Gigwes Part IV 334

colour ... sie we 287 | —— ———_ ——_ -——_-—— -—— ;

SINHA, B. N.; A case of twin- The Migration of the Paradise

embryos in the egg of a Flycatcher( Zchitrea paradist) 498

Domestic Fowl. (With a text- ——— Sas Oe

figure) 268 See Ali, Salim.

SOron7, Isl, Ua The Balinecs YatTrs, J. A.; The Butterflies

Tiger ee tigris balica of Bangalore and neighbour-

‘ Schwarz.) 233 hood: 450

IGS IE OIE JIG AICTHS

VOLUME XXXVI

No. 1

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate

(4) Marsh Sandpiper ( 77vznga ee

(B) Wood Sandpiper (Zrvinga glareola)

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency—

Plate

Ite

VI.

(Ad) Habenaria stennopetala Lindl. a close-up of the -

inflorescence

(B) Habenaria stenopetala, Lindl, entire plant

Flabenaria raritlora

Habenaria spencet

Habenaria variabilis ... vie

Habenaria variablis showing ine extreme variation in

the formation of the floral parts ...

Hlabenarta cerea

PAGE

The Game Fishes of Bombay, Tne Deccan and neighbourine Districts of the

Bombay Presidency—

Plate

Piate

Plate

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

The Mahseer (Barbus tor) 500

(1) Head of a young Mahseer (Barbus tor). Lateral and :

ventral view

(2) Head of a young Masundi (Barbus UEC

Lateral and ventral view odd wee

Dobson’s Carp. (Barbus jerdoni dobsont) ... ae

The Olive Carp. (Barbus chrysopoma)

Buchanan’s Carp. (Barbus curmuca) ek

The Kudali (Barbus parrah)

The Black-spot (Barbus filamentosius) i

The Rohu ( Ladveo rohita) wae a as

The Kanoshi (Labeo calbasu) .

The Dandvan (fasbora dantcontus)

The White Carp. (Cirrhina cirrhosa)

Hamilton’s Carp. (Cirrhina mrigala)

The Catla (Catla buchanant) Sh wits

The Wallago or ‘ Fresh Water Shark’ (Wallago atlu) ...

The Goonch (Bagarius yarrelliz)

The Banded Murral (Ophiocephalus str AHS

The Chilwa (Chela argente) e se

The Indian Trout (Barzlius bola) be ae

Barilius gatensis he one ae

Sy)

XIV LSA OR ME ATEEGS'

PAGE

The Andaman Shell Fishery —

Plate I. (1) Artistically carved shells of Zurba

(2) Shells chemically treated to expose pearly layer

(3) Japanese crew at shell banks - au fo A

Plate II. (1) Typical Japanese boat

(2) View of the holds in which shells are stored

(3) A close-up of fishermen ready for operations a 96

Piate Ill. (1) A typical sanpan oa its way to fishing ground

(2) The unattended sampans

(3) A loaded sampan alongside motor-boat 97

Plate IV. (1) Discharging the cargo of the sampan into the fannie

(2) Removing animals prepatory to storage in the holds. 93

Plate V. (1) Holds stocked with shells

(2) Instrument used for removal of animals

(3) Home-made goggles used by divers sn one 99

The Black and Brown Bears of Europe and Asia—

Plates I. (A) Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)

(8) Malayan Bear ( Helarctos malayanus) ee 08

Plate II. (A) Russian Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos)

(2) Sloth Bear (A/elursus ursinus) ay oe sie QS

Some Beautiful Indian Trees—

Plate XVIII. The Spotted Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata) a Peer iS]

Plate XIX. (A) Flowers of the Spotted Gliricidia (Glivicidia

we maculata)

(2) Spotted Gliricidia Tree in the Victoria Gardens,

Bombay aS. ae ee .. 140

Indian Batrachians—

Plate I. The Water Skipper (Rana cyanophliictis, oo

in slush 155

Plate Il; (4) The tndian Ball: irae | eae amcton, Dard) ina

pool at the break of rains

(8) The Indian Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina, Daud) Bier an ets 6

Plate Ill. The Food and Enemy cycles of the Bull-Frog (Rana

tigrina) fee se es aid an BL

Plate IV. (ana tigrina, Daud. ’ Dorsal and lateral views of

Tadpoles ae es ier OD

Plate V. The Fungoid Frog (Rana malabarica, Dum.) and

Bibr.) showing dorsal and lateral aspect... 166

Plate VI. (Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth.) Larva and aaannies! Vel

Plate VII. (A) A spawn mass of the Giant Tree-Frog (4.

maximus, Gunth)

(B) (Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth.) another mass of

eggs laid in the tangle of twigs covering the water ... 169

Plate VIII. (4) The Chunam Frog (fhacophorus maculatus,

Boulenger), showing the adhesive discs

(4) The Chunam Frog (fhacophorus maculatus,

Boulenger), a female with spawn ‘ nest ’ sie Bel ae

LIST OF PLATES XV

PAGE

Plate IX. (Rhacophorus maculatus, Boulenger), Larva and

Tadpoles a ae oe convened ZAS)

Plate X. The Common Indian Toad (S#ufo melanostictus,

Schneid) showing the vocal-sac inflated ‘se een We)

Further Observations on the Freshwater Medusa (Lizmnocnida indica,

Annandale) —

Plate (1) Limnocnida pool, Koyima River

(2) Limnocnida pool in the course of the Yenna River ... 210

Plate Photo of the late Thomas Burgess Fry Ee See OOS

Plate A Burrowing Eel (Ophichthys boro, Hb.) ... nel O

Glimpses of the Vegetation of South Burma—

Plate I. Top of Moulmein Hill with open mixed association at

Connarus paniculatus in the foreground, and

Bambusa polymorpha in the background .. ae 285

Plate If. (A) A general view of the forests by the ade of Weper

Kyeinchaung River with overhanging climbers and

drooping branches of Buccaurea sapida. In the fore-

ground is the spreading shrub of Homonota riparia.

(2) A group of Licuala peltata in the Kyeinchaung

forest with the party pocge nn the author in his

botanical exploration 286

Plate III. (4) Bamboo and Cane praes in the intention of the

virgin forest area of Miachaung

(4) Interior of a secondary formation in Tenasserim,

showing Cane brakes with epiphytic Asplenium nidus

and climbing Rhaphidophora pertusa on the moss-

covered trunk of a tall tree 53 seus Mean EOE

No. 2

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate (A) The Redshank (77viznga totanus totanus)

(B) The Greenshank ( Glottis nebularia) eu aecos

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency—

Plate I, (A) Impatiens acaults

(BL) Impatiens pusilla Bee es een OOO

Plate Il. (A) Lmpatiens balsamina

(B) Impatiens pulcherrima ss 358 Boo ells

Some experiences amongst Elephant and the other Big Game of Burma from

1887 to 1931—

Plate I. (A) A large Tusker in the Thayetmyo Yomah

(#) Elephants watering ss so HI

Plate II. (A) Elephant remains near the Lemro Ree Arakan.

(B) A carcase of an Elephant killed in a fight saps oil

Some Beautiful Indian Trees—

Plate XIX. Saraca indica , Re wise ae ODS

Plate XX. (A) Saraca indica (Trees Of) aaten was SO 1 iy!

(B) Saraca indica (Flowers and Fruit of)... en oOs

Xvi LIST. OP PLATES

Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey—

Map of Hyderabad State and adjoining territories

Plate I. (A) Typical boulder country Hanamkonda (Warangal

District)

(&) Typical country on the feecey Amrabad plateau

Plate If. Vultures at a wayside carcase

White-browed Gibbon or Hoolock— .

Plate il, CA! & B) A young white- browed Gibbon Deiichaics

hoolock) female about two months old nee

Plate If. Skulls of Hoolock Gibbon at different ages ...

Social Life of Snakes—

Plate (A & B) Dhamans or Rat-Snakes mating ...

Notes on the Nesting of Lanius nigriceps, Frankl. —

Plate (.4) Date Tree with the nest zz sztu of Lanius nigh 1CE~S.

(2) Close-up of the nest zz sztu

PAGE

357

360

5 80)

395

402

469

499

Note on the Indo-Burmese Pied Hornbill (A/ydrocissa malabaricus Iemencasira

Plate Fig. 1. Adult Q bird

‘Fig. 2. Young bird, photographed on 12-8-30

Fig. 3. Young bird, photographed on 12-8-30

Fig. 4. Adult 2 (right) and young (left), photographed on

2-9-30 Bi a oe

506

Notes on an Acridiid Grasshopper (Gesonia punctitrons, St. ) Ovipositing into

stem of Colocasia plant—

Plate Fig. 1. Colocasia stem showing egg mass in stem

Fig. 2. Egg magnified

Figs. 3&4. Younger stages

Figs. 5&6. Adult

317

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XXXVI

Nos. 1 and 2

F Pace |

Asplenium nidus, P\., fig. A.... 287 Caliccita dvrothea, Thoracic

Baccaurea sapida, Pl., fig. A... 286 markings of # and Q, Fig. 4

Bagarius yarrellii, Pl. — 59 (AS51853) es ae ae

Bambusa polymorpha, 12]. 285 | Cirrhina cirrhosa, Pl.

. Barbus chrysopoma, Pl. 48 | - —-mrigala, Pl. ...

——-— cuymuca, PI. 49 | Connarus paniculatus, PI.

—_-— filamentosus, P|. 51 | Elephants—

——-— jerdoni dobsont, Pl. 47 A Large Tusker photo-

= ——. i ssullan, Pl. fig. 2 46 graphed in the Thayet-

= —— parral, Pi. 50 TIAN O OTM Alla we beliey a toe alee

—_-— for, P|. 45 PG watering, PIl.,

eS P| eho ak 46 fig. 2 : ;

Barilius bola, Pl. 62 Elephant remains near ‘he

—-—. gatensis, Pl. 63 Lemro River, Arakan,

Bufo melanoslictus, with vocal Jel Bacall.

sac inflated, Pl. 173 : Oninace of an Bicphant

Calicnemts erythromelas killed in a fight, Pl., fig.

Dorsal headmarkings, fig. DERE Se ae aes ss

3.(2) 146 | Fry, Thomas Burgess, Photo

—_——-- eximiia of..

Wings of-female, fig. 1... 141 Gentine Aamies a0, Bee ened

Anal appendages, fig. 2, tudinal] section of Pee

2 . 143 | Gesonta punctifrons, Adult,

Dorsal headmarkings, ig young and eggs, P1....

3 (4) ; 146 | Glirzcidia maculata, P1..

—— mules, & Leaf and calyx, figs.

Dorsal headmarkings, fig. Flowers of Pl., fig. A

3 (0) 146 Tree in Victoria Gardens,

miniata g Bombay, Pl., fig. B

Dorsal headmarkings, fig. | Glottzs nebularia, P\., fig. 2 ..,

3 (5) 146 | Flabenaria cerea, P|.

— mortont, & ee raritlora,. Pl.

Dorsal headmarkings, fig. -———_——— spencel, Pl. ...

3(3) a 146 | ———--——- sfenopetala, PI.

——- = pulverulans $ —-——. — variabilis, Pls,

Dorsal headmarkings, fig. Helarctos Us:

3 (6) in 146 PM 55 ke,

Calla buchanant, Pl. _... SY) ewer side of cieht onic

Chel argentea, Pl. 61 paw, fig.9.a

Chlorogomphus olympicus, Lower side right hind ae

_.Anal appendages, Fig. 3 nes We (De

(A, B) 465 Rhinarium, fig. 10. G0):

Pacr

331

sil

133

xViii

Hlelarctos malayanus.

DepeSy er NO, Go Gs

Breast patch or collas: fe.

Is @e@

Upper profile of deel of pial

male, fig. 12.a

Frontal profile of skull oe

old male, fig. 12.6. ¢

Nasal profile of the type,

fir. 12.d as ae

Upper profile of adult

female, fig. 12. e. f

Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey.—

Map of ite ads sie

Typical boulder country

Hanamkonda (Waran-

gal District) Pl., fig. 1

Typical country on the

Lesser Amrabad plateau.

Vultures at a wayside car-

case

Hydroctss@ m. lemeamast ne

Adult 2 PEs fig. 1

Young PI., Aes 2 2,3 nN

Adult Q and young, FL,

fig. 4 sae fon ie

Hylobates hoolock

A female abouttwo months ..

old, Pl. die

Skulls, at diferent < ages :

Impatiens acaulis, Pl., fig. 1 .

———-—_— balsamina, Ph., fig. 1

—-—— pulcherrima, Pl., fig. 2 .

So —-e- PUStlia, Pl.,

fio 2 tee

Eabeo calbasu, Pl. ‘

rohita, Pl.

Lanius nigriceps

Date tree with nest zm séttu,

lees :

Close up of the socks in os

Pl. B

Licuala peltata, P\., fie B

Limnocnida, ety

Pools, Pl., figs. Aand B ...

Eggs, figs. 1,5.

Melursws wrsinus

Lower side of right fore

paw and lower side of

right hind paw, fig.

1. [email protected] a Er

PAGE

133

134 |

137 |

137

137 |

137

356

360

368 }

506

395: |

402 |

309

313 |

| Rasbora daniconius,. Pl,

313

309

102

' Rana cyanophitetis, Pt....

506

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Melursus ursinus

Rhinarium, muzzle

claws, fig. 2. a-d.

ie ioe :

Upper Drone of skulls, ee

3.a.6 ae

Moschothera civettina

Lower side of the left fere

paw, fig. 3 (A)

Lower side of the left hind

paw, fig. 3 (B) ... a

Palate of skull, fig. 4 (A)...

Forehead, fiz. 4 (B)

Posterior portien of man-

dible, fig. 4 (D, E)

megaspila

Lower side of the left fore

paw, fig. 3 (C) Bs

Lower side of the left hind

paw, tie. 3 CD) =. se

Palate of skull, fig. 4 (C)...

Posterior portion of man-

dible, fis. 4 (F) ...

and

| Ophichthys boro,, Pl.

Ophiocephalus striatus, P.

—-— malabarica, P\., figs. A

pial ds: 3 cia a

| Rana tigrina, Pl., figs. A

* and B ee ia ‘

Food and enemy eyoles

Plies

Tadpoles, Pl.

Rhacophorus maculatus

Pl., fig. A.showing adhe-

sive discs. Fig. B. Female

with spawn ‘ nest.’

Fig. a, Type of pigment

in deeper layers. Fig. 6,

Type of pigment at sur-

face...

Tadpoles. Pl.

MOKUNEUS

mass, Pl.

Spawn

and B.. .

Tadpoles, Pl. sa

Rhaphidophora pertusa

Pl., fig. B

Saraca indica, Pl.

Leaf, fig.

» figs. A

174

175

176

169

ya!

287

353

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Saraca indica

Flowers, fig....

ihree sis, fowl Be

Flowers and Fruit, Pl.,

Tae Sy

Selenarttos thibetanus

Upper profile of skulls, fig.

oee-6 se

a P| Al it ©

— ————

fig.

——— Lower

right fore paw.

hind paw, fig. 4.

side of

Right

a.b ai ais ae

Breast patch or

iGO, Go Coe

Upper ae oe

I8So U6 Coe os

—-— Forasdnis

Breast patch or collar,

fl Sen One 83 i

Upper profile of

ft Cpe On G-@ ee

Back of skull

Tie le Reahow OG, ae

-——= 7aponicus

Back of skull of adult

eran gu, IMCs lo IP Gor

-—— thibetanus laniger

Breast patch or collar, fig.

Gere: + :

Upper Drone of Sally, Fes

a eiGeae

collar,

‘skulle,

Sauls

of adult

_— bien s

Breast patch or collar, fig.

Gate

PAGE

354

125

113

119

113

Selenarctos thibelanus ussuvicus

Upper profile of skulls, fig.

8 A, B As ae ah

Pee fossa, fig.

Sy Aes IB ¢

Upper olay, ie 8, AN. Be

Snakes, Social Life of.

Dhamans or Rat-Snakes

mating, Pl.

Tetracanthagyna water Taisen

Wings, fig. 1 eee

fore 2

Anal appendages,

(a-c) : i

Tringa glareola, Pl. ylmee 2

——~ - ochrophus, Pl, Oe Sees

- Stagnaiilis, Pl., fig. 1...

-totanus totanus, P1.,

Sep nee

TULOO SD ele.

Ursus arctos, P1.,

Viverra zibetha

fig. 1

fig. A

Lower side of paws, figs.

(A, B) i

- zibetha

Outer view of the: left

auditory region, figs, 2

(A, B) :

Hinder ends of pale: fee.

2 (€, D) bic

OS ORE Ol Shesllils wefer, 2,

(18) Go Be

Palate of fouls fie, “2 (F).

Viverricula indica,

Lower side of paws, fig. 1

(Cy D)) ;

Wallago attu, Pl,

X1x

Pace

125

Hee bw

293

103

425

439

ERRATA

Vol. XXXV, No. 1.

(THE BUTTERFLIES OF CoorG. Part IL.)

ADDENDUM.

459. 5a. Pratapa deva deva, M.

I had set aside a 2, which was neither Tajuria jehana, M. 2 nor

Tajuria cippus cippus F. 2

Recently Capt. Riley of the British Museum identined it as

Pratapa deva deva, M. I saw andtook no other; this I took in an open-

ing in a patch of thick wood by a stream at Kolakeri near Napoklu

in Coorg.

CORRIGENDUM.

For 1 32. 1a Caprona rausonnetti potiphera, Hew. vead ‘i 26.1.a

Caprona ransonnetti ransonetti, Fd.’

y. Caprona ransonnetti taylorii, DeN.

Both forms occur. Oddly enough the only Bangalore specimen

I have, appears to be the rare Caprona ransonnetti lanka, nov. (Evans),

but it is a rainy season specimen, taken in July.

The references I give are to Evans’ J/dentificaiton of Indian

Butterflies, 2nd Edition.

Vol. XXXV, No. 4.

Page 916, Misc. Note XXXIV, last line, instead of Helianthus

- jicaberimmus vead ‘ Helianthus scaberimmus.’

Vol. XXXVI, Nos. 1 & 2,

Page 252. Misc. Note No. XIII, line 8 from bottom. Instead of

‘No chital are recorded as shot since 1914. read

‘No ‘“ chital’’ are recorded as shot prior to 1914-15,

the figures being tabled under ‘‘ Spotted Deer.” ’

Page 332, line 13. Instead of ‘gouge’ vead ‘ gong.’

INDEX OF SPECIES

Abisara echerius prunosa

Acampe 50

Acanthion Hodeaon:

Acanthus ilicifolius Ake

Acionyx (Cynzlurus) jubatus

Acronychia laurifolia

Actiniopteris dichotoma

Adiantum capillus veneris

—— ——— caudatum

—-lunulatum

ZEgele marmelos

AMgithina tiphia humei ..

fErides

Adschna enjflromelas

petalura ane 660

—— —— quadrilateralis...

Aithopyga scherize

Agallocha...

Agnus castus Sah

Agriocnemis arborense ...

clauseni

femina

——_ ——_——_ pyegmeea

spencei

Alcedo atthis pallasii

Allophaea ochracea

Alseonax latirostris ar

—_-—___——--——_ poonensis...

—_—— miuttui ...

muttui

aoe eS

————. ruficauda :

Amblypodia amantes amantes

Ambherstia nobilis

Amphithemis vacillans...

Ampittia dioscorides

Anas platyrhyncha 16

—— Here toni.

——_ —_——— peecilorhyncha.

-—_ —_ ——_—_ —- zonorhyncha

Anax immaculifrons

Angelonia grandiflora ...

Anguilla bengalensis

——— bicolor...

PaGE

85,

53-005

266,

267,

266,

456

187

285

245

317

190

192

190

192

320

378

463

268

285

355

467

468

508

468

387

388

457

354

460

459

419

421

420

421

465

288

Sy)

Anisogonium esculentum

Anser albifrons albifrons

——-- anser

—-~-- indicus

Anthipes moniliger

Antilope cervicapra

Anurosorex assamensis...

Apharitis acamas hypargyros...

————--- epargyros

— -——- lilacinus

Aporia leucodice balucha

Appias albina darada

- libythea libythea

Arceus

niger

Arcticonus

Arctictis binturong

Arctogale leucotis

Argya caudata caudata

gularis

malcolmi ...

Aregynnis hyperbius

-—~——- lathonia isscea

—_——--—— —-— lathonia

Areyrolobium mucilagineum ...

———— - purpurascens

Artamus fuscus...

Asarcornis scutulata

Ascaris attenuata

WACOM. Ham meuss.:

Aspidium cicutarium

——-—-- polymorphum

Asplenium falcatum

-— laciniatum

fo solbil eyeobanl

—_—— - ——. var.

me...

SS = Aen

—— nidus...

Astragalus fernandezianus

lasius

Astur badius

-—— badius

Astycus augias augias ...

trapezifor-

PaGr

193

414

412

413

249

183

207

457

199

454

101

103

108

246

374

262

375

203

481

4&0

347

416

2k5

193

195

193

194

286

482

480

162

509

459

xxii

Astycus pythias lanka ...

Atalantia ceylanica

————-— floribunda

—— ——.- missionis

-————- monophylia ...

————- puberula

——-——- racemosa

Atella phalantha...

Atherurus sf/....

Athyrium falcatum

—— -——- filix feminina..

——_——- gymnogrammoides...

--—--——— hohenackerianum

Aulocera padina burnettii

Aurantium maximum ...

Avicennia officinalis... O00

Axis (Cervus) axis

Azanus jesous gamra

-— ubaldus...

—-—-- uranus

Baccaurea sapida

Badamia exclamationis...

Bagarius yarrellii

Balsamia litifolia

Balsamina minor ae

Balsaminifolia rosmarinifolia ...

Bambusa arundinacea ...

polymorpha ...

Baoris conjuncta narooa

guttatus bada

———— kumara kumara

—_—— mathias So

—_—_—_—-—— mathias

thrax

——— zelleri cinnara

Barbastella darjelingensis

————— =

Barbus ambassis... ae ee

- carnaticus

- chola eae

- chrysopoma

(CBIATANEIOA) Goo

- filamentosus

- jerdeni

-—— dobsoni

a IFICIVOI Abe

- kolus

—-—- malabaricus

— —- mussullah

- parrah

- phutunio...

- pinnauratus

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

aes 459

319

ec SLO

204, 456

247

195

194

195

Maree A074

319

285

249

457

456

286

458

Sil)

311

312

LOO

285, 286

459

197

459

208

459

182

aerate)!

wee 47, 64

Se 64

... 48, 64

ee 49

mets Ol, OE

204,

PAGE

Barbus sarana 48

- ticto Dil

- tor... ; 45

Barilius bendelisis 63

-— bola 62

——- evezardi... 63

— gatensis... OS

Barringtonia acutangula 286

Bauhinia sp. 286

Baza jerdoni ceylonensis soa NS

Belenois mesentina mesentina 199, 454

Belomys pearsoni 185

Belostoma indica 161

Bergera ... ee ae ves BN

Bibos frontalis 243

-——~ (Bos) frontalis BB Ces)

——- gaurus 243, 322

— sondaicus ... : 322

Blechum orientale wee & 195

Blumea balsamifera 285

Bonatea benghalensis ... 14

Bos indicus es soe ICES

Boselaphus tragocamelus 249

Bothridium pythonis ols

Bougainvillea ... ma ae (Mel)

Brachypteryx major albiventris 67

- major 67

Bradypterus phoenicuroides .. aus 68

Bradypus ursinus 101, 103

Bruguiera... 285

Brunfelsia hopeana 288

—_—— ——latifolia 288

Bubalis (Bos) bubalis ... 248

Budorcas taxicolor 249

Bufo melanostictus 178

Bulbophyllum 35° ise 26

Bungarus ceeruleus smo 20D, 2d

Butalis muttui 86, 388

Buteo superba 5 5.280

BOUIN G2 o550 Neer soMk

Byblia ilithyia 456

Caesalpina gallesii 268

Calanthe 26

Calicnemis soe tel dal

——- ——— atkinsoni 143, 147

——-—— erythromelas ; 146, 149

—-— — eximia .-o 141, 143, 146

—_—_—_——- inglisi ee Seal)

—_—.———- miles 146, 147

———_——_- miniata He ea

—_—. —---- mortoni 146, 150

INDEX OF SPECIES

Calicnemis pulverulans

Callene albiventris

Calliope calliope

Callophis trimaculatus

Callophrys rubi

Callosciurus crumpi

Camacinia gigantea

Camunium

— exoticum

Canis indicus indicus

——- laniger

——- lupus

——-~ pallipes

Capra falconeri ...

hircus

sibirica

ee ransonnettii lenien

ransonnettii

Carapa obovata

Carcharodus alcez swinhcei

dravira balucha

Caryopteris wallichiana

Casarca ferruginea

Castalius caleta decidia

ethion ethion

—— -—— rosimon rosimon

Catachrysops amyntas

comyntas

~ strabo

Catla buchanani

Catopsilia crocale

————- florella gnoma

——_——-- pomona

—————- pyranthe minna

Cemas goral

Cerberus rhynchops

Cerchneis naumanni

——-—— pekinensis

Ceriops Sei

Certhia spilonota

Cervulus muntiacus

Cervus eldi

- hanglu

- porcinus

- unicolor

- wallichii

Chaclas we wee

Cheetocarpus castanocarpus

Chalcas

—- exotica ..

— paniculata

265, 508

PAGE

144, 146

. 67

72, 504

273

207

185

460

184

246

248

249

458

285

208

288

419

456

206

457

| 56, Sy

‘199, 454

454

199, 454

322

393

508

285

380

S22

322

250

322

250

317

285

SIlh7,

oly,

317

Chamaeleon calcaratus

Chaptia znea malayensis

Charaxes fabius fabius

——-—— polyxena imna

Cheirostylis

Cheilanthes oi thontemetaetta

- farinosa

var. anceps

——- tenuifolia...

Chela argentea

——-- bacaila

——-- boopis

——-- clupeoides

——-- phulo

Chibia hottentotta

Chilades laius

——_——--—— laius

Chilochista

Chlorogomphus oly mipious

Chloropsis aurifrons insularis

jerdoni

Chondrorhynchus

Chrysomma sinensis sinensis ...

Chrysopelea ornata

Cirrhina cirrhosa

fulungee

-——_—— mrigala

——_—— reba

Citrus maxima

Citrus spp.

Clausena indica ...

pubescens

—— -——_ wampi

——-—— wildenowii

Clemmys :

Clerodendron odoratum

Coeliccia albicauda

———— dorothea

Coeloglossum luteum

Coenonympha myops raaemnalionl

Coffea bengalensis

Coladenia dan dan

— jndrani indra

Colias croceus edusina

erate lativita

——- -—_ war. palida

— var. chrysodona ...

Collurio erythronotus

— nigriceps

- tephronotus

—-——- tricolor

XXiil

PaGE

513

350

455

195

194

195

"Bik 64

XXIV

PAGE

Colotis amata amata 200

—— - —— —— modesta ... 454

-——— dane dane 454

a dulcis eee e200

— etrida etrida 200, 454

eucharis 454

— fausta fausta 200

——— -fulvia 454

protractus 200

vestalis Ses wie see OO)

Coluber helena 2735 Cento ln SOC

-— porphyraceus 392

-- radiatus 392

Congea tomentosa 285

Connarus paniculatus 285

Cookia dulcis 318

- punctata 318

Copsychus saularis amoenus 74

ceylonensis : 74

-- saularis 73, 384

Coracias vagabunda 369

Cornacantha 463

Corvus culminatus 368

- hottentottus Seles | OO

————-- macrorhynchus euiminacts fae OOS:

- paradisi 88, 89, 389

- splendens splendens 369

Cossyphus caudatus 374

Cottonia 27

Craspedacusta omen nike)

———— ryderi 214, 217

Cremnoconchus syhradrensis ZN,

Crocidura sp. 183

Crotalius horridus 471

Croton sp. 2 3 286

Culicicapa ceylonensis gejloneneis ie 87

-—— pallidior 87, 388

Cuon dukhunensis 246

——- rutilans 246

Curetis thetis 457

Cyanopterus sphinx sont Sade suey

Cyanosylvia suecica 71, 383

Cycas rumphii 285

Cymbidium és Zi,

Cymodoceae isoétifolia ... 284

Cyornis pallipes pallipes 87

- poliogenys vernayi 83

———- saturatior : 84

— tickellize 83, 387

‘Cyperus corymbosus 66

Dacnomys millardi ae 186

INDEX OF SPECIES

Danais chrysippus

- genutia

————-- limniace mutina

- melissa dravidarum

- plexippus

Delias eucharis

Dendrelaphis Caudoliaeatte

Dendrobium

densiflorum

pierardi

Dendrocalamus strictus

Dendrocitta leucogaster

vagabunda pallies

—_—_—__ ——-——_ vernayi

Dendrocygna fulva

javanica

Dendrophis pictus

Desmotrichum Be

Deudoryx epijarbas Sonanhes

Dichoceros bicornis ;

Dicrurus ceerulescens Gece ne

—-—-~ lophorhinus 56

———— . macrocercus peninsularis

Didunculus strigirostris

Dillenia

Dipetalum pigeniate

Diplocentrum

Dipsadomorphus Givens

Dipsas ceylonensis

- forsteni

Dipterocarpus She

Dissemurus lophorhinus

——- paradiseus

---—- eoulonencte

-- grandis

SSS -— malabaricus ...

Dremomys lokriah bhotia

_—______.-__— - lokriah

Drynaria quercifolia #

Dryocalamus nympha 580

Dryophis dispar

——_——- mycterizans

-—_——- prasinus }

Dumetia hyperythra alpacas

— hyperythra

Durio zibethinus

Echis carinata 660

Edolius grandis 5b

Elapbrornis palliseri

200,

351,

SOR

— longicaudatus longicaudatus.

PaGE

200, 455

200

455

454

392

286

370

369

419

418

393

458

5C6

348

350

348

286

316

Zhe

393

286

soo BN)

370

351

185

195

Soe

303

393

377

376

286

274

Boll

20/

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Elephas maximus 322

Emberiza aureola 264

—- cia yunnanensis 263

—— --—— fucata arcuata 263

—______——_ -- fucata 263

————-- pusilla 263

—— —- rutila 264

————-- schoeniclus 263

—- spodocephala melanape 264

Entada scandens 286

Eogenes alcides alcides 209

Epipogum 27

Equus hemionus... 248

kiang ons 248

Ergolis ariadne indica .. 456

— merione merione 456

Eria : bee 26

Eriboea athamas agrarius 455

Erinaceus collaris 244

Erodium adenophorum 477

—- heterosepalum 478

—- nanum 477

Erynnis marloyi ... ay soo. AOS)

Eryx conicus LI, Alay ook

—- johnii 272

Euchloe ausonia sevpnelte 198

— — pulverata 198

— belemia 198

——— charlonia doveri 198

——_—_—-——_—- lucilla 198

—_—_—_—___—_- pila 198

——- transcaspica 198

Euchrysops cnejus 457

- contracta : 206

——________.____-. contracta 457

———-—- pandava minuta ... 206

-- pandava 457

Hugenia jambolana 188

Eulophia ... : 26

Kumenis enervata i 201

- — mnioszechii balucha ... eri

—__—_—____——_--- paliida ... 201, 202

——-— parisatis shiva 201

- — thelephassa 202

Eumyias albicaudata : ae 84

— thalassina thalassina ... 85, 387

Euphorbia helicscopioides 483

—— pauciradiata 483

Euploea core core 455

— — coreta coreta ... 455

vanes ADS

Euthalia garuda meridionalis ...

Euthalia nais

Everes parrhasius Der AaSIE:

Evodia malayana

—- roxburghiana

Excoecaria

Fagaria budrunga

-- rhetsa

-- triphylla

Felis bengalensis

- caracal

- chaus

is [ia

—-—- nebulosa

———-- pardus

—- temminckii

——- tigris

——- uncia

- —- viverrina

Feronia elephantum

———- limonia

Ficus spp. 500

Franciscea latifolia

— uniflora

Francolinus pondicerianus

Freveria trochilus

Funambulus pennanti

(Sciurus) palmarum

Galeodesvacilismy.s.

Garrulax delesserti ea

Gegenes nostrodamus karsana

Gentiana ciliata

Geocichla citrina citrina

Geodorum

Geokichla citrina Chine

—— cyanotus

——- wardii

Geophilus electricus

—-phosphoreus ...

Gesonia punctifrons

Gigantochloa albociliata

Gliricidia maculata

Glottis glottoides

euttifer

nebularia

Glycosmis arborea

——_—--—-- chylocarpa

——— —-- pentaphylla ...

—-- triphylla

Gnetum sp.

-- edule

Gomalia elma Aecracciata

PaGe

oi),

So;

184,

455

457

315

285

316

315

245

320

286

288

206

186

247

281

503

209

287

501

386

519

sky)

O17

286

USS)

302

394

301

Sl7/

317

oy,

317

286

458

XXV1

PAGE

Gomalia elma litoralis ... 208

subfasciata 208

Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis 199

rhamni : 199

Gracula saularis 73, 384

Graucalus javensis lapara 347

——-- macei 346

- --__- —____—__-- nipalensis ... 346, 347

—-- macei 346

Grewia microcos 286

Gunomys bengalensis 186

Gymnogramme leptophylla OS

Gymnopteris subcrenata 195

= —— variabilis ... 19]

——_ ——- var. lanceolata 192

Gynacantha 463

Gynerium argenteum 66

Habenaria ae 28

—— affinis 23

——— —— candida 22

——_—_-——_ cerea a: aes Bik

—_——-—__—_—__--- vay. polyantha (aye

—————. commelinifolia 500 20

————— crassifolia 25

———— crinifera 20

—_——-——- dlecipiens 20

———_ —— digitata oe 14

ee var. foliosa 15

— —-— var. gibsoni 15

——_—- —— diphylla 25

——-—— foliosa 15

__—_—_—— fusifera sie 23

—_———— gibsoni : 5 es, NS

— ——- var. foctida. 16

——_—_ —— glabra S50 000 a 22

———_——— grandiflora ... We, lus)

-——— —— grandifloriformis ture Wy

——— —_——--- var. ac-

quiloba 18

——_—-——- hallbergii 24

———-—— heyneana ... ae ae 22

——_——_——-_ jerdoniana ... 25

eae Ilneiinialia, — ... an US

———_——_ longicalcarata ae 20

a -- var, viridis 20

———-— longicorniculata 20

——— —— longicornu 20

—_—__——-_ marginata : 23

—____—_________ _---_- flavescens 24

a modesta 14

—_————— multicaudata 16

INDEX OF SPECIES

Pace

Habenaria ovalifolia ... SS. ola 23

—_ plantaginea... oo nee 20.

——--—— platyphylla... 18

———--— rariflora iv!

— + -—_-——_ ——.__ var. iaetole 17

———-- schizochilus 20

=== Heeinee! 17

SS SSMOOSNAVA, cc. 14

=. Siaveolens -~.. 19

3 SU OVO ESET aap we

5 ASIA) 14

———_—-- uniflora AZ

—— --—— variabilis Ug

=> WG OR 24

—__. —- ——_——_——_ var. dalzellii 24

Heematornis luteolus 380

Halophila decipiens 284

‘ovalis seh oe w. 284

Halpe egena ceylonica... 459

Haplochilus lineatus 69

Elasoravalexis ise) rae 208

—-—- NOSIS ame Ten oo

Hebomoia glaucippe australis 454

Helarctos ... : aaG 131

——-—— annamiticus ... 132

= a eC UbySpitus ses pene

- malayanus 132, 134

Helicops schistosus 3927395

Hemichelidon ferruginia 80

Hemipus picatus picatus 338

Hemitragus hylocrius ... 249

—-—— jemlahicus... 249

Herpestes auropunctatus 246

——--—— fulvescens ... 246

——-—— griseus 246

—_--——— mungo 246

—--—— mungo 184

——_-—- nyula ... 246

—--— urva te 184

———-—— smithii Feb ie wae’ ea6

——-—— viltticollis 246

Hesperethusia crenulata 318

Hierococcyx varius 373

Hirudo birmanica 161

Hodgsonius phoenicuroides 68

Homonoia riparia 286

Horaga anyx cingalensis 458

Huphina nerissa evagete 454

Hyaena hyaena 246

-- striata i Bee teat)

Hydrocissa aoa banneTS leusonacira: 505

TINDEPXO OF SPE GILES XXVii

PAGE

Hydrolea zeylanica ap 288

Hyelaphus (Cervus) porcinus ... 249

Hygrorhiza aristata 65

Hylobates concolor 398

-—____—__- hainanus i 397

—_ —— hoolock See oe 244, 395

—-——_——_ lar 244

—- nasutus SN)

— pileatus ES 397

Hypermnestra helios ... ta: IQ

-- —- - balucha san LIS

Hypothymis azurea styani_... 91, 389

Hypolimnas bolina ... Re 202, 456

misippus ... se 202, 456

Hystrix spp. 247

Impatiens acaulis 309

arnottiana ... 310

— bababudenensis Sint? 6,

———_—— balsamina ... Sa Soh ols

——_—__——_—_--——__ var. brevical-

carata ahi coe One

—_ ——_—__——_——-- var. agrestis ... 314

——_—_—_——_- - var. rosea 314

——_——__—- var. Vulgaris... 314

——--—-— beddomei 310

— chinensis 310

————- coccinea 314

_—— cornuta 314

— cuspidata oS

—————— dalzellii 312

— dasysperma... 315

—-- diversifolia 310

———— inconspicua... 312

—_—— kleniformis ... Sie

—— kleinii 311

————_ latifolia SUS}

——-— lawii... 3112

————— lucida 313

———— oppositifolia 312

—— —-——- perrottetti : et Ome

———— pulcherrima a 314, 315

— pusilla aoe 312

-—————_ ——_ var. filiformis oil

SS Os MOS ISSHGO I, | SL

———_—— rivalis 310

—_——_ rosmarinifolia OZ

-——_———. rufescens SZ

———_—— _rupicola 310

——_—_——- scabriuscula meee OLA

——— scapiflora ... Sim 309, 310

———_—-——- stocksii 310

PaGE

Impatiens talboti a ate ster OL

tomentosa ... ane we ollie

ee Verruicosa... san et OO

Indigofera acanthinocarpa ... ee GOs

Ipomeea sp. ie ae ses on ASO

Iraota timoleon arsaces... i Spano

Iris persica fos see is Sob Aste)

Ixias marianne .., ae Ae Kp ate

- pyrene frequens ... fe ai eyo

-—— Satadmnay ac. AAS soe LUO

IEZORANS Pere Bee See ne eh 286

Jacaranda mimoseefolia soe Maa COO

—— ovalifolia ... eee or Sts)

Jamides bochus bochus shi ri! by)

celenoceleno ... Sas Sa Oe:

Jagmarliotian GOs ~~ sa. Ea we ZOO

Jonesia asoka ... os ne Berna o)s)

Josephia ... ee 6 aa sie 26

Juncoshyemialis =. Bi Sic eee LO.

Kaloula obscura... ane are Sree WS

Karanasa acteea nana ... Bae Ses 202

Kittacincla macroura indica ... a 74

—-— malabarica malabarica 74, 385

Labeo boga sae ie an Aa 53

CAUOBISIE Gre ee eas TOO Oe

fimbriatus a ae Sea OO. OF

IRBINGPIEELS coc ae a aint OS)

nukta a se ue Sh 53

POKCelhasman Age 5 ae 53

potail a as Pe eS ols)

rohita ae es a ars a2

Lagerstroemia ... S66 eed 500 ASG)

Lalage melaschista 580 ba ses. S40

SVIEESI Sa ae ee Sac eae)

Lampides beeticus sas ee 206, 457

Lanius caerulescens... See Se OLS

- caniceps... ae Pe fig a OOH,

=== Chistalus enistatus Fae oe OOF

= Stlanis 7 )..: ee nes Sen) oOo

———- malabaricus ... ue ee ool

-nasutus ... oe in ee OOO

——___—__-—- nigriceps sae ei OOS

- nigriceps... ah Bae 259, 499

_ - nipalensis : 500 sae oe Sh

- schach caniceps PPO SOy SC OMSOT,

——_——-——-——. erythronotus ... 380, 387

—_—_ —~——— _nipalensis ie 336; 337

—--—--———_——- tephronotus ... 336, 337

-tephronotus ... ste a 80

SNARUCANIEIS) oo 203 a eso Oe

Larvivora brunnea vee eee Be 67

XXVili

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Larvivora wickhami 68

Lastrea calcarata 191

= CEMA sea soa ® LES!))

- filix-mas... : ia 191, 282

—_—— var. cochleata 191

———~ sparsa 195

Leggada pahari... 187

Leptocoma asiatica ss 267

Leptosia nina nina 454

Lepus oijostolus ... 187

ruficaudatus 187

Lethe europa ragaiva 455

——-- rohria nilgiriensis 455

Leucocirca aureola 92

susese sss Compre iroctc) Ol, 389

—- pectoralis pectoralis OZ 00

Se vernayi : oo

Leucostegia immersa 19%, 3195

——- pulchra to) AS

Licuala peltata ... ses 285, 286

Limnocnida indica PMO, Pla ZS

rhodesiz ... ee RO)

tanganicee DD, AAS

Limonia accidissima 318

———— arborea 317

———— crenulata 318

———— monophylla SMU)

— oligandra aes 316

———— pentaphylla S17

— tripolia... 50 318

——-—— trifoliata 318

Liparis : 20

J dipumllos: 25

Luisia = 636 27

Lutra lutra nair .. 185

Luvunga elentherandra 319

Lyczena caspius susanus 207

— - phleeas stygianus 206

- phoenicurus 207

- - thetis lampon 207

Lyceenesthes lyczenina Iyexsmiaa 457

Lyceenopsis puspa gisca : bie aT

Lycodon aulicus ehZ, 391, 392, 393

-— striatus... 474

Lygodium flexuosum 195

Lyroderma lyra lyra 182

Macaca assamensis 182

————- mulatta... 181

Macacus cynomolgus 244

——— irus 244

——_—— mulatta 244

PAGE

Macacus radiata... set 244

— silenus ... 244 ~

——— sinicus. 244

Machlolophus Semon rs aplonotus BAL

Macromia muniata -460

Macropistodon plumbicolor 272

‘Malacocercus albogularis =|

——---——— malabaricus | 373

Mangifera indica... a 354

Maniola davendra latistigma... 201

——-——lupinus centralis 201

———narica 201

——-——tenuistigma 201

——-——- waegneri... sii 197

—__—___———_——. mandane 201

Marmota (Arctomys) caudata 247

——-— himalayana ... 186

Martes toufceus ... is 184

Mastacembelus armatus 517

Meconopsis latifolia 287

— -——-speciosa a 287

—-sp. ... soe ye co e287

Megalops cyprinoides ... 64

Melanitis leda ismene ... 455

Melastoma malabathricum 285

Melitzea didyma didyma oe ec Oe

—_ ———— hodgsoni aS)

- robertsi... 203, 204

trivia persea 203

-~ trivia 203

Melophus melanicterus ove ed

Melursus ... aS ww, =10)

—__——.- lybius ... a Swen OS

——__—___- ursinus 103, 106,.107,.247

————--— inornatus 105, 106

Merula bourdilloni 76

- erythrotis 76

Mesogomphus lindgreni 465

Mesua ferrea 354

Michelia compacta 275

Microhyla ornata 176

Microscelis p. ganessa ... 380

Microstylis a 25

Molpastes cafer cafer 379

Monticola cinclorhyncha sae 79

— - solitaria pandoo 80, 386

Moschothera ae ee)

civettina ... 445, 449

megaspila 443, 449

Motacilla calliope saith ade,

—— - cinnamomea ... 343

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Motacilla emeria 380

——_———-- fulicata ae TE

——-——-- sulecica 71, 383

—— - sylvatica 69, 381

Mucuna sp. 286

Murina tubinaris 183

Murraya banati ... 317

———— chinensis 318

———— elongata on7,

——_— exotica 505 Sul7

——— heptaphylla 318

— keenigii 318

——— paniculata 317

— sumatrana uly

— tavoyana 318

Mus homourus 187

— musculus 247

— pahari ; 187

Muscicapa nlbieaudata BS, 84

—— albicilla 81, 386

— erythropygia 345

—_— flammea ‘is 341

———— latirostris 85, 387

a malabarica ... 74, 385

——_—_—— pallipes ae 82

_____—_—— parva 50 Ue teal

—_—__——-_ picata 338

——— —— pondiceriana Se)

~--__— + rosea... 342

— tuflcauda 86

-—_—--——. strophiata 81

————— superciliaris : 387

— — thalassina ; 85, 387

Muscicapula pallipes pallies: 82

poliogenys poliogenys ... 83, 84

———- $$ - ——- vernayi 83

aaa rubeculoides rubeculoi-

Geese es 82

ae superciliaris 81

——_ —— superciliaris 387

eee - astioma 82

_ tickellize tickellize 83, 387

Muscipata brevirostris ... 341

——-- princeps Sar AO

Muscipeta leucogaster ... 89, 389

Mustela -kathiah 185

— subhemachalana 185

Mycalesis mineus polydecta ... 455

——_———-- perseus typhius 455

——_——- subdita : 455

Mynospermum chylocarpum ... Sa

KX1X:

PAGE

Myophonus coeruleus horsfieldi 80

Myotis caliginosus 182

Sicarius 182

Nacaduba dana 457

————-- dubiosa imaies 457

————--- nora nora 457

Nezemorhedus (Cemas) oral. 249

Naia bungarus etiey AU

——.- tripudians ... be Olay Lda

-- war. ceca 273

Nectogale sikkimensis 184

Nelumbium lotus 65

——- speciosum... 65

Nemorhadus sumatrensis 322

Neodon sikkimensis 187

Neolyczena connee 207

———. sinensis 207

Nephrodium molle tage OIE

Nephrolepis cordifolia ... 180,195

- ——- paucifrondosa 1¢0

Neptis hylas varmona .. 455

jumbah jumbah 455

Nervilia 27

Nettapus doromandelanu: 417

Nvupia fruticans ... 285

Nyctalus Jabiatus 182

Nycticebus coucang 244

Nympheea stellata 287:

Oberonia ... 25

Ochotona Anata 187

Ochromela nigrorufa 87

CEcophyla smaragdina ... , 280

(Enanthe deserti atrogularis ... 382

— rufiventris ~ 70, 382

Olcyornis olivaceus me uae 84

Oligodon subgriseus eet Oe S925 393

OCphichthys boro... 276

Ophiocephalus gachua... 60

-—— leucopunctatus 60

-—_——__——- marulius 60

—_——- ——~—— micropeltis 60

—_—_—_ —_——_ pseudomarulius 60

——__——__———. punctatus 60

——-—— striatus... 60

Orchis commelinifolia ... 21

———- plantaginea 18

Orchys platyphyllos ‘ Z0

Oreocincla dauma Fone Woiiensis 72

Oriens gola goloides 459

Orsotrizeena medus mandata 455

Osmunda regalis... 193

XXX

PAGE

Otocompsa jocosa emeria 380

Ovis burrhel 248

—— hodgsoni 187

== ViSnel 248

Pachystoma 26

Panthera pardus sanicoll ae 236

_ sindica 490

——-——- tigris balica 233

——— sumatrae 235

Papilio alexanor ... 198

- crino tee Ao

- demoleus ao molens 198, 453

- helenus daksha... 453

- machacn centralis 198

- polymnestor polymnestor 453

- polytes romulus 453

Paraclepsis preedatrix 163

Paradoxurus eon pnrodieier 245

~ larvatus 245

—— leucomystax 245

niger a8 245

Paramignya monophylla 319

Pararge menava... 200

-- schakra ... 201

Parashorea , 286

Pareronia ceylanica eevee 454

—————- yaleria hippia 455

Pareudiastes pacificus ... Bee 227

Parus aplonotus .. 371

——-- major rahi aeacnin 370

——-- malabaricus 343

——.-- nuchalis Seal

——-- peregrinus 343, 344

——-- sinensis on 7

Passiflora laurifolia 288

Pathysa ncomius nomius 453

Paullinia asiatica... ade si 316

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps ... 378

Peranema cyatheoides ... 195

Pericrocotus andamanensis i340

-- ——- brevirostris Pg oe

—_ --—— - erythropygius 314, 345

—__——-——-- flammeus ... 341

—____-——_- flammifer .. 340

—_——_-——-- fraterculus ee 340

—____-—- peregrinus ceylonensis .. 344

—————— iredalei 343

—_—_——_ -——_—_——-—. malabaricus 343, 344

——_ —— —_. ——_ —--—. pallidus 344

——___—__——_---——_—— peregrinus 342, 344

———_——___ —_- —__——_ vividus 342, 344

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Pericrocotus roseus roseus 342

—-———=- == SPeCiosts) .. a: 340

————_——- — elegans 340

a semiruber 340, 341

Renistylisiee. wae 28

——__—--- Stenostachyus 14

Petaurista nobilis 185

——> ((JPeerounys)) imornaes 247

Petrocincla cinclorhyncha a 79

—= pandoo 80, 386

Philautus bombayensis ... 77

Phcenicura major 67

== rubeculoides sa 82

Phoenicurus ochrurus mlhceniccwoiees. 383

——_ ——— — -—— rufiventris 70, 382

——-~ - pheenicuroides 7.

Oligo kawen. 26

Phyllornis jerdoni 309

Pieris brassicae 1199

—- canidia canis 454

———— - —— indica 199

=== CHIOMICHOS 5. 199

——- daplidice moorei... 199

—-- glauconome 199

—-—- krueperi devta 199

——- rapae 199

Pipistrellus babu... 182

coromandra 182

Pithecus schistaceus 182

Platacantha 463

Platanthera at 28

—-- brachyphylla 25)

—--—— heyneana ... 22

Platycerium grande 286

Platyrhynchus ceylonensis as 87

Pleopeltis linearis 192, 195

——--——- membranacea 192

Poephagus (Bos) grunniens 248

Polyarthia fragrans 354

Polycanthagyna ... seen 463

Polyodontophis collaris.., ; 2, 393)

— — subpunctatus ... 392

Polyommatus bogra 205

——-——— christophi pranteata 204

—_—— ~~~ - cyllarus aeruginosa 205

——_—_--——- eros balucha 206

——--______ — ——- shingara 206.

——___--———-— hyrcana kwaja ... 205

— icarus figitiva 205

——- iris hanna 205

—_——-- loewil chamanica 205

XXxi

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Polyommatus pylaon indica 204 | Rattus flavipectus tiste... 187

——~ —-—— sieversi felicia ... 205 fulvescens... 186

—— —- vicrama astabene 204 nitidus 186

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii B78 norwegicus 247

- - travancoreensis... 376 | ———rattus 247

Porpax Sat 26 ——————— ciel mensia 186

Pothos scandens ... 286 | Ratufa gigantea gigantea 185

Pratincola atrata... : 70 | = indica 247

--—— indica... Oy Seva |) Nera, Comorevenels} a5. fee SY

Precis almana almana ... .. 456 | Rhacophorus maculatus 168, 172

——-- hierta hierta 202, 456 ——-—— malabaricus 169

——-- iphita pluviatilis... 456 maximus .. 169

——-- lemonias vaisya .. ... 456) Rhaphidophora pertusa PAE OO

—— orythyia swinhcei 202, 456 | Rhinoceros sondaicus 248, 322

Primula cernua .. 2387 | -———---—- Sumatranus... 248

Prionodon mactlosus 245 | ————--—- sumatrensis 322

-——- pardicolor ... 184 lf Beare unicornis 248

Prochilus ... 101 | Rhinolophus rouxi 245

Pseudois nahoor ... 248 | Rhizomys badius... ee ey

Pseudoxenodon macrops 392 | Rhizhophora oes 1200

Pteris acquilina ... 190 | Rhodonessa Pav opnglleces 417

=== [AES 191 | Rhynchcstylis Dol

-—— nemoralis. ... 191 | Rucervus eldii ce as 250

—-~—— pellucida 195 | ——-——: (Cervus) duvaucelli... 249

—- quadriaurita its 190 | Rupia rostellata ... 284

var. setigera 190 | Rusa (Cervus) unicolor... 249

Pteropus giganteus 244 | Russelia juncea ... 267

— medius ... 244 | Saccolabium 27

Punica granatum : ns 282 | Salpornis spilonotus epilonctle 380

Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus ... ... 380 | Salvia patens 288

Python molurus ... ECU ZA/Aeaol Sie Sabaca: tiGica ws a... Abe 353

sebae 471 | Sarangesa sati hopkinsi... 458

Ramanella montana 178 | Sarcanthus 27

Rana breviceps ane Pa aliGry, | Sarcochilus ee D7

——- cyanophlictis el55s lols O15) = Sarkidiornis Pero tae. 416

—- hexadactyla 514 | Saxicola atrogularis 382

——- leithii 167 | ——-——~- caprata atrata 69, 70

—- limnocharis 166 | ———-—— - bicolor 69, 380

——- malabarica 168 | ——— ——- burmanica... 69, 381

——- rufescens .. 167 | ————- nigrorufa : 87

——~ tigrina S258 ——- torquata indica 70, 382

Randia, sp. ... 286 | Saxicoloides fiulicata fulicata ... sas ne

-—- uliginosa 267, 268 | -———--—-—-———_—_ intermedia 73, 384

Rapala melampus 458 | Schizotoma ensifolia 195

- schistacea 458 | Sciuropterus pearsonii ... 185

- varuna lazulina... 458 | Scopolia acnleata 316

Rasbora buchanani 54 | Scolopax erythropus 298

——-—— daniconius 54 | —— - nebularia : 301

——_—— rasbora... 54 | ——-——-- totanus 293, 294

Rathinda amor ... 458 | Selenarctos leuconyx ae 114, 121

Rattus eha... 187 - melli so tS Nae TO)

xxxii

PAGE

Selenarctos thibetanus ... 239

a ———_——--—- formosanus 114;

2a, 29; 130

—__—____—_—_—..-- gedrosianus 116, 118

—_—-—__- —_—_-——_- japonicus. 125, 127,

129

-~laniger. 115, 118, 119

-———— -—__-___-—- mupinensis ie

Ts thibotanis: 106; 107;

109, 111, 1127 11s, 119; 121, 123

-_—_ —_____ - —— ussuricus Wk 28)

—. —-—-- wulsini lio

Simotes arnensis Deli op 302, 398

~-- teeniatus 392

-- violaceus oe nt OZ

Sitta castanea castanea one

——- frontalis frontalis io OU

Siphia parva albicilla 600 81, 386

—___—___——_- hyperythra be aa 81

——_—_—__ -_ parva See 80

styani 91, 389

Solenophorus Hie cacaphales 513

Sonneratia acida 285

Soriculus caudatus 183

——-——- nigrescens 183

Spalgis epius epius 456

Spindasis elima elima ... one oes = 457

—_—_—_—-- ictis.ictis 457

————- lohita pazularia se: we 458

————.- schistacea 457

————-- vulcanus vulcanus ... w. 457

Spiranthes ites ae 7 Sees OW,

Stereospermum .. 286

Sterculia : 286

— villosa... 285

Streblus-asper. ... 286

Strobilanthes sp. 286

Strymon sassanides 207

Suastus gremius gremius 459

Stncus ceruleus giganteus 183

———- soccatus 183

Sus andamanensis 250

Sylvia cambaiensis N36 ae ae 73

Syntarucus plinius ue ASG

syrichtus evanidus 1973208

—— galba 458

—_——. geron Ane 208

—--——— orbifer carnea ... 208

-- plurimacula 208

-----—. poggei 208

Tadorna tadorna 419

INDEX. OF SPECIES

PAGE

Teenia saginata 283".

Tajuria cippus cippts ... 458

—- jehana ae 458

Talicada nyseus nyseus 456

Talpa micrura dee 183°

Tamiops macclellandi ... 186

Taoaeschna frontalis S5n AGS

Tapirus indicus ne 248, 322

Taractrocera moevius sagara ... 459

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea fd 67

Tarucus mediterranee ... Sen wwe 20H

-—-—-- nara 456

———-- nigra 204°

—-- theophrastus oe 204

Tchitrea affinis a an 30

—— -—— paradisi lensooueters : 88, 89, 90,

389, 498

— —_—-~- — nicobarica 89, 90, 499

—_ ——.—_—— _ paradisi. 88, 89, 90, 389,

498, 499

Tecophilea cyanocrocus 287

Telchinia viol 456

Tephrodornis gularis ... & 339

-- = — fonentene 339°

EEE pelvicus 1 SOS)

—__——_ — sylvicola Soper see)

——_——_—_——-- pondicerianus affinis ... 339

a _ —__—_ —-- pondice-

Tianus= <2. 339

—-_—_-—— sylvicola 338

Terias blanda silhetana sexe 404

——-- hecabe IG ASS

——_-~—_—_——. simulata 454

—— laeta laeta 454

——w— libythea 454

Terpsiphone nicobarica 89

Tetracanthagyna ls 463

—— waterhousei: 461

Tetracerus quadricornis 249

Thunia 50 26

Timalia oer ee, 376

———- malcolmi 375

Tinnunculus inglisi 990 509

Toddalia aculeata 316

——_——-- asiatica 316

——----—- bilocularis: 316

——- floribunda 316

Toluifera cochinchinensis 317

Tomares callimachus 206

Tomeutes lokroides 186

Totanus calidris “294, 297

INDEX OF SPECIES XXxili

PAGE PAGE

Totanus fuscus me pal .. 298 | Turdus simillimus bourdilloni. 739,95), 77

- - glareola a ae ie 0 i niisi a sis 7S)

--- glottis ae x .. 301 | ————-——- mahrattensis. 76,77, 385

~- guttifer wh fe .. 3804 | ————-—'simillimus ... 20h ,276

- hypoleucos ... <a sie 7 | ————-— Sspetieei Se, 7.7, -385

- - ochrophus 500 ne a0 2 | -———- unicolor ae OB, So 77

- - stagnatilis ss te ae 5 | Turreea virens 330 ve ee OO)

-- totanus terrignote ... .. 297 | Typhlops braminus e me 272, 470

Trachischium fuscum ... ae a 392 | Uidaspes folus ... ae eee ... 459

Tragulus javanicus 500 os A sed || Ursus os se sis vee tO]

Triacanthagyna aes es ... 463 | ——- arctos “ath Ae ..- 106, 109, 246

Trias ane hi Bi ae 26 | ——-—-—- isabellinus aoe Wea ae LOO

Trigonella lasia ... te .. 479 | ——-clarki as sie Se sp eabagy Bie

— aailounmanes ae ... 479 | -———- formosanus 4 Ae Meith 29

Trimeresurus gramineus as .. ol2 | ——- gedrosianus sak ae oo AYO

Eringa,aurita, “~-.. See xa aae 8 | ——-labiatus .., ue use sony els

. c. canutus as “ee .. 265 | ——- longirostris en a pace LOS

- erythropus 530 sae ...- 298 | ——-malayanus ... Sh rae 132, 2247

- eurhinus 5M ss 293, 295 | ——-——-—-—-- wardi... eat 132, 3137

- glareola ets sh .: «10 | ——~- thibetanus ... seo OS; UE, 3123) -127

> hypoleucos ae see a 7 | -—--tibetanus ... oe uy PUT 247

- ochrophus oe ee ee le?) = = tonguatis -... wee SEDI 16,2238 7247

-—-— — stagnatilis et 455 ses 5) —- —— formosanus eee aia)

p=. fofanus ae aie 2. = 293 | —-- ————. macneilli as ae

.-__—___—_—-— terrignotee sony Cob, ZH ——-—— _ var. arboreus oe ES

—__—_—__———_ totanus Sok so CRE Wewaloles 5 ae ta ae 27

Triphasia aurantiola... ae i StS) | Vanessa nialanea. as a hen DOS

EOI a tie sos OS |) ——— == Carel ae ae 202, 456

Trochus niloticus ae So iis 95 | ——-—— egea balucha Bt mee 2203

Tropidia Se ech Be 27 | ————:——_ --album ee eae 203

Tropindonotus Teese se soe ORB a INC 500 oq) ADS

———— — parallelus 208 sop OB) SS TCI 3 : noo. = 408)

See CaO, WGN, G2, 272, S22, |) === -SevaloO weal foreseen soe 08}

393, 472 | Varanus bengalensis Be yen 209

—— ——_——— platyceps ae soo || = ESTES 500 550 Gases 270)

—__———.— stolatus. 162, 272, 392, 393, | ———— monitor ed was 269, 270

471, 472 | Vepris bilocularis Sco sae sco BIG

—. —— ———. subminiatus ... 392, 393 | Vipera russellii he. ie CH 2s

Tros aristolochize ube si ... 198 | Virachola isocrates He Sih Ln Oo

—-— —- aristolochic wea AOS —— perse ghela ae pace -408

— hector aoe ee: ee A 5S NatISe Sp) ae ee re ete 280

Tupaia belangeri pcan dob Pe SO iVerha ashton ae ...427, 428, 437

——-—- tana ane ol mai pe DAA - civetta matschiei awe Ape eta 249)

Turbo marmoratus tis Bee 95 | ——— — orientalis ba ae AZO

‘Turdoides striatus oelieen ane a 374 - civettina sir se 439, 445

——- - malabaricus 370, 373 - civettoides ane iis 429, 432

Turdus cafer aay Se Soo OS) - filchneri ae as mee AO

———- citrinus Le ae bis 78 | ———-malaccensis ... ser 245, 434

———- cyanotus se ae 79, 386 | ———-- megaspila oes oes owe 443

——- merula ie ee aie 75 - melanurus sae ate 428, 429

———- nigropileus aa ue 75, 385 — orientalis bie sie 428, 429

XXXIV INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Viverra tangalunga HS ae SO TASS

—_—_—_—_ -——- lankavensis eee aS

-— undulata ee os 428, 429

-zibetha 245, 426, 427, 428, 438, 446

—— —— ashtoni on sons ti

—_—— —__——_ filchneri ee Wine LIT

—___—__-—— picta 432, 437, 438

—_____—— pruinosa 434, 437, 438

——__—_—_-—— sigillata ne 434, 436

—_-——_—-——_ surdaster ... 433, 437, 438

——— ——-—— zibetha 184, 428,

436, 437

Viverricula indica indica ie .. 446

Volvocivora melaschistos a; wee OAD

Vulpes alopex Sc ate ag CLO

- leucopus ae aa a CLO

————- vulpes nes Pee DOA

Wailago attu aus oo aoe ae 58

Woodfordia floribunda sols se OO,

Xanthoxylum roxburghianum Ener SIS)

Xylophis perroteti Ses 560 OH Oe

Ypthima asterope mahratta ... 202, 455

————- baldus madrasa ae vei PASS

———— bolanica ar ie Nene, 2,

PAGE

Ypthima hubneri hubneri _... we AAD

Yungipicus scintilliceps kurode Baten 44C

Zalacca wallichiana ste ae BA BANS

Zamenis diadema on Sos Pes, SS

—— fasciolatus Mise 3 Sem gee ac

——-—— gracilis Be iat Pree 41/3

———— korros ne ee OO

—— mucosus he LG?) 2125 82, SSS

Zanthoxylum budrunga ety ee eS)

- ovalifolium a tt eos)

- (SUSE P< bec ase et J ONO

Zesius chrysomallus ... oa os MEA OS

Zetides agamemnon menides gases)

Zeuxine as a ee mie 27

Zizania acquatica on Re a 66

Zizera gaika san 58h ae om =A od

-— lysimon me sth 206, 457

- maha maha _... 6b0 BR wl vA

Se ossa ee se oe ow,

- otis decreta suis ee sate oy

— trochilus putli ... ae dno k7/

Zizyphus cenoplia ee eer Shh AW)

Zosterops palpebrosa ... nae nO

——-—— ceylonensis ... Aes Jano aon al

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, 1933--C8741

VOL. XXXVI, No. 1.

f Publication, 15th “November 1982.

~ a5

i For terms: of :

He ‘onorary S ‘ecretary’. s Address :

_Bomeay NATURAL History SOCIETY,

a : 6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

LON DON AGENTS: |

‘DULAU & Co., Ltd.,

2B. old Bond Street, w. i

NS ace” BAP

Birds a ae $ = 7 Ie 2

Game Birds of India, Vol. 1. nates Duels and their Allies), 2nd ‘Edition. es se

: Rs. 50. eke

(Price to Members Rs. 35). -

- Game Birds of India, Vol. HU. (Woodeoek, ‘Snipe, Bustards| and Sandgrouse),

Ist Edition. - Rs. 42.

(Price to Members Rs. 30).

Game Birds of India, Vol. TU. Pheasants, Ist Edition. Rs. 28. ye

(Price to Members Rs. 7).

Indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by BE. C. Stuart BAKER,

O.B.E., M:B-0-U., ees Rs. 37-8.

(Price to Members fs. 30).

Set of Game Bird Plates (30), Vol. 1. Rs. 20.

S ( Price to Members Rs. 13). Cag He

Set of Game Bird is (19), Vol. il. } Rs. 13- 8.

_ (Price to Members Rs. 10).

Bird-Life in India, by Capt. R. ae Bates, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Rs. 9.

(Price to Members Rs. 6-12).

‘Connon fadian Birds, iilust ations in -olke of 210 Common Birds of Indian

Plains, arranged in a.set of 5 Charts. a 45.

ees to Members Rs. he

Sidkes: 2 S

Identification of Poisonous Snakes— Be AS K Ses

Hanging Wall Chart, 30x40”. + | ; ca Re Se

. Folding Pocket Chart. - Rs. 1-12.

Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. ie PRATER, Ci M. Las S. Re. 1.

Miscellaneous.

Identification of Indian Butrettlves: by BRIGADIER W. Ee “Evans, OSs;

C.LE., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated. Rs. 15.

( Price i iMownbees Rs. 10).

Atay Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal: oa a: ‘

Rs. 2-8.

A fee ‘of ‘Indian Butterflies, by Coit. W. vee EVANS! Houa hy Rs. 2.

‘Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by JOSEPH :

AssMUTH, S.J. - Re, a. =

Back Numbers of the Journal

Back numbers of the Society’s foorpal: Rates on application.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of

Rs. 350.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of fs 10 and an annual

subscription of Rs. 25.

The subscription of members elected in October, NoveREan and Decent:

covers the period from the date of their election up till the ae of the

following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the .

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society Ha

Bombay on the lst January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. ras ou), a

"CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI, No. 1.

Tue Game Birps oF THE InpIAN Emerre. By EH. C. Stuart Baker,

Cah Cancer EN Che NeBPOLU. sae HHA O.Us marie x VEE (Wath =a

coloured: JOG) > Tobbeankorsondoascnangeoobc6c sd aceadoaoseeseenscEence ss puncaumrc

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE Bompay Presipency. By H. Blatter, s.J.,

DISD Maman ae een exerrla ie NOON mre (VV UC =: DUG UES)! reiciacls scvole ss ars sisialojesieinfores ete sla ee ae

GaME FisHeS OF BomBay, THE DECCAN AND THE NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS

oF THE Bompay PRESIDENCY. By Sir Reginald Spence, kt., M.L.C.,

2S 9 ToRa5 @iael Whe US. Jak, Ie eIrS Wiclbe@en CM iayoSone eelela Aral

1Q)” fOlGbEGs)) 0 ond Sacnbdeb Sct pas enb Soom ANB ae Goun pednepes see Hod boed cH Gora eciccaanconcHie ic

‘aE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY oF THE HasTeRN GuHats. By H. Whistler,

MEE OnURmascisicda bye Neb. Manneéar, M.B.0-U. Part WE J 22.5....<.

THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY. IBS tee IBS SGuiaels WS@s, 121110); (With

OME NOUS) em Re OAT 2 rostrata nahn GR Oe Sa siieve ts siaieis ote aie'r safe Stoo dtichors ootease ie arsigl se

THE BuLAcK AND Brown Bears oF HuRopE anD AsiA. By R. I. Pocock,

Wass leew JUL, (Woe 2 jones: Cree NA aye eo UOOHEES.)). es tepnosesansonece.

Some Berautirun Inpian TREES. leony Jah, Ilan, Sdieg” Wei), Toes eave!

W. 5. Millard, r.z.s. Part X. (With 1 coloured plate, 1 black-and-

CTC DUC CeO CCE [UNUTCS crater atune atti Sy ace setnne a sn.ctetneeeaseeuuee cut te

InDIAN Draconrites. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.M.s., F.z.8. Part XL.

GAC mr RMU CHUUGIINC Si) mmm ernn cs). aini ecu Saletan wavetiie Vanceees weumie wage nanmren creer

Nores on InpiAn Batracuians. By C. McCann, F.u.s. (With 10 plates

OG) 5. WORT LODO o)) = Poe Scio OSE SO BE IOC OE aR CET Dacian oc ne ee ORGS Oe

MAMMALS OF THE SuYDAM CUTTING Sikkim Exprepition. By C. C. Sanborn.

Toe Hor-WeatHer Ferns oF MAHABLESHWAR. By R. B. Ewbank, 6.1.z.,

To@siSoty PSR ae SOME a aoe klar oa IB ee eA eee nary ee Ra arte RR a

THe Burrerruirs oF Batucuistan. By Brigadier-General W. H. Hvans,

GaSicllin ACpllesis3 WSaOs peat Halse Chass A ae AAAI Siegel Gea DT Sy) ine a Degas wacmare unter

EURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE [*RESHWATER Mrpusa, Limnocnida indica.

By H. Srinivasa Rao, M.A., D.sc. (With a plate and a text-figure.)

HARTH-HATING AND Saut-Lickine in [np1aA. By J. F. Caius, s.J., F.L.s.,

hia leap omer een ne GU Clin aye MBA MEME S@ad eer mo), icuns wolastc. cu ovasech tate ata cetlodeek + «

(QUBRTUIATENC 5: IN 1B} NTE SiS 5G OE Seen p SBOE He Nate Sea ann NA Nearer aN or ret eet Manni ore a

ANTS] ANID IDTBVNTEN © AITO) = GENIN GITIGTIOL IS} Stree A

REVIEWS :—

AND OS Mee NOs Ty LED GO) HOH SOA MOA; Yilicscsharclees este nsdeaslecsascceacnieterenaes

EAN DHS ORMUIEY SOMRD Ge OH: HYAGTERING CGEUENAG sonccses dcdeetnodsec cael ce raes

MV ELE meee MUNN ipae Oem VEN GIR AMUN OiNic.l tasers acinarctalssiteeas sa ualded ited ines cece vaniiebe Sede hls

SUZ ee AND Ree ORIMMETING seIANITG : lye teccstidratoaseanseact sees Lane Sac naar Siempre

EXC OKABE Sy AUN EH? MRIOINE Bosca saagnceiet omic ecdisig sein csje sebé simalas acslce.siebeeet van «

PAGE

210

retro

il | CONMMEGIES: Cle Vole 2OO VIL, No. I

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—The Balinese Tiger—Panthera tigris balica (Schwarz). By

SEN) ds VE SOU Peete ce eee: Lualoseeencaneaeee tar Api oaveee haa tc Slee 233

II.—Remarkable behaviour of a Tigress. By V. S. La Personne,

I1I.—The Skin of a Persian Panther (Panthera pardus saaicolor).

By ARE, SPOCOCs ARRAS se a rae tee aca vedic iaa alice eee aoe ee 236

IV Black: sheopands eye iat Mh RI ey care natn an ay che eenae 236

V.—A Carnivorous Bear. By Madansinh of Kutch. ........ is 238

VE Wilds Docs kallinesbyaNiehiea By. te Carlisle «Coll Reems e239

VIIl.—Wild Dogs Hunting and Killing by Night. By Vv. S.

Ia PersOnne, ge Pia aiias ocivs ne eecuan dea co eaulsete cei game 240

VIII.—Carcases of Animals dying of rinderpest avoided by Jackals

and other Carnivora. By BR. ©. Morris, B.g-8. .)......:0-s 242

TX.—Death of an Elephant from Rabies. By J. Beckett. ............ 242

X.—Sounds made by Gaur or Indian Bison (Bibos gaurus). By

BR VES SP AGS yi ee See 0h lis clare are ieee ets Oma lee ane 243

XI.—The duration of life of some Indian Mammals. By C. Dover. 244

XII.—The duration of life of some Indian Mammals. Tigers. By

Ry On nies Ye Soe eos oe et eee ae eg ee 250

XI1I.—Record of Big Game Shot in the A Area 1905-1931. By

Bie C2 IVEOEPIB, OR ERUS ees average sles anne ee ee 252

XIV.—Small Bore Rifles and Big Game. By Capt. L. D: W. Hearsey 254

XV.—Game Reserves and Flashlight. By F. W. Champion, 1.7.s 255

XVI.—The Penduline Tit (Remiz coronatus Severtzoft) in the Punjab.

By Hy Wi Waites 52% Sonu aien coast tocne ene en tcsen cn emma ce eis Zoi)

XVII.—Notes on some Ceylon Birds. By F. N. Betts. .............:....... Zo)

XVIII.—The Status of the Indian Black-headed Shrike (Lanius

nigriceps, Frank) in Lower Bengal. By 8. C. Law, ph.p.,

FZ Ss MBs OW Bo ine cence eas aes Bee ee DO Cee epee eee 259

XIX.—Occurrence of the White-throated Babbler (Argya gularis,

Blyth) in Lower Burma. By J. K. Stanford, 1.c.s. <.:... 262

XX.—A Note on the Buntings of Burma. By J. K. Stanford, 1.0.8. 263

XXI.—The Short-eared Owl (Asio f. flammeus) in Burma. By J. K.

Stamford esi vO ioe taeda a aie clarence sae aa ee Si Lea ere 265

XXII.—The Occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis naumannt)

Pavel JeGnven (GUNG, en counmnetin) inay leyubeney env JJ, IC

Te WeUKO1G6 PRR te GP ation Mt oI EPL e dee sera ARG AMAT oOnbooum Caos 265

XXII1.—Distribution of the Hastern Grey Duck (Anas p. zonoryncha).

By ds S@.. Hen gigtn soe aC AS ai La Napa cts smmuirde oe cio Ue oem ontop cea 266

XXIV.—Flower-Birds and Bird-Flowers. By H. G. Champion, 1.F.s. 267

XXV.—A Case of Twin-embryos in the Egg of a Domestic Fowl. By

Bro N 2 siunhtarn (Wit hea@ LOGE Ge.) Mennc ance ecncassacaesecees 268

XX V1—Notes “on “Monitor Tizands) Sy Hie As Abreu name seeenecee 269

CONT EINES Ol = Violm XXXVI Now 7 1]

PAGE

XXVII.—The Family of a Russell’s Viper, Vipera russellii, or Chain

WASTES IBY AC UE\ Ej LEN iain Syren )oee 613i Cadets ol Ase ABR NAC BAE: 271

XXVIII.—Snakes in Ahmednagar. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.M.s. 272

XXIX.—Cases of Snake Bite. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.m.s. ... 274

XXX, —A Fish Pest of Fields along the Coromandel Coast [Ophichthys

GoTo ee By iV. Pevnkechna Ayyar. (With a plate.) 276

XXXI.—The Food Supply of Trout in the Nilgiris. By Major EH. G.

JPlORTP ANE Oa/s Cl NINS 5 1a/AcSo =). “Soeanponeccesoo0s0bp Buadaobonocb onodce cbddeBe 278

XXXII.—Methods of dealing with Plagues of Ants. LHditors. ............ 279

XXXIII.—Behaviour of the Red Tree Ant (Gicophyla smaragdina). By

She ele ra veiw Min Cup eaCiMn Za Sir diner un. want. Aceieesnol denen ase 280

XXXIV.—A Scorpion (Buthus) feeding on a Galeod Spider (Galeodes

CO UaS) eam yee Cra MECC ac Moyet tte wardesceh sansnoeassucssstes cece 281

SQOOV SA Cuma ioe Aeyoe orn, = IBy7 (C5 Wile Calan, aneitatsls Gosondnosecodosoosode 282

XXXVI.—Some Seagrasses from the Presidency of Bombay. By §8. C.

TD HISGAR 2 UTS (O Soa aS Rey oe WA rn a a 284

XXXVII.—Ghimpses of the Vegetation of South Burma. By K. Biswas,

Nie Ate a CHIAUE eemonae DUGUCS Mn « ciaueinue nist ateae enn ori s scans hiked huts 285

XXXVIII.—Scent in Relation to Flower-colour. By T. C. N. Singh.

XXXIX.—Vernacular Names. By Brigadier-General R. G. Burton.

EAS ® OVEN) TENG, eae ein tiiten ae rae ey ee cee, Moher Meme hh pai une i oO gen Mele aba INP ea 290,

ada

a} he f}

Journ. Bomaay Nar. Hist. Soc.

Meine is

JOHN BALE SONS & DANIELSSON, L™ LONDON

SANDPIPER

GREEN

SANDPIPER

Woop

SANDPIPER 4

MARSH

Tringa ochrophus.

Tringa glareola.

Tringa stagnatilis

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

NovEMBER 1982. WO SOO Nat, INO, il.

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

eC a OTUNRT aby AKHE, O-1, bo Ee7.9-) iS. oM.B.O.U., H.F.A.0.U.

Vorsuve

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS.

Part XVIII.

(With a coloured plate). ,

(Continued from page 721 of Volume XXXV).

FAMILY: SCOLOPACIDA.

Genus: Ilranga.

Tringa.—lLinn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., i. p- 148 (1758).

Type by desig.—Tringa ochrophus Linn.

Blanford included in this genus, which he called Totanus

instead of Tringa, eight species of Sandpiper, but these have been

separated by other systematists until practically every species

has been relegated at one time or another to a genus of its own.

This system seems to defeat the very purpose of classification

which has created the term genus for a group of species which are

nearer to one another than to others which should be placed in

other groups. Occasionally a single species may be so aberrant

as to deserve recognition by generic separation but this should be

exceptional. In the present instance the only birds I separate are

the two large Amstrong’s Sandpipers:—Birds with upturned bills

and with large webs between the outer and middle toe and practi-

cally none between the middle and inner—and the Greenshank,

which I include in the genus Glottis, now generally recognised,

though possibly without sufficient reason.

In the genus Tringa the bill is long, slender and straight; both

mandibles are grooved, the oval nostril being placed near “the base

of the bill; the tip of the upper mandible is hard and bent down;

the tarsus is about the same in length as the culmen or slightly

longer or shorter; it is scutellated in front and behind; the hind

toe is present; the outer toe is joined to the middle by a web and

9 FOUN, ISONUBA INAEULRAIL, IeuICa, SOCMBNY, Wol, OO

the inner and middle have a smaller web between them, sometimes

almost obsolete.

There is little difference between the breeding and non-breeding

plumage, except in Tringa erythropus (fuscus auct.) which has a

very dark breeding dress.

As restricted in this work, the genus T7inga contains six Indian

species; outside our area it is practically cosmopolitan.

Key to Species.

A. Legs olive-green or yellowish-green,

never red.

a. Intermediate in size, wing from 1380

to 150 mm.

a’. Lower back brown: tarsus a

little shorter than culmen ... 7. ochrophus, p. 2151.

b’. Lower back white: tarsus a

little longer than culmen soo EL, SUMGNOIS, TD. ALG,

b. Smallest in size; wing from 93 to

128 mm.

GC. NO wihaie om mum) ... soo LL, (oypollewCoS, Do ALT.

d’. Rump white ot ooo, LE GhOreOlG, ~— [D. AY,

B. Legs red. Largest in size: |

ce. Outer secondaries all white ace Ll LOULMUS, (De alle

d. Outer secondaries barred brown and

white ne Te LEC TU TOPUS eee a a.

TRINGA OCHROPHUS.

The Green Sandpiper.

Tringa ochrophus.—Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., i, p. 149 (1758)

(Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vi, p. 215 (1929).

Totanus ochropus.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 262.

Vernacular Names.—Nelia ulanka (Tel.).

Description: Breeding plumage.—Upper part and sides of

head, back and sides of neck brown, each feather edged with white;

mantle brown with a bronze-green gloss, spotted with white, some

of the scapulars with blackish-marks between the white spots;

lower back and rump blackish-brown with narrow white fringes;

upper tail-coverts white; tail with the concealed base white, the

rest barred black and white; innermost wing-coverts and secon-

daries hke the back; other coverts brown with the same gloss as

the back; remaining wing-quills dark brown; chin, throat and whole

underparts white, the fore-neck, breast and flanks streaked and

barred with dark brown.

Colours of soft parts.—Inis brown; bill dull greenish, black at

the tip; legs and feet dull greenish-brown or olive-green.

Measurements.—Wing, ¢ 185 to 150 mm., Q 141 to 154 mm.;

tail 54 to 60 mm.: tarsus 32 to 383 mm.: culmen 33 to 36 mm.

In Winter the head and hind-neck are uniform brown, some-

times with a greyish tinge; the spots on the back are smaller and

"The page numbers to the Fauna of British India, second edition.

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

very inconspicuous whilst, generally, the upper head is more

erey-brown with less developed streaks. .

Young birds in the first moult have narrow bronze margins to

the feathers of the upper parts; the bands on the base of the tail

are narrower and the terminal band broader.

Nestling.—Above deep cinnamon-pink, crown and a line from

the bill black, the crown mottled with cinnamon; a black dorsal

line from nape to tail-tuft; two lateral black bands on. each side

of this; a second lateral black lne across the wings and from these

all round the uropygium; upper breast cinnaminon; remaining

underparts white.

Distribution.—Throughout Northern Europe and Asia in the

breeding season and migrating south in Winter to Africa, India,

China, the Indo-Chinese countries and Malaya. !

Nidification.—The Green Sandpiper breeds in the southern

portions of the Baltic States and in northern Germany from the

end of April to May, whilst in the extreme northern portions of

its range eggs may be found from early June to early July. This

little Sandpiper has the habit of depositing its eggs in the nests

ol other birds, generally those of the Redwing or Fieldfare of the

previous year. Among the first to obtain its eges was Herr

Passler, who recorded the fact in “Normannia’ for 1851. At the

time he believed the egg to be that of the Wood-Sandpiper, cor-

recting his mistake in the following year, 1852. Prior to this,

however, eggs had been taken by a forester in 1845 and given to

Herr Wiess, who refused to believe in their authenticity. In 1846,

however, he himself found a nest, presumably that of a thrush,

with four eggs of this Sandpiper, in a pine tree some 25 or 80 feet

from the ground. In 1856 other eggs were taken by Dr. Altum

and in “Normannia’ for that year is a paper by a forester, Hintz,

describing the taking of still other eges and adding that he had

already found this bird breeding in old nests of the Song Thrush.

This paper referred to Western Pomerania. In the Ibis for ’59

a further record of this bird’s breeding was given. Since then a

great many eggs have been taken and these nearly always from

nests but there are one or two records of the bird breeding on the

eround in grass or marsh land in a manner very similar to that

of the Wood-Sandpiper. As already stated, the nest generally

selected is .one of some species of thrush, probably more often

a fieldfare than any other, but Wheelwright in his ‘Ten Years in

Sweden’ says that they sometimes lay in a deserted nest of a

squirrel, jay, or crow and, sometimes, in new thrushes’ nests,

the proper owners having been driven away. The site selected is

often one at a considerable distance from water, occasionally indeed,

far away even from swamp or marsh land. The nest selected may

be anything from 10 to 20 feet from the ground; on the other

hand there are records of its eggs having been taken from nests

as high as 40 feet up. They are said invariably to select nests

in fir-trees but there are certainly exceptions to. this rule, for I

have myself records of eggs taken from a redwing’s nest placed

quite low down in a birch-tree, and of another set of eges taken

from a broken down brambling’s nest placed. in a birch -about

NEC 20 1932

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,+Vol. XXXVI

8 feet from the ground. This is the only record, however, of a

brambling’s nest being used and such a choice must be most

exceptional. :

The hen bird is said to sit very close, but to slip quietly off

the nest when disturbed, slinking away amongst the trees so that

it is not always easy to spot her. If suddenly surprised, however,

she will sometimes get off the nest and fly straight into the air,

where, after mounting to a good height, she twists and turns

rapidly, much like the Broad-billed Sandpiper. The cock bird,

which probably also shares in the duties of incubation—at all

events during the night—has a very sweet little trilling lovesong,

accompanied by a quick dipping flight as the bird moves round in

circles. Occasionally, however, he will sing to his mate perched on

« bare twig at the extreme top of some tree in the vicinity of

the nest. The eggs are, as one would expect, always four in

number. The ground colour varies between pale-vellowish or

greenish-stone, and a rather more deep yellowish-buff. The primary

markings generally consist of rather small specks and spots of a

dark reddish-brown, occasionally interspersed with others of a

rather lighter hue. The secondary markings are tiny spots of

lavender or neutral tint. Compared with most Waders’ eggs they

are pale and poorly marked, it being very exceptional to find an

egg in which the markings are of any size or richness in colour,

though one set in the Wolley Collection in Cambridge, is almost

as handsomely marked as eggs of the Marsh-Sandpiper. A hundred

eges average 389.0x 27.9 mm., maxima 42.0x28.0 mm. - and

Al) 30.3 mm... minima 34.6 >26.0) mm and)-34,8><25.5 mma,

The period for incubation is supposed to be 18 days but there is

very little information on this point.

Habits.—This little Sandpiper is one of our most common

winter visitors over the whole of northern India and Burma,

though as it wanders south it becomes less numerous. It has,

however, been recorded from Ceylon and from south of the Malay

Feninsula. It is also one of our earliest arrivals, as I have per-

sonal records of its appearance in Assam on the 10th., 12th., and

13th. of August, when it was observed feeding in some numbers

in marshes in the Brahmapootra Valley in the district of

Dibrugarh. In the’ Surrma Valley, to the south of Assam, it

arrives at about the same time; my earliest record being the 6th.

of August, when a pair was seen feeding on the edge of a

small stream in North Cachar. When the birds first appear in

India they may be seen in comparatively large flocks, sometimes

as many as fifty or sixty: these seem, however, to break up immedi-

ately and the birds disperse at once in small parties of half a

dozen or so, or in pairs or singly. |

It is a very quick, active little bird, running rapidly here and

there after the insects upon which it principally feeds, or probing

in the shallow mud for tiny crustacea and small worms. One

summer we noticed them on a lotus-covered swamp, feeding on

the tiny httle water snails which were to be found on the lily

leaves in great numbers. One bird which I shot contained nothing

but a mass of these water snails. Walking on the lily leaves,

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE i

their actions seemed to be much more deliberate than when they

were running about on the shore, probably because they had to

search carefully for the tiny snails which were generally hidden in

the rim of the leaves. ie

When not tired, it is a shy little bird and does not often allow

a very close approach, but takes to flight, mounting quickly into

the an’, twisting and turning as it mounts, and then flying directly

away at great speed. In India the only note that will be heard

is a musical little whistle of three syllables, sounding like ‘Twi,

twi, twi’. The Green Sandpiper can hardly claim to be ealled a

sporting bird. At the same time its flesh is by no means to be

despised.

TRINGA STAGNATILIS.

The Marsh-Sandpiper.

Totanus stagnatilis.—Bechstein, Orn. Tasch., 2, p. 292 (1803)

(Germany); Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 263.

Tringa stagnatilis.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vol.

Wily [Do UUG (ULEPAS)).

Vernacular Names.—Chota Gotra (Beng.).

Description: Breeding plumage.—Lores whitish; upper part. of

the head, neck and upper back sandy-grey, becoming a little

browne: on the inner secondaries and inner wing-coverts; head

and neck streaked with black, the streaks becoming broader on

the mantle and changing to broken bars on the scapulars and inner

secondaries, the longest of which have ‘herring-bone’ markings of

black; lower back and rump white; tail pale-brown, greyer at the

base, with narrow bars of blackish, then decreasing outwardly until

the outermost feathers merely have two narrow longitudinal lines

ef dark brown; primaries and outer secondaries dark brown, the

latter tinged with grey and both with the inner web speckled with

white and brown on two-thirds of their length; primary coverts

and edge of wing black; median and secondary coverts brown-grey,

narrowly edged with white; lower plumage white, the sides of the

neck and head, fore-neck, breast and flanks spotted with black, the

spots becoming bars on the sides of the lower breast and the flanks.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill dark horny-brown to

blackish, the base of the lower mandible paler and greenish; legs

and feet dull sage-green, olive-green or bluish-green.

Measurements.—Wing, 3 131 to 1388 mm., 9 133 to 143 mm.;

tail 56 to 66 mm.; tarsus 48 to 58 mm.; culmen, ¢ 36 to 89 mm.,

3 40 to 45 mm. The supposed form horsfieldi is not any smaller

than typical glareola and cannot possibly be separated.

In Non-breeding plumage the forehead, short supercilium, sides

of the head and lower plumage are unspotted white; the upper

surface is much darker and browner, the shafts showing just a

trifle darker, whilst the hinder crown and neck nearly always show

a few dark streaks; the sides of the upper breast are generally more

ov less marked with brown. |

Distribution,—South-Eastern France, South Russia and the

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Southern Baltic Provinces and Western Asia to Central South

Siberia and Turkestan, Dauria and east to Mongolia. In Winter

it migrates south to Africa, Palestine, Arabia, India, Burma,

Malaya, South China and Awetialia,

Nidification.—The Marsh-Sandpiper breeds in Southern Russia

and the Southern Baltic States to Western Asia as far as Turke-

stan and Dauria, whence it is said to spread as far as Mongolia.

At one time it was perhaps more common in Hungary than any-

where else but so many of its breeding haunts have been drained

and reclaimed that it has become a very scarce breeding bird in

that country. In Poland, I am told, it is still common on the

Pinsk Marshes but these cover such an immense area of country

that unless one knows the habits of the birds very well, it is

rather like hunting for the proverbial needle in the haystack.

Higgs have been taken in the last week of April and from then to

the first or second week in June, whilst one set, probably a

second laying, has been recorded as being taken on the 8th of

July.) Whe nest is a typical Sandpiper’s—some natural hollow in

among thick short grass on the edges of swamps and marshes.

It is said to be generally well lined with grass and to be well hid-

den, the bird sitting very close and, if the eggs are at all incubated,

refusing to move until she is almost stumbled upon. On leaving

the nest her actions are very similar to those of the Dunlin.

Sometimes she will tumble off the nest and with dragging wings

stageer across the ground in an attempt to lead the intruder away

from the nest. At other times she will flick off the nest exactly

as the Dunlin so often does, jumping straight into the air with

extraordinary rapidity and then, after two quick zigzags, fly

straight away. Occasionally the meet may be less well concealed

chem usual on a small hummock in the centre of deep swampy

eround, but such a site seems to be quite an exception.

The eggs, as usual, are four in number and decidedly hand-

some and densely marked, even for those of a wader. The ground

colour varies from a pale stone or fawn to a comparatively deep

buff, but, though pinkish eggs are not rare, a green tint seems

to be very exceptional. Primary markings are bold blotches and

smaller marks of chocolate brown or blackish, scattered profusely

over the whole egg and generally still more dense at the larger

end. The secondary markings are a pale neutral tint, frequently

with a distinct tinge of pink. Forty-eight eggs average 38°5 x

2 ii ale annie

Whether the male bird assists in incubation or not, there

seems to be no record, but it is said generally to keep somewhere

close to the nest while the hen bird is sitting.

Habits.—The Marsh-Sandpiper is found in winter over the

whole of India and Burma, extending into Africa, South China

and even as far as Australia, whilst it has been recorded from

many of the islands of the Australasian area. It is a bird more

addicted to inland lakes and swamps than to the seashore and,

though not nearly so numerous as the Green Sandpiper, may be

generally found wherever there is sufficient marsh land to suit its

purpose. In its actions it is very much the same as other small

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

-J

birds of the genus, running rapidly about in shallow mud or short

erass, feeding on insects, worms, coleoptera and tiny crustacea.

This little bird is one of our disturbing factors in determining the

genera into which the Sandpipers should be split. For one thing,

instead of having a perfectly straight bill, it curves very slightly

upwards, although the curve is so shght that it is hardly noticeable

and in dried bills may not be visible at all. In this characteristic it

rather approaches birds of the genus Glottis and perhaps would

justify the classification of some authors by whom they are placed

all together in one genus.

Like all Sandpipers, it is not a bad little bird to eat, if one

has not much choice, though it would take a great many to make a

meal. JI remember, however, once out in camp about a dozen or

more Marsh and Green Sandpipers were caught in nets by the

Mahomedan wildfowlers and handed over to me for two annas. I

made the skins I wanted as specimens and found the remainder

cooked in a pie were really delicious. Those birds, of both species,

had been feeding on very small ivory-white worm, apparently probed

out of the mud.

TRINGA HYPOLEUCOS.

The Common Sandpiper.

Tringa hypoleucos.—Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., i, p. 149 (1758)

(Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, cal Wily [Os Aled

(19293.

Totanus hypoleucus.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 260.

Vernacular Names.—Polte ulanka (Tel.); Kotan (Tam.).

Description.—Whole upper parts and tail brown faintly tinged

with olive; the feathers from the forehead to the lower back with

fine dark central streaks, broadest on the back and scapulars;

feathers from lower back to upper tail-coverts, scapulars, inner

secondaries and wing-coverts with narrow pale rufous edges and

sub-edges of black, most conspicuous on the wing-coverts; central

tail-feathers like the back, outer tail-feathers barred black and

white, intermediate tail-feathers intermediate in colour; primaries

brown, the first white-shafted, the third and following primaries

with a patch of white on the inner web; outer secondaries white,

the outermost with broad subterminal blackish bands, disappearing

on the central feathers; inner secondaries like the back; greater

coverts dark brown, tipped with white and the outer edged with

white also; chin and throat white; fore-neck and upper breast white

with dark streaks and some brown on the sides of the breast;

axillaries and remainder of lower plumage white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill horny-brown or grey-

brown, darker at the tip; legs and feet pale dull green.

Measurements.—Wing 99 to 119 mm.; tail 50 to 58 mm.; tarsus

about: 22 to 25 mm.: culmen 23 to 26 mm. Extreme Western

birds have a wing 99 to 112 mm.; extreme Kastern 102 to 111 mm.

In Winter the upper surface 1s more uniform, the head and

hind-neck often immaculate; the general tint is also rather more

olive

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Nestling in down.—Upper parts darkish cinnamon buff; a line

from the upper mandible and the crown blackish and a black line

through the eyes meeting behind the crown; centre of nape blackish

owing to the black bases of the down showing through the buff

tips; a black dorsal line from nape to uropygium; two fainter. lateral

bands on the sides of the back and black bands on the wings;

lower plumage white, the breast suffused with buff.

Distribution.—Breeding throughout the greater part of Europe

to Western Siberia and thence east to Japan and south to Kash-

mi and Tibet. Mathews accepts T. h. auritat as a good race on

the grounds that it is smaller and paler. I ean find no difference

in the size of this httle wader in any special geographical area,

nor can I see that HKastern: birds are any paler than Western; I

therefore consider aurita to be merely a synonym of hypoleucos.

Nidification.—The Common Sandpiper breeds within our limits

all along the Himalayas at altitudes between 9,000 and 12,000 feet

and less frequently as low as 5,000 feet. South of the Himalayas

the only record of its breeding is that of Scrope Doeg, who records

finding a nest in the Hastern Narra, Sind on the 3rd of July. I

have not been able to find these eggs anywhere and the authenti-

citv of this record is very doubtful. In Kashmir they are very

common, breeding for the most part in May and June within a

short distance cf, or actually on, the banks of the streams and

rivers. Hume records their laying their eggs in mere depressions

in the shingle or sand, without lining or with only a little lining

of grass, quite unconcealed. As a matter of fact, however, the

great majority of nests are well hidden, generally in fairly thick

erass or low scrub, under some boulder or in amongst masses of

stones. In most cases also, there is either a good lining of grass

and leaves, or the grass itself is so beaten down as to form a warm

comfortable bed. The earliest record I have for eges is a set taken

on the 9th. of May by Mr. 8. L. Whymper at Harsil in the Garhwal

Hills, which were found laid in a depression in a shingle bank of

the Bhaghiratti River. The latest date I have is the 8th of

August—four fresh eggs taken by A. EK. Ward’s collector on the

Sind River. Sometimes this Sandpiper makes its nest at some

considerable distance away from the bigger rivers and streams and

Col. Buchanan informed me that he took several nests in Kashmir

in a well-wooded ravine, where they were cleverly concealed

amongst bushes or completely hidden under some boulder or over-

hanging bank. At the bottom of the ravine there was generally a

certain amount of water trickling down, drainage from the surround-

ing high ground. Normally the eggs number four, as with all other

waders, but Col. K. Buchanan had a curious experience with this

bird in Kashmir in 1907. In a letter to me he writes: —

‘T did not know that there was anything strange in this bird’s

(Common Sandpiper) laying 5 or 6 eggs. It is never a rare bird

in Kashmir but this year in Pahlgaon it was extraordinarily com-

mon and I took many nests. Three of these contained 6 eggs

and there were several with 5 although of course the great majority

Tringa aurita Latham, Ind. Orn., Suppl., p. [xvi (1801) (Java).

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE i)

had only 4. The meets and eggs were always very well hidden

o: I should doubtless have found many more. I took nests from

the third week in May to the end of June.’

In ground colour the eggs vary from pale creamy-buff or

yellowish-stone colour to a warm-buff or reddish-buff. Normally

they are fairly profusely spotted, especially at the larger end, with

small spots, blotches and specks of reddish-brown and umber-

brown, with others still smaller and less conspicuous of pale-grey

cr pinkish-grey underlying them. Rarely the blotches are some-

what bolder and larger but, taking the eggs as a series, they are

‘not so handsomely marked as most “Waders’ and a really bold, hand-

somely marked clutch is exceptional. 1 have seen Indian clutches

in which the markings consist of twisted lines interspersed with a

few bold blotches, the majority of these markings, as is generally

the case, being confined to the larger end. Eggs almost or entirely

without markings are occasicnally found but less often in this

species than in some of the other Waders, such as the Ringed

Plover.

A hundred Indian eggs average 395.6 x 26.2 aie ; maxima

BEG <2ELS iaiveay, endl Bio < 472 alan, p idaueuboarey 312 x 26.3 mm.

and 32.2x 24.1 mm. Jourdain gives the average . a hundred

British eggs as 36.4x 25.9 mm.

Outside our Indian limits the Common Sandpiper breeds over

the greater part of Northern Europe and Asia from Great Britain

to Japan, eges being laid from early May to mid June over the

Southern portion and in late June in the area nearer or inside

the Aretic Circle. In Lapland we found quite fresh eges late in

June but. on the other hand. we found one nest with four

eges on the poimt of hatching on the third of that month,

and these eggs must have been laid during a time of heavy frost

and snow. The bird is a close sitter and both parents take a

share in incubation, though this is said to be carried on chiefly by

the female. In India, however, the male certainly takes its fair

share, as among birds trapped on the nest, I have a record of four

males to three females. Perhaps this is due to the fact that most

of my birds were noosed on their nests during the night and it

may be that, while the female incubates during the das. the male

takes over her duties after sunset. Incubation is said to take 21

to 23 days in Europe but the only record I have in regard to India

was for 20 days only, dated from the laying of the last egg.

Habits.—The Common Sandpiper occurs in great numbers over

the whole of India during the winter and, according to Wait, is

equally common throughout the low country of Ceylon, wandering

up in smaller numbers as high as Nuwara Hliya. It is equally

abundant on rivers and marshes inland as it is on the seashore

during the winter, where it may be seen either singly, in -pairs

or in small flocks, running about hunting for its food, which consists

of all sorts of insects, fresh water mollusea, worms, beetles, ete.

It is a very restless little bird and seems to be constantly on the

move, alternating a number of little runs with a short flight in

the air, after which it returns to its original position. It is an

easy bird to distinguish on the wing, having its lower back and

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

uppertail coverts all brown, a feature which distinguishes it at a

glance from all the other small Sandpipers of about the same

size. Further, the broad white bar across the whole upper surface

olf the extended wing is a conspicuous help to identification. Its

ordinary cry during the cold weather is a sharp but rather pleasant

‘Twit-twit’, uttered by the bird as it takes to wing and less often,

in flight. During the breeding season it has a very sweet trill

which Witherby syllabifies as ‘Kitty-needie, kitty-needie, kitty-

needie’; the bird sings these notes as it flies round in wide circles,

ascending and descending with outstretched quivering wings.

Like most of the Waders, when disturbed from its nest, the

Common Sandpiper goes through all sorts of contortions, as_ if

wounded or ill, in an endeavour to entice the intruder from its

nest. This little bird is quite good eating but the flesh is rather

dry.

TRINGA GLAREOLA.

The Wood-Sandpiper.

Tringa glareola.—Linn., Syst., Nat., 10th. ed., 1, p. 149 (1758)

(Sweden); Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vi. p. 215 (1929).

Totanus glareola.—Blanf. and Oates, iv. p. 261.

Vernacular Names.—Chupka, Chobaha, Tutwari (Hind.); Chinna

ulanka (Tel.) :

Description: Breeding plumage.—A narrow supercilium and

round the eye white; a streak through the eye brown; upper plumage

very dark brown, the feathers of the crown and hind-neck streaked

with white; elsewhere spotted with white on the edges of the

feathers, narrowly edged at the tip with whitish and with the

terminal portion almost black; upper tail-coverts white, a few of

the longest sometimes streaked with brown; tail banded dark brown

and white, the brown in excess on the central, the white on the

outermost feathers; primaries, primary coverts and greater coverts

blackish; outer secondaries and their coverts hghter brown, with

very fine edges of white soon lost by abrasion; sides of head and

neck white, spotted and streaked with dark brown; chin and throat

immaculate white; breast and flanks white, profusely spotted and

barred with brown; remainder of lower parts white, the axillaries

barred and the under tail-coverts streaked and barred with brown.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris hazel to dark brown; bill blackish;

the base paler horny-green; legs and feet pale sage-green or olive-

ereen.

Measurements.—Wing 117 to 125 mm.; tail 45 to 50 mm.;

tarsus 86 to 41 mm.; culmen 26°5 to 80 mm. The sexes are alike

in size.

In Non-breeding plumage the white spots and black markings

are not so well-defined; the fore-neck and breast are a sullied pal

brown, indistinctly streaked with darker. !

Nestling.—Upper parts pale cinnamon-pink. <A. broad _ black

coronal streak from the upper mandible to the back of the crown;

the posterior portion stippled with cimnamon; nape and uropygium

tuft dusky-blackish-brown stippled with pink; a black line through

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE ala

the eye to the nape; two blackish-brown lines on either side under

the wings and on either side of the rump; a patch of the same

round the uropygium tuft and another patch not quite so dark

round the tibia. Under parts white, the down on the breast

tipped with cinnamon.

Distribution.—Breeding throughout Sub-Aretic and Northern

Europe and Asia and wintering in Northern Africa, all India and

Southern China, through the Australasian Islands to Australia.

Nidification.—The Wood-Sandpiper does not breed within

Indian limits but I have found many of its nests in Finland and

Lapland, where it lays from the middle of May until the end of

June. I know of no nest of any small Wader which is so difficult

to find as that of this one. Its breeding haunts are confined

within the northern mit of the birch forest, its occurrence out-

side this being very exceptional. Its favourite haunt seems to be

some swamp in which there is deep and treacherous mud, over-

erown with dense undergrowth of tangled dwarf birch, juniper and

thick coarse grass, amongst both stunted pine trees and dwarf

‘birches, ee in less or greater profusion. Here on some ham-

mock or small dry patch, the bird places its nest, so well concealed

that until the bird rises from it and one parts the vegetation, it

is impossible to get a glimpse of the eges. The hen bird sits

extraordinarily close and even before the full complement of eges

are laid will often refuse to take wing until the intruder is within

a foot or-two of her. The cock bird is really the easiest. guide to

the nest, for its beautiful little song is constantly uttered within

a very short distance of it; generally it is uttered as he soars

round immediately overhead, or crosses and recrosses over it in

short dipping flights. Sometimes, however, he will perch on a

bare twig of a fir-tree and sing to his wife from that vantage point.

Once having located the male, one may be pretty sure that the

nest is within a couple of hundred yards or less of where he sits,

after which, a continuous careful search, yard by yard, may pos-

sibly bring it to light. Some nests, however, are so carefully

hidden as absolutely to defy detection. In Northern Lapland, on

three days running, I disturbed a Wood-Sandpiper from her nest

evidently placed somewhere under masses of birch branches cut

by the Lapps the previous summer and left lying where they had

fallen. After the third time I: had put her up and made a fruit-

less search, I then twice came out to hunt for her in the middle

of the night and, though on each occasion I put her up within

ten yards of me, I left Lapland without having discovered the

nest.

The nest itself is generally made in a little whorl of grass, or

other vegetation, the ends completely .bent over it in a twisted

circle, so that even when the bird is suddenly frightened into

leaving the nest, the eggs are still completely gorse Unless

the sround is very wet, there seems to be no true lining, though

the beaten-down grass and fallen birch leaves form a soft bed for

the eges to le on. The eges of course number four as usual, but

they vary very greatly in colour; those in my own series, which

include a large number taken by Wolley in Finland, have the

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

ground colour most often a pale ochre yellow or pale buff but

others have it distinctly greenish or greyish. In others again, it

is a distinct pinky buff. The markings consist of small blotches

and spots, reddish brown and blackish brown, generally fairly bold

and almost always more numerous at the larger end than else-

where, and forming sometimes an indefinite ring or cap. The eggs

are decidedly handsome, far more so than those of the preceding

bird, the markings being much bolder and standing out more

decidedly from the ground colour. A hundred eggs average

38°3 x 26°4 mm. and Jourdain gives the following figures :—

Maxima, 42-0528: 1" s marae anda Bla ae 2 6a, ermine ssmaniraiiancy

35°39 26.0 mm. and 37.0x 244 mm. Incubation according to

the Finns is said to take 16 or 17 days.

Habits.—Among the many common Waders which are found

in India throughout the cold weather, there are none more

numerous than the present bird. They are also amongst the

earliest arrivals, the first few birds appearing early in August, and

ereat numbers before the end of that month. Soon after their

arrival, which occurs in flocks of considerable size, they wander

all over India, arriving in Ceylon, where they are common, about

the middle of September. Arriving earlier, they also leave later

than most of our Waders. A few remain in Ceylon and Southern

India until about the middle of April, whilst in Northern India

a few birds may still be seen the last week in May. Over the

ereater part of its area, it seems to be equally commen both on

the seashore, the mouths of tidal rivers and the great marshes

found everywhere inland. They are not however confined to these, —

and pairs or single birds may be seen by small pools and ponds

and even on the banks of hill streams. According to Wait, how-

ever, in Ceylon it keeps generally to the salt marshes, tidal flats,

and the low shores round lagoons. In Southern India also, both

on the West and East, it appears to be entirely a bird of the sea-

shore and is comparatively seldom found in the flooded rice fields.

As regards their habits, it is difficult to find anything of especial

note differing from other Sandpipers. It has the same strenuous

activity, both on the wing and on foot, whilst its food consists of

the same items as those of the birds already dealt with. During

the cold weather the only note they utter is a shrill little piping

ery but, as already described, the breeding song is really very

fascinating. Such small birds are not worth shooting for the pot,

even when a man is on the outskirts of civilization and finds it

hard to get anything to vary his diet, but the flesh is quite palatable

and when the birds are fat, as they generally are, not too dry.

(To be continued.)

REVISION OF

'HE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

HE: BuATrTEerR, s.J., Ph.D., F.u.s.

PARTE XSIEXG

(With 9 plates.)

(Continued from page 736 of Volume XXXYV).

ORCHIDACEAE.

HH. Buarrer, s.J., Ph.p., F.L.S. & C. McCann, F.L.s.

37. HABENARIA Willd.

Species about 500.—Temperate and tropical countries.

Cooke mentions 17 species from the Bombay Presidency. Of these

HT. subpubens is being reduced and united with H. Heyneana. H. digitata as

conceived by Cooke is split up into H. digitata Lindl. and H. Gibsoni; the

variety foliosa is restored to the rank of a species. Sedgwick has described a

new species: H. multicaudata and we add 5 new ones: H. Spencei, H. grandi-

floriformis, H. variabilis, H. cerea and H. Hallbergii, and one new to the

Presidency, H. ovalifolia.

Key based on Cooke:

A. Petals 2-partite. Lip 38-lobed or 38-partite

I. Sepals with filiform tips aoe NG 1. H. stenopetala.

Il. Sepals not filiform at the tips

1. Lower segment of petals shorter than

the upper

a. Petals bipartite nearly to the base er Le digitata:

b. Petals deeply 2-cleft Bo dale jOlhosa.

2. Segments of petals subequal 4. H. Gibson.

3. Lower segment of petal longer than the

upper

a. Leaves more than one, ‘not roundish

* Lobes of lip filiform, fantastically

contorted ee son Oa El TIONG MUG,

** Lobes of lip linear a us OQ, lals MeMOGIs

“3 Ibe Oi Ikyjog 7 leweereyl — ilhuvovetnay,

longer than the broader linear

obtuse midlobe Acs a (aE roniflora:

b. Leaves 1 or 2, both or at least - the

lower roundish

* Lip 22 mm. long 3 i oe gnandiilonfornits

See linpel2 mim slong ae: oan Jinn egmanauflonae

B. Petals entire

I. Side lobes of lip broader than the midlobe

1. Lip deeply 8-lobed or 3-partite, not or

hardly longer than the lateral sepals

a. Side lobes of lip small, rounded 10. H. platyphylla.

b. Side lobes of lip large, obliquely trun-

cate and denticulate at apex 11. H. suaveolens.

2. Lip deeply 38-lobed or 3-partite, much

longer than the lateral sepals

a. Lobes of lip not tailed

* Spur 11 mm. long, lateral sepals

14 mm. long oe joo) AG del, DaOOUNGs

** Spur reaching 10 cm. long, lateral

sepals 12 min. long Ba ... 13. H. longicalcarata.

igs Spur 3 cm. long, lateral sepals

5 mm. long ~. 14. Hi. plantaginea.

b. Libes of lip with long filiform til see alone CmmfeEnd.

14> JOURNAL, BOMBAY SNATU RAM: HELSis SOC IE iNaemyoie O@xeyal

II. Side lobes of lp not broader than the midlobe

1. Tubes of the anther-cells long .. 16. H. commelinifolia.

2. Tubes of the anther-cells short

a. Stem leafy upwards

* Bracts much shorter than the flowers 17. H. cerea.

** Bracts exceeding the flowers sca lis, Jal, Jeloymeama.

b. Leaves 3-6, clustered towards the

middle or at the base of the stem

* Bracts as long as or longer than the

ovary

+ Leaves green throughout, placed

near the middle of the stem

{1 Side lobes of lip narrow, longer

than the linear obtuse midlobe 19. H. affinis.

71 Side lobes linear-oblong, in-

curved, as long as or shorter

than the ovate-oblong fleshy

midlobe ay sae KD). Jal. ovalifolia.

++ Leaves placed near the base of

the stem

§ Leaves with narrow yellow-

ish margins wae Bix

S§ Leaves without yellowish

margins es Sey,

** Bracts much shorter than the ovary,

leaves placed near the base of .

stem ae foe A EL. OC ONG.

c. Leaves 2 (rarely 8), radical or opposite

on the stem, broadly ovate or suborbi-

culai, cordate at the base

* Bracts 12-18 mm. long; lateral lobes

21. H. marginata.

22) ile Ehalibendie

of lip shorter than the midlobe ... 24. H. crassifolia.

** Bracts 6 mm. long; lateral lobes of

hp longer than the midlobe soo dal, ohnolnglla.

1. Habenaria stenopetala Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 319 (nor 824);

Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 184; King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. ii (1898)

308) te 404. Ckesne ilo (Crele slidbee nod. esica.Wiallza).

Cooke doubtfully gives as synonym: Habenaria modesta Dalz. in Kew

Journ, Bot. 1 (1850) 262, and cites in addition Dalz. & Gibs. 267. Dalzell’s

plant is quite a different species, very likely Peristylus stenostachyus WKranzl.

The stem is leafy at the base and naked above. The bracts are half as long

as the ovary, flowers greenish white, lip 38-fid, lateral divisions linear-lanceolate,

free spreading, midone shorter ovate obtuse, cohering with the tips of the

petals and upper sepal, and concealing the column, spur filiform, hardly

clavate, a little longer than the ovary.

Description: Cke. uu, 715.—A very variable plant.

Locality: Konkan (Stocks)—W. Ghats: Parva Ghat (Dalzell 15); Londa

(Spooner !);—N. Kanara: Forests, without precise locality (Bell 5404 !).

Distribution: N.-W. India, Sikkim Himalaya, 8,000-6,000 ft. Upper Assam,

Bengal, Bihar, Bombay Pres.

2. WHabenaria digitata Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1885) 3807; Hook. f.

elle nay ee (Gnoaanoys IGryenvdl, Orda, Crem, cy Side 2 GSI) BOs Clke, my,

715 (partim).—H. trinervia Wight Ic. t. 1701.— 8onatea benghalensis Griff.

in. Cale; Journ. Nat. Tnstyiv.382:

Cooke has united H. Gibsons Hook. f: with W. digitata Lindl. Cooke

mentions in his description that the spur has an erect ligule at its mouth. In

H. Gibsoni the ligule is absent. We treat H. Gibsoni as a distinct species.

Description: An erect ground orchid; tuber small, about 25 mm. diam.,

many fleshy roots from the stem above the tuber; stem tall, 80-60 cm. high,

leafy. Leaves 5-12 cm. long, very variable, from ovate or orbicular to ovate-

oblong or lanceolate and rarely narrowed into a short petiole, sessile on the

sheath, papillosely ciliate. Raceme or spike about 12 cm., rather laxly many-

flowered with greenish or green and white flowers with a resemblance to +s

‘uunorW °9 fiq sojvoug

‘quejd oatyuo “[pury vjpjadouszs piwnuaqn 7 ‘aoua0so10YUL oy} Jo dn-asojo eB ‘[pulry v)pjJadouajs piunuaqn[yT

aLVvIg "00G “ISIHR “3RN Avquog ‘‘uanor

REVISION OF THH FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 15

insects. Bracts large lanceolate, 20-25 mm., often almost foliaceous and

exceeding the flowers; pedicels very short or almost absent. Flowers 12-18

mm. broad. Lateral sepals 8-9 mm. long, somewhat obliquely ovate, acute,

without filiform tips, dorsal shorter, very concave. Petals bipartite nearly to

the base with linear segments, upper broader, erect, recurved, about 6-8 mm.

long, lower segment spreading and often recurved; lip tripartite with linear

segments, midlobe straight, nearly 12 mm. long, lateral segments more filiform,

often decurved, longer or usually shorter. Spur 16 mm. long, subclavate,

sometimes inflated, with an erect ligule at the mouth. Anther-cells parallel,

tubes short, upcurved; glands of pollinia minute. Stigmatic processes clavate ;

rostellum erect, triangular. Capsule shortly pedicelled, 12 mm. long, fusiform

with thick ribs.—The flowers sometimes have a disgusting odour (Haines).

Locality: Konkan: Karanja Island (Dalzell & Gibson); Wada (Herb.

Econ. Bot. Poona !); Matheran (Paranjpye !).—W. Ghats: Khandala (Hall-

berg !); Lonavla (Garade !); Purandhar (Burns); Mahableshwar (Sedgwick

7585 !, McCann 2898 !, 2899 !); Panchgani (McCann 2902! 3029!, Blatter P80 !

215 !)—S. M. Country: 20 miles W. of Dharwar, in shade of trees (Sedgwick

2686 bis !); near Nagargalli, Belgaum Dist., inside the margin of forest

amongst other undergrowth, 2,800 ft. high, rainfall about 80-100 in. (Bell &

Sedgwick 2944 !).-N. Kanara: Near Karwar (Talbot !); Yellapur (Talbot !).

Distribution: Jkashmir, Assam, Sylhet, Bengal, Tenasserim, W. Ghats,

hill tracts from the Godavari Dist. and Mysore to Tinnevelly 2,000-6,000 ft.

Flowers: July 1917 (near Dharwar); Aug. (near Karwar); Sept. 1930

(Panchgani, Mahableshwar); Sept. 1917 (S. M. Country); Oct. 1882 (Yellapur) ;

Oct. 1920 (Mahableshwar).

3. Habenaria foliosa A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv (1841) 71; Dalz.

GuGibs. bombs Hi 200; Wieht lest 1/00) Kraenzil> Orchids (Gen. & Sp. 1. (s97)

273.—H. digitata Lindl. var. foliosa Hook. f. F.B.I. vi (1890) 185; Cke. ii,

716; Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 1154; Fischer. in Fl. Madras. pt. viii (1928) 1469.

We follow Kraenzln in restormg H. digitata var. foliosa to the rank of a

species.—We are doubtful whether H. laciuuata Dalzell in Kew Journ. Bot. i

(1850) 261 can be considered a synonym of H. foliosa. He mentions some

characters which certainly do not fit in and which we have not observed in

the Khandala specimens. It is more lkely to be a distinct species, but as

his specimen cannot be traced it will be difficult to decide the point. We have

never found a plant in Salsette which answers completely Dalzell’s description

Ol a Vacmiarar

Description: A terrestrial plant, 15-30 cm. high. Stem leafless at base,

vaginate, sheaths loose. Leaves 5 by 2.5 cm., elliptic, acute, sheathing at

basc, imbricating, decreasing in size above. Racemes dense-flowered. Bracts

ovate, acute, convolute at base, longer than the ovary. Flowers greenish or

dirty white; sepals ovate; dorsal one broader and shorter than the lateral

ones, 6 by 5 mm., lateral ones 8 by 3 mm., lanceolate. Petals, especially the

extremities, green, deeply 2-cleft, upper segment 8 by 1.2 mm. long, lower

lobe thinner and shorter. Lip 9 mm. long, tripartite to base, segments

filiform, subulate, equal; spur 15 mm. long, inflated, length of ovary. Fleshy

processes of column long, obtuse.

Locality: Deccan: On the hills about Kadakvasla near Poona (Cooke).—

W. Ghats: Khandala, under a hedge (Sedgwick 2586 !); Mahableshwar (Talbot

4450 !).—N. Kanara: Karwar (Talbot 1902 !).

Distribution: Nilgiris, 4,000-7,000 ft. (Fischer), Manbhum (Haines).

Flowers: July 1917 (Khandala); Aug. 1889 (Karwar); Oct. 1905 (Maha-

bleshwar).

4. WHabenaria Gibsoni Hook. f. F.B.I. vi (1890) 135.—H. digitata Cke. ii,

16 (partim).—H. digitata Lindl. var. Gibsoni Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii

(1928) 1469.

We give first Hooker f.’s description :

A terrestrial plant; stem 20-30 cm. high, very stout, leafy; leaves 10-15

cm. long, lnear-oblong; base sheathing. Racemes short, 6-8-flowered; bracts

25-38 mm. long, equalling or exceeding the ovary, membranous, broadly

lanceolate, the lower exceeding the flowers. Flowers 25 mm. diam. Petals

bipartite, segments narrow, subequal, upper segment broadest, fleshy; lip

tripartite, segments linear-subulate, subequal, fleshy. Anther broad. Stigmatic

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV1

processes adnate to the back of the broad mouth of the spur, spur without a

hgule; rostellum small, triangular, exposed.

So far Hook. f. We add some of our observations :

Tuber 1, egg-shaped, small. Stem up to 385 cm., lower third covered with

sheaths, then 1-3 ovate or obovate acute or mucronate leaves, followed by lance-

olate leaves which are longer upwards, the top leaf. sometimes exceeding the

inflorescence. Leaves very thin, darker grass-green on the upper, very pale on the

lower side, lanceolate or linear—or oblong-lanceolate-mucronate or acuminate,

up to 15 by 3°5 cm., many nerves distinctly visible on the upper side. Racemes

lax, secund or subsecund, up to 8 cm. long, 4-7-flowered. Flowers white, base

and nerves of dorsal sepal greenish; column and rostellum green, clavate

tips of spur green. Not smelling.

The following points distinguish this species from H. digitata Lindl.: The

plant is more robust, the leaves are longer and narrower, the raceme is much

shorter and the flowers much larger and fewer, the bracts are larger and

there is no ligule at the mouth of the spur.

Locality: . Konkan: Hills W. of Mulland, Salsette (McCann !).—

W: Ghats: Khandala (McCann 25814 !, Blatter & Hallberg 25815 !, Blatter

25813! 25843!, Hallberg 26527!). Gibson mentions the same locality.

Distribution: Mysore (ex Fischer).

Flowers: July 1917 (Khandala); Aug. (Salsette).

Yar. foetida Blatter & McCann, var. nov.

[Planta valde foetens. Processus stigmatict adpressi ad labellum a _ latere

faucium calearis (non ad dorsum faucium). Ovarium tortuosulum. Lobus

labelli centralis latior quam in typo. |

Description: Dorsal sepal green; lateral sepal white, tinged with green.

Upper lobe of petals green, lower green, white at base. Midlobe of lip

broadest, all lobes green, white at base. Spur clavate, green, mouth without

« ligule. Anther: Cells diverging below, separated from each other; connec-

tive green. Staminodes: 2 warty elongated greenish white processes. Ros-

tellum shorter than anther, triangular, green, not united with or overlapping

channel of anther-cells which open out just outside the lateral lobes of ros-

tellum. Stigma: 2 oblong processes, white, appressed to the lip at the side

of mouth of spur. Gland of pollinia exposed. Ovary twisted. Flower

smelling badly.

Locality: Khandala, Monkey Hull (Hallberg! in Herb. St. X.C.)

Flowers: June 1917.

5. Habenaria multicaudata L. J. Sedgwick in Rec. Bot. Surv. India vi

(1919) 852; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vin (1928) 1469.

Description: An erect slender herb, up to 50 cm. high. Lower part of

stem covered with obtuse appressed sheaths; the muddle part leafy. Leaves

elliptic-oblong, acute, many-nerved, trabeculate between the nerves, 6-15 cm.

long, 4-4 cm. wide. Racemes up to 18 cm. long, many-flowered. Bracts 15

mm. long, shorter than the beaked ovary. Pedicel with the ovary up to

22 mm. long. Flowers white, spur brown and lip soon getting brownish.

Dorsal sepal erect, cucullate, 6 by 4 mm., 3-nerved. Lateral sepals 8 by

& mm., ovate, slightly falcate, acute, 3-nerved. Lateral petals bipartite, upper

lobes erect, filiform, scarcely longer than the dorsal sepal, lower lobes up to

1é mm. long, filiform, fantastically contorted. Lip 3-partite, midlobe 10 mm.

long, filiform, lateral lobes up to 25 mm. long, filiform, fantastically con-

torted. Spur 12 mm. long, curved, slender, shghtly clavate at tip and sub-

acute. Anther-cells very conspicuous and very large for the size of the

flowe:, contiguous above, below broadly divaricate, tubes projecting. Pollinia

very large, pyriform, caudicles scarcely longer; gland minute. Stigmatic

processes elongate, appressed on both sides to the basal margins of the lip.

Rostellum obscure.

Locality: N. Kanara: Guddehalli, a mill close to the sea-coast near

Kanwau,l.a00) it. Mamta lel) 0 =n (ah eee cllig 04 58! ssatyioen amnimlteriDe:

Blatter); Karwar Hulls, im thick jungle (2. WR. Bell 7871 bis!); Kategal

(Talbot !).

Distribution: N. Kanara, Nilgiri Hills, Anamalai Hills in Karianshola

at 2,200. ft. (Fischer).

Flowers: Aug. 1888, 1920, Sept, 1917 (N. Kanara).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate I]

Del. C. McCann.

Habenaria rariflora A. Rich.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. : Puate Iil

_ Habenaria Spence: Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. 17

6. Habenaria Spencei' sp. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Pertinens at sectionem Ate similis est Habenariae digitatae Lindl. a

qua tamen differt omnibus florum partibus muito nunoribus, lobis petalorum

superioribus non intra sepala lateralia positis sed porrectis abeuntibus ultra

sepala lateralia, lobis petalorum inferioribus quam superores longioribus,

sepalis lateralibus anguste ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis, sepalo dorsali ovato-

acuminato cucullato 5-nervoso apice subobtuso, calcare paulo ovario breviore

fusifornu dorsi-ventraliter applanato. |. :

Description: Tubers undivided, elliptic, up to 3:4 cm. long; roots arising

from the base of the stem, forming tubers. Stem about 45 cm. high, leafy in

the upper half, with closely appressed sheaths in the lower. Leaves oblong-

lanceolate, acuminate, membranous, pale green, sheathing at base, margin

wavy, midrib depressed above, 3 less distinct parallel nerves on each side.

Flowers pale yellow-green. Racemes lax, about 8-11—flowered, flowers on one

side. Bracts usually shorter than the flowers, about 2 cm. long, ovate-lanceo-

late, acuminate. Pedicels hardly 1 mm. long. Dorsal sepal ovate-acuminate,

cucullate, subobtuse at the apex, 7°5 mm. long, 8-nerved; lateral sepals up to

8:5 by 3°5 mm., narrowly ovate-lanceolate-acuminate, subfalcate, spreading.

Petals 2-partite; upper segment as long as the dorsal sepal, subfalcate, linear,

acute; lower segment narrower, filiform, slightly longer than the upper,

spreading, recurved. Lip 3-partite, segments linear, acute, the middle one

slightly longer than the lateral, 9 mm. long, lateral segments recurved, margin

of midlobe reflexed. Spur slightly shorter than the ovary, 10°5 by 3 mm.,

spindle-shaped, dat dorsiventrally, lower portion whitish, rest greenish, with a

ligule at the mouth. Stigmatic processes subclavate, not appressed to the lip.

Anther-cells parallel, tubers upcurved, rostellum shorter than the anther, tri-

angular, apiculate. Fruit not seen.

Locality: W. Ghats: Mahableshwar, Fitzgerald Ghat, in dense jungle,

4,000 ft. (McCann 3026! type, 3027! cotype).

Flowered: 28th. August 1980.

7. Habenaria rariflora A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv (1841) 70,

tony D7) Dalza ts Gibss. Bomb. Miles 268: Wight Wes 1.9245) Kraenzl. Orchid.

Gentencan opin (loo) 2h i Ckem niin lon Enscher hia Madras: spots svat (Gl928)

1469.—H. uniflora Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. in (1851) 344.

Description: Cke. 11, 716.—Lip up to 15 mm. long; lateral segments of

lip longer than or as long as, the midlobe; the lateral segments have a tooth-

like lobe on the outer side near the apex.

Locality: Konkan (Stocks).—Deccan: Karkula, near Poona (Woodrow).—

W. Ghats: Khandala (Hallberg 26497!, Blatter 25842!); Purandhar (Barnes,

Bhide!); Panchgani (Cooke!, Blatter 211!, Frenchman 212!, Sedgwick 7911

bis !); Pasarni Ghat (McCann !).

Flowers: July 1917 (Khandala); July 1925 (Panchgani); Aug. 1919

(Khandala); Aug. 1921 (Panchgani); Sept. 1930 (Pasarni Ghat.).

Distribution: Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats of Bombay and Madras Pres.,

2,000-6,000 ft., Horsleykonda at 4,100 ft., Kollimalai Hills.

Var. latifolia var. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Folia ovato-acuta vel ovato-acuminata, ad 5 cm. longa et 2-3 cm. lata.

Calcar quam in typo brevior. |

Locality: Panchgani, 3rd. milestone towards Wai (Frenchman 213 #!).

Flowers: July 1925.

Note: It is not impossible that this variety is a hybrid between Habenaria

rariflora A. Rich. and H. grandiflora Lindl.

8. Habenaria grandifloriformis sp. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Orchidacea similis Habenariae grandiflorae Lindl. a qua tamen differt folio

secundo valde variabili nunc simili primo, tunc oblongo-lanceolato et fere acumi-

nato, petiolo vaginanti 1 cm. longo, racenus 1-7 floris, bracteis multo longioribus

et ovarus aequilongis ovato-oblongis acutis, pedicellis quam ovaria duplo longio-

ribus, sepalis lateralibus multa largioribus 5-nervosis, petalorum segmentis

inferioribus longissimis, labio 22 mm. attingenti, labti lobis lateralibus medio:

multo longioribus, calcare usque ad 4 cm. longo. |

Description: Terrestrial. Tuber irregular, undivided, usually flattened on one

* After Sir Reginald Spence, for many years Hon. Secretary of the Bombay

Natural History Society. :

ig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

side, sometimes round, roots arising above the tuber, fleshy, brittle, numerous.

Whole plant 7-22 cm. high, very slender. Leaves 1 or 2. Lower leaf broadly

ovate, acute or orbicular-acute, apiculate, sometimes broader than long,

base cordate amplexicaul, basal lobes rounded, up to 8 cm. long, 7 cm. broad,

second leaf varying a good deal, shape as of first leaf, but generally narrower,

sometimes oblong-lanceolate, almost acuminate, apiculate, basal lobes smaller,

petiole sheathing about 1 cm. long. Flowers white, faint-scented, in lax 1-7-

tlowered racemes; scape ribbed and striate, with one sheath; bracts: . lowest

4.2 cm. long, 1.3 broad, ovate-oblong, acute, green, getting smaller upwards,

topmost subscarious. Pedicels up to 5 cm. long, much longer than the ovary,

ribbed, ribs continuous with those of ovary. lateral sepals 1.5 cm. long by

6 mm., broadly ovate-triangular, very oblique, almost acute, 5-nerved, nerves

only in fading flowers distinctly visible; dorsal sepal 9 mm. long, 6 mm. broad,

ovate, obtuse, apiculate, 5-nerved, cucullate. Petals 2-partite; upper segment

& mm. long, 5 mm. broad, in shape resembling the lateral sepals, but shorter

or almost semi-ovate-orbicular, lower segment 17 mm. long, filiform. ip

44 mm. long, s-partite, segments spreading, lateral segments filform- to oval-

shaped, about 5 mm. longer than the middle one; midlobe lnear-lanceolate, or

linear-oblanceolate, blunt at apex or slightly apiculate, 2 mm. broad. Spur

up to 4 cm. long, curved, whitish above, lower part green, flattened, club-

shaped at tip, with a groove on each flattened side. Anther 3-cuspidate, the

middle one longest; cells parallel, tubes longer than broad, slightly diverging;

gland of pollina large, orbicular, milky. Stigmatic processes large, club-shaped,

white-waxy. -Rostellum 3-lobed, the midlobe narrowly linear-apiculate, erect,

hidden between the anther-cells, but longer than the cells, the side lobes very

short, thicker than the midlobe, lying parallel with the stigmatic lobes. Ovary

elongate-oblong, 6-lobed, slightly curved, 17-22 mm. long, green. Capsule having

the shape of the ovary, curved, 2.8 cm. long, 0.5 cm. wide, truncate at top.

Called ‘Snowdrop’ locally at Panchgani.

Locality: W. Ghats: Panchgani, in grassland on Tableland (Blatter P. 20 !

type, P. 22 ! P. 23; cotypes. Sedgwick 7900 !); Khandala, in grassland,

abundant (Blatter 25835 !, Hallberg 26501 !).—Deccan: Satara (Hallberg !).—

S. M. Country: Dharwar, grassy hills, abundant (Sedgwick 2601 !).

The most common orchid at Panchgani, growimg in almost any locality:

in grass, in fields, along roads, and in rocky places.

Flowers: June and July 1925 (Panchgani); July 1917 (Dharwar, Khandala) ;

Aug. 1916 (Khandala); Nov. 1921 (Panchgani).

Fruit: Aug. 1916 (Khandala).

The flowers appear after the first monsoon showers and new flowers have

been noticed at Panchgani from the end of May to November.

Vai. aequiloba var. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Labi lobi laterales lobo medio aequilongi vel eo breviores, surgentes 4 mm.

supra labu basim. |

Locality: Panchgani (Blatter P. 20a, type).

Flowers: Middle of July 1925.

9. Habenaria grandiflora Lindl. in Wall. Cat. (1828) 7082; Dalz. & Gubs.

Bomb. El. 267; Hook. fi. H2Balk. vi5 136; hadenzl- Orehide Gene caispy wdso7)

3387; Cke. ii, 716; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vii (1928) 1469.—H. rotundifolia

Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 306.

Description: Cke. 1, 716.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks, Law).—Deccan: Maval, Poona Dist. (Stocks);

Shivapur (Cooke !); Sinhagad, near Poona (Woodrow !, Bhide !); Purandhar

(Woodrow !).—W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Cooke !); Khandala (Sedgwick

9627 !).—S. M. Country: Belgaum (Stocks, Talbot 2436 !).

Distribution: Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats, Bababudan and Shevaroy Hills.

10. Hahbenaria platyphylla Spreng. Syst. Veg. in (1826) 690; Grah. Cat.

Q0Ie Wight aca ta W09Elook sat. ih sS2hSvipw40; irae: Onehid Gents csp

i (1897) 411; Cke. ii, 717; Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 1155; Fischer I'l. Madras

pt. viii (1928) 1470.—Orchis plantaginea Roxb. Corom. Pl. t. 37.

Description: Cke. ii, 717.—We have never seen a specimen of this species.

There seems to be a difference of opinion with regard to the number and size

of the leaves. Hooker mentions 3-6, which are 8-5 in. long, Cooke has the

same number, but 2-4 in. long, Fischer has observed the same number of

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate IV

Del. C. McCann.

Habenaria variabilis Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

‘UUDDIW *“O ‘12

‘sqred [B1oy of} JO WONeUIIOY 94} Ul UONBIIVA suTaIyxe oY} Sutmoys ‘aou “ds ‘uuRODW Y IVIg siqQnUDAa D1LDUAQD FT

») SS

oy ON

w @ x £2 SE

A divig

‘20S “SIH, “FEN Avquiog ‘-uanor

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 19

leaves, but 1.5-5 in. in length. These discrepancies can be reconciled with

each other. Haines, however, differs entirely: ‘Leaves,’ he Says, ‘always 2

wherever I have seen it (ranging from Chota Nagpur to Chanda in the Central

Provinces)’. The length of his leaves is 1.5-3 in.

Locality : Konkan, Belgaum, Dharwar.

Distribution : Chota Nagpur, Central Provinces, Konkan, 'S. M. Country,

in all districts of Madras Pres. near sea-level up to 3,500 ft. Sis

11. Habenaria suaveolens Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 11 (1850) 263; Dalz. &

Gibss bombast Zor chook. fH be van 40); Kaaenzl Orchid, Gene & Sp.

1 (1897) 416; Cke. 11, 717; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vin (1928) 1470.

Locality: Konkan (Dalzell); between Vengurla and Malvan, rare (Dalzell

& Gibson.)

Distribution: Konkan, Bababudan Hills. . ;

12. WHabenaria variabilis sp. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Persimilis Habenariae suaveolenti Dalz. sed. differt foliis minoribus nunguam

linearibus vel lineari-oblongis, floribus multo largioribus in racenus densis usque

ad 11-floris, labio sepalo dorsali duplo longiore, labu lobo medio 5 mm. lato,

calcare ovario multo breviore, pollinis oblongis aliquomodo obliquis .minime

clavatis, caudiculis tenuissimis, glandibus disciformi-oblongis profunde concavis. |

Description: ‘Tuber ege- shaped, undivided; roots many, stout, fleshy,

brittle, arising from ore ite tuber. Stem up to 12-22 cm. high, clothed at

the base below the leaves with a few sheaths. eaves 3-5, arising about

3 cm. above ground, 4-8 cm. long, 1-2.5 cm. broad, sheathing, lanceolate or

oblong-lanceolate, subacuminate or acuminate, 5-nerved, followed higher up by

1 or 2 bract-like oblong- or ovate-lanceolate acuminate leaves. Flowers ,large,

white, fragrant, in few- to many-flowered (usually 3-4, but also 2-11) secund or

subsecund dense racemes (base of upper flower touching the tip of lewer); bracts

2 by 1 cm., ovate-acuminate, getting smaller upwards, shorter than the pedt-.

celled ovary, very rarely exceeding it; imflorescence 4-12 cm. long. Lateral

sepals 14 by 6 mm., elongate-triangular, falcate, acute; dorsal 11 by 6 mm.

broadly ovate-acute, cucullate. Petals 12 by 7 mm., obliquely ovate-acute, almost

covered by dorsal sepal. Lip 22 by 24 mm., divided into 3 lobes -to:‘half ‘way

down more or less; side lobes up to 9 mm. broad, obliquely truncate, the

truncate part finely crenulate; midlobe slightly longer than the side lobes, 5 mm.

broad, broadly or narrowly lanceolate, sub-acute. Spur:ll_ mm. long; straight

or very slightly bent. near base, much shorter than the ovary, subclavate at apex,

white near base turning greenish towards apex. Gynostemium 4-5 ‘mma:

Anther-cells parallel, apex acute, a central longitudinal groove :on back; anther-

tubes 0; pollinia 2.5 mm. long, oblong, slightly oblique, yellow, granular;

caudicles slender, white, transparent, as long or shorter than the pollinia’;!

pollen yellow, oblong, obliquely truncate at both ends, slightly flattened. Glands

exposed, disk-shaped-oblong, deeply concave above, white-transparent. Stigmatié

processes very short, greenish yellow::.Rostellum triangular. Ovary 17 mm.

long, sessile or subsessile, elongate, 6-ribbed. Fruit sessile or subsessile, 2.5 cm.

long, 7 mm. diam., spindle-shaped, with 6 strong ridges, green.

Locality: W. Ghats: 8rd. milestone from; Panchgani to Wai (Frenchman

P. 21 ! type); Panchgani on ae ae in grass (Hallberg 26494.-!, Blatter

P. 55 ! 200 ! 201 ! 202 ! 208 ! 204 !, Sedgwick 7908 bis !); Mahableshwar, on

rocky ground near lake (Mozelle IESE ame Blatter 205 ! 206 !, McCann ‘!).

Very common at Panchgani. ae a

Flowers: July 1925 acest, Mahableshwar); Aug. 1925 (Panchgani)3

The flowers are all turned eastwards on the Tableland ‘of Panchgami owing

in all probability to the strong west wind.

Note: Our first impression was that this plant was identical with Hanenarid

suaveolens Dalz. Only when we had seen Dalzell’s specimen collected in ‘the

Konkan (Herb. Calcutta) it became evident that our specimens belonged to a

different species, though approaching H. suaveolens with regard. to’ many

oints. ;

Z The new species is very variable, at least regarding size and shape of ¥lip:

The illustration shows a number of variations en eoaild easily be. multiphed.

We are inclined to think that our species is a hybrid between H. suaveolens

and another species not known to us. It is also possible that the’ Hew species

is in a state of evolution, perhaps derived from H. suaveolens. —

It is surprising that this plant should not have been noticed Bere But

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

the same fate has attended many other ground orchids and other Monocoty-

ledons. The explanation why they have been overlooked is very likely to be

found in the fact that the W. Ghats are not usually visited during the rains.

18. Habenaria longicalcarata A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv (1841) 71,

t. 3, B; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 268; Wight Ic. t. 925; Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, 141; Kraenzl. Orchid. Gen. & Sp. i (1€97) 418; Cke. ii, 718; Haines Bot.

Bih. & Or. 1156; Hischer Hl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1470.—H. longicorniculata

Grah. Cat. Bomb. PI]. (1889) 202.

How to distinguish this species from H. decipiens Wight and H. longi-

cornu Lindl. see Fischer in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soe. vi (1927) 118.

Description: Cke. 11, 718. ; :

Locality: Konkan (Jacquemont 598); Ambenali (McCann !); Konkan Ghats

(Stocks 22); Khandala to Kampoli (Garade !).-—Deccan: Purandhar (Kanit-

kar !): Katray Ghat (Blatter & Hallberg 26526 !, Garade !, Shevde !).—

W. Ghats: Khandala (Chibber 90 !, Gammie 15467 !); Lonavla (Herb. Econ.

Bot. Poona !); Bhor Ghat (Cooke !); Castle Rock {T. R. Bell 4370 !).—

S. M. Country: Near Belgaum, abundant (Dalzell & Gibson); Londa

(Spooner !); W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick).—N. Kanara: Yellapur (Talbot !

Herb. Calc.); Siddhapur, grassland (Sedgwick 7010 !).

Distribution: Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats. S. M. Country, N. Kanara,

throughout the W. Ghats of the Madras Pres., Bellary Dist., Bihar and Orissa.

i es July 1882 (Yellapur); Aug. (Katraj Ghat); Sept. 1918 (Castle

ock).

Fruit: Oct. 1919 (Siddhapur).

Var. viridis var. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Planta 90 cm. alta. Folia adnumeratis foliis superioribus bracteiformibus

20. Racemus 6-florus. Sepalum dorsale, rostellum necnon anthera pallide

viridia. Sepalum dorsale album viridi-subfusum. Petala viridia. Processus

stigmatics et staminodia minuta atro-viridia. Rostellum distinctum. |

Locality: W. Ghats: Khandala” (Hallbere 1) Herb. (St. 2) {C:).

14. Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 323; Wight

Tem t: 1710; “Hook: f-- Baky vi, 140) Mim, Hl @eyl. iv. 229). kraengleOnehid:

Gen. & Sp. 1 (1897) 413; Prain Beng. Pl. 1030; Duthie in Ann. Roy. Bot.

Gard. Cale, 1x, pt: 2, 18l-t. 132;>Ckes 11; (18> Haines ‘Bots Bihty & Ors loo;

Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1470.—Orchys platyphyllos Roxb. FI. Ind.

iv (1882) 609.

Description: Cke. u, 718.

Locality: Konkan: (Dalzell); Mathsran (Birdwood); Ambenali, below Maha-

bleshwar (McCann & Blatter !)—W. Ghats: Ambenali Ghat near Lonavla

(Kanitkar); Mahableshwar, forests (Sedgwick 4555 !, Sedgwick’s collector

7591 bis !).—N. Kanara: Siddulgundi (Talbot 701 !); Guddehalli, above

Karwar (Bell !); Katgal, evergreen (Sedgwick 6865 !).

Distribution: Outer Himalayan ranges of Garhwal and IKumaon up to

7,000 ft., Sikkim, Bengal, Bihar, Central India, Konkan, W. Ghats, Deccan,

N. Kanara, in all districts of the Madras Pres., 800-4,000 ft.

Flowers: Oct. 1980 (Ambenali); Oct. 1920 (Mahableshwar); Nov. 1918

(Mahableshwar); Nov. (N. Kanara).

15. Habenaria crinifera Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 3828; Dalz. &

Gibs;, Bomb: BPI 2693) Waghtwilles t. 79265) Miri. aie Cevlsiy, «220 lloole sat.

F.B.I. vi, 142; Kraenzl. Orchid.’ Gen. & Sp. i (1897) 424; Cke. u, 718;

Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vii (1928) 1471.—H. schizochilus Grah. Cat. Bomb.

Pl. (1889) 252.

Description: Cke. u, 718.

Locality: Konkan: Vengurla (Dalzell & Gibson).—S. M. Country: Ramghat

(Dalzell ex Stocks 5).

Distribution: Konkan, 8S. M. Country, W. Ghats of Madras Pres. below

4,000: ft.

_ 16. Habenaria commelinifolia Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835)

825; Kraenzl. Orchid. Gen. & Sp. i (1897) 822; Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 148; Prain

Bengal Pl. 1081;.Cke..i11, 719; Duthie in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cale. ix, pt.

2, 183, t. 184; Haines Bot. Bik. & Or. 1157; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vii

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate VI

Del. C. McCann.

Habenaria cerea Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 21

(1928) 1470.—Orchis commelinifolia Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii (1882) 451; Grah. Cat.

Bomb. Pl. 201.

Description: Cke. 11, 719.—We add the following details: Tubers large,

ellipsoid or cylindric. Leaves acute or often subspinescent at the apex, margins

pale. Bracts scaberulous on both surfaces, ciliolate on the margins. Sepals

scaberulous, dorsal greenish with white margins; lateral sepals spreading, with

many veins deeply looped or arched. Midlobe of lip linear, channelled above,

curved, tapering, with a knee about 1 mm. from the tip, scaberulous. Spur

slender, curved downwards, its upper portion funnel-shaped and white, the

apex clavate, green. Anther-cells elongate, distant, diverging at the base;

tubes long, straight, fused with the arms of the rostellum along their whole

length. Pollinia small, oval, yellow, caudicles very long, 10 mm., very elastic,

filiform, broader above, translucent; glands minute, orbicular. Staminodes white,

seated on the long arms of the white column and curving round in front of

the anther-tubes.

According to Cooke the dorsal sepal measures 10 mm. and the lateral ones

12 mm. Duthie says that the lateral sepals are much shorter than the. dorsal

one. In Hallberg’s specimen from Salsette the dorsal sepal measures 6 mm.

only.

Locality: Konkan: (Dalzell); Salsette (Hallberg !); S. of Tulsi lake in

grassland (McCann !); Bassein (Ryan 1841 !); 8. Konkan in pasture lands

(Graham).—Deccan: Purandhar (Bhide !).—W. Ghats: Khandala (Woodrow).—

N. Kanara: Yellapur, in forests, 2,000 ft. (T. R. Bell 3101 ter !); in ever-

green and deciduous forest (Talbot 702 !).

Distribution: Outer ranges of W. Himalaya, from the Punjab to Kumaon,

up to 5,000 ft., extending eastwards to Parasnath, 'Chota Nagpur, Bihar and

Upper Burma, Central India, Konkan, W. Ghats, Deccan, N. Kanara, Baba-

budan Hills.

Flowers: Oct. 1919 (Yellapur).

17. Habenaria cerea sp. nov. Blatter & McCann. :

[Sect. Trimeroglossa. Accedit ad H. Heyneanam Lindl. sed facile distin-

guitur foliis distichis vel subdistichis minime subimbricatis, bracteis quam

fiores multo brevioribus, sepalis inaequalibus, floribus multo maioribus gene-

ratim albis, calcare medio aliquantulum incrassato non sibclavato apice medium

ovarium attingente, glandula triangulari non orbicular. |

Description: A terrestrial plant. Tubers 1 or 2, globose or oblong, strong

fleshy fibrous roots arising above the tuber and for about 2.5 cm. above it on

the stem. Stem up to 25 cm. high, stout, straight, rigid, leafy. Leaves alter-

nate, distichous or subdistichous oblong or ovate or ovate-oblong, acute or

acuminate, apiculate, leathery, rigid, 4.5 cm. by 15-18 mm., main nerve deeply

depressed above, prominent beneath, the lower leaves smaller, the upper

passing into bracts, sheathing at base. Flowers generally white, sometimes

greenish yellow, sometimes both on the same plant, fleshy, wax-like, rigid,

secund, growing at a right angle to the stem, shortly pedicellate, pedicel 1-

2 mm. long, in dense racemes 4-6 cm. long, flowers touching each other. Bracts

imbricating, broadly ovate, cucullate, 3-5-nerved, acute or acuminate, getting

smaller upward, much shorter than the flowers, margin scarious, (devoid of

chlorophyll). Pedicels with ovary up to 17 mm. long. Lateral sepals up to

10 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, oblong, falcate (i.e. straight on the upper, rounded

on the lower edge), spreading; dorsal sepal ovate-oblong, rounded at tip.

Petals up to 9 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, falcate, acute. Lip up to 10 by 6 mm.

long, claw 1 mm. long and broad, a little above the claw the lip divided into

3 parallel lobes; midlobe 7 by 2-3 mm., oblong, blunt; side lobes linear, 5

by 1-1.5 mm. blunt, not in the same plane as the midlobe, but slightly raised,

all bent down. Spur 7-8 mm. long, green, straight, appressed to the ovary,

uniformly thick except for a very slight thickening in the middle, only half

as long as the ovary. Caudicles very slender, transparent, as long as the

diameter of the large spherical yellow pollinia; gland flat, triangular, white.

Pollen grains mostly triangular. Stigmatic processes large, spreading,

in the lower part adnate to the claw of the lip; no anther-tubes. Fruit

spindle-shaped, about 12 mm. long, 4 mm. diam., strongly 6-ribbed; pedicel

4 mm. long, adnate to the axis.

A very distinct species, not variable at all except regarding the size of

the different parts of the flower in young and adult flowers and in plants

22. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

growing in different localities. The stem is usually stout and rigid, but some-

times in shady places slender, with fewer leaves more distant from each other.

his species approaches Habenaria Heyneana. It differs, however, in the

following details: Flowers generally white, leaves differently shaped and dis-

tichous, or subdistichous, bracts much shorter than the flower, shape of

lateral and dorsal sepals different. Flowers larger, spur not subclavate at

tip, but with a slight thickening about the middle, gland flat triangular, not

orbicular.

_. Locality: .W. Ghats: Panchgani, Tableland, 4,400 ft., rainfall 60 in., in

grassland (Blatter P. 73 aby peg ee (Ae to IP, 76 | cotypes, Sedgwick 7907

bis, ! 7568 !): Mahableshwar, near Lake (McCann _#!).,

Very common on the First Tableland of Panchgani, in grassland, visible

from a great distance in the very short grass. We have found it in flower

during Aug., Sept. and beginning of Oct.

Locally the plant is called ‘Tooth-Brush’; the name is not very poetical but

expressive,

Var. polyantha var. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Multo maior quoad omnes partes vegetativas atque sexuales. Flores in

3-5 seriebus longitudinalibus parallelis dispositt et valde numerosi (usque ad

40).] :

We: found this plant on the 25th. Aug. 1926 in grassland on the Third

Tableland of Panchgani. The ground was simply covered with it, all the

flowers turned eastwards. (Blatter 255 ! type.)

We have long doubted whether we should make this plant a new species

or a variety of H. cerea. We cannot find the slightest difference between the

flowers of the new variety and H. cerca, except for the fact that the flowers

of the new variety are almost twice the size; but the proportions of the differ-

ent flower parts are exactly the same in both. Flowers with cream coloured

petals and lip are perhaps more numerous in the variety than in the type.

Otherwise the plant looks quite different from H. cerea. It grows up to

a height of 45 cm. The inflorescence reaches 15 cm. and is up to 4 cm.

broad. The flowers are arranged in 3-5 longitudinal parallel rows. The flowers

of the inner rows look all one way, but those of the external rows stand almost

at a right angle to the others, not being able to overcome the resistance of

the coriaceous bracts.

It is strange that the type should grow on the First Tableland, not mixed

with any specimens of ‘the variety, whilst the variety is found on the Third

Tableland. The two Tablelands are divided from each other by a_ shallow

valley not more than a 150 ft. deep. The soil and rain conditions as well as

exposure are the same on both Tablelands.

18. Habenaria Heyneana Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 820; Dalz. &

Gibs Bombs Hi 268.) Waeht Hicit- 2 923-e looks s fa ah sDela vile orm kenem Ze

Orchid. Gen. & Sp. i (1897) 375; Cke. 11, 719; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vu

(1928) 1471.—Platanthera Heyneana Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 7044.—Habenaria

glabra A Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv, 75, t. 5, A.—H. subpubens A Rich.

Woz tin. 2b) en lkoeveval, Onemicl Cea. Cs iso, 1 CUSMny Sols Islook, iio IIB 5 wl

148; Cke. 11, 720.—H, candida Dalz. in Kew. Journ. Bot. 1 (1850) 262; Dalz.

é Gibs. 267.

We had united H. subpubens A. Rich. with H. Heyneana Lindl. some

six years ago, but we did not feel confident to ‘publish the reduction, because

we had not seen the material which had induced Hook. f. and Cooke to keep

the two species distinct. It is true Hook. f. had already remarked in his FI.

Brit. Ind. (vi, 149) when describing H. subpubens: ‘Very near H. Heyneana,

and perhaps only a form of it, but more slender, leaves scattered linear 2-2

in., bases narrowed, bracts narrower, flowers white, lip very different, spur

more slender, anther apiculate, glands of the pollinia approximate and even

cohering oblong with recurved sides, stigmatic processes longer, adnate to the

claw of the lip.’

Wight already seems to have felt the same difficulty in the text to Ic.

1708-04. Cooke 1. ec. did not decide the point and he was satisfied with

adding to his description of H. subpubens: ‘Scarcely distinct from 4H.

Heyneana.’

Tt was only in 1928 that Fischer when going through all the material

relating to the two species for the preparation of pt. vili of Gambel’s Flora

REVISION. OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY — .28

of Madras, took the decisive step and reduced H. subpubens. ‘After a careful

examination’ he says, ‘of a number of sheets I am unable to keep this, species

separate from H. Heyneana Lindl. All the features cited as distinctive by

the several authors who keep them apart vary considerably and in some cases

the characters mentioned do not agree with the descriptions and figures. I

could find no one constant distinguishing feature and must combine the two

under the older name of Lindley.’ (Kew Bull. 1928, p. 284).

Description: See Cke. 11, 719 and 720.—We cannot do better than add

Tischer’s short characteristic taken from his key to the Madras Habenarias:

Plant 16-37 cm. high. Leaves subimbricate, sheathing, ovate or linear,

acute, 2-6 cm. Spike 5-10 cm. long. Bracts cucullate, acuminate, sheathing

the secund flowers, lower 2.5 cm. long, smaller upwards. Sepals subequal,

obtuse. Petals as long, narrower. Lip as long, 3-partite; side lobes linear,

obtuse, usually shorter than the broader midlobe; spur subclavate, as long as

or shorter than the beakless ovary.

Locality: Konkan: (law, Dalzell); S. Konkan (Dalzell 78); Wary Country

(Dalzell & Gibson).—W. Ghats: lLonavla (Hallberg 2650 !); Panchgani

(Blatter & Hallberg B1687 !, Hallberg 26502 ! 26503 !, Blatter 1877 !); 8.

Ghats (Stocks 12); Castle Rock (Sedgwick 2762 bis ! 4184 !); Tinai Ghat

(Talbot 2520 ! Herb. Calc.).—Deccan: (Stocks 60); Karli (Jacquemont 619);

Purandhar (Bhide- 1029 !).—S. M. Country: Dharwar (law); Londa

(Spooner !).—N. Kanara: Sirsi (Dalzell); without locality (Talbot 2520 1). |

Flowers: Aug. 1917 and 1918 (Castle Rock); Sept. 1884 (Lonavla); Nov.

1918 (Sirsi). :

eetintee Oct. O20 Geanchigann): ay

Distribution: Konkan, Deccan, 8. M. Country, Kanara, W. Ghats of

Bombay and Madras Pres., 2,500-8,000 ft. Rees

19. Habenaria affinis Wight Ic. v, pt. 1 (1852) 13, t. 1707 (non Don);

KraenzileeOnchidanGens como p Te (LS9M)) 324) Took. ts, 1h ble “vi, 149s Pram

Beng. Pl. 1081; Cke. ii, 720; Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 1157; Fischer Fl. Madras

pt. vii (1928) 1471. ;

Description: Cke. 11, 720.—We -have not seen this species.

Locality: Deccan: Purandhar (Woodrow).—S. M. Country: Belgaum

(Ritchie 17).

Distribution: Bengal, Bihar, Central India, Deccan, 8. M. Country, Nilgiri

Hills, Anamalai Hills, Rampa Hills, 2,000-4,000 ft.

20. Habenaria ovalifolia Wight Ic. t. 1708 (non 1706); Fischer Fl.

Madras, pu. VIII (928), 1471.

Locality: Konkan: Hillside of Kanari Caves, in dense forest common

(McCann 1152 !); Hills west of Mulland, in dense forest (McCann 1314 !). -

Flowers: 15-9-29 (Kanari Caves); 11-8-29 (Hills W. of Mulland).

Fruit: 22-9-29 (Hills W. of Maulland).

21. Habenaria marginata Coleb. in Hook. Exot. Fl. (1825) t. 186; Grah.

Cave e200 Dalz & (Gibs. Bombs Hil 268: Kraenzl Orchid: Gen: & “Sp. 1,

(ISON) BOs aloo, fo IIB wi, Wee lien sere, ele MOBILE Cer amis = WPaLe

Duthie in Anne Roy. Bot. Cale: ix, pt. 2184, t. 136; Fl) Upp. Gang.) Pi: in,

296; Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 1157; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vin (1928) 1471.—

He jusijera, Hook. tf. FBI. vi, 147.

We have reduced H. fusifera Hook. f. following Fischer who has examined

the type specimen in the Herb. Cale. and who is of opinion that it is identical

with H. marginata Coleb.

Desernonon: Okage il, Wk :

Locality: Konkan: (Law, Dalzell); S. Konkan (Stocks 6);. Karanja

(Dalzell & Gibson); Uran, in Bombay Harbour (Dalzell); Trombay (Hall-

berg !); Boisar (Hallberg!); WVehar Lake (McCann!); Mulland (McCann !);

S.-W. of Vehar Lake (McCann!).—Deccan: Junnar near Poona (Stocks) ;

Poona (Hallberg!); Kharkala, Poona Dist. (Hallberg 26496!); Purandhar

(Woodrow).—S. M. Country: Dharwar, common in dampish pasture land,

usually in pure association of Vetiveria Lawsoni Blatter & McCann (Sedg-

wick 6207 bis! 2800! 2674!)—N. Kanara: Near Karwar, grassland, sea

level (Sedgwick 6727! 6543!); forest near Yellapur (Talbot!); Supa, wayside

(Talbot !); Guddehalli, near Karwar (Sedgwick 5155 !).

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, up to 7,000 ft.,

Bengal, Burma, Bihar, Mt. Abu, Bombay Pres., Madras Pres.: W. Ghats,

1,500-3,000 ft., Nallamalai Hulls at 1,500 ft.

Flowers: July 1917 (Dharwar); Aug. 1917 (Dharwar and Baisar); Sept.

1926 (Vehar Lake); Oct. 1919 (Karwar); Oct. 1882 (Yellapur); Oct. 1885

(Supa).

Forma flayescens Blatter & McCann.—Habenaria flavescens Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi. 150; var. flavescens Th. Cooke Fl. Bomb. Pres. ii, 721.

Description. Cke- 1: ve:

Locality: Konkan (Law).

22. Habenaria Hallbergii* sp. nov. Blatter & McCann.

[Sect. Trimeroglossa. Similis Habenariae ovalifoliae Wight, sed recedit

ab ea bracteis lanceolato-subulatis quam flores longioribus, calcare paullum

curvato lineart turtuoso, aliquantulum compresso apice clavato, labelli lobis

aequilongis, lateralibus anguste linearibus rigidis patentibus, glandulis angustis

longissimis |.

Description: Stem stout, up to 30 cm. high. Leaves 4-5, clustered near

the base, sessile, amplexicaul, sheathing with a stout midrib, large, 20 by

5 em., ovate-oblong, acuminate, many-nerved, glabrous. Several long-

acuminate green appressed sheaths above, 4 by 2°5 cm., passing into bracts,

with a decurrent midrib and slightly decurrent base, so that the stem is

angular, especially below the spike, half amplexicaul. A smaller leaf about

half way up the stem. Bracts 2:2 cm. by 1:8 mm., narrowly lanceolate-

subulate, long-acuminate, with strongly decurrent midrib and _ base, over-

topping the flower. One spike. Sepals green, ovate, obtuse, subequal in

length, dorsal slightly broader, hooded, lateral spreading, all 3-nerved, with

a narrow membranous margin, nerves ending before reaching the tip. Petals

connivent with dorsal sepal and also at the tips with midlobe of lp, lp

inflexed. Petals fleshy, yellowish green, 1l-nerved, subfalcately oblong, trun-

cate or slightly emarginate at apex, base oblique. Lip fleshy, deeply 3-lobed;

lateral lobes narrow linear, acute, stifi, spreading, slightly longer than the

sepals; midlobe truncately obtuse at apex, subtriangular, with the base con-

tracted, as long as side lobes, 4 by 2°5 mm. Spur greenish, longer than

ovary, shghtly curved, linear and parallel to it in its upper part, twisted,

slightly compressed and clavate in its lower, tip acute. Rostellum green,

short but very conspicuous on account of the very large fleshy basal lobes.

Connective slightly emarginate, green, cells distinct, membranous, basal folds

short. Pollinia yellow with large grains, long-stalked, stalk naked (on

account of the short anther-tubes); gland very long and narrow, situated on

the inner surface of the basal lobes of the rostellum in channels pointing

parallel to the axis of the flower; the stalk is attached to the outer part of

the gland, but leaving a small free end visible from outside. Stigmatic lobes

ereenish, clavate, not much longer than the basal lobes of the rostellum;

between them at the base above mouth of spur a small caruncle not closing

the narrow opening.

The stalk of the pollinia is articulated with the gland so that, when

released, the pollinia spring forward, the stalk taking its position along the

longer (inner) end of the gland. An insect intruding its head between the

rostellar arms would get the glands attached along the sides of its head and

thorax parallel with its body, while the pollinia point straight forward. |

Locality: W. Ghats: Khandala, in ravine (Hallberg! in Herb. St. X.C.

type).—Also in Salsette, Konkan (Hallberg !).

In bud: July.

In flower: August.

23. Habenaria viridiflora R. Br. Prodr. 312 Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid.

S19 Wachee ats leiOo.

Var. Dalzellii Hook. f. F.B.I. vi (1890) 150; Cke. u, 721.—Coeloglossum

luteum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 11 (1850) 268; Dalz. & Gibs. 269.

Description: Cke. 1.c.

Locality: Konkan (Stocks 36); Malwan (Dalzell & Gibson).—We have

never seen this species; seems to be very rare.

* Named after the late Prof. F. H. Halberg for many years our colleague,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY — 25

94. Habenaria crassifolia A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv (1841), 72,

ie Gy le Ikeneimal, Oreloncl, “Creal, Cs tyoe) GUST) Gaius Islojolicy tig Ie 1 A at

151; Cke. ii, 722; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. vi (1928) 1471.—Platanthera

brachyphylla Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1835) 293; Wight Ic. t. 1694; Dalz.

& Gibs. Bomb. FI. 269.

Description: Cke. 1.c.—In Panchgani specimens the leaves measure up

to 7°5 cm., and the racemes up to 22°5 cm.

Locality: Konkan (Stocks, Law).—W. Ghats: Panchgani, Tiger Path

and Fairy Spring (Blatter P72! 210!, McCann!); Mahableshwar (Cooke !,

Hallberg B1688! 26500!, Sedgwick 7444 bis!, McCann !).—Deccan: Junnar

Hill, near Poona (Stocks 77); Purandhar (Woodrow!, Bhide!); Singhar

(Garade 57 !).

Distribution: Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats, Nilgiri and Pulney Hills,

6,000-7,000 ft.

Flowers: Aug. 1925 (Panchgani); Sept. 1921 (Mahableshwar); Oct. 1920

(Mahableshwar).

25. Habenaria diphylla Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 11 (1850) 262; Dalz. &

Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 268; Kraenzl. Orchid. Gen. & Sp. I (1897) 346; Hook. f.

HSB vi, 15; Pram Beng. Pl 1031; Duthie in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc

ik, Jobs 4 IG. G. ISis Oke, im, W225 Islannes “eon, lei, Cy Ores Isto Iiniselnese

Ti. Madras pt. vii (1928) 1471.—H. Jerdoniana Wight Ic. t. 1715.—Liparis

diphyllos Nimmo in Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 252.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks, Dalzell); 5. Konkan (Nimmo).—N. Kanara:

(Law); Guddehalli (T. R. Bell 3042!, Talbot 1916!); Karwar (Talbot 586 !);

Balikeri near Karwar (T. BR. Bell 7874 !).

Distribution: Outer ranges of W. Himalaya in Garhwal, eastwards to

Bengal, Chota Nagpur, Orissa, Konkan, N. Kanara, W. Coast of Madras Pres.

from Kanara to Travancore at low elevations.

Flowers: July 1882 (mear Karwar); Aug. 1882, 1886, 1889, 1920 (near

Karwar); Sept. 1917 (N. Kanara).

SUMMARY

Cooke has mentioned 75 species of Orchids indigenous in the Bombay

Presidency, classed under 31 genera.

In the preceding articles 7 genera have been added not known in the

Presidency before: Desmotrichum, Pachystoma, Calanthe, Chilochista, Sacco-

labium, Epipogum and Tropidia; of species 20 have been observed for the

first. time in our area.

Owing chiefly to assiduous collecting in N. Kanara over a period of many

years and careful notes by Mr. T. R. D. Bell, late Chief Conservator of

Forests, Bombay Presidency, and helped by beautiful paintings by Miss Evan-

geline Bell, we have been able to describe 29 new species. Thus bringing

up the total number of Bombay Orchids to 124, belonging to 387 genera. We

must not forget to mention our friend the late Professor F. Hallberg to whom

we have to be grateful for many valuable observations and suggestions.

We subjoin at the end a list of all the genera adopted in our paper, each

with the reference to the volume and page in our series.

Key to all the genera of Bombay Orchids. (after Cooke).

A. Pollinia waxy

I. Pollinia 4

1. Leaves equitant an ee Es 1. Oberonia.

2. Leaves not equitant

a. Terrestrial or epiphytic herbs. Leaves

membranous, usually sessile. Inflore-

scence terminal. Flowers rather

small, in racemes or spikes. Column

prolonged below into a foot

* Lip with basal auricles. Column

very short with broad arms. Ter-

restrial 2. Microstylis.

** Lip without basal auricles. Column

long with callosities or wings, or

both. Rostellum sometimes double.

Terrestrial or epiphytic poe On eaparas.

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOHN, Wl. SOE

b. Epiphytic herbs. Leaves chartaceous or

coriaceous. Column more or less pro-

longed below into a foot

* Stems solitary or caespitose or com-

posed of discrete pseudobulbs

basally attached on a short or

long rhizome

§ Flowers from the stems or pseu-

dobulbs, terminal or axillary,

solitary, or on short few-flower-

ed peduncles or in few- or many-

flowered racemes, usually large

and showy

+ Rhizome short, stemless with

a single pseudobulb or

pseudobulbs plurinodal

++ Rhizome long, annulate, stem

nodose, bearing uninodal

pseudobulbs ae

§§ Flowers from lateral scapes

rising from the base of the

pseudobulbs, or from the rhi-

zome between them, solitary or

in heads, umbels or racemes

{| Lateral sepals alongside or

under the lip. Flowers

racemose or spicate or um-

bellate

++ Lateral sepals spreading.

Scape 1-flowered ane

** Stems jointed, composed of elong-

ated pseudobulbs strung on a

woody core. [Flowers in racemes

*** Stemless tufted herbs. No pseudo-

bulbs. Flowers in panicles

ie -Pollimaa8:

1. Hpiphytic pseudobulbous herbs, usually

small. Inflorescence lateral or termi-

nal, racemose or capitate. Flowers

with a mentum. Column _ prolonged

below into a foot. Lip incumbent on

the foot of the column

a. Sepals connivent at the base, all or the

lateral only connate. Pseudobulbs

small, discoid, reticulate ae 5

b. Sepals and petals free. Pseudobulbs

not discoid ser Ror oe

2. Terrestrial herbs; rhizome nodose :

3. Epiphytic or terrestrial herbs. Stems

not pseudobulbous, slender or equally

thickened along their whole length.

Leaves distichous bel NEE

4. Terrestrial herbs, often pseudobulbous

With) wan short sor stall) = leatve stem.

Leaves plaited. Flowers usually pale

or dark purple ahi oa

IO; Jeolllhumey

1. Stem pseudobulbous or tuberous at the

base

a. Terrestrial herbs. Flowers in peduncu-

late racemes. Leaves plicate

* lip distinctly 3-lobed, saccate or

spurred at the base. Inflorescence

strict

IO?

iL,

13.

14,

Dendrobium. -

Desmotrichum.

Bulbophyllum.

Trias.

Pholidota. -

Josephia.

Porpax.

ria.

Pachystoma.

Thunia.

Calanthe.

Hulophiq,

REVISION OF “THE FLORA OF

** Lip obscurely 38-lobed, wide ventri-

cose, but not spurred at the base.

Inflorescence at first decurved

b. Hpiphytic herbs with long linear sheath-

ing leaves on usually a large fleshy

pseudobulb. Lobes of the lip embrac-

ing the unwinged column

2. Stem not pseudobulbous nor tuberous at

the base

a. Column prolonged into a foot

* Spur erect or parallel to the blade

of the lip, pointing forwards; lip

adnate to the produced foot of the

column; side lobes of lip erect;

foot of column long :

** Spur saccate. Lip movable on the

LOOPemsidem lobes | OL lip. erect:

Column very short

“** Spur saccate, laterally compressed.

Side lobes of Lp 0; foot of column

small sat Ses Ss

**** Spur conical, usually more or less

elongated, erect or curved under

the midlobe of the ne foot . of

column large

b. Column not prolonged into a “foot

* Tip not spurred nor saccate

§ Leaves terete. Flowers in short

spikes. Caudicle of pollinia

broad ath aa Sor

§§ Leaves __ lorate: Flowers in

racemes with very long simple

or branched peduncles. Caudicle

of pollinia long, narrow

** Tip spurred or saccate

§ Side lobes of hp large. Flowers

large

$$ Side lobes of lip small or 0

+ Spurs 2, collateral

++ Spur or sac single

{ Spur not septate

(1 Spur septate within

{{ Spur naked within or with

within

calh on the front wall

only oie

B. Pollinia powdery or lamellate, never waxy

I. Anther terminal. Pollinia 2 or 4, cohering

by their sides, without either gland or

caudicle. Leaf solitary, mostly appearing

-after the flowers

II. Anther posticous. Pollinia 2

1. Sepals narrow, free. Lip concave, sac-

cate or shortly spurred at the base.

Column short. lLeafless herbs

2.. Lateral sepals connate, forming a

mentum. Lip sessile. Column short,

dense-flowered

3. Dorsal sepal and petals ‘together forming

a hood. Lip sessile. Spike lax- or

dense-flowered aoe sf ae

4. Sepals free, dorsal with the petals

cohering in a hood. Column without

appendages. Lip adnate to the base

of the column

IO.

18.

WS),

mile

30.

33.

THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

Geodorum.

Cymbidium.

Sarcochilus.

Chilochista.

Rhynchostylis.

Aerides.

2.: Luisia.

Cottonia.

Vanda.

Diplocentrum.

Acampe.

Sarcanthus.

Saccolabium.

Nervilia.

Epipogum.

Tropidia.

Spiranthes.

Zeuxine,

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

5. Sepals connate to the middle into a tube 34. Cheirostylis.

III. Anther-cells sessile on the column, remote

or contiguous, always discrete. Pollinia

4, sometimes %-partite

1. Sepals subequal and more or less con-

nivent

2. Sepals unequal, the lateral ones more or

less spreading

35. Peristylus.

a. Stigmas sessile or subsessile, confluent

or more or less distinct

b. Stigmas more or less distinctly stalked,

very rarely confluent

36. Platanthera.

37. Habenaria.

INDEX TO GENERA.

Acampe, vol. 35, p. 495.

Aerides, vol. 35, p. 490.

Bulbophyllum, vol. 35, p. 265.

Calanthe, vol. 35, p. 485.

Cheirostylis, vol. 35, p. 781.

Chilochista, vol. 85, p. 488.

Cottonia, vol. 85, p. 494.

Cymbidium, vol. 35, p. 487.

Dendrobium, vol. 35, p. 261.

Desmotrichum, vol. 85, p. 265.

Diplocentrum, vol. 85, p. 495.

Epipogum, vol. 35, p. 729.

IDG, WOle B05 joe BAO),

Eulophia, vol. 35, p. 485.

Geodorum, vol. 35, p. 487.

Habenaria, vol. 36, p. 13.

Josephia, vol. 35, p. 268.

Liparis, vol. 35, p. 259.

Luisia, vol. 35, p. 491.

Microstylis, vol. 35, p. 259.

Nervilia, vol. 35, p. 723.

Oberonia, vol. 35, p. 254.

Pachystoma, vol. 35, p. 484.

Peristylus, vol. 85, p. 733.

Pholidota, vol. 35, p. 267.

Platanthera, vol. 35, p. 736.

Porpax, vol. 35, p. 268.

Rhynchostylis, vol. 35, p. 490.

Saccolabium, vol. 85, p. 722.

Sarcanthus, vol. 35, p. 495.

Sarcochilus, vol. 35, p. 488.

Spiranthes, vol. 35, p. 730.

Thunia, vol. 35, p. 484.

Rios, Ol G5 je HOT.

Tropidia, vol. 35, p. 780.

Vanda, vol. 35, p. 494.

Zeuxine, vol. 35, p. 73l.

(To be continued.)

GAME FISHES

BoMBAY, THE DECCAN AND THE NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS

OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

Sin REGINALD Spence, Kt., M.L.C., F.Z.S.

AND

So Jal, JemAmine, INE JbGs, Coils:

(With 19 plates).

INTRODUCTION

The present article is written as a help to anglers in the

Bombay Presidency. It gives general information as to fishing

localities in and around Bombay and indicates the common species

of game fishes which live in our local waters. Its purpose is also

to help the layman to recognise and identify his catches, and

finally it suggests measures which will tend to the improvement

of fishing in local waters.

Underlying this purpose there is the desire to carry the interest

of the fisherman beyond the mere catching and landing of fish, to

bring him ultimately to a stage where, knowing his fish, he desires

to know something of its lfe and its habits and to understand

and appreciate those factors which influence the lving creature

within its particular environment.

The Zoologist has too often concentrated his study on dead

Specimens in museums, or experimented with living creatures only

in his laboratory. By these methods he has accumulated con-

siderable data essential to the continuance and development of his

researches. But the problem of Life which he seeks to unravel

cannot be unravelled in the museum or laboratory alone. The

Zoologist is therefore turning more and more from the museum to

the field, and his greatest help now, as in the past, is the field

naturalist who is able to appreciate the problems which require

study, and who knows the most suitable and effective methods by

which these problems can be approached.

An indication of the various phenomena affecting the hfe and

characters of fishes or the methods of their interpretation, does not

fall within the limited scope of the present article. Our object is

rather to provide information which will be the means of devel-

oping a wider interest in the subject and to obtain from anglers

that assistance and co-operation which will increase our knowledge

of the fresh-water fishes of India.

At the outset we acknowledge our indebtedness to Mr. I. V.

Evans, a Vice-Patron of the Society and one of the original mem-

bers of what was once the Western India Angling Association.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Since his retirement many years ago Mr. Evans has continued his

interest in Bombay. He has originated, or willingly lent his sup-

port to, schemes which would tend to the improvement of its

amenities. He has interested himself in various activities of the

Society, helped it very substantially by numerous valuable contri-

butions to its hbrary and by generous donations which have con-

tributed very materially to the progress and development of the

Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales’ Museum, where

the Society’s collections are now exhibited. Among cther exhibits

in the Museum, the public of Bombay are indebted to him for

the fine series of cases and their range of models illustrating the

Marine and Fresh-Water Fishes of India now on display in the

Fish Gallery of the Museum.

The idea of the present article originated with Mr. Evans who

supphed the notes to form its basis; who also very generously

offered to provide the not inconsiderable sum of money required

for the coloured illustrations. In view of this outlay the Editors

believed that it would be advantageous considerably to extend the

scope of the article until it reached its present form.

We have also to acknowledge the assistance received from

various members of the Society, all of them men with much

experience of fish and fishing round Bombay. Our thanks are due

in particular to Major W. B. Trevenen, now Honorary Secretary

of the C.P. Angling Association—an enthusiastic fisherman and

field naturalist whose experience is always at the disposal of any-

one interested in a sport which he has done and is doing so much

to develop in this country and whose paper on Ms hing in the

Deccan Lakes’ published in Volume xxx of this Journal has been

of great help to fishermen in Poona. Information relative to fishing

conditions in the waters about Jeatpuri was suppled to us by

Lt.-Col. Sir George Willis—while the opportunities afforded by the

rivers of Surat and Ahmedabad districts were indicated by Mr. P.

H. Clark. To these gentlemen we offer our tribute of thanks and

appreciation.

While the present work is mainly limited ie species which occur

in the Bombay Presidency, it 1s hoped that it will also be found

useful to anglers in other parts of India since the majority of

species dealt with are found practically throughout the country.

ILLUSTRATIONS AND LITERATURE.

The illustrations of the Fishes have been produced in colours

as giving more accurate knowledge of the various types than

would be the case were the line- dr awings only published.

‘Unfortunately, fresh specimens of fish were not available to

paint from, and our artist was compelled to rely on colour des-

criptions as given by Day and other authorities.

We acknowledge our indebtedness to Lt.-Col. Thomas and’ to

Messrs. L. Reeve & Co , Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London,

for permitting us to reproduce certain illustrations from the Rod

in India, (Thomas; Ynd. edn. 1881) and the Fresh- Water Fishes of

India by Capt. R. Bevan, 1877

The description of Fishes which follow are based mainly on

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 31

Day’s two Volumes on Fishes in the Fauna of British India series.

The following is a list of literature consulted by us:—

Acimandolesa Neve DeSce oH AssuBe LOO) ew uline = taunanor certana

Small Streams in the Bombay Presidency. Mecords of the Indian

Museum, Vol. xvi, p. 156. :

Bhattacharya, A., 1915. Yank Angiing in India. (Thacker

Spink & Co., Calcutta.)

Bevan, — liv, 12 Caioue, lke te Preshwater Mishes -of India.

(Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.)

Dives ta lSS9.. he Hauna 207 British India, + (Hishes).

2 Vols. London.

Day, F., 1878-1888. The Fishes of India (Yexts and Plates).

London.

Thomas, H. S., 1881. Rod m India, 2nd. edn. (Thacker

Spink & Co., Calcutta.)

itonmastaty on OZ Hank nghingeine india. Zindex jedi

W. S. Burke. (Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.)

FisHING LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND BoMBAY

The opportunity for sport offered to anglers by the various irriga-

tion lakes and reservoirs, rivers and streams in the immediate

neighbourhood of Bombay and in the neighbouring districts has

received httle attention from writers on this branch of sport.

There are three lakes in Salsette which. Island forms

part of Greater Bombay. These are Tulsi, Powai and Vehar.

Moderate sport may be had in the streams which flow from Powai

and WVehar lakes or in the lakes themselves during the monsoon.

Black Spot and Chilwa are fairly plentiful. One can bait’ with

almost anything, worms, paste and coloured fly, in all cases using

small hooks. Mr. EK. G. Edgley who has had considerable experi-

ence of fishing in the local lakes and streams writes, ‘A typical

day’s fishing in the streams or in Powai Lake is as follows—7 a.m.

the fish rise well to a small spoon (about the size of a pea). They

may rise well for an hour or two and you think: that you have

taken all the fish in that particular stretch, but try a black or a

red fly. The chances are that on a good day the fun will start

all over again. If they do not favour a black or red fly, ring

all the colour changes on them. A good day has rewarded me

with 80-100 fish from 4 lb. to a few ounces. The best Chilwa

I have seen, taken out near the Pump house, measured over 8 in.’

Fifty-five miles north of Bombay at the foot of the Western Ghats

hes the Tansa Lake. It covers, when full, an area of 54 square

miles and with Tulsi and Vehar provides the -water-supply of

Bombay. There is a large lake at Bhiwandi 29 miles north of

Bombay and 10 miles north of Thana, approached by the Agra

Road.

Lake Beale, situated between Ghoti, the first station after

Tgatpuri, and Asvali, the second station, is 17 miles in length.

39 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Thirty-four miles eastward of Igatpuri, close to Niphad station

on the G.I.P. Railway, is a lower lake, fed by the waters of Lake

Beale, conveyed by the River Darna. ‘Twenty-six miles south-

ward otf Igatpuri lies Lake Arthur Hill formed by the great Bhan-

daradara Dam.

In the Bhor Ghat area, there is the lake in the Andhra Valley,

and in the neighbourhood of Lonavla the Shirvata Lake, the Walwan

Lake (Lake Sydenham) and Lake Gostling. This last is dry

except during the monsoon. Walwan, once an excellent resort

for anglers, may now be very disappointing. It is the opinion

of many who have had experience of this lake that it has been

over-fished. A few years ago one could always come away with

one or two 10 or 15 pounders. One fished from the dam. The

bait used was paste made from bajiri and wheat flour. One

had not to wait long for a strong pull. Good fishing could be had

also from the boat with a rather dull spoon about 2 in. long.

The best time was from 6 p.m. till 8 p.m.

At present the bait most used is an Indian concoction known

as ‘“Budgas’ made from gram flour and available at most of

the sweetmeat shops in the local bazar.

The most suitable tackle for fishing in Lake Shirvata is a dull

spoon. If a boat is available troll fairly slow. If there is no

boat walk up and down the dam trolling both ways. ‘There are

plenty of fish, both Dobson’s Carp and Wallago.

In the neighbourhood of Poona, there is Lake Fife at Khadak-

wasla. Within the Poona city limits there is that stretch of

water on the Mutha-Mula River held up by the dam which is

known as the Bund. There are certainly many big fish there,

particularly in the backwaters of the Island, about a mile upstream.

Fish which would scale quite as much as 50 lbs. may be seen

turning over near the surface, but they are rarely caught. It is

easier to catch the smaller fry. A regular course of baiting with

eram has been suggested as a preliminary to taking the bigger

fellows. Further down, a mile below the Bund, there is a drop

in the river known as the Cavalry Falls. This is a good spot

particularly after the rains when the larger fish have dropped

down with the receding water. Big fish are found here also during

the hot weather. A Mahseer (B. tor) weighing 25 lbs. and 2

others scaling 22 and 23 lbs. were taken at the spot recently,

during the month of March. At Bhoopkeel, near Kirkee, a large

pool, which teems with fish, is formed in the river. by a masonry

dam, situated near the Ammunition Factory. Three miles north

of Shelavadi Station on the Lonavla-Poona line and midway on

the road between the station and the village of Dehu, near the

‘two-tree Temple’ there is the famous pool formed by the river

Indrayani. The pool is sacred, and fishing im it is forbidden. It

swarms with great fish which beat up the water and crowd _ to-

gether to feed on the monkey nuts which people throw to them.

Local belief has it that all the fish in the stream move to Alandi

ten miles below when the annual fair is held there. It is possible

that some such movement takes place owing to the food thrown

into the river during the fair; as experience has shown that there

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 83

always 1s a congregation of fish at the spot during the festival

and very few at other seasons.

Lake Whiting at Bhartgarh, formed by the ‘Lloyd Dam’ and

also the River Nira, which carries off its overflow, provide good

sport. Spoon fishing is recommended here, particularly at the rocky

runs of the river near “Ing’ two or three miles below the lake. A

good time is just before the rains.

There is hardly a river of any importance in the Decean which

is not crossed by at least one ancient or modern irrigation weir.

On some of these there are many weirs, all of masonry, sometimes

very lofty. Similarly, the tributary streams during the whole or

part of the dry season are crossed by many little dams, usually

built for the season only, of wattle, mats or mud and gravel, at

times of good stone work. But the greater number of these are

reduced to mere puddles, or entirely dry up during the hot weather.

The best season for fishing in the Deccan Rivers is during the cold

weather, as soon as possible after the rains, before the dry season

has lasted too long, in which case the waters recede and become

discoloured by pollution. Many of the rivers and streams are

however now perennial as a result of dams, such as the Darna

river, which is fed by Lake Beale, and the Pravara by Lake Arthur

Hill. There are 14 miles of the Pravara river immediately below

the dam which would make an ideal fishing river. Its waters

hold Mahseer running from 20 to 25 lbs., also Chilwa and Murral.

The scenery 1s wonderful. The main disadvantage is that it is

21 miles from the nearest railway station Ghoti, and 50 miles by

road from Nasik. Chilwa have been taken with a small black fly

in the Darna below the Lake Beale Dam, many of them exceeding

94+ ins. in length and weighing over 3 ounces. At the Darna Dam

they give excellent sport with a light rod when but little water

is being let down and the Mahseer fishing, except in pools with

eram, is hopeless. The Darna also contains Barbus sarana run-

ning up to about + Ib. and many of those tiny transparent perches

which can be caught on midge flies. Wallago attu is common

and runs very large as it does also in Lake Beale. It is unknown

in Lake Arthur Hill and in the Pravara above Sangamner but is

probably common below the latter place.

As regards the season for tanks, these can be fished as soon as

the waters clear after the rains, but the best season of all is, at

any rate for a certain number of them, during the hot weather

up to the beginning of the high winds just before the monsoon,

at which time all the best fish congregate towards the lower

waters, and appear to be much more ready to take a bait. Lake

Fife, at Khadakwasla, is a noted ex: ample of this fact. In some

tanks, which have clean, hard and steep banks, such as Walwan

at Lonavla, one can catch fish even during the monsoon, but they

are in very poor condition then and full of spawn or milt, and

should be left alone at that period. Major Trevenen gives the fol-

lowing information as regards other localities in the Deccan and

Southern Mahratta country :— ; 3

: R. Bhima, near Patas (40 miles from Poona on Poona-Shola-

pur Road). Here a boat is required. There is a large deep pool

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

near Nangaw or ‘Nandgaon’ in which one should troll with a spoon

3 ins. long. The fish will also take paste.

fh. Gatprabha (Tributary of RK. Kistna). At Sutgatti, 17

umles from Belgaum, holds fish up to 20 lbs. Season is from after

rains to end of January. Use a 24 ins. hog-back spoon with

Punjab trace. A Fly spoon and gut trace is useful for the smaller

fish.

Gokak Falls. (Belgaum District). Season any time as long

as the water is gin-clear. Time, morning or evening. Try right

under the Falls in the big pool and also where the water comes

through the turbines into the pool. It is no use fishing here when

the turbines are not working. The water is then too dead. Mah-

seer up to 38 Ibs. have been caught here. There is a bungalow at

Dhupdal Tank about 3 or 4 miles away. ; :

Rivers Pandni and Tarwa. At Astoli, 3 miles from Londa

Station (M. & 5S. M. Rly.). Time, during a break in the rains

alter the water has cleared. Fish from the road bridge between

Londa and the turning-off to Astoli or Tinai Ghat road to a spot

about 4 miles down-stream. Use a hog-back fly spoon. Fish run

up to 12 or 14 lbs. The scenery is delightful.

Khandesh, from the fisherman’s point of view, should be similar

to the Bombay Deccan as it is very similar both as regards the

nature of its rivers and tanks and also as to the geological formation

of the country. |

If the fisherman tires of the local streams and lakes and requires

a change of surroundings the rivers and streams of the Surat Dis-

trict, a few hours by rail from Bombay, will offer him a new

field for his enterprise. The Parr River.is only 4 miles from Bulsar

station. A motor bus runs out to the River. The Kolak River

is about 2 miles south of Udvad station; Mahseer, Murral, Wallago

attu and large numbers of Rohu are to be had in these rivers.

The Daman Ganga River flows 14 miles south of Daman Road

station. Its upper reaches, a few miles above the railway bridge,

are full of freshwater and estuary fish. About two miles below

the railway bridge, near the Salt Inspector’s ee estuary fish

abound and can be taken with spoon. Just after the monsoon is

the most suitable season for working this stream. The Sanjan

River, a mile south of Sanjan station, contains numerous estuary

fish. A mile and a half to two miles down the stream there is

a magnificent stretch of water which is under tidal influence. High

tide is, of course, the most suitable time to fish this stretch.

Ahmedabad, further north, offers opportunities to the angler.

After the monsoon, when the river Subermati clears, Mahseer are

to be caught close to the Railway bridge. At Khedbrahma, a

station on the Ahmedabad-Prantij) Railway, wonderfully good

fishing is to be had in one of the tributaries of the Subermati River.

Mahseer, running up to 8 lbs., Murral and Wallago attu are nume-

vous. Near the village of Wassin-Baroda, 34 miles from Ahmeda-

bad along the Kaira Road, some of the finest fishing in India is

available in the Subermati River. To obtain good results in any

of these streams long casting is essential. By long casting is

meant casts of at least 30 to 40 yards.

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS ¢

THE CoMMONER LocAL GAME FISHES.

THE CAPS.

The Mahseer.

Nearly all the fishes of any importance to the angler belong to

two families—the Cyprinide or Carps and the Siluride or Cat-

Fishes. We commence with the Carps. The fish best known to

the disciple of the Rod in India is the Mahseer. Which fish goes

by this name? Perhaps it would be correct to say that no fish has

an exclusive right to it. Naturalists have appropriated the name

for the giant of the tribe, Barbus tor (Ham. Buch.). Fishermen

frequently apply it to any of the larger examples of predatory

barbels or the genus Barbus. Vernacular names are equally con-

fusing in their application. Dr. Day gives the Marathi names

Khadchi and Masla under Barbus tor. In a list of the Fishes of

the Poona District, Mr. H. Wenden gives Khadchi and Masla as

the Marathi terms for Jerdon’s Carp (Barbus jerdoni). Kursi,

according to Major Trevenen, is another name by which the Mahseer

is known around Poona. Dr. Fairbank gives Mahasala as the

‘vernacular name of Barbus tor in the Deccan. Mr. Maclver, who

has had much experience of fishing in the neighbourhood of Satara,

says in this locality Barbus tor is called Kudis. Anglicised versions

of Marathi names will naturally differ in their interpretation, and

it is possible that some of the names we have mentioned are differ-

ent renderings of the term Kawli Massa or ‘Scaly Fish’ in allusion

to the large scales. It is a name which is generally apphed in the

Mabratta Country to the large-scaled barbels of the Mahseer

eroup. It should not be assumed that such names as are ascribed

are the vernacular names in all the districts where Marathi is

spoken. Fishes throughout the world appear to have more local

names given to them than any other animal.

The Mahseer (Barbus tor), or more correctly, a form or race of

this species, occurs in the streams and lakes of the Bombay Presid-

ency. We have even seen an example of Barbus tor taken in the

Parr River near Bulsar in water well within tidal influence. But

our rivers and lakes do not produce the big fish of North or South

India. The reason for this is simple. The streams of the Deccan

are in flow for only 8 or 4 months of the year and the sources of

nearly every one of them are, and have been for many generations,

in rice fields out of which few spawning fish and not many. fry

escape alive. Circumstances are against large fish, like Barbus tor,

with a taste for high spawning grounds, while they favour fish of

smaller size though otherwise similar in appearance and _ habit.

Again, Mahseer, lke crocodiles, living in the still waters of a lake

do not appear to attain the size and vigour of their relatives in

rapid rivers. Apart from size, the Mahseer of our streams are said

to differ from those of North and South India. It is believed

that they belong to an undescribed race or races. On the other

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

hand, a fisherman with experience of fishing both in the Hima-

layan waters and those of the Deccan, maintains that the

Mahseer of the Deccan streams are identical with those of the

Kumaon Lakes and Rivers. Careful comparison by him of Mahseer

caught in Kumaon with those taken in the Darna and Pravara

Rivers revealed no difference or rather no more difference than often

exists between individuals caught in the same stream—differences

which can be accounted for by individual variation.

It is not yet possible to discuss the races or even the species of

fish now known as Barbus tor. Possibly 6 or 7 different forms or

even species of this fish may inhabit the Indian Empire.

Barbus mussullah, originally described by Sykes, is found in the

Krishna and its tributaries about Satara and very probably in other

Deccan streams. It may be a distinct species or merely a form or

race of the Mahseer. It differs from the Mahseer in the structure

of its mouth which is much more oblique than in Barbus tor.

The extremity of its upper jaw hes in a direct line under the

centre of its eye (see Plate Il). It is a common fish in the upper

waters of the Krishna where it lives in company with the Mahseer.

The local fishermen call it Masundi. A specimen, weighing 21 Ibs.,

was caught by Mr. M. Maclver.

To discover the various races of Barbus tor and to know some-

thing of their distribution it would be necessary to examine a large

series of specimens collected from various parts of India at different

seasons of the year. One obstacle to collecting these Barbels is

that their size makes preservation difficult. But with a will to do

so, anglers can help very materially in solving this problem.

Other species of Barbus.

We now come to another group of Barbels about which, as with

the Mahseer, much confusion exists. It is doubtful how far the

term ‘Carnatic Carp’ can have a scientific basis. Many species so

called have no more than a distant resemblance to Barbus carnati-

cus of Jerdon. Besides, Jerdon limits the distribution of this fish

to South Kanara, the Nilgiris and the Wynaad. The species, which

go by the name of Carnatic Carp in the Deccan, are in all probability

Barbus jerdoni (Day) and Barbus dobsoni (Day). Though Day

recognises them as distinct species, these two fishes are probably

varieties or local races of one and the same species. Differences in

the number and size of the scales serve to distinguish the two forms.

A third variety, described by Annandale under the name of Barbus

jerdoni maciveri, was discovered in the Krishna River near Satara.

The Maharata name for it is ‘Purgi’. Mr. Maclver, after whom

this race was named, refers to it as the “Carnatic Carp of the

Krishna’.

Various other members of the Genus Barbus—small and large—

occur in our lakes and streams. Day lists 70 different species as

inhabiting the Indian Empire. He divides them into three main

eroups—those with four barbels, those with two, and those with

none at all. Besides the Mahseer and the races of ‘Carnatic Carp’ to

which we have referred, there are five other Barbels in our area

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 37

which belong to the first group. Barbus sarana (Ham. Buch.),

which grows to about 2 feet in length, is a common fish, hable to

mueh variation in different localities. It is described as the most

sporting Barbel in Gujerat where it is known as the “Darai’. The

Marathi name is ‘Kudali or Pitule’. The Olive Carp (Barbus

chrysopoma, Cuv. & Val.), occurs in the Deccan streams—it is

one of the Barbels which can be used for stocking ponds. Barbus

pinnauratus (Day) is referred to as the “Mahseer’ of the Konkan

where the true Mahseer is said not to occur. Day mentions 104

inches as the length of the largest specimen. Yet Sinclair men-

tions examples sealing 10 lbs. He writes that as a sporting fish

‘it is equal to any Mahseer weight for weight’. Whether Barbus

pinnauratus, chrysopoma and sarana are really distinct species

or merely forms or races of one and the same species is open

to question. Day himself is inclined to the belief that Barbus pin-

nauratus, is a variety of Barbus chrysopoma; while Barbus sarana

is very similar to both of them. It is only by examination of a

good series of these fishes that the problem can be decided.

Buchanan’s Carp (Barbus curmuca), whose distribution is given

by Day as the Western Ghats, is said to grow to at least

4 feet in length. The Malabar Carp (Barbus malabaricus, Jerdon),

which Day limits to South Kanara and Travancore, has also been

taken in the Satara District. It grows to about 14 feet in length.

There are two species of Barbus in our waters which belong to

the two-barbelled group. Barbus parrah (Day), known as the

Kudali, is common about Poona. It grows to 6 inches. Barbus

kolus (Sykes), the “Koolis’ or ‘Koolashi’ reaches over a foot.

The last group—without, barbels—contains mostly small fish

useful mainly for stocking tanks. There are 3 local species. Bar-

bus ambassis called ‘Bhondgi’ in the Poona District favours tanks

and. still water. It breeds in December and the young will be found

mostly in January. The Black Spot (Barbus filamentosus, Cuv.

& Val.), is much valued as food, it grows to about 6 inches; while

the third species Barbus ticto (Ham. Buch.) does not exceed

34 inches.

The Rohu

Besides the genus Barbus, the Carp Family (Cyprinide) includes

various other genera which interest the angler. Noted members are

the Rohu or Roho Fish (Labeos). The name Rohu is as indiserimi-

nately used as the term ‘Mahseer’ or “Carnatic Carp.’ Various

species of Labeo are called Rohu. These fish are easily distin-

guished from the tribe of Barbus by their much deeper and thicker

bodies and very peculiar mouths set under the snout and furnished

with thick, warty lips. Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch.), called in

Marathi Tambada Massa or Copper fish, attains 8 feet in length

and may scale over 50 lbs. in weight. Five other species of Labeo

are found in the Deccan streams. Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch), for

which Day gives the Marathi name Tamba, grows to 14 feet in

length; a fish of this species, scaling 25 lbs. measuring 28 ins. in

length was caught at Poona in 1923. Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.),

38 J OW RNA, BOMBAY GN AULA IZ EIS 15S O Cilla Volle wxOXexayal

known as the “Kanoshi’, grows to 3 feet. The ‘Nakta’ or ‘Nakta

Shendwa’ (Labeo nukta, Sykes), is not much over a foot. Two

other small species inhabiting our streams are Labeo porcellus

(Heckel) and Labeo kawrus (Sykes). The Labeos are essentially

bottom-feeders living on minute crustacea and vegetable matter.

The Ch was.

The bright silvery Chilwas are small, flat-sided, thin-bodied fish

with the stomach running to a fine edge and the dorsal fins set far

back. Three species are recorded by Day from the Deccan. Chela

clupeoides (Bloch), called in Marathi the ‘Alkut’, is said by Day

to grow at least 9 inches in length, but Thomas in his ‘Rod in India’

indicates that it may grow up to 18 inches in length and a hand’s

breadth in depth. As stated previously, in the Darna River there

are many which exceed 9 inches in length. Chela bacaila (Ham.

Buch.), for which the Marathi name is ‘Dantal’, attains 7 inches

and Chela phulo (Ham. Buch.), the 8rd. species, not more than

9 inches. To these we must now add a 4th. species Chela

boopis (Day), which Day limits to Mysore and South Kanara

but which has been taken in the Krishna at Satara. The Chilwas

are remarkably active in the early mornings and evenings which

means that they are thoroughly on the feed then. During the

middle of the day, they seem to favour deeper water, become

less active; occasional rises being seen in the centre or deeper parts

of the pool but no regular feeders.

The Mirrgha and the Catla.

The Mirrgha (Cirrhina mrigala, Ham. Buch.), a fine fish of elegant

appearance with bright golden scales, grows to 3 feet in length and

may scale 18 Ibs. It is described as an excellent species for stock-

ing tanks. Cirrhina reba (Ham. Buch.), another species, may be

seen basking frequently on the surface of still pools with they

snouts showing above water. It is then hopeless to fish for them.

They not only refuse to take any bait offered to them but show no

alarm and ignore any small lure such as gram or a small piece of

paste thrown in their midst. Day lists 5 species of Cirrhina all of

which are found in the Deccan streams. They are handsome Carps,

good for the table and if one can get them to take either fly or bait,

they give better sport than any other Indian fish as they certainly

have no equals in grace or form or motion.

The last-noted member of the family, which lives in our waters,

is the Catla (Catla catla, Cuv. & Val.), better known as Catla

buchanani. This is a strong and active fish frequently used for

stocking tanks. It grows to 6 feet and is recorded as having been

taken up to 100 lbs. on a rod. .So much for the Carps.

Tur Cat-FIsHEs.

The Silurid@ or Cat-Fishes, though not so numerous in indi-

viduals as the Carps, are quite as often in evidence while several

of them make much better fare for the table than any Cyprinide.

Among anglers, the best-known member of the tribe is perhaps

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING ZPLSTRICT S139

Wallago attu (Bl. Schn.). It is the commonest and the best eating,

‘Shivada’ and ‘Pari’ or ‘Padi’ are the Marathi names for it.

Wal llago attu grows to 6 feet in length but this is exceptional ;

specimens over 4 feet are rare. Sluseish in movements, it lives

mostly at the bottom, feeding on animal and vegetable matter.

In the early morning or late evening they may be seen on the

surface in pursuit of small fish when they occasionally will take

spoon as well. Wallago are very destructive to fry and smaller

fish in ponds.

Another noted member of the tribe and very similar in habit is

the Goonch (Bagarius yarrellu, Ham. Buch.), known by the names

‘Mutauda’ and ‘Tharota’ in Marathi. Like Wallago attu, it grows

up to 6 feet and many scale from 200 to 300 lbs. The term

Singlala or Singhata meaning ‘horn-fish’, probably in allusion to

the spines with which some of these fishes are armed, is applied

generally to various Cat-fishes mostly members of the genus

Macrones. They generally give good sport and are good eating.

The best way of angling for them is to use live bait, the best time

is the evening when they leave deep water to forage along the

banks. Failing live bait, raw meat answers fairly well. It is

necessary to be careful in handling Cat-fish as some of them are

armed with sturdy, poison spines which can inflict a painful slow-

healing wound. One of the most poisonous of these cat-fishes is

Saccobranchus fossilis (Bloch.), whose vernacular name, ‘“Bitchu-

ka-machi’ or Scorpion Fish gives a fair idea of its local reputation.

The larger species, like the Goonch and Wallago, are commonly

called ‘“Fresh-water Sharks’.

Tur MuRRALS.

There is yet one family of fishes which interests anglers and

that is the Ophiocephalide, which means Snake-headed, in allusion

to the scales which cover the heads of these fishes. It includes

the Murrals. Day lists 9 species the majority of which are found

in the plains. Ophiocephalus striatus (Bloch.), in Marathi the

‘Dakhu’ is one of the largest and most valuable of food fishes of

inland waters. Being an air breather, it is transported with ease

and admirably suited for stocking tanks and lakes. Care should be

exercised in introducing it into preserved waters as it 1s voracious

and is very destructive to fry. The White- spotted Murral (Ophio-

cephalus leucopunctatus, Sykes) is common in the Deccan. Day

gives the Marathi name as ‘Maral’.

The Ophiocephalidae, having hollow cavities in their heads, and

an amphibious mode of respiration, are able to exist for lengthened

period out of their native element, and can travel some distance

over the ground especially when it is moist. They are also able

to live in the sun dried mud of a tank during the dry season.

Observations on such habits which are verified by the angler are

of the greatest value. Observations on the breeding habits of the

Murral, nest building, parental care, would prove of much interest.

The above summarises the more important game fishes of our

lakes_and rivers, It will be seen from what has been written that

40 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI-

our knowledge of the various species, their range, the variations

in form and structure which they exhibit in different areas and

under different conditions of life, is very rudimentary. Knowledge

of this nature ean only be acquired by the examination of series

or specimens collected at different places in different seasons. The

difficulties of doing so are not insuperable. The Natural History

Society is always willing to help anglers with information and

advice as to how this can be done. Equally rudimentary is our

knowledge of the life and habits of the various fresh-water fishes,

thei breeding and early stages of development. This is another

avenue in which fishermen can help—by noting down any obser-

vations they make.

All observations that anglers can make relative te sex, mode of

propagation and development of fishes will be of the greatest inter-

est. Information is wanted on time of spawning and migration,

mode of spawning, construction of nests, care of progeny, change

of form during growth. Other points to be noted are secondary

sexual differences (hermaphroditism whether normal or abnormal),

the numeric proportion of the sexes. Every opportunity of

observing the development and tracing the stages of growth of

young fishes should be taken advantage of.

The question of improvement of the fish supply of our lakes

and reservoirs by the introduction of new forms or restocking, is

one which naturally interests all fishermen. But this can be

achieved best by co-operation, by the forming of an Association.

The Western India Angling Association, which was formed some

vears ago by a number of keen fishermen in Bombay, is now un-

fortunately defunct. But enthusiasts are not wanting and the

revival of the Association is not impossible if anglers would get

together and discuss the ways and means.

We indicate in the course of this pamphlet some of the species

of fish most suitable for the purpose of stocking tanks and reser-

voirs in the hope of helping those who are interested.

How FISHES ARE IDENTIFIED.

As with other classes of the Animal Kingdom, Fishes are divided

into various Orders, Families, Genera and Species. Sharks and

Skates are distinguishable from all other forms of fish. They are

erouped together in a single Order. Now while Sharks and Skates

have certain structural resemblances in common, they exhibit other

eharacters by which they may be differentiated. Hence we have

two subdivisions of the Order, in other words two Sub-Orders—

one to include all the Sharks, the other the Skates and Rays. The

Family is a further division of the Order or Sub-Order. Sharks

vary among themselves in form and structure and again some of

them have certain characters in common. The purpose of the

Family is to group together those sharks which bear these family

resemblances so as to distinguish them from other sharks which do

not share these features. The members of a family are again

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 41

divisible into various Genera. From general resemblances we come

here to more particular affinities shown by a more or less limited

number of members of the Family. To specify these affinities we

establish a Genus or genera and group together in each genus the

various members of the family in accordance with the affinities

they exhibit. Finally, the members of a particular genus are

recognizable one from the other by specific differences. These

differences may be indicated in the structure of the teeth, in the

position of the fins, in the number and arrangement of the scales

and in any one character or combination of characters by which

a particular species may be recognised. Thus we have distinctive

Species and we may go even further and distinguish a particular

species of fish living in a given geographical area from another

of the same. species inhabiting the waters of another area. Thus

the Mahseer of the Deccan streams may differ from the Mahseer

of the Himalayas and it, in turn, may be distinguishable from the

Mahseer of the South Indian rivers; we would thus have various

forms or Races of the Mahseer.

It will be seen that the classification and identification of fishes

is based on resemblances or differences in their structure and

anatomy. The recognition of these essential points of difference is

beset with technicalities, and a knowledge of the subject can only

be acquired after careful study. An endeavour is made here to

indicate the main external characters on which these differences are

based and to explain the more common terms and abbreviations

used in technical descriptions of fishes.

Form of Body. In general, fishes are boat-shaped and adapted

for swift movement through the water. They are longer than they

are broad or deep. But there are many variations from the typical

form. In some fishes the body is deeper than long. In others

it is extremely lengthened. The body of a fish is said to be

compressed when it is flattened laterally as in some of the Carps.

It is deseribed as depressed when it is flattened vertically as with

some of the Cat-fishes. The body may be eel-like (anguilliform)

or globular (globiform) or ribbon-like (teniform) or shaped like a

dart (sagittiform).

The head. All characters of a fish vary a good deal, so that

one individual cannot be taken to represent the species or race.

The head of a fish is its most variable part, for it comes under

varied influences. It is the wedge which cleaves through the

water, moved forward or swung from side to side by the muscular

body. The pressure of the surrounding water has helped to mould

its surface according to the speed of the movement. Most remark-

able variations in shape have arisen under these influences.

The mouth of fishes exhibits as many variations as the body;

variations adjusted to the nature of its food and the method of

obtaining it. It may be narrow and pointed or an extremely wide

cleft reaching the hind margin of the head. It may be pointed

upwards or downwards, semi-circular, or semi-elliptical or straight.

If situated in front of the snout—the natural position—it is de-

scribed as (anterior), and if it is on the upper surface of the head

(superior); on the lower surface (inferior), and when extending on

49 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA HUSH: 5S O ClTY: s Viola = xOOe a!

each side (lateral). Round the mouth there may be fringes of

skin or barbels. These are organs of touch. With their. aid a

fish can ‘feel’ for its food without seeing it.

The nostrils le above the snout as a rule; they have two

openings.

The eyes ot fishes are usually large. Sometimes they lie close

together on one side, as in the Soles, or on the top of the head, but

as a rule they are separate. The sockets of the eyes are eaillcd

the orbits. The space across the forehead between the eyes is

called the inter-orbital space, that below the orbit the infra-orbital

or sub-orbital region.

Gill-covers. At the side of the fish’s head, below the mouth

is the large movable gill-cover—supported by a number of bones

moved by muscles which cause the gill to open and shut. The

supporting bones are known as opercles. They are named as

follows:—The operculum forms the posterior margin of the gill-

opening. The sub-operculum and the inter- operculum lie along

its inferior margin. The pre-operculum is a semi-circular bone,

usually free posteriorly, often with a serrated or spined margin. It

is situated in front of the gill-opening. The margin of the gill-

cover is provided with a cutaneous fringe in order more effectively

to close the gill-opening. The fringe is supported by one or several

bony rays which are referred to as Branchiostegal Rays. In abbre-

viated descriptions of Fishes, the branchiostegal rays are referred

to as B and the Roman numerals appearing after the letter indicate

the number of rays, i.e. B. i in the description of the Mahseer

means that the fish has 8 branchiostegal rays. These rays are not

easy for the novice to locate as they are situated under the mem-

brane on the inside of the lower and posterior edge of the gill-

cover. They must not be confused with the branchial arches witch

support the gill rakers and the branchial laminae, i.e., the actual

fringed portion of the gills with its bony supports through which

the water is sifted.

Fins. The fins of fishes are divided into two groups:—Paired

fins and vertical fins. The paired fins consist of a pair in the

forepart of the body: one on each side called the Pectorals (P) and

a second pair below the pectorals on the lower surface of the fish

ealled the Ventrals (V). Hither or both these pairs may be absent

in fishes. They serve little use in movement through the water

and are mainly balancing organs. The fin on the middle line of

the back is called the Dorsal (D). In some eases there may be

two distinct dorsal fins, either adjoining each other or separated

by a small or considerable space. Very often the posterior dorsal

fin consists of adipose tissue only and has no spines or rays. In

abbreviated descriptions of such fishes the details relating to the

two fins are divided by a vertical line. Example. D (1/6) / O.

The tail fin is the Caudal (C) and the one in the middle line of

the belly the Anal (A). The Dorsal may be divided into 2 or even

3 fins, the anal is sometimes so divided.

The rays which serve to support the fins may be either simple

or branched. Branched rays are always articulated. That is, they

are composed of numerous joints which render them flexible. The

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 43

majority of our fresh-water fishes, the Cat-fishes and the Carps,

belong to an Order one of the main distinguishing characters of

which is that in these fishes all the fin-rays, with the exception of

the first dorsal and the first pectoral ray, are articulated. These

articulated or jointed fin-rays are described as soft rays while those

which are neither jomted nor branched are called spines. Some

spines may however be quite soft and flexible. The lack of joints

is what distinguishes a spine from a ray.

The foregoing description will help the angler to understand the

method and the abbreviations used in describing the fins of fishes.

The Mahseer’s fins and rays are described as follows :—

See ibee Da hia(o) 9) ele MO eae Os eens 27-8) (2-3)/ 9). Car 10:

A reading of this description would indicate that the Mahseer

has 8 branchiostegal rays; that the dorsal fin (D) of the Mahseer

is composed of 12 rays of which 38 are spines and 9 are soft rays

(8/9). Similarly with the anal fin (A):—A. 7-8 (2-3/5) means

that the anal fin is composed of 7-8 rays of which 2 or 8 may be

spines and the remaining 5 are soft rays. P. 19, V. 9 and C. 10

indicate the number of rays in the pectoral, ventral and caudal

fins and that they are all of the same kind, no spines being

present.

Lateral line. The lateral line consists of a series of perforated

scales running along each flank in most of the bony fishes. It

consists of a canal or tube sunk into the skin and opening to the

exterior by a series of pores, which can be seen when the scale is

examined. There is a group of sensory cells beneath each pore

and these serve to give the fish impressions of minute differences

in the pressure of the currents of water. In descriptions of fishes

the lateral line is referred to as L. 1. The numerals printed after

these letters serve to indicate the number of scales along the lateral

line, counted from the head to the base of the tail. For the

Mahseer the formula is given as l.1. 25-27—meaning that there

may be from 25 to 27 scales along the lateral line. L. tr. repre;

sents the number of transverse rows of scales between the middle

line of the back and the abdomen. These rows are usually split

up into 2 groups:—Seales above and scales below the lateral line.

L. tr. 4/4 means that there are 4 rows of scales above and 4 rows

below the lateral line. In counting these rows it is usual to count

from the lateral line to a point in front of the dorsal fin and from

the lateral line to the ventral fin. The number of rows of scales

between the lateral line and other points of the body of fishes

are also used as a guide to their identification. Thus in the Mah-

seer there are 24 rows of scales between the lateral line and the

anal fin and there are 9 rows of scales along the line counting

from the head to a point immediately below the commencement

of the dorsal fin.

Measurements of Fishes. As most fishes grow as long as they

live the actual length of a fish is not of much help in its identifica-

tion. The essential point is not the actual length but the relative

lengths of different parts of the body. The usual method of arriving

at the length of a fish is to measure it from tip of the snout to the

base of the tail fin. With this length, the greatest depth of body,

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

the length of the head, and the length of the other parts are com-

pared. Thus in a technical description of the Mahseer (Barbus

tor) one reads that the length of the head is contained from 4-5

times and its greatest depth 44-54 times in its total length. Again

the length of the muzzle, the diameter of the eye and the other

dimensions may be compared with the length of the head. In a

Mahseer the diameter of the eye is contained 64-74 times in the

total length of the head. It should be perncan sored that these

cneaenariecth ems apply in general to specimens that have reached a

fair stage of development; young fishes have proportionately larger

eyes, more slender bodies and larger heads than the adults.

Weighing Fishes. There are various formule for estimating

the weight of fishes. The one most generally accepted is that

proposed by G. H. Lacey and Dr. EK. Cretin in the ‘Angler’s

Handbook’. It reads as follows ‘First take the length and girth

of the fish in inches: add together the length and one-third of

the length: multiply the result by the square of the girth, and

divide by 1000 and the result will be the weight of the fish in

pounds.’ The formula may be abbreviated thus :—

Gah) se (CP

1000 mele

In Volume xxx, p. 711 of the Society’s Journal, Major W. B.

Trevenen refers to tests carried out by him with the above formula

in relation to measurements of 40 fishes taken in Lake Fite,

Poona. It was found in every case that the result was an error

m excess—the actual amount of error increasing more or less

with the size of the fish. Shght alterations in the formula resulted

in greater accuracy. Finally the formula was modified by him

as follows:—‘+ the length’ was substituted for “4 length’.

The formula, then reading as follows:—

(L+4L) x (G) Ww G is the greatest girth.

1000 — ‘*: Lis the length from the closed mouth to

| the fork of the tail.

The formula, as modified, yielded more accurate results—the

general tendency was to very slightly under-estimate the true

weight. All the fish measured were caught in Lake Fife. The

author points out that it is possible that these ‘Lake’ fish are

stockier in build than those taken in running water. It would

be interesting if other anglers would apply the formula to river

fish and state the results.

The difficulty of weighing heavy fish with the usual portable

spring balance which does not register more than a limited number

of pounds is one which is frequently experienced by fishermen. Mr.

A. Macdonald, writing in the Society’s Journal, indicates that this

difficulty may be overcome by using two or more balances. The

balances should be hung from a single cord and the fish suspended

so that the strain is borne simultaneously by both scales. Reading

the weight indicated by the instruments and adding nena together,

will give the correct weight.

[ H1iv1g

‘updag | ‘Dipuy fo says) 42D /j Ysd4J,, U) SulMD4p uy) Yt Lif{y

(sur 9 "33 ¢ Yypdus7)

(yong “wep ) Joy snqieq

FFSHVW FHL

"90 ‘ISI]] ‘IVN AVaWog ‘Nunof

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 45

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES

THe MAnSEER.

Barbus tor (Ham. Buch.).

Vernacular names: Khadchi, Masta, Mahsala. Kursi (Poona)

Kudis (Satara) are Marathi names given for this fish.

15, 1s ID. VA (ei). Jee MW). Wo Qo ee eS (CEB) ppl Pri

L. tr. 4/4.

Distinctive characters: 4 barbels. 8 spines and 9 rays in the

dorsal fm. 2 to 3 spines and 5 rays in the anal. 25-27 scales

along the lateral line. ‘The dorsal spine, bony and strong, as long

as the head excluding snout. Upper jaw longer, lips lobed. 22

rows of scales between the lateral line and the ventral fin.

Relative dimensions: Length of head 4-5, height of body

4-54 in the total length. The diameter of the eye in moderate

sized specimens is contained 64 to 74 times in the length of the

head.

Colour: Day describes the colour as silvery or greenish along

the upper part of the body becoming silvery or shot with gold on

the sides and beneath. Lower fins reddish yellow. The colour-

ation varies in different localities and even in the same locality.

In lake Fife at Khadakwasla some fish are of a deep golden colour,

others light silvery. Again in other waters some fish have

a distinct blue tinge, more rarely others are very dark—almost

black.

Form: As a general rule Mahseer in lakes, when grown to

size, are much stockier in build than those which live in rivers.

There is much variation in the shape of the head and thickness

of lips. Bevan ascribes the variation to age, type of streams and

season of the year. As already indicated, the Mahseer of the

Bombay streams and lakes may differ from those of North and

South India. They are certainly smaller. The status of the

Mahseer is not known. It is possible that there are 6 or 7

different forms or even species inhabiting the waters of the Indian

Empire. : tae

Breeding: Thomas in Rod im India is of opinion that the

Mahseer does not spawn all at one time but repeats the process

several times in a season. Mr. C. A. Nevill writing in the Society’s

Journal (Vol. xxiv, p. 888) states that he has caught female

Mahseer with well developed roe during several months of the

year. Mahseer were seen by him working themselves over the

eravel and small stones in tributary streams and in very shallow

waters. He believed that they were scooping out the gravel and

stones for the reception of the eggs. With many fishes the eggs

ripen gradually, one batch after the other, this succession in the

ripening of the ova and eggs is also seen in some of the viviparous

fishes.

How many batches of eges the Mahseer lays in one season is

not known. Thomas, from the appearance of the ovaries, believed

that there were three.

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

THe Masunpt.

Barbus mussullah, Sykes.

Vernacular name: Masundi. (Satara.)

Big IDES (yO), 12,1), WV. 9,9 6 (8/5). Jb, 1k, BOA:

L. tr. 4/3.

The Masundi may be a form or race of the Mahseer or a

distinct species. More examples of this fish are wanted for com-

parison.

Distinctive characters: 4 barbels. The dorsal fin has 8 spines

and 10 rays; the anal 8 spines and 5 rays. There are 25-26 scales

along the lateral line; 4 rows between the lateral line and the dorsal

fin, 3 rows between this lne and the ventral. An important dif-

ferential character is to be found in the structure of the mouth,

the opening of which is much more oblique than in any race

of Barbus tor. The extremity of the upper jaw hes directly under

the middle part of the eye in B. mussullah. Sykes, in his descrip-

tion of this fish, mentions a trivial but apparently constant

character which will assist further in its identification. This

character is the presence under the eye of a group of small tubercles,

not confined to one sex and visible with the aid of a lens in quite

young fish. 3

The Masundi is described as common in the Upper Krishna

near Satara. It probably occurs in other streams of the Deccan.

A specimen weighing 21 lbs. was taken by Mr. Maclver.

B GRis/ais|

‘6161 ‘TAX TOA ‘ULTI OST JA] PY] jo SP4U920] ‘o/Dpubuup

(Maia |DAJUIA PUD ]D41aJDT “DUYSIY 4aany "(yejpnssnur snqieq) JGNNSVVAL ONNOA V AO GvdaH 72

‘Maid jDAJUBA PUD jD1IJDT “Duysixf aay "(402 snqieg) YFJASHVAI ONNOA Y JO av3ay JJ

‘90S “LSI IVN AvaWwog ‘Nunof[

fing ,;p1puy fo soysis,, uz sulmpsp ay} 49)fy

(‘sur QZ 02 dn y33u07)

(Aeq) tuosgop tuopief snqieg

dudvD S.NOSdOd

(O GUENalg| "90S ‘ISI}] “IVN AVaWog ‘Nunof[

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS ‘4%

JERDON’S CARP.

Barbus jerdoni, Day.

Jerdon’s Carp is frequently referred to as the ‘Carnatic Carp’.

The true Carnatic Carp (Barbus carnaticus) is not found in the

Deccan streams, its range is limited to the rivers of South Kanara,

the base of the Nilgiris and the Wynaad.

Dobson’s Carp (Barbus jerdoni dobsont) which occurs in the

Decean is very closely allied to Jerdon’s. The local name for it

round Poona is Potla. Day in his ‘Fishes of India’ indicates that

Jerdon’s and Dobson’s Carp are merely varieties or local races of

the same species while Maclver’s Carp is described as a race of

Jerdon’s. We indicate below the distinguishing characte s.

Distinctive characters: 4 barbels.

Delo) O)cedina One Vieoter Na Ooo)

L. 1. 27-28. 24-34 scales between the

lateral line and the ventral... .. barbus jerdont.

DET Suomen ea Ae NO Ae 81, (3, 0).

L. 1. 80-82. 84 scales between the

lateral lime and the ventral. .-. ... Barbus dobsoni.

D. 18 (4/9). A. 3/5. L. 1. 81-88. 384 scales Barbus jerdont

between the lateral line and the ventral. maciwert.

The body in Dobson’s Carp is considerably deeper than in

Jerdon’s, and Dobson’s has more scales along the lateral line and

more between the lateral line and the ventral fin. These are the

only constant differences. All these species can be readily dis-

tinguished from the Mahseer by their small mouths.

Colour: Jerdon’s Carp is described as silvery. The. fins have

an orange tint tipped with black. The colouring of Dobson’s Carp

is bluish above becoming lhghter on the sides and beneath; fins

edged with gray the upper corner of the dorsal and ends of the

caudal blackish. MaclIver’s Carp is described as brownish above.

The caudal dorsal and anal fins are tipped with black—it attains a

weight of 20-25 Ibs.

48 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI.

THE OLIVE Carp.

Barbus chrysopoma, Cuv. & Val.

Vernacular names: Kolsi. ,

er tleDe tie), Je. is WV. 8. Be SB (G15), Ge AQ. Ibe Ih,

25-30. 1x tr! 16) 6. 3

Distinctive characters: 4 barbels. Last undivided, dorsal ray

bony and serrated. D. 4/8. A. 38/5. L. |. 28-30. A dark blotch

on the sides.

velative dimensions: Length of head 44-5, height of body

32 times in the total length. The diameter of the eye is contained |

34-34% times in the length of the head in a fairly grown specimen.

Colour: Back—gegreenish with silvery reflections; abdomen

silvery. Gnull-covers shot with purple and gold. A dark vertical

band behind the gill-covers and a dull blotch on the lateral line,

just in front of the base of the caudal fin. The spot loses in in-

tensity with age—it is very marked in young specimens whose

bodies are bright silvery. Ventral fin, orange, the other fins grey,

the dorsal and caudal margined with a darker colour, the anal

stained with orange.

Thomas states that the vernacular name shani kende or Cow-

dung Carp is given to this fish from its colour. But Olive Carp

describes it as effectively and sounds better. It attains a length

of 2 feet 9 inches and is a very common fish in ponds and tanks

and in flooded fields. There are numbers of them in the Powai

and Vehar lakes. It adapts itself readily to different conditions

and is a suitable fish for introduction into ponds and reservoirs. It

is frequently kept in tanks in Hindu temples.

Two other closely related species namely Barbus sarana and

Barbus pinnauratus occur in our area. Day doubted whether B.

pinnauratus was a true species and suggests that it may be a race

of the Olive Carp, while B. sarana is possibly a second variety of

the same species. The distinctive characters are given as

follows : —

D. 3-4 1) Op ml oso oe ISOnanie

5) 2/5. Li. 1. 29-80. B. pinnauratus

‘Uupy pug ‘spuoy J _Dipuy ul poy,, U} suIMpAp ay] 42 fV7

(‘surg “33 Z 0} dn yIBus7)

TRA FW AND ‘emodosAiyo snqieg

duv JAIIO FHL

~ aALVIg ‘90S ‘ISIPT ‘LVN AvaWwog ‘Nuao[

‘fivq | ‘pipuy fo saysty,, uz Surmpip ay} sapfy

(iy © le. Upelte)

(ueueyong) eonuwind snqieg

duvD SNNWNVHONg

CG HIVIg ‘00S “LSIF] “LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 49

BucHANAN’S CARP.

Barbus curmuca (Buchanan}.

15}, iis IDs LAGI) Jes IG. Mas els te) 1) Ox Miss Ilys

Jin ies (Shy 1

Distinctive characters: D. 3/9., A. 3/5., L. 1.41. 8% scales

between the lateral line and the ventral.

Belongs to the 4 barbelled group—the last undivided ray of the

dorsal fin is articulated and weak. ‘The snout is conical, the head

compressed with a depression between the eyes. The line of the

back is more convex than the abdomen; the caudal fin is deeply

forked, its lobe pointed.

Colour: Silvery. lightest on the sides and beneath, tips of

ecaudals blackish. In the young the middle of the third of the

caudal is orange-tipped with black.

Day gives the habitat of this fish as the Western Ghats of India

and says that it reaches 4 feet in length.

The Malabar Carp (Barbus malabaricus, Jerdon), which Day

limits to South Kanara and Malabar, has been obtained in the

Krishna at Satara. It may occur in the streams further north.

It belongs to the same group of Barbus as B. curmuca, having

4 barbels and the last undivided dorsal ray articulated and weak.

The distinctive characters are indicated as follows:—

D. 3-4/9. A. 3/0. L. |. 24 1% seales between the lateral line

and the ventral. i

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Tne Kupari (Barbus parrah, Day).

THe Kooris (Barbus kolus, Sykes).

ons. orm. Ie.emi, ID, WU @iSk leo ta, WoO; ks S

(Si@)e (Cx Wee ib, il, Awe Ii, ne, OD.

leno Isolde Je), mi, ID, WAS) (a). 125 Ib, WwW. YA, 8 (o/5).

C. 19. L. |. 40-48. L. tr. 10/8.

Both these fish belong to the 2 barbelled group. They are

common fish round Poona and in the Deccan generally. B. parrah

reaches 6 in. in length and B. kolus grows to slightly over a foot.

Distinctive characters :

Last undivided dorsal ray strong, bony not serrated.

ID, Bie 2 B/D. Jb, I, Ao=AS.

34 scales between the lateral line and the ventral.

A. dark blotch on the lateral line from the 20th

to 22nd scale au ... .Barbus parrah.

Last undivided dorsal ray soft and flexible.

Dy 3-4/9.) Ae 3) one Mile 40-43)

4-5 scales between the lateral lne and the

ventral ay ae bos IOOOMS [OVS

Colours: In Barbus parrah the back is greenish and divided

from the silvery abdomen by a dark bluish line. Cheeks golden

red: Pectoral, ventral and anal tinged with yellow; dorsal and caudal

dusky. There is a diffused black spot on the lateral line extending

from the 20th. to the 22nd. scale. Hyes golden.

The colouring of B. kolus is silvery with a yellow tinge. The

dorsal, caudal, and anal fins are tipped with grey.

“ADG Dipul fo Soys} i] ,,

(‘sur 9 03 dn yi3u07)

(Aeq) yeasied snqieg

Nvany gL

9 ALVId ‘00S ISI] “IVN AvaWog “NunNof

‘Upy puzZ ‘“svwoyy _“DIpuy ul poy ,, ay} wosf poonposdoy

(‘sur 9 02 dn y33ue7)

(JRA WZ ‘AnD) snsojuowelly snqieg

LOdS—MOVIgG FHL

fi, GiaN/igs ‘90S “LSIH “IVN AVvawog ‘Nunof

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 51

THE Buack Sport.

Barbus filamentosus, (Cuv. & Val.).

1B, mi, ID, Wil @/9). Bs IS. W. 9. Ae Te (Gl Oja 2G e Use Jbeke Palle

L.tr. 4/4.

The Black Spot is grouped among those fishes of the genus

Barbus which have no barbels. They form a group of small fishes

common all over India in ponds.

Distinctive characters: D. 3/8. Lil. 21. No barbels, last un-

aivided dorsal ray soft and flexible. Branched dorsal rays extend-

ed as long filaments, hence the Latin name. A black mark near

the posterior end of the lateral line on the 14th and 15th scales.

Dark marks on each lobe of the tail fin which is red with black

tip. Dorsal and ventral fins almost black. The general colour is

silvery, each scale with a metallic green edging. Immediately after

death the whole body becomes scarlet.

Thomas states that Black-spot breed well in ponds and tanks,

grow to 6 inches in length and are deep and thick for their size.

They take a small fly with a gentle suck hke a dace. They congre-

gate in. shoals and require careful fishing. They may also be taken

on worms, paste, gram or a miniature spoon. Black-spot are said

to run about 6 to the pound, though individuals sealing quite 3 lb.

may be taken. It is essentially a fish of tanks and still water.

Breeds in December and the young are common in January. It is

much valued as food.

Two other fish belonging to the same group of the genus are

found in our area. Barbus ambassis (Day), called bhondgi in the

Poona District and Barbus ticto (Ham. Buch.). In both species

the last undivided dorsal ray is bony and serrated. Barbus

ambassis has 86 scales along the lateral line. B. ticto has 238.

The former grows to 6 ins. and the latter is rarely over 3 ins.

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XxXvVI

Toe Rouu or Ron.

Labeo rohita.

Vernacular name: Tambada Massa.

15) ste ID) GS IGe (Gy JOSS). IP Ie Wo Os a Ta (A/D). O51.

L. 1. 40-42. L. tr. 64-9.

Like the Barbels, the Labeos are members of the Carp

Family. They can be recognized from the fishes of the genus

Barbus by their more elongate bodies. The structure and position.

of the mouth is also distinctive. It opens downwards not forwards

and is situated under the projecting snout. The lips are thick and

fleshy, one or both lips having an inner transverse fold which is

covered: with a horny substance. Hight species occur in our area.

The best known is perhaps the Rohu (L. rohita)—though the name

Rohu is indiscriminately applied to other members of the genus.

Distinctwe characters: - D. loAG. i. 2 40-42. Wh. tr. 65/9.

4 barbels. Lips fringed.

Colour: Bluish or brownish along the back becoming silvery

along the sides and beneath. Sometimes there is a red mark on

each scale. The fins are reddish, in some specimens black.

The Rohu grows to 3 feet or more in length. It is deep in

body and narrows suddenly towards the tail. It is much esteemed

as food and adapts itself readily to the stili waters of a lake or

tank.

“And ,“pipuy fo soysiy,, ul Suimpsp ay} aif

(‘a10ul 10 yo¢ or da yisue7)

(“yong “weyy ) EqIYyOoI ooqe]

MAO each

8 FTLVIg "00S “‘ISIH “LVN AVaNWog ‘Nunof

‘Uupy puz ‘spuloy] |“DIpuy u} poy ,, ay} wou paonposday

(33 ¢ 03 dn yi3ue7)

(yong "Wepy) nseqjeo ooqe]

IHSONVY aHL

6 AlvVIg ‘J0S ‘LSIE] “LVN AvanWog ‘Nynof

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 58

Tou KaAnosni.

Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.).

Vernacular names : Kanoshi, Marathi; Dai, Cutch.

Be site De MGS (3 hho) eee None A ia (2 oO) C719:

L. 1. 40-44. L. tr. 74/8.

Distinctive characters: D. 16-18. L. 1. 40-44. L. tr. 73/8.

4 barbels. Slate colour.

Differs from the Rohu in having a larger number of rays in the

dorsal fin. There are 8 spines and from 18-15 rays. In some

districts the adults have very elongated fins; the first few dorsal

rays reaching even to the base of the tail fins, the ventral touching

the base of the anal while the anal fin when laid flat, reaches the

middle of the caudal.

Colour: Blackish; comenmice: many of the scales, especially of

those living in clear streams have a red centre. Fins black,

occasionally the end of the upper lobe of the caudal is white.

L. calbasu grows to 4 feet in length.

Six other species of Labeo occur in our area. They may be

recognised as follows :—

We 10-22 da Ae de in 9 10/89. me .

4 barbels a (or aes ave fimbriatus.

(famke “or am-

bra)

DS Oee ele 3or Wise tr) Sa 4 bar: .

bels y L. porcellus.

Weis 1 30-40) 1 te 8/7. 2 maxil-

lary barbels ie nota

1D) ied SIAL eS Bb sr 300 We ter 2

small maxillary barbels. Silvery ... LL. boga (Sande).

Dae eos Mins tr. So) ome pair of

maxillary barbels; a deep groove across lL. nukta (Nakta and

snout Nakta Shendwa).

D. 11. L. 1. 88. L. tr. 6/6. 2 barbels. L. kawrus.

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

DANDVAN.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham. Buch.).

Vernacular name: Dandvan (Marathi).

1b, my ID) (Ayn). PR. 1S, WO, A (@/b). Cs 1s Is. 1. Sil

34, lh or 4d Vent ey alae

A small fish rarely exceeding 8 inches in length. The belly is

rounded. False gills or pseudo-branchie are present. They appear

as thin, superposed plates on the inside of the gill-cover opposite

the true gills and can be seen by turning back the gill-cover. The

cleft of the mouth is oblique, the lower jaw protrudes slightly, it

bears one central and two lateral prominences which fit into cor-

responding indentations in the upper jaw. The dorsal fin has no

bony rays and a few branched ones. It arises behind the origin

of the ventral but does not extend above the anal.

Two species occur in our area.

Distinctive characters: No barbels.

D. 2/7. A. 2-3/5. L. 1. 31-84. generally

a black lateral stripe ae er ly daniconius:

Do 2/75 7A. 20-6) ea 26-290) caudalenn

edged with black es R. rasbora

(buchanan).

Colouration: R. daniconius—A black band more or less dis-

tinct passes from the eye to the base of the caudal fin. Some-

times the band is obliterated in the forepart of the body and is

seen only as a spot at the side of the base of the tail.

R. rasbora—Silvery with a faint streak along the sides.

R. daniconius is a very common fish, more common than fh.

rasbora. It rises readily to fly. Two midge flies on a very fine

gut is just the right outfit. They may be also taken on a single

grain of gram fished lke a fly. They are readily adaptable to

tanks and reservoirs and are the natural food of the larger preda-

tory fishes. They invade the shallowest water in search of food

and are useful in keeping down mosquito larve,

‘Ang ,pipuy fo soysiy ,, ui suimpsp ay} saify

(‘sur g 02 dn yj8u07)

(yong ‘wefpy) sniuooruep elogsey

Olmcavale| ‘20S ‘LSI “LVN AVaWog *Nunof

PLATE 11]

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE WHITE CARP.

Cirrhina cirrhosa (Bloch)

(Length up to 25 ft.)

After the drawing in “ Fishes of India,” Day.

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 55

Tue WuHitH Carpe.

Cirrhina cirrhosa (Bloch).

epee Deli Oe (o-4 4) alah Neo. ale 8 (3/a)2 (©. 19.

lbp 4244 tr 8/9. Vert. 21/07.

The genus Cirrhina includes some fine fish, elegant in form and

brilliantly coloured in gold, bronze or silver. The body is elongate,

the snout depressed and bluntly rounded. The mouth is broad,

the lips thin and clean. There is a small knob in the centre of

the lower jaw at the point where the two jaw bones meet. 4

species occur in our area. The present species is recognised as

follows : —

Distinctive characters :

D. 17-19. L. |. 42-44. 4 barbels; upper lips without fringes.

The dorsal fin has 3-4 spines and 14 or 15 rays none of which

are bony. It is as high as the depth of the body and arises con-

siderably in advance of the ventrals. Its upper margin is concave.

The ventral fin has 9 rays, the anal 3 spines and 5 rays and the

caudal 19 rays. It is deeply forked. There are 42-44 scales along

the lateral line and 8 rows above and 9 rows below it.

Colour: Silvery. Every scale with a red centre except along

the belly where the scales are dull or yellowish white. Dorsal and

caudal stained with grey, also the outer end of the pectoral. |

Day gives the length as 14 feet. Thomas states that it may

erow to 24 feet. A bottom-feeding fish to be caught on paste.

Very active and good for the table.

56. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

HAMILTON’s CARP.

Cirrhina mrigala (Ham. Buch.).

Bin. D, 1o-16 (6/0213) 2 elon Nea IR Ne S38) oh Clo

L. 1. 40-45. L. tr. 64-7/84.

Distinctive characters: D. 15-16. lL. 1. 40-45. Two barbels.

Upper lip entire.

Differs from the White Carp in having 2 instead of 4 barbels.

The length of the head is contained 5-54 times and the height of

the body 4-54 times in the total length. The eyes are situated in

the anterior half of the head. The diameter of the eye is con-

tained 34-4 times in the length of the head.

Colour: Silvery; dark grey along the back, sometimes with a

coppery tinge. Pectoral, ventral and anal orange stained with

black.

This is an excellent species for stocking tanks. It grows to

8 feet in length. Day mentions an 18-pounder taken from a tank

in Rangoon. It takes any bait but is believed to prefer worms.

Two other species are found in the Deccan streams. The dis-

tinctive characters are as follows :—

D. 10-11. L. 1. 35-88. One pair of short barbels

in front of the snout. These are sometimes absent.

Upper lip with or without a slight fringe... ce aC anebar

D, 10, L. |, 48. 2 very short barbels ... OC. fulungee.

‘fipg ,,‘Dipuy fo saysi] ,, ul Sumpsp ay} 42ifV

(Cake (ee dn yisua7)

(yong “wrefy) eyesiur eULytiir)

‘dudvyd S\NNOLTINVYH

See ‘00S ‘LSIT]T “LYN AVAWog ‘Nuno[

fog ,,‘Dipuy fo soysiy ,, uz Surmmip 247 407fy

. (ap f 02 dn yisua7)

CRA “AN’) ) fueueyonqg ee")

‘VILVD FHL

¢[ ALVIg "00S “ISI]] “LVN AVaWog *Nunof[

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING. DISTRICTS 572

THe CATLA

Catla buchanan (Cuv. & Val.).

Bee De Wiene (3-44 o). Bo Zi OVE Oo A 8) (375). ©. 19.

L. 1. 40-43. L. tr. 74/9. Vert. 17/18.

Distinctive characters: The Catla is distinguished from other

genera of Carps by its broad head and its wide mouth with pro-

minent lower jaw. - The upper jaw has no lip; the lower is

moderately thick having a continuous free posterior margin. There

is a moveable articulation at the juncture of the jaw bones. The

gill-rakers, horny processes. on the inside of the bony supports to

the gills, are long, fine and closely set.

Length of head 44 to 43; height of body 8 to 84 in the total

length. Diameter of eyes 6-7 in the total length of the head,

2 diameters from the end of the snout, and 38 apart.

Scales. 40-48 along the lateral line. 54-63 rows between it

and the ventral fin.

Colour. Greyish above, becoming silvery on the sides and

beneath. Fins dark coloured, in some specimens nearly black.

The Catla attains a length of 4 feet and scales up to 80 lbs.

in weight. It is a bulky fish.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Cat-FIsHES: SILURIDZA.

THr WALLAGO

Wallago attu (Day).

Vernacular names : Shirada, Shura, Padi.

By mixx Dro Pb lsato- \ > Sal) pa, S6-Jor (482259)

C. 1%. Vert. 13-56.

The Wallago, frequently described as the Fres{ Water Shark,

is essentially a tank fish. A straight-backed fish, long-bodied and

narrow; long in the snout with a slightly projecting lower jaw. The

cleft of the mouth is deep, extending below or even behind the

eyes. 4 barbels; 2 long ones on the upper and 2 small ones on

the lower jaw. A short spineless dorsal fin arising exactly above,

or slightly in advance, of the ventral. ‘The anal is long and ends

near the caudal; the ventrals with 8-1. rays.

Distinctive Characters : Adipose fin; one very short spineless

dorsal situated above or very slightly before the ventral, 4 barbels,

one maxillary and one mandibular pair. Nostrils remote from

each other. Eye above the level of the angle of the mouth; not

covered with skin. Head and body covered with soft skin, anal

fin long, terminating near the caudal. Caudal fin consisting of

twa rounded lobes.

Thrives well in tanks, is good eating but is voracious and

destroys a large number of fish; grows up to 6 feet in length. Bait

with small fish or a small 14 inch spoon; will also take dead bait.

| bere “fAipg:,, ‘vipuy fo says. ,,

(zy 9 03 dn yiZue7)

(uysg ‘[g) nue OSe][e AA

OMUVHS UILVM Hsayy,, YO OOVTIVMA JHL

Pl ALVIg ‘90S “ISI]] ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

‘fipqg , ‘pipuy fo saysh] ,,

(49 02 dn yisueT )

(yong “we}yy) Wypessed snieseg

HONOOD gH

err if YEA

Gl ALviIg "90S “LSIF] “LYN AVaWog ‘Nwnof[

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 59

THE GooncH

Bagarius yarrellu (Ham. Buch.).

Vernacular names: Mutauda, Tharota.

Bede DOO ne Vs OA tel (8 /10eN2). C.

Like Wallago attu, a bulky fish growing up to 6 feet in length

but it is essentially a river fish. The head is flat, the mouth set

forward, the upper jaw projecting over the lower. 8 barbels, a

nasal pair, a pair on the upper jaws, 2 pairs on the lower jaws

which are armed with pointed unequal teeth. The first dorsal fin

arises in advance of the ventrals. It has one spine and 6 rays,

the ventral with 6 rays, the anal is of moderate length, the caudal

deeply forked, its upper lobe prolonged.

Distinctive Characters: Second soft dorsal fin present. First

dorsal with one spine and 6 rays, anal fin short; 8 barbels. The

anterior and posterior nostrils remote from each other, the posterior

provided with a barbel. Teeth on the palate in a continuous band.

Eyes with free orbital margins. Caudal deeply forked. Ventrals

Six, rayed.

Colour: Body grey or yellowish with large irregular brown or

black markings and cross bands. A black base to all the fins and

generally a dark band across each.

_ Takes live bait well but is difficult to kill, sluggish, goes to the

bottom and generally escapes.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Murra

OPHIOCEPHALIDA.

Ophiocephalus.

The Ophiocephalide or Snake-heads, so called because of the

plate-like scales covering the cranium, are commonly known as

Murral. They are equally common in rivers and tanks. Rather pike-

like in appearance these fish have bony bodies, flattened heads and

large mouths, the jaws and palate well armed with teeth. The

dorsal and anal fins are long and spineless. The species which

live in tanks keep much to the shallow and grassy edges.

Seven species are recorded from our area. Their distinctive

characters are as follows:

O. marulius (Glam Buchs). 45-55, Ae 28-36.5 ala o OOF

L. tr. 44-63/13-11 or 5$-84/18-11. Scales on head moderate. 15-

16 rows between dorsal fin and snout. Ventral more than half

length of pectoral. Height of body 1/7 of total length. A black,

white-edged eye spot on the caudal fin.

O. leucopunctatus (Sykes). Maral (Marathi). D. 47-53. A.

28-35. L. 1. 59-60. L. tr. 44-64/13-11 or 5-8/18-11. Scales as

in O. marulius. Ventral 2? as long as the pectoral. No ocelus on

the caudal fin. |

O. pseudomaruliuss. Gumthin | De 252 yeaa NO reNe Bao o)

C. 15. L. 1. 64. L. tr. 6-7/14-10. 10 rows of scales between

base of snout and dorsal fin. Height of body 42 the length

measured from the snout to the base of the caudal fin. Ventral

fin ? of the pectoral.

O. micropeltis, Cuv. & Val. D. 48-46. A. 27-30. L. 1. 95-

110. Li. tr. 7-8/13-12.. Vert. 53.. Seales on head small; 22

between dorsal fin and snout; 16 or 17 between orbit and angle

or preopercle.

O. striatus, Bloch. Dakhu (Marathi). D. 37-45. A. 23-26.

L. 1. 50-57. L. tr. 4$-7/9-7 or 5$-8/10-9. Scales on head large.

18-20 rows between snout and origin of dorsal fin; 9 between orbit

and angle of opercle.

On iwolm, slay, Jen, 1b), ere, IP. Ih, «a, Zs, ©, 1k

L. 1. 40-45. L. tr. 8-4/7-6. Scales on head large; 4 or 5 be-

tween orbit and angle or opercle; 12 or 18 between origin of dorsal

fin and snout. Ventral 2 length of pectoral.

O. “punctatus, Bloch. er 292525 ke Wii ae Ae 2a Creel 2p

L. 1. 87-40. L. tr. 4-5/9/9/6. Head scales as in O. gachua. Ven-

tral 2 length of pectoral,

‘Apqd .“pipuy fo sayst.,,

(a10ul 10 “34 ¢ yisueT )

(Yypo|g) snjeii4s snjeydas01yd¢d)

‘TyuUuNA, GIGNVg JHL

gl B1ivIg ‘90G “ISIE] “IVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

‘Uupy puz ‘spwoyy _ ‘vipuy u? poy ,, a4} Worf paonpoiday

(‘sur 6 03 dn yi3u07)

(Aeq) eaquasie ejay) :

VYVMAIHD FHL

LU divid ‘90S “LSI “LVN AvaWog “Nxno[

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 61

FisHes SUITABLE FOR INTRODUCTION IN LOocAL WATERS.

THE CHILWA.

Chela argentea, Day.

The Chilwas are bright silvery fishes with elongate compressed

bodies. ‘The abdominal surface narrows to a fine edge. The

mouth is turned upwards and the lower jaw prominent. There is a

small nob at the juncture of the jaw bones. The dorsal fin is

short, has no bony rays and is set far back almost opposite the anal.

Distinctive characters:

Deo 10) AC Aveo. We 45-455 i tr 62-16) 3.

The lower jaw does not project. The dorsal fin is situated over

the commencement of the anal. The pectoral fin reaches the

ventral. The lateral line descends gradually from the first 12

scales, finally attaining the centre of the caudal.

Colour: Silvery with a lateral band which fades after death.

Caudal and anal fins with dark edges.

Chela argentea is a fish of the rivers of eastern and south India.

It should be introduced to all waters as these fish form the natural

food of Mahseer, Murral, ete. They would have a beneficial effect

on fresh water tanks and reservoirs as they explore the shallowest

depths in search of insect food and are a check on mosquitoes.

Four species occur in the waters of our area. Their distinctive

characters are as follows: |

ID, Qe Je IRAs dln, Ie NHS. Jin, tae, IDA SILBYS

Length 5-6 ins. an eC eaniiilo.

D. 9-10. A. 14-15. L. 1. 88-40. L. tr. 6-64/3

Length 5 ins. Bs Cte OOOO ONS

ID. OY, we. Wako, Ik, Il, OCB, Ins ie ale

Length 6 ins. C. clupeoides.

Dy! Oa ee, ecto. Ls tr! 11oie

Length 7 ins. C. bacaila.

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

InpiAn Trout.

Barilius bola (Ham. Buch.).

Day lists 14 species of which 4 are recorded from our area. The

fish have the abdomen rounded. The mouth is wide, opening

forward with a moderate or deep cleft. Barbels 4 or 2 or none,

sometimes small and rudimentary, the dorsal fin is short.

Distinctive characters :

Without barbels.

DVO AR So 1 188-94 es ivonrowswor blotches:

The snout is pointed with a well-developed knob above the

juncture of the lower jaw bones. The snout is deeply cleft;

extends well behind the eye.

Colour: Silvery with two or more rows of spots along the side.

Some spots on the head. Lower half of the dorsal fin slightly

grey. Caudal orange stained with grey and black; pectoral, ventral

and anal orange. The colours being somewhat similar to those of

a trout. The colouring of the spots varies from blue to bluish

ereen or even black.

This is a very game fish, takes fly well and is good eating. Its

introduction into some of the perennial streams of the Deccan

would be a great acquisition.

No quotations for the supply of the young fish of this species

have yet been reported and the method of obtaining stocks might

necessitate a visit being undertaken to the rivers of Central India

to make arrangements for supphes. The rivers in which this fish

is common are those which flow through C. India and join the

River Jumna on the south bank—the rivers in question being

the Chambal River, the Sind River and the Betwa River and

their tributaries and the territory covered by these rivers in that

portion from Neemuch on the West to Jhansi on the East. This

fish thrives in elevated lands in rivers with rocky beds, and the

river at Neemuch is about 1,476 ft. altitude whilst the height of

Lonavla is about 2,000 feet and there appears to be a reasonable

hope of this fish thriving in the Lonavla Lakes if stocks could

be introduced to those waters. It is a fly-taking fish and ‘delicious’

on the table and would be a great sport-giving acquisition as it

comes into season at the beginning of December and continues

upto the commencement of the rains.

Hog 4. PIpuy fo YS]. U2 Surmoip 2y1 221fV/

(33 J 02 da yi3ue7 )

(yong “wefzy) ejoq snijieg

LNOYUL NVIGNI SHL

SI AZLlviIg ‘90S ‘LSI “LVN AvVaWwog “Nuno[

‘Avq ,“pipuy fo saysiy,, ur Suimpsp ay} sapfy

(‘surg 03 dn y28ue7)

CIPFA WW ‘AND) sisuazes snyjlieg

6. ALVId | 90S “ISIH] “LVN AvadWog ‘Nuno[

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 68

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val).

The present species differs from Barilius bola in having a larger

number of rays to the dorsal and anal fins and in being barred and

not spotted.

Distinctive Characters :

Dele ewe ia le SO-405 5 vertical bars.

There are 89-40 scales along the lateral line and 24 rows

between it and the base of the ventral fin. The anterior portion

of the snout and the sides of the jaw are covered with large

glands. There are also some on the lower jaw. ‘Two very minute

pairs of barbels are present sometimes.

Colour: Silvery-grey with about 15 vertical bars descending

from the back and becoming more or less broken up in the adult.

Dorsal, anal fins with dark bases and light margin: The female

and young generally have smooth scales whereas: most of the

adults have one or more rough spots on each. Grows to about

6 inches in length.

The lakes on the Pulney hills are stocked full of this fish and

they should do well in the Deccan lakes if introduced. Two

species of Barilius have been recorded from our area. Their

distinctive characters are as follows:—

AMboanrbelsa 7 Dy 79) ok. 9105, Wa 40-43.

Short vertical bars, each scale with a

black spot in the adult ee i bavendelisia:

Barbels absent or rudimentary. D. 9.

A. 14-15. L. 1. 40. Silvery ee) eacviecand

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The Director of Fisheries, Madras, recommends the following

species as suitable for introduction into Reservoirs (Lakes) :—

Barbus filamentosus (Black Spot).

,, chrysopoma (Olive Carp).

,, carnaticus (Carnatic Carp).

<5 chola—length 5 inches.

Cirrhina cirrhosa (White Carp).

Labeo fimbriatus.

mr calbasu (The Labeo).

Chela argentea (Chilwa).

The cost of supplies will be:—

Cost of 5,000 fingerlings of the different varieties

of fish at Rs. 4 per 100 . Rs. 200

Railway freight for 50 tin carriers each containing

100 fish ce oe OO

Railway fare for attendant to and from Bombay .. He) LLU)

Porterage, and charges for changing water en route 0)

Freight to Madras for empty tin carriers Le re

Rs. 600

Labeo calbasu can be suppled | the Madras Fisheries

Department.

The fry of Mahseer can be supplied in February.

Another fish, not mentioned before in this paper, because it is

indigenous to the sea, which is suitable for introduction to fresh-

water tanks is Megalops cyprinoides, known in Marathi as the

Warus. As regards this fish we cannot do better than refer

readers to a note by Wallenger which appeared with a plate in

vol. xv, p. 719 of the Society’s Journal. This fish takes fly

readily and apparently adapts easily to fresh-water tanks.

Local Sources for obtaining supplies of Young Fish.

The native fishermen on the Indrayani River at Talegaon near

Lonavla could be employed towards the end of the rains in netting

supplies of Jerdon’s Carp and other suitable fish, and the transport

of such supplies in large earthenware chatties carried by bullock

cart or by coolie to the lakes would not involve heavy expenditure

or much difficulty in arrangement.

GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS 65

. MosqQuITO-DESTROYING FISHES.

On parts of the margins of some of the Reservoirs and Lakes the

water 1s very shallow during the dry season of the year, and such

places with even only an inch or two of water can produce an

abundant supply of mosquitoes which might be dangerous as well

as an annoyance. Tor these very shallow margins,. where even

the Rasbora and Chilwa and other small fishes of their dimensions

are unlikely to penetrate very far, it is considered advisable to

suggest the introduction of some of the smallest Indian fishes of

about 14 inches in length, as these, owing to their very small size,

would be able to swim in the shallowest parts and would no doubt,

very materially help to keep the propagation of mosquito life down

to the minimum. The small fishes recommended are

Barbus phutunio (Ham. Buch.) length 14 inches.

Haplochilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val.) length 8 inches.

The publication ‘Indian Fish of Proved Utility as Mosquito-

Destroyers’, price 8 annas and obtainable from The Superintendent,

Indian Museum, Caleutta, should also be consulted in this con-

nection, as much useful information is given therein, and doubtless

further advice on the subject, if required, would be obtainable

from the same source.

PLANTS. SUITABLE FoR Improving Marains or Lakgs.

The banks and margins of Lakes could be improved in a

manner involving no very considerable outlay by the HaROC IMO

of suitable vegetation.

The Creeping Rush (Hygrorhiza aniehotal. Is a particularly useful

plant and has a natural habit of sending out long runners

upon the surface of the water from which spring a multitude

of rusk-like leaves forming an attraction and resort for ducks

and other waterfowl, whilst below the surface is a mass of

interlaced roots providing a safe retreat for young fish until

they reach fingerling size. This Creeping Rush thus helps

very materially to improve any sheet of fresh-water where

some protection to the young fish is needed. Supplies are

abundant at the Varol Tank—Bhiwindi—Kalyan and no doubt

in other places also. Short lengths of a foot or so pushed

into the mud at the side of a lake and on the water level is

all that is needed to start the growth of the Rush.

Water Lilies (Nelumbium speciosum and Nymphea lotus). The

planting of these might be done in small patches wherever

the depth of water is suitable and thus would be provided

shade from the sun’s rays for the larger species of fish.

‘Gardening in the Tropics’—Woodrow—trefers to n. lotus as

‘this grand water lily with flowers of rosy-red in W. India’.

The planting is an easy matter as seed could be inclosed in

balls of mud and wrapped up in pieces of canvas and then

could be thrown into the water in quantities of half-a-dozen

or so in selected spots wherever fairly deep water occurs a few

yards from the banks.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Pampas Grass (Gynerium argenteum). Grows to a height of 10

feet and is a beautiful ornament for the higher parts of the

banks of lakes. It isa perermial, and very eanily established

~ and would provide shelter for small game such as birds and

hares, etc. Intermixed with it nent be planted some of

the common Cactus which would greatly improve this sMALL

GAME RETREAT. Seed of the Pampas Grass is obtainable from

Messrs. Ryder & Son, St. Albans, England, or clumps of old

roots can be divided into small pieces and planted in holes

specially prepared. The Cactus can be cut into lengths of a

few inches and dibbled into small holes, and will be. quickly

established and in combination with the Pampas Grass will

make most useful and ornamental cover for the encourage-

ment of small game.

Sedges (Cyperus corymbosus). Sedges of the taller kinds, 5 to

6 feet in height, provide shelter for ducks and small birds

and are, as well, an ornamental addition to the margins of

lakes inclined to a damp and muddy condition. No diffi-

culty would be experienced in making plantings as pieces of

root can be dibbled in a foot or two apart and would be

quickly established. The plant is common wherever swampy

eround occurs. |

Wild Rice (Zizanta acquatica). ‘Would involve no very expensive

work in making plantings. The seed 1s procurable from

Messrs. Ryder & Son, St. Albans, England, -at 20. shillings

per pound. It is well known as a great attraction to Ducks

and other Waterfowl. It is a perennial, and grows to

a height of 5 feet. An easy method of making plantings 1s

to place each seed in a small ball of mud, the size of a marble,

and when dry and firm, scatter freely in places constantly wet

and muddy, if treated in this manner the work can be

managed expeditiously and economically.

THH VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE

HASTERN GHATS.

(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION}.

HuGH WHISTLER, M.B.O.U., ASSISTED By N. B. KINNEAR, M.B.O.U.

Jean JOE:

(Continued from page 760 of Volume XXXV).

Brachypteryx major major (Jerdon).

Phenicura major Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xi, 1844 (after April),

p. 170—Nilgiris. :

So fax the Rufous-bellied Shortwing has only been recorded in the Brahma-

gherries by William Davison and in the Nilghiris where it is a common

resident and breeds about 5,500-7,000 ft. in April and May. We have not been

able to trace any record for the ‘other hill ranges in §. India’ (Davison,

Soliton Sy [Oo BU )e :

No specimens appear to exist of the juvenile plumage which has_ been

described by Cardew (Asian, 2nd. Sept. 1892), nor is anything known of the

moults and plumage sequences. From the series of adults of both sexes all

in exactly similar plumage in the British Museum we may hazard a guess

that the juvenile moults immediately into full adult plumage.

Brachypteryx major albiventris (Blantord).

Callene albiventris Blanford ex Fairbank, P.Z.S., 1867 -(Nov.), p. 883,

pl. 89—Palni Hills.

The White-bellied Shortwing is confined to the Palni Hills (6,000-7,000 ft.),

and the ‘Travancore ranges above 3,000 ft., where they breed from April to

June and are of course resident. According to Howard Campbell the young

are spotted but no specimens apparently exist and as in the typical race there

is only negative evidence to suggest that the juvenile’ bird moults direct into

adult dress. -

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea (Hodgson).

Larvivora brunnea Hodgson, J.A.S.B., vi (March 1887), p. 102—Nepal.

Specimens collected.—1616 [9] 28-38-80, 1685 ¢ 15-4-30 Sankrametta; 1686

CrlG-4= 30. O93 lid -eOh 1697 Oe 28-42-3007 1703-45 SS Sa 19-4230, 1744

3 29-4-30. Jeypore Agency 3,000-3,500 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. ; Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

6d 14-16 (AS Osun . 46-53 26-28 mm.

29 14-16 73-76 44-51 24.5-25 mm.

As the Blue-Chat is a very marked migrant between the Himalayas and

Ceylon its status in the Madras Presidency will be best explained by a general

statement.

The most westerly locality in which the typical race is known to breed is

the Sufed Koh (Whitehead, Ibis 1909, p. 110). In Kahsmir and the Western

Himalayas, as far as Garhwal at any rate, it is a very common summer

visitor breeding in a zone between 5,500 ft. to 10,000 ft. Here it arrives early

in May and fresh eggs are common about the middle of June. The earliest

date for a clutch known to me is 29 May (Buchanan). It starts to move

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

again early in August and the last birds disappear by the middle of October.

No birds apparently winter in the foothills on this side.

Kastwards in Nepal and Sikkim the Blue-Chat is less common, and here,

though it is in the main apparently a summer visitor, a few birds winter at

moderate elevations. Hast of Sikkim reliable evidence is ee but this

form probably also breeds in N.-Western Yunnan.

On passage the Blue-Chat has only been twice recorded in the Indo-

Gangetic plain at Etawah on 4 October 1869 and at Muddapur on 9 October

1879 (Brooks): Blyth however procured a male at Calcutta and Ball shot one

in Maunbhum in April 1869. Further south it evidently follows the line of

the iorest clad ghats on both sides of the Peninsula. In the Western Ghats

there are several records for both spring and autumn migration. Along the

Eastern Ghats it has as yet only been recorded in spring. On this side there

are the following records for the Presidency. tisk :

The Survey only met with it in the Vizagapatam Hills. None were seen

in February but in March they. were quite common at Sankrametta, their

numbers increasing towards mid-April. he last specimen was procured on

2) April. These migrants were very fat. They kept to the denser forests

and might be met With anywhere in thé cool shady parts (La Personne).

Jerdon (B. of I, u1, p. 145), kiiled one in some brushwood in a large mango-

grove at Nellore at the end of March and there is a specimen in the British

Museum collected by Walham Davison at Madras in April 1876.

The Blue-Chat is well-known as a winter visitor to the Nilgiris, Travancore

and Ceylon in which areas it has been observed from about October until May.

The lateness of its stay in this area, was, responsible for many years for a

belief that it must breed in the Nilgiris, more especially as before leaving the

males assumed the black bill of the breeding plumage. The lateness of its

Spring migration is of course correlated with the late breeding season in the

Himalayas.

The Blue-Chat has not yet Been recorded from the Palni Hills. In the

Nelhampathis, Isinloch considered 1t somewhat rare, and in Coorg, Betts only

saw it once on 22 November 1927.

Larvivora wickhami Stuart-Baker, Nov.-Zool. ‘xxir (25 Sep. 1916) p. 298—

Chin Hills, can only be regarded as a race of this species. This form was

described from a single unsexed specimen which was shot off eggs. The type

has the entire upper parts a dull slaty blue, becoming duller and preyer on

the edges of the primaries. There is a warm rufous supra-loral streak, and

the lower parts from the chin to the breast and flanks are also warm rufous.

It therefore approximates to the “‘washed out’? males which are sometimes

found in the typical race, though it may ,of course be an old female. Normally

the. males only differ from the typical race in thew slightly smaller size

(6 ¢ bill 15-16: wing 71-74: tail 42.5-48 mm.), but the female has the

upper parts washed with blue, thereby partly bridging the difference between

brunnea and cyane in which latter species there is much blue on the upper

parts of the female.

Now that the discovery of the squamated plumage of the members of the

family Brachypterygine has led to their transference from the Timaliude@ to

the Turdida we are unable to see any reason for the maintenance of this sub-

family or indeed any way in which it can be defined: In any case the Blue

Chat appears to belong to the Phanicurine and should in our opinion be

regarded as a connecting link between the genera Tarsiger and Janthia. The

use of the genus Larvivora is merely a relic of the days before the juvenile

plumage was known and the bird was relegated to the 7 maliide as the con-

venient teceptacle for taxonomic mysteries.

Hodgsonius phoenicuroides (Gray).

Bradypterus phenicuroides Gray, Cat. Birds, Nepal; (1846), p. 70, App.

p. 155—Nepal. )

[In the appendix to the Ist edition of the Fauna of British India (Vol. av,

p. 481), mention is made of the supposed occurrence of Hodgson’s shortwing

in the Palnis in winter. We have consulted the original reference (Asian

21 July, 1898), and consider that the record is not: sufficiently reliable to be,

accepted as proof of the apparently still, unknown winter -quarters of this

bird. | i area ee a ae ee he ae :

THEH.VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE-EASTERN ‘GHATS ‘69

Saxicola caprata burmanica Stuart-Baker. 19

Saxicola caprata burmanca' Stuart-Baker, Bull, B.0.C., xh 925), (D>. 19)

—Pegu.

Specimens collected: —8 ¢ 9-4-29, 164 G 30-4-29 Kurumbapatti; ‘796 ¢

10-9-29, 816 ¢ 13-9-29 Kodur; 11380--¢ 17-12-29 ‘Cumbum Valley; 1621 ¢

28-35-30 Sankrametta 38,000 ft.; 1694 ¢ 17-4-30 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurementgs—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Varsus.

C8 13.5-14.5 71.5-73.5 48-53.5 20-22.5 mm.

“We have not really much information about the distribution of this race

in the Presidency. In the Ghats of the Vizagapatam District La Personne says

that it breeds throughout the hills and is common in the more open spaces,

Southwards he procured it in the Cumbum Valley and at Kodur. It is given with-

out comment in Dewar’s Madras lst. In the Shevaroys La Personne found it

in small numbers between 3,000-4,000 ft. In the eleTE plains it was not

common but occurred.

On the western side Wilham Davison met with it two or three times in

the Wynaad in cultivated plains country, in particular, noting the difference

from the Nilgiri bird (8.F., x, 889). Coorg; Betts’ statement that atrata was

not very common but sometimes to be seen in pairs in open cultivated fields

and dry paddy land (Journal B.N.H.S. xxxin, 544), more’than probably refers

to the smaller bird which also occurs in Mysore. Specimens in the British

Museum from Cannanore and Malabar belong to it definitely. —

The breeding season in the presidency is not pecondee but apnea ond La

Personne’s notes to be about April.

As in the case of so many other common and widely spread species the

Pied Bush-Chat has given us considerable difficulty as its differences are mainly

those of size and there is considerable intergrading. We have had to modify

the opinion expressed in the Kurumbapatti report that our specimens belong

WO WS. Co CURT:

In the New Fauna, four races are recognised, viz., S. c. caprata (Luzon,

Timor, Lombock, ete.), S. c. burmanica (Assam, Burma, Yunnan), S. c. atrata

(S.-W. India and Ceylon) and 8. c. bicolor (Northern India generally). Of

these only the last S. c. bicolor shows colour differences, consisting in a greater

extent of white on the abdomen in the male, and perhaps a generally paler

colouration of the female and young. The other three races all have the white

on the lower plumage of the male reduced to a very small patch on the lower

tail-coverts and vent, and differ merely ater se in measurements.

The Survey series however made a revision of the races imperative; for

whilst our birds agree with the northern race bicolor’ in size, they have the

colouration of the large-billed southern race and thereby agree with the des-

eription of burmanica, which is admittedly not very distinct from the typical

form.

In the New Fauna (vol. 11, p. 25) Stuart Baker asserts that burmanica is

distinctly larger than S. c¢. caprata. With this we’ cannot agree. The

measurements of a series from Luzon, Lombock, Timor and Cebu on the one

hand and Burma on the other hand are as follows :— .

| Bill. Wing. aivanite

ll (So Cs COfIrTLe 14-15 64.5-75 A7-54.5 mm.

10D Sh Gs, burmanica 13.5-14.5 66-73 — , 48.5-53 mm.

The only .valid difference in size therefore les in the bill, which is more

marked than these measurements show baldly stated. All but two of the

caprata have the bill 15-15.5 mm. Our Survey series agree absolutely with

the Burmese series in measurements and in the extent of white on the vent.

At the same time we are by no means certain that, if burmanica and

caprata are to be kept separate, it is correct to keep both the Ceylon birds

™ We have not been able to see specimens from Chota Nagpur to verify

our suspicion that this name is antedated by Motacilla sylvatica Tickell,

J.A.S.B. vol. 1, p. 575—Borabhum.

*14 ¢S S.c. bicolor from the Punjab measure: Bill 13.5-15; Wing 70-75;

Tail 49-53.5 mm,

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

and the birds from the hill ranges of §8.-W. India under one name atrata. A

series from the Nilgiris, Painis and Travancore ranges measure :— re

Bull, Wing. Wail.

GE 14.5-18 esis) 52.5-59.5 mm.

Of these ali but two (14.5 and 15) have the bill 16 mm. and over.

A small series from Ceylon measure :— —

Bill. Wing. = ale

6.6 17-20 77-81 54.5-58 mm.

And this difference would probably be accentuated if the series available

was as large as that from S.-W. India.

The local migrations of this species require study. To large areas of the

north-west it is almost entirely a summer visitor, and conversely a winter

visitor to much of the country on its southern and south-eastern boundaries.

When these movements are understood the boundary between bicolor and burma-

nica will probably become much more intelligible. The brown fringes often

found in the plumage of the male are of no racial significance. They are a

characteristic of first winter birds, which may also be recognised by the browner

wing quills and primary coverts with fulvous edges, which remain unmoulted

from the juvenile plumage.

Saxicola caprata atrata Blyth.

Pratincola atrata Blyth, J.A.8.B., xx, 1851 (after March), p. 177—Ceylon.

Not obtained by the Survey. This large billed strictly resident Bush-chat

is one of the most abundant and familiar species in the Nilgiris, the Palnis

and the Travancore Hills as far south as Peermade. In this area the breed-

ing season commences as early as February and continues to the end of May

but most nests contain fresh eggs about the end of March and the beginning

oi April. The post-nuptial moult is correspondingly early in May and June.

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth).

Pratincola indica Blyth, J.A.8.B., xvi (1847), p. 129—India, Calcutta.

There appears to be no definite record that the Indian Stone-chat occurs

within the Presidency lhmits. Stuart Baker (New Fauna, 11, p. 29) says that

it occurs ‘throughout Northern India to the hills in the North of Mysore and

Travancore’ but we can trace no record on which this statement is based and

its meaning is certainly not very clear. Inglis and Baker (Birds of South

India, p. 35) include the Stone-chat on the strength of this statement but

specifically state that they can find no record of it in the Presidency. In the

Old Fauna (vol. ii, p. 62) Oates says that he had seen no specimen from

South of Belgaum though Hume said (S. F., x, 389) that it was reported

common in §.-W. Mysore in the cold weather. |

Phoenicurus ochrurus rufiventris (Vieillot).

CGinanthe rufiventris Vieill, Nouv. Dict. D’Hist., Nat., Nouv. ed. xxi (1818),

p. 481—Bengal. ;

Specimens collected :—906 ¢ 12-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1077 ¢

16-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

23 15 89-89.5 69-65 22.5-24.5 mm.

The Black Redstart appears to be an uncommon winter visitor in the

Madras Presidency. There are only four records of it which I can _ trace

viz:—the above two specimens collected by the Survey, Dewar’s statement

that there are a good many in winter at Madras, and a male (now in the

British Museum) collected by William Davison at Segore on 22 February 1881.

Of this he writes (S. F., x, 389):—‘Only a winter visitor to the south and even

then not numerous. I have never known it ascend the hills (Nilgiris). I have

seen it most often about the stony ground at the base of the hills and procured

specimens near Segore.’ The three males examined all belong to this race.

THH VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS {71

As in so many other cases it is rather difficult to disentangle the correct

winter distribution of rufiventris and phenicuroides in the Indian Empire as

these two races are very close to each other and there is complete intergrading

between them. I have however arrived at somewhat different conclusions to.

those given in the New Fauna. |

True phenicuroides, i my opinion, is confined in India as a winter visitor

to the north-west, that is to say, to N.-W. F. Province, Baluchistan, the Punjab,

Sindh, Rajputana, and the Western United Provinces. This form is remark-

able for the heavy ash-grey and ash-brown fringes on the upper parts which

largely obscure the black, and on the crown indeed virtually replace it. It

is smaller than the next. Ticehurst gives the wing in J of Sindh examples

as 80-84 mm., 17 ¢ from the Punjab have wings 81-86.5, with the majority

under 85..

P. o. rufiventris, on the other hand, has the fringes greatly medueed in

extent so that it appears far blacker on the upper parts and particularly on

the head. It is also larger; $ wing 86-93 mm. The female is usually darker

in -colour-and has the abdomen often tinged with chestnut. While birds

which winter in the United Provinces: are intermediate in character (though

even at Muddapur they are closer to rufiventris as clearly shown by Brook’s

large series in -the British Museum), ‘I’ must attribute to this form all the

specimens I have examined in the Peninsula from Jhansi, Saugor, Mhow and

Khandesh and south and east of those locahties, up to Assam, Manipur and

Upper Burma (where however it is not common). Along the’ base of the

Himalayas stragglers occur further west than this distribution e.g. ¢$ 1-10-1866

Naini Tal (Brooks), ¢ 1869 Saharunpur (Hume Coll.), @ March 1876 Delhi

(Hume Coll.) and according +0) Meinertzhagen 2@ 3 October Rawalpindi (Ibis

WO [De DSeo),.

Cyanosylvia suecica (Linneus).

Motacilla suecica Linn., Syst. Nat. x ed., vol. i (1878), p. 187—Sweden.

Specimens collected:—1101 ¢ 18:12-29, Cumbum Valley; 1295 @ 23-1-30,

Godaveri Delta. :

Measurements—-

Bill. Wing. . Tail. Tarsus.

& 14.5. oe 58 27 mm.

Q 15.5 73.5 - 52 27 mm.

The Bluethroat is known to reach Ceylon sometimes in winter and it. is

moderately common in India. certainly, as far south as Hyderabad and Mysore.

One would therefore expect it to occur in the Presidency but the only record

which we have been able to trace—in addition to the two specimens obtained

by the Survey—is Hume’s statement (S8.F., x, 390) that it is common in the

Wynaad.

We are unable to attribute these two specimens . with certainty to any

particular race, and after a good deal of study of this species remain very

doubtful how far it is possible to identify racially the great majority of Blue-

throats obtained in India. There are two reasons for this. First of all there

is considerable doubt as to the number of subspecies which should be recognised.

The latest review is by Mr. A. Tugarinov (Ann. du. Mus. Zool. de l’Acad. des

Sciences de VURSS, 1928), who recognises eleven subspecies as occurring in

Asia alone. We have consulted this paper and must admit that we are unable’

to appreciate the supposed differences between several of the eleven subspecies.

The materia! in Hngland is however insufficient either to support or disprove

Mr. Tugarinov’s views and they cannot be lightly set aside as he has had the

advantage of studying the immense Asiatic collections in the Leningrad Museum.

In any case the differences between the forms are slight, and often only recog-

nisable with certainty in series from the breeding area. As the distinctive

breeding dress of the male Bluethroat is only assumed about March, it is evident

that when the actual number of races is still in doubt, the current statements

regarding their distribution in India are based merely on supposition. _

The account of the Bluethroats in the New Fauna is, of course, in complete

confusion and for some reason was not corrected in the concluding volumes,

though Osmaston (J.B.N.H.S., xxxl, p. 983; Ibis 1925, p. 683) and Meinertz-

hagen (Ibis 1927, p. 589) showed beyond all doubt that the white-spotted ‘and

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

red-spotted birds breeding in Ladakh belong to one dimorphic species. This

conclusion has been confirmed by other observers, including the writer.

Calliope calliope (Pallas).

Motacilla calliope Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs., 11 (1776), p. 697—‘a Jenisea

usque ad Lenam’.

Specimens collected :—1458 [¢] 2-85-80, 1502 9 8-38-30, 1549 9° 16-38-30, 1618

3S 27-8-30 Sankrametta 3,000-3,500 ft.

Measurements—- ;

pili Wing. meee elvan Tarsus.

26 16.5-17 79-80 58-60 30-31 mm.

2 0 15-16 72.5-76.5 58.5-61.5 26.5-29.5 mm.

These birds were common at Sankrametta during the month of March but

in April their numbers decreased considerably and by the last week in April

they had practically left the district. The specimens obtained were extremely

fat. They were chiefly observed on a scrub-covered knoll where they hunted

for food in company with Acrocephalus, Dumetia and Franklinia (La

Personne).

These specimens and La Personne’s note furnish the only records of the

Rubythroat within the Presidency and its normal winter quarters lie to the

east of the Bay of Bengal. It has however been recorded in the Peninsula

at Raipur (Hume, 8. F., vu, p. 216), in the Balaghat at Lamta (D’Abreu)

and once in the Satpuras (Ball, 8. F., ii, p. 413), while Jerdon informs. us

B. of I., vol. 11, p. 150) that he once saw one take refuge on a ship a little

south of Bombay in the month of November.

Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata (Linn.)

Motacilla fulicata Linn., Syst. Nat. vol. i ed. xii 1766, p. 336—Philippines

in error, Ceylon.

Specimens collected:—1 9Q 9-4-29, 31 CG 12-4-29, 153 ¢ -29-4-29 Kurum-

bapatti; 441.9 18-6-29 Harur 1,000 feet; 502 ¢ 504 9 4-7-29, 511 ¢@ 5-7-29

Kalai, Trichinopoly; 551 SG 18-7-29, 569 ¢G juv. 20-7-29 Gingee; 716

G 20-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 feet; 818 ¢ 18-9-29 Kodur; 850 ¢G 29-9-29,

859 y 1-10-29, 868 @ 3-10-29 Seshachalam Hills 2,000 feet; 949 J 31-10-29,

973 Q 4-11-29, 1032 ¢ 25-11-29 Nallamalai range 2,000 feet; 1109 @ 14-12-29,

1175 g 26-12-29, 1183-4 gg 27-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Mew, Tarsus.

Wa & 14.5-16.5 COsKG 60-67 24 .5-27 mm.

8 oO Isis l).5) 69.5-73 58-61.5 23.5-25.5 mm,

The Black-backed Indian Robin appears to be very generally distributed

and resident throughout the eastern side of the Presidency from the Krishna

Valley southwards, occurring upto a height of about 2,000 ft. On the western

side it is less general, doubtless avoiding the areas of more heavy rain, and,

the records here may be enumerated. .Hor Coorg Betts had only one doubtful

record, though there is a specimen in the British Museum obtained in this

state. In the Nilgiris it is common ‘on the slopes up to 3,000 ft. according

to William Davison. Hume (S.I*. v, p. 406), records it at the Hi. base of

the Palnis in June. In Travancore Ferguson says that it is not common but

it may be found in the low country and ‘he had seen it at 2,000 ft..in the hills,

in the dry season. 3

The breeding season in the Presidency is not very definitely recorded but

in Salem District La Personne considered it was breeding in April and May

and he found a chick in the nest at Kurumbapatti on April 15th.

We may remark here that the only female which we have. seen of this

species from Ceylon is quite different to Peninsula birds being very dark,

almost black in colour. If this difference is found constant, when a series

is available for examination, the name fulicata will have to be restricted to

the island race and a fresh name found for the birds of Southern. India below

Goa and the Krishna River,

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 73

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia Subsp. nov.

Specimen collected:—1579 ¢ 22-3-30, Sankrametta, 2,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

re 14.5 73 64.5 WS. ania,

In the Vizagapatam district La Personne reports that the Indian Robin

was quite common in the Padwa valley, ascending the ghats to about 3,000 ft.

Ii was also common and breeding in the plains below. The single specimen

obtained agrees with three in the British Museum obtained by Blanford at

and near Hillore, but we have no other information about this species in the

Presidency north-east of the Krishna valley.

It has long been recognised that Indian Robin falls really into three separate

races, the Brown-backed in the north, the Black-backed in the south and in

between an intermediate which cannot correctly be assigned to either of

those forms (see Hume S.F. ii. 474). This intermediate race is easily

recognisable if male birds of the three races are set out in comparable order,

that is in sequence of months. The intermediate form has the black-back and

crown heavily washed with brown, but this brown is not the grey brown of

the north-western form but it is far darker, more chocolate in tint. The

female agrees with the female of fulicata. As this difference is correlated

with distribution it is clearly racial and should be recognised. The only

difficulty in the matter lies in the correct attribution of the name cambaiensis,*

whether this should apply to the intermediate or the north-western form.

Hume clearly considered that this name applied to the intermediate, to which

he attributed a range from Sindh, Cutch, Kathiawar, W. Jodhpur and the

neighbourhood of Mt. Aboo, Deesa and Ahmedabad. We have however been

able to examine in addition to the specimens of the Hume collection a large

number of fresh specimens, and would in consequence restrict the range of

the true intermediate somewhat differently, namely a broad belt right across

the centre of the Peninsula bounded on the north by a line from the R. Tapti

to Vizagapatam district, and on the south by the Krishna River. Birds from

Sindh, Cutch, Deesa and Mount Aboo are certainly closer to the pale brown-

backed bird, of the north-west and the name cambaiensis may therefore be

retained as heretofore for that race. This leaves the intermediate race with-

out a name and we therefore propose to call it

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia subsp. nov.

Type oS 2l- 4.69, Rahuri Ahmednagar. Collected by Rev. H. J. Bruce.

British Museum No. 1886, 10-1-420.

To this form belong the above mentioned specimens from the north-east

of the Presidency. :

Copsychus saularis saularis Linneus.

Gracula saularis Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. x (1758), vol i, p. 109—Asia —

Bengal.

Specimens collected:—71 4 17-4-29, Kurumbapatti; 202 dg 11-5-29,

Shevaroy Hills 3,500 ft.; 364 4 8-5-29, Chittiri Hills 2,000 ft.; 586 od

23-7-29 Gingee; 690 Q 14-8-29, 7338 9 23-8-29, Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 916

Q 14-10-29, Seshachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 942 ¢ 30-10-29, 950 9 31-10-29,

951 ¢ 1-11-29, 990 JS 9-11-29, 1026 9 22-11-29, Nallamalai range 2,000 ft.;

1250 @ 14-1-30, 1255 ¢G 15-1-30, 1289 ¢ 22-1-80 Godaveri Delta; 1437 <6

25-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1566 J 19-38-30, 1581 J 22-83-30, 1614 ¢ 27-83-30,

1628 ¢$ 28-3-30, Sankrametta 2,000-3,500 ft.; 1747 ¢ 30-4-30, Jeypore Agency

3,000 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

iby G Q1-22.5 96-104 79-92 27-30.5 mm.

6 9 ON 5-22, 94-97.5 79-88 27-29 mm.

' Sylvia cambaiensis Latham, Index Orn. ii (1790), p. 554—Guzerat, India.

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

All Magpie-Robins collected by the Survey belong to one very regular type

which is found throughout practically the whole of India, except the S.-W.

Punjab, Sindh and W.- Rajputana where the. species does not. occur. In this

the male has the three outer tail feathers pure white and the fourth feather

largely white with a black line on the edge of the inner web and extreme

base, with sometimes a fine black line on part of the edge of the outer web.

The amount of black on .the fourth feather starts to increase roughly

speaking about Vizagapatam, Bengal and the Duars and from those areas grad-

ing into the Malayan race C. s. amenus begins. The Ceylon race

C. s. ceylonensis may be accepted. We can see no real difference in the

bills or tail marking, though occasional birds may have a little more black on

the fourth tail-feather. But the females certainly have the upper plumage

blacker and more glossy, with the throat and breast a darker grey. Birds

from Southern India (Travancore, Nilgiris and Bangalore), suggest inter-

grading between C. s. saularis and C. s. ceylonensis.

The Survey appears to have found the Magpie-Robin very generally distri-

buted from sea-level, occurring even in the wooded islands of the Godaveri

Delta, upto about 4,000 ft. on the various ranges. ‘This seems also to be the

case throughout the rest of the Presidency though in Travancore Ferguson

regarded it as more particularly a bird of the hills. .

Nothing seems to have been recorded about the breeding season in the

Presidency except that in Travancore Ferguson gives it as February and

March and in the Vizagapatam Hills La Personne considers it. was breeding

in March and April. In the Chitteri range he found fledged young on 8th

May still with the parent.

Kittacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoll).

Muscicapa malabarica Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr. ii (1786), p. 96—

Mahé, Malabar.

Specimens collected :—29 ¢ 11-4-29, 83 ¢ 12-4-29, 109 9 27-4-29, Kurumba-

patti; 3806 ¢ 2-6-29, 423 9 15-6-29, Chitteri range 2,000 ft.; 666 ¢ 8-8-29,

686 juv. 13-8-29, 707 J 18-8-29, Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 1894 (Q) 16-2-30,

1490 ¢. 6-38-30, 1756 ¢S 2-5-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1456 J 2-3-3830, 16388 ¢

1-4-80 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. = \Vvanee ipanie Tarsus.

9 18-20.5 91.5-99 160-200.5 94.5-27 mm.

3 © UP Bedi S15 85-88 126 93.5-24.5 mm.

No. 1394 although marked ¢ is certainly a 9. It is in any case albinistic,

the black of the plumage replaced by dull sooty brown, the chestnut - by

fulvous white.

There has been endless confusion over the name of this well-known bird.

The earliest name which refers to it is the Muscicapa malabarica of Scopoli

(1786). This is not based on Latham’s Long-tailed Thrush from Pulo Condone,

as stated in the New Fauna, vii, p. 114 footnote, but on Sonnerat’s “‘Les

Gobe-mouches 4 longue queque de Gingi (Voy. Aua. Ind. etc. p. WG ts is

true that by a mistake Scopoli refers to plate III which is. of a Drongo, but

the description is quite clear and the name must stand as already pointed out

by Richmond (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. xxvi, 1908, p. 512). Sonnerat’s specimen

came from the Malabar Coast, so the neighbourhood of Mahé is evidently the

type locality. Mr. Stuart Baker says that Malabar is an error and that Pulo

Condone must stand, but this is apparently only due to confusion between

Sonnerat and Latham. In consequence of this mistake Mr. ‘Stuart Baker

proposed the name indica’ for the Indian bird with Bhutan Duars as type

locality. To this point we will return later.

~ Tt is far from correct to say that the Shama is found practically throughout

the whole of India. It is absent from at least half of the area of the country.

As at present recorded it is confined to the Sub-Himalayan tract from Ramnagar,

SW. of Naini Tal, (B. B. Osmaston, J. B. N. H. S.,.xxvi, 427) eastwards to

Assam, the Rajmahal Hills and a tract of country from Lohardugga and Madna-

pur down to Raipur and the Vizagapatam district, where La Personne found it

at Sankrametta and Anantagiri at altitudes of 3,000-3,500 ft. From here there

1 Kittacincla macroura indica Stuart Baker Fauna, Brit. Ind. 2nd ed., ui,

April 1924 (published 7th. May), p. 118—Bhutan Duars. —

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS (i$

is no record until the Palkondah Hills 1,000 ft., the Chitteri range 2,000 ft. and

Kurumbapatti 1,000 ft. at all of which places it was found by the Survey. On

all this side according to Jerdon it is less abundant than on the western side

where it is found from Travancore up to Khandalla.

In Travancore according to Ferguson it is not common, nor does it ascend

the hills. The only record for the Palnis is at the eastern base where Fair-

bank heard it singing. Davison found it once or twice in bamboo jungle a few

miles from Seegore at the foot of the Nilgiris and he obtained a male on 15 April

1881 at the foot of the Brahmagheries. Jerdon considered it common in the

Wynaad, and in Coorg, according to Betts, it is not uncommon but local in its

distribution. Beyond our limits on this side it becomes more numerous up the

line of the Western Ghats.

There is no very definite information about the breeding season in our limits.

The specimens obtained at Kurumbapatti in April appeared by their organs to

be breeding and in the Palkondas a bird collected was still in juvenile plumage

on 13 August. Ss

The Survey series agree absolutely with birds from the Western side and

therefore may be safely attributed to the typical race. ‘Twelve males from the

West have tails measuring 160-207 mm., so there is nothing unusual about a

tail variation of 160-200.5 mm. for our 9 males.

Birds from the Duars, Assam and Burma have undoubtedly much shorter tails.

Twelve males from this area have tails varying from 136-162 mm. and we see

that Stevens (J.B.N.H.S., xxx, p. 356) also comments on the shortness of the

tails in his Assam series. We think therefore that the name indica may be

usefully kept for this short-tailed race.

It is worth remark that the few Ceylon specimens we have examined suggest

that in that island there is again a short-tailed form as af in this as in many

other species there is an approximation between Ceylon and Malay birds,

rather than between Ceylon and Indian.

Turdus simillimus simillimus (Jerdon).

Not obtained by the Survey.

The Nilghiri Blackbird is, of course, very abundant on the plateau of the

Nilgivis while Coonoor and Ootacamund are particularly well-known localities

for it. According to William Davison it only extends a small way down the

slopes and that in small numbers. A single specimen collected by Davison in

the Brahmagherries (Q 19-4-81) suggests that Betts is correct in assigning to

this form the shy and scarce resident Blackbird of Coorg (J.B.N.H.S., xxxii,

544). Taylor states that it is occasionally seen on the hills of Western

Mysore (S.F. x. 459). The records for the Palni Hills (Fairbank, S.F. v.

403, Terry; S.F. x. 474), are due doubtless to mistakes in identification of

bourdilloni.

The breeding season in the Nilgiris is prolonged, from March until

August. A clutch of unspotted eggs is recorded by Cardew (J.B.N.H.S., &.

148).

There appears to have been a good deal of confusion over the question of

the Blackbirds of Peninsular India and Ceylon and we have been most care-

fully into the available specimens and records to see if we can throw any light

on the group. |

In the New Fauna Mr. Stuart-Baker (vol. ii, p. 1283) considers that

three Indian forms simillima, nigropileus and bourdilloni as well as the Ceylon

bird kinnisiz should all be treated as races of Turdus merula of Europe, and

this treatment is apparently adopted in order to provide some sort of inter-

gradation between the pure black T. merula merula with its obvious races

and the white collared albocinctus which he also considers a race of Turdus

merula. 'This treatment does not commend itself to us, even with the addition

of the theory of successive migrations northward and south which he uses to

explain how the intermediates between two adjacent Himalayan forms are to

be found in the hills of a different and older geological system. His statement

that ‘in no cases do the breeding ranges of any two of these birds overlap’ is

negatived by his own inclusion of the Palnis in the range of both simillima

and_bourdilloni, whilst the Nilgiris form the type locality for both. simillima

and nigropileus. .

‘The first point that emerges from an examination of the problem is that

while all observers are very positive that in southern India more than one

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI — -

species of Blackbird occurs in a given locality the point cannot be substantiated

with skins. At Manzeerabad Taylor says that nigropileus is common all over

the district but that svmillima occurs in the Hills. Terry gives three forms ‘in

the Palnis. Kinloch says that nigropileus is very common on the Nelliam-

pathis but that it is replaced in one area by bourdilloni. Yet recourse to the

British Museum series seems to prove that all Nilgiri birds are simillinus, all

Palnis and Travancore birds are bourdilloni and. all Ceylon birds kinnisit.

There is no specimen of nigripileus from south of Kanara except two birds

from the T’weeddale collection with the unsatisfactory locality ‘Malabar’. The

three first forms are very close together and single specimens of either of them

are often difficult to identify correctly ; but we are loath to accept the obvious

and facile explanation that the overlapping of records is due entirely to wrong

identification in face of the unanimity of all observers that more than one form

occurs in most of the localities. Moreover amongst the few specimens ~we

have been able to assemble from other sources than the British Museum we

have received from Col. Sparrow a most distinct example (¢@, 14 March, 1914)

of nigropileus which he collected personally in the Cardamum Hills, Travancore.

It is not improbable, of course, that out of the breeding season one or more

forms (probably nigropileus see S.F., i, 470) move about and trespass on

the breeding range of others, and this is probably the correct explanation of the

difficulty. At any rate in view of the similarity of the plumage patterns, the

way they intergrade into each other, and the absence of proof that any two

forms breed in one area, we propose to consider them all as races of one

species, which we emphatically reject.as having any connection with the Turdus

merula group of the Palaerctic. area.

Luckily we know that the type of Merula nigropilens Lafresanage, Bian

Zool. 1840, p. 65—Inde, Plat. des Nielgheries is in the Museum of Compara-

tive Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. U.S.A. (Vide Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,

Harvard Coll., Ixx. No. 4, March 1930, p. 827). Its re-examination seemed

desirable in view of the overlapping of localities and Mr. Kinnear accordingly

sent a pair each of simillima and nigropileus (anct.) to Mr. Bangs with the

request that he would compare them with the type. This Mr. Bangs kindly

did and he was able to reply that Lafresnage’s type is an extremely typical

example of simillimus and ‘could not possibly be confused with the bird to

which the name nigropileus has been applied, if one had both forms before him

together with Lafresnage’s type’. Nigropileus therefore becomes a Synonym of

simillimus and removes difficulty that two forms had one type locality. This

leaves the Black-capped Blackbird as fully described by Oates (Old Fauna,

vol. ii, p. 126) without a name and we therefore propose for it.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis.

Type.—B.M. 1886. 7. 8. 274 ¢ 16 Ap. 1870 Mahableshwar collected by

S. B. Fairbank.

We propose therefore to group the non-Himalayan Blackbirds as follows* :—

the breeding range only is given.

Turdus simillimus simillimus Jerdon.

Turdus simillimus Jerdon. Madr. Jour. Lit. Sei., vol. x (Oct. 1839), p. 253

— Niles.

The Nilgiris and Brahmagherries, probably extending to the higher ranges

of Western Mysore.

Turdus simillimus bourdilloni (Seebohm).

Merula bourdilloni Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., vol. v (1881), p. 251,

pl. xv—Colathoorpolay Patnas, Travancore.

Nelliampathi (2?) and Palni Hills, Travancore Hills above 3,000 ft.

Turdus simillimus Kinnisii (Blyth). i

Merula kinnisui Blyth, J.A.S.B., xx (1851), p. 177—Newara Elia, Ceylon.

Confined to Ceylon.

—~ Turdus simillimus mahrattensis nom-nov.

Mount Abu; Western Ghats from Khandesh to Malabar.

* Merula erythrotis Davison, Ibis 1886, p. 205.—From Hills to east of

Cannanore, is merely based on a stained specimen of either simillimus or

bourdillont, ae

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 277

Turdus simillimus spencei Subsp. nov. (below).

Hastern Ghats. It is at present uncertain whether.the form occurring in the

Central Proyinces belongs. to this or the last.

It should be noted that in the last two forms the second primary is longer

than the seventh, whilst in the first three forms the second primary is almost

alw as shorter than the seventh primary and other considerably so.

-Turdus siggttlinaus bourdilloni © (Seebohm).

~-'Peeuhar- to the Madras Presidency. Bourdillon’s Blackbird is common,

‘according to Kinloch on the Lily Downs of the Cochin Nelliampathis

(J-B.N.H.S., xxix, 565), but no specimens from that area have apparently

‘been critically compared. On the Palnis it is quite common and resident at

‘about 4,000 ft. and upwards. In ‘Travancore it seems to be very generally

‘distributed and not uncommon over all the ranges from about 3,000 ft.

‘upwards. Bourdillon says that it 1s found in dense scrub jungle.

The breeding season is recorded as April to June.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensiSs nom. nov.

The status and range of the Black-capped Blackbird in the Madras Presi-

dency is somewhat obscure. ' Its supposed occurrence in the Nilgiris has already

been shown as due to confusion over, the type specimen.

In the Nelhampathies according to Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S5., xxvu, 941) The TS

very common, generally terrestrial and in pairs, though large flocks occur in

the Lantana bushes. This is perhaps in winter only if the identification is

correct.

The published records for the Palnis and Travancore under the name. of

nigropileus appear to refer really to T. s. bourdilloni but, as remarked supra,

we have examined an undoubted specimen, ¢ 14 March 1914, collected by

Colonel Sparrow in the Cardamum Hills, Travancore.

Turdus simillimus spencei Subsp. nov.

Specimens collected: —935 ¢ 20-10-29 Seshachalam Hills 2,000 ft.;

969 [3S] 4-11-29 Nallamalai range 2,000 ft.; 1468 ¢ 4-83-30, 1459 ¢ 2-3-30,

16386 ¢ 1-4-3830 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.; 1705 $, 1707 ¢S 19-4-30, 1716 J 21-4-80

Jeypore agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Uae eee Namsus:

3 : 95-26.0. 122-132. 91-102. 30.5-33 mm.

Lia Personne reports that this Blackbird was common at Anantagiri1 and

abundant at Sankrametta, frequenting wooded ravines and water courses.

The organs were enlarged in April. This is probably the form met by

Jerdon (B. of I, 1. p. 523), at Nellore and in the neighbouring Ghats.

The discovery of yet another form of Blackbird in Peninsular India is

of considerable interest. The fine series of eight males collected agree inter

sé in having the upper plumage very similar to T. s. simillimus ‘but paler

throughout and with the cap not so pure a black; whilst the lower plumage

agrees with that of T. n. nigropileus except that the faint viscous flush of that

bird is replaced by a cold grey tint.

- Type.—No. 1707 3 19-4-1930, Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft., British Museum

- We have much pleasure in naming this bird after Sir Reginald Spence,

the Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society, whose interest

has done so much to make the EH. Ghats Survey a success.

Turdus unicolor Tickell.

Purdus unicolor Tickell, J-A0S.B., um (Nov. 1883), p. OT TEmsiig nae,

Borabhum.

Specimens obtained: —1391 Q 14-2-30, 1411 ¢ 19-2-380 Anantagin 3,000 ft.

13° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIHIW. Vol. XXXVI

Measurements—-

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3 22 JOU 3 75 | — dil aman,

Q 21.5 119 82 31 mm.

Jerdons, statement (B. of I., 1, p. 519) that he procured Tickell’s Ouzel

from the H. Ghats and the above two specimens obtained by the Survey are the

only records for the* Presidency.

Tickell’s Ouzel breeds very commonly in Kashmir and the Western Himalayas

from Chitral to the valley of Nepal. We can find no authority for the statement

that it breeds in the Hastern Himalayas, but in winter it appears to have a south-

easterly migration in the course of which it moves to the Sikkim Himalayas at

low elevations and the jungles from Chota Nagpur to Raipur and the Upper

Hastern Ghats. Like other Thrushes it is an erratic vagrant and to this are

due isolated winter records at Quetta (St. John), Jacobabad 7 Feb. 1867 (S.F., i,

179), Sambhur Lake (Adam, S.F., i, 877), Mt. Aboo 19 Septic Si Ae an (Saleem:

ni, 470 and v, 228) and Khandala November (Blanford, S.F., iv, 257).

Geokichla wardii (Blyth).

Turdus wardii Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xi (after September, 1842), p. 882—

Mysore below Seegore Pass.

Specimen procured:—1698 18-4-30 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements—-

Bill. | Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

27 110 75 27 mm.

Extremely fat. In company with the Blackbirds in a heavily afforested

ravine. Another specimen was seen on 26 April at Sankrametta in flight across

the valley, taking a north-easterly direction. (ia Personne.)

The Pied Ground Thrush breeds at moderate elevations in the Himalayas

from Kulu and Simla eastwards and in northern Assam. It is a strong migrant

and winters in Ceylon. All the records between these two areas, with the

exception of a somewhat doubtful one for the Konkan (S.F., 1x, p. 899), refer

to the Presidency on passage, and suggest that the bird travels by the E. Ghats

route.

The two-birds met by La Personne were evidently on passage; Jerdon (B. of I.

i, 521) obtained 2 birds on migration in a large mango-grove at Nellore at

the beginning of April. The type was obtained (Jerdon, III. Ind. Orn. pl. vii,

1845, pt. 1) by Mr. S. N. Ward, M.C.8., on the tableland of Mysore and imme-

diately below the Seegore Pass of the Nilgiris, ‘during the cool season’. Two

specimens in the Hume collection were obtained on 10 March 1881 ‘below

Kotagherry’ and on 8 April 1876 by Wilham Davison in the Nilgiris.

Kinloch records a single male in the Nelliampathies but gives no date though

he considered it on passage (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 944). Terry procured a female

on Ist March and a male on the 8rd March, in thick sholas about a mile apart

at Pulungi in the Palnis (8. F’., x, 474). Werguson shot one in February on the

High Range in Travancore (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 466). In Ceylon its numbers are

said to vary a good deal in different years.

’ Geokichla citrina citrina (Latham).

Turdus citrinus Latham, Index Orn. (1790), 1, p. 350—India, Cachar.

The inclusion of this race in our Presidency list depends on Jerdon’s state-

ment that it occurs in Gumsoor (B. of I., 1, 518) and an old specimen marked

‘Madras’ from the Indian Museum is now in the British Museum. Whether

town or presidency is meant, we need not hesitate to accept both records as

in winter this race is a confirmed wanderer.

The Orange-headed Ground-Thrush breeds throughout the foothills and lower

middle Himalayas from Murree to Sikkim, and in Assam and Burma eastwards.

In Nepal and the Western Himalayas it is a summer visitor, growing scarcer

' We cannot trace either the record or the specimen from Travancore referred

to in New Fauna, vol. u, p. 189.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS ‘9

and scarcer west of Mussoorie until Murree is its westerly recorded limit, The

date of arrival is not accurately recorded—probably late April and May—and

the return passage is from August to October. In the Hastern Himalayas and

Assam ii appears to be largely resident along the foothills, moving in summer

also into some of the inner Himalayan valleys.

The migratory birds of the western Himalayas evidently winter anywhere

from the Doon to Chota Nagpur and Calcutta, thus infringing on the territory

of cyanotus. Stragglers wander far afield as is shown by the following isolated

records :—Rohtak 9 Nov. 1910 (A. H. Marshall); Sambhur Lake 2 10 March

(Adam, 5S. F’., i, 877); Ratnagiri 5 January 1878 (Armstrong, 8. F., ix, 62) and

Ceylon (4 records).

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby).

Turdus cyanotus Jardine and Selby, Illustr. Orn., 1 (1828 April), pl. xlvi—

India, Bangalore.

Specimens obtained :—217 ¢ 13-5-29 Shevaroy Hills; 1252 9 14-1-80 Godaveri

Delta; 13842 (¢) marked Q 6-2-30, 1874 Jg _11-2-80, 1757 J 2-5-80, 1770 ¢

4-5-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1608 ¢ 26-38-30, 1637 9 1-4-380 Sankrametta 3,500 ft. ;

1733-4 ¢ g 27-4-80 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements— :

Bill. Wing. Teil Tarsus.

oe 20-24..5 109.5-112.5 78-78.5 30-31 mm.

3.9 92.23 103.5-107.. 67.5-71. 98.5-29 mm.

Jerdon stated that the White-throated Ground-thrush was ‘not rare’ in the

Kastern Ghats extending as far up as Goomsoor but this statement has been

somewhat discredited, and it is of value therefore that the Survey found this

race common in the hill tracts of Vizagapatam in well-wooded ravines. It was

also not uncommon in suitable places in the Godaveri Delta and a single speci-

men was procured in the Shevaroy Hills. There are as yet no other records

for the Hastern side of the Presidency. - Riteto

In the West it is far better known andi in our limits it is recorded com-

monly in Malabar, Coorg and the Brahmagherries, the lower slopes of the

Nilgiris up to 4,000 ft., the Nellampathis and the Travancore hills. In the

last locality it is curious that both Bourdillon and Ferguson were under the

impression that it was a winter visitor only though in the New Fauna it is

said to breed there in May and July. In this connection it may be recalled

that at its north-western limit on the Kondabhari Ghat in Khandesh Mr.

James Davidson says it is a migrant, arriving in the rains to breed (N. and E.,

Olly Igy 70s, SS). =

Oreocincla dauma neilgherriensis Blyth.

Oreocincla neilgherriensis Blyth, J.A.S.B., xvi (1847), p. 141—Nilgiris.

Confined to the Madras Presidency. Rare in Coorg where Betts records it

as very shy and keeping to jungle with dense undergrowth and where William

Davison procured a male on the Bramagherries on 20 April 1881 and a female

on 15 February 1888. Jerdon’s statement that he procured O. dawma in the

Wynaad (B. of I., 1, 584) doubtless refers to this form.

The best known locality for this fine Thrush is the Nilgiris where it is not

uncommon in the Sholas on the higher hills.

Kinloch found it numerous in the Sholas of the Lily Downs 4,700 ft. in

the Cochin Nelliampathis (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 565). It breeds in the Palnis

(Terry, S. F., x, 474). We have but little information about it in Travancore

but according to Bourdillon (S. F., iv, 899) it is rather scarce and is found

from the summit of the hills down to 2,000 ft.; while Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S.,

xv, 467) adds that though he did not personally find it below 4,000 ft. he pro-

cured it both in the High Range and the South.

It breeds in May and June and according to Rhodes Morgan starts as early

as March.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). :

Petrocincla cinclorhyncha Vigors, P.Z.S. 1880-31 (2 March 1832), p. 172—

Himalayas restricted to Simla-Almora area.*

Specimen collected: —1715 Q 21-4-80 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

1 Restricted Ibis July 1924, pp. 468-473.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Measurements.:—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Q 23 VES 64. 24 mm.

The above specimen was fat and evidently on migration. Although nothing

is known of the Blue-headed Rock-Thrush on the pagtenin side of the Presidency,

beyond the above specimen, it is a common winter visitor from October to

March to the hills of the Western side. From Coorg (common, Betts), the

Wynaad, Niigiris (very common, William Davison), ‘and the Nelhampathies

(common, Kinloch) it extends throughout the whole of the Travancore range,

where Ferguson says that he has found it at 5,000 ft. in the High Range and

from 500 ft. to 2,500 ft. in the south.

It has not yet been recorded from the Palnis.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes).

Petrocincla pandoo Sykes, P.Z.S. (81 July 1832), p. 87—Ghats, Deccan-

Mahableshwar.

Specimens collected :—899 3 10-10-29 Seshachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1185

27-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements—

By, © Wing. Taal. pause wlarsus:

ee 26.5-29: 12%-122.5 81-85 5 PAse4S) aya

Although the Blue-Rock-Thrush seems to be a regular winter visitor. or

passage migrant to the greater part of India records are scarce on the Hastern

side of the Presidency. Jerdon perhaps was right when he said ‘(B. of I. 1,

513) that it was ‘more rare.in the Carnatic’. At any rate in addition to the

above two specimens our only two east Presidency records are one seen on 9th

April 1924 in a quarry at St. Thomas’ Mount and another seen on 10th February

1927 in the Presidency. College compound at Madras, both by Capt. R. 8S. P.

Bates. On the west it is far better: known. There it occurs in winter from

October to April (and according to Bourdiilon to late in May) in Coorg, the

Wynaad and the Nilgiris, in the Nelliampathis, wherever sheet rock occurs

(Kinloch), and in the Travancore Hills. Capt. Bates informs us that he saw

one at Kodaikanal on 6 April 1929.

Myophonus coeruleus horsfieldii Vigors.

Myophonus horsfieldu WVigors, P.Z.S., 1830-31 (2 March 1831), p. 385—

Himalayas, errore, now rectnieted to Nilgiris.

No specimen was obtained by the Survey but La Personne says in his field

notes that he saw it in the Shevaroy Hills.

The Malabar Whisthng Thrush is common in wooded country near water in

all the hill ranges of the western side of the Presidency in Coorg, the Wynaad,

the Nilgiris (where however it does not occur on the plateau or above 6,000 ft.),

the Nelliampathis, the Palnis and the various Travancore ranges. It occurs at

all elevations upwards to 5,000-6,000 ft. and Jerdon says that he killed it actually

at the foot of the ghats in Malabar.

The breeding season in these areas is from March to July and in Travancore

according to Stuart Baker it starts in February.

Hemichelidon ferruginea [odgson.’ :

- Hemichelidon ferruginea Hodgson, P.Z.S., August 1845, p. 82, ex Zool.

Mise. 1844, p. 84—Nepal.

Although the specimen cannot be traced in the British Museum there

appears to be no reason why we cannot accept Jerdon’s explicit statement

(B. Ol Mon MOM, ily [De AKolb) gy “JE obtained one specimen at Nellore in the Carnatic

in March’

_ [Siphia parva parva ( Bee istein).

Muscicapa parva Bechstein, Getrene Abbild. (Part IT) 1798, p. 26—Hast

Holland: :

1 In our opinion there is considerable mee of careful revision of genera

in the Flycatcher group. In the account which follows we have, however,

adhered to the genera given in the New Fauna as any revision, to ‘be of value,

must comprise all Indian and non- -Indian forms.

THE VHRNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE BASTERN GHATS 81

The typical form of the Red-breasted Flycatcher passes through or winters

in the whole of N.-W. and Peninsula India in those areas where the next

race does not occur. Stragglers occur as far east as Sikkim and the Duars

(Mandelli, Hume Collection) and Assansole (Brooks, British Museum Coll.).

Southwards it is certainly fairly common as far as Belgaum and Trimulgherry,

from both of which localities I have seen specimens. In the Old Fauna it is said

to occur as far south as ‘Mysore and the Nilgiris’. In the New Fauna this

range is given as ‘Malabar, Travancore and the Nilgiris’. The former state-

ment is evidently based on Hume’s remark (S.F., x, 372) ‘occurs in South

Mysore, at the foot of the Nilgiris’, and I have seen no specimens from any:

where within our presidency limits. Betts (J.B.N.H.S., xxxili, 544) considers

ii a fairly common winter migrant to Coorg. Until specimens are available for

examination it appears advisable not to include this form definitely in. the

Presidency list. ].

Siphia parva albicilla (WVallas).

Muscicapa albicilla Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat., vol. 1 (1811, not published

until 1827), p. 462, aves, pl. 1—Dauria.

Specimens collected: —982 4 imm., 7-11-29 Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.;

v. 1888 Q 6-2-3830 Anantagiri 38,000 ft.

Measurements—

Bilt. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

rah 13 69.5 51.5 ILA aaa,

fe) 13 67.5 49 17 mm.

As pointed out by Ticehurst (J.B.N.H.5S., xxxiv, 904) it 1s incorrect to say

that the females and young (1st winter) males of M. p. albicilla are not distin-

euishable from those of M. p. parva. They may be distinguished by the colder,

greyer, brown of the upper parts, the truer black of the upper tail-coverts and

tail and by the whiter underparts sufitused with grey on the breast (instead

of creamy white suffused with buff). These two specimens, combined with a

careful examination of the large series of Red-breasted Flycatchers in the British

Museum and in my own collection, enable me to extend the known range of this

race in India.

M. p. albicilla is, as always stated, mainly confined to N.-E. India as a

winter visitor in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Stragglers however occur along

the base of the Himalayas as at Basti (9 25-10-1869 Brooks, Hume Coll.),

Pilibhit (¢ Ist. win., 16-10-78 Cleveland, Hume Coll.) and Kangra where a bird

obtained by ine and recorded as S. p. hyperythra (¢ Ist. win. 3-2-2383 Bharwana

2,500 ft., Ibis 1926, 563) proves on further investigation to belong to this form.

Southward of Orissa this form probably straggles across the Deccan generally

as I have examined specimens from Badrachalam (Blanford), Satara (Fairbank),

Dahivel, Khandesh (Davidson) and Belgaum (Butler). The above Nallamalai

specimens provide the most southerly record.

In this connection we may remark that in our opinion itis quite wrong

to consider the Kashmir Red-breasted Vlycatcher a race of Muscicapa parva.

It is evidently a separate species, more closely allied to the Muscicapa strophiata

group. From the parva group it differs not merely in the character of the

brown of the upper parts and of the red of the breast with its peculiar black

border, but also in the sequence of plumages and the wing formula.

The young male in its first winter resembles not the female, as in parva and

its race, but the adult male, and the female agrees with this stage of develop-

ment in having much red wash on the breast. The Second primary is almost

always shorter than the seventh, where as in parva it is always longer than

the seventh, generally considerably so.

Muscicapula superciliaris Jerdon (Subsp 2).

Muscicapa superciliaris Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xi, (1840, after

May) p. 16—N. Indian Ghats, Ajunta.’

Specimen collected: —1657 9 4-4-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

138 64 44-5 16 mm.

‘See Jerdon, Birds of India, vol. i, p. 471.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

This specimen, which was very fat with the organs undeveloped, was

evidently on migration and provides the only record of this Blue Flycatcher

within the Presidency. Unfortunately it is a female and as it comes near

from the border line of the winter distribution of both races and is intermediate

in colour we are unable to say positively whether it is C. s. superciliaris or

C. s. astigma.

The adult males of C. s. astigma are easily separable from the typical race

by the absence of the white patches in the base of the outer tail feathers, by

the absence or very faint traces of the white supercilium, and by the having

the upper parts a darker blue on the average. First year males are also

easily separable by the absence of the white tail patches.

Some females may be distinguished as follows. In astigma the upper parts

tend to be a darker more saturated brown with but little and often no hint

of blue in it; the rump and edges of the base of the tail are often rufous.

In superciliaris the upper parts tend to be of a paler and greyer tint, with

often a suspicion of blue in it. The rump and edges of the base of the tail

are often definitely blue. There is however a good deal of intergrading, so

thas single winter specimens cannot be distinguished with certainty.

Muscicapula pallipes pallipes Jevdon.

Muscicapa pallipes Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol: xi (1840 after May),

p. * Ghat.

Not met by the Survey. This Flycatcher 1s entirely confined’ to the western

side of India where it is a bird of thick forest or shady cover on the various

ranges. Its northern limit appears to be about the Goa Frontier (S.F., iv, 257

and ix, 397). In the Madras Presidency it is recorded as fairly common in

Coorg, the Wynaad and the Nilgins. Although Ferguson states that he never

met with the species in Travancore there is a juvenile specimen (labelled

Alseonax muttw) in the British Museum collected by him in September 1893

on Chimungi. Bourdillon however considered it as ‘not rare though nowhere

common’ from 1,000 ft. upwards and Mr. Stewart has since met with it in

numbers.

According to the New Fauna the breeding season is usually from March to

April, but Mr. Stewart has taken nests from February to September.

Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors).

Phencura rubeculoides Vigors, P.Z.8. 1830- Bill (aboreln 2, eke): p. 385—

Himalayas, restricted to Simla——Almora area.”

Specimens collected :—983 Q 8-11-29 Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.; 1643 ¢ ad.

%-4-20 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus

3 14 73.5 66.5 AKG aaah.

Q 13.5 (al 53 16.5 mm.

As a winter visitor the distribution of the Blue-throated Flycatcher 1s much

wider in India than the account given in the New Fauna would lead one to

understand. It was more correctly given in the first edition.

There are several records for the Presidency in addition to the above Survey

specimens. The three specimens marked ‘Madras’ in the British Museum

need not detain us, as there is nothing to show where they were obtained (¢

April 1876 9 no date, both Hume eailleciiom, 3 no date Baber), though the

name Baber doubtless stands for H. H. Baker in which case the bird may

have come from Malabar. Jerdon (B. of I., 1, 466) says that it is ‘rare in

the south of India but I have procured it both on the east and western

coast’. We know from Madr. Journ. Lit. Sci. 1844, p. 171 that by the western

coast he means ‘the Coonoor Ghat’. Wiliam Davison (8.F., x, 370) says that

‘ The record of 2 females at’ Hylakandy (J.B.N.ELS., xill, 655) is evidently

based on faulty identification.

* Restricted Ticehurst and Whistler, Ibis 1924, p. 468.

THH VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 88

he obtained two males in February and March—one at Seegore, the other at

Nellacotta in the Wynaad. It has also been obtained in Ceylon.

Muscicapula tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth.)

Cyorms tckelie Blyth J-Ajorb., xi (1843 after November), p. 941—

Borabhum in Maunbhum.

Specimens collected :—22-23 @¢ 11-4-29, 115 ¢ 28-4-29, 149 Q 28-4-29,

170 ¢ ¥-5-29 Kurumbapatti; 205 ¢ 11-5-29, 228 ¢ 15-5-29 Shevaroy Hills

3,900 ft.; 865 ¢ 8-5-29, 3938 dg 12-6-29, 397 ¢ 18-6-29, 427 9 16-6-29 Chitteri

-range 2,000-3,000 ft.; 681 ¢ 1-8-29, 655 ¢ 6-8-29, 662 ¢ 7-8-29, 727 Q 22-8-29

Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft. :

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

WG 14-16.5 71-75 56-62 16.5-18.5 mm.

4 9 —-18-15 68-70 54-57 15-17 mm.

In spite of its wide distribution in India and the fact that, except for

short local migrations in some areas, it is a resident species, Tickell’s Blue

Flycatcher has apparently no subspecies within India proper.

There appears to be some mistake about the description of the juvenile in the

New Fauna, where it is described as a definitely brown and fulvous bird. The

only juvenile which we have been able to examine is remarkable for the bright

blue wings and tail and the dark bluish tinge to the upper parts. The point is

of interest as this Flycatcher with its blue male and female and bluish young

would appear to be one of the members of the genus in which the characteristic

blue has reached its most complete stage of development. lt would be interest-

ing to prepare an exhibit of this group showing the gradual transition to this

complete blue development from poliogenys poliogenys with male, female and

juvenile all brown.

Within the Presidency limits Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher appears to be fairly

widely spread and not uncommon. ‘The survey did not procure it north of the

Palkonda Hills but Jerdon informs us that it occurs in Goomsoor and_ the

Northern Sircars and the fact that Blanford met it just outside our boundary

in the Godavery valley near Dumagudiam and Badrachalam suggests that it

may occur throughout the north-east of the Presidency.

“In the Palkonda Hills La Personne states that it was common in the bamboo

forests at Ballipalle at 1,000 ft. A specimen from ‘Madras’ (F. Nicholson) 1s

in the British Museum but Dewar states that he never saw the species at

Madras Town though a lve bird was brought to him which was said to have

been captured some five miles inland. In Salem district the survey found it

‘practically all over the well wooded parts of the district and it is more common

in the hill tracts at 3,000-4,000 ft.’ Here the birds were evidently breeding

in May and June. This is the most southerly record on the eastern side and

in Travancore curiously enough the bird does not seem to have been recorded

though we have seen a male in Colonel Sparrow’s collection which he obtained

at Kumilli, Cardamum Hills on Ist April, 1914.

In the Palnis it is recorded as noted ‘unfrequently from top to bottom’ by

Fairbank, and Terry found it breeding in the Pittur valley. There is no record

for the Nelhampathis. In the north west corner of the Presidency it seems

to be fairly general both in hills and plains. There are 8 specimens from

‘Malabar’ and one from Calicut in the British Museum. In the Nilgiris it is

fairly common on the slopes as high as Coonoor and Davison obtained a male

close to Ootacamund on 10th February 1881. Thence it extends through the

Wynaad and into Coorg.

Muscicapula poliogenys vernayi (Whistler).

Cyorms poliogenys vernayi Whistler, Bull. B.O.C., vol. lii, No. cccliii, p. 28

—Sankrametta 3,500 ft., Vizagapatam District.

Specimens collected:—1337 (ad.) 6-2-30, 1422 ¢ (ad.) 21-2-30, 1449 ¢

Gimm.) 26-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1467 ¢ (ad.) .3-8-30, 1486 ¢ (ad.) 6-3-3G6

D2 Grddo) ieee oO lbAdeT. (ad). OO. 15-38-30, 1593 S Gmm.) 24-3-30

1630 ¢ (imm.) 31-3-30, 1650 9 3-4-30, 1664 ¢ (imm.) 5-4-30, 1671 SG 12-4-36

1676 J 12-4-380 Sankrametta 3,000-3,500 ft.; 1753 9 2-5-80 Anantagiri 300 ft.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Measurements—

. Bill. Vail. Wing. ‘Tarsus.

6 adult ¢: 15-16.5 75.5-78.5 60.5-67.5. 18-20 mm.

6 immature ¢: 14.5-15.5 74.5-78 5$-64 18-20 mm.

4 9 14-15.5 70.5-74 57.9-60 18-19 mm.

‘Very common at Sankrametta and Anantagiri where these birds were

breeding in April and May’ (La Personne).

This new form of resident flycatcher of very limited distribution is one of

the most interesting discoveries of the Vernay Survey.

The females and first year males are identical in colouration. They closely

resemble Muscicapula poliogenys poliogenys (Brooks), differing only in the

ereyer tint of the upper parts, which is particularly marked on the crown and

nape and sides of the head and neck. .The adult male is distinguished by a

bluish wash over the whole of the upper parts. This is pronounced on the head

and nape and becomes a definite bright blue on the longer upper tail-coverts

and outer webs of the tail-feathers. The males breed in both stages of plumage.

This new Flycatcher throws considerable lght on the question of generic

distinctions in the Muscicapide. The genus Anthipes, founded by 1847 by

Blyth, with Anthipes moniliger for type, was used by Oates in vol. ii of the

Old Fauna to include five species (A. moniliger, A. leucops, A. submoniliger,

A. poliogenys and A. olivaceus) of very local non-migratory Indo-Malayan Fly-

catchers in which the sexes are alike. This was in contradistinction to the

genus Cyornis of which he assigned as a characteristic the different colouration

of the sexes.

In vol. u of the New Fauna Mr. Stuart Baker accepted this conception of

the genus Anthipes with five forms though he changed the grouping to two

species with, respectively, three and two subspecies. At the same time he

pointed out that the two species thus admitted were so different in habits,

nidification and colour pattern that they might almost be placed in separate

genera. By vol. vii (p. 631) his opinion on this point had strengthened to

the creation of a new genus Olcyornis (type Anthipes olivaceus Hume) to mark

the separation of A. olivaceus, with its subspecies A. 0. poliogenys, from A.

moniliger with its subspecies A. m. leucops and A. m. submoniliger. In the

meantime Messrs. Kinnear and Robinson (Nov. Zool., xxxiv, 1928, p. 241) had -

emphasised the same distinction by placing poliogenys in the genus Cyornis,

together with a new race saturatior. They, however, considered olivaceus and

pollogenys as specifically and possibly generically distinct.

Our new form vernayi by its colouration connects poliogenys, with both

sexes alike and brown, and the other members of the genus Muscicapula

(Cyornis) in which the females are brown, and black or blue predominates

in the plumage of the males. It therefore justifies Brook’s original description

of poliogenys in the genus Cyornis and corroborates Mr.Stuart Baker’s objection

to keeping olivaceus and poliogenys in the same genus as moniliger though

his creation of the new genus Olcyornis was unnecessary. The widening of

the genus Cyornis to include a species in which both sexes may be alike and

brown, however, invalidates its basis on sexual dimorphism and_ provides

another of the many reasons for the revision of genera in this family.

Eumyias albicaudata (Jerdon).

Muscicapa albicaudata Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., xi (1840 after May),

p. 16—Nilgiris.

Not observed by the Survey. The Nilgiri Flycatcher is peculiar to the south-

wes hill ranges of the Presidency and is very common in the Nilgiris, Nelliam-

pathis, the Palnis and the Travancore Hills. It is a bird of the higher elevations

being mostly found from 4,000 ft. to the summits in woods and thickets, but

Davison records that in the Nilgiris he found it locally in smaller numbers

below 4,000 ft. on the slopes. Mr. Stuart Baker says (vol. u, p. 243) that

he has also records of its occurrence in the Wynaad, Palghat and Southern

Malabar. It is of course a permanent resident and breeds from March until

May, but occasionally a nest may be found in February and June.

[Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xi, 202) erroneously recorded Humyias sordida, the

Dusky Blue Flycatcher of Ceylon, as occurring in Travancore. He later

corrected the statement (loc. cit., xv, 464.)].

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 8

Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson).

Muscicapa thalassina Swainson, Nat. Libr. Flycatchers, 1888, p. 252—India.

Specimens collected: —974 dG 6-11-29 Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.; 1822

5-2-80, 1873 ¢G 11-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1461 Q 2-38-80, 1638 @ 31-3-30

Sankrametta 8,000 to 38,500 ft.

Measurements—-

Bill. Wing. ‘'ail. ‘Tarsus.

3G) 18.5-14 82-86 68-75 15.5-16 mm.

vB Oo 18-13.5 82-84 64-68.5 16-17 mm.

There are not many records of the Verditer Flycatcher in the Presidency

where it is, of course, a winter visitor only. Jerdon procured it at Gumsoor.

La Personne found it common at Anantagiri and Sankrametta. The above

specimen from the Nallamallais completes the records which we can _ trace

on the eastern side.

On the west we have seen specimens from Calicut (two birds, no date,

Hume collection), Wynaad (9 8-1-94 J. P. Cook B.N.H.S. Coll.) and Kota-

cherry (Q 26-11-74 Cockburn, Hume. collection). William Davidson in his paper

on this area remarks that he never met the bird in Southern India.

In the Nelliampathis Kinloch states that he found the Verditer Flycatcher

very common during the cold weather. Bourdillon also says that in the

Travancore Hills it is a common though not abundant winter visitor up to

2,000 ft. from December to March. Ferguson on the other hand curiously

enough did not meet with it and was inclined to doubt Bourdillon’s record.

It is however supported by 3 specimens still in the British Museum.

The New Fauna suggests that the Verditer Flycatcher may sometimes breed

in the hills of Southern. India in view of the fact that Kinloch met with it in

the Nelliampathis until March. Mr. Stuart Baker seems, however, to have

overlooked Kinloch’s postscript (J.B.N.H.8., xxvii, 279) in which he clearly

says that he did not see the birds after the end of March. a Personne also

thought that it might be breeding in the Vizagapatam Hills as the specimens

collected shewed genital development. It must be remembered, however, that

this species is an early migrant to return to the Himalayas and quick to

breed as soon as it returns. The organs, therefore, start to enlarge, as im

several other species, before the migration. There is no reason at all to

suppose that it ever breeds in the southern ranges, where the last species

takes its place.

Alseonax latirostris (NRaffles).’

Muscicapa latirostris Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc., xin (1822), p. 312—Sumatra.

Specimens collected :—3804 @Q 1-6-29, 3883 $ 5-6-29 Chitteri1 range 2,000 ft.;

830 S 18-9-29 Kodur; 857 ? 1-10-29 878 © 4-10-29, 886 ¢ 7-10-29, 898 ¢

16-16-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 952 ¢ 1-11-29, 97 ¢G 5-11-29 Nallamallai

range 2,000 ft.; 1680 ¢ 18-4-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.; 1684 ¢ 16-4-30 Jeypore

Agency 3,500 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

or Gs 14-15.5 76-75 ° 16.5-54 15-14.5 mm.

HD) 14-15 73 50.5-51.5 18.5-14 mm.

The Brown Flycatcher appears to be very generally distributed throughout

the Madras Presidency though its status is not very satisfactorily known. ‘The

above series of specimens afford the only records for the eastern side of the

Presidency except for Dewar’s statement that the species is by no means

common at Madras, where he only noticed it in winter. One may perhaps

presume that the June birds from the Chitteri1 range were in their breeding

* While we are not prepared at present to undertake a revision of the

genera of the Flycatchers, which appears necessary, we see no reason why

this species should be removed from the genus Muscicapa, in which indeed

: is included by the Nomenclature Committee of the British Ornithologists’

nion, .

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

quarters, but the male shot at Kodur in September was very fat and therefore

probably on migration.

In the west of the Presidency the Brown Flycatcher is well known. A

female collected by Day at Mangalore on 24 April is in the British Museum.

In Coorg, according to Betts, it is fairly common and resident, and there

are two undated specimens from that district in the Tweeddale collection.

William Davison says that it is not uncommon in the Wynaad and that he

met it on two or three occasions on the slopes of the Nilgiris. He considered

it a winter visitor and he does not appear to have met it after April 11th.

itinloch records it from the Nelhampathis without. comment. Fairbank and

‘erry each met it once in the Palnis (no date). In Travancore it seems to be

common as a winter. visitor found occasionally in the low country but more

generally from the foot of the hills up to about 3,000 ft. A few are said to

breed in Travancore but the evidence on the point is not entirely satisfactory.

After examining a very great number of specimens of this species from the

different parts of its wide range we are not satisfied that it has any races.

Mr. Stuart Baker (New Fauna, 11, p. 249) considers that the typical race is

confined to Bornes, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Burma, Siam and Annam

and possibly Yunnan and Western China but we have failed to find any

evidence that the species breeds in these countries and we are under the

impression that it only occurs in them as a migrant. Of the other race

poonensis he gives the range as from Japan to Lake Baikal and again in the

Himalayas and India. He measures birds from Japan to Himalayas wing

69 to 80 mm., and from the plains of India as 66 to 72 mm. This difference

we cannot substantiate as the following measurements of males will show :—

Bill. Wing. Tail.

6 3G Tenasserim, Malays 14 67-71..5 46-48 mm.

4 4 Amur Bay, H. Siberia Le eae 68.5-71 45-48 mm. .

5 g Japan 13.5-14 69.5-72.5 | 46-48.5 mm.

8 ¢ EK. Ghats Survey 14-15.5 70-75 45-54 mm.

7 3S Western India 14-15 76-74.5 48.5-52 mm.

10 ¢ Western Himalayas 14.5-16 68-75.5 45-54.5 mm.

There is no appreciable difference of measurements here other than that

explainable by the comparative number of specimens available for measurement.

The colour and other differences of two supposed races were described at

length by Brooks (8.F., ix, p. 225) and Hume under the same reference explained

that they were partly seasonal and perhaps partly individual, and to this con-

clusion we have ourselves independently arrived. Normally this Flycatcher is

greyish in fresh plumage and abrades to brown but individuals in any stage

may be grey, brown and even fulvous, in general tint.

Alseonax ruficauda (Swainson).

Muscicapa *uficauda Swains, Nat. Lit., vol. x (1838), p. 251—India, restricted

to Kashmir.’

Not met by the Survey. The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher is only an uncommon

winter visitor to the Presidency. Jerdon obtained a specimen (no date) at

Nellore. William Davison collected a male at Charambady, Wynaad, on 2-4-81

and another male at Coonoor on 25-1-81, while Miss Cockburn collected a speci-

men at Kotagherry on 14-38-71. These specimens are all in the British Museum

as well as four others obtained in Travancore as follows: 8 unsexed birds

collected at Mynall by Bourdillon 27-11-74 and 4-12-78 and no date respec-

tively, and a female collected by Ferguson at Panmudi in December 1890.

Alseonax muttui muttui (Layard).

Butalis muttui Layard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Sci. 2, vol. xiii (Feb. 1854),

p. 127—Pt. Pedro, Ceylon.

Not met by the Survey. There are eight records of Layard’s Flycatcher

within the Presidency, all but one based on specimens from Travancore in

the British Museum. Three of these were collected by Bourdillon at Mynall,

namely a male on 18-11-74, a supposed female on 14-1-76 and an unsexed

' Stuart: Baker, JBN HiSs, xxvii) p. 19)

THE.VERNAY. SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 87

bird without date. The fourth is a female, dated 29-12-85 one of 4 specimens

collected by William Davison at Chimpazi on the Chimpani Hills which divide

Travancore from Tinnevelly (Ibis 1886, p. 146). Ferguson records (J.B.N.H.S.,

xv, 464) that he also obtained a single specimen in ‘Travancore but we have

failed to trace particulars of this bird unless it is the juvenile referred to below.

A specimen collected by J. P. Cook at Pelchola in the Wynaad on 6-1-1894 is

in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society.

In the New Fauna it is suggested that this Flycatcher may breed in the

high hills of its supposed winter quarters in Travancore. We do not think so.

The specimens obtained by Brooks at Muddapur on 25 September (S8.F., vii, 456),

by James Davidson at Bhatkal, Kanara, on 20 January 1889 (J.B.N.H.S., xi,

p. 668) and by Currie at Bolarum, Secunderabad, on 2 October 1917 (J.B.N.H.S.,

Xxvl, p. 667) show that the bird travels southwards in winter whilst the

juvenile specimen collected at Chimunji in September 1893 and attributed to

this species in the British Museum appears to us to be really a specimen of

Cyornis pallipes pallipes. Layard’s original specimen is said to have been

obtained in Ceylon in June. Legge however clearly states that the bird is

a North-east Monsoon visitor in January and February to the island. This

bird affords one of the many instances of the generic confusion of the Fly-

catchers. Placed by the Fauna in the genus Alseonax it might almost pass

as a longbilled pale race of ferruginea placed in the genus Hemichelidon.

Ochromela nigrorufa (Jerdon).

Saxicola nigrorufa Jerdon, Madr. Jour. int. Sci., vol. x (December 1889),

p. 266—Nilgiris.

This striking bird is confined to the hill ranges of the Western side of the

Presidency and was not cbserved by the Survey. In the Wynaad, according to

William Davison, it is rare. In the Nilgiris it is common both on the summit

and on the slopes down to 5,000 ft., occurring below that only as a straggler. In

the Palnis it 1s the commonest of the Flycatchers at higher elevations. In Tra-

vancore Bourdillon says that it is scarce not found from 2,500 ft. upwards.

Herguson however calls it common on the High Range and also from 3,500 ft.

to 4,000 ft. in the Southern hills.

The breeding season is from March to May and a few eggs may still be

found in June.

The juvenile plumage of the Black and Orange Flycatcher is not known

except from a somewhat sketchy ‘sight’ record by Dewar (J.B.N.H.8., xvi, 154).

It is important to verify this as the appearance of the bird and its aberrant

breeding habits suggest that it may really belong to the Timaliide.

Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis (Swainson).

Platyrhynchus seylonensis Swains, Zool. LIllusfl, vol. 1 (1820, Dec.), pl. 18

—Ceylon.

This resident race of the Grey-headed Flycatcher is well-known in the hill

ranges of the west of the Presidency where it breeds from March till May,

most nests being found in April.

In the Wynaad Mr. Darling Junr. says it 1s common down to probably

about 3,500 ft., but he gives 4,500 ft. as its lowest elevation in the, Nilgiris,

where it is common up to the highest summits. It is common throughout the

Nelliampathis, the Palnis, the High range of Travancore and on the. tops of

all the Assambo ranges.

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticchurst.

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xlvi (1927), p. 108—

Simla.

Specimens obtained:—1510 9, 1511 A J 10-38-30, 1455 ¢ 2-38-30 Sankrametta

8,800 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

26 12-12.5 66-67 55-57 Usallsi iain

i 12 60 52.5 iS) iawn.

‘Not common at Anantagiri but quite common at Sankrametta in the wooded

rayines’ (lia Personne). It is with some hesitation that we refer these three

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

specimens to the northern breeding race as in colouration they seem somewhat

intermediate, the upper parts matching the typical race and the lower parts

pallidior. As the collector however failed to sex 2 out of the 3 specimens by

dissection, it appears probable that the birds were on migration and on their

way to the Himalayas. It is of course possible that the Grey-headed Fly-

catcher breeds in the Vizagapatam ghats and if so this would explain the

intermediate colouration. We can trace no other record of this species in the

eastern side of the Presidency.

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (1..)

Corvus parad:si Linn., Syst..Nat., ed. x (1758), p. 107—Fort St. George.

Madras. |

Specimens. collected:—30, 36 Gd 12-4-29, 60 © 15-4-29, 125 S 25-14-29

Kurumbapatti; 642 ¢ 2-8-29, 676 ¢ 12-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 869

3 98-16-29 Seshachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 166, S 5-4-8380 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements- -

Bill. Wing. avaril\e Tarsus.

3 6 with streamers 23.5-27 93-98.5 112-119 17-17.5 mm.

3 ¢ (@ plumage) 24-25 .5 87.5-89 94.5-106 17-18 mm.

2 9 25-25.5 85.5-92 86-104 16.5-17.5 mm.

There is really surprisingly little on record about the Paradise Flycatcher

in the Presidency though it is presumably much commoner than our information

would lead us to suppose. lua Personne reports that he found it widely distri-

buted, though not common, in April in the Vizagapatam Hills. Southwards

we have no definite information until the Seschachalam Hills and Palkonda

Hills where the above specimens were obtained. The bird breeds at Horsleykonda

in May (Roscoe Allen, J.B.N.H.S., xvii). It occurs about Madras City (at all

seasons according to Dewar) and there Dr. Buckley obtained the type in the

eighteenth century. In Salem District the Survey found it not uncommon

in the Shevaroys and about Kurumbapatti and others were seen in the Chitteri

range at 3,000 ft. and at Tirthamalai. There is nothing to show whether the

survey birds were in their breeding range or on migration. From the western

side there are specimens in the British Museum from Cannanore (7-6-1882

Wardlaw-Ramsay) and Calicut (2-12-81, 1-1-83 Wardlaw-Ramsay), and two un-

dated specimens from the Hume collection). In Coorg, according to Betts, it

is resident but not common. Specimens from Manantoddy 10 April 1881 and

Sultan’s Battery, Wynaad 4 April 1881 (W. Davison) are in the British

Museum. In the Nilgiris according to Wilham Davison it occurs up _ to

6,006-8,000 ft. though it is locally distributed and nowhere very common.!

In the Nelliampathis, according to Kinloch, the white males are most

abundant. Terry met with a single bird at Pulungi in the Palnis. 3

In Travancore, the Paradise Flycatcher is very common in the low country

jungles but only ascends the hills during the hot weather of February and March

(Bourdillon). Ferguson confirms his account and adds that he has shot it up

ta 6,000 ft. in the High Range and up to the Summits of the hills in the south.

As the type-locality of the typical form is Fort St. George,” Madras, no

particular difficulty was attached to the identification of the Survey specimens.

We however took this opportunity of examining the whole question of the

races of the Paradise Flycatcher within the limits of the Fauna as we have

long felt that the treatment of the species in the New Fauna was unsatisfactory.

As a result we find ourselves compelled to modify that treatment very con-

siderably.

The first essential in any consideration of the Paradise Flycatcher is to

realise that all or most of its races are truly migratory, a point which is not

sufficiently recognised in the New Fauna though Mr. Briggs has suggested

1 The only specimens we have examined from the Nilgiris prove to be winter

specimens of T. p. leucogaster.

4 Sea Micehurst, J.BNH.S., xxx, p. 495 "amd ‘ourselves! loc) "cits, xxxiv,

p. 396. It was unnecessary for Mr. Stuart Baker (vol. 11, p. 266) to restrict

the type locality.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 89

it in some detail in J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, pp. 675-679. We therefore as a prelli-

minary set ourselves to establish the characteristics of the breeding birds of

India so as to avoid the errors attendant on the fact that more than one race

may occur in any given area. A further difficulty hes in the fact that the

plumage stages are not yet known and we have not yet succeeded in unravelling

them. Here the difficulty les in the unreliable sexing of many specimens in

collections, the absence of sufficient moulting intermediates, the fact that

numerous statements of what people have seen is often not confirmed by any

specimens which we have been able to examine, and finally the fact that

it is unreliable to assume that the changes are necessarily parallel in each

race. They certainly are not in each species of this widely spread genus

and the presumption is that the evolutionary stages represented in the various

species are likely to be reflected in some subspecies.

As a result of our enquiry we recognise the existence of three well defined

races within our area. Birds from Ceylon are commonly attributed to the

typical race but we should not be surprised to find that a carefully collected

‘series of local breeding birds, for migrants evidently visit the island, would

reveal the existence of an insular breeding race, a characteristic of which may

be a partial elimination of the white phase. That however does not affect

the recognition of the following races.

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.)

Corvus paradist Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x (1758), p. 107—Fort St. George,

Madras. |

Peninsula India, but northern boundaries not established for lack of speci-

mens. Apparently migrates southwards to Ceylon and eastwards to Burma.

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

Muscipeta leucogaster Swainson, Nat. Library, Flycatchers (June 1838),

p. 205—India.’*

Differs from typical race as follows :—

Q) White ¢G with streamers: Not distinguishable but tends to have

narrower bill and shorter tail and streamers.

(ii) Red 3 with streamers: (a) The chestnut is distinctly paler in tint.

(b) In about 80 per cent the white of the

lower parts extends straight up to

the black of the throat without any

intermediate ashy grey area on the

breast.

with white in the primaries and

secondariés.

(iii) Q and immature 3: (a) Chestnut of upper plumage is distinctly

paler.

(b).The dark portions of the vanes of the

primaries and secondaries is usually

far more extensive and the Tertiaries

have usually a dark shaft streak.

Hxtralimital and also breeding as a summer visitor through parts of N.-W.

India and the Western Himalayas to Nepal, migrates in a ‘southerly direction

te the west coast of India and also perhaps in an easterly direction to Burma.

Tchitrea paradisi nicobarica (Oates).

Terpsiphone nicobarica Oates, Fauna Brit. India, Birds, vol. ii, (1890—Oct.)

p. 48—Nicobars.

G) White 3 with streamers differs from paradisi and leucogaster :—

(a) Shorter crest.

(b) Slight increase of black streaking on the upper parts.

A —————————

* This was one of the Countess of Dalhousie’s birds and therefore probably

came from Simla (vide Ibis 1929, 181).

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(i) Red 3S with streamers differs from paradisi:—

(a) Head, neck and breast are dark ashy grey, the glossy black

confined to a cap and short crest.

(b) Upper parts paler chestnut, washed on the mantle with ashy

olive.

(d) Flanks and under tail-coverts. washed with pale fulvous

chestnut.

(ec) Shortness of streamers.

(ii) Q and immature 3G differ from paradisi correspondingly in the rele-

vant details.

In (ii) and (ii) the differences from leucogaster are equally striking but the

colouration of the head is immediately sufficient for separation. It is also

smaller than both the other Sikkim races. Duars and Upper Assam migrating

southwards through Burma to Andamans and Nicobars.

Notr.—We cannot understand how this very distinct race occurring in

Sikkim and Upper Assam is attributed by Stuart Baker (New Fauna, 11, p. 268)

to leucogaster. Oates had already (Old Fauna, i, p. 47) considered the differ-

cnces from Indiayn birds so great that he included them in a separate species

affinis, though in creating a third species nicobarica he had overlooked the fact

that Hume had already pointed out (8.F., ii, p. 216) that Andaman and

Nicobar birds are absolutely identical with Sikkim birds. Under the binomial

system he was justified in using the name affinis’ but subspecifically our

birds undoubtedly differ from the tone affinis of Malacca. For instance in the

red males with streamers, nicobarica differs from affinis in (a) the paler chest-

nut of the upper parts, (b) the olive ashy wash on the mantle, (c) the paler

ashy grey of the head, throat and breast and (d) the shorter streamers.

There can be no confusion in this stage between affinis and paradisi as the

short crest and the restricted black cap of affinis at once prevent the possibility

of any mistake.

Table of Measurements.

White & with streamers.

Biull. Wing. True Tail. Streamers. Tarsus.

paradist (18 specimens) 23.5-27 96-98.5 104.5-146 296-412 16.5-17.5 mm.

leucogaster (9 specimens) 293,5-26 92-101 104-125.5 3816-402 16-16.5 mm.

nicobarica (17 specimens) 20-24 88-96 92-108 146-358 14.5-16 mm.

Red S with streamers.

(Note that in this phase streamers tend to run shorter than in the whiter phase.)

paradist (16 specimens) 22-26.5 92-99.5 100-118 295-405 16-18

leucogaster (9 specimens) 24-26.5 93-100 104.5-116.5 267-832 16.5-18.5

nicobarica (4 specimens) 22-25 § 88.5-94.5 92.5-102 165-233

Females.

paradist (6 specimens) 225-24 85.5-92 86-110 a 16-17.5

leucogastes (8 specimens) 22-24 84.5-92 85-106.5 Se 15.5-17.5

Reliably sexed females, as opposed to immature males, are not easy to

find for examination.

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

There are six specimens of the Paradise Flycatcher from the Presidency in

the British Museum which we have no hesitation in assigning to this race,

which will probably prove to be a regular winter visitor to south-west India and

Ceylon. They are as follows: —Immature 36 9-4-81 Manantoddy, Q 1872

Goodalore, Wynaad (William Davison); 2 white ¢¢ with streamers 22-10-74

and 16-3-81 and a red ¢ with streamers 1-12-74 Kotagherry (Miss Cockburn);

@ April, 78 Kullar (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

1 Tchitrea affinis Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xy (1846), p. 292—Malacca.

THE .VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 91

Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub).

Siphia styant Hartlaub, Abh. Nat. Ver. Bremen, vol. xvi (2), (1898), p. 248—

Hoihow, Hainan.

Specimens collected:—55 ¢G 15-4-29, 66 9 16-4-29, § 20-4-29, 121 9 24-4-29,

168 ¢ 1-5-29 Kurumbapatti; 285-6 ¢ Q 29-5-29 Chitteri range 2,000 ft.; 728 3

22-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 988 ¢ 9-11-29, 1,005 juv. 18-11-29 Nallamallai

range 2,000 ft.; 1882 9 138-2-80, 1440 92 25-2-30, 1448 ¢ 26-2-30, Anantagiri

6,000 ft.; 1607 ¢ 26-3-30 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.; 1749 J 30-4-30 Jeypore

Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

hee aul ENG) 69.5-74 69.5-76.5 - 15-16.5 mm.

3) G - wamaa 14.5-15.5 68-71.5 67-72 15.5-16 mm.

5 9 ae 14.5-15 66-69 65-70 15-16.5 mm. -

As already poimted out by Dr. Wicehurst (.B.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 495); the

distribution attributed to the Black-naped Flycatcher in India by the New

Fauna is far too sweeping. Except for a single straggler obtained at Karachi

(Ibis 1922, p. 626) we can trace no record north-west of a line from Dhulia,

Sehore and Lucknow, i.e. in quite half of northern India. We are also unable

to recognise two races of this Flycatcher within Indian limits. In north and

south there is certainly no difference between the females. The males are

stated to differ in the richness and brightness of the upper parts, and in the

extent of the blue on the lower parts. This we can certainly not uphold

on the material available. There are only 5 adult males from Northern India

in the British Museum, all collected by King Robinson in the Darjeeling area.

These Darjeeling skins are not well filled out, so that the feathers sit more

closely, show nothing of their bases and so seem a more uniform blue. Allowing

for this fact we cannot see that they differ either from our survey series or

from a considerable number of South Indian skins examined. The apparent

extent of blue on the lower parts is evidently also a question of make-up of

skin.

All these Indian birds are very close to the typical race. There is no

difference in the colour of the males, but our Indian birds are on a series

slightly larger and the females are a paler, less rich colour throughout. They

agree with H. a. styani and may be. accepted as belonging to that race. The

Ceylon bird is of course easily separable.

No mention is made in the Fauna of the fact that the first winter plumage

of the male is exactly similar to that of the adult female.

The distribution of the Back-naped Flycatcher in the Presidency is not very

fully known, though it appears to be, largely a hill bird. In the Vizagapatam.

ghats La Personne reports that it is scattered over a wide area and ascends

to 4,000 ft. It was found in the Nallamallais and Palkonda Hills and in

Salem District it was reported as uncommon at Kurumbapatti but much commoner

higher up in the Shevaroys and Chitteri range. Mr. Howard Campbell found

it breeding at Gooty.

On the western side Betts found it scarce in Coorg where he only observed

iit once or twice. In the Wynaad and the Nilgiris it is common: though it

does not quite ascend to the plateau. It is not recorded in the Nelliampathis

or Palnis but in Travancore is spoken of by both Bourdillon and Ferguson

as fairly common in the hills.

In the Gooty area Mr. Howard Campbe.! took eggs as early as April and

La Personne found a nest in the Shevaroys ou May 17th. In the Nilgiris the

usual breeding season seems to be about June bat William Davison found a

nest with newly hatched young on August 28.

Leucocirca aureola compressirostris 5lyth.

Leucocerca compressirostris Blyth, J.A.S.B., xviii (1849), p. 815—Ceylon.

Specimens collected: —450 9 19-6-29, Harur 1,000 ft.; 554 9 18-7-29,

Gingee; 659 9 6-8-29, Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 895 © 8-10-29, Seshachalam

Hills 2,000 ft.; 1041 ¢ 28-11-29, Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.; V. 1585 <¢

14-83-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft,

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Measurements—

Bill. Wing. Tail, Tarsus.

29 14.5-16 81.5-85.5 59-92 17.5-18 mm.

49 18.5-14.5 78.5-85 85-90.5 17-18.5 mm.

As stated long ago by Jerdon the White-browed Fantail Flycatcher

appears to be far less common in the South than in the North of India. We

have really very little information about it in the Madras Presidency though

ii appears to be fairly generally distributed in small numbers as a resident

species. On the Hastern side, our information is solely based on the above

specimens, a specimen in my own collection from St. Thomas’ Mount, dated

16-5-1900 and Dewar’s remark that at Madras it is not very abundant though

by no means rare. :

On the Western side we have seen specimens from Cannanore (3 18th.

March, Col. H. R. Baker: ¢ 15th September, Wardlaw-Ramsay). William

Davison says that he had only seen it once or twice in the Wynaad. In

Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is common in the low country and breeds

there in April. ,

We are aware that Dewar (J.B.N.H.S., xvi. p. 154), considered it very

numerous at Coonoor and Fairbank (8.F., v, 401), stated that he had found it

up to 4,000 ft. in the Palnis. But as both these authors omit pectoralis from

their lists we consider that there has probably been some error in identification.

In the New Fauna Mr. Stuart Baker confines the range of compressirostris

to Ceylon and 8. Travancore, while the rest of India proper and Assam north

of the Brahmaputra is given as the range of the typical race. It is difficult

to make out the correct distribution and division of the races of this species

partly because there is no adequate series available in the British Museum

trom Bengal the type locality, partly because this species is difficult to skin

and most specimens in collections are therefore very poorly prepared, and partly

because the differences are slight and the colour changes with abrasion. We

ara however unable to see how our Survey specimens can be separated from

the Ceylon race.

If birds from Ceylon are compared with birds from the Punjab and Sindh

they will be found to differ as follows :—

aureola compressirostris

1. One central pair of tail feathers

black without white tips.

2. White tips of outer pair of tail

feathers extensive, about three-

quarters of the length of the

feather and reaching the under

tail coverts.

3. Upper plumage slightly paler when

fresh mounted.

1. Two central pairs of tail feathers

black without white tips.

2. White tips of outer pair of tail

feathers less extensive, only

about one half of the length of

the feather, and not reaching

the under-tail coverts.

3. Upper plumage _ slightly darker,

more sooty, when fresh moult-

4. Tail longer ¢ 89-100 mm. ed.

4. Tail shorter ¢ 82.5-87.5.

On these characteristics our Survey series are most certainly compressirostris

as are all birds which we have examined from the Madras Presidency including

Travancore and Southern Mysore.

There is however complete intergradation between the two forms and it

may ultimately be found more satisfactory to recognise three races, of which

the typical is the intermediate. Before this is done however it will be neces-

sary to examine a proper series from Bengal and the centre of the Peninsula,

and these are not at present available.

The difference between the nests of this species and pectoralis which is

overlooked in the New Fauna has been recorded by Mr. D’Abreu (J.B.N.H.S.,

xxxv, p. 217), and independently reported to me by Capt. R. S. P. Bates.

Leucocirca pectoralis pectoralis Jerdon.

Leucocirca pectoralis Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Orn., Text to pl. ii (1845 before

March)—Nilgiris.

Specimens collected: —108 Q 22-4-29, 195 3 6-5-29, Kurumbapatti; 448 9

19-6-29, Harur 1,000 ft.; 750 ¢ 26-8-29, Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 964-5 Q¢

8-11-29, Nallamallai Range 2,000 ft. ae

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 98

Measurements—

Bull. Wing. Taal. ‘Tarsus.

36 14-14.5 5.0-16 06-93.5 18-15.5 mm.

3 9 15-14 76-74 86-94 17-16 mm.

The White-spotted Fantail Flycatcher does not appear to have been recorded

on the eastern side of the Presidency until the Survey found specimens in the

above four localities. On the west it is of course well-known. It occurs in the

Wynaad (though as yet unrecorded from Coorg and Malabar) and in _ the

Nilgiris is exceedingly common’, mostly between 5,000 and 6,000 feet accord-

ing to William Davison. We do not find any published authority for the

statement that it occurs in Travancore. Terry recorded that in the Palnis he

found it far from common in the Pittur valley but we feel that there may be

some mistake about this. At any rate Captain Bates informs us that he never

observed it during a residence of two months in the Palnis, and Terry’s lst

does not include L. awreola which is not uncommon at lower elevations in those

hills.

In the Nilgiris the breeding season is. from April to July. The female

obtained at Kurumbapatti in April was about to lay eggs.

Leucocirca pectoralis vernayi Whistler.

eucocincas pectoralis = vernayi, NV histier bull] 9b. Os €:, > vol. in, cecliv.

(Dec. 1981) p. 40—Jeypore Agency 3,000 feet; upper Hastern Ghats.

Specimens collected.—13884 ¢ 1887 9Q 138-2-30, 1410 9 19-2-30, 1755 9

2-5-86 Anantagiri 3,000 feet; 1620 ¢ 28-3-30, 1628 ¢ 30-3-30 Sankarametta 3,000

feet: 1700 A ¢ 18-4-30, 1730 ¢ 26-4-30 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements—-

Bill. Wing. Tail. ‘Tarsus.

Bes 13.5-15.5 72-81 95-104.5 18-19 mm.

3 9 18-18.5 16-73.5 88-96 18-18.5 mm.

Extremely common all over the whole area visited in the Vizagapatam Ghats.

Specimens obtainded were in varying goetces of genital development in March

and April (lia Personne).

This is another of the interesting new forms obtained by the Survey in the

upper Hastern Ghats. It is easily distinguished from the typical form by the far

broader pectoral band which is also continued downwards as an extensive dark

wash on the flanks. The white spots on the pectoral band are much reduced,

both in size and number and they are mostly confined to the posterior edge of

the band. The upper parts are slightly paler and browner in tint. The fulvous

wash on the abdomen is darker, and the lateral tail-feathers are also washed

with fulvous.

(To be continued).

" An amusing incident during the photographing of this species is related

by Bates (J.B.N.H.S. JAEGGI On PASS)

THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY,!

S. B. Serna, M.sc., ph.p. (Cantab.),

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; and Royal Institute of

Science, Bombay.

(With 5 plates).

‘The marine life of the Andaman Seas has been so frequently

referred to by distinguished workers on the fauna of those Seas

that an apology may seem necessary for the present attempt. The

teeming variety of specimens for investigation, the strange methods

ol obtaining them and the sight of the hardy and industrious

Japanese somstemtly and fearlessly diving into the deep for the

wherewithal of their existence furnish foetal topics for description,

the interest of which can never be exhausted; and though the

present sketch may add nothing new to the literature of the con-

ditions round the Andamans it is an effort to set forth things in

general and the fishing methods of the Japanese mn particular as

hey appeared to the Soitten.

The Andaman Islands consist of a chain of islands about 204

in number and lie in the Bay of Bengal. The average width of

the chain is 15 miles and the length, excluding the Little Anda-

mans, which lie 40 miles off the ‘South Andamans, 18 about 145

miles. The chief islands, starting from the North, are: North

Andaman, Baratang, South Andaman, and Little Andaman. Port

Blaiw, the main settlement, is on the east coast of South Andaman.

The Andamans are about 780 miles from the mouth of the Hooghly

and 120 miles from Cape Negrais in Burma.

The story of the strange commencement and growth of the

Andaman shell fishery constitutes an interesting chapter in the

history of the shell fishery in India. In the early days of the

industry, when the Port Blair authorities were apprised of the

fact that the Japanese were carrying shells from areas round the

adjoining islands, investigators were sent from the Indian Museum

(Zoological Survey of India) Calcutta, to inspect the local condi-

tions. Later attempts resulted in the bestowal of continuous

attention on the fishery and the results of such observations have

been recorded and kept up to date. It is remarkable that the

1 T take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to Lieut.-Col. R. B. 5S.

Sewell, late Director of the Zoological Survey of India, who made it possible for

me to be in the Andamans for a year as Fisheries Officer. I am also indebted

to him for various invaluable suggestions I] received from him in connection

with the work. For permission to publish a short general account of the

Andamanv. shell fishery I am indebted to the authorities of the Indian Museum,

from the members of whose staff, specially Dr. Baini Prashad and Dr. 8. L.

Hora, I obtained considerable assistance. My thanks are also due to Col.

Ferrar, Chief Commissioner of the Andamans, who afforded me every facility

for the execution of the work.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. EPATED

1. Artistically carved shells of Turbo.

2. Shells chemically ‘treated to expose pearly layer. (Central shell

untreated for comparison.)

3. Japanese crew at shell banks.

Pp oes

Seale co

THH ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY 95

organised development of the fisheries on a systematic basis was

not undertaken years ago. 7

SHELLS IN COMMERCIAL USE.

About a dozen species of the Gastropod molluse of the Family

Trochide (top-shells) and the Family Turbinide are found through-

out the Andamans, but only two species Trochwus niloticus Linn, a

most abundantly distributed species, and Turbo marmoratus Linn,

found in very small quantities, have a beautiful pearly appearance

on the inside. Commercially therefore these are extremely valu-

able and are in very great demand for the pearl button manufacture.

The two genera Trochus and Turbo are easily distinguishable by

the structure and nature of the operculum. The operculum in

both these genera is a well developed structure situated on the

foot, and serves as a very efficient door to close the mouth of

the shell when the animal withdraws itself inside. In Trochus

the operculum is horny and has its outer surface marked with a

spiral. In Turbo the operculum is stony in nature. It is a heavy

structure and is large enough to be used as a paper weight and is

therefore not without value.

DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY.

Regarding the T’rochus, 1t may be mentioned that the Anda-

mans are not the only fishing grounds. France has produced

thousands of tons of Trochus. When Trochus shells were first in

demand they came exclusively from Singapore and the neighbour-

ing islands, but later on Trochus began to be fished all over the

world.. The Red Sea fisheries produce thousands of tons. The

Fiji islands, New Caledonia and Australia are also producing

Trochus for commercial purposes. Recently Japan has promoted

the Trochus fishery. The fisheries of the Queensland coast of

Australia have been exclusively worked by Japan to which place

the shells were shipped immediately from the fishing grounds.

Turbo marmoratus is obtained in Penang, Singapore, Mergui,

Australia and New Guinea. In appearance, both the Trochus and

the Turbo have a beautiful pearly lustre on the interior. Besides

the commercial value of these species for the manufacture

of pearl buttons, their flesh is edible and forms one of the sources

of sustenance of the Japanese fishermen during the time they are

fishing. Both species are extensively used for enhancing the

attractiveness of ordinary articles. They are also employed in the

manufacture of a large variety of ‘articles, such as buckles for

shoes, knife handles, serviette rings, toilet objects, fruit dishes

and for artistic inlaid work. Various artistic engravings are also

worked out on shells. Having considered the fishery in its

general outlines, I shall now describe some of its more detailed

features.

JAPANESE START ANDAMANS INDUSTRY.

When the Japanese first started fishing, their operations

were confined to the region round the Nicobars, where they fished

for some years. From this region quite a quantity of shells was

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

removed with the result that the areas were almost depleted.

This depletion became so acute that the Japanese were compelled

to move to virgin waters and it was when they were in the

neighbourhood of the North Andamans that they were accidentally

detected shelling by the captain of a steamer on the regular

Calcutta-Andaman Service. All this while, it should be noted in

passing—the Japanese carried on their operations furtively without

the knowledge of the authorities. It is thus to a mere accident

that we owe the discovery and subsequent development of the

Andaman fisheries. The shells in the possession of those Japanese

who were caught shelling were confiscated and later sold. The

whole incident has been well and graphically described in the records

in possession of the Chief Commissioner at Port Blair. Many such

cases of poaching were discovered and the poachers were fined

heavy amounts for fishing for shells without licences. The extent

to which poaching had been practised is of course unknown, but

there is no doubt that it was followed by the denudation of the

entire area in the neighbourhood of the Nicobars and evidence of

this is afforded by the Japanese themselves who now find fishing

there unremunerative and openly avow it.

The fishing season begins in October, when the Japanese come

torward to register their names for the ensuing season. In the

first year of the industry licences were granted to several Japanese

firms but, later, stricter regulations were enforced to protect the

fisheries with the result that the same large number of Japanese

who fished in the first year is not forthcoming. During the season

1936-1931 licences were granted to two firms only and a fleet of

six vessels belonging to them was engaged in fishing. The two

firms had their representatives stationed at Port Blair.

INTREPIDITY OF JAPANESE FISHERMEN.

Prior tc the season under review, the practice was to collect

a definite quantity of shells from any section of the islands within

a specified period, but the Japanese sometimes experienced diffi-

culty in fishing the allotted quantity during the specified time and

the terms of the lceences were somewhat modified. The course

followed in the beginning of the present season which, it may

incidentally be observed, has now been given up, was to do away .

with the time limit and to allot a definite area to each boat. The

area where they have to shell is specified in the licence.

Obviously during the south-west monsoon, no fishing at all

is done and even during October to May when fishing is done

stormy weather and rough seas at times prevail on the north-east

coast owing to the north-east monsoon. Though this monsoon is

not as severe as the south-west, it nevertheless seriously interferes

at times with the fishing, the wind and rain compelling the fish-

ing erew to take shelter on the west coast. Another factor is

the visibility of the waters, which are frequently rendered turbid

and greatly hamper the fishing operations. As the visibility in

the waters is reduced, the divers cannot distinguish objects under-

neath, and they are disinclined to fish on account of the sharks

which have the better of them under these conditions. In this

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE

2. View of holds in which ghells are stored.

<<< ete

3. A close up of fishermen ready for operations,

-Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate Iif

its way to fishing grounds.

1. A typical sampan on

7B:

eS s ee : SS AOS

fishermen are seen in the water.

SWS von

ed sampans. The

a. The unattend

3. A loaded sampan alongside motor-boat.

Eko)

THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY Q7

locality the danger from man-eating sharks is very great, various

dangerous species of sharks being found in the neighbourhood of

these shell-beds. As a result of these perils to which fishermen are

exposed, one man recently lost his life. In this particular instance

the man was picking up shells at a depth of about five fathoms

when. he was attacked by a shark and lost an entire limb from the

thigh to the foot. In this connection it would nct be out of place

to refer to the intrepidity and fearlessness of the Japanese fisher-

men whe, sometimes with great skill and imminent risk to their

lives, ‘:pertorm marvellous feats in beating off attacks of sharks.

Boats AND EQUIPMENT.

The first aspect that forcibly strikes the mind of the observer

and fixes his attention is the extraordinary hardiness, fearless

courage and great perseverance of the Japanese in securing the

shells. This is the principal object of their mission and in order

to obtain it they have first to make the long and tedious trip from

Singapore to the Andamans. Motor-launch transport is not the

pleasantest method of accomplishing so’ long a voyage and, besides

the insufficiency of the accommodaticn, the’ members of the crew

have to undergo the further discomforts of being exposed to the

inclemencies of sun, wind and ram. The fact that they success-

fully perform the voyage despite such handicaps must arouse

admiration, which is further enhanced when it is known that they

have achieved the primary object, which is the collection of shells

for commercial purposes. Here it would not be out of place to

refer to the equipment of the boats.

The hands engaged on them are almost exclusively recruited

from the Japanese. . The usual type of boat is manned by a crew

of about eight divers, a master navigator (captain), and an engi-

neer to drive the engine. The captain is usually the manager

and the director of the work. The divers have no ‘special kit.

To protect their eyes they wear home-made goggles of ordinary

glass mounted in a wooden frame and secured by twine or strong

rubber tubing round the head: Not one of the number of the

divers is familar with English yet despite their ignorance of the

language they, curiously enough, have with them the most recent

Admiralty charts of the waters in which they propose fishing.

The sole nautical instrument on board is a compass with the

addition of a pair of binoculars.

The boats are generally uniform in type and structure. They

are fitted with powerful engines which generate sufficient energy

to enable them to travel round the islands and along the coast-

line. The size of the boats vary at times but on an average the

space from stem to stern is between 40 to 60 feet. They have

a carrying capacity of about 18 tons of shells and the gross ton-

nage of any boat is about 25 tons. The deck space from the tip

of “the stern to the steering wheel is covered with numerous

‘hatches’ for storing away the shells. In Japan these boats are

used for the Tunny fishery. Each of these motor-boats has attend-

ing on them three or four sampans (paddle boats) which are

towed by the former. The sampans are light, small craft used to

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

approach the shell beds, on the rocky ledges where the fishing

is to be done. The motor-boats, on account of their large size,

cannot approach the fishing areas owing to the fear of sub-

merged rocks. When the divers reach the shell beds and

are about to jump into the water, they fill their lungs several

times with air and expel it. Finally as they are about to jump,

they take in one final deep breath and plunge in, sinking several

fathoms below the water. They next secure as many shells as

possible, which are put into a small net-bag secured round the

waist. The divers remain submerged for a little over two

minutes. When they are unable to stay any longer, they ascend

to the surface and transfer whatever shells they may have secured

and are in their bag into another larger bag floating on

the surface of the water and to which an empty petrol tin is

attached.

JAPANESE FisHinc METHODS.

The shells are stowed away in this bag as they are picked

up and this process of rising above the water and diving underneath

continues till the bag is completely full. Its contents are then

emptied into the sampan. The Japanese divers are very daring

and they have been known tc venture as much as 15 fathoms

deep, but under these conditions they make. their appearance

much quicker and their working time is considerably shortened.

The diving operations last for about three to four hours during

which the sampan floats unattended. The divers then row the

sampan back to the motor-boat, on to the deck of which are poured

out all the shells in the sampans. This process goes on till the

maximum storage capacity of the motor-boat has been reached,

and this takes from about 20-40 days depending upon the produc-

tivity of the shell beds. The sampans leave at about seven in

the morning, and at mid-day, when the divers return for food after

strenuous work, a hot meal, usually of rice and fish, awaits them.

When diving is suspended the main work is to treat the shells

fished. The entire crew, including the captain and the engineer,

then start extracting the animals from the shells. This lessens

ta a very great extent the weight of the cargo of the shells on the

homeward trip of the motor boat. The animals also serve as

comestibles, for their head and foot regions are carefully strung and

dried for consumption later. The entire animal in the case of the

Trochus cannot be easily removed, as the organs which le in the

upper whorls of the shell do not yield easily to the process of

extraction. The instrument used for the purpose of extraction, in

the case of both the shell fish, consists of a stout steel wire with

a sharp point at one end and a wooden handle at the other.

The instrument resembles a gimlet bent at the point. After

the extraction of the animal, the shells are stored in the holds,

where flies and maggots completely eat out what has been left

behind. The stench emanating from such shells is unbearable. In

the case of the Turbo shells, which are provided with a hard cal-

careous operculum, these are kept on the deck till the animal

creeps out. The insertion of the instrument. before this has not

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ATE IOV

Mlieielilibldls

1. Discharging the cargo of the sampan into the launch.

2. Removing animals preparatory to storage in holds.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | | | Prats V

1. Holds stocked with shells.

2. Instrument used for removal of animals.

3. Home-made goggles used by divers.

THE ANDAMAN SHELL FISHERY 199

much eftect as it cannot reach the soft parts on account of the

thick and heavy operculum. This method, if not better, is no

doubt quicker than the one employed in the Philippines, where

the shells required for commercial purposes are buried in the

eround for at least a month and then washed in sea water.

DIvIsion oF PROFITS.

It would not be out of place here to describe the status of .the

various divers and their manner of the division of the proceeds

realised from the sale of the shells. The fishing boats, on their

return from collecting shells, inform the Deputy Commissioner of

their arrival in the harbour. The Fisheries Officer examines the

holds to see whether the allotted amounts have been collected and

also whether the shells are of the specified size. The Deputy

Commissioner next receives payment for the shells after which the

boats leave for Singapore, to return to the Andamans again within

a fortnight to resume fishing operations. Hach boat makes two

or three such backward and forward trips. At the end of. each

trip to Singapore, the captain and the crew are paid off. Accord-

ing to their competency and ability for work, the divers are classi-

fied into three and sometimes into four grades. The captain of

the motor-boat, the engineer and about three or four best divers

are placed in class I, while the remaining grades are composed

of men according to their efficiency of work. The proceeds of the

sale of the shells are distributed among the four grades of the

divers in the proportion of 10, 9, 8, 7. This method seems rather

strange and likely to give cause for misunderstanding and dispute,

but, far from there being any disagreement the divers display

remarkable comradeship and team spirit. This arises from the

fact that they are not the paid servants of any firm or employers,

but their own masters and their earnings are strictly dependent on

their efficiency of work. The desire to excel one another acts as

a powerful incentive and all are very enthusiastic about their work.

The greater their efficiency, the bigger their catch, and correspond-

ingly a larger share in the division of the net gains. A diver jim

class I on an average earns about Rs. 300 a month. Their wants

are few, expenses accordingly small, and their net income there-

fore amounts to an attractive figure. The staple diet of the divers

consists of boiled rice and fish, which is caught by the divers as

the motor-boat is on the run. If no fish is got by means of the

line, the divers jump in and spear the fish in their hiding places

among the coral reefs. Besides rice, the provisions aboard consist

of onions, potatoes, Japanese sauce, tobacco and apples, all brought

from Singapore. The normal cost (inclusive of all running

expenses) on a trip from Singapore to the Andamans averages

about Rs. 200, which is not much considering the cruise lasts for

about a week. It will be seen that for a small outlay a hand-

some profit awaits their enterprise, privations and discomforts.

Fortunately a check has been placed on their enterprising zeal,

for their unrestricted activities threatened to denude the Andamans

of its shell fauna.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST’. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

SHELL-FISH CENSUS.

During the period under review a survey of the Andaman waters

was carried out with the object of making a preliminary survey of

the fishing grounds. It included an investigation of the location of

the beds, density of the shells and other features which, it was

thought, would serve as a basis for future work. The coast line

ior the most part was traversed in Japanese vessels. Information

was also indirectly collected by the following method. A number

of maps of the areas allotted to the two firms was prepared and

these were given to the captains of the six boats with instructions

to locate on the maps the sites of the beds, their extent, the num-

ber ot shells fished, the time taken and other miscellaneous

details. |

The preliminary information gathered on the survey has led to

several interesting conclusions. I may poimt out that though

the information extends to only six months’ work in the locality,

it nevertheless, more or less fairly represents the quantity of

shells available round these islands. Among the important data

yielded by the shell. fish census is the interesting fact that

both Vrochus and Turbo are gregarious and inhabit distinct beds.

The densest shell areas lie chiefly round the islands, rather than

along the main coast and are also higher at the southern end than

at the northern end of the group. The greater part of the catches

were made at depths varying from two to nine fathoms. Both the

varieties of shell fish are confined to the zone below low tide line

and scarcely extend more than ten fathoms below low water.

Trochus beds, particularly, are found near the outer edge, on the

extensive coral reefs which fringe these islands. It may be assum-

ed that in the neighbourhood of these areas the molluscs seem to

find abundance of lime as well as food and other conditions favour-

able for reproduction and growth. A survey of the reels in

neighbourhood of these islands, including their geology, oceano-

eraphical conditions, flora and fauna will be invaluable to scientists

and it may be mentioned that an attempt has already been made

to undertake this task.

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA.

lh. IL, IPOCOOne, ins;

(Unofficial Assistant in the Zoological Department of the

British’ Museum).

AU ae

(With 2 plates and 12 text-figures.)

(Continued from page 823 of Volume XXXV).

THe Stora Brar (Melursus), THe Himanayan Buiack Brar |

(Selenarctos) AND THE Maayan Bear (Helarctos).

Genus: MELUBRSUS, Meyer..

Melursus, Meyer, Zool. Eintdeckung, p. 155, 1793; and of most

recent authors including Blanford, Mamm. Brit. India, p. 200,

SSS eand seococdks Ann. Mag. Nat. Hast. (9), 1, p. 383, 1918.

Arceus, Goldfuss, Verh. Nat. Saug., pp. 301-3802, 1809.

Enoc ius lilicer, “Prodi. Syst. Mamm., pp. 109-110; 1811:

Chondrorhynchus, G. Fischer, Zoogn. III, pp. 142-148, 1814.

Notes on the synonymy.—lt is needless to discuss in detail the

generic names in this list since they all have the same type-

species, namely, the bear described as Bradypus ursinus by Shaw

referred to below under the specific synonymy.

In admitting the genus as distinct from Ursus, Blanford and

others laid particular stress upon the dentition, especially upon

the suppression of the median pair of upper incisors. Subsequently

I pointed out some supplementary generic features connected with

the feet and the rhinarium, amplifying in some detail structural

pecuharities in the nose indicated by Shaw’s original figure and

description.

Diagnosis.—Feet an extreme modification of those of the Brown

Bear (Ursus), with the five digital pads nearly in line and fused

up to their distal ends; but with the area between these pads and

the plantar pad and the area round the carpal pads on the fore foot

naked; also the area above the carpal pads is scantily clothed with

short hai. “Ears large. as in Urvsus.. Rhinarium distinctive,

transversely elongated, without philtrum and without median

eroove, its upper edge mobile, overhanging and capable of being

closed over the nostrils; its lateral edges also projecting. The

lips and tongue highly protrusible.

Skull also an extreme modification of that of Ursus, very like

it in proportions and in profile view; but with the mouth and teeth

adapted for a different sort of diet, much of which is imbibed by

102. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

suction. The following are the principal differences from the skull

of Ursus:—the Jaws are ‘undershot’, the lower incisors projecting

lane, I

A. Lower side of right fore paw. of the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus).

B. Lower side of right hind paw of the same.. C!. external carpal

pad; C*. internal carpal pad; mt. metatarsal pad; p. plantar pad;

d. digital pad; 1 fifth digit; 5 first digit (these digits inadvertently

wrongly numbered).

sheghtly beyond the upper; the median upper incisor teeth are

absent! to leave a gap through which food is sucked into the

mouth; the first three premolars above and below better developed

than in Ursus and persistent; the edge of the mandible which

bears the lower ones straight, not concave as in Ursus, so that

there is no postecanine biting space (see figs. of skulls and teeth

in Part I of this paper); the back cheek- een much smaller, the

last upper molar only about the size of the molar in front of it,

and the first of the three lower molars longer than the second.

The post-dental part of the palate is very long and wide, thrusting

the posterior nares backwards, as in some anteaters; from that

point forwards the palate is hollowed almost to the canines whence

it inclines upwards to the incisive border.

In connection with the claim of kinship between M elursus and

Ursus here put forward from consideration of the feet and skulls,

it may be recalled that Lydekker came to the same opinion from

the examination of the skull of an extinct Pliocene bear (Ursus

' These teeth are present although reduced in size in the milk dentition,

PILATE Tl.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

SAN

Russian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)

Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus

VITTY & SEABORNE, LTD,

THH BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 108

theobaldi) from the Siwalik Hills. The teeth of this hear were

intermediate in size between those of Melursus and Ursus.

MELURSUS URSINUS, Shaw.

MELURSUS URSINUS URSINUS, Shaw.

Bradypus ursinus, Shaw, Nat. Misc., 1 (unpaged), pls. 58-59,

W791; wd. Zool. Mamm., 1; p. 159; pl. 47, 1800; and of recent

authors under Melursus.

Melursus lybius, Meyer, Zool. Entdeckung, p. 156, 1798.

Arceus mger, Goldfuss, Verh. Nat. Saug., p. 301, 1809.

Ursus labiatus, Blainville, Bull. Soc. Philom., 1817, p. ‘74;

and of many later writers.

Ursus longirostris, Tiedemann, Abhandl., p.l., pl. 1820.

Typical locality.—Patna, north of the Ganges, Bengal. |

Distribution.—Peninsular India from Cape Comorin northwards

to Gujerat, Assam and the foothills of the Himalayas.

Notes on the synonymy.—The type of the Sloth Bear was a

living example, exhibited in London, and described and figured

A. Rhinarium of Melursus with nostril open.

B. Iind of muzzle of the same showing the nostril closed and the lower

lip partially protruded.

C. Front view of the upper jaw of the same showing the rhinarium and

the mediam gap in the incisor teeth.

D. Claws of fore and hind paw of the same,

104. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volo XXXVI

by Shaw, who, misled by the entire absence of its incisor teeth,

took it for a new species of Sloth (Bradypus). In this opinion

he had the support of Pennant; and very naturally the animal

excited a good deal of contemporary interest, especially on the

Continent. <A figure and description of it were also published by

Delaméterie (Journ. de Physique, Vol. 40, pp. 186 and 404, pl. 1,

1792), who stated that it had been imported from the interior of

Africa. Hence, Meyer, guided by Delaméterie’s account and per-

ceiving from his illustration that the animal was a bear, described

it as Melursus lybius. The animal nevertheless was secured at

Patna, as Shaw recorded. Subsequently Goldfuss, Blainville and

Tiedemann respectively described the same animal as niger, labi-

atus and longirostris. As Ursus labiatus the species was described

and figured by both G. and F. Cuvier, who, on Duvaucel’s autho-

rity, recorded it from Sylhet. Many subsequent writers adopted

that name. |

Description.—Coat varying according to season in colour,

thickness and length. When full exceedingly long and thick, with

the hairs straight or wavy and, befcre the moult, coalescing into

long tufts as in Ursus. Underwool sometimes, but not always,

distinguishable from the rest of the coat. The muzzle always

very short-haired, the long hair setting in at the level of the ears

and longest on the back just behind the shoulder where it forms

a mat recalling the shoulder-mat of Ursus. Colour typically

black, frequently brownish, sometimes wholly brown, sometimes

partly grey; the muzzle always mealy; the ‘collar’ varying from

white to almost chestnut, typically V-shaped. Claws pale

whitish-horn. ,

For the loan of several of the skins noted below I am indebted

to the Bombay Natural History Society. These are indicated

B.N.H.S. Two of these, collected for the Mammal Survey, one

in Bengal by C. A. Crump, the other in Ceylon by Major EK. W.

Mayor, are dated and show that the moult takes place in the

summer. Of the skins in the British Museum.one only is dated.

Hee aN\oyadn Wlewra. Ole, (whe, Cosems. Noss Zi, 10, 12, ©).

Colour black, with the collar brownish buff, crescentic, its arms

about 34 ins, long, expanding above to a little over 24 ins. wide.

Coat long, shaggy, somewhat tufted, about 64 ins. long on the

sides of the neck and just behind: the’ shoulder, 6 ins. on the

flanks and 4 ins. on the Icins and rump. The skin, apparently

unstretched, measures 4 ft. 7 ins. long. This bear was shot on

February 12th.

2. Palamau in Chota Nagpur (Capt. 8. N. Walker, Nos. 24,

10, 9, 8.). Black with a decided brownish tinge, owing to the

hair-tips being dead, curled and faded to that tint, on the fore

quarters and hind paws. The collar brownish-buff, asymmetrical.

broad behind, with transverse posterior border, its right arm much

thicker than the left. Coat long, shaggy and thick but shabbier-

looking than in No. 1, the hair from 7 to 8 ins. on the sides of

the neck and behind the shoulder, 5 to 6 ins. on the flanks, on the

belly short and thin. The skin, made up as a rug, measures 9 ft.

3 ins, pitas Dares e Dak

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 105

- 8. Same locality and history (Nos. 24, 10, 8, 7.). like the

last, but collar very differently shaped being crescentic with the

arms broader at their anterior or upper ends. Coat a little shorter,

hairs 6 to 64 ins. on sides of neck and behind shoulder, 5 ins. on

flanks. The skin, similarly made up, measures 6 ft.

‘iach Dicnmceve Vita hiseher Nos.. 0; 4, 2,1.) An

undated, mounted skin, black in colour and with perfect ccat,

the hair over 8 ins. on the sides of the neck, 7 ins. on the mat

and on the flanks. The length is 5 ft. 8 ins. and the standing

height 2 ft. 10 ins.

on Nimachit ie tlazanibagh sin. sbengal (S.N ES. C:2 A.

Crump.). Skin dated June 12th, 1914. Coat very shabby, dull

and dead-looking, ccnsisting largely of thick, tangled brown woolly

hair, which, when the black tipped hairs are disarranged, gives

a brown hue to the skin; a good deal of brown on the head and

paws. Hair on sides of neck about 6 ins., on back 4% ins.,

scanty on rump and belly. Arms of V-shaped collar about 12 ins.

Jong by 14 ins. wide. Front claws 2.7 ins. long in a straight

line from base above to tip; hind claws 1.2 ins.

6. Meleghat, Chickalda, Berar. (B.N.H.S.). General colour

of back blackish brown, quite brown on sides of neck, flanks, belly

and limbs. Collar yellowish buff, well developed, crescentic.

Hair on sides of neck and behind shoulder 54 to 64 ins., on nape

14 ins., on back 4 ins. Underwool pale greyish brown.

7. Wajora, Hydrabad (B.N.H-S. B. Devlin.). All. black;

with V-shaped collar dirty white, small, its arms about 4 to 5 ins.

long. Coat very long, thick and shaggy, massed in long tufts;

hairs 9 to 10 ins. long on the neck, shoulders and flanks, 5 ins.

on the back. :

MELURSUS URSINUS INORNATUS, Puch.

Melursus inornatus, Pucheran, Rev. Mag. Zool., v, p. 392, 1855.

Type locality.—Ceylon.

Pucheran gave the name mornatus to a young specimen of

the Sloth Bear from Ceylon because it differed from the typical

Indian form by having no white mark on the chest. He also

claimed that the skull was more elliptical than Indian skulls of

the same age. I have seen no adult skulls from Ceylon; but I

retain Pucheran’s name in a subspecific sense because Ceylonese

skins seem to be much shorter coated than the skins from north

India.

The only examples from Ceylon I have seen are the skins of

two males shot on May 13th at Kumbukkan in Uva by Major

EK. W. Mayor for the Mammal Survey and two immature skulls,

one from Kumbukkan obtained by the same collector but not: be-

longing to either of the skins, the other ticketed South Ceylon

(Miss Bevan), presented to the Museum by the Bombay Nat.

Hist. Society. 7 |

The skins do not agree with the type described by Pucheran

in the. absence of the chest-patch, although in one of them it is

very small, only an inch or two wide, and much smaller than in

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

any Indian skin; but in the other it is quite conspicuous and as

large as in some Indian skins. But in both of them the coat

which shows no obvious signs of moult is much shorter and less

shaggy than in the skins from Bengal and central India recorded

above. At a little distance the skins resemble much more closely

skins of Selenarctos thibetanus, especially short coated skins of the

latter in which the lateral crest on the neck is differentiated from

the nape. In the Uva skins the hair on this crest and on the

dorsal mat is between 8 and 84 ins., on the nape it is barely 1 in.,

and on the rump from 1 to 14 ins.

The Museum has a large series of skulls of the Sloth Bear.

Unfortunately very few are sexed. In the following table are given

the measurements of two ¢g¢ and one @Q in which the sex was

recorded and of one or two others selected for their size, distri-

bution or some other feature. A comparison of the tooth measure-

ments with those of the races of Ursus arctos, in the first part

of this paper, clearly shows their great differences in size in the

two species. 3

| Upper teeth) Lower teeth

Skull in English inches. gee diag ; ae

| in millim. in millim.

——

ee oN

Ss ee ire

Locality and Sex |_ 4 Ge A S5 5 ve a e 2

| & a0 oo] SL | 2 -S|KYe liad as (Sj ae Eg

els SxS} GS GE} [2 2S SLs SO cI ms

SSIS SMS ElSeleelias| S58 jas| gs

M. wu. ursinus

Belaghat, C.P. WBEG WAKE) Sey OD. |e) [Sew

Melghat, C.P. 13-4 /12°2 |8-°0" 5-92-2250) 427) 20519 56 1asc10

S. Chanda, ©.P. gf [12-9 |19-2 |7-5 [5-8 |3-1 |3-0 |50 |21x12 | 58 | 16x11

. Py ee PS PIR EG [Be eet eS Ae | EOL By) Se IO

Bankura, Bengal. Q [11-6 /11-4 (6-8 (5-2 |2-6 |2-6 | 45 | 20x11 |54 | 15x10

Gauripur, Assam. 12-9) ... |8-1 |... |8-1 13-1 |50 |90x11 | 57 | 15x10

S.-E. Coorg. MSE EAA SIO) Wor WMA) SO | BO | BO see) 1 | TG Sc LIL

M. u. inornatus |

‘Ova, Ceylon. |

(young) 10-9 10-4 | 6-7 | 4-9 {2-5 |2-5 |48 |18x10 | 54 | 15x10

S. Ceylon.

(young) TOOT oc feco toca) cee | AO || MOSeTEL poek | Sse ne

The first skull on this list, presented to the British Museum

by Sir Richard Dane, is interesting on account of its size. It is

easily the ‘record’ for the Sloth Bear, judging from Rowland

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 107

Ward’s’ Records of Big Game, 1928, where (p. 504) four skulls

are entered ranging from 124 to 12% ims. in total length and

from 62 to 7 ims. across the zygomata. These are all narrower

and, with one exception, shorter than the male or supposedly

male skulls enlisted above. Although unsexed, Sir Richard

Dane’s skull is no doubt that of a male. It is quite cld with a

highly domed cranium and had lost many of its teeth, but not all,

before death. The skull from Melghat, presented by Mr. Dunbar

Brander, is fully adult. Of the two from 8. Chanda, presented by

Capt. C. R. 8. Pitman, both are oldish with worn teeth; but the

smaller is the older of the two. The female skull from the ‘Salt

Jungle’, Bankura, presented by Mrs. McGregor, is old with the

teeth much worn. The skull from Gauripur, no doubt that of a

EaGees

Upper profile of skull of old male Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) from

Balaghat, C.P.

B. The same of an old female from Bankura, Bengal.

C. The same of an adult male Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) from

Vekohoni, Naga Hills.

D. The same of an older male from Liramon, Naga Hills.

HK. The same of an adult female from Mokokchung, Naga Hills.

male, was kindly presented by H. H. the Maharajah of Gauripur

in response to my appeal for specimens published in this Journal.

It is interesting from two points of view. Its locality to the north

of the Ganges is nearer than any, whence | have seen specimens,

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

to the typical locality of Melursus ursinus. Also it is the only

specimen I have examined from Assam. True Gauripur. is_ west

of the Brahmaputra in the valley of that river which traverses

the ‘plains of Assam’. When Blanford stated that he was unable

to ascertain whether the bear reported from these plains was: this

species or the so-called Himalayan Biack Bear, he must have

overlooked Cuvier’s record of it from Sylhet, showing that its

range is to the east and south of the Brahmaputra.

By way of comparison with this skull from Assam I have given

the measurements of one, also no doubt a male, collected by G. C.

Shortridge for the ‘Mammal Survey’ at Nagarhole in 8.-E. Coorg,

some 1,400 miles from Gauripur. The dimensions agree very

closely. No skin accompanied the Coorg skull and it is not unlikely

that the South Indian Sloth Bear will prove inseparable from

the Ceylonese for which I have retained the racial name inor-

natus. Of this bear I have only seen two immature skulls. Since

their teeth are quite unworn, it is possible that the Ceylon bear

may prove to have smaller teeth on the average than the Indian;

but no definite conclusions can be drawn from the two examples.

Genus: SELENARCTOS, Heude.

Selenarctos, Heude, Mém. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chin., v, p. 2,

1901; Sowerby, Journ. Mamm., i, p. 216, 1920.

AOWCOWUS, 120600, Avon, MOG. Nate islisi, (9), x, p. 129), 197,

Distribution.—From Baluchistan, through the Himalayas east-

ward to Burma and Annam and northwards through Central China

to Amurland and possibly Kamschatka.

Note on the generic synonymy.—When I proposed the name

Arcticonus for the Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus) in

1917, separating it from Ursus on the evidence supplied by the fore

paw, I was unaware that Heude had applied Selenarctos to the

same species, my excuse for the oversight, pointed out by Sowerby,

being the omission of the name from the Zoological Record.

Description of the genus.—Closely resembling Ursus in the

rhinarium, lips and ears, but differing essentially in the structure

of the fore foot which has the area behind the plantar pad en-

tirely naked and mostly occupied by a single large, transversely

piriform pad as wide as the plantar pad and as long as it inter-

nally, but shorter externally where it narrows considerably and

may be in contact with the plantar pad. ‘This pad represents

the larger and smaller carpal pads, surrounded by hair, seen in

Ursus. The area between it and the plantar pad is occupied by

a comparatively narrow area of naked, flexible, creased skin.

In the skull the muzzle is shorter than in Ursus; and this is

associated with a backward extension of the cheek teeth so that

a vertical tangent from the anterior rim of the orbit passes in the

adult in front of the contact line between the two upper molars

and never behind it as in Ursus, The cusps and ridges of the

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. HIsT. SOc. PIO ANIIS Ie

i Zi i Be

Uae d ee

Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)

Malayan Bear (Helarctos malayanus)

VITTY & SEABORNE, LTD

LONDON.

THH BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 109

main cheek-teeth are lower and less trenchent, the areas between

them are smoother and the first lower molar, the antepenultimate

A fk} )

AN) Lf, y |

} yf Ni, iF

tis Vee

Ny, \/ |

jd iS

S eee

s\ <<

SSSA

Kee

(QS SS

, iW x ; ns

)\y h

atilt

‘i

SSS

\\ ~~

iin Gee 14

A. Lower side of right fore paw of the Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus).

B. Right hind paw of the same. Lettering as in fig. 1.

tooth, has a relatively smaller ‘heel’ than in U7sus. (See fig. 3,

p. 775 of the first part of this paper). |

Apart from the feet this bear differs externally from Ursus in

its more massive neck, in the absence of the shoulder mat and in

the presence on the side of the neck of a crest, very noticeable in

short coated specimens, formed by the confluence of the downward

stream of hairs from the nape and the upward stream from the

throat.!

The Bears of this genus, referred to the species S. thibetanus,

are usually designated Asiatic Black Bears; but the existence in

Manchuria and Japan of black bears of the Ursus arctos-group,

commonly called Brown Bears, deprives those titles of their signi-

ficance. The occurrence of ‘brown’ specimens of S. thibetanus

has also been claimed; and its possibility must be borne in mind.

In my experience the general colour of the perfect coat is almost

* Blaniord’s statements that there is no. ‘woolly underfur’, that the chin

and the chest-mark are white and that the claws are black is by no means

always true even of Indian specimens.

HG JOURNAL. BOM BAY. NATURAL EMS ls SOC LEILY aol Oey

always jet black, relieved by a brown muzzle, still paler lips and

chin, a pale chest-mark and frequently some dark brown on the

paws, especially laterally, and on the toes. Occasionally speci-

mens exhibit patches of white, or white hairs attesting incipient

albinism.

(i 7

Ly ¢

(eel

Le,

oor

Vy) .

t¢

ZL.

Hie. 5.

A. & B. End of the muzzle of two exampies of the Black. Bear (S..thibet-

anus), showing difference in the shape of the rhinarium.

C. Rhinarium of the same from the front.

D. Claws of fore and hind foot of the same.

An lustoric case of a ‘brown’ specimen is supplied by the skin

from the Mekran coast described in 1877 as Ursus gedrosianus

by Blanford who originally regarded it as a representative of the

Ursus arctos-group. The possibility of the correctness of that view

was. briefly discussed in the first part of this paper. Nevertheless

Blantord changed his opimion two years later when he received a

second skin, and':two skulls, from the same: district. This skin

was very much darker, than the first, evidently dark brown, but,

as Blanford said, ‘far from being black’ like the Himalayan

Black Bear, the species to. which Blanford declared the two

skulls to belong. This Baluchistan bear is further discussed

below (p. 116). :

_. For another record of similar variation in colour I am indebted

to Col..,C. H. Stockley who informed me (in litt.) that in Oct: 1919

he shot, right and left, a male ‘red’ bear and a female ‘black’

THE BLACK AND BROWN BHARS OF HUROPE AND ASIA 111

bear, on the eastern side of the Shanshibir Mountains at the west-

ern end of the Kashmir Valley. In 1928 he presented to the

British Museum the alleged skull of the ‘red’ bear. It is unmis-

takably the skull of 8S. fhibetanus and is entered in the table of

measurements given below (p. 118). If the skull belonged. to the

skin, as stated, proof that the Himalayan black bear may have

a ‘brown’ phase is supplied.t But collectors’ skins and’ skulls

sometimes get mixed; and the skull in question may have belonged

to the black female. It is the skull of an old animal and is decid-

edly small for a full grown male skull of S. thibetanus from Kash-

mir. That the Himalayan ‘Red or Isabelline’: Bear (U. arctos

isabellinus) and the Himalayan Black Bear (S. thibetanus) some-

times oceur together is known from the evidence of sportsmen. In

the first part of this paper I referred to a case recorded by Mr.

H. Whistler in the Solang Nullah, Kulu.

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS THIBETANUS, G. Cuv:

Ursus thibetanus, G. Cuvier, Ossemens Foss. iv, p. 325, 1823.

USS MUCKanUsht a CuMmicr whlch Nat wWhanim..11, pls oo, pe a,

1824; and in, pt. 41, pl. 1824; and of many later authors.

Ursus torquatus, Wagner in Schreb, Saug., Suppl. u, p. 144,

1841; and of many subsequent authors including Blanford, Fauna

of Brit. India: Mammalia, p. 197, 1888. (Name substituted for

thibetanus.)

? Selenarctos melli, Matschie, Arch. Naturg. 88, pt. 10, pp. 16

AmOm oth 2 SG WE Allien zlmer. Mas. Nowts. Nos 3s60™ p. 3;

1929 (as. subspecies cof S. thibetanus).

Locality of type of thibetanus, (including torquatus): Sylhet in

Assam. )

Locality of type of melli: Kwangtung, 8. China.

Distribution.—Assam westwards apparently to the Nepal Tarai

and eastwards through Burma to Siam, Annam and_ possibly

Southern China.

Notes on the synonymy.—lI take Sylhet as the typical locality

of this race because G. Cuvier gave the name thibetanus to a bear

from that district of which Duvaucel sent him a description. This

description Cuvier printed in full, definitely associating the name

with Duvaucel’s account, although on Wallich’s authority he refer-

red to the occurrence of what he supposed te be the same bear

in Nepal. FF. Cuvier also’ reproduced “Duvaucel’s account in the

same year, spelling the name tibetanus; but since he stated that

his brother had named the species, G. Cuvier must be given. the

credit for it and his spellmg of the name ‘adopted. The name

* It is regrettable to reflect that a glance at the fore paws of this ‘red’

skin and of the two Baluchistan skins described by Blanford would have settled

their identity beyond dispute. Unfortunately the skins are not now available

for examination.

11d JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

torquatus was proposed by Wagener as a substitute for thibetanus

because there was at that time no evidence of the existence of the

species in Tibet. Blanford and lLydekker followed Wagner’s

1408, PW : hy

ts "0, Nityyy nyt ” | é Mp ‘ ms

’ wh ‘ ‘Ni, ))

lh a Sy) ) ‘ yi o

4 ; h “egy

K Y, 4 )

) N i by

yy) (a) ) \ “Vy cae f ul

fe Aa Weg fe « y, ws

wp Vee, hy Na fY phy

94 why Hy ypu yh i C ip

‘yh ly y: i) . AY

NZ Mh Ww

ys wh 4

y ; My Weg ny) oe, ) yf

5 f \ Wy ie Wnyw! Cu pr

i \ a) )

y ; E iy)

4 x ti

4. mA if) Ny

KS why Vy Nh nh I

iM) Ny | ou ; y i: rig wh

(A Ky | my | (" I) Ne )

NN \\y) ‘yy " ‘Ay i) i ") | a

y hy iS ris Wing it

F MN, YN) ms G yi

Fig. 6.

The Breast-patch or collar of Black Bear (8. thibetanus). A. example from

Okotso, Naga Hills; B. from Wokha, Naga Hilis; C. from Nepal; D.

from Sikhim; E. from the Upper Lidder Valley, Kashmir (type of

laniger); EF. from Szechuen (mupinensis); G. from Formosa (formo-

Sanus).

The arrows show the direction of the hair-growth.

nomenclature and by one or the other of the two names the species

has -been cited by all authors. During recent years zoologists

have quoted it as Selenarctos thibetanus.

Selenarctos melli, Matschie, is regarded as a possible shone

of thibetanus for reasons given below.

Description.—-This typical: race of S. thibetanus may be distin-

guished from the more northern races by its comparatively short,

coarse, coat without underwool. Very few of the skins I have seen

are dated; but this type of pelage is found in one from Okotso in

the Naga Hills, killed in October, and in another from Manipur

dated February 2. The coat should be at its best in February and

good in October.

THER BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA ii8

The breast mark or ‘collar’ varies greatly in colour and develop-

ment (see fig. 6, p. 112). The muzzle also varies in tint. Typically

it is brown, but it may be greyish, tan, very dark brown or, accord-

ing to Duvaucel, black.

The following notes on the skins in the British Museum I assign

to this race may be interesting.

Three from the Nags Hills, Assam, collected for the Mammal

Survey by J. P. Mills

th ANWOUSING GP « Colour jet black, with the muzzle danke brown

(chin cut away). Collar cream-buff, a wide-spread V, the arms

about 11 inches long and 2 ins. wide, meeting at a point and not

extending along the middle line of the breast. Coat shortish with-

out underwool, about 1$ ins. long, very scanty on belly, but 24° to

8 ims. on the crest on the sides of the neck.

Ze OKOUSON nat Skin dated Oct. 1919. “ifs the last in

length of coat but the hairs lustreless and coarser. Some white on

the chin. Collar ochraceous, very large, wide and long, Y-shaped,

extending over 6 ins. along the middle line of the sternum and

nearly 7 ins. laterally in front of shoulder, apparently resembling

in its extent that of the type from Sylhet.

3. Mokokchung, ¢. Jet black but dull, with some brown

haw on paws. Muzzle decidedly paler than in others, greyish brown.

Chin brown. Collar buffy-brown, large, V-shaped, each arm about 11

ins. long. Coat coarse, scanty, without underwool, but a little

longer than in Nos. 1 and 2, being from about 14 to 24 ins. on body,

and 84 ins. on the neck-crest.

Although Mills only sent these three skins, he inseribed on the

labels attached to some of the skulls a few particulars worth record-

ing. One from Lakhuni, 1,500 ft. had the fur short and coarse;

the collar narrow and yellow. One from Aré, 3,000 ft., October

1919, had longish sparse hair and a narrow yellowish collar. One

from Aichisigami, 3,000 ft., August 1921, had the hair short and

thin and the collar white. 3

4°& 5. Two skins in Hodgson’s collection probably from the

Nepal Terai. One ticketed ‘India’ has the muzzle and chin brown,

the collar yellowish brown, V-shaped, the arms about 13 ins.; the

coat 1s quite short and coarse, without underwool. The other, un-

localised, has the muzzle brown; the chin with a small white patch;

the collar creamy-white, V- shaped, its arms about 11 ins.; the coat

coarse and short, without underwool, about 14 to 2 ins. but from

34 to 4 ins. on the neck crest.

6. Manipur. <A flat skin, no doubt of an adult 6, dated

February 2nd, 1920, kindly lent to me by the Bombay Natural

History Society. The muzzle is dark brown, the chin dirty white.

The collar is V-shaped and very narrow, the arms being 10 ins.

long but less than 1 in. wide. The coat is short and coarse,’ with-

out underwool, and about 14 ins. long; the hairs of the neck-crest

beg nearly 4 ins. The skin, perhaps stretched, bi gaa 6 fb.

2 ins. to the tail-root.

7. Hué in Annam. A flat skin brought back by tice:

Delacour and Lowe. The muzzie, towards the nose, and the chin

are tan or buff. The collar, of the same tint, is a long narrow V,

114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVI

the arm about 114 ins. long and 1 in. wide. The coat is coarse,

without underwool, and short, about 14 ins. long, but 3 ins. low

down on the flanks and 8 ins. on the neck-crest.

This skin from Annam is indistinguishable from those from

Manipur and the Naga Hills. It is from the evidence it supplies

that I infer the southern Chinese bear described as melli by Matschie

may be the same as typical thibetanus.

This paragraph, discarding melli, was written before I had seen

the remarks on melli published by G. M. Allen who, on the evi-

dence of the skin and skull of an old male from Fokien, accepted

melli as a subspecies, differing at all events from the more northern

Chinese bears in being smaller and shorter coated. The skull, he

Says, is about the size of an adult © skull from Shensi. But

since no measurements were given to help me form an opinion re-

garding melli, I have let this name interrogatively remain in the

synonymy of thibetanus, although there is some evidence that it

should come under formosanus (see below).

The following three skins are of doubtful subspecific status :—

At Duragiri, 3,000 ft., in the Garo Hills, H. W. Wells secured

on March 16th a very interesting little specimen. It is a female cub,

24 it. long, with a comparatively long and thick coat, provided with

underwool. The colour is black with the muzzle brown and the head

speckled with shiming grey hairs as far back as the ears. The collar

is white, triangular posteriorly with two narrow divergent arms.

There is an angular whitish patch on the chin and some dirty white

hairs on the under side of the paws behind the digital pads. The

hair of the body is from 2 to 24 ins. long, on the sides of the neck

3 Ms. ,

In the thickness of its coat this specimen recalls the Kashmir

race described below. The partial albinism of the paws is of inter-

est in connection with the specimen of the western Chinese race

which was named leuconyx, as described below. The grizzling of

the face is no doubt another sign of incipient albinism. |

From Sikkim I have seen two skins. One, collected by

Mandelli and presented to the Museum by Blanford. The coat is

thicker than in the skins from Nepal and Assam I have examined

but has no appreciable underwool; it is of medium length, about 14

to 2 ins. on the body and from 4% to 5 ins. on the sides of the neck.

The muzzle is brown, not dark, above, tan at the sides, the chin is

white and the collar, about 18 or 14 ins. from point to point, very

narrow and passing a long way back over the sternum, is buffy

white.

The second, a cub 2 ft. 9 ins. long, from Lachung, 9,000 ft.

(C. H. Dracott), kindly lent to me by the Bombay Natural History

Society, has the coat long, thick and soft with a good deal of brown

underwool, the hair on the sides of the neck being 3.2 ins., on the

back 2.1 ins., on the flanks 3 ins. The muzzle is brown, but not

dark, the whole of the chin is buff black to the corners of the mouth,

the buff extending to a point along the fore part of the throat; the

collar is the same tint, broad and Y-shaped, the posterior branch

shorter than the arms; the paws are brown along the margins and

round the digital pads. In the quality and length of its fur and

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 15

in its well developed underwool, this skin closely approaches the

races from Kashmir and Szechuen and perhaps belongs to the

latter. It certainly differs from typical short-coated Assamese

examples of S. thibetanus.

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS LANIGER, subsp. nov.

? Ursus torquatus var. arboreus, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864,

i. Osis ad Cot, Cori. JBM, 1s BAO, lksloe);

Locality of type of laniger.—Aru, the Upper Lidder Valley,

Kashmir.

Locality of type of arboreus.—Darjiling.

“Distribution.—Kashmir and probably at relatively high elevations

elsewhere in the Himalayas.

Distinguishable from the typical form, represented by the

Assamese skins, by its longer, softer and altogether more luxuriant

coat which carries a very appreciable quantity of underwool,

especially on the neck in winter.

I have seen five skins froin Kashmir which I assign to this race:

1. The flat skin of a female (type) from Aru in the upper

Lidder Valley shot in May by Capt. H. A. F. Magrath (No. 97,

5, 6, 1.). Colour jet black, glossy; muzzle dark brown above, paler

at the sides; chin white; collar white, small, V-shaped, the arms

about 4 ins. long. Coat long and luxuriant; hair on sides of neck

about 4.8 ins., on back 24 ins., on flanks 84 ins. Length of skin

5 stn, 7 ilies.

This skin, although obtained in May, is in perfect condition,

the coat showing no sign of deterioration or of approaching the

moult as in the Red Bear at the same time of the year.

2. Flat skin of a subadult male from Shalkood (Mrs. En-

twistle, Nos. 25, 1, 8, 1.). Closely resembling the last in every

respect, although the collar is larger, the arms of the V measuring

7 ins. Hair on sides of neck 5 ins., on back 24 ins., on flanks

d# ins. Length of skin 5 ft. 10 ins.

8. Flat skin of young male shot on Oct. 28rd, 1930, at

Milawan, Pir Panjal, 8,000 it. (Col. C. H. Stockley). Colour black,

with chin and collar white, the collar small about 6 ins. only trans-

versely from point to point and 4 in. wide. Coat thick, with under-

wool, the hairs 44 ins. long on sides of neck, 38+ on the nape and

2 ins. on the back.

This skin has a much longer and thicker coat than the one of

typical thibetanus referred to above from Okotso in the Naga Hills,

which was also shot in October.

4 & 5. Two skins, one certainly ¢ judging from the skull,

and the other probably the same sex judging from its size, there

being no skull to it, shot at Dachigam by Sir Richard Dane,

K.C.1.E., late in November, have the coat noticeably shorter,

thinner and less luxuriant than the Nos. 1 and 2, but some under-

wool is detectable, although comparatively scanty, at least on parts

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

of the fore quarters and neck. The muzzle is rich brownish or

ruious tan, brighter than in the other specimens but, as in them,

the chin and breast-mark are white, the latter also being small.

Vhe skin, which has the skull, measures 6 ft. 7 inse The hair on

the neck-crest is 44 ins., on the back and upper flanks 2 ins., low

down on the flank 84 ins. or more. The paws are edged with

dark brown hairs. The other skin, measuring 6 ft. 2 ins., is slightly

shorter coated, the hair on the neck-crest being 32 ins., on the back

and flanks from 14 to 2 ins. It has a decidedly brownish tinge

on the belly, the back of the fore legs, on the edges of paws and

to a certain extent on the rump. |

_It may be worth remembering that in all Kashmir skins the

chin and breast-mark, or ‘collar’, are white, and the collar is small.

In Assamese specimens, and the skins associated with them, the

chin and ‘collar’ are more often than not tinged with buff or ochre

and the collar is on the average larger.

This race of S. thibetanus is probably rather ‘environmental’

than ‘local’. It is linked with the typical race found at lower

levels in Assam by the Sikkim specimens recorded above; and it is

prebable that wherever S. thibetanus occurs at tolerably high alti-

tudes in the Himalayas and elsewhere it acquires a longer coat

with underwool, especially in winter. Even in Assam it may grow

this type of coat as attested by the cub, above referred to, secured

by H. W. Wells in the Garo Hills.

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS GEDROSIANUS, Blanf.

Ursus gedrosianus, Blanford, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, LOT 7.

De LOL eine, Jove, 6. SOC, Bengal, 4S, Ws Bll, lusts 3 ide roc:

Ase S0¢. Bengal. Lone).

Ursus torquatus, Blantord, Mamm. Brit. India, p. 197, 1888.

Locality of type.—Tump, 70 miles N. of Gwadar on the Mekran

coast, Baluchistan.

Distribution.—Baluchistan.

I provisionally adopt gedrosianus in a subspecific sense for the

two ‘brown’ skins and the two skulls from Tump in Baluchistan

to which: Blanford gave that name; and in following this course

IT am compelled to assume, since all the specimens have disap-

peared, that Blanford’ knew the difference between the skulls of

Ursus and Selenarctos and that the larger of the two skulls he

referred to belonged to the dark brown skin received with it.

The story of the skins already briefly told may be completed

by the remark that in 1888 Blanford added gedrosianus to the

synonymy of thibetanus (torquatus he called it), stating that he had

been deceived by a ‘discoloured’ skin into thinking that it repre-

sented a valid species. He thus apparently cancelled the opinion

hetexpressed in 1879 that gedrosianus was to be regarded as ‘little

more than a'race or subspecies’ of the Himalayan Black Bear.

Presumably Blanford’s verdict regarding the ‘discoloration’ applied

“THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA ‘117

to the imperfect skin of the type which was ‘dark rufous brown’.

But the second skin although very much darker than the first’

was expressly stated to be ‘far from black’ like the Himalayan

Black Bear.

Blantord’s description of the typical skin as having a white

spot on the chin and a narrow white semicircular collar, not pro-

duced in front of the shoulder, supports his view that the bear

was a Selenarctos; but the muzzle was whitish. The coat was

harsh, thin and short, 14 ins. on the body and 24 ins. on the

shoulder.

The skull received with the second skin was declared to be

scarcely distinguishable from that of a female Indian Black Bear

from Alipore. The dimensions Blanford supplied, which are

quoted in the table below, bear out this statement. But a second

skull, said to be that of a fully adult animal, he dismissed, with-

out detailed measurements, as ‘very much smaller than any full |

srown skull’ of the Himalayan Black Bear. Naturally, and pro-

i ably rightly, he concluded these skulls to be ¢ and Q of rhe

same race.

When I wrote to the Museum 7 Calcutta to inquire for

Blanford’s specimens of gedrosianus, I was informed that they are

not in the Collection; but Lt.-Col. Seymour Sewell, the Director,

kindly sent me three skulls from Baluchistan, two being adult, the

third immature and fragmentary. The two adult skulls are smaller ~

than any adult skulls of S. thibetanus from India that I have seen.

They are unsexed and I regard them as probably Q skulls of

gedrosianus. The smaller of the two is the older and has a longer ~

occipital crest. ‘They differ a good deal in the size of their teeth;

but the cub has the teeth, which are quite unworn, larger than

in either of the adults. There is, however, nothing in the size of

the teeth of the three to distinguish them from those of Indian

specimens; and the differences between the teeth of the cub and ~

those of the adult with the smallest teeth is less than the difference

between the teeth of the immature ¢ from Nepal and the old 9

from Khatmandu entered in my table below.

On the evidence furnished by the particulars quoted this provi-

sionally admitted race may be defined as a little smaller than the

eastern forms, with the coat apparently as in the typical race but.

very dark brown or rufous brown in hue’ at least in the Mekran

coast examples.

The arid environment of these bears, as Blanford pointed out,

is very different from the woodland habitat of Himalayan

specimens.

Skulls.—The following are the measurements of the skulls of

the three races of the Black Bear inhabiting British India described

above.

* The only representative of Selenarctos from Baluchistan that I have seen

was exhibited many years ago in the Zoological Gardens. It was jet black and

indistinguishable from ordinary Indian specimens, except that it was smaller,

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Skull in English Inches

Upper teeth | Lower teeth ©

in millim. | in millim.

Soe << LS | OS SSS) re SSeS

E 4

Locality and Sex| 4 Lea Pe = a oD I és

Sh | 2h aeles| 5 |xelgs| a2 jee) 2s

BG |SEWeee| SF els) 4s (fe) as

gedrosianus | |

Mekran coast ?¢ | 10:5 ‘its 6:9 2-9 PCY ger doer aen ie vies

Baluchistan ?9 I eho BAe 5-9) 4-7) 2-38+ | 9-2/ 58 | 27x16 | 65 | 20x11

Ss 2° , ell Sel | Hrs || abe | Bok O+ | 55 7 25x14 | 61 | 19x11

ao cub ee, Sale te ral ee aoe Ss |) BS) | ADS IK, |, TOL, | 2} s< 13}

laniger (IXashmir) |

Murree ¢ 12-0 Hileaks | tse pool | Bact et NOS: | OSB) fsa be sec

Kashmir ¢ ILS 10:7. | 7-9) 6-3))53-2 2-7) GE 985.16 | 70 | o1sc19

Pir Panjal, 11-5 | 10-5 | 7-4) 5-8) 2-8 | 9-5 | 57 | 97x15 | 63 | 90% 12

KOO) HBR Sp | | | |

Shalkood 10-9 10-8 | 7-2) 5-4 | 9-8 9-5 | 63 | 30x17 | 72 | 22x18

Shamshibir mt. ?¢| 10:5 MOE) 1) 87) | O28) WS Oot | BS | Gene | GA | IOsci@

Pir Panjal, | | |

8,000 ft. 9 i@pil 96 | 63) 51/23 | 9-1] 54 | 26x15 | 61 | 19x11

Upper Lidder | | |

Valley 9 9-8 soo | Gt || Ge) || Ber 2-3} 93 | 26x15 | 66 | 19x11

Dehra, 9,000 ft. g) 12-4 Ile | 72H) || GO | BG 9-5 | 55 | 25x14 | 60 | 174x12

3 49 OF) 109 Wed} “elk Hoey | BG 5) || HO) |) PAT SKM GL | NO se Tae

Nepal WA) Iles} | OG) SS, YB MB OS | SOS | TA | BAe ie

aeraien } Olas} 1) er | Ge) | GG BO eos || HS |) Hoses Pee | USS< 10

Khatmandu 9 b Os7 | 10), Bo) | Hew] | Bev 9-3.) 52 | DEES MAL PS ILA S< IO

thibetanus (Assam) |!

Aichisigami, ¢ | Weiss 7:81 6:5) 3-0 2°61 69 | 28x15 | 67 | 20x11

Liramon 6 11-1 Oo) ceo! I Be | PRO FR. | Box ils 4 eb | BO sub

Lakhuni (oo vest PEON cca fp BQ Moai |) WSIS 4 cso | US S< TUE

Nungumshang ¢ | 10 son | O80) |) ona |) PES} | P| BG |) GUL S< Il | WS | BA Ils)

Mokokchung @ 10:3 VB | CO) | Se | Shoal. 2-5 | 52 | 25x14 | 64 | 20x10

Mongsendi 9 NOLO ete Oe eee en ace EON Is) | Wer cuisy iss) | hey

Tonghoo ?¢ 11-6 qos} Gell || Wes ely eG | BSc ly || GL USS Se TIL

Nr. Um Pang, Siam ? 10:5 6:2) 5-1 | 2-6 DAN 59) 228 <b Gis 20a

The skulls entered under gedrosianus at the head of this table

have already been discussed above under that provisionally ad-

mitted race. It may be recalled that the skulls queried as ¢ and

OQ are adult. Sex for sex they are noticeably smaller than adult

skulls of the two Indian races thibetanus and laniger.

The skulls assigned to typical thibetanus from Assam were

collected for the Mammal Survey of British India by J. P. Mills.

They vary greatly in shape, no two of either sex being quite alike.

In text-fig. 8, C, D, (p. 107) the dorsal profile of two adult ¢

skulls from WVekohoni and Liramon, 2,500 ft., are sketched to

show the difference in the elevation of the summit and in the

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 119

shape of the dorsal profile of the muzzle. Both have the teeth

somewhat worn; but the example from Vekohoni with the strongly

convex profile is the younger of the two. On the average. most

of the other male skulls intergrade between these two. A _ skull

from Wokha is old; but although the teeth are much worn, they.

are nearly as large as in the specimen from Nungkungshang,

4,700 ft., entered to show the size of the unworn teeth, which are

very much larger than in the Lakhuni skull, whose teeth are worn,

but not so much as in the example from Wokha. The first male

skull on the lst from Aichisigami, 4,000 ft., on the Dikhur River,

is a large skull, but it is quite young with the open cranial sutures

indicating that growth had not ceased. The teeth, however, are a

good deal worn. Female skulls vary similarly. The most arched

of the series is a very old, broad-muzzled skull from Mokokchung,

which is also figured. The teeth are much worn, more worn

but larger than in the younger but oldish specimen from

Mongsendi.

The young skull, probably ¢, from Tonghoo in Burma (EH. W.

Oates) is practically indistinguishable from the Assamese series.

So too is a younger skull from the Meklong Valley, 8 miles S.-E.

of Um Pang in Siam (C. H. Stockley). The teeth are noticeably

larger than in the Tonghoo skull, although in neither are

they worn. |

JOC Te

A. Upper profile of oldish male Black Bear (8. thibetanus). from Jaunsar,.

Dehra Dun.

B. The same of very old male from Dunga Gali, Murree.

C. The same of old female (type of laniger) from the Upper Lidder Valley,

Kashmir. ;

D. The same.of the reputed red male of laniger from the -Shanshibir

Mountains, Kashmir,

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

There is a good number of Hodgson’s Nepalese skulls in the

Beene Museum, all unsexed and not one quite fully developed,

most being cubs. Naturally they are not so variable as the

Assamese set, from which I cannot distinguish them, and are

rather of the ‘flat’ than the vaulted type. Of the three entered in

the table the first two are probably 3. The upper cranial sutures,

including the interparietal, are unfused in both; and the basiocci-

pital is visible in the larger, although obliterated in the smaller,

an older skull as also indicated by its greater zygomatic and mas-

toid widths. Its teeth too are a good deal smaller, although not

very noticeably worn. The teeth are more worn and still smaller

in the oldish @ skull from Khatmandu (Dr. H. A. Oldfield).

There are some further notes on the variations of Nepalese skulls

under the heading 8S. thibetanus mupinensis. Judging from

Nepalese skins, these skulls belong to S. th. thibetanus.

Three oldish skulls from Jaunsar, 8,000-9,000 ft., in Dehra Duan

(5. 18, Osmasion), Om uae contrary, probably belong WO So Wd.

lanigev, judging from their altitude. They resemble the ‘flatter’

type of Assamese skulls as shown by the sketch of the dorsal pro-

file of the 3g (Text-fig. 7, A, p. 119), which has an unusually strong

savittal crest bifureating far forwards about the middle of the

frontal bones.

Of the skulls assigned to laniger from Kashmir the first on the

list was shot by Col. C. R. 8. Pitman at Dunga Gali in Murree

which is politically in the Upper Punjab. It is an old ¢ skull

very massively built and broader across the zygomata, and mostly

elsewhere, than any other skull of this species I have seen. Its

dorsal profile is strongly convex owing to the development of air-

cells in the roofing bones. It is even more inflated than the ¢

skull from Vekohomi in the Naga Hills and differs remarkably

from the oldish 3 skull from Jaunsar in Dehra Dun, as shown

by the sketches of the two. The second from Kashmir (St.

George Littledale) is very like it, but not so swollen. It is heavier

and everywhere a little broader than the third from Tinjal, Pir

Panjal, 7,500 ft. (C. H. Stockley), although they are approximately

the same age. The ¢ skull from Shalkood (Mrs. Entwistle) is not

adult but shows the size of the teeth when unworn. The skull

from Shamshubi is the skull said to have been taken from the

‘red’ ¢ variety of this bear shot by Col. C. H. Stockley and dis-

cussed above. It is quite old with worn teeth and is decidedly

small for a full grown 6, slightly smaller indeed than Q skulls

from Dehra and Khatmandu. Of the Q skulls I have entered the

shortest and the longest. The longer of the two from Malawan,

Pir Panjal, 8,000 ft. (C. H. Stockley) is adult but not old. The

shorter of the two from Aru in the Upper Lidder Valley (Capt.

Magrath) is the type of the race. It is quite old, which accounts

for its greater zygomatic width, and has the teeth much worn.

In addition to the skulls already mentioned, the Museum is in-

debted to Col. C. H. Stockley for others from Kai-Wan and

Mousmoo in Kashmir. J have not been able to find a single

character, either cranial or dental, by which skulls from Kashmir

can be distinguished collectively from skulls from Assam,

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 121

SELENARCTOS YTHIBETANUS MUPINENSIS, Heude.

Benoa es DE Heude, Mém. Hist. Nat. Cue V; pb.

lejos 2, Jol. wl, eg Ay OQ MOM e Oowmewolss WOW.» Clea, {Woe Os Sil,

1906; eer bn Toure Manne. i" O. BIO, IPO)

Selenarctos leuconyx, Heude, Mém. Nat. Chin., V, pt. 1, p. 2,

figs. 3, 4, 8, 1901; Courtois, tom. cit. pt. 2, p. 37, 1906; Sowerby,

Journ. Mamm. 1, p. 225, 1920 (under Ursus lagomyiarius, Severtz.).

Ursus troquatus macnelli, Lydekker, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1909,

p- 607; Sowerby, Journ. Mamm., i, p. 220, 1920 (Selenarctos

macneillt).

Ursus clarki, Sowerby, Journ. Mamm., i, p. 226, 1920. (New

name for leuconyx, Heude.)

Selenarctos thibetanus, G. M. Allen, Amer. Mus. Novit., No.;

300, p.l:, 1929:

Locality of type of mupinensis.—Moupin.

Locality of type of leuconyx (clark).

Shensi.

Locality of type of macneilliiwTa-chien-lu, W. Szechuen.

Distribution.—Western China: Moupin, Shensi, Szechuen.

Tai-pei Shan, S..W.

The synonymy of this bear needs justification.

The type, a skull, of S. mupinensis, came from Moupin, which,

according to Sowerby, is part of N.-W. Szechuen and EK. Tibet.

The name has merely line- and figure-priority over S. leuconyz,

the type of which, a skull and the paws, was received from the

mountains of Pao-chi or the Tai-pei Shan in §8.-W. Shensi. The

type of macneilli, a skull and skin, was from Ta-chien-lu in western

Szechuen. ‘The localities are tolerably adjacent in western central

China to the north of the Yang-tse-kiang River. It will be seen

from the synonymy that Somedby considered the names symbolical

of three species and two genera. From an examination of the

alleged typical skull of leuconyx, he concluded that it belongs to

Ursus, not to Selenarctos as stated by Heude and Courtois, his

reason being the elongation of the muzzle; and since the name

leuconyx was preoccupied for another bear from the Thian Shan

which is certainly an Ursus, he proposed clarki to replace leuw-

conyx, Heude.

But Heude’s figure of the skull of leuconyx is clearly the skull

of a Selenarctos, as is shown by the backward setting of the upper

cheek teeth and other features. Courtois, indeed, in his revision

of Heude’s work declared that the alleged cranial and dental

differences between mupinensis, admittedly a Selenarctos, and

leuconyx ‘sont bien fugaces’ and that the separation of them de-

pends on the skins. ‘For these reasons I unhesitatinely adopt

Heude’s and Courtois’ opinion that leuconyx Heude is a Sele-

narctos and not an Ursus as Sowerby claimed.

As for the skin of leuconyx all that was known of it was parts

of the paws which exhibited partial albinism of the claws and

122. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

digital hairs, a feature which deceived Heude but was stated by

Courtois, of course correctly, to be an aberration.!

Liydekker described the type of macneilli as an old, presumably

male bear in winter coat, differing from Himalayan representatives

of the typical race in the greater length and softness of the hair.

The skin unfortunately was kept by the collector, Capt. Malcolm

MacNeil. The skull, presented to the Museum, is discussed

below.

The only skin I have seen is one referred to by Lydekker, a

subadult female collected by Berezowski at Loung-ng’an-fou in the

mountains of Szechuen. It is dated Oct. 28th, 1898, and has a

good coat, although probably not quite fully developed. The

general colour is glossy black, with the muzzle deep chocolate

brown, a considerable amount of white on the chin and a creamy-

white, nearly crescentic breast-mark, narrow in the middle be-

hind, each arm measuring about 8 inches and expanding gradually

up to its anterior end. (Text-fig. 6, F.) The hair, mixed with a

considerable quantity of underwool, is thick, soft and tolerably

long, about 54 inches on the sides of the neck, 24 on the back

and 8 on the flanks. The flat skin measures only 4% ft. from the

muzzle to the rump.

The coat is a little fuller and softer than in those of the Kash-

mir race described above as laniger; but the difference is not very

noticeable and my view that the two bears are racially distinguish-

able is provisionally based on the assumption that when, if ever,

more material of the western Chinese form comes to hand, it will

be found that the differences are greater than those shown by the

one skin available for examination.

The skull of the type of macneilli is not old, as stated by

Liydekker. True the teeth are somewhat worn, but most of the

cranial sutures, including the basioccipital, are still visible. I

had barely attained full length and has none of the marks of age.

Lydekker compared it with a skull from the Himalayas. His

figure enables me to identify this skull with certainty as one col-

lected by Hedgson in Nepal (Nos. 56, 6, 24, 146), a considerably

younger skull than the type of macneilli and admittedly differing

from it in the particulars mentioned by Lydekker, namely, the

narrower zygomata (an age-character), a flatter palate and larger

teeth. If Lydekker had compared the Szechuen skull with other

Nepalese skulls on the same shelf, and also collected by Hodgson,

he would have found some with the palate as hollow and one with

the zygomata a little wider and the teeth matching almost to a

millimetre in size. The cranial characters of macneilli relied on

by lLiydekker have no value.

The following are the dimensions of the skulls of the types of

mupinensis and of lewconyx, taken from Heude’s figures; also’ of

' Under the heading S. th. thibetanus I recorded an example from the Garo

Hills, Assam, with some white hairs on the digits; and Temminck described a

pure albino Selenarctos from Nippon, Japan,

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF HUROPE AND ASIA 123

the type of macneilli and of the female collected by Berezowski

taken from the specimens in the British Museum.

Upper teeth | Lower teeth

in millim. in millim.

Pe ES aE Te Ee SS ee

Skull in English inches

: |

Sos te |

: a ie q = © oD ~ +.

Locality and Sex = Gal |S) SHS SI es pele us| ,d| ss

SMe biwg|ealscleu|49) 29 (29) as

q q o Cc. _— aa

SSS SIRS SE Se ese) Se sie) SS

Meupin g? 110-7) 10| 7-3] 5:8| 3-2| 9-5) 60| 29x15 | 67 | 21x13

S. W. Shensi $2? 10-3) 9-6] 5-8) 4-6) 9-7! Ol 55) 26.15 | 63 190.11

Srechuen ¢ 2 10-9 10-5! 6-8] 5-5) 2-7{ 2-8] 54{ 25x14 1 55) 20x10

3 Q Be 9-3] 5-31 4:6, 2.0] 2.9] 57] a7x14 | 58| 21x11

The skull from Moupin is the type of mupinensis. From its

shape and the width of the zygomata, it appears to be adult. The

smaller toothed skull from $.-W. Shensi, the type of lewconyx, is

not only a little shorter but narrower in every detail measured.

It may be regarded as subadult. The third on the list, the type

of macneilli, is slightly longer than the type of mupinensis, but

is narrower and, as explained above, is a young-adult skull that

had not attained full development at all events in width, although

it would probably not have surpassed 11 ins. in total length with

erowth. The teeth, a little worn, are decidedly smaller than in

the type of mupinensis but very slightly smaller than those of

leuconyx.1 These three skulls are unsexed. I infer them to be

probably o skulls because of their superiority in size over the

known Q skull from Szechuen which was sexed by the collector

Berezowski. It is subadult and has the unworn teeth about the

size of the type of leuconyz.

The dimensions of these skulls suggest the possibility of this

western Chinese bear being a little smaller than laniger from Kash-

mir; but no definite conclusion can be drawn from the small

amount of available material.

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS USssURICUS, Heude.

Ursus thibetanus, Radde, Reise im Sud. von Ost. Sibir., i, p. 12,

1862.

Selenarctos ussuricus, Heude, Mém. Hist. Nat. Chin., v, pt. 1,

Pa ime OOO Sowerby Ours wlan. 1 ps 220) O20):

Selenarctos thibetanus wulsini, Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.,

Pepa sd erOC MU See NGta ws, fd) parol piss 6-7, 1929.

Selenarctos thibetanus, G. M. Allen, Amer. Mus. Novit., No.

BOO, (Oulien eRe

* The collective dimensions of the last three upper and last four lower teeth

is a deceptive character sometimes owing to the curyature of the line,

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXXVI

Locality of type of wssuricus.—Ussuri (Manchuria).

Locality of type of wulsini.—Kastern Tombs, Chihli (N. China).

Distribution.—North China, Manchuria, Amurland, and_ pos-

sibly Kamschatka. : 3

The type of this race is a very young, probably 9 skull, from

Ussuri (Urick) on the Russian boundary of Manchuria. Heude

figured the principal cheek-teeth, natural size, and their dimen-

sions, recorded in the table below, are taken from his figures.

According to Sowerby Heude had MS Lae skull, older but also.

immature, ticketed Kamschatka.?

In Oct. 1914 Sowerby shot an adult pair 20 miles N. of I-mien-

po, North Kirin in Manchuria, 700 ft., and gave some useful in-

formation about them in his paper quoted above.

The colour of the Q was pure black with a well defined white

crescentic collar extending to the fore part of the shoulder; chin

white. Hair long and soft longer on the sides of the neck and

head, giving the appearance of a mane about 8 inches long. Since

the bear was killed on Oct. 14, the winter coat must have reached

nearly its full development. From the account it was more luxu-

riant than in the Szechuen bear, mupinensis. At all events, the

neck hairs are much longer than in Berezowski’s Szechuen speci-

men shot on Oct. 28th.

The only material in the British Museum that I assign to this

race 18 a couple of adult skulls from Amurland presented by Messrs.

Rowland Ward. From their size I judge them to be g. One is

a little longer, everywhere broader and altogether heavier in bone

than the other. No doubt it is older. But it also has larger

teeth and differs in some instructive structural points. The

larger skull has the crown more elevated, nearly 2 of an inch

higher than in the other; the post-dental portion of the palate

is much narrower, its width at the level of the anterior edge of

the mesopterygoid fossa being 1.4 ins. as compared with almost

1.7 ins. in the other; the fies part of the palate in front of the

last molar is markedly hollowed instead of flat and the fossa itself

is only .7 in. wide in the larger as against 1.1 ins. in the smaller.

As regards the teeth, the last upper molar in the larger has its

posterior portion ncrmally narrowed with its outer edge slightly

coneave and oblique, the hinder edge being rounded. In the

smaller this end of the tooth is only slightly narrowed, its outer

edge being very lightly convex and its hinder edge broad and

transversely truncated. (Text-fig. 8, A, B, p. 125.)

In 1928 A. B. Howell gave the subspecific name wulsini to

some material, including the skin and skull of an adult female,

purchased in Pekin and said to have been procured in the mountain

forest at the ‘Tombs’, some 250 miles to the north of that town

‘ Sowerby added ‘Corroborative evidence of the existence of this type of bear

in Kamschatka is lacking’. Possibly the ‘very dark brown or black bears’

inhabiting Kamschatka, of which Lénnberg heard rumours, were of this kind.

(Proc. Zool. Soc., 1923, p. 93, footnote.)

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 125

in Chihh: Mr. Howell evidently had very lttle material of Sele-

narctos to help him estimate the variability of this bear in the

eharacters he relied upon for distinguishing wulsini from ussuricus.

These were mainly cranial characters; and he pointed out that

the skull of wulsini is wider across the zygomata, narrower across

the interorbital, and has thinner jugals than the female oi

ussuricus shot by Sowerby. But the zygomatic width inereases

lies (3.

A. Upper profile of skull of larger example of S. thibetanus ussuricus from

Amurland.

A’. Mesopterygoid fossa of the same.

A’. Last upper molar of left side of the same.

B. Upper profile of skuil of smaller exampie of S. thibetanus ussuricus

from Amurland.

B'. Mesopterygoid fossa of the same.

B*. Last upper molar of left side of the same.

C. Upper profile of skull of adult male of S. thibetanus formosanus from

Formosa.

D. The same of adult female.

1. Back of skull of adult male of S. thibetanus formosanus from Formosa.

F. The same of adult female of S. thibetanus japonicus from Yamato, Japan.

126°" JOURN Alay BOMBA Yas NVAUP GEE ANE: vl Sn S(O)O 1s TL Va o XOXO Val

with the age and the skull of wulsini, with its fused facial sutures,

is obviously older than the skull of Sowerby’s example in which

these sutures are still open. I have given the recorded dimensions

of the skull of the type of wulsini in the table published below;

but I cannot on the available evidence regard wulsini as distinct

from ussuricus.

The followmeg table gives the cranial and dental measurements

of the skulls known to me which I assign to this northern race.

Skul] in Enelish inches Upper Peeth Lower Teeth

2 in millim. in millim.

pe a ey a EE ew NM, Oy pe Ny Mae poy RSC al pee A

gp) 5

a mae leshiens 3

Locality and Sex a | js ele e|o < Ke Bel aies) | seh eels ah vel Sp oe

SsM) DH msl 4SslseSlFSleo| ss >Hi eo

Se | eae SSS es) aeiS'slas S |25| & sé

= 5 ao S le 2) 4 x S os = (e) a 2 fo)

os SA NFA ee e\ So = S= Ae

Amurland 3 Nps | ley | elo | Ges | Ses | Wor I Oe | SILseG | Wil | Bil s<i4

i: G2 HOO) 4 tibet I) ets) I SS) BAO || Weld | GO | WSsea4l | Be | Di sc iti

Ussurt QO? ee he S50 || Sd kecss | coo | OS |) Masi jb GS | IGScTye

Kirin Q 11-8 soo HOSE con | BD) 2B" ooo 1 QT SC 1H

Chihli Q 11-8 Sion Pcs aig eee (LPR aod fend, | BOSS 2

The first two on the lst are the two presented by Messrs.

Rowland Ward. They are just adult, but by no means old, skulls

and would probably have altered considerably in width and other

respects with increasing age. The principal differences between

them, described above, are illustrated in the adjoming text-figures

(Text-fig. 8, p. 125). The smaller of the two may be a 9. It so

the bear was a very large individual of the sex. Only the

tooth measurements of the example from Ussuri, the type of the

race, are available. They are taken from Heude’s figure and,

even allowing for inaccuracies, are obviously much smaller

than those of the Amurland skulls. The dimensions of the two

Q skulls from Kirm and Chihli are taken from the data supphed

respectively by Sowerby and Howell, the Chihh skull being. the

type of wulsini. It will be noticed that the last upper molar of the

Kirin example is not much bigger than in the type from Ussurt.

It is bigger in the Chihli 9; but according to G. M. Allen’ this

tooth varies from 28 to 382 mm. in length in skulls from Chihli.

In) Sowerby so irom “Kinn it swas) 30" mom, “in Ythe “alllesed

Kamschatka specimen referred to by Sowerby it was 31 mm., exe

the same as in the larger Amurland skull.

When this table is ‘compared with that of the western Chinese

bears, referred to mupinensis, it suggests that the northern race is

a larger form, with, on the average, slightly larger upper. teeth.

This provisional inference, coupled with he epparend difference in

thickness and length of the coat, has induced me to keep the bears

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 127

from the two areas under separate headings. If ultimately found

to be inseparable the name mupinensis has line priority.

A peculiarity of S. ussuricus is the comparatively small differ-

ence in the skulls of the ¢ andQ. The two adult Q skulls are

a good deal larger than any of the adult Q skulls from India

that I have measured. The larger of the two skulls from Amurland,

certainly ¢, 1s a little longer, especially in condyol-basal length,

than any of the o Indian skulls; but the larger of the cay 3

skulls from Nepal would have come very near it, I suspect, if

fully developed. Clearly measurements cf more Chinese skulls

are required to establish or refute the conclusions suggested.

My views about these Chinese bears, mupinensis and ussuricus,

were written before I saw G. M. Allen’s opinions on them pub-

lished in 1929. Since our verdict regarding the status of wulsini

is identical, I have left my paragraph exactly as it was written

on account of the value of the same conclusions being indepen-

dently reached from the examination of different material.

Allen, however, considers that, apart from melli, the Chinese

representatives of Selenarctos must be assigned, on the available

evidence, to the same race; and for this he adopts the name

thibetanus, thus identifying the Chinese with the Indian bears

of which he had very little material. He was the first to point

out the unreliability of the shape of the skull and the size of the

teeth upon which previous authors, Lydekker, Sowerby and

Howell, had based the subspecies they discussed. His remarks

upon the individual variability of these characters are confirmed

in every detail by the skulls I have examined.

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS JAPONICUS, Schl.

Ursus thibetanus.—Temminck, Fauna Japonica, p. 29, 1844.

Ursus japomcus.—sSchlegel, Handl. Dierkunde, 1, p.. 42,

esis welleer, Ipoc, Fool, SOC, MOA, 90. IST erocl Ol, jolie oA,

Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1880, p. 442, fig.

Selenarcivos japonicus, Ileude, Mem, Hust. Nat. Chin. V, p. 2,

Dit Hes on LOO Sowerby, Journ Mamms lip. 222, VO20.

Uisus exis Watschicwe sh G.esm Naito lin. Benim, S97. pe "2.

Locality of type.—unrecorded.

Distribution.—Mountainous parts of the Japanese Archi-

pelago (Temmunck).

Notes on the synonymy.—Temminek identified this bear as

Ursus thibetanus because he could not distinguish it from the

Assamese bear described by Cuvier under that name; and since

Cuvier deseribed the white chin and breast-mark in the type from

Sylhet, it seems that Temminck knew Japanese skins with those

features. Schlegel seems to have guessed that it might be distinct

when he proposed japonicus for it. Five years later Sclater came

independently to the same conclusion as Schlegel and by chance

chose the same name. From an examination of living specimens

he deseribed the ‘species’ as hardly two-thirds the size of the

Indian black bear, with an evanescent gular band, a much blacker

1298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

muzzle and no prominent bushy cheeks. Matschie gave the name

rext to a specimen from Japan because it differed from those

described by Sclater in having a white chin and a distinct white

gular band. Since, however, the skins of typical S. thibetanus

thibetanus, deseribed above from Assam, show that the colour

of the muzzle and chin and the size and colour of the gular

band are exceedingly variable individually, I cannot on the

evidence of one skin attach any importance to the features

on which revi was named. ‘There is also the above stated infer-

ence regarding ‘emminck’s observations to be considered in this

connection.

My acquaintance with Japanese bears living in the Zoological

Gardens bears out Sclater’s remarks regarding their small size as

compared with Indian specimens. There are two skins in the

British Museum : — |

1. A mounted specimen (Zool. Soc.), apparently adult,

measures 4 ft. from snout to rump. ‘The colour is glossy black,

with the muzzle dark brown, darker than: in some but not: all

Assamese’ examples, and the chin is the same tint as the snout,

thus differmg from many but not all Assamese examples. There

is, however, no breast-mark. The coat is full, soft and longish,

with abundant brown underwool. On the back the hair is about

2; Ins. long, on the nape 3 ins. and on the sides of the neck close

upon 4 ins. :

2. A flat skin (Zool. Soc.) closely resembles the last but

has a small white transverse breast patch measuring 4 x 14 ins. and

the coat a little shorter, 24 ins. long on the back, about 34 on the

sides of the neck where it is wavy and curly. On the paws the

hair is remarkably long, about 24 ins. bordering the plantar pads

and over 14 ins. between the digital pads which it largely overlaps

and conceals. Jhis is perhaps a ‘captivity character’.

Very little is known about the skull. There are only two in

the British Museum. One is fully adult and no doubt 9; the

other. is quite young. Both came from Yamato (H. Pryer). The

older skull was described by Gunther in 1880; and on the evidence

of it he followed Selater in giving full specific status to japonicus,

relying on the absence of the inner lobe of the upper carnassial

(the antepenultimate) tooth, this lobe bemg present in the Hima-

layan black bear. But quite evidently its absence in the Japanese

skull ig due to attrition. The position of the lobe is marked by a

scar ot brown dentine with an edging of enamel. The lobe, more-

over, is present and cusped, aTshomen decidedly small, in the young

skull with unworn teeth. This young skull shows no points calling

for further comment; but the adult skull is normal m shape ond

‘low-browed’ and is decidedly small considering its age, the com-

plete obliteration of the sutures, except the facial, suggesting Ces-

sation of growth, at all events in length.

Heude published figures of the skull, 4 nat. size, and of the

principal cheek-teeth, nat. size, of a specimen from Nippon. The

1 It may be recalled hee Duvaucel described the muzzle of the type of

thibetanus as black.

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 129

dorsal contour of the skull closely resembles that of the adult 9

from Yamato. I suspect it is the skull of a ¢, because it is larger

than the full sized Yamato 2 but is obviously immature as attested

by the open cranial sutures, even the interparietai being unclosed.

Commenting on this skull Sowerby remarked that it ‘undoubtedly

represents the Japanese black bear at once distinguishable from

the mainland forms of Selenarctos by the extreme narrowness .

of the skull’. Considering the obvious immaturity of the skull, tts

narrowness has no systematic value.

The measurements of these three skulls are given in the sub-

joined table, those of the specimen from Nippon being taken from

Heude’s figures. The size of the skull of japonicus confirms the

conclusion derived from the observations on living animals, on the

mounted skin in the British Museum, measuring Att. and Tonka

specimen over 18 years old recorded by Temminck also as 4 it.,

that the Japanese race is smaller than the Chinese and Indian

races described above. It appears indeed to be the smallest of

the subspecies of Selenarctos. The teeth, which are remarkably

coincident in size in the three specimens, are also small.

Skull measurements of the Japanese and Formosan Black Bears.

Skull in English inches Upper Teeth | Lower Teeth

in millim. in millim.

gS aera a ee | EDS eset | Penns a vere

re & Bic 3 Bs oe. eel Fave) ee

Locality and Sex 2) So 25 ae ce 23 a3 Be aS

a |e=|N2 |= see 2) Se Sh Se aa

japonicus.

Nippon |) Geel Seo Bs seo | es} || sts) ais) |) Bee Bf || II) S< IO

Yamato. OQ) 9+! 8-6] 5-7) 4-3) 2+) 1-9} 50 | 24x18 One| LODxcalal

Fe eee GY OUI) 7 6-8) 4 3 NG) eee On s24o<ale

formosanus

Formosa J WO) eee | od] seth ea ee ey | WSC 11d 80 pO) <a

Bs 3 10-3} 9-8; 6-8] 5-2) 2-4] 2-4} 58 |}28x15 |- 65 | 20x12

s Q Beeb cooe Ped je alc) psy) Well) = ai | Way Sele 58 | 18x10

fs Q 9:3'| 8-7! 6 4-7} 22) 2 52 | 25x14 By US Se Tu

SELENARCTOS THIBETANUS FORMOSANUS, Swinh.

Siesie (pam aaais: Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 880.

Ursus torquatus formosanus, Lydekker, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1909,

pp. 607-610, text-fig. (skull).

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Selenarctos jormosanus, Sowerby, Journ. Mamm., 1, p. 228,

1920.

'~ “Selenarctos melli, Matschie, Arch. Naturg., 88, pt. 10, p. 34,

IES yjre Cra Ils lien, Aimer, WANS, INO, INO. G80; jo 3, 1O29 (as

subspecies of S. thibetanus).

Locality of type of formosanus.—Formosa.

Locality of type of melliimKwangtung, 8. China.

Distribution.—-Formosa and possibly $8. China.

This bear was described by Swinhoe, approximately rightly,

as intermediate in size between the bears of Japan and Tibet. He

recorded the length as 44 ft. from snout to tail-root. The coat

is short and rigid, the colour black with a crescent-shaped patch

on the chest white in the adult but apparently brown in the young.

He did not examine a complete skin and the only skin he sent

to the British Museum is very imperfect, being without the head

and paws. This may be regarded as the type (No. 62, 12, 24, 26).

The coat is somewhat scanty, coarse and short, the hairs only

about 14 inches in length. There is no crest on the neck, the

hairs here being quite short, looking as if they had been singed.

The chest patch is V-shaped, creamy buff in tint and about 4.8

inches along each arm.

Swinhoe procured, however, a good series of skulls, six in all,

comprising two apparently adult males and females, which I have

sexed by thei size. Their dimensions are entered in the table

given above. All are ‘low-browed’. Of the first two, identified

as o¢, the second was figured by Lydekker as the type. That

claim, however, cannot be substantiated, since Swinhoe described

the bear from a skin and there is no evidence that any one of

the skulls he sent to the Museum 6 years later belonged to that

skin. Although barely full sized, as indicated by the unfused

upper sutures, this skull is a little longer and less inflated on the

brow than the first which is comparatively old, with the teeth

smaller and worn. The two @ skulis are about the same age as

the older ¢ skull. They are flatter on the forehead and have

widely lyrate temporal ridges as in the skull of japonicus from

Yamato which is just about the same age. From the compara-

tively small amount of variation exhibited by these Formosan

skulls I suspect they are ‘inbred’ stock from the district where

Swinhoe was stationed. (Text-fig. 8, C, D, p. 125.)

From the scanty material available formosanus may be distin-

guished from japonicus by its slhghtly larger size and _ shorter,

thinner coat. In this respect it resembles typical thibetanus repre-

sented by the Assamese skins; but the skull shows it to be a

smaller bear. There is, however, one noticeable difference in the

skulls. In the Japanese skull the occipital crest is much smaller

and when seen from behind exhibits a deep, wide concavity above

the mastoid processes. This is at most faintly indicated in one

or two of the Formosan skulls in which the contour of the occipital

crest is sinuously convex from the summit to the mastoids. I have

figured this difference on the chance of further material prov-

ing it constant in these races. But at present no systematic

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF HUROPE AND ASIA 13]

importance can be attached to it, because the series of typical

S. thibetanus skulls from the Naga Hills shows equally great

individual variation. (Text-fig. 8, H, I, p. 125.)

I suggested above that the Southern Chinese bear, described

by Matschie as S. melli, might be the same as the typical Assamese

race ot S. thibetanus which, on the evidence of a skin, I have

traced as far eastwards as Annam. But it is equally, perhaps

more, likely to be assignable to formosanus. Matschie’s descrip-

tion is, of course, valueless; but G. M. Allen identified the skin

and cidllrorvanold-eac a trom Hokien: as, 4S.) th. melli. This

3 skull, he says, is about the same size as an adult Q skull from

Shensi, and ‘obviously’ smaller than large skulls of thibetanus

assumed to be ¢. Moreover, the skin, taken in April, in full

winter coat is ‘much shorter haired’ than the winter skins from

Chihli. His remarks about the size of the skull apply to the ¢

skulls of formosanus, and the comparative shortness of the winter

coat is in keeping with the extreme shortness of the presumably

summer coat of the typical skin of formosanus.

Genus: HELARCTOS.

Elelonctos, wtorsteldsiounn. Zool., u, pp. 22 sand 233, 1826;

Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist (9), i, p. 383, 1918.

The principal resemblances and differences between this bear

and Selenarctos, tabulated in the first part of this paper, need

not be repeated in detail. The chief external differences lie in

\Pg 2A }

} d \ : Oo <a

~ ; | Uf = N Wt an. / <= G # 4 Y,

ar ae Np jes Z

A Yi Le VW \ =~ Lge 7p Yj; the

j y SP ~ YES. Y

Wy y \ maa Be SQ Se Wi

| . - Sel N A fy

‘a Je

) \ fee Ne OY

ip es d d

ay’ aay 7

WW \ oS eae VY

\ od ~ = WW

( £

cna ——=)

\W a" = 5: 17.

\ = mm .: oY

\c Sus mt

‘oe

; iy

Ce Nise

SS ANON

Ss Sy 3 Me a

A. ae

Fie. 9. -

Lower side of right fore paw of Helarctos malayanus.

The same of right hind paw. Lettering as in Fig. 1.

1381 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY a. Volk DOxXOx Vir

the generally shorter and broader head of Helarctos, with its

small, rounded, broad-based, defectively cartilaginous ear, its

modified rhinarium and more protrusible lips and tongue. The

feet are similar, but the fore limbs are more bowed, with the

paws turned inwards in adaptation to a more arboreal habitat.

The coat is shorter, sleeker, never so shaggy, with some differences

in the hair-slope on the neck, pointed out below.

In the skull the chief differences he in the abbreviation of the

jaws, the relatively large canine and incisor teeth, expanding the

muzzle in front and shortening the series of cheek teeth to the

extent sometimes of practically crowding out the small anterior

premolars and bringing the canines almost in contact with the

first larger premolar above and below. This is accompanied by

an extraordinary development of the bony areas of the cranium

to which the neck and jaw muscles are attached, the exceptionally

wide zygomata and mastoids and the high sagittal crest, the back

of the skull being less depressed than in Selenarctos; but the brow

may be inflated or flat and the top of the muzzle steeply or gently

sloped as in that genus.

Helarctos malayanus, Raffles.

Ursus malayanus, Raffles, Tr. Linn. Soc. Zool., xii, p. 254,

1822; id. Zool. Res. Java. 1824; G. Cuvier, Ossemens, Foss.,

iv, p. 324, 1823; F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Mamm., uu, No. 214, p. 1,

1824, and Tabl. Gén. et Méthod., p. 3 (malaianus); Blanford,

Mamm. Brit. India, p. 199, 1888, and of many subsequent authors

including Lydekker.

Helarctos malayanus, Horsf., Zool. Journ., u, p. 2384, 1826;

Chinon, Jour. ds, SOC. IB@MG>, 27, Ws IL, ISOs exagl ox some

recent authors.

Elelarctos eunyspuus, tlorsi.. Zools:) Onis. 1, spaie2 2a. Olesya

1926.

Helarctos annamiticus, Heude, Mém. Hist. Nat. Chin., v, pt.

pe, plea mes de2 oO

Ursus malayanus wardi, liydekker, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1906,

p. 997, text-fig. 142 (skull). :

Locality of type of malayanus.—Sumatra.

Locality of type of euryspilus.—Borneo.

Locality of type of annamiticus.—Annam.

Locality of type of wardi.—alleged to be Tibet. —

Distribution.—Assam, Burma, Indo-China, thence southwards

through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

Notes on the synonymy.—Horsfield separated the Bornean

specimen he named euryspilus from typical malayanus because its

breast-patch was orange-coloured and shield-shaped, not white and

crescentic, and because its toes were tipped with grey hairs.

Since examples from north and south Borneo which I have seen do

not exhibit these features, I regard them merely as individual aber-

rations. The name annamiticus was given by Heude to three skulls

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 133

from Annam, which he declared differed from the skull of the Suma-

tran malayanus in the steeper slope of the muzzle and in some

differences in the cheek-teeth. ‘To illustrate the steepness of the

slope of the muzzle he figured a very old skull, no doubt ¢, without

Fie. 16.

Rhinarium of Helarctos malayanus from the front.

The same from the side.

Har of the same entire.

The same cut open to show absence of vertical cartilaginous ridges.

(For comparison with ear of Ursus figured in Part I of this paper.)

GOW

any cheek-teeth. But the slope of the muzzle in this bear is partly

a sexual, partly a senile character and individually variable; and

the alleged differences in the teeth are no doubt also individual.

At all events since the unworn cheek-teeth of skulls from Annam

and Cochin China that I have seen differ in no respects from those

of skulls from Sumatra and elsewhere, I regard the Annam and

Sumatran bears as inseparable.

The story of wardi, fully told by its author, may be briefly re-

stated. The name was given by Lydekker to a skull of Helarctos

reported to have come from Tibet, but admittedly indistinguishable

from the skull of typical malayanus. The pretext for naming it

was a similar skull previously reported to have come from Tibet

with its skin which carried a thick coat quite different from that of

more southern examples of Helarctos. This skin, with its skull,

was mounted and sent to Bergen; but the photograph Lydekker

procured of it was clearly a Selenarctos with its thick coat and

large ears. He thought, however, that it might be a Helarctos.

I have no doubt whatever that the skin was the skin of a Sele-

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

narctos which may have come from Tibet. But since the skull

certainly did not belong to it, the evidence that the skull was from

Tibet is quite inconclusive. The evidence that the second skull

was from Tibet also, in my opinion, amounts to very little. At all

events since I cannot distinguish this skull from Burmese and

Malayan skulls of Helarctos, I have added wardi to the synonymy

ot malayanus. poe

Description.—The coat, when perfect; is comparatively short

and sleek, although thickish and provided with underwool; but it

becomes thin and harsh as the moult approaches. It further differs

from that of other bears in the presence of two whorls on the

shoulders whence the hair radiates in all directions, running for-

wards along the nape and to a varying distance over the crown.

On the sides of the neck there is, as in Selenarctos, a crest formed

by the meeting of the downward stream from the nape and the

upward stream from the throat. There is also in the centre of the

breast-patch a parting whence the hairs radiate. This is not present

in Selenarctos. |

The colour is typically jet black, but the dead coat may be

tinged with brown, or faintly speckled with buff. The paws are

often brownish marginally. The muzzle is always ereyish tan, or

mealy, above and below, and this tint blends round the eyes with

iV My

bx Neto Ah ft OZ l

N e 4 iW seule, Mp

LA gs rae La oS x GG

wo N *® Z ue = Gy, Ute

<-s Se ew F ee

z 3 7 See Fe

a ie 5 BS

eZ See % % = =

S “oy wx 2 Gy Se

Yi, Ni ci Chi, ; %, | » oe

rae Zw &

74) (,

A y wa (S iy, CUANS

Ni ! T

(eM) Gh U4 WG

i ea my Tg

<\4 Vay at a;

aad, pia, Ww f ( ( f U;

= 4 Z Wz SN Y y ZY

= Y, Bi ey = N YA Z

De ae Soh oS

me GB. Se = = ¥

Di eee RN Ree eS

A, So” ae = “2 Si A

y= ot =, ff y

y Hid i hy L

y WN A uy | .

By DB WwW, yh

i N INS)

Fie. 11.

Breast patch or collar of Malayan Bears (Helarctos malayanus). A & B.

examples from the Malay Peninsula; C. from Sumatra; D. from Cochin-

China. The arrows indicate the direction of the hair-growth.

* Since H. malayanus has been reported from Assam—Blanford records it

from the Garo Hills—it may possibly have a more northern distribution and

cross the border between British territory and Tibet. But it is significant that

the collectors for the Mammal Survey of British India secured no examples of

it either in Assam or Upper Burma, F

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE AND ASIA 135

the brown hairs of the head. The breast-patch is usually buff,

cream or dirty white, more rarely ochreous. In shape it is typically

more or less crescentic, but one arm may be much bigger than the

other; not uncommonly the arms coalesce in front, enclosing a

black area, the pale hairs may even invade the central area making

the patch shield-shaped. The claws are black. The adult ¢

measures about 4 ft. from the snout to the root of the tail and the

adult 9 about 34 ft. According to Cantor the young has the coat

speckled.

I have seen numbers of living examples of this bear from

various localities. They were all alike; and since the skins in the

British Museum from widely separated districts, nearly covering

the known range of the species, supply no evidence of subspecific

differentiation, it is needless to describe them in detail. There

are, however, no skins from Assam, the nearest locality to that

country whence a skin has come to hand being 20 miles N. of

Pegu where in the Zamagi Reserve Mr. J. M. D. Mackenzie

secured for the Mammal Survey an adult 9, with the head and

body measuring 38 ft. 5 ins. and the ear 2 ins. Its breast-patch

is crescentic.

A young specimen from Cochin China (Boucard) and another,

also young, from Hué in Annam (Delacour and Lowe) geographi-

cally represent annamiticus Heude. There is nothing distinctive

about them; and except that the Annam specimen, collected in

February, has a shorter and scantier coat, the two are indistinguish-

able.

Of two mounted specimens, ticketed Malay Peninsula, one

measures 4 ft., the other 84 ft. long. In the former the breast-

patch is nearly circular, in the latter it is asymmetrical, the right

branch being thick and longish, the left quite short and narrow.

Both are normally coloured and in good coat. But a young female

from Wellesley Province, in the Peninsula, is in poor coat, with

the moult apparently imminent; there is some brownish hair on

the back and a pale cast is given to the general dark hue of the

upper side by a speckling of buff at the tips of the hairs. The

breast-patch is simply crescentic. These three specimens from

the same country are interesting from the evidence supplied of

individual variation of the breast-patch and of colour-change, no

doubt seasonal, in the coat.

Two from Sumatra geographically represent typical malayanus.

A young female from Sungei Kumbang is in good coat and has

the breast-patch irregularly quadrate, the two branches joining in

front. The other, ticketed merely Sumatra, has the coat short

and coarse and the breast-patch crescentic.

Two young specimens from Borneo geographically represent

eruyspilus, Horsfield, but do not exhibit the characters upon which

that alleged species was based. Both are black with the breast-

patch crescentic and cream coloured.

The following table gives the dimensions of the skulls of six

adult examples in the British Museum. In addition to these there

are immature skulls from Hué, male, and Quantri, female, in

136" JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATO GATG SEN St ams OG 1H TaVermay olen 2 OXOxey sl

Annam, Cochin China; Wellesley Province, Malay Peninsula, fe-

male; Sungei: Kumbang, Sumatra; Saribas, Sarawak, male, and

Martopoera, Borneo. With regard to these it need only be said

that the last upper and the penultimate lower tooth are about the

size of those of the two Bornean specimens entered in the table,

and, although unworn, are a little smaller than those of the first

five examples. An exception to this is afforded by the penulti-

mate lower tooth of the example from Sumatra which is 1 mm.

larger each way than the same tooth, which is worn, in the female

from S.-W. Siam. The smallest last upper-tooth, measuring

18x12 mm., is found in the female from Wellesley Province.

Skull in English inches Upper Teeth | Lower Teeth

: 2 in millim. | in millim.

(zm —-+ | ——-4+ ——— | ——- +-—

ee |

: |

02 |

: A ine IS :

Locality and Sex 2 = s.</2 a ome 4a Mal eq Hg ee

Bele aiaeles|. Slsciae) 23 jee) se

S-|8- ian ee P| Se S| Seats

Tonghoo, Burma. ¢ {10-9 8°5| 6-9) 2-8) 3-2) 47 | 2axi4 | 6 | 17 xi

Bukit Besar, Mal.

Pen. ¢ 10°6) 9:7) 8:7) 6-5) 2:7) 3-1) 45 | 21x13 | 58

(Lidth de Jeude), ;

? Java oO 10-2! 9-4] 8-5) 6-7 a 2-8| 49 | 923%14| 60 ) 17x1L

(Tibet, wardi). 3 10-G| 9-4] 8-1] 6:7 a mot AED NON S<cilde BY I Se In

Sai Yoke, S.W. Siam,

ald, 2 9-8; 8:9; 7-6] 6-1] 2-6) 2:8) 50 | 22x18 | 55 | 16x11

Brite N] Borneo ad? ©.) | 9: ai) 326) 973 re? 9-8) 27! 49 | 91x14 ae

Sarawak ad. © 8-1] 7:5} 6-2) 4:9) 2-0) 2-1! 45 |19x18 | 51 |) 16x20

Sungei Kumbang,

Sumatra foo tI e005" |Meat eee 7} ces hace | ak | OD Ms |p ish |] IE TUT

Quantri, Annam, 9 45 |20xK14 | 58 | 16x11

The two young skulls, at the end of the table, from Sumatra

and Annam may be regarded as topotypes of malayanus and anna-

miticus respectively. I have given the measurements of the teeth

to show their equality in size. Heude claimed that in his Annam

skulls the teeth were much larger than in a Sumatran skull. No

doubt they were.

The skull from Tonghoo (H. W. Oates), the longest in the

Museum collection,’ although unsexed, is unquestionably that of

* In Ward’s Records, 1928, p. 503, there is an entry of a skull, also un-

questionably of a male, from Java which is a little longer, but not so wide, its

measurements being 11§ inches by 8}. The rest of the skulls there entered

appear to be female, being between 8 and 9 inches long.

THE BLACK AND BROWN BEARS OF EUROPE -AND- ASIA 137

an old male. There is no trace. of a suture, even on the face.

It has a high, convex dorsal profile with the brow considerably

inflated and the face abruptly sloped down to the-nasals which

are in a slightly higher plain. The sagittal crest is unusually. well

developed. About the same age and very nearly as long but

slightly wider across the zygomata is the skull marked male,

Fie. 12:

Upper profile of skull of old male Helarctos malayanus from 'Toungoo,

Burma.

Frontal profile of skull of old male of the same from Bukit Bezar,

Malay Peninsula.

The same of a specimen probably from Java.

Nasal profile of the type of H. malayanus wardi.

Upper profile of adult female from Sai Yoke, S.W. Siam.

The same of a specimen, supposed to be a female, from British North

Borneo.

HED wp

from Bukit Besar in the Malay Peninsula (Robinson and Annan-

dale). But the forehead is not so inflated and the nasals are pro-

duced and depressed distally giving a very different aspect to the

facial profile. <A little smaller than the last, but also no doubt

identifiable as a male, is a skull labelled ‘Lidth de Jeude’ which

probably came from the Dutch East Indies and more likely than

not from Java like the series of Tigers’ skulls, similarly labelled,

which 1 referred to in this Journal in 1929. The facial profile in

this skull is even straighter than in the Bukit Besar skull, the

nasals being practically invisible from the lateral aspect. The

type-skull of wardi is a trifle smaller, but not so old. Its frontal

profile is very much as in the Bukit Besar skull, but becomes

1388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

slightly coneave at the base of the nasals which are nearly hori-

zontal, giving a ‘snub-nosed’ appearance to the face.!

The only adult skull I have seen, which was identified by the

collector as a female, is the one from Sai Yoke in South-West

Siam (K. G. Gairdner). It is an old skull without trace of sutures,

older even than the male from Tonghoo judging by the more worn

teeth. It is decidedly smaller than the skulls described above as

males and noticeably less swollen in the frontal region and has the

facial profile less steeply sloped.

From British North Borneo and Sarawak respectively there are

two adult skulls, both unsexed. The larger of the two closely

resembles, in its dimensions and shape, the skull from 5$.-W.

Siam, except that the dorsal profile is a little higher and more

convex. It is also narrower in every respect, no doubt because

it is younger. I find it difficult to believe that this skull, about

as old as the type of wardi but much smaller in every way, is

other than a female skull. But the one from Sarawak (Wallace)

is also adult but is much smaller. Hence it is possible that these

two skulls are male and female, representing a small Bornean race

(euryspilus) in which the male is only equal to the female of mala-

yanus in size. But the skulls of bears are so variable in size and

other particulars, and the material available is so inadequate that,

in my opinion, the evidence for the existence of more than one

kind of Helarctos malayanus is at present negligible.

1 The variation in the shape of the facial profile in the male skulls above

recorded convinced me that this feature has not the value assigned to it by

Heude when he gave a new name to skulls from Annam.

Journ. Bomaay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuatE 18.

JohnBale Sons & Danielsson. L*4 London.

THE Spotted GLIRICIDIA.

Gliricidia maculata, H.B& K.

(about 2 nat. size).

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES

By De BLATTER, sd Pap. kins, AND WS. MILLARD, F.Z.s-

Paty ON:

(With one coloured plate, one black & white plate and 2 diagrams).

(Continued from page 825 of Vol. XXXV)

THE SPOTTED GLIRICIDIA.

Popular Names: Madre or Madre de Cacao of South America.

Gliricidia macuiata, H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. vi, 898 (Papi-

lionaceae).

The generic name means ‘rat-destroying’ in reference to the seeds

which are believed to be effctive as rat poison—maculata meaning

spotted—describes a character of the under-surface of the leaves.

Description.—A small elegant and quick growing tree with

arching branches and fea-

thery folhage somewhat re-

miniscent of the Cassias.

The leaf is described as

odd pinate, the leaf stalk

bearing 8 pairs of pinnae

or leaflets and with an odd

terminal leaflet. » The leaf-

al lets are oblong in shape,

blunt at the apex, covered

with a mat of fine hairs

above and dull green _ be-

low, the black spotting on

the wunder-surface of the

leaves gives the tree its

specific name. The tree sheds almost all its leaves during the

cold weather when it flowers,

1440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

It is strikingly beautiful in bloom when its branches for the

greater part of their length are covered with masses of pinkish

purple or pale pink flowers. The flowers grow in clusters. The

calyx of the flower is lobed—the petals consist of a large erect

backward-curving standard petal, 2 sickle-shaped wing-petals and

an incurving keel-petal. The two-valved pod is long and flat with

a thickened margin.

Flowering season.—In Bombay these trees flower in..between

February and March.

Gardening.—The Spotted Gliricidia is easily raised from seed

or cuttings which should be 5-6 ft. long and planted 12 ft. or more

apart. The tree bears such a heavy crop of leaves that the

branches are frequently broken by the wind, especially as the wood

is very brittle, and it is better to pollard the vtuee: from time to

time. |

Uses.—Macmillan states that the rapid growth of the tree and

its long leafy branches recommend it.as a useful shade tree for

crops and for green manuring. The whole tree is rich in nitrogen,

the flowers alone containing up to 3°36 per cent. The dried leaves

smell like new-mown hay.

Distribution.—Gautemala to South America. It was intro-

duced into Ceylon from the West Indies about 1899. At a meet-

ing of the Members of the Bombay Natural History Society held

on the 29th September 1916, Mr. Millard exhibited a young speci-

men of this handsome flowering tree which he had raised from

seed received from the Peradeniya Gardens through the kindness

of Mr. Macmillan, the Curator, and this was probably the first

introduction of this tree into Bombay. |

[We regret to say that Sister Mary Chionia of All Saints, Mazagon—whose

beautiful sketches, signed ‘M.C.’—have illustrated many of these articles,

passed away on August 14th., 1982. The Society is greatly indebted to her for

her beautiful work.—Eps. ]. Be eon

JouRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate XIX.

Spotted Gliricidia Tree in the Victoria Gardens, Bombay.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

acs ancun, iomClon,, Te. Sige El. iS

Part XL.

(With 3 text-figures.)

(Continued from page 656 of Volume XXXV).

(Sub-family : PLaTYcNEMINAE—cont.).

Genus: CaLicNEeMis Selys, (1868).

Calicnemis, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xvi, p. 159 (1863); Id. Mem.

Cour. xxxvil, p. 180 (1886); Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 131 (1890);

Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. xxx, p. 502 (1891); Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus. Vol. xiii, p. 322, 326 (1917); Munz, Mem. Amer.

mits -s0css Now 73, pp. 54 (lglg): Kennedy, Journ. Sci. Ohio,

Vol. xxi, No. 1, p. 27 (1920); Fraser, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

SOG, WOl. Seonk, jos 1415 (ISP).

Fie. 1.—Wings of Calicnemis eximia Selys 9.

Dragonflies of rather small size and of moderately slender build, with

abdomen less than twice the length of hindwing; coloured red or bright

chrome yellow marked with black or more rarely black partially obscured with

pruimnescence. Wings hyaline, rounded at apices, never falcate, pedicle mode-

rately long: discoidal cell elongate, costal side about three-fourths the length

of posterior, distal side at least half as long again as the basal and very oblique

so that the cell is acutely pointed at its distal lower angle; sectors of arc

arising from lower end of arc and divergent from origin; no accessory basal

postcostal nervure present; the nervure Ac situated slightly nearer the distal

antenodal nervure; Ab always present and complete, continued on as Ja,

which latter extends for about three-fourths the length of wings; petiolation

beginning well proximal the level of Ac; Cu extending for a short distance

beyond the end of Ja, 20 cells or more in length; Riv+v arising well proximal

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

the level of the oblique nervure descending from the subnode, [Ri a little

distad of that nervure; pterostigma slightly variable in the species, sub-

quadrate, diamond-shaped, braced; cells of wings mainly quadrangular; 3 cells

between the discoidal cell and nervure descending from subnode.

Head narrow; eyes relatively smaller than in species of Platysticta; occiput

simple; posterior lobe of prothorax rounded and simple in both sexes; abdomen

cylindrical, moderately robust and short as compared to species of Coeliccia;

anal appendages very homogeneous, superiors nearly as long as inferiors,

ending in two long branches, one of which simulates a long robust subbasal

ventral spine, the other directed straight back to form the apex of appendage;

inferiors long, tapering, sinuous, closely resembling those of Coeliccia.

Genitalia,—lamina narrowly and deeply cleft; hamules broad quadrate

plates meeting across the middle line; lobe flask-shaped, deeply grooved on its

ventral surface; penis closely similar to that of Coeliccia, the apex dividing

into two long curling branches which curve down to embrace the stem of

organ. Vulvar scales short, robust. Geno-type: Calicnemis eximia Selys.

Distribution.—The genus is almost entirely an Indian one, most species

being confined to N.H. India and Burma, but one or more extending into

Indo-China. The genus is closely related to Coeliccia and Indocnemis, differ-

ing from the former by its shorter petiolation, broader and more rounded

apices of wings, and from the latter by its broader and shorter wings, by

possessing only 3 cells between the discoidal cell and nervure descending from

the subnode, and lastly by its more open reticulation of wings.

Key to species of genus Calicnemis.

Males.—

1 Beneath head entirely black

; | Beneath head black marked with yellow

oo to

‘(Head and abdomen black without mark-

ings Beth Bas ane ... C. pulverulans Selys.

~ Head black with citron yellow mark-

| ings; abdomen with segment 1 yellow,

| segments 2 to 6 red, 7 to 10 black ... C. erythromelas Selys.

¢ Abdomen bright vermilion red without

| markings; a small upper posthumeral

yellow spot on thorax; face and head

as far back as posterior ocellus red

without markings C. eximia Selys.

Abdomen black more or less marked with

red or ferruginous; no posthumeral

yellow spot or a very tiny one; front

of head black or black traversed with

| yellow or red bands 500 Sto ae sae as

( Abdomen black with segments 1 and 2

and base of 8 brick-red or bright

ochreous; frons and face black ... C. mortoni Laidlaw.

Abdomen black from segment 6 to 10,

4 basal segments red; not more than 15 ;

postnodal nervures in forewings ... C. miles Laidlaw.

Abdomen red with black markings on

segments 8 to 10 only; 19 to 20 ee

ale nodal nervures in forewings . C. miniata Selys.

Females.—

Beneath head entirely black ... : aoc fad wre

: | Beneath head black marked with yellow. ai Sate.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 143

{ Abdomen robust, black, dorsum of seg-

| ments 1 and 2 with yellow markings;

2. { labrum broadly bordered with yellow. C. pulverulans Selys.

| Abdomen slim, segments 1 to 6 yellow,

( 7 to 10 black; labrum entirely black. C. erythromelas Selys.

( Not more than 138 postnodal nervures in

3 the forewings C. miles Laidlaw.

j | Not less than 17 to 19 postnodal nervures

in the forewings Aide 560 600 bo te

( Head broadly yellow beneath; a con-

spicuous yellow posture superior

| spot present a ... C. eximia Selys.

4. ~~ Head black beneath “marked with a

small wedge-shaped yellow spot; no

| superior yellow posthumeral spot pre-

sent sae Soe 668 Sas 308 SD

Labrum yellow with a large medio-

5 basal black spot... bse ... CU. mortont Laidlaw.

Labrum yellow, unmarked Bae ... C. minata Selys.

Calicnemis eximia Selys.

Calicnemis eximia Selys, Buli. Acad. Belg. (2) xvi, p. 160 (1863); Id. Mem.

Cour. xxxvil, p. 1831 (1886); Isirby, Cat. Odon. p. 131 (1890);

Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. xxx, pp. 502-507 (1891); Laid,

IRGC, lial, — Wows. Wolly seul jo. SAA ble, Gr\04. Grill “OlSply))s

Hraser Journe bom Nate. Highs soc, Vol.) xxix, 9p. 745

(1928). Martin; Mission Pavie (Nevrop.) p. 18 (1904);

Fraser, Journ. ‘Asia. Soc. Bengal. N. S. xix, p. 462 (1928).

Calicnemis atkinsont Selys, (exvmia nec atkinsoni) Mem. Cour. xxxvui, p. 131

(1886), Id. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. xxx, pp. 503-505 (1891);

Ibe ILC, 70s BAI UIA).

a Vast berms

I NN

Soe

i 2

Fig. 2.—Anal appendages of Calicnemis eximia Selys, $—(1) Dorsal view. (2)

Right lateral view. (Camera lucida study.)

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Male.-—Abdomen 30-34 mm. Hindwing 21-23 mm:

Head.—Labium pale ochreous, labrum, bases’ of mandibles, gene and upper

surface of head as far posterior as the level of posterior ocelli bright vermilion

red, including the antenne; occiput velvety black with a pale yellow streak

behind each eye; beneath occiput black with a broad quadrate pale ochreous

patch against each eye; the latter red above paling to yellow beneath.

Prothorax velvety black, bright yellow laterally; posterior lobe rounded,

simple, black. .

Thorax black on dorsum as far as the middle of mesepimeron laterally,

marked with a pair of bright citron yellow or bright vermilion antehumeral

stripes with straight inner border, curved outer, extending into antealar sinus;

a small yellow spot just behind the upper end of humeral suture; laterally

bright yellow with a narrow black oblique stripe mapping out each postero-

lateral suture, tapering to a point below, beneath yellow.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma reddish brown framed finely in yellow, braced,

slightly longer than broad, 14 to 17 postnodal nervures in forewings, 13 in the

hind,. 8 cells between the discoidal cell and the oblique nervure descending

from the subnode in forewing, 2 to 38 in the hind.

Legs vermilion, unmarked. Abdomen bright vermilion red throughout but

becoming a little darker or brownish in old specimens, entirely without mark-

ings. Anal appendages bright yellow, slightly longer than segment 10,

and of equal length; superiors of the generic shape, acute at apex

and with a long subbasal spine; inferiors a little sinuous, apex turned

abruptly upwards.

Female.—Abdomen 28 to 80 mm. Hindwing 23 to 25 mm.

Differs in several respects from the male, a more robust insect, bos wings

extending almost to end of abdomen; ground-colour bright citron wallow

instead of vermilion; abdomen dark enfumed ochreous changing to black on

the terminal segments, segment 1 yellow with a small wedge of dark colour at

base, segment 2 with the middorsal carina narrowly or broadly black according

to age, or blackish brown in very old specimens; some obscure paired apical

spots on segments 7 to 9 in some specimens but these obscured in the full

adult stage; head differmg from male by a black band traversing the vertex

and frons, of variable width, sometimes narrow: but in others broadening at the

middle portion; wings rather broad, 17 postnodal nervures in the forewings,

16 in the hind; pterostigma of the same colour as the male, usually broader,

about one-fourth as long as broad, but variable in this respect even in the

wings of individual specimens; legs yellow or ochreous, femora black on

extensor surface, especially at the distal ends.

Anal appendages yellow or dark brown, conical, short, pointed; vulvar scales

robust, extending to end of abdomen, yellow.

Distribution. Ni EK. India, Bengal, Sikkim and Assam. The author found

this species very common at Mangpu, Darjeeling district, during June and May.

It breeds in small brooks flowing through marshes, has a short weak flight and

is gregarious.

Type probably in the Selysian collection, paratypes in most Museums

including the Indian, Pusa and British institutions. The generalised and vivid

red colour of this insect serves to determine it at once from all others of the

genus. The female bears a close resemblance to those of C. miniata and

C. pulverulans and is. distinguished from the former by being broadly yellow

beneath the head instead of wholly black, whilst from C. pulverulans the

same character as well as the presence of an upper posthumeral spot will serve

to separate it.

Calicnemis pulverulans.‘Selys.

Calicnemis pulverulans Selys, Mem. Cour. xxxvuii, p. 183 (1886); Kirby,

: Cates Odonips, USI 890); mand: Rees dnd. Mus. Wola xan

pp. 322; 329 and 331 (1917); Fraser, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc; Wolk xxix," py (40 l gan). ‘

Male.—Abdomen 381 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 145

Head.—Labium white, lateral palps black; labrum blackish brown broadly

bordered with yellow; bases of mandibles, gene and clypeus glossy black;

rest of head matt black pruinosed partly as follows—a broad fascia including

the basal joints of antenne extending from eye to eye from front of frons to a

line drawn through the interocellar space, after which is a broad belt of black

extending from eye to eye followed by a second and narrower belt of pruine-

scence across occiput dilated at both ends, pale yellow stripes occasion-

ally bemg seen dimly- through the pruinescence; beneath eyes and _ head

black. ae

Prothorax black, the middle lobe pruinosed bluish, the posterior lobe black,

elongate, rounded, projecting back over front of thorax.

Thorax . black but appearing blue from pruinescence except the dorsum

which. is .black as far lateral as the middle of mesepimeron and encloses narrow

pruinosed~ blue antehumeral stripes. Laterally the -whole of the side: bluish

except the postero-lateral suture which does not share in the pruinescence;

rounded yellow spots sometimes visible on the anterior parts of the mesepimeron

and metepimeron; beneath black.

Legs and abdomen black thinly pruinosed, thus appearing bluish, unmarked.

‘Wings hyaline; pterostigma dark reddish brown framed in thick black nervures,

covering a little more than 1 cell, braced; 18 postnodal nervures in forewings,

16 in the hind; 8 cells between the discoidal cell and the oblique nervure des-

cending from the subnode.

Anal appendages black, inferiors pale yellow at base and apex; closely

similar_ to those of C. eximia, superiors, slightly longer than segment 10,

inferiors. slightly longer than superiors, the apex turned down and a little in at

nearly a right angle.

Teneral males approximate in colour and markings to ne eae and it is

to be noted that in the full adult stage, all pale markings become obscured by

dense pruinescence, thus perpetuating the markings in a bluish colour through

which the yellow may be dimly seen.

Female.—Abdomen 380 mm. Hindwing 25-26 mm.

Resembles the young male and differs markedly from the adult stage of that

sex. Labium and labrum similar to the male; bases of mandibles, gene and a

narrow wavy stripe on vertex pale yellow, the latter marking shaped like a

cupid’s bow and extending from base of one antenne to the other only; a pair

of pale postocular yellow stripes on back of occiput similar to those occasionally

seen in the male; beneath head entirely black. Hyes black above, dark oliva-

ceous brown below.

Prothorax black with a large hook-shaped yellow spot on each side of

middle lobe; posterior lobe very small, rounded, black.

Thorax black on dorsum as far back as the middle of mesepimeron, with a

narrow pale yellow antehumeral stripe on each side of dorsum; laterally pale

bluish green or pale greenish yellow with a moderately broad black stripe on

the postero-lateral suture; beneath pale yellow.

Legs yellow, the extensor surfaces of all femora and the flexour surfaces of

tibizs black, as also tarsi.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma blackish brown, nearly half as long again as

broad, covering one and a half cells; 16 postnodal nervures in the forewings,

14 in the hind.

Abdomen deep black throughout except for segment 1 which is pale yellow

with a small black dorsal spot, and segment 2 which is mottled or striped with

yellow laterally; segments 3 and 4 have also small vestigial baso-dorsal paired

yellow spots.

Anal appendages black, conical, as long as segment 10; vulvur scales robust,

extending to end of abdomen, dark brown. The abdomen very heavily built

in this species.

Distribution.—Northern Bengal, and Sikkim at about 4,000 to 6,000 ft.

Moderately common in the hills below Darjeeling from May to September. The

male is easily determined from all others by its extreme melanism relieved

only by extensive pruinescence. The female more difficult in this respect, is

determined by the head entirely black beneath, by the abdomen black beneath

as well as on the dorsum, and lastly by the absence of the small posthumeral

1446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XxXvI

upper spot which is present in most species. Type, an incomplete male in the

Selysian collection. Paratypes in the Indian and British Museums and many

private collections.

i) HE

ve:

Yeni \

on HONE PLC ay q?

MEUM NT pien

WS Lc

Fie. 3.—Dorsal headmarkings of—(1) Calicnemis miles Laidlaw, ¢; (2)

Calicnemis erythromelas Selys, 3; (8) Calicnemis mortoni Laidlaw, 3; (4)

Calicnemis eximia Selys, ¢; (5) Calicnemis miniata Selys, 3; (6) Calicnemis

pulverulans Selys, ¢ (Shaded markings are pruinosed blue).

CALICNEMIS MINIATA Selys.

Calicnemis miniata Selys, Mem. Cour. xxxvii, p. 182 (1886); Id. Ann. Mus.

Cin, Gemoy, xox, (0. GU CISBi)e Ikcueoy; Catins Oclom, jos Isl

(i890) aid] Rec. Inds Muse Volk xin, pp: 322m 3285329

chin) aell (CIQILD)s Iteacee, Journ, Iown, Wes, Jetish, Soe, Wall,

xxix p. 745 (1928).

Calicnemis eximia Selys (C. miniata nec C. eximia 9) Bull. Acad. Belg. (2)

KVib es LOO SSE

Male.—Abdomen 380-32 mm. Hindwing 25-26 mim.

‘Head.—Labium pale brown; labrum bases of mandibles, gene, frons,

clypeus and vertex as far back as the level of the posterior ocelli bright brick

red, the latter traversed from eye to eye at the level of the antenne by a

narrow \black stripe; occiput black marked by a narrow postocular pale yellow

stripe on each side; beneath head black with a very small wedge of pale

yellow against the eyes; the latter dark brown above, reddish below.

Prothorax black with a large reddish spot on each side of middle lobe;

posterior lobe rounded, simple, black.

Thorax black, the dorsum bearing narrow bright red antehumeral stripes,

broadening somewhat below, the sides with a narrow yellow or ferruginous

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 147

stripe in the region of the spiracle and a yellow stripe on the lower half of the

metepimeron. These stripes in the adult stage appearing purplish from over-

lying pruinescence. Beneath pale yellow clouded with olivaceous anteriorly.

Legs dark reddish brown, flexor surfaces of tibie ferruginous, trochanters

and coxe yellow, as also the extreme proximal ends of femora.

Wings hyaline; 19 to 20 postnodal nervures in the forewings, 17 to 18 in

the hind; pterostigma blackish brown finely framed in yellow and thick black

nervures, markedly diamond-shaped and very acute at both ends, braced,

covering | cell; 3 or 4 cells between the discoidal cell and the oblique nervure

descending from the subnode in forewings, 3 in the hind.

Abdomen blood red as far as the basal third of segment 7, remaining

segments black; segments 5 and 6 with fine apical black rings. Anal appen-

dages black, shaped very similarly to those of C. eximia but the inferiors

considerably longer than the superiors, very sinuous and with apices sloping

inwards and meeting in the middle line.

Hemale.—Abdomen 27-29 mm. Hindwing 23-24 mm.

Differs in a few respects from the male, the ground-colour or markings

bright citron yellow on head and thorax, ferruginous on the abdomen. Head

with the transverse black stripe on vertex much broader, extending forwards

onto frons, involving the base of postclypeus more or less, rarely the whole of

clypeus black; the stripe cutting off a pale yellow, broadly zigzagged stripe

which is often broken up into two spots and incomplete on either side and is

situated at the level of the anterior ocellus; markings on occiput and beneath

head similar to those of the male. Prothorax and thorax with similar markings

but the latter bright yellow laterally marked with narrow oblique black stripes

on the postero-lateral sutures. Legs yellow, hinder surface of all femora’ black

and the distal ends of anterior pair brownish; tibie yellow on flexor surface,

tars! black.

Wings with 17 to 19 postnodal nervures in the fore, 15 to 16 in the hind;

pterostigma longer and less diamond-shaped than in the male, covering rather

more than 1 cell, coloured similarly to male; 2 to 3 cells between the discoidal

cell and the oblique nervure descending from the subnode in the hindwings,

38 to 83 in the fore.

Abdomen much stouter than in the male and dilated at the anal end,

ferruginous as far as the middle third of segment 6, black thereafter as far as

the end except at the sides of segments; segments 3 to 6 with fine apical black

rings. Vulvar scales robust, extending slghtly beyond end of abdomen,

ferruginous; anal appendages black, very minute, pointed at apices.

Distribution.—Bengal and Sikkim, and probably Nepal and _ borders of

Thibet. The author found it moderately common during May and June around

Mangpu, Darjeeling district, 4,000 ft. in the Teesta Valley, and has specimens

also from Gangtok and Pashoke. The male is distinguished from other species

by the whole of the face and upper surface of head bright red except for a

narrow black stripe traversing vertex and by the abdomen blood red except

for the last four segments which are black. The female is determined with

much greater difficulty but may be known by the following complex—labrum

wholly yellow, superior posthumeral yellow spot absent or very tiny and _ in-

conspicuous, and by the head black beneath with but a small wedge-shaped

yellow spot against the eyes, almost obsolete in adults.

Calicnemis miles Laidlaw.

Calicnemis eximia race atkinsoni Selys, (C. eximia Q nec athkinsoni) Mem.

Cour. xxxvui, pp. 181, 182 (1886).

Calicnenus atkinsoni Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x, pp. 508, 505 (1891).

Calicnenus miles Laid. nov. nom. Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xii, p. 3880 (1917);

rash Jourme bom Nate listh soc. Vole xxx, p. 745 (1923),

Male.—Abdomen 83 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Head.—Labium pale brown; labrum, bases of mandibles, gene, clypeus, the

anterior border of frons narrowly and the vertex bright brick red, the latter

traversed by a broad black stripe extending from eye to eye at the level of the

interocellar space, and forwards at its middle two-fourths nearly to anterior

border of frons; antenne black; occiput and beneath head black, the former

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

with a short postocular pale yellow stripe, and the latter with a diffuse pale

grcenish yellow stripe extending in from border of eyes; eyes reddish brown

above, paler yellow.

Prothorax black with a small yellow spot on each side of middle lobe ;

posterior lobe simple, rounded, black.

Thorax black on dorsum as far back as middle of mesepimeron, marked with

@ bright brick-red narrow antehumeral stripe of almost even thickness

throughout; no upper posthumeral yellow spot; laterally pale yellow with a

broad black stripe overlying the postero-lateral suture; beneath pale yellow.

Legs ferruginous, posterior surfaces of femora darker, flexor surfaces of

tibiae black, “as also tarsi:

Wings hyaline; pterostigma elongate, rhomboidal in shape, nearly twice as

long as broad, pale reddish brown framed in thick black nervures, covering one

and half cells, braced; 14 to 15 postnodal nervures in forewings, UW} Go 18} im,

the hind; 38 to 4 cells between the discoidal cell and nervure descending

from the subnode in forewings, 3 in the hind.

Abdomen blood-red except for segment 1 which is pale greenish yellow with

a large brown spot on dorsum, and segments 8 to 10, segment 8 with a narrow

lateral black stripe, 9 with a large black subdorsal spot at its base, extending

nearly to apical border, and 10 with a similar spot. but much shorter and

bordering its base; all segments with narrow black apical annules, broadening

on segment 7, narrow on 8 to 10. ;

Anal appendages dark reddish brown, the inferiors pale at base; superiors

about as long as segment 10 and markedly shorter than the inferiors, shaped

as for the geno- type, the inferiors with the apices turned down abruptly and

rather sinuous.

Female.—Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Differs markedly from the male as follows—labrum bright yellow; labrum

with a tiny black point at the centre of its base, the head otherwise similar to

the male except that the markings are bright citron yellow and the spot under

the head is quadrate and much larger; prothorax and thorax -with the ante-

humeral stripes and ground-colour laterally bright citron yellow, the lateral

spot on prothorax larger, and the black stripe, on sides of thorax narrower

and incomplete below; posterior lobe of prothorax similar -in shape to the

male. Legs bright yellow, only the femora marked with black posteriorly.

Wings very similar to the male, the pterostigma paler and with a fine frame

of yellow lining the enclosing black nervures within; 13 postnodal nervures in

the forewings, 11 in the hind; 38 cells between discoidal cell and the oblique

nervure descending from the subnode.

Abdomen bright yellow clouded with brown or reddish brown on dorsum,

becoming black on segments 8 to 10, more broadly so at base of segments

8 and 9; segment 1 with a small black dorsal spot at extreme base; segments

2 to 7 with narrow bright yellow basal annules narrowly- interrupted on mid-

dorsum, and with the middorsal carina blackish brown and confluent on each

segment with a narrow black apical ring.

Anal appendages very small, barely as long as segment 10, dark reddish

brown, conical, surmounting a yellow conical protuberance; vulvar scales yellow,

extending for a short distance beyond end of abdomen.

Distributaon.—Upper Burma and Sikkim. The type comes from Sikkim and

is presumably in the Selysian collection. It is named by Selys as C. atkinsoni

from a Q thought by him to be a race of C. eximia. The female in ques-

tion however turned out to be the female of C. eximua itself hence a new name

became necessary for the male named atkinsoni, that of C. miles being given by

Laidlaw. The above descriptions have been made from a pair taken im cop

at Gokteik, Upper Burma at the end of May and now in the author’s collection.

The male closely resembles that of C. miniata but is easily distinguished from

it by the larger yellow spot beneath the head and by the red colour of abdomen

extending its whole length with some black spots on the last 3 segments only.

A. ready means of distinguishing the two species however is the much lower

nodal index, 14 to 15 only” in Cl miles as contrasted with 18 to 21.in C. miniata.

Females are distinguished by the dorsal black markings much reduced and

restricted to the last 8 segments, the lower nodal index and’ the very large

quadrate spot beneath head. ‘The elongate pterostigma in both sexes is also

very characteristic as compared to the lozenge-shaped organ found in

C. miniata,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 149

Calicnemis erythromelas Selys.

Calicnemis erythromelas Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x, pp. 505, 506

CGUSSID)s dbencls IRee. dine, Mius Wolly Sails joo sail (Ubi) s

Fraser, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. p. xxix, p. 746

(1923).

Male.—Abdomen 28 mm. Hindwing 22.5 mm.

Head.—Labium with the middle lobe bright yellow, lateral lobes jet black;

labrum glossy black; bases of mandibles bright citron yellow narrowly bordered

with black; gene bright citron yellow with a large central black spot confluent

medially with the clypeus which is also black; frons and vertex bright citron

yellow with a very irregular crenated bar of velvety black traversing the latter

from eye to eye at level of antenne, the yellow stripe behind it very narrowly

interrupted in the middle line; occiput and beneath head matt black, the former

with narrow postocular citron yellow stripes on each side; no markings

beneath head; eyes black above, olivaceous beneath.

Prothorax velvety black with a large citron yellow spot on the subdorsum of

middle lobe and another on each side; posterior lobe rounded, simple.

Thorax velvety black on dorsum as far lateral as the middle of mesepimeron

and marked with a narrow bright citron yellow antehumeral stripe on each

side; laterally yellow to greenish yellow with a moderately broad complete

black oblique stripe overlying the postero-lateral suture; tergum spotted with

yellow, beneath palest yellow.

Legs black, the inner surfaces of femora and outer surfaces of tibie

yellowish.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma dark reddish brown finely framed in yellow

and thick black nervures, inner border straight, outer oblique, nearly twice

as long as broad, poorly braced, covering one and a half cells; 18 to 20 post-

nodal nervures in the forewings, 17 in the hind; 3 cells between the discoidal

cell and the oblique nervure descending from the subnode in the forewing.

Petiolation beginning much nearer the anal crossing than in other species.

especially in the hindwings.

Abdomen bright blood red from segments 2 to 6, segment 1 citron yellow

with a large black dorsal spot extending to apical border; segments 7 to 10

entirely black, the others very finely ringed with black at the apical ends.

Anal appendages black; superiors acutely pointed at apex which is bevelled

strongly within, and with a robust ventral subbasal spine directed straight

down, equal in length to segment 10. Inferiors of the same length as superiors, »

curving out and then slightly in, apex with a minute tooth within.

Female. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

Very similar to the male, of very slender build compared to other females

of the genus, the abdomen however markedly dilated at segments 8 to 10.

The stripe on vertex more extensive and partially obscuring the yellow band

behind it so that the latter tends to become broken up into spots; prothorax,

and legs not differing in any respect from the male; wings with 18 to 19

postnodal nervures in the fore, 15 to 17 in the hind; 2 to 8 cells between the

discoidal cell and the oblique nervure descending from the siibnode in all

wings; pterostigma similar to that of male.

Abdomen with segments 2 to 6 bright ochreous tinted with red on dorsum;

segment 1 and segments 7 to 10 yellow and black respectively as in the male;

the middorsal carina of all segments from 2 to 6 narrowly black but broad-

ening on the last, whilst that of the former has a cross-bar near the apical

border and all segments have narrow black apical rings.

Vulvar scales robust, jet black, extending slightly beyond end of abdomen;

anal appendages black, shorter than segment 10, conical, pointed.

- Distribution.—Type, in the Selysian collection, is a male from Leito; others

from Copabo and Mt. Karen, Burma, May and June.

The above description has been made from a pair taken in the Chin hills

in November. This species differs from others by its extreme slimness and

narrower wings and is quite the most beautiful of the genus. It is distinguished

by the alternating bars of black and citron yellow on the head, by the head

unmarked beneath, by the isolated yellow spot on prothorax, by segment 7

entirely black, by the shape of the pterostigma and lastly by the anal appen-

dages being of the same length. The female is at once distinguished by its

long graceful slim abdomen which contrasts so strongly with the robust build

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXVI

of other females of the genus. Other features are the head entirely black

beneath, the alternating black and yellow bars on the head, isolated spots on

prothorax and by the striking colouration of the abdomen. The shape of the

pterostigma appears to ally it to C. miles which is also from Burma.

voit

Calicnemis mortoni Jaidlaw.

Calicnenus mortoni Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xin, pp. 526, 527 (1917).

Fraser, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. xxix, p. 745 (1928).

Calicnemis inglist Fras. MSS.

Male.—Abdomen 83-86 mm. Hindwing 26-29 mm.

Head.—Labium black, bases of palps bright yellow; labrum, bases of

mandibles, gene and clypeus glossy black, rest of head matt black, the area

between the ocellh and antenne behind and the front border of frons in front

purplish from a thin pruinescence overlying it; a small oval ferruginous spot

on each side lying between the posterior ocelli and roots of antenne; a short

narrow pale yellow postocular stripe on each side of occiput and a rather broad

flameshaped yellow fascia running inwards from the border of the eye on

under side of head.

Prothorax black with a broad thinly pruinosed purplish fascia on each side

of middle lobe, and two small ferruginous spots above this.

Thorax black as far posterior as the antero-lateral suture, beyond which the

sides are purplish black from thin pruinescence; a narrow slatey blue ante-

humeral stripe on each side of dorsum confluent with the lateral purplish

area on prothorax; the anterior ends of mesepimeron and metepimeron

olivaceous yellow; beneath black with a small geminate spot at the middle

and a continuation of the yellow of anterior end of metepimeron crossing

the anterior end.

Legs black; wings hyaline; pterostigma blackish brown finely bordered

with yellow and thick black nervures, covering 1$ to 2 cells, braced; 20 to 22

antenodal nervures in forewings, 16 to 20 in the hind.

Abdomen black, segments 1 and 2 and the base of 3 with dorsum bright

ochreous or brick-red. this colour extending partially round base of segment 2

as a narrow ring; segments 3 and 4 with obscure paired apical ferruginous

spots.

Anal appendages black, the inferiors tipped with yellow internally.

Superiors digitate, slightly longer than segment 10, directed straight back

and furnished with an elongate tooth or spine near the base; inferiors much

longer, broad at base, then tapering, cylindrical, slender and_ sinuous, the

apices turned abruptly down at a right angle.

Female.—Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Differs considerably from the male as follows—Labium entirely yellow;

labrum yellow with a large medio basal black spot; anteclypeus yellow with the

outer ends and the postclypeus black; gene, bases of mandibles and frons

yellow; a broad black stripe traversing the vertex at level of antenne, narrow-

ing to outer side of these organs and broadening forwards between them so as

to partly overlap the frons; this stripe followed posteriorly by a narrow yellow

stripe at level of ocellar space and narrowly interrupted at its middle; occiput

and under side of head black with the usual postocular stripes and a _ broad

quadrate yellow spot against the eyes beneath head; eyes dark brown above

and olivaceous below, the two areas sharpy limited at the level of the black

stripe crossing vertex.

Prothorax black, middle lobe broadly yellow at sides: posterior lobe broadly

rounded. Thorax black on dorsum as far lateral as the antero-lateral suture,

marked with narrow citron yellow antehumeral stripes; the sides yellow with

a broad black stripe lying along the anterior border of the postero-lateral

suture incomplete below. Beneath yellow. Legs black, coxae and trochanters,

and the proximal two-thirds or three-fourths of flexor surfaces of femora bright

yellow. Wings similar to male; pterostigma covering 2 cells, usually 2 rows

of cells between the costa and radius after the pterostigma; 19 to 21 postnodal

nervures in forewings, 18 to 19 in the hind.

Abdomen black, segments 1 to 5 bright ochreous on the dorsum deepening

to ferruginous and finally black at the apical end of segment 5, the middorsal

carina finely black on all these segments and narrow black annules at the

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 151

apical ends of segments 2 to 5; segments 3 to 6 with small paired subdorsal

basal annules pale yellow.

Anal appendages short, conical, pointed, black; vulvar scales robust, black

tipped with yellow, extending to beyond end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Sikkim. Pashok, 5,500 ft. and Gangtok, 5,000 to 6,000 ft.

during May and June. The type, a male in the Indian Museum, comes from

the former locality and has lost most of its markings and the whole of the

pruimosed ones from greasing, which accounts for the difference between the

original and the present descriptions, the latter having been made from a pair

from Gangtok which have retained the original colours and markings in great

perfection. Distinguished from other species by the abdomen wholly — black

save for the dorsum of the basal three segments which are brick red. The

female resembles that of C. pulverulans closely but the higher nodal index

and the yellow marking beneath head will serve to distinguish them from each

other. Related to C. erythromelas and C. miniata by the high nodal index,

close venation and dark colouring. Allotype female in the author’s collection,

as well as a paratype male.

(To be continued.)

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS.

C. McCann, F.L.S.,

Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society.

(With 106 piates and & teaxt-figures).

INTRODUCTION.

The observations in this paper originated in a discussion over

the length of the period of development of tadpoles of the common

Indian Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina), which led me to solve the

problem by actual experiment.

Once I took up the subject, it became so fascinating that I

carried my observations further than J] had originally intended,

and was stimulated to do so by the paucity of the information on

the life-histories of Indian frogs. As a boy I had frequently

attempted to rear tadpoles, but failure, due to insufficient know-

ledge of the subject, was invariably the result. About six years

ago, when the discussion, referred to above, took place, I tackled

the subject once more and only after repeated failures, I eventually

succeeded. I am fully conscious of the incompleteness of the

observations here recorded, but I submit them in the hope that

this short paper will stimulate others to follow up this very fasci-

nating subject.

Much has been written on the different species of Indian

Batrachia, both from the viewpoint of the Systematist and the

Anatomist, but, as is generally the case, comparatively little

appears to have been done from the angle of the Field Naturalist.

A glance at the Fauna of British India Reptiles, by Boulenger,

soon shows us how little was known about the different species

beyond their systematic position. The Records of the Indian

Museum contain a considerable amount of information. Dr.

G. A. Boulenger, the late Dr. N. Annandale, and Mr. Narayan

Rao, have all contributed much towards the study of Indian Batra-

chians. Nevertheless, in spite of their efforts, there still remain

innumerable gaps to be filled in, particularly in connection with

the life-histories and habits of the various Indian species, which

naturally involves a study of the tadpole stages. It is frequently

too difficult to rear tadpoles to the ‘frog stage’, on account of their

delicacy, and very often, even when they have developed thus far

they are very difficult to identify. In this paper it is my intention

to place on record such information, as I have been able to accu-

mulate over a period of six years of continuous work during the

monsoons, and after.

As a preliminary to my observations, I submit a few remarks

on the methods I adopted and a few notes on the rearing of tad-

poles.

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 153

COLLECTING AND REARING TADPOLES.

Collecting.—The best time to collect is at the break of the

monsoon, just after sufficient rain has fallen to bring the frogs

out of their hot weather retreats (of course, this will depend much

on the locality).

At such times I used to set out, armed with numerous old tins

and bottles, and carefully collect the fresh spawn or larve (these

frequently develop in a few hours) and as carefully convey them

home. On no account close or stopper the receptacle containing

the larve or the tadpoles or they will surely die from suffocation.

I found it necessary also to change the water in the containers as

frequently as possible, to prevent the captives dying en route for

want of oxygen. Fresh eggs do not matter so much as there is

usually sufficient time to get them home safely. On arrival home,

the eggs and larve were gently transferred to larger containers.

My ‘aquaria’ consisted of empty tins, basins, in short, anything

that would serve the purpose. Owing to a small and usually

empty purse, I had to content myself with such ‘aquaria’. A

disused bulb enema served me both for emptying the ‘tanks’ and

tor aérating the water. This I usually did two or three times a

day. Aquatic plants were also used for the same purpose, but

owing to the ‘aquaria’ being usually of metal they did not do too

well owing to the absence of sufficient lght.

Each container was properly labelled with the name or the

number of the adult frog preserved in spirit, the date when the

spawn was obtained, and the locality. As development proceeded

one or more specimens were preserved at intervals of one, two,

or more days (in some cases at intervals of hours), this being

governed by the number of specimens I had. The tadpoles

were examined both alive and dead under a dissecting microscope.

An eye was kept on all living specimens both during the day and

during the might. Unfortunately, owing to my official duties, I

was unable to give them sufficient time during the hours of day-

light, except on Sundays and _ holidays.

Adult frogs were also kept under observation in cages con-

structed of old boxes covered over with wire mesh, and were also

studied in the field.

It must be indicated clearly that my observations are based

entirely on data derived from specimens which have been carefully

reared. No specimens of spawn have been considered for the

purposes of this paper, unless the adults were obtained with the

spawn. (unless otherwise stated). It is very important that one

should be quite sure of the species to which the spawn or tadpoles

belong. Random collecting of tadpoles and frogs found in the

neighbourhood was ‘therefore avoided, as the writer was fully

aware of the difficulties besetting the identification of immature

frogs and tadpoles.

To collect spawn or tadpoles at random and to assign them

to the different species because of their presence in the locality

leaves much room for error and is a method to be condemned.

Tadpoles caught in the field should be reared until the ‘frog stage’

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

is reached and then kept some time longer before being preserved

for identification. This gives time for the teeth to be formed

which is an aid in the determination of the species. Even so, the

identification of immature frogs is a very difficult proposition.

The rearing of tadpoles.—The rearing of tadpoles has frequently

presented a knotty problem to those desirmg to study them.

Though they can survive a considerable time without food, they

cannot do so indefinitely. When food is scarce, cannibalism is

resorted to and the stronger prey on their weaker brethren. I

tried all possible methods of feeding them before I was able to hit

on something that was really satisfactory. However, my sug-

gestions are not the last word on the subject and I am sure there

is still much room for improvement.

In the rearing of tadpoles there are three important points that

require attention, (a) the correct food, (b) well aerated water (though

in some cases they prefer stagnant water), (c) that no carnivorous

insect larve are present in ane rearing ‘tanks’. Even the larve

of mosquitoes are detrimental to i small tadpoles. I have seen

a fully developed mosquito larva catch and kill a tadpole two

centimetres long; while the satnoles of only some species of frogs

feed readily on mosquito larve.

(a) Food.—The best food I have found for t tadpoles is raw

meat. The ideal way of providing it is to suspend a small piece

of meat tied to a thread just below the surface of the water (not

too deep). Should there be a large number of tadpoles in the same

container it is advisable to put in two or three such pieces, in this

way all the competitors get a chance, and there is no danger of

one tadpole eating another’s tail for want of opportunity to get at

the meat. In some instances dead insects and live snails also

serve as food. Animal matter alone is not sufficient. This should

be supplemented by green vegetable matter, such as alge and water

weeds. This is best done by introducing such water plants as

Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Nias, the common Duck weed, Lemna, or

Valianeria, known as the Tape- or Kel-grass. But in doing so it is

very important to guard against the presence of the larve of carni-

vorous insects.

(b) Water.—Under no circumstances should the water be

allowed to become too foul. This is most detrimental to tadpoles.

Oxygen is very essential. Water plants are of the greatest use

here, provided the aquaria are in well hghted positions otherwise

the action of the plants is reversed. They will deprive the water

of oxygen. A good way of aérating aquaria without having to

purchase expensive apparatus is to use a bulb enema or something

similar—it suits the purpose well. It is advisable to aérate small

aquaria at least twice a day. A sure sign that the aquaria need

aérating is when the tadpoles all rise to the surface and remain

there. The water in small aquaria should be changed at least

once in two days. In the alternative, part of the water should be

drained off and replaced with a fresh amount. When changing

water it is best to strain it through a cloth to prevent the tadpoles

from escaping. A syphon is not advisable as the tadpoles pass

through the tube or get stuck in the mouth. Straiming them through

‘yeJIGeY UOWUIOS JSOUI S31 ‘YsNys ul (“preuyos ‘szgsyqqdouoks vUuv YZ) Joddiyg JaieAQ uy

"UuvDIW °D &q 0104

*] Blvd "00S ‘“LSIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nunor

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 155

a cloth in no way injures the tadpoles, provided that they are not

kept too long out of water. After straining them through a cloth

they should be put into a small receptacle till the containers have

been washed and then carefully returned to the aquaria. Care

should also be exercised when pouring fresh water into the aquaria—

the flow should be very gentle as the tadpoles are likely to be

damaged.

attention. Great care should be taken when introducmg water

plants into the aquaria to see that no aquatic insect larvee are put

in along with them. Dragonfly larvee are particularly to be guard-

ed against as they are especially dangerous to the tadpole life in

the aquaria. Many such larve are coloured like the weeds and

are easily overlooked. On one occasion I lost the greater part of a

fine set of tadpoles owing to the presence of a dragonfly larva

which I could not detect, until it was almost too late.

Another point that may be mentioned here is that all the tad-

poles of one batch do not develop at the same rate and it very

often happens that the larger ones prey on the smaller. In such

cases it is advisable to separate them.

With regard to the general habits of frogs I have found it ex-

tremely difficult to decide whether certain species are diurnal or

nocturnal. During the dry season most of them certainly appear

to be nocturnal, however, this is easily explained by the fact that

frogs possess a humid skin, cannot stand long exposure in the hot

sunlight, but during the rains and in wet localities I have found

them about both day and night. For example Rana cyanophlictis

is both diurnal and nocturnal when it lives in tanks and swamps

and it also undertakes long journeys by night during the dry season.

tana tigrina appears to be nocturnal during the dry season while

during the rains it is both diurnal and nocturnal—but even during

the early monsoon it retires should there be long hours of sunshine.

Rana breviceps on the other hand is truly nocturnal both during

the rains and during the dry season. I only quote these instances

to show how difficult it is to decide this point.

In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Malcolm

Smith oi the British Museum for very kindly identifying most

of my material, to Mr. Salim A. Ali for some of the photographs

he has taken for me and to Mr. C. C. A. Munro of the British

Museum for the identification of the leeches referred to in

connection with this paper.

RANA CYANOPHLICTIS Schneide*.

The Water Skipper.

The English name indicates a characteristic habit of the frog

which ean move over the surface of the water in a series of short

leaps.

This species is perhaps our commonest frog; met with at all

seasons of the year, wherever there is sufficient water. It is

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

almost purely aquatic and both diurnal and nocturnal. It is the

commonest frog too, in tanks, pocls, and streams, whether tem-

porary or perennial, clear or stagnant. I have also found them in

cisterns in which the water was soapy. In Thana I have seen them

in abundance in open gutters where the water was very foul and full

of kitchen refuse, often discoloured with saffron and currystuffs,

but the frogs did not seem to mind it. When hot water exuded

from the drains the frogs just moved away and returned when the

water cooled—adaptation to environment! One sees it frequently

on the banks of streams but it certainly has a predilection for still

water where it can leisurely float on the surface. This character,

coupled with its peculiar habit of skipping over the surface of the

water when alarmed, readily distinguishes it from any other species.

I know of no other frog that is capable of performing this feat,

though it has been attributed to R. limnocharis and R. hexadactyla.

Annandale’ has rightly poimted out that R. limnocharis is quite

incapable of performing this feat and that R. hexadactyla does so

but quite feebly on account of its large size. R. cyanophlictis

appears to have a liking for sunshine, for it may be seen even

during the hottest part of the day, floating on the surface of water:

If alarmed, when sitting on the bank, it will leap into the

water and ‘skip’ along the surface for some distance and then

float; but if this precaution is insufficient to avoid the danger it

just ‘skips’ along a little further. If already in the water it will

either ‘skip’ away or, if still threatened, nose dive to the bottom

into the mud. There it partially buries itself leaving only its

two eyes above the mud, in a position to keep an eye on the

actions of the intruder. Although aquatic, the frog cannot remain

under water for very long. After a few minutes it cautiously

reappears on the surface. Its two eyes and the tip of its snout

first show themselves above the water, much after the fashion of

a crocodile; the rest of the body dangles under the surface. If

not disturbed, it will rise once more to float on the surface.

The Skipper Frog is an extremely active creature and is as

much at home on land as in the water. During the day it rarely

strays far from water, except during the monsoon months when

it is found almost anywhere. There appears to be no doubt that

this species does undertake long journeys during the night, it

would be difficult otherwise to account for its sudden appearance

in water holes which have been recently excavated.

During the period of aestivation, I believe that it buries itself

deep in the mud of tanks, and there tides over the dry season, but .

with regard to this point I have no personal experience.

These frogs call, at almost any season, at any time of the day,

though they are certainly more vocal during the monsoon, both

day and night. The voice resembles a somewhat low pitched

rattle, much like the unbroken rattle of castanets or ‘bones’, kept

up for a short while. The sound is produced by two bluish-white,

obovoid vocal sacks which are first inflated gradually and then

‘ Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xv, p. 122 (Bombay Streams Fauna),

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 157

slowly, but not completely, deflated. This may be done when the

frog is at rest on the bank or when it is floating on the surface of

water. Any one familar with-the vocal. productions -of frogs is

easily able to recognise its distinctive call.

This frog is a very voracious feeder, and is able to secure its

prey both above and under the surface of the water. Its food

consists of insects, little frogs and it is-largely responsible for the

destruction of a great number of tadpoles and insect larve, parti-

cularly when these come to the surface to take air. To test this,

I kept a specimen in a deep jar and introduced a number of tad-

poles into the water. As soon as the frog saw them, without the

slightest hesitation, it immediately dived under the surface and

swallowed the tadpoles one by one using its forelegs to hasten the

meal. 7

The spawn is laid in pools and tanks at the break of the mon-

soon, but it is possible that this thoroughly aquatic species may

breed at any time of the year in suitable localities.

Though I have not so far come across the spawn, I have

repeatedly taken tadpoles of this species and reared them to the

frog stage. The tadpoles are very pugnacious and attack one

another. The victors feeding on the body of the vanquished. In

the-earlest stage the eyes are placed on the side of the head but

appear to creep to a more dorsal position as the tadpole develops.

A ’

446 aret

; i Thad aga nentelt a

Foo nenngnnoned®?

inGemle

Rana cyanoplhilictis, Schneid. A. Tadpole x2. B. Dorsal view of figure A.

C. Lips and horny teeth. The cross-lined portion indicates the palatine

plate.

The largest specimen of a tadpole with the hind legs fully

+ developed measured 44 mm. This specimen was taken in a cistern

at Sion, Bombay Island. Annandale and Narayan Rao! in a paper

> Tyee, Ind. Music, Vol. xv, p. 81.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

on the ‘Tadpoles of the Families Ranide and Bufonide in the

Plains of India’ give the measurements of two specimens of this

species, one from the Chilka Lake and the other from Kashmir.

They respectively measured 65 mm. and 71 mm.—one about half

and the other more than half again larger than the one measured

by me. This seems to show that the tadpoles of this species may

vary considerably with the locality, though it must be indicated

that my specimen was reared under artificial conditions. A young

frog, six hours after leaving water and after completing its

metamorphosis measured 17 mm. The tail was almost completely

absorbed, leaving only a very small stump which did not protrude

beyond the length of the animal.

Young frogs, when they have completed their metamorphosis,

leave the water and sit about on rocks and stones for a consider-

able time, only resorting to it when danger threatens. In this way

they sit about for three or four days without feeding, after which

they eat greedily.

Judging from comparison, I am inclined to believe that this

species takes from three to four years to reach maturity.

The tadpoles of this species devour mosquito larve. Mosqui-

toes were totally unable to breed in the containers in which these

tadpoles were kept, whereas they bred freely in some of the other

containers.

Rana tigRiIna Daud.

The Indian Bull-Frog.

The Bull-Frog, the largest of the Indian frogs, may be met

with at almost any time of the year in wells and tanks. Under

these conditions its colourmg is sombre brown. Some examples

have a pale stripe down the back. Frequently it is mottled with

darker and lighter patches of the same colour (brown) and at times

there is a suffusion of dull green and yellow here and there. The

under parts are generally white with a pinkish tinge on the lower

portions of the thighs. Bull-Frogs living in situations where the

water dries up bury themselves deep in the earth soon after the

rains have ceased and reappear again at the break of the next

monsoon. During the period of estivation a number of them

congregate in the same hole. Aestivating frogs have frequently

been found twenty and thirty feet below the surface of the earth,

particularly when wells are being dug. It is probable that they

go deeper in search of moisture. Frequently, disused rat holes are

used for the purpose. During the dry season, a frog which has

taken shelter in one of these burrows may occasionally be enticed

to leave its retreat if sufficient water is poured down it. It will

then come up and sit at the entrance of the burrow and take a

look round, but conditions not being quite what it was given to

expect, it soon pops in to ‘sleep’ again. This experiment may be

repeated and the frog will respond each time—probably it gets

swamped out—whatever the causes the result is always the same.

Many of the Bull-Frogs which appear from their dry weather

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIST. Soc. PLATE II.

The Indian Bull-Frog (Rava ¢grina, Daud.) in a pool at the break of the rains.

Photo by C. McCann.

The Indian Bull-Frog (Reva tigrina, Daud.)

Photo by S. A, Al.

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 159

retreat are a pale lemon yellow. At the break of the monsoon

they are to be heard and seen all over the countryside congregated

about tanks and ponds. The lemon yellow raiment is the wedding

garb of the males of this speeies. What is it that brings about this

striking change in their colourme? It has often been thought that

the yellow colour was due to the darkness or absence of light in

their retreats during the long period of aestivation. If this were

the case, why is it that only the adult males are so coloured? The

females and the young males are the usual sombre brown yet they

have lived under the same conditions. Here we have a point

which explodes the theory of hght action. If the colourmg were

due to the action of light alone, the females and the young males

ought to be of the same yellow colour as the adult males!

I am unable to offer any explanation of this most interesting

question. The fact remains that the adult males alone are

yellow. Beside this characteristic, the males possess another

mark of distinction in the shape of a pair of large vocal sacs, one

on either side of the gape (below). These are coloured a vivid

cobalt blue. Boulenger and Annandale' in a note entitled

‘Further Observations on Rana tigrina’ state the following: —‘Males

with white or grey external vocal sacs on each side of the throat’.

This may be so in preserved specimens, but it is certainly not the

case in the living frog, the vivid colouring of the vocal sacs per-

sists even for a considerable time after the breeding season. The

sacs are inflated and deflated when the Bull-Frog emits its

powerful croak. They present a striking contrast to the yellow of

the body. With its vocal sacs each frog is capable of producing

ap. enormous volume of sound which can be heard over a long dis-

tance. When there are several scores vying with one another the

noise is deafening.

When the frogs first emerge with the break of the monsoon,

thei primary instinct is that of mating. All the males are in

search of wives! For the first three or four days, sometimes for a

week or a little more, depending much on the weather conditions

these stalwarts dressed in their nuptial attire sit about and croak, all

alert and on the qui vive for the discovery of a female in their midst.

The females make their appearance at the same time as the males.

They wear no wedding garment but appear in their sombre work-

a-day garb, as such, the female is readily recognised. She sits very

close, as if frightened out of her wits, by the great concourse of

would-be suitors. As long as she sits still she is safe but the

slightest move on her part and she is detected. There ensues a

frantic scramble among the males in her vicinity—a battle royal

for the possession of the female ensues. The fighting is done with

the hind legs. Biting is never resorted to and in all my experience

I have never known a frog to bite. This is easily accounted for

by the fact that opening of the mouth interferes with the respira-

tion. The competitors lick vigorously. The individual who has

secured a bride—and this is generally the one who was closest to

* IBCG. Stile MSs, SOs 22%) 105 Bie

160° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS Te SOCHHI «Vol. xoxox ia

her when she was discovered—holds her with his fore legs and

kicks his opponents aside if possible. ries

Not infrequently, however, these all too eager males in mistake

seize a dull coloured male, but the error is soon discovered. It

must be explained here that in the gathering of males, the bright-

ness or the uniformity of the yellow colouring decreases—there

are some which are darker in colour which have presumably : lost

the freshness of the colouring exhibited by them on emergence.

These individuals, as I have stated, are occasionally mistaken for

females. The conclusion suggested is that the male is guided

mainly by colour. in distinguishing the female of the species.

As soon as a male secures a mate his croaking ceases till the

next year and, after amplexus is over, the male begins to lose his

yellow coat. The yellow first becomes suffused with green and in

a few days the males have resumed their usual colouration and

are as imconspicuous as the females. Another curious point arises

here. The males which remained above ground durmg the dry

season, according to my observations, retain their normal colour-

ing. Specimens kept in captivity by me exhibited no change.

Do they take part in the sexual excitement displayed at this

period, and do they stand the same chance of obtaining mates?

There is no doubt that they croak, but I have never observed

one of these males in amplexus. If mating takes place in a tank

or a large pond the process is not completed there, but the female

still in the grasp of the male will scramble out and make for one

of the numerous shallow puddles in the vicinity. Here she dis-

charges her eges, the male fertilizing them at the moment of

extrusion. ;

The eggs are deposited in small puddles and not in large pools

as one might expect. This procedure is very often detrimental

to a very large number of eggs, as the puddles dry up and the

eggs are destroyed, if there is no rain in a few hours or days as the

case may be. Apart from the risk of the eggs themselves drying,

ants are responsible for destroying large numbers of them so

stranded: Yet I believe, that the provision is a safeguard, as there

are fewer enemies to destroy the eggs in such puddles. The eggs

are laid singly, and each is surrounding by a transparent jelly-lke

substance. In this they float about for a time drifting about with

the wind till at length a number of eggs become agglutinated

together and form one mass. After a couple of hours or so they

sink en masse to the bottom of the pool. An examination of the

mass reveals each egg is enveloped in its own jelly-like substance

and united to the main mass by a stalk of the same matter. The

eges with their investments have the form of minute spherical

electric lamp bulbs. The upper half of the egg is black and the lower

half creamy, the black half is always turned towards the sky.

Seementation is very rapid, the larval stage is soon completed and

under favourable circumstances, the tadpoles leave the surrounding

slime in about four days. As soon as they leave the slime they

come to the surface of the water and remain hanging there, tail

downwards, for a considerable time, before they swim about freely.

During the period they are enveloped in slime, I have found, in

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats Jil

Leeches

Tadpole $ : Carncvorous

ensecl

C 99s & Larvae

Rana

¢ ya nop licks

| i

Jadpoles |

La. t D in ; ,

pee NBs eee Sra

ma &er al@r

ae}

7, Frogi

Small \Ml Smat

wmsec | tarlhurorms

vUTNKS

S Na k CS (ents

Q ua lie

b Lis and

Small berds

prey

Carnivorous

insects

Insects

end

Earthuworms

} omell ii. | Small male

The Food and Enemy cycles of the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina). The rectangles

connected by thick black lines show approximately the proportionate develop-

ment of the frogs. The other rectangles indicate the food at the different

stages of development. The circles show the inimical factors.

VOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 16k

certain Idealities, that the leech, Hirudo birmanica (Blanchard) is

very inimical to both the larve and the young tadpoles. ‘his

creature 1s responsible for the destruction of large numbers of them.

It sucks out the larva and a quantity of its investment of shme. A

leech, taken after feeding on the larve, contained mostly slime

and blood in the alimentary canal. |

With the continuation of the rain, the tadpoles are swept into

the larger pools. Here they go through their metamorphosis. They

are preyed upon by fish, other frogs, particularly, R. cyanophlictis,

who captures them under water, the young of the Checkered-Water

Snake (Tropidonotus piscator) which also emerges at this time, and

last but not least, a host of insect larvee, among which the dragon-

fly and carnivorous water beetle larve, not to mention the water

bug (Belostoma indica) are the foremost. In addition to numerous

external enemies the tadpoles themselves are largely responsible

for their own destruction as the larger ones prey on their smaller

brethren. Cannibalism is rampant among them and there is always

a variation in size and numerous smaller cnes to be preyed upon as

tadpoles of the same set of eggs do not develop at the same rate:

When the metamorphosis is completed and the young frogs are

ready to leave the water, they make their way into the grass and

remain there for the rest of the season till it is time to aestivate.

All immature frogs of the previous years are to be found in the

erass and in the fields throughout the rains. At this stage they

are much more green in colour than the adults. Judging from

comparison it takes a bull frog about 6 to 7 years to mature.

The first instinct of the frogs as soon as they appear with the

break of the monsoon, is the propagation of the species. When

this has been fulfilled their attention is next turned to feeding.

The croaking has stopped—there is no time for entertainment.

The yellow frogs have disappeared. When they first appear they

are thin and emaciated after their long fast of nearly eight months,

though, I am of the opinion that their thinness is more due to

the absence of water, however, in a couple of weeks they look

quite healthy. &

The food of the Bull-Frog is varied. Insects constitute its chief

diet. Small mammals, rarely small birds, snakes and other frogs,

lizards, earthworm; in fact any creature that is easily overpowered

is included in the diet. Frogs are the prey of numerous snakes

and small snakes sometimes over-estimate their powers and _ fall

victims in a foolhardy attempt to seize one of these giants, several

times too large for them, notwithstanding the elasticity of the

snake’s jaws and its extraordinary capacity of swallowing prey ex-

ceeding it in calibre. I have watched one of these combats in which

the hunter was ‘hoist with its own petard’. As the snake tries

to capture the frog, the intended victim hops round and faces its

antagonist keeping it in ‘full view’. He emits a short croak

or two and bides his opportunity to pounce on the snake with.

an agile leap. It seizes the snake in its mouth gripping it anywhere

along its length and with the aid of its fore legs, which it uses

alternately like two hands it literally stuffs the struggling reptile

into its mouth. The process has of necessity to be very rapid ag it

lat

164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

is well known that a frog is unable to breathe properly with its

mouth open.

Qn another occasion I gave a captive frog a small Buft-striped

KXeel-back (Tropidonotus stolatus), a very common snake in our

fields during the monsoon. It was immediately pounced upon and

swallowed. The snake bit the frog in several places as it was being

swallowed, but this the frog only treated with a flick of its hind

leg which soon dislodged the Jaws of the snake. Any foreign

matter on the back of a frog is immediately dislodged with the

hind legs while the fore legs are used for aman that might

be on the ‘face’. When earth is taken along with food it is

ejected and wiped away with the fore legs.

In every case food has to be seen moving and it is only then

that it is pounced upon. In fact anything that shows the slightest

signs of movement is seized, and if not edible is at once rejected.

To test this point I tied a small stone on to a thread and threw

it to a Bull-Frog, as it fell it was immediately seized and as quickly

rejected. If I moved the stone by drawing the thread the frog

pounced on it once more and again spat it out. This performance

was repeated several times with the same result. Experience

did not seem to teach the frog that the stone was not edible.

Anvthing small that moved was prey and the creature instinctively

obeyed the impulse to seize it. When in the act of swallowing

the large eyes are always depressed.

Besideg the powerful croaking referred to above this frog is

able to are Ke another sound which is only uttered when in pain,

as when the creature is seized by a snake. It is a loud scream,

almost human, which is most uneanny if heard and not recognised.

When caught the batrachian inflates itself to bursting point, a

common feature with most frogs when on the defence, and then

cradually deflates, at the same time making a gentle noise which

may be expressed by the word ‘kut’ repeated several times. The

process is repeated by maximum inflation, bemg followed by

gradual deflation to the accompaniment of the sounds described.

The enemies of the Bull-Frog are many. Snakes, particularly

the Checkered Water-Snake (7. piscator) and the Dhaman

(Zamenis mucosus) feed freely on these frogs. Among the birds,

I ave repeatedly seen the Shikra (Astur Teague) capture them

from the water—not to mention the host of aquatie birds.

Jackals are said to eat frogs but of this I have no direct evidence.

Bull-Frogs have a very great power of endurance and the

following experiment which I tried will illustrate this. A few

frogs captured after the break of the monsoon were kept perfectly

dhe. In three days the animals were bone dry, stiff, and hard, with

the exception of the abdominal region which was still a httle soft.

Then shr unken skins revealed every bone. The abdominal region

had caved in under the transverse processes of the vertebre, “he

bones appearing quite distinct. The tissues of the body had

become so hard in this process of drying up, that when dropped on

the table my frogs clattered like so many pieces of wood. Res-

piration and other funetions had entirely ceased and the eyes were

completely closed—to all appeavances my specimens were quite

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 163

dead, dead as proverbial door nails. I believed my experiment

at an end. However, I left them for another day and on the night

of the fourth day I placed them in a tub ot water, to see if. they

would revive. When placed in water they floated on its surface

like corks. About twenty minutes later, to my astonishment they

began to show signs of returning life. The hind limbs stretched

out gradually and sank below the surface of the water, while the

rest of the body floated. The valves of the nostrils, which up to

this time had been closed, opened by degrees, and the membrane,

under the lower jaw, which is constantly in motion during’ acti-

vity due to respiration, began to move again, but slowly, and at

intervals. Till immersion it was as dry as the rest of the body.

Soon after, the eyes opened gradually, the frogs were able to recog-

nise my presence and made feeble efforts to submerge, they failed

only to succeed a few minutes later. They floated lstlessly on

the surface of the water. But the process of revival continued and

an hour after they were put into the tub, they were just able to

jump out of it, and after the lapse of four hours the outline of the

bones disappeared the fleshy roundness of form was restored and

my frogs were quite themselves once more, apparently none the

worse for their experience. These frogs I kept for several months

before releasing them. ‘The incident strikingly indicates this frog’s

extraordinary power of endurance, and in some way helps to explain

its ability to withstand the rigours of its long period of aestivation.

The Bull-Frog may be kept in captivity for years. It will

readily feed on cockroaches, other insects and small mammals and

birds, earthworms, lizards and snakes. It will feed on raw meat,

small pieces should be suspended from the top of the cage by

thin thread just strong enough to hold the pieces of meat, but not

to take the weight of the frog. When the pieces of meat swing

about the frogs jump up and take them thread and all.

External parasites.—In the Island of Salsette I have observed a

large leech feeding on the larvee as I have already mentioned above,

but this could hardly be considered as a case of parasitism, as

the prey was generally completely destroyed. However, I have

found the same leech on adult specimens as well.

The most interesting instance of parasitism in connection with

the Bull-Frog is that exhibited by a small leech, Paraclepsis

predatrix Harding, which, beside attacking the bodies of their host

in many cases caused total biimdness. The circumstances are

worthy of note.

In December 1931, while at Abu Road, Rajputana, I visited

a well which I knew to contain many frogs, to catch some of them

for study. When I put my net into the well, I noticed that many

of the frogs did not pay the slightest attention to it. At first I

attributed this to the temperature as it was a very cold morning.

Under such conditions frogs do not appear to lke to submerge or

remain long in the water. However, I dragged some of them up

and on removing them from the net to the collecting bag I found

that my hand was covered with small green leeches. Even then

it did not strike me that the frogs were blind and that the leeches

were responsible for their condition. Some of the frogs had their

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

eyes completely closed. I put my first catch into the bag and it

was not till I drew up the second lot that 1 examined the frogs.

On examination, I noticed that the frogs were very badly attacked

by the leeches. The leeches had lodged themselves under. both

the upper and lower eyelids. On my arrival home I re-examined

the frogs and to my surprise took 27 leeches out of one eye and

14 out of the other of a single specimen! The other frogs also

had large numbers in their eyes, but none of them approached the

number o: the specimen just referred to. The irritation set up

under the eyelids by the presence of the leeches probably compelled

the irogs to keep their eyes permanently closed. In each case

there was generally a discharge of mucus from the eyes and the

frogs would occasionally brush their eyes with the fore legs. On

dissection of an eye it transpired that the leeches had not gone

any further than the eyelids. The eyeball in each case appeared

to be somewhat withered and the lustre of the eye, such a common

feature of a frog’s eye, was completely lost. The pupil was reduced

tc a fine black spot, not the usual large pupil met with in these

frogs.

The problem that now presented itself to me was, how were

these animals able to exist in this blind condition? In order to

see if they had had any food, I dissected the stcemach and the

alimentary canal. In almost all the cases both the stomach and

the alimenary canal were empty with the exception of a quantity

of mucus. Probably these animals would have eventually died

of starvation while the leeches relieved them of the little blood

that they possessed.

Below I give the measurements of the tadpoles of this species

and also such notes as I made at the time, at different stages of

their development.

Notes ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 'TADPOLES.

On the 9th. of June 1929, I came across a large number of the tadpoles

of this species which had only just emerged from the egg stage. At this

stage they come to. the surface and rest for a time before commencing an

active existence. I collected a large quantity and brought them home to study

the development and the following is the result :—

9-6-29. Length of tadpole 10 mm. branchial aperture open on either

side of the body with the external gilis protruding. ‘Ihree

sets on either side. Examination of the mouth showed the

beak was but feebly horny, and as far as I could see with a

high powered dissecting microscope, no rows of horny teeth

were present. At this stage the tadpoles kept to the surface of

the water and submerged only when disturbed, only to return to

the surface almost immediately. It appears to me that the

‘suckers’ in some way help to keep them at the surface. The

tadpoles were not at all active.

10-6-29. In the same condition as the previous day, but a little more active;

swimming about. |

12-6-29. Length of tadpole 18 mm. The branchial pores on either side of

the body were closed and the external gills had been absorbed.

A single branchial pore open on the left side of the body. The

beak, much. more horny than on the previous day; three rows of

horny teeth visible; one above and two below. The upper row

extending in a curve across the mouth, lower rows short as shown

in Plate IV; Fig. 7. The lips considerably enlarged. The

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PruaTe IV

poenrere?

& wee,

Nees cecesie net

AS esc bP ) vt

2 Baotaveseamegerse®

Fang

"VNivertraen,

i RH HOw robe pens ccdynet® gS

Del. C. McCann.

Rana tigrina, Daud. 1. Tadpole 10-6-29, x5, lateral view. 2. Dorsal

view of figure 1. 38. Ventral view of figure x9 to show suckers and external

gills. 4. Beak of tadpole figured in figure 1. 5. Tadpole on 12-6-29, x65.

6. Dorsal view of figure 5. 7. Arrangement of beak and teeth on 12-6-29.

8. Arrangement of beak and teeth on 13-6-29.

16-6-29.

18-6-29.

30-6-29.

4-7-29.

15-7-29.

8-8-29.

NOTHS ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 165

‘suckers’ had completely disappeared. Much more active and

moving about treely, though generally near the surface; continually

opening and closing the mouth.

Length of tadpole 21 mm. More pigment appeared all over the

body, particularly at the extremity of the tail membrane. (a very

characteristic feature of the tadpoles of R. tigrina.) The beak

now almost black. Additional rows of horny teeth developed

Plate IV, Fig. 8. A circular horny plate appeared on the

palate.

Length of tadpole 28 mm. The tail more acuminate and its extre-

mity more deeply pigmented. The hind limbs appeared as two

minute conical protuberances at the base of the tail. On the tip

of these conical structures there were four very minute buds repre-

senting the digits on each. Further pigment appeared and the

teeth became more horny black.

Length of tadpole 81 mm. The pigmentation greatly increased. The

conical hind lmbs developed further.

Length of tadpole 89.5 mm. Hind legs 5.5 mm. Toes distinguish- .

able. Another tadpole measured on the same day was 45 mm.

long. The hind legs fully developed, complete with webs between

the toes. Fore legs fully developed and distinctly visible through

the skin of the branchial chamber.

Metamorphosis completed. Tail partially absorbed. Beak and

horny teeth shed. No teeth in the mouth.

By this time not all of the tadpoles had completed their develop-

ment.

A young frog that had been kept alive and fed measured 22 mm.

long and was fully pigmented. The teeth were feebly developed.

Anothex set :—-

15-6-31.

16-6-31.

18-6-31.

20-6-31.

25-6-31.

15-7-31.

The spawn was laid after some very heavy showers of rain, when

it was collected.

The size of the larve before they left the slimy envelope varied

from. 5-7 mm. In colour they were brownish and the surface

ot the body appeared to be minutely granular. The external

gills were in different degrees of development, from conical pro-

tuberances to feather-like structures, according to the age of the

larva. The suckers were not recognisable in very small larve,

but were distinct in the larve measuring 7 mm. The mouth

was represented by only an invagination of the skin at that

region. Hyes were not distinguishable. The position of the

nostrils was distinct.

Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. External gills completely lost. The

brownish pigment of the larval stage disappeared and quite a

different type of pigment appeared, in the deeper layers of

the skin as blackish dots. The tail membrane which in the larval

stage was opaque now became quite transparent. The pig-

mented region of the tail was marked with reddish-brown spots.

The lips were well developed. Beaks and rows of teeth distinctly

horny. ;

Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. In much the same condition as on

the 18th. Pigment in the deeper layers more intensified and

another type of pigment appeared on the surface lke minute

black streaks on the upper side of the body, and on the tail.

Length of tadpole 25.5 mm. (This tadpole with two others deve-

loped exceedingly fast and were the largest of the group.) Tail

became more acuminate. Pigment increased. Beak and _ teeth

well developed. No palatine plate.

Length of tadpole 17 mm. MHind legs began to appear. Terminal

portion of tail very deeply pigmented, almost black.

Length of tadpole 32 mm.

Two tadpoles were removed. Length: (a) With hind legs partially

developed 37 mm. Hind legs 5.5 mm. (b) With hind legs almost

fully developed 39 mm. Hind legs 16 mm.

One of the tadpoles with all the four legs developed, but which

1665 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, SNA TiO ryAG a EIS tine S\O) Oe] ayer (G me OXONG all

had not left the water measured 39 mm, Hind legs 23.5 mm.

Horny teeth and beak shed. Lips absorbed. ,

On the same day a young frog which emerged from the water

- and which had completely lost its tail measured 18 mm. from

vent to snout. Hind legs 24 mm. ae

8-8-31. On this day the balance of the tadpoles were bottled. Up to this

time not all of them had completed their development. Many

of them were still small and legless. AS SH

_ These records however incomplete they may be help to indicate

the approximate time occupied by these frogs to complete their

metamorphosis—29 days in the first observation and 23 in the

second. They also show how irregularly the tadpoles develop,

though this was perhaps the more accentuated by the artificial

conditions under which development took place. ~ It is obvious

from the above that all frogs born during one season complete their

metamorphosis well before the end of the rain and no aestivation

takes place during the tadpole stage.

It is interesting to note that the tadpoles of this frog, lke

those of R. cyanophlictis, also feed on mosquito larve.

RANA LIMNOCHARIS, Wiegm.

The Streaked Frog.

A very common species abounding in the neighbourhood of

tanks and streams, when these are perennial. During the dry

season these little animals either collect under stones etc. in damp

places during the day, particularly near a spring and come out

when the sun has gone down, or they aestivate. During the mon-

soon they wander far and wide in the grass and may be found

both day and night.

At the beginning of the rains or a little before, large numbers

collect on the banks of perennial streams and tanks to deposit

their spawn. At this time the males, which appear to predomi-

nate, keep up an incessant croaking. The croaking commences as

soon as it is dusk and only ceases with daybreak, but on dull

days during the early monsoon they may be heard throughout the

day. The vocal sacs, one on either side of the gape are blackish.

The voice is fairly powerful and. much resembles the clatter of

castanettes in the distance. To produce the sound the abdomen

is first inflated, and in deflation fills the vocal sacs with air, in

this way the abdomen and the vocal sacs are alternately inflated

and deflated. | ire

When alarmed the frogs take to the water and submerge, but

only for a short while, very soon they rise to the surface and

swim ashore again, seeking shelter in the vegetation. They are

extremely active little creatures. Annandale (l.c.) correctly

observes that this species is incapable of ‘skipping’ over the sur-

face of water as is the characteristic practice with R. cyanophlictis

—nor does it float on water like cyanophlictis, but rests with the

legs hanging down below the surface.

So far I have not come across the spawn nor the tadpoles of

‘this species though T have repeatedly seen them in amplexus at

the commencement of the rains,

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS | 167

In common with many other frogs, I have observed large

numbers together, aestivating in crevices of rocks and under large

stones.

A. very common feature of this frog, is the stripe or streak

(from the presence of which I have suggested the English name)

down the centre of the back. In my opinion this character cannot

be relied on as it may vary in width and colour and may even be

absent, in the same locality.

RANA RUFESCENS, Boulenge%.

The Rufescent Frog.

Of this species I secured several immature specimens. They

vere found on bare water-washed rocks on the hillsides adjoining

the Kune Kathkari Settlement, Khandala, Western Ghats.

The general colour is a deep brown almost approaching the

blackish colour of the rocks. The general markings of freshly

caught specimens were very indistinct. Certain tracts of colour are

well defined. The upper portion of the arms (humerus), the upper

surface of the thighs (femur) and just behind the head the colour-

ing is a bright crimson or brick-red. In some of the specimens the

colour of the arms and behind the head has a tendency of forming

a continuous patch. This colouring disappears some time after the

specimens were put into preservative. Observed under natural

conditions these patches of colour appear to break up the form of

the frog and give it the semblance of alge adhering to the rock.

The Rufescent Frog is a squat little animal with little to dis-

tinguish it at a glance from the immature form of the next species,

RN. breviceps.

Dy. Smith writing to me about this species says that it is the

first time that it has been found so far north. Up to this time it

has only been recorded from Malabar. 3

RANA BREVICEPS, Schneid.

The Burrowing Frog.

A. clumsy looking species, nocturnal even durig the rains. After

dark I found this frog quite common on the roads at Panchgani.

Should it chance to fall into water and not be able to get out, it

appears very uncomfortable, but nevertheless, it readily sub-

merges if alarmed, but soon reappears on the surface. Specimens

kept in captivity fed readily on insects.

This species is in the habit of digging itself in during the day.

At Khandala, I found one which had dug itself in almost a foot

below the surtace.

RANA LEITH, Boulenger.

Leith’s Frog.

With its digital dises and slender build this species much

resembles one of the tree-frogs.

Leith’s Frog was not ungommon in the short grass and in the

169 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. XXXVI

ditches on the hillsides adjoining the Kune Kathkari Settlement

at Khandala. In September of 1931, I secured a few of these

frogs. To all appearances this frog appears to be diurnal at least

during the rains. It was frequently seen hopping about in the

erass. ;

‘In colour it is a pale brown, almost sandy, with darker mark-

ings. The lhmbs, particularly the hind legs, are transversely

banded with dark brown.

In his letter, Dr. Smith stated that up till the time of my

securing the specimens sent to him for identification, this species

was only known from a single individual in the collections of the

British Museum—the type—which was secured from Matheran.

RANA MALABARICA, Dum. & Bibr.

The Fungoid Frog.

This species is fairly common in the Island of Salsette and at

the north end of Bombay Island. It generally inhabits forested

areas, but may be seen occasionally in open country. It is

terrestrial and semi-arboreal in habit, and is frequently found

perched high up on the bark of trees and on the leaves of bushes.

In all probability it is a diurnal species as I have often come across

it during the day, but have so far not found it about at night.

The colouring of the frog is strikingly characteristic. The

dorsal surface, including the head, is brick- or orange-red (some-

times crimson and sometimes in specimens in poor condition,

vellowish). A sharp narrow white or yellowish line commencing

at the snout, passing from behind the eye to the vent divides the

red dorsal surface from a broad greyish black band along the

flanks. The dark lateral band passes into mottlings on the under-

surface of the frog. Both the hind and fore limbs are trans-

versely, but irregularly barred. The eyes are tinged with bright

red and gold. On the whole it is a very handsome creature.

When seated on a tree trunk, the colouring on its back gives it the

appearance of a red bark fungus as the outlines of its dark flanks

are lost against the bark, and its limbs gathered well up under its

body are lost to view.

This frog is not at all shy. It sits close, and will allow one

to approach quite near and may even allow one to touch it. So

like a fungus indeed is the appearance of this frog, so apparent is

its reluctance to get away that I have no doubt that the species

relies almost entirely on its colourmg for protection. I do not

mean that the animal is aware of its protecting colours, but the

habit of the creature combined with its peculiar colour must enable

it to escape detection by such animals that would prey on it.

The extremities of the digits are sometimes swollen and

adhesive, though they are not so well developed nor have they

the same adhesive power as in the case of Rhacophorus

maculatus—the Chunam Frog.

When handled the call of this frog is not unlike the mew of a

kitten plus a sort of high pitched ‘hut kut’ repeated several times.

I am not familiar with the call at the time of breeding.

WY OWS 49 S0t0g

*yoodse [ezaie] pue [esiop surmoys (‘Iqig IW “WING “pILAOGQUIDIU DUD) SOL] prosun eu L

AaLVid

"20S ‘LSIH

“LVN Avawog

*"NYnNor

ALG a ah

Rate

rae

Fist

JCURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. ; PLATE VI}.

A spawn mass of the Giant Tree-Frog (R4. maximus, Gunth.)

(A match box shows it’s comparative size.)

Rhacophorus maximus, Gunth. Another mass of eggs laid in the tangle

of twigs covering the water.

Photos by C. McCann.

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 169

At the end of the rains (September) I have come across a juvenile

specimen which had apparently just completed its metamorphosis

but this is no indication as to the period of development for the

eges out of which the particular specimens emerged may have been

laid late. .

When put into water this frog appears to be very uncomfortable

and makes every attempt to get out.

RHACOPHORUS MAXIMUS, Gunth.

lie (Gicaie ince enor

This species is perhaps the largest of our Indian tree frogs, as

its name implies, the Malabar Tree Frog (Rh. malabaricus Jerdon)

alone approaching it in size. The Fauna of British India (Reptiles),

Boulenger, p. 472, gives the measurements of this species as 4.5

inches from vent to snout. This measurement is undoubtedly the

ineasurement of a large female. In this frog the difference of size

between the sexes is considerable as will be seen from the

measurements shown in the table on p. 171.

In colour it is a leaf green above, and white or greyish beneath.

The underside of the digits and thighs are frequently tinged with

pink. In spirit or formalin the animals turn purple or violet. Its

powers of leaping on the ground are not very great. The longest

jump measured was under tour feet, but there seems to be no doubt

that these creatures are probably able to parachute or ‘fly’ through

the air for some distance when a leap is taken from a point that is

high up. The Nagas hold this belief. :

This frog deposits its spawn in small stagnant pools in

imiemecources om sineames. Ime tacts im all the cases, I tound the

water, in which the eggs were laid very black and very foul. On

the 22nd. of February (1980) while on expedition in the Naga Hills,

I was able to observe the breeding of these frogs at a place called

Changchang Pani (Tsu), about 500 feet above sea level. Just as

it was getting dark I heard the incessant twittering of frogs (the

sound was unlike the usual sonorous croak of the Bull-Frog). It

was somewhat melodious much resembling the distant tinkling of

bells.

Following the sound I came upon the dry bed of a stream in

which there were a number of stagnant pools which had been to

some extent replenished by the rain cvernight.

Knowing full well that the noise I heard was the production

of frogs, I was anxious to investigate the cause of all this hilarity.

Soon the reason for the excitement was made evident. The sound

was produced by these great Tree Frogs. It was breeding time

and the males, which were far in excess of the females, were adver-

tising their presence and were evidently trying to excel one another

in the production of ‘song’! Many of them had already found mates

and were busy depositing their spawn. Once the male secures

a mate the couple repair to the nearest pool to spawn. Among

the males there is the accustomed quarrelling for the possession of

the female. One tries to dislodge the other. The intervener hold-

ing the female with his fore legs tries to kick his more successful

XXXVI

Vol.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

170

ey} UL Sa] 9A0J OY} Jo ssosuy

1g v& GE | GGG VG IG I@ &¢ 6 9G

L cho G8 8 oY) 8 9 9 ZL GL

6 6 OL 8 fo) 8 9 9 L ceo)

G6 OT OL 8 G8 8 8 8 8 L

) ZL i 9) Oy ry eG ig Cake 9 9

8 G8 Ts) S G ce gi S iG tg

9 L L Vv Vv Gy V v i Vv

IS)IL 99T 81 SIT IDE OG 16 SIT 601 901

“OZIS Mey} E/T JNoqe St 4ySOULIOUUT 9Yy 9[IYA 4seSsIq 9y} ore d];eUIET

TOJNO COL} OY} FO SOSTP 9, “OSNIQO ST FI o[VUIEF OY} UL 9[LYM oyNoe st ynous oy} sTeU 9q} UT

en ee

Peetee

qnous jo dt} wo. [l1jsou jo souR\sIcT

gay nee “- gh9 JO ATOUIOD WOIZ [LySOU Jo soUeISICT

ako jo jeyoureIq:

unuedwA}, jo sayourerq

odes jo JayoureIqy

(6 pue PP 949 YJoq Ur 4sosrR]

oY} SE OSIp SIY],) “Se[ a10f JO 90} ysosuo] fo ostp Jo aajoureIcy

wc oes eee eve oes ([enbe-qns

OLB SOSTp eu,],) S29] purty fo 904 4So suo] JO oSIp fo TIJOUTBICT

(Sa 910J) 90} yseSuoy Jo yySuery

ie Res ria "** (JOOF purty) 90} ysasuo] Io YySuoery

i Se 52 soe (903 gsesuo, ayy Jo dy 3yy

0} WONV[NGIG [VSIVy-O1qty oY} WOT, UsyR}) yoo} Jo YSuery

“* (90} Jsasuo, ayy jo dy oy} 03 ueye}) Sey puly jo qISuery

coe eee coe see

qnous 0} JUSA wWOIJ Y}SuerT

2 2 2 2

‘(Saujauyjiu ut) sajpuaf pun sajypm ynpo fo sqzuauoinsvayy

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sac. PLATE VI

Del. C. McCann.

Rhacophorus maximus,

on 26-2-30, x6. 3. Tadpole

5. Figure showing the position of t

of figure 4.

Gunth. 1. Larva on 26-2-80, x10. 2. Tadpole

on 28-2-30, x6. 4. Tadpole on 98-3-30, X65.

he horny teeth and beak. 6. Dorsal view

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS ilyal

rival off with his hind imbs.The male in possession takes no active

part in the quarrel, he is only concerned with keeping his position.

The same tactics | have observed with most of the frogs and toads

that I have come across in the breeding season. Once the male

has established his right to the female both seek the water. When

the egg-laying is commenced no other males interfere with the

couple. The male grips the female just behind the armpits but

when ege-laying is in progress he shdes down a little bit.

To lay her eggs, the female selects a suitable twig and clings on

to it with her fore legs, letting the rest of her body hang down quite

limp, with the vent a little above the surface of the water (some-

times touching it). In this position she discharges her eges. The

male on his part besides fertilizing the ova, as they are produced,

beats up the substance emitted with the eggs with his hind legs,

alternately moving his legs up and down. ‘This is how the process

appeared to me at the time, but whether frothiness of the spawn

‘nest’ is really brought about in this way alone, I am still in doubt.

Tf disturbed during the process, both will disappear under the sur-

face of the water together, only to reappear a few moments later,

and commence, operations anew. After the spawn has _ been

deposited the male releases his hold of the female and she seeks

shelter, much exhausted and limp. ‘The spawn consists of a large

frothy mass which floats on the surface. In colour both the eggs

and the foam are at first white but gradually change to a creamy

tinge. A most curious point about these frogs is that the floating

mass of spawn is not the produce of a single pair, but a number of

females collect and lay their spawn together in a single large mass.

Exposed to the air, the frothy substance, which surrounds the

ova, dries and the eggs sinking through the mass reach the surface

of the water. This is not the case with all the eggs but with

most of them. Under their covering the eges hatch in about four

days. The larve are at first creamy white and remain attached to

the mass and feeding on it. Here they remain for a few hours and

eventually fall to the bottom-where they rest for some time ocea-

sionally coming to the surface. The colour soon changes to har-

monise with the surroundings. These tadpoles in their natural

habitat are almost perfectly black.

The next morning I returned to the same spot in order to take

photographs of the spawn. Nothing was to be seen of the frogs,

but I could distinctly hear them from time tc time in the dense

undergrowth.

Fortunately the previous evening when observing the adults I

had a powerful torch with me and I was able to see the creatures

quite clearly in the fading hght. The light of the torch did not

seem to disturb them at all.

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 'TADPOLES.

22-2-30. Spawn deposited at dusk. Diameter of eggs 2.5 mm. At. first

white, turning creamy.

26-2-30. The larve commenced emerging from the spawn ‘nest’ in the

morning (roughly 84 hours after the eggs were laid). The tail

may be curved round the body either to the right or to the left,

Ma JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HI Si. sSOCHH ives Vol. XX i

but the latter appears to be the commoner position. The tail in

fully developed larvee before emergence is arched in a downward

direction, but on emergence it soon becomes straight. Two large

‘suckers’ are present and also external branche. The larvae

before emergence are microscopically pigmented, but on emer-

gence become much more so.

Length of tadpole on emergence 9 mm. Lips not developed.

28-2-30. Length of tadpole 12.5 mm. External gills well developed. Lips

developed. No rows of horny teeth could be seen but the beak

was distinctly horny. Tadpoles were very active. Pigment

greatly increased—tadpole almost black.

1-3-30. Length of tadpole 14 mm. The external gills commence to be

absorbed. In some cases only the remains of the left gill was

to be seen at the mouth of the branchial aperture. Topmost row

of teeth in the upper hp horny, other rows present but very in-

distinct. Anus median. Branchial aperture on left side, directed

somewhat upwards. Pigment intense.

3-3-30. Length of tadpole 15 mm. External gills completely disappeared.

‘Suckers’ partially absorbed. Rows of horny teeth well developed.

No palatine plate present.

Unfortunately owing to a change of camp my observations have

to remain incomplete as I lost all the tadpoles in transit.

RHACOPHORUS MACULATUS Boulengex.

The Chunam Frog.

This is quite a common species in the Islands of Salsette, at

the north end of Bombay Island and in the Ghats during the

rains. <A single male was caught in the compound of the Prince of

Wales’ Museum by Mr. Jaccb this year (1932). It appears with

the break of the monsoon. In some localities it also enters houses

and is attracted to the light. A common perch of this frog, when

it enters houses, is the top of windows and doors, where it is very

often accidentally crushed.

At the break of every monsoon since 1927 I have obtained

specimens of this species in the cisterns at the Kanari caves,

together with the spawn.

The leap of this frog is considerable for its size. When jump-

ing it appears as though it were parachuting through the air. One

specimen which I attempted to catch jumped across from the top

of one side of a cistern to almost the bottom of the wall on the oppo-

site side. The cistern is about seven feet square and almost the

same depth. The extent of the leap was about 9 feet! On the

eround these frogs are not able to make such long jumps. Though

able to swim well they never live in water, and are, in fact, very

uncomfortable when forced to remain in this element. Under such

condition the frog floats listlessly with its body parallel with the

surface. :

The colouration changes according to immediate environment

and these changes are somewhat rapid, usually blending with the

eround on which the frog is resting. When placed on white cloth

or glass the creature becomes almost white with no markings visi-

ble. The same appears to be the result when kept in the dark,

but as soon as it is exposed to light it simulates the surroundings.

However, I have never seen it change to green—the change of

NOTES. ON {NDIAN BATRACHIANS 178

colour ranges only between white, yellows, and light browns. When

placed in spirit the markings become very distinct.

When resting, all four legs are well drawn up under the body

so much so that only the outline of the head and body is seen.

This character coupled with the rapid change of colour is undoubt-

edly of a protective nature, rendering the animal almost invisible.

On the whole it is not a very active frog. Reluctant to move it

will sit for hours in one place. One that I had free in my room

did not change its position durimg the whole day and remained

where it was through the night to all appearances fast asleep.

So far I have never come across this species in amplexus. In

my opinion the male does not necessarily take part in the production

of the spawn ‘nest’ as I have observed with Rh. maximus. My

reason for doubting this is based on the fact that I once obtained

« female at the beginning of the monsoon and kept her in a jar.

During the night to my astonishment she deposited her spawn

‘nest’ on a small piece of a branch which had been put in as a

perch. This specimen is seen with her ‘nest’ in Plate VIII. I put the

‘nest’ into water and a few days later tadpoles emerged! One point

emerges from this accidental discovery. How and when were the

ova of my captive female fertilized? So far as is known, the ova

of frogs are fertilized by the male the moment they are discharged.

In the present instance no male was present when the ional

spawned. Yet the eges were fertilized and tadpoles merged from

them. I have considered the problem from various aspects and

can only offer one solution. In the present species amplexus takes

place, but it is probable that the sexual products of the male and

the female are not discharged simultaneously. The male’s sperms

if deposited on the dorsal surface of the female may remain there

till she is ready to discharge her eggs and when she does so the

sperms pass into the foam containing the eggs and fertilize them.

Howevei, this can only be proved by microscopical examination.

My captive female, I am convinced, must have carried the sperms

on, some external part of-her body. In no other way could her ova

have been fertilized. Is there a reason for the departure from the

normal? If there is one, it must be associated with some pecu-

liarity in the habit of the species. Some peculiarity which requires

a departure from the methods of fertilization customary with frogs.

The explanation which presents itself to my mind is that the pecu-

liarity may be due to the peculiar spawning habit of the female

of this species. Her ova or spawn ‘nest’ is always deposited, not

on the surface of the water, but at some height above it, in a situ-

ation where the tadpoles on emergence fall into the water below.

The ‘nest’ is frequently discharged on the terminal leaves of over-

hanging branches, on perpendicular surfaces of rocks, on the walls

of cisterns and sometimes under stones. All of the situations in

which the necessity of supporting a male on her back at the time

of spawning would be inconvenient, if not impossible to the female.

Hence the species may have developed the habit cf amplexus before

the actual discharge of the ova, the male depositing the sperms on

the female and she disel rarging her ova subsequently. I put this

explanation forward as a theory not as an observed fact. So little is

174

=~]

—

SOCIO GR IROMUBAE INAINCIB AIL, JELLST"- SOCIBUN. Woh. XXII

known about the breeding habits of frogs that there is a great deal

of room for further investigation and one of the problems that

still require to be investig ated is this interesting incident in the

breeding habits of the recent species.

On every occasion that I visited the Kanari Caves, at the break

of the monsoon I have always found spawn ‘nests’ hanging from

the walls of cisterns, sometimes as many as three or four in the

same cistern. I have also found these ‘nests’ on the branches of

bushes overhanging water and also on sloping rocks in the. open.

On the 29th of July (1928) I found a fresh ‘nest’. This shows that

this species may even lay later than the break of the monsoon.

However, this is a point that may vary with the locality.

The spawn ‘nests’ appear like spent foam that is frequently

deposited by the waves on a beach. They are yellowish in colour,

measuring from 2 to 4 ins. in diameter. The shape is generally al-

most globular. The outer surface of the mass dries perfectly crisp,

unless it is deposited in places where it is being continually

moistened by water. The drying of the surface helps to conserve

the moisture within the mass should it be exposed to sunshine. If

deposited in places where it is being continually wetted, the whole

‘nest’ generally slips down and floats on the surface of the water.

In the very moist interior of the mass of spawn the tadpoles pass

thei embryonic stages, until such time as they are able to swim

about freely. When they are ready to leave the ‘nest’ a hole is

formed at the bottom by the wriggling of the tadpoles and they

drop into the water below. Should the nest be in water at the time

or emergence, the tadpoles when hatched hang on to it as it floats

about and feed on ite substance. The spawn is never laid directly

in water, though it may be deposited near the surface. Many

‘nests’ which I found in the cisterns at the Kanari Caves, were

attacked by ants and eockroaches, the latter had even deposited

their egg cases inside the ‘nest’. Some of the ‘nests’ in the cisterns

ot the Kanari Caves were deposited under the stones. In these

cases the ‘nests’ floated out when rain water filled the cisterns.

The tadpoles swim about very actively as soon as they leave

the ‘nest’. The development is comparatively rapid. Out of

spawn taken on the 29th July (1928) development was completed

by the 12th September. Other details of development I give below.

After leaving the water the young frogs rest for a considerable

time. The tail is gradually aneosbed. The mouth keeps opening

and closing as though the frog was suffocating or trying to get rid

of something in its Soca Ones the young frog leaves the Beaten

it endeavours to rid itself of its tail specially when it has withered

to just a short stump by kicking and rubbing at it with its hind

legs—a sort of massage. During this period they do not eat for

about three or four days, but after this resting period feed vora-

ciously. If newly developed young frogs fall back into the water

and find themselves unable to get out, ahe, drown within a space

of twenty minutes to half an hour.

These frogs, whether young or old, when perched on a perpendi-

cular surface always sit with their heads turned away from the

direction of the eround pointing upwards. If the jar in which they

WuPDIN “D | soreqd ‘SOSIP OAISaYpe ay} Zurmoys

,3seu, uMeds YUM ojeWo} & (Jesuetnog ‘suzvjnsvu snsoydomwgy) S01J Weunydy 24],

(Je8uatnNog ‘sxzvjnsviu snsogqosvqyy) so1j weunyy ey]

CERO

= ss

Peg

Wires

TIA ALV 1d "20S “LSIH “LYN Avawog ‘Nenor

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 175

were contained was reversed causing them to face downward, they

would almost immediately all turn round and face upwards once

more.

The leap of the young frogs 1s comparatively great. A tadpole

with only the two hind legs fully developed was able to jump a

maximum distance of 75 mm. Another with all the four legs deve-

loped and which had not yet left the water was able to cover a

distance of 150 mm., while one which had left the water and in

which the tail was not absorbed covered a maximum distance of

300 mm. Double each time!

The tadpole when about to leave the water changes colour and

becomes a dirty yellowish in tone above.

Notes ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ‘l'ADPOLES.

This spawn ‘nest’ was obtained in a cistern at the Kanari Caves, Salsette,

on the 10th June 1929, under some stones.

11-6-29. Egg removed from the ‘nest’. It was perfectly spherical, creamy,

and measured 1.5 mm. ‘There was no differentiation to be seen.

1%-6-29. larva taken from the ‘nest’ Plate IX, Fig. 1, measured 3 mm.

The different parts of the body were quite distinct. The head

region was subacute. Abdomen distinct with the anal pore.

The larva was of a creamy colour like the egg.

16-6-29. This day the tadpoles emerged from the ‘nest’. No external

gills present. No suckers’. Horny: teeth and beak quite

horny. No palatine plate present. A distinct shining spot on the

top of the snout. This spot is present throughout the tadpole

stage and is only lost just before the frog is about to leave the

water. Spiracle or branchial pore well developed and opening

on the left side of the body. Anal pore opening on the right

side of the caudal fin membrane, not at the lower margin. Lower

lip frilled. Length of tadpole 12 mm.

18-6-29. Length of tadpole 16 mm. Pigment intensified. There appears

two distinct types of pigment, (a) a pigment in the deeper layers

which is seen through the transparent outer layer. These

pigment bodies appear as central vaculoes, circular in outline

through which the pigment flows in an irregular amoeboid shape.

(Fig. 2, a.). (b) pigment in the upper transparent layer, which

at first sight look like pigmented cilia, but soon they appear like

the impurities so common in the well-known ‘moss-agate’ (Fig.

a 6

Dies Ws

(a) Type of pigment in deeper layers.

(b) Type of pigment at surface.

2, b). A third row of horny teeth was developed on the under

lips. ‘The hind lmbs appeared as minute semispherical protuber-

ances on either side of the tail. Anal pore lateral, the fin mem-

brane is a little gathered at this point.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

22-6-29. Length of tadpole 19 mm. Topmost row of horny teeth in the

lipper Jaw invaginated at the middle, 2nd row broken, a few

teeth appear on either side of the upper portion of the , beak

representing a third row. Hind lmbs very slightly enlarged.

Both types of pigment increased.

26-6-29. Length of tadpole 25 mm. Pigment further increased. Hind limbs

as conical protuberances. The upper portion of the hind limbs

distinctly visible through the skin (femur etc.). The tail became

slightiy scimitar shaped and acuminate. .

30-6-29. Length of tadpole 381 mm. Hind limbs become clavate protu-

. berances. Surface pigment greatly increased. The tail became

slightly more scimitar shaped.

5-7-29. Length of tadpole 85 mm. ‘The toes of the hind limbs appear as

clavate swellings on the original protuberances, seen on the 30th.

June. Hind legs slightly pigmented. The pigment in the upper

layer of the body almost completely obliterated the large blotches

of the deeper layer, particularly in the region of the head and

back. The lower iip became distinctly bilobed.

8-7-29. Hind limb 8 mim. long; toes shghtly separated from one another,

but appearing as oblong protuberances, of varying length. Pig-

mentation further increased. Hnd of tail slightly bent down-

wards. Fore legs slightly discernable through the skin. As

; much developed as the hind legs.

11-7-29. Length of tadpole 41 mm. Hind legs 6.5 mm.; toes and web

between the toes distinct. Discs distinct; but still in line

with the outline of the toes. Toes slightly pigmented. Lower

portion of the femur protruded. Fore legs with tces visible

through the skin.

17-7-29. length of tadpole 41 mm. Hind legs 17 mm. long; web and

discs distinct. Pads on the underside of the feet visible. Fore

legs with fully formed toes as in the hind legs. ‘Thumb’ of

right fore leg protruding through a tear in the skin. The

rows of horny teeth in the upper jaw completely lost, beak

remained and the outermost row of teeth on the lower lp.

The lower lip had shrunk. The tadpole now became ‘hunch-

backed’. 3

19-7-29. Iuength of tadpole 41 mm. Hind legs 19 mm. Fore legs pro-

truded, fully formed. Lip almost completely reduced. All horny

teeth and the lower portion of the beak lost.

93-7-29. Length of young frog which left water 18.5 mm., including the

stump of a tail. Mouth undergoing transformation. At this

period the young frogs left the water and adhered to the glass

jar. After they leave the water they do not return unless

alarmed, but will soon come out again. The tail is absorbed

in about six to eight hours. During the transformation the

young frog does not eat anything for about four to five days,

after which it readily takes small fhes.

Up to this time not all the tadpoles had completed their deve-

lopment, but. by the 2nd. of August they were all almost near

the completion of their metamorphosis.

A. fully formed young frog measured 15.5 mm.

In this species I have found the leech Paraclepsis predatrix,

Harding parasiting the adults.

MicronyLa ornata, Boulenger.

The Black-throated Frog.

This species I found to be very common on the Tableland at

Panchgani (4,400 ft.) living under stones. This frog appears to be

nocturnal as I have never come across it moving about during the

day, even on the dullest days during the monscon. In the above

mentioned locality I found its eges and tadpoles in August, and in

September, I again found sets of quite freshly laid eggs. The eggs

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate IX

9q3

q3 ae riven

aa? rete

at a #y

qe LULL

e "ys oe

e i /) rch .Y

4 a ‘)

*» “). Wide "os crimes tenets vs we

his pew ow

MO TELL he

05 5

Pan,

nee ia, P20 er py ne aret®” a “os

ea aysuygrsey t**

Sots siege OS

ALVA

5 6

Del. C. McCann.

Rhacophorus maculatus, Boulenger. 1. Larva on 12-6-29, x9. 2. Tad-

pole on 16-6-29, x4. 3. Tadpole on 18-6-29, x4. 4. Dorsal view of figure 3.

5. Mouth of a tadpole on 16-6-29 showing the arrangement of the horny teeth

and beak. 6. As figure 5 but on the 18-6-29.

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS Lh

are laid singly, each egg being surrounded by a globular mucilagi-

nous substance. The tadpoles develop within this protecting

envelope and can easily be seen moving about in it. Finally they

break through and move about freely. This usually takes place

in from four to five days. Those that 1 kept under observation

emerged, some on the fourth day ahd the balance on the fifth. The

number ot eggs laid is comparatively few—30 to 40.

The tadpoles of this species | have found somewhat difficult to

rear and have consequently had little success with them. Fairly

old tadpoles are not very difficult to keep, but to rear them from

the egg is. most trying. Apart from the difficulty of rearing the

tadpoles, the small number of eges laid by an individual makes it

difficult to preserve specimens at the different stages of develop-

ment.

Dr. Smith writing to me states: “Very rare in Western India.

We have none here from the Bombay area. Should be found

in abundance throughout the rains, where it exists’.

PHILAUTUS BOMBAYENSIS.

The Bombay Philautus.

Though this frog is said to be somewhat rare, it is really a

very common species in the hilly tracts of the Bombay Presidency

appearing only during the monsoon. It is one’ of the most elusive

frogs I know of, and is most difficult to locate, though one may be

cuided to the spot by its call. It is probably on account of this

character that it is considered rare. It is extremely sharp sighted

and trying to trace the frog by the sound is by no means simple.

It will continue to call from its hiding place until one reaches a

certain distance and then remains silent. By careful stalking at

night with the aid of a torch, one is able to catch the performer.

When once located the frog looks for all the world like a snail. This

appearance is given to the male by the enormous vocal sacs which

when inflated resembles the globular shell of a snail. Its most cha-

racteristic call is at once recognisable. The call may be likened to

the rattle of castanettes kept up for three or four seconds followed

by single claps and then the rattling is resumed. The voice is

Joud and can be heard for a considerable distance.

During the monsoon this frog may be heard both day and night.

Being a tree frog it generally rests on the bark of trees and bushes

(which it resembles) in an almost upside down position. In this

position the large vocal sae is inflated to its maximum. When

making the sound there is barely any deflation perceptible. When

caught in this attitude it takes the animal some time before it: is

able to deflate the sac and when deflated the sac wrinkles up in so

many folds under the ‘chin’.

This species is an excellent weather prophet, for as soon as

there is the slightest indication of rain it commences to eall and no

sooner the rain ceases for a few hours it is not to be heard any

longer.

So far I have not been able to locate the spawn of this species.

Dr. Smith referring to this species in his letter writes: “We

ier JOURNAL. BOMBAY “NARU RAI NSA 2 S.OO WHI Vol Oxo val

have no examples here (British Museum) to compare with, but I

have sent to Calcutta for some’.

RAMANELLA MONTANA.

In June 1928, I found a single specimen of this species in one

of the cisterns at the Kanari Caves, Salsette Island: In the

following year I discovered nine specimens of the same species

in the same cistern. In both cases they were taken along with

tana malabarica and Rhacophorus maculatus. They were pro-

bably breeding in the cistern but I did not discover any spawn.

In general appearance it is a squat little creature, almost black

in colour above, with no distinct markings. The underside is

greyish, slightly, but finely mottled. The dorsal colouring harmo-

nized well with the surrounding rocks on which they were seated.

in every case | found them seated on the perpendicular faces of

the cistern.

In habit they appeared to be sornewhat sluggish and not at all

timid. They. sit with the body well pressed to the surface on

which they are seated, with the lmbs slightly drawn under the

body.

The following is an extract from Dr. Smith’s letter to me:—

‘Ramanella montana. 8 examples. I have kept two. The

Kaloula obscura of Boulenger. Has not been recorded north of

Malabar and does not agree entirely in colour pattern with Malabar

specimens. Best got at the break of the rains.’ ?

With regard to the colour of frogs, I have been at a: total loss

to give definite colouring in most cases, as I have found that frogs

change colour very rapidly, and frequently, in lfe, so much so

that a colour record at one time under certain conditions does not

suit the same species in a changed environment. This remark is

applicable te many species, in fact to most of the specimens that

have come under my notice.

BuFo MELANOSTicTUS, Schneider.

The Common Indian Toad.

Though such a common creature, like the rest of the family

little appears to be known about its habits. This toad is purely

nocturnal, appearing soon after sunset. The day is spent in hiding

in holes at the base of tree trunks and in walls, under stones or any

other suitable places which will afford it a hide during the hours

of daylight. Once a toad has found a suitable spot it will generally

return to the same place with the break of day. If the hole be

large enough to accommodate several, they will live together. They

are also very fond of burying themselves in cotton or coir when

available. In the districts toads frequently enter houses, and if not

disturbed will take up their abode in some corner.

During the greater part of the year toads are silent in the drier

parts of the country, but in places where there is an abundant

rainfall and frequent showers they may be heard the whole year

UU IW *D <Q ofogg

‘payeyur yoes

[R904 ay. sSsUIMOYS (“PlauUYyoS ‘szrzgsouvjam ofng) PRO], UeIpuy UoWUWIOT oY],

*X ALlV1d ‘90G “LSIH “LYN Avawog ‘Nenor

NOTES ON INDIAN BATRACHIANS 179

round. During the period of silence they only utter a feeble plain-

tive note if handled. But after the break of the monsoon (in dry

districts) this long silence is made up for. It is the general breed-

ing season and all the males burst into ‘song’—there is to be heard

a continuous croaking everywhere. At this season the throat is

tinged with brick-red or orange-yellow, which is only distinct when

the gullar sae is inflated. The males are smaller than the females

and are far in excess, competition for the possession of females is

therefore very great and much struggling and fighting for possession

is the result. These combats are much lke what I have des-

cribed in the case of the Bull-Frog.

I have observed these creatures in the streams of Salsette,

vying with one another, so to speak, in their vocal efforts. Hach

sits on a small projecting stone croaking for all he is worth. Now

and again one of them leaves his stone and goes across to that of

another and tries to dislodge his rival, if successful the victor takes

possession of the seat of the vanquished. If unsuccessful he retires

to his own perch or finds another and recommences his croaking.

This sort of thing goes on all the time. The stones are objects of

continuous contest, they appear to form poimts of vantage from

which the males are able to keep an eye on the surrounding

‘country’, in their ardent watch for a mate. The slightest move-

ment on the part of one of the company in the water brings all the

eager males to its side. Should the object of the pursuit be a male

the competitors return to their respective perches, much disap-

pointed, but should it be a female, the ‘battle’ begins, each ‘doing’

his utmost to take possession of her. Nothing disturbs the ardour of

the contest. On several occasions I picked up a heap of toads, as

many as eight, in one struggling mass, buried in the centre of

which was the much sought after female.

In this situation amplexus is short and only lasts till the eggs

have been deposited. But if the creatures are not in water

amplexus frequently lasts for several days and even weeks. <A

couple I found in this condition, I kept in a box and in this state

they remained for about twenty days. The explanation is I believe

that when amplexus takes place on land that the pair keep

together and hop about till they come to water.

The eggs are generally laid in running water, but they may also

be laid in pools and tanks. The ova are discharged in long ‘strings’

composed of a gelatinous substance. These strings of eges appear

to me to be of particular advantage as they get entangled in the

vegetation and are consequently not washed away by the currents,

in which singly laid eggs would stand no chance. These strings

may be yards in length. Two strings are produced at a time. As

the larve appear, the gelatinous substance constituting the string

swells and the larve remain within it for a time before they

emerge. When the tadpoles emerge they adhere to the outside of

the strings for some time before they become free-swimming, by

means of the suckers. The time required for the development of

the tadpoles from the eggs is approximately four days.

Though the general breeding season of this toad is at the begin-

ning of the rains, I have no doubt that they breed the whole year

180 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NAD UR AI SHS te S\OC Im MOVeNn y/o ma OxXeeyal

round under favourable circumstances. This may of course vary

with the locality. In the Naga Hills (Assam), I found these

creatures breeding from January to March.

About a week after the rains have broken and mating has been

accomplished, no more croaking is to be heard, in fact, few toads are

to be seen by day, where a short while ago there were hundreds.

The nuptial festivities are over and all are now back at the task of

finding food. Though nocturnal in habit, at the breeding time

these creatures are to be seen out both day and night.

Though I have never had the opportunity to keep the spawn of

the toad under observation, it appears to me that the period of

development is comparatively short, as I have found young toads

which had undoubtedly just completed their metamorphosis in

July. At the end of August, in some places, thousands (and I

mean thousands) of young toads are to be seen all over the country.

Once when on my way to Rajputana, I saw thousands of small

toads at Kalol (B.B. & C.1.R.) in September. I say thousands

but in reality there must have been millions. The track and the

‘platform was full of tiny toads all hoppimg about. They were so

numerous that at every step passengers trod on many at a time—it

was unavoidable so much so that the place was full of crushed

toads. All these tiny toads appeared to be moving in an easterly

direction, but from where they came and whither they were going

was a puzzle.

MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION.'

CoLINnN CAMPBELL SANBORN.

DOCH ocosra0e: Sikkim and Bengal Terai.

Dateien ae: October 19380 to June 1931.

Collecved bin. H. Stevens and V. 8S. La Personne.

Through the generosity of Mr. C. Suydam Cutting of New York City, Field

Museum of Natural History of Chicago has received a large collection of

mammals, birds, and reptiles obtained by the well-known collector, Mr. Herbert

Stevens, in Bengal Terai and Sikkim.

The mammal! collection contains 412 specimens representing 57 species and

48 genera. This material is supplementary to the collections listed in the Bombay

Natural History Society’s reports No. 23 Sikkim, No. 26 Darjiling, No. 27 Bhotan

Duars, and No. 28 Kalimpong. Collections were made at points not here-to-fore

visited, and the following species of special interest were collected: Anuwrosorex

assamensis, Martes toufeus, Canis laniger, Belomys pearson and Lepus oiostolus.

The work was begun on October 9, 1930 at Haldibari and terminated on

June 25, 1931 at Lachung. During part of the time Mr. Stevens had the assis-

tance of Mr. V. S. La Personne who carried on the work after Mr. Stevens

was called away the last of April.

COLLECTING /STATIONS.

Cooch Behar, Haldibari sco OGiie BENQ - UBIO:

Bengal, Sivok ; snOcts = 22Nova li.

A Mangpu ... Nov. 28-28.

50 Sangsir

7% Mangpu Dee, all; WH0seim, Ail, ISB,

» Tarkhola

Sikkim, Lingtam =. Jian. 2d-Heb, 28.

% Rongli

af Sedonchen tae es

i Cmekione March and April.

ne Jeluk

= Dikchu sos Wiley FA,

re Toong wes May 4:

. Chungtang --. May 5-9.

45 Lachen ... May 12-14.

oA Thangu ... May 17-28.

ie Gyagong

a Lachung June 4-25.

aa Ghora-la

(1) Macaca mulatta, Zimm.

The Rhesus.

For synonomy see Hinton and Wroughton, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 27, p. 668.

@ iy tmyolke g/l, OQ aims LS Mil anaver oral

* Published by permission of the Director, Field Museum of Natural History,

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A,

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(2) Macaca assamensis, McCl.

The Himalayan Monkey.

For synonomy see Hinton and Wroughton, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 27, p. 669.

1, senses © il, Warddaoles & i, QO Bo lommeaion.

(3) Pithecus schistaceus, Hodgs.

The Himalayan Langur.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

@ ly Oe i juve linetam > OO juve 1 aching Ome Waclven:

(4) Cynopterus sphinx sphinx, Vahl.

The Southern Short-nosed Fruit Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 6.): :

(5) Lyroderma lyra lyra, Geoff.

The Indian Vampire Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 1.)

g& ily OS, tonal.

(6) Barbastella darjelingensis, Horsf.

The Eastern Barbastel.

(Synonymy in No. 26.)

@ k,n ale Manepur

(7) Nyctalus labiatus, Hodgs.

The Indian Noctule Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 25.)

Q 4, Lingtam.

(8) Pipistrellus corcmandra, Gray.

The Coromandel Pipistrel.

(Synonymy in No. 5.)

a 3, 2am al ©) 6,3 1m ale. Haldibari se ly Oe 2bineale a Mancpur

(9) Pipistrellus babu, Thomas.

The Babu Pripistrel.

(Synonymy in No. 26.)

My Ik sin ello, Jexoraerlh.

(10) Myotis sicarius, Thos.

The Sikkim Myotis.

(Synonymy in No. 26.)

S iy tin Ally Q By Iomelln,

(11) Myotis caliginosus, Tomes.

Tome’s Whiskered Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

@ il, iba@imss mn el, @ il, dems,

MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION 188

(12) Murina tubinaris, Scully.

Scully’s Tube-nosed Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 25.)

3 1, Chungtang.

(13) Tupaia belangeri lepcha, Thos.

The Sikkim Tree Shrew.

For synonomy see Fry, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 29, p. 90.

3 5, 9 4, Mangpu; @ 1, Sangsir.

(14) Talpa micrura, Hodgs.

The Short-tailed Mole.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

6 2, O 2, Mangpu; So 1, Jeluk; 9 1, Darkhola.

(15) Soriculus nigrescens, Gray.

The Sikkim Brown-toothed Shrew.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

3 1, Lingtam.

(16) Soriculus caudatus, Horsf.

Hodgson’s Brown-toothed Shrew.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

3 3, 9 1, Lingtam.

(17) Suncus cwruleus giganteus, Geoff.

The Giant Shrew.

For synonymy see Lindsay, J. B. N. H. S., Vol. 38, p. 329.

3 3, 9 18, Haldibari.

(18) Suncus soccatus, Hodgs.

The Darjeeling Musk Shrew.

Hor Eyinomypony ses Ibninclseny, of, Jo ING lala Woy VOle wy [05 BBY

GO ie Mancpuy On le Sangsin; 9 3.

Q 1, Lingtam; in al. 1, Rongli.

(19) Crocidura sp.

3 1, 9 1, Lingtam.

(20) Anurosorex assamensis, And.

The Assam Short-tailed Shrew.

1875. Anurosorex assamensis, Anderson, A. M. N. H.,

(4), Vol. 16, p. 282.

2 1, Lingtam.

The great size of this specimen seems to leave no other course than to call

it assamensis. It measures total length 114 mm.; tail 17; hind foot 15. Skull:

superior margin of foramen magnum to tip of premaxillae 27.8 mm.; greatest

length, including incisors 29.2; palatal length 18; mastoid width 15; upper

tooth row 14.2,

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

(21) Nectogale sikkimensis, de Wint.

The Finger-tailed Water Shrew

(Synonymy in No. 28.)

fA, Q 1, 1 (not sexed), Chungtang; g 1, Lachen:

& 24 OQ 1, ibaa.

(22) Felis bengalensis, Kerr.

The Leopard Cat.

(Synonymy in No. 11.)

Ong Oo 1 ame tame

(23) Viverra zibetha zibetha, L.

The Large Indian Civet

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

6 i, envolks Gil, lawinvsjoos g il, g wim, 4, © wn, Il,

Mangpu.

(24) Prionodon pardicolcr, Hodgs.

The Indian Tiger Civet.

(Synonymy in No. 28.)

1 (not sexed), Lingtam; 92 1, Sedonchen; d 1, Jeluk.

(25) Herpestes mungo mungo, Gmel.

The Common Bengal Mongoose.

(Synonymy in No. 1.)

go 1, @ 2, Haldibari.

(26) Herpestes urva, Hodgs.

The Crab-eating Mongoose.

(Synonymy in No. 28.)

(27) Canis indicus indicus, Hodgs.

The Common Indian Jackal.

(Synonymy in No. 1.)

6 i, Manepu; 6 25, sivolk,

(28) Canis laniger, Hodgs.

The Himalayan Wolf.

1885. Lupus laniger, Hodgs., Calc. Journ. N. H.,

Vol. 7, p. 474.

§ B, Q i, Iblis.

(29) Martes toufceus, Hodgs.

The Tibetan Beech Marten.

Mustela? toufeus, Hodgson, J. A. S. B., Vol,

Jul, WO, PAsue.

¢ 1, Ghora-la, 17,000 ft.

AXXVI

MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION 185

(30) Mustela subhemachalana, Hodes.

The Himalayan Weasel.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

J 1, Lingtam.

(31) Mustela kathiah, Hodgs.

The Yellow-belied Weasel.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

3 1, Mangpu.

(32) Lutra lutra nair, F. Cuv.

The Common Otter.

(Synonymy in No. 37.)

1 (not sexed, no skull), “‘Sikkim’’.

(33) Petaurista nobilis, Gray.

The Himalayan Flying Squirrel.

ae (Synonymy in No. 28.)

or tedeemibs in vailisn selule.

(34) Belomys pearsoni, Gray.

The Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel.

1842. Sciuropterus pearsonu, Gray, A. M. N. H., Vol. 10, p. 263.

Q 1, Mangpu.

I find no record of the Mammal Survey’s having taken this squirrel so it

must be quite scare or very hard to catch.

(35) Ratufa gigantea gigantea, McCl.

The Assam Giant Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

Go ln (Motrsexed) i Slvolkemia\ a4 Ome oanosienag) leh Warkholas

(36) Dremomys lokriah lokriah, Hodgs.

The Long-snouted Nepal Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

Gi OO onmdiclukes rae Jk Machen:

(37) Dremomys Ickriah bhotia, Wr.

The Long-snouted Bhootan Squirrei.

(Synonymy in No. 238.)

3d 6, 9 2, Chungtang; ¢ 1, Lachung.

(38) Callosciurus crumpi, Wr.

Crump’s Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No, 23.)

S&S da Ov ay Ibias:

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(39) Tomeutes lokroides, Hodgs.

The Hoary-belliied Himalayan Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

QO My sols G 8) O G, itineienns ¢ B, © 1, Sangsir; ¢ 8, 9 4, 1 (not

sexed), Mangpu; 2 1, Dikchu; @Q 1, Toong.

(40) Funambulus pennanti, Wr.

The Common Five-striped Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No. 1.)

@ By © By Jekiichionmes © ilo Sivolk.

(41) Tamiops maccleliandi, Horsf.

The Striped Himalayan Squirrel.

(Synonymy in No. 20.)

3 16, 2 17, Lingtam; @ 4, Chungtang.

(42) Marmota himalayana Hodgs.

The Tibet Marmot.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

3d 8, 9 1, Thangu; @ 2, Tibet-Sikkim border, above Thangu, 16,000 ft.;

3d 1, Gyangong; @ 1, Ghora-la.

(43) Gunomys bengaiensis, Gray and Hardw.

The Bengal Mole Rat.

(Synonymy in No. 19.)

Q@ 1, Haldibari; Q 5, Mangpu.

(44) Dacnomys millardi, Thos.

The Large-toothed Giant Rat.

(Synonymy in No. 26.)

(45) Rattus nitidus, Hodgs.

Hodgson’s Gray-bellied Rat.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

3 5, 9 2, Mangpu; ¢ 1, @ 4, Gnatong; ¢ 14, @ 19, Lingtam.

(46) Rattus rattus sikkimensis, Hinton.

The Sikkim Tree Rat.

1919. Rattus rattus sikkimensis, Hinton, J. B. N. H. 8., Vol. 26, p- 394.

(47) Rattus fulvescens, Gray.

The Chestnut Rat.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

Q 2, Mangpu; ¢ 4, Q 6, Lingtam; ¢ 1, Chungtang.

MAMMALS OF THE SUYDAM CUTTING SIKKIM EXPEDITION | 187

(48) Rattus eha, Wr.

The Spectacled Rat.

(Synonymy in No. 23.)

é& I, 2-8, acne.

In one specimen there is a small strip of pure white hairs in the centre of

the chest.

(49) Rattus flavipectus titse2, Hinton.

The Sikkim Rat.

IGS; Jenne ToS mses, Isbin, o/s Jes de Jelo Sen WOl, VAdn jos Xoer

S 1, © B, lilalcioams & i OQ ily Siwoks G Sy © WHY, Nitenaves jue

Sangsir; ¢ 1, Lingtam.

(50) Mus homourus, Hodgs.

The Himalayan House Mouse.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

@ 1, Chungtang.

(51) Leggada pahari, Thos.

The Sikkim Hill Mouse.

1916.

Mins palor, WMoomes, de 13, Me Jal, So, Wo VE jo.) Zale,

IG’, Jhengada julooin, Moaoraeys, dio i> INe Jele Se, WO, AO, jo. 2240.

6 1, 92 3, Lingtam.

(52) Neodon sikkimensis, Hodgson.

The Sikkim Vole.

1849. Neodon sikkimensis, A. M. N. H., (2), Vol. 3, p. 208

g§ 8, @ i eens gil O By AMagwaveau.

(53) Acanthion hodgsoni, Gray.

The Crestless Himalayan Porcupine.

(Synonymy in No. 27.)

3 1, 9 1, Mangpu.

(54) Lepus ruficaudatus, Geoff.

The Common Indian Hare.

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

&o 1, Munsong.

(55) Lepus oiostolus, Hodgs.

The Woolly Hare.

(Synonymy in No. 37.)

36 1, Gyagong, 16,000 ft.

(56) Ochotona sikimaria, Thos.

The Sikkim Mouse Hare.

1922. Ochotona sikimaria, Thomas, A

5 iil. ING Jélog (@), Wol, 9), Do US

6 1, 9 1, Gnatong;

Ome Wiachens ipo) G4 Lhamour

(57) Ovis hodgsoni, Blyth.

The Great Tibetan Sheep.

1840. Ovis hodgsoni, Blyth, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 65.

@ 1, juv. 2, Sikkim, border of Tibet.

These specimens were taken by Mr. C. Suydam Cutting.

THE HOT-WHATHER FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR.

IBN

no Be Hweank, Clb Crs... ans:

It has been my good fortune to spend two hot seasons (April

and May) in Mahableshwar, and I have also visited the station for

a few days at the end of October. During these visits I have

roamed over every part of the plateau, and have prepared a hand-

list of all the ferns which I have come across in the hot weather.

I owe a special acknowledgment to Professor J. d’Almeida who has

been kind enough to verify, and, where necessary, to correct, my

identifications by reference to the herbarium at St. Xavier’s

College. I have constantly referred to Beddome’s Handbook to

the Ferns of British India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula and

to Blatter and d’Almeida’s Ferns of Bombay and my debt to these

invaluable works will be obvious to all who know them. ‘These

field notes are simply intended to supplement the careful descrip-

tions of the various species which they give, from the point of

view of a naturalist following in their steps.

The limits of the plateau are Arthur’s Seat on the north,

Kate’s Point and Lingmala Waterfall on the east, Baghdad and

Gaolani Points on the south, and Bombay and Lodwick Points on

the west. The distance from north to south is about 9 miles and

from east to west 5 miles. The plateau which is bounded by an

almost continuous escarpment of rock varies in elevation from

4,000 to 4,700 feet. On the west it is covered with evergreen

forest which rapidly thins towards the east as the rainfall decreases

and the number of deciduous species of trees, usually associated

with the monsoon forests of the Presidency, increases. The fol-

lowing description quoted from Talbot succinctly explains the

conditions which make the existence of so many varieties of ferns

possible in so small an area: —

‘The Mahableshwar plateau (4,500 ft.) capped with laterite and

with a heavy annual monsoon rainfall of 850 in., also the highest

area of considerable extent in the Presidency, is covered with

dwarf forests of montane type, but containing species characteristic

of low elevations such as Hugenia Jambolana and others. That

the constituent species in these forests: are the same as those

found at lower elevations or in the plains is remarkable, as the

Nilgiri montane woodland flora further south appears abruptly in

the Bababuden Hills of Mysore at an elevation scarcely exceeding

that at Mahableshwar.

“Woodland over considerable areas along the Western Ghats,

owing to the pronounced influence of the soil, assumes a transi-

tional form between rain and monsoon forest in which the con-

stituent species belong to one or other of these formations in vary-

ing proportions. Examples are found in Kanara on the spurs of

the Ghats near the sea coast whether on granitic, lateritic or

schistose soils. The forests at Matheran and on the higher Nasik

and Satara Ghats are further examples,

THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 189

‘The stunted elfin-wood on the Mahableshwar laterite can only

be considered as an extreme kind of this formation’.

Talbot is not in fact correct in his statement about the average

rainiall. I am indebted to Dr. C. W. Normand, Director General

of the Meteorological Department, for the following authoritative

note on the climate of Mahableshwar :—

‘The rainy season begins early in June. For almost three

months the sun is hidden by the thick mist and cloud that envelop

the station; and rain, though not continuous, falls most of the

time. Only about one per cent of the days during this period

are rainless, and at intervals of vigorous monsoon the rainfall may

exceed five inches a day for three or four days in succession.

The month of maximum rainfall intensity is July, when the daily

average of rainfall is as much as 384 inches. A very strong

westerly or south-westerly wind blows continually from the gea.

This constant wind and the protective thick cloak of cloud produce

a remarkably steady temperature both from day to day and from

day to night. The average temperature is about 64° and the

difference between day and night is less than 4’.

‘The monsoon tails off in September. In October, when the

drenching southwest winds have ceased, but the hills are kept fresh

by occasional thunderstorms and misty evenings, Mahableshwar is

at its best. The mean temperature is then about 67°. In the

succeeding months the climate becomes dry, winds from easterly

diréctions predominate, and the sunshine and glare by day are

intense. The daily range of temperature increases to about 20° and

nights become cool enough to make fires a comfort. From

November to January the mean temperature is about 64°. .From

February temperature rises and the hottest month is April, when

on hot afternoons the air temperature rises to 90° or more. The

hot days of March and April are however tempered by a cool, moist

sea-wind which sweeps over the station in the evenings. As April

advances, the sea wind becomes more continuous and from the

ome oO! Ep iG JANOS Y to wresuenhy winds predominate and

= - ae CLadually strengthen and

Rainfall ! import increasing quanti-

Mean | lentes!) Ole = COOls moist. alm.

Month Feber eh Rainy | Occasional thunderstorms

‘Tenet CBSE | occur, and towards the

; end of May morning and

January Peale en 0-1 9-24 evening mists become

February iso) 6S 0-1 0-14 frequent.’ ,

March ee 0-1 03 The marginal statement

es Fe & i Pi | gives Dr. Normand’s figures

Ta le 88 46-2 | 23 | regarding average tempera-

July ts |. 4 ore On mune ead ae raintall: abi

August aac, Oe 749 | 30 | ‘rainy days’ is meant the

ee ve Oe Pal ce | average number of days

ctober a 66 6-0 Bix] co) . Si

Novemiber PalerGs 1-5 y-4 per month on which the

December ela 0-3 0-64 rainfall was at least 0-1

Year ..| 67 | 2656 |122 } inch. From the botanical

| point of view, it is import-

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

ant to note that cool and moist sea winds arrive about the end

of April, and that morning and evening mists soon precipitate

themselves on the leaves of the evergreen trees and drip on the

plants below.

The hot weather is of course the worst possible season for

studying ferns; but it is of some interest to note what ferns are

able to survive till the advent of monsoon. It is also the season

when most visitors come to Mahableshwar and may wish to learn

something of the ferns which they then find on the plateau. I

have therefore confined my list to those ferns only which may be

found in the months of April and May.

I have not included in my list ferns that may be seen on the

roadside on the way up the Ghats, e.g., Actiniopteris dichotoma

(Bedd.), Adiantum Caudatum (l.) and Lastrea crenata (Bedd.)

or terns peculiar to Panchgani, e.g., Nephrolepis paucifrondosa

(d’Almeida), since they do not appear to occur within the limits

to which this lst is confined. Nor have I included species which

occur at Mahableshwar only in cultivation, e.g., Nephrolepis

Cordifohia.

i Riensieaquiling. (Ch) backers

This worldwide fern grows abundantly on the plateau, preferring

light shade and open grassy glades. I have found specimens 8

feet high but 2 to 3 feet is the ordinary size. In the hot weather

the previous year’s fronds are withering, the decay usually starting

with the lowest pinnae. The fern differs in only two respects from

specimens which I have gathered in other parts of the world. The

young fronds, as they begin to unroll, have not the rusty-brown

knotted look which in England makes them resemble an eagle’s

claw and is possibly the origin of the name of the species. In

Mahableshwar they are usually pale green, loosely rolled, and

stalky. The other point is that young fronds, appearing towards

the end of the hot weather, are in open places sometimes so fertile

that the backs of the pinnules, which are distinctly contracted,

can hardly be seen owing to the continuous heavy lines of fructi-

fication breaking out from below the marginal involucres. The

texture of these fronds is thick and heavy; and with their finer

cutting and reddish brown backs they almost appear to be a

distinct variety.

2. Pteris quadriaurita (Retz.).

This fern can readily be recognised by the two pinnae that

descend from the lower side of the lowest or two lowest pairs

of pinnae and by the long terminal pinna in which the frond

culminates. Hope in this Journal (Vol. XIII, page 452, January

20th. 1901) speaks of this as a Protean species. But I find

little variation in the Mahableshwar specimens. As the fern

withers the pinnae decay irregularly in small orange patches.

The costae are usually furnished with bristles (setae) scarcely

visible to the naked eye. The variety ‘setigera’ (Bedd.), which

is distinguished by narrower segments than in the type, and by

stiff hairs on the rachis and costa, 1s not uncommon.

THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 191

Be JPiGins lose (lb)

The leading authorities (Hooker, Baker, Clarke and Beddome)

classify this fern as a distinct species on the ground of differ-

ence in venation. In the preceding species the veinlets are once-

1orked and free, while in this species the inferior veinlets unite in

pairs to form an arch below the sinus. Hope in this Journal

(Vol. XIII, page 456) expresses the opinion that the two species

are abundantly unlke, but does not give details. Blatter and

d’Almeida take the opposite view and regard both this and the

following species as mere forms of quadriaurita. Specimens of

biaurita will be found on the bank of the stream above the

Chinaman’s Waterfall. Their segments are broader, blunter and

closer to each other and are not cut down so far towards the costa

us in quadriaurita. The pinnae are rarely quite flat, until the

frond is mature, but form a sort of V-shaped channel with the

costa at the base. I have however found samples of quadria-

urita in damp and shady places which exhibit most or all of these

characteristics. Apart from venation, I have noticed that this

species has no bristles on the costa.

4. Pteris nemoralis (Willd).

In habit of growth this species exactly resembles biaurita, the

only difference being that both the preceding varieties of

venation occur in it. The inferior veins of the segments sometimes

form an arch and sometimes miss connection. Specimens can be

found near the stream at Lingmala.

5. Nephrodium molle (Desv.).

This fern is found in damp and shady places, and attracts.

attention by the vivid green of its young fronds which begin to

appear in April and are much in evidence by the end of May. It

is called ‘tender’ because it wilts soon after picking. The lower

pinnae are gradually more distant and often become mere auricles.

It is easily recognised as it is the only nephrodium on the plateau.

6. Lastrea calcarata (Hook.)—at about 4,200 feet.

(. Lastrea FPiliz-mas (Presl.) (Male Fern.)—common.

8. Lastrea Filix-mas, Var, cochleata (Bedd).

This is an interesting variety, common near Kate’s Point. The

pinnules of the fertile fronds are much contracted and covered

on the back with very prominent involucres.

9. Leucostegia immersa (Presl.).

Rare. I have come across one specimen only in a damp

place on the extreme western edge of the plateau.

10. Gymnopteris variabilis (Hook).

This fern hkes flowing water and will be found in clumps above

the Dhobi’s Waterfall, near Lingmala, and in stream beds below

WS WOON. ISOMEBAN INA IMO URAL, ISUhS, SOCIIRTNY, Wal. XOOC VI

Tiger Path. The sterile fronds are entire. The veins and veinlets

are very irregular, but they are distinct nearly to the margin. The

texture is thick and the colour dark-green. The fertile fronds are

narrow, densely covered with russet sori and much longer than the

sterile fronds. Not infrequently the lower half of a frond is broad

and sterile, while the upper half is suddenly contracted and fertile.

I venture to doubt if Blatter and d’Almeida are right in assigning

the Mahableshwar specimens to the variety ‘lanceolata’ (Bedd.)

of which the main veins are indistinct. I have always found the

fern growing on the ground in stream beds and not on trees as

stated by them. Possibly the variety to which they refer only

makes its appearance during the monsoon.

11. Pleopeltis linearis (Thunb.).

This is an epiphyte on trees. In the hot weather it shrivels

into olive-green, leathery, corkscrew-like fronds of about the thick-

ness of boot-laces. But if placed in water or subjected to heavy

rain, it recovers in a few hours and expands to its original size.

The frond, which is thick and entire, curls tightly outwards and

backwards from the margins in the hot weather in order to protect

the sori, which, on its revival appear to be undamaged. Heavy

rain fell on April 22 and 23, 1929, and at once the fronds, which

in. theit withered state are liable to escape notice, unrolled them-

selves and became conspicuous on every mossy tree. By April

27th. they had all withered again and returned to their previous

condition. : : 3

13. Pleopeltis membranacea (Don.).

This fern, prefers moist rocks or trees in deep shade, it dies

down soon after the rains, the decay usually starting at the outside

edge. Fresh fronds will be found growing freely at the beginning

of May in places where conditions are favourable, e.g., on the walls

of some cisterns to the south of the bazar. Elsewhere only the

skeletons of withered fronds occasionally survive.

13. Adiantum capillus veneris (L.). Maiden Hair.

Small specimens may be found here and there on the walls of

wells or cisterns, for instance beside the stream above the Fountain

Hotel.

14. Adiantum lunulatum (Burm.).

The first delicate fronds, tinged with coppery brown, begin to

appear in deep shade, on the western border of the plateau, before

the end of May. They die down shortly after the rains. The fern

srows abundantly on the Western Ghats but at this elevation does

not attain a size comparable to the specimens found at lower

levels. Blatter and d’Almeida appear to be mistaken in thinking

that the fern does not occur above about 3,000 feet. I have found

it at about 4,100 feet.

THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 198

15. Aspidium cicutarium (Sw.).

The fronds are triangular in outline but very variable in size

and cutting. The young fronds begin to appear in damp ‘cool

places about the middle of May. They are pale green and downy,

and as a rule face skywards like bracken. But single fronds sur-

viving from the previous year, and in course of withering, are not

uncommon in places (for instance on the golf course near the 17th.

brown). ‘The sori are usually arranged in a line along the margins

or on the tips of the pinnae. In the absence of sori the fronds can

easily be identified by their shape and by their distinct venation,

which is copiously netted.

16. Osmunda regalis (L.). Royal Fern.

Fine bushes of this fern grow in the stream bed above Ling-

mala. The fronds attain about 38 feet which is of course below

the size attained in Europe. The specimens which I have met

with have been fertile above and barren below. By the hot weather

the fertile pinnules are shrivelled and drooping. The rest of the

fronds are healthy enough, though a few reddish patches show that

decay is at hand.

1V. Anisogonium esculentum (Presl.).

Common on the banks of the stream from the lake to Lingmala.

The frond is sometimes simply pinnate, but more usually pinnate

above and bipinnate below. Fertile fronds are not uncommon in

October, but I have never found a fertile frond in the hot weather.

18. Asplenium laciniatum (Don.).

In the hot weather this fern will be found shrivelled and pen-

dent on trees, looking like dry sea-weed, with the edges of the

pinnae curled loosely backwards, to protect the sori. In this con-

dition the plant, desiccated and olive-green, looks at first sight

hike a wisp of lichen. After heavy rain it expands. again, the

pinnae reviving in sequence from the bottom upwards. As they

unroll themselves, the sori will be found exactly as they were when

the plant dried up, some with involucres unopened, some with the

sporangia just showing and some fully open. The characteristic

way in which this plant weathers the dry season by rolling up its

fronds is not mentioned by any authorities on Indian ferns, except

Blatter and d’Almeida, and is possibly therefore peculiar to

Western India.

19. Asplenium lunulatum (Sw.).

This evergreen fern grows in colonies in damp places in the

shade of rocks. It occurs for instance in a small cave on the edge

of the lake. The old fronds are thick and fleshy with a shining

surface. The light yellowish green of the young fronds as they

make their appearance in the hot weather is very noticeable against

the dark green of the old ones. In general appearance it very

194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

closely resembles the Asplenium marinum which is not uncommon

on the west coast of the United: Kingdom. Blatter and d’Almeida

hold that the Mahableshwar fern is the variety trapeziforme, on

the ground that the lowest pinnae are the largest. But at the

three stations at which I have found the fern on the plateau, the

lowest pinnae are not normally longer than those above them.

Beddome who is the first describer of this variety does not

in, his very sketchy description indicate clearly any other point

in which the variety differs from the species. ,

20. Athyrium falcatum (Bedd.).

The tern at Mahableshwar corresponds exactly to Beddome’s

description, but the large obtuse auricle at both the superior and

inferior base of the pinna, to which he draws attention, is usually

found on the superior base only. This is a common fern but dies

down soon after the rains, and in the hot weather only a few

brownish and decaying specimens can be found in moist cool

places. . :

21. Athyrium Filia-femina (Roth). Lady Fern.

Very common. after the rains on banks. In open places fronds

are often curved in a sickle shape and not more than 9 inches

long, but amongst other herbage they usually grow straight and

longer. The pinnules are sharply serrated; but there is consider-

able variation in the distance: of:the pinnules from each other and

in the fineness of jthe cutting. Specimens are not found in the

hot weather until the new fronds appear towards the end of May.

22. Athyrium .Hohenackerianum (Bedd.).

—. Common in rains, but soon dies down. Young fronds appear

towards the end of May. Apart from the bullate-indusium which

is not always easy to recognise, the pinnules are slightly broader

and more close-set than in Filix-femina and the serratures are

sharper and deeper.

23. Cheilanthes farinosa (Kaulf). Silver Fern.

This fern is common on. walls and banks in exposed situ-

ations. During the hot weather the small coriaceous fronds curl

up, each pinnule turning inwards and exposing its silvery back.

After rain they,expand quickly and exhibit their dark green upper

surfaces. Young fronds appear in the shade in May and their backs

are densely covered with white farina, which extends also to the

rachis and costae. They are much larger than the persistent fronds

which survive the hot weather, and’ are coarser in cutting. A

few dealbate specimens of this type which wither in the autumn

continue till the summer but do not revive after rain. There seem

to’ be two distinct types of frond, one quite lanceolate and the

ether triangular, but they run into each other by innumerable

eradations. Both the deltoid and the lanceolate types have scales

that are sometimes chestnut, but more usually dark-centred and

pale margined. I find great difficulty in distinguishing the

THE FERNS OF MAHABLESHWAR 19:

specimens of ‘farinosa’ from ‘albo-marginata’ amongst the material

which I have collected at Mahableshwar. C. B. Clarke, the

author of the species Cheilanthes albo-marginata (Transactions of

Linnaean Society, vol. 1 part vu, February (1880), lays stress on

the lanceolate fronds, the stipe shorter than the frond, the yellow

powder generally found on the lower surface and the pale-margined

scales. Blatter and d’Almeida..who identify this species at

Mahableshwar, but do not closely follow Clarke, state the features

which distinguish albo-marginata from farinosa as (1) the pale

margined scales on the stipes as well as on the primary and

secondary rachises and costae, (2) the lacerate indusia, (8) dwartf-

ish sturdier habit, and comparatively small size of frond; (4) out-

line nearer to lanceolate than triangular. I venture to doubt if

these characteristics are constant either on the triangular or

lanceolate type of frond. Several of the specimens in my posses-

sion approach more closely to Cheilanthes farinosa, var anceps, as

described by Blanford in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, vol. lvii, part ui, No. 4, 1888, and accepted by Hope on

page 249 of vol. xiii of the Journal of this Society, dated July 1900:

but the lowest pairs of pinnae are not always sub-equal. The sub-

division of the types of Cheilanthes as they appear at Mahableshwar

into true species has not yet in my opinion been convincingly

achieved and might afford a nice problem for a botanical visitor

who has time to collect and examine a large number of graded

Specimens: 9 =.) | 7

J subjoin a complete list of tle species specifically ascribed to

Mahableshwar by Blatter and d’Almeida,; for convenience of refer-

ence. Some of them should be visible in the hot weather, e.g.

Blechnum and Drynaria, but I have myself only come across those

enumerated by me. The only species which I have added to the

list is Athyrium Hohenackerianum.

1. Peranema cyatheoides 19. Athyrium gymnogrammoides

4. Leucostegia immersa 20. Anisogonium esculentuny

3. Leucostegia pulchra 21. Aspidium polymorphum

4. Sechizoloma ensifolia 22. Aspidium cicutarium

5. Adiantum lunulatum 23. Lastrea odontoloma

6. Adiantum capillus veneris 24. Lastrea Filix-mas (2 varie-

7. Cheilanthes farinosa ties.)

8. Cheilanthes albomarginata 25. Lastrea sparsa

9. Cheilanthes tenuifolia 26. Nephrodium molle

10. Pteris pellucida 27. Nephrolepis cordifolia

11. Pteris quadriaurita (and 38 28. Drynaria quercifolia

varieties. ) 29, Pleopeltis linearis

12. Pteris aquilina 30. Pleopeltis membranacea

13. Blechum orientale 31. Gymnogramme leptophylla

14. Asplenium Junulatum 32. Gymnopteris variabilis

15. Asplenium falcatum 38. Gymnopteris subcrenata

16. Asplenium laciniatum 34. Osmunda regalis

17. Athyrium faleatum 39. Lygodium flexuosum.

18. Athyrium Filix-femina (2

varieties. )

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN.

By Bricabiprn W. H. HVANS, ©.S.I., C.1-E., D.S.0., F.B.G.S., F.Z.S., F.H.S.

Many years ago I asked to be Ler iese to Baluchistan as I wished to get

back to the frontier and I was certain that the butterflies of the borderland,

between the Palearctic and Oriental regions, would prove interesting. I suc-

ceeded in reaching the promised land in November 1911, just when insect life

had become dormant for the winter, and was transferred to Simla in March

1912 before it had again awoken. However, fortune came my way in the

end and I managed to spend the last four years of my service in Baluchistan in

& position which enabled me to tour frequently over the whole province.

The only previous butterfly record for Baluchistan is a list of the

butterfiies of ‘S. Afghanistan’ (Sibi-Kandahar) published by the late Col. C.

Swinhoe in T. H. S. 1895.’ About the same time the late Capt. EH. Y. Watson

collected in the area and some of his results are recorded in DeNiceville’s

Butterflies oj India. Odd species have been obtained from time to time,

and I recorded all that I could find in the first edition of my ‘Identification of

Indian, Butterflies’.

Baluchistan generally consists of tablelands and dry river beds at an eleva-

tion of 3,000 to 6,000 feet, interspersed with barren mountains rising sometimes

to 11,000 feet. The Quetta district is situated in the basin of the Peshin Lora

draining to the West through a corner of Afghanistan into the Nushki deserts,

which extend Westwards to the Persian border and southwards through Kalat

and Mekran to the sea West of Karachi. To the North is the Kwaja Amran

range (Ixhojak Pass) extending Hastwards to the Toba plateau and separating

Baluchistan from Afghanistan (Helmand basin) continuing as the inner fron-

tier range to the Hindu Khush. Some 60 miles to the N.-H. of Quetta there

rises the Zhob river, the cradle of the Afghan and Pathan races: North of

Fort Sandeman the river meets the Gomal and then pierces the Suleiman

range, draining across the Derajat plain to the Indus. South of the Zhob lies

the Loralai area in the basin of the Nari which drains through the Sibi area

into the Indus in Sind and is separated from India by the Suleiman range.

Baluchistan is a barren country with a rainfall of only 8 inches, of which

three-fourths occur in the winter. There is no doubt that in the past there was

a great deal more rain and that gradually the country is getting drier, compara-

tively fertile islands being left behind in a desert sea. “The Ste is severe,

but is followed by a glorious spring, when insect and plant life are at their

best: then follows a hot dry summer, which desiccates everything. There is

no monsoon to.revive life and consequently second broods of insects are the

exception rather than the rule as elsewhere in India.

The butterflies, though requiring a great deal of looking for, are of great

interest as might be expected in a country where West meets Hast. The

insects of Baluchistan proper appertain primarily to the Persian division of the

Palearctic zone, but there is a well-defined infiltration from the Himalayas and

Chitral through the Zhob and Afghanistan. The Sibi area, which forms part

of political Baluchistan, appertains to the plains of Western India, and here .

occurs the Western limit of the Oriental zone, the Bolan and Suleiman range

constituting a _ primary faunal. border, the species on either side being very

distinct.

The- flat tablelands contain very few butterflies: it 1s on the hillsides clothed

with aromatic scrub and along the few mountain streams where the interesting

species must be looked for. T have found the following localities to have been

the most productive, but I have no doubt that there are many others:

(a) Urak valley running Hast of Quetta to the intake of the water- supply,

5,500 to 6.500 feet. A valley w ith plenty of water and trees: it is Quetta’s only

beauty spot and Sunday picnic’ ground.

(b) Upper Urak is the continuation of the valley above the water-supply

intake. It is a steep mountain stream and the collecting ground ranges from

6,500 to 8,000 feet.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 197

is a track to the right from mile 12 on the Kalat road along which cars can go

for two or three miles and then there is a walk of about the same distance.

In the spring the ground is carpeted with red tulips between bushes of wild

cherry and almond.

(d) The Gwal forest (6,500 feet) into which there is a motorable track

from about mile 35 on the left of the Zhob road. The country is dry but in the

Spring when the wild almond is out there are good butterflies to be got. ,

(e) The Murgha Mehtarzai Pass 7,500 feet, at mile 50-51, on the Zhob

road. The hillsides and small valleys on the South of the road are full of

interest.

(f) The Khojak Pass starting with the lower slopes below Shelabagh 6;000

to 7,000 feet. The one or two valleys with water may also contain good butter-

thes.

(g) The Bogra Pass 7,500 feet on the wild lavender (so-called) and the

mint on the Chaman side and the grassy slopes below the crest on the Toba

side. ! :

(h) The Ziarat road from mile 12, Juniper Kotal (6,800 feet); between

the Wam Pass and Kahan (7,000 to 6,000 feet); Ziarat itself (8,000 feet),

particularly the catchment area and the sides of the road about mile 100 near

Raighora (5,000 feet).

(i) Shingarh, the hill station of Fort Sandeman, 8,600 feet, where the

Chilgoza pine flourishes. Several species are only found here. :

(j) The Torgarh (7,000 feet) S. W. of Fort Sandeman was visited by Col.

C. H. Stockley in the Spring, and several interesting species were found.

The Toba plateau, Takhti Suleiman range and the Musa Khel hills would

certainly repay exploitation, also the valleys N.-W. of Hindubagh.

Col. Swinhoe recorded 43 butterflies, making three species out of the Clouded

Yellow (Colias erate) and two out of the common meadow blue (Polyommatus

icarus). In my Identification of Indian Butterflies I gave 80 as the number

from Baluchistan and Sind. As a result of four years collecting I have been

able to increase the number to be found in Baluchistan to 108.

The following are new species or races from Baluchistan, all of which have

been included in the second edition of my Identification of Indian Butterflies :

Huchloe charlonia pila and doveri: Eumenis mniszechu balucha and pallida:

Aulocera padma burnett: Polyommatus sieversi felicia: Polyommatus

hyrcana kwaja:. Polyommatus irs hanna: Polyommatus | bogra:

Polyommatus eros shingara: Neolycaena connae: Carcharodus dravira.

balucha.

All the types will be placed in the British Museum.

~The following are new records for Baluchistan (* indicates new to India).

Tros aristolochiae: Papilio demoleus: Pieris canidia: Catopsilia pomona.

and pyranthe: Gonepteryx rhamni; Imias pyrene: Colotis amata and

danae: Danas limniace and genutia: Pararge schakra: Aulocera

padma: Ypthima asterope: Hypolimnas misippus and bolina: Precis.

hierta: Vanessa, *atalanta and w«xanthomelas: Argynnis hyperbius :

Atella phalanta: Tarucus theophrastus nigra and “*mediteranee:

Azanus ubaldus: Polyommatus “*sieversi, hyrcana, irs, *cyllarus

*actis: Huchrysops pandava minuta: *Tomares callimachus: Hasora

alexis: Syrichtus orbifer: Erynnis marloyi: Hogenes alcides.

In addition the following ex-Indian races have not been recorded from

India before :—

Papilio machaon centralis: Huchloe ausonia pulverata: Gonepteryx rhamni

rhammu: Argynnis lathonia lathonia: Lycaena.thetis lampon: Syrich-

tus orbifer carnea.

Neither I nor the various people who have assisted me have succeeded in

obtaining the following species recorded from Baluchistan :—

Hypermnestra helios: Terias hecabe: Maniola wagneri: Chilades laius:

Baoris mathias: Syrichtus evanidus.

My butterfly collecting days in India are over, but it is a matter of great

satisfaction to myself that I was able to close my career of 33 years in such a

fascinating and interesting country as Baluchistan.

_ Capt. A. F. Hemming very kindly read through the proofs and_ pointed

out certain mistakes in nomenclature which have been corrected,

198 JOUBRNAL,, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN.

PapPinionipH. The Swallowtails.

1. Tros aristolochiae, I. The Common Rose. A_ black swallowtail with

large white and red markings on the hindwings and the body red below. Com-

mon in India and the East. One specimen was obtained in September by

Capt. R. R. Burnett at Fort Sandeman.

2. Papilio demoleus demolus, L. The Lime Butterfly. A tail-less yellow

and black butterfly. Common enough in India and the Hast. Occurs rarely

at Sibi and Mach in the Bolan.

‘3. Papilio alexanor, Esp. The Baluchi Swallowtail. A tailed salon and

black swallowtail, distinguished by the yellow tips to the antenne. It occurs,

never commonly, from S. Europe to Baluchistan, where it is very rare. I

caught a female on Juniper Kotal on the 14th April and saw a specimen at

Upper Urak in June. I recorded it in -my Identification on the strength of a

Specimen presented by~ Mr. O. C. Ollenbach to the British Museum (See

J BuN ees. XXily = 265i) | v3

4. Papilic machaon centralis, Steg. The Common Yellow Swallowtail:

yellow and black with a tail. Occurs from England throughout Europe, W.

and N. Asia and the Himalayas to N. Burma. The Baluchistan race resemble

the Persian race rather than the Himalayan, in that the yellow areas are paler

and more extensive and the blue powdering on the hindwing more. diffuse.

Individuals are to be seen frequently from May to September at Upper Urak,

Ziarat, Shingarh and Torghar (April).

5. Hypermnestra helios balucha, M. The Desert Apollo. A white butter-

fly with black markings and a double red spot in the middle of the forewing.

The species occurs in Persia and Turkestan as well. The type of balucha is in

the British Museum and there is a co-type in my collection, marked ‘Nushki,

April 1905,’ both received from Mr. O. C. Ollenbach. There is a specimen.

labelled ‘“Kach’ in the Indian Museum. I have searched diligently, but have not

met with it.

Prerip@. The Whites.

6. Euchloe charlonia pila, Evans and doveri, Hvans. The Lemon White.

A small yellow or white species with a spotted black apex and solid central spot

on the forewing: below the hindwing is green. A yellow form (charlonia) flies

in N. Africa, Asia Minor to Mesopotamia, where it changes to a white form

(transcaspica) which prevails in W. Persia: in N.-W. India, Khyber to Camp-

bellpur, there flies a yellow form (lucilla). In the Zhob ere occurs a rather

pale form of lucilla, found by Col. Stockley in March and April at Fort Sande-

man and Torghar: it differs from lucilla in having the dorsum of the forewing

below white and I have named it pila. I have a pair of the white form (doveri)

from Mr. G. E. R. Cooper: the male is marked ‘Nushki, April’ and the female

‘Baluchistan’, perhaps caught on the Toba Plateau; see a note by Mr. C.

Dover on page 1144 of vol. xxvii of the Journal, who pointed out the distinct-

ness of this form.

7. Euchloe belemia, Esp. The Striped White. Similar to the last, but the

hindwing below is striped alternatively green and white. It flies in N. Africa,

S. Spain, Asia Minor to Persia. Several specimens were obtained by Mr. W. D.

Cumming at Ormarah on the Mekran Coast and are now in the British Museum.

8. Euchloe ausonia daphalis, M, and pulverata, Christoph. The Pearl White.

The underside of the hindwing is green with pearly white spots. The race

daphalis differs from the other forms of ausonia in missing vein 9 of the fore-

wing: it flies from Chitral to Kunawur: ausonia is found in N. Africa, 8.

Kurope to Persia, Central Asia and Siberia. Col. Stockley caught several

specimens of daphalis on the Torghar in April and I have a male from Mr.

Cooper marked ‘Burkhi Hill, 7,500 feet, May 1907’. At the end of March

IT caught a few specimens in the Chiltan forest and in April at Upper Urak: all

but one of these have vein 9 present and come nearest to pulverata. In this

and other instances’ Baluchistan would appear to constitute the boundary

between the Central Asian and Persian fauna.

‘THE BUTTERFLIES OF.BALUCHISTAN, .... . ago

9. Pieris chloridice, Hub. The Lesser Bath White. This and the next two

species are very much alike, differing from Huchle in having irregularly mot-

tled green and white under hindwings, with yellow veins in glauconome, a

circular white cell spot in daplidice and an elongate one in chloridice. .Chloridice

is found in the mountains of Europe, Central “Asia and Asia Minor, extending

to the N.-W. Himalayas, Persia and Baluchistan. It is rather rare in Baluchi:

stan, where I caught a few specimens in Urak :and Upper Urak, also on the

Mehtarzai Pass in May-June, and a single male at Shingarh in September.

10. Pieris daplidice mooreil, Rob. The Bath White. Occurs throughout

Europe, W. & N. Asia, the N.-W. Himalayas and Baluchistan, where it ‘is

common above 5,000 feet from April to September. os

11. Pieris glauconome, Klug. The Desert Bath White. Occurs in E. Africa,

Arabia, Persia, N.-W. India. In Baluchistan I have caught it fairly commonly

at Upper Urak and on the, Mehtarzai Pass in May and June. It was found at

Dalbandin, beyond Nushki in April and at Fort Sandeman in September.

14. Pieris krueperi deyta, DeN. The Green-banded White. A larger species

with a peculiar under hindwing: white crossed centrally by an irregular greenish-

black band. The species occurs from Greece to Baluchistan and Central Asia,

reaching Chitral and-Ladak. It isa rarity: I only obtained one specimen at

Ziarat in June and another at Upper Urak in May. .

138. Pieris canidia indica, Evans.. The Indian Cabbage White. This and the

next two whites have unmarked undersides and no cell spot on the forewing:

canidia has marginal spots on the forewing: brassice is larger with a marginal

band: rape has only a black apex. Canidia is a common Himalayan and

Chinese insect with a race in the hills of S. India. It is common on Shingarh

in July to September and its occurrence there is surprising.

14. Pieris brassicae, L. The Large Cabbage White. Occurs commonly

throughout Europe, N. and W. Asia and N. India. In Baluchistan it is common

in Ziarat, less so at Urak, Shingarh and in Quetta.

15. Pieris rapae, L. The Small Cabbage White. Occurs throughout

Europe, N. and W. Asia, but in India is confined to the frontier, Baluchistan

to Chitral and Ladak. It is the commonest butterfly in Quetta and is found

generally throughout Baluchistan over 4,000 feet practically all the year round.

16. Aporia leucodice baiucha, Marshall. The Baluchi Blackvein. The veins

on the under hindwing are conspicuously black. It occurs throughout Central

Asia and the Himalayas. It is common at Upper Urak and Ziarat in May and

June.

17. Belenois mesentina mesentina, Cr. The: Pioneer. In addition to the

veins on the under hindwing being black, there is a marginal row of black ringed

white spots. It is a butterfly of African origin flying throughout the S. Pale-

arctic zone and all over India except Assam. It is common throughout Baluchi-

stan all the year round.

1.0

18. Catopsilia crocale, Cr. The common Emigrant.

19. Catopsilia pomona, I’. The lemon Emigrant.

20. Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst. The. mottled HKmigrant.

These three species are greenish yellow or ereenish white: pomona has red

antenne: pyranthe has a striated underside; in the first two the females are

yellow. They are all common throughout the Oriental region and appear as

emigrants from the plains into Baluchistan during August and September.

21. Gonepteryx rhamni rhamni, LL. The Common Brimstone. The male is.

greenish yellow and the female white with a small reddish spot at the end of

the cell on each wing. It occurs throughout the ‘palearctic zone and along ‘the

Himalayas to North Burma. In Baluchistan it is not common, but often seen

from April to September at Urak, Ziarat and Shingarh, also occasionally in

Quetta and Fort Sandeman. Baluchistan specimens appertain to the Huropean

race, rather than to the Indian nepalensis, Db., in having smaller cell spots aud

the narrower (or absent) marginal dark line on the forewing.

22. Terias hecabe, L. The Common Grass Yellow. A small yellow butterfly

with unspotted black borders amd spotted below. It occurs throughout India:

200 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

and the Oriental region. I have no record of its capture in Baluchistan, but

have no doubt whatsoever that it occurs near Sibi and Las Bela, etc.

23.. Colias erate lativita, M. lL. The Pale Clouded Yellow. Typically

both sexes have a yellow spotted black border to the forewing: many males

have the border unspotted: the yellow colour in these yellow forms is often

orange (var. chrysodona, Bdv.): many females are white with a white spotted

dark border (var. pallida, Stg.). The butterfly occurs from 8. Russia along

the Himalayas, the N.-W. Frontier and the hills of South India. It is com-

mon throughout Baluchistan above 3,000 ft. all the year round.

24. Colias croceus edusina, But. The Dark Clouded Yellow. Orange with

dark borders, which are spotted in the female and the male has a yellow brand

at the base of the costa on the hindwing. Occurs throughout the palearctic

zone, along the frontier and Himalayas to Burma. The N.-W. Indian form

eccurs fairly commonly on the Takhti-Suleiman and Shingarh from May to

September and a single male was obtained in Ziarat. It does not seem to occur

at all in Western Baluchistan, where one might expect to find the paler

European form, croceus, Fourcroy.

25. Ixias pyrene satadra, M. The Yellow Orange Tip. Yellow with a black-

edged orange tip. An oriental butterfly found all over India: odd specimens

are to be seen in the Bolan in the Spring and Autumn.

26. Colotis amata amata,, F. The Small Salmon Arab. With salmon spots

on the border and a black costa to the hindwing. Occurs over most of India.

Not uncommon in tamarisk jungle near Sibi in the Autumn and Spring.

27. Colotis protractus, But. The Blue Spotted Arab. With bluish spots on

the border. Occurs in Western India and with the last near ‘Sibi.

28. Colotis vestalis, But. The White Arab. White with a broad white-

spotted border. Occurs in Western and Central India: very common at Sibi

with amata.

29. Colotis fausta fausta, Oliv. The Large Salmon Arab. Pale salmon with

a salmon-spotted border. Occurs over most of India and westwards to Asia

Minor. A few were obtained in the Bolan in October and in the Sheikh Wasl

Gorge (Quetta-Nushki road) in September.

20. Colotis etrida etrida, Bdv. The Little Orange Tip: otherwise white.

Occurs over most of India. Found near Sibi with amata and sometimes. near

Quetta, Upper. Urak, etc.

31. Colotis danae dulcis, But. ‘The Crimson Tip: otherwise white. Occurs

in 8. and W. India. Found near Sibi with amata, rather rarely.

Danaip&. The Danaids.

32. Danais limniace mutina, Fruh. The Blue Tiger. A large dark brown

butterfly with large translucent blue markings. A common oriental species

occurring throughout India and the Hast. Stragglers from the plains are not

infrequently found everywhere in Baluchistan.

&. Danais genutia, L. The Common Tiger. Tawny with a black and

white apex and black veins. Also a common Indian and oriental butterfly. I

saw one straggler from the plains at Ziarat in July.

34. Danais chrysippus, L. The Plain Tiger. Similar to the last species but

the veins are not black: the male has 3 and the female 2 black spots on the

hindwing. A common African and oriental butterfly found all over Baluchi-

stan practically throughout the year.

SatyRipm. The Browns.

35. Pararge menaya, M. The Dark Wall. The male is dark brown and the

female has a tawny area on the forewing; both sexes have a single ocellus on

each wing. It is found in Kashmir and Chitral and in Baluchistan somewhat

rarely from April to September above 6,000 feet from the Khojak to. Upper Urak..

THHE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 901

36. Pararge schakra, Koll. The Common Wall. Both sexes like the

female of the last species, but on the hindwing there are 3 or more ocelli. It

is a common butterfly along the Western Himalayas and is found above Para-

chinar. In Baluchistan it has only been found at Shingarh commonly in August

and September.

37. Coenonympha myops macmahoni, Swin. The Baluchi Heath. A small

black butterfly with an ocellus on the forewing. Myops occurs in Central

Asia: macmahoni is confined to Baluchistan, where it is frequently met with

in the Khojak-Urak area above 6,000 feet from the end of March to early

May. I found it very common one year in the Gwal forest at the end of

March.

38. Maniola lupinus centralis, Riley. The Branded Meadowbrown. The

male is dark brown with a broad brand on the forewing and an apical ocellus,

replaced in the female by two tawny ocelli on a pale yellow band: the under-

side is plain. It is a very variable butterfly occurring in several forms from

S.-H. Europe to C. Asia, Chitral and the Western Himalayas. In Baluchistan

it is common on the Khojak and Bogra passes in June and July.

39. Maniola narica, Hub. The 'Tawny-branded Meadowbrown. Similar to

the last but the forewing is tawny and the underside striated. It occurs from

S. Russia, through Turkestan and probably Afghanistan to Baluchistan, where

it is common in May on the Khojak slopes, Bogra and Murgha Mehtarzai

passes.

40. Maniola wagneri mandane, Koll. The Oval-spot Meadowbrown. Similar

to the last, but has a peculiar elongate black centre to the ocellus on the fore-

wing. It occurs from Asia Minor to Persia. Swinhoe in Lep. Ind. X, 341

stated he had received a pair from Sir H. Macmahon and there is wne in the

Quetta Museum, all marked Quetta. I° have not come across it.

41. Maniola davendra latistigma, M. The White-ringed Meadowbrown.

The forewing above is tawny in the male with a broad brand: in the female

there are two ocelli and only the outer half is tawny: on the underside of the

hindwing there are 2 or 3 prominent white-ringed ocelli as in the last species.

It flies in various forms from Central Asia through Chitral, Ladak, Khyber,

Afghanistan to Baluchistan, where it is very common everywhere above 3,000

feet from May to September.

42. Maniole tenuistigma, M. The Lesser White-ringed Meadowbrown.

Very similar to the last but smaller, with a narrower brand and a darker

underside. It had previously been considered as a variety only but an examin-

ation of the genitalia shows that it is specifically distinct. (Uneus short and

stout, instead of long and thin.) It is not uncommon above 7,000 feet in June

and July at Ziarat, the Khojak and Upper Urak. On examining Chitral speci-

mens I find that the species occurs there at high elevations in a modified form.

43. Eumenis parisatis shiva, LeCerf. The White-edged Rockbrown. A

large black butterfly with a white border to the hindwing and a striated under-

side with prominent ocelli. It occurs in Persia, along the frontier and the

N.-W. Himalayas. In Baluchistan it 1s everywhere common above 3,000 feet

from May to October.

44. Kumenis eneryata, Stg. The Dark Rockbrown. A large dark brown

species with a white band on the hindwing and on the forewing a black spot

surrounded by 4 quadrate white patches. It flies from S. Russia and Asia

Minor to Baluchistan, Central Asia and Chitral. It is not uncommon from

the end of May to August at Urak and on the Khojak. In Chitral there are

two broods, the first brood having tawny instead of white markings. In Balu-

chistan there is only one brood but occasional specimens are found with

tawny markings (var. analoga, Alph.)

45. Eumenis mniszechii balucha, Evans and pallida, Evans. The Tawny

Rockbrown. <A large dark brown species with a broad tawny band across both

wings. It flies from the Caucasus and Asia Minor to Central Asia, the N.-W.

Frontier to Ladak and W. China. It is common from June to August at

Urak, Ziarat, the Khojak and Bogra, and at Ziarat in May and June (perhaps

elsewhere) there is to be met a very pale form. The ordinary local form

differs from its allies in the following respects: on the forewing above the

201 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

band decreases posteriorly, there is always a lower ocellus and usually two white

dots between the ocelli: on the underside of the forewing the central line is

clearly marked and the submarginal line is zigzag. The form pallida, probably

an early brood, has the band very pale brown; forewing below the central line

is distinct and the submarginal line sinuous.

46. Eumenis thelephassa, Hub. The Baluchi Rockbrown. Very similar to

the last; males are distinguished by having a black brand in the cell of the

forewing and both sexes by the absence of the dark outer ring to the apical

ocellus on the underside of the forewing. It flies from Asia Minor to the

Khyber and Baluchistan, where it is very common above 4,000 feet from May

to September.

47. Karanasa actaea nana, Stg. ‘The Black Satyr. A medium size black

butterfly, the forewing being dusky-tawny in the female: the underside of the

hindwing is striated and has two outwardly white dark bands. It flies from

Europe to Central Asia, Chitral and Baluchistan, where it is not uncommon

in July and August over 7,000 feet at Ziarat, Upper Urak and the Bogra.

48. Aulocera padma burnettii, Evans. The Great Satyr. A large black

butterfly with a broad white band across both wings. It flies in the Western

Himalayas and above Parachinar. One male was obtained by Capt. R. R.

Burnett at Shinghar at the end of August, where he and I saw another early

in September. The local race differs from padma in the following respects:

forewing more rounded, band wider, 6 mm.: the spot in space 5 on the. fore-

wing above absent: the spots in spaces 3 and 4 on the forewing below united.

4°. Ypthima asterope mahratta, M. The Common Three-ring. A _ small

brown bearing a large tawny ringed black ocellus on the forewing with two

bluish white pupils: on the underside of the hindwing there are one upper

and two lower minute ocelli. It flies in Africa, Arabia and India. I obtained

a single female on the Ist July at 4,000 feet on the road between Ziarat and

Loralat.

50. Ypthima bolanica, Mar. The Desert Four-ring. Similar to the last,

but there are 5 metallic ocelli on the hindwing below. It flies in Kashmir,

near Peshawar and in Baluchistan, where it is found everywhere above 3,000

to 6,000 feet from April to August, but only single specimens rather rarely. ¢

NymMpHaAnipzA. The Nymphalids.

51. Hypolimnas misippus, L.. The Danaid Egefly. The male is_ black

above with blue reflections and a large white circular patch on each wing.

The female is quite different, tawny with a black and white apex to the fore-

wing exactly as in No. 84 Danais chrysippus, but with only a single black spot

on the hindwing. A common Indian butterfly.

52. Hypolimnas bolina, L. The Great HEgefly. The male is similar to

misippus, but lacks the black spot on the costa of the hindwing below. The

female is black with white border spots on the forewing and a white border

on the hindwing. A common Indian butterfly extendine to the Australan

region.

55. Precis hierta hierta, I. The Yellow Pansy. A yellow’ butterfly with

black borders and in the male a large blue spot on the costa of the hindwing.

A common butterfly throughout India with a race in Africa and Arabia.

Stragglers of the above three species are to be found anywhere in ‘the area

in August and September.

54. Precis orythyia swinhoei, But. The Blue Pansy. A _ blue butterfly

with black bases, a white apical band on the forewing and two red ocelli on

the hindwing. A common oriental butterfly (found also in Arabia and China),

which is frequently met with in Baluchistan during the Summer and Autumn.

It certainly breeds in the lower parts of the area but is a great wanderer.

55. Wanessa cardui, L. The Painted Lady. A pinkish red butterfly with

black markings and? a white band at the apex of the forewing. It flies all

over the world and is common everywhere in Baluchistan throughout the year,

Migrations have been observed,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 203.

56. Wanessa atalanta, L. The Red Admiral. A black butterfly with a red

band across the forewing as well as a white band at the apex and a spotted

red border to the hindwing. It flies throughout Kurope to Mesopotamia and

Central Asia (Altai). In India and Burma it is replaced by the closely alhed

species indica, Herbst, from which atalanta differs in having a much narrower

red band on the forewing and 2, instead of 1, white spots beyond the apical

white band. A single specimen was obtained by Col. C. H. Stockley at Shin-°

ghar in August 1929 and is a very remarkable capture.

57. Wanessa egea balucha, Hvans, and pallida, Evans. The astern

Comma. A tawny butterfly with black markings : in the centre of the hindwing

below there is a comma-shaped marking. It “flies from E. Kurope to Persia,

C. Asia and along the Himalayas to China in varying forms. In Baluchistan

there are two very distinct forms. The dark form balucha comes out at

the end of June and is common at Ziarat, rarer at Urak; it hibernates through

the winter appearing again in the Spring. The pale form pallida is less

common and is to be found in the same places in May and June. Balucha>

differs from the Summer form i-album of egea in being bright dark-red with

well-defined comparatively small markings and small yellow spots on the dark

border of the hindwing. Pallida is very much paler above and below: it re-

sembles the spring form egea but on the forewing above the black discal

spots in spaces 2 and 38 are missing and the yellow border-spots on the hind-

wing are much larger. Pallida is far paler than any other Indian form, but

both pallida and balucha differ from all such in that cell spots on the forew ing

are not coalesced, but quite separate as in egea.

58. Wanessa xanthomelas fervescens, Stich. The large Tortoiseshell. A

large tawny red and black butterfly shaped and marked rather like egea but

with a blue border to the hindwing. Found from Europe to Japan and along

the N.-W. Himalayas. I caught a single female, just emerged, at Upper

Urak on the 2nd June 1929. It occurs near Miranshah (Tochi).

59. Argynnis hyperbius, L. The Indian Fritillary. A large tawny butter-

fly with dull silvery-bordered black markings on the hindwing below: the

female has a broad blue-edged white apical band on the forewing. It flies

throughout India to Japan. *Stragglers have been caught in the late Summer

and Autumn at Shingarh, Ziarat and Urak.

- 60. Argynnis lathonia lathonia, L. The Queen of Spain. A smaller black-.

spotted tawny butterfly with very large brilliant silver markings on the hind-

wing below. Flies from Europe to W. China and as the race issw@a, Db. along

the Himalayas. Typical lathonia flies in Baluchistan, differing from isse@a in

being smaller, redder, with rounder wings and on the underside of the hindwing

in that the discal tornal spot does not extend beyond vein 2. Tt is common.

at Ziarat from the end of June to September and is to be seen in the Quetta

gardens in the late Autumn and early Spring.

61. Melitaea trivia persea, Kollar. The Desert Fritillary.

62. Melitaea robertsi, But. The Baluchi Fritillary.

63. Melitaea didyma dodgsoni, GrS. The Redband Fritillary.

Small black-spotted tawny butterflies: the underside of the hindwing is

white with two reddish bands and covered with black dashes: trivia and

didyma fly from Hurope to Persia and Chitral; trivia is found in the N.-W. F.

Province and the N.-W. Punjab: didyma extends to W. China. Though I

found these butterflies common from April to June on the Khojak slopes, Gwal

Forests, the Murgha Mehtarzai Pass, the Ziarat road near Quetta, Urak and

the Chiltan forest, and noted that they seemed very variable, it was not until

T dissected a number that I found I had obtained 3 quite distinct species differ-

ing as follows :—

(a) trivia has the hindwing above profusely spotted, which is. not ‘die case

in the other two. In spaces 2 and 3 of the hindwing below, the red spots of

the outer band are inwardly convex, not black-edged but immediately followed

by 2 black bars pertaining respectively to the postdiscal and discal rows of black

markings, both far removed from the outer black edging of the central red

band: in the other two species, discal black.markings in spaces 2 and 3 are

either absent or much nearer to the central band than to the postdiscal markings,

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The outer spine of the clasp is no longer than the inner spine, being much

longer in the other two species. I found I had only one specimen of ‘trivia,

caught in May on the Ziarat road.

(b) robertsi resembles trivia very closely. It differs from both species in

that the black markings of the postdiscal series on the hindwing below are very

prominent and V-shaped instead of nearly straight and on the underside of the

forewing towards the apex, the postdiscal spots are conjoined to a continuous

line. The outer spine of the clasp is stout and furnished with a second spine

below the tip, not simple as in the other species. It is common nearly every-

where, appearing in April and flying till June. : :

Khojak and the Murgah Mehtarzai, appearing in May.

64. Atella phalantha, Dry, The Common Leopard. A medium-sized black-

spotted tawny butterfly, dappled mauve below and a large spot at the tornus

on the forewing below. A common Indian butterfly extending to Japan and the

Malay Islands. Stragglers are frequently seen anywhere in Baluchistan in the

late Summer and Autumn.

Lyc@NIDm. The Blues.

(Females of blue species are ordinarily brown, sometimes with red border

spots.)

65. Tarucus theophrastus indica, Evans. The Painted Pierrot.

66. Tarucus nigra, BB. The Spotted Pierrot.

67. Tarucus mediterraneae, BB. The Mediterranean Pierrot.

Small tailed blues with white underside to the hindwing covered with short

black streaks and a marginal row of metallic spots. The male of nigra is

always spotted on the forewing above, it is dusky violet blue with a narrow

border. The other two have only a cell spot, dusky in theophrastus, which, has

a broad dusky border, while in mediterranee the border is very narrow and

clearly defined and the markings show through from below by transparency.

All three species are to be found commonly about highly prickly Zizyphus

shrubs and trees. Nigra is common at old Mach and elsewhere on the Bolan

and near Maratangi on the Loralai Fort Sandeman road more or less throughout

the year: it also occurs near Peshawar to Kalka and Central India. Theo-

phrastus was found near Duki and near Karachi: it flies from Europe to Central

India: mediterranee was found common at Dalbandin in May by Captain D.

Harrison: it flies from South Europe to Baluchistan.

_ 68. Azanus ubaldus, Cr. The Bright Babul Blue. A small blue with rather

elongate wings and a striped and spotted underside: two permanent black

tornal spots on the hindwing both sides. It flies throughout India and reaches

Arabia. It is to be met with rather rarely throughout Baluchistan from May

to September and is most frequently found on tamarisk flowers.

69. Polyommatus vicrama astabene, Hemming. The Chequered Blue.

Rather dull silvery blue with dusky veins: below greyish white with prominent

black spots and a marginal row of orange spots on the hindwing. Occurs from

EK. Europe to C. Asia, Chitral and Kashmir and to Baluchistan, where it is

rather rare, odd specimens having been caught in May to July at Urak and

Ziarat. Swinhoe recorded it as common at Kandahar in May and June.

70. Polyommatus pylaon indica, Evans. The Baluchi Jewel Blue. A blue

with a leaden grey underside and a complete marginal orange-red band: in the

male there are traces of an orange spot at the tornus of the hindwing above. It

occurs from §.-E, Russia to W. Thibet. In Baluchistan I have found it not

‘uncommon in April and early May on the Murgha-Mehtarzai Pass, Gurlama

Pass, Gwal Forest, Khojak slopes and it has been caught in the Hanna valley.

71. Polyommatus christophi bracteata, But. The Small Jewel Blue. A

small bright blue characterized by having a complete marginal row of metallic

crowned orange spots on the hindwing below. It flies in Persia, Turkestan,

Chitral and Kashmir. It is to be found in the Quetta-Khojak area about

Gamelthorn (Alhagi camellorum) and is common round the Saranan tank from

May to September, :

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 205

72. Polyommatus loewii chamanica, M. The Large Jewel Blue. A large

blue with a dusky border: on the hindwing below there are two very prominent

orange-crowned metallic spots at the tornal angle. It occurs from Asia Minor

to Chitral and Ladak. In Baluchistan it is very common on wild sage from

late April to June in the Urak and Gandak valleys, Ziarat, Khojak slopes and

the Gurlama Pass as well as elsewhere. !

73. Polyommatus sieversi felicia, Hvans. The Pale Jewel Blue. A very

pale lavender blue with a very narrow border and a spot at the end of the cell

op the forewing: below very like lewii. Sieversi is found from Persia to Turke-

stan; the race felicia from Baluchistan differs in being very much paler and

having a narrower border; the female above is very like the next species. A

single male was obtained at Upper Urak and a single female on the Murgha-

Mehtarzai Pass in May.

74. Polyommatus hyrcana kwaja, Evans. The Dark Jewel Blue. The male

of kwaja above is dark brown rather sparsely overlaid with dark-blue scales

leaving a broad border on the forewing and dark marginal spots on the hindwing :

the female is similar but the blue scaling is sparser and more basal, the dark

marginal spots on the hindwing being obscurely orange-crowned. Below leaden

grey: on the forewmg the discal spots are large, touching and in an ‘unbroken

sinuous line, the submarginal markings narrow and clearly defined: on the

hindwing there is a complete submarginal orange band with metallic scales

around the 3 or 4 subtornal spots. It differs from the Persian hyrcana in being

much darker and the discal spots on the forewing below being more regular.

About a dozen specimens were obtained in May, June and early September on

the Khojak and Bogra, most of them in the Shorgai nallah at Mile 66% on the

Chaman road.

75. Polyommatus iris hanna, Evans. The Jewel Argus. A rather small

shining dark-brown insect with a prominent black spot at the end of the cell on

the forewing. Below the discal spots on the forewing are very large and on the

hindwing the two subtornal black spots are crowned with orange and metallic

scales. Iris from Turkestan is reddish brown: a dark race ashretha fles m

Chitral which differs from the Baluchistan race in being bronzy brown above,

the discal spots on the forewing below being separate and there being a’ pro-

minent spot in the hindwing at the base of the cell lc. Hanna is found rather

rarely in April and May at Upper Urak, the Gurlama, Murgha-Mehtarzai and

Khojak passes and in early September at Ziarat.

76. Polyommatus cyllarus aeruginosa, Stg. The Western Green Under-

wing. Above rather pale shining blue with broad dusky borders; below on the

forewing there are very large discal spots: the hindwing is entirely powdered

green and is unmarked. It occurs from Hurope to Asia Minor and N. Asia.

In Baluchistan I have only secured one male and 3° females in April in the

Gwal Forest and found it common on the Hastern Khojak slopes before Shela-

bagh for a fortnight.

77. Polyommatus bogra, Evans. The Baluchi Meadow’ Blue. Male

above bright shining blue, veins outwardly black, border narrow and_ sharply

defined, a faint black streak at the end of the cell on the forewing. Below

rather dark leaden grey; forewing usually a small spot in the cell, spot end

cell and discal spots large, white ringed, latter conjoined in a highly sinuous

series; hindwing discal spots in a regular curved line, basal spots prominent,

a more or less well-defined white streak from below the cell to the middle of the

termen. Double row of grey and white submarginal lunules clearly defined,

enclosing very dull orange spots towards tornus on the hindwing. Female

above dark shining brown, a prominent black spot at the end of the cell on

the forewing: very dusky orange’ subtornal spots on the hindwing. Expanse

28-34 mm. A number of males and very few females were obtained in June

to September on the Bogra, Khojak and Ziarat. A single female was caught

by Capt. Burnett at Shingarh in early September. The specimens obtained

seem very distinct from any named form.

78. Polyommatus icarus fugitiva, But. The Violet Meadow Blue. A bright

violet blue species with a sharply defined narrow border. Below grey with

small white-ringed black spots and a more or less prominent submarginal

906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

orange band. It occurs throughout the Palearctic zone entering India in

Chitral and Baluchistan, where it 1s common in cultivated areas (Quetta gardens)

above 5,000 feet from March to October: there are probably 8 broods, which

do not seem to differ materially. :

7%. Polyommatus eros balucha, M,. and shingara, Evans. The Common

Meadow Blue. Balucha is shining silvery blue with a narrow sharply defined

border: below similar to icarus, the marginal orange band being rather faint

and the markings small. Shingara 1s darker shining “blue, with broader borders,

a spot at the end of the cell on the forewing and more or less well developed

submarginal black spots conjoined to the dark border on the hindwing: below

darker than balucha: usually the orange border is prominent on the hindwing,

but sometimes is absent. Eros in various forms is found throughout the Pale-

arctic zone and along the frontier to Murree. Balucha is common at Mile 10

on the Urak road from May to September: there are two or three broods

exactly alike. I have also caught balucha commonly on the Bogra in May to

August and Col. Stockley caught a considerable number -on Torgarh in April.

Of shingara Capt. Burnett obtained 8 males and a female and J obtained a

male at Singarh about the end of September and a small pale male at Ziarat a

few. days later.

80. Chilades laius, Cr. The Lime Blue. A blue with a white underside

and rather blotchy-looking grey and black spots. Found all over India and

Burma. Swinhoe records it from Quetta in-September. I have not met with it.

81. Freyeria trochilus, Frey. The Grass Jewel. A tiny dark-brown insect

with a marginal row of brilliant metallic spots on the hindwing below. It

occurs from §.-EK. Europe to Australia and is to be met with here and there,

never very common, all over Baluchistan throughout the year.

82. Zizeeria maha maha, Ioll. The Pale Grass Blue. Pale and rather

dusky blue above with a broad dusky border: below spotted as usual, but with

a spot in the cell of the forewing. Found from South Persia throughout Hastern

Asia to Japan. I came across it near Duki in June, and nowhere else.

83.. Zizeeria lysimon, Hub. The Dark Grass-blue. A very small dull. blue

with dark spots on a grey ground below. It occurs from 8. Hurope to Australia

and is to be found rather rarely anywhere in Baluchistan throughout the year.

84. Euchrysops contracta, But. The Small Cupid. A small tailed blue

with grey hindwing beloWw traversed by grey catenulated bands and with two

metallic-edged black spots about the tail. It flies in Ceylon and India and is

to be met with, never commonly, all over Baluchistan throughout the year.

85. Euchrysops pandava minuta, Hvans. The Plains Cupid. Very similar

to the preceding but the spots about the tail are unequal. Found all over

India, extending to Malaya. I obtained one specimen of the race minuta near

Sibi in October: it is a race that is fairly common from Lahore to Peshawar

and along the frontier, differing from pandava in having the markings on the

hindwing below almost obliterated and with a comparatively prominent whitish

central ‘band. Swinhoe records a female taken in Quetta in September as

Catachrysops species near amyntas, F., and comyntas, God., which may have

been this species.

86. Lampides boeticus, L. he Peablue. A tailed blue with a striped grey

and white underside. It flies throughout the Old World and is common every-

where in Baluchistan all through the year.

87. Tomares callimachus, Hvers. The Red Copper. Above red with a broad

brown border: under forewing pale red with conspicuous black spots and a

grey border; under-hindwing grey with narrow dark dashes. It flies from

Asia Minor to Persia near the coast, so I was surprised to find it in Baluchi-

stan: a few specimens were obtained round wild almond bushes at 7,000 feet in

the Gwal forest and the Murgha-Mehtarzai Pass at the end of March and

early April.

88. Lycaena phlaeas stygianus, But. The Common Copper. Forewing

copper red with large black spots: hindwing with a red border. It flies

throughout the Palearctic zone, along the N.-W. frontier and the Himalayas.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 207

In Baluchistan it is never very common, but is often met with from March

to October throughout the area, more particularly in Quetta gardens.

89. Lycaena thetis lampon, Led. The Golden Copper. Brilliant golden

copper above marked only by the black border in the male, the female being

spotted. Thetis occurs in Central and Western Asia; there is a tailless race in

Chitral at high elevations: lampon is tailed. The only specimen I obtained

was a male at the Ziarat water-supply intake during my last visit there on the

10th September 1981.

90. Lycaena phoenicurus, Led. ‘The Baluchi Copper. <A tailed copper:

above smoky brown with a purple sheen, the spots from below showing

through obscurely: below white with prominent black spots and an orange post-

discal band on the wings. It occurs in Persia and C. Asia. In Baluchistan

J have caught it sparingly in May and June about the Urak bungalow, near

Kahan on the Ziarat road and Malozai on the Speraragha road.

91. Lycaena caspius susanus, Swin. The Purple Copper. A very small-

tailed dusky copper with a purple sheen; 2 black ceil spots on the forewing and

one on the hindwing. Below spotted black, the forewing all reddish and the

hindwing grey with a discal white band followed by a reddish band. Caspius

occurs in Turkestan and a tailless race in Chitral: susanus seems confined

to Baluchistan and the type was caught at Gandak on the Ziarat road in June

1885. I have only secured 2 specimens on the Murgha-Mehtarzai Pass in May.

There is a fair series from Gandak on the Ziarat road in the Indian Museum.

92. Neolycaena connae, Evans. The Baluchi Hairstreak. Above dark sooty

brown unmarked: cilia plain, brown in male, whitish in female: antenn

‘chequered. Under forewing in male sooty brown, the apex and costa broadly

overlaid with grey scales, a grey marginal line: female entirely overlaid with

grey scales, with an irregular row of obscure rather small black spots, decreasing

to the apex and becoming white-bordered, followed by broad sooty stibmarginal

band decreasing from the dorsum to the middle, Under hindwing entirely

overlaid with grey scales, a white line at the end of the cell and a discal series

of irregular narrow white lunules, inwardly black-bordered, followed by a

series of small submarginal black dots. Expanse 30 to 33 mm. A small series

was obtained at 7,000 ft. in the Urak valley, the Mehtarzai Pass and below

Ziarat in May and June. A single worn specimen was obtained by Watson at

Gandak, on the Ziarat Road, in June 1885 and recorded by DeNiceville in his

Butterflies of India, etc..vol. i, p. 65, as Neolycena sinensis, Alph. which

differs from conne in having chequered cilia, lacking all the grey scaling below

and having submarginal dots onthe forewing; sinensis flies in Turkestan.

93. Callophrys rubi, L. The Green Hairstreak. Brown above and green

below. Occurs more or less throughout the Palearctic region and enters India

in Chitral and Baluchistan. In April and May it is quite common near the

Urak bungalow and up the valley: odd specimens are to be met with in the

Upper Zhob.

94. Strymon sassanides, Koll. The Whiteline Hairstreak. Dark brown

above, tailed: below brown, both wings crossed by a narrow .white line.

Occurs in Persia, Afghanistan, Chitral and the Western Himalayas.. Common

from May to early July at 6,000 to 9,000 feet in the Quetta and Ziarat areas.

95. Apharitis epargyros, Hvers. The Yellow Silverline. Tawny with black

bands above, tailed: below with tawny, silver-centred and black-edged, bands

on a white ground. Occurs in Turkestan and Persia and in Baluchistan in

common over 6,000 feet above Urak and on the Khojak Pass and Speraragha

road.

96. Apharitis acamas hypargyros, But. The Tawny Silverline. Similar to the

last, but larger: on the under-hindwing the outer discal band from the costa

does not turn in and coalesce with central discal band in the middle, but either

turns outwards into the submarginal band or ends between the two bands. It

occurs in N. Africa, from Arabia to Sind, in the N.-W. Punjab and Chitral.

In Baluchistan it is frequently met with all over the area from May to

August 7

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Hersperupa@. The Skippers.

97. Hasora alexis, ’. The Common Banded Awl. A large black skipper with

a narrow white band on the hindwing below. Octurs from India and China to

Australia. 1 have caught two stragglers from the plains, one in my garden at

Quetta in September and another on the Bogra in August.

98. Gomalia elma litoralis, Swin. The African Marbled Skipper. A small

inarbled greenish brown skipper with a prominent white band on the hindwing.

Ti is an African species with a race (subfasciata, M.) found rather rarely in

Ceylon and §S. India, litoralis being confined to Baluchistan and Sind. Swinhoe

records it from Quetta: I have only obtained-2 females at old Mach in the

Bolan’ at 3,000 feet.

99. Syrichtus evanidus, But. The Sind Skipper. A very small dark brown

skipper with white spots, the spot at the end of the cell on the forewing being

as large as any other spots: the under-hindwing is greenish with 3 large central

white spots across the wing. The type came from the Hubb river in Mekran

and it is said to be common at Karachi.

100. Syvrichtus geron, Watson. The Baluchi Skipper. Similar to the last,

larger and the cell spot on the forewing smaller; the under-hindwing varies

from pale greenish grey to tawny brown. It occurs in Persia and S. Afghanistan

and in Baluchistan is common from May to September at 5,000 to 7,000 feet in

the Urak and Ziarat valleys, near Kalat and Raighora on the Ziarat-Loralai road.

101. Syrichtus orbifer carnea, Reverd. The Brick Skipper. Similar to geron

but the cell spot on the forewing is linear and obscure: the under-hindwing

varies from dark greenish brown to dark brick red. It occurs from S. Hurope

to Afghanistan and C. Asia, Chitral, In Baluchistan I have obtained a few

specimens from May to July at Upper Urak and Ziarat.

102. Syrichtus plurimacula, Christoph (recorded previously as poggei, Led).

The Streaked Skipper. Similar to the preceding, but the central cell spot on

the forewing above is directly over the large discal spot in space 2: the under-

hindwing is greenish brown, spotted as usual, but the central spot is produced

as a streak to the border. Found in Persia and Mesopotamia. In Baluchistan

J have only met with it around a showy red-flowered labiate plant which

grows round Smallan to Chotair and Ashgara in the country between Loralai-

Ziarat-Dilkhuna. It is common in May and again a second brood in August.

103. Carcharodus dravira balucha, Evans. The Tufted Marbel Skipper. A

marbled greenish brown skipper with prominently tesselated fringes: greenish

olive below -and spotted as in Syrichtus: It is distinguished from the next by

having a thick black brush of hairs on the dorsum of the forewing below near

the base. It occurs from Europe to Turkestan, Chitral and Kashmir. I have

found it common wherever a tall labiate plant with a white flower and stout

leaves grows, particularly around the Urak bungalow up to Upper Urak and

at Ziarat. Balucha differs from the Kashmir dravira in being smaller, paler,

more variegated, with pale veins on the forewing above and with narrower

and more sharply defined markings on the hindwing below.

104. Carcharodus alceae swinhoei, Watson. The Plain Marble Skipper.

Very like the last, browner and lacking the tuft in the male. Flies from

Europe to C. and W. Asia, Chitral, Kashmir and the Murree Galis. Common

from March to October in Quetta gardens and everywhere above 5,000: feet

near cultivation: there are probably 3 broods. _

105. ‘Erynnis marloyi, Bdv. The Inky Skipper. A small black skipper

marbled with grey bands on the forewing above and with 3 small apical white

spots. Occurs from Hurope to C. and W. Asia, Chitral. Fairly common from

the end of March to May on the Khojak, Gwal forest, Upper Urak, Mehtarzai

Pass and the Ziarat road near Gandak. Curiously enough in Shingarh it flies

ak the end of August and early September.

106. Baoris mathias thrax, Hub. The Small Branded Swift. A dark-brown

skipper with a few large white spots on the forewing and some small spots on

the hindwing below: the wings are produced and the male has a conspicuous

black brand on the forewmg above. Flies from Africa and Syria through India,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BALUCHISTAN 209

China and Japan to Australia. I have not found it in Baluchistan, but it is

certain to occur in the Sibi and Mekran area: it is common in Karachi.

107. Gegenes nosirodamus karsana, M. A rather small dark-brown skipper

with pointed wings, unmarked in the male and some dull white spots on the

forewing of the female. Flies from Hurope and N. Africa to W. and C. Asia,

along the frontier, N.-W. Punjab and N.-W. Himalayas. Found rather rarely

all over Baluchistan from July to October.

108. Hogenes alcides alcides, H. 8. The Torpedo. A brown skipper with

some rather large white spots on the forewing: the under-hindwing is overlaid

grey scales, leaving a row of obscure pale-centred dark spots. Found from

Asia Minor to Turkestan, Chitral. Not uncommon in the Urak and Ziarat

valleys and near Kach from June to August.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA,

LIMNOCNIDA INDICA, ANNANDALE.

H. Srinivasa RAO, M.A., D.SC.

Zoological Survey of India.

[Published with the permission of the Superintendent,

Zoological Survey of India. |

(With a plate and a teaxt-figure).

The present paper is the result of observations made in the course of a

month's tour in the Satara Dt. of the Bombay Presidency in the valleys of the

Kistna, Koyna and Yenna rivers. Since the discovery of the Medusa by Aghar-

kar, Annandale (1911), observations have been made on _ it by Gravely and

Agharkar (1912), by Agharkar (1913), by Annandale (1916) and by Hora (1929),

but the life-history of the Medusa has remained more or less obscure. The

reiterated belief in the occurrence of a fixed hydroid stage in its life-history

as it occurs in the allied Huropean and American freshwater Medusa Craspe-

dacusta, and the absence in the Indian Limnocnida of asexual or vegetative

budding so frequently observed in its African relative, L. tanganicae', and the

opinion recorded by Annandale (1919) that a resting stage may intervene in

the life-history of the Indian Medusa were my chief inducements to pursue this

subject, and it was with a view to verify these observations that a visit to

the Satara Dt. was undertaken about the middle of March last year.

My observations were confined to Wai and its vicinity and to Dhom, both

on the Kistna river, to the Yenna valley in the vicinity of Medha, Kelghar

and Kaner, to the pools in the Koyna river at Bamnoli, and to Karad and

its neighbourhood near the confluence of the Kistna and the Koyna rivers.

I was able to add only one more locality to Agharkar’s list of records, namely,

Warunji on the Koyna near Karad. Although Dr. Hora (1926) and myself

obtained local information about the occurrence of the Medusa at Wai we have

failed to confirm it. It is probable that the Medusae begin to appear much

later in the year at Wai than at Dhom only six miles above Wai.

In all the localities mentioned above a very careful examination was made

of the bed of the rivers, of the mineral and vegetable contents of the bottom,

and of the animal and plant growths on submerged stones and rocks at the

bottom and sides.” Except at Medha and Rigtawali on the Yenna no organisms

were found which may be suspected to be connected with the life-history of

the medusa. The minute egg-lke bodies found in great numbers at these two

places (where the medusae occur in some numbers) which formed the subject

of my note in Nature (1931), have proved, on further observation in aquaria

in Calcutta, to be wholly unconnected with the life-history of the medusae.

The mode of attachment of the eggs of the medusae on dehiscence as observed

at Karad and recorded in that note is, however, suggestive of the probable

life-cycle of this interesting species.

Col. Sewell paid a short visit to Wai, Dhom and Medha during the early

part of my tour in Satara Dt., and offered helpful suggestions for which my

’ References to this species are given by Gunther (1898), de Guerne (1894)

and Browne (1906).

* A small sample of the mineral particles at the bottom of the Medha pool

contained the following: (1) colourless glassy quartz, (2) red jasper, (3) green-

ish yellow chalcedony, (4) quartzite with minute inclusions, (5) black mag-

netite. Of these quartzite seems to be the most abundant and the glassy

quartz and magnetite the least. I owe my best thanks to Dr. M. 8. Krishnan

of the Geological Survey of India for the identification of the mineral

particles.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

2. Limnocnida pool in the course of the Yenna River, near Rigtawali,

Satara District.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA 211

grateful thanks are due to him. I have also to thank my colleague, Dr.

Hora whose enthusiastic interest in the problem made it possible for me to

visit the areas.

x 3

Mode of attachment of the eggs of insects and of Limnocnida in streams in

the Satara District.

1. Eggs of the May-fly from Medha showing the threads by which it is

attached to mineral particles. 2 and 3. Higgs of two different species of insects

(?) from Medha showing the mode of attachment. 4. Eggs of Limnocnida

indica from Karad in the preserved state. The sticky threads are matted

together with particles of mineral matter. 5. Eggs of L. indica with threads

of attachment issuing from its surface as observed in small aquaria at JKarad.

(rom a sketch made in the field).

In the following paragraphs I propose to give a brief account of the habits

and habitat of the medusae at various places and to offer a few remarks on

the present distribution of Limnocnida, and on the origin of the freshwater

medusa in India based on the available geological evidence.

Occurrence in the river Kistna.—The course of the river between Dhom, a

sacred village on its left bank, and the Shiva temple 3 miles below Wai

on the Satara road—a total distance of about 8 miles—was carefully examined

for the medusae. The character of the stream and its bed varies to some

extent in different places. There are long stretches of sandy bed where the

river is broad and broken up into a number of shallow streams, in which

the flow is comparatively slow, or into large still, moderately deep muddy

pools. Where the bed is rocky and consists of a number of large and small

pot-holes there are a few insignificant falls over the projecting shelf-like rocks

and a number of rock-pools. Considerably below Wai the stream cuts through

massive rocks, where it is narrow and very deep, and its flow is imperceptible.

21) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The ‘surface temperature of water in all these places about the end. of March

was 24°.38C in the carly part of the day and 27°.5C in the afternoon, and. the

PH value between 7.6 and 8.6. The medusae were only found in the. sacred

pool of the Kistna at Dhom in this long stretch of 8 miles. They were common

here at or near the surface in the early part of the day upto 10 o’clock,

but towards midday they seemed to diminish in numbers near the surface.

Some of them were sexually mature. The water was distinctly muddy, and

the pool seemed to be well-stocked with large fish which were swimming in

shoals near the surface. The pool was full of bathers at the time of my

visit and. was consequently well-stirred. The medusae near the banks were

Swimming against the slow current, and periodically they seemed to drop

passively to the bottom and rest for a while and rise upto the surface. In

a stretch of about 500 yards near the sacred temple the medusae were abundant,

but both below and above the pool they were scarce indeed.

Although there were several deep pools in the Kistna near Wai no medusae

were actually seen, but the local inhabitants, young and old, were positive

that they appeared, as a rule, every year from the middle. of April to the end

of May in the large pool between the Wai bridge and the cremation ground.

In 1925 Dr. Hora had likewise been told of their occurrence in the pool by

an old fisherman of the locality. The pool was under observation till about

the middle of April last year, and was thoroughiy dredged with a fishing net

at various points. I could not, however, obtain any evidence of the occurrence

of the medusa in the pool.'

At the instance of Dr. Hora who visited Dhom in 1925, Mr. L. S. Kanitkar,

a resident of the village who got interested in the problem, made some obser-

vations on the medusae in the following year. The earliest date on which

he found the medusae was the 2nd February 1926, and except for a break

of about three weeks in that month when he was away, continuous observations

were made upto the time of its total disappearance in the last week of May.

He tried to breed the medusae in captivity, and commenced work with a

dozen of them in a small glass aquarium kept in a cool dark place. With

daily changes of water from the river he managed to keep them alive and

active for two weeks, although a few died early. He made a second attempt

with the same result. On the 7th and 8th of May there were two heavy

showers and the water in the river consequently became very muddy, and

the medusae were not seen at or near the ‘surface. After two days the

water became clear again in the sacred pool and the medusae appeared in

great numbers in an active state. Mr. Kanitkar had no means of ascertain-

ing where the medusae had taken shelter during the floods. There was no

rain at all between the 9th of May and the 3rd of June of that year, and the

water in the pool was perfectly clear, but the medusae disappeared completely

during the last week of May for the rest of the year.” I take this opportunity

to tender my grateful thanks to Mr. Kanitkar for making these observations

and for sending us a written account of them,

The sudden and almost total disappearance of the medusae from the sacred

pool at the end of the hot weather or just before the break of the monsoon is

very curious. It seems probable that after a period of sexual activity the

medusae die as the result of the operation of certain physical or physiological

factors, leaving behind their eggs which rest at the bottom during the cold

season, and develop directly into medusae at the beginning of February or as

soon as conditions are favourable for their development. There 1s at present

no evidence to show that a vegetative hydroid stage imtervenes in the life-

history of the species.

1 Moore (1897) states that ‘the distribution of L. tanganicae in Lake Tan-

ganyika is local and that they are not. easy to find except in certain bays

where they ‘are observed in large numbers.” Cunnington (1906) stated that ‘he

was struck by the irregularity in the appearance of the Tanganyika medusa

and by the uncertainty of finding it at any particular time or place, and that

it was curious that one may be a month or more on the Lake Tanganyika

without finding a single specimen’. .

* This observation is entirely in agreement with that of the Forest Ranger

at Medha who found that the medusae disappeared altogether from the pool

at Medha about the end of May although the river had been clear for a

fortnight after the first heavy shower. . oe

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER ‘MEDUSA 18

Occurrence in the Yenna river.—The course of the river from about 5 miles

below its descent from the Mahableshwar plateau down to Kaner on the

Satara road—a total distance of about 15 miles—was surveyed at various

likely places between the 28th of March and the 14th of April 1981. The

character of the river-bed varies as in the case of the Kistna every few

hundred yards of its course. At Kelghar where the ascent of the ghats begins,

and some distance both above aie! below this village the river ‘is very

narrow, and its bed is strewn with pebbles and large stones brought down by

the floods. At various points where the basaltic substratumr is exposed there

are fairly deep rock-pools which serve as favourite bathing places for the ~

village folk and their cattle in the neighbourhood. Dr. Agharkar, at the

time of his visit to Medha, obtained local information that the medusae

occurred in these pools during ‘summer, but did not visit them. On the Ist

April last year I examined a number of pools in the neighbourhood of Kelghar,

but did not succeed in finding the medusa or any probable stage in its life-

history. Some of the old people of the village who were questioned on this

subject expressed some surprise that the medusae could ever escape their

attention in the pools so frequently visited by them.

In Medha I did not find the medusae till the 10th April although continuous

observations were made in the Limnocnida-pooi at different times of the day.

The depth of the pool in April varied from 7 feet at its lower end to 19 feet

immediately below the foot-bridge across the river at its upper end. The

surface temperature in the same month varied from 24°.38C to 25°C in the early

part of the morning to 28°.0C at midday and 27°.0C at 8 p.m. The PH of the

water in the pool was 8.2—8.4. The pool is used as a bathing place by the

villagers from early morning till abount sunset, and from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. it is

considerably stirred to it’s “depths by the village urchins who dive and ‘chase

one another in the water. Although this was happening every day in the pool

since my arrival in Medha no medusae were found near the surface or at the

bottom. On the 10th April, at about 11 a.m. when the deeper waters had been

stirred by the village boys several medusae of various sizes, 5—15 mm. in dia-

meter and of both the sexes were observed coming up to the surface waters. All

but the very young stages of the medusae were found. They were kept in

‘several glass receptacles in water from the pool in which they continued to

live with daily changes of water for the following four days. There were,

however, daily casualties amongst the medusae in “the aquaria. Thus out of

35 individuals divided between three aquaria only a dozen were in the normal

condition on the third day. The rest were greatly reduced in size, or crumpled

and comparatively less active than on the day of capture. At the end of the

fourth day the medusae which underwent reduction in size were in a state of

collapse. In the active individuals the proximal part of the primary tentacles

was more or less swollen and the distal greatly contracted. The bases of the

secondary and tertiary series of tentacles were similarly swollen. The gonads

were in a poor condition and the mouth was considerably contracted. The

yellow bodies commonly present in the circular and the radial canals were found

to have disintegrated. At the end of the 5th day only 8 individuals were

living. Five of ‘these were: feebly active while the remaining 3 were occasionally

roused to activity by shaking the container.

On the 11th April and the following days upto the 14th a few meduese

continued to come upto the surface, but they were never so abundant as in

the sacred pool at Dhom on the Kistna. A few came up along with mud and

debris in long conical nets which were dragged on the bottom of the deepér

ools.

. About 3 miles below Medha and not far from Rigtawali, a village on the

Satara road, the Yenna river cuts a deep narrow channel between the vertical

sides of basaltic rock. Above the channel the stream is very shallow and the

water percolates through its bed of sand and gravel. This shallow portion is

roliowell by a narrow stretch of still water, 2-3 yards long and by a short

fall 2 feet high into a circular pot-hole filled with stones. and mud. Then

commences the long deep pool which has a slightly sinuous course about 100

yards long, 5-15 feet wide and 12-15 feet deep. On either side the rock rises

vertically to a height of 30-40 feet. The bed of the pool is rocky in places or

is covered with mud and gravel in others. The water is somewhat greenish

in colour. There are large fish splashing about at the surface at’ intervals.

The lower end of this pool which is broad and shallow has gravel reaches

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

which give access to bathers. From about 7 o’clock in the morning upto

1l a.m. medusae of both the sexes and of different sizes (5-20 mm. in

diameter) were coming up, a few at a time, to the surface. They seemed to

come from the bottom, drift along or swim against the gentle current. A

long conical net was dragged at the bottom, which brought up a few specimens

along with mud and gravel. The temperature of the surface water was 26°.5C

at 8 a.m., and the PH was between 7.6 and 7.8.

There seems to be some uncertainty as to the exact season of occurrence of

the medusae in the Yenna valley. In 1911 Agharkar found them at Medha

‘in the month of May and in 1912 Gravely and Agharkar found them. in

abundance in February and March and obtained evidence of their occurrence

in the pool till the end of May. Annandale found them in the same pool in

March 1918. I failed to find them there till about the middle of April. Local

evidence is conflicting one this point. An old resident of Medha who recollected

having seen a party 20 years ago in search of medusae and accompanied the

late Dr. Annandale in March 1918 on his tour in the Yenna valley said that

the medusae failed to appear in certain years following those of exceptionally

heavy rain. He had not seen any medusae in the Medha pool for the last

SIX or seven years or in any other pool in the Yenna river round about Medha.

He was, however, diffident about the accuracy of his own observation, but was

prepared to assert that if in any year the medusae appeared in the Medha

pool they may be seen in several other similar pools in the course of the

Yenna. As against the evidence of the old resident I have that of the village

boys of Medha who never seem to miss their bath in the pool in summer,

which goes to show that the medusae appear every summer from April to

May. They were, however, not well acquainted with other pools in the Yenna

outside the limits of their village.’

In 1912 Gravely and Agharkar found the medusae in April at Tambi in

the Koyna valley 10 miles across the hills from Medha. My assistant Mr.

M. N. Datta visited Bamnoli on the Koyna on the 38rd April 1931 only 5

miles above Tambi where Gravely and Agharkar found them in abundance.

Near Bamnoli there were deep pools in places with a gravel bed. The stream

at the time of his visit was extremely slow and the water was a deep

brown colour due to freshets after the showers of the 3lst of March and Ist

April. There was very little microscopic vegetation in the pools, but shrimps

and small fish were present in great abundance, and insects and their larvae

were rare. Mr. Datta did not find any medusae at the time of his visit, but

was told by the residents of the village that they usually appeared in the

height of summer about the middle of May. At Kaner, 8 miles below Medha

on the Satara road where several deep pools are present in the course of

the Yenna Mr. Datta found no trace of the medusae.

Occurrence in the Koyna river near Karad.—In May 1913 Agharkar searched

for medusae in the Kistna and Koyna rivers near Karad on obtaining local

information of its occurrence there, but failed to find any. The Kistna and

the Koyna rivers unite to form the Kistna near Karad, about 32 miles south

of Satara, the headquarters of the district of that name. I made a careful

search for the medusae in the Kistna in the month of April both above and

below Karad without success. Near Warunji, a village 2 miles south of

Karad on the left bank of the Koyna, Limnocnida indica was first observed

by me on the 5th April a little before dusk. On the following two days I

found several examples a little below the village in the early part of the

day. The bed of the river was over 100 yards wide opposite the village and con-

sisted of sand and small pebbles for the most part. The stream was narrow

(about 15 yards wide and 3-5 feet deep in various parts of it) and running close

to the left bank. Grass and a few aquatic plants were found near the edge

of the stream. In about 3 feet of water near the edge of the stream where

the current was very slow in a stretch of water about 50 yards long and 20

yards wide which was used as the village bathing pool I found the medusae

swimming near the surface. They were of various sizes (5-25 mm. in diameter).

In very shallow water north of the village the medusae were scarce, but a few

stragglers were found entangled in the aquatic vegetation. These had

1 This curious uncertainty of the behaviour of freshwater medusae has been

noted in the case of the American Craspedacusta ryderi Potts by White (1980)

and by Payne (1924).

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA 215

apparently been washed away accidentally from the quiet waters of the pool into

the flowing part of the stream during the floods of the Ist of April. To the

inhabitants of the village they were known as ‘Phodi’ or ‘Phode’ (meaning

small-pox) presumably on account of their small rounded shape resembling pox-

marks. Some of them thought that they were responsible for certain intestinal

troubles if accidentally taken in. ‘The villagers were positive about their occur-

rence in the pool near their village in the months of April and May.

Some individuals of both the sexes obtained on the 6th April in the pool

near Warunji were kept under observation in a cool dark place in small glass

bowls, and were examined under the binocular microscope every hour. ‘They

were found to be active and healthy throughout the day of capture. Towards

the evening of the same day a relatively less active gravid female settled down

at the bottom of the bowl discharging its minute eggs. Owing to the currents

set up by the movements of the other medusae the eggs were scattered all over

the bottom, but were attached by means of very minute short sticky threads

from the surface of the eggs which came into contact with the bottom of the

bowl. Some were accidentally attached to the surface of the umbrella of the

swimming medusae. Hach of the attached eggs thus resembled a baloon held

in position by a number of ropes. The eggs are 0.057-0.085 mm. in diameter,

and have a thin apparently chitinous covering and a number of transparent

spherical granules loosely floating in the viscous fluid which forms the contents

of their interior. his device by means of which the eggs are fixed seems to

suggest a clue to the probable fate of the medusae during the unfavourable

season when the physical conditions in the river are inimical to their existence.

In their natural environment they probably lie at the bottom amongst crevices

in rock-pools or between particles of grit, sand or gravel, attached to them by

their sticky threads, and begin to develop at the commencement of the next

favourable season, ultimately liberating the medusae about the beginning of

February.

In the course of examination of the contents of the bottom of various pools

in the Yenna and the Koyna rivers I found certain minute eggs which at first

escaped notice amongst the dark gritty material and both in size as well as

in external features they closely resembled the eggs of the medusae observed

at IXarad. The sticky threads from their surface seemed, however, to have

formed a matted tangle with minute inclusions of mineral or vegetable. debris.

and constituted a separate protective layer. In addition to the eggs which

were presumably those of the medusae I found several which seemed to be the

eggs of various insects. The eggs of at least three different species of insects

with different devices for fixation were obtained in the Yenna river near Medha.

Those of a species of Mayfly were the most abundant in the pools at Medha

and Rigtawali. Amongst the contents of the bottom debris I failed to find

any organism which could be the hydroid stage of the medusae.

Asexual budding by proliferation from the margin of the umbrella which

is an important feature in the life-history of Limnocnida tanganicae has not

been observed hitherto in the Indian Limnocnida. It seems to me that this

mode of reproduction is altogether absent in the Indian species, as the many

hundreds of medusae examined on various occasions were without any trace

of the vegetative buds.

Several years before the discovery of Limnoenida indica in the Yenna river,

Alcock (1911) observed and handled a solitary specimen of freshwater medusa

in a big tank at Purulia in Chota Nagpur, and suggested that they may occur

also in the rivers of Chota Nagpur. It has not been seen again although at

different times visits have been paid to this tank in recent years by my colleagues

and myself in the Zoological survey. It is therefore impossible to say if the

medusa observed by Alcock was specifically or even generically related to the

Indian medusa of the Western Ghats.

While in Karad in May 1913, Agharkar was informed of the occurrence

of a species of freshwater medusa in the Varna and the Panchganga, tribu-

taries of the Kistna river. Neither he nor I was able to visit these streams.

In November 1928 Dr. Prashad and myself investigated the fauna of the

Malprabha and Ghatprabha rivers in the Belgaum Dt., also tributaries of the

Kustna, but failed to find any evidence of their occurrence in these streams.

During my visit to the Shimoga Dt. of Mysore early in January 1929 I made

an unsuccessful search for the medusae in the Tunga and the Bhadra rivers

which after union in Mysore territory empty themselves into the Kistna. We

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

know as yet very little about the distribution of the medusa in India, and much

less about the proper season in which it flourishes in the various streams in

which they are reported to occur.’

Distribution of Limnocnida.—The genus has been recorded hitherto in the

river Niger in N.-W. Africa, in the lakes of Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza

in the Central African rift valleys, in the Hunyani river, a southern tributary

of the Zambesi, and in the Norquane river, a tributary of the Limpopo in

Rhodesia, and in the Yenna, Koyna, and Kistna rivers on the eastern slopes

of the Western ghats of India.* As to the occurrence of this medusa of un-

questionable marine origin in the rivers and lakes of the two great continents

of Africa and India there is possibly one explanation, that is, that the

ancestors of Limnocnida have passively migrated from an ancient sea, parts of

which were cut off from the ocean as the result of seismic disturbances, and

acclimatised themselves to changes incidental to the gradual conversion of an

inland sea into freshwater areas. There seems to be sufficient paleontological

evidence to warrant the assumption of the existence of a vast sea in EKocene

times which extended across Northern and Central Africa to India and receded

later on with the remnants of a fauna peculiar to that period.

The area in which the Indian medusa occurs belongs to the Deccan trap,

and there seems to be little evidence in favour of the hypothesis that the

trap was originally deposited in the sea. ‘With the exception of the Bagh

beds in the western part of the Nerbudda valley and of the Rajahmundry

beds in the Godavari delta in which estuarine and freshwater organisms have

been found, the intertrappeans from the source of the Nerbudda in the East

to Bombay on the West, and from Gwalior in the North to Belgaum in the

South, are distinctly freshwater and mostly lacustrine.’ No marine organism

seems to have been found in them. Although ‘the saltness of part of the Berar

plain seems in favour of the presence of the sea at the period of its formation,

the want, so far as is known, of marime remains is opposed to the idea of

these plains having been delta accumulations on a sea-coast’. On the other

hand there seems to be clear evidence of the Konkan and the Sahyadn Fangs

having been subjected to forces of suberial and marine denudation.*®

From the known distribution of the medusa in India and from the nature of

the geological evidence available we must rule out the possibility of its

migration from the Bay of Bengal up the rivers to their very source near the

Western ghats, unless we are prepared to agree with Hislop that the whole

of central and western India was an immense lake communicating with the

sea to the eastward near Rajahmundry, and that certain marine organisms

acclimatised themselves in this huge backwater. Unfortunately for this theory

there seems to be little geological evidence to prove the existence of a vast

lake in central and western India.* There is, however, abundant evidence

to show that the ancient Indian peninsula proper was washed on its northern

shores by the waters of a huge shallow sea up to the end of the cretaceous

age, and that the shrinkage of this vast sea as a result of the upheaval of the

Himalayas did not commence till the Eocene period. According to the dis-

placement theory of Wegener (1924) India and Africa were united till the close

of the secondary period, and the great inland sea north of the Indian peninsula

was connected with the African Kocene sea across modern Arabia, and central

1 Prof. Yeolekar of the Fergusson College, Poona, collected in the month of

December 1931 a few specimens of Freshwater medusae from a step-well on the

outskirts of Poona city. The well was without any connection with streams in

the neighbourhood. The medusae were exhibited by him before the Zoology

section of the Indian Science Congress held at Bangalore in January 1932. They

resemble the examples from the rivers in the Satara District in several features.

Pro. Yeolekar and his pupils are, I understand, making further observations on

the medusae from the freshwater well.

7 It is not known whether the medusa recorded by Arnold (1918) in the

Norquane river belongs to this genus. It is probably related to L. rhodesia.

3 For details of fie geological history of peninsular and Western India see

Carter (1857), Blanford (1869), Foote (1876), Wadia (1926), and Wait (1930).

4 The freshwater medusa observed by Alcock (1911) in a tank in Purulia

and believed by him to be widespread in the rivers of Chota Nagpur is pre-

sumably a descendant of the emigrants from the Hocene seas on the northern

side of the Indian peninsula. It has not been rediscovered since 1879,

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FRESHWATER MEDUSA 217

and south-east Africa. It would appear that the present coast line of Western

India was not formed till Pliocene times and that the configuration of the

Western Ghats was not changed till after the close of this period’.

With the Indian peninsula, namely, the modern Deccan washed by seas

on the North and on the West, and with the cessation of the trap flows in

early Eocene times followed by a period of quiescence in which the fauna

had time to settle, the ancestors of the genus Limnocmda, which was probably

widespread in the Eocene seas, had the opportunity to passively migrate into

the estuaries of the then coast line of western India, and thence into a series

of hollows of the traps which probably constituted the bed of the rivers

which flowed into those seas. As a consequence of the gradual changes in the

configuration of the Sahyadri range the drainage area of these rivers was pre-

sumably subjected to considerable alterations with the result that the ancestors

of L. indica were cut off from their marine home, and gradually adapted them-

selves to conditions of life in freshwater pools in the course of :the rivers’. The

seasonal rains and floods which brought down enormous quantities of mud,

gravel and other mineral debris probably drove them to sheltered spots

in the course of the rivers, which were apparently very numerous in the trap

area. The medusae thus sheltered during the unfavourable season survived and

gradually spread down the rivers. During the dry season when favourable

conditions prevailed, sexual reproductive activity was at its height, and the eggs

discharged were effectively prevented from being washed away with the strong

currents by a special fixation device. It is probable that the progeny of each

year was killed outright by the violence of the floods, and the species had, in

order to survive, necessarily to complete its development and to reproduce within

those few months of the dry season.

LIST OF REFERENCES.

soem Carter a oJ’ Geol. Papers. W. India, Bombay.

Iso3 = blantonds We) is Ann, Mag. Natl. dost. Ser. 3. xi.) p, 186.

86S Blantord, W.-W “Mem. Geol. Suro, India, vi, p. 145.

Iso, . INcows;, 18, Weim. Ceol, Soro, Ipinas, sony. Wel ;

1SI3y Gunther hea Ani. Mag. Nat. Hast, (Ser. (6.0 xi.) pe +269" -

SO edewGuerney Je Ann. Mag. Nab Hast. Sere 64) xiv, p.. 29:

WSO, ikoors,, de Jd, tS. MiGRe, Ibi, 30. IES

1906. Browne, eae Agia: Mag. IN@ts Hist sere) is XVi, Dp. 304.

906s. Cunmington, We AG Nature, Ixxn, p.) dill.

IG MaL Annandale, N. Nature, IXxxvii, p. 144.

ligibl, aleoelk, IN, Iona, jos Wald.

Itz eeammandales Nes tvecs Ind. Marsh silk sp. 2oo-

gt. Gravely, Ha Hd Weharkar. S54 2. bid, p. 899.. pl. xxxvi.

IS), Jsalneyelee, ts. 15 Thee, Inte WSs, Mos, 405 ON.

UGS, AarAONGl, Gry INGA, xe, 705. IU,

1919. Annandale, N. Rec. Ind. Mus., xvi, pp. 109-112.

1924. Payne, F. Journ. Morphology, xxxviii, pp. 389-403.

1924. Wegener, A. The Origin of Continents and Oceans (London).

1926. Payne, F. Biol. Bull., 1, p. 439.

1926; 9 Wadia, D. N: Geology of India iondone

1926. Hora, S. L, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxi, p. 449.

1930.. Wait, W. E. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxiv, p. 754.

HOSOI eUN VE: Hi meso iiee mix c ps 220%

ISB Theo, Isl. Si, ANG; Cxoxlls jos. Sl

* Blanford (1868) said with reference to the occurrence of Cremnoconchus

syhadrensis (Blanford), a Iuttorinid of distinct marine origin, on the Western

Ghats that ‘no question can exist as to the Western Ghats having formed a

marine cliff in comparatively recent geological times. This species occurs 30-50

miles from the sea on precipices or on steep hillsides where water runs over

rocks during rains’.

* The occurrence of Craspedacusta ryderi (Potts) in Kentucky river, U.S.A..

is explained by Payne (1926) who says that Kentucky has been part of the

sea, and that the medusae were presumably cut off from the main sea during

the period of elevation of this region, and were able to adapt themselves to

the slow changes in the salinity of water.

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA.

ao JB, CAMS, Sods, WolboS.

AND

1 K. H. BHarucHa, B.A., B.Sc.

(Pharmacological Laboratory, Parel, Bombay).

ANALYSES XIV—XXV.

XIV. Som From Saut-Licx.

SERIAL No. 18.

Locatity—Barkot Shooting Block, Dehra Dun.

OBTAINED AND SENT BY—Mr. C. Wilson, Dehra Dun, U.P.

Bufty hard clayish lumps. Powder rough; finer portions soapy.

Minerals... ae re ee OoOsperscents

Clay ee avs ay so58 | PALSTS} ms

Sand se ae ae fea LY =;

Organic debris aa 7 Pe OS Sh

Micwonre oe: fos 2 AD ig.

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ae ... 96-84 oe

Insoluble in nitric acid ° snes son DOA) ng

Potash (K,O) Boe ae ee Oe OO tear

Magnesia (MgO) ae ee te hare Oxon On aeaere

Lime (CaO) ae oe Tiga gO 2 aa ee

Alumina (A1,O,) oe Sa ee AOA

Silica (810,) soluble ... oe Piety OO OWeaer

Phosphorus {(LA0)) a ih OO Ore wars

Manganese (Mn) as Se ae 0-016 Ps

Ferric oxide (He,O,) . ee te the 200 vedas

Moisture and organic matter... gy eeOL OOO sears

Remarks.—1. The soil contains traces of sodium and chlorine.

2. The lick is frequented by chital and sambar.,

XV. Som FRom Saut-Lick.

SERIAL No. 19.

LOCALITY

, on the Road to Chakrata, Dehra Dun.

OBTAINED AND SENT BY—Mr. C. Wilson, Dehra Dun, U.P

Hard pinkish or purplish lumps; some of them flinty, others

friable.

Clay ae Ox is ... 3°58 per cent.

Sand. aS doh os oon LSS)

22?

KARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA

Fine Earth

Insoluble in nitric acid

Soda (Na,O)

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Alumina (A1,O,)

Carbon dioxide (CO,)

Silica (Si0,) soluble

Phosphorus (P,O,)

Ferric oxide (Fe,0,)

Moisture and organic matter

Remarks.—1. The soil contains i aces of cnipinit and manga-

nese.

2. The lick is used by cattle.

XVI. Sor

SERIAL No. 81.

FROM SALT-LICcCK.

LocaLiry—Kashmir Game Rukhs.

COLLECTED AND SENT BY—The

Rukhs, Kashmir.

71-516

0-081

6-088

1-326

6-868

3°904.

7:430

1-180

6-930

1-358

0-708

Deputy Controller,

219

. 100-000 per cent.

hh)

Kashmir

Greyish black earth with straw, rootlets, and numerous pellets

of dung. Powder gritty.

Minerals and detritus

Clay

Sand Eis

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)

Insoluble in nitric acid

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Alumina (AI,O,) me

Silica (Si0,) soluble ...

Phosphorus! (2502).

Ferric oxide (Fe, O;) .

Moisture and organic matter re

Remarks.—The soil contains traces of sodium and manganese.

XVII. Sort,

Serial No. 82.

LOocALIry

FROM SaLt-Lick.

Kashmir Game Rukhs.

3°20 per cent.

14-76

65-00

8-52

0-78

2-84

95-16

74-925

8-900

0-758

0-966

2-632

1-660

5) %)

Do)

s ~~ ~~ ~ ~

2 ~ 2 a

0-099)

2-289

2-840

COLLECTED AND SENT BY—The Deputy Controller, Kashmir Rukhs,

Kashmir.

Bufty hard clayish lumps.

Minerals and detritus

Clay

Powder rough.

0-09 per cent.

Zi oe)

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Sand , | or tee ... 7°99 per cent.

Organic denne Sei ies ei eeey 07/9) 5

Meret rene ne no4k Ly colle O ie ueaeee ©

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) se 4) 7: 20a.

Insoluble in nitric acid ae i) fo 866 as

Potash (K,O) Ss. cee Bn aoy (how) i

Magnesia (MgO) oe se mee ho LO eee

Lime (CaO) He ie : FeO DAC eer

Alumina (A1,O,) aa a eel abs Aaa roe

Silica (S10,) poluble <a hse an 2-296 ig:

Phosphorus (P,0,) ... oe eet CWA 5

Ferric oxide (Fe, O,) oe rh ... 0-400 ie

Moisture and organic matter 1-840 es

Remarks.—The soil contains traces of a olina, manganese and

carbon dioxide.

XVIII. Som From Satr-Lick.

SERIAL No. 8.

Locatitry—Pharenda Forest Range, Gorakhpur, United Provinces.

OBTAINED AND SENT By—The Divisional Forest Officer, Gorakh-

pur.

Buffy (yellowish) hard clayish ae Powder soft.

“Minerals and detritus ... 8:03 per cent.

Clay e pe ae ve O50 re

Sand es ae POS. ol -

Organic dleiaris a3 ae i 0280 3

Nisicae ee Sy Riemee OC re et Ga

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) as ae Oo OA ain ee

Insoluble in nitric acid nu Pe BOAO) ,

Potash (K,O) Ge Nes ee 2004 ie

Magnesia (MeO) ae oe gel ie

Lime (CaO) a ae nhc OrobOa ts.

Alumina (A1,O,) ee oe hi AAO ye

Silica (SiO,) soluble ... zee bb 7 OsSiAer s 5

Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . fod Sh OPPO a

Moisture and organic neon ae io: O:860N,,

Remarks.—The soil contains traces of sodium, manganese and

phosphorus.

XIX. Common Eartna.

SERIAL No. 9.

Locaniry—Pharenda Forest Range, Gorakhpur, United Provinces.

OBTAINED AND SENT BY—The Divisional Forest Officer, Gorakhpur.

Greyish powder and grey clayish lumps breaking easily. Powder

soft.

Minerals and denne nee peguee, Ae There rsiang,

Clay cae a se Me Dime ne eee

Sand a ope Ve: ~~. 82:98 ig

HARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 221

Organic debris As oe ... 0-64 -per cent.

Humus are a sae .. ~©6 0°89" &

Moisture ... a ae 2-24 oe

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ao aoe OEE *

Insoluble in nitric acid Ma ... 81-108 A

Potash (K,O) me a Te ek OO Oy me

Magnesia (MgO) a exe me O68 & <

Lime (CaQ) np oe et O-ANG is

Alumina (A1,O,) ie an eet PAO eons

Silica (Si0,) soluble ... a Ve releOG ice.

hospiorus: (2.0: 3. ie Poa ek ONO Mea

Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . ne he O04),

Moisture and organic matter WO 220 = s

Remarks.—1. The soil contains bake aces of ate and manganese.

2. The earth was taken from an area adjoining Salt-

Lick No. 8.

XX. Som FRoM Saut-Licx.

SERIAL No. 10.

Locatiry—The Keolapur low-lying grassy area, Lachmipur Forest

Range, Gorakhpur, United Provinces.

OBTAINED AND SENT BY—The Divisional Forest Officer, Gorakh-

put, United Provinces.

Hard grey lumps with rootlets. Powder rough.

Minerals and detritus ee 021i per cent:

Clay ie ae re A 20:20 5

Sand, ae Be fixe Ge Op OOM ea

Organic dele ee a ee 0) a

Humus ae Bigs nee Pe eciceans Lon 5) 4

Moisture ... ee a pepe PEN A

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ses £0 OAL Nee

Insoluble in nitric acid au ee Ope (s0r >,

Soda (Na,O) ey fs SO ae

Potash (K,O) se os eg OOD ers yar,

Magnesia (MgO) a ene Be Utes,

Lime (CaQ) Ue ee fe OPO 2 Oe

Alumina (A1,O,) iS me tay ya enaoO = as,

iEnospiorus (EO). a Sede Wee) aia

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) . 3°753

Remarks.—The soil contains traces of silica (soluble), manga-

nese, moisture, and organic matter.

XXI. Som From Saut-Licx..

SERIAL No. 11.

Locanrry—Lachmipur~ Forest Range, Gorakhpur, United Pro-

vinces.

OBTAINED AND SENT BY—The Divisional Forest Officer, Gorakh-

pur, United Provinces.

Hard yellowish grey lumps. Powder rough. |

Minerals and. detritus ee =» 0-88 per cent.

Clay AS ae at eae ool Ae

22a JOUKNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Sand

Organic debris

Tlaae

Moisture

Fine Harth (20 mesh sieve)

Insoluble in nitric acid

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime. (CaO)

Alumina (A1,O,) ee

Silica (810,) soluble ...

Phosphorus (P,O.) ..

iFerriceroxide (HerOs) ie

Remarks.—1. The soil enuaine traces of soaunin sulphur,

ganese, moisture, and organic matter.

Vol. XXXVI

79-86 per cent.

4-44,

0-37

0-97

97-460

81-288

9-997

0-395

0-329

1-280

0-286

0-199

2:145

2. The lick lies in the Lachmipur beat.

XXII. Common Eartu.

SERIAL No. 12.

eo Forest Range, Gorakhpur,

vinces.

~OBFAINED AND SENT By—The Divisional Forest Officer,

pur, United Provinces.

Hard greyish pellets with rootlets. Powder rough.

0-36 per cent.

Minerals

Clay

Sand tk

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture : oe

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)

Insoluble in nitric acid

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaQ)

Alumina (AI,O,) ae

Silica (Si0,) soluble ...

Sulphur (So,) ;

Phosphonus (22 O>)i

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) ...

Moisture and organic matter

Remarks.—1. The soil contains traces of sodium,

Manganese.

United Pro-

Gorakh-

chlorine, and

2. The earth was taken from an area adjoining Salt-

Lick No. 10.

XXIII. Som From Saut-Licx.

SERIAL No. 22

Locatiry—Ngawun Reserved Forest, Mergui District,

Burma.—Lat. 11938’ N.; Long. 99°15’ E.

Lower

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 223

COLLECTED AND SENT BY—The Divisional lorest Officer, Mergui,

Lower Burma.

Friable clayish lumps, yellow outside, grey inside; rootlets.

Powder slightly gritty.

Minerals ce noe ... 0-42 per cent.

Clay i a, as 500. OILY 3

Sand me ae ... 67-04 oF

Organic dena or x Pete ORG o

Mepicture eee he Se Oa a

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) =e soe OUSDOS as

Insoluble in nitric acid ae ... 84-360 s

Potash (K,O) ba ae megs WiC OC Hien ee

Magnesia (MgO) a ee Agatti T OSGen eepee

Lime (CaO) ioe es soe OelllZ

Alumina (AI,O,) es a sprain: WAC mess

Silica (SiO) ‘soluble >: Aes Ce eO O10 mA,

Pinesolnorus (PSO. oa. a Pa enOs200r) ar

Ferric oxide (Ie,O,) ... Pe ety ape (al Bh PK

Moisture and organic matter... Poe OS On ne:

Remarks.—l1. The soil contains traces of sodium and manganese.

2.° Fifteen separate licks were found in an open

erassy ‘Kwin’, 100 acres in extent and surrounded by dense forest.

3. The licks are visited principally by elephants all

the year round, and by bison during the rains. Bisons eat the

soft earth when the holes are flooded with water. Hlephants appear

to visit mostly during the dry weather grinding the AB earth

away with their tusks or tushes.

\ XXIV. Som From Saut-Lick.

SERIAL No. 231. :

Locatiry—Near Horse Creek, Salmon River, Idaho, U.S.A.

COLLECTED AND SENT BY—Col. R. Sparrow, The Lodge, Colne,

Essex, England.

butty earth with ee and felspars. Powder gritty and soapy.

Minerals ae Se ... of:90 per cent.

Clay hie Heh oat eee A aK

Sand. ie en ee soo wBOeT =

Organic debris so ee 1) O22 ‘

Nesieture ae ay a 2-40 ae

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ce ... 40-100 iS

Insoluble in nitric acid se ... 80°6838 7

Soda (Na,O) Pes ae tee eco Orci. 2

Potash (K, QO) oe ne eee OO

Magnesia (MgO) a ae Rie ene) 2A kere

Lime (CaO) we vi ei Owns: oka

Alumina (A1,O,) bas tes pape. LOB OO

Silica (Si0,) soluble ... ae soo ea 2X0)

[email protected]) oe Boe ee OCIS)

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) bee ..' 1-308 per cent.

Moisture and organic matter ie ... _ O°444 ad

Remarks.—l. The soil contains traces of chlorme and manga-

nese. |

4. The lick is frequented by Bighorn Sheep, Black-

tailed Deer, and possibly by Rocky Mountains Goat at times.

3. The sample was taken on October 30, 1929, after

a very dry summer and dry Fall.

XXV. Som FROM SALT-LIcK.

SERIAL No. 156.

Locatity—Two miles west of Nagerhole Forest Rest House,

South Coorg. }

COLLECTED AND SENT BY—G. Robinson, Hsq., Chief Forest Officer,

Mercara, Coorg.

Very dark grey clayish ee Powder rough.

Minerals Le ... 03°22 per cent.

Clay ee Sa ae son OIL

Sand fa ae So OO i

Organic debits ee “a ERG Ore i

Humus an we ba 20°46 as

Mioigtune =. tae Se BOAT re

Fine Barth (20 mesh sieve) ie sig BBOOOT 55

Insoluble in nitric acid ne eo OTS i

Potash (K,O) Ate ce iol qe CORO SUn we as

Magnesia (MgO) et ne 2 ee OeZOOl nar:

Lime (CaO) nee it sou oy! -

Alumina (A1,0O,) AG ae Sie, Pee Od ae | wlan,

Silica (Si0O,) soluble ... se 2 OOO naa.

Pacgyolevorus (WP) eo oe Ae OMS ie

Manganese (Mn) ss Ae ean OLSON Olean

Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . Be i Ie SOO se

Moisture and organic anaidien Pe 2220 a

Remarks.—The soil contains traces of sodium.

(To be continued).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Mr. THomas Burgess Fry.

(Born 8th July 1850; died 20th November 1981).

OBITUARY.

THoMAS Bureess Fry, 1850-1931.

To a great majority of Members of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Mr. Thomas Burgess Fry, who died on Novem-

ber 20th, 1981, aged 81, will only be known as the author, in

conjunction with Mr. M. A. C. Hinton and the late Mr. R. C.

Wroughton, his brother-in-law, of several reports, published in

this Journal, on the collections made by the Mammal Survey of

India, which was inaugurated and maintained by the Society.

He was the son of Robert Burgess Fry and Jemina née

Baldock and was born at Crowborough, Sussex, on July 8th, 1850.

He entered the Indian Forest Service (Bombay); and soon after

his retirement in July 1905 he joined Mr. Wroughton, who was

working at the Natural Mistory Museum in London and _ helped

him most efficiently in the sorting, cataloguing, identifying,

and subsequent dispersal to various Museums of the vast collec-

tion of skins and skulls procured by the Survey-collectors and

sent to England for those purposes.

Although to begin with he had only a general “espana with

the Indian fauna, such as most sportsmen possess, and was

wholly without zoological training, he applied himself diligently to

acquiring the technical knowledge necessary for the determination

of the species, to the extent even of learning the structural details

of the skulls and teeth of obscure groups, lke the Bats, Shrews,

and Mice, in which he had_ previously taken little interest.

After Mr. Wroughton’s death, he carried on the task single-

handed, regularly putting in some six hours work on five days of

the week, the odd week-days being set aside for golf at which,

considering his years, he was wonderfully adept. Thus routine

was broken only by a summer holiday, usually in Scotland, and

by such recreations as the University boat-race, cricket matches

at Lords and the Oval, and billiard contests. Himself an athlete

of considerable physical vigour in his young days, he kept up his

interest in games and sports to the last, and died suddenly as he

would probably himself have chosen to die in the middle of a

round on the golf course. He was buried at Ealing Cemetery

alongside his relative and life-long friend and colleague, R. C.

Wroughton. |

Only a few days before his death he handed to Mr. Hinton for

revision the report upon the Mammals of the Eastern Ghats.

Appropriately then might he have exclaimed ‘Nunc dimittis’, for

this collection was the last of the Survey work in the field, at all

events for the time being. It will be impossible to replace him

and he is grievously missed at the Museum, not only because his

indispensable work there has come to an end, but because his

placid, kindly, cheerful and courteous disposition endeared him to

all with whom he came in contact.

The photograph, showing Mr. Fry at his work in the Museum,

was taken during the summer of 1926 by Mr. Hinton.

ibd gle

AN APPEAL TO ANGLERS.

The Editor,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Dear Sir,

May I appeal to all Angling Members of the Society through

the Journal for any information they can give me on Fishing

Localities in India and Burma. With the disadvantage of

limited movements as in my present position it is impossible to

get in touch with even a small proportion of the Angling Com-

munity in this vast country. JI have in mind as you know the

publication of a book dealing with the fishing locahties in India

and Burma, brought up to date from the date of the last book

published, Skene Dhu’s Anglers in India, 1923. Any notes on

fishing in any of these localities, or new ones not hitherto mention-

ed, and of general interest to all keen anglers will be included and

published either under the name of the contributor or his

nom-de-plume, whichever he prefers.

Sketches of good spots or lettered maps will be of general

interest and gratefully received, as well as any type of fishing,

Sea, Estuary, Tank or Mahseer, with as full notes of the means

of getting to such places. :

Thanking you,

I am yours faithfully,

A. MACDONALD.

Ryam Facrory P.O.,

Dist. DARBHANGA.

REVIEWS.

HAND-LIST TO THE BIRDS OF SAMOA. By John S. Armstrong, M.B.

Pp. i-iv, 1-91, London: Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1932.

Dit Je om Ammstronc saccompanied: Dram. A. Buxton and Mr. G. E.G.

Hopkins on a research expedition to Samoa sent out by the London School of

Tropical Medicine, and in spite of his medical duties found time to pay

attention to the birds.

Samoa was discovered by the famous French navigator, de Bouganville,—

after whom the well-known genus of plants Bougainvillea was called,—and

in his account of the voyage are the first notes on the birds of these islands.

Various naturalists have paid visits to this group from time to time but few

have given much attention to the habits of the indigenous species, and the

little we know is, for the most part, through the observations of the Mission-

aries, the Revs. J. Powell, J. B. Stair, and S. J. Whitmee.

Dr. Armstrong in his list’ gives sixty-three species as occurring in the

group, thirty-seven of which are resident in the different islands, while six

are migrants and the remainder sea birds widely distributed through Poly-

nesia. Of these thirty-seven, twenty-one are peculiar to the Samoa Islands

and indeed some are contined to one island only.

The discovery of the Tooth-billed Pigeon Didunculus strigirostris im 1845

created quite a stir at the time, since, at first, it was considered to have close

affinity to the extinct Dodo. In regard to its habits too, there has been a

diversity of opinions and Dr. Armstrong’s notes on the subject are therefore of

much value. He describes its movements on the ground as a waddling walk

and when disturbed the flight is low and not continued far. We are glad to

learn that little change has taken place in the fauna since the islands were

discovered and the only bird to become extinct is the Pacific Water-hen

Pareudiastes pacificus an example of which has not been seen for the last

twenty years.

This book is perhaps rather more than a Hand-List since the author gives

descriptions and notes on the habits of each species, and considering that he

is now resident in New Zealand, far from a good ornithological lbrary, it is

a creditable piece of work.

INE

lL, TEEN IDEIONSI OU MMi IBIORIDS) Ol IBVASUdeN) CisiONe. Jeay da iD)5" IDE ue

Touche. (Vol. ii, parts 1 & u.) Taylor and Francis, London: 1932.

We now come in the first part of volume II to the non-passerine birds

and beginning with the woodpeckers, the Coraciiformes, as far as the swifts

are treated. In all some fifty-seven species are given as occurring in Hastern

China, but in addition descriptions of other races found in China, but outside

the limits of the work, which adds greatly to the usefulness of the book. ‘The

author has been at great pains to collect all the available information published

on Hastern Chinese birds and there appears to be little he has overlooked.

One new _ subspecies is described—Yungipicus scintilliceps kuwrodae from

Fokien—a woodpecker allied to the Pigmy Woodpeckers of India.

In the second part, two Nightjars, twenty-two Owls and forty-four Birds of

Prey are dealt with. It is strange that no form of the Barn Owl, so widely

distributed in different parts of the Old and New Worlds, occurs in China.

There is an interesting photograph of Chinese falconers with eagles but

unfortunately the author found no opportunity of seeing the birds at work.

The Golden Eagle is captured in North China both for use in falconry and

for the sake of its plumage—the tail feathers are in demand for fan making.

Numbers of these tail feathers were formerly imported into this country but

for what purpose we do not know.

This part is well up to the standard of the previous ones and we look

forward to the completion of this useful work.

INES Bake

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Ill. THE RIDDLE OF MIGRATION. By Wiliam Rowan. Pp. xiv and

151. 11 Text-figures. Baltimore: ‘The Wiliams & Wilkins Company.

1931. (Agents: Ballere Tindall & Cox, London). Price, Ils. 6d. net.

Thanks to the wide interest which the study of Bird Migration has aroused

amongst naturalists in recent years and to the many excellent contributions to

the subject that have made, and still continue to make their appearance

from time to time, a vast amount of data has accumulated concerning

the facts and factors relating to this absorbing natural phenomenon. Careful

and systematic field observations in many parts of the globe by competent

ornithologists have helped increasingly to acquaint us with the facts of migra-

tion. Speculations based upon the observed facts were abundant enough, but

it had long become evident that to arrive at anything like a true interpreta-

tion of them it was essential that the information gathered side by ‘side in

the laboratory by trained biologists—facts of structure, function, biochemistry,

biophysics and so on—should be co-ordinated with the field observations.

This little book, which is by far the most original and suggestive of any

on the subject that have come to our notice within recent years, examines the

question of the periodic movements of birds from the standpoint of the bio-

logist, and deals in particular with certain aspects of the possible mechanism

of migration which the author is specially qualified to handle. It is at the

same time an eloquent plea for the importance of the laboratory and the

microscope in the elucidation of the problems of migration, as also of other

problems concerning the true nature of animal behaviour. The author, in order

that his work may enjoy a wider understanding than from specialists alone,

rightly begins with the living bird; he points out the general principles of the

avian constitution, and shows that it is futile to try and account for the

inherited racial custom of migration by attributing to the bird (as has fre-

quently been done in the past), human powers of thought and reasoning when

the comparatively lowly structure of its brain clearly precludes such a_possi-

bility. He suggests that the ductless glands of the body—the endocrine

system——-perhaps play a much larger part in controlling behaviour than has

hitherto been suspected. Indeed his experiments (to be described later) on

the gonads of captive migrants controlled by artificial means, clearly demon-

strate that these glands at least exercise considerable influence over the migra-

tory mechanism. Environment is next discussed with its bearing on the

evolution of migration. Several factors hitherto held to be of a more or less

controlling nature (i.e. as providing the stimulus for migration), are then

scrutinised and disposed of. ‘Thus :—

1. Failure of food supply owing to adverse wintry conditions: Not

tenable since many species already leave for the south in July before such

conditions have manifested themselves. .

2. Temperature: Similarly ruled out.

3. Barometric pressure: While this may speed migration it cannot be

a fundamental stimulus, since low and high pressures when unseasonable, 1.e.

between June and August, as often happens, fail to instigate migration.

4. Change of colour of leaves in Autumn: Since experiments have shown

birds to be dull in colour perception, this can hardly be considered important.

5. Ulira-violet radiation: Experiments have shown that these rays,

present in sunlight, have the power to produce the substance known as Vita-

min D in the avian constitution by acting on the chemical compound ergosterol

contained in the preen gland possessed by the large majority of birds.

The intensity of these rays varies with the angle of the sun at different

seasons and is at its lowest in winter. Although they are essential for the

welfare of the organism we are not justified in assuming that they are effec-

tive stimuli for migration since it is doubtful if birds can appreciate seasonal

variation with sufficient promptness or intensity.

By such a process of elimination, Prof. Rowan arrives at the conclusion

that Day-length is the most constant and unchanging factor of the environ-

ment (has been so throughout the ages), and that its dependability suggests

this as the inaugurating principle. Hxperiments on the roosting, waking and

singing periods of many species of birds have demonstrated remarkable sensi-

tivity to the intensity of light.

As experiments of castration and ovariectomy both in mammals and_ birds

have shown, the reproductive hormones can evoke particular modes of instine-

REVIEWS 229

tive behaviour. Migration involves reproduction and must therefore be con-

sidered but a phase of sexual- behaviour. Having isolated the most constant

and plausible factor in the environment, i.e. Day-length, Prof. Rowan

proceeds to discover whether a gonadal hormone, elaborated at a specific

season—the time of migration—might not provide the stipulated physiological

stimulus. It is noteworthy that in the Northern Hemisphere the northward

journey coincides with the enlargement and the southward with the diminution

of the sexual organs. He works on the assumption that Day-length is the

factor that controls the developmental condition of the gonads. He argues

that these noticeable anatomical changes might well be accompanied by physio-

logical, and further assumes that the hormone which provides the physiological

stimulus to migration is elaborated when the gonads are in a particular phase of

their cycle i.e. either increasing or decreasing.

To investigate this hypothesis he devises a series of experiments on Juncos

(Junco hymenalis)—an American finch-like migratory bird. The experiments

commence in November when the majority of juncos in the natural state have

already left for their southern winter ans. Their gonads at the time

show the minimum development. By means of electric hghts the shortening

winter day-length is artificially increased in an experimental aviary by about

5 minutes daily, corresponding to the Spring increase experienced by juncos

returning north to their breeding area in Southern and Central Alberta. Later,

from December 3 onwards, the interval of extra day-hght is reduced to approxi-

mate natural spring conditions as far as illumination is concerned. The

aviaries, both experimental and control, are not artificially heated but are

subjected to the natural temperature which is well below zero, mostly between

-23° and -44°F. This incidentally demonstrates the resistance of birds to cold

and disproves the generally accepted view that the Spring recrudescence of the

gonads is attributable to rising temperatures. By January 9 it is ascertained

by dissection that the gonads of the experimentals, which have been growing

under the conditions created, have attained the spring maximum. The increase

is particularly rapid towards the latter end, the same as is the case with juncos

in Spring. During the last 7 days of most rapid growth the temperature

ranges between -4° and -44° F. On the other hand, the gonads of the controls

not subjected to artificial lighting, but given the same food and exposed to

the saine natural temperatures, continue to diminish until they reach the

winter minimum in November where they remain till February. The experi-

ment is reversed. The experimentals whose gonads have been artificially

enlarged, instead of being subjected to the now naturally increasing day-length

of Spring, are exposed to conditions where the day-length is progressively cut

down at approximately the rate it decreases in Autumn. By February 13 the

organs have dwindled down to the winter minimum. The experimentals are

now turned out into another aviary under natural conditions of Spring with

the day-light increasing by 4 minutes daily. By May 30 their gonads

have again enlarged to fuli breeding size. These experiments prove -

beyond a doubt that the day-length has a direct influence on the developmental

condition of the gonads.

Not satisfied with this however, Prof. Rowan proceeds to ascertain the

precise factor in the day-length responsible for bringing about this condition

in the gonads. In the above case the possible effects of Ultra-violet radiation

are precluded since ordinary electric light bulbs (which were employed in the

experiments) do not emit these rays. By means of a clever device in another

experimental cage the birds are subjected to compulsory exercise so as_ to

prevent their remaining inactive on their perches for over 20 seconds at a

time. Both the experimentals and the controls (without the exercising mecha-

nism) are placed in the same room day-length is manipulated by the

opening and shutting of the windows. Both cages therefore are exposed to

identical lighting conditions. At the end of the experimental day, when the

windows are shut, the controls promptly retire to rest while the experimentals

are restrained from doing so by the exercising mechanism which keeps them

on the move. This mechanism is operated for progressively increasing

periods of 74 minutes daily. Under these conditions it is found that the gonads

oi the experimentals develop at the same rate as those of birds given similar

periods of extended illumination outside, while the gonads of the controls

reinain stationary. It thus emerges that the length of time spent in activity

rather than the amount of exercise obtained is ane crucia factor controlling the

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

gonads. Activity therefore is the missing link in the chain that connects

gonad changes with variations in day-length.

Dissection and microscopic examination of the gonads show that the inter-

stitial cells (large glandular-looking cells scattered at certain times of the year

through the connective tissues separating the seminiferous tubules within the

testis, and the germinal epithelium within the ovary, and not directly concerned

with reproduction) are present at their maximum just when the organs are in the

phase found in birds at the height of their migrations both ways. To test

the hypothesis that the stimulus to the migratory impulse is provided by the

interstitial or hormone-producing cells, experiments on a fairly large scale were

conducted by liberating juncos and crows whose gonads had been artificially

developed as described. In four successive Winters it was found that on the

whole although the birds were released considerably north of their winter quarters,

they showed no inclination to go south to escape the rigours of winter, but

on the contrary some of them actually moved north.

The experiments of Prof. Rowan immediately open up a new and extensive

field for investigation into the mysteries which have shrouded the fundamental

causes and mechanisms of the great riddle of migration (and incidentally the

nature of animal behaviour) baffled mankind through the ages. We recommend

this book to all who take an interest in hving nature and in modern methods

of scientific work, and hope that the author will continue to share with us the

benefits of his further researches and discoveries.

IV. SIZE AND FORM IN PLANTS (With Special Reference to the Pri-

mary Conducting Tracts); By i. Of Bower, BiRas:, SC:D., Eup.) (2p: sa

232. Illustrated: Ibondon: Macmillan & Co., ltd. 19380.) 12s. 6d. net.

In this book Professor Bower brings together the results of his studies on

a subject to which he has devoted considerable attention for a number of years.

As the sub-title indicates, the author has particularly drawn upon facts for

discussion from the condition of the Primary Xylem, supplemented by his

observations on other limiting surfaces also. The reason for selecting the

primary conducting tracts is clearly the ease with which measurements can be

conveniently made both in the lving and the fossil material.

The subject so vast as that of Size and Form in Plants obviously could not

be treated comprehensively within the limits of a single volume. The treatment

has, therefore, been primarily confined to the limited field of the Pteridophyta.

This group has been chosen not so much only because Professor Bower has made

a particularly deep study of it, but also because here the conducting tracts appear

in their simplest condition, i.e., uncomplicated by the developments of

secondary growth, as is the case in some of the highest plants. The problem

can thus be studied in its simple bearings and the facts assessed at their proper

worth. Nevertheless, the author does not confine his discussions exclusively to

those plants, or, for the matter of that, to any particular section of the vegetable

kingdom. Consistently with the prescribed limits the evidence from the Algae,

the Bryophyta and the Spermaphyta,—and even the animals—is equally well

examined in the light of the facts suppled by the Pteridophyta, and is shown

to support the conclusions based on their study.

The facts presented in the text are shown to conform to Galileo’s ‘Principle

of Similarity’, which the author regrets has not, in spite of its wide applica-

bility hitherto been used in the case of plants. It is well-known, for

example, that as size increases, the surface increases only as the square while

the volume as the cube of the linear dimensions. Therefore on any increase in

size there results an increasing disparity in the relation of the surface to

volume, leading thereby to decreased ratio and to increased physiological ineffi-

ciency, when organisms, whose existence depends on the transit of materials

through surfaces of various descriptions, are growing. In the case of the

unicellular forms this menace is levelled up at each division of the cell, which

more or less restores the original ratio. In the higher types with progressively

differentiated multicellular bodies, on the other hand, the position becomes

more and more complicated as growth proceeds. In plants particularly,

accumulators of energy as they are, and with their distinctive organisation

REVIEWS 231

not only allowing but favourmg unlimited growth and expansion, the working

out of the principle ushers in special difficulties, and requires for the efficient

discharge of functions, special, external as well as internal readjustments.

In this connection the author recalls that the stele, specially in the more

primitive vascular plants, has been known to undergo changes of organisation

as growth proceeds, which, although they compelled attention due to the

peculiarities they developed, were yet treated from a purely morphological

standpoint without any attempt to imterpret them in the hght of the fune-

tions which they were called upon to discharge. They thus lacked the living,

vital outlook and were regarded for a long time as purely formal vagaries. _

Professor Bower brings to bear upon the facts, culled from many sources,

the authority of his intensive studies and mature thought. By means of an

instructive series of diagrams, drawn to same scale, he shows how, during

the ontogeny of the individual, as well as in the various groups of ferns, fern-

allies and the seed plants, the increasing size introduces complexities in the

stele which result in effectively checking the progressive discrepancy in ques-

tion. He shows how the solid core of the primary conducting strand, during

the adventures of the stele, becomes medullated, fluted, corrugated and_ stel-

lated, and finally broken into many separate strands in response to the

necessity of maintaiming, as the size increases, an effective surface in contact

with the hving cells. Material from all groups of vascular plants beginning

with the Psilophytales has been chosen. And the author convincingly argues

how those plants, such as lLepidodendroids, the Botryopteridee and _ large

Fern-types, e.g., Thamnopteris, which were not able to modify their stellar

structure in response to the growing size, became a sort of contradiction in

terms and died out. In the present day flora, too, he shows that no large

plant is known to exist with a similar ineffective structure.

Besides these observations confined to the primary vascular tracts the

author also examines in the sequel the changes undergone by the other two

luniting surfaces, viz., the endodermis and the external surface. Further he

also shows how branching, with its inevitable accompaniment of leaf-develop-

ment, 1s a similar reaction of Form to the requirements of increasing Size,

and acts as a set off against the contingent loss of proportion of surface to

buik, during development. In this way are brought together, under the influ-

ence of one dominating force, designated by the name of Size Factor (for the

present left undefined), all the multifarious types of form, external as well as

internal, that characterise the entire vegetable kingdom.

The presentation of the subject in the masterly manner which characterised

the other writings of the author, 1s both refreshing and stimulating. It offers,

for the first time, a rational explanation, in terms of the growing size, of the

various types of stellar structures found in the plant kingdom, whose evolu-

tionary sequence, though more or less clearly recognised, was nevertheless

confined to purely morphological considerations. The treatment embodies a

happy synthesis of the morphological and the physiological aspects, and gives

a direct he to the growing tendency of some to segregate morphology and

physiology into water-tight compartments. The author has by his unique

interpretation, the outcome of prolonged study and deep thought, has put life

into what are often regarded as dry bones of Plant Morphology, whose form

and evolution did not conform to any plan or law. In these studies he has

struck out several new paths and freed many a problem, of great pith and

moment, from the obscurity into which it had fallen or was threatened to be

relegated; and restored it to its position of proper recognition. The line of

treatment so successfully adopted here by the author shows how incumbent it

is to revise and overhaul the present system of botanical teachings, in order

to bring it up in a line with the modern developments, and give to it its

fuller interpretation.

ING IK, 4

Ve LOC enti nhNis soni ORT = By James Small, pisc., Fuss. (2p.

224. Wlustrated. Tiondon: J. & A. Churchill. 1931.) Price 5s.

This litthe book, the author informs us, owes its birth to the inquisitiveness

ef two small children—Sheila and Donn—‘who wanted to see the insides of

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

things’, and it is the hope of the author that ‘it may be useful and interesting

to youthful imquirers of all ages.’

The text is’ written in the simplest language and, of course, without the

use of technical terms and of long words. The material has been arranged

month by month, and the directions are straightforward and clear. They deal

with: the comparatively more obvious and more easily determinable features

of the specimens. There are full-page illustrations accompanying the text.

All that 1s required in the shape of equipment are a pocket lens magnifying

about, 10 diameters, a pair of tweezers, a sharp pocket knife (or a small razor)

and a piece of stiff celluloid.

There is no doubt that the book will prove useful and stimulating to all

who may be interested in the ‘insides of things’. As the writer himself points

out ‘a vastly interesting region hes between the high magnification of the

ordinary microscope, . . . and the usual range of details which can be seen

with the naked eye,* and it might therefore appear strange that before the

present author no one seriously thought of bringing it within the practical

range of all and sundry. This little book will no doubt fill up this gap and

will further stimulate interest by unfolding the beauties of nature that

ordinarily le beyond the range of the ordinary human vision. Although

written primarily for the British readers yet it can be easily adapted to condi-

tions elsewhere too by substituting suitable types. One only hopes that the

illustrations were bigger even though in this they went beyond the original

magnification of the lens itself.

Nee

MiSGMebeNEnOUS NOTES

I—THE BALINESE TIGER.

PANTHERA TIGRIS BALICA (SCHWARZ).

A considerable amount of literature has appeared on this sup-

posed form, but apparently, (from lack of material) none of the

authors felt quite sure as to its real validity as a separate sub-

species.

Schwarz, in his original paper,’ described the form from a single

flat skin and skull, chiefly on the ground of the smaller size and

flatter bullae, as compared with the Javanese-Sumatran races.

Afterwards? he published a photograph of the same skull.

Then we find* a quotation on the animal, taken from a letter,

written by Mr. B. Ledeboer (now dead, killed in Africa by an

elephant) to Mr. Jacobson at Fort de Kock, Sumatra, translated

and published by the latter. Rightly, the information given in

this letter, is called ‘puzzling’ by Pocock. Amongst other data we

read there that the Balinese tiger is not smaller than the

Javanese, and above all that, ‘if a Sumatran tiger is laid on its

back, nothing is seen but a whitish skin, the underside of head,

throat, breast and belly being totally without markings!’ Here

there must be considerable misunderstanding, though I cannot make

out who the offender is—either Mr. Ledeboer has made a very

thoughtless error, or Mr. Jacobson has mis-translated his letter in

English? Mr. A. Ledeboer (brother of Mr. B. Ledeboer), whom I

visited for this purpose, told me and, moreover, clearly demonstrat-

ed from his collection of skins, that there is indeed no question at all

about the Sumatran tiger being striped on the belly—the stripes of

the back certainly invade the underparts, and therefore such a

supposition has never occurred to him or to his deceased brother!

As coneerns the smaller size of the Balinese Tiger, in this respect

also the remarks in the letter of Mr. B. Ledeboer are quite unex-

plainable. Indeed, Mr. B. Ledeboer previously published another

letter? in which he (knowing nothing of Mr. Schwarz’s new descrip-

tion) gave his observaticn on the smaller size of the Balinese tiger!

which his brother Mr. A. Ledeboer at once confirmed. I hope that

I have now removed any misconception that may have arisen from

the really very puzzling information in the letter of Mr. B. Ledeboer.

Again, during my short visit to Mr. A. Ledebcer, I had the

opportunity of looking over his large collection of skins and skulls

Aji ngm ING Elists, 8-x, l9L2F p, 325:

AA Ber. Senckeno. Naturf. Ges., 1, 1913, fig. 3.

2 Sowurie IPM Ss. MNGSe5 35 ISPALS (Os: PMs

4 Journ. Bom. N.H. Soc., xxxiii, 1928, p. 534.

> In Koningsberger, Java Zool. Biol., Buitenzorg, 1915, p. 422,

to =

PRN ORIN A, IBOMUSVED INAUEO BAIL. IEDES IS SOCIIHING, Wil. 2 AXOKW IL

of the Sunda-tigers (Sumatra, Java, Bali). Mr. A. Ledeboer had

just obtained his 100th tiger, while the material of Mr. B. Ledeboer

was also available! Unfortunately, my very limited time (only one

afternoon), and further, the fact that the whole collection (skins and

skulls) was decorating the walls of the house by way of ‘hunting-

trophies’, prevented me from making a thorough study of this

splendid material. Nevertheless, aided by Mr. A. Ledeboer’s knowl-

edge—I here publish a few data on his material—even a cursory

examination showed that the differences between the 8 Sunda-races

of the tiger were so obvious, that, indeed, a single glance was suffi-

cient to distinguish the races and to recognise the origin of the skins

and skulls from their appearance!

Without claiming even approximate completeness, I enumerate

the following differences:

sumatrae sondaica balica

Size ‘normal’ ‘normal’ smaller

Ground colour of| lhghtest darker darkest

the skin

Colour of innerside| whitish a lighter shade} like in sondaica

of forelegs of the general

groundcolour

Nasals short and wide long and narrow | long and narrow

Occipital plane broad narrow narrow

Frontal line (fore-}| most flat more vaulted still more vaulted

head) |

Bullae ‘normal’ ‘normal’ | somewhat flatter

Of course I very much regret not having had the opportunity

to trace all the differences in detail, and especially not to be able to

fix any point in exact numbers. But, in connection with the doubt

expressed by Kloss’ and Pocock (l.c.) about the validity of

Schwarz’s form balica (and even Mr. Schwarz himself wrote me

that he should be glad to hear of a further confirmation of his

race), I think that even these incomplete (but, as far as they go,

quite sure) data are of sufficient importance. For myself they

have removed the last doubt as to the validity of the 8 named

races of tigers of the Sunda Islands.

Jely Js Vs OID,

| We append below a note by Mr. R. I. Pocock.

‘Knowing my interest in Tigers, the Editors kindly sent me the

MS. of Mr. Sody’s paper on the races of the Sunda Islands before

setting it up in type.

S hominid, MMbcSo WS5, os, ISPN, jo. 2,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 235

When writing on these Tigers in 1928, I had very fle speci-

mens whereon to form completely satisfactory conclusions regard-

ing the distinctness of the Tigers of Sumatra and Bali from those

of ane described many years ago as sondaica. Hence the addi-

tional evidence on these points now supplied by Mr. Sody is

particularly valuable and interesting. It is to be hoped that he

may get further opportunities of extending his observations. His

disapproval of the ‘puzzling’ statement, attributed to the late

Mr. B. Ledeboer, regarding the alleged absence of stripes on the

lower side of the Sumatran Tiger (sumatrae) is also very

eratifying’.—Lps. |

II.—REMARKABLE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGRESS.

While on the survey of the Hastern Ghats I was told a very

strange tale (not by Col. Longbow) of the behaviour of a tigress

in the Nallamalli Hills. As a matter of fact the story has gone

its “‘umteenth’ round among the Officers and Rangers of the Forest

Department in the Cuddapah and Kurnool districts.

The scene was in the Nallamalli Hills, at Iskakundam Bun-

gealow, which is about 80 miles from Diguvametta. The Conser-

vator and his Deputy had oceupied the two rooms in the forest

bungalow, the rest of the staff were in the out-houses.

The Deputy was writing his report under-.a petrol lamp in his

room when he felt something brush against his chair. He shehtly

turned his head and saw a tiger rubbing itself along the back of

the chair! !

I wonder what a good many of us would have done? Shouted?

Screamed? Jumped on the table? or fallen down in a dead faint?

The Deputy did none of these things. He was not a big game

hunter. I doubt if he had ever killed a thing in his life. He

calmly got up from his chair a as calmly walked out of the

room—closing the door behind him.

As calmly he announced to the Conservator in the next room,

that he had securely locked a tiger in his room.

None of us can blame the Conservator for jumping to a quite

natural, though in this instance, unwarranted conclusion. The

Deputy never drank a drop of spirits in his life.

They both went outside and peeping through the barred window

saw the tigress placidly rubbing herself against the table. The

first shot hit the animal but in leaping up she upset the lamp

which fortunately was extinguished by the fall. The second shot

was fired from the roof, through a hole in the thatch.

On examining the animal it was found that she suffered from

a wound on the thigh which was alive with maggots.

Now here is something for our big-game hunters to solve

Though we cannot possibly afford a prize for the best explanation

put forth, it will give us an insight into the philosophy with which

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

each big-game hunter and others approach the fascinating study

of animal behaviour. What brought the tigress into the bungalow ?

Bompay. V. 8. LA PERSONNE, M.23.0.U.,;

March 31. 1932. Asst. Curator.

Ill.—THE SKIN OF A PERSIAN PANTHER

(PANTHERA PARDUS SAXICOLOR).

I am indebted to Mr. 8. H. Prater for kindly sending to me

for examination the skin of another Panther shot by Mr. A. A. K.

Sangster. The animal was killed ‘just across the Afghan border

about 17 miles north of Zambaza’, where the first was procured.

The skin is unfortunately undated but appears to be in summer

coat. The hairs at all events are much shorter and the rosettes

in consequence better defined. The colour too is not so pale, being

ereyish buff with the dorsal area and the centres of the rosettes

a shade darker, the difference no doubt .being seasonal. It is a

shade more buffy than the skin from Seistan, presented to the

British Museum by Col. R. L. Kennion and rather paler than the

one from the Perso-Baluchi border collected by Capt. J. E. B.

Hotson. These skins were referred to on pp. 79 and 82 of my

paper on Asiatic Panthers published in Vol. xxxiv, p. 64 of this

Journal in March 1980. I may add that the four skins. here

referred to no doubt belong to the same race of Panther, namely

the so-called Persian Panther (P. p. sazxicolor). They are strik-

ingly different from the only known skin of the Panther from the

Karthar range, Sind, which I described as P. p. sindica. The coat

of this is harsh and short but quite thick and woolly and the dorsal

area and the centres of the rosettes are comparatively rich ochreous.

Additional skins, with skulls, of this Sind Panther are much

needed.

May 12, 1932. 1, 1 DOCG, a.8.S.

IV.—BLACK LEOPARDS.

The tollowing experience with black leopards may be of interest

to readers of the Journal.

On the 5th. November 1931 some local Assamese came to me

with the body of a fine female black leopard which they had

caught in a trap, the animal had been dead some few hours and

had obviously died from maltreatment. I told them if by any

chance they ever caught another to let me know at once; this

they promised to do, and departed. At dawn next day they were

back again to tell me that another, and larger, black leopard had

just been caught in the same trap. I immediately went to the

spot some 15 miles away, and there sure enough was a fine male

animal; with some difficulty I got it hog-tied and muzzled and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 237

varried to my car, in which I brought it back. Meanwhile an

unused godown had been prepared for its reception. The difficulty

then arose as to how we were to free the animal from its bonds

once it was in the godown. Eventually we decided to chloroform

it, and with the help of my friend we accomplished this by cover-

ing its head with an oiled silk topee-cover in which was a pad

of cotton wool soaked in chloroform. In a very short time the

animal was apparently nicely off, and we, in our inexperience,

thought we had administered sufficient anesthetic and proceeded

to drag it into the godown and cut it loose. We had just accom-

plished this and I had barely slipped the muzzle off when the

animal staggered to its feet. We made a rush to get out cf the

godown, which we did with the leopard hot on our heels. My

friend turned round and caught the still shghtly dazed animal a

kick under the jaw and tried to pull the door too but there was

no stopping it; it was now loose in my compound with the hitherto

interested audience of over a 100 coolies flying in all directions.

My friend had by this time snatched up a bamboo and dealt the

leopard a blow on the head, this, instead of having the desired

effect seemed to wake up the animal! I thought it was ligh

time | took a hand in the proceedings, which I did with the aid

of a “450 automatic pistol.

I now had two specimens of black leopard. Three days after

to my surprise, the same Assamese came with the tale of having

caught a third black leopard, this seemed altogether too surpris-

ing but was nevertheless true. This time I made a better ‘bundo-

bast’ and a fine male black leopard is now reposing in a more or

less leopard proof godown and will shortly be transferred to the

Calcutta Zoo.

IT understand that the black leopard is usually regarded as a

‘sport’ which occasionally occurs in a litter of ordinary cubs; but

the apparent numbers of this type of leopard, one was caught

two years ago by the same people in the same spot, rather points

to the fact that they prefer to mate with each other and produce

a litter of black cubs.

The three leopards all had a similarity of appearance, a mark-

edly long and thick tail, eyes of a curious pale-blue. The people

assure me that there is still another at large, and are arranging

to build a machan to enable me to sit up and get a shot at it.

Would you regard the black leopard as rare in this part of

India—I should be interested to receive any information as regards

these animals.

Nya Goera T.K.,

GoueurR P.O., lit, IME IRIAN

Danane, ASSAM.

August 3, 1932.

[Black Panthers are not a distinct species as is believed by

many. The phase of colouration known as melanism is the

opposite of albinism. The former is due to the excessive presence

of black pigment known as melanin which darkens the colour of

OR SOLENT, IONE INUAUTR ALL, 1EIS5P, SOOM, Woh, XO

the hairs, while albinism is a condition in which the black pigment

is entirely, or partially wanting. Black Panthers are particularly

plentitul in regions of heavy rainfall and great humidity. They

are very common in Java and the Malay countries, and have been

recorded from Burma, Assam, Nepal and in the forests of Travan-

core and South-Western India. Similarly albinism appears to be

more irequent in the drier regions of India. In Volume I, page

71 of this Journal Mr. Newnham draws attention to the frequency

of albinism observed among animals and birds in Cutch. It has

also been observed that creatures which live in colonies and are

hable to imbreeding and those which from breeding often have

become over abundant, are also subject to albinism. Albinism is

thus frequent among domestic animals and birds or wild species,

like the peacock, bred in confinement under unnatural conditions

and without the stimul of natural enemies. Albinism may arise

as a germinal variation, i.e. a hereditary factor which influences

the normal functioning of pigment-forming substances has dropped

out of the inheritance, and true albinos so effected will on inter-

breeding continue to produce albino offspring. Similarly in mela-

nism, the darkening of the hairs, or the plumage, or scales may

of course be individual modifications, but there are cases, as with

the black panther, where melanism is exhibited in a large section

of the species in a given area and here we probably have to do with

germinal variation and interbreeding among these black panthers

results in the perpetuation of the melanistic form.—Ebs. |

V.—A CARNIVOROUS BEAR.

We went from Srinagar to Pahlgam for a few days’ outing and

sport. Pahleam is a lovely spot in Kashmir, about 63 miles from

Srinagar. The main pathway of the ancient pilgrimage to Amar-

nath begins from there.

It was here, on the 1st. of July, that I made my first acquain-

tance with the Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus torquatus)—under

somewhat strange circumstances, which have led me to write this

account. The local shikari brought in news of a bear having

killed a calf; and he assured us that the beast would come back

to feed on the carease before sunset. This report we did not

credit at first, because the bear is generally known to be herbi-

vorous. Therefore I decided to investigate their report personally,

as never have I known, or heard, before of an animal being attacked

and killed by a bear for food. However, on visiting the spot, I

found the carcase of a calf which had been killed a couple of days

previously; and about half of it had been eaten already. So I

decided to sit up. A fine, big bear came at about 7 p.m. and was

shot; but what interested me was that the animal came to the

kill just as carnivora would do. I talked about this experience of

mine with the Game Warden of this State, who told me that he

had heard from natives about these Himalayan black bear occa-

sionally doing some damage among the natives’ live stock; but

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 939

this was the first time he had had reliable first-hand information

of a bear returning to a kill.

SRINAGAR. MADANSINH OF KUTCH.

ules Ie) 132.

|The food of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibeta-

nus) consists mainly of roots and fruits in quest of which this bear

is frequently found in fields and orchards. Like most bears it is

fond of honey and raids beehives. It has been known to feed

on swarming locusts. At the same time the Himalayan Black

Bear is the most carnivorous of Indian Bears. Not only does it

kill cows, sheep, goats and deer but it also feeds on carrion. In

a note on the habits of these Bears (Journ. B.N.H.S., vol. xvii,

po Seo) Mire Cy Ee Donald” comments on! this bear's clumsy

methods of killing. He came upon a bear making a_ kill—the

victim was a cow. He shot the bear and put the cow out of its

misery. The animal had one leg broken, two huge pieces of flesh

taken out of her flanks while her stomach and hind quarters had

been horribly lacerated by the bear’s teeth and claws. Of 11 fresh

kills made by bears and seen by him—one of them, a bullock, was

dragged up and placed in the fork of a tree!—Mr. Donald states

that except in the case of a fine big buffalo, which was mauled

about the neck and shoulders, all the victims were done to death

in the same crude manner. It is evident that this bear, from

the horrible job he makes of it, is a prentice hand at killing

animals. The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) may develop

carnivorous habits in the absence of its regular food. This consists

mainly of herbs, fruits and roots. This bear restricts its deprada-

tions to goats and sheep which it kills with one blow of its powerful

paw. The Brown Bear does not attack cattle but has no hesita-

tion in making a meal of a dead cow or buffalo. The Indian

Sloth Bear feeds mainly on fruits and insects—but will occasionally

feed on dead animals. Mr. Hasted records an instance of one

which made a meal of a snake, which the writer took to be a

Russell’s Viper.—Eps. |

Vi.—WILD DOGS KILLING BY NIGHT.

J send you herewith an account of Wild Dog killing at night,

which you may care to publish as being interesting.

In May this year I was shooting in ane Sal forests in a reserved

block about 50 miles S.-E. of Wesel, We had five bodas tied

out for tiger kills, the nearest one to the bungalow being just

over half a mile away on the forest road and here a Folia

and a track joined it, and 3800 yards beyond a bridge over

a small nullah which still had a few pools of water remaining.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

We were sitting at dinner at 9 p.m., pitch dark, no moon, when

we heard bellowings from this boda and at once imagined it was

a tiger killing it. The noise trom the buftalo however continued

so long that we were puzzled, and calling one of the shikaris, we

asked him what it meant; he at once said “Wild Dog’ which I

queried, pointing out that it was too late and dark for wild dog

to be out hunting. At daylight next morning the boda coolie

came back at once saying there were about 380 Wild Dogs with

puppies on the kill in the nullah. We went down at once but

the dogs had all gone, and we found the remains of the boda

(practically all eaten) close to a pool in the nullah. There was a

clean drag from where the boda had been tied down to the nullah,

a distance of about 200 yards and nothing but dog tracks visible

in the vicinity. I searched all the roads and nullah but could

find no sign of tiger or panther tracks.

I fancy the pack were coming down the road on their way home

later than usual and finding the boda, killed it; but why this

long drag? I have never known them to drag their kills before.

Was it anything to do with the puppies in the water?

Jing Ng MESS, Tt, Ei CARIES,

nee GA. cine Comes eG

June 20) 1932.

ViP—_WikbD DOGS HUNTING AND TOURING BY NIG

Apropos of Ramanuj of Surguja’s note on “Wild Dogs

Hunting at Night,’ I have on record six instances of Wild Dogs

hunting and ailling their quarry by night. Four imstances are

from the plains and two from the Himalayas; in four of these cases

I have heard the Wild Dogs in full ery.

The first instance, and thie most prolonged hunt, was that of

a Sambar hind, which appeared to elude its tormentors for half the

night.

I had frequently seen the hind while pottering about for birds.

ae was heavy with young. One night (there was-no moon), at

about 11 p.m., we heard the Wild Dogs barking and yelping. The

sound came from many directions as_ the Forest Bungalow at

Ballepalle (Hastern Ghats) was perched on a knoll we could

easily follow the gruesome chase as it circled around us. At 4 a.m.

there was silence. and taking the rifle IT set out to investigate. A

half mile into the forest and I could hear snarlings and yaps of

pain as the Wild Dogs fought each other over the kill. ‘T shall

never forget the awiul sieht which greeted me when turning in

the Hitecuon of these sounds i found my hind with her head

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES DAI

thrust into a thick bush and the most agonising look in her glassy

eyes. Her hind quarters were eaten away, and the protruding

hind legs of the unborn Sambar eaten up to the knees.

Case No. 2 was that of a male Sambar in the Palkonda Hills

of the Eastern Ghats. The ‘baying’ began at about 9 p.m. (no

moon), but the quarry was in no mood for a long run, and evaded

death by taking refuge in the bungalow stables! We flashed the

light on him and saw a nasty gash on his left flank. It must

have been touch and go for that Sambar. He limped out at the

first sign of dawn but flashed into the forest on hearing our

rousing cheer.

Case No. 3 was that of a Cheetal in the Nallamalai Range

(Mastern Ghats). The ‘baying’ began at 10 p.m. and by mid-

night the sounds stopped. It was not a full moon night, of that

I am certain. Next morning we set out to find the kill. There

were portions of the head and larger bones scattered about, noth-

ing else!

Case No. 4 was of another Cheetal but this was killed before

9 p.m. It was a dark night.

The two cases from the Himalayas occurred at Lachung in

Sikkim at 10,000 feet. Both kills were made at night which are

usually misty during the months of June and’ July. But both

these kills were cattle and I do not think they come under the

category of a ‘hunt’.

What particularly struck me in the Wild Dog hunts was the

understanding of team work each Dog seemed to possess.

The case of the Sambar hind which I mentioned first gave me

a very good idea as to how these dogs work. Each foot path and

track bore the imprints of their pads, always leading towards a

common centre. The Dogs had come in singly or in pairs down

every available tracks, a mile away from the common centre where

we found the kill. The dogs seem to realise that a big creature

like a Sambar cannot very well charge through undergrowth but

must keep to the paths.

The Ramanuj of Surguja raises a point as to the keenness of

sight among Wild Dogs at night. I should not think it would

be absolutely essential for Wild Dogs to possess very keen night-

sight to detect game in jungles frequented by game. Mostly all

game stick to the paths and tracks which show up quite distinctly

at night and any object moving down or across a path would

be detected. Besides sound and scent play a very great part in

ai Wild Dog hunt.

Dense forests into which the sun never penetrates and which

are as black as ink at night, never harbour any game animals.

Most game keep to the open or patchy forests. Here there are

more opportunities of evading capture by fleetness of foot and

here also the hunters reap their harvest.

Bompay Nat. Hist. Society. V. S. LA PERSONNE,

daly WS, Wey ASSt, \CUnaLOT:

944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

VIII.—CARCASES OF ANIMALS DYING OF RINDERPEST

AVOIDED BY JACKALS AND OTHER CARNIVORA.

On reading through the Nilgiri Game Association Reports from

1895 to last year I see that in the Report of 1909 an outbreak

of rinderpest among bison and sambhur is reported (imported by

cattle), and it was observed that the carcases of animals found

dead from rinderpest were not touched by jackals.

During the severe outbreaks of rinderpest in the past three

years among cattle in the Kollegal Division it was noteworthy that

although the flesh of the animals that died from this disease was

removed and eaten by the low caste people, neither tiger, panther,

nor jackal would touch the carcases; I cannot vouch for the

hyaena.

That the disease spread so rapidly was due, I think, to the

meat being carried by the low caste Madigars from village te

village.

HonnaMetti Estate, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.Q.,

Via Mysore, S8.I.

Agri WD, WOsys.

IX.—DEATH OF AN ELEPHANT FROM RABIES.

The following case of the death of a tame elephant by rabies |

may be of interest.

On the 16th. of January of this year, one of my cow elephants

was bitten on the trunk and round the hind quarters by a dog.

Tie wounds were immediately cauterized, and on 24-1-1932

though the dog had not been recovered and identified as mad, a

course of anti-rabic treatment was commenced. Fourteen injec-

tions of vaccine at the rate of one per day were given, until 6-2-32.

The wounds healed up properly, and until 26-2-32 the animal

was in normal health, eating its rice and fodder as usual. On

27-2-382 the elephant went lame in the off hind leg. On 28-2-32

paresis set in, and the animal fell down on her stifle joints and,

though in much pain, she made attempts to get up again. She

ate a little fodder and drank water. This condition continued on

29-2-32, but on 1-38-32 it became aggravated, and she was only

able to recline on her elbow and stifle joint. Her appetite was

poor, and a few wisps of green grass was all she could manage

to eat. On 2 and 38-38-32, the paresis developed into paraplegia

with absolute loss of the use of the hind quarters.

On 4-38-82, swelling of the tail and hind quarters was apparent,

with a total loss of appetite and failing consciousness.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES p45

On 5-3-32 total paralysis set in, with loss of consciousness,

rapid, irregular and feeble pulse, laboured breathing, cold and

hide bound body, cynosis of ‘tthe mucous membranes and on

6-3-1932 the animal died.

During the period of sickness the animal grew very thin.

Microscopical examination of the brain by the Pasteur Insti-

tute revealed positive rabies.

It is noteworthy that, at no time, was there the slightest sign

of the disease taking a violent turn.

VIZAGAPATAM. Je CK

April 15, 1982. District Superintendent of Police,

Vizagapatam.

X._SOUNDS MADE BY GAUR OR INDIAN BISON

(BIBOS GAURUS).

I have read many Natural History books, but in none have I

seen described a curious call uttered by, I believe, only bull Gaur

(Bibos gaurus). The other day I was watching these animals

erazing in the late evening, when the call was heard in the dis-

tance and answered by one of the herd, whether a bull or not I

could not ascertain, a curious bell-like note, sustained for an

appreciable time and ending in what only can be described as a

rasping sigh, almost a roar, the whole being a wild combination

of a sambhur’s bell and a tiger’s roar, it may be written

‘0-0-0-0-0-0-0-o-aagh’, it is notoriously difficult to describe sounds

in writing, but the only book I have read in which ealls made by

Gaur are described, Dunbar Brander’s Wild Animals of Central

India, he mentions five distinct sounds, none of which approxi-

mate anything like the sound I was so fortunate to hear.

I have been informed by Dufflas, who are, of course, familiar

with sounds made by the Gayal (Bibos frontalis), their domestic

mithun, that a similar call is made by the bulls, but not quite

the volume of sound as made by Bibos gaurus. The above may be

of interest to readers of the Journal.

Nya GoGRA,

Goupur P.O., Lan IE EIVALO NE.

ASSAM.

March 26, 1982.

944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

XI.—THE DURATION OF LIFE OF SOME INDIAN

MAMMALS.

(The Indian Forester, vol. lvii, Feb. 1982).

The duration of life among mammals is a subject of some

interest in agriculture and forestry, but practically no information

on it has been hitherto available. Major Stanley 8. Flower has

now concluded a series of ‘Contributions to our Knowledge of the

Duration of Life in Vertebrate Animals’ in the Proceedings of

the Zoological Society of London with a discussion (1931, pp. 145-

234) of the available information on mammals. From this splendid

work, which is based on a large series of records of mammals in

captivity in various parts of the world, the following information

relating to Indian species has been abstracted by request. The

names in brackets are those used by Blanford in his volume on

mammals in the ‘Fauna of British India’ series.

The Gibbons, Hylobates hoolock, H. lar, ete., reach maturity

when about seven years old. ‘Instances of their living in captivity

to nine years are rare, though they may live to the age of at least

twenty-iour years.’

‘The Old-World Monkeys, regardless of size, appear to have an

average life of under seven years, a specific longevity of about

ten years, a full-span life of about fifteen years, and a potential

longevity of about twenty-five to thirty years.’ Langurs have

lived in captivity in Calcutta for ten years, and a Nilgiri Langur

survived for fifteen years in the Trivandrum Zoo.

Among the Macacus monkeys, the common M. mulatta (better

known as M. rhesus) frequently lives to fifteen years and even

more. There is a record of one individual that was probably

twenty-nine years old at the time of its death. The Bonnet

Monkey, M. radiata (M. sinicus) averaged a life of twelve years

in the Trivandrum Zoo, and one individual lived to fifteen years.

The Macaque or Kra Monkey, M. irus (M. cynomolgus) lives for

fifteen years, but individuals may-live for almost twice this

period. M. silenus, the so-called Wanderoo or Lion-tailed Mon-

key, only lives for five to ten years in captivity as a general rule.

A Slow Loris, Nycticebus coucang, has been recorded as living

for ten years in the Calcutta Zoological Gardens. |

Of the insectivores little is known. A Bornean Tree-Shrew,

Tupaia tana, has lived in the London Zoo for a little more than

two years, and Hardwicke’s Hedgehog, Hrinacecus collaris, has

survived in the same place for almost two and a half years. The

average life of shrews and hedgehogs is probably in the neighbour-

hood of two years.

The Fruit-Bats have an average life of nine years with an

extreme maximum of about twenty years. The common Flying

Vox, Pteropus giganteus (P. medius), does well in captivity, a

female having lived in London for over seventeen years and a

male in Dublin for over eight years. Among the insectivorous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 245

bats Roux’s Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus rouxi, seldom lives over

four years and is not known to reach an age of five years.

Tigers, Felix tigris, may be expected to live in captivity for

four or five years, but Flower has notes of fifty individuals with

an average life of eleven years. Records’ of extreme longevity

show that tigers can live for thirteen to nineteen years and pro-

bably more. Leopards, Felis pardus, appear to have a _ very

similar span of life. Of the Snow-Leopard, Felis uncia, little is

known, but it does not appear to have done well in captivity.

One male lived in the London Zoo for a little over three years,

and in Philadelphia a specimen died after nearly eight years of

captivity. For other species of Felidae that occur in India the

following records are available :—

Jungle Cat, Ff. chaus. Three specimens known that lived for

a little more than nine years.

Lynx, F. lynx. One record (9) of sixteen years life, and

one (9) or nearly eleven years.

Caracal, F. caracal. Seldom lives over seven or eight years

in captivity. Individuals have, however, survived for as

long as sixteen years.

Clouded Leopard, F. nebulosa. Difficult to keep alive in

captivity. A female has, however, lived in the London

Zoo for eight years.

Leopard Cat, F. bengalensis. One record of twelve or

thirteen years life. A female is still alive in the London

Zoo after some nine years there.

Golden Cat, F. temmincku. One record of life in captivity

for nearly eleven years.

Fishing Cat, Ff. viverrina. Two records show that the aver-

age lie is in the neighbourhood of ten years.

Cheeta, Acionyx (=Cynelurus) jubatus. Seldom lives for

more than six years in captivity. Records of extreme

longevity show, however, that individuals may live tor

more than fifteen years.

For Indian Civets and Palm-Civets (Viverride) the following

records are known:—

Indian Civet Cat, Viverra zibetha. Five records of nine to

fifteen years (average about twelve years).

Small Indian Civet or Rasse Civet-Cat, V. malaccensis.

Between seven and eight years (two records).

Burmese Tiger Civet, Prionodon maculosus. One doubtful

record of a specimen having lived for more than eighteen

years. :

Indian Palm-Civet, Paradoxurus niger. More than fourteen

years (one record).

Malayan Palm Civet, P. hermaphroditus. Nearly twelve

and a half years (one record).

Paradoxurus leucomystax. About thirteen years (two

records). |

Paradoxurus larvatus. Two records, showing a life of nearly

eleven years and fifteen and a half years respectively, are

available,

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Small-toothed Palm Civet, Arctogale leucotis. Two records

showing a life of eight years and eleven years respectively

are given by Flower.

Bear Cat or Binturong, Arctictis binturong. A specimen

was still living in the Trivandrum Zoo in 1918 after nearly

twelve years there. Another died in London after being

in captivity for eighteen years in Singapore and London.

Among the Mongooses, the common Indian Mongoose or Grey

Mongoose, Herpestes nyula (also known as 4H. griseus and H.

mungo) has an average life of two years in captivity, the records

for extreme longevity being nearly five years (London) and eight

years (Trivandrum). Other species of Indian Mongoose do better

in captivity as the following records show :—

Spotted or Small Indian Mongoose, H. auropunctatus. The

average life is about seven years according to records

from Calcutta and London.

Ruddy Mongoose, H. smithii. One specimen lived in the

London Zoo for nearly six years.

Ceylon Brown Mongoose, H. fulvescens. One specimen

lived in the London Zoo for nearly five and a half years.

Stripe-necked Mongoose, H. vitticollis. A male survived

captivity in the Trivandrum Zoo for nearly thirteen years.

Of the Hyaenas, Major Flower writes:—‘The Striped, the

Brown and the Spotted Hyaenas are all long-lived animals. Fifty-

four individuals in fourteen different collections had an average

life of twelve years and maximums of from twenty-three to twenty-

five years.’ Hight records of the striped Hyaena, Hyaena hyaena

(H. striata) range from nearly twelve years to twenty-four years,

the majority being in the neighbourhood of sixteen years.

Regarding wolves, thirty specimens of Canis lupus averaged

a life of nearly ten years, cases of extreme longevity being repre-

sented by two records of nearly fourteen years. Two Indian

wolves, C. pallipes, are believed to have lived in captivity for nearly

thirteen and fifteen years respectively. Jackals show an average

and extreme length of life similar to that of wolves. Specimens

have lived for over twelve years in the Trivandrum Zoo and for

over fifteen years in the Calcutta Zoo.

Several English specimens of the Common Fox, Vulpes vulpes

(V. alopex) have lived in the London Zoo for more than eight

years. Blanford, however, states that ‘Foxes live thirteen or

fourteen years’. An Indian Desert Fox, V. leucopus, lived in the

London Zoo for nearly eleven years. Of the other Canidae little

is known. An Indian Wild Dog, Cuon dukhunensis, was still

alive in the Trivandrum Zoo after nine years, and a Malay Wild

Dog, Cuon rutilans, survived captivity in the London Zoo for six

and a half years.

Records of the Mustelide are confined to Otters in so far as

species occurring in India are concerned. Indian Otters have

survived captivity for periods between eleven and sixteen years.

Bears live well in captivity. The average life of the Brown

Bear, Ursus arctos, seems to be over twenty years, the extreme

age not less than thirty-four years. The Himalayan Black Bear,

MISCHLLANEOUS NOTES 247

U. tibetanus (U. torquatus), seems to have a very similar duration

of life. The Malay Bear, U. malayanus, appears to be shorter

lived, the average being under twelve and the extreme under

twenty-one years. Several Sloth-Bears, Melursus ursinus, have

lived in captivity for an average of twelve years and some for

periods between sixteen and twenty-two years. According to

Blanford, a Sloth-Bear may live for forty years, but this is pro-

bably an over-estimate.

Among the Rodents, rats and mice have a specific longevity

of two to three years and a potential longevity of five to seven

years. Flying squirrels, squirrels, marmots and porcupines appeai

to have a specific longevity of five to ten years and a potential

longevity of fifteen to twenty years. The following information

relates to Indian species :—

Large Flying Squirrel, Petaurista (=Pteromys) inornatus.

A specimen lived in the Calcutta Zoo for over eleven

years.

Palm Squirrel, Funambulus (=Sciurus) palmarum. An

albino specimen lived in the London Zoo for five and a

half years.

Giant Squirrel, Ratufa indica. A specimen, in the posses-

sion of the Bombay Natural History Society, lved for

over sixteen years.

Hodgson’s Marmot, Marmota (=Arctomys) caudata. Three

individuals lived to over six years in the London Zoo.

Black and Brown Rats, Rattus rattus and R. norwegicus.

The average life of these rats is probably two to three

years, but definite information is not available.

House Mouse, Mus musculus. Major Flower’s longest

record is only a year and a half. As a schoolboy I domes-

ticated a litter of mice; they remained alive for about a

year. |

Bamboo Rat, Rhizomys badius. A specimen lived in Cal-

eutta for at least three years; another lived in the London

Zoo for nearly three and a half years.

Poreupines (Hystrix spp.) and Brush-tailed Porecupines

(Atherurus spp.) live from eight to twelve years, extreme longe-

vity in Hystrix being represented by a specimen that lived to

nearly twenty and a half years in the London Zoo. Hares and

rabbits ‘live to an age of five or six years, and exceptionally to

twice as long’.

The specific and potential longevity of the Indian Elephant

appears to have been greatly exaggerated by several writers in-

cluding Blanford. According to Flower there is no ‘absolutely

convineing evidence of an Elephant living to the age of 100 years’.

i sixty elephants seen by him in India and Burma in 1918 the

oldest were under fifty-five years of age, while from records of

elephants outside India ‘that have lived longest in their respective

new homes we find that they have an average life of a little over

twenty-eight years’ and it is reasonable to suppose that elephants

survive even better in captivity than they do in the wild state.

From the evidence of dentition seventy years would appear to be a

249 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAIST._SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

liberal estimate of the potential longevity of an Indian Elephant.

It is also of interest to add that elephants become sexually mature

at an earlier age than is commonly supposed. Cases are known

of elephants. that have calved when between thirteen and sixteen

years ol age.

Asiatic Wild Asses average a life (according to twenty- ee

records) of about fifteen and a half years and may live to twenty-

two years or more. Records of Kiangs, Hquus kiang (H. hemio-

nus) show that individuals may live in captivity for periods rang-

ing from eighteen to twenty-five years. A female Indian Wild

Ass died in the London Zoo after nearly sixteen years of captivity.

Most Rhinoceroses are said to live for less than ten years in

captivity, but “twenty-seven. selected individuals show an average

life of almost twenty-two years’, and individuals have been known

that have lived for over forty years. Fifteen records of the Great

Indian Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis, show an average life of

about twenty-nine years, a minimum of fifteen and a quarter

years and a maximum of forty-seven years. An individual of the

smaller Sondaic Rhinoceros, R. sondaicus, lived in the London

Zoo for nearly eleven years, and another in the Calcutta Zoo for

over fourteen years. Four records for the two-horned Rhino-

ceros, R. sumatrensis, show a life between ten and thirty-five

years. |

The majority of Tapirs live less than six years. in captivity,

but their potential longevity is at least thirty years. The. aver-

age for eighteen individuals over seven years of age is about

fifteen years. The longest records in the London Zoo for Malay

Tapirs, Tapirus indicus, are nine and a half years for a male and

a little over eleven years for a female. A Tapir, probably the

same species, lved in the Trivandrum Zoo for twenty-three

years.

The larger wild cattle have a specific longevity of nine to

twelve years, and a potential longevity of twenty to twenty-five

years, or even (but very rarely) thirty years. The Domestic

Humped Ox, Bos indicus, frequently lives between ten and four-

teen years; a pair of gayals, Bibos (=Bos) frontalis, lived in

London for about fifteen years; Yaks, Poephagus (=Bos) grun-

niens, are capable of breeding to at least eighteen years of age,

six records of long-lived Yaks ranging from fifteen to nearly twenty-

four years. A very long-lived Asiatic Buffalo, Bubalis (=Bos)

bubalis lived in captivity for over twenty-nine years and must

have been over thirty years of age when it died.

On wild sheep, goats, goat- -antelopes, and antelopes the. follow-

ing information is available:

Urial, Ovis vignei. Three individuals have lived for over

eleven years in the London Zoo.

Bharal, Pseudois nahoor (Ovis burrhel). Ten individuals

have lived in the London Zoo for over eight years each, and some

have survived for periods ranging from thirteen to sixteen years.

Markhor, Capra dalaomnonn. aii the common goat, C. hircus,

the ordinary life of the Markhor and other wild -gonts is eight to

ten years.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1249

Himalayan Ibex, C. sibirica. A female was killed in the

London Zoo after having lived there for a little over twenty-two

years.

Thar, Hemitragus jemlahicus. ‘The ordinary life is as for

the goat, but individuals may live to: twelve to fourteen years

and even to over sixteen years.

Nilgiri Thar, H. hylocruis. Probably the same as the above.

A specimen lived in the Trivandrum Zoo for nearly seventeen

ears. :

: Goral, Naemorhedus (=Cemas) goral. A male lived in the

London Zoo for a little over eleven years; another survived for

nearly eighteen years.

Makin: “Budorcas’ taxicolen. «. A male lived im Iuondon for

nearly nine years; a female is still alive there after about eight

years.

Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra. Several records show that

this antelope seldom lives longer than seven years in ealpabanay, but

individuals may live to fifteen years.

Four-horned Antelope, Tetracerus quadricornis. A specimen

lived in the London Zoo for seven and a half years; another is

said to have lived in Pretoria for ten years. :

Nilgai, Boselaphus tragocamelus. This species does well in

captivity and produces twins regularly, but the maximum ages

it reaches are very moderate, being generally between eight and

twelve years. An exceptional female in the Antwerp Zoo is said,

however, to be more than twenty-one years old. The Superin-

tendent of the Zoological Gardens, Calcutta, gives the average age

(in a letter to the Forest Entomologist) as ten to fifteen years,

the same period being also applicable in his opinion to other

large antelopes.

For deer the following records are available for Indian species : —

Muntjac or Barking Deer. Major Flower does not give

definite records for the Indian species, but it would seem that

these animais seldom live more than six to eight years. |

Chital, Axis (=Cervus) axis. The records for twenty-five

selected individuals show an average of about ten years. -The

longest records range from twelve to fourteen years, but an ex-

ceptional individual lived in Paris for almost nineteen years. The

Superintendent of the Caleutta Zoo informs us that the average

age is ten to fifteen years. |

Hog Deer, Hyelaphus (=Cervus) porcinus. The longevity

of this species is similar to that of the Chital.

Sambar, Rusa (=Cervus) unicolor. The longevity of this

species is also similar to that of the Chital, but more cases of

individuals attainme ages between fourteen and eighteen years

are known.

Barasingha, Rucervus (=Cervus) duvaucelu.. This species,

and other Rucervine deer, appear to have a longer life than the

Chital and Sambar. Records are given by Flower of specimens

that have lived for periods ranging from a little over fourteen years

to twenty-three years. The average life is probably in the neigh-

bourhood of twelve years.

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Thameng or Eld’s Deer, R. eldui. Three records, showing a

life of thirteen years, are given by Flower.

Hangul, C. hanglu and Wallich’s Deer, Cervus wallichi.

These Kashmir deer may live for thirteen to fourteen and a half

years according to the two records given by Flower.

Regarding the Indian Wild Boar the Superintendent of the

Calcutta Zoological Gardens informs us that they live for fifteen

to twenty years, but Flower’s records for wild swine show that

twenty years is the potential longevity, the average being in the

neighbourhood of ten years. An Andaman Boar, Sus andamanen-

sis, lived in the London Zoo for a little over twelve years.

It may be of interest to add that among domestic animals the

ordinary extreme age for cats is about fifteen years; the average

life of a dog in England is less than four years, though the poten-

tial hfe is very much more. A dog is old at ten years, but cases

are known, especially among terriers, of survival to twice this

age and more. Of horses it is said that given a fair chance it

is not unusual for them to live to, and be capable of reproduction

at, twenty-five years, the average extreme age being in the neigh-

bourhood of thirty-five years. The oldest age claimed for a horse

is sixty-two years, and authenticated cases of horses living for

forty to fifty-five years are known. Donkeys may live for forty

to fifty years, but the average good life is probably about twenty

years. Mules appear to have much the same span of life as

donkeys. For domestic oxen and cows the specific longevity les

between five and twelve years, for sheep between seven (ewes) and

twelve (rams) years. Goats have an ordinary life of eight to ten

years, but may live and be useful for much longer. A camel

generally passes the point of utility at twenty years, and should

not be used for hard work before it is six years old. The extreme

age of a camel may be about forty years.

In concluding it may be stated that, contrary to popular belief,

man tops the list of long-lived mammals. The biblical span of

‘three score years and ten’ is a fair average, but individuals may

live to a hundred years and even much more. The Asiatic ele-

phant and the horse are the longest lived mammals after man.

Insectivorous bats, insectivores, and small rodents are the shortest

lived mammals, their maximum expectancy of life being in the

neighbourhood of five years. In such cases the equilibrium of

population is maintained by great fecundity.

CEDRIC DOVER.

XI.—THE DURATION OF LIFE OF SOME, INDIAN

MAMMALS. TIGERS.

Writing in The Indian Forester for June 1982, referrmg to Mr.

Dover’s article on the ‘Longevity of Indian Animals’, in which he |

MISCELLANHOUS NOTES 251

says:— Records of extreme longevity show that tigers can live

ito vO lam yearsmands provdbolngemonree- Mire sae. Le Minehing Tras:

quotes a case of a man-eater having lived for about 20 years in

the Ganjam District. I give below, with Mr. Minchin’s permis-

sion, his note on the subject:— .

‘A man-eater who had his beat in the Chendragiri forest of

Ganjam District was well known in 1913. He did most of his

business on a forest road from “‘Cox’s Corner’’—named after Mr.

Stephen Cox—to the edge of the sal jungle near Tilisingi.

Ganjam tigers are man-eaters by ‘heredity generally, and not

‘“‘by misfortune’. There were nearly always several tigers in the

locality referred to; but it is improbable that there has been any

contusion about the identity of this particular tiger. He had dis-

tinctive mannerisms. For example, after crossing a stream bed

the road passed upwards through a cutting. Whilst a train of

loaded timber carts were labouring up the incline, out on to the

road would stroll our tiger, would sit him down luxuriously and

enjoy the ensuing pandemonium. Some magic or telepathy would

warn him when to abstain from such performances.

In 1918 he was mature; probably not under four years old.

Otherwise he could hardly have appropriated and defended so

desirable a beat. In 1915 there were five hundred rupees on his

head; and one day he would have come to an end but for ill-

timed politeness between myself and another man: my fault it

was. I do not know exactly how many people he is supposed

to have killed both before and after this occasion. Dozens and

dozens.

A man-eater may seem to have been a bad institution. It

must be observed though that my friend’s victims were frequently

women, were never above the rank of Forest Guard, and that,

in a forest where the general shooting was poorish, he certainly

raised the standard of his tract far above the average. To one of

his exploits we owe a memorable Service Order, which run “‘K.

Lachmana to act as Forest Guard, Fourth Grade, in Tarasingi beat,

vice Bamsonia devoured by tiger, with effect from March 3rd,

WES”,

The same tiger was there in 1920, when I left the district. In

1925 I toured in Ganjam; and once again in 1929. From what

local acquaintances—forest officials and also the Khonds and

Ooriyas—had to say, it was still the very same tiger.

The use of the forest road had long been abandoned; and

only armed parties ventured in for thinnings, fire tracing etc.

About 1921 Mr. Shelswell, whilst looking after thinnings, was the

victim of an unprovoked attack by a rogue elephant in this same

place. Quite a warm corner in fact.

In 1929 March, early one hot weather afternoon, I was

watching a fire line, along which it seemed the tiger might come

back towards his kill. He came unexpectedly early and took me

by surprise so that I did not make up my mind to fire quickly

enough; but a mental picture of him remained. He had no

tawny shades in his coat: there were the dark stripes on a

dull silvery grey ground colour. Obviously an old animal. Mr.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Ware of the Veterinary service was with me at the time. It was

he and I who had had the chance at the same tiger in 1915.

After this occasion in 1929 no more was heard of the “‘Chend-

ragiri Man-eater’’. There is no story of any one having shot at

him; but he ceased to terrorise the neighbourhood. .

As far as one can be sure in a matter of this kind, the tiger,

which must have been quite four years old in 1918, was the same

tiger that was last seen in 1929. That would male him not less

than 20 years old at the time of his presumed death.’

The above is about equalled by the history of the Bargur man-

eater which was the periodic scare of the Ramapuram-Bargur

Ranges (Kollegal Division, Coimbatore District) for 15 or 16 years.

This tiger apparently varied its diet with men, cattle and game

killing, rather a peculiar case. It was finally shot in 1928 by a

poacher, who was out for a stalk in the early morning, met the

tiger round a corner, fired, threw down his gun and bolted for

dear life. The tiger was later in the day found lying dead.

Needless to say, the man did not claim the reward, knowing he

would be prosecuted under the Arms Act and for poaching.

This tiger must have been quite 20 years old at the time of its

death.

HonnamMetti Estates, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS, F.z.s.

ATTIKAN P.Q.,

Via Mysore,

S. Inpta.

June 10, 1982.

XIII.—RECORD OF BIG GAME SHOT IN THE —

NILGIRI AREA 1905-1931.

While it would appear that Sambar have decreased consider-

ably Bison seem to be fairly steady. No Chital are recorded as

shot since 1914.

~ JT enclose a table showing the number of head of big game

recorded as shot within the area controlled by the Nilgiri Game

Association from 1905, and the number of licences each year. You

may consider the table of sufficient interest to publish in the

Journal of the Society. The list is published with the authority

of the Association, |

253

MItSCELLANEOUS NOTES

SION GO:

|| a 1) OL

6L | 06 | 6

ca | 96 | BFL

Lo | €& | Z6L

98 6 | OO | We

Zo | 69 | &8

ee Ze | G8 | OFT

205 No | |) PL

pote HOMO) | tein | ey |) alte

woe) VEqUES || Gr TOL | GIG

w9E TBQUBS | eG cg | 661

wtOG TEQUBS Tp} pL | SET

v8G *BQUIeS | Og 8G | 62I

Cen Glen e1Gil

: oe Cle 1G) seo

veg peoids ‘fet yyuts uostg

vt9G TeQUVS | Fe] pp | CFT

vt LG TEQWBS | pT | EF | FOT

vtOV FeQUIVS | Fe} Og | SEI

veSe FeQWUeZ | OZ) EL | SET

Wige TequMeg | yz} 9 | SLT

wily peedds ‘,f8T Yyyatd uostg

vi9g weqmeg | eZ] 6g | 08

oo €Z| 99 | FST

woe peoids ‘ E)T Yyats uosiq

46 Tequieg | 1z% 89 | 6FT

S di7 MAGMA |) Se ee Ee

ey PLS LE CUE S| oc es BGG

uLOY {6G wequieg | -~ | =| S826

SpBoy 4seq JO S}JUOMIINSBET| Sy = =

sogoue0lT "Ff

‘OS6L ‘ee fo

‘AUOSATL «DUA

“O'q NVULLLY

‘ALVIS ILLANVNNOF,

OGerlgtis | erie mele Che ak | GG ge PP ene iat TS-0&6T

Gear, 1S IP ee IL | €T Gas 0€-6261

Cra eeceleenC ssh adie. O (erelel Yu =O) (eon le eT ae 6G-8Z61

QQ [1 TE | IN | IG eS sb LT 7 8Z-L61

COU ere eet pere it ee ous | ane Gs, ay leas GG er LG-9B6T

vt | we | | @ |) OLE OD feet wee be pat eet 96-461

Te TS hE Oe leat 0@ Bee |i: GS-PZ6L

CC a SR Te ete 76 Oeste PS-SC6L

Ae ee Ro ne ap [eee ee Pb 2 qa Giles |e EB-ZEBT

ay Po 1) Pee Be | a ae Ee | oe ora Gracie GS-1G6L

Cian el: Gi 6 EO 1 OC | OR re 8g Ole 1Z-OZ61

ee Ne ee oO Ae) OR PGA eee ges f= eee ee 0Z-6 161

He [Page ft Slot Cer O FU eee Se Boe 6L-SI6T

Sie a He PP ge aes et OIL] AE OF 7 ee SI- L161

TG. eel OR a. Heer CGH e anes OF G aloe LI-9T61

ae |) V6 OF ht Ee ewe 6 Ue 2 || Gs G 91-SI6L

POON Se ae IO ae TE AEE || P= 8 NG tee GT-FI6I

99 | TE ob Se Gh ae) ae vO |) as) os ee FI-SI6L

09 | HY Go| bo Ot wei 16 FB ee Ge Ls CL-GI6L

SS eal alge Tt | @ ) O88! Gel & | OL} Gal ol leeeees SL-LI6L

vale al oe a pba | SG De ln oe SRS IT-O16L

west ott Ge (Tt) i te Ro OL) Gay. Re] 138 G False 01-6061

se ea DO NA BELG FI Oo) -e LY 7 60-8061

esa y OOr) ev |) O | Or) qt) w | iat) Sel as Wee Se 80-L06T

=~ roo ee | 1 I SIP TE @ BO] ee Ral Salen 10-9061

° Z Gi Ohl ee llcOGs eG ia] 1 leaean| ae 8) Gin e 90-4061

> wit) wi sie] ol eS [ee tap ee

S| 6o| oe Fe Be este ert ee else || oe

— rs i de © © wr = (on = IVOX

954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

XIV.—SMALL BORE RIFLES AND BIG GAME.

Karly morning on the 7th. of April 1932, accompanied by

my ‘sais’, I rode to the eastern side of the Dhakka Chat Kadir

in Pilbhit District, U.P., which is all open sand on the right bank

of the Sarda river, in order to try and get a good photograph of

a big tiger’s tracks in sand, and though I saw numerous tracks

of tigers I did not see a good enough impression to take a photo-

eraph. Before returning home I had a look at the kadir through

fieldglasses from the high ground at Pasian and to my astonish-

ment saw a tiger standing in the middle of one of the swamps

about 300 yds. from me. I jumped off my horse and seized my

rifle, a -395 Mauser, from the ‘sais’ and ran along the bank hoping

to get a nearer shot. As I reached the spot I had selected the

tiger had left the water and was disappearing into high and very

thick ‘khagar’ grass. JI sat down on the bank and waited for

about 15 minutes in hopes that the tiger would come out nearer

to me but as he did not I returned towards my horses. Just as

I got to them I saw the tiger standing below me and across the

stream about 80 yds. off and looking up at me on the edge of the

high grass. He was broadside on so I let him have it behind the

shoulder. He leapt into the air with a loud ‘woof’, took two

bounds and fell over and before I could get a second shot into

him he again gave a bound and a ‘woof’ and disappeared out of

sight in the high grass. This was at 8-45 a.m. When I fired at

him and he spoke, the tigress who was following him, and whom

I had not observed, also gave a ‘woof’ and broke back through the

high grass. I waited quietly for half an hour in hopes of seeing one

or the other but in vain, so rode home as fast as I could to get a

heavy rifle and help, leaving the ‘sais’ behind to watch. Nineteen

stalwart tenants of mine volunteered to assist me so I sent them

off with a feed for the sais and mare and followed after breakfast.

I didn’t get back to Pasian till 3 p.m. owing to the delay in getting

bullocks for a small bullock cart to take me out the five miles.

On my arrival the ‘sais’ reported that he had heard and seen

nothing, so it was decided that we should cross the stream and

look for blood. When we got to the place where I saw the tiger

fall over we found a small patch of blood and from there to the

heavy grass there was plenty of blood. Before entering the heavy

grass I fired two shots from my 12 bore with No. 6 shot into the

erass and then we followed up the blood trail for about 50 yds.

and as we did not come across the tiger dead I thought discretion

was the better part of valour and turned all my stout-hearted

followers back the way we had forced our way through the grass.

It was just as well I did so, for next morning, when we searched the

grass with a herd of buffaloes we came across a large pool of

blood not 20 yds. from where we turned back where the tiger

must have been lying and moved off after I fired the two shots.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 955

He left the grass accompanied by the tigress sometime during the

evening or night and went north and we lost all trace of him.

Moral.—Do not use a small bore rifle on tiger.

JaLAR Reo, IP.O);, Jie ID. WG JeNBUNIaS ae, Conar.,

Kerns USP. 2nd. Lancers.

XV.—_GAME RESERVES AND FLASHLIGHT.

In your issue dated 15-7-82 I see a letter from Mr. Morris

expressing the opinion that the use of flashlight is very disturbing

to game. ‘There have also recently been articles in the ‘Field’

suggesting that eager bird-photographers are driving rare breeding

birds away from their nests in England and that some photo-

graphers are harrying the big-game of Africa by trying to take

photographs from low-flying aeroplanes. As one who has been keen

on wild-life photography for the last 25 years or more, and who

has many years of experience of flashlight photography in

India, I would like to write a few words on this subject.

What some photographers tend to forget is that there is just

as much true sportsmanship called for in the wild-lfe photographer

as in the sportsman who hunts to kill. There are certain things

that may be done and others that may not. I do not know who

the photographer is that Mr. Morris refers to; but, in my opinion,

plastermg the jungle with a dozen flashhght cameras is not sport

and should not be allowed. It is quite impossible for anyone to

control personally a dozen cameras and it is merely trusting to

luck that a vast expenditure of money and flashight powder will,

by a fluke, produce some result. The whole art and interest of

flashhght work lies in personally controllng one or two cameras

and trying to anticipate what some particular animal will do. To

use a dozen cameras at once is about equal, in my mind, to hunting

with a machine-gun and firing off many cartridges on the chance

of scoring at least one hit. Further, I am of the opinion that it

is quite unfair to use flashhght at all—except possibly in very

exceptional cases—over drinking holes where water is scarce. Nor

is it playing the game to drive animals away from dens containing

cubs, or birds from their nests. In every case the photographer,

if he be a true sportsman, must decide for himself whether any

scheme he may evolve for obtaining a photograph is fair on the

subject or not,’ and, if his conscience tells him that it is not, the

chance must be let pass, however tantalising it may be. After all,

the true sportsman with a gun does not shoot at every animal he

sees or in every way he can contrive, and the photographer must

adopt the same standard of fair-play if he is not to bring the fine

hobby of wild-life photography a bad name.

I write with ten years’ experience of flashlight work in India

and I emphatically state that flashight photography, employed

in moderation and with a sense of fair-play on the animals, does

not disturb the game anything like so much as ordinary shooting.

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVI

An occasional flash and bang in the jungle is probably mistaken

by the animals for lightning, and it does not cause them any serious

worry, for it 1s not accompanied by wounds or the startling crash

of a missed bullet hitting the ground near the animal. As an

example of this I would suggest that anyone interested should

read Chapter III of my book With a Camera in Tigerland, describ-

ing how a tiger was photographed by flashlight, which disturbed

him so little that he killed a buffalo bait on the same road shortly

afterwards and finally showed no fear whatever when photographed

by daylight the following day. And I could supply dozens_of other

similar examples. But the man who scatters flashlight traps in

large numbers all over the place, and who is presumably taking

photographs purely for monetary gain or because he has so much

money that he does not know how else to waste it, is a nuisance

and. should be refused entry into any sort of game preserve. The |

same remark apples to professional film-makers, who, in some

cases at any rate, certainly regard wild animals as a means to

making money and who are not always above positive cruelty pro-

vided only that they can make their films sufficiently sensational

to meet the tastes of a not over-refined public.

Flashlight or any other kind of wild-life photography is a

magnificent sport which calls for thé maximum of pluck, skill,

and wood-craft. In proper hands it must be infinitely less cruel

than any kind of hunting. The callous professional photographer

can be refused entry to forests containing wild animals, but I

would appeal to all those amateurs who really love wild animals

to remember that, in their enthusiasm for their hobby, they must

always bear in mind that it is not playing the game to cause

animals suffering in order to produce pictures, however fine they

may be. I would also appeal to Mr. Morris to be a little less

hasty in his letters to the press, and not to judge flashlight photo-

eraphers as a class from his experiences of one individual. After

all, I have known individual shikaries, on occasions, do extremely

objectionable things, but I would never dream of making a general

statement that all shikaries drive game out of a reserve or are

unsportsmanlike. Jf Mr. Morris had had as much experience of

the effects of an occasional flashlight on wild animals as I have,

he would hesitate before making the extremely dangerous state-

ment that ‘I cannot imagine anything more disturbing to the game

in a jungle than the flash and explosion of flashlights’. I could

tell him of a dozen things much more disturbing, one of which is

the use of magazine rifles, another the noise made by a line of

beaters, and a third the extremely objectionable and growing prac-

tice of shooting from or with the aid of motor-cars. I would

even suggest that, every time Mr. Morris fires his gun or his

rifle, he disturbs the game just as much as the photographer’s

harmless flashlight, and, what is more, if he shoots straight he

deprives some wild creature of its most precious possession—life

itself. If, by chance, he does not shoot quite straight, he may,

perhaps, wound some creature and be foreed to leave it to die a

lingering and miserable death—a thing the photographer never has

to do. I think I have written enough to show Mr. Morris, and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 257

others who agree with him, the other point of view, and I would

close this note by suggesting that, until he and others lke him

have laid aside their guns and their rifles for ever, they should

remember the old old saying about people who live in glass-houses.

Naini-Tau, U.P. | Ff. W. CHAMPION,

August 10, 1982. * Indian Forest Service:

XVI.—THE PENDULINE TIT (REMIZ CORONATUS

SHEVERTZOFF) IN THE PUNJAB..

To the occurrences of the Penduline Tit (Remiz coronatus) in

the Punjab, recorded in our Journal by Mr. H. Whistler from

Jhelum (vol. xxin, p. 153) and Mr. A. EH. Jones from Lahore (vol.

xxxv, p. 202), I can now add one from the Shahpur District. I

obtained 2 9 @Q in trees bordering the Lower Jhelum Canal. at

Ghullapur on March 14, 1982.

__ DANDOTE, - : Ae Wo WALTER,

JHELUM DISTRICT, , Indian Police.

PUNJAB. | 7

MMe ll, MWB.

| WUE, —NOTES ON SOME CEYLON BIRDS.

The Ceylonese Warbler, Elaphrornis palliseri, Blyth.

These rather odd little birds are common in the ‘owed on. the

slopes of the Great Western in Ceylon at about 4,500 feet and

upwards and venture into the tea where it borders on the jungle.

In habits they much resemble the smaller babblers. In the off

season. they go about in small parties keeping to dense under-

erowth where they creep about among the stems like mice, obtain-

ing much of their food off the ground, and continually flirting their

long and much graduated tails. They are very silent, the only

note that one normally hears being a low single explosive ‘qtz’

which is also their alarm note when the nest is approached. In

the breeding season in March and April they have a feeble little

song of a few scattered notes.

The nests are remarkably substantial affairs of moss and dead

leaves with very thick walls and a deep cup beautifully lined,

usually with skeleton leaves. The four I have found have been

from two to five feet from the ground... One was in a tea. bush

and the others in the jungle in clumps of bamboo at the side. of a

game trail. There were two eges in each case, somewhat’ remi-

niscent of small bulbuls’ eges, white in ground colour, heavily

covered all over with small, dull purplish spots and occasionally

there- were one or two purple. hair lines. .

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

They are close sitters and when put off the nest do not go far

but scuttle about under cover in the near neighbourhood. I put

up a hide within three feet of one nest containing young and the

parents soon overcame their alarm and came freely to the nest.

Both male and female brought food but the latter, distinguished

by her white iris, was much the shyer. The cock, who had fine

ruby eyes, was very bold. It was difficult to distinguish what they

brought but on several occasions it seemed to be a whitish erub

and once a worm. - Though they uttered their alarm note while

I was putting up the hide, once they had overcome their suspicions

they were completely silent.

Legge’s Baza. Baza jerdoni ceylonensis.

A pair of these birds lived on the edge of the jungle bordering

the Pundalnaya tea district within a mile of my bungalow and I

used to see them almost every day tor a year. I did not shoot

either, as 1 should have done to make identification absolutely

certain, as they were the only pair I knew of. I had plenty of

opportunities, however, of observing them at close range as they

were far from shy and I have no doubt that they really were

Bazas. They were rather sluggish birds spending much of their

time perched on trees, at the edge of the jungle or sometimes in

the tea. For long periods they would soar round and round each

other rismg to a great height and uttering a peculiar mewing,

‘kikiya kikiya’.

When changing ground the wings were flapped strongly with

short intervals of gliding. In general shape and flight they much

resembled small buzzards. In flight the crest was depressed

but when settled the long feathers rose vertically from the occipit

in a very characteristic manner. I never saw them catch any

prey or even appear to be hunting. During August and Septem-

ber, one of the pair, the male presumably, used to perform some

remarkable antics in the air which I can only presume were some

form of nuptial display. He would be soaring normally, mewing

loudly. Suddenly he would swoop downwards with half closed

wings for thirty or forty feet uttermg a loud, sharp ‘kit,

kit, kit’ and then turn upwards vertically until the momentum of

his swoop was expended and he appeared to be just about to fall

over backwards, when he would right himself and go on soaring

as before, only to repeat the performance in a few seconds. On

September 26th I saw one of the birds sitting on a tree uttering

this ‘kit-kit’ note and it suddenly flew across t6 another tree where

its mate was perched and copulation took place to the accom-

paniment of loud eries. Although they haunted a definite small

tract of jungle at this time I failed to find the nest though I saw

them with a fully fledged young one in November. Soon aiter,

when the leaves were thinner, I discovered a small stick nest

forty feet up in a big tree standing by itself on the jungle edge in

which I had often seen the bazas and I am almost certain that

if was their nest.

The young one soon disappeared and the old pair in April

became very noisy and seemed to show much interest in another

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 250

patch of jungle a few hundred yards away but the male never

performed his nuptial ‘aerobatics’ and I would find no rest, but,

on May 10th, I saw a party of five which appeared to consist

of three young birds and two adults which looks as if they are

possibly double brooded.

HALLERY, Je, IN IBJIMIOS).

MercarA, Coorg.

July 19, 1982.

- XVIII.—THE STATUS OF THE INDIAN BLACK-HEADED

SHRIKE (LANIUS NIGRICEPS, FRANK.) IN LOWER

BENGAL.

With observations on the plumage of specimens captured in

thew breeding area.

The status and distribution of the Indian Black-headed Shrike

(Lanius nigriceps, Frank.) appears rather obscure, at least so far as

the plains districts of India and specially Bengal are concerned.

Mr. Stuart Baker has recorded in F.B.I. (Birds)—‘In winter it is

tound all over the foot hills and also in the plains for some distance

from them’. One will obviously infer from this record that it is

a migratory species, which spreads itself in the plains during the

cold weather months and retires in summer to the hills in great

numbers to breed. The bird is not unknown in Bengal; ‘common’,

according to Blyth, who states that it is “common in the Soonder-

buns of Bengal, and on many of the Churrs (or alluvial banks and

islands) in the Ganges and its branches’ (J.A.8.B., xv, 301).

Jerdon records its distribution from the foot hills of the Himalayas

through Purnea and Dinajpur to Calcutta and the Soonderbuns,

extending eastwards into Assam and Arakan. Mr. P. W. Munn

notes it as ‘a rare winter visitor’ so far as ‘the Calcutta District’ is

concerned (Ibis, 1894, p. 45). Capt. Tytler mentions it as ‘rather

uncommon’ in Barrackpore (Dist. 24-Pergs.), to be ‘only met

with at some little distance from the Cantonments’ (A.M.N.H.,

xi, 1854, 370). Four specimens were collected by Blyth from

the vicinity of Calcutta (Cat. B. Mus. A.S.B., 151), but, as the

dates are not recorded, nothing can be inferred as to the status

of the species. Its occurrence in Furreedpore in Eastern Bengal

was recorded by J. R. Cripps (8.F., vu, 269), who found the bird

‘excessively common, and. a permanent resident’, breeding in the

district. Ten nests with from one to five eggs in each were

obtained by him during April to June, of which four were placed in

bamboo clumps and the rest in Babool trees. A subsequent note

by Cripps, however, appears to conflict with this observation as to

the status of the species in this part of Bengal. He writes—‘They

begin to arrive in the Dibrugarh district in the last week in July,-

and the majority leave by the beginning of April, evidently for

Bengal, where I found numbers breeding in the Furreedpore dis-

trict’ (S.F., xi, 91). Certainly the birds thus recorded as migrat-

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

ing by the beginning of April from Dibrugarh (Assam) to Bengal

for the purpose of breeding cannot be called permanent residents

in the Furreedpore district of East Bengal.

In this state of our knowledge and intormation regarding Lanius

nigriceps, Prank., it may be of interest to record what little observ-

ation 1 have been able to make of a few individuals in the districts

contiguous to Calcutta. The field records 1 have in my diary

relate to stray birds noticed throughout winter, singly as a rule or

in very small parties of two or three individuals keeping aloot

from one another, in parts of the districts of 24-Perganas and

Jessore. Evidently, even at this season, the species is by no

means common or abundant, though one sometimes finds one or

two captured birds brought down for sale to the Calcutta market.

Their hunting ground is invariably open plains, where they keep

to the bushes or hedges bordering cultivated fields, and also the

babool and date trees standing thereon. After winter one looks

in vain for a single example affecting even the favoured spots

where it was noticed in the cold weather months. This arouses

suspicion as to its being probably a migratory species, which

may now have withdrawn itself from this part of Bengal to breed

elsewhere. Of late, in an excursion to Basirhat (Dist. 24-Pergs.)

on July 12, 1981, I came upon a pair of Lanius nigriceps, Frank.

feeding three young (just out of nest) on a dwarf date tree. The

persistent call of the latter caught my ears from afar «and on

approaching the tree, | came across what struck me as a most

amazing incident—the discovery of the bird’s nesting site. In-

stantly with the aid of a bird-catecher who accompanied me, I

had the mother bird and one young snared alive. The other two

young took to their wings, having apparently been strong enough

to fly. I could not find out the nest where the brood was reared.

Evidently I was a little too late in arranging this excursion and

the place was almost inaccessible now, partly due to its being

water-logged and partly to the standing crops. During my previous

trips to this place, not only in winter, but also in April and May

last, I observed one or two pairs of this shrike. - I saw them again

even as late as June once. I therefore suspected the bird to be a

resident species, which must have been hanging on, intent on

breeding in the locality. In fact I heard the song notes of a male

bird in fine plumage on 17th May last.

Now it is known for certain that this area, which lies beyond

and to the east of Basirhat town, on the bank of the river Icha-

mati about 40 miles N.-H. of Calcutta, provides a congenial nest-

ing site for the Black-headed Shrike. It is principally an alluvial

tract, low-lying and depressed, forming natural basins in which

water collects and from which it has no other exit than what

draining is possible by the configuration of the tract. As a result,

the water at least on the river-side finds its way into the river.

It is almost a threshold to the Soonderbuns country with the delta

still in a less advanced stage of growth and with a series of tidal

ereeks winding their way to the sea through numerous islands

and morasses. The thickets and shrubs, and clusters of date and

babool trees on the Churr lands harbour these birds in some

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

numbers throughout the year, so that they are permanent resi-

dents here, and not quite uncommon. The progeny that are

raised in this breeding area swell the number of the resident

birds which, in winter, hasten to fresh fields, evidently extend-

ing their range, approaching nearer villages and thereby falling

to our notice. With the advent of summer they retire to the

areas congenial for their nesting, which he, more often than not,

along the alluvial banks of rivers, so far as this part of Bengal is

concerned. Their nesting period synchronises with the rainy

season, when the Chwrr lands are inundated and almost inaccessible

so that the nesting operations are carried on unnoticed. The

Soonderbuns and the alluvial tracts of the delta provide consider-

able areas for the nesting of the species which hardly needs to

migrate to the hills, at least from this part of Bengal. Within

the breeding area the bird is thus a permanent resident, though

away from it, whatever migration it undertakes is only very local.

Variable as the plumage is of Lanius nigriceps, it will be of

interest to record the body-colour and measurements of the two

specimens captured alive durmg my last excursion to Basirhat.

The juvenile, just out of the nest, has no barring on its under-

parts which resemble the colouration of the breeding parent, and

which, from its faded body-colour and constant attention to its

offspring, I imagine to be a female bird. Comparing her with

the skins of 9 9 collected by me during last winter I find the

colouration of the upper back of this breeding Q very singular.

The extent of white or grey, or rather ashy white is much greater,

while the tone of rufous or chestnut on the body generally is dis-

tinctly lighter. Not a single example in a fairly large series of

skins in the collection of the Indian Museum, not only from

Bengal, but also Assam and Burmah has such faded colouring of

the upper plumage.

Breeding Q 12-7-31.

Wing 95 mm.; tail 125 mm.; tarsus 32 mm.; culmen 18 mm.

Forehead, lores, crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of head and neck dull black,

rather brown in tone, lighter towards neck, the feathers having grey bases;

upper back, shading from the black, ashy-white mixed with faded chestnut,

remainder of back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts light chestnut; tail

dull black, rather brown in tone, more broadly tipped and margined with dull

chestnut from the middle pair to the outer, the two outer pairs frequently

suffused with chestnut and the outer webs entirely of this colour; wing-coverts

dull black with brown toning; primaries dark brown with white patch at their

bases; inner secondaries with broad light chestnut edges. Under parts white

washed with light chestnut, the latter rather darker in lower breast; under tail-

coverts fulvous-chestnut.

Tris dark brown; eyelids pinkish plumbeous; bill dark horny black lighter

towards base; mouth flesh-colour; legs and feet dark plumbeous; claws _ black.

Juvenile (just out of nest). Sex (?). 12-7-81.

Wing 86 mm.; tarsus 80 mm.; culmen 17 mm.

Forehead black, the latter extending over eye, faintly edged with pale

rufous; ear-coverts black; crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of head and neck

mottled black and pale rufous, the feathers with pale rufous edges and tips

and with black bases; back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts rufous,

barred with black, the feathers having pale or grey bases; the rufous being

lighter towards upper-back; wing-coverts dull black with rufous edges and

tips; bastard wing tipped and edged with rufous on both webs; quills dark

brown, rather dull in tone, edged and tipped with rufous; a white patch at

262, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SES i 9S OCI Volum xeon) i

their bases; inner secondaries with broad rufous edges; under wing-coverts

and axillaries albescent; under parts similar to breeding Q described above.

Legs, feet and claws salty-black; upper mandible dark horn, lower fleshy

plumbeous, darker towards tip; gape yellow; mouth flesh-colour; iris brown.

It is interesting to observe that both the mother bird and

young, while in captivity within my spacious aviaries, do not

appear to be shy or nervous, and readily adapt themselves to the

artificial diet plus a few live insects. I had the opportunity of

re-examining thei coloration two months later, and the striking

changes since brought about by moult were noted as follows :—

Juvenile. 5-9-31.

Black increasing on crown and nape; ear-coverts black brown

tipped with hght chestnut; black more prominent on wing-coverts;

under parts as before, showing no barring at all.

Upper mandible darker though not thoroughly black as in

adult, and horny towards base; iris light brown.

Adult 9. 5-9-31.

Under moult. Upper back still strikingly ashy-white mixed

with faint rufous, but the rufous tinge is increasing; secondaries

edged on inner web from base with white instead of chestnut.

CALCUTTA. SATYA CHURN LAW,

April 14, 1982. Ph.D. FsZiS5) oe MsB Osu:

XIX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-THROATED

BABBLER (ARGYA GULARIS, BLYTH) IN LOWER BURMA.

Argya gularis has hitherto been considered a bird. of Upper

Burma and particularly of the dry zone, Oates having no records

of its occurrence south of Prome. I found it in 1929 in small

numbers about 20 miles south of Prome (J.B.N.H.8., xxxiv, p. 670)

and in January 19381 obtained specimens near the northern border

of the Henzada district where the thorn jungle approximates to

that of the dry zone.

In the middle of May 1982, I thrice observed a party of three

birds in a patch of bamboo jungle on the laterite ridge about two

miles south of Mingaladon aerodrome and about eight miles from

Rangoon. I made two attempts to collect one of these and. on

May 19th had a good view of a single bird in the same place,

which would not allow a close approach, though I managed to

observe the white throat and breast as it sat on a bamboo clump,

uttering its loud ‘tittering’ note. In the dry weather this country

approximates closely to parts of Thayetmyo-Prome ridge but [|

have ridden through it at all seasons of the vear without seeing

or hearing gularis before; it is difficult to believe that these birds

were migrants, and I presume they had wandered down the line

of the Peeu Yomas. Mingaladon is at least 125 miles south. of

any area from which gularis has previously been recorded.

RaNnGOon. | : ~ dls IK, SIAN OURID,

Mian 2 32, Indian Civil Service.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. as 263

XX.—A. NOTE ON THE BUNTINGS OF BURMA.

The Buntings of Burma, which, except Melophus melanicterus,

seem to be all ‘cold-weather’ visitors from September to May,

have largely escaped the notice of observers, especially of recent

years. With the exception of Wickham, who records, without

much detail, the occurrence of five species from the Burma Hills,

there is very little to go on. In the hope that other observers

may turn their attention to these birds, I have collated the following

notes which suggest that several species of buntings occur more

or less all over Burma and are overlooked.

(1120) Grey-headed Bunting. Emberiza fucata fucata.

(1121) The Indian Grey-headed Buating. Emberiza fucata arcuata.

Fucata is recorded from Toungoo and between Toungoo and

Thayetmyo (Hume) ‘rare in Tenasserim as far south as Thaton’

(Davison), common in the Pegu-Sittang area (Oates). Wickham

states that both sub-species ‘occur in our hills as winter visitors’

but gives no details. The Fauna records arcuata from Mount

Victoria but does not say if it was breeding. I saw one at Hen-

zada in April 26, 1981, in a flock of aureola, and shot several in

paddy stubble in February 1982 near the mouth of the Rangoon

river. J also saw a good many in mid-March 1932 in paddy

stubble at various places in the plains of the Myitkyina District.

On the wing this bird very closely resembles the British Reed

Bunting (Hmberiza scheniclus) in winter and has much the same

weak flight, fulvous brown back, and habit of flitting under tufts

of grass or rushes. It is not easy to observe on the ground but

allows a close approach when the reddish chestnut ear-coverts

and greyish hind-neck can be seen. .The outer tail feathers show

white in flight.

(1122) Little Bunting. Emberiza pusilla.

The Fauna describes it as a winter visitor to the hills of Burma

whose southern recorded hmit is Karenni. This appears to be

incorrect as Davison got it on the summit of Muleyit. It was

not apparently noted by Oates, Mears, Macdonald, Hopwood,

Mackenzie or Harington, but Wickham obtained one at Maymyo.

As already recorded (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 911) I obtained

several between February and April 1929, both in the Irrawaddy

valley and on the hills west of the Prome district. On March 15th,

1932, I obtained two females at Hopin in the plains of the Myit-

kyina district, which were in a tree on the edge of teak jungle with

some Crested Buntings. A small shy bunting like this can very

easily be overlooked.

(1128) Yunnan Meadow-Bunting. Emberiza cia yunnanensis.

The Fauna records a nest taken by Harington at 10,000 feet

in the Shan States, but Wickham (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 49) gives

sound reasons for disbelieving this. The bird should however

occur in Burma as a winter visitor if it breeds in Yunnan.

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(2131) Yeliow-breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola.

This seems to occur throughout the plains of Burma until

May in which month it was noted by Oates in Lower Burma and

by Macdonald in Myingyan. I have never seen it in ‘well wooded

country’ as the Fauna describes it. In Myitkyina recently I

watched a very large flock at close range which were sitting in

bushes near a stream, hawking flying ants, a most unusual sight.

(1182). Yangtse Black-headed Bunting. Emberiza spodocephala melanops.

— The Fauna records it from ‘Northern and Central Burma’ but

it is not mentioned by any of the observers abovenamed. I saw

several in the Myitkyina district in early Mareh 1982, usually in

bushes along streams, and occasionally in the company of LH.

aureola. They allowed a close approach and their most conspi-

cuous field character was the black patch on the lores which

showed up against the dark greenish head and neck. Single birds

usually dived into bushes when disturbed or flew up into trees.

(11385) Chestnut Bunting. Emberiza rutila.

The distribution in the Fauna is ‘Burma as far south as the

Tenasserim district, Shan States, Chin Hills’. Oates records it

from Bassein (Blanford), near Rangoon (Hume), Toungoo and

Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay) north Tenasserim (Davison) and the

Thaungyin valley (Bingham). Wickham records it as occurring

in winter in the Chin, Kachin, and Shan Hills but gives no details.

Mears describes it as ‘general throughout the Chindwin’. I have

previously recorded (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 912) its occurrence in

Prome both in the Pegu Yoma foothills and at about 2,500 feet

in heavy jungle in the Arakan Yoma, where large flocks were to

be seen in mid-April. In this district it seemed to be addicted to

bamboo and dense woodland and by no means similar in habit to

EF. aureola as noted in the Fauna.

(1189) Crested Bunting. Melophus melanicterus.

‘In Burma it extends throughout the hills from Manipur, Chin

and Kachin Hills to Tenasserim’ (Fauna). Blyth records it

somewhat vaguely from ‘Arakan’ and ‘Pegu’, but Oates’ only other

records were from the Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ram-

say) and one from Bilin (Davison). Bilin is in the plains of the

Thaton district. Harington noted it in flocks up to mid-March in

Bhamo and said it appeared to be breeding near Sinlumkaba.

Wickham describes it as ‘a very universal bird in all our hills’.

Villar and myself obtained specimens on the Prome-Sandoway

border, but it was not noted bv J. C. Hopwood and Mackenzie

or Mears in the Upper Chindwin or North Chin Hills. I recently

noted large parties in paddy-stubble in the Namyin valley, Myit-

kyina, between Hopin and Mogaung, many birds being paired in

mid-March. It will probably be found breeding here in this area

at a very low elevation. (1 ft. to 400 it.)

RANGOON. ee Re SAIN GEO eMID).

March 24, 1982, Indian Civil Service,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 265

XXI.—THE SHORT-EARED OWL (ASIO I’. FLAMMEUS),

IN BURMA. ;

In his Birds of British Burma Oates has only one record of

the Short-eared Owl (Asio f. flammeus) in Lower Burma, Wardlaw

Ramsay having obtained one at Toungoo, but quotes Blyth as

stating that it occurs in Arakan. No mention of this bird appears

to be made by Messrs. Hopwood, Mackenzie, Harington, Mears or

Wickham in the various papers on Burma birds they have contri-

buted to the Journal. The only note of it I can find is by K. C.

Maedonald, who, writing of Myingyan district, states that it is

very common in the grassy thamin-haunted country round Kanna

and the Pin Chaung. The following notes made by me at various

times suggest that it may be a regular winter visitor (not a ‘wan-

derer’ as described in the Fauna) over a great part of Burma and

is overlooked in the huge areas of grass, stubble or peas in which

ii can rest undisturbed by day.

(1) November 1924. Upper Chindwin District. Saw a num-

ber round a jheel south of Tamanthi.

(2) December 2nd, 1928.—Prome District. A single bird in

rough grass on the Nawin marshes near Prome.

(38) December 24th, 19380. Henzada District. Shot a female

which was on a sandbank near the Irrawaddy. It flew about for

some time in strong sunlight at midday; and when it settled, did

not seem to mind the glare of the sand. It had been feeding

on voles of some species.

(4) February 8rd, 19381. Henzada District. I flushed one.

while looking for quail, in the big peafields along the Irrawaddy

near Yele, 80 miles south of where I got the other one.

(5) February 6th, 19382. Hanthawaddy District. Flushed two

out of paddy stubble near Kamakalok, close to the mouth of the

Rangoon river. ‘The fields for miles round were riddled with rat-

holes which had probably attracted the owls.

(6) March 3rd, 1932. .Shwebo District. Saw three in the thin

dry thorn jungle about half a mile east of Shwebo Civil lines, and

flushed them near the same spot on the 4th. Both the Hantha-

waddy and Shwebo birds seemed to have chosen extraordinarily

hot and shadeless places to lie in by day, and all seemed to mind

the sunlight as little as does Glaucidiwm cuculoides.

RanGoon. J. K. STANFORD,

March 21, 1982. Indian Civil Service.

XXIT.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER KESTREL

(CHRCHNEIS NAUMANNI) AND KNOT (TRINGA C.

CANUTUS) IN. BURMA.

There appear to be no records of the occurrence of the Lesser

Kestrel (Cerchneis nawmanni) in Burma. TI obtained two males

on April Ist, 1932, at Lunbye, south of the Sittang in the Pegu

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

district, out of a gathering of 80-40 which were presumably on

migration. They were scattered in twos and threes over a grass

plain and were not at all shy. Though this grass was riddled

with rat-holes, the food of those shot appeared to be some form

of beetle or cockchafer. Several males moulting into fresh

plumage were in the gathering and at a distance were most con-

spicuous, with their grey heads and ear-coverts, pinkish breast

and pinkish-chestnut back. Those obtained were shedding the

tail and had nearly completed the body-moult. (w. 227-287,

§- 31, ce. 17-19.)

I accidentally obtained a male Knot (Tringa c. canutus) on

April 14th, 1982, at Kamakalok near the mouth of the Rangoon

river. The wing measured 160, culmen 31, tarsus 30, and the breast,

forehead, cheeks and neck were bnght pinkish-cinnmaon, so that

there seems no doubt as to its not being tenuirostris. This bird

was in a flock of Curlew-Sandpipers, Sand-Plovers, ete., on the

tide-line. There appear to be only two previous records of this

race from India, one from Baluchistan and one from Ceylon

(Fauna vii, 698). Armstrong obtained a Knot in winter plumage

on the western side of the Rangoon river in 1876, but this and the

single Arakan record are apparently of tenwirostris.

These three skins have been sent home to Dr. C. B. Ticehurst.

RANGOON. J. K. STANFORD,

May 22, 1932. Indian Ciwil Service.

XXIII.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE HASTERN GREY DUCK

CAN ASPs ZO NOT EN Cie)

May I ask your further indulgence to reply to Mr. Inglis’ note

in vol. xxv, No. 3 of the Journal, on the Grey Duck?

Presumably Mr. Inglis refers to the second edition of Mr.

Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon—Ducks

and their Allies, which I do not possess. Nor had I the second

edition of Fauna of British India—Birds, when I wrote my note

of the. 18th)” March? 1931) in volt sxxv.. Nov 2 I-reterred to wlie

first edition of Indian Ducks and their Allies, which as I stated

in that note, attributed the specimens obtained by Messrs.

Stevens, Moore, Mundy and Baker in Lakhimpur District between

1902 and 1905, as well as the Kengtung specimen of 1899, to the

Kastern Grey Duck (Anas pecilorhynca zonorhyncha). Mr.

Stuart Baker opened his chapter on zonorhyncha in that edition

with the words ‘during the examination of the Grey Duck in the

British Museum I have tried to ascertain whether there are any

erounds for creating a new species for the ducks sent home by

Captain Harington. I can find none!’ That he subsequently

changed his opinion is shown by vol. vi (second edition) of Fauna

of British India—Birds, quoted by Mr. Inglis.

I presume, therefore, that the Lakhimpur specimens were

actually the Burmese Grey Duck (A. p. haringtoni), though Mr.

Inglis appears to be mistaken in attributing to that bird ‘a blue

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267

and not a green speculum’. The edition of the Fauna of British

India quoted says of haringtoni ‘the speculum is green’, and of

zonorhyncha ‘having the speculum blue and not green’. I pre-

sume also that Mr. Inglis’ bird, obtained at Darbuhnga in 1929,

was zonorhyncha, with a blue speculum.

The birds obtained in Sibsagar in December, 1908, and in

Manipur in February, 19380, and January, 1931, were undoubtedly

zonorhyncha, with the speculum blue in all lights (the speculum

of A. p. pecilorhyncha is green in one light and blue in the

opposite light). Im the case of the 1930 bird the shikaris noticed

that it was an unusual species of Grey Duck, on account of the

eolour of the abdomen and under tail-coverts, which were more

yellowish-buff than in the local variety of A. p. pecilorhyncha.

As regards the Burmese Grey Duck (A. p. haringtoni),

identification seems to be more a matter for the scientific ornitho-

logist, with a large series of Grey Ducks at his disposal. To the

mere amateur field naturalist lke myself, the differentiating

characteristics are hardly sufficiently defined to permit of any

certainty of identification. The variation in the colour and degree

of spotting of the underparts of birds which are undoubtedly A. p.

pecilorhyncha is so very considerable that this characteristic can-

not safely be adopted as a test, while in-young specimens of A. p.

pecilorhyncha the spots at the base of the bill are admittedly

absent or rudimentary.

THE RESIDENCY, J. C. HIGGINS,

ImpHaL, MANrPUR. Indian Civil Service.

April 18, 1932.

XXIV.—FLOWER-BIRDS AND BIRD-FLOWERS.

Mr. Salim A. Ali’s paper on this subject must have been read

with attention by all interested in birds and pollination, and will

probably serve the useful purpose of leading to the recording

of further data on the subject. In the meen west, our flower

birds are few, but for that very reason are perhaps more closely

watched when seen. The Purple Sunbird, which apparently we

should eall Leptocoma asiatica, is a frequent visitor to my garden

and I have seen it try a great variety of flowers including sweet

peas, though its fayourite is unquestionably Nusselia juncea and

it is very often to be seen on Woodfordia floribunda. It is to record

its constant visits to quite a different plant representative of a

big order not mentioned in Mr. Ali’s account, that the present

note is written. The plant is Randia uliginosa, (tubiaceae). On

one oceasion, on May 24th, 1928, this bird entertained me feeding

from the large fleshy white flowers for about half an hour while

a tiger beat was in progress towards the Randia in which my

machhan was tied, and ten days previously, I had watched a pair

on another Randia and subsequently dissected the flowers to see

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

to what extent their structure could be considered ornithophilous.

On general experience I do not find myself in complete agreement

with Mr. Ali’s five points for an ornithophilous flower, parti-

cularly as related to the fact that our Sunbirds, etc. at least

normally alight to feed from the flowers. Randia uliginosa flowers

are large, conspicuous, very solidly built, and have copious nectar,

but they are definitely scented and so presumably equally attractive

to Lepidoptera, etc; the large nectary is well concealed by a mass

of felted hair closing the 4 in. corolla tube. These observations

were made in Haldwani Forest Division, U.P. Mthopyga

seheriae is much more rarely seen here and its selection has twice

been the obviously ornithophilous yellow and red Leguminous ~

Caesalpinia gallesi.

DenRA Dun. Be GG CEEAVERION:

April 16, 1982. Forest Research Institute.

XXV.—A CASE OF TWIN-EMBRYOS IN THE EGG

OF A DOMESTIC FOWL.

(With a text-figure. )

The abnormal egg described herein, was by chance, obtained

from an egg-seller who used to supply us with eggs for our daily

consumption in the Nainital Hills. The egg was of an ordinary

fowl, not at all different from the ones commonly met with on the

plains; but such fowls, when acclimatised to the hill-climate,

usually lay bigger eges than their sisters on the plains. Although

the hill-eggs are bigger than the plain ones, yet the one described

here was bigger still (one and a quarter times).

One morning when hard boiled eggs were served for our break-

fast, the unusual size of this

particular one aroused my

curlosity. It was carefully

shelled, but nothing abnormal

was observed externally or in

the white albuminous portion.

IT cut the egg longitudinally

and discovered that there were

two yolks instead of the nor-

mal one, under the cover of the

white albumen. The two yolks

were confluent with each other,

looking like the figure eight

as seen in the text-figure.

As already indicated, the two

yolks were completely yet even-

ly embedded in the albumen;

7 fF0 JEON

fp 1, ANS VANS

Ai \

A) PS

: a NW) LA

there was, however, no albumen Longitudinal section of egg.

wall separating them at the point a. albumen; y. yoke.

of contiguity. The yolks were

shghtly smaller than those of normal eggs.

MISCELLANHOUS NOTES 269

lt is interesting to note that the yolks contained one embryo

each which was quite normal. Haply this abnormal egg, u it

were allowed to hatch, might have proved of greater interest.

Botany DEPARTMENT, 1Bs4. Nie) SHUN BbA,

RAVENSHAW COLLEGE,

CUTTACK.

February 15, 1982.

XXVI.—NOTES ON MONITOR LIZARDS.

I have read with interest Mr. Malcolm Smith’s article on the

Monitors and I give below the little experience I have had with

these lizards.

In the Central Provinces Varanus monitor (=bengalensis) is the

common form and is fairly plentitul though extremely timid and

shy. No monitors from the extreme east and north of the

Provinces have been examined by me. The Common Monitor (V.

monitor) lives in burrows and in cracks in the ground from which

it often comes out to bask in the sun during winter, retreating on

the shghtest alarm. I have also noticed these monitors occupying

the roof in less frequented rest houses from the eaves of which

they would now and then flop to the ground. During the rains

they are more in evidence. I believe that this is their breeding

Season. .

The flesh and skin ig much in demand by the local aboriginal

tribes who eat the flesh or use it in medicine and use their skins

for making their small drums (khanjeries) and fiddles (chikara).

At Nagpur, during the rains, small parties of Gonds regularly hunt

these lizards. They take with them a spade, a knife and a small

pack of a few rather under-sized dogs. The modus operandi is

as follows :— :

The hunt takes place immediately after a spell of wet weather.

The party, which consists of at least three men, proceeds along

the uncultivated borders of fields examining every lkely hole or

burrow. The presence of a lizard inside a burrow is discovered

by its footprints at the entrance to the burrow. If no footprints

are present the party moves on to the next burrow. If footprints

are visible, one of the party stations himself at the entrance to

the burrow and a search is made elsewhere for another entrance

to the same burrow; when this is found another man posts him-

self here while the third begins digging vigorously somewhere near

the middle. The lzards on being disturbed make for the entrances

and are caught by the men stationed there. On catching a lizard

a noteh is cut with the knife on the top of the tail, which is now

twisted round the neck and a claw of the fore limb is inserted

into the notch to prevent the tail from uneoiling. The lizard is

now quite unable to move; it is slung on to a stick and carried

away. They are kept in this condition till sold when they fetch

about twelve annas each.

The Common Monitor (V. monitor) deposits its eggs during the

month of September, the number laid is about 21. They are

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAI EMIS (SOC MHI © wVioln xO Val

white oval and soft-shelled like snakes’ eggs and measure 45 mm.

in length and 26 mm. in breadth. A pregnant female about

three teet in length which I confined in a case, voided one egg

on the 15th September, three on the 16th, sixteen on the 17th

and one on the 18th. The above case being under abnormal

conditions [ am of opinion that all the eggs would under natural

conditions be voided on the same day.

These lizards thrive well in captivity and can be fed on meat

when other vermin is not available but they are dirty creatures,

their faeces are voided in a liquid form and are Inghly odorous, and

their cages must be constantly washed. Specimens in captivity have

eaten the following:—Rats, mice, shrews, squirrels, frogs, toads,

erasshoppers, skinks (M. maculatus) fishes, bloodsucker lizards,

snakes (Ptyas mucosus, Hryx conicus, Lycodon aulicus) small

turtles, small birds and beef. An adult monitor was able to dis-

pose off a tull grown Hryx conicus and a Ptyas mucosus four feet

long.

A. Red Harth Boa (Hryx conicus) when given alive to a moni-

tor was shaken about and bitten first and then the head was held

down and it was swallowed tail foremost. This snake was about

a foot in length and it did not seem to attack the lizard at all.

A living Lycodon aulicus, on the other hand, when seized by the

monitor bit it vigorously in spite of the mauling. The lizard’s body

bled profusely from the numerous small wounds it had received

from the snake which was game to the last. I have not yet tested

these lizards with either scorpions or poisonous snakes. These

lizards frequently fall a prey to the python but it takes about a day

for a python to crush the life out of even a half-grown monitor.

The Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens) is the common form in

Behar in the Gangetic valley though V. monitor is also to be found

in these parts. I have two hatchlings of V. flavescens taken at

Patna on the 7th February and a very young specimen from

Parbatipur in Bengal.

During the rains the colour of V. flavescens is yellow or yellow-

ish brown with broad cross bands of red; these red cross bands

are indistinct or wanting at other times of the year. The young

are as described in the Fauna except that in the lower surface the

dark brown cross bars though continuous below the neck are not

so under the chest, abdomen and tail.

It will be noticed that in these lizards the outer hind toe is

separated by an appreciable distance from the other four toes;

this toe is used in apposition with the others in adjusting the

tail of the female during coition.

CENTRAL MUSEUM, ye NG ID INIBIEI DO, iota

NAGE, (CIP

Algor) WL, WE,

[The Common Monitor (Varanus monitor) was discovered

breeding on Island of Salsette by Mr. C. McCann in June. He

took eleven eggs. Newly hatched monitors are very common on

the island at the commencement of the rains.—Eps. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 971

XXVII.—THE FAMILY OF A RUSSELL’S VIPER,

les (ieLUN Witeddiay, — Vivevdlaval Galva ibs oil:

On the 25th April 1929 two adult specimens of the Russell’s

Viper were brought to me by a local snake charmer who assured

me that he secured them at a place a few miles from Malir Rail-

way Station (about 18 miles from Sarachi) in a vegetable garden

not far from a pool of water.

The snakes were in good condition, very active, with their fangs

intact and showed no signs of having been in captivity for any

length of time. I had therefore little or no reason to disbelieve

his statement besides the man knew that snake collecting was my

hobby and was hardly likely to deceive me.

I placed the two specimens in a specially constructed case with

glass sides, protected by wire netting, a perforated zine top, and

doors at the two narrow ends. A slot not more than 3/8th of

an inch wide ran across the middle of the box, at the top, through

which a board could be inserted to isolate the snakes when the

case required cleaning.

For the first fortnight or three weeks they refused food but

later fed readily on dead rats and sparrows.

The male (ascertained later when he died) desquamated on the

8th June but the female showed no signs of casting her skin for

nearly a year, when she died.

The female which was two or three inches longer than the male

and much thicker appeared to me to be gravid so I watched her

closely. On the 12th July, or 79 days after I obtained the snakes,

I found, on going into the verandah at about 8 o’clock in the

morning, that the glass case was swarming with young snakes

three or four on top of the case and several on the floor at the

base of the stand on which the case rested. I managed with

difficulty to secure these and put them back. I immediately

closed the slot at the top of the case through which they escaped

and set about removing the young ones one by one and _ placing

them in a large glass jar. There were thirty-three in all, twenty-

seven fully developed and six immature and dead with portions

of the egg adhering to them. Whether any got away before I

saw them I am unable to say but it is quite possible as there was

nothing to prevent them.

The baby snakes were very active and when let loose on the

floor struck readily at anything placed in their way.

I chloroformed them the same day in order to ascertain their

measurements, which are as follows :—

14, length 104 inches ... 250.35 mm.

Series Seca Soe) ALT 6D, anion.

Oust Oe ee, coo a egwls) satan

The markings on the young were very distinet but the ground

colour differed from that of the parent snake being slaty grey above

and light cream below.

KARACHI. BINS Jig MD ONINE Ay. Clits

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

[The Russell's Viper is one of our most prolific snakes—only

surpassed in this character by the Python and the Checkered Water

Snake (T'. piscator). A captive female in the Society’s rooms

presented us with 62 young. The eggs within the body of the

parent are enveloped with a soft white leathery skin which one

sees in the eggs of snakes. In the latter stages of pregnancy this

investment is converted into a delicate transparent membrane

through which the embryo snake can be seen distinctly. This

membrane is ruptured within the body of the mother. The young

are produced free but sometimes some of the young are discharged

in their sacs. These if not speedily liberated perish. Often

unfertilized eggs are discharged, these will be found to retain their

leathery coverings. The young of the Russell’s Viper are highly

poisonous at birth. The Russell’s Viper, according to the distri-

bution given by Wall, (Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes, 4th. edn.)

has not been recorded previously from Southern Sind.—Eps. |

XXVITI.—SNAKES IN AHMEDNAGAR.

The snakes mentioned in this paper were collected or sent to or

seen by me whilst | was Civil Surgeon here. The collection covers

a period of twenty-six months from December 1929 to end of

January 1982. The total number of Snakes seen was 249; 148

from Nagar City and Cantonment limits and 101 from the Nagar

District, mostly collected at the Taluka Dispensaries. They were

identified here and doubtful specimens were sent to the Bombay

Natural History Society for identification or confirmation. The

various species were the following : —

1. The Common Blind Snake (T'yphlops braminius)—l11. Of

these six were found in my Bungalow.

2. The Red Earth-Boa (Hryx conicus)—10.

3. The Black Harth-Boa (Hryx johnu)—2.

There were 4 live pythons (Python molurus) seen with snake-

men who had come from outside. One of these was 9 feet 4 inches

long. 8 were caught in Beed District, Nizam’s territory, and one

near Khandwa, C.P.

4. Checkered Water-Snake (Tropidonotus piscalone a Both

these were from the district.

5. Buff-striped Keel-back (Tropidonotus stolatus)—2. Both

specimens were found in Nagar Cantonment limits.

6. Green Keel-back (Macropistodon plumbicolor)—32. Another

common snake. |

7. Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus)—46. A very com-

mon snake. :

8. Dhaman (Zamenis mucosus)—l12. Ten were from City

limits, one being 8 ft. long.

9. Fasciolated Dhaman (Zamenis fasciolatus)—7. Five were

from Nagar Cantonment and City limits—one was 4 ft. 8 in.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 273

long—a record one (reported in the Bombay Natural History

Society 's Journal Vol. xxv, No. 4). Another was 4 it. 6 in. long.

1G. Spotted Dhaman (Zamenis gracilis)—8. Two live speci-

mens of the Royal Dhaman (Zamenis diadema) were seen with a

snakeman whe brought them trom near Jodhpur (Rajputana).

11. ‘Yrinket Snake (Coluber heiena)—34. This snake is con:

sidered te be seen about 1,500 ft. altitude. Nagar is about 2,000 ft.

ubove sea level.

12. Brown Tree-Snake (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus)—84.° A

snake as commen as Lycodon aulicus, in the vicinity of Nagar itself.

18. Common Kurki Snake (Oligodon subgriseus)—1. From

the district.

14. Banded Kukri Snake (Simotes arnensis)—3. From the

district.

15. Three-striped Coral Snake (Callophis trimaculatus)—2.

One ot these small coral snakes was found near Cursetjee” S shop

and one in 2/4th Grenadiers’ Mess.

16. The Common Krait (Bungarus ceruleus)—11. Three of

these were sent from the district and two of them had bitten boys

and were responsible for two deaths. These were reported in the

Indian Medical Gazette of May 1931 and February 19382. Hight

were found in Nagar Cantonment limits. None were secured from

the City. The distribution in the Cantonments was also restricted

all of these being found in the south side of Bhingar Nullah.

One of these which was brought alive to me had bitten a snake

catcher on 24-10-1931 and Iilled him inspite of the bitten person

using what he believed to be his own specific medicine. The case

is reported by me in the Indian Medical Gazette of February 1982.

17. The Cobra (Naia tripudians)—13. Twelve from Nagar it-

self—one of these killed near Cursetjee’s shop was 5 ft. 9 ins. long.

In addition, nine were seen with snakemen come from outside;

three from Nizam’s State, one from Satara District, one from

Kandwa, C.P., and four from Jodhpur, Rajputana. All Nagar

specimens were binocellate with series of dark ventral plates under

the neck. All others were also binocellate except one specimen

from Nizam’s territory which was non-ocellate (var. ceca). It was

530, Jul mas, thera. | .

18. The Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli)—d5. All were from

the district, none from the City and Cantonment limits. . Two of

these were baby ones about 11 inches long and one adult one

from Rahuri was 4 ft. 8 in. |

19. The Phoorsa (Hchis carinata)—4. All these were from

one place only in the district, Newasa, and were found in the

local Dispensary compound.

Bompay. henGea. GAP URNS

Apri igen Oar line Cony a teincen

Ciwil Surgeon, Ahmedabad, Deccan,

Bombay Presidency.

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXVI

XXIX.—CASES OF SNAKE BITE. !

Since I have been stationed at Ahmednagar, I have come across

the iollowing cases of snake bite, six at Ahmednagar itself and two

irom the district and one from outside, during the last eighteen

months. This is not a ‘snakey’ district, as during the last six

years an average of only thirty deaths due to snake bite have been

reported annually, in a district with a population of neatly one

milhon and an area of 6,630 square miles.

The tollowing are notes of the cases :—

Case 1. A woman came tc the Civil Hospital, Ahmednagai,

at 9-30 p.m. on 30th April, 1930, with a killed snake that was

dried up. This snake had bitten her in the morning at about

G6 a.m. on the right forearm about 2 inches above the wrist. The

whole forearm was red and swollen as far as the elbow. She had

applied “Oriental Balm’ to the arm. There were no after-effects,

the swelling gradually going down.

Result :—Recovery.

The snake was a Trinket Snake (Coluber helena)—8 feet

G inches long—non-poisonous.

_ Case 2.—Case reported in the Indian Medical Gazette of

March 1931 of a person bitten in Dhulia, West Khandesh, on 27th

Jmlby, IB.

Result: —Recovery.

The snake was Hchis carinata or Phoorsa

less viper.

Case 3.-—-A boy, of abcut 8 vears, bitten by a Common Krait

(Bungarus ceruleus). Case reported in the Indian Medical Gazette,

May 1931, p. 266;

Result :—Death. |

Case 4.—A man from the city of Ahmednagar came at

10 a.m. on 24th June, 1931, to the Civil Hospital, Ahmednagar,

complaining that when he woke up in the morning he found Tis

face swollen and that he found a small snake near his pillow. His

face was slightly red and swollen.

The snake he brought was alive and was a baby Lycodon

aulicus or the Common Wolf Snake, 8 inches long—non-poisonous.

vesult :—Recovery.

Case 5.—A cobra bit one of the hospital staff on 8th July,

1931; the case was repcrted in the Indian Medical Gazette of

October 1931.

Snake—Binocellate Cobra (Naia — tripudians)—poisonous.

Antivenene used.

Result :—Recovery.

Case 6.—A boy, of about 7 years, who had just recovered

from cholera was found vomiting and unconscious on his bed in the

morning at a place named Kolhar Khurd about 86 miles from here

poisonous, pit-

(These notes were printed in the Indian Medical Gazctte, Vol.

Ixvii, ‘Feb. 1932).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 275

on 14th August, 1931. On removing him from his bed a small live

snuke was tound under him. There were many scratches on the

boy’s back. The boy was seen by Dr. Shiveshwarkar, Assistant

Director ot Public Health, who was on tour. He brought the killed

snake to me. It was a baby common krait—Bungarus ceruleus

—1% inches long—poisonous.

Result: —The boy died at about 12 noon, the same day.

Case 7.—A snake bit a woman below the ankle in the even-

ing of 20th August, 1981, and she came to the hospital at 8 p.m.

with the killed snake.

The snake was a Red Harth Boa (Hryx conicus)—16 inches

long—non-poisonous. The bite had no effect on the woman.

Result :—Recovery.

Case 8.—Three live snakes were brought to me at the hospitai

caught in a grain godown on 8th October, 1931. They were all

Trinket’ Snakes (Coluber helena) non-poisonous. After being let

out from a tin in which they were kept, they were identified,

captured again and put into the tin. While he was capturing

them, one of these bit the catcher on the right index finger on the

dorsal surface about + inch behind the nail. There were no punc-

ture holes but there were four scratches, two long ones about 4

inch long and 4+ inch distant and two small ones on the wrist-side

ol these two scratches. )

The person who was bitten was the same one as in case 5

who was bitten by a cobra before. He was a bit nervous after the

bite and complained of shght pain for two hours. Permanganate

was. applied to the scratches to soothe him. He complained of

itching about the eyes, beginning 15 minutes after the bite and

lasting for about two hours.

| There were no after-effects.

Result :—Recovery.

Case 9.—A snake catcher named Mahaboob Khan lived in

a mosque in Bhingar, a suburb within Ahmednagar cantonment

limits. He was a reputed snake catcher and used to make money

irom this, job. Ele came to me on 3ist July, 19380, with a big

dhaman snake about 8 feet long; he said he had a medicine which

he used in cases of snake bite, invariably successfully, and wished

me to try it. On talking with him for some time, it was found

that he was a practical man of the world and had worked as a

stable boy, groom, syce and a rider at the racing stables in Bombay

and Poona. I got the impression from his previous history that he

lived more by his common sense, wits, and manual dexterity in

catching snakes, than by the efficacy of any snake cures. The

medicine, he told me, was the powdered fruit of Michelia champaca

(white variety)—N.O.—Magnoliaceae—given in goat’s milk. Only

an. occasional tree of this species gives fruit. So the fruit is rare.

This Mahaboob was bitten by a snake he caught on 23rd October,

1931, at about 5 p.m. in trying to extract its teeth. He collapsed

and became cold, and probably died by 9 p.m. His neighbours

came te my bungalow at 12 midnight reporting his condition and

said his body was cold. My assistant went there with anticenene at

about 1 a.m. but the man had been dead four hours before. The

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

deceased had taken by the mouth his own medicine after having

been bitten. |

The snake was brought alive to me and it was a full-grown

common krait—Bungarus ceruleus—poisonous—s ft. 53 ins. long.

The punctures on the man were two and were on the dorsal aspect

of the left middle finger on either side of the first inter-phalangial

joint about 14 inches distant. As the mouth of the krait was not

wide enough for the distance between the fangs on the two sides

to be over an inch, it is presumed that the man put the bent joint

of his left middle finger in the snake’s mouth to keep it open and

used his right hand to pull out or break the snake’s teeth with

tweezers.

Result :—Death.

UR G5 Cis AURIE Ue Ia,

BomBay. : jope=Coms. TaN ce

April 27, 19382. 7 Civil Surgeon, Ahmednagar,

Deccan, Bombay Presidency.

AXX.—A FISH PHST OF FIELDS ALONG THE

COR OMAN DIGI, © ORs | Ole rt HCG Ss SOO cellos |e

(With a plate).

Many are aware of the injury occasionally caused to paddy fields

by crabs in different tracts, especially in some of the delta areas

ot the Coromandel coast but it might be a surprise, to at least

some, to be told that there is a fish which has been noted as

injurious in some of these tracts. This creature (which is known

as Anatkuthupambu in Tamil, and the damage it causes Ramasult

in Telugu) is an elongated flattish creature with the general appear-

ance of a snake and believed to be a water snake. The animal is

really a fish and belongs to the group of fishes called ‘Hels’. This

creature generally inhabits the estuaries and tidal streams along the

coast and is often found to travel inland in the channels and streams

during ebb tide. Though up to the present it has been noted as

a pest only in the coast of South Arcot and in the Godaveri delta,

the creature has a wide distribution and is one of the commonest

species of eels found along our coasts and estuaries.

The nature of the damage done by this creature does not, as

in the case of most other pests, consist.in any direct injury by

the creature feeding on the plants or causing them any mechanical

injury, but it is an indirect harm caused by numbers of these eels

burrowing into and making wide passages across the bunds, thus

connecting the paddy fields containing fresh water on one side and

the adjacent salt water channels or tidal streams on the other.

1 Paper read at the Indian Science Congress, Bangalore, January 1932.

"(0109 shyzqynydg) jeg Suimorumg y

‘0S ‘SIH “Jey Aequiog ‘‘uanor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: . 277

This causes the salt water from these latter to enter the paddy

fields and affect the growth of the plants; due to the ill effects of

salt water, the plants wither and often die. The damage is thus,

described by a cultivator near Chidambaram:—‘The snake bores

through the flat bund of the Uppanar channel which is eleven feet

wide—eradually the bund weakens in several places causing sudden

breaches allowing the salt water into the paddy fields and polluting

the fresh water on account of which the plants wither; lands to the

extent of 500 acres are thus affected by the overflow of salt water

through holes and passages made by the snakes called Anaikuthu-

pambu.’ Though it was only recently that this creature was reported

as a pest in paddy fields, it was known to the writer as a pest

in a different role as early as 1918. In March, 1918, a report

was received from the Commissioner of Salt and Abkari, Board of

Revenue, Madras, to the effect that some of the salt pans and

condensers in Ganjam and Godaveri were being damaged by crabs

and a burrowing creature, causing injury known as Ramasuli in

Telugu. The writer had the privilege of visiting these tracts to

investigate the reported damage in April, 1918, and it was then

that this Ramasuli was found to be an eel and evidently the

same as the Anaikuthupambu. The injury caused to the salt pans

was due to the burrows of the eels through the bunds of the pans,

in which salt water is collected and allowed to evaporate. The

burrows thus made by eels and crabs allowed the water to run

out through them, leaving the pans dry before the salt had erys-

talised. Thus this eel has been noted as a pest of salt pans and

paddy fields. Though the agent is the same in both cases the

damage done is different in the two cases. In the one it is pre- |

vention of salt formation while in the other it is saline injury!

This eel has recently been definitely named with the help of

the Director of Fisheries, Madras, as Ophichthys (Pisoodonophis)

boro and is recorded as a common species of eel with a very wide

distribution along the Indian coasts. Very little is, however,

known of the habits cf the creature except that it burrows in mud

and underground wet areas. The very name Anaikuthupambu in

Tamil means ‘embankment cutting snake’. In the salt pans of

Cocanada this creature is known as Rama and the hole made is

known as Ramasuli. The fish is very rarely seen, though com-

mon, and is said to come up with the tide and descend into the

soft mud when the tide goes down, making a long winding hole in

its trail. The soil along the coast in such tracts is very fine and soft

forming a favourable haunt of this mud fish. It has not been

definitely investigated why it burrows into the bunds. -It is pro-

bable that it may be for egg-laying but this remains to be confirmed.

One cultivator suggests that the creature enters the paddy fields

ta catch insects. |

The remedial measures against this creature whether in salt

pans. or paddy fields are similar, viz., the prevention of the

creature burrowing into the dividing bunds. The radical measure

will be to strengthen these bunds and in the case of irrigation

channels and salt water creeks the Puble Works Department has

to see that the dividing boundaries are strengthened to prevent the

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

pest making passages into cultivated fields. The other alterna-

tives consist in the trapping and destruction of the creature in

different ways. The writer has already made suggestions on simi-

lar lines in 1918 to the Board of Revenue in his report on the

investigations made on their behalf. Now that the creature has

begun to affect paddy fields also it is necessary to adopt these and

other measures to control the ravages of this pest. The Director

of Fisheries suggests that the creature may be trapped in numbers

by burying below water level near the bunds large pots filled with

rotten meat or fish and that the eels which will be trapped in

these pots may be collected next morning and killed as in the case

of common fresh water eels. Such and other trials in the way of

preventing this injury by eels have to be tried before any definite

suggestions are made. At the same time the habits of the creature

have also to be studied in various aspects—when it breeds, at what

seasons it is found in numbers and in what parts it is a pest,

etc. The main idea of this paper is to bring to the notice of all

agriculturists and economic Zoologists the existence of such a novel

pest so that any one of us who may have chances to come across

this fish in future may be able to add to our knowledge regarding

the same.

The followmg notes on this creature are taken from Day’s

Fauna volume on Indian Fishes :—

The fish is found in the seas and estuaries of India and Malaya,

ascending large rivers to far above tidal reach. It grows to a

length of two feet and in colour it is greenish olive above with

numerous minute blackish spots, becoming greenish white below.

Respiration in this fish is curious: it can not only respire as usual

under water but can also breathe the air taken through the mouth.

The natives in parts of Bengal imagine that this fish proceeds from

the ear of a porpoise! Sir William Elhot says that in some parts

of Madras these eels caught from salt water creeks are eaten as a

remedy for weakness or pains in the loins.

MADRAS. T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR,

June, 1982. By elie Dee Zc

Madras Agricultural Department.

SOON Usa; JOO) MURAI Ol AMEOUt

EN EE Ne Galena

One of the chief problems in connection, with trout culture in

the Nilgiris is the question of food supply. The greater part of

this is provided by crabs, but it is desirable to increase as far as

possible the supply of surface food in order to get the oo to rise

freely. To effect this numbers of flowering trees and shrubs have

been planted out along the river banks, watercress beds were

formed, and a strip of erass about 20 yards broad along each bank

conserved from all Thao me: it is in connection with this last ques-

tion that I am addressing vou. Will it improve insect life in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 279

grass to leave it unburnt or would it be better to burn annually?

ii unburnt the grass in a year or two becomes coarse and dry and

about knee-high, whereas of course if burnt annually new grass

springs up with the first showers. So far as I have observed the

insect life here consists of several varieties of ‘flies’ and midges

(types of Mayfly, March brown, etc.), of grasshoppers of different

sizes, and of beetles varying from the small green irridescent kind

to the huge red-brown cockchafer several inches long. The flies

are presumably water-bred; 1 have noticed small grasshoppers to

be particularly plentiful in freshly burnt areas where the young

erass is sprouting, but as I know nothing about the life history

of either grasshoppers or beetles, I am uncertain whether young or

longer grass is better suited to the various stages of their existence.

I am afraid that the data offered is not much for you to go on,

but perhaps you could advise as regards burning whether it would

be better to continue to give complete fire protection as at present

or to burn annually; or as a compromise to burn alternate banks

every other year. Any suggestions you can offer will be most

acceptable.

LAXMIPURAM, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

Mysore. Magsor, 1.A., Retd.

May 22, 1932.

[As a preliminary it would be necessary at first to investigate

the sources and the nature of the food upon which the trout in

the streams mainly subsist before it is possible to discover whether

the burning or the conserving of the grass would be beneficial to

their food supply. This implies the examination of the stomach

contents of a number of specimens at different seasons of the year.

Once the natural source of the food was ascertained and the insects

identified it would be possible from the knowledge of their habits

to so improve conditions in the neighbourhood of the streams as

to attract the creatures which provide food for the trout. We are

publishing the above note in the hope that those with experience

of trout culture in the country may be able to suggest initial

methods whereby the conditions in the Niligiri streams may be

Improved. DS. ||

XXXIT.—METHODS’ OF DEALING WITH PLAGUES OF

ANTS.

We receive from time to time enquiries about effective means

of getting rid of ants on lawns, gardens and in bungalows. The

question has been recently the subject of correspondence in the

Meld. Various remedies are suggested. A correspondent gives the

folowing method of dealing with ants on lawns, ete,

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST SOCIETY Vol. XOOCV I

‘Wherever there is to be seen a hole in the ground through

which ants are coming and going invert a good sized flowerpot over

the opening. After a week or so it will be found that they have

transferred their elaborate system of galleries from under the ground

into the pot. When on looking through the hole in the pot it is

seen that the nest is almost: at this height, slip a piece of card

under the mouth of the pot, then sink the whole in a tub of water

when the ants in all stages of their existence will quickly be

drowned. This method is particularly useful to adopt on a lawn

where it is often impossible to deal effectively with an ants’ nest.

without damage to the grass’.

Remedies suggested for plagues of ants in houses are the

sprinkling of powdered sulphur in places where ants foregather or

move: in ordered procession—an effective alternative to sulphur

suggested by another writer is powdered cinnamon.

A. remedy found effective cn a South African fruit orchard is

a quantity of bran sweetened with golden syrup thinned down with

a little water—the whole making a crumbly moist mass—to this

add a quantity cf Paris Green (arsenic). and place the mixture

where the ants can get at it. As a safeguard against the poisoned

bran being eaten by dogs, birds, etc., it is suggested that the bran

should be put into a closed box into which plenty of holes have

been punched. Empty cigarette tins make good containers, the

holes should be plentiful and pierced low down on the sides of the

tin so that the ants can get at the bait easily. For use in food

cupboards, a eorrespondent suggests sprinkling the _ shelves

with dry borax powder covered with white paper. A variant of

the borax remedy is equal parts of borax powder and white sugar

mixed with water to the consistency of cream and placed in saucers

near the place where the ants congregate thickest. This, says the

writer, attracts them in legions for a week and then they eradually

thin out and do not appear again.

Bomsay. EDITORS.

Augustin ns OOF

XXXIII.—BEHAVIOUR OF THE RED TREE ANT,

(GHCOPHYLA SMARAGDINA).

Karly one morning in May my attention was attracted by a

number of Red Tree ‘Ants (Hicophyla smaragdina) clustered about

the paws of a hare which had been left to dry on the terrace

of our bungalow at Khandala. Overhanging the terrace was a

guava tree which sheltered a number of these ants but no nest.

One saw them moving about the stems and twigs. Knowing

from experience how aggressive these ants usually are, I decided to

test them and put my finger down a few inches away from the

assemblage. Very soon one or two of the insects moving about or

the outskirts of the crowd came up to my finger. I expected to

to be bitten immediately but to my surprise the ants did nothing

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 281

but move round my finger. Tather surprised at this very unusual

behaviour, I moved my finger closer to the ants, it was at once

inspected by a few more without any active hostile demonstrations.

I went further and put my finger right into the middle of the clus-

ter. There was a swarming mass of these red ants around it but

not one of them attempted to bite me—my small son aged 6 was an

interested spectator of this experiment. Later I heard him dare

two small boys to put their fingers in among the red ants and,

on their declining, promptly did so and was none the worse’

for it.

In the light of many experiences with these ants, and their

readiness to attack, their behaviour on this occasion seems strange.

It is possible that this aggressiveness is exhibited mainly in defence

of their nests—but then anyone who has sat down on the ground

where red ants are foraging will attest that the creatures bite

actively and readily even when not defending their strongholds.

Bombay. Seis PR Adu Eis

August 1, 1932. Mol.C., .©.M.Z.S.

XXXIV.—A SCORPION (BUTHUS) FEEDING ON A

DLE ODe SRIDEh (GALEODES AGES; Poe.)

Galeodes agilis 1s very common in the Chippabari Inspection

Bungalow (Abu Hills, Rajputana). It rightly deserves its specific

name, agilis, for iti is extremely active and can cover ground very

fast. This appears to me to be true when the spider is on the

ground, but when the proposition of climbing presents itself it is

certainly not very agile and from this I conclude that it is truly a

eround dweller and only takes to climbing to escape an enemy.

In habit, it appears to be entirely nocturnal.

One morning on turning over my holdall which was lying on

the floor, I discovered a large scorpion (Buthus sp.), finishing the

remains of a large Galeod spider. The soft abdomen and portion

of the thorax had been completely eaten. The legs were discarded.

At first sight it would appear somewhat strange how such a

spider should fall a victim to a scorpion, comparatively, a slow

moving creature. This, however, may be explained by the habit

of the spider itself. Though very rapid in its movements, this

spider rushes about blindly and possibly it relies on its speed to

catch up with anything that forms its normal prey. Speed

appears to be its mainstay in securing its food and is also probably

a factor resulting in its death.

Bompay Narvurant History Society, C. MeCANN,

Bompay. Assistant Curator,

May 4, 19382,

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

XXXV.—A CURE FOR TAPEHWORM.

In July 1980 I was admitted into hospital with severe abdo-

minal pains, particularly on the right side from just below the

ribs to almost the groin. My condition was at that time attributed

to the after-effects of dysentery, combined with malaria and

wnemia. | was treated accordingly. No one suspected. the pre-

sence of tapeworm. With the first intravenous injection of

quinine I passed about three yards of tapeworm. No sooner was

this discovered I was treated with Male Fern (Filix-mas) with a

negative result. This failing another preparation (of which I do

not remember the name) was administered. This lhkewise had

no effect and no further appearance of the worm was noticed.

My condition remained much the same. I complained of a

distinct lump just below the ribs on the mght side which moved

about and in moving caused me poms orale pain. Eventually

I was X-rayed but the radiograph showed nothing. Seeing there

was nothing to be done and that I was weakening daily, I requested

the Medical Officer to permit. me to leave the hospital, which he

agreed to on condition that I went to the hills, for at least two

months. My weight at the time of leaving hospital was 8st.

(normal about 10st. 4 lbs.). In the first pienticen days up in the

hills my weight increased rapidly with just ordinary food supple-

mented with Ostomalt. After this stage progress was gradual till

IT reached almost normal weight. Durmeg this time my stomach

was very uncomfortable particularly after meals and I was advised

to take Milk of Magnesia. This gave me temporary relief. To-

wards the end of the two months my weight began to drop once

more. |

In the meantime I received a letter from a friend of mine

advising me to take a decoction from the roots of the Pomegranate

(Punica granatum, L.) after fasting for three days. But, as I

was not troubled much at the moment I did not attempt it.

About three days before I was due back at work I discovered

segments in the stools, so I determined to try the effectiveness of

the Pomegranate root and on my return to town took the matter

in hand. “For the purpose IT obtained about 3lb. of fresh root and

boiled it as directed in Dymock’s Pharmacographaa Indica, vol. i

p. 45, but I did not follow the instructions to the letter. The

roots, that I had secured, I boiled in about 4 pints of water till

they were almost reduced to half the quantity and appeared lke

strong tea. This I drew off and allowed to cool. The roots were

then Porcned and reboiled in a like quantity of water and after

the water had again boiled down to about half it was added to

the first lot, thereby giving me about 4 pints.

Before commencing the treatment, I took 1 ounce of Magne-

sium Sulphate in the morning followed by a hot cup of tea after

which I kept a rigid fast for three days. On the third day I com-

menced. with the “decoction early in the morning and by noon had

taken 24 pints followed by another dose of Magnesium Sulphate.

About 1 p.m. the worm was ejected in a large tangled mass.

Relief was almost immediate—the lump from under my ribs dis-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283

appeared. On examination it turned out that the head remained

inside. There was nothing to be done for the moment as I was

not anxious to repeat the fast. My condition improved consider-

ably and I felt a new man. ‘Two months later to the day I was

worried once more by my guest. I repeated the experiment adding

this time 45 drops of Carbon Tetrachloride after taking the last

dose of Pomegranate decoction. The result was a negative one.

As I did not succeed this time, and no further segments appeared,

I let the matter lie till the worm showed itself again.

Again two months to the date, the worm made its appearance.

In sheer desperation to get rid of the beast I altered the treatment

slightly. A friend of mine suggested that I should try chloroform

this time, added to the Pomegranate treatment. In order to

make sure of a thoroughly empty stomach I commenced by the

adininistration of a strong soap and water enema in the evening

before retiring, followed up next morning by one ounce of Magne-

sium Sulphate. On the top of this I commenced the Pomegranate

decoction and continued it throughout the day till I had consumed

21 pints. The same evening at seven o'clock I took 15 drops of

pure chloroform in half a wine glass of water. By 8-30 p.m. the

complete worm was expelled.

The Pomegranate decoction gives one a slightly sickly feeling,

but it is not unbearable, while the chloroform just made me a

little unsteady. By the next morning all the effects had worn off.

As the last mentioned ‘accmaimaare=a was so effective I recom-

mended it to a friend of mine whom I knew had been suffering

from the same complaint for over 16 years. He had tried every

possible thing and had failed every time. However, eventually

he followed my advice, but being a bigger man than myself, he

increased the doses in each case. “He took 3 pints of the decoction

and 25 drops of chloroform and eventually two ounces of Magne-

sium Sulphate. The result was good. He passed 50 ounces of

tapeworm. On examination of the mass it was found that there

were 38 heads! In both the cases the tapeworms concerned were

the Beef-Tapeworm Cae saginata Goeze).

It may be mentioned here that during the treatment tea alone

was taken at intervals throughout the day, a’ full meal after the

expulsion of the worm.

Before I end this note I give below the precise method of the

treatment :

(1) At ment a strong enema before retiring.

(2) Karly next morning 1 oz. Magnesium Sulphate.

(3) 24 pints of Pomegranate decoction from fresh roots, taken

at intervals during the day.

(4) 15 drops of pure Chloroform at seven in the evening (or

quantity prescribed by the doctor according to the constitution

of the patient).

(5) Half an hour after the chloroform repeat dose of Mag.

Sulph. to clear bowels of decoction.

Now a word with regard to the effect of Filix-mas. J am given

to understand that this drug is very efficacious in Europe in cases

af tapeworm. If this be the ease the only reason for its failure

sii AKO AINA, IKON evs IN AIO AIL, SaUhSUP.. (SOYIUSIPN . Val, XC XO VI

in India is possibly due to the fact that the drug when used, is

old, and in consequence has lost its potency. As it is stocked

by chemists over long periods it in all probability degenerates.

Bombay NaturaAn History Sociery, C. McCANN, F.1.s.,

Bompay. Assistant Curator.

November 1, 1981.

AXXVI.—_ SOME SHAGRASSES FROM THE PRESIDENCY

OF BOMBAY.

While collecting seaweeds at several places the writer has

collected a few flowering plants often associated with certain algae.

In view of the following remarks by Dr. F. Borgesen some infor-

mation about seagrasses will be of some interest. He writes: ‘At

Bombay I had expected to find a rich vegetation of seagrasses

at the shores, but in this respect I was disappointed as I have

not found any.’ So writes Dr. Borgesen in one of his papers.

This fact is to some extent corroborated by Cooke in his flora.

Notwithstanding the writer has succeeded in collecting the

folowing plants :—

1. Halophila ovalis Hook. (ITydrocharitaceae.)

2. Halophila decipiens Osti. (Hydrocharitaceae.)

The first species which was collected at Malvan and Port

Okha in the month of March, 1929, was identified at Kew through

Rev. Fx. E. Blatter. The second species was identified by Prof.

Ostenfield at Copenhagen according to Dr. Borgesen. Both the

Species were abundant and grew ambxed up with the species of

Caulerpa. It was collected at Bombay in the month of January

1926.

3. Cymodoceae sp. probably isoetifolia Asch. (Potamoge-

tonaceac.)

This plant covered a fairly large area of hard calcareous soil

at Port Okha in March; the same place was formerly covered by

Codim elongatum Ag. in January 1929.

4. Ruppia rostellata Koch. (Naiadaceae.)

This plant formed the main part of vegetation (in March 1927

and 1928) of a mudflat near Santa Cruz which was flooded by

seawater at high tide. It was mixed up with Chara succincta.

Rev. Fr. E. Blatter has kindly identified these plants.

LITERATURE CITED:

1. F. Boreesen:—Fra en Rejse i Indien 1927-28. Saertryk

a Botanisk Vidsskiit. 41. Binds 2.) Welte, p. 149.

3. TT. Cooke:—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol.

Mag? Te Kee

A. Arber:—Water Plants. Cambridge. 1920. p. 128.

Witson CoLLEGcE, S23 Ce Dx:

Bompay, 7, Wiese, Win.

Savon

SON

Bill dan ah

: ‘SOAOLS W[BG pue coquieg tr uopprIy Apaed O18 seposed ystyppug

‘punoisyoeq oy} ut vydsowhjod vsnqubg pue punorsor0y oy} Ul snqznjnownd snupuuoy Jo UoTyBIoOSse poxtul uedo YIM Jy ULeuNop, Jo doy,

one,

I HLVIG "209 ‘JSIH ‘JUN Avquog ‘uanor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285

XAXXVII.—GLIMPSES OF THE VEGETATION OF SOUTH

BURMA.

(With three plates).

Any one travelling in the Tropical Rain Forests of South Burma

will find a striking similarity ot these forests to those of Chitta-

gong Hill Tracts and Aracan Sea Coasts. In fact, the same type of

forests gradually runs down along the Aracan Sea Coast and finally

extends to the Malay Peninsula through Mergui and Tenasserim

difiering only in their luxuriance and density and particularly in

their evergreen and mixed nature due to variation in climatic and

edaphic factors. Towards Chittagong and Aracan sides the vege-

tation is more of a mixed deciduous and evergreen type and

further down in Mergui and Tenasserim it takes more of an ever-

ereen character. In swampy places along the sea coast, river

sides and estuaries, these forests merge into the mangrove forma-

tion. In most of the flooded and low land areas Nipa fruticans and

Acanthus ilicifolius form in some places an association. In com-

paratively drier and higher parts Avicennia officinalis, Hacoecaria

Agallocha, Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Sonneratia acida,

Carapa obovata and others are frequently found encroaching upon

the hill forests of lower elevations.

Thus following the vegetation all along this area one finds some

o: the common representative species. During secondary forma-

tion there is the same tendency of the plants developing into a

tropical rain forest in which Bamboos and Canes claim supremacy,

although, in some places Blwmea balsamifera gains in the begin-

ning an upper hand but soon it is overtopped by bamboos. Thus

in some of the most frequented areas, as noticed on the Moulmein

hills of the town proper, Bambusa polymorpha is a dominant

species growing in dense thickets. The other shrubby species—

such as, Connarus paniculatus, Congea tomentosa, Melastoma

malabathricum form a mixed association in more open areas.

Along the slopes—Sterculia villosa, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus,

Ficus species and other trees and shrubs indicate that they are

the members cf the Tropical Rain Forests.

Troceeding further down as I entered the Kyeinchaung Forest

areas of the Cinchona Reserve; an uncharted country in Tenas-

serim, Mergui District, I came across the characteristic dense mass

ot vegetation of the virgin Tropical Rain Forests covering shady

valleys and. slopes of ‘los ranges of hills extending ‘towards

Siam in the north and Malay in the south. Here lofty trees shoot

up from an impenetrable crowded mass of Bamboo brakes and

Cane brakes.

In moist and darker portions of the forests beautiful palms are

found scattered here and there, and in some places groups of

Licuala peltata, Zalacca Wallichiana, Cycas’ Rumphi and other

herbacecus Scitamineae species are not infrequently met with.

Thus, the vegetation of these primeval forests may be sub-

divided into four strata. The highest belt consists of tall species

286. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volk OO Vi

of Dipterocarpus, Ficus, Dillenia, Stereospermum, Sterculia,

Lagerstroemia, Parashorea and others forming a canopy over the

next tier of mixed Bamboo and Cane brakes. This central zone

of mixed Bamboo brakes interlocked with rattan is chiefly com-

posed of several species of bamboos such as Bambusa arundinacea,

Bambusa polymorpha, Gigantochloa albo-ciliata, Dendrocalamus

strictus and others. . | :

Associated with these bamboos and canes are also found smaller

trees, shrubs and tall herbaceous species such as Barringtonia

acutangula, Grewia Microcos, Streblus asper, lvandia species, Croton

species, Ixora species and also a few species of palms noted above.

This stratum again gradually dwindles down to the low shrubby and

herbaceous members, namely, Strobilanthes sp., Jasminum: sp.,

Coffea bengalensis and smaller plants of Gnetum sp. (The young

leaves of Gnetum edule are a favourite vegetable diet of the Bur-

mans.) Finally, this zone of herbaceous association gradually ends

in the floor vegetation of low diffused herbs and trailers which in

some places appear as mosaic carpets on the ground. Pure grass

mats are extremely rare inside these forests. Tall lanes, scandent

shrubs and climbers, such as Bauhinia sp., Butea superba, Vitis

sp., Hntada scandens, Zizyphus enoplia, Mucuna sp., Ipomaea sp.,

and others are found intertwined with Bamboo brakes: or over-

hanging like festoons from taller trees. Along the banks of the

Kyemechaung river the spreading shrubs of Homonoia riparia are

commonly met with in the forest. Hpiphytic orchids, such as

Dendrobium densiflorum, Dendrobium Pierardi with their long

drooping bunches of beautiful flowers, and numerous plants cof the

most common epiphytic fern—Asplenium nidus with its full gran-

deur, adorn the branches and stems of trees often covered with

thick pads of mosses. Rhaphidophora pertusa and Pothos scandens

often climb up to a considerable height on the trunk of sturdy trees.

The thicker leaves of the herbs and shrubs in the interior of the

forests have their margins fringed with mossy outgrowths and are

often studded with numerous epiphyllous lichens. Of these mention

may specially be made of a magnificent specimen of nest epiphyte—

Platycerium grande, (the staghorn fern) wellknown for its large

pocket leaves and pendulous dichotomous foliage leaves. This plant

was seen in the suburbs of Meregui on a stout high branch of a

lofty tree of Durio zibethinus, one of the most favourite fruit trees

of South Burma. This interesting fern which is reported here for

the first time from Mergui, South Burma, is a native of Malay

Peninsula, (as recorded Ibe Schimper) and it Tage have found its

way up in Lower Burma as well.

SoME oF THE LirERATURE CONSULTED:

1. 3. D. Hooker.—The Flora of Bytish India, Vol: i-viu,

1875-1897.

Wes. Kine, ones Pend oO) Jamiisic upmia@, Vol vem, Ween,

8. A: F.- W. Schimper:—Plantgeography (English transla-

tion), 1908.

4. D. Prain.—Bengal Plants, Vol. i-n, 1908.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate II

A general view of the forests by the side of Upper Kyeinchaung river

with overhanging climbers and drooping branches of Baccaurea sapida. In the

fore ground is the spreading shrub of Homonoia riparia—the most common

shrub along the bank of this river.

A group of Licuala peltata in the Kyeinchaung forest with the party

accompanying the author in his botanical exploration.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prare) Tt

Interior of a secondary formation in enasserim, showing Cane brakes with

epiphytic Asplenium nidus and climbing Rhaphidophora pertusa on the moss-

covered trunk of a tall tree.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287

5. J. H. Lace.—LlList of Trees, Shrubs and Principal Climbers,

etc., recorded from Burma, 1912. 7

6. H. Ns Ridley.—Flora of the Malay. Peninsula, Vol. 1-v,

1923.

7. ©. EH. Parkinson.—A Fforest Bova of the Andaman Islands,

: 1923.

8. Rk. L. Heimig.—List of Plants of Chittagong Collectorate

and Hill Vracts, 1925

Saeed Dig dD). Stamp.—The V Gaehation of Burma, 1925

10) KK. Biswas:—Flora of the Salt Lakes, Calcutta, Journ.. of

the Dept. of Science, C. University, 1926.

11. J. H. Watson.—Mangrove lorests of the Malay Peninusla,

1928.

12. Van Slooten.—The Dipterocarpaceae of the Dutch East

lingwes, Ieulll, dail, IBuun7.. ol, xc Sere, tins Jone smi, SPs).

13. K. Biswas.—Preliminary Note on the Vegetation of the

Tropical. Hoergreen “Rain Horests of the + Cimchona

Reserve, Tenasserim, Mergui, South Burma, Abstracts

ef Papers, Indian Science Congress, Section of Botany,

INGE Oy fs 22a IBN

14. FI. Kingdon Ward.—xix. Singapore to Penang, Roosevelt

Expedition in French Indo-China. The Gardeners’

Chronicle, No. 2325, Vol. ve, (contd.)—1931-1932.

lo We Gs Craib.—Florae iPr howe Hnumeratio, Vol. i, Pts.

I te 4, 1925-1981

16. D. Mukerji.—Notes of Ants, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol.

97, 11/12, 19382.

kK. BISWAS, M.A.,

Superimtendent, (Offig.),

Royvau Botanic GARDEN,

CALCUTTA.

XXAVITI.—SCENT IN RELATION TO FLOWER-COLOUR.

The study of scent in relation. to flower-colour, has been

followed during the last quarter of a century with increasing inter-

est. Oz particular interest and importance, however, is the

eee of blue flower-colour with scent. This combination is said

» be exceedingly rare.

A resumé of the known species of scented flowers of blue

colour, has been well, drawn up by Hampton.t They are:

Meconopsis sp. K. .W2-d751 (observed by Kingdon Ward), M.

speciosa, Pram, MM. latifjola, Pram, Primula. cernua, Vranch.

(observed by Kingdon Ward), Gentiana ciliata, Linn. (observed by

Kerner; but Hampton is of the opinion that they are devoid of

scent), Tecophilea cyanocrocus, Leyb., Nymphaea stellata, Willd.

(observed by Hampton; but there are certain varieties of this

* Hampton, The Scent of Flowers and Leaves, 1925.

988: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TUM yARIE mE Sins Oise Thain V ol Xo Oxayal

species with white corolla), Salvia patens, Carv. and several

inembers of the Borage family.

It is thus evident that the paucity of scented flowers of pure

blue, is very great indeed. Observations were made by the author

in this direction on certain Indian flowering plants both indigenous

and acclimatised. The results obtained are interesting in the way

that they add eight species to the list of flowers having a combin-

ation of blue colour with scent. The species studied are

enumerated as tollows:— |

Iris persica, Linn. (fam. Iridaceae): Commonly known as

Fersian Iris is a small bulbous plant and bears blue flowers of

delightiul fragrance.

Caryopteris Wallichiana, Schau. DC. Prod., xi, 625 (Clero-

dendron odoratum, D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep., 102): This Verbe-

naceous member is a spreading shrub and produces pretty blue

sweet-scented flowers in great abundance during February and

March. It may, however, be pointed out that there is a variety

o: this species which produces only white flowers.

Angelonia grandiiong, ©.; Morr. Anna soc. elorg, Gand, ie

1847 (fam. Scrophulariaceae): This herbaceous species keeps

flowering all the year round. The flowers are blue having a strong

scent suggesting pineapple.

Passiflora laurifolia, Linn. Sp. 956 (fam. Passifloraceae):

is a climber and bears fine blue flowers that are fragrant.

Hydrolea zeylanica, Vahl. (fam. Hydrophyllaceae): is a

water-plant quite common in Orissa ponds. Its Lone are blue

and are at the same time fragrant.

Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Dem, (aad, @oalaiolG, I. JEI.)3 late

Bignoniaceous species is a native of Brazil and is a_ big-sized

‘bee, Its blue flowers are very sweetly scented.

Brunjelsia latifolia, Benth., DC. Prod., x, 199 (=Franciscea

latifolia, Pohl, Pl. Bras. Ie. 3. t. 2): belongs to the family Sola-

pnaceae and is one cf the most lovely of the garden plants. It

flowers by the end of February. The fine flattened flowers are

exquisitely fragrant but they subsequently lose their colour and

turn white.

Brunfelsia Hopeana, Benth. (=Franciscea uniflora, Pohl.,

le. 2 t. 1): is a shrub which (from February to March) produces

a great protusion of lovely blossom of pure blue or white flowers.

Both the types of flowers emit a most agreeable perfume.

Botany DEPARTMENT, Nos Ce INS. SRN Gal

RAVENSHAW CoLLEGE, PATNA UNIVERSITY,

Currack, InpIA.

July 4, 1982.

XXXIX.—VERNACULAR. NAMKS.

Your reviewer objects to the rendering of Brinjara in my “Book

of Man-eaters’. He will find Banjara in my ‘History of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 289

Hyderabad Contingent’, published by the Government of India in

1905; and objection has been taken to that transliteration.

It is scarcely necessary to say that, having a knowledge of the

language concerned, and having been associated with these people,

sometimes for prolonged periods, during more than thirty years,

I am fully aware that the word is Banjara in the vernacular. But

I wrote Brinjara deliberately. It is the common English render-

ing, sanctioned by long custom, just as most of us, possibly

including your reviewer, write Brahmin.

If we are pedantic we may find faults, real or imaginary, in

most publications. A very common mistake, made by R. W. B.

and others, is spelling sambar with an ‘h’ in the middle; let us

hope the mistake is not repeated in pronunciation !

mh. GG. BURLON,

March 22, 1932. Brigadier-General.

pom

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING HELD ON l4ta. JULY 1932.

A Meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society was held

at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on Thursday the 14th. July at 6 pm. Khan

Bahadur C. M. Cursetjee presided.

Sir Reginald Spence, Kt., the Honorary Secretary, announced the election

of 16 new members since the last meeting held on the 31st. March. In all

40 new members had joined since the commencement of the year—this was

an improvement on the corresponding figures of the previous year—but there

was room for further improvement—he hoped that members would do what lay

in their power to keep up the membership of the Society and so enable it to

carry on the work it was still doing in spite of difficult condition which

prevailed everywhere.

NEW AQUARIUM FOR BOMBAY.

There are many schemes which are awaiting better times for development.

Among these is a Marine Aquarium for Bombay.

Sir Reginald stated that he has harboured this project, among many others,

for a long time, and he hoped that before he left India it would bear fruit.

He had managed to secure from the Government sympathetic consideration for

a free site for an Aquarium on the new reclamation. What he wanted now

was Rs. 50,000 to put up and equip a building—not a large sum—but one which

was not easy to come by in these times of depression. The prospect was not

bright, but he did not give up hope that the Marine Aquarium would become

at no distant future an accomplished fact.

JUBILEE NEXT YEAR.

Sir Reginald reminded the members that 1938 would see the 50th. anniversary

of the foundation of the Society and expressed the hope that conditions in

Bombay and the world in general would enable the occasion to be celebrated

fittingly.

EXPEDITION TO KHERI.

Mr. McCann, Assistant Curator of the Society, then gave an interesting

lecture illustrated with lantern slides on the recent expedition to Kheri, Garh-

wal, on the Nepal border. The Expedition was undertaken on behalf of the

Field Museum, Chicago.

American Museums have in recent years concentrated a great deal of

attention upon India and this country has been the scene of various expeditions

organised by American institutions with a view to collecting specimens repre-

sentative of the Indian fauna and flora. The New York Museum recently

opened its hall of Indian Mammals which contains perhaps the most beautiful

series of groups, illustrating the great game animals of the Indian Hmpire.

The material collected for these groups was obtained mainly through Mr.

Vernay, a vice-patron and generous benefactor of the Society.

The Field Museum of Chicago is now going to have its Indian Hall. The

specimens which are to be exhibited in the Hall, will represent, like those in

New York, the larger game animals of our country. They were collected some

years ago during an expedition undertaken by the late President Roosevelt's

two sons. The animals are now to be set up and exhibited in groups in their

natural surroundings.

The Society, which helped the New York Museum in completing its work,

was asked to co-operate in collecting the material and accessories required for

the Field Museum groups. It is not necessary to explain what these museum

groups are. We have several groups in the galleries of the Prince of Wales’

Museum which are as fine examples of the type of work as is to be seen

anywhere in the world. Had we the space, and what is equally important

the funds, we in Bombay could have as fine an exhibit of Indian Mammals

as is now to be seen in a foreign country.

PROCHEDINGS 291

The purpose of the modern Museum group is to reveal the facts of life

as one may read them in the book of nature. Art and science combine to make

the lesson pleasing and instructive. In the modern group the animal is seen

not as a dead classified museum specimen but is seen in the environment in

which it lives and has its being. ‘To serve its purpose the group must be

true to life. It must correctly represent the animal and illustrate some phase

of its life. It must with equal truth reproduce the surroundings in which

the animal lives. The only way to do this is to study at first hand both the

animal and its habitat. This in brief is the nature of the work which the

expedition set out to do.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, AND PUBLISHED BY

SIR REGINALD SPENCE FOR THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY

ee IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN |

ae Bg ae BUTTER LIES.

Brigadier W. H. Fane: &.S1., G:b EDS: O.

: eons Edition Lae due

The BOCK contains an Introductory Chapter

on Butterfly collecting. in India, hints for

amateurs on collecting and treatment and

preserving of specimens. Apart from this

bene the book includes thirty-two black and

~ ss white plates illustrating over 200 species.

ae _ Price Rs. 15/- net.

(Price to members Rs. 10/- net.)

Capt. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.0.U.

_Profusely Sitgeeted ail black sna white plates. .

a - - Price Rs. 9/- net.

(Price to members Rs. 6-12-0 net.) .

we) Apply to: Ae:

The Bombay Natural History Society,

6, Apollo Street = :: = :: ~—s BOMBAY.

a © STUART BAKER, CLE, 0. RE, PLS, PZ. S, MBO, t i. FAO. :

os 8vo. ‘Halt bound.

VOL. ul.

"PHEASANTS: AND BUSTARD- -QUAIL.

About 320 pp. With 12 Coloured. Plates: and

- numerous Black and White 2S

Peace to Weapons ane have not purchased : ue

Vols. di Gell" ve eel 15-0= =Re. 23. :

Members who have purchased one — te ee

of the above Volumes aa fe 1-10- O=Rs. 20.

“Members who have purchased se

both the above Volumes — 4 1- 5- plz ERs. Chae

Price to Non- members. | Two Guineas=Rs. 28.

Packing and postage extra.

“COMMON, INDIAN BIRDS.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR. | ue i

*e)

io. fous aad ten Common Birds of the”

eck Saale

Indian Plains, arranged i in a set of 5 Charts |

Mn MU

for hanging on a wall. — i GB ea eee 7

Price to Members ORs. 36) : , Bostage, 2004 eek

ae Non ember -Rs. 45 Packing extra.

Apply to: ao

The Bombay Natural Hoa. Society,

6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY.

UIiCHiCO tt tt. .TiiiiintnTiTT iT Tm a

;

: J vas ;

measuring 40.x 36 in., fitted with wooden rollers and designed

2 AAnOKTA HNN

fa: Apollo Street, Bombay.

2, Old Bond Street, W. I.

Digs

1 THE ‘DIOCESAN, PRESS, MADRAS. _

THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS,

Birds. ce ah

Game Birds of India, Vol. I. (Indian Ducks and their Allies), 2nd Edition.

Rs. 50.

| | | (Price to Members Rs. 35).

Game Birds of India, Vol. i. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards and Sandgrouse),

Ist EON. Rs. 42.

(Price to Members Rs. 30).

Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, Ist Edition, Rs. 28.

(Price to Members Rs. 17) 3);

Indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by E. C. Stuart BAKER,

O.B.E., M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., etc. Rs. 37-8.

(Price to Members Rs. 30).

Set of Game Bird Plates (30), Vol. I.

(Price to. eres Rs. 15).

Set of Game Bird Plates (19); Vol. Il. ( Rs. 13-8.

(Price to Meriter fs. 10).

Bird-Life in India, by Capt. R. S. P. Barres, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. © Rs. 9.

(Price to Members Rs. 6-12).

Common Indian Birds, Illustrations in colour of 210 Common Birds of Indian

Plains, arranged in a set of 5 Charts. Rs. 45.

(Price to Members Rs. 36).

Common lidian Birds, Illustrations; i in colour of 196 Common Birds of Indian

Plains, an album. - Rs. 45.

Snakes.

Identification of Poisonous Snakes— |

Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x 40”. \ Rs. 5.

Folding Pocket Chart. Rs, 1-12.

Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S. Re. 1.

| , | _ Miscellaneous.

Identification of Indian Butterflies, by BRIGADIER W. H. EVANS, G.Si.

C.1.E., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated. Rs. | 15.

(Price to Members Rs. 10).

‘Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. Rs, 2-8.

A List of Indian Butterflies, by Cor. W. H. Evans. VRS 2.

Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by JosEPH

ASSMUTH, S.J. one : Re. 1.

Back Numbers of the Journal

Back nuinbers of the Society's Journal. Rates on application.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of

‘Rs. 350.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual

subscription of Rs. 25. —

The subscription of members elected in October, November and December

covers the Ager ete poe date of their election up till the oe of the

following years“ " |

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

‘The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society in

Bombay on he Ist, January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.

| | Rs. 20.

TAXIDERMY

Specimen of work produced in our Laboratory

We have pleasure in announcing that the services

of our Taxidermy Department are available to members

of the Society. Work 1s carried out for members

only.

The object of the Society is to turn out Taxidermy

work of a high standard on the most modern principles.

It should be noted that orders received from

members are carried out in strict rotation.

The Honorary Secretary .will. be plead | to quote

<6 EAE ce

aXe ei

mains Be

terms on specific inquiry. gee 8

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

Ist March, 1933.

wr of Ve!

St et

f in ay ‘ A 4 ;

= ~ r = 5

rote 7

=ow rem) ‘i

ies ag

is ‘ 2

Spnatal a .

Ca 7

F! = i

H ‘

7 9

md 5

. 2 a

D «

vf é

: SE) fb

—«¢

. ~ = if

. 0p :

‘ Ky 5 : ec ts

7 : Wey + P

: hi _ Pits

. whe btu fe pee

+ = a G E { 2

» a ei Z * .

i} we OG =

% = i

4 Nes be y

4 ' yt he .

fo are! es a ee

- i aS

ae 5 :

: bps Sates

5 ¥ vv? oe, Cee 9 a r,

Lg Vs: a 4 ? ?

Fe, /

{ 2 C

ie " . oar af

AW . Hy Sa Ge ot PO car ww Wee rors

~ GiN' ae Bcc i‘ } :

; WY < n G z= i

“ P 3

~ -S el ae ae Danie gat r

* ‘ ml 4 ea = 4 i iJ

a . = ‘

oo a Ae ‘ad

t i i ir i

d i

1 iy i i

? Ms .

ty - La . ,

: 4 of baer , & A ft

, a 3 J 2 » pa tae €

1) 6 7 , A

ay 5 ‘ +, »

> rc

y, { i

. : ny i Pr 4 ; ir

a ' - - 1

we H

COIN IBIN IES, O18 WAIL OAT) OOS IN aie 2

PAGE

THE GamMr Birps oF THE INDIAN [imprreE. By EH. C. Stuart Baker,

CIDR SET Ze Se ieee Sen emevICB: OMUR noun Her eA OxUic Partin exe (Wath: =a

GOOG! (WUCON) OF. Seadodebenopadene aoe Gee nOeO eee OROOU Ee COR LOCE OAT ao anE aad anedeT = 293

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BomBAy PRESIDENCY. By Rev. EH. Blatter,

Shp AD Aais Fiala Ghpe devant wees oC VME Du DUGLOSH Nee 1 sei Nccnidansedtec ue clases 307

Some HxPERIENCES AMONGST HLEPHANT AND THE OTHER Bic GAME oF BuRMA

RON GESS( 1h Silene ayaa Vis Seo SIGINOMM ah a1 WUssiesacisitaclacisine Safa sicaieiencoees SZ

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY oF THE EASTERN GuHats (Ornithological

Section). Part IV. By H. Whistler, m.B.o.U., assisted by N. B.

SGINNINE GRRE OS Wee escent test. ci ota a. irene Ameen iste NUM Se Is Saielaat cates Mipae ease sh cigars 334

SOME BrautiruL InpiAN Trees. Part XI. By Rev. EH. Blatter, s.1.,

Pde, Wells, eyacl We WS. Whllewel, isp Ciaue. I colloomedl Wind

I Olacs anal wolnnte (olen ahah Pi CROMTCDG)\ ~- SoShdoceecosecdo-csobocseccsosoe 353

THe HyperabaD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL Survey. Part I. By Salim

Ali, with Notes by Hugh Whistler. (With a map and 2 plates.) ... 356

»-NON=POIsonoUS, SNAKES::, Byas. He- Prater M.U.0),°O.Mez.S., J.P. ...--. 391

NoTES ON THE COLOURATION AND HABITS OF THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON

oR Hoonock (iylobates hoolock Harl.). By C. McCann, F.u.s. (With

Dis DUCE CSE Retest ite ace saree ae cia ate ds acer atnaiae we ae eae Oke neste No SAREARG ocd sks Mie v Sy 395

THE Gamt Brrps AND ANIMALS OF THE MAnrpur State witH NotTEs oN

THEIR NuMBERS, MicRaTION AND Hapsirs. Part I. By J. C. Higgins,

A ONG pee MIC eet Ss ea oa a are, Sa a ae Guar Eee ac tee! ye SRD Us Sars Ne Bae De 406

Tue Civetr-Cars oF Asta. By R. I. Pocock, F.R.s. (With 4 text-figures.) 423

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. By J. A. Yates. 450

ADDITIONS TO THE DRAGONFLY (Odonate) Fauna oF INDIA wiTH DkEsCcRIP-

TIONS OF New Species. By It.-Col. EF. C. Fraser, 1.M.s., ¥F.5.S.

ice EEC DERG OS, .\s = am acca cer tra actectoce seRTER att ieee acc coon Gus teectiteeses 460

THE Soctan LIFE oF SNAKES. By G. JEL, APRS, WWGh, Ovi, debs can 260

New PLAnts FROM WAZIRISTAN. By Rev. EH. Blatter, s.3., ph.p., F.L.S. 477

REvVIEWws—

iPeesm Oiseaux We lilindochimes Hrancaise gal. c-cc.msccnceoneceesaae 485

2. The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire. ............... 485

MIscELLANEOUS NoTEs—

How does a) Miger make! a Kall”? “By R. K. M. Battye. ...... 488

II.—Panthers of the North-West Frontier. By R. I. Pocock, F.z.s. 489

NU ——Jeeleil hime (Cope, Tehy 1k, Wits fShiammavoyniss | Eooanecodessoneascnee 490

Ne hlde Dogs by, Re Ca Morrisns Fazess. BURUGES. <cscsss.foncceeosen: 49]

Nea iniccmoiconne bya «Cop Monrige HAZSas 9 KIR.G2S.n secececcac.cses 492

Wiha oF IBisoi, IBiy Ie (CO, Iola, Soydeshe HCoSn Begsecenseacoscsee 493

VII.—Elephants—Age to which they live in captivity. By R. D.

Fe LI OMNI ERE IME Ah. en pe, het ie, WL ol dua claaautavons soca cewanus 494

il CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVI, No. 2

VIII.—Elephants eating earth. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s., F.R.G.8. ... 496

IX.—Habits of the Muntjac (M. malabaricus). By R. C. Morris,

EY Agee a see OCIS em Te AM Nn Aen ates ao aes we pas Sco boSOUO 497

X.—The Migration of the Paradise Flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisi).

By H. Whistler, F.2.S., M.B.O.U. ...--:0scs.c0eseeeeerneceerneererens 498

XI.—Further Notes on the Nesting of Lanius nigriceps Frank. ats

observations on juvenile ~ plumage. By 8. C. Law, M.a.,

PheD.. ak Zs8. EM aBeOrUey “GV AE eke = plale) skeen neseeemeee ses oeeer ae 499

XII.—The Status of Geocichla citrina citrina Lath. (in the District

of 24-Parganas, with a note on Nestling Colouration). By

8. 4G, aw, MAS. Phas eZ See MEBs On Ute sense sce cee neercc 501

XIII.—Extended Distribution of the Wynaad Laughing Thrush (Gar-

rulax delesserti, Jerdon) to North Kanara. By V. 8S. La-

Personmey 207 08 = 02 os tesla Sclesstasiome Cosccegaee sauces cee ea cca eee 903

XIV.—The Occurrence of the Common Ruby Throat (Cailiope calliope,

Pallas) in the Godavery Delta. By V. S. LaPersonne. ...... 904

XV.—Nesting of the White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa, Semm.). By

HibisCol. is Ei Doyley, uM Seen ei aee. eceeaee on se teeet eee 504

XVI.—Note on the Indo-Burmese Pied Hornbill (Hydrocissa mala-

baricus leucogastra). By HE. P. Gee. (With a plate.) ... 505

XVII.—The Migration of Wild Bowne Society’s Bird Hingis

Scheme .!7) By... AUGUOLS se scaha es aaaees gee soatantee ecene oe ean eee 507

XVITI.—Harly Arrival of Smipe in the Andamans. By J. Miles Stapyl-

GON, TCS. 6 Bh ie SNe Cie ae oes ee aL A canter ose eae eee 507

XIX.—The Common Central Asian Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis pallasii,

nerchenb:). me Nepaly sBy ain 5. Walkersommes eenssss.eeeeee ee 508

XX.—The Occurrence of the Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis nauwmanni,

Heisch.) 1. Bunmas soy) Cxalsa slicehunstneer seeaseeee eee 508

—— —Some Observations on the Nesting of a pair of Ceylon Shikra

Hawks (Astur badius badius, Gmelin.) By W. W. A.

Phillips; <-F273855 UMeBi Orie hot eae eee Oe eee eee 509

XXII.—Nesting of the Grey Partridge (Francoiinus Pondicerianus,

Givela) > By tte Colas Dt ali dyuar.dls) mene eee cscaeneeceen eee 912

XXIIT.—The Occurrence of the Green Pit Viper (Trimeresurus gramineus,

Shaw)! at Nagpur. By hi sAC sy DeAbreUb Hh eZes5 seeeseceeree eee NZ

XXIV.—Intestinal Parasites of the Python. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s.,

F.R.G.S. Mcrae roman Rb S Men ote no noputunhtedsasoshoosds 513

XXV.—The Occurrence of the Common Chamaeleon (Chamaeleon calca-

ratus) in Gujarat. By Hari Narayan G. Acharya, F.z.s. ... 513

XXVI.—A Note on the Occurrence of Rana hexadactyla, Lesson in

Bengal, “By: J..< Ti.) ‘Blvaduraeyee eer reece eee econ. sae 514 ©

XOXV i —iresh) Water ‘Hels.) (By) Ss qeAqSunipeaeneeere cece reereraceenanacern 516

XXVIII.—Notes on an Acridiid Grasshopper (Gesonia punctifrons, St.)

ovipositing into stem of ‘Colocasia’ Plant. By T. V. Rama-

krishna Ayyar and N. Krishna Menon. (With a plate.) .... 517

XXIX.—Phosphorescence in a Bombay Myriapoda. By A. N. Gulati,

PCA 90 C.F ue Sanna ae Aria sunee.Gacqnn sea son gu adbomseadbdedbadsagbbaessy 519

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

John Bale, Sons & Damielsson.L*¢ London

Vier

THE GREENSHANK

Glottis nebularia.

THe REDSHANK 4.

Tringa totanus totanus.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

Aprit, 1938. : Wi@ibin) RMON TES Nos 2:

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

ie CA STUART BAKER, C.1.E., F.Z.8., F.U.8., M.B.0.U., H-¥.A.0.U.

Wom ve

THEHE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS.

Part XIX.

(With a coloured plate).

(Continued from page 12 of this volume).

Genus: Trinea (contd.).

TRINGA TOTANUS.

Scolopax totanus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., 1, p. 145 (1758).

Type-locality.—Sweden.

In 1926 Meinertzhagen, reviewing this species (Bull., B.O.C.,

xlvi, March 29, 1926) came to the conclusion that the race from

Ladak named eurhinus by Oberholser was not separable from the

typical form and he then proceeded to give a name, T'ringa totanus

terrignote, to a form, based on the type from the Kuku Nor. An

examination of the material in the British Museum and of some

Specimens lent me by Messrs. Whistler and Osmaston convince

me that Meinertzhagen is right and that the Ladak and Tibet

breeding-birds cannot be separated from one another though they

are both very different from his bird from the Kuku Nor. We

have therefore this extraordinary distribution arising. The Euro-

pean bird seems to work eastwards through Siberia, keeping north,

another stream works south into the Himalayas, whilst between

the two there is sandwiched another race breeding in the Altai,

Kuku Nor, Tianschan and probably a considerable area in Central

Asia. )

_ I can see no difference in size between Ladakan and Tibetan

birds and those from Europe, so eurhinus becomes a synonym of

totanus. Fifty specimens of the former have wings from 152 to

164 mm., and fifty of the latter wings from 150 to 168 mm.; the

culmens respectively measure 42 to 47 and 40 to 49 mm.

I should, however, state that some Naturalists still consider

that the Hastern race is separable.

Key to Subspecies.

Much darker above and much less

suffused with rufous ... oli ha bOLOn Ws:

Much paler above, with the upper

plumage strongly suffused with

rufous oe sr See MUS Ln ION OW

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

TRINGA TOTANUS TOTANUS.

The Redshank.

Scolopax totanus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., 1, p. 145 (1758)

(Sweden).

Totanus calidris.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 264 (part). }

Tringa totanus totanus.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B. I., vi,

p22 aig29). |

Vernacular Names.—Chota Batan (Hind.); Mali-kotan (Tam.);

Maha-matuwa (Cing.).

Description.—In Summer upper plumage dark brown, the

feathers of the crown and neck edged with fulvous, the inner

secondaries and scapulars with bars of black and notches of fulvous;

wing-coverts much barred black and rufescent white; lower back

and rump white; upper tail-coverts white, barred with brown; tail

barred pale rufous and brown, the lateral tail-feathers white and

brown; primaries dark brown, the first with a white shaft, inner

primaries mottled with white on the inner webs and tips; outer

secondaries pure white, the latter mottled with brown on the

inner webs; chin and throat white; sides of head, neck, breast

and flanks white streaked with brown, varying much in extent;

centre of abdomen and axillaries pure white; under tail-coverts

white streaked with blackish.

Colours of soft parts.—Ivis brown; bill black, reddish on the

basal third; legs and feet orange-red, claws black.

Measurements.—Wing 150 to 168 mm., rarely 137 to 150 mm.,

probably young birds; tail 69 to 85 mm.; tarsus about 45 to 52 mm.;

culmen 40 to 49 mm.

In Winter the black markings and fulvous spots on the

upper part disappear and the general tint is more grey, less brown;

the underparts have the streaks much smaller and restricted to

the sides of the neck, lower fore-neck and breast; the forehead is

white and the sides of the head and neck much less heavily

streaked. :

Young birds are more rufous above, the fulvous spots on the

scapulars ete. more marked and the flanks are more banded with

black.

Nestling.—Above rufous-buff, more fulvous on the sides of the

head; well-marked black lines from forehead to crown, two lateral

coronal bands meeting behind crown, through the eye from lores

to the side of the neck; dark central and dorsal streaks; two

dark lines on wings, one round the flanks and uropygium.

Distribution.—Throughout Europe, Northern Asia, Asia Minor,

ete. to the Himalayas as far East as Setchuan. In Winter it

migrates south to South Africa and South Asia, India, Burma,

China, Philippines, ete.

Nidification.—The Redshank is supposed to breed from Europe

into northern Asia and throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir

to Setchuan but exactly where it meets the Eastern Redshank, if

separated, is at present very doubtful. There is a form breeding

somewhere in Central Asia, which has been named by Meinertzhagen

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 295

terignote, but the nest and eggs of this bird do not appear to

have been found and its exact breeding haunts are not known.

Recently also 7. t. eurhinus, an eastern breeding form of Red-

shank named by Oberholser but not accepted by myself, has

been resuscitated and if recognisable, would be the form breeding

in Ladak and Tibet. Ludlow, again, found them breeding in

Eastern Turkestan but Kinnear has identified these birds as typi-

cally Common Redshank.

Jn Europe, the Redshank breeds duri ing April and May honed

in the higher latitudes a great many birds breed well on into

June, elilet in the more southern countries, birds which breed

early in April often have a second brood in late June and I have

found eggs myself in August. The latest recorded date which I

have is the 23rd. of that-month im Norfolk. The site selected

for the nest is most often the wide marsh lands bordering the

sea but they have also been found breeding -in meadows of lush

erass, in swamps and by little moorland pools far inland. Typi-

cally, however, they are certainly shore -breeders. As a rule I

do not think they like very rank vegetation in which to make their

nests, though I have often found them placed in. very dense

tangles of the thick coarse grass known in the EKastern counties

as ‘maram grass’, probably, but their favourite position is where

the grass thins out considerably on the tops of ridges and sandhills

of the foreshore. Occasionally I have taken them from tiny clumps

of maram or fine grass standing quite alone and, when once found,

such nests always strike one as being very conspicuous; at the

same time, unless one is intent on finding the nest it is extra-

ordinary how it can be passed by without being noticed. Some-

times these birds breed more or less in company. On one

occasion I remember, Dr. Coltart and I obtained twelve nests

from one field, all of which were- built in- one corner of it and

probably none were more than fifty yards from their nearest

neighbour. The morning in question was cold and wet, with a

thick driving mist and, for the most part, the birds sat so. close

that they rose at our feet and the nests were very easy to find

but, on the other hand, so thick was the mist that if they rose

only a few yards ahead it was quite impossible to locate the

spot from which they rose and I think we missed several other

nests because of this. Another occasion I found five nests of

this bird in very thin maram grass along the crest of a long

low sand hill, while there were also two other pairs who were

breeding in the thicker stuff at the foot of the hills. As a rule

the nests are very well hidden and it is necessary to part the

erass before one can see the nest and eggs, but they are given

away by the curious httle whirl of grass which forms the entrance

to the nest. This is, or seems to be, invariably curled round

with a curious twist, leaving a tiny mouse-hole in the centre

which expands sufficiently to allow Ingress and egress to the

sitting bird. In the Himalayas, if our bird is the same, it breeds

—aecording to Osmaston—in rushes and grass in swamps. He

took two nests each containing four very hardset eggs near Shushal

in Ladak at 14,200 feet in the first week of Tole. Other nests

2996 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

taken by Ward in Ladak were found early in June. A certain

number of other nests and eggs were also collected for me by

collectors in Tibet, these being taken at altitudes between 12 and

14,000 feet throughout June and once early in May.

The number of eggs laid is, of course, four but Crump took one

nest with five, while occasionally three have been taken showing

signs of incubation, though in every case these were probably

second layings. The eggs are extremely handsome and vary very

considerably. The ground colour may be anything from a pale

yellowish or buffy stone colour to a rich ochre buff or buff, whilst

in a few eggs the ground varies from pale greenish stone to an almost

warm olive green, these latter, however, being quite exceptional.

The markings vary even more than the ground colour. In many

they consist of small specks, and spots of hght to dark reddish

distributed numerously over the whole surface of the ege. In others

the blotches are very much larger and in these eggs are almost

invariably much more numerous at the larger than at the smaller

end. In a few eggs the blotches may measure as much as half an

inch in diameter and generally when the blotches are very large,

they are comparatively sparse and the eggs look very bold and

handsome. The colour of these larger markings varies from rather

dark purple brown to almost purple black and they are always more

or less interspersed with smaller specks, spots and sometimes

Iheroglyphics of the same colour, with secondary markings of pale

purple brown and grey. These secondary markings which occur in

all eges, whatever their markings may be, are never sufficiently pro-

nounced to dominate the colour of the egg. Hrythristic and cyan-

istic eggs occur but are very rare, but eggs the prevailing impression

of which is brown are more often met with. Occasionally the

blotches in more boldly marked eggs form rings or caps at the

larger end. A hundred British eggs average 44.5x31.5 mm.;

maxima 48.0X32.0 mm. and 46.5x33.1 mm.; minima 41.5 x 28.5

mim.

In shape the eggs are pyriform, very pointed at the smaller end,

obtuse ordinary ovals being quite exceptional. The surface is close

but not very fine and few eggs have any pronounced gloss.

Fifty eggs taken in Ladak, Turkestan, etc., average 44.0 x 30.5

mm.; maxima 48.0 x 32.0 and 46.5 x 33.1 mm.; minima 44.1 x 29.0

mm.

The period of incubation is, according to Witherby, twenty-

three to twenty-six days. According to Witherby, also, the incuba-

tion is carried out principally by the hen, though the male bird

has been killed off the eggs. In India it would appear that the cock

bird sits quite as much as the hen.

Except in unusual circumstances, such as in the mist as des-

eribed above, the birds are not close sitters and until the eggs are

fairly advanced in incubation, it is difficult to approach without

putting them up off at a considerable distance generally too far to

enable one to locate the nests. So long as there are only eggs in

the nests, they are rather shy birds but when the young are

hatched they become very noisy and circle round any intruder,

calling vociferously the whole time. As a rule, as soon as the

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 297

young are hatched, however thin the grass is in which the nest

may have been built, the chicks are invariably hurried into the

nearest thick grass within a very few hours of their birth.

Habits.—The Redshank appears in the plains of India in vast

numbers during September, leaving again in early April, at which

time they may be seen in quite large flocks, in some cases possibly

numbering hundreds. Many birds, however, appear quite early in

August, whilst others do not leave until early in May, these latter

being probably our Himalayan breeding birds. Once arrived in

India, the flocks are split up into smaller numbers or into single

birds and pairs but these reassemble before their departure, migra-

tion occurring principally in big flights. They may be found

practically anywhere where there is sufficient water, whether this

be marsh-land, rivers or streams. They have much the habits of

many of the other small waders found throughout the cold weather

in the plains but they are generally rather shy birds and do not

allow of very close approach unless they are feeding with other

waders who are less shy than themselves.

Their flight is powerful and direct, except when they are per-

forming their nuptial display, which consists of a dipping flight

carried out in circles. In flight, the white of the upper tail-coverts

and tail are always conspicuous but during the nuptial flight the

white tail is widely spread and the soft, fluffy white feathers of

the rump seem to be extended so as to show more conspicuously

than ever. They run well and swim lightly and easily on the

water and I have more than once seen birds when disturbed from

their nest, swim across small spaces of open dyke. The love-song

is a beautiful trilling call, consisting of two notes rapidly repeated,

sounding something lke “Trill-lee’ and finishing up with a prolonged

trill after which the bird alights on the ground. The ordinary eall

note is a shrill single whistle repeated twice and the alarm note

is one which might almost be described as a squawking whistle

very loud and harsh. Their food consists largely of water insects

and their larve but they may be constantly seen picking small

beetles and flies off the grass, while they also feed freely on small

molluseca and crustacea, worms, etc., and one bird we disturbed

in Norfolk dropped a tiny sand-eel which it had evidently just

captured.

TRINGA TOTANUS TERRIGNOTA.

The Central Asian Redshank.

Totanus totanus terrignote Meinertzhagen, Bull. B.O.C., xlvi,

p. 85 (March 1926) (Kuku Nor).

Totanus calidris.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 264 (part).

Tringa totanus terrignote.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B.I., vi,

Oe ZA (OIG 2A).

Vernacular Names.—As in the other races.

Description.—Much paler than the western race both in breed-

ing and non-breeding plumage, whilst in the former it is much

more marked and suffused with rufous on the mantle. It is also

rather less heavily spotted below in some cases.

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Colours of soft parts as in the preceding bird.

Measurements.— Wings 145 (once), 148 (once), 151 to 169; ex-

posed cuimen 40 to 47 mm., true culmen 46 to 53 mm.’

(Meinertzhagen).

Distribution.—Probably breeding in Tianschan, Kuku Nor and

Turkestan. In Winter migrating south to India, Burma, Malay

States and Archipelago and South China. Some birds from Aden

and one from Sokotra are also referable to this race but some

from Amur Bay and Mongolia seem to belong to the typical race,

though somewhat intermediate.

Nidification unknown.

Habits.—This form of Redshank, of which the breeding haunts

are at present unknown, only straggles on rare occasions into India

on the West, but is a common visitor to Hastern India, Burma, and

the Malay States. It is possible that this bird may eventually be

found to be merely a phase—of either the Common Redshank or of

the Eastern form, if that is accepted as distinct. The habits do m

no way differ from those of the Common Redshank in voice, flight

or anything else. |

TRINGA ERYTHROPUS.

The Spotted or Dusky Redshank.

Scolopax erythropus Pallas, Vroeg’s Cat. Coll. Adum., p. 6 (1764)

(Holland).

Totanus fuscus.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 2405.

Tringa erythropus.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B.I., vi, p. 2238

(G29),

Vernacular Names.—Batan, Gatni, Surma (Hind.); Yerra kal

ulanka (Tam.).

Description.—Breeding plumage.—Whole head, neck and lower

parts sooty-black, the feathers of the head and neck very narrowly

margined with white, those of the chin, lower breast and abdomen

with broad white fringes; the mantle black with white edges to

each feather and white spots on the sides of each web; many of

the scapulars and inner secondaries more bronze-grey with broken

black bars and white notches; lower back and rump white; upper

tail-coverts barred black and white; tail with broader bars of black

and more narrow bars of white; quills blackish, the shaft of the

first primary white, the inner webs mottled with white.

Colours of soft parts.—As in the Redshank; legs dusky to orange-

red.

Measurements.—Wing 152 to 168 mm., exceptional to 172 mm:

fail 76 to Ol mm tarus’ 53 to 6 mm. culmentiG soo) toroo mama,

2 56 to 65 mm.

In non-breeding plumage.—Above ashy-brown, the crown and

neck immaculate, the upper back with tiny white fringes to each

feather, broader on the seapulars and inner secondaries, which are

notehed with black and white; wing-coverts with broad white frin-

ges; supercilium white; lores dark brown; sides of face and neck

erey, lightly streaked darker, chin and throat white; foreneck pale

ashy-brown; remainder of lower plumage white.

Nestling.—Very tke that of the Common Redshank but upper

THH GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 299

down paler, almost buffy-white or greyish-white; underparts greyish-

white tinged with buff, the down of the breast with dark bases

which show up. Markings more brown, less black than in the

preceding species. ;

Distribution.—Breeds throughout Arctic Europe and Asia, in

Winter migrating south to Africa, India, Burma, China and the

Malay States and Islands.

Nidification.—The Dusky Redshank breeds practically through-

out Arctic Europe and Asia. Over the greater part of this area it

is more common north than south of the Arctic Cirele, but in

Finland breeds as far south as Uleaborg, 65° latitude. We saw

two or three pairs on the islands in the Gulf of Bothnia close to

this town, which were evidently breeding, though we failed to find

the nest, but at no great distance to the north of Tornea it was

breeding in some numbers. It keeps for breeding purposes almost

entirely to open marshland, though this may be at the level of

the sea, or at some elevation on the swampy highlands of Lapland.

The actual spot selected for the nest is generally fairly dry, and we

never found nests placed amongst thin grass growing on the quaking

swamp. Generally speaking, I do not think the nest could be

distinguished in any way from that of the Common Redshank,

although the eggs themselves are so strikingly different. The

nest is just a depression in amongst the grass, with the latter

curled round and beaten down so as to make a receptacle for the

eggs. In most nests one finds a great many scraps of fine grass

blades, but whether these are brought by the birds and worked into

the nest, or whether they are merely strips from grass growing

round it, it is difficult to say. Most of the nests I saw myself were

in rather thin grass, not sufficiently thick effectually to screen the

nest when once it was spotted. Occasionally, however, the nest

was built in rather thicker grass and in these circumstances the grass

at the entrance to the nest was twisted in the same little curl

that one nearly always finds at the entrance to the nest of the

Common Redshank. The bird itself gives little help in finding its

nest and I have sometimes watched a pair for a long time which

I knew to be breeding in the immediate vicinity, yet after half

an hour’s watching, they have generally cleared off without betray-

ing their home. Occasionally a nest is found in swamps in among

scattered and stunted birch and it is also said occasionally to

breed among stunted firs. I have, however, myself seen no such

nests. On the other hand, I have more than once had them

pointed out to me on grass land on the outskirts of birch forest.

A few birds breed in the last week cf May in the southern

portion of their breeding habitat but the great majority do not

breed until the second week in June, from which time onwards

eges may be found until the end of the month and yet a few more

in the first week or ten days in July. I do not think this Redshank

ever breeds while the snow is actually on the ground, but it does

so when deep drifts of it yet remain in the shady hollows or

while the summits of the adjacent hills are still white-capped.

Although we found them breeding in the same swamps as those

frequented by Whimbrel and Bar-tailed Godwit, both of these had

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

hard-set eggs and even young before the Dusky Redshank had

thought of laying.

The eggs number four in a clutch, as with nearly all waders,

and are easily distinguishable from any of the other waders with

the exception perhaps of those of the Reeve, some of which they

closely resemble. They are very handsome eggs and considered as

a series, are more definitely green than any others that I know

of. The ground colour varies from pale olive to a rather deep

green; rarely olive buff or buff, with large and numerous blotches

varying in depth of colour from a rather deep reddish brown to

a brown that is almost black. Lines and scriggles very seldom

are shown but I have a few eggs in my series upon which there

are one or two of these lines of the same deep black brown as

the larger blotches. The secondary or underlying markings are of

a similar character and of lavender or greyish neutral tint. The

browner or more buff type of egg very often closely approaches,

as I have already said, the eggs of the Reeve. Jourdain gives the

average of 100 eggs as—47.2x32.2 mm.; maxima 51.5X33.0 mm.

and 48.0x34.0 mm.; minima 42.0X32.5 mm. and 50.0x30.0 mm.

The texture is similar to that of the Common Redshank’s eggs,

but the surface is rather smoother and on the whole, with a more

definite gloss. The shape, of course, is the usual pyriform.

The greater part of the incubation is carried on by the male

and when first watching these birds, I have no doubt we missed

some nests by paymg too much attention to the hen bird and

too little to the cock. The Finns also say that the male bird

makes the nest, the hen contenting herself with just finishing off

the curves and trimmings. Whether this is so or not, I cannot

say.

Habits.—There is little to be said about the bird’s habits in

addition to what has already been stated about those of the

Common Redshank. It is equally wild, equally noisy and equally

hard to catch napping on the nest. Food and flight are the same

as in that bird, and the voice too is very similar, though quite

recognisable when one has heard the call a few times. One little

habit I noticed of this bird seems to be peculiar to itself. We

noticed that when breeding on grass-land alongside the sea, both

birds had the habit of perching on tiny rocks where they would

sometimes sit for nearly an hour at a time, calling to one another

and occasionally shifting their position from one rock to another.

Every now and then the bird would appear to busy itself, picking

at something in the crevices of the rock and it is probable that

they were feeding on some tiny crustacea. During the breeding

season J think that possibly the Dusky Redshank keeps more

continually in the open than does the Common Redshank, though

this may be merely due to the thin grass the bird inhabits not

concealing it so well as the long maram grasses that hide our

English birds.

GENUS: GULOTTIS.

Glottis Koch, Syst. Zool., xli, pp. 304 (1816),

Type, Scolopax nebularia Gunnerus,

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 301

It is with considerable doubt that I separate the two birds

contained in Glottis from Tringa. Their very decidedly recurved

bills seem, however, to form a character of sufficient importance

to rank as generic. The difference in the webs between the outer

and inner and middle toes in these two birds and the genus Tringa

is so very slight that it is of no importance at all.

In Glottis the bill is upturned over the terminal half of its

length; the grooves and nostrils are as in the genus Tringa, the

web between the outer and middle toe is well developed, that

between the inner and middle toe obsolete; the wing is long with

the first primary longest; the other characters are as in Tringa.

The Summer plumage differs from the non-breeding plumage

in being darker.

The genus 1s cosmopolitan.

Key to Species.

A. larger; wing 179 to 200 mm.; tarsus

much longer in comparison,

measuring 59 to 65 mm. oo» Go nebular.

Bee smaller) wane 14° to 18i- mm.

tarsus much shorter in compari-

Some 20 tor oy man <a Bo eGe Guetijen.

GLOTTIS NEBULARIA.

The Greenshank.

Scolopax nebularia Gunnerus, Beskr. Finmark, Lapp., p. 251,

note (1767) (Norway).

Totanus glottis.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 266.

Glottis nebularia.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of B.I., vi, p. 225

(28),

Vernacular Names.—Tantanna, Timtimma (Hind.); Gotra

(Beng.); Peria kotan (Tam.); Maha oliya (Cing.).

Description—Breeding Plwmage.—Head, neck and mantle

blackish, the feathers of crown and neck edged longitudinally with

white; back and scapulars with white edges forming lunar bars,

the longer scapulars barred black and white on their edges, the

inner secondaries notched with white; lower back and rump white;

tail-coverts and tail white barred with light brown; central tail-

feathers nearly all ashy-grey; wing-coverts brown, edged with

whitish; primaries blackish, the outermost with a white shaft and

the imner webs mottled with white and brownish on the basal

two-thirds; the inner primaries and outer secondaries dark brown

edged with whitish; sides of head, chin, throat, breast and flanks

white, boldly streakéd with blackish; centre of abdomen and vent

unspotted white; under tail-coverts white with black streaks; under

wing-coverts and axillaries white with light brown marks.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill dark horny-brown or

greenish-brown, blacker at the tip; legs yellowish-green or olive-

ereen.

Measurements.—Wing 179 to 200 mm.; tail 88 to 100 mm.:

tarsus about 59 to 65 mm.; culmen 51 (one) to 57 (one) mm.

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

In Winter the forehead is white; the whole plumage much

more grey, the blackish centres being replaced by paler ashy-brown

with dark shafts; the under plumage is pure white from chin to

under tail-coverts.

Young birds are much browner, less grey in general tint, more

spotted with whitish on both webs of the mantle-feathers and have

the underparts more streaked with brown. :

Nestling is marked like that of the Redshank but the upper

parts are pale buffy-grey-white, more buff on the back and rump;

the underparts are white, the fore-neck and sides of the head and

neck suffused with grey.

Distribution.—Northern Europe and Asia, migrating south in

Winter to Africa, India, Burma, Malaya, China and Australia. I

can find no difference whatsoever in size or colour between the

supposed eastern and western, forms and consider glottoides merely

a synonym of nebularia.

Nidification.—The Greenshank breeds throughout the greater

part of the Sub-Arctic Region in Europe and Asia and within the

Arctic Region roughly as far North as 68° latitude, as we found

birds on the Fisher Peninsula on the White Sea all through June,

although we did not actually find the nest. South it breeds in

Scotland, Norway, and Sweden, Lapland and in North Central

Russia, but in Asia its southern breeding limits have not yet been

defined. In Scotland, while breeding, this bird keeps to the

higher and wetter moorlands, breeding in the heather or on the

grass, very often in the vicinity of some small lake or burn, but

at times at considerable distance from any water. In Lapland,

on several occasions we found the birds breeding in comparatively

open pine and birch woods, selecting small open glades on wet

and mossy ground. The nests are extraordinarily difficult to find

and the birds very seldom give them away. They have, however,

a habit of making them close to some landmark such as a big

stone, a patch of ling or heather taller than that surrounding it,

and if one bears this in mind, it is possible sometimes when a pair

of these birds are seen, to find the nest by visiting every little

prominence within sight. If this, however, fails, there is nothing

else tc be done but hide and try and watch the birds on to the

nest, for it is practically hopeless ever to expect to put the bird

off the nest by walking it up unless the eges are on the point of

hatching, or the young are already hatched. One clutch of eggs

brought to us when we were in Lapland by a Lapp boy was said

to have been taken from a nest inside stunted birch forest, where

the trees grow closely together and there was no open space of

any kind. This is I think unusual and all the pairs that we saw

breeding, even in the interior of the forests, were haunting places

where there were tiny lakes or other small open spaces. The

nest is merely a depression in the ground lined with grass, bits

of heather, or grass-stems, but in two instances out of every three,

erass alone is used and even that consists principally of such as

is beaten down in the formation of the nest. Sometimes the nest

is carefully hidden by the surrounding vegetation, whatever that

may be, at other times, especially when placed in thin grass, once

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 303

found, it is very conspicuous. In Lapland we were surprised to

find this wader breeding in company with the Whimbrel and

Godwit on the great swamps which form nine-tenths of the whole

of northern Lapland. Here they selected hummocks which rose

more or less dry from the surrounding mud, and which were

generally covered with a little thin grass and reindeer moss, the

nest always being built in the former and consisting of nothing

but a few twisted grass stems at the base of a tuft of grass longer

and perhaps a little thicker than the rest.

The breeding season in the Southern part of its range com-

mences in the middle of May and goes on to the middle of June,

but further North few birds lay before the middle of June, whilst

fresh eggs may be found well into July and I have eggs from

Northern Finland dated the 29th. of that month. The eggs in-

variably number four and are of the typical pyriform shape of

Waders’ eggs. The ground colour varies considerably but as a

rule from pale to a warm stone buff. At other times there is a

distinct tinge of olive or olive green and very rarely pink. The

markings vary to the same extent as the ground colour. In the

majority of eggs they consist of fairly large blotches and spots

of red-brown, chocolate, blood-red and almost black, with second-

ary markings similar in character to the primary, of lavender grey

or in the pink eggs, of lavender pink. In other eges the blotches

are fewer in number and larger, whilst in yet others they diminish

until they become large freckles. As a rule the markings, what-

ever their character, are distributed fairly numerously over

the whole egg but more freely at the larger end. In a few eggs

the markings are confined entirely to the larger end and I have one

or two clutches in which the markings consist of a few very large

bold blood-red and black blotches confined to the larger end. The

texture is rather fine for the size of the egg and the surface often

shows a fine gloss. Jourdain gives the average of a hundred eges

as vile co4.6 mn. MaxMara 9 oO ~oueh Mime. maiminda 4.69635. 4

mm. and 50.4xX32.4 mm. The Finns tell me that incubation takes

eighteen or nineteen days, and that the male bird practically

does all the work of incubation, but that the female sits during

the night. They also assert that the male bird is much the better

parent when the young are hatched and is much more assiduous

than the female in feeding them.

Habits.—The Greenshank, which for some reason Hume did

not inelude in his Semi-Game Birds, arrives in India in early

October, though a few birds may also be met with in the end

of September. In North-West India and Sind they appear to

armive much earlier. Ticehurst (Ibis, 1924, p. 120) says they

arrive much the same time as the Redshanks and of these latter he

writes: ‘It arrives in the last days of July or the first days of

August, the adults in worn breeding dress being the first, as with

other waders, and I have noted young birds by the 18th of August.

Plenty remain throughout April, and probably most depart about

the middle of May’.

Ticehurst also notes that some birds remain in Sind all the

Summer and that he has seen them several times in June. In

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Eastern India, I think, we may safely say that no birds Summer

with us unless it is in the deltas of the Ganges and Brahmapootra

where very few naturalists or observers have worked in the rains.

The birds arrive in fairly large flocks, numbering sometimes fifty

to a hundred individuals but they break up, on arrival, into

small parties, seldom numbering a dozen birds, while often

single birds and pairs may be met with. They keep almost en-

tirely to wide open spaces but are just as much inland as seashore

birds, so there are but. few marshes, lakes or even small tanks

with open shores upon which one or more pairs or single birds

will not be seen.

They are not such restless birds as the smaller waders and one

seldom sees them running constantly hither and thither in search

of their food. They move about much more sedately, although

they are capable of equal speed when necessary, especially when

they are feeding on grasshoppers or active insects. For the most

part, however, their food, with us, consists of ecrustacea, mollusea,

worms, small reptiles and fish. They seem to be very fond of the

small white worm which harbours among the roots of the winter

rice and upon which Snipe so largely feed in India. I have shot

Greenshank which seem to have fed on these exclusively and

others which have mixed them with small mollusca and grass-

hoppers. |

On the wing it is very fast and has such a twisting, doubling

flight that it gives a very sporting shot; again it is not easy to

approach within shot and, finally, it is almost as good to eat as

the snipe and much larger so that it certainly deserves to rank as

a semi-sporting bird.

With us it is a silent bird giving an occasional rather harsh

‘whew’ when other birds fly over it and giving the same call from

time to time when fiying. Its nuptial trill is rather like that

of the Redshank, but not, I thimk, so shrill or pieremg. It is

difficult to describe in words the difference between the two ealls,

yet it is impossible to mistake the one for the other and I should

eall the Greenshank’s a much less cheery note.

GLOTTIS GUTTIFER.

Armstrong’s Sandpiper.

Tictanus guttifer Nordman, Reise u. Erde (Erman) Natur.

Atlas, p. 17 (1885) (Okhotsch); Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 267.

Glottis guttifer.—Stuart Baker, Fauna of British India, vi, p.

226 (1929). |

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Description—Breeding plumage.—‘ Differs from the Winter plu-

mage in being blacker above and being spotted below with black;

the crown blackish streaked with whitish edges to the feathers; the

feathers of the back black; with spots of white to the edges of the

feathers, more distinct on the scapulars and inner secondaries;

upper tail-ecoverts and centre tail-feathers with slight indications

of black spots; sides of face and sides of neck white, with triangular

spots of black, larger on the latter; the ear-coverts slightly ashy-

srey with obscure dusky streaks; under surface of body pure white,

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 305

with a few small spots or streaks of black, irregularly scattered over

the throat and breast, larger and more thickly distributed over the

sides of the upper breast, and scarcely visible on the flanks; under

wing-coverts and axillaries pure white’ (Mus. Henry Seebohm.)

Colours of soft parts.— ‘Bill dusky, tipped black, yellow near

the base; irides dark brown; legs and feet dull ochreous-yellow or

ereenish-ochreous’ (Armstrong).

Measurements.—Wing, ¢ 178 mm., 9 174 to 181 mm.; tail 62

to 67 mm.; tarsus 45 to 47 mm.; culmen 50 to 57 mm.

In. Winter.—The whole mantle is ashy-grey, each feather with

dark shaft and whitish edges, much less conspicuous than in the

preceding bird, while the white very soon becomes abraded and

obsolete; the forehead, lores and sides of the head are white, the

two latter distinctly spotted with black; crown and hind-neck ashy,

the feathers white-edged and dark-shafted, the sides of the neck

spotted with blackish; lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts

white, the latter barred laterally with brown; tail white, with lhght

brown contour marks; wings as in Glottis nebularia, under-parts

pure white, the neck slightly spotted with dark brown; axillaries

pure white.

Young birds resemble those of the Greenshank and are much

more brown above than the adult, the feathers spotted and notched

with buff; the throat and upper breast streaked and mottled with

brown.

Distribution.—Apparently breeding in North-East Siberia and

wandering South to North-East India, Burma and Hainan im

Winter. Whether it breeds regularly or not in Tibet is not known.

Eggs were taken by Steen in 1910 which he attributed to the

Greenshank but which are exactly like an egg sent me with remains

of a skin of Armstrong’s Sandpiper, so that it is certainly a casual

breeder in that country.

Nidification.—There is nothing recorded about the breeding of

this bird except my own notes on some eggs found in Tibet. It is

supposed to breed in Eastern Siberia, but eggs, authentic beyond

all doubt have not yet been taken. In 1909 Capt. Steen took a

single egg which he attributed to a Greenshank, the slightly upturn-

ed bill attracting his attention. In 1910 a full clutch of four eggs

was taken from a nest on a ridge a little way from the lake

(Hram-tso), with stunted grass and a little Tibetan gorse growing

on it. This bird was shot and identified, as ‘a Greenshank with

Yellow legs!’ but the skin was lost. Finally a single egg was sent

me with remnants of a skin sufficient to show, by its bill and legs,

that it was of the present species. This egg was ‘taken from a

neatly lined hollow in among some moss (? spagnum) and stunted

erass and we could see the eggs when the bird moved off.’

The eggs are like large eggs of the Redshank or small ones of

the Greenshank. The ground, in all, is a rather dull buff, in one

more stone colour, and they are all rather handsomely blotched

with deep reddish black or blood red. The blotches are large,

some of them very large, interspersed with smaller blotches, spots

and specks of the same colours; they are fairly numerous every-

where but more so at the larger than the smaller end. Their

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

texture is rather coarse and the surface has no gloss; they are in

shape of the usual peg-top, pointed types common to the waders.

Six eggs average 47.9x 33.0 mm.; maxima 49.2x 36.6 mm.;

minima 46.4x 84.8 mm. and 47.4x31.5 mm.

The eggs were taken on the 16th. and 29th. May and 8rd. June

respectively.

I should think it is very doubtful that this wader breeds regu-

larly in Tibet as it has been recorded as a passing migrant both in

Spring and Winter far north of Irkutsk.

Habits.—There is but little on record about this bird beyond

Hume’s notes in ‘Game Birds’ (Vol. ili, pp. 403-4) ‘Dr. Armstrong

writes to me “‘All that have been killed by me have been on exten-

sive sand and mud flats exposed to the sea. I have never seen a

single specimen on the numerous smaller flats forming the banks

or the rivers and creeks in the vicinity of these localities, and where

its near allies, the Greenland Redshanks are so abundant.

‘I have never seen them solitary; they appear to seek their food

sometimes in couples, but more usually in small parties of 38, 4,

or 5 and are often associated with large flocks of Stints or Green-

shanks with whom, however, they do not appear to mingle. They

are much more wary than their companions, and it requires much

caution to get within shooting distance of them. They are always

the first to rise, so that in order to obtain specimens, I made it a

rule to fire at the first birds to rise.

“In other respects their habits are similar to those of the other

Shanks, Green, Red and Yellow; but I have often noticed that they

liked to dabble with their bills in the mud or sand like ducks in a

puddle of water.

“The stomachs of some I killed contained small mud-fish and

crustacea, while those of others were crammed with larve and

small mollusca’”’ *

This Sandpiper is probably not a rare visitor to Assam, Hastern

Bengal and Burma though it is, when shot, generally overlooked.

Again, as Armstrong says, it is so wild that of all the large waders

of their tribe it is the ieast often shot and therefore appears to

be more rare than it really is. ;

It occurs on passage, both Autumn and Spring in the Surma

Valley and in the wider expanses of cultivation and swamps near

the Brahmapootra. The few I have shot were generally in small

parties feeding with other waders in the shallow mud on the edges

of the swamps and not inside them. ‘They were the first to be

up and away when disturbed but often wheeled round after rising

and then, as they were the first to rise, they were also the

first once more to come within shot. In their actions, flight etc.,

they reminded me much of the Snipe-billed Godwit, a still rarer,

less known bird. In fact the first two or three I shot were all

killed under the impression that I was firmg at the other species.

I never heard them utter any call beyond a sharp whistling note

as they rose.

(To be continued).

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

if}, IRE, Seale, Wasi any wees.

PART XX.

(With 2 plates).

(Continued from page 28 of this volume).

BALSAMINACEAE

(Cke. under Geraniaceae).

Impatiens Linn.

Species about 350.—Tropical and N. temperate regions, especially mountains

of India and Ceylon.

The Balsams (Impatiens) form one of the most perplexing groups of the

Indian flora. J. D. Hooker himself was not satisfied with the results he had

obtained from the Herbarium specimens upon which he had worked for the

Flora of British India. ‘The species were very often only to be distinguished

by very delicate differences in the shape of the flowers and the relations of

their parts, which were too often masked or crushed in the dried specimens.

All his inexhaustible patience was needed in the tedious work of soaking the

crumpled specimens from the paper to which they were heavily glued, and

getting them into shape for drawing and examination under the microscope.’!

He began re-examining Impatiens in 1898. In one form or another this

continued to be his principal occupation during the last ten years of his life.

In the beginning he found classification difficult. ‘I must confess,’ he writes

to Duthie in October 1898, ‘that the outlook is far from reassuring, and [

quail before it.’

The capsule offered the best primary division, but fruiting specimens were

often absent, and in other cases the fruit appeared not to burst elastically

with resilient valves. He then attempted to make use of the lp for classifica-

tion, the saccate form in contradistinction to the funnel-shaped, at the

same time making use of the sepals and the bracts. But all this did not

overcome the worst difficulty. ‘Without the wings,’ he says, ‘I am all at sea

and the attempt to ascertain their forms is heart-breaking.’ Here were many

practical difficulties. It was impossible to ascertain the structure on dried

fiowers until they were moistened and dissected. ‘I need not say that this

is a most laborious process and one destructive of specimens, owing to the

extreme delicacy of the tissues, the shocking state of the specimens in so many

cases; owing too to the grievous carelessness with which the specimens are

glued down, it often takes an hour to get out the flower from under the leaves;

and two or even four to dissect it.’

In 1903 Hooker wrote to Gamble: ‘I must now go to Impatiens which

really terrifies me. I cannot get good groups, and they keep me awake.’

When he had overcome the first systematic difficulties, he discovered that to

complete his descriptions he had to examine most of the species afresh, and

even then the descriptions were ‘vague and loose’, for ‘every organ is variable

except such as afford no character at all: it is like making species out of the

waves of the sea.’

When he had to reject other botanists’ identifications among the Balsams,

as in Duthie’s paper in the Records on Chitral plants, he confesses in 1909:

‘I take to myself the blame, for you had nothing but the Fl. Brit. Ind. to

refer to, and that is utterly unsatisfactory, full of imperfections and errors.

In fact, it was not till after the publication of Vol. I of that work that I

essayed a critical study of the Indian species by moistening and analysing

every specimen where there could be any doubt. The consequent labour has

* Leonard Huxley: Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker. Tondon,

USI. aa, BT

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

been trying, for within my experience no genus of Phanerogams approaches

Impatiens in difficulty of analysis, description and classification of species.

Except by geographical areas it is impossible to bring the species under

control, any attempt to bring all under one classification as in Fl. Brit. Ind.

ends in chaos.’

In spite of all the difficulties Hooker was able to finish his ‘Epitome of

the British Indian Species of Impatiens’ in 1905, and it was published in 1906

in the Records of the Botanical Survey of India. To this he was able to add:

‘On some Species of Impatiens from Indo-China and the Malayan Peninsula’

(Kew Bull. 1909), and ‘Indian Species of Impatiens’ (Kew Bull. 1910).

The classification of species in the Hpitome is widely different from that

adopted in the Fl. Brit. Ind. wo reasons are assigned for this: 1. The number

of new species described since the publication of the Flora and better materials

of other species which has required a re-examination of the old sections. 2. The

restriction of the vast majority of the species of Impatiens to its own area of

distribution (EK. Himalaya, W. Himalaya, Burma, Malabar, Ceylon, Malay

Peninsula).

Future collectors may find the following note by Hooker of use: ‘The

points upon which most information, as not being obtainable from Herbarium

specimens of Impatiens, 1s wanted, are the duration and habit of the species,

the presence or absence of raphides in the leaves and floral organs. The

colours of the flowers, with drawings if procurable, the nature and function

of a dilation on the opposing margins of the wings which occurs nearly oppo-

site the sinus between the lobes of the wings; this, which is often absent,

may be produced into an ear-shaped lobule or into a thread descending into

the spur: I have called it the dorsal auricle of the wings. ‘The anther varies

sreatly in the genus and can rarely be described from Herbarium specimens.

The fruits and seeds of many species are unknown, and, owing to the testa

of the latter shrinking in drying, these should be described from fresh speci-

mens. Pollination by insects is a very interesting process, which should be

watched and described.

‘In forming Herbarium specimens these should be iaid in the sheets of a

portfolio in the field, with spare flowers and with separate floral organs laid

beside them. It is not recommended to preserve flowers in alcohol, which

renders them very brittle.’

Cooke published Impatiens in 1901, 5 years before the appearance of

Hooker’s Hpitome. He mentions 16 species. His I. rivalis Wight will be

called I. scapiflora Heyne and I. imconspicua Benth. must cede to I. pusilla

Heyne. To Cooke’s 16 species we add 4 more: JI. kleiniformis Sedgwick,

I. diversifolia Wight., I. Talbots Hook. f. and I. rupicola Hook. f.

Key mainly after Hook. f.

I. Scapigere.—Rootstock tuberous; leaves all

radical; scape radical; flowers racemose;

seeds very minute, clothed with spiral hairs

1. Lip with very long incurved spur

a. Wings 2-lobed Ie ilo Geawles.

b. Wings 3-lobed 2. I. scapiflora.

2. Lip with a short spur 3. I. Beddomet.

38. Lip spurless se 4. I. Stocksw.

JI. Annual herbs

1. Sepals linear or linear-lanceolate; seeds

black and shining

a. Spur of lip slender, longer than the

wings or shorter

* Stem stiff usually simple, leaves

broad or narrow, coriaceous,

serrate 500 Bok

** Stem slender simple or sparingly

branched, leaves submembra-

nous entire or subserrate fs OR gen vCOl Oe

*¥* Stem flaccid usually branched,

leaves broad or narrow sub-

entire 7. I. diversifolia.

5. I. chinensis.

Pye 2 Snake

Mera Vile Naas at

J ourn., Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soe.

Impatiens pusilla Heyne.

Photos by C. McCann.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 309

**** Stem slender flaccid; wings long

stipitate, no lines of pubescence

on pedicels ae Fp ac hele aCe.

xx*** Stem slender flaccid; lines of

pubescence on pedicels sc Qo. Le khlewmifornuis.

b. Spur or lip very short or 0

* Lip scapfiform or cyimbiform

+ Flowers very small, spur of

lip venyammmuve vor Oe 10:1. pusilla.

++ Flowers medium sized, yel-

low, standard winged, spur

of lip minute or 0 een wi luilbarle fea ude toi:

eT iipresaccate, spur, of - lip” ver

short

+ Glabrous, flowers very small,

lip shortly saccate -» 12. I. oppositifolia.

++ More or less pubescent,

flowers medium sized, lip

deeply saccate nob

2. Sepals ovate or ovate-lanceolate, seeds

various

Leaves opposite, 5-12.5 cm. long noe ML ls Dalaelling.:

III. Microsepalae.—Shrubs and herbs; leaves oppo-

site, alternate and rarely whorled; flowers

pedicelled; pedicels solitary, binate or

fascicled in the axils of the leaves (peduncle

0); sepals small or minute; seeds smooth,

rugose or papillose

1. Leaves opposite alternate and whorled on

the same plant, seeds obovoid, rugose or

papillose

a. Shrubs; basal lobe of wings smaller

than the distal, spur of lip short, in-

curved; leaves 5-10 cm. long, petiole

13: J. tomentosa.

long cs a oto AU Ihe anche

b. Herb, annual, lobes of wings subequal,

spur of lip very slender co phon lee dead.

2. Leaves all alternate

a. Capsule pilose or tomentose

* Lip spurred, seeds globose,

smooth ue eee ens Os amniuned.

** Lip spurless, seeds minute, gra-

nulate ae : 18; 42 scabmuscula.

b. Capsule glabrous, seeds glabrous.

rugose, spur of lip long

* Flowers large a boos at eeltO).

** Flowers small oe aaelay eO

pulcherruma.

Talbott.

1. Impatiens acaulis Arn. in Hook. Comp, Bot. Mag. I (1835) 325; Dalz.

& Gibs. Bomb. FI. 42.—I. scapiflora Hook. in Bot. Mag. 64 (1887) t. 3587

(non FEleyre).

We found white flowers on the Fitzgerald Ghat.

Nhe seeds in this species are minute and yellowish brown. ‘They are

armed with minute hooks which probably help in fastening them to the

perpendicular rocks on which these plants grow.

Locaiity: W. Ghats: Khandala (Woodrow !, Hallberg !, McCann !);

Lonavla (Woodrow !); Mahableshwar (Cooke !); Fitzgerald Ghat (Cooke !,

McCann !, Blatter !, Fernandez !).—Konkan: Hills of Konkan (Stocks);

Matheran (Birdwood).

This species grows on rocks in such places where water trickles down.

The plants dry down during the dry months but the rootstocks remain

achering to the rocks and sprout again with the next rains.

Distribution: From the Konkan to Travancore, ascending to 7,000 ft. in

the Nilgiris, Ceylon. iz

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

2. Impatiens scapiflora Heyne in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey II, 464; Gamble

Pl. Madras (1915) 188.—I. rivalis Wight in Madras Journ. 138, t. 8; Ic. t. 751;

ID B45 5. (Eros, Jeon, ll 40446 Jeloolks; it5 1M, Jsieni, Jtmel, J (iS) 44vlo Cha, I

(1901) 170.—/. verrucosa Bedd. in Madras Journ. IV, 69, t. 7, f. 9.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks).—W. Ghats: Ramghat (Dalzell); usually on

dripping rocks.

Distribution: From S$. Kanara to Travancore, from 6,000-8,000 ft.

3. Impatiens Beddomei Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. I (1874) 472; Cke. I (1901)

169.—I. scapiflora Wight & Arn. Prodr. 137; Wight Ic. t. 967; Graham Cat.

ot (non Heyne).

According to Gamble (p. 188) the flowers are white with yellow patches on

the wings.

Distribution: Bombay Konkan, W. Ghats at 6,000-8,000 ft. in the Nilgiris,

on the downs.

4. Impatiens Stocksii Hook. f. & Th. in Journ. Linn, Soc. 4 (1860) 119;

Daize& Gibss Bombs Hie 42. 3 Cker ii USO kO;

Distribution: Bombay Konkan.

5. Impatiens chinensis Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 987; Cke. I (1901) 171.—1.

fasiculata Lam. Encycl. I, 363; Wight Ic. t. 748.

Distribution: Konkan and Kanara of Bombay Presidency, E. Ghats at

5,000 ft., W. Ghats of Madras Presidency, in all districts at 5,000-8,000 ft.,

Bhutan, Khasia Mts., Burma, Tenasserim, (not in Malay Peninsula !), China.

6. Impatiens rupicola Hook. f. in Kew Bull. (1910) 292.

Description: A herb, 30-40 cm. high, erect, almost glabrous, small-flowered ;

stem slender, simple or sparingly branched; internodes elongate. Leaves

opposite, sessile or very shortly petiolate, 3-8 cm. long, submembranous, oblong,

obovate-oblong or linear, acute, quite entire or subserrate, rotund at the base,

cordate or acute, nerves obscure; infrapetiolar glands subulate or O. Inflores-

cence simply pedicellate; pedicels solitary or 2 together, very slender, 3-4 cm.

long, glabrous or puberulous, spreading or in fruit deflexed. Flowers 1.5-2

em. when expanded, rose or rose-purple, raphides 0. Sepals 2, linear, acumi-

nate, 7-10 mm. long, 3-nerved, glabrous, rarely pilose. Vexillum orbicular,

cucullate, 8-10 mm. diam., midvein keeled on the back, keel mucronate, gib-

bous at the lower end. Wings broadly stipitate, 1.2-1.5 cm. long; basal lobe

small, trigonous, erect, distal lobe much larger, stipitate, orbicular or obovate ;

dorsal auricle rotund, porrect or decurved. Limb of labellum deeply cymbiform,

ascending mouth obtuse, apiculate, spur very small, incurved. Filaments

subulate; anthers connate, decurved. Ovary straight, acute at the apex and

incurved. Capsule ellipsoid, shortly stipitate, long and acutely rostrate, 12-15

mm. long, many-seeded. Seeds orbicular, compressed, 2-2.5 mm. diam., smooth,

black or chestnut brown, shining.

This species is nearly related to I. chinensis, but can be distinguished by

the entire leaves, by the flowers and capsules being much smaller and by the

very smail spur of the hp. Hooker himself thinks that J. rupicola may prove

to be a ‘small flowered and fruited, almost spurless state of I. chinensis,

which it seems to represent in the Western Ghats from the latitude of Goa

to that of Poona.’

Locality: W. Ghats: Khandala, 2,000 ft. (Meebold 8813); Belgaum,

N. Hills (Ritchie 120); Castle Rock, 2,000 ft. (Meebold 10719).—N. Kanaru

(Talbot 2514).

Flowers: September 1891 (N. Kanara); September 1907 (Khandala); Octo-

ber 1908 (Castle Rock); November 1902 (Belgaum).

Distribution: Mysore, Shimoga, 2,000-3,000 ft.

7. Impatiens diversifolia Wall. Cat. 4749; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 (1874)

446; Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. iv (1906) 46.—I. arnottiana Miq. in. Herb. Hohenack.

275.

Description: Diffuse with ascending branches, quite glabrous. Stems very

succulent, 80 cm. or more long, rooting at the nodes. Leaves all opposite,

12 mm.-7-5 cm., faintly serrate, lower shortly petioled, elliptic or oblong-obtuse,

upper sessile, linear-oblong or ligulate, base cordate, all very flaccid when dry;

stipules obscure, glandular. Pedicels solitary or twin, with a faint line of

pubescence, usually longer than the leaf, deflexed in fruit. Flowers 18 mm.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 311

diam., rose, rotate. Sepals linear-acumimate; standard small, wings broadly

semiobovate; spur filiform, ascending, sometimes thick, infiated, equalling or

exceeding the flower. Capsule 8 mm., ellipsoid, turgid. Seeds globose, dark

brown, smooth, shining.

Locality: Konkan (ex Hook. f.).

Distribution: W. Ghats, from $8. Kanara to Travancore, Nilgiris up to

6,000. ft.

S. Impatiens Kleinii Wight & Arn. Prodr. (1834) 140; Wight Ic. t. 884;

Jeloolk. i, IL Isiets. Iumdl, fe 4vbe INewy dermis (ISO) WSk oe Wi Oliger 1, 171.—Balsamina

minor DC. Prodr. i, 686.—Rheede Hort. Mal. ix, t. 50,. 51.

Description: Cke. i, 171.—Hook. ft. (Kew Bull. 1910, 293) examined a

x3umber of specimens collected by Meebold in the Bombay and Madras Presi-

dencies, which present great variety of habit and fohage, but singular agreement

in floral organs and fruit. He gives the following notes on the species: Tn smal]

specimens the stems are 1.5-2 dm: long or high, erect or diffusely branched,

in larger they exceed 38 dm. The leaves are sessile or very shortly petioled,

quite alabrous, 2-8 cm. long, orbicular, ovate, elliptic, oblong or linear, nearly

quite entire, acute or obtuse, base rounded ot contracted, very rarely cordate,

the upper ones biglandular at the base. The pedicels are 1-2 cm. long, always

glabrous, solitary or binate, lengthening in fruit but rarely equalling the

leaves. The minute flowers are white or pale pink or violet-purple, rarely

pilose. The linear, acute or subacute sepals vary in breadth and are 1-3-

nerved. The small, hooded, apiculate, green standard is dorsally keeled. The

obovate or rounded distal lobe of the wings is stipitate for about its own

length with no trace of a basal lobe or dorsal auricle on the stipes. The

slender spur of the lip is usually about twice the length of the limb, and

usually strongly incurved. The filaments are very slender, nearly equal in

length, and the minute anthers nearly erect. The ripe capsules are 1-1-5 cm.

long, linear or turgidly ovoid, straight, shortly stipitate, acutely beaked, few-

seeded; seeds orbicular, compressed, 2-5 mm. diam., black, shining.

Locality: W. Ghats: Lonavla, 2,000 ft. (Meebold 8910, Blatter !); Castle

Rock, 2,000 ft. (Meebold 10714-17).—Konkan (Stocks): Miradonger (Dalzell).—

N. Kanara: (Hallberg); Sampkhand (Woodrow).

Flowers: September 1907 (Lonavla); October 1908 (Castle Rock, Talguppa,

Gersoppa Falls); November 1908 (Shukravarsanti).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: W. Coast and Ghats, in most districts,

from sea-level up to 6,000 ft.

9. Impatiens kleiniformis Sedgwick in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. vi (1919) 351.

Description: An erect herb, branching, flaccid, up to 25 cm. high, similar

in habit to I. Kleimw. Leaves opposite, largest in the middle of the stem,

up to 9 em. long and 2-5 cm. broad, elliptic or oblong, towards the apex getting

smaller, crenate and subulate in the crenatures, the uppermost sessile and

cordate at the base, the lowest leaves attenuate into a 1 cm. long petiole,

glabrous or on the midrib and nerves below sparingly and _ inconspicuously

hirsute, always eglandular and exstipulate. Peduncles axillary, solitary or

2-3-fascicled, during flowering time erect, later on deflexed, very slender, up

to 2 cm. long, provided with 2 opposite lines of pubescence. Flowers up _ to

6 mm. broad, rose, but on the inner side of each wing provided with a longi-

tudinal purple line. Dorsal petal slightly hirsute-keeled and gibbous at the

base. Wing with long claws, entire and without auricles. Spur up to 9 mm.

long, filiform, subacute. Capsule (not quite ripe) up to 1.5 mm. long, fusi-

form. Seeds black, glabrous, polished.

Nearly allied to JI. Kleinw, but can be distinguished by the lines of

pubescence on the pedicels, the sessile upper leaves with cordate base, and

the absence of glands. It is slightly larger and the. flowers are smaller for the

size of the plant, paler pink, but with two darker lines on the wings. ‘In

connection with the glands at the base of J. Klemm,’ Sedgwick observes, ‘it has

been assumed that those glands are metamorphosed stipules; but they are

marginal on the leaf base, and often more than one on each side of the leaf.

They seem more properly to represent a glandular development of the basal

and supra-basal serratures of the leaf-margin.’

Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Rock, about 1,600 ft., rainfall about 250 inches,

in ditches by the railway lines and wet places near it (Sedgwick !).

Flowers: August 1917.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

See: LL. J. Sedgwick: Herbaceous monsoon flora at Castle Rock and a new

species of Balsam. In Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. XXV (1918) 482.

10. Impatiens pusilla Heyne ex Wall. Cat. n. 4745; Hook. f. & Th. in

Journ, - linn.) Soc. ser. LV (S60) 22) Eloolke si. im alexyamio lle UOMO eZ oe:

Gaimble Fl. Madras 140.—I. inconspicua Benth. in Wall. Cat. n. 4,741; Wight

& Arn. Prodi, 139; Wight le? t. 970; Dalz. & Gibss Bomb: shi 43) slook i:

IMG eran, Jha I, 4Uly, Gee Ince. Jot, Sway. Wnel, iy (U0) 45L, 46s Cike, Jl, i=

I. inconspicua, var. 2. pusilla, var. 8. filiformis, var. 4. ramosissima Hook. f.

Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 448: Cke. I, 172.—I. oppositifolia Herb. Wight ex Wall. Cat.

n. 4743B (non Linn.).—I. filiformis Wight & Arn. Prodr. 140.—I/. ramosissima

Dalz. in Hook. Kew. Journ. Bot. 11 (1851) 2380—I. rosmarinmifolia Wight Ie. t.

750 (non Retz.)—I. Perrottetti Turz. in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. xxxvi (1863)

DSU slooks li, im Jalook, Jes IP, i, “QU,

Description: Cke. 1, 171.—According to Cooke the flowers are pink. Gamble

calls them white streaked with lilac.

‘T. pusilla is as variable and common a species in the Western Ghats as

I. oppositifolia and I. Kleinu, from which it may be distinguished by the cymbi-

form spurless or almost spurless lip.’ (Hook. f.)

Locality: Konkan: Abundant on many hills (Law, Stocks)—W. Ghats :

Khandala (Graham); Shirgaon Ghat (Fernandez !); Mahableshwar (Hallberg !).

—Common throughout the Presidency.

Flowers: August 1928 (Shirgaon Ghat); August-October (ex Cke.).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: W. Ghats, in all districts, 3,000-8,000 ft.,

very common.

11. Impatiens Lawii Hook. f. & Th. in Journ. Linn. Soc. iv (1860) 122;

Mook. f. Hiv Brit, ainda 1, 448" Dalz Gc eG lbsebomibn ete 643) @lkcenssmli oe

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan (Dalzell & Gibson, Law).—W. Ghats: Castle Rock (Wood-

row !).—N. Kanara (ex Hook. £.). 4

Distribution: Bababudan Hills of Malabar.

12. Impatiens oppositifolia Linn. Sp. Pl. (17538) 987: Graham Cat. 34:

Washt “& Aras Prodr. 1395 Wight lcs t “S8a5 silook if ie Brit. Inde 43

Cke. 1, 172.—I. rosmarinifolia Retz. Obs. v, 29 (non Wight).—Balsaminifolia

rosmarinifolia DC. Prodr. i, 686.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks, Dalzell); Vengurla (Dalzell); Wadi to Paladpur

(Woodrow).—W. Ghats: Lonavla (Hallberg !); Palghat (Dalzell); hills N. of

Belgaum (Ritchie 120).—N. Kanara: Tinai (Talbot); Halyal (Talbot).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: W. Ghats, in all districts, common at

3,000-5,000 ft., Ceylon, Burma.

13. Impatiens tomentosa Heyne in Wall. Cat. (1828) n. 4751; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bomb. Fl. 43 (excel. syn. I. ramosissima); Wight Ic. t. 749; Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 1, 449; Cke. i, 178; Gamble Fl. Madras 141.—I. rufescens Benth. in

Wail, Cat. (828) m2 4747 = Wielt lick te.969"

Description: Cke. i, 1738.—Flowers pink.

Locality: Konkan (ex Hook. f.).—W. Ghats: Phunda Ghat (Dalzell &

Gibson).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: Nilgiris to Travancore, in boggy places,

5,000-8,000_ ft.

14. Impatiens Dalzellii Hook. f. & Th. in Journ. Linn. Soc. iv (1860) 128;

Dalz... & Gaibs. Bombs Hi4s - pelook. ste ls sortie linden 4 oe © hemes

Description: Cke. 1, 173.—I have examined many specimens and am, there-

fore, able to give a more detailed description, at the same time correcting a

number of inaccuracies.

Height 10 cm. to 1.2 m. Tap-root white, but not always present, fibrous

roots arising chiefly at the base of stem; lower part of stem producing many

adventitious roots which are red where exposed. Stem fleshy, succulent, striate

(speckled red in longitudinal rows). Internodes up to 18 cm. long. Leaves

oblong-lanceolate, up to 15 cm. by 5 cm., upper leaves in our specimens not

linear and no long cilia to basal serratures of leaves, quite glabrous, cordate

or subcordate or acute at base, veins depressed above, prominent below. Petioles

of lower leaves, up to 4 mm. Flowers up to 9 mm. across. Bracts 2, ovate-

acuminate, lower half fleshy, wpper half scarious. Peduncles up to 2-5 cm.,

aad

AS a ee

Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

A formation of Impatiens pulcherrima Dalz.

Photos by C. McCann.

If.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 318

pedicels up to 4 cm. long; fascicles up to 6-flowered. Usually 1 or 2 flowers

open at the same time. Pedicels deflexed in fruit at an angle of 45-80° to the

stem. Sepals 6 mm. long, 1-5 mm. broad, with a very broad keeled midrib,

hard, with a brown spine. Standard broadly orbicular, irregularly crenulate or

entire, yellow, 6 by 8 mm., with a high green irregularly cut crest which ends

above into a brown-black spine, spine sometimes with a white band. Wings:

A 3 obovate lateral lobe, 6 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, finely apiculate, termina!

lobe at or almost at a right angle to the lateral! one, obliquely ovate (not

obovate), as long and broad, as the lateral one; terminal lobes of wings

usually overlapping, sometimes spreading, leaving a deep sinus between them;

claw avout 1 mm. long. Lip broadly boat-shaped, 9 mm. long, 4 mm. broad,

acuminate, spinous-tipped, transversely marked with red-brown streaks or

U-shaped markings at the bottom of the boat and a spot of the same colour

at the bottom towards the apex, also 3-5 darker longitudinal lines in the roof

of the spur, passing to where the spur bends; all the markings, except the

spot, also visible outside. Spur about 3 mm. long, subacute or bluntish. Ovary

oblong, 5-celled, 5-lobed, slightly bent near apex. Capsules (still green) 15 mm.

long, 8 mm. broad, deeply 5-lobed, thick in the middle, getting thinner at

both ends, backs of lobes rounded. Seeds up to 5, large, oblong, curved, 3-4

by 2-5-8 mmm., smooth, shining, obliquely truncate at base, rounded at apex,

flattened on one length-side, rounded on the opposite side, black.

The flowers are very caducous, coming out at the beginning of July and

flowering up to November.

Cooke says that the pedicels are not, or rarely, deflexed in fruit. I nearly

always found them deflexed. If, in isolated cases, they are not deflexed, it is

because they find a mechanical resistance in the leaves. These are sometimes

firmly pressed down by the pedicels if the latter don’t find the right turn beween

the opposite leaves.

Usually growing in loose soil and can, therefore, easily be removed from

the ground.

Locality: Konkan: Hills (Dalzell, Stocks) —W. Ghats: Purandhar (Wood-

row); Mahableshwar (Cooke, Blatter !); Panchgani (Hallberg !, Blatter !, Mc-

Cann !), very common.

Distribution: Endemic.

15. Impatiens latifolia Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 987; Graham Cat. 34; Dalz.

& Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 44; Hook, f. Fl. Brit. Ind. i, 450 (excel. syn. I. cuspidata

Wight & Arn.); Cke. i, 174.—I. bababudenensis Hook. f. in Kew Bull. (1910)

295 (probabiliter sec. Gamble).—-Balsumina latifolia DC. Prodr. 1, 686.—Rheede

Hones Vialeoix. be. 48.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Common on the Konkan hills.

Distribution: Madras Presidency: S. Kanara to the Pulney Hills, up to

8.000 ft.

16. Impatiens lucida Heyne in Wall. Cat. (1828) n. 4738; Hook. f. FI.

Brie inde ola(erclmcyne len vatifolia Night & Arm); -Cke, 1) 174.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: From 8. Kanara to Travancore, up to

4,000 ft.

17. Impatiens balsamina Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 938; Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. i, 4538; Cke. i, 174; Gamble Fl. Madras 142.

This species occurs all over India, Ceylon, China and Malaya. As to its

varieties Hook. f. wrote to Gamble in 1904: ‘I am having an awful time

over the varieties of I. balsamina, which are legion and strangely diverse. . . .

IT have no faith in a single character of any one form; most of these being

taken from single specimens. As, however, I indicate the locality of each

form, future collectors may be led to investigate them in thei homes.—I have

written asking Talbot for the loan of his Balsams (of the Deccan), a suicidal

proceeding, for if he has collected I. balsamina with care, his specimen will

be sure to upset my beloved varieties.’

As the Peninsula forms of this species present such great differences,

Hook. f. attempted in an appendix to his Epitome i (Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. iv,

49) to discriminate the most remarkable of them. It is from this appendix

that we adopt the key for the chief varieties found in the Bombay Presidency.

314 JOURNAL, BOMBA YSN AMOI AIE, SEEMS Tiaans O\CisH lMlarmny (ol ae xONONGyal

I. Leaves usually crowded, 7-20 cm. long

1. Leaves lanceolate or oblanceolate; flowers

subsolitary, spur of lip much longer than

limb ae Sas .. a. var. vulgaris proper.

2. Leaves linear-lanceolate, pedicels 2-3-nate,

flowers rather large, spur of lp shorter

than the limb, strongly incurved sco 19 OCs “FOSCO.

Il. Leaves very small, 2-5-5 cm. long, pedicels

solitary or binate, short. Stem stout, much

branched, leafy, leaves small, subsessile,

ovate-obtuse, thick, flowers small, sepals very

minute, obtuse, standard orbicular, spur of

hip stout, incurved et, Ae 500 OOM. COPFOSIS-

a. War. vulgaris proper Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 454.—I. balsamina Dalz. &

Gibs. Bom. Fl. 44; Graham Cat. 34.—I. cornuta Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 937.—I.

coccinea Sims.

Locality: This is the common form in the Presidency. Widely distributed

in the Konkan, the W. Ghats and the Deccan.

Distribution: Widely distributed in tropical E. Asia.

b. War. rosea Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 454.—I. rosea Lindl. Bot. Reg.

(1841) t. 27.—I. balsamina var. brevicalcarata T. Cooke Fl. Bomb. I, 174.

Locality: W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Cooke !, Hallberg !); Panchgani

(Hallberg).

Distribution: Godavari District at Samalcotta, W. Himalaya.

ce. War. agrestis Hook. f. in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. IV (1906) 50.

Locality: Abundant, colouring ploughed fields in the Satara district; eaten

by animals (ea Hook. f.).

Colour variations.

a. Rose. Terminal wing-lobes with very distinct white longitudinal mark-

ings, sharpest below where the end is yellow and disappears before reaching

the margin. Limb of lip pale along the midlobe, with a lneated yellow spot

about half way down. ‘Tip of spur pale green. Stem reddish; pedicels darker;

elands almost black.

Locality: Bombay Island. Common during the rains.

b. Almost white. Lip delicately pink, white inside, with a lineated yellow

spot. Standard with a pinkish central part. Lateral wing-lobes very faintly

pink.

Locality: Sewri (Bombay Island); Versova (Salsette).

Flowered in September.

c. hike a; but flowers much smaller, especially midlobe of wings which has

a broad pale green margin or is entirely pale green. Much of standard and lip

ereen.

Locality: Sewri (Bombay Island) rare.

Flowered in September.

18. Impatiens scabriuscula Heyne in Roxb. Fl. Ind. (ed. Carey) IT (1824

464; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 44; Bedd. Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 29, t. 144; Cke. I, 174.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan, apparently rare.

_ Distribution: Madras Presidency: From 8. Kanara and Coorg to the Wynaad

and Nilgiris, up to 6,000 ft.

19. Impatiens pulcherrima Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. IT (1850) 37;

Hook. Bot. Mag. (1851) t. 4615; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 41; Hook. f. FI.

Brit. lad. 1458" Cke, 1, 175-"Gamble ly, Madras’ 143;

Descripion kerma:

Locality: Konkan (Dalzell & Gibson, Woodrow).—W. Ghats: Fitzgerald

Ghat (McCann !, Blatter !).—S.M. Country: onda (Woodrow, Hallberg !).

Flowers: Aug. 1930 and Nov. 1929 (Fitzgerald Ghat).

Distribution: Mysore.

20. Impatiens Talboti Hook, f. in Rec. Bot, Sury. Ind. TV (1906) 47,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 315

Description from Hook. f.’s MS. kindly supplied by C. EK. C. Fischer of the

Kew Herbarium.

An annual herb, 2-3 dm. high, glabrous or branchlets and leaves pubescent.

Stem simple, suddenly erect from the base, nude for a long distance, few-

leaved towards the apex. Leaves 6-10 cm. long, alternate, long-petiolate,

broadly or elliptic-ovate or -oblong, acuminate at both ends, remotely subser-

rate, membranous, ciliate towards the base, narrowed into a slender 1-3 cm.

long naked or glandular petiole; nerves 6-8 pairs; stipular glands O. Pedicels

solitary, short, 1-2 cm. long, in fruit elongate, straight or decurved. Flowers

¥-9.5 em. when expanded. Sepals 2, minute, 2-6 mm. long, subulate or deltoid-

ovate. Vexillum orbicular, concave, 6-10 mm. diam., below the apex on the

back spurred, cuspidate. Wings sessile, 1-2 cm. long; lobes broadly obcordate,

basal one ample, subquadrate, bilobulate, dorsal auricle prominent. Limb of

labellum short, 10 mm. long, saccate, cymbiform, at the mouth ascending

acuminate; spur slender, 2-3 cm. long, straight, pendulous, acute, incurved

when young. Filaments subulate; anthers didymous. Ovary ovoid, attenuate

into a short style; stigmata subulate. Capsules small, almost globose, 5-8 mm,

diam., scarcely stipitate, obscurely rostrate, few-seeded. Seeds subglobose,

3-4 mm. diam., compressed, glabrous, tuberculate, brown.

A near ally of I. pulcherrima and dasysperma distinguished from the former

by its small stature, leaves and flowers, from the latter by the form and ser-

ration of the leaves and the smaller capsule. It imhabits a very much _ lower

level than either of the above.

Locality: N. Kanara: (Law); Devimane Ghat, 2,600 ft. (W. A. Talbot

3722); Castle Rock, 2,000 ft. (Meebold 6960).

RUTACEAE (Cke. I, 175).

Genera 100, species 800.—Tropical and temperate, especially S. Africa and

Australia.

i Ror) “Cour. Manns (Ckel i; 76):

Species 50.—Chiefly Mediterranean, W. and Central Asian. As in Cke.

OF SS iVvopis “Hnostea (Cke wl 47):

Species 45.—Tropics, except America.

1. Evodia roxburghiana Benth. Fl. Hongk. (1861) 59 (partim); Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. I, 487 (partim); Brandis Ind. Trees 112 (partim); Cke. I, 177 (partim)

—EH. malayana Rid]. Fl. Malay Penins. I (1922) 342.—Zanthorylum Roxbur-

ghianum Cham. in Linnaea (1830) 58, in nota.—Fagaria triphylla Fl. Ind. ed.

Carey I (1820) 436.

ocala 5 Okem te1S*

Distribution: Bombay Presidency; Madras Presidency: W. Ghats, froim

Mysore to Tinnevelly, up to 7,000 ft., in evergreen and secondary forests, H.

Ghats; Ceylon, Sumatra, Java.

8. ZanTHOXYLUM Linn. (Cke. I, 178).

Species 80.—Tropical and warm regions of the world.

Cke. describes 2 species, Z. ovalifolium and Z. Rhetsa. As to the latter I

follow Haines in combining it with Z. Budrunga.

1. Zanthoxylum ovalifolium Wight Il]. I (1840) 169.

Locality: N. Kanara: Rain forests of the Sirsi and Siddhapur sub-divisions

(ex Talbot).

Flowers: Feb.-March(Talbot); Nov. and Dee. (Cooke).

Fruit: Ripens in the cold season.

Distribution: W. Ghats of Madras Presidency: From 8S. Kanara to

Tinnevelly; up to 4,000 ft.

2. Zanthoxylum Budrunga Wall. Cat. 1221; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 495.—

Fagaria Budrunga Roxb. Fl. Ind. I (1832) 417.—Z%. Rhetsa DC. Prodr. I (1824)

728; Wight & Arn. Prodr. 148; Graham Cat. 36; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 45:

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 495; Cke. I, 178.—Fagaria Rhetsa Roxbevel. Ind J

(18382) 417,

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCiHDY. Vole XOX I

Description. A small or moderate sized tree with pale corky bark, covered

with conical prickles on stems and branches and sometimes a few small ones

on the leaf rhachis. Leaves clustered towards the ends of the stout branchlets,

45-60 em. long (with the petiole). Leaflets 19-25 or fewer, somewhat lke those

of a Toon, 7.5-15 cm. long, oblong or lanceolate, caudate, entire or crenate,

when crenate with a large gland in the sinus. Flowers 4.8 mm. diam., yellow,

4-merous, in large terminal panicles with opposite branches.

Haines justifies his combination by the following remark: . I think it is

impossible to separate Z. budrunga and Z. rhetsa. The former is usually the

North India form, the latter usually the Peninsula form, and, as might be

expected, the Bihar and Orissa plant unites the two, that from Bishanpur being

more nearly Z. budrunga and that from Puri more nearly Z. wrhetsa,

but even in the latter some leaflets are crenate. Again, some Sikkim

and Chittagong specimens occur with entire leaves and _ several have

been doubtfully named in the Calcutta Herbarium. Moreover, the characters

used by Roxburgh to discriminate the two species are not the leaf crenatures,

and both his descriptions and figures show the leaves of both species quite entire !

He evidently knew his ‘Fagara Rhetsa’ well, but seems to have had a speci-

men of F. budrunga with very few leaflets.

Locality: Khandesh, Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara.

Distribution: Madras Presidency: W. Ghats in §. Kanara, Mysore,

Malabar, Anamalais and Travancore at low elevations, K. Ghats. Tropical

Himalaya, Sylhet, Khasia Mts., Chittagong, Martaban.

A; sRoppAnmMy wuss. (Okerik. al7/9)E

Species 1.—Tropical Asia, Africa, Madagascar.

Cke. calls one species T. aculeata Pers. It has to cede to T. asiatica Lam.

The other species T. bilocularis has to go under Vepris.

1. Toddalia asiatica am. Ill. IJ (1798) 116; Gamble Fl. Madras 150:

Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 160.—T. aculeata Pers. Syn. I (1805) 249; Graham

Cat. 37; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl.-46; Wight Ill, 4. 66; Enel’ im Hnel. &

Prant! -Pflanzent,, Wl, 45 176 fe. NOL ACK -shlook. iy We Brit. indy ls 497- Oke.

I, 179.—I. floribunda Wall. Pl. As. Rar. III, 37.—Scopolia aculeata Sm.

Ic. med. sub. t. 34; Roxb. Fl. Ind. I (1882) 616.—Limonia oligandra Dalz.

in Kew Journ. Bot. II (1850) 258; Dalz. & Gibs. 1.c. 48.—Paullinia asiatica

iimn. Spy Ele (lv53) 365:

Description: Cke. I, 179.

Locality: Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara.

Distribution: Throughout the W. Peninsula, Ceylon, subtropical Himalaya,

from Kumaon to Bhutan up to 5,000 ft., Khasia Mts., up to 6,000 ft., Sumatra,

Java, China, Phillippines.

5. WVeEPRIS Comm. ex A. Juss in Mem. Mus. Par. 12 (1825) 509.

Trees or shrubs, unarmed. Leaves alternate, 1-3-foliolate, the leaflets usually

petiolulate, gland-dotted. Flowers small, in terminal or axillary panicles. Calyx

small, saucer-shaped, 2- or more- lobed. Petals 2-4, lanceolate or ovate, more

or less imbricate. Stamens in male flowers twice or three times as many as the

petals, inserted under the disk, filaments slender; anthers ovate; in female

flowers reduced to minute staminodes with small rudimentary anthers. Ovary in

male flowers small, ovoid, 2-cleft at apex; in female flowers globose 2-4-celled;

styles 0; stigma capitate; ovules in each cell 2, collateral. Fruit globose or

oblong, 2-4-celled, fleshy. Seeds one in each cell, flattened, oblong, testa crus-

taceous; albumen fleshy; embryo flat, cotyledons thick, ovate; radicle stout.

Species about 16.—Africa, Mascarene Islands, India.

1. Vepris bilocularis Engl. in Engl. & Prantl Pflanzenf. IIT, 4 (1896)

178.—Toddalia bilocularis Wight & Arn. Prodr. (1834) 149; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb.

IG le%sclel Io, Wien, ine JN Shyhve jo, MIDIOUE Gin Iles ti, WSs Isloolk., 5 IIL Biri.

Ind. I, 497; Cke. I, 180.—Dipetalum biloculare Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. IT

(1850) 38.

Description: Cke. I, 180. et

Locality: Very rare in the Presidency. Wound only once in N. Kanara by

Dalzell,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 317

Distribution: Madras Presidency: Forests of Malabar, Anamalais and

Travancore up to 4,000 ft.

6. AcronycHiA Forst. (Cke. I, 180).

Species 20.—Tropical Asia and Australia.

1. Acronychia laurifolia Blume Cat. Gew. Buitenz. (1823) 638; Cke. I, 180.

Locality: Konkan, N. Kanara.

Distribution: Madras Presidency: N. Circars, S. Deccan slopes in Salem;

W. Ghats in hill forests up to 6,000 ft.; Sikkim Himalaya, Khasia Mts., Assam,

Chittagong, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Cochin-China.

7. Guycosmis Corr. (Cke. I, 181).

Species 6.—Indo-Malayan.

By some G. arborea DC. and G. pentaphylla Corr. are kept separate (see

Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 163). Hook. f. united them under G. pentaphylla Corr.

(Fl. Brit. Ind. I, 499) and Cooke followed him. Gamble, however, put them

under G. cochinchinensis Pierre (Fl. Madras 158).

There are too many intermediates between the two species to justify their

being kept separate, though Haines finds them easily distinguished in his area.

If it is a question of choosing G. pentaphylla or cochinchinensis the following

list of synonyms will show that the specific name pentaphylla is older than

cochinchinensis.

1. Glycosmis pentaphylla Corr. in Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. VI (1805) 386;

Graham Cat. 23: Dalz. -& Gabs. Bomb. El 29; Bedd. El. Sylv. Anal. Gen.

XE, t. 6, f. 6; Hook. £. Fl. Brt: Ind. I, 500; Cke. I, 181.—Limonia penta-

phylla Retz. Obs. V (1789) 24; Roxb. Corom. Pl. I, t. 84.—Toluifera cochin-

chinensis Lour. Fl. Cochinchinensis (1790) 262.—Glycosmis arborea DC. Prodr.

osc: eunoma arborea Roxb. Corom, Pl; jt. 853 Bl. ind. WW (832) 3s8i—

Mynospermum chylocarpum Roem. Syn. fasc. I, 40.—G. chylocarpa Wight &

Arn. Prodr. 938.—G. triphylla Wight Ic. t. 167.

Description 7, Cke: Aes 183i.

Locality: Common in the undergrowth of the monsoon forests of the

Konkan, the W. Ghats and N. Kanara, often near streams and water-courses

and other moist shady localities near villages.

Flowers: ‘Throughout the year.

Distribution: In all districts of the Madras Presidency, Ceylon, tropical and

subtropical Himalaya, up to 7,000 ft., Upper Assam, Malay Peninsula, Malaya.

China, Borneo, Australia.

8. MuprayaA Koen. ex Linn. (Cke. I, 181).

Species 5.—Indo-Malayan.

Cke. gives 2 species; of these M. exotica must be called M. paniculatg.

I. Murraya paniculata Jack in Mal. Misc. I, no. 5 (1820) 81; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bomb. FI. 29.—Chalcas paniculata Linn. Mant. I (1767) 68.—M. exotica Linn.

Mant. Ii (771) 5638 (Murrea); Graham Cat. 24; Wight Ic. t. 196; Bedd. For.

Meneiniah ee omy Somer Amaia, Genet. 7, at. 25 setooks fs Brite Ind. I,

502; Cke. I, 182; Gamble Fl. Madras 155.

Murraya Koen. according to the Brussels Congress is a retained name.

Camumum Adans. (1768), Chalcas L. (1767), and Bergera Koenig (1771) are

older.

See T'yozaburo Tanaka, Chaclas, a Linnaean genus which includes many

new types of Asiatic types. In Journ. of the Society of Tropical Agriculture,

Taiwan, Japan I (1929) 23-42.

Tanaka gives the following synonyms of his Chalcas paniculata L., (see

le. 25):—Murraya paniculata Jack, Mal. Misc. i, no. 5 (1820) 31.—M. exotica’

Linn. Mant. pl. altera (1771) 563.—Camunium exoticum O. Kaze. Rev. Gen.

Pl. i (1881) 99.—Chalcas exotica Millsp. in Field Col. Mus. publ. iv (Bot.

ser. i, no. 1) (1895) 25.—Murraya sumatrana Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 32.—

M. exotica var sumatrana Koord. et Valet. Bijdr. Booms. Jav. (1896) 4243.—

Chalcas sumatrana Roem Syn. mon. (1846) 49.—Murraya elongata 8. DC. ex

Hook. f. Fl. Brit, Ind. i (1872) 503.—M. banati Elmer Leaflets Ph. bot. viii

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(1915) 2812.—M. heptaphylla Spanog. in Linnaea xv (1841) 178. —M. tavoyana

A. DC. ex Wall. in sched.—M. chinensis Pavon in sched.

Distribution: Throughout the hotter parts of India, Ceylon, China,

Austraha and the Pacific Islands.

2. Murraya Koenigii Spreng. Syst. Veg. ii (1825) 315; Cke. i, 182.

Locality: Konkan: Bombay Island (Blatter !); Salsette (Blatter !).—

W. Ghats: Khandala (McCann !); hills near Poona (Woodrow !); Pasarni

Ghat (Blatter !); Panchgani, common on slopes of Tablelands (Blatter !);

Mahableshwar (Cooke, McCann !); W. of Belgaum (Ritchie).—N. Kanara:

Supa district (Talbot).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: In most districts, chiefly in the N.

Circars and Deccan, less frequent on the W. Coast; along the foot of th

Himalaya, from Garhwal to Sikkim, up to 5,000 ft., Bengal, Pegu, S.-H.

Asia. Often cultivated.

9. CLAUSENA Burm. f. (Cke. I, 188).

Species 20.—Paleotropics.

1. Clausena indica Oliv. in Journ. Linn. Soc. v (1861) Suppl. ii, p. 36;

Cke. 1, 188.

Description and Locality: Cke. l.c.

Distribution: Madras Presidency: W. Ghats, in evergreen forests of the

Anamalais and Travancore, at 3,000-5,000 ft.; Ceylon.

2. Clausena Wildenowii Wight & Arn. Prodr. (1834) 96; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bomb. Fl. 30; Wight Ic. t. 14; Bedd. For. Man. in FI. Sylv. p. xlv, et Anal.

Gen. t. 7, f. 3; Hook, f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1, 506; Cke. 1, 183!—C. pubescens

Wight & Arn. Prodr. 96.—Cookia dulcis Bedd. in Madras Journ. 1861; Trans.

Ibi, Soe, Seay; WIL,

Description and Locality: Cke. i, 183.

Distribution: Madras Presidency: Carnatic, Salem, W. Ghats from

Mysore through the Nilgiris to Travancore at low levels.

*3. Clausena Wampi Blanco.—Cookia punctata Sonner. Voy. Ind. iii,

PANS the L310),

Locality: Grown in gardens.

Distribution: A native of China (Chinese name Wampi).

10. TripHastA Lour. (Cke. I, 184).

Species 1.—Tropics.

Cke. calls it T. Aurantiola Lour. The specific name trifolia is older.

1. Triphasia trifolia P. Wils. in Torreya ix (1909 33.—Limonia trifolia

Burm. f. Fl. Ind. (1768) 1038, t. 35, f. 1.—Limonia trifoliata Linn. Mant. ii

(1771) 237; DC. Rrodr. 1 (11824) 5365 Graham Cat. 23. Dalz: i& (Gilbss Bomb.

Al Supply 12. look: i. NIE Brit. amd. 1557507. Bes Aarrantiolas Wouress ble

Cochinch. 1 (1790) 153.

Distribution: Probably a native of China. Cultivated and run wild in

many parts of the tropics.

11. Liwonta Linn. (Cke. I, 184).

Species 10.—Tropical Africa and Asia.

Cke. calls the only Bombay species L. acidissima. It must cede to L.

crenulata.

1. Limonia crenulata Roxb. Corom. Pl. i, t. 86; FI. Ind. 1 (18382) 381;

Gamble Fl. Madras 157.—L. acidissima Wight & Arn. Prodr. (non Linn.);

Graham Cat. 28 (non linn.); Dalz. & Guibs. Bomb. Fl. 29 (non Tinn);

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1, 507 (mon Innn.); Cke. 1, 185 (non Linn.).—Hespe-

rethusa crenulata Roem. Syn. fase. 1, 88.—Rheede Hort. Mal. WV, peal

Gamble gives the following explanation of the above changes: ‘L. crenulata

Roxb. Corom. Pl. i, t. 86 is the name which, as explained by Trimen in

Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv, 142, must be adopted for the plants recorded in the

Flora Brit. Ind. under the name L. acidissima Linn., the actual specimens

in Hermann’s Herbarium, which are in leaf only, showing that they belong

to Feronia Elephantum.’ [Kew Bull. (1918) 223].

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 319

Locality: S.M. Country: Common in the Belgaum district: Gokak Falls

(Dalz. & Gibs.); Padshapur hills (Graham).

Distribution: Bengal, Assam, W. and 8. India (N. Circars, Deccan and

Carnatic), Burma, Yunnan, Siam, Cambodia, Laos.

12. Luvunea Ham. (Cke. I, 185).

Species 4.—Indo-Malayan.

1. Luvunga eleutherandra Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 11 (1850) 258; Cke. i,

185.

Distribution: Bombay Presidency: Konkan, Ghats, N. Kanara; Madras

Presidency: W. Ghats from §8. Kanara and Mysore to Anamalais and Travan-

core up to 3,000 ft. in evergreen forests; Ceylon; Java.

13. ParamianyA Wight (Cke. I, 186).

Species 6.—Indo-Malayan.

1. Paramignya monophylla Wight Ill. i (1840) 109; Cke. 1, 186.

Distribution: Bombay Presidency: Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara; Madras

Presidency: N. Circars, W. Ghats from S. Kanara to Tinnevelly up to 6,000

ft.; Sikkim Himalaya, Bhutan, Khasia Mountains, Tenasserim, Ceylon.

14° ATADANTIA- Corr. (Cke. I, 186):

Species 18.—Asia, China, Australia.

Cke. has 4 species. Brandis and Talbot are of opinion that A. racemosa

is not specifically distinct from A. monophylla. Gamble, apparently with good

reasons, keeps them separate. We follow Gamble and Cooke. We omit from

Cooke A. missionis Oliv. He has not seen any plant and mentions only one

locality ‘ex Talbot’. Talbot, however, in his Forest Flora i (1909) does not

mention the species at all.

1. Atalantia monophylla Corr.; DC. Prodr. i (1824) 585; Graham Cat. 28;

Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 28; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Jnd. i, 511; Gamble Madras

Fl. 159; Cke. i, 187.—A. floribunda Wight Ic. t. 1611.—A. puberula Mig. Ann.

Mus. Bot. Ludg. Bot. 1 (1868-64) 211.—Limonia monophylla Linn. Mant. 1

Gi 2 ar RoxbasCoromy Pi ints S82). Hiv indi ((S32\r 318.“ Tunnea vinens:

Hellen. in Act. Holm. (1788) t. 10, f. 1 (non Linn.).—Rheede Hort. Mal. iv,

t. 12.

Description: Cke, 1; 187,

Roca Konkan .(Dalza es). Gibs>s Bombay lsland) \(Blatter ')\.— VW:

Ghats: Khandala (Blatter !); Belgaum Ghats (ex Talbot).—N. Kanara: Moist

forests (ex Talbot).

Distribution: Madras Presidency: N. Circars, Deccan and Carnatic in dry

forests, W. Coast and W. Ghats. Foot of the Khasia Mountains, Ceylon,

Malay Peninsula, China, Indo-China, Java.

2. Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. Prodr. (1834) 91; Cke. i, 187.

Distribution: Bombay Presidency: Konkan, W. Ghats; Madras Presidency :

Hills of the Deccan, up to 4,000 ft., W. Ghats, chiefly on KH. side from Mysore

to Travancore, up to 3,000 ft.; Ceylon.

3. Atalantia ceylanica Oliv. in. Journ. Linn. Soc. v (1861) Suppl. 2. p. 25.

Distribution: Bombay Presidency: Phunda Ghat; Madras Presidency: W.

Ghats in Wynaad, Malabar, Nilgiris, Anamalais and Travancore, up to 5,000 ft.;

Ceylon.

6, (Cram Ibimin, (Cla, Il, Wes),

Species 10.—Paleotropics and subtropics.

Of the 3 species mentioned by Cooke we retain (C. medica and C. Auran-

tium, and change C. decumana into C. maxima.

3. Citrus maxima Merril Interpr. Herb. Amb. (1917) 296.—Aurantium

maximum Burm. ex. Rumph. Herb. Amb. Actuarium (1755) Ind. Univ. [16].—

Citrus decumana Murr. Syst. ed. 13 (1774) 580.

For interesting notes on the species of Citrus see;

Brandis.—For, Fl. (1874) 50,

320 FOU RIN AT a OVEBA Ye NA Cie ARE Serres las (0) Oreilly aamen Ole ONG XG

Burns & Paranjpye in Poona Agr. Coll. Mag. May 1918, reproduced in

Tropic. Agriculturist 42 (1914) 117.

Bonavia, H.—Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon.

London, 1890.

Chibber, N. M.—Morphology of Spines in Citrus. Proc. 5th. Ind. Science

Congress (1918) clxxui.

Lushington, A. W.—The genus Citrus in Ind. For. xxxvi, 328-353.

Guillaumin, A.—ILes traveaux récents sur les Anrantiées. Rev. Bot.

Applic. Agric. Coloniale 8 (79) (1928) 169-176.

16. FrrontA Corr. (Cke. I, 191).

Species 1.—India to Java.

The name of fF. EHlephantum must be changed into F. limonia.

1. Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle in Journ. Washington Acad. Se. iv

(1914) 325-28.—F. Hlephantum in ‘Trans. Linn. Soc. v (1800) 225; Roxb.

Corom. Pit. 14 ae inde an 5832) Ae Wisin slic) Saaremaa, 24s

Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 30; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1, 516; Cke. i, 191.

Distribution: Throughout India in dry situations from the Punjab east-

wards and southwards to Ceylon; Java.

Ue oem (Corr, (Clee. lig ey).

Species 8.—Indo-Malayan.

1. Aegle Marmelos Corr. in Trans. Linn. Soc. v (1800) 223; Cke. i, 192.

Distribution: Throughout India, in dry hilly places, from the Jhelum to

Assam and southwards to Travancore, wild or cultivated, or run wild, up to

4,000 ft. in the W. Himalaya.

(To be continued.)

pares

ak:

won s SE

dea,

spe ab Lanta

yeaa Wie

Wis tits lait Bess yom he ra wom in ann Bey

) a EN ieee

Da St aa, ede

Sie

Shee

Maen seers Be,

eh noe eS mt

Per

(hah i

‘ith

the

AOD ry Pe LN SE

Bienes

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

| sapanneasensansanannte SIE EMET TEN Ce eR EEE een

A large tusker photographed in the

RNS en

Elephants watering.

SOME EXPERIENCES AMONGST ELEPHANT AND

THE OTHER BIG GAME OF BURMA FROM

1887 to 1931.

W. 8S. THomM.

A book on big game shooting in Burma entitled ‘Wild Sports

of Burma and Assam’ written by me in collaboration with Colonel

F. Pollock, late Staff Corps, was published by Messrs. Hurst &

Blackett, Ltd., London, in 1900, priced at 16 shillings. Colonel

Pollock sold the work outright to Messrs. Hurst & Blackett. I

do not remember how much Pollock received from that Firm, but

I received no portion of the sum paid to Pollock over the transaction.

Messrs. Hurst & Blackett, on hearing from me that I was con-

siderably out of pocket over the matter, were good enough to send

me three complimentary copies of the work. Pollock, if he has

not been gathered to his Fathers by now, must be well over 100

years of age. I tried without success to get in touch with him

after he sold the book to Messrs. Hurst & Blackett and have never

heard anything more of him since. That Pollock was a great

shikart in his day and a remarkable man in many ways, and that

he did an immense amount of big game shooting in the sixties,

cannot be denied. I was asked on several occasions subsequently,

when Wild Sports of Burma and Assam went out of print, as it

cannot be obtained now easily, to bring out a new book of my own.

That would have been a difficult business and would have cost

more money than I couid afford.

Big game shooting now-a-days is, I am afraid, very much decried.

People look askance upon any one who may happen to have shot

a few more animals than other people and refer to them as butchers.

The filming and photography of wild animals in their natural state

is now all to the fore. In my day, however, one could not: go in

for that sort of thing unless one had a big banking account, as

cameras for that kind of work 25 and 30 years ago cost a mint of

money. Cameras have, however, now been perfected to such a

pitch, that this kind of hobby ean be indulged in more easily, whilst

they are not quite so expensive.

THE PRESERVATION OF BiG GAME.

In the hey-day and first flush of my shikar days sportsmen did

not think so much of game preservation as they do now.

_ There were no game preserves or game licences when I came to

Burma in 1886, and many sportsmen did not worry so much regard-

ing the numbers of animals shot by them provided the animals

could be considered warrantable trophies, and nearly every sports-

man tried to beat his neighbour so far as the size of the head or

the length and weight of a pair of tusks were concerned, whilst

he had also to consider the question of recouping himself for the

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

expenses incurred and the cost of his weapons and ammunition

etc. Now-a-days all that sort of thing is gone. A man who

slaughters game for the sheer love of shooting and bagging animals

is no longer tolerated. There is no doubt of course that we all

to some extent inherit in our breasts the savage instincts of our

forefathers. A great deal has been written and is still being

written and done on the subject of big game preservation every-

where; but so far as I can see little or nothing can be done to

stay the final destruction of all big game not only in this Province

but in India and in Africa. The spread of civilization, the motor

car, the modern high powered rifle, new roads, the woodman’s

axe, the Arms Act and Rules, electric contrivances for night shoot-

ing, poaching by people of the country and the fact that the Forest

Department is understaffed, are all factors which are now slowly

but surely tending to bring about the steady diminution of game.

It is of course admitted that the necessities of civilization must

come first in the scheme of things and the preservation of fauna

must take second place.

The European hunter makes little impression on wild life. He

is usually a keen sportsman or else he would not hunt in the

feverish localities he visits in search of big game. The native

hunter is in quite a different category. The difficulties of bush

and climate do not thwart him. But why go on; one could write

pages on this subject. The fact that such animals as the Mala-

van Tapir (Tapirus indicus) which, so far as this Province is con-

cerned, is only found in Tavoy and Mergui, and the Rhinoceros,

two species, (hinoceros sondaicus and Rhinoceros sumatrensis)

are now entirely preserved, may retard for some years the process

of extermination so far as they are concerned. I think I shall

not be wrong in stating that the only Tapir and Rhinoceros of

Burma that we shall see finally will be animals that have been

preserved in Zoos or in Museums. This in my opinion is -

the order in which animals in Burma are likely to disappear as

the years roll on; (1) Tapir (Tapirus indicus), (2) Rhinoceros (Rhino-

ceros sondaicus and Rhinoceros sumatrensis), (38) Thamin (Cervus

eldi), (4) Hog Deer (Cervus porcinus), (5) Tsine, i.e. the Banting

(Bibos sondaicus), (6) Bison or Gaur (Bibos gaurus), and (7) Hle-

phant (Hlephas maximus). The Felidae, i.e., tigers and leopards,

which one might include as big game, will also disappear when

large areas of land become thickly populated, causing a subsequent

decrease and thinning out of forests and undergrowth owing to

the great demand for fuel, and as cultivation spread with conse-

quent diminution of all the remaining deer tribe such as Sambar

(Cervus unicolor), Hog Deer (Cervus porcinus), Barking Deer (Cer-

vulus muntiacus) and Mouse Deer (Tragulus javanicus). Serow or

the Burmese Goat-Antelope (Nemorhaedus suwmatrensis) and Goral

(Cemas goral), which are generally found in precipitous rocky

localities, will probably be the last to disappear, as they are not

easily got at except with low-trajectory, small-bore rifles, which

the majority of the people of this country fortunately do not pos-

sess. I would be inclined to protect Serow altogether, as in some

places they can be easily beaten out of cover and shot with

SOME EXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 323

ordinary 12-bore shot guns with cartridges loaded with buck shot.

All the bird life of the country is being rapidly thinned out.

Some birds are shot and some snared by the people for food,

whether they be egrets, Imperial pigeons, hornbills, Sarus cranes,

paddy birds or beef-steak birds.

Crows, parrots, vultures, owls, sparrows, hawks, and perhaps

doves and green pigeon will probably outlast the rest, with snipe,

teal, duck, woodcock and geese coming next. Peafowl, pheasants,

jungle fowl, partridges and quail will last till no cover for them

exists. When I first came to Burma in 1886 I have seen the

horizon in some districts white with egrets, herons, ibises and

other waders and water birds. There are very few places indeed

now where this can be seen. Snipe and all water birds are being

snared wholesale all over Burma. I have not mentioned pigs. No

one bothers much about wild pig. They multiply rapidly and are

good’ eating. Besides, they do much harm to the crops of the

people; as do parrots and monkeys. It really does not matter

what becomes of them.

With regard to Big Game, in the year 1902 I saw on the Pidaung

Plain, Myitkyina, one morning all within view at the same time

within 800 yards of where I was seated on an elephant, a herd

of about 100 Hog Deer, 40 Bison and the same number of Tsine.

It was a glorious sight. The Pidaung Plain is now a sanctuary

and is being carefully guarded by the Forest Department but no

one I faney will ever see the same sight again regardless of pre-

servation as the Kachins as well as the Gurkhas do a lot of poach-

ing still at odd times, and when Burma gets its new constitution

will things get better or worse? We are all bound down now-a-

days, and rightly so, by strict Game laws, and are compelled to

shoot only one or two of each species of game.

THE ELEPHANT.

Much has already been written on the elephant by experienced

sportsmen, who have shot in Africa, in India and Burma, as to

how and where to shoot elephants and the kind of rifle to use,

but in case some of my readers have not studied the books of such

famous elephant hunters as F. C. Selous, Newman, Sutherland,

Stigand, Bell, Burton, Sanderson, Chapman, Kirby, Rainsford,

Court-Treatt and a host of others, I shall discuss the matter here

again as clearly and as briefly as possible. I am entirely in

agreement with Major C. Court-Treatt, author of Out of

the Beaten Track, when he says, ‘assuming that the purpose of

all sport is the attainment of adventure and the exercise of skill,

I dare to maintain that elephant hunting can legitimately be re-

garded as the greatest of all sports; and, since only the elephant

hunter is qualified to dispute it, my assertion is not likely to meet

with any great volume of dissent. Adventure there is in plenty

and hard work too; and the hunter needs to be highly skilled

in the habits and anatomy of the animal before he can be enrolled

into the spiritual membership of elephant hunters’.

I taney I have encountered in my wanderings in the jungles of

Burma during the last 45 years more big game than has fallen to

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

the lot of most sportsmen. I trust also | may be pardoned for

remarking that my knowledge of the elephant, its habits, and its

haunts, and how to track it, where to fire at it, and the kind of

weapon to use, 1s perhaps as good as that of any other European

sportsman in the East. The “best time of the year for tracking

elephants is during the raims, when the ground is soft and their

tracks are more easily followed, especially when they are feeding

in bamboo jungle. As a rule the animals possessing the best

tusks are solitary, but a monster with very fine tusks is some-

times found leading w herd or on the outskirts of a herd. I found

it much easier to follow up the tracks of a solitary tusker elephant

than to stalk into a herd with the object of picking out an animal

with the best tusks. As often as not, a slant of one’s wind or scent

is obtained by some member of the herd, usually a female, or

a young tusker, when a warning is given, and the whole herd

either shps quickly and quietly away, or stampedes without giving

the hunter a chance for a shot. Woe betide the sportsman if the

stampede is in his direction, as sometimes happens, if he cannot

get behind a decent sized tree or bamboo clump in time. ‘The

danger of a stampede is that he is hable to be confronted by

some infuriated cow elephant with a calf or some bull possessing

small tusks or some cantankerous ‘muckna’ or tuskless male. On

these occasions he may have to shoot in self-defence, when the

usual report will have to be made to the Forest Department, which

will probably fine him, and if a tusker, annex the tusks. The

easiest way out of the difficulty where a herd of elephants in a

panic stampedes towards you, is to stand perfectly still behind

tree, or bamboo clump, as their sight is far from good, and take the

risk of their passing you without having seen you; or, if they do

happen to see you, there is always the chance that they will hurry

on all the more quickly to avoid you. On the other hand, I have

known of herds of elephants to charge deliberately in a body te-

wards the sportsman on scenting him, without having been dis-

turbed in any other way, but they were generally herds that had

been harassed a great deal by being frequently fired on by persons

armed with inferior weapons. The danger is then very great,

and unless the sportsman’s nerves are in good order and he has

also had long experience with elephants, he should contrive to get

out of their way as quickly as possible either by chmbing a tree or

by making a clean bolt for it. There is no mistaking the sounds

emitted by a herd of elephants that means business as it comes

charging, shrieking and trumpeting along. A succession of angry

screams and trumpetings will be emitted first, which will convey

the warning and the sounds of thumping feet and the breaking

of branches will then follow. The sportsman’s Burman hunters,

it they have not already made themselves scarce by ascending the

nearest trees, as they are sometimes inclined to do, should be

able to warn him of the danger and advise him what to do and

which direction to take. Elephant shooting is easy enough if you

have good eye-sight, are fleet of foot, and know how to shcot

straight, and above all are using a good rifle. The latter is about

as important as all the rest But tovethier. In the good old days

SOME EXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 325

I made a poimt of never following the tracks of a solitary tusker

elephant unless these measured 18 or 20 inches from toe to heel.

I refer only to impressions of the forefeet. There is no mistaking

the elongated tracks of an old tusker elephant. The cracks and

wrinkles on all four soles of the feet and the large toe nail indenta-

tions on the soft ground are also usually clearly defined. The length

and thickness of an elephant’s tusks may be indicated by the cavi-

ties he digs in the soft earth of stream banks as he moves along or

by the marks lefti by his tusks on the ground where he has passed

the night. A solitary tusker usually sleeps on his side flat on the

eround like a horse with all four legs stretched out straight. I

remember once coming across a solitary bull elephant asleep on

the ground which was making use of an ant heap as a pillow. The

dung of an old elephant is also generally of a coarse texture and

fibrous looking. Tuskless male elephants, called by the Burmans

‘haings’. or ‘hines’ and by Indians ‘mucknas’ are generally big

ieliows with powerful trunks. A big “muckna’ is usually feared

by the members of any herd to which he may belong and he is a

very dangerous animal when he becomes a rogue and turns solitary.

As a rule there is no mistaking the tracks of a “‘muckna’ or ‘haing’

for they are generally more circular and less elongated than the

forefoot impressions of a tusker. No sportsman ever shoots or is

permitted to shoot a female elephant in India or Burma unless

compelled to do so in self-defence, simply because, unlike the

African species, they carry no tusks.

HK. G. Boulenger rightly says that an animal’s sense of smell

is usually, although by no means invariably, gauged by the develop-

ment of its nose. Elephants have a very keen sense of smell.

The power of an elephant’s trunk is enormous and with it the

animal can lift a ton with ease. Though immensely strong, such

a trunk has its own peculiar dangers and its care is a matter

of constant vigilance and anxiety to its owner. If threatened by

a tiger it is curled up over the forehead. Still more dreaded is

the poisonous snake. The common mouse, whose holing instinct

may lead him to take refuge in one or other of the large nostrils,

is likewise a danger. When charging, an elephant, on being wound-

ed, comes tearing along at a great pace, faster indeed than most

people would give it credit for being able to travel, and when

the animal has really got into his stride he can overtake the

fastest runner in the world after the first hundred); yards or so, but

he trusts to his keen sense of smell more than anything else to

overtake his enemy—man. ‘To escape from a charging elephant,

it is not safe for a hunter to run in a straight line for any distance,

for he has a better chance of eluding the animal by going off at

right angles, especially if he is running up wind, that is to say,

if his scent is being carried towards the approaching elephant.

The screams of an infuriated, wounded, charging elephant are terri-

fying, and awe-inspiring in the extreme, and woe betide the hun-

ter, if he trips and falls or is overtaken, for he would be pounded

into pulp and every bone in his body would be broken. An ele-

phant usually seizes a human being with his trunk and dashes

him against the ground or against his own knees, and then flings

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

him away into the air or strikes him a terrible blow with his

trunk. Sometimes he kicks his victim with his forefeet, or, after

seizing him with his trunk, throws him to the ground and kneels

upon him, if he does not drive his tusks through his body. In

nearly every case a fatal injury is inflicted.

An elephant cannot take all four feet off the ground in a jump,

like a horse, to negotiate say an eleven or twelve foot ditch. A

man escaping from a charging elephant can therefore jump over

an eleven or twelve foot wide ditch or nullah, and be quite safe on

the other side, for it would not be possible for any elephant to

negotiate it in its stride. In other words, an elephant cannot cross

a deep ditch that is beyond the compass of its stride. It would,

of course, be possible for the elephant following a man under

these conditions to go down into the nullah and up the other

bank, but that would give the hunter time to escape. The hunter

should also see, in the event of his getting behind the trunk of

a tree or bamboo clump to escape from a charging elephant, that

it is large and thick enough to withstand the impact of an ele-

phant’s charge, for an elephant is able to knock down any ordinary

sized tree and will go through a fair sized clump of bamboos

like paper. | |

The secret of success in elephant shooting is to get as close as

possible to the animal and make sure of the first shot, if possible,

intc the brain. When a clear view of the brain is not possible,

a shot behind the shoulder to reach heart or lungs should be taken.

If both lungs are perforated by a heavy bullet propelled by. a big

charge of cordite, say 100 grains from a -577 cordite rifle, the

animal usually will not survive, but he will have to be followed for

several miles in the case of the lung shot before he is rendered

helpless by internal haemorrhage. Sanderson, the author of the

work Thirteen Years Amongst the Wild Beasts of India, says—'the

head shot is the poetry and the body shot the prose of elephant

shooting’. An elephant’s brain can be found by (1) shooting a

little above the bump from, in front; (2) and (8) by shots fired in

the temple hollows on either side of the head from left or right

half front; (4) by a direct shot at right angles from the side into

either ear hole; or (5) by a shot from a little behind the ear when

the ear is thrown forward. Then there is (6) the heart shot. The

heart, shaped like a small rugby football, hes low down between

the shoulders. This shot should be taken from a little behind,

when the animal moves a foreleg forward, at the height of the

elbow-joint of the leg. Some sportsmen, in order to make

absclutely certain of bagging an elephant with really fine tusks,

rely entirely on the lung and heart shots, for, in a head shot,

unless the brain is reached by the bullet, the animal will not die,

as there are no big arteries in an elephant’s head and he will

usually go clean away if he does not turn and charge. An ele-

phant, when followed and approached after a shot or two through

both lungs, if he is disabled, will be found generally standing stock-

still with blood pouring out of his trunk, which will generally be

up in the air and then he can be easily finished off. It is only

when an elephant dies, or is at the point of death, that he lies

SOME HXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 327

down, and, as often as not, when shot through the brain, he

collapses on to his knees and remains in that position without

toppling over. If an elephant should enter a stream and drink

water after he has received, say a couple of shots through the

lungs, he will become more quickly disabled. JI have known

solitary tuskers with only one tusk, when shot through the brain,

to topple over on to the ground on the tusk side. Burman hunters

emphatically state that elephants with two tusks, when shot

through the brain, will fall to the ground on the side which carries

the heavier tusk. :

Elephants have been known to plug up with mud the bullet

wounds received in their bodies in order to keep them from becom-

ing fly-blown. It is also well known that elephants indulge in

mud baths and plaster themselves all over with mud in order to

protect their sensitive skins against the attacks of gad flies and

even mosquitoes towards the beginning of the rainy season, 1.e.,

April, May, and June. At this season all large dangerous game

become more irritable from the stings of insect pests. The brain

of an Asiatic elephant is more easily reached by the bump shot

from in front, than is the case with the African species. It is

not generally known that the back of the Indian elephant (or

Burmese elephant) is convex, whereas in the African species it is

concave. The Indian or Asiatic elephant again possesses only one

lip or finger-like process at the end of its trunk, whereas the

African species has two. The trunk of the Indian or Asiatic

elephant is also less strongly ridged than that of the African.

The Indian elephant’s face, too, is plumper and altogether milder

in expression and lacks the lean aggressive appearance of that

of his African brother. The African elephant is taller by a foot,

weighs more and carries heavier ivory. It is also interesting to

note that the Asiatic elephant has four or five toe nails on each

hind foot in contrast to the three toe nails possessed by his

African twin.

RIFLES FOR ELEPHANT SHOOTING.

When I first started big game shooting in Burma I used a

double barrelled 8 bore hammerless ejector paradox gun burning

a maximum charge of 10 drachms of black powder. I found a

weapon of this sort very effective indeed. Now-a-days no one ever

thinks of using heavy weapons of this description because of the

weight and the smoke from the black powder, which was often

blown back into one’s face, thus temporarily shutting off a good

view of the animal fired at. Nevertheless, I did very good execu-

tion with it and was loath to exchange it for the more up-to-date

and modern ecordite rifles. A good ‘big un’ is of course much

better than a good ‘little un’, and I must say I very seldom

found the 8 bore fail me, as the heavy conical bullet usually deli-

vered such a shock to the nervous system of an animal such as

elephant, bison, or tsine, when tearing its way through the flesh,

muscles, tendons and bones, as to cause temporary paralysis. I

have on several occasions fired, raking shots, with the 8 bore from

behind through the small of the ribs at a solitary bull bison

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

standing 20 hands at the shoulder, which has caused the animal

to lurch forward a few yards and then collapse. Even if a fatal

shot had not been fired, say through the heart, brain or neck,

the animal which had received the raking shot through the small of

the ribs was usually rendered hors de combat for the time being.

I was then invariably able to walk up and administer the coup de

grace trom a distance of only a few paces. There were occasions

also when even the 8 bore failed me; but show me the sportsman

who has not had similar disappointments with any and every kind

of weapon. Sutherland, the famous elephant hunter of Africa,

who accounted for over 500 elephants in his day, sometimes failed

to stop charging elephants using a double barrelled -577 cordite

rifle burning 100 grains of cordite—a weapon I have used ocea-

sionally myself im econ years, but with not the same success as

I obtained with the good old 8 bore. In Burma, where the

jungles are dense, a knock down blow has often to be delivered

at a distance of only a few yards. When one is young and in good

training neither the weight ‘of the rifle nor the recoil is felt. One

certainly feels the recoil of a big rifle more when one fires for

practice at a mark on a tree, but when one pulls trigger on an

animal you hardly notice 1b at all in the excitement of the moment.

It is amusing to listen to some of the youngsters who, having

been out only a year or two in the country, have gone out after

large and dangerous game, such as bison and elephant, armed

with small-bore rifles such as a °308, or -380 magazine Ross rifle,

or a 256 bore Manlicher. Some of them have even been success-

ful at their first attempts, but they had not to follow up a wounded

animal subsequently. This was an experience they were fortu-

nate enough to escape. Ignorance is bliss, ete. Some of the

best-known big game shots of Africa have, it is true, used small-

bore rifles, such as -303, -318 or even °256 bore, on elephant suc-

cessfully, but the majority of these men have been seasoned vete-

rans at the game and, besides being excellent shots, knew where

to plant their bullets with deadly accuracy, and, last but not

least, they invariably had a gun bearer carrying a second weapon

which was usually a heavy high velocity rifle, such as a double

-450 or -d00 bore cordite rifle as a stopper in case of a charge.

If I were asked by some would-be sportsman what sort of rifle

I would recommend him to get for shooting big game in Burma

my reply would be ‘What kind of animal do you want to shoot,

and what can you afford to pay?’ Another factor to consider is

the height, strength and activity of the would-be sportsman. If

he is a strong man and can carry a heavy rifle and intends shoot-

ing dangerous game such as elephant, bison, tsine, i.e., wild cattle,

and tiger, and has moreover a good bank surplus, I would then

immediately suggest his getting a double-barrelled hammerless

cordite ejector rifle of any of the following calibres, viz., -500, °470

or 450. These burn 70 or 80 erains of cordite. The best double

bore rifles are made in England by any of the following firms,

who are makers of repute, viz., Westley Richards, Holland and

Holland, Gibbs of Bristol, Jefferey Greener, Cogswell and Harri-

son. As a second weapon, he could purchase a magazine magnum

SOME EXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 329

°3875 bore cordite rifle or a magazine -333 or -318, any one of which

is powerful enough for all thin-skinned non-dangerous game and

which would be useful also for finishing off a wounded beast. For

beats when tiger, leopard, bear and Sambar may be driven out

by village beaters, a double 12 bore magnum ‘Explora’ cordite

rifle by Westley Richards cannot be beaten. High-velocity small

bore rifles should not be used in a beat. If I am asked to join

a party of sportsmen in a beat and find that one of them intends

using a small bore rifle, I contrive to place between him and

myself the biggest tree trunk I can find in the locality, before the

beat starts. A bullet from a small bore high velocity rifle has a

nasty way of ricochetting all over the place even if it does succeed

in striking the animal, as it invariably passes clean through it. An

ordinary double 12 bore shot gun, chambered for 8 inch cartridges,

loaded with solid spherical or lethal ball, L.G. or 8.8.G. slugs

would be another useful weapon for despatching an animal at

close quarters. A poor man will find there are many useful maga-

zine rifles on the market which can be picked up even secondhand,

for two or three hundred rupees or less, such as a °404, °423, -318

and :375. Jt is much easier, however, to align the sights of a

double barrelled rifle than those of a single barrel magazine rifle.

DEAD TuskerR ELEPHANTS FOUND IN THE JUNGLE.

A wealthy American who had done a great deal of shooting in

Africa and in other parts of the world asked me whether I had

ever found animals in the jungle at the point of death, or which

had died from natural causes, or any animal cemeteries. My reply

was that in the whole of my experience which extended over a

matter of 45 years I had never done so, and I suppose I would

almost be quite safe in saying that it would be possible to count

on the fingers of one’s hand the European sportsmen who have

done so, although they may have roamed through all the forests

of the world for years. I have come across the remains of serow,

a species of goat-antelope, barking deer and sambar, that have

been killed by leopards or tigers, but never any animal that was

at the point of death or had just died from natural causes. What

becomes of all the animals that die from old age or disease is a

conundrum that has been asked many times.

In the Rangoon Gazette, some years ago, I wrote an exhaustive

article on the subject of “Where do elephants die, and animal

cemeteries’. It would take too long for me to go into this subject

again here as fully as I did then. It must not be imagined that

because an elephant is such a huge beast the carcase or skeleton

will remain visible above ground for years, like the vulture- or crow-

picked skeleton of a camel, mule or horse, that may have perished

in an arid desert where the rainfall is practically nil and where the

absence of jungle and undergrowth, not to speak of animal and

insect life, preclude its disappearing for a very long period. It

is a very different matter in tropical countries lke India and

Burma, where all organic matter tends to decay rapidly and

where the jungle is usually alive with insect and animal life. The

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

carcase of any dead animal very soon disappears owing to tor-

rential rains, swollen streams, white-ants and a host of other

insects, dry rot, damp rot, and the heat of jungle fires, the cease-

less gnawing of the remains by a multitude of large and small

animals. It should not be forgotten also that the skull and bones

of an elephant are full of oil and will burn rapidly in a jungle fire.

Is it to be wondered at then that the remains of even such large

animals as elephant, bison, rhinoceros and tsine are seldom en-

countered ?

Some years ago, under rather peculiar circumstances, I found

the remains of two wild tusker elephants both of which had met

their deaths in fights with other tuskers. In the first case, I was

fishing for mahseer in the Lemro river of Arakan in the unad-

ministered territory of the Arakan Hills Tracts, Burma. Noticing

a stale odour emanating from a neighbouring thicket some 3800

yards or so away, I asked one of the two Chin boatmen who

were with me to go and see what had died, as he might perhaps

find that a sambar or a bison had been killed by a tiger, in which

case there would surely be the head and horns. The boatman,

however, declined to go, saying he was afraid of meeting a leopard

or a tiger, so putting my rod down and picking up a magazine

-855 Manlicher Schoenaur rifle that I always carried on these

oceasions in case of meeting barking deer and pig, I walked off

towards the thicket, nosing up the smell as I moved along, the

wind being right. After travelling about 600 yards or so I found

the remains of a tusker elephant in an open glade with thick

jungle all round. A tusk was still sticking in its socket im the

skull whilst the other tusk was lying on the ground beside it.

The ribs and bones of the animal were lying scattered about in

the vicinity in all directions, and the tree trunks close by were

marked with the claw marks of tigers and leopards that had

cleaned their claws there after regaling themselves night after night

on the flesh. The skull and all the bones were bare of flesh of

course, for the animal had been dead at least six or eight months.

The photograph of the remains, shown in Plate II, was taken

after I had put together all the remains, done a little jungle

clearing to let in the light, and inserted the second tusk into the

empty socket of the skull. It seemed marvellous to me that the

tusks of the dead animal had not been taken by some of the wild

Chin tribesmen, but I learned that they were afraid to go into

clearing where the remains of the dead animal lay as a really bad

type of ‘Nat’ or spirit of the woods resided there. I tried to

picture to myself how the animal had come by its end and was

told finally on my return to camp that evening that the Chins

trom a neighbouring village had heard two elephants trumpeting

and roaring, in the jungle about a mile or so above the spot where

IT had found the remains and that the animal to whom the remains

belonged had probably been vanquished in the fight by. being gored

to death by the other tusker and then mortally wounded had come

into the thicket to die, as it was a quiet locality and near

water. In the second case, I was out after bison (gaur) and

rhinoceros along the banks of 4 certain stream in Arakan when

Sa URC a

ty,

Set ia

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE ii

Elephant remains near the Lemro River, Arakan.

A carcase of an elephant killed in a fight. The broken tusk of his antagonist

which was embedded in his skull is shown in the photo.

SOME HXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 338l

my attention was attracted by a strong odour of decaying meat,

more pronounced than in the case of the last dead animal found

by me. It took me about ten minutes to reach the spot from

whence the stench emanated and, when I turned a bend in the

stream, I was thunderstruck at seeing a magnificent dead tusker

elephant in a kneeling position in the gravel bed of the river,

with its head up clear of the ground, and a magnificent pair of

tusks protruding straight out of its mouth. A number of jungle

fowl, cocks principally, some eight or ten birds in all, were running

about backwards and forwards over the body eating the maggots

that crawled about on it. The smell was pretty overpowering,

but being accustomed to that sort of thing from a long sojourn

in the jungle, my stomach did not fail me. I went up and exa-

mined the animal thoroughly and noticed that it must have been

killed by another tusker in a fight, as there were several deep stab

wounds on either side of its neck and body, which had evidently

been inflicted by the tusks of another elephant. Unfortunately my

camera was in camp some miles off and it was not till my men

had extracted the tusks of the dead animal, which weighed 84 lbs.

the pair, that it turned up and I was able to get two or three

photographs of the dead elephant. It was while I was superintend-

ing the extraction of the tusks that I found, purely by accident,

the remains of another broken off tusk, 27 inchés in length,

weighing 18 lbs., deeply embedded in the skull of the carcase

and sticking out from under the palate. The broken off tusk had

passed through the skull into the brain. Judging from the faint

black circle round the tusk near the spot where it had snapped

off short, it was apparent that it had broken off at the lips of

the animal which won the fight. It was a unique discovery for

I do not suppose such a find has ever been recorded before. All

the bushes and gravel in the vicinity, [ then noticed, had been

trampled upon, torn and scattered about in all directions. <A

portion of the hind quarters of the dead elephant had been eaten

by a bear whose feet impressions showed up clearly on the soft

wet sand by the side of the stream. Quite recently, I heard the

story of the fight which had taken place between the two ani-

mals, and recorded it in detail. It seems that a Chin from a

neighbouring village some four or five miles away had come down

with his wife to the stream to fish, and had caught sight of the

elephant which was subsequently killed, drinking at the stream

at about 5 p.m. He and his wife on seeing this immediately

ascended a tree for safety, being in a mortal funk, as the elephants

in that locality were given to chasing and killing people. Some

five or ten minutes after this another tusker elephant with shorter

and straighter tusks came out of the jungle some sixty yards or so

to the rear of the animal which was drinking. The latter imme-

diately spun round and with lowered head faced his opponent,

who, uttering a shrill trumpet, rushed forward in full charge, the

two meeting head on with a terrific crash. Both animals then

engaged each other with their trunks holding up their heads, and

mancuvring for position. The younger animal then disengaged

himself and backed. for a distance of about twenty yards, The

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

elephant that was vanquished subsequently then also started to

wheel round as if to. clear out, for he was at least fifty years older

than his opponent, when the other elephant put on a spurt and,

rushing forward, delivered a succession of deadly stabs into both

sides of the neck of the older animal. Just at this time, some

five or six female elephants accompanied by one or two calves

appeared on the scene from the jungle, but kept at a respectable

distance, squeaking occasionally as if in fear. The older elephant.

whose tusks were blunter and more curved and in consequence not

at all suitable for stabbing purposes was placed at a considerable

disadvantage. The younger tusker, whose tusks must have weighed

about 50 or 60 lbs. the pair, but were straighter and more pointed,

as can be seen from the photograph of the gouge and tusks of

the dead animal with the broken-off tusk called ‘Manswe’ by the

Burmans, lying in front, simply made circles round his less active

and older opponent.

It then appears that the younger animal in a final charge from

in front met its opponent head-on and embedded, up to the lip,

its right tusk in the skull of the older animal. When they parted

company it was seen that the younger animal was minus his right

tusk. The old tusker then standing stock-still for a few seconds

suddenly threw up its trunk in the air and. gradually subsided on

to its knees, in the same position as a tame elephant, when about

to take up his mahout on its back. What would I not have

given to have been there with a cine camera to witness this battle

of the giants? I have been told by the Burmans that so long as

the broken off tusk, the ‘Manswe’, remains in my possession no

harm can ever befall me, and that I shall always have the best

of luck. I have had numerous requests from Burmans and Shans

to sell them the ‘Manswe’ outright, if I will not give them a chip

of it, but, as I have always pointed out to those making the

requests, that, according to their own beliefs, it would be wrong

of me to do so as it would bring me bad luck. So there it hes, still

intact, in the hall of my house beside the tusks of the victim

whose spirit doubtless roams the Elysian fields or the forests of

Valhalla.

The literal translation of ‘Manswe’ in Burmese is, I suppose,

‘Man’ which means temper and ‘swe’ which means the tusk,

or in other words ‘The tusk that in a temper did the damage’.

The photograph of the dead tusker which looks as if it is about

to topple over a ‘kud’ or precipice is true in actual fact. I had

wounded this animal behind the shoulder and followed him up for

five miles. He went into a dense cane brake in the Thayetmyo

Yoma mountains between Thayetmyo and Arakkan and waited there

in grim silence for me, to come up with him, without even adver-

tising his whereabouts by a flap of his ear.

Cautiously, Oh, ever so cautiously, did I push my way: into. that

cane brake, and only those who are accustomed to the jungles of

Burma will know what is meant by a cane brake and how difficult

it is to move about in one without being hung up or even seeing

clearly fifteen yards ahead. To cut a long story short, I almost

walked into him as I rounded a bamboo clump, and without a

SOME EXPERIENCES AMONGST BIG GAME IN BURMA 333

note of warning, except for the emission of a suppressed spurt

of air which he shot out of his trunk, he raced straight in my

direction. JI made half a dozen flying leaps to avoid him but came

an awful sprawler, tripping over a cane and spread-eagling right

in his path. Fortunately for me the jungle was very dense over-

head or else he would have spotted me lying helpless beneath him.

As he came tearing along through the undergrowth one of his

ponderous forefeet found my right thigh and pinched half of it into

the mud without breaking a bone or doing any damage except to

cause me to utter a shght groan of pain on account of the bruise

which turned my right thigh into all the colours of a rainbow. I

followed him up within an hour and came up with him again after

he had covered about three miles of very hilly country. This

time, he was head on to me in fairly open jungle. On catching

sight of me he uttered a shrill trumpet and swung round as if to

make off, but not before I got him with a lucky shoulder shot

through the heart. He went about thirty yards before collapsing,

and all but went over a steep ‘kud’, remaining balanced on the

top. I was only able to photograph him from above. His tusks

weighed 95 lbs. the pair and I noticed that one of his forefeet,

the right one, was much smaller than the left.

The photograph of the large wild tusker which was taken in the

Thayetmyo Yoma hills is perhaps one of the finest photographs,

ever taken of a wild tusker. He was coming out of high elephant

erass and, as there was a deep ten-foot wide nullah, in between, a

few vards only separated us. The lens used was a 174 inch Ross’

Telecentric, a perfect picture being obtained. It may be asked

why I did not shoot this fine specimen. My reply is that I had

shot quite a number already and would much rather have the

photograph I obtained. I had a heavy rifle with me at the time

which was being earried by a very faithful staunch old hunter of

mine Maung Tha Yauk by name, who never once let me down on

all the numerous, occasions on which he accompanied me into the

wilds, and who has not long since gone to Nirvana. May we

meet again in the Elysian fields of that mysterious land about which

we talk such a lot but know nothing, to relate there all over again

the details of the many hairbreadth escapes and encounters we

shared together. Will I ever see his equal again? To Tha Yauk,

one of the finest hunters, trackers and characters it has ever been

my good fortune to know, I owe much of whatever success I have

attained in the pursuit of Big Game.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE

EASTERN GHATS.

(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION).

Hua WHISTLER, M.B.O.U., ASSISTED BY N, B. KInNEAR, M.B.O.U.

| PART IV.

(Continued from page 93 of this Volume).

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes.

Lanius vittatus Valenc., Dic. Sci. Nat., xl (1836), p. 227—Pondicherry.

Specimens collected: —102 ¢ 21-4-29, 111-112 Q JG 22-4-29 Kurumbapatti;

555 S 558 SG juv. 19-7-29 Gingee; 755 9 26-8-29 9 imm. 27-8-29 Palkonda

Hills 500 ft.; 808 @ juv. 12-9-29 Kudur; 880 ¢ 5-10-29, 882 9 6-10-29,

891 ¢g juv. 892 Q 8-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1063 9 imm. 8-12-29

1102 Q 13-12-29, 1106 Q 1108 juv. 14-12-29, 1143 juv. 19-12-29, 1147 Q- imm.

1580-A 4-3-3830 Sankrametta 38,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Ge adults Gir 105) SAL) 82-88.5 81-96 21.5-24 mm.

& aimummature J 14.5-16 79-85 75-81.5 21-23 mm.

3 immature Q: 16 79-81.5 78-80 20.5-22 mm.

(Immature includes both juveniles and first winter birds which retain the

juvenile primaries and tail).

In the Vizagapatam ghats near Sankrametta La Personne reports that the

Bay-backed Shrike was fairly common in December on the hill slopes leading to

the Padwa valley, being found at elevations between 2,000 ft. and 3,500 ft. We

can trace no other record in the Presidency above the Krishna River. South of

that the bird appears to be common and generally distributed right down to

the Cauvery River. From here it probably extends all the way to Cape Comorin

where within the Travancore border Ferguson obtained two specimens in Decem-

ber 1901.

In the western side of the Presidency it does not occur except on the border

of Mysore where William Davison found it about the northern base of the

Nilgiris in the neighbourhood of Segore in February. We cannot trace the

authority for the statement that it occurs in the Palnis and N. Travancore.

Nothing is recorded of the breeding season in the Presidency but elsewhere

it lasts from April to September, the majority of eggs being found in the latter

half of June and in July. This shrike is probably resident in the Presidency.

Lanius nasutus nigriceps (Franklin).

Collurio nigriceps Franklin, P.Z.S8., 1830-31 (October 25, 1831), p. 117—

Vindhyian Hills.

Specimens collected:—1341 J 6-2-3830 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1450 ¢ 1-83-30,

1494 ¢ 7-83-80, 1503 9 8-3-30, 1521 J 11-3-30, 1564 ¢ 17-83-30, 1575 Q 20-83-30,

1578 Q 22-38-30, 1590 Q 24-3-30 Sankrametta 3000-3,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Mant. Tarsus.

Abe 20-23 91-94.5 113-118 27.5-30 mm.

ij 20.5-21. 88-92.5 103-114 96-28.5 mm.

In the Anantagiri specimen in February, there was no sign of genital develop-

ment, but in March the birds showed distinct development, especially in the

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 335

males. At Sankrametta where these shrikes were common they were mating,

chasing each other from tree to tree with harsh calls. Their behaviour was like

that of all other shrikes. I have seen one of these shrikes give a very clever

demonstration of stooping: It was flying about 30 feet up in the air when seeing

a party of Zosterops up in a bush it closed its wing and shot down into the

bush with lightning rapidity (lia Personne). No other record for the Presidency.

This fine series of Black-headed Shrikes clears up an interesting point. The

series is remarkably uniform and the birds have the upper parts from the edge

of the black hood down to the centre of the back a clear unbroken grey. In

Assam and Sikkim, from whence come most of the specimens in collections,

the grey is browner in tint, as noted by Hume (8.F., xi, 90), and is confined

to a narrow edging to the black hood while the mantle and upper back are

bright rufous agreeing with the rump and upper tail coverts.

The range of the Black-headed Shrike is not known very satisfactorily in

detail, but the following facts are clear. The most north-westerly record is of a

single bird shot by A. HE. Jones at Jagadri (Ambala District) on 4th. Feb. 1917

but this was doubtless a straggler. As a breeding bird, it is found along the

lower Himalayas from the ‘S.W. Termination of the Kumaon and Gharwal

forests’ (Thompson apud N. & E., vol. i, 315) to Bhutan and southwards

through E. Bengal and Assam out of our limits. In much of this range it is

very common. Between the Himalayas and the Ganges we have but few records

—Gorakhpur (A. E. Osmaston), Mudhubani (Inglis), Purneah, Dinagepur,

Colgong (Jerdon)— but hereabouts the bird is apparently scarce and possibly only

a winter visitor, as it definitely is said to be at Calcutta.

South of the Ganges it is once more found in varying numbers from Etawah

and Mogulserai (2 skins ex Brooks in British Museum), through S. Mirzapore

(Thompson) to the Chota Nagpur-Orissa-Vizagapatam area where it is known

to breed. Here its westerly limit is Nagpur (D’Abreu).

Correlating this distribution with the fact that the birds of the northern

breeding range are rufous-backed and the birds of the southern breeding range

are grey-backed and there is some intergrading between them, we have no

hesitation in recognising two races in India.

There is no difficulty in deciding which of these should bear the well-known

name of nigriceps as Franklin’s original description—‘dorso cinereo; scapularibus

uropygio, abdominis lateribus, crissoque rufis—leaves no doubt that he was

referring to the southern form and that the type locality selected should probably

be the Vindhyian Hills rather than the Ganges between Calcutta and Benares.

Luckily there is a name available for the northern race—Collwrio tricolor

Hodgson, (Ind. Review, vol. 1, January 1887, p. 446—Nepal.) There is no diffe-

rence between the breeding birds of the Nepal Valley and Assam, and Hodgson’s

original type of tricolor has been identified in the British Museum collection

(Register no. 1845. 1. 9. 602.)

There can be no doubt that the Black-headed Shrikes of our area belong to

the same species as those of the Philippines Lanius nasutus Scopol, Del. FI.

Fauna Insubr., ii, p. 85 (1786)—Philippines = Antigue, Panay which therefore

gives its name to the group. Indeed the Peninsula form is so close to nasutus

that it can only be distinguished on a series by the slightly richer rufous of the

rump and scapulars. These parts are very pale in nasutus, the outer scapulars

becoming almost white.

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth.

Specimens collected:—445 9 18-6-29 Harur 1,000 ft.; 658 2 6-8-29 Palkonda

Hills 1,000 ft.

Measurements : -——

Bill. Wing. avanile Tarsus.

BQ 19.5-20.5 88-90 113 26-27.5 mm.

The main stronghold of this Grey-backed Shrike in the Presidency is in

the hills of the western side where it is very common and resident on the

higher parts of the Nilgiris, Nelliampathis and Palnis. In the first named

1 Since the above was written we have noticed that Tweeddale had already

pointed this out over 50 years ago (Tr. Z.8. 1875, p. 170).

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Davison says that it grows scarcer as one descends_the slopes and in the

Wynaad it is only sparingly distributed. In Coorg, according to Betts it is

uncommon, being seen only occasionally and that in the drier parts. I have

seen no skins from Coorg and it is not impossible that these may prove to be

winter visitors of L. s. erythronotus. In Travancore this Shrike occurs not

uncommonly both in the hills and plains.

On the east it is evidently much scarcer. Two unsexed specimens from

Bellary (10-10-1877) are in the Hume Collection. Dewar says that it is not

common at Madras and the two Survey specimens complete the records.

In Hume’s N. & H. 2nd. ed., vol. 1, pp. 323-325 there is a good deal of in-

formation about the breeding of this form in the Nilgiris and Palnis. The

breeding season is from february to July, though May and early June appears

to be the best time for eggs.

There appears to be no authority for the inclusion of Lanius tephronotus

(Sensu auct.) in the Birds of Southern India, p. 59 (Inglis and Baker).

The identification of these two specimens has necessitated the examination

of the whole question of the Rufous-backed and Grey-backed Shrikes of India

and Central Asia. In the Vew Fauna, Mr. Stuart Baker considers that they

should be divided into three forms namely Lanius schach erythronotus and

Lanius schach caniceps and Lanius tephronotus. In vol. 1, p. 294 he gives

as his reason for keeping tephronotus as a separate species that it has no

white speculum and the tail always brown, not black. That these differences

are not constant has already been pointed out by Ticehurst (J.B.N.H.S., xxxi,

p. 495), who has also pointed out the extraordinary inconsistency of making

Vigors’ type locality of ‘the Himalayas’ into Lucknow for ‘erythronotus and

Gyantse, Tibet for tephronotus. In the Ibis 1924, pp. 468-473 Ticehurst and

Whistler had already shown that the Simla-Almora district might be taken

as the area referred to by Vigors and had Mr. Stuart Baker not overlooked

this he would have been spared his failure to appreciate the true systematic

position of these Shrikes. This is really very simple. This large Shrike breeds

from Tibet to Turkestan and Kashmir territories in the Trans-Himalaya (dis-

regarding for the moment the rest of its range). In that wide area it falls

into three recognisable breeding forms, the Rufous-backed Shrike in the west,

the Grey-backed Shrike in the east, and a very distinct intermediate between

them. The western bird is the Collurio erythronotus of Vigors. The Collurio

tephronotus of Vigors is not, as has been hitherto assumed, the Grey-backed

Shrike of the east, but the Grey-backed intermediate which as a winter visitor

appears in the Simla-Almora area, and the Grey-backed breeding bird of Tibet

must therefore be known by Hodgson’s name of Lanius nipalensis. Lanius

caniceps of Blyth is the Peninsula representative of the group. As the three

first forms are migratory and there are large areas where we have no accurate

information as to whether the birds breed at all or not the following must be

regarded as only an approximate guide to the distribution of the forms

recognised : —

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors).

Colluria erythronotus Vigors P.Z.S. 1830-1831 (April 1831), p. 42—Himalayas,

restricted to Simla-Almora district.

Upper plumage clear pale grey. Rufous of rump extending to lower back

and scapulars and sometimes even to lower mantle. White speculum generally

present and large.

Breeding Turkestan, Gilgit, Kashmir, outer Western Himalayas, Baluchistan,

Punjab. Winter visitor to Peninsula India.

Measurements :—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

20 20-21.5 91.5-100 101-1138 27-29.5 mm.

10 Q 18-20.5 85-93.5 100-116 25-28.5 mm.

Lanius schach tephronotus (Vigors).

Collurio tephronotus Vigors, P.Z.S., 1830-1831 (April 1831), p. 43—Himalayas,

restricted to Simla-Almora district.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 337

Upper plumage darker, more leaden grey, intermediate in colour between

erythronotus and nipalensis and easily distinguishable from either. Rufous of

rump not extending beyond hindermost scapulars. White speculum usually

present but on the average smaller than in erythronotus.

Measurements :-——

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

10 3 19.5-21.5 90.5-98.5 104-120.5 26.5-28 mm.

6 Q 20-22 92-100 106-112 27.5-29 mm.

Breeding Suru Valiey and Lahul. Winter visitor to Outer Himalayas and

Upper India.

Lanius schach nipalensis Hodgson.

Lanius nipalensis Hodgson., Ind. Rev., vol. i (1837), p. 445—Nepal.

(Type in British Museum. Reg. No. 43, 1, 18, 762.)

Upper plumage dark bluish slate. Rufous on upper plumage not extending

beyond rump. Rufous on lower plumage usually richer and more extensive

than in other forms. White speculum absent or very small. The largest form.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tau. Tarsus.

16 3 20.5-23.5 95.5-106.5 105-118 27.5-30 mi.

10 @ 20.5-23.5 97-107.5 105.5-107.5 28-29 mm.

Breeding Tibet. Winter visitor to Nepal Valley, outer Kastern Himalayas,

Assam and Burma.

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth.

Lanius caniceps Blyth, J.A.S.B., xv (1846), p. 3802—India— Madras (see

JAIBIN so, SOSA [Do So):

Upper plumage clear pale grey as in erythronotus. Rufous of rump only

extending to hindermost scapulars as in tephronotus. White speculum usually

present but small. Usually smaller with a weaker bill than in other forms.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

9d 20-22, 92-98 112-129.5 26.5-28.5 mm.

Central and southern Indian Peninsula; Ceylon. Apparently resident.

This form is not well differentiated from L. s. erythronotus and indeed

grades into it. There is little evidence as to which form, if any, breeds over

Northern India, other than the Punjab.

It is no doubt true, as generally stated, that in nipalensis (tephronotus auct.)

the central tail feathers are usually brown, and in erythronotus black. — Bui

these distinctions are not reliable as in nipalensis the terminal half of the

feathers is often black, whereas in first year individuals of erythronotus the

brown central juvenile tail feathers may be retained instead of being shed at

the post-juvenile moult. Similarly in these immature birds the retention of

the brown primaries and primary coverts of the juvenile plumage explains

the absence of the white speculum.

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnacus.

Lanius cristatus Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x (1758), p. 93—Bengal.

Specimens collected: —12 9 10-4-29, 82 9 12-4-29, 103 ¢G 21-4-29, 139 ¢

27-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 897 9 10-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1080 9

25-11-29 Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.

Measurements :—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2 3 18.5-19 89 81-83 23.5-26.5 mm.

4 9 18-19 89 81-81.5 25-26.5 mm.

In 3 of the 4 spring birds a complete moult is in progress.

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The above specimens constitute the whole of the records for the eastern side

of the Presidency. On the west the Brown Shrike is far better known. In

Coorg it is one of the commonest of the cold weather visitors, arriving in Sep-

tember [11 September—earlhest date (Betts) ] and staying until the end of March.

It is not recorded from the Wynaad or the Malabar coast but in the Nilgiris

it is also very common as a winter visitor. William Davison gives its dates

as from the end of November to early in March, but Betts records it (J.B.N.H.S.,

xx xiv, 569) as seen as early as 7 October. In Travancore it is a winter visitor

to the hills from 2,000 ft. upwards and Ferguson shot it as high as 6,000 ft. on

the High Range. He also obtained a specimen in the low country of North

Travancore in December 1902.

As Brown remarks that this shrike reaches Ceylon regularly in August every

year (J.B.N.H.S., xxxu, 376), it is evident that it must occur in the Presidency

earlier than the above records would lead one to suppose.

Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes).

Muscicapa picata Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832, p. 85—Deccan.

Specimens collected: —297 9 31-5-29, 351 ¢ 354 ¢G imm. 412 ¢ 7-6-29,

410 3S juv. 418 juv. 14-6-29 Chitter1 range 2,000 ft.; 13861 ¢ imm. 13867 9°

10-2-80, 1408 ¢ 19-2-80, 1748 ¢ 30-4-380 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1464-5 3d

3-83-30, 1587 9 1540 SG 14-38-30, 1682 9 13-4-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.; 1748a ¢

imm. 380-4-30 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

Measurements :—

Bull. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

10 3 14-16 60-65.5 58-62.5 11-13 mm.

4 9 15.5-16 60.5-64.5 58.5-65 12-13 mm.

The above specimens supply the whole of the records for the east of the

Presidency and provide a marked extension of the known range. La Personne

reports that the Black-backed Pied-Shrike was very common throughout the

Ghats of the Vizagapatam district. In April they appeared to be breeding

in thick forest at Sankrametta. ts

On the western side the bird is far better known. It is common in

Coorg, the Wynaad, and the Nilgiris at all elevations. _ Kinloch says that

it is common in the Nelliampathis. Fairbank met with a few in the Palnis.

In Travancore it occurs throughout the range at all elevations from the foot

of the hills to the summits.

The breeding season in the Nilgiris appears to be in March. The male in

first winter plumage is not distinguishable from the female.

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola Jerdon.

Tephrodornis sylvicola Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit. Sci., x (1889 after Octo-

ber) p. 286—‘Inhabits the dense and lofty forests of the Western Coasts and

Ghats. JI have found it on the Coonoor Pass as high as 5,000 ft.

Not obtained by the Survey. The New Fauna states that the Malabar

Wood-shrike occurs almost up to Bombay city but I have failed to trace any

record of it higher than the jungles west of Belgaum (Laird). In the

Presidency it is confined to the western side. Jerdon’s term—the forests

of the Malabar Coast—is somewhat indefinite but Mr. Betts informs me that

it is common about Mercara in Northern Coorg and that the Wood-shrike

which he recorded as uncommon in South Coorg (J.B.N.H.S., xxxii, 545) is

probably this species and not pondicerianus. In the Wynaad, according to

William Davison, it is fairly numerous, and he shot it as high as Neddivattum

about 5,500 ft. though it is rare at this height and certainly does not ascend

to the tableland of the Nilgiris.

Kinloch considered it very common in the Nelliampathis. In the Palnis

Fairbank found it in the stunted trees of the western side about 4,500 ft. In

Travancore it is said to be common from the foot of the hills to about 3,000 ft.

in heavy forest.

The breeding season in this bird’s whole range is said to be from March

to June but there is no published record for the Presidency. )

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 339

I should remark that some of the above records appear under the name

pelvica but I have no reason to think that more than one large Wood-shrike

is found along the west of our area.

Tephrodornis gularis subsp. ?

Lanius gularis Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc., xii (1821), p. 8304—S. W. Sumatra.

Specimens collected : =1368 3 ad. 10-2-80 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1600 9 imm.

24-3-80 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. _ Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

23 25.5-26.5 115-118.5 84-86 20.5-21 mm.

These two specimens furnish the only records of the Nepal Wood-shrike

in the Presidency and I am unfortunately unable to say with certainty to

which subspecies they belong. The upper parts of the adult male are definitely

darker and greyer throughout than in birds from Nepal and Darjeeling and

I cannot separate them in any way from T. g. annectens (Kloss). The young

(Ist. winter) male however, which is in female plumage, except for the reten-

tion of certain juvenile feathers in the wings and tail, agrees well with T. g.

pelvicus (Hodgs.). The status and identity of the bird in this area must

await further investigation.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin).

Muscicapa pondiceriana Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1 (1789), p. 930—Pondicherry.

Specimens collected:—89 Q 19-4-29, 178-9 3-5-29 Kurumbapatti; 512 9

5-7-29 Kalai, Trichinopoly; 559 ¢G juv., 561 ¢, 563 g 19-7-29, 590 gd juv.

23-7-29 Gingee; 598-9 S juv., 0 ?, 600-1 2 juv., ¢ Tindivanum; 657 J 6-8-29,

670 § 9-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 839-40 $9 20-9-29 Kodur; 884 3

888-9 gS 7-10-29, 913 S$ 18-10-29, 919-20 SQ 14-10-29 Seschachalam Hills

2,000 ft.; 958 0 ? 1-11-29, 1088 9 25-11-29 Nallamallai Range 2,000 ft.; 1844 ¢

6-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1492 9 7-38-30 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — : :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

16 So 19.5-22.5 82-91 59-67 17.5-19.5 mm,

8 Q 19-22 85-89 60.5-65 16-19.5 mm,

There appears to be no necessity to cite all the records of the Common

Wood-shrike in the Presidency as it is evidently very common and _ generally

distributed except in the wetter and higher country of the western side. There

it does not occur in the Nilgiris, Nelliampathis, Palnis or Travancore ranges.

though it is still common in the plains about their base and occurs in smaller

snnalneaee in (Coorg ? and) the Wynaad.!

Although we include all the Presidency birds under the typical race it is

to be remarked that the two Survey specimens (1344-1492) from the Vizagapatam

Ghats are somewhat darker above and below than the rest of the series, agreeing

thereby with birds in the British Museum from Calcutta, Barrackpore, Dacca

and Burma generally. We doubt, however, whether it is worth while separating

them racially. At the other extremity of our area the Travancore series in

the British Museum are somewhat intermediate with T. p. affinis of Ceylon

(as noted by Hume, S.F., 1, p. 435) and it is interesting to note (as he

explained in S.F., iv, 458) how this is due to the agreement between the

climate of Travancore and parts of Ceylon, whereas on Rameswaram Island,

literally closer to Ceylon but in physical features nearer to Central India, the

birds are quite typical.

Nothing seems to have been recorded about the breeding season in the

Presidency but the organs of the Survey specimens suggest that it is in April

and May.

* Mr. Betts informs me that his Coorg record (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiii, p. 545)

is probably due to a mistake in identity.

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

—— Pericrocotus speciosus semiruber subsp. nov.

Specimens collected :—1327 $ 5-2-380, 1442 Q 26-2-30, 1776 9 5-5-30 Ananta-

giri 3,000 ft.; 1688 ¢G 15-4-80 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2d 20-21 100.5-102 96-99 18-19 mm.

2 9 19-20 97-102 92.5 18-18.5 mm.

La Personne reports that this Scarlet Minivet was fairly common and

evidently about to breed in the hill tracts of Vizagapatam District. There

was a good deal of sexual display during the latter end of April. Jerdon

mentions (Madr. Journ. Lit. & Sci., x (1839), p. 248) that he shot one of a

pair in the spring in Goomsoor, but there is otherwise no record for the Presi-

dency. This form however extends also into Chota-Nagpur and the Hastern

Central Provinces.

The identification of this series of Minivets has given us a good deal of

trouble, but we have been greatly helped by 'Ticehurst’s note on the Assam-

Burma races of this species (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, 906). The important points

in the racial separation of the Scarlet Minivets are size, the number of outer

primaries in both sexes which lack a coloured spot on the outer web, and the

amount of red and black on the central pair of tail feathers in the adult male.

Fortunately we have been able to supplement the small Survey Series with

several other specimens from cognate localities (Sambalpur, Bilaspur, Ranchi,

Maunbhum, Orissa and Dumagudiam). The total series agree in having the

first two primaries unspotted in the male, the first three (usually) in the

female. The red on the central pair of tail feathers is very extensive, usually

occupying the whole of the terminal two-thirds of the outer webs. The series

measure :-—

Wing. Tail.

16 106-106.5 94-102 mm.

These birds are certainly not elegans (Assam and Burma) in which the

first three primaries of both sexes are unspotted, the whole of the outer web

of the central tail feathers is red and the size is small, wing ¢ 95-102, tail

about 90 mm. |

From our birds fraterculus (Hainan) differs in size (gj wing 94-98 mm.)

and in having the central tail-feathers wholly black.

Flammifer (5. Tenasserim—Malay) has the outer webs of the central tail

feathers red, but it is much smaller (wing ¢ 89-95.5 mm.) and the first three

primaries in the male and four in the female are unspotted.

Andamanensis (Andamans) has the first three primaries unspotted in the

male and the central pair of tail feathers are wholly black. Wing od

92.5-95 mm.

In speciosus (Himalayas) the first two primaries in the male and the first

three primaries in the female are unspotted. In the western Himalayas (Ghar-

wal—Kumaon) the red on the central tail feathers is usually entirely absent.’

When it occurs it is merely a narrow line along the edge of the outer web

about one inch in length. In the Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim-Duars) the

red is more often found and is greater in extent, though it seldom reaches

to the shaft. The western birds on the whole are slightly larger than the

eastern, but the sum of these characters is not sufficient to allow of the

separation into the usual east and western ranges. The explanation no doubt

is that the Scarlet Minivet is a comparatively recent colonist of the Himalayas.

Jt is not yet common beyond the Jumna Valley and the most westerly authentic

record is Kulu.

* Gould’s figure of Muscipata princeps (Vigors) shows a male with no

red on the central tail feathers and only the first two primaries unspotted,

a@ further argument for the placing of the Vigors’ collection in the Simla-Almora

area (Ibis, 1924, pp. 468-673).

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 341

Measurements :—

Wing. bey

ares 100-110.5 96-113 mm.

iO) 97.5-108 95-110 mm.

Our series therefore differ from speciosus in their smaller size and the greater

amount of red on the tail, in other words an advance along the lines in which

the Hast Himalayan bird is tending to vary from the West Himalayan.

The degree of difference is however greater between the Hastern Ghats birds

and the Sikkim birds, than between Sikkim and Kumaon. ‘The _ breeding

ranges are also separated by the Gangetic Plain. We therefore think that

it will be useful to recognise an Upper Eastern Ghats race and propose for it

the name :—

Pericrocotus speciosus semiruber Subsp. nov.

Type ¢ 15 April 1930, Sankrametta, Vizagapatam 3,500 ft. Collected by

Ve oe eameersonnes Colle No. WelGs3,- brit. Muss) Rega No 1932. 6. 1.) 2

We do not consider that the Scarlet Minivet is racially connected with

the Orange Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus). A marked characteristic of the

Minivets as a whole is that racial variation has less effect on their bright

colours than other details of their make-up and in the speciosus group the

stability of the scarlet tint is very remarkable, and goes side by side with a

close intergrading of the racial characteristic. There is moreover no trace

of intergradation between flammeus and speciosus.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster).

Muscicapa fiammea Vorster in Pennant’s Indian Zoology, 1781, p. 25—Ceylon.*

Specimens collected:--210 ¢ .12-5-29, 220-221 9, S$ imm., ¢ ad. 14-5-29

Shevaroy Hills 3,500-4,000 ft.; 422 9 15-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.

Measurements :-—

Bill. Wing. vanlle arsus.

aS 17.5-18 94-97 95-101. 15.5-17.5 mm.

29 18-18.5 92-93 90-93 16.5-17 mm. °

The Orange Minivet is far better known in the west than in the east, of the

Presidency. For the east the above specimens constitute the only record, subs-

tantiating La Personne’s remark that they were very common on the Shevaroys

and the Chitteri1 plateaux about 3,500 to 4,500 ft. A few were also apparently

seen in the plains below.

In the west they are common in the Palnis, from the bottom to the top,

the whole of the Travancore ranges up to 4,000 ft., the Nelliampathis, the

Nilgiris up to about 5,000 ft. (and occasionally higher), and in the Wynaad

and Coorg. They are also common, according to Jerdon, through all the

forests of Malabar. This Minivet occurs in Ceylon but the few specimens

available from there suggest that Cinghalese birds are smaller than those from

the main land.

Very little seems to be known about the breeding of this race. In Coorg

the flocks are said not to break up until May or June and this agrees with Miss

Cockburn’s statement that in the Nilgiris the breeding season is in June and

July. Darling, however, found a nest with two eggs as late as September 5

at Neddivattum 6,000 ft. and Betts also remarks that he found a nest in the

Nilgiris in September.

Pericrocotus brevirostris Subsp. ?

Muscipata brevirostris Vigors, P.Z.S., 1830-31 ( April, 1931), ~p-43—Hima-

layas, Simla-Almora area.

pe I

1 This was described by Forster from Governor Loten’s drawings the originals

of which are in the British Museum. On this particular drawing Loten quaintly

remarks ‘Name of the Bird and Plant forgot; if I ever find again my annotations

I may possibly recover it’.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Jerdon clearly tells us (Madr. J. Sci. Lit. vol. x, p. 244 and B. of I. vol. i,

p. 421) that he was fortunate enough to procure this species in Gumsoor. The

specimen no longer apparently exists but there seems no reason to reject the

record, especially as a specimen collected by Beavan in January 1865 in Mann-

bhum is in the British Museum.

Pericrocotus roseus roseus (Vieillot).

Muscicapa rosea Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., xxi, 1818, p. 486—

Bengal.

Specimens collected :—1599 J 24-83-30, 1610 G 27-38-30, 1684 J imm. 31-3-80,

1658-9 § Q 4-4-3830 Sankrametta 3,000-3,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Aine: 16-17 88.5-92.5 91.5-93.5 15-16 mm.

The Rosy Minivet appears to be rather a scarce and local species in the

Presidency. Jerdon states that he procured it at Gumsoor, and Ball was under

the impression (8.F., v, p. 415) that he had seen one at Jaipur (Jeypore).

Lia Personne found them uncommon and restricted to rather thick forest at

Sankrametta and in April the breeding season was commencing, to judge by

the organs of the. above specimens. .

Elsewhere in the Presidency the status of the Rosy Minivet is not very clear.

Jerdon says (B. of India, vol. i, p. 423) ‘I obtained it from various parts of

Malabar. Lord Arthur Hay informed me that he had seen it most abundant on

the hills dividing Tinnevelly from Travancore; and collections from this latter

country always include it.’ Yet in spite of this very clear statement that the

bird 1s common in this area, we can only find confirmation in Ferguson’s pair

shot at 2,500 ft. on Ponmudi, Travancore, in January 1894 (J.B.N.H.S., xii,

p. 202; xv., p. 460). None of the numerous other observers in the west of

the Presidency have apparently met with it.

In spite of the wide and curiously local distribution of this Minivet in

India no subspecies are recognisable within India.

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linn).

12-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.; 552 ¢ 18-7-29, 566 92 20-7-29, 580, 581, 583

36 YF o 22-7-29 Gingee; 678-679 5 g 12-8-29, 717 g 20-8-29 Palkonda Hills

1,000 ft.; 787 92-9-29 Kodur; 849 9 29-9-29, 890, 898, 894 8-10-29 Seschachalam

Hills 2,000 ft.; 1067 ¢ 8-12-29, 1141 9 19-12-29, 1173 | gd | 25-12-29 Cumbum

Valley; 1331, 18385 G ¢ 6-2-30, 1857-1858 9 g 9-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.;

1670 G¢ 6-4-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.; 1788 G 28-4-30.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Gir 12-13.5 63.5-72.5 65-77 14.5-16.5 min.

9 9 12-13.5 : 64.5-69.5 65-78 14.5-16.5 min.

The Little Minivet is evidently common and generally distributed all down

the eastern side of the Presidency alike in the plains and in the hills up to at

least 8,500 ft., and there is therefore no need to enumerate the existing records.

Tt should, however, be remarked that the specimens from the Vizagapatam

Hills are more richly coloured than the rest of the series and show that the

intergrading with P. c. vividus begins in this area.

The breeding season in the Presidency is not very accurately recorded. The

organs of the Vizagapatam series suggested that they would breed about May.

At Madras Bates records a clutch of 3 eggs on 29th July (J.B.N.H.S. xxxi, 284)

and gives some interesting notes on the behaviour of the birds. At Kurumba-

patti La Personne met fledged young on June 10th.

It is not generally realised that the first winter male of this species at the

postjuvenal moult assumes a plumage similar to that of the adult female.

Almost immediately after the moult, however, odd feathers of the chin, throat

THH VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 343

and upper breast are accidentally lost and replaced by the corresponding adult

feathers, the process being accelerated by a partial spring moult of those parts.

First summer males are therefore distinguishable by a piebald black and

grey throat with a slight nimbus of flame colour and they breed in this state,

moulting to adult plumage in the postnuptial moult.

Any study of the races of the Little Minivet must be prefaced by the con-

sideration of its correct specific name. For this there are only two possib!e

candidates Motacilla cinnamomea (p. 335) and Parus peregrinus (p. 842) both

Linnean names of the xii edition, with merely page priority between them.

If the former name really applies to this species it should take precedence but

the diagnosis is absolutely wrong and the description so bad that it has usually

been set aside. The whole question has been considered at full length by

Hume (S.F. vy, pp. 179-182) who decided that the name and description should

be set aside. Hume was prepared to accept, with some reservation, Ceylon

as the correct type locality for this name, but if Chasen and Kloss (J.B.N.H.S.

Siam, vol. v, pt. 3 (1924), p. 251) are right in their suggestion that’ Governor

Loten’s specimen, whatever it was, came more probably from Java, the identifi-

cation of this name becomes still more doubtful. Recently Streseman (Ornith.

Monatsb. 1923, pp. 40-41) has attempted to revive the name cinnamomea for this

species, but in the absence of new or decisive evidence we are of opinion that

the practice of half a century, and the determination by one of the most

competent authorities possible should not be upset. At any rate we propose

ourselves to reject cinmnamomea as indeterminable and accept peregrinus as

the correct name for this species, as heretofore.

We are afraid that the student in India will be somewhat puzzled by

Mr. Stuart Baker’s treatment of this species. In the Bull. B.O.C., xl, (1920)

p. 115, he fixed the type locality of peregrinus as Ambala, an unfortunate

locality as the birds there are intermediate and in Jinne’s day specimens

could hardly have come from anywhere nearer than Bengal (see Ticehurst, Ibis,

1922, p. 613). In vol. u, p. 829 of the New Fauna (May 1924) he kept to his

original treatment in spite of what Dr. Streseman had written in 1923 but

later accepted the latter’s opinion and revised his own in Bull. B.O.C., xlix,

pp. 63-64 (1929). Here for no reason at all (and forgetting that the descrip-

tion obviously applies to a northern bird) he assumes that the correct type

locality for peregrinus must be Ceylon, gives the wrong reference for his

previous restriction of the type locality to Ambala, and proposes a new name

wredalei for the continental race, still with the type locality of Ambala.

Finally in vol. vu, p. 156 he gives malabaricus as a synonym of the Ceylon

race and in vill, p. 637 says that the differences between the Malabar and

Ceylon races are quite easily determined and the subspecies must be main-

tained, though in the main text, he has not accepted the difference. It is all

very confusing.

Forgetting all this we may go back to the type locality for peregrinus.

Here Mr. Stuart Baker’s restriction to Ambala must undoubtedly stand, follow-

ing as it does on Hume’s original and correct decision that the name clearly

refers to northern birds as opposed to the richly coloured birds of the south.

This species is unusually susceptible to climatic and geographical influences.

In Sindh it is a pale desert bird. In the Malabar rain area it is as richly

coloured as any tropical species. In Ceylon an island race approximates to

another richly coloured bird of Burma and the Andamans. Whilst in the greater

part of India an intermediate connects these variant forms, remaining unchang-

ed through the immense area of the Peninsula from the Cauvery to the Sutlej

and on its edges grading into the other races. To this intermediate the name

of peregrinus must apply. But it must be appreciated that as three of the races

into which it grades share a common character of richness of colouration the

birds of those intergrading edges will be found to approximate somewhat closely

amongst themselves. The student may be reminded that this is one of those

species of which the racial characteristics are only recognizable in series.

In describing these races it will be found convenient to start with the most

richly coloured form.

Pericrocotus peregrinus malabaricus (Gmelin).

Parus malabaricus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. mu (789), p. 1012—

Malabar.

b44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Gd Upper plumage slate grey and rich flame colour, throat black. Red on

the lower plumage very rich and extensive, reaching to the lower flanks and

abdomen. Remainder of the lower plumage, including under wing and under

tail coverts deep yellow, sometimes almost orange, without any trace of white.

Tail tips and wing spot reddish orange.

2 Whole underparts yellow, deeper on abdomen.

West coast of India from N. Kanara to Travancore.

{

——}

Pericrocotus peregrinus ceylonensis Subsp. nov.

Type. 3 7th. Nov. 1895 Cocawatte, Ceylon. Collected by A. 1. Butler:

Teyenns Weuis. Ie.) IN@, INGE S). = AO, valle

S$ Throat black. Differs from the last as follows:—The grey of the upper

parts is not so dark, nor the flame colour so rich. The red on the lower

plumage is not so extensive, covering the flanks but not the upper abdomen;

remainder of lower plumage pale yellow, albescent in the centre.

_ Q Lower parts greyish white, washed with yellow on flanks, under wing

coverts and under tail coverts.

Ceylon.

Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus Stuart Baker.

Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., vol. xl (80th.

April 1920), p. 114—Nedong Attaran River, Burma (Type in British Museum).

Differs from the last merely in the ¢ having a grey throat. The Duars, Assam,

Burma and probably eastwards. A series from the Andamans evidently belong

to this form (in spite of Van Schauburg, Treubia, vol. xi, pt. 3 (Feb. 1930),

Peolel):

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linn).

Parus peregrinus Linn. Syst. Nat., ed. xii, vol. i (1766), p. 342—No locality.

restricted to Ambala (Bull. B.O.C. xl (1920) p.115).

S$ Throat black or sooty grey. Compared with Ceylonensis the grey of

upper parts is paler and fire colour of rump less intense; the red on lower

plumage is less extensive, being largely confined to the upper breast and upper

flanks and even these not so solid and unbroken. Remainder of lower plumage

white, merely washed in places with yellow. ‘Tail tips paler.

Q as in Ceylonensis.

India south of the Himalayas, exclusive of the range of malabaricus, vividus

and pailidus.

Pericrocotus peregrinus pallidus (Stuart Baker).

Pericrocotus peregrinus pallidus Stuart Baker. Bull. B.O.C. vol. xl (80th

April 1920) p. 115—lLarkana, Sindh.

3 Throat grey. Compared with the typical race the grey of the upper

parts averages still paler; the flame colour of rump and upper tail coverts

less intense and yellower. The lower plumage white, the yellow and red

confined to a narrow band below the throat and a wash on the upper flanks.

Wing spot largely white and tail tips very pale.

Q The upper parts, wing spot and tail tips are paler even than in peregrinus.

S.W. Punjab and Sind.

Pericrocotus peregrinus malabaricus (Gmelin).

This very richiy coloured race of the Little Minivet occurs down the

western side of the Presidency in the heavy rain area. Its distribution is not

very accurately known but we have examined specimens from Malabar and

Travancore and presumably the records from the Wynaad (W. Davison), the

Nelhiampathis (Kinloch) and the Palnis (Fairbank and Terry) refer to the

same form. Betts’ record (J.B.N.H.8., xxxui, 545) of P..erythropygius as

common in Coorg must surely also refer to this species. It does not seem

to be very common anywhere but more information about it is required.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 345

Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon).

Muscicapa crythropygia Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xi (January

1840; after May 1840) p. 17—Jungle on the top of the Ghats, near Ajunteh.

As noted above Betts’ record that this species 1s common in Coorg must

surely be a mistake. In the New Fauna vol. 1., p. 3383 Mr. Stewart is recorded

as having taken eggs in Travancore. There is no other record for our area,

and this extension of range seems to require further confirmation.

Lalage melaschista (Hodgson).

Volvocivora melaschistos Hodgson., Ind. Review, vol. i (Nov. 1886) p. 328—

Nepal.

Jerdon informs us (B. of I. vol. i, p. 416) that the Dark-grey Cuckoo-shrike

‘has been procured in Goomsoor’ and this is the only record for the Presidency.

There is nothing improbable about this record as the bird is fairly well-known

as a winter visitor to the area. known as Chota Nagpur, but Jerdon carefully

draws a distinction between this and his own experience and I have failed to

trace the original record on which the statement is based. |

Lalage sykesi Strickland.

Lalage Sykesi Strickland, Annals Mag. Nat. Hist., (1) xii (1844), p. 36.—

Calcutta. |

Specimens collected: —196 92 6-5-29 Kurumbapatti; 574 < 21-7-29 Gingee;

Measurements :—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3) 17.5-18 100-160.5 75-80 20.5-22.5 mm.

The Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike seems to be fairly generally distributed

in small numbers throughout the Presidency. Ball records it from Gumsoor

probably on Jerdon’s authority. a Personne says that it was general and

common in January in the Godaveri delta though no specimen was actually

procured. In addition to the specimens enumerated above, from further

South we have Mr. W. A. Hasted’s statement that it occurs at Chittoor,

Mr. Dewar’s record that it is common at Madras and Jerdon’s statement that

it is a fairly common visitor about October-November to the Carnatic, meaning

more particularly the neighbourhood of Trichinopoly.

As authority for the west we have one of Wardlaw-Ramsay’s specimens

in the British Museum from Cannanore (7 Sept.). In Coorg Betts states that

it is common in winter, disappearing about “the end of March. In the

Wynaad and the Nilgiris William Davison states that it is not abundant.

He procured it as high as Ootacamund.

For the Palnis we find only a single record. Fairbank procured a male

at Periur. In Travancore Ferguson says that he has found it most commonly

in the low country—a male collected by him at Quilon on 25-2-80 is in the

British Museum,—but that he had taken it in the hills at about 2,500 ft. Col.

Sparrow met it in the Cardamum Hills in March.

The distribution of this Cuckoo-shrike is not complete as given in the

New Fauna (vol. i1, p. 840). In the north-west it certainly occurs up to a line

through Mt. Abu, Sambhur and Bareilly from all of which localities there are

specimens in the British Museum. We, cannot find any racial variation in its

Wide range, which is due no doubt to the fact that it is much more of a

migrant than is generally realized.

Unfortunately the records do not allow of our working out the migrations

in detail, but in the United Provinces (Gill, J.B.N.H.S., xxix, p. 338), Baroda

(Littledale, J.B.N.H.5., 1, p. 32), Sehore (Whitehead J.B.N.H.S., xxi, 161) and

Caleutta (Munn, Ibis 1894, p. 46) the bird is clearly a rains visitor from about

June to September, and a marked passage, in June and again in September-

October, to those breeding grounds has been independently recorded at Dhulia

(James Dayison, $,F., x, 301) and Belgaum (Butler, S.F., ix, 393). In North

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Kanara (James Davison, J.B.N.H.S., xi, 665) and Coorg (Betts) it is only

known to winter. La Personne noticed an increase in their numbers in the

first week of May at Kurumbapatti but much more information is needed before

we can understand the local movements, as the bird evidently breeds both in

Mysore and Ceylon. In Ceylon it is said to breed in March and April.

Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson).

Graucaius macei Lesson, Traite (end of 1830 or beginning of 1831), p. 349—

Bengal, now restricted to Calcutta.

Specimens collected :—249 ¢ 19-5-29 Shevaroy Hills 4,500 ft.; 337 9 5-6-29

Chitter1 range 2,000 ft.; 976 4G 6-11-29, 1015 @ 19-11-29, 1112 9 14-12-29

Nallamallai range 2,000 ft.; 1203 9 8-1-80 Godaveri Delta.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Zia 27-29 158-167 122-124.5 24.5-25 mm.

ne) 26-28.5 158.5-165 117.5-129 23.5-26 mm.

Very little is really known about the Large Cuckoo-shrike in the Hastern side

of the Presidency. Ball records it from Jeypore (8.I’., vu, p. 210). a Personne

met with it in the Godavery Delta and also in the Cumbum Valley and the

Nallamallai range. Roscoe Allen says that it was breeding at Horsleykonda in

May (WJ.B.N.H.S., xviii., 907).

About Madras itself Dewar remarks that it can scarcely be said to be com-

mon though Capt. Bates informs me that he saw it not infrequently in the cold

season at St. Thomas’ Mount but not after February. Further South La Per-

sonne procured it in the Chitterl1 range, and the Shevaroys and reported it to be

common in both ranges as well as about Kurumbapatti in the plains of Salem

district.

In Travancore it is not uncommon in the low country in thin jungle, ascend-

ing the hills up to about 1,500 ft. (Ferguson). Hume (8.F. vu, 35) considered

that Travancore birds should be attributed to the small Ceylon race layardi, but

we agree with the New Fauna that they are better kept with the typical race.

In the Palnis it appears to be a rare bird. Fairbank met one at Periur

and Terry met it in the Pittur valley. A specimen procured in July at

Malappuram is in Colonel Sparrow’s collection. William Davison considered

it rarer than Lalage sykesi on the slopes of the Niligris and in the Wynaad,

but Betts records if as a common resident in Coorg. A specimen from Calicut

is in the Hume collection and Jerdon mentions a nest at Tellicherry (B. of I., 1,

p. 417).

The plumages of the Cuckoo-shrikes are not very generally understood.

They are important, as in this species the sequence of plumages is reflected

in the racial characteristics and therefore instructive to the student of evolu-

tion.

In this the typical race the adult male has dark ear-coverts and black lores;

the throat and breast are uniform grey while the abdomen and flanks are

barred; the centre of the abdomen, the vent and under tail coverts are white.

In the adult female the lores are the same dark colour as the ear-coverts; the

throat, breast, abdomen and flanks are barred, the barring extending usually

further down than in the male and sometimes almost absorbing the white area.

The first year male and female after the postjuvenal moult are alike and

similar to the adult female. They may however be distinguished from her by

two points:—(1) the primary coverts are more or less uniform in colour with

a white edge running round the whole of the tip. In the adults of both sexes

these coverts are blackish with marked grey edges and a white edge only on

the outer side of the tip: (2) the outer tail feather on each side is narrow and

pointed, being of course retained from the juvenile plumage.

In the large Himalayan race G. 7. nipalensis the evolution from the barred

to the uniform plumage has advanced a stage further. Here the adult female

and the first year male and female (which may be distinguished from her by

the same two points as in the typical form) have the throat and breast grey,

followed by a certain amount of barring. In other words they practically

correspond with the adult male of the typical form, though the amount of

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 347

barring is somewhat less. The adult male has eliminated all barring and is

uniform grey from the throat to the white ventral patch.

There is a gradual increase in size from G. 7. layardi of Ceylon (3 wing

145.5-151 mm.) through the typical race to G. 7. nipalensis (3 wing 174.5-186

mm.). We find no authority for the statements in the New Fauna that in

G. j. nipalensis the adult female has the throat and foreneck barred or that

G. |. macei wanders into the N.-W. Himalayas up to 4,000 ft. We are not clear

as to what the author understands by Hastern Bengal where he states G. 7.

nipalensis occurs. If this expression refers to the Darjeeling area we agree.

About Calcutta however the form is G. 7. maceit. From between those two

areas there appear to be no skins in England.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hst. Nat., nouv. ed., vol. xvii (1817),

p. 297—Bengal.

Specimens collected: —174 Q 2-5-29 Kurumbapatti; 272 ¢ 23-5-29 Shevaroy

Hills 4,000 ft.; 587 @ 23-7-29 Gingee.

Measurements :-—

Bill. Wine. Mail. Tarsus.

IL 21 129 ie 17 mm,

2 21.5-22 130-132 50-53.5 17 mm.

The Ashy Swallow-shrike is well distributed and locally common in the

Presidency as is evident from the following records.

Jerdon includes the Northern Circars in the list of areas where he found

this species most abundant. It was not reported by the Survey in this area

but possibly the bird is here a migrant as in Sikkim it is a summer visitor

only (see Gammic apud N. & H., 2nd. ed., i, p. 851 and Stevens, J.B.N.H.S.,

SOOKE OO) uuineneh ais; non further record until Madras 1s sreached: )idiere

according to Dewar and Bates the bird is common, the Buckingham Canal being

cited by the former as a particularly favourite locality. La Personne pro-

cured it at Gingee and says that it was very common in May at 3,000 ft.

on the Shevaroys, frequenting open country. He also saw it on the Chitteri

range. ‘The specimen procured at Kurumbapatti was the only one seen, though

it was apparently feeding a fledged chick. As Jerdon records it at Palamcottah

and the Wullar jungle and Hume obtained a male (now in the British

Museum) on 17-3-75 on Rameswaram Island and Ferguson says that it is

common throughout the low country of Travancore, especially in the palmyra

palm country of the extreme south, it is evidently general in the south of

the Presidency.

Ferguson says also that in the hill country of Travancore it is only found

in the dry weather. In the Palnis Fairbank obtained it in thin jungle at

4,500 ft. and Captain Bates informs me that he saw a pair at Kodaikanal

7,000 ft. on 5 May 1929.

A male obtained in the Palghat District on 29-10-68 (Theobald) is in the

British Museum. In the Nilgiris William Davison says that it is not un-

common at 5,500 ft. but does not ascend higher. He also met it in many

places in the Wynaad and Betts records that it is locally common in Coorg.

Finally a male collected by Wardlaw-Ramsay at Cannanore on 9-10-82 is in

the British Museum.

There appears to be little information about the breeding season in the

Presidency. Miss Cockburn took c/3 eggs on 17 May in the Nilgiris and La

Personne saw the fledged chick at Kurumbapatti on 2 May.

This is an interesting species of which we require a good deal more informa-

tion. The chick in spirit is badly required for examination and we require

to know more about the powder-down tracts which are said to exist in the adult.

The ecological connection with the palmyra palm and the extent to which

this bird feeds on butterflies—especially the so-called nauseous genera Danais

and Huplea (vide Fryer, P.Z.8., September 1913, pp. 613-619)—may be

commended to observers in the field.

In spite of the wide range of distribution I am unable to distinguish any

geographical races.

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUR AIL EST S OCT ives Ole XXXVI

Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst.

Dicrurus. macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., vol. liu, No.

ecelxii (November 1932), p. 20-—Madras City.

Specimens collected: 94 Q 20-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 808 g juv. 312 O ? juv

2-6-29, 415 G 15-6-29, 426 g juv Chitteri range 3,000 ft.; 480 § 24-6-29 Tirtha-

malai 1,000 ft.; 498 Q 38-7-29, 505 J 4-7-29 Kalai, Trichinopoly; 726 3 21-8-29,

1165 3 28-12-29 Cumbum valley; 1204 ¢ &-1-30, 1221 ¢ 10-1-30 Godaveri Delta.

Measurements! : —

Bull. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail. Tarsus.

NOS 225-25 128.5-145 97-102 150-156.5 19-22 mm.

4 23-25 131.5-188 93-96.5 143.5-144 20-21 mm.

In addition to the above specimens Dr. Gravely of the Madras Museum

kindly collected a series of King Crows at Madras for the Survey.

The Survey did not procure specimens of the Black Drongo or Common

King Crow in the Vizagapatam area but Ball (5.F., vu, 211) cites Jeypore in

his list of localities for it. It is probably generally distributed and resident

down the whole of the Hastern side of the Presidency though the only published

records refer to Madras itself where Dewar has recorded some interesting

notes on its habits (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, pp. 364-366 and 486). Hume obtained

it on Rameswaram Island (S.F., iv, p. 458). In Travancore it is common

both in the plains and at low elevations in the hills.

In the rest of the Presidency we certainly require more information about

the King Crow and it is not improbable that there some of the birds belong

to a different race and are seasonal visitors only. In Coorg, according to Betts,

it is exceedingly common in the cold weather, but disappears almost entirely

in the hot weather and does not become numerous again until September.

He is doubtful whether any breed in Coorg. William Davison says that it

occurs sparingly in the Wynaad and says the same of the Nilgiris (as also

Bulger, P.Z.S. 1866, p. 569). This may be one of the species which has

spread with the opening up of the hills, for Mr. Betts informs me that it is

now ‘a dry weather visitor to the Nilgiris where it is fairly common on the

plateau (where Davison says it does not occur) from October to March and

very common on the slopes. It does not seem to breed anywhere in the

district and, at any rate in the west, is absent during the S.-W. Monsoon’.

Morgan (Ibis, 1875, p. 317) says that in the Nilgiris and South India the

King Crow breeds from March to the end of May but there may be some error

so far as the Nilgiris are concerned.

In Travancore the breeding season is said to be June to July. Aitken men-

tions a nest at Madras in June and Dewar one in August. Jia Personne saw

a nest with eggs at Kurumbapatti on April 9th., and he procured nestlings

in June in the Chitteri range.

The identification of the specimens of Dicrurus and Chaptia collected by

the Survey has been made for us by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst who is working on

this group. As he is publishing his conclusions in full elsewhere it is unneces-

sary to include or make critical notes here.

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus Jerdon.

Dicrurus longicaudatus Jerdon, Madras Jour. Tit. Sci., xin, pt. i (1845),

p. 121—Segour Pass, Nilgiris.

* In my experience in birds with forked tails the depth of the fork is often

a racial character. In such species therefore I propose to give separately the

measurements of the central and outer tail feathers. Unfortunately when

originally measuring up the King Crows I did not realise the importance of

keeping adult and Ist year birds separate. The series is now dispersed and

I am unable to make good a deficiency which robs the measurements of these

genera of much of their yalue,

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 349

Specimens collected: —74 Q 17-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 1014 9 16-11-29 Nalla-

mallai range 2,000 ft.; 1402 4 17-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1457 Q 2-3-30,

1604 ¢ 26-3-30, 1644-1645 g S 2-4-80 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.; 1695 @Q 17-4-80,

1699 2 18-4-30, Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.

’ Measurements :—

Bill. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail. Tarsus.

46 26.5-28 134-146 86-99.5 145-159.5 17-18.5 mm,

5 9 25.5-2e 123.5-146 88.5-98 124.5-157 17-18.5 mm.

The Ashy-grey Drongo does not appear to have been recorded previously

from the eastern side of the Presidency and the above specimens provide our

only records. Mr. La Personne remarks of the Vizagapatam Hills that the

birds were in pairs by the 17th. March though the organs were then not

enlarged. By the latter end of April organs were developed. He ascertained

from local enquiries (though one must remember that the various species of

King Crows are often confused) that the birds were resident in this tract,

moving only down to the foothills and adjacent plains in winter.

On the western side the bird is better known though we are as yet in

ignorance of its real status. In Coorg according to Betts, who probably refers

to this form, an Ashy Drongo is moderately common though it disappears

almost entirely in the breeding season. In the Wynaad it is also said to be

uncommon but in the Nilgiris it is fairly generally distributed at all heights

also apparently as a winter visitor. Kinloch says that it is extremely common

in the Nelliampathis. In Travancore it is said to be common both inthe

low country and at all elevations in the hills.

Jerdon’s statement that he found eggs in April in Lower Malabar provides

the only suggestion that the bird breeds in this area and I feel personally

very doubtful of the various records that state it breeds on the Western Ghats

north of the Presidency. I have had personal experience of the difficulty of

separating some of the Drongos in the field and Hume showed how several

good observers had failed to separate nests of Drongos and Black Bulbuls.

Further careful notes on the distribution and status of the Drongos in the

Presidency are badly required.

Dicrurus caerulescens caerulescens (Linn.).

Lanius caerulescens Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. xi (1766), p. 184—Bengal.

Specimens collected:—2 9 9-4-29, 57 ¢G 15-4-29, 175 ¢ 3-5-29 Kurumba-

patti; 748 9 imm. 25-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 790 SG imm. 3-9-29,

alc 20008 tte: 992 =o) 9-129 1022). 1024 22-11-9298 1006) O31 1-29,

1028 g 24-11-29 Nallamalai Hills 2,000 ft.; 1110 9 14-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measureinents :—

Bill, Wing. Central tail. Outer tail. Tarsus.

CG 22.5-24.5 122-129 ae 113.5-125 18-19.5 mm.

12 21.5-24 118-124 aa 112.5-125.5 18-20 mm.

There is no record of the White-bellied Drongo in the Presidency north

of the Cumbum Valley and the Nallamalai Hills where it was procured by the

Survey. Howard Campbell records it from Ramondrug in Bellary district

(J.B.N.H.S., xvii, p. 248). South of these localities it seems very generally

distributed and common as far south as Kurumbapatti and specific records

need not be cited. Below that we have no information. In the whole of

this area it is probably resident.

On the western side of the Presidency William Davison says that it

occurs in the Wynaad; at the foot of the Nilgiris and on their lower slopes.

Jerdon says he met it at the Segour Pass and also at a high elevation in the

Nilgiris. He met with it most numerously in the Wulliar jungles. In the

Lower Palnis and the Pittur valley it is also common. A juvenile bird dated

27 Anegust 1893 from Kuranmulti, Travancore (J. P. Cook) is in the collection

of the Bombay Natural History Society.

At Kurumbapatti La Personne found a nest with two young in May.

There is no other record of breeding dates in the Presidency as Howard

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Campbell unfortunately omitted this detail in his account of breeding at

Ramondrug and Horsleykonda.

The available series from Bengal is very small and defective but so far

as it goes our birds agree with it.

Chaptia aenea malayensis Blyth.

Chapltia malayensis Blyth J.A.S.B., vol. xv. (1846) p. 294—Malacca.

Specimens collected: —203 ¢ juv. 11-5-29, 251 9 19-5-29 Shevaroy Hills

3,500-4,500 ft.; 295 2 30-5-29, 323 9 3-6-29, 344 9 juv. 6-6-29 Chitterl range

1522 ¢ 17-38-30, 1563 9 17-38-30, 1689 ¢ 1-4-80, 1665 J 5-4-3830, 1681 ¢ 13-4-30

Sankrametta 3,000-3,500 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

JS 20.5-22.5 eae So 2330 106.5-115 13:5-15 mm.

iP 21-22.5 115-117.5 104-111 14-15.5 mm.

The Bronzed Drongo is well known as a common resident species in the

western side of the Presidency. Jerdon records it from the Malabar Coast and

there are 2 specimens from Calicut (16-2-26 R. Foulkes) in the collection of the

Bombay N. H. Society. William Davison informs us that he frequently saw

and shot it near Ootacamund and also in the Brahmagherries of Coorg, but

that in this area it is much more numerous in the lower ranges. It is not un-

common in the Nelliampathis and in the Palnis. Fairbank considered it one of

the most common species at the base of the hills and up to 5,000 ft. In

Travancore it is said to be common both in the low country and in the hills at

all elevations.

On the eastern side it does not seem to have been recorded and Mr. La

Personne’s specimens from the Shevaroys, Chitteri hills and Vizagapatam hills

are an extension of range. In the latter, however, it was to be expected as

Jerdon met with it in the neighbouring Bustar State. Nothing has been

recorded about the breeding season in the Presidency but in the Shimoga dis-

trict of Mysore eggs were taken on 5 April (N. & E., i, 211). Dr. Ticehurst

informs me that he cannot separate the Survey series from C. @. malayensis

(Malacca) and this bird, therefore, affords another example of the well-known

fact that birds from the extremities of the horseshoe of countries round the Bay

of Bengal are often alike.

Dissemurus lophorhinus (Vieillot).

Dicrurus lophorhinus Vieill., Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. nouv., ed., vol. ix

(1817), p. 587—Africa errore, restricted to Ceylon.

This species, the type and sole member of its genus, has hitherto been

considered pecuhar to Ceylon, but in the New Fauna (vol. 1, p. 378) it is stated

to occur also in South Travancore, apparently on the authority of Mr. Stewart.

There is a point in connection with it which may be commended to workers in

the field. :

Readers of Legge’s Bird of Ceylon will recall his observations, illustrated

with woodcuts, on what he calls an abnormal adult variety of Dissemurus

paradiseus found in the north of the island and which he suggests may possibly

be a new species. His collection is in the British Museum and there is no

difficulty in identifying the specimens to which he refers as they are marked

on the labels as belonging to his abnormal variety. I have examined these

specimens very carefully and find that they differ from specimens of Dissemurulus

only in one detail, that the former possess and the latter lack a conspicuous gap

or emargination on the inner web of the outer tail feather. This emargination is

variable in extent and often irregular as between the two feathers, and after a

prolonged examination I am satisfied that all the specimens belong to one form

in which the presence or absence of the emargination is purely a matter of

individual variation. The point then remains: are all these birds specimens of

# monotypic genus or are they merely immature specimens of Dissemurus para-

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTEIN GHATS 351

diseus. Legge held that Dissemurus took 2 or 3 years to become adult. I can

find no evidence of this. The first year bird after the postjuvenal moult does

not have the well-developed crest and bare rachis and racket of the adult. Instead

it has a moderate crest and an elongated outer tail feather with an emargina-

tion on the inner web, in other words it differs merely from the specimens we

have been considering in an exaggeration of the feature already discussed and

shown to be variable. After the next complete moult there is nothing to dis-

tinguish it from the adult and to suggest that birds with shorter racket feathers

are younger than those with longer racket feathers is pure guess work. It is

just as possible that the high specialisation of one feature in a family which

is prone to other high specialisations of feather structure is marked by the

tendency towards variation which presumably existed as the forerunner of that

specialisation. In this case, therefore, I see no difficulty in believing that the

birds with the plain outer tail feather, the birds with the emarginated outer

tail feathers and the birds with the somewhat elongated emarginated tail

feather represent one variable stage of one species namely Dissemurus paradiseus

and that Dissemurus lophorinus is merely a synonym of D. p. ceylonensis. Care-

ful field work will soon settle the point. |

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham).

Lanius malabaricus, Latham, Index. Ornith., vol. 1 (1790), p. 66—Malabar.

Specimen collected :—229 O ? 16-5-29 Shevaroy Hills.

Measurements :—Bill 87; wing 154; central tail feather 137; penultimate

tail feather 159; racket feather 317; racket 75; tarsus 26 mm.

The Malabar Large Racket-tailed Drongo appears to be rather generally dis-

tributed and fairly common along the western side of the Presidency. Jerdon

records it at Cannanore. In Coorg and the Wynaad it is common. William

Davison says that it is sparingly distributed on the slopes of the Nilgiris and

there it occurs normally up to about 4,000 ft. and seldom over 6,000 ft. though

Davison once shot one near Ootacamund itself.

In the Nelliampathis, Palnis and the Travancore hills up to about 3,000 ft.

it is also common, and in the first named Kinloch remarks (J.B.N.H.S., xxxix,

p- 294) on its habitual association with Dendrocitta leucogaster.

On the eastern side it is only recorded by the Survey, La Personne reporting

it as more or less common in the hills and plains of the Salem district, a nest

being seen high in a tree. The single specimen collected does not differ in any

way from birds of the western side.

There is no doubt that there are two well-marked races of this Racket-tailed

Drongo in India, a large bird with a very long crest in the north known as

D. p. grandis and a smaller bird with a smaller crest in the south known as

D. p. malabaricus. In Ceylon a still smaller bird with a rudimentary crest is

known as D. p. ceylonensis. Outside our area further races have been recognised

on details of crest and size, the typical form from Siam being a small bird

with a small crest. On comparison I have failed to find any point of difference

between our South Indian bird D. p. malabaricus and the Siamese D. p. paradis-

eus and my only reason for not at once including it in the typical form is that

I think any revision of a highly specialised form such as this should not be

piecemeal. ‘There seems to be little doubt that the number of races recognized

is too large and that this species will be found to agree with other members of

the family in evolving on parallel lines in different areas from a common

centre. In a highly specialised feature such as the racket tail-feather there is

room for a good deal of individual variation and care must be taken to allow

for this range of variation in assessing the races.

Dissemurus paradiseus grandis (Gould).

Edolius grandis Gould, P.Z.S., 1886 (9 April 1836), p. 5—Nepal.

I have seen no specimens from the Presidency of this form but Jerdon states

that he has seen them from the Nellore ghats and Gumsoor. This form certainly

occurs as far south as the Godavery valley so the statement as regards Gumsoor

may be accepted. Birds from the Nellore ghats, on the other hand, T should have

expected to belong to the southern bird.

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Chibia hottentotta (L.).

Corvus hottentottus Linn., Syst. Nat., 12th. ed., vol. 1 (1766), p. 155—Cap

b. spei errore: restricted to Sikkim.

The Hair-crested Drongo was not met by the Survey and it is only known

to occur in a small area of the western side of the Presidency. ‘T'wo specimens

are recorded as having been shot at Cannanore in March 1871 and 22 October

1872 (Vipan S.F., 1. 495). William Davison unfortunately gives us no detailed

information, only saying that it is very rare in 8. India and that he only met

with it 2 or 38 times and always at the flowers of Bombax (S.F., x, 367) and

there are no specimens of his in the British Museum to supplement this infor-

mation.

Jerdon, however, says that ‘Captain Roberts of the 36 M.N.I., first made

known the existence of this bird in Southern India, he having found it in Coorg;

and Lieut. (now Lieut.-Col.) Blake also shot it in the. same locality. I procured

it afterwards from the Eastern ghats as mentioned (Madr. Jour., xili) and since

that have procured it in Malabar.’ (B. of I., 1, 489). He goes on to say that

he saw it in the Wynaad. The occurrence in Coorg has since been confirmed by

Mr. Betts (J.B.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 546) though he calls it rare, only two or

three pairs being seen.

There has been a good deal of trouble over the type locality of this form.

In the Novitiates xxvi, (1919) p. 44 the type locality is restricted to Sikkim by

Mr. Stuart Baker but as Kloss says (Jour. F.M.S. Mus. vol. x, (1921) p: 222). the

selection of a type locality should have at least the appearance of probability ;

and on that ground Kloss disregarded the selection of Sikkim and chose Siam—

this for the reason that Cuculus (Dissemurus) paradiseus, also used by Linne

and Brisson, was definitely stated to have come from Siam. In the New Fauna

vol. ii, (1924) p. 370 Sikkim was still maintained as type locality, in spite of

Kloss’ correction, but although arguments might be adduced for maintaining

the original restriction to Sikkim, however inappropriate, Mr. Stuart Baker

apparently did not desire to avail himself of them. At any rate in vol. vii (1980),

p. 164 he gives a new type locality as 'Travancore with no word of explanation

why Siam can be disregarded if Sikkim is not maintained. ‘Travancore is if

possible more unfortunate still. The distribution of the Hair-crested Drongo

in Western India was given in the Old Fauna as ‘The Western Coast of India

from the Wynaad to Mahableshwar’. This distribution agrees with my own

researches into the records. In the New Fauna it is given as ‘Travancore,

Malabar and Bombay Presidency’. If there is any evidence that the bird occurs

in Travancore it does not appear to have been published. In any case it must

be as a straggler only as neither Bourdillon nor Ferguson met with it.

As Kloss is of opinion that Himalayan birds differ from S.. Indian and

Siamese birds the correct name of those found in the Presidency depends on the’

solution of the above tangle. As I have no fresh specimens for examination I

leave the problem to others, though in my opinion the restricted type locality of

Sikkim must stand, however unfortunate it may be.

(To be continued).

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. | Piate 19.

‘

John Bale, Sons & Damelsson, Ltd London

THE ASOKA TREE.

Saraca indica, Linn.

(% nat. size)

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.

By H. BUATTER, s.J., Php., F.L.s., and W..S. MILLARD, ¥.Z:s.

Parr XI.

(With one coloured and, one black and white plate and 2 diagrams.)

(Continued from page 140 of this volume.)

THE AsoxaA TREE.

Popular Names.—Asok (Hind.); Asok, Asoka (Beng.); Aseka,

Ati (Cuttack); Asok (Uriya); Asoka (Manipur); Asok (N.-W. P.

and Pb.); Asok, Ashok, Asoka, Jassundi, Jasundi (Bomb.); Ashoka

(Mar.); Ashopalava (Guz.); Asek, Kankeli (Tel.); Ahsunkar, Asoka,

Asoge, Ashoka (Kan.); Thawgabo (Burm.); Diye ratembela, Diya-

ratmal (Sing.); Asoka, Kankel, Vanjula (Sans.).

Saraca indica Linn. Mantiss. (1767) 98.—Jonesia Asoka Roxb.

in As. Res. iv (1795) 855. (The origin of Saraca is somewhat

doubtful. Bailey de-

rives it from Sarac, the

name of the genus in

India; Chibber says it

comes from an Ameri-

can name. (Minis shis

most unlikely, as all the

species of Saraca are

natives of tropical Asia.

There is, besides,’ the

fact that Linnaeus

coined the name Savraca

asi early, ace l795n):

Description.—A small

evergreen tree with an

erect trunk covered with

smooth dark brown or

ereyish brown bark. Its

branches, spreading in

every direction, form an

elegant close-leafed

crown. The leaves grow

wlternately on the bran-

ches. They are sessile,

being without a pedicel

or foot-stalk. The leaf

length. The midrib is

smooth and round and

carries 4 to 6 pairs of leaflets without a terminal leaflet at the

apex. The leaflets are smooth and glossy, firm in texture with

B04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

slightly waved margins. The tree, is interesting as furnishing an

example of drooping young leaves without chlorophyll, like those

of certain other evergreen trees, for example, Amherstia nobilis,

Mesua ferrea, Mangifera indica, Polyarthia fragrans and others.

The young leaves are red

in colour, thin and flac-

cid, and hang vertically

downwards for some

time after attaining full

size. ‘The flowers appear

in large compact clus-

ters which spring direct

from the heavy branch-

es or from the slender

terminal twigs. On

opening, the flowers are

a bright orange and later

turn red giving each

cluster a richly varie-

gated tone. In _ full

bloom; the Asok is

beautiful; its orange and scarlet clusters of flowers contrasting

richly with the dark branches and deep green foliage. The flower

has a small red leafy bract: at the base of the stalk; its calyx is

formed of two small heartshaped bract-like leaves which mark the

termination of the flower-stalk. The corolla is long and tubular,

tapering at its base, funnel-shaped at the apex where it divides

to form 4 oval petals. A fleshy annular ring on the summit of

the corolla-tube bears 4-7 spreading thread-like stamens, crowned

with small kidney-shaped anthers. The style is nearly as long as

the stamens. The pod is from 6 to 10 inches long—fleshy red

when unripe. It is scimitar-shaped and contains 4 to 8 smooth

vrey seeds the size of a chestnut.

Flowers.—January to April or May.

Distribution.—Found wild along streams or in the shade of the

evergreen forests in the Khasia Hills, Chittagong, Arakan, Tenas-

serim, Upper Burma, the Northern Cirears, and the W. Coast

of Bombay, Ceylon, Malaya.

Uses.—In Medicine: The bark is much used by native physi-

cians in uterine affections, and especially in menorrhagia. A decoc-

tion of the bark in milk is generally prescribed. A ghrita called

asoka ghrita is also prepared with a decoction of the bark and

clarified butter together with a number of aromatic herbs in the

form of a paste. In Orissa the bark is said to be used as an astrin-

gent in cases of internal haemorrhoids.

In Religious Practices: The Asoka is one of the sacred trees

of the Hindus which they are ordered in the Urapaj to worship

on the 18th day of the month Chaitra, i.e., 27th. December. Its

flowers, probably on account of their beauty and the delicacy of

their perfume which in the months of April and May is exhaled

throughout the night, are much used in temple decoration. “The

tree is the Symbol of Love, and is dedicated to Kama, the Indian

JourRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XX.

Flowers and Fruit of the Asoka Tree (Saraca indica Linn.)

Sane

a ae

Heh th

Wid Nsaey

a oe

aed se

ies a Yoo ee

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 399

God of Love. Like the Agnus castus it is believed to have a

certain charm in preserving chastity; thus Sita, the wife of Rama,

when abducted by Ravana, escapes from the caresses of the

demon and finds refuge in a grove of Asoka’s. In the legend of

‘Buddha, when Maya is conscious of having conceived the Buddis-

attva, she retires to a wood of Asoka trees and then sends for

her husband.’ The word Asoka signifies ‘that which is deprived

of grief’ (Folkard, Plant-lore and Legends), Mason (Burma and

its People), says the tree is held sacred among the Burmans

because under it Gautama Buddha was born, and immediately after

his birth delivered his first address.

(To be continued)

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY.

SALim ALI.

With Notes by HucH WuistTiEr.

Part I.

(With a map and two plates.)

Introduction.

The Hyderabad State is a large tract of country situated in the

heart of the Indian Peninsula between latitudes 15°10’ and

26°40" N. and longitudes 74°40’ and 81°35’ E.

From an ornithological point of view this territory, almost 1 2/5

the combined areas of England and Wales, had till now remained

practically unexplored, a deficiency that had left its adverse im-

press on the New Fauna, especially in regard to the distributions

of many peninsular races. The tremendous additions to our know-

ledge made by the recent bird survey of the Eastern Ghats made it

all the more desirable that a similar exploration of the Hyderabad

State should be undertaken in order to fill in the picture that had

now emerged, and efforts were launched by the Bombay Natural

History Society to interest the Nizam’s Government and induce

them to finance the proposed survey. Unfortunately, however,

the Hyderabad Government were committed at the time to other

important schemes of a more urgent nature and could not see their

way to lend the necessary support. Efforts to raise the requisite

funds elsewhere proved likewise unavailing, and it appeared as

though the survey would perforce have to hang fire until economic

conditions improved generally.

Thus the matter stood when it occurred to me to approach the

Hyderabad Government in a private capacity asking them if they

would be prepared to extend certain facilities involving a very

modest outlay in order to enable me to carry out the much needed

survey of the bird life of the State. I offered in return to place

at their disposal duplicates of all specimens procured which

could serve as the nucleus collection for a natural history museum

whenever they decided to have one. Thanks to the far-sighted and

progressive policy of H.E. Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad Bahadur,

the President of the Executive Council, and of Sir Akbar Hydari,

the Finance Member, my proposal found favour with the Hyderabad

Museum Committee who contributed a sum of Rs. 1,000 towards

my travelling expenses, and although this amount has long since

been very considerably exceeded, I am grateful to the Hyderabad

Government for really setting the ball rollmg. I am also indebted

to them for providing me with certain other facilities such as help

from district Police and Revenue officials, without which, I scon

discovered, it would have been impossible to get anything done for

love or money!

be:

“aif;

Le iy

Seine RL

Oy IMs yy oy 401)

- MN 4, a

ANY de

A) ‘ihe

IWS

ayy: D)

by SS: nS Wy

6 Ww AS Sy "a

Osmanabad

TNS

—

Wye

Wi wi

‘

TCLS

on a Up

—-

ty, Wey

CPU

ANY mre

AN,

“aft

SA, ~

RN) S

Han WE

> Savanteadi o

Map of

HYDERABAD STATE

and adjoming territories

to show its position with reference

to the Eastern and Western Ghats.

Y ’) TANS YIN

yr :

ties

Scale linch=64 Miles.

(6) 20 40 60 80 100 Miles.

Kamptee

wy, ty Wh,

satis, NWS Ay Ne

incsticiane:

4 SUN

is I ANS

Me Sy) ij,

L. Me

ANG Ine IS

TARTAR iia Wi

WivAy Mn ine NCS ,

ot gu 4

Me May, WEY,

aw 4, fe, My, Sli,

ait, RUA NYA Me

ANOS yyy ANY

ti, a

“Ly

za 1+

John Bale. Sons & Danielsson, Lt4 Londor.

Kamptee

Cope?

HYDERABAD STATE

and adjoining territories

to show its position with reference

to the Eastern and Western Ghats.

sii, ME

aging NEN

Scale linch=64 Miles. Pies

20 40 60 80

John Bale Sons & Darvelason LY Lond

eee Eee

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 357

In this connection, my special thanks are due to Mr. T. J.

Tasker, C.1.E., 0.B.E., I.c.S., and to Mr. Hasan Latif, M.1.c.z.E., for

the interest they have shown and the trouble they have taken

throughout in smoothing the work of the Survey.

With their unfailing readiness to assist their members and all

workers in the field of natural history, the Bombay Natural History

Society consented to lend me the services of one of their museum

assistants, E. Henricks, in return for any of the Hyderabad mater-

iai they might require to make their collections complete. I must

here take the opportunity of recording my appreciation of the good

work put in by Henricks in the field. It is in a great measure due

to his painstaking labours that I was able to collect nearly 750

specimens during the five months I was on the work, and on the

whole I think the preparation of the skins does him credit.

I am deeply indebted to Mr. Hugh Whistler for the endless

pains he has taken over the examination and identification of the

specimens, and for his valuable taxonomic comments thereon.

These have been appended after each species in brackets with his

initials. He has also contributed a number of notes from the

literature dealing with neighbouring areas, wherever they appeared

likely to throw light on the situation in Hyderabad. With his

permission, I have taken the liberty of incorporating in my text any

such notes of which I have made use. It has been a great privilege

to have secured Mr. Whistler’s collaboration since he has recently

had the opportunity of working exhaustively at the material

obtained by the Vernay Scientific Survey in the adjoining Eastern

Ghats area, which included both hill and plain birds and practically

all the species met with in Hyderabad. 3

I was also fortunate in getting the assistance of my young cousin

Humayun Abdulal, a keen student of Indian birds, who joined

me in camp during two periods of his college vacations, 13th October

—th November (1931) and 18th March—24th April (1932). As an

enthusiastic birds’ nester, the careful notes which he independently

kept during these periods have been very helpful in my work. I

look forward with hope to his future contributions to Indian Orni-

thology as a worker of the risimg generation.

I am grateful to Mr. B. B. Osmaston, o.1.5., for the trouble

hie has kindly taken in the preparation of the map which accom-

panies this paper.

Our thanks are also due to Colonel R. Sparrow, c.M.G., D.s.0.,

for the loan of a large number of skins collected by him near Trimul-

gherry.

My original proposal to Hyderabad was merely to make a cur-

sory survey of the bird-hfe of the Dominions, finishing it in 8

months’ time. Experience at the very outset convinced me, how-

ever, that it was far more profitable to work a small area thoroughly

than to try to rush through a preliminary survey of this great

tract of country in the short time at my disposal, leaving the greater

portions imperfectly explored. I placed these views before the Pre-

sident of the Museum Committee and appealed to him for such

further adequate funds as would enable me to make a thorough job

of the Survey. I suggested a period of one year as lkely to be

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

required for the purpose. The President, Maharaja Sir Kishen

Pershad Bahadur, whose patronage of the Arts and Sciences is so

well known, was inclined to favour the proposition, and although

it had yet to be formally sanctioned by the Museum Committee I

anticipated little opposition and commenced working on the new

programme.

The Survey commenced work at Manantr in the Mahbtbnagar

District on 8rd October 1981 and was in the field till 20th December,

after which there was a break till the end of February. Work was

resumed on the last day of that month at Kandahar (Nander Dis-

trict) but as by the end of April there was still no intimation from

the Hyderabad Government regarding the question of finance, I

was compelled to curtail my programme and return to Bombay.

It will be seen from the map that as a result of this cur-

tailment practically the entire western portion of the State

remains untouched. I had intended to have three collecting camps

in this area, viz. Ajanta (Aurangabad Dist.), Southada (Bhir Dist.)

and Gangawati (Raichur Dist.). This would have covered the State

fairly thoroughly, but afterwards I had proposed to spend a further

few months in the hilly portions, off the beaten track, to the

extreme south and south-east of the State where I hoped to strike

interesting imroads and extensions of the Eastern Ghats avifauna.

It was also my intention to penetrate further afield in other direc-

tions so as to cover every existing facies.

I hope at some future date the Nizam’s Government will make

it possible for me to take up the work at the point where it has

now had to be dropped, and to complete the programme outlined

above.

General Topography of Hyderabad State.

The Hyderabad State as it is to-day (excluding Berar) covers

an area of 82,698 square miles. It forms a polygonal tract occu-

pying almost the centre of the Deccan Plateau with an average

altitude of about 1,250 feet above sea-level. The length diagonally

from SW to NE is about 475 miles, and it has approximately the

same breadth. The country generally slopes from NW to SE and

the main drainage lies in this direction.

The Pranhita River, known in parts of its course as the Pen-

ganga, into which flow the Wardha and numerous other tributaries,

runs along the northern, and part of the eastern frontier. At

Sironcha it merges in the Godavari which thenceforth forms the

eastern boundary. The two other principal rivers within the State,

both of which also run into the Godavari at different points, are

the Manjra and the Manér, each of which in turn have numerous

smaller tributaries. The Krishna or Kistna River, with its tribu-

taries including the Bhima and the Tungabhadra forms the other

principal channel of drainage into which also numerous streams

(considerable rivers during the monsoon rains) discharge their

waters. It forms the southern boundary of the State for a con-

siderable part of its length.

The country in some parts is mountainous, wooded and _ pic-

turesque, in others flat and undulating. The most important hill

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 359

ranges are: . (1) the Balaghat Range running east and west from

the taluka of Biloli in Nander District to that of Ashti in Bhir Dis-

trict, i.e. a distance of about 200 miles within the State, (2) the

Ajanta Range, known as such, is really a stretch of about 100 miles

of the Sahyadris or Western Ghats in the N.-W. corner, and (8)

the Jalna Range which runs for a length of about 120 miles from

Daulatabad eastward in the direction of Jalna. Besides these, many

smaller ranges occur in the N.K., such as the Satmala and Nirmal

Ranges with their many extensions, spurs and outliers. On the

southern border, along the valley of the Krishna, the Amrabad

Range runs more or less parallel with the Nallamalais.

The Gazetteer furnishes the following:—‘The portion to the N.

and W. belongs to the trappean region, that to the 8. and E. being

eranitic and calcareous. The trappean or black-soil country, in-

habited by Mahratti speakers, is a land of wheat and cotton.

Telingana or the granitic region is a land of rice and tanks. The

trappean or black-cotton soil region is covered with luxuriant vege-

tation, with cliffs, crags and undulating hills. In the granitic and

caleareous region the hills are bare of vegetation but the plains

are covered with scattered brushwood of every description. Dome-

shaped lulls and wild, fantastic boulders and tors abound in many

parts, giving the region a gloomy aspect. The soil derived from

the granite is sandy and unlike the trappean does not retain mois-

ture. Consequently the rivers in this region run dry during the

hot season, and this gives rise to the necessity of storing water

in artificial reservoirs, known as tanks, with which the whole of

the Telingana area is studded.’

These tanks for irrigation purposes, are generally formed by

throwing an embankment across the lower end of a valley, thus

causing the accumulation of water of such streams as may flow

into it. There are over 18,000 of such tanks in the State, some

of them very large as the one at Pakhal which is at least 30 miles

in circuit. The newly completed Nizamsagar Tank in the Nander

District covers an area of over 40 square miles and has a bund about

3 miles long.

These two geologically and ethnologically different divisions,

nearly equal in extent, are separated from each other by the Manjra

and Godavari rivers.

The mean temperature of the State is 81 deg. F’. and the average

rainfall between 80 and 382 inches annually. In 1931 the rainfall

was exceptionally heavy, being in many places double the average.

The mid-day shade temperature at Kaulas (Nander District) was

frequently over 100°F. in March.

In the following notes I have endeavoured to record the vege-

tational features of the various environments in particular detail.

The importance of this from an ecological point of view is obvious,

and I venture to hope that workers in other areas will in future also

adopt this plan as far as possible. The interdependences between

plant life and bird life have so far been little studied in India, and

it is only data of this nature accumulated in connection with re-

gional bird surveys that will enable, in course of time, advances to

be made in this direction.

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Particulars of Localities worked.

1. Hyderabad City environs, alt. ca. 1,800 ft., September 25—October 38,

1931.

Broken, slightly hilly country. Basalt and granite boulders of gigantic size

presenting grotesque formations, piled and balanced on one another in a perilous

manner. Tanks among the boulder hillocks: Mir Alam, Himayatsagar, Umdasa-

gar and others. The intervening flat spaces under cultivation or covered with scrub

jungle; large trees often absent, except where planted along roadsides, etc.

Soil red, chiefly laterite and moorum. Ground where not stony, covered with

short straggly grass. Principal trees: Nim (Melia azadirachta), Babul (Acacia

sp.), and stunted date palms. The common Deccan shrub Cassia auriculata

in yellow flower everywhere. Custard apple (Anona reticulata) growing freely

amongst the boulder hillocks. Shrubs of Wrightia tomentosa R. & Schl. also very

common in rocky country and along with Nim, almost universally parasitized by

Loranthus longiflorus Desr.

2. Mandnir, alt. ca. 2,000 ft. (on Amrabad Plateau, Mahbubnagar District)

October 38—October 15 (19381).

In the Amrabad Reserved Forest consisting of mixed deciduous species (now

in heavy leaf). Teak (Tectona grandis) and Nallamaddi (Terminalia tomentosa)

abundant, the latter growing to large size. Soil for the most part laterite.

Hillsides thickly strewn with large loose stones (now hidden by tall grass)

- making walking difficult and unpleasant. Occasional clumps of thin Bamboo,

specially on the hillsides and by forest streams. Country mostly hilly. Jowari

(Sorghum vulgare) cultivated on the ‘flats’—the valleys—and intervening spaces

covered with high grass or scrub jungle with thorny Acacia or Zizyphus cnoplia

bushes predominating. Here and there small tanks and water-logged grass-

land formed in natural depressions by the late heavy rains, in which stunted

Babul abundant. The hills on this plateau all flat-topped, rising one above

the other, the summits forming extensive table-lands with open park-like

country, water-logged stony grassland, dotted with small trees. MHillsides

leading up to these plateaux covered with thick scrub and secondary jungle

also large deciduous trees and occasional dense Bamboo clumps. They are

cut up by numerous rocky nullahs, often thickly overgrown with thorn-brakes.

Interspersed among the scrub jungle, on the ‘flat’, are trees of Mhowa

(Bassia latifolia), Teak, Bijasal (Pterocarpus Marsupium), Ippa (Hardwickia

binata), Nallamaddi (Terminalia tomentosa W. & A.), Butea frondosa, Feronia

elephantum, and others. Calotropis bushes and Marsdenia volubilis T. Cooke

common along the motor road and cart tracks. On many of the stony hillsides

Zizyphus enoplia and other thorny bushes growing in such profusion as to make

the undergrowth almost impenetrable. Yellow-flowering shrubs of Grewia

flavescens and Cassia auriculata common, also Phyllanthus reticulatus. .

8. Farahabadd, alt. ca. 2,800 ft., October 15—October 20 (1981). :

12 miles S. of Mananir on another plateau rising above Amrabad Plateau.

Country similar to Mananir except on the whole more thickly wooded and

containing a good deal more Bamboo. ‘The Bamboo patches, especially where

little rills and nullahs run through them, the facies richest in bird-life. Prin-

cipal forest trees: Teak, Mhowa, Nallamaddi, also a good deal of Charoli

(Buchanania latifolia). The last heavily and very generally infested with

Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Mhowa with L. elasticus. Both here and around

Manantr Cassia fistula and Butea frondosa occurring in profusion, mostly as

small stunted trees.

According to the Gazetteer among the birds found in the Amrabad forests

are ‘Red Parrots and Red Minas, and Yellow and Red Bulbuls as large as

pigeons.’ Unfortunately I failed to come across any of these enigmas !

4. Borgampdd, alt. ca. 160 ft. (On the Godavari River, opposite Bhadra-

chellam in the Madras Presidency) October 29—November 7 (1981).

In the midst of flat cultivated country with a radius of 2-3 miles.

Godavari River about 13 miles E of village. Steep muddy banks with deep

and often tortuous outscourings thickly bordered by Vitex pubescens and other

bushes. Beyond the ring of cultivation, laterite and moorum predominate,

and dense secondary growth appears with much Zizyphus cnoplia. The

country for a good distance on either side of the Kinarsani—a tributary of

the Godavari into which it flows about 14 miles E of the village—is scoured

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

ak 2

Photos by Author.

(2) Typical country on the lesser Amrabad plateau.

weet ee = ee

‘ t a a eS

qwleswey + =

dulaquesin seen ys

1G) Fes)

es Riese ly

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 361

by dry watercourses caused by the monsoon downrush of water to the river.

The Kinarsani at this season has numerous sandspits and shallow islets, the

resort of terns, swallow-plovers and other waders. Along stretches of its

banks typical riverain jungle ig met with, consisting of Z. wnoplia with

drooping and sprawling branches, and thick-set thorny shrubs of Canthium

parviflorum Lamk. The bushes indicate the high flood level by their bare

looping and twining stems and root-tangles, which canopied by the dense

foliage form ideal haunts of flycatchers and other small birds. An _ exceed-

ingly prickly species of Acacia with drooping plant branches and cruel re-

curved thorns, plentiful. At intervals, upright lofty trees of a species of

Ficus occur. Randia malabarica, with coral red berries and vicious long

straight thorns, another common shrub. Strychnos nuax-vomica Linn. of

moderate size, also common. About 3 miles N of Borgampad in the direction

of Nelipaka mixed timber- and scrub-forest begins, in places so dense at this

season as to present an evergreen aspect. Principal trees: Dalbergia sissoo

[largely parasitized. by Loranthus (longiflorus?)|, Teak, Ippa, Feronia ele-

phantum, Tamarindus indica, and an Acacia with pink flowers. Zizyphus

cnoplia by far the commonest shrub, now heavily laden with small round

black (ripe) drupes.

5. Nelipaka, alt. ca. 160 ft. (9 miles N. of Borgampad, also on bank of

Godavari River, November 7—November 18 (1981).

For a radius of a mile or more around the village, flat cultivated country,

fringed by dense scrub jungle giving place further to mixed deciduous forest

with heavy undergrowth of seedlings and tangles of Z. @noplia. Small grassy

clearings interspersed in the forest. Hillsides enclosing the large bunded

tank known as Tummala Cherivu (ca. 5 miles W. of village) strewn with

loose stones and clothed in dense deciduous forest. Undergrowth at the base

of these hills very heavy, comprised mostly of Z. @noplia and an Acacia

(Mimosa lamata?) with recurved thorns. Country broken up here and there

by dry sandy overgrown watercourses caused by torrents rushing down from

the numerous surrounding hills to the river after the heavy monsoon showers.

On the banks of the Godavari—which runs past—growing in water, are

many dense and expansive ‘Tamarisk’ beds (Phyllanthus Lawtt Grah.),

haunts and roosts of Reed-Warblers, Blue-throats, Wagtails, Swallows and

numerous other birds.

6. Paloncha, alt. ca. 300 ft. (7 miles W. of Borgampad) 18—26 Nov. (1981).

Scrub and secondary jungle, extremely thick at this season, making for poor

visibility. Tangles of Zizyphus cnoplia and the sprawling prickly bushes of

Mimosa lamata extremely abundant. Paloncha Hill, the highest of a number

of forest-clad hills around is 1,181 ft. It has steep rocky sides, now heavily »

covered with dense shrubbed vegetation and tall grass. The heavy bush

country at base, changes to mixed deciduous forest higher up the slopes,

Above, among the tall grass, much Bamboo occurs. The smooth-barked Chir-

wan or Tirman (Anogeissus latifolia) is plentiful though mostly thin, also a

fair sprinkling of straggly Teak. Jowari and Rice cultivated on the flat

country at the base of Paloncha Hill. In the scrub jungle bordering cultiva-

tion Bridelia Hamiltoniana (var. glabra) is a very common shrub, 6-12 feet

high. Its ripe slaty-black berries (now abundant) are a favourite food of

Mynas, Green Pigeons, Bulbuls and a host of other species who act as. im-

portant seed disseminators.

7. Narsampét, alt. ca. 800 ft. (Warangal District) Nov. 29—Dec. 9 (1981).

Locality dotted over with numerous tanks. Owing to the abnormally

heavy rainfall this season, nearly twice the average, much country surround-

ing these tanks is often submerged, there being practically no reed-beds around

the margins. Tanks thickly covered with lotus leaves and other floating vege-

tation leaving only small patches of open water in the middle. In the

intervening country Butea frondosa is the predominant species; there is a

great deal of Zizyphus cenoplia now heavily laden with ripe berries, and

Borassus flabeliformis palms by the hundred thousand. With the palms, a

corresponding abundance of Tachornis batasiensis is noticeable. A large per-

centage of the palms are in the clutches of the ‘Strangler Fig.’, apparently

Ficus bengalensis. In the country surrounding the tanks are small open

grassy patches among the scrub jungle. Paddy is largely cultivated in this

neighbourhood.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Six miles EK. of Narsampet is the Pakhal Lake (17°57’ N.x79°59’ H.).

This is enclosed on the N. §. and E. by ranges of low and densely wooded

hills. On the W. side there is a dam thrown across the Pakhal River

which is about 2,000 yards long. The water covers an area of about 13

square miles and has an average depth of 380-40 feet. Water-channels run

out at various points for irrigation purposes. The lake abounds with fish

and crocodiles and the surrounding jungle with game. This is H.E.H. ‘The

Nizam’s private ‘Shikargah’ and guns are strictly taboo. Through the kind-

ness of Nawab Hamid Yar Jung Bahadur, the Inspector-General of Forests,

special permission was accorded to the Survey for collecting in this area. Fine

mixed deciduous forest surrounds the lake, intersected here and there by irri-

gation and seepage channels. Principal trees: Teak, Yerrmaddi (Terminalia

arjuna, Bedd.)—some magnificent examples—a species of Albizzia, with lofty

Bombax malabarnicum at intervals. Butea frondosa also common. Marked

abundance of lanas, the tangles of whose twisting woody stems form a

favourite haunt of flycatchers, especially where overhanging streams. Large

buttressed termite mounds a feature of this jungle, there being one or more

every few yards. Mostly 6-8 ft. high, but some well over 10 ft. In portions

of the forest Tapsi (Holoptelea integrifolia Planch), Gargoo (Garuga pinnata

Roxb.), Agle marmelos and Mhowa plentiful. The gigantic woody creeper,

Butea superba, very common in the forest. In places a sparse lining of tallish

grass at the water’s edge, but no real reed-beds. In patches the ground is

water-logged by the seepage and the forest here presents an evergreen aspect.

8. Asifabad (formerly known as Jangaon) alt. ca. 1,200 ft. (Asifabad

District) Dec. 10—20 (1981).

In the Satmala Range. Country immediately surrounding town, open,

cultivated—Jowari, Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and Castor (Ricinus com-

munis). It is undulating and cut up by ravines and nullahs, the banks of

which are heavily clothed with scrub. The vegetation in these patches consists

mostly of Z. wnoplia, Mimosa lamata, saplings and stunted trees of Cassia

fistula and Butea frondosa. An extremely common shrub is Gymnosporia

montana Laws, diffuse, 6-8 ft. high, with crimson branches and petioles, and

flowers that give off a mild fragrance. Cassia auriculata is everywhere, while

C. sophora grows thickly in patches both in the jungle and around villages,

forming vast fields as though deliberately planted. Beyond the cultivated

zone lies a ring of low hills, 500-1,000 feet above the undulating plain which

stretches for many miles, and gives the place the appearance of a shallow

but enormous crater. At the foot of these hills there is a good deal of Bamboo

of a more or less solid species. The hillsides are covered with deciduous

forest interspersed with patches of scrubwood, and are scoured everywhere with

ravines and nullahs, on the sides of which much thin Bamboo is present. Plants

of Goniocaulon glabrum Cass. growing abundantly in a field, were observed to

be largely attended by Leptocoma asiatica who were probing assiduously into

the flowers for nectar. The hillsides are covered with tall grass and littered

with loose stones. Boswellia serrata, Feronia elephantum, Phyllanthus emb-

lica are common, also a species of stunted Bauhinia. _Mhowa, also plentiful,

is almost universally parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus.

9. Kandahar, alt. ca. 1,400 ft. (Nander District) March 1—6, (1982).

Stony, undulating country with long gently-rolling hillocks, bare except for

sparse stunted bushes mostly of a species of Randia and of Gymnosporia mon-

tana. In the ‘valleys’ or flats, Gram (Cicer arietinum), Jowari and Cotton

(Sorghum vulgare Pers. and Gossypium) are largely cultivated, and in places

on the summits of the flat stony hillocks a species of Hemp and some Tooar

(Cajanus indicus Spreng.) are also grown. The principal trees are Nim and

Babil (mostly stunted). Occasionally groves of Date palms are met, while

Mango topes (Mangifera indica) are a common feature of the village environs.

Here and there are also signs of the defunct fruit gardens which disappeared

in a recent drought. Kandahar has a fine old fort said to date from the time of

the invasion of Muhammad Tughlak. There is a large tank in the village, very

full and expansive after the heavy rains of last season, with no reed-beds. In

among the ruimed walls of the fort a good deal of Nim and Phyllanthus

reticulatus 1s growing from the crevices, seeds of which have undoubtedly been

disseminated by birds. Portions of the country in the environs of the village

THH HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY. 363

are overrun with Cobra cactus (Opuntia). In spite of the abundance of Mango

trees, no Loranthus or [Flowerpeckers were seen.

10. Mukheér, alt. ca. 1,850 ft. (@8°42’ N.x77°22’ H.—18 miles S.-H. of

Kandahar) March 7—10 (1982). . one ae

Black cotton soil country, undulating and cut up by lines of low rolling

hillocks and shallow ravines. Similar to Kandahar. Opuntia grows in profu-

sion in patches of the intervening country. Hrythrina suberosa and Butea

frondosa both coming into flower. Blossoms of both largely probed into by

birds. Lining the banks of streams are groves and thickets of Date palms. —

il. Deglur, alt. ca. 1,850 ft. (18°33’ N.x77°35’ H.—Nander District—

about 16 miles 8.E. of Mukher) March 11—17 (1982).

Same type of country as at Kandahar and Mukher. The river Lendi a

_ tributary of the Manjra, runs through a rocky gorge about a mile N. of the

town, and is here known as the Patalganga.

No Loranthus was noted affecting the trees in the locality; neither were

Flowerpeckers present.

12. Kaulds, alt. ca. 1,300 ft. (20 miles SE of Deglar—Nander District)

March 17-28 (1982).

Rocky hills and ridges covered with deciduous jungle, at present mostly

bare, with thin straggly Teak here and there. There is a fine old fort on a hill,

at present in ruins and much overgrown with scrub. It has an extensive

surrounding wall with many ramparts and battlements, favourite nesting sites

of vultures, owls and other birds. Along the base of the fort hill winds the

Kaulas River, a tributary of the Manjra. Country to N. of fort: Rocky ridges

of hills covered with light deciduous jungle. Loranthus longiflorus affects Nim

and other trees in great profusion; Diceum erythrorhynchum observed feeding

largely on the berries. Gmelina arborea common, now flowering. ‘Kundagogi’

(Tel.) (Cochlospermum Gossypium) trees, leafless, with large yellow flowers at

the tips of the branches common. Among the hillocks are ravines and chasms

with enormous boulders and yawning cavities and pits, often 20 ft. or more in

depth, and long subterranean galleries which harbour many panther and _bears.

Butea frondosa and B. superba both common in the forest, now in flower and

largely attended by Leptocoma asiatica and many other birds. At the base of

the hills, the undulating country presents the same aspect as at Mukhér or

Deglur.

About 20 miles E of Kaulas on the way to Kamareddi Railway Station

is the Nizamsagar Lake, a gigantic irrigation tank lately completed. It covers

an area of about 40 sq. miles and has a dam 3 miles long. Rice is extensively

cultivated in the neighbourhood with the help of the water conserved. The

country surrounding is rolling and stony, with ravines, nullahs and low rocky

hill ranges. Deciduous forest, quite thick in patches, devoid of leaf at this

time of year. Mhowa (Bassia latifolia) is plentiful but almost universally para-

sitized by Loranthus (longiflorus ?). .

13. Utnoor, alt. ca. 1,250 ft. (Asifabad District) April 1—10 (1982).

Country similar to Asifabad, mostly broken, with nullahs and ridges of

stony hills covered with scrub jungle. There is open deciduous and high grass

jungle to the N; dense mixed jungle to S; and dense jungle, high grass and

scattered Bamboo among the hills to the H. Three large tanks in the vicinity

of the village: Gopayya Cherivi, Gangannapét Cherava and Nyarai Chertvi.

Principal trees: Mhowa, Teak, Charoli (Buchanania), Yerrmaddi (Terminalia

arjuna Bedd.) on banks of forest streams, Butea frondosa etc. The large twining

creeper B. superba is common, and bushes of Calycopteris floribunda plentiful

in patches. co

14. Kannad, alt. ca. 2,000 ft. (Aurangabad Dist.) April 15—18 (1982).

About 32 miles NW of Aurangabad and 18 from the famous rock caves

of Ellora which are passed en route. Hilly, broken country similar to that at

Kaulas. Extensive mango topes plentiful.. Karonda (Carissa karandas) absent

elsewhere in the State, appears in profusion. Also Lantana camara. Mango

and Nim trees affected by Loranthus longiflorus, Sunbirds and Flowerpeckers in

attendance.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

15. Bhamarvai, alt ca. 2,500 ft. (Aurangabad Dist.) April 19—25 (1932).

About 7 miles NW of Kannad, on the Outram Ghat on the boundary between

the Nizam’s Dominions and Khandesh, on the verge of the plateau overlooking

Chalisgaon and the Khandesh plains some 1,500 ft. below. ‘The country is

mostly hilly or broken and undulating deciduous forest in which Salai (Boswellia

serrata) 18 a@ very prominent species. It is almost universally parasitized by

Loranthus longiflorus—the variety with crimson flowers. Mhowa (Bassia lati-

folia) and Charoh (Buchanania latifolia) are also very common.

T am obliged to Mr. K. Biswas of the Calcutta Herbarium and to Mr. C.

McCann, Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, for the identifica-

tion of my specimens of many of the plants mentioned in the above notes.

General Remarks on the Economic Status of Birds in the

Hyderabad State.

Every State and Province in India maintains at great public

expense an Agricultural Department for the improvement and

development of agriculture, whose activities at the present time

are mainly directed towards improving and evolving strains of

crops to suit particular conditions, and towards researches in soils,

manures and so on. To a lesser extent, perhaps, much useful

work has been, and is also being, done in the investigation of the life-

histories of many insect pests and field rats, and in devising ways

and means—mechanical and chemical—to deal with the devastation

caused by these vermin. Unfortunately, however, practically no

attention is paid to the study of the economic value and importance

of birds to agriculture. Economic Ornithology is a science which

has received an increasing amount of attention within recent years

in North America and in many European countries with excellent

and far-reaching results. It is a research which concerns itself with

striking a precise balance between the damage done by birds to

agriculture and vegetation (which includes forestry), as against the

active benefits they confer by the destruction of injurious animals and

plants, and in sundry other ways. A passing acquaintance with the

work of the Department of Biological Survey of the U.S.A. in this

branch of investigations, and with that of similar institutions in

European countries, is enough to convince the most sceptical of the

boundless importance and possibilities of this study, and particularly

in an agricultural country like India with its teeming bird-life, its

significance cannot be over-estimated.

It is unfortunate that since the excellent work by Mason and

Lefroy at Pusa on the Food of Indian Birds (Agricultural Dept.

Memoir, Entomological Series, Vol. III, 1912) little systematic

investigation has been undertaken in this country to determine

their economic status. Even the above had as its principal object

to discover which of our commoner birds inhabiting cultivated

country were directly useful to agriculture by destroying injurious

insects, and which species were responsible for active damage to

erops and therefore injurious from this point of view. Within the

limits of a single Memoir it was impossible to deal with the more

subtle and indirect, but nevertheless considerable, influences exert-

ed by the bird-life on its environment.

Without going into details, I wish to introduce here a few bare

facts, casually gleaned from my work in connection with the

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 365

Hyderabad Survey, which I hope will suffice to indicate the diverse

ways in which birds affect Man and his Agriculture in particular,

and the entire Environment in general, for better or for worse,

in this part of the country. While their influence is considerable

and undoubted, a proper investigation into the lfe-histories of the

different species, and an accurate determination of their exact

status as beneficial or harmful can alone lead to devising steps to

meet the situation.

Birds as Crop Destroyers.

At Mananur, Paloncha and other places I have remarked in my

diary on the appalling ravages to ripening Jowari crops caused by

Parrots. In the former locality—in fact all over the Amrabad

Plateau—the Blossom-headed Parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala)

is a veritable scourge to the cultivator. I constantly noticed flocks

of hundreds of this species, augmented by parties of the Rose-ringed

Parakeet (P. krameri) engaged on their work of devastation, in-

different to the shouts and noises made by the ryots from their

machans amidfield to scare them away, and studiously keeping out

of range of the stones hurled at them through slings or gophuns.

Nor were the parrots alone; bands and flocks of other birds, Mynas

(both Acridotheres tristis and Temenuchus pagodarum). and Com-

mon and Jungle Crows joined in the work of destruction. The

ryots were in despair. Enquiries showed that often 50 per cent,

sometimes more, of their crops went as toll to the birds by day and

to pigs and deer by night. From what I personally saw of the pro-

ceedings it seems a wonder how the birds left anything for the

ryot at all!

My first experience of the Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus) as a crop

ravisher was in the Nandér District, where flocks of countless multi-

tudes were observed descending in ‘clouds’ upon fields of ripening

Jowari, supremely indifferent to the frantic protests of the ryots.

To form an idea of the damage these birds must cause, I shot four

birds at random out of a flock. Their stomachs and crops were

packed tightly with Jowari grains exclusively which aggregately

weighed one tola, which means that 160 birds would account for

1 lb. Considering the size of a flock—commonly 38-4 hundred

birds or more— and the number of such flocks, and taking into

account the extremely rapid digestion of birds and the fact that

their depredations continue intermittently from daybreak till dusk,

I think it would be a conservative estimate to say that a flock of

400 Pastors would account for 25 lbs. of Jowari in a day. The

enormity of this damage can be better appreciated when it is

remembered that this means the food of one villager for 10-12

days! To get an adequate idea of the damage they cause, it 1s

necessary to see for oneself the hordes of Pastors as they descend

upon the fields. However, against this must be set to the Pastor's

account the benefit he confers by devouring locusts on a large

scale in times of ‘invasions’. In Uzbekistan (Russian Turkestan),

from whereabouts many of our winter visitors certainly come,

the nestlings have been ascertained to be fed practically exclu-

sively on locusts in their various stages,

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Birds as Crop Protectors.

While the parrots may be classed as wholly destructive to

crops, and so also the crows to a large extent, the same cannot

be admitted of the mynas. Mynas devour large numbers of locusts

and caterpillars injurious to crops and thus compensate to some

degree for the losses they cause directly. Among others that

seem almost wholly beneficial to agriculture may be mentioned

the King Crow (Dicrurus macrocercus) and the Indian Roller

(Coracias benghalensis), both of which, but especially the former,

were exceedingly common in the more cultivated tracts of the

State. The Finches and Weavers occupy an intermediate position,

for while the staple diet of the adults is grain, to obtain which they

cause much loss to the ryot, their young on the other hand are

nurtured more or less exclusively on insects and caterpillars,

often captured in the very fields, which are in turn highly de-

structive to the crops. It must also be mentioned that this group

is responsible for the destruction on a vast scale of the seeds of

injurious weeds which they devour. Here, again, it remains for

the economic ornithologist to determine the nett status of the

various members of this group by careful research into their life-

histories and feeding habits.

Equally beneficial with the King Crows, but in a less direct

way, are the Birds of Prey, particularly the Owls and the smaller

Falcons. This year (1932) there has been a severe plague of

field rats and mice in a great many districts of the Mahrattwada,

and considerable damage has been caused to Wheat (Triticum

vulgare), Gram and Jowar crops. I took particular care to examine

the stomach contents of all the birds of prey I shot in the affected

areas, for specimens or otherwise, and it is significant that in every

ease the birds were found to have eaten field rats and mice.

The Horned Owls (Bubo bubo) indeed appeared to be living exclu-

sively on these vermin. Besides stomach contents, I had

numerous opportunities of examining ‘pellets’. Among the rocks

of the Patalganga Gorge at Deglur (Nander District) where dwelt

a small colony of these owls, the place was littered freely with

the pellets cast up by them. An examination showed that they

were composed to a great extent—in many cases exclusively—

of the fur, bones and skulls of field rats and mice. Considering

the ravages caused by these creatures to crops, often more than

50 per cent (and indeed in some of the places I visited certainly

75 per cent or even more!) and the astounding fecundity of this

eroup, the importance of owls, harriers and kestrels as a natural

eheck on their increase cannot be over-estimated.

Birds and Vegetation.

The status of birds in the regulation of the vegetation of any

country is a complicated mixture of good and bad. The role

they play is nevertheless of great importance. As _ cross-pollina-

tors of flowers they are perhaps only second to the insects, but

as agents of seed dispersal they stand in a class by themselves.

A careful serutiny of the details of the localities worked by the

THE HYDERABAD STATH ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 367

Survey, and co-ordination with my field notes on the birds there

met, will show that in many cases it is possible to connect the

presence of certain plant species directly with the presence of

certain birds. Thus, after dissection of numerous stomachs and

close observation of the birds’ feeding habits, I would unhesita-

tingly assign the profusion of such plants as Zizyphus cnoplia,

Bridelia Hamiltoniana, Buchanania latifolia, Phyllanthus reticula-

tus, Nim (Melia azadirachta), Ficus of many species and others

in a greater or lesser degree to the agency of birds which eat the

berries and either transport the undigested seeds within their bodies

to be passed out with the excreta at distant points, or disgorge

them after a while through the mouth. The birds mainly respon-

sible for the distribution of the above are: Bulbuls, Mynas..

Babblers, Barbets, Hornbills, Green and Imperial Pigeons, even

Grey Jungle Fowl, Flowerpeckers and a great many others. While

in many cases this inter-dependence is not so readily traceable,

in others it is more than obvious. The existence of the Loran-

thus tree parasite, for example, is inextricably lmked with the

occurrence of Sunbirds (Nectarintide) and Flowerpeckers

(Diceide) on whom it is dependent both for the fertilization of its

flowers and the dissemination of its seed. It is significant that

in Hyderabad wherever one member of this symbiotic partner-

ship was present, the other was also invariably to be met, and

vice versa.

Some of the flowers observed being probed into for nectar by

Sunbirds and various other species are: Bombax malabaricum,

Erythrina indica, E. suberosa, Butea frondosa, B. superba, Opun-

tia, Grewia flavescens, many of which, as I have already shown,

are more than probably fertilized by birds. The case of Lantana

camara needs careful watching. I only came across this species

in the extreme western portions of the State (Aurangabad and

Kannad). This pernicious weed has overrun thousands of square

miles of the Indian continent within recent times, from plants

imported into Ceylon for ornamental purposes, and from what

we know of the partiality for its berries of Bulbuls, Mynas, Babblers

and numerous other species, it seems to me likely that its spread

over the rest of the State is only a matter of time. As an instance

of the abundance in which its seeds are dispersed, I might mention

that on one occasion in 8 minutes I observed an Oriole (Oriolus

kundoo) to swallow 77 berries!

Birds as Scavengers.

The work of vultures and their ilk in the sanitation of villages

and the prevention of epidemics and pestilence struck me as in-

valuable. With the complete absence of sanitary arrangements of

any kind and where the entire population of a village is obliged

to troop out early in the morning to attend to the calls of nature,

often at no great distance from their hovels, it seems difficult to

imagine what the situation would end in with all this accumulated

* Flower-birds and Bird-flowers in India; Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

XxXxv, pp. 573-605,

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

filth, augmented as it is by every other conceivable form of refuse,

in the absence of the unfailing co-operation of Kites, Crows and

Vultures. At Borgampad I had special opportunities of observ-

ing the speed and efficiency with which these birds cleaned up the

village precincts. It was a feature of the place to see numbers

of Seavenger Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) perched expec-

tantly on stakes by the village in the mornings.

Apart from the human filth and garbage, I found that it was

the usual custom in Hyderabad villages when a bullock or other

animal died and the local chamars had removed their perquisites,

to dump the ecarecase just outside the village precincts, there to

putrify and befoul the air. During epidemics of rinderpest or

other cattle diseases, when the mortality is often considerable,

one shudders to think what the consequences would be in the

absence of co-operation from the Vultures.

The swiftness with which a party of Vultures can dispose of a

carcase is truly astounding. At Kaulas, I had occasion to test this.

After the skins of two bears we had shot that morning had been

removed, I had the carcases—which certainly could not have

weighed less than 250 lbs. between them—dragged out into a field

near camp where I wished to photograph the vultures at the feast.

The rabble that dropped from the blue within an astonishingly

short time consisted of the following species: Pseudogyps benga-

lensis, Gyps indicus, G. fulvescens, Torgos calvus, supplemented

by a few Neophrons, Kites (Milvus govinda) and Crows (Corvus

splendens and C. macrorhynchos). Altogether their number must

have been between 60 and 70. From my photographing ‘hide’ I

timed the proceedings and found that within the space of 40

minutes the birds had stripped the carcases so thoroughly that

nothing but the bare bones were visible, and fresh-comers at this

stage did not find it worth while to linger on the spot!

Systematic List.

FAMILY: CORVID2.

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle-Crow.

Corvus culminatus Sykes, P.Z.S.. 1832 (July), p. 96—Dukhun — Poona.

Specimens collected: —203 ¢ 31-10-31, 206 3 1-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.;

967 G 8-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 876 ¢$ 26-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 442 ¢

8-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 465 Q 18-12-81 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 595 dG 22-3-32

Kaulas 1,350 ft.; 717 Q 18-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.; 741 dg 23-4-382 Bhamarvadi

2,500 ft.

Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black; mouth slaty-black. In No.

206, mouth pink, tongue blotched with black.

The Jungle Crow is a generally distributed species in the Hyderabad State.

being usually met in association with C. splendens, in the neighbourhood of

villages and isolated homesteads in forest. It is invariably present at carcases

of cattle lying by the roadside, also at tiger and leopard kills in dense jungle,

whose whereabouts it helps to proclaim. In some localities it is destructive

to ripening Jowari crops.

Breeding: —On 18 March one was observed sitting on nest in a tall tree

near Nizamsagar tank. Specimen No. 595 (22 March) had the testes enlarged

to 13x9 mm.; in No. 717 the ovarian follicles were 1-2 mm. in diameter;

No. 741 (25 April) had the testes 8x5 mm. On 3 April (Utnoor) one was

observed carrying a stick in its bill and on 26 April (Kannad) a pair was

noted in copula on the ground, i |

‘asvoieo opisheM ®8 4e@ somnginA (8)

“LOYINP fiq 010Ug

ORC NAS Kal ‘209 ‘JISIH ‘3eN Aequog ‘uanor

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 369

From the above, it is evident that the breeding season was in progress in

March and April.

Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot. The Indian House-Crow.

Corvus splendens Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vii (1817), p. 44—

Bengal.

Nelipaka 160 ft.

Iris brown; bill, mouth, legs, feet and claws black.

Both birds are adult and completing an entire post-nuptial moult.

Invariably present as a commensal of man in towns and villages. Was

not observed at Farahabad (thick jungle with scattered Bhil homesteads)

where only small numbers of C. macrorhynchos were in evidence. Hxcess-

ively plentiful in and around Borgampad. In the evenings they regularly

flew across the Godavari River in small parties or large straggling rabbles

coming from immense distances to roost, presumably at Bhadrachellam on the

opposite bank. A regular frequenter of Butea and EHrythrina flowers and

apparently an important agent in their cross-pollination. Several observed

with a thick deposit of pollen on throat.

Breeding: —On 14 April (Aurangabad) a pair was seen building, but the

birds did not seem in earnest and it was obvious that the season had

not yet begun. In the Bheema Valley, according to Davidson and Wenden, it

breeds from May to July.

Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda (Latham). The Indian T'ree-Pie.

Coracias vagabunda Latham, Index Orinth., vol. i (1790), p. 171—India,

restricted to Calcutta.

Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Kinnear & Whistler.

Dendrocitta rufa vernayi Kinnear & Whistler, Bull. B.O.C., ccexliv, vol. Ll

(1930) p. 17—Nallamalai Range, 2,000 ft., 5. Kurnool.

(For the reasons for using vagabunda and not rufa, see Hastern Ghats

Sunvey weport: J-beN ES, vol; xxxv, p..ol4.):

Specimens collected:—26 J (imm) 5-10-31, 32 ¢ (mm), 83 ? (imm) 6-10-31,

122 9 (mm) 18-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 160 ¢ 17-10-81 Farahabad 2,800 ft.;

195 ? 80-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 290 SG 11-11-31, 327 929 (mm) 16-11-31

Nelipaka 160 ft.; 853 Q@ (mm) 21-11-31, 364 9 24-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.;

472 § 15-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 590 9, 591 Q 22-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.;

620 Q 1-4-382 Utnoor 1,250 ft.; 704 gd 17-4-32 Kannad 2,000 ft.

The mouth, slate coloured in the adult, is flesh-coloured in the young bird

until well after the post-juvenal moult.

[This is an interesting series as it well illustrates the intergradation between

the various races of this species. The three juveniles 26, 32, 38, and 122

from Manantr and 160 from Farahabad are, as one might expect, true vernayt.

Nos. 590-591 Kaulas, 620 Utnoor, 472 Asifabad, and 704 Kannad, as well as

specimens from Hswantaraopet, Pattencheru, Mukhaid and Mallapet which

Col. Sparrow has kindly lent to me, are still very close to vernayi but already

show traces of the passage into the larger pallidus of the N.-West. While

Nos. 353 and 364 from Paloncha, No. 195 from Borgampad and Nos. 290 and

327 from Nelpaka are markedly darker and, like Blanford’s bird from Duma-

gudiam (just across the Godavari from these localities, vide Eastern Ghats Survey

J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 514), though intermediate, are better classed with typical

vagabunda)—H.W. |

Generally distributed in well-wooded country and open deciduous forest. A

regular member of the localised bird associations in forest comprising numerous

insectivorous species (Drongos, Babblers, Tits, etc.) which were a conspicuous

feature of the Mananur jungles and were also noted subsequently at Paloncha

and elsewhere. I shall, in future, refer to these mixed gatherings or hunting

parties as ‘localised forest associations’.

Tree-Pies move about singly or in pairs or family parties, and are very

noisy, possessing a large repertoire of calls. Frequently observed feeding on

Peepal (Ficus religiosa) and Gulair (fF. glomerata) figs in an assorted company

of Green Pigeons, Parrots, Mynahs, Barbets and other species.

Breeding:—The breeding season apparently either varies in the different

portions of the State or is much prolonged. Specimens 26, 32, 33 and 122, all

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

obtained at Mananur between 5 and 18 October are immature birds with trans-

lucent and imperfectly ossified skulls. The first three were in company of

their parents who fed them from time to time and created a commotion when

they were shot. ‘These birds are probably not older than a month and a half,

which would take the laying of eggs back to about the end of August. 327

obtained on 16 November (Nelipaka) still had a partially soft skull, while

353 on 21 November also had the anterior portion of the skull in the same

condition. In 590 (22 March, Kaulas) the ovarian follicles appeared to be

developing (ca. 1 mm.) and on 23 April (Bhamarvadi)-I found a nest contain-

ing 4 hard-set eggs. 704 (17 April, Kannad) had the testes (slaty-pigmented)

ca. 5X3 mm. and an incubation patch present.

The nest was situated in a vertical fork of a Boswellia serrata tree at a

height of about 22 ft. on a densely wooded hillside. The eggs measured:

27x22, 29x22 (2) and 30x22 mm.

Col. Sparrow found it breeding commonly in the jungles 15-80 miles N.-W.

of Trimulgherry where he obtained eggs from 27 April to 12 July. He con-

siders the second half of June as the best time for fresh eggs.

A peculiar call uttered at this season is a long-drawn Mee-aao which I

associate with breeding.

One remark regarding the ‘localised forest associations’ might here prove

of interest. In regard to the South-Indian species of Tree-Pie (Dendrocitta

leucogastra) I find it has been commented by several authors that it associates

habitually with Dissemurus paradiseus. Whenever I came across D. paradiseus

in the Hyderabad State, in 9 cases out of 10 it was as a member of these

localised forest associations of which other unfailing members were Dendrocitta

vagabunda and Turdoides s. malabaricus. After careful watching with a view

to discover the reason of this association, I venture to suggest that it is merely

a convergence of interests—apparently an abundance of food—that brings the

different species together. This doubtless is the explanation for the alleged

habitual association of D. leucogastra and Dissemurus paradiseus also. I had

frequent opportunities of observing that in these gatherings the component

members profited not a little by the efforts of others. For instance a Grey

Tit, a Nuthatch or a Woodpecker scuttling along the trunk or branches of a

tree flushed a moth resting securely upon the protectingly coloured bark which

was promptly seized by a Drongo in waiting hard by, or a smaller insect

similarly chased and captured by a Minivet or Flycatcher. Babblers rum-

maging down below among the fallen leaves also frequently discharged the

function of beaters by disturbing winged insects seeking refuge on the ground.

Famity: PARIDA.

Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. The Southern Grey Tit.

Parus major mahrattarum Hartert, Nov. Zool. Vol. xii (September 1905),

p. 499—Ceylon.

Specimens collected: —28 ¢ 5-10-31, 61 g (Gmm) 8-10-31, 96 (¢) 11-10-31,

1 XO) Guan) NE NO-81) Wiemerte AO) ti. 5 LH gly lOil, ity gs (unin)

19-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 265 9, 266 G (mm) 8-11-31, 272 ¢, 273 ? (mm),

HE Oy Silas Wiss ON (eivoran)) MOPS, XS OQ (Guentan), SOPs i (tucawony) Lei

399 °? (mm) 16-11-31, 336 G (mm) 17-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 347 9, 348 °?

Gamm) 20-11-31, 881 ? (imm) 26-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 417 dG 3-12-31, 429 ¢

(imm) 6-12-31 Narsampét 800 ft.; 468 Q 14-12-81 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 574 9

19-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Kandahar, Mukher, Utnoor, Kannad, Bhamarvadi.

Tris brown; bill horny black; mouth pale pink; legs and feet bluish slate;

claws dusky. In the juvenile the bill is horny-brown, commisure and lower

mandible paler, but it rapidly becomes similar to that of the adult.

[In the above series the adult $ and @Q are alike though the 9 may

usually be distinguished by having the black pectoral patch smaller, the

central abdominal stripe narrower and both rather less glossy.

The juveniles of both sexes differ from the adults in having the black

cap duller and almost without gloss, and the black pectoral patch and abdo-

minal stripe smaller, duller and almost without gloss. The grey of the upper

plumage is darker, more leaden in colour, with in some specimens a very faint

greenish wash, that is they link up the two types of juvenile colouration

referred to in the Hastern Ghats Report.—H.W. |

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 371

Common throughout the surveyed portions of the Dominions. Usually met

with in small parties in deciduous forest, both hill and plain, clinging to the

bark of trees or sprigs of leaves hunting insects and occasionally uttering Joyous

whistling notes. Almost invariably present among the localised forest associ-

ations, sometimes with Machlolophus.

Breeding: —A number of the specimens collected in October and November

had the skulls imperfectly ossified, indicating that they were young birds of

the season. The last, No. 574 (19 March, Kaulas) although its ovaries were

in an undeveloped condition, was one of a pair, and my diary records that about

this time the birds were oftener seen in pairs than heretofore.

Col. Sparrow obtained eggs in the Eswantaraopet jungles, near Secunderabad,

between 5 July and 15 August. On 22nd July he found three nests with

oung.

‘ The breeding season in Hyderabad is presumably between July and Septem-

ber )

I may here remark that the Key relating to this bird on p. 74, Vol. 1 of

the New Fauna is totally unsatisfactory and misleading. Referring to the

no mention of the outermost pair of feathers which is entirely white, and the

second pair which is also largely of this colour! The question of the white

in the tails and its subspecific value has already been dealt with by Dr. C. B.

Meehurst (JJB.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 491) and by Mr. Whistler in the Hastern

Ghats Survey Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 518). In the Hyderabad series the

white wedge on the inner web of the penultimate tail feather varies from

23°5 to 34-5 mm. and in one example is as short as 16:5 mm.

Moreover under the ‘Description’ of this race on p. 77, the Fauna says:

. the nuchal patch hardly noticeable and the tail feathers wholly black

on both webs, with only narrow grey edges to the outer webs ..’ In the

case of the Hyderabad birds, both in life and where the neck had not been

telescoped in preparation of the skin, the white nuchal patch was by no means

inconspicuous.

I kept a-special look-out for Parus nuchalis, but failed to come across it

anywhere in the State.

Machiolophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth). The -Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Parus: aplonotus Biyth, J.A.S.B., xvi (1847), p. 444—Chaibasa, Singhbhum.

Specimens collected: —384 ? (mm) 6-10-81, 66 d¢, 67 0? (imm) 8-10-81,

70 3g 9-10-81, 128 Q@ 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 158 ¢ 159 ? (mm) 17-10-31,

Oh (mann) Py SMO Sil eh 2h Gana) 19-0 ok) sblarahabads 2-800) ai. 418) 7S,

419 - 3-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 679 ? 8-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Nirmal (Asifabad District).

Iris brown; bill horny-black; mouth pinkish; legs and feet slaty-blue;

claws darker. Soft parts similar in the juvenile, but the gape and mouth

may be bright yellow.

[This series unfortunately does not completely clear up the problem with

regard to the plumages of this species to which I drew attention in the Eastern

Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv. p. 520), as several of the specimens could

not be satisfactorily sexed.

There are only two specimens (Nos. 159 and 419) in which the black band

from the chin to the vent is replaced by dull olive-green, and both of these

unfortunately were not sexed. Their measurements and plumages however

suggest that they are adult females.

Nos. 34, 66, 67, 128, 170, 172 which all appear to be in juvenile plumage

or post-juvenal moult are all black breasted. I should not repose complete

confidence on the sexing of these specimens but they at least show that the

green stripe 1s not necessarily a sign of immaturity. Probably it will ultimately

be proved that the sexes differ as regards the colour of the band at all ages.

The juvenile may be distinguished from the adult by the shorter feathers

and less glossy black of the crown and crest; by the large yellow terminal spots

on the median coverts, the yellow terminal spots and faint yellowish edges

to the greater coverts and the much narrower tips and edgings to the ter-

tiaries, the latter being pale yellow rather than white; and by the narrower,

softer tail feathers with the white tips smaller and less pure.

These specimens provide a slight extension of the known range of this

species and race.—H.W. ]

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The distribution of this bird within State limits appears somewhat patchy

and local. After Manantr and Harahabad in the south, where it was common,

it was not again met (though specially sought) until I got to Narsampet where

it was distinctly rare. Of the only pair seen in the compound of the Dak

Bungalow at Nirmal (29 March) one had the breast and abdomen jet black

(g ?) and the other greyish-black (Q ?). At Utnoor it was also noted as

not common.

At Mananir and Farahabad (and elsewhere on the Amrabad Plateau) its

joyous musical chee-chee was one of the commonest bird voices in the deciduous

forest (hill and plain), and parties of four or five birds were invariably present

amongst the localised forest associations.

Breeding:—The Yellow-cheeked Tit is a late breeder. In a diary of 1925

J find that on October 15 (at Utnoor) a pair were nesting in a tree-hole about

20 ft. from the ground. There is also a note to the effect that others of the

species were in family parties at that time—parents with full-fledged young.

None of the specimens obtained by the Survey show any genital development,

but 5 of those obtained on the Amrabad Plateau beween 3 and 20 October are,

judging from the condition of their skulls, young of the season. The birds

here were also in family parties consisting of the parents and 38 or 4 young.

From the above evidence and from records relating to neighbouring areas I

would place the breeding season as between August and October.

The birds seen at Nirmal and Utnoor (29 March to 10 April) had paired off.

A male was singing on 8 April. The song resembles certain snatches from

that of Saxicola caprata, and the notes are more musical than those of Parus.

FAMILY: SITTIDZ.

Sitta castanea castanea Lesson. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Sitta castanea Lesson, Traité d’Orn., 18380 (September 25), p. 316—Bengal.

Specimens collected: —330 Q (imm) 16-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 575 Q (imm)

15-3-82, 588 ¢, 589 Q 21-3-82, 602 J 28-3-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Paloncha.

Iris dark brown; bill brownish-black; grey on culmen near forehead and

at chin; mouth pale pink; legs and feet slaty-brown.

[Not otherwise recorded from the Deccan.—H.W.]

inspite of the special look-out kept for these Nuthatches, none were met

at any of the other camps. It was rare at Paloncha.

At Nelipaka, in the course of 10 days’ collecting, only a single pair was

met with in open deciduous jungle, running up and down and around the stem

of a sapling. It was fairly common at Kaulas in the hilly deciduous country—

mostly in pairs.

The note commonly uttered is a quick-repeated double chilp-chilp.

Breeding :—None of the above specimens showed any genital development.

Nos. 330 and 575 were young of the season. In the former the skull was as

yet unossified on 16 November, while the latter (19 March) was an older bird

with merely two soft patches on the anterior portion of the skull. From this

it would appear that the species breeds towards the end of the monsoon. Col.

Sparrow, who found these Nuthatches fairly common in the Hswantaraopet

jungles near Secunderabad, observed a pair building on 4 April and _ took

fresh eggs on 22 July.

Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Sitta frontalis Swains., Zool. Ilus., Ser. i, pt. 1, 1820 (1 October), pl. 2—

Ceylon.

Specimens collected:—151 ? G@mm), 152 ¢, 1538 9, 154 ¢ 17-10-31, 178 9

19-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.

Hlsewhere not noted.

Iris and skin round eye lemon yellow; bill coral red, tip of upper mandible

brown; legs and feet brown with an orange tinge; soles of feet orange-yellow.

Mouth in immature bird coral red, gape yellow.

[This is an addition to the known distribution vide Eastern Ghats Survey

Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxv. 523. It has not before been recorded from the

iJeccah area proper.-—H.W.]

This Nuthatch was met with in heavy mixed Bamboo forest on _ hill-sides,

usually in (family?) parties of 4 or 5—once only a pair. The call is a loud

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 373 |

cheeping whistle, something between the notes of Diceum erythrorhynchum

and Leptocoma asiatica. This call is perhaps the latest diurnal bird note

in the forest, being frequently heard well after dusk, even after Gallus

sonneratt cocks have ceased crowing.

Breeding:—The gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped con-

dition. No. 151 (17 October) was a young bird of the season with the skull

as yet soft. From this it would seem that its parents must have bred con-

siderably later than the months mentioned in the Fauna (Vol. i, p. 188) or

in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 528).

Famity: TIMALIUDA.

Turdoides somervillei malabaricus (Jerdon). The Southern Jungle-Babbler.

Malacocercus malabaricus Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Ornith., text to pl. 19, 1845

(March)—Malabar.

Specimens collected:—24 Q 5-10-31, 40 9, 41 ¢ 6-10-31 Mananir 2,000 ft. ;

185 ¢ (mm) 29-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 641 ¢ 3-4-3832, 659 ? (juv.) 6-4-8382

Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Farahabad, Nelipaka, Paloncha, Narsampét, Asifabad,

Kandahar, Kaulas, Kannad.

Iris creamy white; bill pale yellow; mouth and commissure near gape

bright yellow; legs, feet and claws pale yellow. |

In the fledging chick (No. 659) the iris is greyish-brown; bill brownish-

flesh, lower mandible yellow; gape yellowish-cream; legs, feet and claws pale

flesh colour.

Generally distributed throughout the State in both dense and open deciduous

jungle as well as in scrub country surrounding cultivation. Also partial to

the shady mango topes so abundant in the Nander and Aurangabad Districts.

One of the most unfailing members of the localised forest associations

giving away the presence of these gatherings by its harsh squeaks and squab-

bling. Contrary to the view expressed in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S.,

xxxv, 740) I have time and again found it in association with Turdoides

striatus. This was specially noted in my field diary at the time.

Fond of Peepal figs (Ficus religiosa) on which it feeds in mixed company,

also of the round black drupes of Zizyphus cenoplia m the dispersal of whose

seeds it assists to a considerable extent. An important pollinating agent of

the flowers of Bombax malabaricum, Butea frondosa, and B. superba, Erythrina

indica and EH. suberosa, and many other species from which it may invariably

be seen sipping the nectar.

IT remarked that the birds in the Western portions of the State (Kannad,

Bhamarvadi, Aurangabad, etc.) also belonged to this race and were not the

more rufous typical somerville: of Bombay.

On 16 October (Farahabad) I came upon two young Hierococcyx varius among

a sisterhood of these Babblers, clamouring to be fed, which one of the flock

did from time to time. The cuckoos were already considerably larger than

“their foster-parents, and it was noteworthy that immediately one of these birds

left its perch and flew across to another, a member of the sisterhood promptly

gave the alarm as one hears on the approach of a hawk. It was clear from

this that the other birds of the flock realised that the young cuckoos were not

exactly of them, and even suspected them, nevertheless the mentality of the

foster-parents seems curious that in spite of these repeated alarms from their

brethren, they apparently failed to recognise that they had been duped, and

continued to tend the hefty impostors ! :

Breeding: —No. 41 (6 October) had the testes ca. 8x5 mm. and was pre-

sumably breeding. No. 185 (29 October) was immature, with a soft skull. In

No. 641 (3 April) the testes measured 11x7 mm.—breeding. No. 659 (6 April)

was a juvenile just out of nest and able to fly with difficulty. Its skull was

quite unossified. The rest of the specimens, all adult, had the organs in an

undeveloped condition. T’rom this it is clear that in Hyderabad State, as in

other portions of its range, the bird has no well-defined breeding season.

A point frequently observed by me, and one that I have not seen mentioned

elsewhere, is that breeding birds (pairs or incubating individuals) continue to

remain with the flock during this period, only detaching themselves now and

again to attend their private concerns. This I have found to hold good in

the case of T. striatus also.

$74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Oberholser. The White-headed Babbler.

Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Oberholser, Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington,

xxxlli, 1920 (December), p. 84—-Gingee [=Crateropus griseus, Fauna, ed. 1. |

Specimens collected: 48 ¢ 7-10-31 Mananutr 2.000 ft.; 161 g¢ (juv) 18-10-31

Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 291 g¢ (mm), 292 Q 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Borgampad, Paloncha, Asifabad,

Hyderabad City and Environs, Mukher, Utnoor.

Iris creamy white; bill, legs, feet and claws pale lemon; mouth pale yellow.

In the young bird the iris is greenish-grey; bill pale flesh colour; mouth

bright orange-yellow.

[Utnoor, Asifabad and Mukher shghtly extend the known range towards

the north-west.

I have not previously been able to examine a juvenile of this common

species. It resembles the adult, but the streaking of the mantle and the squama-

tion of the chin, throat and breast are very indistinct, these parts being pale

and almost unicolorous.—H.W.

This is the commonest Babbler in the gardens and environs of Hyderabad City.

It is generally distributed in the eastern portions of the State, but 1s appa-

rently absent to westward. None were seen at Kandahar, only a single flock

of 7 or 8 at Mukher, and thence again absent at Deglur, Kaulas, Aurangabad,

Kannad and Bhamarvadi.

It haunts both dense and secondary jungle—being a frequent member of the

localised forest associations—as well as scrub country in the vicinity of culti-

vation and human habitations. Its call is distinct and quite unmistakable with

that of T. s. malabaricus being a sharp musical trr-ri-ri-ri uttered as the tail

is spread and the bird nervously twitches its wings and pivots from side to side.

Commonly observed feeding on Gulair (Ficus glomerata) figs and berries of

Zizyphus cenoplia, and like the Jungle Babbler it is invariably present on

Hrythrina and Butea flowers, whose pollen may often be seen adhering to the

throat feathers.

Breeding :—No. 48 (7 October) had the testes enlarged to ca. 8x4 mm. and

was probably breeding. No. 161 (18 October) had the skull unossified and it

was just moulting out of juvenile plumage. No. 291 (11 November) was slightly

older, with only a soft patch in the centre of its skull. In No. 292, apparently

the mother of above, the organs had reverted to the normal condition. On

22 January three fully-fledged young were noted among a flock in a garden

at Saifabad (Hyderabad City) whom the parents fed from time to time. On

8 February I observed a pair from this same flock collecting twigs and rootlets

in a Loranthus clump on a Nim tree at about 14 ft., to which pieces of old

newspaper were being added. The pair detached itself from the sisterhood

and worked at the nest, chiefly in the early mornings. Lastly, on 12 April

a nest was found (loose cup of rootlets etc.) in a stunted Ficus growing hori-

zontally out of the fort ruins at Nirmal (Asifabad District) containing three

fresh eggs. While the owner was sitting on the nest, the rest of the sisterhood

kept within call in the vicinity. The eggs, turquoise-green and well-glossed,

measured 24x17, 28x18 and 24x19 mm. respectively.

rom the above evidence it appears that there is no well-defined breeding

season in the Hyderabad State, and that eggs are probably laid in most

months of the year.

I might here repeat that in my experience of the Hyderabad State, where-

ever their distributions coincided, I frequently found this species and the Jungle

Babbler lving side by side, and at times indeed as members of the same

localised forest association. I cannot therefore support the assertion made in

the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 740) that there is no association

in life between the White-headed and Jungle Babblers.

Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). The Common Babbler.

Cossyphus caudatus Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat., xxix (1823, December 27),

p. 268—India.

Specimens collected: —2 Q 25-9-81 Hyderabad City Environs 1,800 ft.;

713 3S 18-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Kandahar, and along Jedcherla-Achampet Road (Mahbub-

nagar District). Apparently absent on the Amrabad Plateau.

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 375

Iris brown or orange-yellow; bill fleshy-brown or brown with the base of the

lower mandible yellow; mouth pale flesh colour; legs and feet yellow; claws

horny brown.

In the young bird the gape and mouth are bright yellow.

[Il have been able to supplement this series with 5 skins collected by Col.

Sparrow at Trimulgherry and Partur, which he was kind enough to lend me.

Like the next species, the Common Babbler has evidently developed no races

in India proper apart from the extreme north-west.—H.W. |

Distributed fairly generally throughout the Dominions in open scrub jungle

and boulder-hillock country with sparse thorny bushes. It avoids actual forest

but, as at Asifabad and Paloncha, haunts bush jungle in the neighbourhood

of cultivation and on the fringe of forest.

These Babblers are particularly fond of hedges and patches of prickly scrub

separating fields, where they scuttle about like rats through the undergrowth,

uttering their pleasant trilly whistling calls. Vlocks of 7 to 10 birds com-

monly seen.

Breeding:—No. 2 (25 September) had the ovarian follicles ca. 1 mim. in

diameter, and they seemed to be developing. No. 857 (23 November) was

immature with as yet two soft patches clearly discernible on the skull. No. 457

(18 December) was younger still, with the entire skull unossified. Both 475

and 476 (16 December) showed signs of the beginning of genital development.

No. 606 (24 March) was like 457, while 713 (18 April) had the testes enlarged

to 14x7 mm. and was obviously breeding, though still member of a flock.

In the case of this species also there appears to be no hard and fast breeding

season within State limits. In the neighbourhood of Trimulgherry, Col. Sparrow

found eggs from 2 March to 11 July. According to him, March is the best

menth for fresh eggs in that locality.

Argya malcolmi (Sykes). The Large Grey Babbler.

Timalia malcolnu Sykes, P.Z.S., 18382 (July 31), p. 88—Deccan [ = Poona. ].

Specimens collected: —87 Q (juv), 88 Q 11-10-31 Mananur 2,000 ft.; 705 9

/E4= 30 ianmads 2-000" tt.

Elsewhere noted at: Hanamkonda (Warangal District), Kandahar, Mukher,

Aurangabad, Bhamarvadi, Hyderabad City Hmvirons (Himayatsagar and Muir

Alam Tanks).

Iris bright lemon-yellow; bill horny-brown, darker at gape and paler at base

of lower mandible; mouth blackish-brown; legs and feet brownish-grey; claws

dusky. In the juvenile, the mouth was bright lemon-yellow.

[Has no races.—H.W. |

The Large Grey Babbler appears to be much more common and generally

distributed in the western portions of the State (Mahrattwada) than in the

eastern (Telingana). Indeed, with the exception of a single flock seen at

Hanamkonda (Warangal District) I did not meet it at all at Borgampad, Neli-

paka, Paloncha, Narsampet, Asifabad or Utnoor. At Mananii, on the Amrabad

Plateau, where two of the specimens were procured, it was also far from

common. In the Nander and Aurangabad Districts it is certainly the com-

monest Babbler, haunting open Babul forest and ‘cultivation or sparsely

shrubbed country, interspersed with Mango and Nim trees.

Breeding :—No. 87 (11 October) was a young bird with soft skull and loose

untidy juvenile plumage. No. 88 from the same flock had undeveloped ovaries,

while some of the follicles in No. 705 (17 April) were over 1 mm. in diameter

and appeared to be enlarging. As in the other Babblers, the breeding season

within this area seems undefined.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes. The Deccan Scimitar-Babbler.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldti Sykes, P.Z.S. 18382 (July 31), p. 89— Dense Woods

of the Ghats’ [=Mahableshwar ].

Specimens collected:—136 Q 16-10-31, 147 2, 148 ¢g 17-10-31 Farahabad

2,800 ft.

Elsewhere not noted.

Tris reddish-brown; bill orange-yellow, a variable area dark brown; mouth

pink; legs and feet dusky plumbeous; soles lemon yellow.

[In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 741) I dealt in some

detail with subspecific variation of this Scimitar. Babbler and expressed the

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

hope that material procured by the Hyderabad Survey might clarify the situ.

ation. It has certainly helped to some extent. The bird was only met with

on the Amrabad Plateau, which is physically little but a continuation of the

Nallamalais. The three specimens obtained agree in size and colour with the

birds obtained by the Hastern Ghats Survey in the south-eastern ghats. It

therefore appears probable that this short-billed olive-brown form without a

black edge to the plastron is cut off by a break in distribution from either

iravancoreensis or horsfieldii or the long-billed bird of the Vizagapatum ghats.

If this is in future confirmed, I am of opinion that the race should be recognised

and named.—H.W. |

Curiously enough, the Scimitar Babbler was only met with at Mananur and

Farahabad on the Amrabad Plateau, and nowhere else within the State. They

were partial to Bamboo jungle, moving about in parties of 4 or 5, or pairs—

more commonly the latter—and were extremely shy. In the case of pairs

the male acts as leader and is followed about from one clump or tree to another

by the hen who acknowledges by a subdued kroo-kroo or krokant (accent on

second syllable) every one of his musical whistling calls. The birds were some-

times observed descending to the ground, hopping about and flicking over dry

leaves like Turdoides, or clinging to the side of a mud-bank or cutting and

digging vigorously for insects.

Breeding :—In the ¢, No. 148 (17 October), the testes were ca. 8X2 mm.

but the ovaries in both the 9 @ showed no signs of development.

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Iranklin). The Rufous-bellied Babbler.

Timalia hyperythra, Franklin, P.Z.S., 1831 (October 25), p. 118—Between

Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place and

Gurra Mundela.

Specimens collected:—180 ? (mm) 20-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 241 9

(imm) 4-11-31, 255 92 (amm) 6-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 300 ¢ 18-11-81, 315 ?

(imm) 316 2, 817 ? (mm) 15-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 3860 ¢, 361 ? Gmm)

23-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 403 G 1-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 601 ¢g 23-3-32

Kaulas 1,850 ft.; 678 ¢ 8-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Hlsewhere noted at: Nekonda (Warangal district), Pakhal Lake, Asifabad.

“* Tris- hazel brown; bill pale horny-brown, darker on upper mandible; mouth

pale fleshy pink; legs and feet pale yellowish. In the young bird the mouth is

tinged with yellow, the iris paler and the legs more brownish-fleshy.

[The above series was supplemented by the loan of 5 specimens from Mulkaram

and Hswantaraopet from Colonel Sparrow. Nos. 408, 601, 678 as well as Col.

Sparrow's birds are typical hyperythra. The others agree well with them, but

show a slight passage to the intermediate birds which were obtained by the

Hastern Ghats Survey in the Nallamalai range, a further proof if more were

needed that hyperythra and albogularis should be treated as races of one

species.

The juvenile plumage may be recognised by the broad, soft round-tipped

first primary and the soft narrow tail feathers. The post-juvenal moult is com-

plete and remarkable evidently for the very sudden casting of the tail feathers.

as in the case of Copsychus sauiaris.—H.W. |].

The Rufous-bellied Babbler was rare on the Amrabad Plateau where only a

single family party of 4 or 5 was met with at Farahabad among tall grass

imterspersed with thorn bushes. It was fairly generally distributed elsewhere

(where not replaced by albogularis), affecting hedges and thorny scrub country.

This little Babbler goes about in flocks of from 4 to 8 birds and lke albogularis

—-from which I found its voice and habits indistinguishable—keeps up a low

cheep-cheep (sometimes miustakable for Leptocoma) varied by harsh tittering

notes. It is an inveterate skulker. On taking alarm the party promptly dives

into the thickest portions of the undergrowth and disperses in all directions,

but soon reassembles by the louder and more agitated cheep’s and tittering of

its members.

- Kaulas was the most westerly camp at which this race was noted. At

Kannad its place had been taken by albogularis. The only occasion when I had

a veal suspicion of the ranges. of the two races overlapping was at Kaulas

where a party was seen in thick cover whose underparts appeared distinctly

paler than those of the birds I had met all along heretofore. Unfortunately a

specimen could not be secured.

co |

THK HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 3

Breeding: —No. 180 (20 October), 315 and 317 (15 November) and 361

(28 November) all had the skulls either wholly soft or in varying degrees of

but they were pulpy in texture suggesting that he had finished breeding. In

the rest of the specimens the gonads were undeveloped. From the above it

would appear that the breeding season is in the latter part of the monsoon.

Col. Sparrow, who found this bird very common in the Hswantaraopet

jungles near Secunderabad and also near the Hyderabad Residency, obtained

eges between 22 June and 381 August. He considers July to mid-August as

the best time for fresh eggs.

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth). The White-throated Babbler.

Malacocercus (?) albogularis Blyth, J.A.8.B., xvi, 1847 (after May), p. 453—

Taipoor Pass and near Jaulnah. (—Jalna, north-west Hyderabad State).

Specimen collected:—729 ¢ 21-4-82 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of soft parts as in hyperythra.

Only once met with. A flock of about 8 birds skulking in grass and thorny

undergrowth on a hillside near Outram Ghat.

Testes of specimen undeveloped.

Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Parus sinensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. 1, pt 1 (1789), p. 1012—China.

Specimens collected: —6 ¢ 25-9-31 Hyderabad City Environs 1,800 ft.; 91 3,

92-95 (juv) 11-10-81, 125 ¢ 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 209 9 (imm), 210 ¢

(imm) 1-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 345 ? (imm) 20-11-81, 852 ? 21-11-31 Paloncha

300 ft.; 418 ¢ .3-12-81 Narsampet 800 ft.; 469 9 (mm) 14-12-31 Asifabad

1,200 ft.; 573 ¢ 19-38-32, 599 J 23-3-32 Kaulas 1,400 ft.

Klsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Nelipaka, Nekonda (Warangal

District), Kandahar, Utnoor and Nirmal.

Tris orange-yellow; eyerim orange; bill black; legs and feet bright chrome-

yellow or brownish lemon-yellow; claws dusky. The mouth apparently differs

seasonally, black in the breeding season, otherwise orange-brown.

In the nestlings the iris is greenish-brown; bill pale horny-brown; gape

lemon-yellow; mouth bright chrome-yellow; legs and feet pinkish flesh colour;

tibio-tarsal joint bright yellow.

In immature birds, about the time of the post-juvenal moult, the bill is

borny-brown; gape black; nostri] area yeliow, and the yellow gradually fades

out of the mouth.

The juvenile plumage is very similar to worn adult plumage, but the wings

are a paler chestnut. The post-juvenal moult is complete.

[As remarked in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 745) it is

exceedingly doubtful whether the Indian Peninsuia bird is really the typical

form, but until more material is forthcoming from China the point cannot

be proved.—H.W. ]

Generally distributed throughout the State in suitable localities which consist

of tall grass-and-scrub country and hedges etc., on the fringe of cultivation.

I did not meet with this species in the north-western corner, at Aurangabad.

Kannad or Bhamarvadi.

Breeding:—On 11 October (Mananitir) a nest was found hung hammockwise

between the stems of some monsoon weeds (at about 18 in. from the ground)

in a small open patch in scrub jungle. The nest, a deep cup of rootlets etc.

bound and plastered with cobwebs, contained specimens 92-95 huddled together

in it. They were just old enough to flutter out when handled. From the

gonads of numerous specimens examined, and the fact that a large proportion

of those collected between October and December were immature with skulls

in varying stages of ossification, it is evident that the breeding season is in

the latter part of the monsoon.

Col. Sparrow obained eggs from 2 July to 22 September in the scrub-and-

grass country near Trimulgherry and in the EKswantaraopet jungles where this

Babbler was very common. He considers August to be the best time for

fresh eggs.

The stomachs of the nestlings (Nos. 92-95) contained green caterpillars and

soft portions of grasshoppers,

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Both parents share in the feeding of the young and also in incubation as

evidenced. by No. 91 which was busy feeding the above nestlings, and by

Ne. 418 which has a conspicuous incubation patch present.

The males continue to sing from exposed perches although in heavy post-

nuptial moult.

Peliorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. The Spotted Babbler.

Peliorneum ruficeps Swainson, Fauna Boreal. Amer., 1832 (Iebruary)

p. 487-—India.

Specimens collected: —3819 ¢ 15-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 358 QG 28-11-31

Patoncha 300 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Pakhal Lake.

iris orange-brown; bill pale flesh colour, horny-brown above; mouth pale

brownish and lemon-yellow; legs, feet and claws yellowish flesh colour.

Besides the localities named above, the Spotted Babbler was not met with

aithough in many places the country appeared eminently suitable. The birds

were very shy, and on the whole, silent, though where occurring they were

invariably heard singing in the early mornings and at dusk. They kept to

heavy scrub and secondary jungle, rummaging among dry leaves on the ground,

either in pairs or small family parties of 3 or 4. The members keep in touch

with one another by a subdued musical weet repeated at intervals of half a

second or more. ‘They also have a pretty call of 8 or 4 rich, mellow whistling

notes not unlike (and indeed sometimes easily mistakable for) those of an Iora-

whi-whi-whee (‘He'll beat you’ or ‘He will beat you’, occasionally varied by

merely ‘“He’ll beat’), ascending in scale. This is often repeated every two

seconds or so for quite ten minutes or more at a time. The other of the pair

(Q 2?) who is invariably near at hand, answers in very Iora-like notes (‘Its all--

right’). These replies, however, do not necessarily persist all the time the

cé (?) is calling.

The song, uttered from a perch, is a loud and pretty whistle of many

rambling notes, and is often prolonged for five minutes or more at a time.

Breeding:—The testes of my specimens were in an undeveloped condition

and both the birds were in heavy post-nuptial moult. The family parties were

observed to contain full-fledged young. As in the Konkan therefore, they appear

to breed in the latter part of the monsoon, which incidentally is much later

than in other parts of their range (March to June).

The suggestion on p. 2389 of Vol. 1 of the New Fauna that this bird apparently

does not breed below 2,000 ft. 1s certainly untenable. I have commonly found

it breeding at Kihim (Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency) at practically sea-

level, and there is good reason to believe that it also does so at Nelipaka 160 ft.

and Paloncha ca. 300 ft.

Aegithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Tora.

Aigithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker, Fauna B.I., Birds (2nd. ed.), vol. i,

July 1922 (—August 16, 1922), p. 342—Raipur, Central Provinces.

Specimens collected :—126 9 (imm) 14-10-31 Mananuar 2,000 ft.; 240 ? (mm)

4-11-31, 257 Q 6-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 287. ¢ 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.;

448 3, 449 Q 8-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 577 ¢ 19-38-32 Kaulas 1,350 ft.;

698 ¢ 16-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.; 742 9 24-4-32 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

Iris buff, greenish-buff, greyish-brown or silvery-fawn colour; bill bluish-grey.

black on culmen; mouth brown or blackish; feet slaty-blue; claws dusky.

Generally distributed and. common throughout the Dominions. Partial to

secondary jungle, gardens and groves, specially Mango, Nim and Tamarind.

Even <3 in non-breeding plumage indulge in their aerial displays, rising a

few feet in the air and returning to the perch fluttering, with tail depressed

and white rump feathers fluffed out. No. 448, an ad. ¢, although in fresh

winter plumage (testes undeveloped) was assiduously courting No. 449 (ovaries

undev.), flicking his wings, craning forward to bring his bill close to the hen’s.

and uttering a long-drawn musical chee-ee. The hen on the whole remained

supremely indifferent to his advances, merely snapping playfully at his bill

from time to time. The whistling calls of the cock are invariably responded

to by the hen hunting among the fohage hard by.

Breeding :—On 25 September a nest with three eggs was found in a garden

at Saifabad (Hyderabad City). Both parents were observed brooding in turns.

No. 126 (14 October) and 240 (4 November) were immature birds with soft

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 379

skulls, and the gonads and moults of the others suggested that breeding was

over. From the “evidence I have, it would appear that the latter part of the

monsoon (August, September) 1s probably the most favoured for breeding in

this area. It is possible that it breeds earlier in the year also since No. 698 ¢

(16 April) was in full breeding plumage and had testes measuring ca. 4x2 mm.

Col. Sparrow found the Iora very common in and around Trimulgherry and

also in the Kswantaraopét jungles, where he took eggs from 6 April to 11 Sep-

tember. He considers July and August the best months for fresh eggs. On

20 July, he found three nests with young.

Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Phyliornis jerdom Blyth, J.A.S.B., xin, 1844 (after December), p. 392—

Goomsoor.

Specimens collected :—87 9 6-10-31, 60 ¢ 8-10-31 Mananir 2,000 ft.; 587 ?

21-3-382 Kaulas 1,350 ft.

Iris brown; bill S horny black; Q horny-brown, bluish-grey at base and

basa! half of lower mandible; mouth leaden pink. Legs and feet ¢ pale bluish-

slate, Q greyish plumbeous; claws dusky.

Jerdon’s Chloropsis appears to be somewhat patchily distributed in the

Hyderabad State, being confined to the more forested and hilly portions. I did

not meet it at Kandahar, Mukher, Deglir, Aurangabad or Kannad. It was

commonest at Farahabad on the Amrabad Plateau, though even here by no

means plentiful, and rather rare elsewhere.

The birds go about in pairs and were frequently noted as members of the

localised forest associations. It is an accomplished mimic, among others imitat-

ing both Dicrurus macrocercus and D. cerulescens to perfection. One near the

Farahabad Forest Bungalow was timed for over 40 minutes at this mimicking

game, during which it imitated in rapid succession the two Drongos, Molpastes

cafer, Orthotomus sutorius, Dendrocitta vagabunda and Turdoides striatus, while

some of the harsh vulgar squeals of Lanius caniceps were also reproduced. On

another occasion I was taken in by its very colourable imitation of Graucalus

macei and the Striped Squirre! (Funambulus). Its own call of several notes

is distinct, and is occasionally wedged in between the mimicry.

Breeding :—All three specimens were adult, but their breeding organs—of

the two sexed—were in a quiescent state.

In the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 752) it is stated that

Col. Sparrow found Chloropsis aurifrons insularis breeding about Eswantaraopet

near Secunderabad from the end of June to the middle of August, but that

most eggs were obtained in early July. On enquiry, Mr. Whistler informs me

that Col. Sparrow’s collection contained no specimen of aurifrons from any

part of Hyderabad and that in his breeding notes for this area he does not give

jerdoni at all! As I myself failed to come across aurifrons in any of the

localities surveyed it is clear that Col. Sparrow has been under a misappre-

hension and that his information as regards nesting really relates to jerdoni.

Faminy: PYCNONOTIDA.

Molpastes cafer cafer (liinneus). The Red-vented Bulbul.

Turdus cafer linneus, Syst. Nat., xi ed., vol. 1 (1766), p. 295—Cape of

Good Hope, (errore), Ceylon.

Specimens collected:—105 ¢ 12-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 186 $9? 29-10-31

Borgampad 160 ft.; 456 Q 12-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 525 9 8-3-3832 Mukhér

1,356 ft.; 714 9 18-4-32 Kannad 2,000 ft.

Iris dark brown; bill black; legs and feet brownish-black; mouth orange-

yellow in No. 105, a mixture of grey, yellow and pink in the others.

[Definitely of this race in plumage though shehtly larger than individuals

from the extreme south as they approach the range of pallidus.—H.W. |

The Red-vented Bulbul is widely distributed and exceedingly common through-

out the State, being in many localities the commonest bird on the countryside. It

inhabits sparse secondary jungle, scrub country and gardens, both near and away

from human habitations, and avoids the more densely forested tracts. This

species is largely responsible for the seed dispersal of a great many plants

in Hyderabad, the commonest being Zizyphus cnoplia, and the various kinds

of Ficus that fruit in such _ profusion every where. It is also an important

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

pollinating agent of many flowers such as Bombax, EHErythrina and Butea,

while on occasion I have observed it probing into the tubular scarlet flowers of

Woodfordia fruticosa.

Bulbuls were much prized as fighting birds in Hyderabad a few years ago,

before the law prohibiting animal fights came into force. It was then a familiar

sight to see the sporting ‘bloods’ sauntering about the bazaars with their

birds, secured by a string brace, perched on a finger and being made much of.

Large sums were wagered on those bouts and victorious birds fetched big prices.

Breeding:—On 12 May (1927) I found a nest at Saifabad (Hyderabad City)

containing two young, about 10 days o'd. On 28 May (1928) Mrs. Tasker had

a nest in a clipped Bougainvillea shrub in her garden at Begampét

(Hyderabad City Environs) containing 1 egg. On 13 October (1931) I observed a

full-fledged young at Manantr being fed by its parents. The ovarian follicles

of No. 714 (16 April, Kannad) clearly showed signs of enlarging. I believe in

the Hyderabad State also—as in the Konkan and elsewhere—the breeding

season is much prolonged, ranging between April and September.

Otocompsa jocosa emeria (Linn.). The Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Motacilla emeria Linneus, Syst. Nat., x ed. (1758), vol. i, p. 187—Bengal.

Specimen collected :—242 J 4-11-81 Borgampad 160 ft.

Tris brown; bill dark horny-brown; mouth lemon-yellow and pink; legs, feet

and claws dark horny-brown.

[Mr. D’Abreu has kindly let me see a female of this race, one of a pair,

obtained by him at Nagptr on 7-4-1932.—H.W.|]

Only seen twice within State limits: a pair in riverain jungle on the bank

of the Kinarsani River near Borgampad (specimen), and another pair on 23

November in scrub jungle at Paloncha. Absent elsewhere.

The organs of the specimen were in an undeveloped condition.

Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson). The White-browed Bulbul.

Hematornis luteolus Lesson, Revue Zool., December 1840 (January 1841)

p. 854—India, Bombay.

Specimens collected: —68 9 9-10-81, 111 ? 18-10-31 Mananutr 2,000 ft.; 289

co 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.

Tris reddish-brown; bill horny-black; legs, feet and claws horny-brown

mouth yellowish-pink (No. 68), pinkish grey (No. 111), bright yellow (No. 289).

Bill of 111, in post-juvenal moult, dark horny-brown; legs and feet dark slate

colour.

The White-browed Bulbul is a common garden bird in Hyderabad City and

environs. It is fairly generally distributed in the State, though I have no

record of it from Aurangabad, Kannad or Bhamarvadi while at Kandahar

Miukhér and Deglir it was definitely noted as absent. At Kaulas it was un-

common. The birds were usually met with in pairs, affecting scrub jungle

and bush country on the fringe of forest clearings. Along with other species, it

was observed to feed largely on the small round black drupes of Zizyphus

enoplia, so abundant everywhere, and it doubtless plays an important part in

the dissemination of its seed.

The organs of No. 68 and No. 289, both adult, were in a quiescent state.

No Microscelis p. ganeesa was met in Hyderabad in spite of the range given

in the New Fauna as from Matheran southwards.

FAMILY: CERTHIDZ.

Salpornis spilonotus spilonotus (Franklin). The Spotted Grey Creeper.

Certhia spilonota Franklin, P.Z.S., 1830-81 (1831, Oct. 25), p. 121—Between

Caleutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place and

Guru Mundela.

Specimens collected :—739 ¢@, 740 Q 22-4-32 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

Tris brown; bill, upper mandible and commissure of I.m. horny-brown, re-

mainder of lower mandible flesh colour; legs and feet greyish-brown; claws

brown.

The above was the only pair met with in the Hyderabad State—in fairly open

deciduous forest.

Breeding :—Shot off nest containing 2 eggs. Both parents share in incuba-

tion; the Q who was on the nest was relieved by the ¢ while I was watching.

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 381

The testes of the ¢ measured ca. 5X3 mm.; the follicles of the Q 1-1.5 mm.

The nest, a deep cup, was fixed in a crotch of a black- and rough-barked leafless

Acacia sapling at a height of about 10 ft. Its exterior was composed entirely

of cobwebs, caterpillar droppings, vegetable down and spiders’ egg cases. It

was blackish in colour and perfectly camouflaged among the built-in supporting

branches. Inside diameter of cup 45 mm., thickness of wall 12 mm., inside

depth of cup 45 mm. It was lined with soft spiders’ egg-bags and some dry

Acacia leaflets which may possibly have dropped in accidentally.

The eggs, slightly set, measured 19.513 and 19x13 mm. respectively. Pale

greenish-grey with dark brown specks and paler phantom blotches, specially on

the broad end.

Faminty: . TURDIDZ.

Saxicola caprata bicolor. Sykes. The Northern Indian Stone-Chat.

Saricola bicolor Sykes P.Z.S., 1832 (July 81), p. 92—Dukhun.

Saxicola caprata burmanica Stuart Baker. The Burmese Stone-Chat.

Saxicoia caprata burmanica Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., xlii (1923), p. 19—

Pegu.

(imm.) 30.10.31, 256 ¢ 6.11.81 Borgampad 160 ft.; 461 ¢ 18.12.31 Asifabad

1,200 ft.; 518 G 5.38.32 Kandahar 1,400 ft.; 689 ¢ 9.4.32 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Iris dark brown; bill @ black, base of lower mandible brownish, Q dark

brown; mouth pale pink; legs, feet and claws black.

[It is interesting to note, and it incidentally illustrates the value of the

recognition of subspecies, that I had already satisfied myself from the examina.

tion of the specimens sent (before Mr. Ali’s notes arrived) that two races of

the Pied Stone-Chat occur in the Dominions.

Nos. 461 and 513 most clearly belong to the north-western race bicolor which

is evidently a common winter visitor to the Dominion, and this is confirmed by

the fact that No. 513 was extremely fat, evidently in preparation for migration.

at a time when the resident form was ready to breed. It also explains how the

Deccan can be the type locality for Sykes’ name.

The other birds all belong to the small-billed form with very little white on

the underparts which was obtained by the Eastern Ghats Survey and which I

have already shown to be identical with S.c. burmanica of Stuart Baker. This

hame is as a matter of fact probably antedated by Motacilla sylvatica Tickell,

J.A.S.B., 1833, p. 575—Bhorabhum and Dholbum, but I have not yet been

able to examine specimens from that area to confirm this identification.

Some form of Pied Bush-Chat breeds very commonly along the Sahyadris

and it is desirable to obtain series to show what this race is.—H.W. |

The Pied Stone-Chat, or Bush-Chat as it is sometimes called, was not

observed at Aurangabad, Kannad or Bhamarvadi, but was otherwise found

generally distributed throughout the Dominions. I believe in the cold weather

there is a great influx of birds from the N.-W. On 11 October (1931) I have

the following note in my diary: ‘Appear to have increased markedly during

the past two or three days. For one single specimen seen in the village

precincts previously, there were at least six males in evidence this morning.

Some of the males are still in song uttering this from roof-tops and other

exposed situations’. The increase continued and was noted on subsequent days

also. The birds are as a rule tame and confiding and frequent the neighbourhood

of cultivation and villages, where they are commonly seen perched on stones.

fences, etc. They appear to have a particular attraction for hedges of the

Century Plant (Agave).

Breeding: No. 196 (80 October) was an immature bird. with soft skull,

evidently of a late brood. At the middle of March I noted males singing voci-

ferously from roof-tops, etc. at Deglur. There were no hens in evidence, and

from the frequent chasing off of other intruding males 1t appeared as though

they were establishing breeding territories. As an alternative, however, it may

be that the hens were already on eggs.

The song begins with a double chich-chick, and is in many respects similar

to that of Sasicoloides or of Melophus. The singing bird occasionally takes

short ludicrous jumps into the air, and returns to its perch. It sometimes

indulges in a song-flight, describing an aerial arc, flapping its wings deliberately

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

over its back, like a pigeon ‘clapping’. On 27 March at Kaulas, males were

in full song on every side. A nest was discovered in a crevice of the ruined

fort wall. It was a shallow pad of soft grasses with a depression in the

centre, sparsely lined with hair and seed-down. It contained three fresh eggs

of a pale sea-green ground colour, with brownish-red specks and blotches, chiefly

Pip wins) lotoRiGl eine, WMmesy imeersuncecls I) <li ior, (1), Is) mm, @).

On 28 March (Kamareddi Railway Station) a nest was located in the side

of a dry depression in a field. Specimen No. 689 (9 April) had the testes

enlarged to 10X7 mm. and obviously had its mate on a nest in the vicinity.

On 11 April (Itchora, Asifabad District) a nest was found, just completed, in

a niche in the side of hollow ground, close to the Dak Bungalow. On 12 April

(Nirmal) a male was observed carrying food to young, and on 29 April (Hydera-

bad City) a pair were breeding in a hole in a pucca-built well.

In the examples not mentioned above, the gonads were in an undeveloped

condition.

The evidence clearly indicates that the breeding season proper extends from

March to June.

Col. Sparrow found it breeding very commonly near Trimulgherry where

he obtained eggs between 23 March and 23 June.

All the breeding (resident) birds certainly belonged to a very black race

closely resembling atrata having only a very little white on the vent.

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). The Indian Bush-Chat.

-Pratincola indica Blyth, J.A.S.B., xvi (1847), p. 129—India, Calcutta.

Specimens collected:—121 9Q 18-10-31 Mananur 2,000 ft.; 278 @ 9-11-31

Nelipaka 160 ft.; 384 ¢@ 27-11-31 Paloncha 3800 ft.; 409 9? 2-12-31 Narsampet

800 ft.; 515 ?, 516 Q 7-3-82 Mukher 1,350 ft.

Jris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black; mouth pink, yellowish-pink or

pinkish-slate.

[It is not generally known that in this race of Bush-Chat the first-winter

3 may be found in two states of plumage and as there is no Spring moult

it is also to be found breeding in them:—(a) Quite indistinguishable from the

female though tending to be slightly darker in tint throughout, (b) Similar to

the adult male except that the primary-coverts, primaries and _ secondaries

and narrow tail feathers of the juvemle plumage are retained; the fringes on

the black of the ear-coverts, chin and throat are wider and paler at first,

before wear, almost obscuring the characteristic male colouration.

The adult and first-year 9 9 cannot with certainty be distinguished except

when the narrow juvenile tail feathers are recognisable as such.—H.W. ]

The earliest date on which I encountered the Indian Bush-Chat was 3 October

(between Jedcherla Railway Station and Achampét, on the road to Mananir).

It is possible they may have come in earlier, but in the environs of Hyderabad

City at any rate none were to be seen between 20 September and the above

date. After 17 March (Deglur) I did not meet it anywhere.

Although generally distributed in the State during the cold weather, being

present in pairs or singly on hedges and in the neighbourhood of jowari fields.

fallow land, etc., it was not really abundant anywhere. Mukhér is the only

place at which IT have noted it as common.

The gonads of all my specimens, of course, were in an undeveloped condition.

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis. (Blyth). The Wheatear.

Saxicola atrogularis Blyth, J.A.S.B., 1847, p. 181—Upper Provinces.

IT find a note in my diary of 1925 that several Wheatears were observed

along the route from Nirmal to Utnoor (via Talamadri village) between 12 and

15 October. I did not, however, come across this bird anywhere within the

State in the course of the present Survey.

According to its distribution as given in the New Fauna (Vol. i, p. 52)

its occurrence in the Deccan would seem improbable. However, a specimen

was procured by me in Salsette (Pali Hill, Bandra) on 27-2-24 and there are

two others in the Society’s Collection obtained by Mr. N. B. Kinnear at Santa

Cruz, not far from the above, on 12-11-12 and 14-1-13 respectively. It is

obvious that the Fauna ‘distribution’ stands in need of correction.

Phoenicurus ochrurus rufiventris. (Vieill.) The Redstart.

Ginanthe rufiventris Vieill. Nouv, Dict. D’Hist. Nat., Nouy. ed. xxi (1818),

p. 431—Bengal,

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 383

Specimens collected:—82 ¢ (imm) 10-10-31, 103 g 12-10-31 Mananur

2,000 ft.; 252 ¢ (imm) 5-11-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 3801 ¢ 18-11-31, 3138 ¢

14-11-81 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 398 Q 1-12-31 Narsampét 500 ft.

Iris brown; bill horny-brown or blackish-brown; gape and mouth yellow; legs,

feet and claws horny-brown or brownish-black; soles yellow.

[These examples all appear to me to be this race which is recognisable from

P. 0. phenicuroides by its slightly larger size, and by the smaller proportion

of grey fringing to the upper plumage, especially on the crown. The @ is

rather darker both above and below. In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S.,

Xxxvl, p. 70) I have written a note on the respective distributions of these two

forms in India.—H.W. |]

The earliest record I have of this species is 25 September, from the boulder-

and-scrub country in the neighbourhood of Mir Alam Tank (Hyderabad City

Environs). I am informed by an old resident that Redstarts make their appear-

ance invariably on the 23rd. of September each year! Last seen: 1 April

(Utnoor).

Generally distributed in the State in the cold weather, being commoner in

some localities than in others. It haunts gardens, village precincts, open stony

country, and the boulder hillocks which are such a feature of many parts of

the Deccan. In this last environment its colour harmonizes so perfectly with

the basalt rock as often to render the bird quite inconspicuous even at close range.

On 12 October (Mananir) my diary notes Redstarts as having been on the

increase during the past 2 or 3 days. On 5 November (Borgampad) there was

a large preponderance of males over females, and they were extremely shy.

No Redstarts were observed at IKaulas between 21 and 28 March and in the

first ten days of April only a single bird (the last) was noted at Utnoor (1 April).

From the fact that this spec:es was common at Asifabad (only ca. 85 miles to the

east of Utnoor, and similar country) between 10 and 20 December, I conclude

that the majority had migrated northward by the end of March.

Nos. 82 (10 October) and 252 (5 November) were young birds with imperfectly

ossified skulls. The gonads of all the specimens were in an _ undeveloped

condition.

Gyanosylvia svecica subsp? The Bluethroat.

Motacilla svecica Linn., Syst. Nat., x ed., vol. 1 (1758), p. 187—Sweden.

Specimens collected:—191 ? 80-10-31 Borgampad 160 ft.; 402 9 (imm)

1-12-31 410 9? (Gmm), 411 Q (imm) 2-12-31 Narsampet 800 ft.; 455 ¢ 12-12-31

Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 488 9? 1-3-82 Kandahar 1,400 ft.; 544 ¢G 14-38-32, 553 ?

15-3-32 Deglur 1,300 ft.

Iris dark brown; bill horny-brown; gape yellow; mouth bright lemon.

yellow; legs, feet and claws horny-brown, soles yellow. Hinder aspect of

tarsus sometimes yellow.

[Three skins kindly lent to me by Col. Sparrow from Kharkeli, Trimulgherry

and Chintakani evidently all belong to the same form as this series. These

birds may perhaps belong to the race pallidogularis. though the apex

of the wing, which ranges from 16-5 to 21 mm. seems rather too long for it.

Im’ the Hastern Ghats Report (U.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 71) I have already

explained that it is hardly possible to be sure of the racial identification of

Bluethroats obtained in India in winter, because at present we are unable

to be satisfied as to which of the many new races described from Northern

and Central Asia by the Russians are valid, and also whether they can be

separated in winter plumage, even if recognisable in the breeding areas.—

—H.W.]

Hirst met 80 October (Borgampad); last 15 March (Deglur).

Bluethroats were noted as common in the Tamarisk beds (Phyllanthus

Lawi) on mudhanks in the Godavari River at Nelipaka, and generally distri-

buted in suitable country such as swampy paddy fields, grass and reeds on

the fringe of tanks, and on moist ground with Babul or any kind of under-

erowth. At Asifabad it was also frequently met in straggly abandoned cotton

fields and hedges, on ground not necessarily damp.

No. 402 (1 December) was still quite young with soft skull, while Nos. 410

and 411 (2 December) were somewhat older, having the unossified portion

confined as a patch to the centre of the skull. Nos. 488 (1 March), 544 and

553 (14 and 15 March) were all extremely fat, suggesting that they were

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

preparing to emigrate. In none of the specimens did the gonads show a

departure from the normal (undeveloped) condition.

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia. Whistler and Kinnear. The Indian Robin.

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia Whistler and Kinnear, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

p. 73. (15 November, 1932)—Rahuri, Ahmednagar.

Specimens collected: —183 ¢ 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 271 ¢ 9-11-31,

288 ¢ 11-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 477 ¢ 16-12-31 Asifabad 1,200 ft.; 6382 <,

633 Q 2-4-32 Utnoor 1,250 ft.; 744 2 24-4-82 Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

Iris brown; bill horny-black; mouth brownish-pink; legs, feet and claws

dark horny- -brown.

[The series obtained, agreeing with seven specimens from Trimulgherry and

Dichpalli kindly lent to me by Col. Sparrow, and three from Aurangabad in

Col. H. R. Baker’s collection, all belong to the intermediate form long recog-

nised as existing in the centre of the Peninsula. The ¢ has the black back

and crown heavily washed with brown, but this brown is not the grey-brown

of the N.-W. Indian form cambaiensis, but far darker and more chocolate

in tint. The @ is dark agreeing with the 9 of the South-Indian fulicata. As

I have already pointed out in tne Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

p. .73) this so-called intermediate is a perfectly recognisable race with a

definite distribution and herefore worthy of subspecific recognition.—H.W. |

The Indian Robin is exceedingly common throughout the State, affecting

gardens, groves, village precincts, boulder and cactus country and cultivation,

as well as deciduous forest. It is tame and confiding everywhere. At Nelli.

paka a 9 regularly used to enter the shed where we were encamped and hop

about the floor in among boots and other paraphernalia calmly searching for

insects within a few inches of our feet! No. 271 was killed by a villager

with a stick whilst perched on a fence.

Breeding:—The breeding season in this area is between February and

May, the principal months being March and April. Between 25 March and

25 April eight nests were found with either eggs or chicks: Kaulas 1, Utnoor 3.

Nirmal 1, Bhamarvadi 3. Two or three eggs or young seemed to be the rule.

The nests were situated in holes in buildings, hollow tree stumps, niches in

earth cuttings, and in one case on the ground at the base of a tussock of grass

in sparse scrub country. On a nest containing two eggs under a rafter of the

Utnoor Dak Bungalow, I observed that the 2 brooded only at night leaving the

nest unattended by day. The mid-day temperature then was ca. LOOOF. in the

shade and immediately under the tiles must be considerably higher. An almost

full-fledged young at Nirmal (nest in ruimed wall) feigned death when touched.

in a very convincing manner, closing its eyes, extending its neck and maintain-

ing its limpness when handled! In 6382 and 633 (2 April) the organs were

enlarged tc breeding size. No. 744 (24 April) had apparently finished laying.

In the rest of the specimens, the gonads were undeveloped.

Copsychus saularis saularis. Linneus. The Magpie Robin.

Gracula saularis Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x, (1758), vol. i, p. 109—Asia= Bengal.

Specimens collected: —171 ? (imm) 19-10-81 Farahabad 2,800 ft.; 314. ‘ei

14-11-81 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 885 9 Paloncha 300 ft.

Tris brown; bill brownish-black or black; mouth greyish-pink or pale flesh

colour. In 171 (mm) the gape and mouth were pale yellow. legs, feet and

claws in 171 and 385 slaty brown, in 314 black.

The Magpie Robin is generally distributed throughout the State, haunting

gardens, scrub country and sparse jungle. It is also found sparingly in

deciduous forest. At Manantr and Farahabad (3-22 October) it was observed

singly in heavy scrub, shy and retiring, and only showing itself among the

thickets rarely. It was silent, and the only notes then uttered were a high-

pitched rather mournful chee-ee and low chur-r-r’s which were some of the

commonest sounds in the scrub jungle at dusk. It is perhaps on account of

its unobtrusive and silent habits at this time of the year that Butler (S.F., ix

p. 404) considered it only as a seasonal visitant in the Deccan.

3 November (Borgampad) is the first date I have on record on which one

was heard attempting to sing. On 380 November it was first heard actually

singing from an exposed tree- “top. By about the middle of March the singing

had increased considerably, until at the last camp, Bhamaryadi (19-24 April)

THE HYDERABAD STATE QRNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 385

males were in full song on every side. Mrs. Tasker notes that on 28 May

(1928) it was in full song at Begampet (Hyderabad City Hnvirons).

A habit, observed by me several times, is worth recording. A bird that has

been attracted to the ground on the movement of an insect among the dry

leaves, rapidly opens and closes its wings obviously to ‘beat out’ the lurking

prey which has taken refuge in the meanwhile. The effect of this manoeuvre

is easily perceived if the bird is watched for some time. Immediately after a

‘flap’ he is seen hopping up to pick the fleeing morsel with which it flies up

into the branches above.

Breeding:—I1 was unable to obtain any satisfactory evidence of its breeding

within this area during the time I was in the field. No. 171 (19 October) was

certainly a young bird of the season with a soft skull and in heavy general

moult. On 80 March a pair was observed at Nirmal distinctly interested in a

nesting site (hole in wall), while by the end of April all birds had paired off,

and from their generally excited behaviour seemed ready to breed, if not

actually doing so at the time.

Col. Sparrow found nests round Trimulgherry from 10 May to 12 July, the

majority being in May and June.

Kittacincla malabarica malabarica. (Scopoli). The Shama.

Muscicapa maiabarica Scop., Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr., 1 (1786), p. 96—

Mahé, Malabar.

(For reasons for this name see Hastern Ghats Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

pears)

Specimen collected :—340 ¢ 19-11-31 Paloncha 300 ft.

Tris dark brown; bill horny-black; mouth pale yellowish-pink; legs, feet

and claws pale flesh colour.

[This specimen has a curiously short tail—144 mm.—for this race. 12 ¢¢

from the Western Ghats have tails 160-207 mm., and 9 ¢@¢ from the Hastern

Ghats have tails 160-200-5mm.

Although the Shama is well distributed down the Western Ghats from

Khandalaé southwards, in the Vizagapatam Ghats and in the HKastern Ghats

towards the direction of Madras, this specimen affords the only record between

those three areas._-H.W. |

This was the only examp'e met in Hyderabad State. It kept to dense scrub

and thorny undergrowth, and was silent.

Testes undeveloped.

Turdus simillimus mahvattensis Whistler & Kinnear. The Black-capped

Black-bird. itunes ea ee Si em ad tap ae ne

Turdus s:millimus mahrattensis Whistler & Kinnear, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

p. 76 (15 Nov. 1932)—Mahableshwar.

Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Tris brown; bill: in No. 189, upper mandible dark horny-brown; tip and

terminal half of lower mandible in No. 655 orange; gape, eye-lids and mouth

bright orange-yellow; legs, feet and claws dusky orange.

[It has already been explained in the Hastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S.,

XXXvl, pp. 75-76) that the name nigropileus 1s a synonym for simillimus and the

above hame was then proposed by me to take the place of nigropileus auctorum.

No. 1389 is a ¢ in first year plumage very’ similar to that of the 9. No. 655

is a Q. These two specimens do not agree exactly with corresponding stages

of this blackbird from the Sahyadri range but they are very similar to birds

from Raipur in the Hume collection. The series of T. s. spencet obtained by

the Hastern Ghats Survey on which that race was named consisted entirely

of adult Gd. Direct comparison is therefore impossible but I am of opinion

that these birds will eventually prove to be closer to the Western Ghats

form with which I now therefore include them, though doubtless intermediate

in character.—H.W.].

It is noteworthy that the above two were the only examples of the Black-

capped Blackbird I came across in the State. They were both single and

silent. Once at Kandahar (5 March) however, I think I heard the familiar

throaty quick-repeated chuck-chuck-chuck uttered by this species, in a mango

tope adjoming our camp. The bird itself was not seen.

Gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped condition.

(oe)

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby). The White-cheeked Ground

Thrush.

Turdus cyanotus Jardine and Selby, Illustr. Orn., 1 (1828 April), pl. xlvi—

India, Bangalore.

Specimens collected: —339 ¢ 17-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft; 342 ¢ 19-11-31

Paloncha 300 ft.; 656 9, 657 Q 5-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Iris dark brown; bare skin behind eye slate colour; bill slaty brown or

horny brown, base of lower mandible flesh colour; mouth fleshy pink, greyish-

pink or yellowish-pink; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh colour.

Besides the above localities this thrush was only met by me near the

Pakhal Lake. It was nowhere common, but rather more abundant at Paloncha

than in the other localities. I usually found it singly on the ground

under thick tangles of roots and stems of Zizyphus and other brushwood,

where it rummaged amongst the dry leaves for insects. On being disturbed it

promptly flies up into the bush where it sits silent and motionless, descending

again unmediately things are quiet, to resume its quest for food.

Breeding :—Nos. 656 and 657 (5 April) shot in thick deciduous jungle among

bushes lning a forest stream, had paired off. The testes of the $ measured

3x2 mm. and showed indications of enlarging. In the 9 also the ovarian

follicles were clearly discernible though as yet minute.

In both Nos. 889 (17 November) and 342 (19 November) on the other hand,

the testes were in a totally undeveloped condition.

The breeding season apparently coincides with that along the Western

Ghats, i.e., June, July and August. At EHEswantaraopéet where it is fairly

common, Col. Sparrow found 2 eggs on 10 June, and young on 6 August.

Monticola solitaria pandoo. (Sykes). The Blue Rock-Thrush.

Petrocincia pandoo Sykes, P.Z.S. (81 July, 1882), p. 87—Ghauts, Dukhun=

Mahableshwar.

627 ¢ 1-4-82 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Asifabad, Hyderabad City, Kanda-

har, Basar, Nirmal, Hanamkonda (Warangal District).

Tris brown; bill dark horny-brown; legs, feet and claws horny-black. In

No. 579 the mouth was pinkish flesh colour, but lemon-yellow in the other

two specimens.

First seen: 11 October (1928) (Hanamkonda); last 12 April (1932), Nirmal.

The Blue Rock-Thrush was not common anywhere, single birds being met

in village precincts, ruined forts, buildings both ruined and inhabited, and

among the boulder hillocks as in the environs of Hyderabad City, Hanamkonda

and elsewhere. It was silent as a rule, but a male observed capturing insects

in mid-air like a flycatcher in Kandahar Fort was singing in loud sweet notes

(2 March).

Famity: Muscicapipas.

Siphia parva albicilla. (Pallas). The Red-breasted Ilycatcher.

Musc.capa albicilla Pallas, Zoogr. Russo-Asiat., vol. 1 (1811, not pub-

lished until 1827), p. 462, Aves, pl. 1—Dauria.

8-38-82 Mukher 1,350 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Singarenni Collieries, Paloncha, Kandahar, Deglur (sub-

species uncertain).

Tris dark brown; bill horny brown, lower mandible paler; legs, feet and claws

blackish-brown; mouth (in No. 526) pale lemon-yellow and_ pink.

[I have already pointed out in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S.,

xxxvi, p. 81) that this race is more widely distributed in India than is generally

realised; and both these specimens show the characteristics of 9 9 of this

race, namely, the colder, greyer brown of the upper parts, the whiter underparts

suffused with grey and the truer black of the upper tail coverts and tail. From

south of Orissa I have examined specimens from Anantagiri and the Nalla-

malais (Hastern Ghats Survey), Bhadrachalam (Blanford), Satara (Fairbank),

Dahive, Khandesh (Davidson), and Belgaum (Butler).—H.W. ]

First seen 13 October (Mananir); last 15 March (Deglar).

This species of flycatcher was rather commoner in the Nander District than

elsewhere. It was usually met singly and seemed very partial to mango groves.

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 387

It utters a quickly repeated click-click, at times very like that of Dicewm

erythrorhynchum, as it jerks its cocked-up tail upwards. I have frequently

observed it descending to the ground to pick up an insect. .

Specimen No. 120 (18 October) was a young bird with soft skull. The other

(No. 526, 8 March) was extremely fat and apparently preparing to emigrate.

Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris (Jerdon,) The White browed Blue

Flycatcher.

Muscicapa superciliaris Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Set., vol. xi (1840, after

May), p. 16—N. Indian Ghats=Ajunta.

Specimens collected :—422 9? 5-12-31 Pakhal Lake 800 ft.; 450 9 8-12-31

Narsampét. 800 ft.

Elsewhere not noted—possibly overlooked or confused with other spp.

Iris dark brown; bill, legs and feet brownish-black; mouth pinkish grey.

[These provide the most southerly records of this species and race, which

has however been recorded already from Ahmednagar (one specimen, Fairbank,

S.F., iv, 257) and seen in South Chanda (D’Abreu, Central Provinces List

p. 15).--H.W.]

Not common. Met with singly among leafy tops of large trees in mixed

forest.

Mussicapula tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth) Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Cyornia tickeiliae Blyth, J.A.S.B., xi (18438, after November), p. 941—Bora-

bhum in Maunbhuin.

Specimens collected: 112 ? Gmm), 1138 ¢, 114 gd 18.10.81, 127 ¢ 14.10.31

Mananur 2,000 ft.;341 ¢ 19.11.31 Paloncha 300 ft.; 454 ¢ 12.12.31 Asifabad

1,200 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Borgampad, Nelipaka, Pakhal Lake, Mukher, Utnoor.

Tris brown; bill black; mouth blackish-pink, greyish-pink or yellowish pink;

legs and feet greyish-brown or pinkish-slate; claws dusky.

[From Nos. 112 and 127 it is evident that the first Winter g and 9 are

indistinguishable in plumage from the adult 9, a point which does not appear

to have been noticed before.—H.W. |

Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher is a generally distributed and common species in

the Hyderabad State. It is partial to thorny scrub and secondary jungle

where it flits about and hunts among the twining roots and stems overhung

by a canopy of foliage. Tamarind groves are also a favourite haunt. At Utnoor

and Asifabad I have recorded it as: ‘though numerically not abundant, probably

the commonest flycatcher’. Gd continue to sing their merry trill although in

heavy general moult.

Breeding: No. 112 (18 October) was an immature bird with a soft skull,

while from the fresh pin-pointed rectrices of 127 (14th October) it is also evidently

a bird of the year. The gonads of all the other specimens—apparently adult—

were in an undeveloped condition.

Col. Sparrow found it breeding about Secunderabad in June and July (nests

from 20th June to 80th July) and from records from Nasik (Davidson, J.B.N.H.S..

iby, O90) euacl JRoome Uecudnekan, d/i/B IN dale, sain TsO osmily ails) telah anys aiels) ahr

appears that the breeding season is well-defined in the Deccan, ranging between

June and August.

Eumyias thalassina thalassina. (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

Muscicapa thalassina Swainson, Nat. Libr. Flycatchers, 1838, p. 252—India.

Specimen collected: 420 ¢ 3.12.31 Narsampet 800 ft.

Hlsewhere not noted.

Tris dark brown; bill black; mouth pale yellowish pink; legs, feet and claws

slaty black.

This was my only meeting with the species—probably a winter visitor. A

single bird perched bolt upright and silent in a large Banyan tree in forest.

Testes undeveloped.

Alseonax latirostris. (Raffles). The Indian Brown Flycatcher.

Muscicapa latirostris Raffles, ‘Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii (1822), p. 312—Sumatra.

Specimens collected: 55 ? 8-10-81, 182 G 14-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 686

3, 687 ¢., 688. 9 9.4.32 Utnoor 1,250 ft.; 722 9, 723 ¢, 20.4.82, 738 ? 22.4.32

Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

Tris brown; bill horny-brown, base of lower mandible fleshy-yellowish; gape

and mouth yellow; legs, feet and claws horny brown.

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

[These are all the same bird and agree with those obtained by the Hastern

Ghats Survey and also in the Himalayas. I have already explained in the Hast-

ern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, pp. 85-86) that I cannot recognise any races

of this species on the available evidence. The colour and other differences of two

supposed races were described at length by Brooks (S.F., ix, 225) and Hume

under the same reference explained that they were partly seasonal and perhaps

partly individual, and to this conclusion I have independently arrived. In fresh

moulted autumn birds the plumage is a cold dark sooty-grey—rather reminiscent

of Hemichelidon sibirica—and the pale edges of the tertiaries and secondaries

and coverts a warm fulvous in contrast: the mottling of the breast is a decided

grey. There is no spring moult and with wear the contrasted fulvous edges

disappear: the upper plumage becomes earth-brown and the breast mottling a

decided brown. This change becomes even more marked post-mortem with

storage in the museum. A few specimens in the British Museum are of a

third colouration, definitely bright fulvous throughout, but I am not sure

Whether this is an individual variation or merely a post-mortem change.

More information is needed about the breeding of this Ilycatcher in the

Peninsula. It has hitherto been only definitely recorded from Sehore (Whitehead.

J.B.N.H.S., xxi, 161), the Ghats near Mhow (Shelley, J.B.N.H.S., ix, 223;

Betham, xix, 989) and N. Kanara (Davidson, J.B.N.H.S., xi, 668).—H.W. |

In the above mentioned localities the Brown Flycatcher was not uncommon,

though perhaps most abundant at Bhamarvadi, whence I have recorded it as the

commonest flycatcher. It was usually met with singly in secondary or scrub

jungle, specially in the vicinity of streams, and often in association with

Muscicapula tickelie and Leucocerca aureola.

None of the specimens showed any signs of genital development or any

other indication as regards breeding.

Alseonax muttui muttui. (Layard). Layard’s Flycatcher.

Butalis muttwt Layard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Sci., 2, vol. xii (February

1854), p. 1: edro, Ceylon.

Specimens collected: 130 ? 14-10-81 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 187 2? G@mm). 141

3, 144 J 16-10-31 Farahabad 2,800 ft.

Elsewhere not noted.

Iris dark brown; bili dark horny brown, lower mandible fleshy with a dusky

tip; mouth pale lemon yellow; legs and feet fleshy; claws dusky.

[These specimens provide a welcome corroboration of the opinion expressed

in the HKastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 87), that there is no

reason to think this species anything but a winter visitor to Travancore and

Ceylon in view of the existing passage records there enumerated. It has already

been recorded by Currie (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, p. 667) at Bolarum, Secundera-

bad, on 2nd October 1917.

The four specimens obtained are freshly moulted.—H.W. |

All the specimens (on passage?) were secured in thick Bamboo and mixed

forest with thorny scrub undergrowth, among whose looping stems and twisting

roots the birds sat silent and motionless. They were observed singly and

appeared to be fairly common at Farahabad. JT failed to come across this

flycatcher on return passage.

No. 187 (16th October) was immature with the skull soft. No. 141 (16th

October) was very fat.

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticchurst. The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior ‘Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xlvii (1927), p. 108—

Simla.

Specimen collected: 484 ? 7-12-81 Pakhal Lake 800 ft.

Elsewhere not noted.

Iris brown; bill pale horny-brown, lower mandible flesh colour; mouth pale

yellow; legs and feet brownish-orange; soles orange.

[The single specimen agrees well with birds from N.W. India, where it was

evidently a winter visitor.—H.W. ]

Shot in thick dank forest of evergreen aspect near the Lake, where it was

flitting about amongst the hanas festooning lofty trees and making short graceful

sallies after winged insects, in company With Parus, Machlolophus and various

Phylloscopi. Silent.

THE HYDERABAD STATE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 389

Tchitrea, paradisi paradisi (L.) The Paradise Flycatcher.

Corvus paradisi Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x (1758), p. 107—Fort St. George,

Madras,

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

Muscipeta leucogaster Swainson, Nat. Library, Flycatchers (June 1888), p. 205

—India.

Specimens collected: 36 ¢ 6.10.31 Mananutr 2,000 ft.; 668 ¢, 664 Q 6.4.32

Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Borgampad (5th November), Paloncha (19th November).

Kaulas (18th-22nd March), Aurangabad (14 April).

Iris dark brown; eyerim blue of different shades in each specimen; bill blue;

mouth bright greenish yellow; legs and feet bluish-grey; claws dusky.

[No. 36 is definitely paradisi paradisi. No. 664 is definitely paradisi leucogas-

ter by the paler colour of the upper parts and the greater amount of blackish

brown in the primaries and secondaries. No. 663 (in white plumage) is therefore

presumably of the same race. The races of this flycatcher have already

been discussed in the Hastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, pp. 88-

90) and the question of their migrations has already been outlined in a separate

note to the Journal (vol. ? Dp. ). Breeding records and accurate notes

on the movements of the Paradise Flycatcher in the Peninsula are badly wanted.

—H.W.|

This delightful bird is sparsely distributed in the State. I found it completely

absent in many localities and decidedly rare where occurring. LEHvery single

individual seen was noted, the list being as follows: Manantr 1 (specimen

No. 36), Borgampad 1, Paloncha 1, Kaulas 1, Utnoor—a pair (spp. Nos. 663

and 664) Aurangabad 1. The example at Kaulas was in chestnut plumage with-

out tail ‘ribbons’ and probably a Q. It was observed in a grove of Tamarind

trees where we were encamped, between 18th and 22nd March after which it

disappeared.

There were no signs of genital development apparent in any of the specimens.

No. 664 was very fat.

According to Col. Sparrow this bird is fairly common in both jungles and

cantonments near Trimulgherry. He found nests in that locality between 30th

June and 24th August.

Hypothymis azurea styani. (Hartlaub). The Black-napped Flycatcher.

Siphia styam Hartlaub, Abh. Nat. Ver. Bremen, vol. xvi (2), (1898), p. 248—

Hoihow, Hainan.

Specimens collected: 2389 ¢ ad. 4-11-31, 248 ¢ ad. 5-11-31 Borgampad

160 ft.; 888 Q 17-11-31 Nelipaka 160 ft.; 667 J ad. 7-4-82 Utnoor 1,250 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Paloncha, Pakhal Lake. Absent on Amrabad Plateau.

Iris brown; bill, adult ¢ greyish-blue, black at tip, Q@ horny-brown; mouth

(both sexes) lemon yellow; legs and feet ad. ¢ slaty-blue, claws dark brown,

Q greyish-brown, claws dark brown.

[I have already shown in the Hastern Ghats Report, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

p. 91, that I am unable to recognise two races of this bird in India.—H.W.]

The Black-naped Flycatcher is apparently absent in the southern and

western portions of the State. Utnoor is the most westerly and Paloncha the

most southerly camp at which I have recorded it. It is common where occurring,

often in association with Muscicapula tickilue, Leucocerca aureola and L. pecto-

ralis. JI noted it as the commonest flycatcher in the deciduous forests at Nelpaka

where it was met with singly or in pairs. At Utnoor its favourite haunts were

shady trees on the banks of forest streams.

Some of the notes uttered by this flycatcher are exactly like those of Parus

major mahrattarum, and as the two species are frequently found side by side

in the same patch of jungle or even tree, the possibility of confusion is heightened.

The gonads of all the specimens were in an undeveloped condition.

Leucocerca aureola compressirostris. Blyth. The White-browed Fantail Fly-

catcher.

Blyth. The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Leucocerca compressirostris Blyth, J.A.S.B., xviii (1849), p. 815—Ceylon.

Specimens collected: —238 ? 3-11-81 Borgampad 160 ft.; 470 @ 15-12-31

Bhamarvadi 2,500 ft.

$90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Elsewhere noted at: Mananir, Nelipaka, Pakhal Lake, Kaulas.

Tris dark brown; bill black; mouth pinkish, sometimes with a yellow tinge;

legs, feet and claws black.

[The differences between aureola aureola and aureola compressirostris have

been discussed fully by me in the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi,

p. 92. Examined in their light this series is somewhat intermediate, though

definitely nearer to compressirostris.—H.W. |.

A generally distributed species; fairly common in suitable country which

consists of secondary and scrub jungle, deciduous forest with undergrowth of

bushes, and well-wooded hillsides. It is commonly met in association with

other flycatcher species.

Breeding :—Of the specimens, only 720 and 721 (20 April) showed any signs

of genital development. The follicles of the Q were about 1 mm. in diameter.

The testes of the J measured 3X2 mm. and were very pulpy in texture, sug-

gesting that it had lately finished breeding.

Leucocerca pectoralis pectoralis. Jerdon. ‘The White-spotted Fantail Fly-

catcher.

Leucocirca pectoralis Jerdon, Ul. Ind. Orn., Text to pl. 11 (1845 before March)

—Nilgiris.

Specimens collected:—119 Q 13-10-31 Manantr 2,000 ft.; 308 92 14-11-31

Nelipaka 160 ft.; 648 ¢ 4-4-3832 Utnoor 1,250 ft.; 694 g, 695 9, 696 ? (juv),

697 ? (uv) 16-4-82 Kannad 2,000 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Hyderabad City and Environs, Borgampad, Paloncha,

Pakhal Lake, Asifabad, Kaulias.

Iris dark brown; bill black; mouth pale flesh colour; legs and feet slaty-

brown or horn-brown. In the nestling the bill is yellowish horny-brown with

the mouth and gape yellow; legs and feet pinkish brown.

This Fantail Flycatcher is generally distributed and common throughout

the Dominions, frequenting gardens, groves of Tamarind and Mango, and sparse

secondary jungle. On the whole it keeps to opener and less wooded country

than the foregoing, though frequently met in association with the latter and also

with other flycatchers. Its song is prettier, with more notes than that of

aureola.

Breeding: —No. 648 (4 April) had the testes enlarged to 8x5 mm. and was

evidently breeding. 694-697 (16 April) are parents and young just out of the

nest, and being fed. The testes of the ¢ parent measured L. 7x5, R. 5X4 mm.

and were very pulpy in texture, while the ovaries of the Q had already reverted

to non-breeding condition. It is probable that as is the case elsewhere, this

species may have a second brood again in the monsoon, though it would be

interesting to ascertain by the marking or ringing method whether in such

cases both the parents are always the same. It is also worth investigating

as to what becomes of the young once they are old enough to fend for them-

selves. The pair, or number of pairs, inhabiting and breeding in a garden

seems to remain constant even after brood upon brood has been brought up

and discharged,

(To be continued.)

“NON-POISONOUS SNAKES”.

(Curator, Bombay Natural History Society.)

Colonel Gharpurey’s Note on “‘Cases of Snake-bite’’ published

in the last number of the Journal gives 4 cases of bites from the

following snakes : —

(1) The Trinket Snake (Coluber helena). Cases Nos. 1 & 8.

(2) The Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus). Case No. 4.

(3) Red Earth Boa (Hryx conicus). Case No. 7.

These snakes are described by the author of the article and

generally accepted as “Non-poisonous’ species.

The term ‘non-poisonous’ when used in connection with snakes

has come to be taken at its “face value’. We describe certain

species which are harmful or deadly to man and the larger animals

as ‘poisonous’ and those whose bites produce no serious symptoms,

as ‘non-poisonous’. Our classification has no scientific basis. The

power of poisoning being actually entirely a question of degree

dependent on the quantity of venom injected. The poison of a

snake is developed to serve one purpose, the overcoming of its

prey—incidentally it acts as a digestive and may confer on the owner

immunity against, or a resistance to, the venom of other snakes.

The majority of snakes are in this sense known to be poisonous.

The poison which they secrete enables them to overcome their

legitimate prey. But, in certain species, the quantity of venom

inoculated at one dose may be sufficient seriously to harm or even

to kill the larger animals, including man. We usually describe

such snakes as poisonous. They are known to be equipped with a

distinct gland, usually situated, behind and below the eye, which

secretes the poison and discharges it through a duct into a hollow

or grooved fang when the reptile bites. Snakes so equipped in-

clude our Vipers and the proteroglyphous or front-fanged Colubrines

1.e. Cobras, Kraits, Coral Snakes and Sea Snakes.

Now most colubrine snakes which we describe as non-poisonous—

colubrines, in which all the teeth are solid (aglyphous), and colu-

brines, in which the posterior maxillary teeth take the form of

grooved fangs (opisthoglyphous), are, like the more highly poisonous

proteroglyphous species, equipped with glands for secreting poison.

The gland, known as the parotid, is intimately connected with and

not readily distinguishable from a chain or chaplet of small con-

fluent glands which lies along the entire inner margin of the upper

lip of the snake and which is known as the supralabial gland. The

parotid gland appears to form the upper and posterior part of the

salivary supralabial gland. Really, it is a distinct gland both in

its structure and function. One is able by various methods to

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

distinguish the two glands which form the ‘ensemble’. Pressure

on the two parts of this apparently single gland will result in a

discharge of the creamy secretion of the parotid gland through its

own exeretory canal, which opens on a level with a fold in the gum

at the posterior extremity of the jaw; while the limpid and mucous

secretion of the supra-labial gland will be seen to emerge from

the string of tiny pores which open on the inner margin of the

upper lip. The two glands are distinct. Hach is provided with a dis-

tinct medium for discharging its separate secretion. The parotid

gland is equipped with its own duct which carries its secretion to the

base of the posterior teeth of the snake. Its function is homo-

logous to the venom gland of highly poisonous species.

A parotid gland is present, as I have said, in many

colubrines which we class as non-poisonous. It is always present

in all opisthoglyphous species and is equally present in many

solid-toothed colubrines (Aglypha). Out of 95 aglyphous’ species

examined by M. Phisalix and Caius, 72 were found to be equipped

with a parotid gland. Curiously enough, in some cases, it was

found to be present in some species of a particular genus and absent

in others. In the genus Coluber, C. radiatus and C. porphyraceus

both have a parotid gland while C. helena, our Common Trinket

Snake was found to be without it. Indian aglyphous colubrines

possessing this gland, as recorded by Madame Phisalix (Animaus

Venimeur, Tom II, p. 894), are as follows:

Coluber porphyraceus.

- ~ radiatus.

Dendrelaphis caudolineatus.

Polyodontophis subpunctatus.

‘ collaris.

Trachischium fuscum.

Xylophis perrotett.

Dendrophis pictus.

Dryocalamus nympha.

Helicops schistosus.

Oligodon subgriseus.

Pseudoxenodon macrops.

Simotes arnesis.

» violaceus.

, eteniatus.

Tropidonotus ‘stolatus.

a piseator.

, paralielus.

e subminiatus.

Zamenis diadema.

i korvos.

a MUCOSUS.

~Eycodon aulicus.

ne ‘Experiments to discover the toxicity of the venom secreted

by the parotad: gland in these snakes have been carried out by

Phisalix, in ‘collaboration with Father Caius and recorded by her

in the work to which we have ‘referred. These experiments have

“NON-POISONOUS SNAKES” % 393

established the venomous character of the secretion of the bast

glands in the following Indian species:

~Aglyphous Colubrines.

Tropidonotus piscator.

Al stolatus.

se himalayanus.

AS _ platyceps.

*, subminiatus.

Zamenis mucosus.

Helicops schistosus.

Lycodon qulicus.

Dendrophis pictus.

Oligodon subgriseus.

Polyodontophis collaris.

Simotes arnensis.

Opisthoglyphous Colubrines.

Dryophis prasinus.

a mycteriZzans.

os dispar.

— Cerberus rhynchops.

Dipsas forstent.

,, ceylonensis.

Chrysopelea ornata.

Among others, Phisalix records experiments carried out with

the venom of the Common Wolf Snake (L. aulicus)—a Munia

(Munia malacca), injected with 2 milligrs. of the extract from the

parotid gland of L. aulicus died in 5 hours and 80 minutes. A

hoopoe injected with a dose of 5 milligrs. was dead in 2 hours

and a blackbird (Merula simillimus) injected with 4 milligrs. died

in 46 hours. The symptoms recorded were drowsiness, difficulty

in breathing and muscular weakness. The symptoms became

increasingly apparent and culminated in _ paralysis and_ the

definite arrest of respiration. Autopsy revealed haemorrhage at the

seat of the injection and a very congested condition of the lungs.

The poison acting dominantly on the respiration recalls the action

of the venom of the cobra, while the local haemorrhage is sympto-

matic of viperine poisoning. |

A crow injected with 48 milligrs. of extract from the parotid

sland of a Checkered Water Snake (T. piscator) died in 7 minutes.

For a sparrow the minimum lethal dose, causing death in 4 hours,

was 0:25 milliers.

Alcock and Rogers (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. lxx, p. 1902) indicated

the intense convulsions produced by the venom of the Dhaman

(Zamenis mucosus). Dy. Phisalix’s experiments confirm those of

Dr. Alcock. A pigeon injected intravenously with 4 milligrs. of

poison from the parotid gland of a Dhaman, died in acute convul-

sions in a few minutes.

So much for the colubrine snakes.

As regards the Boas (Boidae), the Earth Snakes (Ilystidae), and

the Uropeltidae, Phisalix and Caius have discovered the existence of

a gland more deeply situated than the parotid of colubrine snakes

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

which, like the parotid glands of the colubrines, may secrete venom.

The pythons show no trace of a normal parotid gland but the

Red Earth Boa (H. jaculus) and the Black Earth Boa (E. johnii)

possess a pyriform gland lodged in a depression of the anterior

temporal muscle. Its position corresponds to the position of the

venom gland in cobras, kraits, etc. and vipers. Phisalix names

this gland the anterior temporal gland to distinguish it from

the parotid gland. This gland is also present, as indicated

above, im some of the Uropeltids. Among them Rhinophis

trevelyanus, Silybura nigra, S. melanogaster, S. pulneyensis,

Plecturus perroteti, Platyplecturus madurensis, and P. sanguineus.

As regards the Ilysiids some were discovered to possess both a

normal parotid gland and an anterior temporal gland. In the point

of view of function, the temporal gland is a poison gland. The

Ilystidae therefore have two glands which with other species are

both venomous—but the author was not able to verify the veno-

mous character of the parotid gland in these Ilysiidae. Among

the Blind Snakes (Typhlopide), the position of the poison gland is

intermediary between the temporal gland of the boas and earth

snakes and the parotid of the Colubrines. The orifice of the small

mouth in these snakes is lined with a dense glandular cordon,

representing the supra labial gland. The eye is curiously encased

in a large lachrymal gland. Below the eye and above the labial

gland, in direct contact with the temporal muscle, there is another

large gland which is a poison gland and which Phisalix calls

the temporo-mandibular gland. The secretion of this gland is

characterised by its minute quantity and the great toxicity of

the venom, as indicated by various experiments carried out with

the extract from the mandibular glands of these snakes.

. The records which I have quoted indicate that the great majority

of snakes are poisonous, inasmuch as they are equipped with

particular glands whose function is the secretion of poison and the

purpose of which is to kill or paralyse their prey. Fortunately,

the peculiar structure of these glands, parotid or temporal, pre-

vents the storage of large doses of poison and these snakes, though

poisonous, cannot seriously harm man or the larger animals. It

is not a question of the potency or toxicity of the venom. The

snake’s potential power of poisoning is, as I have said, limited only

by the quantity of poison it can inject at a single dose. Certain

species, which we now describe by the term poisonous, possess

venom glands which can secrete and store enough poison to harm

or destroy animals many times larger than their normal prey, but,

even in this case, a bite from these highly venomous species may

not prove fatal. Death or the gravity of the symptoms resulting

from the bite would depend entirely on the amount of poison

injected into and absorbed by the system.

Fees

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

A young White-browed Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock, Harl.), female.

(About two months old.)

Photos by Author.

NOTES ON THE COLOURATION AND HABITS OF

THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON OR HOOLOCK

(AV LOBATES HOOLOCK Hart.)

CHARLES McCann, F.L.S.

(Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society.)

(With 2 plates).

In January 1930, I was sent on special duty to collect material

for a Gibbon group, on behalf of the American Museum of Natural

History, New York. The Naga Hills were selected as a suitable

venue for the expedition. An artist, a modeller and myself com-

posed the members of the expedition. Our camp was situated

at a place called Changchang Pani (Changchang Tsu), twelve miles

from Nakachari Railway Station. Changchang Pani is situated at

an elevation of 500 ft. above sea level, with the hills of Lakhuni

rising to about 2,000 ft., near by. It is on the ‘high road’ between

Nakachari and Mokakchang, and is the halting place for the Nagas

on their way to and from their busties in the interior. The hills

are covered with dense evergreen forest with barely any footpaths

through them. In consequence, one’s movements are restricted

to the watercourses. Bamboo is the predominant species—a

species with a very hollow stem.

This expedition offered me a splendid opportunity for observing

the White-browed Gibbon in its natural environment. At Chang-

chang Pani I spent nearly two months doing little else but observ-

ing these animals. The forests were literally teeming with

gibbons, which could be heard on all sides. But owing to the

dense nature of the jungle, they were not always easy to get: at.

By careful stalking, I was successful in obtaining the specimens

required and also in observing their habits. The gibbons were not

always very shy, but owing to constant persecution by some of the

Nagas for food, they were rather suspicious of one’s movements.

I spent much time with glasses and gun trying to study their

ways. My observations, which I detail below, it will be observed,

are not always in agreement with the observations of other natural-

ists. It is possible that many recorded observations of the habits

of these animals have arisen from statements made by natives.

Long experience has convinced me, if conviction is necessary, that

statements of natives are frequently wrong. Not that the folk tell

the story with the idea of deceiving, but they often let their imagina-

tion and superstitious beliefs obscure the true facts. The story is

usually based on certain facts which need careful analysis, and

this is pardonable in ignorant folk. How much more aggravating

is it to listen to educated people who in all seriousness glory in

narrating stories after the manner of “Col, Longbow’,

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: WSOCTETY. Vol. XOOXyVil

It has been generally understood that both the males and the

females of this gibbon vary in colour from brownish-black to

yellowish-grey. As far as my observations go this change of

colour, if we exclude the change undergone by the newly-born

young, is limited to the female sex. :

It has been generally understood that both the males and the

females of the Hoolock vary in colour from black to yellowish

grey. My observations, however, are not in accord with the

generally accepted statement. I am of opinion that the change of

colour is restricted to the adult female.

The young of this gibbon at birth is a pale greyish-white with

a yellowish tinge. The face, the palms of the hands, the soles of

the feet are black. As growth proceeds the coat becomes darker

and darker, usually with lighter patches around the rump, but

finally it gets quite black. Both sexes pass through this change

with this important difference. The dark colouring, deepening

with age to glossy black, is retained by the males through life:

in the case of the female a second change is undergone when she

reaches puberty. Her black fur fades gradually to the light

yellowish brown phase referred to frequently by various authors.

The change from the greyish-white of the new-born gibbon to

the dark colouring exhibited in the juvenile stage makes it parti-

cularly difficult to see whether a female has a young one at her

breast or not. Though the dorsal fur of the mother is pale the

brown skin of her ventral surface, sparsely clad with hair, harmo-

nises with the dusky colouring of the baby gibbon at her breast.

Of all the gibbons that I shot (and I shot nearly thirty including

males, females, and young of all ages) I never secured a black

female with young, nor did I see a single black female with young

among the numerous parties that I observed. Among the speci-

mens that I secured, there was a single female which showed a

partial change of colour in her coat. Judging from this specimen,

it appears that the limbs change colour in advance of the body,

particularly around the hindquarters. However, this may vary

with different individuals. There is no sign of moult at this period

but a gradual canescence of the hair. In all cases I examined the

ovaries and uteri of the females with the black coat and in every

case was sure that they had never at any time given birth, not

even the one that was undergoing the change of colour. The

Nagas hold the same view, viz., that the females are always

lighter in colour than the males. This change of colour may

possibly amount to a secondary sexual character indicating that

the animals have reached maturity.

In the Fauna of British India, Blanford writes :—‘‘Many indi-

viduals, however, both males and females, vary in colour from

brownish-black to yellowish-grey, the frontal band being always

conspicuously paler.’ And further on, “‘Blyth thought that the

males only were black, the females always paler; but this is

certainly not the case, the females, however, are more frequently

* Blanford, 1888. Fauna of British India (Mammals), p. 6,

NOTES ON THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON 397

pale-coloured than the males’’. Blanford’s contradiction of

Blyth’s opinion is so far correct, that the young females are

black until the time they reach maturity when the change takes

place. But to say that the females ‘are more frequently pale-

coloured than the males’ is, as far my observations go, certainly

not the case, for all mature females are pale,

Pocock" in a note on the Hainan Gibbon writes as follows :—‘‘I

am informed by Mr. de St. Croix that the young of both sexes of

this species are alleged by the natives to be lighter-coloured at birth

and for a short time afterwards than their parents. His animal

(Pocock refers to a specimen deposited by de St. Croix at the

Zoological Society’s Gardens) when purchased, was a dark smoky

grey, which, however, soon turned black; and perfectly black she

remained all the. years she was in his possession. But in a few

weeks of being brought to the Gardens she began to go grey, Mr.

de St. Croix himself noticing a decided alteration in this respect

when he visited her on March 8th., about six weeks after her

arrival in London. During the spring and early summer the erey-

ness progressed rapidly, but not quite uniformly all over the body.

In midsummer, according to my notes, the head was black with a

erey band extending on each side of the eyebrow over the ears;

the beard was whitish and the nape of the neck blackish; the

ereater part of the body was blackish-grey, with a considerable

quantity of blackish hairs on the sides of the belly close to the

thigh and a broad triangular black patch narrower posteriorly,

extending from the collar-bones on the fore part of the belly and

bordered on each side by a grey area paler in tone than the back;

the thigh and upper arm were paler than the distal portion of

the hmbs. By this time she was not recognisable as the same

animal that reached the Gardens in January. Still the greyness

eontinued to spread, the black pigment died out from the areas

mentioned above, lasting longest upon the chest and the crown

of the head. At this period she presented a decided similarity to

the left-hand figure on the plate depicting H. pileatus Gray

(P.Z.S. 1861, p. 186, pl. xxi), although the black pectoral area

was smaller and the patch on the crown less sharply defined at

the edges. In the early autumn she was a stone or silvery grey

practically all over except for a blackish median band, fading

away laterally and posteriorly, down the middle line of the head.’

Pocoek goes on to deseribe the change as it comes about and

then writes:—-**... But, so far as I am aware, it was not. pre-

viously known that a given individual after reaching maturity

may change colour in the way exemplified by Mr. de St. Croix’s

specimen.’’ This I am convinced is really what takes place in the

female of the Hoolock and I do not hold any doubts on the subject.

Further Pocock asks the question: ‘“‘Is this canescence then a

matter of sex and exhibited only by the mature females?’’ and

goes on to say, ‘The balance of the evidence seems to be on the

_ Pocock, 1905. Observations upon a female specimen of the Hainan

Gibbon (Hylobates hainanus), now living in the Society’s Gardens, Je Ant

Bond) vol. i; p.2 lr ; :

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

whole in favour of an affirmative reply to the question. For,

apart from the changes here recorded of the only adult female

known, it must be remembered that Mr. Swinhoe, in his pub-

lished account of the information respecting the Hainan Gibbon he

was able to gather, quotes from the Chinese Gazetteer of the Kiung

Shan district of the island a passage stating that the male is

black and the female white (P.Z.S. 1870, p. 244, etc.).”’

Here we have a parallel case to that which I have just recorded

with reference to the Hoolock. A young female which I secured

alive in February (1930), which was about a month old at the

time of her capture, was a dusky colour when I first got her,

but since then till the time of her death, in November 1931, she

eradually got darker and darker till she was almost quite black.

Now we may as well ask why it is that so many have stumbled

into this error? There is probably only one answer to this

question, and that is, that they were unable to correctly deter-

mine the sex of the specimens in hand, or were satisfied with a

superficial examination. But still further, the change of colour

that takes place when the females reach maturity was not known

to them. I must confess here that I fell into the same pit with

the first two or three specimens of immature females. The

reason for this is not far to seek—it is extremely difficult to sex

this gibbon from a superficial examination as the females possess a

peniform clitoris, which is almost as long as the penis of the

male. Both the organs (penis and clitoris) are very similar in

appearance. Zuckerman in a paper on The Menstrual Cycle of

Primates (P.Z.S. 1930, pt. ii, p. 699) refers to this point in the

following words:—‘‘It might be noted in passing that there is less

sexual dimorphism in the Hylobatidae than in any other primate

family. Field workers, and even systematic zoologists, frequently

experience difficulty in distinguishing the two sexes. The lack

of cyclical variation in perineal form adds greatly to this

difficulty.”’

In a subsequent paper on the Gibbons of the genus Hylobates

(P.Z.S. 1927, p. 719.), Mr. Pocock giving the characters of Hylo-

bates concolor, described previously under the name (hainanus)

states that one of its distinguishing features is “‘the presence in

the female of a long clitoris, grooved below, which depends beneath

the vulva simulating the penis of the male’’.

Hylobates concolor was originally described by Harlan (Journ.

Acad. Nat. Sc. Pinlads, vy. pt. 2)p) Jol, lcs pe andi Miso 7) euom

Borneo, and Mr. Pocock in referring to this species in the paper

doubts its origin from this Island. He writes ‘from the positive

evidence supplied by the colour and by the structure of the clitoris

the conclusion seems unavoidable that the specimen to which the

name concolor was given came from Hainan or the adjoining main-

land Tonkin and not from Borneo’.

Now from the observations I have made in regard to the

structure of the clitoris in the Assam Gibbon which is apparently

the same as in the Hainan species—H. concolor might equally

have come from Assam—it is obvious that this particular character

is of no value for purposes of differentiation between the species,

NOTES ON THE WHITE-BROWED. GIBBON 399

In this connection it might be of interest to add Pocock’s re-

marks under the subtitle of Determination of the Sex in the paper

already referred to above, on the Hainan Gibbon. He writes: —

“When Mr. de St. Croix brought the specimen to the Gardens he

informed me that she was a castrated male; and in support of

his opinion drew my attention to the large size of the clitoris,

which he most naturally mistook for the penis. The naked and

turgid labia of the vulva he regarded as the unhealed wound

caused by castration; and the menstrual discharge which first

appeared in December of 1903, when the Ape was on her way

to England, he attributed to normal bleeding induced by enforced

sitting on the hard floor of her travelling box. He also told me

that it was commonly believed in Hainan that female specimens

of the Gibbon are never brought to the coast and are practically

unobtainable.

“There can be no doubt that this belief, coupled with the

peniform clitoris of the Gibbon, misled Mr. de St. Croix as to

the true sex of his animal, the castration of which, he admitted,

he had not himself witnessed. And it seems probable that the

belief itself is traceable to the repeated mistakes on the part

of Europeans in determining females as castrated males on account

of the length of the clitoris in these Apes as compared with the

same organs in the Monkeys of the Old World, generally. In

this connection it is interesting to recall the fact that Dr. Harlan,

after the dissection of the genital organs, described his specimen

of Hylobates concolor as ‘an hermaphrodite Orang Outan’. It

appears to me, however, that Lesson’s criticism of this opmion was

perfectly justifiable and his decision that the specimen was an

immature female undoubtedly correct. Pousargues, also, who did

not know Lesson’s paper, came independently to the same con-

clusion, and stated in the type of Hylobates nasutus, a young

female, the clitoris was well developed and grooved below; and

that the animal resembled in every particular, so far as the

generative organs were eoneerned, the Gibbon determined as

hermaphrodite by Harlan. And since Harlan and two other

doctors, presumably acquainted with human anatomy, who assisted

at the dissection, were decided as to the true sex of the specimen,

in spite of the best possible opportunities for investigation, it is

no wonder that Europeans living in Hainan fall into a similar

mistake.

‘‘So far as can be seen, the clitoris of the Hainan, Gibbon. is like

that of the specimen figured and described by Harlan, which

resembles the penis of a primate in a state of hypospadias. A

comparatively slight modification would convert such an organ into

a closed tube for the passage of urine—a fact perhaps of some

significance in connection with the low position of the Gibbons in

the Anthropomorphous series, seeing that in the Lemurs, the

lowest existing Primates, the clitoris is traversed by the urethral

eanal.’’

Up to the present we have been dealing with the mistaken sex

identity of the female, but what of the sexual characters of the

male? In the male there is no distinct scrotal sac which is such

400, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXXVI

a prominent character of most male monkeys, particularly the

Macaques. The testes are situated rather high up, almost in the

sroins. The genital organs are hidden from view by a tuft of

long preputial hairs which completely conceal the greater part of

the penis. Both the clitoris and penis are very similar in appear-

ance, except for the fact that the penis forms a closed tube while

the clitoris is open along its length on the ventral surface. In

both cases the organs are directed obliquely backwards. In the

male the penis protrudes a little beyond the tuft of preputial hairs,

thus preventing the animal wetting its fur when urimating. This

tuft of hairs is not very evident in the young males, probably

being developed later in life. The preputial hairs though generally

black are. frequently mixed with grey hairs. The penis is little

in excess of the clitoris in length and it is on account of the close

resemblance of the two organs that the determining of the sex

forms a stumbling block for the unwary. This really explains

why so many have erred in connection with the colouring of these

animals.

Pocock, writing on the Gibbons of the genus Hylobates, makes

the following remarks : —‘‘Judging from the material at his disposal,

Blyth thought that the two colour-phases of H. hoolock were

sexual, the males being black and the females brown. This view

was quite correctly disputed by Blanford, but was revived by

Elliot in 1913. It is nevertheless approximately true. All the

male specimens I have seen exhibited the black phase and all the

females, except one, the pale phase. This exceptional female,

which the collector erroneously sexed as a male, came from

H’Kamti in Upper Chindwin. She is black, faintly tinged with

brown, and has some greyish hairs on the sides of the face and

a dirty white patch behind the chin.”

Pocock states that all the black specimens he had before ish

were males with the exception cited above, and that all the

females were pale coloured. Is it not possible that among the

specimens that showed the black ‘phase’, there were one or two

éxamples of juvenile females wrongly sexed by the collector?

Surely, the collector did not obtain exclusively mature males and

mature females out of the number he collected! It appears that

Pocock was led to re-examine the sex of the ‘exceptional female’

only because it showed the changing phase and on this account

was not prepared to accept the sexing of the collector. It would

be interesting to know whether Pocock also checked the sex of each

of the specimens showing the black phase, or accepted the sexing

of the collector. I have already indicated the difficulty of recog-

nising the sexes in the cases of freshly killed males and females.

i the collector made a mistake with the sexing of this individual,

is it not possible that he also wrongly sexed some of the

others ?

In my opinion this gibbon has a definite breeding season which

is during the cold weather. Almost every mature female I came

across between January and early March was with a baby, clearly

indicating that the maximum birth rate is during the cold season.

The young appear to be born between November and February.

NOTES ON THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON 401

As indicated above, the young when born is almost white with

‘a yellowish tinge. As far as [ was able to ‘observe, it clings -to

its mother always with one teat of the parent in the mouth, even

when. she is swinging about in the branches.- When born, the

young is without teeth, but soon after it gets a full complement

of 24 milk-teeth. .The second set of teeth appears between the

age of eight or nine months (this observation I conclude from the

specimen that I had in captivity). The permanent teeth appear

Slowly and very are the first to appear.

My specimen was about a month old when I got her in February

(1980). In September of the same year, the permanent teeth

began to appear. At the time of her death in November, 1981,

not all the permanent teeth had appeared.

The colour of the baby I had in captivity, when I first secured

her was dusky, with lighter patches around the callosities. She

eradually became darker and darker in tone. At the time of her

death she was almost quite black, but still retained the lghter

patches around the callosities. There were also a few lght-

eoloured hairs in the beard. The white brows were very. conspi-

cuous—from birth this point is very prominent. The callosities

are not very evident and are usually covered over by the surround.

ing hair. This condition also prevails with the adults.

With regard to their habits, Blanford (l.c.) writes :—'' Like most

other Gibbons the Hoolock is found eects in flocks, ‘often

comprising from fifty to a hundred individuals, or even more. An

old male, however, is occasionally found solitary.’’ This is yet

another point on oinell my observations differ. These apes are

at the best of times difficult to seen when they are in dense

forests, and the din created by a party of them, which is soon

taken up by another party near by, and so carried through

the jungle, often does give one the impression that there is a

very large number of them together. This was also my opinion

when I ‘frst made _ their Acquaintance when I was in Assam in

1918, but at that time I did not see many of them. Different

parties will meet within reasonable distance without molesting one

another, but this is no evidence that they all belong to the same

party. I have found that the Hooloeck goes about in small family

parties, usually consisting of an adult male and female with young

of different ages, the youngest sticking to the breast of the mother:

The largest party I have observed consisted of seven individuals,

an adult male and female and five young ones, the youngest of

which was clinging to the mother’s breast. Mackenzie, who col-

lected specimens of this species for the Mammal Survey of India,

writes, ‘‘It is generally found in parties of three or four, but I have

seen single ones, and once a party of six.” (J.B.N.H.S., xxiv,

p. 762.) Wells notes:—‘‘The Mishmis say that there are only

three parties of these Gibbons, each about ten or twelve in number,

Mate DentimomMistaict. 1 (ob. NES. xxxt,-p. 380.) This state-

ment is based on hearsay, but is more in accordance with the true

habit of the animals than the statement by Blanford.

Zuckerman. in his. recent work entitled The Social Life of

Monkeys and Apes, p. 23, writing in reference to the Lar Gibbon,

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

(H. lar) says, ““The Lar Gibbon, one of the lesser apes, is unani-

mously reported to live in small family parties, while the Hoolock

gibbon, is found only in large troops.’’ Further on, p. 180, the

same author quotes Kloss, ““The statement that gibbons are mono-

gamous is one that I thoroughly agree with: whether however

they divorce each other and take new partners from time to time

we have yet to learn. The point is interesting, since such an able

reasoner as Westermarck has come to the conclusion that the

marriages of mankind are an inheritance from some ape-like pro-

genitor.’’ I am also inclined to the belief that the Hoolock is

monogamous. The reason for this belief is based on the fact that

a pair of adults is always found together with their young of the

present and preceding years, a single baby being born each year.

It appears strange that so closely related gibbons should have such

different social habits. It seems to be well established that the

Lar Gibbon lives in family parties, and my own observations con-

vince me that the Hoolock has also the same habit of living in

family parties.

Frequently a male may be seen feeding alone, but somewhere

in the offing the family is out of sight. On one occasion I came

across a ‘solitary’ male feeding on the flowers of the Silk Cotton

Tree (Bombax malabaricum), so I watched his movements un-

noticed. After a short while he gave a low call which was soon

followed by the appearance of a female and her young ones (two

in number) and they also commenced feeding on the flowers. I

watched them for some time, before the four of them fell victims

to my gun. On another occasion I came across a solitary female,

which was completely fawn coloured, but as I was in need of the

mature females she was soon brought to bag. There were no

others in the neighbourhood and of this I made certain. Judging

from this case, it appears that when a female has reached

maturity and has completely changed from the black to the fawn

phase she is either driven out of the family or leaves it of her own

accord in search of a mate; however, this point is open to ques-

tion.

It appears to me that the family tie is exceptionally strong

with these animals, which I conclude from the following facts.

One day I came across a small party of three, consisting of one

adult male, one partially grown young one and a baby about four (?)

months old. I secured all of them. All were black and both

the large ones were males. The baby was clinging to the older

one as though it were its mother. The baby was a female. |

searched the neighbourhood to see if there was a light-coloured

female about, but without success. This incident goes to confirm

the Naga belief that in the event of the death of the mother,

the other members of the family help to look after the baby.

Judging from the number of individuals that go to compose

a family, it appears that it must take four to five years or perhaps

six years before this gibbon reaches maturity, and in the case

of the females, turn light-coloured. After reaching maturity they

probably leave the old family party or are turned out of it to fend

for themselves.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Left: adult. Centre: 21 months old. Right: newly born.

Skulls of the Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock, Harl.) showing th

at different ages which clearly show the contours of the skulls

and the condition of the teeth at different ages,

skulls

PLATE

IBC,

NOTES ON THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON 403

Gibbons spend the greater part of the day in high trees, but not

just the highest, except in the case of the trees, which afford them

food. But during the hottest part of the day frequently descend

into the low tiers of the jungle. During the early hours of the

morning gibbons may frequently be seen sunning themselves on

the exposed branches of trees. When alarmed, they take refuge

in the bamboo clumps and use them as a means of getting away

swiitly. They will also take refuge in the foliage at the tops of

high trees or hide in the forks of thick branches peeping ‘round the

corner’ when they do so. The speed at which they can cover long

distances is surprising. The alarm call is a sharp short rather

harsh bark, which may be repeated, but alarm may be expressed

by quite another sound which may be likened to a loud belch,

which is repeated from time to time.

At about 9 a.m. (local time) they commence their ‘joyous’

howlng which is so characteristic of gibbons. This is kept up

till a little before noon and then all is quiet till about four in

the evening. In the evening the howling does not continue for

long. The voice is very powerful and may be heard over long

distances. To utter this (and every other vocal expression) the

lips are used; the lips are brought round in almost the same

shape as a person pronouncing an O with a pout. Each time

the sound is made it is accompanied with a toss of the head.

The call seems to sound like a long ‘hooo-oo’, by first expelling the

breath and the same sound repeated by taking in the breath. In

this way I was able to imitate the sound with a fair degree of

accuracy. This cry is repeated several times in the same manner.

The ‘music’ is commenced in a very high key by one of the party

(possibly by one of the young ones) and is then taken up by the

rest and repeated over and over again. Amid the ‘altos’, ‘sopranos’

and ‘falsettos’ is to be heard the deep bass of the male. The call

is taken up by other parties in succession or in concert with the

one that started it. Besides the sounds already described there

are a number of other sounds which defy description. When eat-

ing, a Hoolock generally makes a belching sound after each mouth-

ful, as though to express satisfaction. A whining noise is also

made which is altered in tone to suit the occasion, which may

mean displeasure, or is uttered when the animal is pleading for

something. These sounds are produced by stretching the lips

across the mouth as though it were trying to smile. When angry,

the mouth is opened, baring all the teeth in true ‘monkey fashion’,

at the same time staring hard at the object which gave rise to the

anger. When irritated, they frequently strike out with their long

arms instead of biting, but may also use their hands to pull the

object nearer and then inflict a bite.

In the trees their mode of progression is by means of swinging

from branch to branch, either with the hands alone, or with the

hands and feet, though the former is the commoner practice. They

are able to drop down considerable distances from one branch to

another and are also capable of making prodigious leaps. But when

on a thick bough they walk erect along the top of the branch using

the arms as a means of balance and support. It is surprising to

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

see how rapidly they get along among the spiny branches of the

Bombax as though there were no spines at all.

On the ground they are exceedingly rapid for their small size.

They run along quite erect, with the chest thrown forward and

the two arms swinging on either side to keep their balance. But,

they are not able to travel great distances in this way at one

stretch. From time to time they stop and rest on the back of

their wrists, but not on the palms of the hands. On the whole the

gait is most awkward. Gibbons in the dense forests rarely descend

to the ground. At Charelli, I have seen gibbons leave the forests

and come into the village to feed on the flowers of Bombax. As

many of the trees were isolated, they had of necessity to come

down to the ground before they were able to get to them.

When sitting and sleeping, they assume most human attitudes.

In the wild state gibbons sleep in a sitting position with the

knees drawn up under the chin, the head and face buried between

the thighs and the body, in such a way that all the fleshy parts

appear to be protected against the attacks of mosquitoes. The

specimen I had in captivity frequently slept in a reclining posture

particularly when she was very young.

The stomach contents of the animals I secured revealed large

quantities of fruit, some of which were eaten almost whole, leaves

and flowers, generally too far gone to enable me to identify any-

thing with certainty. The petals, cotton and seeds of the Bombar

are largely eaten by these apes. Judging from the specimen I had

in captivity, they also eat certain insects and spiders. When eat+

ing a large fruit they frequently hang from a branch with one

hand and use the other three ‘hands’ for securing and turning it

about. The feet are also used for holding things when travelling

along a branch to a convenient seat.

Gibbons drink water from the leaves. In the Naga Hills, where

the forests are exceedingly humid, and the dew fall very heavy,

gibbons may be seen collecting it directly by means of the tongue

or with the hand. In captivity they follow the same procedure.

They will also try to lap, only just getting the tongue wet, and

in this way it takes them a long time to drink anything. The

hand is generally put into the liquid which is sucked off from the

back of the hand.

Judging from the specimen that I had in captivity, they do

not excrete during the night, once they have retired, till the next

morning. This may possibly be a provision of nature so as not

to give away the position of the animal to prowling nocturnal

enemies. These animals are exceedingly frightened of the larger

birds of prey, and I have no doubt that many of them fall ene

particularly the yearlings, to some of the eagles. Probably

pythons also prey on them. The specimen I had evinced great

fear of snakes and tiger or panther heads.

A very noticeable point about gibbons is that they do not

possess that peculiar odour, which is such a common feature with

most monkeys, particularly the Macaques.

Blanford rightly remarks that gibbons are easily tamed. When

caught voung, they make the most delightful pets and become very

NOTES ON THE WHITE-BROWED GIBBON 405.

attached to their master. They are very gentle and good-natured,

but at the same time are very sensitive. They do not like to be

left alone and should always be given something in the way of

a ball or toy to keep them occupied. The face is very in-

telligent and full of expression. The one I had was always on

the move and not at all inclined to be morose. Her greatest

delight was to be with the children and she looked forward to going

out with them in the evening. In fact, she became so attached.

to my two boys that she would not allow a stranger to touch them.

Under such circumstances she would invariably nip the outsider.

When I first obtained her, I fed her on bananas and condensed

milk (fresh milk was not procurable). On this diet she thrived

well, but when I got back to civilisation I changed her diet to

fresh milk and fruit. She refused hard fruits and nuts till she

began to get her permanent teeth.

In the cold weather these animals should be provided with

a piece of blanket to cover up with as they are very susceptible

to chills in captivity.

THE GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF THE MANIPUR

STATE WITH NOTES ON THEIR NUMBERS, MIGRATION

AND HABITS.

J.C, Isiceuys, mocks.

Parr I.

The Manipur State, situated in the heart of the tumbled mass

of mountains separating Assam from Burma, consists of a broad

open valley, some 750 square miles in extent, entirely hemmed in

on every side by range after range of hills. The nearest points of

the Assam and Surma valleys of Assam and of the Kabaw valley

of Burma are respectively some 55, 50 and 25 miles distant from

the Manipur valley in an air line. The altitude of the central

valley is approximately 2,500 ft. above sea level, while the sur-

rounding mountains of the State, covering upwards of 7,500 square

miles, rise from low foothills to peaks just short of 10,000 ft.

Roughly speaking, the western portion of the State drains into

the Surma valley and the eastern into the Chindwin river of Burma.

The Manipur valley is thickly populated, and almost all the

available land is under cultivation, except at the foot of the hills

surrounding the central plain. But the six large and numerous

small streams which drain into it all combine to flow out again

through one narrow gorge in the hills, with the result that the

southern part of the valley is covered by a succession of lakes,

marshes and bogs. These, sparsely inhabited by a few fishing

villages and of necessity only thinly cultivated round their edges,

are the resort in the winter of large numbers of waterfowl. At

the foot of the grassy slopes immediately surrounding the valley

are found partridges and quail, while the tributary valleys and

the headwaters of the main streams are the home of jungle fowl,

pheasants and hill and bamboo partridges. Small game is also

to be found in the mountainous tracts, but the forests which cover

the hills, broken only by scattered villages of hillmen and their

fluctuating cultivation, are mostly too thick to allow of successful

shooting. These forests vary from the dense, moist bamboo and

evergreen jungle of the high peaks and the western hills to the

more open pine and oak woods of the east and south.

The following are the records of game birds shot in the State

(including a few shoots in neighbouring districts) since 1910-11,

taken from the Game Book of the Manipur Club. From 1910-11

to 1914-15 they are compiled almost entirely from the Game Book

of one member, but from 1915-16 up to date the records are practi-

cally complete. The number of birds shot has increased of late

years, owing to the greater mobility afforded by motor cars.

Another cause of larger bags of duck is to be found in the substi-

tution (about 1917) of shooting from butts for prowling round

the bils in boats, with an occasional impromptu drive over an

island or belt of reeds. The butts consist of bamboo platforms,

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 407

concealed by a surrounding fence of reeds stuck in the mud:

their position is usually changed at each shoot, according to where

the duck are flighting and settling at the time. Changes in the

conformation of the bils, due to variations in the flood level and

in the growth of reeds, grass and floating water weeds, preclude

any attempt at making permanent butts, as in some of the larger

shoots in India. Further, the results from year to year, apart

from their dependence on migration, vary with the climatic condi-

tions of the year and are also affected by the tastes of the officers

stationed in Manipur and the exigencies of their duties. For

instance, during 1918 and 1919, and in the spring of 1981 and

1932 operations in the hills very greatly reduced the amount of

touring and shooting in the valley, where the snipe and duck are

found. Again, deficient rainfall in 1931 and a consequent complete

absence of floods during the rains produced a prolific growth of

erass and water weeds in the smaller lakes and marshes, thereby

materially affecting the duck shooting of the cold weather of

1931-82,

Following on the records are some notes on local game and

water birds, with special reference to their numbers, migration

and habits, and on the wild animals of the State, from observa-

tions made during seventeen shooting seasons in Manipur.

RECORDS OF GAME BIRDS SHOT IN MANIPUR STATE, 1910-1932.

sh Ww ™~ (oe)

ro vr ro mH me Lom | rm

3} a a 6 + ws oe

me — Soa | ra r rr mi Cl

D D D o> D ep) ron D

re to Lam inal =) com] i ir

Geese.

Grey Lag Geese ae 17 454 273 103 23 352 76 22

Bar-headed Geese eu ee IU] 1 1 8 : ee

White-fronted Geese aoe Ge a ioe ae as 1

e465... 274 104 = 245 2353. = 76 22

Ducks.

‘Pink-headed Duck ate it fie oie ee Se See Ph Bee

‘Cotton Teal ia & 4] 14 24 42 29 14 fe)

Lesser Whistling Teal ... 20 46 7) 70 73 141 50 87

‘Common Sheldrake ue San ace ae ee ee ee si

Ruddy Sheldrake Rs 1] 6 4 il 4 6 Zi 9

Mallard os AA we 1 ik waite eo sige see

Spotbill ite cae: 143 80 105 128 27 114 136

‘Eastern Grey Duck

-capped ‘Teal es Feet Ais ee al ae It 3 il

Gal 2 Bo? a Gs 0 339) 186 85

Widgeon ae 1 2 9 8 18 44 19 14

Common Teal a 29 AS 1 17 230 M54 4804 9364

Baikal Teal Be Gee oe i bit uae i ey: ae

Pintail Ree ede 39 91 70 96 144 76 36

Garganey Teal p00 24 289) 234 2402, S14. 203 67

Shoveller ee 3 30 80 Bit 84 102 Te, 51

‘Red-crested Pochard as 1 3 fe 4 5 4 as 1

Common Pochard Ee 4 32 100 155 104 295 139 31

‘White-eyed Pochard sna ell 46 96 13 93 HSS 97 74

Baer’s Pochard ne He Pee it at ah 3

Scaup a Vater ceh ae sea oe ae

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

ro N (90) be Ww O ™ ee)

r+ = —“ = ro r ‘on rm

3 si ~ ot a wn eo wh

i rH = ro ~ r = r

D oD D op on ep D D

| ro eo co o Ta nl -

Ducks (contd.)

Tufted Pochard oa 26 145 450 40352507 479 256 193

Golden-eyed Pochard Aye niene ey se a = a De

Hybrid Duck S re Fee a 1

Duck and Teal, unelass-

ified ot a one I ae 58 SS) GL

281 774 TONS) 1423)" 2060) 12745 SOR e538

Snipes

Woodcock ae ae i ee Jt 1 13 3 Be:

Wood Snipe Bh 6 i 1 Be 5 3 20 3

Solitary Snipe ae ae oe ee ee oe a 1 ee

Fantail Snipe Pe: py. AN Syn NS. CW) SO). NAO” OT

Pintail Snipe ee 59g ols 327) Sikes 4501 2848) 964 ee 603

Jack Snipe Sa 4 2 22 15 13 81 36 7,

Painted Snipe Hs 2 2 41 59 45 0) 108} 22

Snipe, unclassified ae LOA bn ae ae: a5) 313 13 245

L137 131 973) VOI 4752223" 26 oe 956

Plovers.

Golden Plover ie 9 24 12 37) 65 37 57 15

Other plover es 3 l 9 4 1 9

a Se 18 46 69 38 65 ag

Pheasants.

Burmese Peafowl Sos ans sib ist eae es Be Me x

Jungle-fowl sas 4 ce oe a 16 4 4 IS

Black-breasted Kali rate 1 9 se i 3 i 8: it

Assam 'Tragopan : : 5 Ses :

i ao 5 1G) 8 ee pe a

Partridges.

Asean Black Partridge ... 6 il 13 34 28a Adis), diol

Chinese Francolin ah yas vie 1 Bic 3 J

Assam Bamboo Partridge gute 7 en 9 M1 ILL 7

Hill Partridge Bes me bic Se one ae 1

Pe ee) ae I ee oe ise

Quails.

Grey Quail Boe Oss a ae an ae 10 17 1

Blue-breasted Quail ee 2 6 13 6 28 68 36 18

Manipur Bush-Quail ... oe oe 2 2 18 23 10

‘Burmese Bustard Quail. ] 4 2 WZ 10 18

Little Button Quail a | bas a Ik 1 aie er 1

Burmese Button Quail ... ... ae ee oe uae 2 sate i

Quail, unclassified

2 7 19 11 29 AO 86 49

Pigeons. ited a sie 2 2 15 ie 15.

Various and Big Game il 1 2 ZY, 3 rs) sh Z

Motaly ws MAGI 2024) 2901S 5 27/435 SoS Sao Oo OO) OMS

come eee Ser eee f ee

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 409

Geese.

Grey Lag Geese

Bar-headed Geese

White-fronted Geese

Ducks.

Pink-headed Duck

Cotton Teal

Lesser Whistling Teal i

Common Sheldrake

Ruddy Sheldrake

Mallard

Spotbill

HKastern Grey Duck

Bronze-capped Teal

Gadwall

Widgeon

Common Teal

Baikal Teal

Pintail

Garganey Teal

Shoveller

Red-crested Pochard

Common Pochard

White-eyed Pochard

Baer’s Pochard

Scaup

Tufted Pochard

Golden-eyed Pochard

Hybrid Duck

Duck and Teal, unclass

fied

Snipes.

Woodcock

Wood Snipe

Solitary Snipe

Fantail Snipe

Pintail Snipe

Jack Snipe

Painted Snipe

Snipe, unclassified

Plovers.

Golden Plover

Other Plover

re WN N N N N NI NI

DL ee a

rd | ~N N NI om N N

oP) [@p) (Op) (op) (op) (ep) (op) (op)

— 4 = = = er = =

Wee a7 eis) 105. = 89) tie. 205 1170

ae 5 Pee 1 Stl 2

cl eee ee en a otacaiie 3

GP MO” OD NSS Re le Ie

iy Mee Se re i ee ee eee,

Se G0 5 5 GO 9s) 104 ase

Bie Cat One DER a

ieee ane Teer eee oat

8). G8 GS. a SB a). Re

ome He es 5 ok 7 6

Ge 704s 950 500) S48 760. 440

Hh at OC Sl Sa 0. ellis. 8

BiG 2 Al WG Be Be es se

Bqpeg0t Ae OR OF | Gi. 95, Ss

Of FO MEG NED Ce Bs a a

SO) or de sk 50, s6 10l

3 9 1 Bs 3 8

i Pe 7 70 GA 98 9098. 079

Jee ue eee i Bee 40

en ee 1

Gon 7G 206) 56 374 65 eg) 707

GF ea a ieee Tes nee

ac Tica i

77 S seo ese ee

997. 829 1096 1193 1665 2444 3611 4634

8 7 6 7 ] 7 15 16

7 5 6 7 3 eos aig OG

jose ois Jog S08 499 Sour 1005 1506

1.1 2 oe 1 8 9 6 anies

100 ie pe ag 1s AT

479 ee ee Ne 95

961 1688 1417. 1444-1179 «1519-2964 4407

Die Gime AG 206) 34) 835, 78 9p

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xxxyi

o =) = nN on <H un ai

rr N N N N N N N

06 ED 3 a NI of + Te

Tox rol Ql N N N NI N

on o> D> D D op ep op

4 —_ rH — 4 — a 4

Pheasants.

Burmese Peafowl Sah aes 56 ae a3

Jungle-fowl BARE Gee 23 4 eS 4 15 92 4]

Black-breasted Kali) so 7 9 ine 2 13 10 2 3

Assam 'Tragopan sie a ae aes Bi ee a

7 32 4 2 Id ws o4 44

Partridges.

Assam Black Partridge ... 494 271 2300 46, 0S... 264 3 573

Chinese Francolin 536 3 ae 3 Z 3 aA 2 fey

Assam Bamboo Partridge 18 3 Da tae 4 8 5 val

aor sie es: 4 81

Hill Partridge

DIS 2a7/ a ey OG) = 2H) TANG,

Quails.

Grey Quail ioe a0 3 11 I 2 3 S 7

Blue-breasted Quail eee S 4 6 3 3 9 15 Ze,

Manipur Bush-Quail ... 42 4 6 by) 7 ae 8 27

Burmese Bustard Quail ... 12 1 5) il 3 a 15 6)

Little Button Quail oe 2 2 ae Bi ee 7

Burmese Button Quail ... ‘ : 2 2} i 1 Si 2

Quail, unclassified ee ae Hee aa on aay 05 3

Pigeons. st M7) ae Se ate J aes 8

Various and Big Game 55 ah 3 3) i 5 10 3

Total ». 4542 2966 2958 2834 3118 4483 7520 10094

x oes | |

N N N i9@) 99) 9a)

ge) ~ 00 a S = ToTaL

“I Qi oN} ql 9) Se)

ep) D D rep) op) oO

re r4 rt re to re

Geese.

Grey Lag Geese Fee okOs 161 140 45 280 174 SOL

Bar-headed Geese vee ] i 1 2 1 54

White-fronted Geese yeh 1 1 a 4

102 162 141 48 281 175 3389

Ducks.

Pink-headed Duck eh i sa lors iy te ] y)

Cotton Teal ee 47 24 37 19 29 9 619

Lesser Whistling Teal ... 25 24 4] 9 94. 110 1262

Common Sheldrake “eh ] bet. es 2 a 3

Ruddy Sheldrake 550 7 5 2 3 8 3 89

Mallard aes nde ae cet 2 fo na ai

Spotbill nes 250 315 303 480 319 230 3667

Eastern Grey Duck Z S06 a ee 1 il oa 2

Bronze-capped ‘Teal fs 4 8 5 6 4 3 63

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 41

fan) “ ot} oo) Sp) ae)

N N N N 99) 99)

op D on D oO or

| rH | rm |

Ducks (contd.)

Gadwall ee O20 361 494 . 437 475 115 6462

W idgeon an 29 78) 14 48 88 4. 639

Common Teal eee LAGE W276) 2434) 2013s 8967 LO 15982

Baikal Teal ae ay ee we ae oe 2

Pintail 134 464 402 970 268 216 3491

Garganey Teal 422 420... 517 . 388 240 198 5869

Shoveller aie 140 Silo SZ ZoS 289 177 2591

Red-crested Pochard a 3 ik 1 5 il ae 79

Common Pochard ~ Ase 3307 2295.) 231 201 298 298 Jao

\Winiteceveds Pochard:. 9) 457 396 443 248 S58 ZS 3728

Baer’s Pochard a 2 9 4 6 il 8 ao

Scaup Reet eee i fay se uae oe 2

Tufted Pochard | 569 S03 G52.) 575 462 520 8690

Golden-eyed Pochard soe ie io Sc es iL

Hybrid Duck ee il i 4

Duck and Teal, unclassi-

fied vas 35 28 25 34 418

WD fa AVN 5907, 2 O12 4827 oe 3213 57265

Snipes.

Woodcock a ly 29 29 18 4] 16. - 236

Wood Snipe a 5 7, ZA 25 23 20 Zi

Solitary Snipe Poe an ok sb nee il i oe 3

Fantail Snipe BA 3002. S028. a 2300) 7 O16S oe2360 Soow)

Pintail Snipe 23/7 699° M482) 196. 1922) 22382 22599

Jack Snipe sat 2) 69 on 16 Die ele 543

Painted Snipe sea 23 20 29 23 20 31 835

Snipe, unclassified Seer eae ae a ve : 2228

D000) 25050 = 404623085. 5202, 4856 60216

Plovers.

Goiden Plover Hee 42 25 Al 25 35 58 853

Other Plover ee 1 sre Be pe 3H

7 43 DS IS Ti I a 890

Pheasants.

Burmese Peafowl ts, a 1 RS ao aes 1

Jungle-fowl ie 34 24 56 33 6 ilKS) 352

Black-breasted Kalyj ... 15 Wt J 8 13 7 S72

Assam Tragopan an a i eS fe oe if

49 37 O74 19 22 486

Partridges.

Assam Black Partridge ... WZ Gi ONS me 2 S22 535) 390 9255

Chinese Francolin oe i 6 iL! il uy fee 48

Assam Bamboo Bee: 74 43 128 Sd. 78 80 708

Hill Partridge 2 ae Sas ae a 10

249 446 454 420 413 470 6021

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

iw ee) eS =) o ae

Sgt eee ee eee

N N N N Se) oe)

op) ep) op) op) op) op)

r a r- re a re

Quails.

Grey Quail one ae 5 wee 7 ae 500 80

Blue-breasted Quail a 9 10 11 3 IS 46 361

Manipur Bush-Quail ... 7 6 14 9 ee san 190

Burmese Bustard Quail 2 5) 10 17 4 14 ley

Little Button Quail oe eae Za cae Bi gee eagle 3 13

Burmese Button Quail ... 1 1 in 586 aa ee 18

Quail, unclassified Rae ae ee Bie 8 see ace iat

19 27 35 44 20 63 824

Pigeons. Rot erere Seager et nds 83

Various and Big Game ... 2 5 23 8 2 4 86

Total onc) LOGL2 259 = 1S /9e es 9933 OZ99 8861 129260

GEESE.

Manipuri—kdngnga.

The Grey Lag Goose (Anser anser)'—Manipuri, kdngnga (not

kangnai, as in Baker? and Finn’).

Baker* says of their migration that they ‘arrive in India in

October, but do not get far . . . east until the end of November;

. . they have all left India, as a rule, by the end of March, yet

sometimes stay far later’. The first recorded shot in Manipur

was on October 30th., 1911, though reliable shikaris have reported

seeing them as early as September 20th (1926). The latest shot

was a single bird on the 17th April, 1925, and shikaris have

reported them on May ‘th (1927). This species has only been

shot on one other occasion in April, although stragglers are not

infrequently seen in that month. They appear annually in October,

but do not attain their full numbers until shortly before Christmas.

They begin to move off again about the middle of February, and

by the middle of March only a few are left. The stragglers which

remain till April are possibly wounded birds. The Manipuri fisher-

men who live round the Loktak lake have a tradition that one

goose and one of each species of duck remain on the lake through-

out the year, in attendance on the god of the lake.

1 The scientific names are taken from the revised edition of the Fauna of

British India, and, in the case of animals, from Lyddeker’s The Game Animals

of India.

* The Fauna of British India, vol. vi, second edition, p. 398.

3 Indian Sporting Birds (1915), p. 64.

* Indian Ducks and their Allies, first edition (1908), p. 66.

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 413

The authorities do not credit this species with occurring in

large numbers in eastern India. Baker! says ‘east of Calcutta

it is decidedly rare’, but that ‘Damant reported it to be common

in Manipur’. Damant was right, and the Grey Lag occurs in

large numbers, especially on the Loktak lake, where upwards of

90 per cent of the birds shot are killed. I have only once known

a bag of any size made on any of the other bils. In December

and January thousands may be seen on the Loktak. The best

year’s bag was 465 in 1911-12 (and these figures are incomplete).

Good days were :—

11-1-12 176 8 guns

13-1-12 150 Sa;

23-2-16 144 ates

8-1-31 140 Ie ae.

27-12-31 128 NOgs is,

20-2-13 1238 TORS

The largest recorded individual bags are 71, obtained by Colonel

M. Goodall, 9th Gurkha Rifles, on January 8th, 1931, and 60,

by Captain G. F. X. Bulfield, 6th Gurkha Rifles, on December

27th, 1981. Colonel K. S. Cassels, 8th Gurkha Rifles, and Colonel

H. 8. Wood, I.M.8., shot 161 in two days, on December 31st,

1897 and January Ist, 1898.

The number of geese visiting the valley has probably decreased

of late years, though only to a slight extent. The tendency of

bags to diminish is due rather to the increase in the number of

eun licenses and to the fact that, owing to motor transport, the

Loktak is more shot over than formerly.

Baker? credits the Grey Lag with being a ‘shy wild bird and

difficult to bring to bag’. But in Manipur, where guns are still

not too numerous, these geese can often be very obliging on a

misty morning, at the first or second shoot of the season on the

Loktak. If the sportsman’s butt happens to be built on a line

of flight where the birds approach the lake from their feeding

grounds in the rice fields, or where they cross it from one resting

place to another, pairs and skeins will continue to pass, well

within shot, until the mist rises and even after. But an injudicious

movement at the wrong moment will almost inevitably cause them

to swerve off, as they are very keen-sighted. Early in the morning

mist they may even be shot on the open water from a boat.

Colonel Goodall once shot five geese, on the wing, with one shot.

The Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus)—Manipuri, kangshel (not

(kdngnai. as in Finn,? and in the Fauna of British India:

kangnga is the name of the Grey Lag, and, from its predominating

numbers, the generic term for geese generally).

SAGO, Citas Jo, 22K, aaOps (clic Ps ml. > Op: icit-.- p60.

MA JOURNAL. BOMBAY NA dive Ade, SEIS Hs = 5 (0 GH CHIL emu VGolee XOXOXO Vall

Of the Bar-head, Baker’ is correct in saying that ‘m Assam

it is comparatively rare, but has been met with in... Manipur’,

It is a regular visitor, some flocks being seen every year, but

never occurs in large numbers lke the Grey Lag, as will be evident

from the records. It provides only a little more than 14 per cent

of the total bag of geese. The Bar-headed geese reach Manipur

later than the Grey Lag and leave earlier, though Baker? is not

quite correct in saying that ‘there is little chance of any being

found after the end of February’. A few remain on into March

every year, and on March 6th, 1932, I saw two flocks of 23 and

29 respectively fly in and settle on the Loktak lake. The earliest

recorded was shot on November ‘7th, 1929, and the latest on

March 20th, 1928. The best year’s bag was 11, in 1911-12 and

1924-25. No more than 5 have ever been shot in one day, on

three occasions, in 1912, 1915 and 1920.

Baker? says of them that they ‘are very hard to approach within

reasonable distance’. But I have not found them any wilder than

Grey Lag on the water, and have twice succeeded in walking up

to a flock grazing in the open, sufficiently close to bag some as

they rose. In 1920, when shooting snipe on the western shore

of the Loktak lake, I saw some 20 birds grazing on a piece of dry

land some 150 yards ahead. I walked past them, gradually draw-

ing closer and closer, and though individual birds occasionally

raised their heads to look at me, they did not take to flight until

I had approached within about 80 yards.

Baker* and Finn® both refer to a note of Mr. Damant, who was

Political Agent in Manipur in 1876, in which he says:—‘when they

reach the lake, they circle round once or twice, and finally, before

settling, each bird tumbles over in the air two or three times,

precisely like a tumbler pigeon’. Finn’s comment is that ‘looping

the loop is, somehow, a performance one hardly expects of a

goose’. I have seen this species, the Grey Lag Goose and the

Spotbill (Anas pecilorhyncha peecilorhyncha) carry out this evo-

lution on several occasions, and ‘looping the loop’ does not describe

it at all. The bird turns over sideways on to its back in the air,

righting itself immediately by turning back again (not making a

complete turn). A friend who had served in the R. A. F. once

informed me that the technical term for this movement was ‘the

Immelmann turn’.

The Bar-head appears, as a rule, to favour smaller flocks than

the Grey Lag. But in January, 1931, I saw a flock of between

50 and 60 pass over, identifying thei by their note, which, ag

Baker® says, is very easily distinguishable - from that of the Grey

Lag, being more resonant.

‘The White-fronted Goose (Anseér albifrons albifrons).

This goose is a rare visitor and has only been recorded four

times. One was found in the bag on February 25th., 1916: Colonel

ee on p- ee é Oyo. Gilli.5 JOs 7,

a Ole eins Os Opie cite, woamolle

10} Dg Citi IDs, les i Or. Gites a 87,

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 415

Goodall shot one on November 7th, 1929, and another on January

i8th, 1981, and 1 shot one om December 27th, 1920. I saw all

these birds and can vouch for their identification, which, in the

case of the first, was confirmed by the Society. It is possible

that this species may occur more frequently and that its resemblance

to the Grey Lag may lead to its bemg overlooked, both on the

wing and in a casual examination of the bag.

Ducks.

Manipuri, nganu.

Manipur, with its large expanse of lakes and swamps in the

southern half of the valley, is the home, permanent or temporary,

of large numbers of waterfowl. Among the ducks, the Spotbill

(Anas pecilorhyncha pecilorhyncha), the Lesser Whistling Teal

(Dendrocygna javanica) and the Cotton Teal (Nettopus coroman-

delianus) are resident and breed, while all the common migratory

species of ducks are found in the cold weather, in large numbers.

Migration begins in September, the advance guard occasionally

appearing as early as August. But the main body does not arrive

until November, and it is not before the second week of that

month that duck shooting begins in earnest. Early in the season

the duck frequent the small shallow lakes and marshes, moving

on, as these dry up, to the two large lakes,. Loktak in the south-

west, and Ikop in the south-east of the valley. The return migra-

tion varies from season to season, but can be said to begin towards

the end of February, and by the middle of April only stragelers

remain.

The best bag of duck recorded is that of 1928-29, when 5,967

were shot. Good days were :—

27-12-31 ee O44 18 guns

6-12-25 vee Ole gad?

27-12-25 OSS 1p tes

8-1-31 pe AGT. Oe.

2-12-28 ce AL Dye vate

14-12-80 cee cek One.

27-12-22 oe AY lls) Ceara.

16-12-26 gen Gil Tien,

18-12-27 ... 409 ena

27-12-29 ... 408 7 LOSS,

16-12-28 ... 408 Dee

20-12-25 se. 401 ee

(These figures are for duck only, and exclude geese, snipe and

other species.) |

Good individual bags were :—

Colonel M. Goodall ... 14-12-80 226

18-12-27 219

Captain W. R. B. Williams, 7th. Gurkha

Rifles, 6-12-25 21]

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO CEI Viol Oxo

The following table shows the total number of each species

shot in the period 1910-11 to 1931-32, and the percentage it forms

of the total bag of duck:— ,

Common Teal 1 SOS 28°12 per cent

Tufted Pochard 2) e090 lowOa

Gadwall so OC AIGY Be oe

Garganey Teal me Oy elew) 1O32 3).

White-eyed Pochard en 8 O2500 2

Spotbill fo On OOK On ae

Common Pochard ee Woo OO WAG cre

Pintail ae BAI Cle ee

Shoveller aoe OO Aa HOM a.

Whistling Teal oe 269 ES As

Widgeon 63 SA nes

Cotton Teal oe 612 108...

Ruddy Sheldrake ae 89 Onl. 2 a

Red-crested Pochard Hes 70 Ont? as

Bronze-capped Teal he 63 Oo: oe

Eastern White-eyed Pochard ... 51 Ore

Mallard ae 7

Common Sheldrake 3

Baikal Teal 2

Scaup Duck 2

Eastern Grey Duck 2

Pink-headed Duck 1 0:02 0425,

Golden-eye : 1

Hybrids 4

The Nukhta or Comb-Duck (Sarkidiornis melanotus).

This species is a rare visitor. Two were shot in 1911-12 by

Major A. H. D. Barron, 20th. Burma Rifles. I once saw a small

flock on the Loktak lake. My shikari, who is a careful observer

and skilful at the identification of game birds, has reported the

presence of Nukhta on various bils in the autumn of 1924, 1925,

1927, 1928 and 1930.

The White-winged Wood-Duck (Asarcornis scutulatus).

Very rare in Manipur, though frequently seen in the Nambar

Forest of the Assam Valley, where Baker’ says rightly that it ‘is

found in some numbers’, and occasionally in the Kabaw Valley of

Burma, to the north and south-east of Manipur respectively. One

was shot and brought in to me on April 380th, 1925. From the

description given to me, an officer touring in the eastern hills

appears to have seen one on July 15th, 1925. A large duck, re-

sembling this species in description, was reported to me on a chain

of bils south-east of Imphal in July, 19381, and a pair m June _

1932. I myself, touring in the north-eastern hills, saw three in

a small tributary of the Ivil river on July 24th, 1918, at about

(O}0s Cla, Ws BB),

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR ALT

8,000 ft. The local Kukis informed me that this stream had been

blocked by a landslide in its upper reaches and that a small lake had

been formed, on which there were duck. ‘They refused to accom-

pany me, for fear of evil spirits, as a man who had shot some of

the duck had died. On arrival at the lake—quite a small sheet

of water, about 80 yards long by 30 yards broad, overhung by a

wooded bluff,—I found three wood-duck swimming about on it.

Baker! refers to the call of this bird as ‘goose-like’. But it is,

in reality, far clearer and more musical than the note of either

the Grey Lag or the Bar-headed Goose.

Finn? presumes that the Wood-duck is ‘fairly good eating’. My

experience of it in the Assam valley is that the flesh is extremely

coarse, resembling that of the Brahminy in flavour and texture.

However, it is a question of degree and to one accustomed to a

diet of Indian fowl and goat even the Whistler and the Brahminy

come as a welcome change, when other ducks are not available.

The Pink-headed Duck (Ithodonessa caryophyllacea).

hisebicd) sas, Ebume> says. is very, scarce im) Manipur.) Of

latenyears: Mins WEA Coseraye, 1:C:S:, shot one: im November,

1908, and I shot the male out of a pair on October 23rd., 1910.

Till this year I never saw another, though they have been reported

very occasionally by guns and shikaris. It is very possible that

they may have mistaken Red-crested Pochards for this bird, as

it is not difficult to confuse them when on the wing. But on

June 14th., 1982, my shikaris reported two strange duck with

some Spotbill and Whistling Teal on a bil 9 miles south of Imphal.

I went out on the 15th. and put up one of the birds, with some

Whistlers. It flew into the sun, and as I was unable to recognise

it, I shot it and found it was a Pink-headed drake. I did not see

- the duck.

There seems to be no doubt that this bird breeds further east

than it is given credit for doing. In Nowgong (Assam) I saw flocks

on several occasions in March, during the years 1921 to 1923.

On May 18th, 1922, when out after elephant in the long ekra grass

by the Brahmaputra, I saw two pairs in a small bil in the jungle.

They were very tame and I watched them for some time. These

birds and the Manipur pair must have been breeding.

The Cotton Teal (Nettapus coromandelianus)—Manipuri, pegdek,

nginu pegdek. The name is onomatopoeic being derived from

the bird’s call.

This little duck is resident in Manipur, where it breeds, though,

as Baker* says, it is “‘semi-migratory’. It is found in considerable

numbers in the rains, is plentiful on the bils at the beginning and

end of the cold weather, and almost disappears between the middle

of November and the middle of February. It is astonishing that

+ (Oysic* Cita, Moe 35). SURO eCauens-= VOln Xie

Oparcit.,) pe coe: (OVD. Clic, [O> ZS).

such a low-flying bird can cross the high mountain ranges which

surround the Manipur valley on every side, but there seems to

be little doubt that it does. Indeed, Colonel Cassels records having

shot one on May 28rd, 1896, on a tarn on Koubru, the mountain

at the north-west extremity of the valley, at an altitude of

7,800 ft.

The Cotton Teal is not much shot, owing to its low flight. The

best year’s bag was 81 in 1924-25.

Finn! notes that the Cotton Teal ‘swim and dive well’. This

is very true. A wounded bird is very difficult to retrieve, diving

when approached and swimming to the nearest patch of water

weed, where it usually hides with only its head above water.

Baker? suggests that this bird is inferior as a table bird. But

though it certainly does not rank with such aristocrats of the table

as the Mallard, Spotbill, Pintail, Gadwall, and Common and Gar-

ganey Teals, I consider it definitely superior to the pochards.

‘Raoul’? classes them as ‘excellent eating . . . at the proper

season (January to March).

The Lesser or Common Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna javanica)

—Manipuri, ting.

This is another resident species, which breeds in Manipur

and emigrates early in the cold weather, though a certain number

remain behind. But the migration of this species and of the

Cotton Teal from Manipur is not, as Baker* suggests with regard

to other localities, due to want of water. In the swamps in the

south of the valley there are a number of bils which never dry up.

The periods of its migration coimeide with those of the Cotton Teal.

The Whisthne Teal is not very much shot, partly because its

tameness and slow flight render it unworthy of the expenditure of

powder and shot, ahem other more sporting duck are to be had

in plenty, and partly owing to its deficiencies as a table bird. As

Finn® remarks, its “flesh is poor, but will do for soup’. But occa-

sionally it finds its way into the bag in fairly considerable numbers,

when other ducks are scarce or when the guns include inexperienced

sportsmen or those who like a sabisiactory return for the number

of cartridges used.

The Whistler is, as Baker® remarks, ‘a horrible nuisance’.

Vociferous flocks have a habit of flymg round and round over one’s

butt, swerving off at the least movement and diverting their more

worthy cousins from the vicinity. The exasperation caused in

the inmate of the butt has proved fatal to many a Whistler, shot

in an endeavour to drive away the noisy flock.

IT have never seen the Whistling Teal nesting in a tree. One

or two pairs breed every year on a small island in a large tank

in the Resideney garden. On this island, which is covered with

tall reeds, there are several trees, but the birds appear to prefer

+ Oo, Cilia, jos 4h, > O05 Gling joo. 49, A000.

2 (Ojos Cliton De0 OO. 2 Olde Che, jon DT

3 Small Game Shooting in Bengal, p. 162. 7 OD; . Giles JO, TOIL,

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 419

to build their nests among the reeds, as I have never seen them

perch on the trees. I once saw a duck with nine ducklings on

the tank. During the hot weather and rains a number of Whistling

Teal rest on the tank during the day. They spend much of their

time sitting in a row on the bank, and in rainy weather they

wander about the lawn as far as 50 yards from the water, feeding.

I have noticed tame ducks doing the same when it is raining.

The Large Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna fulva).

Baker! records this species as being uncommon in Assam, and

says, in the Fauna of British India, that it “extends through

Manipur into Northern Burma’. It is actually very rare in the

State, and I do not know of its having been shot. I saw a pair

on September 6th, 1925, and a single bird on October 14th, 1929.

My shikari reported having seen pairs on December 4th, 1926, and

October 15th, 1927. I know of no other instances of its having

been seen.

The Sheldrake (Tadorna tadorna).

A rare visitor. One was shot by a shikari in 1910, a single male

was bagged on April 8rd, 1927, and a pair on January 2nd, 1930.

I saw a flock of six on October 27th, 1918, and a single bird on

February 14th, 1932. My shikari reported a few in the autumn

of 1924, 1925, 1928 and 1929.

The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck (Casarca ferruginea)—

Manipuri, thdnggong.

This duck is a regular visitor, but not in large numbers, as

might be expected from the fact that the rivers in the Manipur

valley suffer from the same disadvantage, from the view of the

Brahminy, as those ascribed to the rivers of Cachar and East Sylhet

by Baker,? being ‘muddy and wanting in suitable sandy banks’.

The numbers in the game records, however, are no indication of

their rarity, as they are not often shot. The earliest record is on

November 2nd (1924), and the latest on March 18th (1916), though

one. was seen on May 4th, 1927. This bird is far less wary in

Manipur than I have found it elsewhere.

- The Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha).

Baker,’ quoting Colonel Wood, says, ‘the Mallard is extremely

rare in Manipur’. It is certainly very uncommon, but a few are

seen in most years. I have seen occasional birds in every season

since 1924. Only seven have been brought to bag since 1910, how-

ever, the earliest recorded being on November 4th (1923) and the

latest on March 16th (1918).

> ADO, Citing JO. GEL, = (OVO, Citta, 4D IAG): OJOS Clisn Ws- AG:

420 JOURNAL “BOMBAY TiN AGRO Ade He lS eae SOC Te) Tvemm Viol eXOxexey/ ali

The Spotbill or Grey Duck (Anas pecilorhyncha pecilorhyncha),

—Manipuri, pirel or ngdnu pirel, not kara, as in Finn,! Baker?

and Wright and Dewar*: khara is the Manipuri name for the

Shoveller.

The Spotbill is very common in Manipur, though not so in

comparison with the Common and Garganey Teals, the Pintail,

the Gadwall, and the Common, White-eyed and Tufted Pochards.

In the bag, however, it comes sixth in point of numbers, with a

percentage of 6.45 per cent, between the White-eyed and the

Common Pochards. Its comparatively high position 1s due to the

fact that it is less wary than the above-mentioned species. It

resides and breeds in the swamps in the south of the valley.

There is nothing to show whether it emigrates during the cold

weather, like the other resident duck, though, as a general rule,

far more are seen at the beginning of the shooting season, in

November and December, than later in the cold weather. This is

possibly due to the birds pairing early and retiring to the reed-

covered bogs and marshes for the purpose of breeding. Colonel

Wood* says that in Manipur ‘the birds generally pair about the

beginning of April’. But this is certainly wrong: they may be

seen in pairs in February and March, and even much earlier. My

personal impression is that they may pair for life. The fact that

they are sometimes seen in flocks does not disprove this suppo-

sition, as the flock may consist of a family, or of a number of

pairs or families. By April most of the pairs are beginning to lay.

The best bag of Spotbill recorded is 480, in 1929-30. Good days

have been: —

2-1-28 eee

28-3-26 ... 40

5-11-11 88

Oates? quotes Hume as saying that the Spotbill is ‘excessively

abundant and very tame on the Loktak lake’. But Baker® is

more correct in saying that they prefer bils surrounded by grass

and are rare on the Loktak (except at the northern end). In the

spring Spotbills are often found on the Manipur river, above and

below where it enters the hills at the southern end of the valley.

As regards altitude, I have met with it in the valley of the Nung-

shangkhong, in the eastern hills, at a height of 8,750 ft.

The account of the habits and characteristics of this species

eiven by Baker? is generally correct. But I have always found

that the Spotbill carries plenty of lead, unless hit well forward,

and is by no means easy to bring down. ‘Raoul’* confirms this

“Oyos. Cia, Oa Oz ° Op. cit., p. 1385.

2 The Fauna of British India, vol. vi, p. 421, " Op. cit., p. 1386.

3 The Ducks of India (1925), p. 66. He Oyo. Cltsg Os Lele.

4 Baker, Indian Ducks and their Allies, p. 187.

> Game Birds of India (1898), part Tale, [Oe » LUBIB),

GAME BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF MANIPUR 421

opinion, saying that they are ‘hard to ill, and... will carry

away a lot of shot’. As a diver, I do not consider it ranks with

real experts, such as the Pochards and Teal, or even the Gadwall.

It never fails to make for the nearest available reeds or floating

matted grass, where, as Finn! says, it ‘hides most cunningly in

any available cover’, like the Grey Lag goose. Its habit, noted

by Baker,” of returning (like the Brahminy) to look for its dead

mate is very characteristic, and the fact that it does so at all

times in the cold weather tends to support the theory that these

birds may pair for hfe. In Manipur none of the large duck surpass

the Spotbill as a table bird—possibly because its nourishment never

suffers the setback of the lean times of migration.

The Eastern Grey Duck (dnas pecilorhyncha zonorhyncha).

Manipuri, pirel, nganu pirel.

This species, easily distinguishable from the preceding one by

the blue speculum, is very rare in Manipur. Only two have been

recorded, one shot by Colonel Goodall on February 6th, 19380, and

the other by me on January 18th, 1931. The shikaris picked out

the birds immediately as belonging to a different species, before

the bags were examined, on account of the yellowish buff colour

of the abdomen and under tail coverts.

The Burmese Grey Duck (Anas pecilorhyncha haringtoni).

Of 38,667 Grey Duck recorded since 1910, 2,891 have passed

through my hands, and although I have been on the lookout for

this species, which should at least straggle into Manipur (the

Manipur valley is only 20 miles distant in an air line from the

Burma border, and 36 miles from the Chindwin river), I cannot

say with any certainty that it does or does not occur. It seems

almost impossible that it should not do so, if the Grey Duck are

migratory. For, writing in 1908 of the Birds of the Chindwin,

Hopwood’ records only one specimen of pecilorhyncha, whereas

of haringtoni he remarks that it is ‘common and _ breeds

obtained specimens intermediate between this and the foregoing

species’. While not presuming to fly in the face of the authorities

who have accorded their recognition to haringtoni as a separate

subspecies, I maintain that, to the amateur field naturalist, the

distinction indicated in the “Fauna of British India’ does not afford

sufficient material for certain identification. The description given

is: —‘differs from the Indian Grey Duck in having no red spots on

the base of the bill, or only very faint traces of them; the speculum

is green as in that bird, but the underparts are less spotted and

generally paler’. With regard to A. p. pecilorhyncha, the same

volume says “young birds have no red spots at the base of the

bill . . . the general plumage is rather lighter and the spots on

DAO). tien” (De Be +100. (ellis, TOs. IB),

* Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, vol. xviii, 2, p. 488.

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SOI

thie lower plumage sparse or obsolete’. Moreover, in birds which,

from the presence of well-developed spots at the base of the bill,

can be identified with certainty as a. p. pecilorhyncha the variation

in the colour and degree of the spotting of the underparts is so

very considerable that this characteristic cannot safely be adopted

as a test. It seems, therefore, that the differentiation of the

two subspecies is a matter which can only be undertaken with

any certainty by scientific ornithologists, with a large series of

Grey Duck at their disposal, or sufficient knowledge to enable them

to differentiate between young and old birds. There is also, of

course, a difference in the size of the two subspecies, a. p. haringtoni

being apparently much the smaller of the two. But here again

the size of individuals admittedly of the same species differs so

considerably that this affords no certain criterion.

(To be continued).

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA.

he le OCOCK. ER: Ss.

(Unofficial Assistant in the Zoological Department of

the British Museum.)

(With 4 text-figures).

Under this popular term are included the species which in

Blanford’s Mammalia of British India and other treatises on the

oriental faunas are referred to as the genera Viverra and Viverricula.

To these I have added a third genus based upon two comparatively

imperfectly known species. These three genera, with the African

Civet Cat (Civettictis), constitute a compact little group of the

family Vivernridae and may be classed together as the subfamily

Viverrinae which differs from the Palm Civets (Paradoxurus and

others) and the Water Civets (Cynogale) in the more elaborate

structure of their scent-pouches and the formation of the feet. ‘The

scent-pouches are closed, but openable, receptacles for the storage

of the secretion and are situated between the scrotum and the

orifice of the penis in the male and between the anus and the vulva

in the female in which they are wholly perinaeal in position and

do not pass in front of the vulva as in the Palm Civet (Paradoxurus)

and the Binturong (Arctictis). The feet are essentially adapted for

life on the ground and bear a close superficial resemblance to the

digitigrade feet of the Cats particularly in the reduction in size of

the carpal pad of the forefoot and the complete, or almost com-

plete, suppression of the metatarsal pads of the hind foot which is

entirely, or very nearly so, covered with hair from the hock to

the plantar pad.

The principal external and cranial differences between the three

Asiatic genera are briefly set forth in the following analytical

‘keys’ :—

Haternal Characters.

a. No dorsal crest; forehead narrow between the

anterior edges of the ears which are set

comparatively close together; feet as in

Moschothera, with no claw-sheaths ep Vioermoula-

a’. A dorsal crest of hai at least from the

shoulders; forehead wide between the an-

terior edges of the ears.

b. Toes without skin-lobes protecting the

claws; feet comparatively naked beneath

between the pads ae ... Moschothera.

b'. At least the 8rd. and, 4th. toes of the

forefoot with well developed sheaths

protecting the claws; feet thickly hairy

between the pads Viverra,

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Cranial Characters.

a. Auditory bulle long, considerably exceeding

the width across the occipital condyles;

posterior area of cranium strongly com-

pressed above; muzzle short and weak ... Viverricula.

a’. Auditory bulls comparatively short, not ex-

ceeding the width across the occipital con-

dyles; cranium only moderately compressed

in its upper portion behind; muzzle

long and stout te

b. Postorbital processes almost or quite sup-

pressed; their position behind the mid-

dle pomt of the total length of the skull Moschothera.

b'. Postorbital processes present and in front

of the middle poimt of the total length

of the skull oe ee wy imennay

Genus: Viverra, Linn.

Viverrd,, im. Syst. Nav, de MO) eet aloe:

Type of the genus: V. zgibetha, Linn.

Until comparatively recently the name Viverra was used in a

comprehensive sense for the African Civet (civetta) and the four

oriental Civets (zibetha, megaspila, ciettina and tangalunga). But

in 1915 (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1915, pp. 181-149) I dismembered the

African Civet from Viverra on the evidence supplied by some well

marked differences between its feet and those of zibetha, the type

of the genus Viverra, and restricted to Viverra the four oriental

species. At that time I had no examples of megaspila, civettina or

tangalunga for examination. Subsequently the chance of examin-

ing a fresh specimen of tangalunga at the Zoological Society's Gar-

dens presented itself and I found that in all essentials the species

resembles zibetha. But I recently discovered upon relaxing the

feet of dried skins of megaspila and civettina that these species

differ in the structure of their feet from zibetha and tangalunga

and more closely resemble in that respect the African Civet (Civet-

tictis)'. In this paper, therefore, I restrict the name Viverra to

zibetha and tangalunga, separating civettina and megaspila from

them as Moschothera.

Viverra may be distinguished from the other genera of Viver-

rinae mentioned above by the presence on the 8rd and 4th digits

of the forefoot of well developed lobes of hairy skin which consti-

tute protective sheaths for the claws exactly as in the Cats (felide).

The third digit has two lobes, an inner larger and an outer smaller;

the fourth has only an outer lobe. A glance, however, at the

figure of the foot (Text-fig. 1, A, p. 425) will show that when the

digits are closed these lobes protect the points of the claws not

only of the 8rd and 4th but of the 2nd and Sth digits as well. The

digits are fully webbed, as in most Carnivora, and the area between

1 Since this Civet is outside the limits of this paper, I may briefly dismiss

it by saying that it differs generically from megaspila and civettina in some

features connected with the feet and skull.

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 425

the large plantar pad and the digital pads is thickly covered with

hai except for a narrow strip of naked skin along the under side

: Te

\; y i i MZ

RIAN: i re Lp y f

\\ ie hs y

ve KN i : a2

NONE Be)

A XN a y

Wi), SSIS

n\\\ eS y ve 4) n

N i

\ ae Aye

Hic. 1.—A. lower side of left fore paw of Viverra zibetha. B. The same

of the left hind paw. C. The same of left fore paw of Viverricula

indica. ‘The sole is more hairy in some specimens. D. The same of

left hind paw.

(Cop: ed from Proc. Zool. ie 1915, pp. 1381-149).

of each digit. In the outing of the ears and the presence of the

dorsal crest, the genus resembles its two allies Moschothera and

Civettictis, the three differing in those respects from Viverricula.

The distinguishing cranial characters of Viverra as compared

with its oriental allies, are briefly set forth in the table given above.

The postorbital processes (Text-fig. 2, E, p. 489) of the frontal

bone are well developed in the adult and the distance between

them and the tip of the muzzle is less than the distance between

them and the edge of the occipital crest behind, the .facial portion

of the skull being shorter in comparison with the cranial portion

than in Moschothera.

Attention may here be drawn to ao features-in ane skull. of:.V.

zibetha which might be considered of systematic importance. The

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

size of the auditory bulla varies considerably in ne from the

same locality, as shown in the figures (Text-fig. 2,.A, B, p. 489)

of this structure in two adult examples af typical , te zibetha from

Gorkha in Nepal. In one the bulla, measured obliquely from the

outer edge of the paroccipital to its apex, is onky 13: mm., and its

apex, comparatively slightly inflated, does not reach as far as

the anterior end of the auditory orifice. In the other the bulla,

similarly measured, is 17 mm. and its-strongly inflated apex reaches

as far as. the anterior. end of the: auditory orifice. “ All inter-

mediates between these two conditions exist in Nepalese skulls.

The mesopterygoid fossa is similarly variable independently of

race. In an example of /V. z. ashtoni from Chin Kiang, on the

Yang-tse, it 1s wade, with arcuate sides and evenly concave ante-

rior border. lip ‘others’ from Chin Kiang and ‘Foochow it is

narrower, with: ‘Alcarly parallel sides and irregularly truncated ante-

rior border,’ with a shallow median notch.” In other cases the

truncated anterior border may have a median sie instead of a

mowen (heen, 4 (O, ID, i> 431).

The two-well defined species of this | genus may be distinguished

superficially as follows :—

a. Size comparatively large; pattern on flanks;

when distinet, variable, mottled, brindled —

or ‘mackerel’; white bands on tail form-~ :

Ing complete VINOS 32 ee ee. isyee Bibetha.

consisting of small, close-set solid spots; .

white bands on tail not passing over its”

sumEat, forming incomplete =

VIVERRA ZIBETHA, ‘Linn:

AGEN

5 HORGDNG:

nce Eo

The principal references to the literature of fie species will be

found under the ‘headings of the subspecies or, local races by which

it is represented; and no description of it is “required beyenel that

given above.

Its distribution is from Southern China and Northern. India to

the Malay Peninsula and Siam where it overlaps the range of

Moschothera megaspila.'

As may be seen from the measurements cited below the males

and females differ very little in size. ‘This applies to: the: skull, eel

teeth as well as to the body.

With regard to the variations exhibited by this species, ip may

anticipate what follows by briefly stating that in the more northern

‘races there is great seasonal difference i in the length and luxurianée

of the coat. in the winter it is long and thick; in the summer

short and sleek.’ This is accompanied by a corrdsponding difference

in the conspicuousness of the ‘pattern, which is strongly pronounced

in summer skins, indistinct or even Oplinseee ee in. winter aeine

1 This fact alone is strong presumptive evidence’ of the generic ‘difference

here claimed between the two species: “T'wo species of the same genus. seldom

-occur in.the same district unless ‘their habits or habitats’ are ‘difterent.

THE. CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 427

The ground-colour varies individually, even irrespective of season,

from tawny to clear almost silvery grey. In tawny skins - the

pattern is naturally less emphasised than in grey’ skins in which

the contrast is greater. There’appears to be but one moult which

probably varies in time to a certain exuey but wales ‘plece in about

May, June or July. : pol i

Tue Large Civer Car From CHINA.

one Vwerra zibetha ashton, Swinh. :

Viverra ashtoni, Swinhoe, Proc: 208! Soc. 1864, p. 379, ‘with

text-fig.

Viverra filchnevi, Matschie, Cine aaa m ilcheer Heped., pi

LOD OOS a

Viverra zibetha aatons and filchneri, bo Be ignaalll Proc. U.S;

INGiby MAS o5 UD, [Os 2X0, USPS), a

Winerne zibetha, -G. M.-. Allen, nner Mus. Novit., Nox

BOO DPrattes, sh O2O | : et

Locality of the type of ashtoni: Suykaon on the Min River;

~ Foochow. | ;

Locality of type of filchneri: Hingantu, South-eastern Shensi.

Distribution: Southern China as far north as Shensi. : ;

From a few scattered localities in China the British Museum

has only a comparatively small number of unmeasured, mostly un-

dated skins which, in agreement with G. M: Allen’s opinion regard:

ing the skins in the American Museum of Natural History, New

York, I regard as representing a single race: Allen, however,

having no material from India wherewith to compare his Chinesé

specimens and perceiving that all the characters hitherto used for

distinguishing the races of this Civet, namely the tawny or’ grey

hue and the distinctness or indistinetness of the pattern, are indi-

vidually variable in Chinese skins, identified the latter as V. zibetha}

Linn. No doubt Chinese specimens intergrade absolutely’ with

those found farther south, but I regard them as belonging to ‘a

distinct local race on account of the greater length and luxuriance

of the winter coat, the tail being correspondingly more bushy.

Variation in the length of the pelage, no doubt seasonal,

shown by the following specimens:— —

Foochow in Fokien, January, crest ‘hairs 90 mm., flank hairs

48 mim. . ee

Han Chung in een ie, date), crest hairs 88 mm., flank

hairs 42 mm. “

Sui Ling (no dete). ey hairs 80 mm., flank hairs 42 mm.

Tingehou, December, crest hairs 73 mm., flank hairs 46’ mm.

Amoy. in Fokien (no date), crest hairs 50 mm., flank hairs

25 min. eet oe Sune | ay

The two specimens exhibiting the greatest variation in the coat,

namely the examples from Foochow and” Amoy, . were “collected by

Swinhoe in Fokien; and since the type. of ashtoni was also-from

Foochow in that state, there can be no doubt about-the idéntifica-

tion. In the Fooechow specimen the coat is very long ‘and full, but

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

would probably have been still longer if the animal had been killed

in March. The general colour is dark grey over the shoulders and

there 1s some white mottling on the flanks, but the hind body is

mostly bright tawny owing to the very obscure pattern being that

tint; there is no tawny on the beliy. In the undated specimen

from Amoy the coat is short and sleek, no doubt representing the

summer pelage; the general colour is greyish, without distinct

tawny wash, and the pattern is brown and conspicuous from the

shoulders backwards, consisting mostly of irregular transverse often

fused bands in front and of blotches behind; the pale band defining

the black dorsal crest is very sharp. The tint and pattern of this

Specimen are almost exactly as in the type of V. zibetha picta

deseribed below.

The example from Tingchou, a locality I cannot trace, was

also collected by Swinhoe. The coat is full as in the January skin

from Foochow; but the crest is much shorter; it would no doubt

have increased in length in another three months. The pattern

too is more distinct and olive brown, the flanks being mottled with

grey without tawny wash.

The example from Sui Ling (W. A. Maw) is hardly distinguish-

able in colour and pattern from the skin from Tingechou. A speci-

men ticketed ‘China’ which perhaps came from Canton since it

was collected by J. R. Reeves, is beginning to show the moult.

The coat is a little shorter than in the Foochow and Tingchou

Specimens; it exhibits a faint tawny wash but the pattern is in-

definite, at most represented by obscure brown mottling.

The skin from Shensi, collected 40 miles north of Han Chung

by M. P. Anderson, is very like the long-coated skins described

above, but the pattern is even less distinct. The skin is of particu-

lar interest because the type of filchneri also came from Shensi;

but since Anderson’s example practically only differs from Swin-

hoe’s example from Foochow, which is a topotype of ashtoni, in the

absence of the bright tawny hue of the vestigial pattern, the con-

clusion that filchneri is a synonym of ashtoni' is justified. The type

of filchneri, exhibiting a distinct pattern, was no doubt in summer

pelage. |

The difference in the length of the winter coat between these

Chinese skins and skins assigned to typical V. zibetha zibetha from

Nepal, Sikhim and Bengal may be seen by the particulars recorded

below under the latter subspecies.

THe LArcK Cirver Car rrom NEPAL, SrkHim AND NortH BENGAL.

Viverra zibetha zibetha, Linn.

Viverra: zibetha, Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 44, 1758.

Viverra undulata, Gray, Spic. Zool., p. 9, pl. 8, 1830.

Viverra orientalis or melanurus, Hodgson, Calc. Journ. Nat.

Hist., ii, pp. 47-00, 1842.

+ The type of ashtoni is not in the British Museum. Swinhoe’s illustration

of it shows clearly that the animal was in winter coat, not in summer coat

as. Howell supposed. The tail. was imperfect, as indicated by the white tip,

a feature which seems to have deluded Matschie.

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 429

Viverra undulatus, id. tom. cit., p. 50.

eek civettoides, id. tom. cit., p. 62 (substitute for undula-

us).

Viverra melanura, orientalis and civettoides, Gray, Cat. Mamm.

Hodgson’s Coll., p. 7, 1847.

Locality of type of zibetha: Bengal (Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc.,

LOUIS pert ee) js

Locality of type of undulata, Gray: Nepal.

Locality of type of orientalis or melanurus: Nepal.

Locality of type of civettoides: Darjiling.

Distribution : Bengal, Bhutan, Kamrup, Sikhim, Nepal. |

Note on the synonymy: Linnzeus’s description of Viverra

zibetha suggests that the name may have been given to more than

one species; but I accept the traditional application of it to the

‘Large Indian Civet’ and Thomas’s decision that the type came

from Bengal. Gray gave the name undulata to a headless, foot-

less skin obtained by Hardwicke in Nepal and exhibiting a very

distinct pattern of close-set, narrow, wavy stripes of the ‘mackerel’

type. This skin is not in the British Museum; but one of Hodgson’s

specimens from Nepal, a young example, very closely resembles it.

Two more of Hodgson’s specimens were. selected as ‘cotypes

and lectotypes’ of Hodgson’s melanurus! by Thomas. They are very

much alike, both having the coat long and thick. One is greyish

tawny with scarcely a trace of pattern on the flanks; the hairs of

the crest over the loins measure 64 mm., those of the flanks

86 mm. The other is a little more silvery and less tawny, with the

flanks more distinctly mottled. A third has the coat decidedly

shorter, a good deal more silvery grey in the pelage and the pattern

on the flanks forming definite transverse bands suggesting conflu-

ence of rosettes.

Hodgson originally identified as undulata Gray an example from

Darjiling which differed from his melanurus in its more distinct

pattern. But change of opinion on this point, induced him to

introduce civettoides for his Darjiling example. The specimen in

the British Museum identified by Thomas as the type of civettoides

is labelled Nepal.? It has the coat much shorter than in the co-

types of melanurus, the crest-hairs being 45 mm. and the flank-

hairs 25 mm.; and the pattern is quite distinct, stronger even than

in the third specimen of Hodgson’s mentioned above. The general

tint, however, is a browner tawny than in the darker of the two

cotypes of melanurus.

A casual glance at Hodgson’s specimens suggests that they

merely represent individual and seasonal variations of the same

race. This is completely borne out by the magnificent series of

dated skins obtained for ‘The Mammal Survey’ at different months

1 Hodgson’s ascription of the name orientalis to this Nepalese Viverra

invalidates Matschie’s use of it for the Kast African Civet Cat, which he called

Viverra civetta orientalis. I propose to substitute matschiei for this race.

-* It does not necessarily follow from this that the specimen is not the type

because some of Hodgson’s Sikhim animals were JOEL entered as coming

from Nepal,

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

of the year in Nepal, Sikhim and Bhutan Duars by N. A. Baptista.

It is only possible, however, to refer to the most interesting speci-

mens.

Nepal: <A series of a dozen skins in winter pelage obtained i in

the Gorkha district between November 24 and March 15.

. Coat long and thick, measuring as follows:—

Skin from Bokarlang, November 24, crest- hates 63. mm.,

flank-hairs 88 mm. i

Skin from Boitarg, December 22, crest-hairs 68 mm., flank-

hairs 88 mm.

Skin from ae Lebinleny 7 _crest-hairs 73 mm., flank-

hairs 86 mm.

These data suggest increase in the lanes of the crest through

the winter months, the example from Bokarlang being almost iden-

tical with Hodgson’ s cotype of melanurus.

_ Colour very variable. Of two. examples, for instance, from

Syartang, Feb. 7 and 10, one has a faint tawny wash as in a skin

from Bokarlang, Nov. 24, whereas the other exhibits an ochreous

tawny wash as in a skin from Khoplang, Feb. 21, which is decided-

ly richer tinted than in a second from the same locality, Feb. 22.

Pattern on flanks always indistinet, but individually variable to a

certain extent. In an. example, ticketed Gorkha, 1,000 ft., March

15, it is practically obsolete.

Moult. . In addition to the winter skins above described, two

were procured showing the moult. One from Chalna Kel, May 7,

has no appreciable tawny wash and the long, silver- tipped hairs

have disappeared to a great extent on the hind quarters, revealing

a short coat with a distinct pattern of blotches. The other from

Banso Bahari, May 23, is like the last but has the moult still more

advanced, the long hairs being absent in patches on the hind

quarters, flanks and low down on the shoulders, showing a short

coat with distinct pattern.

Sikhim. A series of over a den skins, mostly from the Dar-

jiling district, exhibit the seasonal changes even better than those

from Nepal. Variations in the coat measurements are as follows : —

Skin from Batasia Tonglu, 6,000 ft., February 27, crest 69 mm.

flanks 38 mm.

Skin from Ronglhi, 2,700 it., aoe MT. weet 63 mm.,

flanks 86 mm.

Skin from Narbong, 2 000 ft., March 9, crest 60 mm., flanks

38 mm. |

Skin from Gopaldara, 4,720 ft., April 4, crest 64 mm., flanks

Bo momen)

Skin from Pashok, 38,500 ft. July 5, crest 88 mm., flanks

20 mm.

The example from Sadheolk, a female, has the pattern strongly

pronounced, consisting of blackish transverse stripes on the dark

grey fore quarters and of loops and rosettes on the tawny-washed

hind quarters; but in a male, with a similarly short coat, with the

same date and locality, the pattern is brown and consequently

less conspicuous against the ground colour. A pair from Nimbong,

July 19, is very like it. In these specimens from Pashok and

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA . 431

Nimbong the moult appears to be just completed; but in a skin

from Sungma, 4,500 ft., July 18, some of the long, grey-tipped

hairs of the winter coat are still in place. In a skin from Gopal-

dara, 4,700 ft., June. 3, the moult is in full force, the (BOR is

bad.and the pattern mottled brown.

Of the specimens with the long, full enter coab, the -one

from Batasia Tonglu exhibits a conspicuous tawny wash and a

traceable pattern of indistinct brown mottling and brindling on

the hinder part of the body. Four from Narbong are very similar

in tint and pattern; but the skin from Gopaldara is grey without

appreciable tawny wash and the pattern is fainter.

_ I cannot distinguish these Sikkim specimens from the Nepalese.

Bhutan Duars.’ A series of skins collected at Hasimara, 500 ft.

to 600 ft., and at Bharnabari, 600 ft., between October 22 and

February 22, exhibit the following progressive increase in the

length of the coat: — |

- Hasimara, October 22, crest 40 mm. , flanks 20 mm.

‘Hasimara, November oy erest 50 mm., flanks 32 mm.

-Hasimara, December 17, crest 56 mm., flanks 33 mm.

Bharnabari, February 22, crest 62 mm., flanks 87 mm.

~The first example from Hasimara, October 22; an adult. ¢,

has the coat still short, about the same as in the July Sikhim skin.

The general tint is grey, with scarcely a trace of tawny wash,

except low down on the flanks; the pattern is distinct as far for-

wards as the shoulders and consists of black spots forming trans-

verse lines, blotches and loops, showing'a buffish speckling on the

hind quarters. The second is tawnier, especially on the thighs,

and has the pattern, as in the rest with the full coat, much less

distinct. They are greyish or tawny or a mixture of the two tints:

The coat in the Bharnabari skin, February 22, is very nearly the

same leneth as in the skin from Narbong, Darjiling, March 9.

Despite the difference of altitude, I am unable to distinguish

these skins from Bhutan Duars from those collected in Sikhim.

Northern: Bengal. Two examples, ¢, 9, collected on March

22° and 24 by C. Crump at Sivok, 500 ft., S. of Darjiling, are of

exceptional interest as being the only representatives of the race

obtained in Bengal whence the type of V..zibetha was recorded..

They are indistinguishable from the Bhutan Duars series. The

male has a shabby coat, suggesting the start of the moult; the

general colour is greyer than in the Bhutan Duars skins collected

in February and the pattern is indistinct. The female is as tawny

as in the Bhutan Duars skins and the pattern is altogether obscure;

the crest-hairs are 62 mm., the flank-hairs 32 mm., very nearly

the same as in the Gopaldara Darjiling specimen, April 4. :

~ §. Kamrup. ‘Two examples collected at Rajapara by H. W.

Wells seem to extend the range. of this race into Upper Assam.

A young male, November 27, is almost identical in coat, colour

and pattern with the example collected at Hasimara, Bhutan

Duars on November 11.. A female, November 11, is of interest on

account of the dark tawny hue of the pelage, darker than any of

the specimens recorded above and the pattern is browner and fess

distinct, blending with the hue of the interspaces,

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

THe LarcGe Crvet Cat FRoM Upper BurMA AND ASSAM.

| Viverra zibetha picta, Wrought.

Viverra zibetha picta, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc,, xxiv, No. 1, p. 6471919; Wd op. cit xxvi,@p. 40, 10lle:

Locality of type: Hkamti, 500 ft., on the Upper Chindwin

River, Upper Burma. :

_ Distribution: Upper Burma and Assam, east and south of

the Brahmaputra.

Note on the name: When Wroughton described this race on

the evidence of a skin with a short coat and very conspicuous

pattern, he must have compared it solely with long coated,

obscurely patterned winter skins of typical zibetha and overlooked

the typical example of civettoides, in the British Museum, which

it very closely resembles. At all events three years later on the

evidence of additional specimens of the species obtained by the

Survey, he came to the conclusion that the character had no

systematic value and withdrew the name. When, however, I laid

out a number of winter skins collected in Assam, I perceived

that, on the average, the pattern is a little more distinct, espe-

cially on the shoulders, than in winter skins from Bengal, Bhutan

Duars and Sikhim assigned to typical zibetha. And since the

type locality of picta is only a short way to the east of Assam, I

adopt that name for the Civet Cats from the latter country.

_ Description: A race of doubtful status resembling typical

zibetha in the marked difference in luxuriance of coat and distinct-

ness of pattern between summer and winter skins but with the

pattern a little less obliterated in the winter, showing, except in

one skin, more distinct brindling or spotting on the blackish grey

hue of the shoulders and fore quarters. In this particular, as in

its geographical distribution, V. z. picta, as here defined, serves

in a measure to link V. z. zibetha with V. 2. pruinosa described

below. No doubt it completely intergrades with both.

The following particulars attest the seasonal variation in the

coat and the distinctness of the pattern and the individual variation

in tint exhibited by V. z. zibetha: —

Coat: Variation in the coat is shown in the folloeee abil: —

Skin from Golaghat, 300-400 ft., J pe 5, crest-hairs

60 mm., flank-hairs 32 mm.

Skin from Golaghat, 800-400 ft., Tee 12, -crest-hairs

61 mm., flank-hairs 39 mm. —

Skin from Tura, Garo Hills, 4,000 ft., Fabre: 29, erest-

hairs 69 mm., flank-hairs 42 mm. * :

Skin from Duragiri, Garo Hills, 3,000 ft., March 22, crest-

hairs 62 mm., flank-hairs 34 mm.

Skin fei Jainta Hills, 4,000 ft., J uly 10, erest-hairs . 36

mm.; flank-hairs 20 mm. | ee

Type from Hkamti, 500 ft, Tuly 31. crest-hairs 83. mm.,

flank-hairs 20 mm. fea) sw)

Colour and pattern: The type, an ae 3, trom Hkamti (J. P:

Mills) is tawny, without any grey, and the pattern is’ bold and

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 433

brownish in hue. It closely resembles the type of civettoides from

Nepal and the example from Pashok, Darjiling, collected on July

19. Of three skins from the Jaintia Hills (1H. W. Wells), a @

obtained at Shangpong, 4,000 ft., July 10, exhibits a pale tawny

wash and a very distinct pattern of lines, blotches and loops; a ¢

from Khonshang, 8,000 ft., July 21, has about the same coat and

colour, but the pattern is a little fainter; a Q from the same

spot, July 20, has the pattern less defined, its browner hue blend-

ing with the tawnier interspaces.

These examples in the thin, short, summer coat, are not dis-

tinguishable from Sikhim examples killed at the same time of

the year. :

Of the two winter coated examples, entered in the table, from

the Garo Hills (H. W. Wells), the one from Tura, a 3, February

29, is greyish with hardly a trace of tawny wash; the other, from

Duragiri, a 9, March 22, differs in exhibiting a distinct tawny

wash.

A series of five skins from Golaghat (J. P. Mills), collected

between January 5 and 22, is very uniform in colour, the pelage

being tawny-washed in all; and, as in the examples from the

Garo Hills, the pattern is traceable forwards on to the shoulders

and is on the average more distinct than in winter coated examples

from Sivok, Bhutan Duars, Sikhim and Nepal.

Three skins from the Naga Hills (J. P. Mills) must also be

referred to. They appear, however, to have been procured from

natives. Hence their dates are not absolutely trustworthy, and I

have not entered them in the table. A 6, from Mokokchung,

4,500 ft., dated January 9, closely matches the skins from Gola-

ghat described above. A second from the same locality, 3,500 ft.,

dated April, has the coat short and thin, the crest-hairs being

85 mm. and the flank-hairs 81 mm.; the general colour is clear

erey, without tawny wash even on the belly, and the black pattern

stands out in bold relief as far forwards as the shoulders. The

third from Okotso, 8,500 ft., dated October 25, is exceptional. for

this race in exhibiting no pattern on the shoulders, that on the

flanks being obscure greyish brown and the ground colour tawny.

This specimen is sharply contrasted with the grey tinted, black-

patterned example from Mokokchung.

THe LARGE Crvet Cat oF InpDo-CHINA.

Viverra zibetha surdaster, Thos.

Viverra zibetha surdaster, Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1927, pt. 1,

p. 46; id. op. cit. 1928, p. 145. |

Locality of type: Xien Khouang, Laos.

Distribution: Laos and Annam.

Provisionally only do I admit this race, the available material

being inadequate. It was distinguished by Thomas from the typi-

cal and other races of V, zibetha by the small size of the auditory

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

bull, a point discussed below; but in external characters it seems

to differ from V. 2. ashtoni by its shorter winter coat; from V. 2.

picta by the obscurity of the pattern of the winter coat, and from

V.-%.- pruinosa by the greater length of the winter coat and the

indistinetness of its pattern. |

Three specimens only are available for examination in the

British Museum, all collected by A. Delacour and W. Lowe,

Xien Khouang in Laos. The type, a subadult ¢. January 3rd.

General colour rather pale silvery grey, with no tawny tint on the

interspaces; but the pattern obscurely indicated on the hinder

part of the body by pale tawny mottling. Hairs of crest 72 mm.,

of flanks 38 mm. | ie

~Kountoum in Annam.. A young 9. March 10. Almost

exactly lke the type, but not so grey, a tawny wash over the

hinder part of the body. Hairs of crest 70 mm., of flanks 84 mm.

Thuy Ba Quangtso, Annam. A half grown ¢. November Ist.

Coat short, greyish in colour and showing a very definite pattern

of blackish brown transverse stripes like the Nepalese epee

named undulata by Gray.

Several specimens in the British Museum from areas to the

south of Annam and Laos, mostly from various places in Siam,

T have left provisionally unidentified. Two, however, are of some

interest, namely, a couple of adult males collected at Pyaunggaung-

in the North Shan States by G. C. Shortridge. One, May 13,

shows the moult in full force, a large number of the grey-banded

hairs of the winter coat being shed, displaying the greyish brown

under fur and giving a shabby appearance to the pelage; the old

hairs of the crest are 75 mm., of the flanks 87 mm. In the other

specimen, with the same date, the moult is more advanced. The

long hairs of the winter coat are dropped, some of the new ones

are just erupting, others are fully up. The crest-hairs are 54 mm..,

the flank-hairs, all grey banded, 25 mm. Wroughton assigned

these specimens to the following race on account of their grey

hue; but the winter coat is much too long for pruinosa, being as

long as in surdaster, to which race they probably belong.

Tie LARGE Crvet Cat or. TENASSERIM —

AND THE MaAnAy PENINSULA.

Viverra zibetha pruinosa, Wrought.

? Viverra malaccensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, p. 92, 1788.*

Viverra zibetha pruinosa, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc.,. xxiv, No. J, p. 64, 1915; Kloss, Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc., Siam,

Ml, [Oo AG, WEBLY. | 7

Viverra zibetha sigillata, Robinson and Kloss, Rec. Ind. Mus.,

WG) JOiGs IN, [De LT, ISAO. re ;

1 The possibility that the name malaccensis was given to ths Large

Malayan Civet. and certainly not to the Little Civet (Viverricula) of that

country is discussed under the latter genus.

TEI Cia Vebin= CAWlS iO ew Ars ira 435

Locality of type of pruinosa: Thaget on the Little Tenasserim

River.

Locality of type of sigillata: Bang Mee Patani,. Point agtallar

Siam 9;

. Distribution : Meee ae Southern Siam, Malay Peninsula.

This race was described by Wroughton as differing irons Vo,

zibetha and V. z. picta by the greyness of its pelage, without

tawny wash. He assigned to it specimens ranging from the Shan

States to the Malay Peninsula, the type being from Tenasserim.

The colour-character he relied on has not the value attached to

it; and his Shan State specimens represent a. different race as

recorded above. He quite correctly described the Tenasserim

specimens as ‘grey’. Robinson and Kloss, nevertheless, when dis-

cussing pruinosa, declared that. he must have made a mistake,

because specimens from that district are tawny. This statement

was based apparently upon an examination of what they called

‘paratypes’, as well as other specimens presumably from Tenas-

serim. They thereupon described as representing a new race,

named sigillata, an example from Patani in Peninsular Siam,

which, with some others from the Malay Peninsula, differed, they

alleged, from typical zibetha and pruinosa in their more distinct

pattern. I have examined the type of sigillata! and some other

specimens these authors assigned to that race without finding any

difference between them and Wroughton’s Tenasserim examples of

pruimosa, except that the latter, being winter skins, have the pattern

a trifle less distinct and the coat slightly longer. The truth is

that these authors had not, at that time, seen a sufficient number

of skins of this Civet to ascertain that distinctness of pattern is a

seasonal character and that specimens from the same locality may

be tawny, or grey. In their analytical key to the three races

discussed they followed the mistaken view of Wroughton that

tawny and grey and distinctness of pattern are racial and not neyo

vidual and seasonal features.

I distinguish this race from the more northern races by He

shortness of the coat and the distinctness of the pattern in the

winter months, the seasonal variation in these respects being com-

paratively slight.

This conclusion is borne out by the examples examined from

the following localities :—~

Bankachon in Tenasserim. December 24. Adult ¢ collected

by G. C. Shortridge. Coat quite short, as short as in July skins

of typical zibetha and picta, hairs of crest 54 mm., of flanks 25

mm.- General colour decidedly grey, without tawny Wwegia, IPaiie

tern distinct but not very strong, consisting mostly of wavy,

transverse, joining or separated lines set off by grey interspaces.

Another younger example from the same locality, December 6, is

generally like the last but is a little tawnier on.the. thighs.

1 This specimen was described as a ¢; but the skin and’ skull, at present

in the British Museum, are marked 9.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Thaget, Little Tenasserrm River. March 28. The type of the

race. Very like the examples from Bankachon but not quite so

grey, the pattern more blotchy, less lineate and without tawny

hue. Hairs on crest 51 mm., on flanks 26 mm. in the winter coat.

Lamra Y’rang, Northern Malay Peninsula. January 8. Hardly

distinguishable by colour or pattern from the type. Hairs on crest

43 mm., on flanks 22 mm. This specimen is an almost exact

match of the male sigillata from Kuala Lumpur.

Mares = Wea siam, a<590° Us OOelo. i 6507. Manche CicwGs

Gairdner coll.). Pattern quite distinct consisting of brown blotches

and bands with pale tawny centres; the interspaces mostly grey,

faintly tawny on the hind quarters and still tawnier on the belly.

This specimen is very like the Bankachon examples but is more

tawny. |

Of examples assigned to sigillata by Robinson and Kloss I have

“seen the following. All have the coat short and sleek.

Kuala Lumpur. <6 ad. September 10. Coat short and sleek,

hairs on crest 43 mm., on flanks 20. Colour grey, without tawny

wash; pattern distinct, consisting of wavy black lines and blotches.

Pelarit. 9 young. Differs from the last in having a pale

tawny wash on the flanks and abdomen and the pattern less dis-

tinct, brindled, more confluent.

Patani. @ ad. (type). July 16. Colour a little tawnier than

in the Pelarit specimen; the pattern more like that of the male

from Kuala Lumpur. Hairs on crest 38 mm., on flanks 20 mm.

Perak, Temengoli. o¢ July. Differs from the others in having

a rich tawny wash all over the body. Hairs on crest 34 mm., on

flanks 20 mm.

These skins, collected in the summer, have the coat slightly

shorter and the pattern a little clearer than the winter skins of

pruinosa from. Tenasserim.

The following table gives the dimensions in English inches in

the flesh, with a few weights, of some adult examples of the four

races of this Civet recorded from British India. None of the

Chinese skins in the British Museum has measurements attached.

: . | Head and : ;

Locality and Sex | Body Tail | Weight

zibetha.

Sivok; Bengal 9 32

99 99 Q 302 163 |

Rajapara, S. Kamrup ¢ . 324 164 |

¥ rr 312 164

Hasimara, Bhutan Duars 9 304 172

Pashok, Darjiling J 304 - 152 bl

Rongli, Sikhim 9 fe 294 . 163 | .20' Ibs.

Banso Bahari, Nepal 3 224 184 21 lbs,

Gorkha, Nepal 3 303 182 ae

Be e 32% 144 20 Ibs

"9 Wiehe 302 164 30

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 437

Locality and Sex en: | Tail | Weight.

picta |

Upper Chindwin (type) o 32 Wy) Wes OSs

‘Golaghat, Assam 364 202 | bee

Sadiya, Assam 34 173

Tura in the Garo Hills 3 284 164 ie

Duragiri, Garo Hills 9° 20% 144 183 Ibs.

Jaintia Hills 9 324 164 lOne lose

(?) surdaster.

Pyaunggaung, N. Shan States 333 183 20 Ibs.

Pyaunggaung, N. Shan States ¢ 32 173 193 lbs.

pruinosa. | ,

Bankachon, Tenasserim <4 eo ee | 7, Pp Dili.

Thaget, Tenasserim (type) @ | 302 | 172 Lee sips):

Patani (type of sigillata) 9° 324 | 172 | ane

Kuala Lumpur | 32% | 194

These measurements show that there is no appreciable differ-

ence in size between the sexes of this Civet nor between the four

races tabulated. The dimensions of the type of surdaster are

omitted, because it is immature; like all the examples assigned

by Thomas to that race.

The following are some skull measurements of different races.

The cranial dimensions are given in English inches; the bulla and

the upper carnassial tooth in millimetres. Unless otherwise stated

the skulls are adult. The dimensions show no racial differences

and at most only slight inferiority in Q skulls.

In English inches In mm.

"| ; eae Seer a oo sO _~

Locality and Sex Total Zygom. Waist | width. Upper

: 3 Bulla. 5

length. | width. | width. | Max. Carn.

ashtont. | |

Chin Kiang ? ¢ 5:8 2-6 8 93 19 15x8

Chin Kiang 9 5-6 2-6— S| 19 14x8

ihe is ) 3 ; In pases BAN RL NY

zibetha. | | | |

Bankulwa Morang, Nepall 59 | 28! 8 | 1-0 HO Aes

Oo | *

Gorkha, Nepal ¢ 5-6 2-6 -6— 1:0 15 15x9

Pashok, Darjiling (old) 3 5-6 3— 8 121 17 SES Zis}

Rongli, Sikhim 9 5-44 2-7 8 9 19 14x8

Duars 6 5-6 ZU ) es 8) 20- 15x8

Sivok, Bengal (old) 9 5-64 Paros WEN me ei tO 20 |

Sivok, Bengal (old) 9 5-5 | 26 ‘Th 9 20 |

1 T have entered the dimensions of this seemingly unusually large specimen

as written on the label. I suspect, however, that the collector ddded 100 mm,

both for the head and body and the tail.

4388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

In English inches In mm.

SH ee

a ee ee

Locality and Sex bare

length. | width. | width. | Max. Carn:

picta.

Upper Chindwin (type) 3} 5-4 2-7 Se ie Oe 17 14x7

Garo Hills, Assam 5-4 2-52 olf | 9 20 IS

Garo Hills, Assam 9 5-4 2-8 8 | ‘Q— 18 ae

Golaghat, Assam 5-6 eles 7 1-0 ee a

Jaintia Hills, Assam Q 5-5 2-6 = | 9 1 ala <8

surdaster. ‘s |

Laos (type) (young) ¢ 5:2 wpa | “Tk | g 15 WSS) =

Backan, Tonkin ¢ 5-8 2-6 ‘OF | 1-0 ieee: 15 X8 aes

Phurieng, Cochin China 5-3. 2:6 8— |. 9 18 ~13x8

oF. ane

N. Shan States ¢ Do 2-8 8 |} 1- 20 13 x8

N. Shan States J. 5-6 2-7 Cpe IE ee Ie 15x8

pruinosa. alee | | ; ;

Tenasserim, Thaget (type}} 6:5 HS eas 292 Ot 15 x8

Tenasserim, Bankachon (¢ 5:3 2-8 [off tg) i, 15x8

Kuala Lumpur (young} 5-9 227 1:0 IO ie 7A fp Sidhe 8)

ds) ich y;

Patani, Siam 4 Tie ngs eh eke 3 OT 1-0 20 14x8

(type of sigillata) & PB f=: Ze ts WY) 19 14x8

| |

The chief point of interest connected with these skulls is the

variation in the length of the bulla upon. which- surdaster was

based. It may be seen, however, that of the two examples of

typical zibetha from Nepal, one from Gorkha has the bulla much

shorter than- the other,-as short as in the type of surdaster, al-

though a much older and larger skull. Similar individual variation

of the bulla is attested in other races, notably by the two skulls

of pruinosa from Tenasserim. Here and elsewhere in this paper

it is the inflated posterior part of the bulla including the parocei-

pital bone behind it that is measured, not the anterior -part, or

tympanic bone, encircling the auditory orifice.

THE TANGALUNG CIVET.

Viverra tangalunga, Gray. ah

Viverra’ zibetha, Raffles, Jr. Linn. Soc., xiii, p. 231 (not of

Linn.). |

Vwerra. tangalunga, Gray, Proc. Zool: Soc., 1832, ;p.. 63; id.

Cat. Carn. British Mus.,. p. 47, 1869, and of subsequent. authors

including Tame e Ns dkomipn,. vont. INan, 16h SOC, soxam, 2 146,

pls. Land 2,- 1928.

Viverra ernie lankavensis, Robinson via Kloss. hen Ind.

WENS5, SI, 70. A, GPA. ;

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 439

Locality of type of tangalungay Sumatra.

Locality of type of lankavensis: Langkawi Isl., Straits of

Malacca. )

Hig. 2—A & B. Outer view of the left auditory region of two skulls of

Viverra zibetha from Gorkha, Nepal, to show individual variation in the

size and shape of the bulla. C & D. Hinder end of the palate of the

‘skull of V. zibetha from Kuala Lumpur and Chin Kiang, the difference

being of no systematic importance. E. Fore part of the skull of

V. zibetha from North Shan States for comparison with those of

Moschothera* (Fig. “4,° B & CC). F. Palate of skull of V. zibétha

‘from Bhutan Duars for comparison with that of Moschothera (Fig. 4, A).

(All figs. two-thirds natural size).

— Distribution: Malay Peninsula; Sumatra; Borneo; Philippine

Islands and Moluccas. |

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCEHTY, Vol. XXXVI

Notes on the synonymy: Raffles, who-was acquainted with this

‘Civet Cat in Sumatra, where it is known as the Tangalung, erro-

neously identified it as Viverra zibetha. Gray, perceiving the

error, described it as Viverra tangalunga. Comparatively recently

tobinson and Kloss gave the subspecific name lankavensis to a

single example collected on Langkawi Island. For reasons given

below I am unable to agree with their view.

Description: Distinguishable from V. zibetha by its smaller

size and difference of pattern, especially on the tail. The black

dorsal stripe is continued along the upper side of the tail to its

apex; on the sides of the tail there are some fifteen black stripes

passing downwards from the median band but encircling the tail

below only at its distal end. On the flanks the pattern consists

of more definite spots, generally numerous and small and not exhi-

biting the tendency to run into vertical bands producing the

brindled or ‘mackerel’ pattern of V. zibetha. The size is about

one-fourth smaller than that of V. zibetha, the head and body

measuring about two feet and the tail a little over one foot (see

below p. 441).

Mrs. Lindsay recently discussed the cranial characters of V.

tangalunga with those of V. zibetha; but, apart from size, there

seem to be no differences of moment between the skulls and teeth

of the two species. The skull of the topotype from Sumatra

referred to below has a total length of 4.6 in. and a zygomatic

width of 2.4 in.

The British Museum has only about a flecen skins of this

species, most of them being from scattered localities, unmeasured

and undated. They do not, in my opinion, supply any evidence

justifying the division of the species into local races; but they

show variation in the tint of the ground-colour and in the distinct-

ness of the pattern comparable to that which obtains in pruinosa,

the southern race of V. zibetha.

Sumatra. <A single adult example, a soneuone of the species,

received from the East India Company. The ground colour is

darkish grey, with some ochreous buff speckling in the hairs of

the dorsal area and adjoining the spots which are numerous, irregu-

Jar in shape and blackish in tint; the tail has about 15 dark lateral

bands.

Malacea. (Argent Coll.). A young example with the eround

colour much darker, greyish brown, the pelage being much more

profusely speckled with ochreous buff and the pattern on the back

and flanks much less distinct than in the Sumatran specimen.

Borneo. Two examples collected in November and December

by C. Hose on Mount Dulit, 1,000 ft., in Baram. One is greyish

brown like the Malaccan specimen bub has the pattern better

defined. The other is decidedly paler and greyer. One ticketed

Borneo (J. Brookes) and one from the mainland opposite Labuan

(Low) resemble the first described example from Mount Dulit,

but one from Mount Kalulong (C. Hose), collected in February,

is noticeably greyer, a little paler than the topotype from Sumatra.

Philippine Islands. Three specimens. One from Panay has

« good deal of silvery grey speckling in the interspaces and

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 444

resembles the Mount Kalulong example. A second ticketed merely

Philippines has similarly greyish speckling but the pattern instead

of being emphatic and blackish is quite obscure and brownish.

A third from Negros (Cuming) is not so grey, resembling the

browner Borneo specimens.

Moluccas. An example from Buru Island comes nearest to

the specimen from Mount Kalulong, the interspaces on the hind

quarters being quite grey. |

The type of lankavensis, an adult 9, from Langkawi Island in

the Straits of Malacca, is at present deposited in the British

Museum. It was described as differmg from Peninsular Malayan

and Bornean specimens, regarded by the authors as typical tanga-

lunga, in its paler, less buffy ground colour, with the spots on

the body and the rings on the tail smaller and less conspicuous.

The pattern, however, is much more distinct than in the example

from Malacca described above. The ground colour, it is true, is

decidedly paler than in that specimen and the browner Bornean

and Philippine specimens; but it differs much less markedly in

that respect from the Sumatran specimen and still less from the

example from Mount Kalulong in Borneo. It is, moreover, in

bad coat, most of the long hairs on the flanks and the sides of

the thighs and shoulders being moulted and the pattern on the

exposed underwool is naturally less conspicuous, being greyish

black. The specimen is admittedly a whiter grey, especially on

the head, than the greyest of the others; but the colour-variation

of the others is too great to admit the systematic importance that

has been attached to the deviation.

The following are the dimensions in the flesh given by Kloss

of two examples in the British Museum:— |

Locality and Sex Head and Body Tail

Langkawi Island 9 26” 18 3/5”

Saribas, Sarawak @ 23” 12 2/5”

Genus: MosciiotHprRaA, nov.

Type of genus: Viverra civettina, Blyth.

Distinguished from Viverra by the complete absence of skin-

lobes forming claw-sheaths on the 38rd. and 4th. digits of the

fore paws and by the scanty hair-growth on the area of the paws

between the planter and digital pads (Text-Fig. 3, p. 442). The

skull differs from that of Viverra, as Mrs. Lindsay pointed out, in

the suppression of definite postorbital processes on the frontal

bones, these processes being represented merely by ridges marking

the anterior insertion of the temporal muscles; the sagittal crest

is a low ridge. Also the nasals and the whole facial “portion of

449 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

the skull are longer, the site of the postorbital process being set

farther back nearly vertically above the corresponding small pro-

cess on the malar, so that the distance from the anterior edge of

the premaxilla to that spot on the frontal noticeably exceeds the

= >

t=: =

09.059)

—=

—S

————

;

y ul us @

N WU TAC y If

‘} NW Hy AB

NIT)

WW WEN,

— “Gt b

SW “we Q ae er p

SONY NY LE

‘ “Y= Ws > f/f

es SSN co

Fic. 3.—A. Lower side of the left fore paw of Moschothera civettina. B. The

same of left hind paw. C. The same of left fore paw of M. megaspila.

D. The saine of. left Hind paw.. '

distance from that spot to the occipital crest. In V. zibetha the

postorbital frontal processes are set in advance of the malar pro-

cesses and are almost exactly in the middle of the skull. The

nasals too are shorter in the latter species (Text-Fig. 4, B, C, p. 447).

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 443

To this genus I assign the two species hitherto cited as Viverra

civettima and V. megaspila, which are not well known. Blyth,

Bianford and others considered them to be distinct; but Robinson

and Kloss, who saw Blyth’s specimens in the Calcutta Museum,

at once detected their kinship and regarded them as representing

mere local races of a single species, V. megaspila, equivalent to

V. zibetha or V. tangulunga. Mrs. Lindsay, however, who examined

the same specimens and several others of all the species assigned

to Viverra, reverted to the old view of the specific value of the

differences between megaspila and civettina. 1 agree with her on

that point; but with Robinson and Kloss in thinking that these

two species are much more nearly akin to one amelie than either

is to Viverra zibetha or V. tangalunga. :

It is to be regretted that no examination has been made on

fresh specimens of M. civettina and megaspila of the feet and

scent-pouch, which are well-known in Viverra zibetha and. Viverri-

cula indica. But the structure of the feet on the skins of

M. cwettina from Trivandrum, described below, completely bears

out Mrs. Lindsay’s contention that this species is a more primitive

type than V. zibetha.

At present there is not a suheiont number of skins to establish

differences, if any, in colour and pattern between these two species.

They may be distinguished, however, as follows:—

a. Area round the plantar pads comparatively

well clothed with hair; no trace of meta-

hind foot. Skull with very weak divergent

crests on the frontal bone and lower edge

of mandible less emarginate behind; teeth

smaller ene ae .. megaspila.

a'. Area round the plantar pads comparatively

naked; remnants of the metatarsal pads

persistent. Skull with stronger divergent

erests on the frontal bone and lower

edge of mandible noticeably emarginate — |

behind; teeth larger ee a, ChUCLUILG.

Moschothera megaspila, Blyth.

Viverra megaspila, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 31, p. 331,

1862; id. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p..484; Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc.,

ISG, jo. 2248, ol. 80s lallemoncl, Wane, Jomic dinar. 105 Ss). sAkstslsy:

Sclater, Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus., pt. 2, p, 227, 1891; Robinson

Ande WocseiInCcee ltd ws LO phe Sane bon 1920-7 Lindsay,

SOU DOME UNGie isha SOc.. xxxaiins pa l46) pls.) land 2 hg28

Locality of type: Prome in Lower Burma. (A native skin.)

Distribution: From Southern Burma, Siam, Annam and

Cochin China to the Malay Peninsula.

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

The British Museum has only 11 skins and 3 skulls of this

species. The skins are mostly odd specimens from widely separ-

ated localities, without dates or measurements, and were appar-

ently procured by their donors from natives. No data justifying

the division of the species into local races are available.

The only specimens with full particulars are two females col-

lected for the ‘Survey’ by G. C. Shortridge. It will be convenient

to consider these first. |

Victoria Point, Tenasserim, Nov. 27. General colour grey with

a decided ochreous tawny wash on the shoulders and a very faint

tawny wash on the interspaces behind. Pattern composed of small,

scattered indistinct spots on the shoulders, of large, black, well

separated spots on the flanks, the uppermost arranged in a longi-

tudinal line on each side of the dorsal crest on the loins. The tail

has 7 white stripes below, the first three extending some distance

dorsally, the next three restricted to the ventral surface, and the

last, the thinnest of all, completely encircling the tail near its apex.

The coat is rather harsh, not thick and woolly, the crest-hairs

measuring 48 mm. and the flank-hairs 80 mm. The flesh-measure-

ments are: head and body 30 in., tail 142 in.

Tenasserim Town, March 9, ditfers from the last in being slightly

tawnier in hue and decidedly harsher in the coat, with the crest-

hairs 67 mm. Also the tail has only 5 dorsally incomplete rings

in its proximal portion, the distal portion being entirely black.

Flesh-measurements: head and body 312 in., tail 154 in.

These two specimens resemble Viverra zibetha pruinosa from

Tenasserim and elsewhere in having the coat short and the pat-

tern distinct in the winter months, the crest-hairs longer in March

than November and the coat beginning to deteriorate in the former

month. The size is very much the same as in pruinosa; but the

tail is relatively shorter, being only about half the length of the

head and body.

Some interesting variations in colour and pattern are shown by

other specimens.

A skin from Allagappa village, 30 miles west of Sagaing, Burma,

eiven to Shortridge by Major Owens, shows the moult just begin-

ning, the black hairs on many of the spots being already shed and

revealing the grey underfur. For the rest the pattern is black and

stands out boldly against the clear, silvery grey interspaces, there

being no approach to the tawny hue of the Tenasserim specimens

apart from a faint buff wash on the fore quarters. The hairs of

the crest are up to 70 mm. in length, the flank-hairs 25 mm.

Allagappa seems to be the most northern point in Burma whence

the species has been produced.

A flat, native skin from Nan in Siam (7. H. Lyle) is pale

tawny gray with the pattern yellow, golden-brown; the crest-hairs

are 48 mm., the flank-hairs 80 mm.

From Nahtrang in Annam, 1,200 ft., Dr. Vassal sent a skin like

the one from Tenasserim Town, with the crest-hairs 40 mm., the

flank-hairs 27 mm.

Two skins from Saigon in Cochin China (Pierre) differ consi-

derably in tint. One is coloured very much as in the Tenasserim

THE CIVET-CATS. OF ASIA 445

skins, but the pattern is not so bold, the spots being smaller, less

widely spaced and showing a tendency to fuse into blotches and

stripes. The hairs on the crest are extraordinarily long, 100 mm.,

those on the flanks being 830 mm. The other has a much deeper

tawny wash and on the fore part of the flanks the spots run into

two vertical stripes. The crest-hairs are 60 mm., the flank-hairs

28 mm.

Another skin from Cochin China, brought by Delacour and Lowe

from Tayninh, is very different from the Saigon specimens, the

eround colour being golden buff and many of the large, widely

spaced spots rusty in hue; on the back the spots adjacent to the

crest form a complete longitudinal stripe on each side. The

crest-hairs are 58 mm., the flank-hairs 25 mm.

An adult female from Pinang in Malacca (Dr. Cantor) resem-

bles the specimen from Victoria Point in boldness of pattern and

is altogether very hke the skin from Nan in Siam, the ground

colour being pale tawny grey and the pattern dark brown. The

erest-hairs are 52 mm., the flank-hairs 26 mm. A _half-grown

specimen from the same locality is greyer and duskier, with the

pattern more confluent in lines as in the examples from Saigon,

Cochin China.

Like the adult Q from Pinang, but not quite so tawny, is a

skin ticketed Malacca (J. C. Marshman). The crest-hairs are

57 mm., the flank-hairgs 29 mm.

The specimens above described show the following points :—

1. The ground colour varies from silvery grey to golden

buff and tawny.

2. The pattern varies from black to brown; the spots may

be large or comparatively small, separated or sometimes fusing

into blotches or into transverse stripes behind the shoulders, or

a pair of longitudinal stripes on the back.

8. The crest-hairs vary in length from a little under 50 to

100 mm., the average being about 60 mm.; the flank-hairs vary

from 25 to 30 mm. The coat is thus somewhat longer than in

V. z. pruinosa, but there is no evidence that this means a more

elevated habitat.

Moschothera civettina, Blyth.

Viverra civettina, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 31, p. 382,

1862; id. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864. p. 484; Blanford, Mamm. Brit.

ind ps.93, 1888 Sclater, Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus., pt. 2, p. 227,

1891; Robinson and Kloss, Rec. Ind. Mus., 19, pt. 4, p. 175, 1920;

lindsay, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 33, p. 146, pls. 1 and 2,

1928.

Locality of type: Travancore.

Distribution: The coastal district and Western Ghats of

southern India.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Like its near ally M. megaspila, this species is now apparently

very rare,' although Jerdon said it was ‘abundant’ in Travancore

when he was there. In the British Museum there are only two

Specimens, as recorded by Mrs. Lindsay.

Travancore. An adult d example secured, with another speci-

men, from the Trivandrum Zoological Gardens by Mr. W. 5S.

Millard for the Bombay Natural History Society and generously

presented to the British Museum. Coat tolerably long and full,

with grey underwool; hairs on crest up to 50 mm., on flanks up to

30 mm. Ground colour tolerably clear grey, greyer than in all the

examples of M. megaspila I have seen except the one from Sagaing

in Burma. Pattern black or nearly so, smaller and not so spaced

as in most skins of M. megaspila but hardly differing from that of

the skins from Saigon in Cochin China; more spotted on the

shoulders and on the thorax below. Tail? with the white rings

better developed than in M. megaspila, five in number and all of

them reaching well up the sides of the tail, the last only about two

inches from the tip; in M. megaspila the terminal six inches or so

of the tail are typically black. Muzzle with more white on the

chin and behind the nose above. Bands on the throat in some

respects intermediate between those characteristic of V. zibetha and

M. megaspila, consisting of three black stripes passing from the

sides of the neck to its lower surface where they become irregularly

branched and bent and, meeting in the middle line, border two

white areas which are correspondingly irregular. The median black

band is not so broad as in V. zibetha but broader than in M. megas-

pila, in which the anterior and posterior bands do not, as a rule

at all events, pass on to the lower surface of the neck. Measure-

ments: head and body 80 in., tail 13 in., practically the same

as in the female examples of megaspila, but the tail shorter.

Weight 14% lbs.

With ae one good skin to judge from, it would be-rash to

infer that the differences in pattern pointed out above between

it and skins of M. megaspila are constant. Considering, indeed,

the general similarity between the two forms, it is not surprising

that Robinson and Kloss regarded M. civettina as a subspecies of

megaspila, despite their wide geographical separation. There are,

however, some characters in the feet and skull justifying the speci-

fic status of M. civettina.

1 The late Mr. Harold Ferguson, when he was a member of the Council

of the Zoological Society of London, after his retirement from service in

Trivandrum, made special efforts, at my request, to secure specimens of this

species for Regent’s Park. His successor at Trivandrum reported that he had

had no difficulty in getting a pair and was sending them with a consignment

of other animals from the country. The creatures turned out to be the common

little Indian Civet (Viverricula indica indica)! Did Jerdon fall into the

same error?

* Blanford, who had not seen a specimen of this iouet was mistaken in

describing the white bands on the tail as forming complete rings lke those

of Viverra zibetha.,

THE -CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 447

The paws of the Travancore skin differ from those of the speci-

men of M. megaspila from Victoria. Point in being less hairy below.

Vig. 4.—A. Palate of skull of Moschothera civettina from ‘Trivandrum.

B. Forehead of the same specimen. C. The same of the skull of

M. megaspila from Tenasserim Town. D. Posterior portion of. mandible

of Raffles’ skull of M. civettina. E. The same. of skull from Trivan-

drum. EF. The same of skull of M. megaspila from Tenasserim Town.

(All figs. two-thirds natural size).

On the interdigital webs the hairs are close to the margin and

remote from the plantar pad. On the fore paw the naked area

448. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

behind the plantar pad reaches to the carpal pad but is divided

by a narrow median band of hair reaching from the carpal pad to

the middle of the plantar pad. Similar differences are to be seen

on the hind paw; but, in addition, there are two little naked areas,

one above the other, between the plantar pad and the hock,

representing remnants of the metatarsal pads. No trace of these

interesting relics is to be seen in M. megaspila, which has the lower

side of the feet both behind and in front of the plantar pad alto-

gether less naked as shown-in the figure (Text-Fig. 3, C & D,

p. 442).

The second specimen in the Museum (No. 84, 6-38-11) is in

poor condition; but, so far as can be judged, it resembles the one

described, making allowance for soiling of the grey hairs and fading

of the pattern to brown from exposure to light as a mounted,

exhibited specimen. Its locality is unknown.!

The following table shows that the skulls of the adult females

of megaspila are a little longer than those of the adult male of

civettina but practically the same width everywhere. The two

skulls of megaspila from Tenasserim illustrate the effects of wear

upon the teeth. In the younger example from Tenasserim Town,

the premolars, practically unworn, are almost in contact at the

base above and below, and when the jaws are closed those of the

mandible fill the spaces between those of the upper jaw and vice

versa. But in the older example from Victoria Point the worn

premolars are very definitely separated so that when the jaws are

closed tolerably wide gaps are left between the opposed upper and

lower premolars. In the two skulls of civettina the gaps in

question are filled as in the younger of the two skulls of megaspila.

Although Mrs. Lindsay said that these skulls ‘are identical to the

type specimen’, this can only be true of the skull from Trivandrum,

which certainly appears to be like that of the type, so far as can

be judged from Mrs. Lindsay’s photographs. But the skull of

Raffles’s specimen shows some marked differences notably in the

post-dental part of the mandible, the anterior edge of the coronoid

showing a strong backward slope, so that the posterior apex of this

process, the condyle and the tip of the angular process are more

nearly in a vertical line. Moreover, the emargination on the lower

edge of the mandible is much more pronounced. I attach no im-

portance, however, to these differences, because I feel sure they

are due to the Civet having been reared in captivity from cubhood.

Perhaps the same explanation applies to the separation on the

—_—

1 This specimen has a curious history. It belonged to Dr. Crisp and was

purchased with a number of miscellaneous mammals from Europe, America,

India, Sumatra and elsewhere and was entered in the B. M. register as

‘Viverra megaspila, Sumatra, T. 8. Raffles’. But it has no original label

containing that information. I can only suppose that Thomas identified it

as megaspila, which was natural enough. But if it belonged to Raffles’s

collection, it can hardly have come from Sumatra, because as Mrs. Lindsay

showed from an examination of the skull, it belongs to the Travancore species,

with which Thomas was unable to compare it. There is, moreover, no reason

to believe, so far as I am aware, that megaspila occurs in Sumatra. In any

case, as stated below, the animal had been in captivity for some time and

may have been given to Raffles either beforé or after its death.

THE CIVET-CATS OF ASIA 449

crown of the two temporal ridges which behind their point of diver-

eence run side by side as a double crest over the parietals! (Text-

Big 24 Di se hsp. 447).

In English inches In mm.

Ee GS anos

civettina.

Travancore, ad. ¢ 5:7 2-9 ‘OL 1+ 18 14x8

(S. India; Raffles) ?¢ soo |. Bete 1:0 holt ade 14x9

megaspila. |

Tenasserim Town, ad. 9) 5:9 2-9 Torah 20 14x8

Victoria Pt, Tenasserim, |

ad. Q 6-0 2-83 ileal 1 18 13x8

Pinang 5:9 2-8 1:0 1-1— 20 14x8

(To be continued).

* The photographs of the skull of the type-specimen of M. civettina, published

by Mrs. Lindsay, are said to be half natural size. The reduction, however, is

clearly more than that amount. In her table of measurements, for instance,

the zygomatic width is given as 76 mm., which agrees very closely with that

of the skull in the British Museum, but the width in the photograph is only

83 mm., which doubled gives 66 mm, .

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE

AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.

dl, ING NONTTAIC),

This. account of the Butterflies of Bangalore and its neighbour-

hood could not have been attempted, or, if attempted, have been

anything like complete, had I not had the privilege of consulting

the remarkably detailed note-books and of seeing the collection of

Col. H. C. Winckworth, r.a.m.c., who kept records month by month

of the flies taken by him in and around Bangalore in the years 1925,

1926 and 1927. I must acknowledge also the very great help given

me in this compilation by his brother, Mr. R. Winckworth.

Col. Winckworth not only collected butterflies himself but train-

ed a servant to make daily catches throughout the year at certain

spots in Bangalore and the neighbourhood. My own observations

began not many months before Col. Winckworth left the place, and

I had little to add to what he had observed. I was able however

to go further afield and to explore some of the jungles which are

scattered about the plateau and so to include a somewhat wider

area than he traversed.

the staff of Bishop Cotton Boys’ School, for information on a few

points, notably regarding the presence of Charaxes polyxena imna

in Bangalore. Evans (Identification of Indian Butterflies, lst Kdi-

tion) specifically mentions Bangalore as a locality for Apharitis lila-

cina, taken by Watson, whose specimen is in the British Museum,

and for Sarangesa sati hopkinsi, which I took near Oorgaum (Kolar

Gold Fields), and Mr. Marcon took on the Mysore Road eight

miles out of Bangalore.

Bangalore stands at a corner of a 3,000 ft. plateau. To the

north and north-west, to the east and north-east almost to Kolar

town, and to the south-east beyond Hosur the level varies little,

100 feet or so above or below, except in the drainage basin of a river

such as the Palar, till the Eastern Ghats are reached, when the

land falls away rapidly by rough jungly valleys, with rocky hills

between them, towards the plains. The Ghats are much nearer in

the south-east, and consequently the area of high land is more

restricted than to the east, in which direction one goes thirty-five

miles or so before a drop occurs. Due north of Bangalore at a

distanee of thirty-five miles is a big block of wooded hills rising

from the plateau, the highest of which is Nandidroog (4,800 feet).

Thirty-three miles, E.N.E., a few miles before reaching Kolar

town, is a tumble of much-weathered rocky hills with sparse jungle

on them. North-east, at about the same distance from Bangalore,

there are big hills near Chintamani. The country between Banga-

lore and all these hills is a rolling plateau, of low ridges, mostly

without escarpment, alternating with shallow valleys well provided

with irrigation tanks and cultivated land.

THH BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 4651

Dotted all over this country, mostly on the higher levels, are

patches of State forest, of varied shapes and sizes, preserved out

of the wide spaces of uncultivated and largely uncultivable scrub

jungle, which in ages of occupation has been cut down for firewood

by the inhabitants of the numerous hamlets and villages or used

by them as grazing ground for flocks of sheep and goats. Many of

these reserved forests lhe away from the roads, and are mostly too

far off to be of use to the entomologist who relies on a car for his

exploration. The main object of their reservation is the protection

of the parasitic sandal trees, for which he who hunts butterflies is

truly grateful, since few trees in the jungle are, when in flower,

more attractive to butterflies, especially Lycenids and Hesperids

than the sweetly-scented sandal. These blocks of ‘forest’ for the

most part consist of low bushy trees with hard leathery leaves, but

there are scattered about in them trees of larger growth, fig, acacia,

mango, maddi; much thorny scandent vegetation; and numerous low

annual and perennial flowering plants. Though the flower is most

abundant when the rains happen, there is throughout the year some

tree or plant in flower, and, even when the season appears most

unpromising and the ground is hard and parched, there are butter-

flies in surprising numbers to be had.

In one of these Forests or Plantations, Koramangala R.F.,

beyond Devanahalli in the direction of Nandidroog, Zesins chryso-

mallus was obtainable throughout the year. Other favourite hunt-

ing grounds of mine were Jakkur Plantation, eight miles from

Bangalore, near Yellahanka on the Devanahalli Road; Clikkahardi

R.F. near Jangamkota on the road from Kolar. to Dodballapur;

Banerghatta Lac Reserve, thirteen miles to the south of Banga-

lore; the rough hills about the Arkavati River on the Magadi Road,

where a new reservoir for the water-supply of Bangalore is projected.

To the $.W. of Bangalore the land falls rapidly: the country 1s

broken, wilder and more wooded, or at least more jungly and un-

cultivated than the level area of the 3,000 feet plateau. As soon

as one leaves Bangalore by the Mysore Road the change in the

appearance of the country begins; cultivation is sparse; the surface

becomes broken; there are frequent nullahs or in the rainy months

streams, and at twenty miles one begins a steady descent through

a belt of rocky, wooded hills, till at Closepet, 30 miles from

Bangalore one has dropped nearly 800 feet. So also in another

direction; passing behind the Lal Bagh (The Mysore Government

Gardens) the road falls continuously through hills and jungle inter-

spersed with cultivated lands to Kankanahalli. The streams all run

to the Arkavati, which itself is falling towards the Cauvery basin.

A sheet of the one-inch survey map of this locality shows more

ereen, i.e. more wooded hilly country than half a dozen sheets of

the plateau east and north-east of Bangalore. This area, if it were

not largely ungetatable, should be fruitful ground for the entomo-

logist.

Col. Wineckworth took Horaga onyx in Bangalore; Mr. Marcon

Charaxes poluxena imna; and Watson Apharitis lilacinus. The first

and third of these I saw and took only in the moist evergreen areas;

the second, though it occurs in the drier deciduous forest,—only

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

however, so far as my experience goes, near water in the dry season,

and away from water in the rains—is relatively rare there. Aphari-

tis lilacinus has been recorded from Mysore, from which place

there are specimens in the British Museum; but there is nothing to

show whether they were caught in Mysore itself or in the neighbour-

hood. I venture to remark in passing that many of the specimens

from various collections now brought together in the British Mu-

seum, have insufficient data on their attached cards regarding

locality. Mysore itself is very different from the surrounding

country; it has fine trees, well watered gardens, such as the Palace

gardens, and a much more varied vegetation than the immediate

rather barren neighbourhood. Mysore area might include irrigated

land between it and Serimgapatam. So also Bangalore, both Civil

and Military station and the City (Mysore State) is, with its nume-

rous gardens private and public, its irrigated lands under vegetable

cultivation, and its many fruit orchards, more endowed with large

trees and richer in varied vegetation than the country round. But

this richer vegetation alone would not, to my mind, suffice to

explain the presence of these and possibly other butterflies in

Bangalore. I think also one should reject a theory of isolation such

as might explain the presence of certain palearctic butterflies and

temperate plants that are found on the higher parts of the Nilgiris

and Palnis.

The mention of palearctic butterflies recalls the fact that in

September of 1926, Col. Winckworth took a fresh specimen of

Pieris canidia canis, Evans in Bangalore. This was a remarkable

capture in that this butterfly, a palearctic, is, so far as S. India

goes, generally supposed to be found only in the Nilgiris and Travan-

core hills. Its presence in Bangalore might be explained by

migration; but would a migrant pierid make a solo flight, and, if

it did, reach Bangalore, 200 miles from its normal habitat, fresh

and undamaged? ‘There is of course the possibility of its having |

been brought by human agency, as an unnoticed larva or as a pupa

in a basket of fruit or vegetables from the upper Nilgiris. Horaga

onyx cingalensis, M. at any rate 1s too weak an insect to be a

migrant. My observation in Coorg was that it is very local

in its habits; if found once in an area of about 50 square yards, it

will be found there again and not beyond that area. Charazes

polyxena imna, But. of which a fresh g was taken in the Lal

Bagh in Bangalore in September 1928 is a powerful and swift flier,

but for short distances, across a glade or down a stream; I doubt if

it is a stayer. Pareronia ceylanica ceylanica, Hd., another of Col.

Winckworth’s recorded Bangalore captures is usually, I think, a

dweller in lusher woodland than occurs over the eastern and northern

parts of the plateau. I saw no sign of it or of Pareronia valeria

hippia, F. (which also appears to favour damp half-shaded spots,

a bosky tank, a well-watered tope, a channelled garden such as

that of Tippu’s summer palace at Seringapatam) in the dry state

Sandal Reservations that I visited. And of the larger Papilionids,

P. polymnestor polymnestor, Cr., and P. helenus daksha, M. were

taken either in Bangalore, or in broken country to the south-west

and west, which is traversed by streams, e.g. near Kengeri on the

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 453

Mysore road, or on Nandidroog, which is surrounded and approached

by wooded country and, since it catches the raim-bearing winds,

is more luxuriantly leafy. I venture to suggest that along the

line of the broken wooded country to the south-west into the

well-watered and leafy area of Bangalore itself, and along the Arka-

vati valley towards Nandidroog there is a process of infiltration.

This is only a suggestion, but it appears to me to be a more

reasonable hypothesis than one of migration or of isolation. It

might, though this is doubtful, explain the rare presence of Pieris

canidia canis in Bangalore; but only careful investigation of the

eountry between Bangalore and the Nilgiris, from the plains to

the plateau, along its rivers, its forests and its hills, and the

making of a tally of the butterflies to be found there could. prove

or disprove it.

In the list that follows I have adopted the numbers and nomen-

clature of Evans’ Identification of Indian Butterflies, Second edi-

tion.

The totals of butterflies so far recorded from Bangalore and

neighbourhood are as follows :—

A. Papilionidae 9)

B. Pieridae 25

C. Danaidae 6

D. Satyridae 10

EF. Nymphalidae 20

G. Hrycinidae 1

H. Lycaenidae 49

I. Hesperiidae 20

Rotals 140

A. PAPpmLIoNIDé.

A 2.9. Tros hector, L. Throughout the year.

A 2.10. Tres aristolochie aristolochiae, FF. Throughout the year.

A 4. 1 8. Papilio polymnestor polymnestor, Cr. Occasional, both in Banga-

lore and outside. Recorded in February, March, April, August, September

and October.

A 4. 13. Papilio crino, I’. Col. Winckworth records having seen a specimen

at Yesvantpur on 8-4-26.

A 4.19 6. Papilio helenus daksha, M. Uncommon in the area. Bangalore

and the jungles to the south-west.

_ A 4. 25 a. Papilio polytes romulus, Cr. Throughout the year, everywhere.

INo} record of 2». cyrus:

ie 4. 27 o. Papilio demoleus demoleus, L. Throughout the year, every-

where.

A 5.40. Pathysa nomius nomius, Esp. Taken in the months April

to August; it is not uncommon in certain areas, e.g., near Yesvantpur, and

near the Arkavati River, on the Magadi Road. Like P. antiphates naira, M. it

comes readily to water.

A 6.8 o. Zetides agamemnon menides, Fruh. Common;

| recorded f

May to January. recorded irom

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

B. PIERIDz.

Bila. Leptosia nina nina, I’. Recorded throughout the year, in shady

places; not very common, the rather thin dry jungles round Bangalore not

generally suited to its habits. °

B 4. 10 a. Pieris canidia canis, Evans. Col. Winckworth took one on

10-9-26 in the R.A.M.C. Mess Compound. See remarks in Introduction.

B 6. 3. Delias eucharis, Drury. Common throughout the year.

B 8. 6. Belenois mesentina mesentina, Cr. Very common; perhaps the

commonest pierid in the jungles round Bangalore.

B 9. 2a. Huphina nerissa evagete, Cr. Common throughout the year.

B10. 4 a. Appias libythea libythea, EF. Occasionally taken in the out-

skirts of Bangalore. Col. Winckworth’s records and my own show it as occur-

ring in the following months, January, May, July, August, November, Decem-

ber. It occurs in some, but not all jungles, and, as 1 noted, keeps rather to

certain spots in the jungles. All 99 taken, whether D.S.F. or W.S.F., have

reddish abdomens.

B10. 6 8. Appias albina darada, Fd. Occurs in most months of the

year in and round Bangalore, and is not uncommon. In October 1926, Col.

Winckworth records it as ‘abundant’. Q var. semiflava, though common in

Coorg, is rare round Bangalore. Personally, I took only one specimen.

B 11. 1. Catopsilia crocale, Cr.

B 11. 2. Catopsilia pomona, Cr. Both very common and annual.

Ov, Canunluey, (Cres

B 11. 4. Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst. are ee oe otes bee

’ 5 °

B 11. 5. Catopsilia florella gnoma, I’. s

B 15. 1. Terias libythea, F. Throughout the year; commoner in the rainy

months.

B 15. 2 a. Terias laeta laeta, Bdv. Common in both D.S.F. and W.S.F.

Throughout the year.

B 15. 4 a. Terias blanda silthetana, Wall. Occasionally plentiful, but not

so common generally round Bangalore as the next.

B 15.5 a. Terias hecabe simulata, M. Very common, throughout the year.

B17. 1. Ixias marianne, Cr. Common in most months of the year.

B17. 2 6. Ixias pyrene frequens, But. Common in most months of the

year.

B 18. 1 a. Colotis amata modesta, But. Throughout the year, where it

occurs, but rather local. Not common in the jungles.

B 18. 4 a. Colotis fasta fulyia, Wall. Almost throughout the year in the

jungles in which it occurs; most plentiful from June onwards till January.

Local: very occasionally in Bangalore itself.

B18. 5 8. Colotis etrida etrida, Bdv. Tairly common through most of

the year.

B 18. 6. Coletis eucharis, I. As the last.

B18. 7. Coiotis dane dane, IF. Throughout the year. Common. |

B19. 8. Hebomoia glaucippe australis, But. Col. Wainckworth records

it on four occasions in Bangalore. It is rare here.

B 20. 2 a. Pareronia ceylanica ceylanica, Fd. Recorded by Col. avin:

worth on three occasions. I did not see it: it is rare in Bangalore; more usuat

in wet areas.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 455

B 20. 3. Pareronia valeria hippia, . Recorded four times by Col. Winck-

worth. I did not see it in any of the jungles I visited. Perhaps, like the last,

attracted to Bangalore iself by the greater variety and size of the trees and

the greater frequency of water.

C. DANAIDZA.

2.9. Danais limniace mutina, Fruh.

2.10 8. Danais melissa dravidarum, [Fruh.

. 12. Danais plexippus, LL.

Qe @ ©

2.15. Danais chrysippus, lL.

All common and sometimes abundant—especially D. limniace.

C 3.7 8. Euploea core core, God. Very common and throughout the year.

C 8. 12 8. Euplea coreta coreta, God. In most months of the year; not

as common as the last.

D. SATYRIDA.

D 2. 9a. Mycalesis perseus typhlus, Fruh.

D 2. 10 a. Mycalesis mineus polydecta, Cr.

These are only occasional in Bangalore. The common Mycalesis is

D 2.14. Mycalesis subdita, M.; it occurs throughout the year.

D 3. 21 a. Lethe europa ragaiya, Fruh. Uncommon. ‘Taken by Col.

Winckworth.

D 38. 22 a. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis, Guer. Uncommon. Taken by Col.

Winckworth.

D 14. 6. Ypthima asterope mahratta, M. The common Ypthima round

and in Bangalore. Throughout the year.

D 14. 11 @. Ypthima hubneri hubneri, Kirby. Only one record by Col.

Winckworth.

D 14. 15 a. Ypthima baldus madrasa, Evans. I took a specimen in Sep-

tember 1927 in the Banerghatta jungle.

D 16. a. Orsotriena medus mandata, M. Recorded by Col. Winckworth.

Rare in this area.

D 22.1. Melanitis leda ismene, Cr. Very common at times; throughout

the year.

KF. NyYMPHALIDA.

_F 1. 2 8.. Charaxes polyxena imna, But. Mr. Marcon took a good ¢ in

September 1928 in the Lal Bagh.

I’ 1. 7 B. Charaxes fabius fabius, IF’. Not uncommon. Recorded in Febru-

ary, May, June, August, September. Most plentiful in September.

V2.2 8. Eriboeea athamas agrarius, Swin. Never very common as in

Coorg, but generally distributed, between June and January.

HF 18. 14 6. Euthalia garuda meridionalis, Fruh. ‘Throughout the year;

sometimes, as in September, abundant, especially in mango topes.

F 18. 28. Euthalia nais, Forst. Generally distributed in open spaces in

jungles. Common from the beginning of the rains, from May onwards.

F 26.2 8. Neptis jumbah jumbah, M. Occasional, but not common.

Recorded in January, May, June, July.

# 26. 6 o. Neptis hylas varmona, M. Not common, but more frequent

than the last, more or less throughout the year.

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

I’ 30. 1. Hypelimnas misippus, Li. Common throughout the year, every-

where. Q var. inaria and Q var. alcippoides both recorded.

I’ 80. 2. Hypolimnas pbolina, L. By no means as common as the last;

ee in most months of the year. In largest numbers after the rains

oreak.

# 35. 1 a.- Precis hierta hierta, F. pees ;

ee Throughout the year and very

1’ 35. 2 a. Precis crithya swinheei, But. common—especially during the

1’ 35. 3 a. Precis lemonias vaisya, Fruh. Ranayy mens.

_F 385. 4 a. Precis almana almana, LL. Common, recorded from March to

November.

F 35. 6 a. Precis iphita pluviatalis, Fruh. Recorded in ten months of

the year, but being a shade-loving insect, necessarily less common in the open

Bangalore country than the last four.

F 36. 1. Vanessa cardui, LL. Throughout the year; at times plentiful.

HF 42. 1. Atella phalanta, Drury. Throughout the year; at times, e.g. after

the rains break, abundant.

F 48. Byblia ilithyia, Drury. A very local butterfly, but where it occurs

fairly plentiful. Not taken in Bangalore. Two good spots were (1) the open

country, with clumps of prickly pear and low-growing cassia shrubs, just before

veaching Oorgaum (Kolar Gold-Felds); (2) The bank of the bund of a big

tank (badanecheruvu) 80 miles north of Bangalore, where a shrubby cassia was

abundant. Seen from July to early January.

F 49. 1 @. Ergoiis ariadne indica, M. MRecorded from June to November.

Not so common as the next.

I 49. 2 8. Ergolis merione merione, Cr. Throughout the year; at times, as

in September, very common.

F. 52. Telchinia viola, Fab. Throughout the year. General.

G. ERYCINIDA.

G 4.5 a. Abisara echerius prunosa, M. Very local round Bangalore. Seen

in numbers only near Banerghatta, under lac-bearing trees, between July and

October. Absent in most jungles. Not taken in Bangalore.

H. Lyca@nipaA,

H 8 a. Spalgis epius epius, Wd. Throughout the year, and everywhere, At

times abundant.

H 10 a. Talicada nyseus nyseus, Gucr. Well distributed; in most months of

the year.

H 11. Io. Castalius rosimon rosimon, I’. ‘The usual castalius round Banga-

lore; throughout the year.

H 11.2 8 Castalius caleta decidia, Hew. Rare. Taken by Col. Winckworth

on Nandidroog; also in Banerghatta Jungle.

H11.3 co. Castalius ethion ethion, Db. and Hew. Rare. Recorded by Col.

Winckworth on Nandidroog.

Hf 12.9 Tarucus nara, ‘Koll. Not common; local. Recorded only in the rainy

months, June to August.

H 13. Syntarucus ptinius, F. Common, and in some months abundant;

throughout the year. Especially common in Bangalore itself.

H 14. 1. Azanus ubaldus, Cr. Common, and at times, e.g. July and August

on acacia flowers, abundant. No record for March and April.

Heo14. 2. Azanus wranus, But. Both in Col. Winckworth’s and in my expe-

rience not common. ‘Taken May to July. |

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 454%

H 14. 4. Azanus jesous gamra, Led. Not uncommon between April and

December in the jungles. Rare in Bangalore itself.

H 18.5 «. Everes parrhasius parrhasias F. A rare fly round Bangalore.

Only taken in Banerghatta jungle in September.

H 21. 2 8. Lycenopsis puspa gisca, Fruh. Not common near Bangalore.

Taken only in Banerghatta jungle in September.

H 23 o. Chilades laius laius, G. Throughout the year and common.

H 24. 1a. Zizeeria trochilus putli, Koll. Fairly common throughout the

year.

H 24.

30. Zizeeria maha ossa, Swin. Throughout the year. Common.

H 24. 5. Zizeeria gaika, Trimen. Throughout the year. Common.

6 a.

Ik,

Zizeeria lysimon, Hub. Throughout the year. Common.

lel Qe

lel D5),

H 25. 2 o. Euchrysops contracta contracta, But. Not as common as the last.

Recorded from May to December.

H 25. 3 8. Euchrysops pandava pandava, Hors. Much less common than

the last two; more local. Recorded from June to October.

H 26. 2a. Lycanesthes Iycenina lycenina, Ed. Throughout the year;

common, and at times, especially from June to September, abundant in the

jungles.

Hf 27. 1. Catachrysops strabo, F. Throughout the year; common; everywhere.

H 28. Lampides beeticus, LL. Throughout the year; everywhere; often

abundant.

He29. 1a. Jamides bochus bochus, Cr. Recorded in all months but Febru-

ary and March. Common; abundant in June and July. Flits about bushes and

hedges.

H 29.5 6. Jamides celeno celeno, Cr. Universal; throughout the year.

TFhes low about grass and low growing plants.

H 82. 15 a. Nacaduba nora nora, Fd. Throughout the year; common.

H 32. 16 a. Nacaduba dubiosa indica, Wivans. ess common than the last.

H 32. 19. Nacaduba dana, De N. Local, but fairly abundant where it occurs.

Taken in July and August, about flowers, e.g. the flowers of maddhi.

H 44. 1. Curetis thetis, Drury. Common, and obtainable throughout the

year, but most abundant from May to September, in mango topes, etc.

H 45. 1 8. IJraota timoleon arsaces, Fruh. Not uncommon; taken from July

to December; at flowers on bushes near some ficus, e.g. Java fig, on which pupz

may be found.

H 49. 89 a. Amblypodia amantes amantes, Hew. ‘Taken from April to Nov-

ember. Abundant at times, e.g. in early May, on mango trees or Hugenia jambo-

lana; also on other trees and shrubs.

H 56. 3. Apharitis lilacinus, M. A specimen, labelled Bangalore, in the Brit-

ish Museum, from Watson’s collection.

Zizeeria otis decreta But. Throughout the year. Common.

Eachrysops cnejus, . Throughout the year. Common.

H 57. 1 @. Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus, F.

3 especially from May onwards after

H 57. 2. Spindasis schistacea, M.

Throughout the year. Common:

the rains begin.

H 57. 6 B. Spindasis ictis ictis, Hew. In most months of the year. Rather

local; but abundant from July to September where it occurs. ‘The last two com-

monly taken on the roads; ictis usually on flowers, e.g. acacia.

H 57. 7 8. Spindasis elima elima, M. Rare; I took two specimens flying with

ictis on acacia. :

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

H. 57. 18. a. Spindasis lohita Pazularia, M. One @ taken in Baner-

ghatta Lac Reserve in September 1927. Though September is definitely a

wet month in Bangalore, this specimen, a small one, was of the dry season

type.

H 58. Zesius chrysomalius, Hub. Flies throughout the year, where it occurs.

Local in its habits, depending on the presence of red ants.

H 60. 18. Tajuria jehana, M. Obtainable in most months of the year.

Plentiful in certain jungles on acacia flowers in July and August. Localized and

gregarious about certain trees,

H 60. 3 B. Tajuria cippus cippus, F. Throughout the year; more gene-

rally distributed than the last. Not gregarious.

H 76. Rathinda amor, EF. ‘There appear to be several broods in the year.

Abundant in some jungles in July-August on certain trees and bushes, e.g.,

on Hugenia jambolana.

Eel a Horaga onyx cingalensis, M. One recorded by Col. Winck-

worth in January 1927, ;

H 88. 1 y. Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas, M. Common and general. In

all months of the year except the driest, i1.e., February, March, April.

Plentiful in the rainy months on flowers, e.g., sandal, milk-thorn (spurge) etc.

H 84. 1. Virachola isocrates, F. Throughout the year both in Bangalore

and outside, especially where guavas and pomegranates grow.

H 84. 2a. Virachola perse ghela, Fruh. Not taken in Bangalore; rare in

the jungles; taken near Arkavati River and in Kormangala State plantation.

H 85. 11 a. Rapala varuna lazulina, M. Not common in the area.

H 85. 12. Rapala schistacea, M. Throughout the year and_ general;

common.

H 85. 16. Rapala melampus, Cr. Throughout the year and general. In my

experience the most plentiful Rapala in this area.

I. HESPERIDA.

I 1. 16. Hasora alexis alexis, F. Throughout the year and general. Very”

common.

I 5. Badamia_ exclamationis, Fab. At most seasons. In July. Some-

times abundant: e.g., on the flowers of divi-divi.

1 20. 2 8. Coladenia indrani indra, Evans. Rather rare and local. Seen

and taken \in two jungles only in July-August.

[Coladena dan dan, I. did not appear. |

I 21. 1 8. Sarangesa sati hopkinsi, Evans. I took one specimen and

missed another in a nullah near Oorgaum (Kolar Gold Fields). Mr. Marcon

took one in a nullab, eight miles from Bangalore, on the Mysore road. This

small fly was difficult to spot. It settled on dry stones and by its coloration

was almost indistinguishable from the stone on which it settled.

I 26. 1. Caprona ransonnettii ransonettii, Fd. One specimen, apparently

W.S.F., taken in July about 20 miles from Bangalore. Small, and differs from

W.S.F. type in these particulars (1) spotting above much more extensive, (2)

cilia, fw. and hw, distinctly chequered, (8) unf and unh white with markings

and spots clearly defined. From a comparison with specimens in the British

Mtiseum appears to be C. ransonnettu lanka, nov. [Evans].

I 27. y. Gomalia elma albofasciata, M. Occurs all the year round in the

old cemetery, Madras Road. Not seen outside.

T 28. 2. Syrictus galba, EF. Throughout the year, common.

- year.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF BANGALORE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 459

I 42. 1. Ampittia dioscorides, I. Recorded in most months of the year.

Fairly common.

147. 1 8. Suastus gremius gremius, F. At all seasons of the year. Com-

mon.

I 57. 1. Udaspes folus, Cr. Occasional both in Bangalore and outside. By

ho means common. Recorded in July, August, September, October and

Tebruary.

I 83. 838 «. Halpe egena ceylonica, M. Recorded by Col. Winckworth.

I 88. 2 8. Taractrocera meevius sagara, M. Recorded in all seasons of the

year. At times common.

I 89. 3a. Oriens gola goloides, M. One taken in May 1926 by Col. Winck-

worth in Bangalore.

I 91. 1a. Astycus augias augias, L. At times common; generally distri-

buted. Recorded from July to January.

I 91. 2 y. Astycus pythias lanka, Evans. Throughout the year. Common.

197. 14 8. Baoris kumara kumara, M. Apparently rare near Bangalore.

Only one recorded from Banerghatta jungle, August 1927.

I 97. 24 a. Baoris conjuncta narooa, M. Recorded by Col. Winckworth in

Bangalore. July to September, 1926.

I 97. 31 8. Baoris mathias mathias, 1°. Very common. Throughout the

No record of vav. agna in Bangalore or neighbourhood.

I 97. 82 B. Baoris guttatus bada, M. Common. Most months of the year.

I 97. 83 6. Baoris zelleri cinnara, Wallace. Throughout the year. Com.-

mon.

JADDITIONS TO THE DRAGONFLY (ODONATE) FAUNA OF

INDIA WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.

BE: C. FRASER, Lt.-Cou., 1.M-S:, F.H.S.

(With 4 text-figures).

During the past three years considerable material has been sent to me

by Messrs. H. V. O’Donel, Chas. Antram and Capt. Cardew and this has

been further added to by collections made by myself in the Western Ghats.

I have to thank these collectors through whose disinterested efforts so much

has been added to our knowledge of the dragonfly fauna of India.

Amongst this material quite a number of new species have come to light

of which nine have already been described by myself in the Records of the

Indian Museum, Vol. xxxii, pp. 4438-474 (1930), but other new ones yet

remain to be described as well as new records to be given. In the present

paper I have furnished descriptions of two new species as well as those of

two females which were hitherto unknown. I am also able to give amended

descriptions of rare or little known species whose original descriptions were

faulty or imperfect owing to their having been made from teneral or imperfect

specimens.

AMPHITHEMIS VACILLANS Selys.

From the Maraghat Forest, Duars, Bengal, Mr. O’Donel has secured a male

specimen of that great rarity Amphithemis vacillans Selys, and as the insect

is fully adult, I am now able to give its mature colouring.

The type as well as the cotypes were subadult and are described as having

the thorax yellow and the abdomen with yellow markings; in the specimen

before me there are no traces of such, the whole insect is glossy coal-black

including the thorax, abdomen and legs. Segments 2 and 38 of the abdomen

are pruinosed chalky white on the dorsum and sides with the exception of

a small uncovered cordate area on the dorsum at the apical border and the

middorsal carina on segment 38 which is finely black. All wings are tinted

with pale yellow at the extreme base only; the venation is as given by Dr.

Ris except that there are two traversing nervures in all the bridges and one

of the discoidal cells in the hindwing is traversed once.

The white basal abdominal segments compare with the red ones of

A. marie Laid., and are evidently recognition sexual markings in both

species. The type comes from Bhamo, Burma; the present specimen was

taken on 24-10-31.

CAMACINIA GIGANTEA Brauer.

Originally described from Amboina, the only record for the Indian Hmpire

was Burma. Mr. Chas. Antram has now discovered this insect at Nowgong,

Assam and has sent me some 17 males and a female. The males are all adult

and they differ slightly from type by the basal coloured portion of wings

extending distad the endings of JA and MA. The brown fascia also is

continued outwards as far as the apices of wings limited posteriorly by Ru.

The species is apparently common at Nowgong.

MACROMIA MINIATA Fraser.

Amongst the material collected by Mr. H. V. O’Donel in the Duars are

five specimens of Macromia mimata Fras. The discovery of this species so

far north comes as a great surprise as it was hitherto unknown outside the

small province of Coorg. The female was unknown, and as two of the

Duars specimens belong to this sex, I am now able to furnish its description :—

Female.—Abdomen 43 to 45 mm. Hindwing 38 to 40 mm.

1 Received for publication on 16th. August, 1982.

DRAGONFLY (ODONATE) FAUNA OF INDIA 461

Resembles the male closely in colour and markings, differing only by

the stouter and more evenly cylindrical abdomen. The labrum in _ both

specimens is bright citron yellow at the base, thus differing from the type

male; there is also a large spot of the same colour on the bases of mandibles,

Markings of thorax and abdomen are exactly similar to the male. Wings

saffronated at extreme base and the whole more or less deeply enfumed brown.

In one specimen this brown takes the form of a net-work corresponding to

the wing reticulation, the cell-middles being hyaline and uncoloured, One

specimen has an incomplete basal antenodal nervure in one of the forewings,

. : dals | MSed HS |) EZ

a structure rarely seen in the genus; nodal index.— Tose. FS oo

Distribution.—Huldibari Tea Estate, 20-7-31 and 7-8-31, and 8-5-32. One of

the males has the labrum bright yellow at the base but apart from this, is true

to type including the genitalia.

TRETRACANTHAGYNA WATERHOUSE Maclach,

Male.—Abdomen 55 mm. Hindwing 50 mm. Anal appendages 6 mm,

Head.—Labium warm brown; labrum, clypeus and anterior surface of frons

olivaceous green tinged with ochreous below, upper surface of frons blackish

brown, behind eyes yellow. Head of enormous size, eyes globular and very

broadly contiguous, occiput nearly obsolete, frons slightly elevated.

Prothorax and thorax blackish brown marked with bright greenish yellow

as follows:—oblique antehumeral stripes converging strongly and pointed above,

a small yellow point near the middle line and close to the antehumeral sinus,

two lateral oblique, rather narrow stripes, the anterior parallel and close to

the humeral suture, the posterior broader, covering the middle of the mete-

pimeron; small yellow spots on the coxae and some on the tergum, Legs

black but the proximal three-fourths of all femora reddish brown,

ETT ED:

Acateaitl semaines

CO on eae:

Crs eS

Saaeuer

ooo

a a te os ee or

anes aeenneee

on ee

Fic. 1.—Wings of Tetracanthagyna waterhousei $ Maclach.

Wings hyaline, enfumed dark uniform brown in one very adult male,

and in all, bearing a diffuse dark brown ray in the costal, subcostal and median

spaces near the base, gradually fading out towards the discoidal triangles.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

VYhe hindwing 16 mm. broad at the level of the inner end of bridge, base

of same wing rather contracted and oblique, tornus moderately prominent.

Discoidal triangles 6 to 8-celled in the forewings, 5 in the hind; 6 to 7 cubital

nervures in forewings, 5 to 7 in the hind; anal loop 12 to 17-celled; hyper-

triangles traversed 7 times in the forewings, 5 to 6 in the hind; anal triangle

3-celled; a -well-developed supplement to the discoidal triangles; 3 to 4 rows

of cells between the forking of [Ri and Rspl and MA and Mspl; 3 to 5 rows

(ere if Aer“) Ale2ialee acer

26-19 | 22-27’ 24-19 | 19-22"

pterostigma of forewing covering 3 cells, short, distal and proximal sides

oblique, 3 times as long as broad; that of hindwing shorter, only 23 times

as long as broad and witi the two proximal cells beneath it opaque brown

so that the pterostigma looks irregularly quadrate; membrane white, very short.

Abdomen black; segments 2 to 8 with narrow basal blue annules and a

pair of narrow dorsal green apical lunules; segment 1 reddish; segments 9

and 10 unmarked, the former segment with a robust spine terminating the

middorsal carina at apex, the latter with a robust dorsal keel. Oreillets small

but prominent, greenish yellow on dorsum margined with a row of minute

teeth.

of cells between the forks of I Rit; nodal index.—

Fia. 2.—(A) Anal appendages of Tetracanthagyna waterhousei Maclach.

S viewed from the left side. (B) Anal appendages seen from the

dorsum of same @. (C) Terminal segments, dentigerous plate and

ovipositor of same Q.

Anal appendages black; superiors as long as segments 9 and 10 taken

together, narrow, lightly constricted near base, after which is a small ventral

dilatation, apices ending in a minute outer spine and broadened slightly; a

keel running the whole length of appendages parallel to and near the outer

border; inferior appendage narrowly triangular, apex curved up, hollowed out

beneath, rather more than half the length of superiors.

-Female.—Abdomen 52 mm. Hindwing 56 mm. :

Similar to the male in colour. and markings but the basal segments of

abdomen dark reddish brown at their middles. Differing by the shorter stouter

and -more cylindrical abdomen which tapers as far as segment 7 and then

DRAGONFLY (ODONATE) FAUNA OF INDIA 463

dilates again towards the anal end, the end segments being markedly com-

pressed. Segment 9 with a similar apical dorsal spine, segment 10 produced

below to form a robust genital plate which is usually furnished with 4 stout

spines (but in one female 6 are present); ovipositor very robust, ending just

prior to the genital plate; anal appendages cylindrical, pointed at. end.

Wings similar to the male but in some, a distinct broad pale brown fascia

crossing both wings at the level of the pterostigma, which latter is longer

than in the male and has not the opaque cells beneath it in the hindwing

; eae 24-29 | 31-22 -

noted in the case of the male; nodal index.— ae Go | 6 to 7 cells

in discoidal triangles of forewing, 5 in the hind; 6 to 7 cubital nervures: in

forewings, 6 in the hind; anal loop 15 to 16-celled; other details similar to

the male.

Distribution.—Maraghat Forest, Duars, Bengal. Three males and _ two

females taken by Mr. H. V. O’Donel. Mr. O’Donel states that this insect

is crepuscular in its habits, coming out in forest well after sunset and conti-

nuing flying until it is too dark to see them. He has however seen them

during the day, when they are fairly common in heavy forest but are difficult

to catch as they fly very high until it grows darker, when they descend to

within reach of the net. This species is synonymous with Taoaeschna fonta-

nalis Forster and also with Aeschna quadrilateralis mihi, the latter described

from an incomplete specimen with the terminal five segments missing. ‘The

present specimens differ from type by their much smaller size and also by

having the labrum greenish yellow instead of black. Mr. D. E. Kimmins

of the British Museum informs me however that this latter feature may be due

to postmortem changes, after having made a re-examination of the type. The

unique shape of the pterostigma in the hindwing of the male and its vari-

ability from that of the forewing, and all wings of the female was not com-

mented on in the original description. The type comes from Borneo and

this is the first record of the genus from Indian limits.

The shape of the genital plate in Tetracanthagyna is clear proof that

the female deposits her eggs in dry earth after the manner of Gynacantha and

Aeschna erythromelas Mac l., and in view of the shape of the genital or

dentigerous plate of the latter, totally different from the same structure found

in genus Aeschna, it seems preferable that A. erythromelas should be given

generic rank and for this I propose the name of Polycanthagyna. Tetracantha-

gyna, Triacanthagyna, Platacantha, Gynacantha, Polycanthagyna and perhaps

Cornacantha form a group characterized by the specialization of the denti-

gerous plate of the female which is fitted to enable the insect to oviposit

in dry soil; most of the known species are moreover crepuscular in habit;

probably all will be found to be so when we have learnt more concerning

their habits.

AESCHNA PETALURA Martin.

The capture of two specimens of this rare insect, of which the male. still

remains unknown, enables me to give its full colouring, as one at least, has

preserved its original markings with exceptional beauty. si!

Face olivaceous; frons bright yellow above but brownish black towards

and at the base, this brown passing forwards in the sulcus to join the brown

on front of frons. (The T-mark noted by Martin is not especially noticeable

in these specimens.) Occiput yellow. .

Prothorax and thorax warm brown marked with azure blue; short, thick

antehumeral stripes not extending the whole length of dorsum and gradually

broadening below, the antealar sinus, spots at the bases of wings and along

middle of tergum, and lastly two broad lateral stripes, the latter of which

covers most of the metepimeron. Legs black, bases of femora reddish brown.

Wings hyaline, tinted with brown throughout except for a space at the

base, the outer margins of which fall just distad the discoidal triangles and

loop, the brown colour densest on the nervures, the cell-middles clear. Anal

: , 11-21 ) 20-13 12-18 | 16-12 :

loop with 10 to 12 cells; nodal index.— Tg eas SSE Sn pterostigma

short, covering 2 to 3 cells, dark brown, braced; IRiit forked well before the

level of pterostigma and with 2 to 3 rows of cells between it and Rspl.

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Abdomen dark brown marked with bright grass-green as follows.—segment

1 with a middorsal triangular spot, broadest at the apical border of segment,

the sides also broadly green; segment 2 with a middorsal stripe extending

from the dorsal spot on segment 1 and tapering to a point which ends short

of apical border of segment, a pair of green lunules on the apical side of

jugal suture, the sides broadly green and a pair of azure blue apical lunules;

segments 8 to 7 with a tiny middorsal basal triangular green spot, a pair of

large lunules bordering the jugal suture distally and a pair of apical lunules;

segment 8 with the apical lunules only; segment 9 with a large oval spot

on each side, whilst segment 10 is unmarked; all segments from 3 to 8 have

also a large latero-basal spot of green.

Anal appendages dark brown, shaped like the paddle of a canoe; vulvar

scales broad and massive; dentigerous plate rounded below, typically Aeschnine

in shape, coated with numerous minute. spines beneath.

Two females collected by C. M. Inglis at Phulloth, Sandakhpura, Sikkim,

11,500 ft. 16-10-28. The enormous altitude at which these were taken perhaps

constitutes a record for dragonfly life, although Mr. T. B. Fletcher has picked

up a dead Aeschna mixta above the snow line in Kashmir; it was actually lying

dead in the snow!

CHLOROGOMPHUS OLYMPICUS sp. Nov.

Male.—Abdomen 55 mm. Hindwing 40 mm.

Head.—Labium pale ochreous; labrum olivaceous changing to dark brown

outwardly and with a minute black medio-basal point; anteclypeus greenish;

postclypeus and frons bright grass-green, the former narrowly margined with

blackish brown below, the latter with a narrow blackish brown stripe shaped

hike a cupid’s bow lying midway between the crest and lower border of frons;

the base of frons above dark reddish brown; vertex and occiput black, the

latter fringed with long golden hairs.

Prothorax black with a small spot on each side and the narrow posterior

lobe bright yellow.

Thorax black marked with bright greenish yellow as follows:—narrow

antehumeral stripes, pointed below but greatly broadened above and converg-

ing so as to be separated only by the narrow black middorsal carinal suture;

laterally two moderately broad stripes, one on the mesepimeron, the other

covering most of the metepimeron; between these two a small but conspicuous

upper spot; beneath brown marked with a mid triangle of black. Legs black,

coxe pale brown.

Wings hyaline, narrow; pterostigma black, covering 2 to 23 cells; discoidal

triangles of similar shape in fore and hindwings, usually entire but occasionally

traversed once in the forewings; supratriangles traversed twice, occasionally

three times in the forewings; 6 to 7 cubital nervures in the forewings, 5 in

the hind; 1 median nervure to all wings; a single row of cells between the

origins of JA and Cuw in the hindwing; anal triangle 3-celled; nodal index.—

9-18 | 19-9

12-12 | 14-11~

Abdomen much longer than wings, tumid at base, constricted at segments

3 and 4, then dilated again at base of 4 but still narrow and triquetral in

section till the anal end. Coloured black marked with bright citron yellow

as follows:—segment 1 clothed thickly with yellow hairs, a yellow spot on

dorsum, a smaller one at each side and a narrow apical line on the sides;

segment 2 with the small oreillets yellow, a pair of postjugal triangular spots

narrowly separated on the dorsum, but narrowly confluent with a pair of

very large apical lunules which are confluent over the dorsum, the posterior

two-thirds of the ventral border narrowly yellow and a prolongation from

this yellow running up the margin of the segment to become confluent with

the apical lunules (A large black fleur-de-lis is thus cut off and enclosed by

the yellow on the dorsum of segment); segment 3 with a pair of large apical

lunules broadly confluent over the dorsum, a pair of small triangular spots

lying just basad the jugal suture and separated by it from a pair of elongate

triangular postjugal spots which extend nearly to the apical lunules; segments

4 and 5 with a pair of postjugal triangular spots and a pair of broadly con-

DRAGONFLY (ODONATE) FAUNA OF INDIA 465

fluent apical lunules; segments 6 and 7 with rather broad apical rings slightly

indented by the black on middorsum; segments 8 to 10 with very narrow

apical rings confluent below with a narrow ventro-lateral stripe, the ring on

segment 10 interrupted above and also invading the black subdorsally.

Anal appendages black, of equal length; superiors twisted on themselves

longitudinally as seen in profile, shallowly bifid at apex, and with a robust

ventral spine at mid length; gently curved towards one another as seen

Fig. 3.—Anal appendages of Chlorogomphus olympicus sp. nov. 3. (A) viewed

from the right. (B) viewed from.the dorsum. (Drawn from the type.)

from above; inferior rather broadly and shallowly notched at apical border,

the outer angles turned up and ending in a pair of minute spines. Female

unknown.

Distribution.—Kufri, Simla States, 8,400 ft. 9-6-29. A single male, the

type, now in the author’s collection, taken by Capt. Cardew. This species

belongs to the atkinsoni-selysi group and is readily distinguished by the

broad extent of the abdominal markings, it being the only known species

in which segments 9 and 10 are marked. Other distinguishing features are

the entire discoidal triangles, the bright grass-green face, the frons with

the highly characteristic cupids-bow stripe at its mid front aspect, etc. Seven

species are now known from within Indian limits.

ANAX IMMACULIFRONS Rambur.

A single male collected by Capt. Cardew in the Kangra Valley, 29-4-30.

Although common in the Western Ghats and Ceylon and less so in parts

of the Agency Tracts, this insect is extremely rare in the north, the present

occurrence being the third only which has come to my notice. It differs in

no respect from southern specimens.

MESOGOMPHUS LINDGRENI Fraser.

Mr. O’Donel has taken two more males of this beautiful species known

hitherto only from a single male taken at Turzum, Darjeeling District. In

comparing these two specimens with the type I note that the dorsal black

markings enclose inverted figures of 7 of the green ground-colour and _ that

this is true also for the type. In the figure given on Plate II, Journ. Bom.

Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xxix, facing page 1001, the ground-colour is shown, in

error, interrupted. One of Mr. O’Donel’s specimens has preserved its original

colours almost perfectly and it is to be noted that this is a beautiful grass-

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

green with jet-black markings. Another important feature comes to light,

and that is the presence of an incomplete basal antenodal nervure in all

wings. This is constant in all wings of all three specimens and as this

character is quite unknown in all other species of the genus, it forms an

important guide to identification. One of the three specimens will be depo-

sited in the British Museum.

COELICCIA DOROTHEA sp. Nov.

Male.—Abdomen 35 to 38 mm. Hindwing 22 to 23 mm.

Head.—Labium pale yellow; labrum glossy black as also the ante- and

post-clypeus; bases of mandibles, genae and a streak running inwards on the

frons but not confluent across the middle line, azure blue; rest of head black

marked with a small oval spot of blue on the outer side of the ocellar space

and a pyriform blue spot on each side of the occiput.

Prothorax black with a large azure blue oval spot on each side the middle

lobe; posterior lobe large, trilobate.

Ita. 4.—a. Thoracic markings of Celiccia dorothea & sp. nov.

b. Thoracic markings of Ce@liccia dorothea Q sp. nov.

Thorax black on dorsum marked with a large azure blue oval spot on the

anterior or lower half; laterally azure blue with a narrow black stripe on the

postero-lateral suture broadening forwards above and more so posteriorly below;

beneath pale blue to white, the black of sides encroaching on the anterior

art.

: Legs white, femora black on flexor and extensor surface, tibiae on the

flexor surface. .

Wings hyaline, palely enfumed in old specimens; pterostigma black framed

in thick black nervures which are margined inwardly with white or palest

brown, nearly quadrate but the sides oblique, covering 1% cells; Riv+v arising

at the level of the nervure descending from the node, IRii well distad

of that level; 16 to 18 postnodal nervures in forewings, 16 to 17 in the hind.

(In one male only does Riv+v arise slightly proximal to the subnodal nervure.)

Abdomen black marked with azure blue or white as follows:—segment 1

broadly: white laterally, this extending on to dorsum along the apical border;

segment 2 similar but the apical extension cut off to form a pair of small

subapical. subdorsal blue spots; a fine middorsal carinal white line extending

from base for half the length of the segment; segments 3 to 6 with a pair

of subapical subdorsal spots; segments 7 to 9 unmarked; segment 10 creamy

white except for a small dorsal basal triangular black spot.

Anal appendages creamy white, subequal; superiors but a shade longer than

inferiors, ungulate and pointed obtusely at apex, with a broad ventral spine

which ends in a minute black point directed backwards; inferiors forcipate,

broad at base, then cylindrical and very sinuous, the apical portions turned

strongly in and blunt at apex which however has a minute black point at its

extremity. Penis not differing markedly from that of C. albicauda Forst.,

broad at apex, with a spine below the curled over portion, which latter is

bifid, its two long branches curling strongly downward to embrace the stem

of organ.

Female.—Abdomen 32 to 34 mm. Hindwing 22 mm,

DRAGONFLY (ODONATEH) FAUNA OF INDIA 467

Differs in several respects from the male.

Head.—Labrum yellow suffused with blackish brown at base; bases of

mandibles, genae and the prolongation inwards on the frons yellow, the latter

narrowly confluent across the middle line; ocellar blue spots prolonged as a

zigzageged stripe as far as eyes including the penultimate segment of antennae;

posterior occipital spots yellow. Prothorax almost entirely yellow with a

narrow anterior collar and the posterior lobe black, the latter lobe much

aborted, almost obsolete. Thorax black on dorsum with rather broad,

strongly curved azure blue antehumeral stripes extending for nearly the whole

length of dorsum; laterally pale blue with a very fine black line on the

postero-lateral suture incomplete below. The blue ground colour invading the

dorsal black above near the antealar sinus; beneath pale yellow, unmarked.

Legs yellow marked as in the male. Wings not differing in any respects

from those of the male.

Abdomen black marked with pale yellow or blue; segment 1 broadly yellow,

its dorsum rather narrowly black; segment 2 similar to the male but the

subapical spots confluent with the yellow on sides; segments 3 to 5 with paired

subapical spots confluent with the yellow on the sides; segments 6 to 7 un-

marked; segment 8 with its apical half pale blue, the basal black projecting

as a strong point into it on the middorsum; segment 9 entirely pale blue on

dorsum, this blue narrowling gradually from base to apical border; segment

10 and the short conical anal appendages black; vulvar scales yellow tipped

with blackish brown, very robust.

Distribution.—Huldibari Tea Estate, Duars, Bengal. Five males and two

females collected by Mr. H. V. O’Donel, 30-8-31 and 30-10-31.

Laidlaw in his recent monograph on the genus (Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxiv,

pp. 7-42, 1932) has split up the genus into 3 groups by the relationship of

Riv+v and [Rimi to the nervure descending from the node, and these groups

are further subdivided by the number of cells existing between the outer end

of the discoidal cell and the nervure descending from the node. This new

species falls into Group 38 and into the last category of that group where

only 2 cells are found between the discoidal cell and the subnodal nervure.

Only one other species, C. albicauda Forster, is known to belong to this

group-section and from it C. dorothea is easily distinguished by the presence

of a single pair of blue dorsal thoraic spots instead; of two pairs as in

C. albicauda. Moreover the spot is broadly oval and large instead of small

and triangular; segment 10 in the male is entirely creamy white instead of

black marked with white; the prothorax has the black more extensive in

the male but less so in the female; the female is distinguished by the broad

blue antehumeral stripes as well as by the dorsum of segment 9 and the

apical half of 8 azure blue. That the two species are closely allied however

is qlear from the positions of Riv +v and IRiwi, as well as by the similarity

of the male anal appendages and penile organ. Forster’s species comes from

the Malay States.

A pair of this beautiful new species will be deposited in the British Museum.

AGRIOCNEMIS ARBORENSE Laidlaw.

A pair of this rare insect has been sent me by Mr. H. V. O’Donel from

Huldibari Tea Estate, Duars, Bengal, taken on 22-10-31. The female was

hitherto unknown and is described below. The type is in the Indian Museum,

from Dibrugarh, and I possess specimens from Nowgong, Assam, collected for

me by Mr. Chas. Antram.

Female.—Abdomen 22 mm. Hindwing 15 mm.

Head.—Labium white; labrum glossy black narrowly bordered with blue;

anteclypeus black; genae, bases of mandibles and _ post-clypeus azure blue,

rest of head black with a pair of large bright blue postocular spots.

Prothorax black with a large blue dorsal spot on the anterior lobe; posterior

lobe squared behind.

Thorax black as far lateral as the antero-lateral suture, marked on dorsum

with narrow antehumeral! azure blue stripes; laterally blue with a narrow black

stripe on the postero-lateral suture.

Legs pale yellow, femora broadly black on extensor surface.

Wings hyaline, pterostigma black framed finely in palest brown, covering

1 cell; 9 to 10 postnodal nervures in forewings, 7 in the hind,

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOC TERY. Viole Xxee Vi

Abdomen black marked with azure blue as follows.—Segment 1 with a

large spot on each side and a narrow intensely blue apical annule; segment 2

with a narrow lateral stripe, which is shaped like a *?’ mark at the apical

- end; segments 3 to 6 with a long lateral narrow stripe which is interrupted

apicad on segment 38; segment 7 with only a basal-lateral spot; segments 8 to

10 unmarked but the intersegmental nodes blue. Anal appendages dark blackish

brown, very small and conical; vulvar scale yellow.

Along with these specimens and from the same locality, were representa-

tives of Agriocnemis femina, pygmaea, clausen and lacteola and three species

of Pseuadagrion,—P. microcephalum, P. bengalense and P. spencei. The latter

is the rarest of our Indian Pseudagrions and of the four males in this collection,

two have a well-marked triangular black dorso-basal spot on segment 8, thus

differing from the type in which this segment is entirely blue.

ALLOPHAEA OCHRACEA Selys.

Fairly common in the Maraghat Forest, Duars. The specimens are all

very small and the males differ amongst themselves in the depth of the black

clouding the orange area in the hindwing. The darker varieties might be

described as A. brunnea, the lighter or paler ones as A. ochracea. Collected

on 16-8-31.

Journ. BomBAy Nar. HIstT. Soc.

740

Dhamans or Rat-Snakes Mating.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SNAKES.

Sic. JBL. JPRAUIIIR, WiC s 5 Caan.

(Curator, Bombay Natural History Society).

The belief is widely prevalent in India that if a Cobra is killed

in a house or compound its mate inevitably turns up sooner or later

at the same spot and assumes an aggressive attitude.

The Field recently printed an extract from the Cornhill

Magazine relative to this belief. The author of the article

Mr. J. H. Knowles says “The instinct, which seems to be peculiar

to this variety of snake only, (i.e. cobras) is a wonderful thing. I

would naturally be surprised that the direction taken by one of a

pai or its whereabouts, after it had wandered at random from its

abode in search of prey, could be known to its mate—an uncanny

sense of smell might give us an explanation, but after a lapse

of days, which is usually the case before the living snake finds the

spot where its mate was killed, it would be logical to presume that

all traces of the missing snake had disappeared. I have disinfected

carefully a whole room in which a cobra had been killed, yet the

mate has come to the precise spot’’. |

I remember reading in a local paper an account of the killing

of a python. The snake was dragged home over a considerable

distance and left in a compound. The next morning a second

python was discovered near the spot where the dead snake was

lying. It would appear that occurrences of this nature are not

confined to Cobras only, and it would be interesting to learn

whether any readers of this Journal know of similar cases.

If the facts are correctly reported and if there is a foundation

for this belief—and there is is generally a substratum of truth

underlying such general and widespread beliefs, the question arises

why and how does a snake trace its mate?

In answering the question we must first of all dismiss the

popular explanation which ascribes to the living snake an aggressive

desire for vengeance. It is the natural and usual conclusion

arrived at by falling back on human experience. We are accus-

tomed to attribute to the animal motives and the corresponding

behaviour which a human being may display under similar

circumstances. Assuming that the living snake is of the opposite

sex to the one which was killed (and we have to assume this,

as we know of no records where the sex or sexes of the snakes

were ascertained), one would first ask are snakes social animals?

Do the male and female of the species live in association and if

so 1s this association permanent or is it limited to a more or less

definite period ? If limited, when and how is this association affected ?

How do the sexes come together? We are accustomed to interpret

social life among animals in terms of a number of individuals

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

living in a colony, mutually dependent on each other for their

well-being or even their existence. But this is only one of the

many phases of social life. No living being is solitary. All

animals are compelled, if only for a brief moment, to contract an

intimate union with some other individual of the species. All

animals are therefore at some time of their hves immersed in some

society since the social medium is a condition necessary to the

renewal of life. Moreover, from the lowest to the highest animals,

we detect in the development of the social habit a progression

which if not uniform is at least constant. Mach group of animals

carries the social habit further in one direction or the other.

Varying stages of social life are exhibited. This hfe in common

may be limited in one group of animals to a brief union of the

sexes. The association may continue in another class till the eggs

or young are produced. It may go further in another group of

animals to care of the eggs or offspring by one or both parents.

It may be extended to the contiued and permanent association of

the parents after the young have been raised, and finally in other

eroups, as for example in insect societies to the establishment of

family lfe—to the more or less permanent association of parents

and offspring. This is its culminating point. A poimt reached by

different channels of evolution, so far, only by man and the social

insects.

Now association between individuals of a species may be brought

about in two ways. There is the form of social life which is

based not on the mutual attraction of the individuals associating

but which is brought about by factors and stimuli which are purely

external. There are various factors, ephemeral or constant which

tend to bring about such associations—suitability of the environ-

ment, propinquity and abundance of food supply, climatic

conditions of some of them.

We know that the Common Blind Snake (Typhlops brahminus)

is occasionally gregarious. Colonies of these snakes are found living

in rotting wood. The basis of the association is not mutual

attraction but presumably the attraction provided by the presence

of the eggs and larvae of insects on which these snakes feed and

which are found abundantly in rotting wood.

Again one may discover a number of snakes living in the

neighbourhood of a bungalow. Cobras and Dhamans are frequently

found in such situations. Crumbling masonry, a woodstack,

accumulations of rubbish afford comfortable quarters but the main

attraction of the residence is the propinquity and permanence of

the food supply. Rats and the eggs of poultry on which Cobras

and Dhamans feed may be found in abundance in the neighbour-

hood of human habitations.

Then again, among snakes which hibernate during the winter,

some species are known to hibernate together in large numbers.

In England, it has been observed that all the adders go to earth

with the first definite night of frost in October, retiring in holes

two to three feet deep or under the roots of trees. Any number

upto 80 may be huddled together in one place for their winter

sleep—old males, females and young lie together coiled up in

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SNAKES 471

knots in their damp retreat. In America, again, Rattle snakes

(Crotalius horridus) have been found hibernating under the ground

together in considerable numbers. It must not be concluded that

hibernation en masse is exhibited by all species which hibernate.

In Northern India, our common Buff-striped Keel-back (7. stolatus)

hibernates during the cold season—numbers of these snakes,

according to Wall, were dug up at Rae Bareilly, U.P. im December.

They were found singly at a depth from 9-18 inches below the

surface of the soil, chiefly in the roots of giant clumps of grass

and when dislodged were dull and inactive.

The second type of association, the type which provides the

basis of true social life arises from mutual attraction, from the

craving of one individual to ive and remain with another individual

or individuals of its kind. The stimulus comes from within: it is

quite independent of external factors and conditions. Individuals

so associating may exchange a favourable for an unfavourable

environment in obedience to the urge and to satisfy the craving for

a life in common. The association of the sexes during the breed-

ing season is a rudimentary phase of this form of social life. In

some instances however external factors may contribute to the

maintenance of such an association.

Strangely enough with some species of snakes the breeding

season may coincide with the period of hibernation or aestivation.

In many parts of India, when real cold weather conditions are

established, pythons (P. molurus) are known to hibernate. They

retire to some convenient retreat and there he up till the return

of the hot weather. Now as the eggs of pythons are laid in May

ana June, it is concluded that pairing takes place during -hiberna-

tion, as the females are gravid when the time of hibernation is over.

Pairing apparently takes place in the coldest. months of the year;

in India, during the months of December, January and February.

A pair of pythons in the Paris Zoo were observed in union several

times during the month of January and February and the eggs

were deposited in May; the same month in which eggs are laid in

India. Again in the case of the African Python (Python sebae),

whose habitat les south of the Equator, where winter conditions

establish themselves in mid year, a pair in the London Zoo were

observed to mate in June. The eggs were laid in the following

January. It is probable that males and females hibernate together

and their association is prolonged through the cold weather.

That several pythons may seek the same retreat is instanced

in the case reported in the Pioneer (February 19th, 1906). Six

pythons were discovered in a cavity in the banks of a stream in

Mysore and dragged out one by one. They all ranged between

10 and 12 feet. The distribution of the sexes amongst these

pythons was not recorded. Wall reports hearing of a similar case

in the Himalayas. Jt seems extraordinary that the sexual impulse

should be retained and that pairing should take place at the time

of hibernation when the vitality of the snake is lowered and the

body heat sensibly diminished and the capability for digestion is

impaired. But this is presumably what happens from the facts

above recorded.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Now coming to species which aestivate during the dry weather,

it is well known that our common Buff-striped Keel-back (Tropid-

onotus stolatus) goes to earth during the dry season. Round

Bombay these snakes disappear from the country side during the

dry months but are abundant in our fields as soon as the rains

break. They come out with the frogs. The period of aestivation

ig apparently the time when pairing takes place. Judging from

what is assumed of the period between coition and the actual depo-

sition of the eggs, (i.e. about 2 months) the sexes must in many

instances retire in pairs, as when the rains break, many of the

females are already in an advanced stage of impregnation.

Other species which aestivate may breed after the period of aestiva-

tion is completed. The Checkered Water Snake (7. piscator) which

goes to earth in situations where the water supply dries up, breeds

during the rains.

Apart from the fact that the association between the male and

female may be extended by external stimuli, it is assumed that

even under normal circumstances the association of the male with

the female among snakes may continue for some time after actual

union takes place. Blanford speaks of a pair of Checkered Water

Snakes which he dislodged from under a stone. He says that they

had evidently made their home there and that they showed a

disinclination to leave the spot. He remarks that though the

snakes were evidently cohabiting the female was in an advanced

state of impregnation. Wall records the case of a pair of dhamans

discovered disporting themselves in a stream, the female was

found to contain eggs in an advanced state of development. Mr.

A. Flynn! records an instance of a male Russell’s Viper taken

with a gravid female; seventy-nine days later the female produced

her brood of young. Now in the case of the Russell’s Viper the

period of gestation is definitely known to exceed six months. If

the partnership of this pair of vipers commenced with coition it

must have extended over half a year.

Two incidents are recorded by Wall? in regard to the Cobra.

A Burman in his endeavours to dig out a cobra dislodged two

other cobras from the same retreat. Of the three snakes two were

males and the third a female, which showed her ovarian follicles

impregnated and obviously enlarged. A similar case, again in

connection with the Cobra, this time in Ceylon, was reported to Wall.

In commenting on the incident noted by Blanford relative

to the association between a pair of Checkered Water Snake (quoted

above) Col. Wall in his Snakes of Ceylon says “This with other

instances of a similar kind leads me to assume that snakes possess

a mutual love and attachment in no way inferior to that exhibited

by many warm-blooded animals which preserve their conjugal rela-

tionship long after the term of sexual gratification.’

But the question arises are snakes monogamous? In the many

cases recorded were the males observed in company with the females

1 Jour. Bom. Nat. Haste S0c. Xxxvij pe ci.

* Snakes of Ceylon, p. 472.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SNAKES 473

their only partners? The finding of a male snake with a gravid

female does not imply that the male so discovered is the one

responsible for the gravid condition of the female. In short we

have no evidence to show that an individual pair continues to

live in association after mating takes place. But the evidence so far

recorded indicates that the female of the species is sought after

by the males after impregnation and during the period of gesta-

tion.

From the instances we have recorded it will be seen that the

social hfe of snakes is limited to the association of the sexes during

the breeding season. It is also apparent that association between

tie males and females may continue thoughout the period of ges-

tation over a term which may be prolonged for many months.

It is true that many observers have commented on the cobra’s

propensity to live in pairs. But there is nothing to show that

the partnership is lhmited to a female with a particular male or

that the association is continued beyond the limits of the breeding

season. As a general rule cobras pair during the cold weather—

December, January and February and the eggs may be deposited

during any month between April and August. At any time during

this intervening period it may be possible to find cobras living in

pairs. Though, from what is so far known from recorded obser-

vation of the period of gestation, the term of association between

an individual pair if it commenced with the act of union and was

continued till the deposition of the eggs would last from 2 to 5

months.

In this association of the sexes during the breeding

season we find established among snakes the rudimentary basis

of true social life, but the development of the social habit as

expressed in the higher and ultimate forms of social life is derived

from parental care and from the association of the parents with the

offspring.

Parental care is not highly developed among reptiles. No ela-

borate provision is made for the deposition of the eggs, nor are

the young tended after they are born. Rarely is there any attempt

at nest-building. Various observers have referred to the nests

of the King Cobra (Naia bungarus). The snake on many occasions

has been found coiled round her eggs on an accumulation of leaves

and vegetable debris. It is not known whether the female gathers

up these leaves together herself or whether she makes use of a

chance accumulation of them. The latter appears to be the most

probable explanation. Ordinarily, the eggs of snakes are laid in

rank grass or decaying vegetation, in refuse heaps, under rocks or

among the roots of trees or in holes and cavities in the soil; in

situations where the heat engendered by the immediate environ-

ment helps in the incubation. It is true that with many snakes,.

the female by coiling her body round the eggs assists in their incu-

bation; her presence must also help to protect the eggs from many

enemies. Female cobras have been dug up frequently with their

eges. A common krait has been observed to remain coiled up

about her eggs even when the embryos within them were 6 ins. long.

A King Cobra was shot over her eggs when the embryos in them

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

were capable of movement. Pythons again, are known to incubate

their eggs. The habit is apparently well established among snakes

though incubation by the parent is not essential and may and does

often cease before the eggs actually hatch out. Once the eggs

hatch out the maternal duties of the parent are over. The young

spread out in all directions and fend for themselves. But in the

innumerable records which are available relative to finding of the

female snake with her eggs one striking fact emerges. ‘There are

practically no records of the discovery of the male in association

with the female at this period. It has been observed that the male

of the King Cobra does in some instances at least remain in the

vicinity of the female while she is on the nest.

Again in the case of Shaw’s Wold Snake (Lycodon striatus),

Wall records an incident when a female and male were unearthed

by some coolies together with 4 eggs. But from the numerous

instances in which solitary females have been found with their

eges it must appear that the partnership with the male is usually

dissolved immediately before or after the deposition of the eggs.

Writing of the Python, Col. Wall says, ‘I have numerous records

of Pythons found lying with their eggs but with one exception

no mention is made of any other snake lying close at hand.’ As

far as we know at present the association of males with females,

though maintained during the period of gestation, is not as a

seneral rule continued after the deposition “ot the eggs or young.

The association ends when the eggs are laid or about to be laid.

Such association as exists 1s brought into being or originates as

a response to stimuli which become active during the breeding

season and ends when such stimuli cease to operate.

If snakes live individual lives, and we do not usually find them

moving about in pairs, except during the breeding season, the

sexes must have some means of finding each other when stirred

to seek or to maintain such an association. The males must in

some way be able to discover the whereabouts of the females or

vice versa.

Now in one group of reptiles we believe that this is effected by

means of scent glands. Crocodiles carry two pairs of these scent

glands which secrete a brownish smeary liquid with the odour

of musk. One pair is situated on each side of the throat under

the lower jaw and the second pair in the region of the vent. The

secretion is most active during the rutting season when the glands

are most active; the use of these scented organs which are pos-

sessed by both sexes is believed to be hedonic. It is believed that

the sexes are able to follow and find each other, thanks to the

streak of scented water left behind by each individual. Lizards

have no scent glands but among many families we find what we

describe as femoral pores. These pores are arranged in rows on the

undersurface of the thighs, in front of the anal opening. Each of

these pores perforates a scale and leads to a tubular invagination

which is lined with epidermal cells. The prolferation of these cells’

produces a heavy yellowish debris which fills the tube and appears

above the surface as a small cone. The use of this secretion is

unknown but here again it is believed to be hedonic. Stink glands

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF SNAKES 475

are again found in the inguinal region of the Mud turtles (Cinos-

ternidae) and tortoises of the genus Clemmys. "Now all snakes

carry a pair of roundish glands in the region of the vent. Not

only are the glands possessed by both sexes in all snakes but the

odour and the appearance of the secretion in these glands seems

to differ with the species. In the Common Krait it is a blackish

substance of the consistency of soft oimtment with a peculharly dis-

agreeable smell. The contents of the scent glands of the Python

has the odour of musk. In the Dhaman, the secretion looks like

creamy custard. In the Checkered Water Snake this secretion is

bright yellow. It may be that these scent glands serve during the

breeding season a similar purpose to that attributed to the scent

glands of crocodiles and lizards. That they afford a means by

which the sexes are able to trace each other, by leaving behind the

individual, an odour which is recognizable to other individuals of

the same species. That the odour of the secretion is persistent and

not easily effaced, is the common experience of all those who have

handled snakes. If the scent glands serve the suggested purpose,

they would provide one of the aids by which a cobra or any snake

is able to trace another of its species, during the period when

snakes are impelled to seek association with one another. It is

true that in many species of snakes these glands have been found

to be active in all stages of growth—even in hatchlings which are

not sexually mature, and as such, it is argued that the glands are

not directly connected with the sexual functions of a snakead The

scent glands of crocodiles are also present at all stages of growth

but they are particularly active during the breeding season when

the glands are partly everted. They can also be stirred to activity

under the stimulus of fear or excitement. It has been observed

that baby crocodiles and alligators turned these glands inside out

like the fingers of a glove when seized or held by force. The

elands and their noisome secretion become a weapon of defence.

Exactly the same procedure is adopted by the tortoise Clemmys

leperosa which gives out a disagreeable offensive smell something

like the concentrated essence of fish. Freshly-caught specimens

stink horribly but when they have been agersioin ad to being

handled they cease to make use of these glands. It is again the)

common experience of all those who have handled snakes that

these reptiles discharge the horrible contents of the cloaca and the

scent glands when seized, but once accustomed to handling these

demonstrations are not indulged in.

To sum up, the social life of snakes is limited as far as we know

mainly to the breeding season:—That the association between the

sexes may be continued after actual union has taken place and

may extend till the deposition of the eggs or young. That it is

not usually continued after the eggs or young are produced. That

the secretion of the scent glands is discharged under stress of fear

or excitement and that it is specific and that by particular activity

during the breeding season it may provide a medium by which a

snake: of a particular species is able to trace the whereabouts of

another snake of the same species. In short, there is nom

foundation for the popular belief that a snake traces its mate.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

I have here suggested the possibility of the occurrence but fur-

ther investigation would be necessary to establish the correctness

of the theory. In incidents of this nature it would be

necessary to establish the species and sexes of the snakes concerned,

to furnish data if possible of the condition of the genital organs and

of the scent glands, to note the time of the year in which the

incident took place. Observations relative to the season of the

year in which snakes are seen in pairs, breeding habits, the period

of gestation, the period of incubation, the presence or absence of

the male during this period would help to furnish information

relative to the relationship between the sexes in snakes of which

so little is actually known. ee

Again from recorded observations we assume that among snakes

partnership between the sexes is dissolved after the deposition

of the eggs. Yet we know that in the case of two species at

least some form of partnership may have been continued after

the eggs were deposited. All these problems require further

elucidation and their solutions can only be arrived at by further

observations in the field.

NEW PLANTS FROM WAZIRISTAN

ID, JBUAUINTS, Saiog ND, Woes

Erodium nanum Blatter, sp. nov. [Geraniaceae]; pertinens ad Sectionem

Barbatorum et Subsectionem Petraeorum Brumh. affinis est E. trichomanifolio

L’Herit., sed distinguitur nullis partibus glandulosis, rhachi inter pinnas

integra, pedunculis %-floris, involucro paucibracteato, bracteis connatis, sepalis

J-Nervosis.

Annum, usque 4 cm. altum, acaule, totum excepta corolla incano-hirsutum

pilis basi incrassatis. Radix verticalis, 5 cm. longa, ad collum stipulis

squamosa. Folia omnia basalia, multa, ambitu oblonga, bipinnatisecta,

rhachi integra, usque 4 cm. longa, 1.38 cm. lata; petioli 1-1.4 cm. longi;

pinnuli integri vel pinnatisecti, lacinuli lineares vel oblongi, acuti. Stipu-

lae lanceolato-acuminatae, glabrescentes, petiolo basi adnatae. Pedunculi

basales, ascendentes, graciles, 2-flori, usque 2 cm. longi, ca. 0.5 mm. diam.

JInvolucrum paucibracteatum; bracteae 4, duo vicini caeteris minores, parte

inferiore connatae, late triangulares, acutae, maiores 1.5 mm. longae, 1 mm.

latae, membranaceae. Pedicelli 2-3 mm. longi, eglandulosi, filiformes, calyci

aequilongi; fructiferi paullum incrassati, 7 mm. longi, retroflexi. Sepala

anguste oblonga, usque 4 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata, nervis 38 crassioribus pro-

minenter percursa, albo-marginata, pilis albis speciatim parte inferiore densissime

obsita, apice longe aristata, arista 0.5 mm. longa, crystallina, sub fructu

demum 5 mm. longa. Corolla carnea, 9 mm. diam.; petala aequalia, imma-

culata, 8-venosa, calyce paullo longiora, oblonga, apice rotundata. Pistillum

hirsutum. Rostrum 25 mm. longum, appresse hirsutum.

Annual, up to 4 cm. high, stemless, the whole, excepting the corolla,

incano-hirsute with hairs thickened at the base. Root vertical, 5 cm. long,

the neck crowded with stipules. All leaves basal, many, oblong in outline,

bipinnatisect, up to 4 cm. long, 1.8 cm. broad; rhachis entire; petioles 1-1.4

em. long; pinnules entire or pinnatisect; lacinules linear or oblong, acute.

Stipules lanceolate-acuminate, glabrescent, at the base adnate to the petiole.

Peduncles basal, ascending, slender, 2-flowered, up to 2 cm. long, about 0.5

mm. diam. Involucre few-bracteate; bracts 4, two neighbouring ones smaller

than the rest, connate in the lower part, broadly triangular, acute, the larger

ones 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, membranous. Pedicels 2-3 mm. long, eglan-

dular, filiform, as long as the calyx; in fruit slightly thickened, 7 mm. long,

bent back. Sepals narrowly oblong, up to 4 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, pro-

minently 8-nerved, white-margined, densely covered with white hairs, especially

in the lower part, long aristate at the apex with a crystalline 0.5 mm. long awn,

in fruit finally 5 mm. long. Corolla flesh-coloured, 9 mm. diam.; petals equal,

‘not spotted, 3-veined, slightly longer than the calyx, oblong, rotund at the apex.

Pistil hirsute. Rostrum 25 mm. long, appressedly hirsute.

Locality: N. Waziristan: W. of Datta Khel Fort, gravel plain (Blatter &

Fernandez 6138, type).

Flowers and Fruit: 18-3-80.

Erodium adenophorum Blatter, sp. nov. [Geraniaceae]; pertinens ad Sec-

tionem Barbatorum et Subsectionem Gruinorum Willk. et Lange vicina est E.

Hoefftiano C. A. Meyer a qua tamen distinguitur stipulis ciliatis, pedunculis

4-d-floris, involucro 2-3-bracteato, bracteis margine ciliatis, sepalis 3-vel

d-nervosis glandulo-hirsutis inaequalibus.

Annuum usque 7 cm. altum. Radix verticalis, tenuis satis longa, simplex,

Caules pauci. Folia basalia pauca, persistentia; petioli eorum laminae circ.

aequilongi vel ea 13 plo longiores, pilis mollibus patulis glandulosis hirsuti;

lamina ambitu ovata vel oblonga, basi subcordata, usque 2.5 cm. longa,

8-11 mm. lata, supra et infra parcissime hirsuta, margine albo-ciliata; lobi

irregulares, pinnatifidi, acutiuscule serrato-dentati; foliorum superiorum _ lobi

similes, petioli generatim breviores. Stipulae late lanceolato-acutae vel spathu-

latae vel oblongae vel ovatae et apice obtusae, margine ciliatae, membran-

aceae, albidae, usque 8 mm. longae, et 1 mm, latae. Pedunculi usque 3.5 cm.

ahs) oO ag NAGS. 1EXONEB VALE IN ALI Cena I JaUUS, TSOCIIBIING,, WVOlls ZOORN

longi, indumento puberulo-glanduloso dense obsiti, 2-8-flori. Involucrum

4-5-bracteatum; bracteae late triangulares, acutae, margine ciliatae, liberae,

1-1.5 mm. longae. Pedicelli 5 mm. longi, fructiferi refracti. Sepala oblonga,

5-vel 5-nervosa nervis elevatis, mucronata mucrone 1 mm. longo, dense glan-

duloso-hirsuta, 5 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata, quoad latitudinem inaequalha.

Petala non visa, in nota carnea. Rostrum 3 cm. longum, patule breviter

albo-hirsutum, egiandulosum.

Annual, up to 7 cm. high. Root vertical, thin, rather long, simple. Stems

few. Basal leaves few, persistent; their petioles about as long as the blade

of 13 times longer, hirsute with soft, patent glandular hairs; blade in outline

ovate or oblong, subcordate at the base, up to 2.5 cm. long, 8-11 mm. broad,

above and below sparingly hirsute, margin white-ciliate; lobes irregular, pin-

natifid, somewhat acutely serrate-dentate; lobes of upper leaves similar,

petioles generally shorter. Stipules lanceolate-acute or spathulate or oblong

or ovate and obtuse at the apex with the margin ciliate, membranous,

whitish, up to 3 mm. long and 1 mm. broad. Peduncles up to 3.5 cm. long,

densely puberulous-glandular, 2-3-flowered. Involucre 2-3-bracteate; bracts

broadly triangular, acute, with ciliate margins, free, 1-1.5 mm. long. Pedicels

5 mm. long, in fruit bent back. Sepals oblong, prominently 38- or 5-nerved,

mucronate with a mucro 1 mm. long, densely glandular-hirsute, 5 mm. long,

2 mm. broad, unequal as to breadth. Petals not seen, pink (from note).

Rostrum 8 cm. long, patently and shortly white-hirsute, eglandular.

Locality: N. Waziristan: Khajuri Post, bed of Sna Algad, gravel and

sand (Blatter & Fernandez 368, type).

Flowers and Fruit: 26-38-30.

Erodium heterosepalum Blatter, sp. nov. [Geraniaceae]; pertinens ad

Sectionem Barbatorum et Subsectionem Malacoideorum Willk. et Lange, refert

HK. triangulare (Forsk.) Muschler sed ab eo distinguitur stipulis margine

cihatis, pedunculis et pedicellis dense retrohispidis, bracteis 5, liberis, sepalis

8- vel 5-nervosis inaequalibus.

Annuum, caulescencs, usque 11 cm. altum. Radix verticalis vel tortuosa,

radiculis tenuibus Jateralibus parum armata. Caules pauci, retro-hispidi,

ascendentes, parum ramosi. Folia basalha pauca; petioli quam lamina 1-3-

pla longiores, pilis retrosis hispidi;. lamina ambitu ovato-reniformis vel

cordata, retro-hispida, usque 38 cm. longa et 2.5 cm. lata, intense lobata; lobi

pinnato-incisi; lacinulae integrae, obtusae; folia superiora brevius petiolata,

summa subsessiha et pinnatifida. Stipulae variabiles, late ovatae acutae,

membranaceae, pallidae, parce puberulae, margine ciliatae, usque 5 mm.

longae et 4 mm. latae. Pedunculi longitudine diversi, inferiores 3.5 cm. longi,

superiores 1 cm., generatim 7-flori satis stricti, dense retro-hispidi. Invo-

lucrum 5-bracteatum; bracteae liberae, rotundatae, obtusae vel subobtusae,

glabrae, margine ciliatae, usque 8 mm. longae et latae, membranaceae,

pallidae. Pedicelli usque 5 mm. longi, filiformes, fructiferi non incrassati,

dense retro-hispidi, *refracti. Sepala oblonga, 8- vel 5-nervosa, mucronata,

inaequalia, maiores 4 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata, albo-marginata, dense hirsuta.

Petala parva, aequalia, purpurea, immaculata, breviter unguiculata, calyce

breviora, oblongo-obovata, apice rotundata. Filamenta calyce breviora. Pis-

tillum argenteo-hirsutum. Rostrum usque 38 cm. longum, pilis brevibus

patulis obsitum.

Annual, caulescent, up to 11 em. high. Root vertical or tortuous, lateral

rootlets thin, not many. Stems few, retro-hispid, ascending, little branched.

Basal leaves few; petioles 1-3 times as long as the blade, retro-hispid; blade

in outline ovate-reniform or -cordate, intensely lobed, up to 3 cm. long. and

2.5 cm. broad; lobes pinnato-incised; lacinules entire, obtuse; upper leaves

with shorter petioles, the uppermost subsessile and pinnatified. Stipules vari-

able, broadly ovate, acute, membranous, pale, sparingly puberulous, with a

ciliate margin, up to 5 mm. long and 4 mm. broad. -Peduncles differmg in

length, the lower ones 3.5 cm. long, the upper ones 1 cm., generally

7-flowered, rather strict, densely retro-hispid. Involucre 5-bracteate; bracts

free, rotund, obtuse or subobtuse, glabrous with ciliate margins, up to 38 mm.

long and broad, membranous, pale. Pedicels up to 5 mm. long, filiform, in

fruit not thickened, densely retro-hispid, bent back. Sepals oblong, 38- or

5-nerved, mucronate, unequal, the larger ones 4 mm. long, 1 mm. broad,

white-margined, densely hirsute. Petals small, equal, purple, not spotted,

NEW PLANTS FROM WAZIRISTAN 479

shortly clawed, shorter than the calyx, oblong-obovate, rotund at the apex.

Filaments shorter than the calyx. Pistil silvery-hirsute. Rostrum up to 3:-cm.

long, with short patent hairs,

Locality: N. Waziristan: EH. of Miranshah Fort, right bank of Chasmai

River, on sand between rocks, 3,100 ft. (Blatter & Iernandez 201, type).

Flowers and Fruit: 23-3-30.

Trigonella lasia Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; affinis T. pubescenti

Baker a qua tamen distinguitur indumento villoso, stipulis ovato-lanceolatis

petiole longioribus, fololis dentatis (non inciso-dentatis), pedunculis folio multo

longioribus 3-5-floris, legumine hirsuto, seminibus 7-9.

Tota planta corolla fructuque exceptis dense villosa. Caules validi, -pro-

cumbentes, valde ramosi ad 15 cm. longi. Stipulae ovato-lanceolatae, acumi-

natae, obscure dentatae, coalitae, petiolo longiores, ad 7 mm. longae. Folia

S-foholata, 1.5 cm. longa. Foliola oblongo-obovata, obtusa vel truncata vel

emarginata, apiculata, basi cuneata, dimidia parte superiore denticulata.

Petioluii: foholorum lateralium fere absentes, folioli terminalis 2 mm. longi.

Pedunculi 1$-2-plo folio longiores, in fructu multo longiores, 1-5-flori. Flores

breviter racemosi capitati, 4.5-5 mm. longi, flavi. Pedicelli 1-2.5 mm. longi.

Calyx 3.5 mm. longus, tubus 1.5 mm., segmenta aequilonga, 2 mm, longa,

lineari-subulata. Corolla e calyce paullum exserta. Vexillum oblongo-obovatum

exunguiculatum. Legumen lineari-oblongum, 1 cm. longum, 38 mm. latum,

turgidulum, compressum, rectum, brevissime rostratum, transversaliter approxi-

matim necnon elevatim venosum, hirsutum, apice oblique truncatum; sutura

superior validissima, inferior tenuiter nervosa. Semina 7-9, oblonga, brunnea,

basi oblique cordata.

The whole plant, corolla and pod excepted, densely villous. Stems

stoutish, procumbent, much branching, up to 15 cm. long. Stipules ovate-

lanceolate, acuminate, obscurely dentate, united, longer than the petioles, up

to 7 mm. long. Leaves 3-foliolate, 1.5 cm. long. Leaflets oblong-obovate,

obtuse or truncate or emarginate, apiculate, cuneate at the base, denticulate

in the upper half. Petiolules of terminal leaflet 2 mm. long, of lateral

almost absent. Peduncles 14-2 times as long as the leaf, in fruit much

longer, 1-5-flowered. Flowers shortly racemose, capitate, 4.5-5 mm. long,

yellow. Pedicels 1-2.5 mm. long. Calyx 3.5 mm. long, tube 1.5 mm., seg-

ments all of egual length, 2 mm. long, linear-subulate. Corolla slightly

exserted. Standard oblong-obovate, without claw. Pod linear-oblong, 1 cm.

long, 2 mm. broad, slightly turgid, compressed, straight, very shortly rostrate,

transversely and narrowly raised-venose, hirsute, obliquely truncate at the

apex, upper suture very strong, lower much thinner. Seeds 7-9, oblong,

brown, obliquely cordate at the base.

Locality: S. Waziristan: Razmak, 6,750 ft. (Fernandez 1883, type;

1841, 1858, 2320, cotypes).—E. of Razmak, on a small stony plateau, 6,800 ft.

(Blatter & Fernandez 1905).—Bare Top Hill E. of Razmak, 7,000 ft. (Fernan-

dez 3378).

N. Waziristan: Below Razmak Narai, slope of ravine, 7,000 ft. (Blatter

& Fernandez 1210).

Flowers and Fruit: 25-4-30; 6-5-27 (Razmak).

Trigonella psilorhynchos Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; pertinens ad

Sectionem Eutrigonellae similis est T. callicerati Fisch. a qua tamen distin-

guitur habitu prostrato, calyce hirsuto, legumine glabro cylindrico-compresso

rostro multo breviore, seminibus oblongis basi oblique cordatis.

Pubescens; caules prostrati inferne demum indurati. Folia ad 8 inm.

longa; petioli 2 mm. longi pubescentes. Foliola cuneata late obovata apiculata

crenato-denticulata, supra glabra infra parce pubescentia, ad 3 mm. longa apice

3.5 mm. lata; nervi utrinque elevati prominentes. Stipulae semisagittatae basi

ef saepe sursum dentatae. Pedunculi graciles pubescentes folio longiores ad

14 mm. longi aristati 1-5-flori. Flores flavi umbellati; pedicel ad 4 mm.

longi dense appresse hirsuti. Corolla 6 mm. longa; calyx corolla duplo brevior

hirsutus; segmenta tubo aequilonga lineari-lanceolata. Liegumen (immaturum)

deflexum, rectum vel faleatum compressum ca. 1 cm. longum et 1 mm. latum

glabrum nervis transverso-obliquis fortibus striatum, duobus nervis suturalibus

validis munitum, apice longe subulato-rostratum. Semina 5-8, oblonga, basi

oblique cordata.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Pubescent; stems prostrate. Leaves up to 8 mm. long; petioles 3 mm.

long, pubescent. Leaflets cuneate, broadly obovate, apiculate, crenate-denti-

culate, glabrous above, sparingly pubescent below, up to 38 mm. long, 3.5 mm.

broad at the apex; nerves raised, prominent on both sides. Stipules semi-

saggitate, dentate at the base and often upwards. Peduncles slender, pubes-

cent, longer than the leaves, up to 14 mm. long, awned, 1-5 flowered. Flowers

yellow, umbellate, pedicels up to 4 mm. long, densely and appressedly hirsute.

Corolla 6 mm. long; calyx half as long as the corolla, hirsute; segments as

long as the tube, lnear-lanceolate. Unripe pod deflexed, straight or falcate,

compressed, about 1 cm. long and 1'‘mm. broad, glabrous, striate with strong

transverse-oblique nerves, both sutural nerves well developed, at the apex a

long subulate beak. Seeds 5-8, oblong, at the base obliquely cordate.

Locality: 5S. Waziristan: W. of Razmak Camp, stony plain, 6,800 ft.

(Blatter & Fernandez 1721 type).

Flowers and Fruit: 24-4-80.

Astragalus lasius Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; affinis A. subumbellato

Klotzsch, a quo distinguitur omnibus partibus, excepta corolla, villosis, foliolis

oblongo vel oblongo-obovatis, stipulis subulatis, corolla calyce duplo longiore,

segmentis tubo longioribus, carina alis aequilonga, corolla atro-rubra.

Tota planta, excepta corolla, albo-villosa. Caules multi, erecti vel procum-

bentes, ad 15 cm. alti, validi. Stipulae parvae, subulatae. Folia brevi-

petiolata, ad 5.5 cm. longa; foliola distantia, subsessila, 5-5.5 mm. longa, ad

$ mm. lata, oblonga vel oblongo-obovata, obtusa, generatim 6-9-juga. Pedun-

culi folio subbreviores ex axillis surgentes. Racemi laxiusculi, 3-13-flori;

pedicelli ca. 1 mm. longi. Flores 12 mm. longi, atro-rubri, bracteae subulatae.

Calyx 5.5 mm., tubus 2.5 mm., segmenta 3 mm. longa, setacea. Vexillum

ellipsoideum, apice retusum, 11 mm. longum; ungues perbreves. Alae anguste

lineares apice obtusae. Carina obtusa, basi auriculata, 8 mm. longa, alis

aequilonga. Legumen immaturum hispidum, biloculare. Semina 20.

The whole plant with the exception of the corolla white-villous. Stems

many, erect or procumbent, up to 15 cm. high, stout. Stipules small, subulate.

Leaves short-petioled, up to 5.5 cm. long. Leaflets distant, subsessile,

5-5.5 mm. long, up to 8 mm. broad, oblong or oblong-obovate, obtuse, generally

6-9-jugate. Peduncles slightly shorter than the leaf, arising from its axil.

Racemes somewhat lax, 3-13-flowered; pedicels about 1 mm. long. Flowers

12 mm. long, dark red; bracts subulate. Calyx 5.5 cm. long, tube 2.5 mm.,

segments 8 mm., setaceous. Standard ellipsoid, retuse at apex, 11 mm. long,

claw very short. Wings narrowly linear, obtuse at the apex. Keel obtuse,

auricled at the base, 8 mm. long, as long as the wings. Unripe pod hispid,

bilocular. Seeds 20. °

Locality: N. Waziristan: Below Spinwam Fort, bank of Kaitu River in

orassland, 2,600 ft. (Blatter & Fernandez 754, type); near Miranshah, bed

of Chasmai River, on gravel and sand, 3,100 ft. (Blatter & Fernandez 261,

cotype).

Flowers and Fruit: 2-4-30 (Spinwam); 23-38-80 (Miranshah).

Argyrolobium purpurascens Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; affinis A.

trigonelloidi Jaub. et Spach, a quo distinguitur colore purpurascenti, stipulis

minimis subulatis, foliolis obovato-rotundatis latioribus quam latis, ca. 8 mm.

longis et 10 mm. latis, labio calycis inferiore per tertiam partem trifido, legu-

mine longiore et latiore, colore corollae.

Tota planta, excepta corolla, albo-strigosa, purpurascens. Caules permulti,

ramosi, flexuosi, procumbentes, ad 20 cm. longi. Stipulae minimae subulatae.

Folia 3-foliolata, carnosa, 2 em. longa. Foliola abovato-rotundata, obtusa vel

emarginata, apiculata, basi retusa, subsessilia, latiora quam longa, ca. 8 mm.

longa et 10 mm. lata, lateralia valde obliqua. Pedunculi oppositifolii, folio

aequilongi vel eo sublongiores, 2-5-flori. Flores breviter racemosi capitati, ad

7 mm. longi. Pedicelli 1-1.5 mm. longi. Calyx bilabiatus, fere ad basin

bipartitus, 5.5 mm. longus, tubus 1.5 mm. longus, segmenta labii

superioris fere ad divisionem calycis bilabiati partita, lanceolata, integra, labium

inferius per quartam partem tridentatum, dentes triangulares, acuti. Corolla

paullum exserta. Vexillum extus carneum, intus magis pallidum. Alae

flavidae. Carina viridis. Legumina oblonga-linearia, compressa, ad 23 mm,

NEW PLANTS FROM WAZIRISTAN 481

longa et 3 mm. lata, recta vel arcuata, inter semina leviter constricta,

breviter rostrata, appresse strigosa, sutura superior valida. Semina 5-6, magna,

glabra, laevia, subglobosa, compressa, brunnea.

The whole plant, excepting the corolla, a eeeHGoRee with a purplish hue.

Stems many, branching, flexuose, procumbent, up to 20 cm. long. Stipules,

minute, subulate. Leaves 3-foliolate, fleshy, 2 cm. long. Leaflets obovate-

rotund, obtuse or emarginate, apiculate, retuse at the base, subsessile, broader

than long, about 8 mm. long and 10 mm. broad, lateral ones very oblique.

Peduncles opposite the leaves, as long as the leaf or slightly longer, 2-5-

flowered. Flowers shortly racemose, capitate, up to 7 mm. long. Pedicels 1-

1.5 mm. long, calyx bilabiate, bipartite nearly to the base, 5.5 mm. long, tube

1.5 mm. long, segments of upper lip divided almost to the division of the

bilabiate calyx, lanceolate, entire, lower lip tridentate for 4, teeth triangular,

acute. Corolla slightly exserted. Standard externally flesh-coloured, inside

paler. Wings yellowish. Keel greenish. Pods oblong-linear, compressed, up

tc 23 mm. long and 3 mm. broad, straight or curved, slightly constricted between

the seeds, shortly rostrate, appressedly strigose, upper suture well developed.

Seeds 5-6, large, glabrous, smooth, subglobose, compressed, brown.

Locality: N. Waziristan: Near Datta Khel Fort, Daryawasta Algad,

4,600 ft. (Blatter & Fernandez 1642, type).

Flowers and Fruit: 19-4-30.

Argyrolobium mucilagineum Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; affinis A.

strigoso Blatter a quo distinguitur pedunculis 3-floris, foliis maioribus utrimque

hirsutis, pedicellis multo longioribus, calyce fere ad basin bipartito labii dentibus

superioris integris, inferioribus vero late triangularibus, staminibus 9 in

tubum coalitis et uno libero, seminibus minutim foveolatis.

Herba perennis, dense et appresse albo-hirsuta, tota planta intus mucila-

ginea, contrita odorem edens offensivum. Caules elongati erecti et diffusi, ca.

20 em. longi, flexuosi, graciles, mujlti-ramosi, appresse hirsuti. Stipulae

lanceolato-acuminatae, hirsutissimae, ad 8 mm. longae, integrae. Folia ad

4.5 em. longa, 3-foliolata, glauca; petiolus 5 mm. longus, hirsutus. Foliola

obovato-retusa, apiculata, subsessilia, utrinque dense hirsuta, ad 1 cm. longa,

8 mm. lata, lateralia valde obliqua. Pedunculi oppositifolii, longi vel breves,

ad 4 cm. longi, generatim folio aequilongi, 3-flori. Flores carnei, ad 7 mm.

longi, breviter racemosi; pedicelli ad 4 mm. longi, hirsuti. Calyx fere at

basin bipartitus, bilabiatus, 4.5 mm. longus, labium superius fere ad _ divi-

sionem calycis bilabiati bipartitum, dentibus lanceolatis integris hirsutis,

labium vero inferius oblongum per tertiam partem tridentatum dentibus late

triangularibus acutis hirsutis. Corolla calyce longior. Vexillum late obovatum

basi ungulatum. Alae auriculatae. Stamina 9 in tubum coalita, unum

liberum. Legumen ca. 23 mm. longum, 2 mm. latum, anguste lineare,

compressum, inter semina constrictum, rectum, sericeo-strigosum, in rostrum

breve brunneum abiens. Semina 11, brunnea, minutim foveolata, globosa,

aliquantulum compressa. Indumentum faciei ventralis foliorum multum variat

(vide No. 657).

A perennial herb, densely and appressedly white-hirsute, the whole plant

inside mucilaginous, when crushed giving off an unpleasant smell. Stems

elongated, erect and diffuse, about 20 cm. high, flexuous, slender, much-

branched, appressedly hirsute. Stipules lanceolate-acuminate, very hirsute, up

to 3 mm. long. Leaves up to 2.5 cm. long, 3-foliolate, glaucous; petiole 5 mm.

long, hirsute. Leaflets obovate-retuse, apiculate, subsessile, on both sides

densely hirsute, up to 1 cm. long, 8 mm. broad, lateral ones very oblique.

Peduncles opposite the leaves, long or short, up to 4 cm. long, generally as

long as the leaf, 3-flowered. Flowers flesh-coloured, up to 7 mm. long, shortly

recemose; pedicels up to 4 mm. long, hirsute. Calyx nearly to the base

bipartite, bilabiate, 4.5 mm. long, upper lip bipartite almost to the division

of the bilabiate calyx, teeth lanceolate, entire, hirsute, lower lip oblong,

3-dentate for 4, teeth broadly triangular, acute, hirsute. Corolla longer than

the calyx. Standard broadly obovate, clawed at the base. Wings auricled.

Stamens 9, fused into a tube, one free. Pod about 23 mm. long, 2 mm. broad,

narrowly linear, compressed, constricted between the seeds, straight, silky-

strigose, ending in a short brown beak. Seeds 11, brown, minutely pitted

globose, slightly compressed,

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

Locality: N. Waziristan: Below Shewa Post, left bank of Volam River

4,150 ft. (Blatter and Fernandez, 870 type); HE. of Spinwam Fort, sandstone nala

4,656 ft. (Blatter and Fernandez 657).

Flowers and Fruit: 5-4-80 (Shewa Post); 1-4-30 (Spinwam),

Astragalus Fernandezianus Blatter, sp. nov, [Papilionaceae]; pertinens

ad Sectionem Myobromae Bunge affinis est A. citrino Bunge, sed differt ab

€0 _foliolis magnis paucijugis obovatis, floribus longe peduncalitis, multo

mailoribus, alis minoribus.

_Herba perennis, acaulis vel caulescens; tota, carina alisque exceptis,

hirsuto-tomentosa. Folia 2-5 cm. longa, imparipinnata, petiolus 1-3.5 cm.

longus. Fohola 1-4-juga late obovata, interdum subemarginata vel obscure

apiculata, basi cuneata, carnosa, terminale multo maior, 12 mm. longum et

latum, lateralia obliqua subsessilia. Stipulae triangulares acutae. Pedunculi

validi, rigidi, ca. 2 cm. longi, uniflori, ex foliorum axillis surgentes. Flores

flavi plus quam 2 cm. longi. Calyx subbilabiatus, basi gibbosus, 1.7 cm., tubus

1.2 cm. longus, segmenta dimidium tubum aequantia, lanceolata, duo

superiora paullum tribus inferioribus longiora. Vexillum late obovatum vel

fere rotundatum, tenuiter obcordatum, extus dense hirsutum, 3.3 cm. longum,

in parte latissima 2 cm. diam., unguis 1 cm. longus. Alae late spathulatae,

basi brevi auriculo munitae, 2.7 cm. longae, apice 8 mm. latae, ungues 1.7 cm.

longi. Carina 2.7 cm. longa, unguis 1.5 em. Legumen uniloculare, elongatum,

cylindricum, subcompressum, stipitatum, 5 cm. longum, 4 mm. latum

coriaceum, hirsuto-tomentosum, rostro longo basi hirsuto 1 cm. longo munitum.

Semina 8-9, brunnea, parenchymate spongioso circumdata, late reniformia, 2

mm. longa, 4 mm. lata.

A perennial herb, stemless or caulescent; the whole plant with the

exception of the wings and keel hirsute-tomentose. Leaves 2-5 cm. long,

imparipinnate, petiole 1-5.5 cm. long; leaflets 1-4 jugate, broadly obovate,

sometimes subemarginate or obtuse, apiculate, cuneate at the base, fleshy,

terminal one much larger, 12 mm. long and broad, the lateral ones oblique,

subbsessile. Stipules triangular, acute. Peduncles stout, rigid, about 2 cm.

long, 1-flowered, arising from the axils of the leaves. Flowers yellow, more

than 8 cm. long. Calyx subbilabiate, gibbous at the base, 1.7 cm. long,

tube 1.2 cm., segments half as long as the tube, lanceolate, the 2 upper ones

shghtly longer than the 3 lower ones. Standard broadly obovate or almost

rotundate, slightly obcordate, outside densely hirsute, 3.8 cm. long, 2 cm.

broad where broadest, claw 1 cm. long. Wings broadly spathulate, at the

base with a small auricle, 2.7 cm. long, at the apex 8 mm. broad, claw 1.7 cm.

long. Keel 2.7 em. long, claw 1.5 cm. Pod unilocular, elongate, cylindric,

subcompressed, coriaceous, stipitate, 5 cm. long, 4 mm. broad, hirsute-

tomentose, rostrum 1 cm. long, hirsute at the base. Seeds 8-9, brown,

embedded in spongy parenchyma, broad-reniform, 2 mm. long, 4 mm.

broad.

Vernacular name: Siringai (Waziri).

Locality: S. Waziristan: Razmak, 6,800 ft. (Fernandez 3278, type; 3113,

3174, 3279, cotypes).

N. Waziristan: Alexandra Picket, above Razani, 8,000 ft. (Blatter and

Tvernandez 1261).

Flowers and Fruit: 5-5-27 (Razmak); 14-4-30 (Alexandra Picket).

Indigofera acanthinocarpa Blatter, sp. nov. [Papilionaceae]; pertinens ad

subgenus Acanthonoti Benth. affinis est Indigoferae echinatae Willd. a qua

tamen distinguitur petiolis longioribus, stipulis late triangularibus acuminatis,

pedunculis 2-4 floris, calycis segmentis multo brevioribus, corolla longiore,

leguminis utraque facie 6 seriebus aculeorum hamatorum munita.

Suffrutex erectus. Caules numerosi, ramosi, striati, glabri, parte

inferiore rigidi, parte superiore graciles, 380 cm. alti. Folia simplicia, obovato-

rotundata, obtusa, interdum apiculata, basi subretusa vel rotundata, 11-15 mm.

longa, 11-18 mm. lata, uninervosa, subcarnosa, glauca, infra puberula, supra

glabra; petioli ad 4 mm. longi, hispidi, vahdi. Stipulae late triangulares,

acuminatae. Flores racemos axillares formantes; pedunculi graciles, hirsuti,

2-4-flori, dimidium folium attingentes, in fructu folium aequantes; pedicelli

1 mm. longi, hirsuti. Flores 7 mm. longi. Calyx 3.5 mm. longus strigosus,

tubus 1.5, segmenta 2 mm., subaequalia, lanceolata. Vexillum obovato-

NEW PLANTS FROM WAZIRISTAN 483

rotundum, 5.5 mm. longum, 5 mm. latum, venosum; carina recta, basi

auriculata. Stamina diadelphia; antherae uniformes apiculatae. Stylus

glaber, stigma capitatum. Legumen stipitatum, breviter oblongum, compressum,

stramineum, 56 mm. longum, 4 mm. latum; suturae ambae validissimae glabrae,

utraque facies 6 seriebus aculeorum fortium hamatorum munita et itner aculeos

hirsuta. Semen unicum, atro-brunneum, oblongum, lateraliter umbonatum.

An erect undershrub. Stems many, branching, striate, glabrous, rigid in the

lower part, slender and overhanging in the upper, 30 cm. high. Leaves simple,

obovate-rotund, obtuse, sometimes apiculate, retuse at the base or rounded,

11-15 mm. long, 11-18 mm. broad, one-nerved, somewhat fleshy, glaucous, puberu-

lous below, glabrous above; petioles up to 4 mm. long, stout, hispid. Stipules

broadly triangular, acuminate. Flowers forming axillary racemes; peduncles

slender hirsute, 2-4-flowered, as long as half the leaf, in fruit as long as the

leaf; pedicels 1 mm. long, hirsute. Flowers 7 mm. long. Calyx 3.5 mm. long,

strigose, tube 1.5, segments 2 mm., subequal, lanceolate. Standard obovate-

rotund, 5.5 mm. long, 5 mm. broad, venose; keel straight, spurred at the base

on each side. Stamens diadelphous; anthers uniform, apiculate. Style glabrous,

stigma capitate. Pod stipitate, shortly oblong, compressed, straw-coloured, 5 mm.

long, 4 mm. broad, both sutures very strong, glabrous, both sides provided with

6 rows of stout hooked spines, hirsute between the spines. Seed 1, blackish brown,

oblong, laterally umbonate.

Locality: 8. Waziristan: Dargai Post, open stony ground (Fernandez 4066,

type; 4075, cotype); 'Tenai Post, stony ground (Fernandez 4030).

Flowers and Fruit: 22-6-27. (Dargai Post).

Euphorbia helioscopioides Blatter, sp. nov. [Huphorbiaceae]; pertinens ad

Sectionem Tithymali Boiss. Affinis est HK. helioscopiae Linn. a qua distinguitur

caulibus basi tantum ramosis foliis minoribus sessilibus, umbellarum radiis

longis validis glabris, involucri glandulis transverse oblongis integris (non fim-

briatis).

Perennis, erecta vel ascendens glabra. Caules ad 50 cm. alti, crassi, virgati

basi tantum ramosi valde foliosi, tandem inferne denudati et indurati fere

fruticosi. Fola glabra, sparsa, obovato-cuneata vel late spanthulata, obtusa

interdum leviter emarginata, serrulata, sessilia, 2-2 cm. longa, 1-2 cm. lata,

membranacea. Umbellarum radii quini validi, ad 6 cm. longi, glabri, trifidi

dein bifidi. Folia umbellaria magna sessila, caeteris similia, 2.5-3.5 cm:

longa, ad 1.5 cm. lata, floraha minora, obovata vel subrotunda, umbellaribus

similia. Involucrum turbinatum, 2 mm. longum, 1 mm. diam., glandulae

transversaliter oblongae integrae, pedicellus 0.5 mm. longus. Capsula glabra,

laevis, depresse globosa, 2 mm. longa, 3 mm. lata, profunde trisulca, cocci

dorso rotundati. Semina ovoidea basi attenuata, minutim foveolata et insuper

elevatim favoso-reticulata, atro-brunnea.

An erect glabrous perennial herb. Stems up to 50 cm. high, stout, virgate,

branched only at the base, very leafy, finally denuded below and hardened,

almost shrubby. Leaves glabrous, scattered, obovate-cuneate or broadly

spatulate, obtuse, sometimes slightly emarginate, serrulate, sessile, 2-3 cm.

long, 1-2 cm. broad, membranous. Rays of umbels 5, stout, up to 6 cm. long,

glabrous, trifid and then bifid. Involucral leaves large, sessile, similar to the

stem-leaves, 2.5-3.5 cm. long, up to 2.8 cm. broad, floral leaves smaller,

obovate or almost round, similar to the involucral leaves. Involucre turbinate,

2mm. long, 1 mm. diam., glands transversely oblong, entire (not fimbriate) ;

pedicel @.5 mm. long. Capsule glabrous, smooth, depressed-globose, 2 mm.

long, 8 mm. diam., deeply sulcate, cocci rounded on the back. Seeds ovoid,

attenuate at the base, minutely pitted and besides elevately reticulate, dark

brown.

Locality: §S. Waziristan: Sararogha, 4,000 ft. (Fernandez 105, type;

105a, cotype).

Flowers and Fruit: 18-5-27.

Euphorbia pauciradiata Blatter, sp. nov. [Huphoriaceae]; pertinens ad

Sectionem Hsularum affinis est EH. Esulae Linn. sed distingui potest umbella-

tum radiis paucis generatim 38 indivisis, involucri lobis ciliatis, capsula

minime punctata vel obscure albo-punctata, caruncula orbiculari-cordata.

Perennis, glabra, glaucescens, 60 cm. alta. Caules fortes, demum indurati,

erecti, striati, virgati, ramulosi. Ramuli multi, speciatim in parte superiore,

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

4-10 cm. longi. Umbellarum radii generatim 3, interdum 1-2 vel 4, validi.

indivisi. Folia lineari-lanceolata, sessilia vel subsessilia, uninervia, integra, ad

1.5 cm. longa, ramorum sterilium linearia, multo longiora, ad 4 cm. longa,

1.5 mm. lata, basin versus attenuata, apice subacuta. Folia umbellarum

generatim 38, late lanceolata, interdum oblongo-obovata, uninerva, apice acuta,

sessilia, ad 15 mm. longa, 83 mm. lata. Folia floralia duo, rhombeo-ovata,

saepe irregulariter lobata, apice apiculata, transverse latiora, ca. 7 mm. longa,

‘mm. lata, sessilia, lbera. Involucrum campanulatum, lobi lati, breves,

truncati, fimbriati, ciliati, glandulae bicornutae, cornua dimidium basis diame-

trum attingentia. Capsula depresse ovata, profunde 3-sulca, 5 mm. longa,

6 mm. diam., laevis, minime punctata vel obscure albo-punctata. Semina

ovato-sphaerica, albido-grisea, 2.5 mm. longa, 2 mm. diam., caruncula orbi-

cularis, versus funiculum cordata, alba, sessilis.

A perennial, glabrous, glaucescent herb, 60 cm. high. Stem somewhat

stout, finally hardened, erect, striate, virgate, branching. Branchlets many,

especially in the upper part, 4-10 cm. long. Rays of umbel usually 3, some-

times 1-4 or 4, stout, undivided. Leaves linear-lanceolate, sessile or sub-

sessile, l-nerved, entire, up to 1.5 cm. long, those of the sterile branches linear,

much longer, up to 4 cm. long, 1.5 mm. broad, attentuate towards the base,

subacute at the apex. Involucral leaves usually 3, broadly lanceolate, some-

times oblong-obovate, l-nerved, acute at the apex, sessile, up to 15 mm. long,

3 mm. broad. Floral leaves 2, rhomboid-ovate, often irregularly lobed, apicu-

late at the apex, transversely broader, about 7 mm. long, 9 mm. broad, sessile,

free. Involucral campanulate, lobes broad, short, truncate, fimbriate, ciliate;

glands 2-horned, horns half the diameter of the base. Capsule depressed

ovate, deeply 8-sulcate, 5 mm. long, 6 mm. diam., smooth, not punctate at all

or obscurely white-punctate. Seeds ovate-spherical, whitish grey, 2.5 mm.

long. 2 mm. diam., caruncle orbicular, cordate towards the funicle, white,

sessile.

Locality: N. Waziristan: Miranshah, 3,150 ft. (Hernandez 981, type;

981la, cotype).

Flowers and Fruit: 18-4-27.

Vernacular name: Kharbita (Waziri).

REVIEWS.

LES OISHAUX DE L’INDOCHINE FRANCAISE par. J. Delacour ét

Pv. Jabouille. Exposition Coloniale Internationale, Paris, 1931.

We have to thank M. M. Delacour and Jabouille and also the Government of

French Indo-China for sending us a copy of this book on the birds of French

Indo-China produced in connection with the recent French Colonial Exhibition

at Paris. It is stated in the preface that the greater part of the expense of

publication has been borne by the Government of Indo-China and we may well

believe that share to have been substantial. In these hard times no publisher

would have taken the risk of, and few private individuals would have borne the

expense of, this fine work.

It consists of 4 volumes, each with roughly 850 pages. In volume I the

first 40 pages provide an Introduction and separate chapters on Nomenclature

and Classification, History, Geography, Synonymy and Bibliography and these

are followed by an account of the species and subspecies of birds which are found

in French Indo-China. The account of each species gives its description and

measurements, and the distribution, and is written in brief form so that the

book will serve as a handy text book to the traveller or colonist in Indo-China.

The genesis of the book was as follows. Some years back M. Delacour

decided to undertake the study of Indo-Chinese birds and associated with himself

in the work Mr. Jabouille who was, we understand, an official in Indo-China.

ive separate expeditions were undertaken to collect specimens between December

1923 and February 1930 and these resulted in the acquisition of 20,000 skins.

Amongst this wealth of material 125 species and subspecies were described as

new and 205 others were recorded for the first time from Indo-China. The

results of each expedition were recorded separately either in the French Reviews

or in the Ibis and the necessary systematic work and descriptions of new forms

were undertaken between each expedition. The present book may be regarded

as a summary of all that work and its presentation to the world in more popular

and accessible form. It is now to be hoped that naturalists settled for a longer

time in the country will feel inspired by this book to study the wealth of, bird

life in Indo-China and tell us more about it. The Far-east is so rich in bird life

and interesting for us that expedition after expedition is sent to the Indo-Malayan

countries to collect. The various museums of the world compete for what they

can get out of that gigantic bran-pie. But we fear that there is a tendency to

forget that the acquisition of skins and the naming of new forms is not the sole

end of Ornithology. The resulting papers are little but lists and somewhat

sterile discussions on nomenclature and racial systematics; and we long to learn

a little more of value—the wealth of reasons behind the wealth of form and

colour. It is not all meaningless and the world is slowly growing impatient of

an Ornithology that throws away the bird and keeps its skin.

The authors and others whose names are cited in the introductory chapters

have nearly completed the initial spade work on the birds of Indo-China. They

have told us much of what is there and given a rough outline of the distribution.

Now the time is come to study the avifauna in detail and we hope that in the

years to come M. Delacour will again put us in his debt by filling in some of the

details of the picture he has so ably indicated.

There are 67 coloured plates by Mr. Gronvold which sustain the usual high

level of his work and add most materially to the beauty of the book. These

help to bring home to the Indian Ornithologist the close connection between the

avifauna of India and that of the Malays and Indo-China; and they may serve

to remind him that the worker at Indian birds will find some of the answers to

his Indian problems in those countries.

THE NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE by HE. C.

Stuart Baker, c.1.E., 0.B.E., F.z.S., etc. Vol. I. Corvidae-Cinclidae. (Taylor and

Francis. 30/-).

Members of the Bombay Natural History Society, and bird lovers in general,

will welcome the latest addition to the bird lore of India from the pen of the

greatest living authority on the subject.

As the author himself remarks in the Introduction, it is just over hal

f a

century 2go that he commenced the formation of his unrivalled collection of eggs

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

of the birds of the Indian Empire which is now in process of being handed over

as a gift to the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, and which will

in due course be available for study.

During this period, his own collection, as he tells us, ‘has been formed by

a very careful selection from over 200, 000 eggs, seen either in situ or brought

in, together with bird and nest, by my own trained collectors.’ In addition.

Mr. Baker’ s collection has been enchanced by the complete collections of some

twenty-five other workers in the field of Indian Ornithology, together with a

very large number of individual clutches obtained as opportunity offered.

With this wealth of material at his command, it was only to be expected that

such a gifted writer as Mr. Baker would give us something far in advance of

anything that has hitherto been published regarding the breeding habits of Indian

birds, and the expectation is more than fulfilled.

The work under review follows closely upon the completion of the revised

volumes on birds in the Fauna of British India series by the same author, and

deals with the nidification of nine families of Passerine birds, namely the

Corvidae (Crow family), Paridae, (Titmice), Paradoxornithidae (Parrot-bills or

Crow-Tits), Sittidae (Nuthatches), Timaluidae (Babblers and Laughing Thrushes),

Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls), Certhidae (Tree Creepers), Troglodytidae (Wrens), and

Cinclidae (Dippers).

It thus covers the whole of birds contained in Volume I of the Fauna,

with the addition of the Dippers, which together with a few races recognised

since the first volume of the Fauna was published, number 494, and it is a

remarkable tribute to Mr. Stuart Baker’s zeal that notes upon the breeding

habits, in most cases amounting to fairly complete descriptions, of no less ube

408 species and subspecies, are ‘recorded in this volume, or approximately 82 per

cent of the species mentioned in the Fauna.

This in itself is indicative of the great advance which has been made in our

knowledge since the publication of the last standard work on the subject, the

second edition of Hume’s Nests and Hygs in 1889, by Oates. In that work,

for the same families that are here dealt with, only in the case of about 48 per

cent was anything at all recorded about nidification, and in many cases the

information was extremely meagre and frequently insufficiently authenticated.

It is also indicative of the vastly increased interest taken in Ornithology

since the first impetus was given by Hume, for even such an indefatigable

worker as Mr. Stuart -Baker could not have compiled this information but for

the assistance of a very large number of field workers, to all of whom a most

graceful acknowledgment is made.

As might reasonably be expected, considering that the authorship of both

works is identical, the nomenclature in the present volume follows that adopted

in the Fauna, the only alterations being where the author has seen reason to

make a change, as explained, on the rare occasions where this has been neces-

sary, and an additional advantage is the adoption of the same serial numbers

in both works.

Thus opening both books at random, No. 144 will be found to be Ianthocincla

rufogularis assamenis, but whereas in the Fauna the trivial name is given

as Hartert’s Laughing Thrush in the present volume it is called the Assam

Rufous-chinned Laughing Thrush.

In his introductory note the author explains his reasons for this. He has

entirely dropped the use of surnames of people, however eminent, as trivial

names, for the reason that these are usually merely complimentary, and has

selected some specific character, e.g. ‘rufous-chinned’ in the above instance, which

separates the bird from its nearest ally, with the addition of a word indicating

the geographical distribution.

As a pioneer in India of the trinomial system of scientific nomenclature,

some such break from tradition was to be anticipated from the author, and

although some of our old friends at first sight may appear strangers under their

new names, one has only to become accustomed to the new method to hail it

as a considerable advance upon the old.

In dealing with each bird, the author has endeavoured, so far as available .

information permitted, to give the complete breeding area, nature and elevation

of the country where breeding takes place, description of the nest and nesting site,

number of eggs in a full clutch, and finally a description of the eggs, with their

variations and measurements. Students will agree that he has been extraordi-

narily successful, but Mr. Stuart Baker himself puts forward a plea for far more’

RHVIEWS 487

information about the nature of the country and elevation where the birds are

found breeding, and appeals for assistance from present day field workers.

Mr. Stuart Baker has also seen fit to put in an apologia for the egg collector,

and in so doing quite correctly states that we are all collectors first and Zoologists

later. He also points out, again quite correctly, that the robbing of a nest

simply stimulates the reproductive instinct, and that the birds set to work and

lay again.

When working with the late Col. Harington at Maymyo, I well remember him

telling me that from statistics which he had recorded he estimated casualties from

natural causes as high as 75 per cent. If this is so, the eggs taken by collectors

can only form a negligible fraction of the toll taken by the birds’ natural enemies,

or by storms ete. Personally I had no more compunction in taking the eggs of

wild birds than I had in taking those of the domestic hen. Hven in this country,

where the robbing of certain nests is positively criminal, one hears no complaint

of the annual collection, for human consumpion, of Gull’s eggs. What harm,

then, can the collector do to the teeming millions of bird life in the Indian

Jungles ?

Having read the book through with extreme care, I can safely say that the

information 1s extraordinarily accurate.

There appears to be a slight error regarding the breeding area of the Jays

G. leucotis leucotis and G. leucotis oatesi. Both are hill birds, and neither are

found around Monywa, a town in the dry zone of Burma situated in the plains

and not very far from Mandalay.

I have only detected one printing error, Turdus somervillei being an obvious

misprint for Turdoides, and a few misspellings of Burmese place names, e.g.

Saquing for Sagaing, due probably to the handwriting of the recorder being

illegible.

Such small faults can easily be rectified in the subsequent editions of the

work, and for a book of this kind they are amazingly few.

The printing 1s extremely clear and easy to read, a great advantage to those

who will be using it in camp by indifferent artificial light, and not the least

attractive feature of the book is found in the eight beautiful plates which are

included.

To sum up, Mr. Stuart Baker has once again achieved complete success, and

the subsequent volumes will be eagerly awaited.

(Cg TEL,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I.—HOW DOES A TIGER MAKE A ‘KILL’?

It is not often that one has the good fortune to witness a tiger

in the act of making a ‘kill’. An account of an example of this

procedure as far as it was allowed to go may therefore be of some

interest. |

It was the third night that either my brother or myself had sat

up in that particular place. The first night it was over a ‘kill’ that

had been made by a tigress—she came not: the second, over a

live ‘boda’ which nothing molested during the hours of darkness:

and the third, over the same animal which a wandering tiger hap-

pened to encounter at 3.80 a.m.

I was asleep in the machan at the time, wrapped up in a blanket,

for it was quite chilly: the night was very dark and still, with

clouds hanging about overhead and no moon.

Suddenly a choking bellow from the ‘boda’ roused me—at once

tensely alert and in full possession of all my faculties—to instant

action. No time was lost in aligning the rifle and switching on the

torch. Its light revealed the muscular form of a large tiger dealing

with the half-grown buffalo about 25 yards from the foot of my —

whee,

The tethered ‘boda’ was lying on its left side stretched out, its

neck pinned to the ground by the tiger’s forearms, one paw behind

the right ear and the other further down where, in due course, the

yoke would go. Its throat was held in a vice-like grip between the

tiger’s teeth. The tiger’s weight was all on his crouching forearm,

his hind-legs standing normally with his rump up and tail swishing

in the air above it. Had there been some moonlight I would have

allowed the tiger to complete this most interesting operation. I

was expecting any moment to see him work himself on to the

‘boda’s’ body and, holding it down with his weight, jerk its head

round and so snap the neck. As it was, however, he looked up

at my light and might have taken fright at any moment. It wasn't

worth risking the loss of him, so, taking careful aim at the junction

of his neck and shoulder, I fired.

When the reverberations of the rifle shot had ceased and the

smoke cleared away I was amazed to see the situation to all intents

and purposes reversed. It was really most amusing. The tiger

was lying in exactly the same place but had rolled over on his side,

and the ‘boda’, once again on his feet and still tethered, had his

head down and was making repeated attacks on the tiger’s corpse.

Fortunately he could only just reach it with his forehead and was

unable to inflict any damage.

When it got light I took a photograph which shows both parties

exactly as they were without being moved. In it the ‘boda’ looks

as though nothing had happened to it; its throat, however, was

badly bitten through, and already the scratches on its neck were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 489)

Swollen and going septic, so I bumped the poor creature off. Inci-

dentally there were a number of scratches on its buttocks and

back showing that the tiger had sprung on it from behind, and

probably borne it to the ground before it realized the presence of

any danger whatsoever.

ee a we were not able to reproduce the photo.

—KEps.].

ZIARAT, : a eee Vie AVM Be

BALUCHISTAN. Lieut.,

October 2, 1982. Hodson’s Horse.

IJ.— PANTHERS OF THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER.

Some inquiries I recently made regarding the Panthers of the

north-west Frontier of India yielded results as interesting to me as

I trust they may be to readers of this Journal.

At the end of August, in reply to a request for particulars of

a skin he reported having seen in Gilgit, Major W. R. F. Trevelyan

wrote as follows:—

‘I enclose two photographs showing the panther killed in

Tangir and in possession of the Political Agent, Major Gillan, com-

pared with one of the two Snow-Leopards’ skins which I sent to

you in June. I imagine you will be able to decide from these that

the skin is of the Indian type rather than the Persian. I must

emphasize, however, that it does not occur in this district (Gilgit)

and does not seem to be very common in Davel and Tangir. Its

limit of distribution is certainly the Indus-Gilgit River watershed

and it does not extend to Chilas on the Indus’.

It is not possible, of course, to determine the precise tint of

this panther; but, as Major Trevelyan says, it is obviously of the

normal Indian type, although it seems to have a better coat and

a bolder pattern than any of the few Kashmir skins which I des-

cribed in my paper upon the Panthers of Asia. |

Very little, however, is known about the panthers of that

country which is the limit of the range of the Indian race in the

north-west. Properly localised skins from anywhere in Kashmir

and especially from the area mentioned by Major Trevelyan, would

be valuable additions to the collection in the British Museum.

Last year I reported in this Journal the occurrence at Sambaya,

in Baluchistan, of the typical Persian panther which in colour and

length of coat recalls the Snow-Leopard. Through the kind offices

of the Bombay Natural History Society the skin upon which this in-

formation was based was generously presented to the British

Museum by Mr. A. H. K. Sangster. For evidence of the existence

of another race of Panthers in Southern Waziristan, I am indebted

to Captain D. G. Lowndes who recently sent me a skin, kindly

forwarded by the Society, which he procured for the British

Museum from the Political Agent of South Waziristan. In. his

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

covering letter, Captain Lowndes says the animal was killed some-

where near Wana and is, in his opinion, ‘Just an ordinary panther,

not a bit like those from the higher hills near here (Razmak)

which I am told are grey, almost like a Snow-Leopard.’

The skin is of great interest. It is not lke the skin of any

ordinary Indian panther that I have seen, but belongs, I have no

doubt, to the race, hitherto known only from the Kirthar Range,

Sind, which I described on the evidence of a single skin as Panthera

pardus sindica. Even Blanford, it may be recalled, perceived that

this skin represents a variety distinct from the typical Indian

panther. It is nearly as bright in hue but has a thick, rather

harsh, woolly coat and the pattern is more open, the rosettes being

well-spaced, with comparatively thin rims and, on the average,

more regular in shape. This type of pattern is emphasised in the

skin from South Waziristan; but this skin differs noticeably from

the skin from the Kurthar Range in two particulars; the general

tint is a dull sandy buff, not nearly so rich and ochreous as in the

other, and the coat is quite short and sleek. These differences

are no doubt seasonal, the Kirthar Range skin being in winter

coat and the southern Waziristan skin in summer coat. The

interest of this skin is. two-fold. Not only is it the second known

skin of this race of panther, but it shows, in addition, the marked

seasonal difference in coat and colour in the race and attests the

extension of its range considerably further north than was pre-

viously suspeeted.

One more point. It is tolerably certain that the lon entered

India from Persia by way of Sind; and being interested to learn if

the Sind panther came east of the Kirthar Range, I wrote to

Colonel A. H. Mosse for information about the panthers of Gujerat

and Kathiawar. In answer he very generously presented some

specimens from these districts. One from Bhavnagar, Kathiawar,

is a particularly handsome, richly tinted, skin with the centre of

the large rosettes unusually dark. Another from: Gir’ is a good

deal paler, with normal rosettes and a third from Mahi Kantha,

N-: Gujerat, is dark tinted hike the Bhavnagar specimen, but small

in the spots. These panthers belong unmistakably to the normal

Indian form.

British Musnum (Natura History), Raley POCOCK€

Lonpon. .

November 17, 1932.

Uil.—JACKAL ATTACKING GOAT.

On the 7th of this month I was sitting up over a live goat

which had been tied up near the scanty remains of a natural kill

made by a panther two nights before. The panther had not come

down to its kill by daylight the previous evening, though I had

seen it lying out on the rocks, out of range of my parados, towards

sun-down, but, I hoped the bleating of ‘the goat would ee it

down. earlier_on this occasion.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 491

We had not been long in our hiding place when a village ‘pi’

came to have a chew at the kill. Soon afterwards we noticed a

couple of jackal sneaking round but not daring to come too close

whilst the ‘pi’ was in possession. When the sun began to get low

the ‘pi’, evidently thinking the place somewhat unhealthy, cleared

out and the jackals sneaked up closer but were sent scurrying off

by a pebble lobbed from our hide.

Two or three times we drove them off in this way and then as

the light faded I forgot them for a few minutes whilst I scoured

the rocks with my glasses, seeking, in vain, for a view of the

panther.

A sudden gasp from my shikari, followed by the sound of a

scurry below, drew my attention back to the goat with a jerk.

It was standing in an attitude of defence, but, for a moment,

I could not see its assailant which, I had no doubt, was the panther.

As I stared the attack was launched again—by a jackal, which leapt

for the goat’s throat only to be shaken off. Not to be deterred, the

jackal leapt again and, this time, made good its hold and threw

the goat to the ground where it lay kicking and struggling, but

plainly unable to free itself from the jackal’s strangle-hold.

For a few seconds we were both too stupefied to act, then I

realized that if something were not done quickly the goat would be

killed and told the shikari to throw a stone. This was done and

the jackal let go and fled at once. 3

It should be noted that it was not dark and the jackal had not

taken the goat by surprise nor was the goat hampered by a short

tether. The goat was fully twice the size of the jackal and the

latter’s alstecle was entirely single-handed.

The goat was not much the worse for its mauling though it had

a stiff neck for several days.

1B3,15}5 Gy (Only JEDOSZ, R. M. SIMMONS,

Abu Roan. 2 District Traffic Superintendent.

June 20, 1932:

ITV.—WILD DOGS.

Writing in the Journal of the Society for the Preservation of

the Fauna of the Kmpire (New Series, Part XVI), Mr. A. G.. W.

Milroy, Conservator of Forests, Assam, mentions a possibility of

there being two kinds of Wild Dogs in Assam, a larger species

hunting in pairs and a smaller type hunting in packs.

I recollect. having also previously seen notes on the reported

occurrence of a large and small species in the Moyar Valley and

at the foot of the northern slopes of the Nilgiris.

I have never seen a Wild Dog with a ‘short thick’ tail as des-

cribed by Mr. Milroy, Wild Dogs T have seen both large and small

have always carried a definite brush.

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

IT have noticed, however, that Wild Dogs often hunt in pairs,

and these appear to be considerably larger than even the leaders

of dogs hunting in packs.

The younger dogs in packs seem to carry a more foxy-looking

head than the more mature members, later in life developing into

a more bull-terrier type.

I think that the instance of large Wild Dogs hunting in pairs

is on a parallel with other species of animals usually gregarious

by nature not excluding elephant, bison and sambhur, large fine

male specimens often being found to wander in pairs.

HonnaAMETTI ESTATE, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS, F.z.s.

ACETTIKAN) Je Ok

Via Mysore,

S. Dnpia.

September 21, 1932.

V.— WHITE’ BISON.

On October the llth. I set out in company with Mr. L. Dee

of Coimbatore for an area in the South Coimbatore jungles where

‘white’ bison were said to occur.

We spent the first night at the Chinnar (Travancore) Rest

House at the foot of the Munnar Ghat. The following morning

we crossed the Pambar river and camped in a forest hut at the

Polliya village of Talanji as a ‘white’ solitary bull was said to have

been seen near there. We searched the jungle that evening within

a few miles without result, and the following morning camp was

shifted again to a large cave on the banks of a ravine east of the

Taenar river. This river was in partial flood, and it was no easy

inatter fording it. It was soon obvious that most of the bison were

east of the Taenar. The jungle was perfect for bison stalking,

open park-like country, That evening I saw a herd of bison but

nothing unusual except that a few of the cows were decidedly

lighter in colour than the general run of bison I have seen else-

where. I also saw a small herd of 5 chital and two sambhur hinds.

Next morning we had better luck. We came on a large herd of

65 bison (possibly two herds grazing together) and among them I

saw my first ‘white’ bison, and its appearance was certainly quite

extraordinary, its colour being sandy or lght fawn, with horns

pink at the base and yellowy white in the upper portions, a good

sized bull. I was unfortunately unable to take a photo of the

same as the herd got our wind and went off, and remained on the

qui vive for the rest of the day. On the following day, however,

I saw another herd with a ‘white’ cow of exactly the same type,

‘and in the afternoon a herd with a ‘white’ cow and a calf. The

Polliyars were very emphatic that a large ‘white’ solitary bull

existed in those parts, and was well known by them, and I have

no reason to doubt this.

I could only spare five days, and I was therefore unable to cover

the country to the extent I would have wished to. I managed,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493

however, to get as far as Manjampatti in the Madura District, and

I understand that ‘white’ bison occur here, also further east in

the Kukkal Block, in fact they have been seen in these localities

by Messrs. J. L. H. Williams and E. E. Ranicar of the Ana-

mallais, to whom I am indebted for much valuable information

on the subject.

I came on a large salt-lick which the bison were obviously very

fond .of. The banks of the salt-lick had been for the most part

licked smooth by their tongues. 1 took samples of the earth and

am forwarding you one of the samples, and shall be obliged if you

could have the same analysed in the Haffkine Institute.

I have requested the Collector of Coimbatore to urge Govern-

ment to take immediate steps to have these ‘white’ bison protected.

A feature of these jungles is the extraordinary number of

Dolmans, some in an excellent state of preservation. One of the

upper slabs of rock measured 124 ft. x 74 ft. and was 4 ins. thick.

As in other places a considerable area of cultivation had been

abandoned at Talanji, the result of continual depredations of ele-

phants. We came on two elephants, and there was another herd

near by. I should say those jungles hold very few deer, which is

not surprising as I saw more than one poachers’ hide over water.

I saw no signs of bear, and was informed by the Polliyars that

they did not occur in those parts, which if true is curious. Along

the Taenar there were signs of old irrigation works, including a

channel wall. Some of the stones used in its construction are

enormous. Square holes had also been worked into the slab rocks

bordering the Taenar and Pambar rivers, the first where the irri-

gation wall originally took off and the latter I think in connection

with a bridge; iron supports were probably embedded in these.

I hope to be able to pay another visit to the ‘white’ bison

country some time next year, probably entering from the Pulneys

side.

HONNAMETTI Estate, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS, F.z.s.

ATTIKAN P. O.,

Via Mysore,

S. InpIia.

October 22, 1982.

[The Government of Madras have recently issued orders

forbidding the shooting of White Bison in the districts where they

occur. Similar orders have been issued by the Travancore Govern-

ment.—Eps. |

VI.—AGE OF BISON.

I am reliably informed that a bison head has been picked up

in Tinnevelly (the skeleton was intact) with 381 corrugations in a

depth of 15 inches. It must have been a very old bull and exactly

what its age was at the time of its death must be I suppose purely

a matter of speculation. On the basis of a year to each corru-

gation the bison would have been 31 years old at the time of its

death, but would a bison live to this age? |

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

I doubt anyhow if it could have been older than a bison that

was shot recently in these parts with one horn worn down to a

stump, deaf, partly blind and with most of its teeth missing. This

bull had nine corrugations, and I put its age down to between 20

and 25 years.

1 believe that in the case of domestic cattle one way of telling

the age is by giving a year. for each ring on the horn, and then

adding two. This could not possibly apply to the Tinnevelly bison!

It would be interesting I think to collect opinions as to the

average life of a bison.

HonnaMetTrTi Estate, RANDOLPH C. MORRIS, F.z.s.

ATTIKAN P. O.

Via Mysore,

S. Inpia.

June 19, 1982.

VIT.—ELEPHANTS.—AGE TO WHICH THEY LIVE IN

(Cua ZIV IOI.

There are in the possession of the Madras Forest Department

78 elephants of over twenty years of age.

; Be |

How obtained 3 e E &

Name and sex S ah 5 “4-H

S of elephant ee 2 | 5 & a

qi S iS fe £ ran be ee

Ran 2, = ao

z é So eee ee

a uf < 4

1 |Lalamiah, M. | Mar. 1891} 54 | 4lyrs

2 |Abudl Rahman, M. | Jyjoye, INO 47 | $2

3. | Senvioaren, 1m 14-5-1912} 45 20

ie ADH, IE 1885 me 56 47

5 |Hanuman, M. 19-2-1905| 42 27]

6 |Rolly, M. 18-4-1916| 30 16

7 || Fewer, 18, 14-3-1896| 48 36

ey (i eslkeaslonuls: aN 6-4-1900} 42 32

@ Playing, 13" ; | 12-8-1904| 35 i,

10 |Looly, M. ; 25-7-1907| 30 24

UL | AKloaie <I, ML, 22-21 888 | Rie 44 | 44

12 eitonay Ive 3-6-1907; 31 | 24

1Q. | elesiivy, IMC | 4-3-1917; 30 15

14 |Kmpress, F. 21-2-1910; 44 22

1S. [deen Je, 23-8-1926!| 30 5

HO Meineniayan, | J. silay's: 9-4-1913} 30 17

17 (Murree, M. 20-3-1905!| 30 1

18 |Valmiki, M. ]2-5-1914;} 32 | 18

19 |Little Willy, M. 25-5-1915| 25 7)

20 |Mur Mahal, F. 25-2-1898| 42 °| 34

2i |Jhellum, F. 27-6-1902| 37 29

22 \ltooree yt Apr. 1890| 54 32

23 |Frank, M. 18-10-1906} 43 25

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 495

NS cotarlaaes

How obtained |B i oe ts

[shay dee Seep

Name and sex z ae ae

S of elephant a 3 Iipeen 7 bi, Soe

A a = esterase eee arcs

A £ 2 Bate alan SPS

e 2 Se Se a

24 |Logo, M. 19 -6-1905| 29 | 26

25 |Narayana, M. | 13--3-1919| 32 13

296 |Donald, M. | 27-1-1907| 35 | 25

97 |Theebaw, M. | Jan. 1886) 54--| 46

93 |Kurokki, M. 19-2-1905) 35 Bah

299 |Godavery, F. 12-3-1915| 47 | 17

39 | Kuttiparu, F. 25-8-1907| 30 | 24

3] |Monlabaksh, M. p CVO Bits 2

39 | Kitty, F. | 30-7-1903) 33 | 28

33 |Padmini, F. 10-4-1930| 29 2

34 |Ramzanbi, I. 23-2-)928,) 22 “| 4

35 |Ganga, F. =o IN|) Zila alae

36 |Shanker, M. | 19-1-1916| 26 6

37 |Horatius, M. 1 DESSIONS | e} 118}

3g |Forester, M. 5-3-1906), 33-1) 20

39 |Kamatchi, F. 10-4-19!4| 36 | 18

49 |Meenakshi, F. 9-3-1889 fa 43 | 43

4] |Wibera, F. 9-3-1909} 39 | 23

42 |Mallathi, F. AS=S=I AS B50 Se

43 |Emily, F. 22-6-1899| 52 | 32

44, \Jualitha, FF. le 2—S OS SO. hed

45 |Kunthi, F. 2-3-1931) 31 1

46 |Ganapathi, M. 4-4-1931| 32 1

47 |Thamburatty, F. 6-2-1913} 31 19

48 |Chickaluxmi, F. 27-5-1927| 45 5

49 |Mehra, F. 27-2-1929| 28 3

50 |Girja, F. 5-5-1928 -49 4

51 |Bakerali, M. IMESaNS VO Sa Za

52 | Diwan, M. | SHES =I2G | BP

53 | Hisie, F. 31-5-1907| 46 | 25

54 |Chandramathi, F. Z2-2-1927 | 50) | 5

55 |Masthi, M 28-2 ANOVA 27) 15

56 |Janaki, F. 11-3-1923|- 23- | 9

57 |Sirdhar, M. 7-8-1906 | 30 | ZS)

58 |Krishna, M. 31-3-1916| 31 | 16

59 | Bessie, F. 3-7-1899 a BAG he So

60 |Kah, F. ONO Soe leslie

61 |Droupadi, F. 20-1-1925| 27 | 7

62 |Ranger, M. NJS IVS || gh. 4) 4d

63 |Narasimhan, M. SN BS 85)

64 |Suguna, F. 9-12-1927; 34 | 4

65 |Ceasar, M. 12-2-1910| 32 |- 22

66 |Peri, F. 11-4-1889| 67 | 42

67 |Chamundy, F. 1893 eae 39 239k

68 | Devamayi, F. 14-5-1926 ies Sat ®

69 |Rukmani, F. 22-5-1926| -24 -| 6

70 |Chambagom, F. 9-4-1918} 28 14

71 |Maharani, F. 27-5-1926| 36 | 5

72 \tsabella, F. Feb. 1898} 52 | 34

73 |Countess, F. 6-6-1910} 44 | 21

74 |Mothima, F. 14-5-1926 se 23 | 6

75 |Emperor, M. | 6-3=1909 | 35 | 23

TAS AHS AL 2-3-1917} 32 | 15

77. |Nethravathi, F. |. 21=2—1905|| 32. | 27

78 |Sutiej, F. I 272-1902)" 4 9530

‘

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI

2. Summary.

Ho = co) x ) = ® A fo) |

re es

Division oa eas ne ae atl &

oO o y

Bee | ene | 5261 Sac Mea | os

S. Coimbatore see “ie 2 7 7 whe 16

Nilambur soe ce Z 3 9 4 18

Nilgiris Ba 2 3 5)

Wynaad she ie 2 4 13 6 25

N. Mangalore fe 1 ae 3 1 SS)

S. Mangalore 1 2 4 2 9

Total... il 7 16 38 16 78

The majority of the elephants beimg young ones, below thirty

years of age, no useful estimate regarding the average period of

captivity nor the age to which an elephant lives in captivity can

be made. ‘The oldest, ‘Peri’, age 67, was captured in 1889, when

she was 15 years old, and has a record of 42 years’ service, whereas

‘Eva’ age 56, of the South Coimbatore Division, purchased in 1885,

when she was 9 years old, has a longer record of 47 years. Simi-

larly “Theebaw’, age 54, of the Nilambur Division, captured in

1886, when he was 8 years old, has a record of 46 years; while

‘Akbar’ born in 1888, of the South Coimbatore Division, has

remained with the Department throughout the past 44 years.

According to the Inspector of Livestock, elephant ‘Peri’,

mentioned above, is the oldest that has ever been in the Depart-

ment. Elephants are reported to have lived for over ninety years

in the Mysore Palace. This is attributed to the fact that they

are maintained solely for ceremonial purposes. Mr. F. X.

Mascarenhas, retired Inspector of Livestock, states, however, that

an elephant named Noor Jehan lived to an age of ninety years in

the Wynaad Division, and that another named Parvathi was given

to the Madras Zoo when she was ninety years old. He mentions

also that he had to deal with an elephant named Dodda Laximi

and that she was then nearing 120 years. But there is unfor-

tunately no definite record.

There recently appeared, but the source is forgotten, some

fabulous story of elephants in Ceylon passing from the Portuguese

to the Dutch and so to the British—some very great age was

mentioned.

Maprasg, lite JD. IRIUCISUMTONTD Gute. 309-8,

September 380, 1982. Chief Conservator of Forests,

. | Madras.

VITI.—ELEPHANTS EATING EARTH.

It is curious how elephants seem to go in for eating earth