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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXVII

NOS. 3 & 4

Price .... 7v^. 2 -4 -a

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1935

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of theses two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound : —

Title page

Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. XXXVII

List of Contributors

List of Plates ...

Index to Illustrations

Errata

Index to Species

To follow frontis-

piece in this order.

To go at the end of

two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

P. M D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., J.P.

& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XXXVII

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 6 Coloured Plates, 63 Black and White Plates,

35 Text-figures, 6 Diagrams and a Map.

Dates of Publication

Part III. (Pages 513 to 748) ... I5th December, 1934.

„ IV. ( „ 749 to 967) ... 15th April, 1935.

LONDON AGENTS

DULAU & CO., Ltd., 2, Stafford Street, London, W.L

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1935

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV 11.

No. 3

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Trees. By the late Rev. E. Blatter,

S.J., ph.D., f.l.s., and W. S. Millard, f.z.s. Part XVI.

( With one coloured and one black and white plates and two

t ex t-figu res ) 513

The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats.

(Ornithological Section). By H. Whistler, m.b.o.u., assist-

ed by N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u. Part IX 515

VIn Ambush for Bison. By E. H. Peacock. ( With three black

and white plates') 529

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. By

the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.J., ph.D., f.l.s. ( With 4-

plates arid 1 text photo) 532

The Long-tailed Duck. By E. C. Stuart Baker, c.i.e.,

f.z.s. , f.l.s., m.b.o.u., h.f.a.o.u. {With one coloured plate). 549

Indian Dragonflies. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s.

Part XLII. {With 2 plates and 3 text-fi gures) 553

Tiger Shooting in Burma. By W. S. Thom. {With two

plates )..... 573

The Flora of Waziristan. By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.J.,

ph.D., f.l.s., and J. Fernandez. Part V. {With three plates) 604

The Indian Caddis Flies {Trie hop tera). By M. E. Mosely,

f.r.e.s. Part II. {With 8 text-figures) 620

Some Observations on the Genus on the Nil-

giri Hills, South India. By E. Barnes, b.sc. (Lond.).

{With two plates) 630

Wanderings of the Bombay-Duck {Harpodon nehereus ,

Ham. Buch.) in Indian Waters. By Sunder Lai Hora,

d.sc., f.r.s.e. , f.a.s.b. {With 8 text-figures) 640

Habits and Habitats of Food Fishes of the Punjab. By

M. H. Khan, m.sc., ll.b. {With one plate) 655

Notes on the Butterflies of Coorg. By Lt.-Col. W. M.

Logan Home 669

On the Birds Seen or Collected by Mr. H. St. J. Philey

during his Expedition to Cross the Rut at Khali.

By N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u 675

Observations on Ceratophyllum demersum , Linn. By C.

McCann, f.l.s. {With 2 plates and 2 text-figures) 681

iv

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX Vll

Page

Birds Observed at Fort Munro, Sul aim an Hills. By

H. W. Waite, m.b.o.u 688

Note on a Pyralid (Argyria fuscivenalis , Hmp.) Caterpillar-

pest of Crataeva religiosa , Forst. ( With 1 plate ) 694

Notes on some South Indian Syrphids. By M. C.

Cherian, b.a., b.sc., d.i.c 697

An Annotated List of Indo-Ceylonese Termites. By

V. Margabandhu, m.a.. 700

Reviews : —

I. The Nidification of the Birds of the Indian

Empire 715

II. Hunter’s Moon 716

Miscellaneous Notes : —

I. A Tailless Tiger. By R. C. Morris, f.z.s. ( With

a photo ) 719

II. ‘ Ratels and Corpses’. By A. A. Dunbar Brander. 719

III. Death of an Elephant {Elephas maximus, L.) while

Calfing. By R. C. Morris, f.z.s 722

IV. Death of 14 Elephants (. Elephas maximus, L.) by

Food Poisoning. By R. C. Morris, f.z.s 722

\JVL Social Behaviour of Bison (B. gaums , H. Sm.).

By J. Williams 724

VI. Growth and Shedding of Antlers in the Swamp

Deer (. Rucervus duvaucelli ) in Manipur State. By

C. Gimson 726

VII. Hoof Disease in the Muntjac (. Muntiacus muntjac).

By G. V. R. Frend 726

VIII. Nidification of the Travancore Laughing Thrush

(T. /. iairbaiiki , Blanf.) and the Black-headed

Babbler ( R . a. atriceps, Oates). By W. Bates.... 727

IX. The King-Crow ( D . m. peninsularis , Ticeh.) By

A. S. Thyagaraju, m.a 727

X. Notes on the habits of the Magpie-Robin (C. s.

saularis, K.). By B. Bonnell 729

XL The Nesting habits of the Small Sun-bird ( L .

minima,. Sykes). By K. K. Nayar, m.a 730

XII. Habits of the King Vulture (S. calvus , Scop.). By

The Editors 732

XIII. A note on the Appendages and Barbs on the wing

of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (H. chirurgus,

Scop.). By V. S. La Personne 733

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII v

Page

XIV. Occurrence of the Wood-Snipe ( Scolopax r. rusti-

cola , Linn.) in the Central Provinces. By

P. V. Chance 733

XV. A Further aid to differentiation between Swinhoe’s

Snipe (C. megala , Swinh.) and the Pintail Snipe

(C. stenura , Bonaparte). By V. S. La Personne. 734

XVI. Occurrence of the Purple Wood-Pigeon (A. puni-

ceus , Tickell) in Singhbum District, Bihar and

Orissa. By H. F. Mooney 735

XVII. The Dawn Carol of Birds. By S. C. Koul 736

XVIII. The Migration of Wild Fowl. The Society’s Bird-

Ringing Scheme. By The Editors 738

XIX. Angling of Crocodiles. By T. V. Subrahmaniam. 738

XX. Notes on the Indian Monitor ( V . monitor) and

Flying Lizard {Draco maculatus). By J.

Williams 739

XXL Notes on Indian Monitors in the United Provinces.

By. F. W. Champion 740

XXII. Occurrence of the Six -toed Frog ( R . hexadactyla ) in

the Bombay Presidency. By C. McCann 742

XXIII. Occurrence of Leith’s Frog (. R . leithii ) in Salsette

Island. By C. McCann 742

XXIV. Rat-Snakes and their Food Value. By T. V. Subrah-

maniam ....... 743

XXV. Effect on Mahseer of eating the fruit of the Kalaw

Tree ( Taraktogenos kurzii ) 743

XXVI. A Hunting Wasp attacking a Spider. By C. G.

Chevenix Trench 745

XXVII. Sound produced by Termites at Work. By A. S.

Thyagaraju, m.a 745

XXVIII. A Centipede killing a Mouse. By Capt. L. D. W.

Hearsey 746

Proceedings 747

No. 4

Some Beautiful Indian Trees. By the late E. Blatter, s.j.,

ph.D., f.l.s., and W. S. Millard, f.z.s. Part XVII. ( With

one coloured and one black and white plates ) 749

The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats

(Ornithological Section). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u.,

assisted by N, B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u. Part X 751

vi

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII

Page

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency.

By the late E. Blatter, s.J., ph.D., f.l.s. Part XXVI.

( With two plates)., 764

Where Big Game ‘ Take the Waters ’. By E. H. Peacock.

( With three plates ). 780

On a Collection of Fish from Afghanistan. By Dr.

S. L. Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.a.s.b. ( With a plate and

four text-figures) 784

Transformational Deceptive Resemblance as seen in

the Life History of a Plant Bug. ( Riptortus

pedestris) and of a Mantis ( Evantissa pulchrcC). By

A. P. Mathew, M. A. {With a plate) 803

The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin. By

Salim Ali. With Notes by H. Whistler. Part I. {With

a map , I plates a?id 5 diagra?7is) 814

A Hunting Trip in the Sunderbunds in 1892. By

Vicomte Edmond de Poncins. {With four plates). 844

Note on the Birds of the Sittang-Irrawaddy Plain,

Lower Burma. By J. K. Stanford, i.c.s., o.b.e., m.c.,

M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S 859

A New Dragonfly from Lower Burma. By Lt.-Col.

F. C. Fraser, i.m.s. (Retd.) f.r.e.s 890

The Butterflies of Secunderabad. By Lt.-Col.

W. E. M. Logan Home 892

Some Observations on Nymphaea pubescens , Willd. By

C. McCann, f.l.s. {With two plates and one text-

figure). 895

Notes on the Habits of Some Indian Birds. By Capt.

R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u. {With three plates) 902

An Interesting Case of Semi-Cyclopia in a Shark. By

John Berry, m.a. {With two plates and one diagram) 912

The Medicinal and Poisonous Palms of India. By

J. F. Caius, s j., f.l.s 917

Snakes in Belgaum. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey,

i.m.s 942

Miscellaneous Notes : —

I. A Tiger feeding on a Cow while yet alive. By

Colonel R. W. Burton 945

II. Records of some Clouded Leopard {Neofelis

nebulosa) in the Darjeeling District. By W. H.

Matthews... 946

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV// vii

Page

III. Note on a Bear and a Panther obtained by Col.

F. M. Bailey from Tibet and a Panther from

Asia Minor obtained by Mr. J. E. Whittall. By

R. I. Pocock, f.e.s 947

IV. Wild Dog {Cum dukhunensis) killed by domestic

dogs. By J. Williams 949

V. Time of sexual maturity of the Elephant ( Elephas

maximus ). By G. C. Robinson, i.f.s 950

Wl' A Bull Gaur ( B . gaurus) and a Tigress fight to

death. By H. V. Blackburn 950

VII. White Bison. By A. A. Dunbar Brander 951

VIII. Ratels and Corpses. By F. W. Champion, i.f.s.... 952

IX. A Hybrid American Bison and Domestic Cow at

the Mysore Zoo. By Sadeg Z. Shah ( With a

photo ) 954

X. The Loch Ness Monster. By A. A. Dunbar

Brander 954

XI. Occurrence of the Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike

{Lalage sykesi, Strickl.)in the Hoshiarpur District

of the Punjab. By H. W. Waite, m.b.o.u 955

XII. Occurrence of the Grey-fronted Green Pigeon

( Dendrophassa pompadora a/finis) in the Kolaba

District. By Humayun Abdulali 955

XIII. Occurrence of the Great Indian Bustard ( Choriotis

nigriceps ) near Saugor. By E. P. Deeks 956

XIV. Abundance of the Fantail and Pintail Snipe. By

P. W. Augier 956

XV. Bird Notes from Burma. By T. R. Livesey 956

XVI. A Comment on the Nesting habits of the Small

Sunbird {Leptocoma minima ) published on

pp. 730-732 of the Journal, Vol. xxxii by Salim

A. Ali 957

XVII. A Dhaman ( Ptyas mucosus ) rattling its tail. By

Humayun Abdulali 958

XVIII. A Clear-winged Moth (. Paranthrene sp.) mimick-

ing a Scoliid Wasp ( Scotia auripennis). By

C. McCann 959

XIX. A new Spider of Bengal mimicking Oecophylla

smaragdina. By G. C. Bhattacharya ( With 3

text-figures) 960

XX. On the mating habits of Spiders. By T. V. Subrah-

manyam ...... 962

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII

viii

Page

XXI. Do young Scorpions eat their Parent. By M. H.

Desai, B.Ag 963

XXII. Observations on Tetratological individuals of

Aptinothrips rufus. By W. S. Sharga ( With 2

plates') 964

XXIII. Termites as Food. By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar. 964^~ ^

XXIV. Stem faciation in the Cocoanut Palm ( Cocos nucifera ,

Linn.) By K. Cherian Jacob. ( With a photo). 966

Supplement : — The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and

the Problem of their Preservation, Part III S. 112

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME

Nos. 3

Page

Abdulali, Humayun ; Occur-

rence of the Green-fronted

Pigeon {Dendrophassa pompa-

dora af finis) in the Kolaba

District ... ... ••• 955

Dhaman ( Ptyas mucosus)

rattling its tail ... ... 958

Ali, Salim A. ; A comment on

‘ The Nesting Habits of the

Small Sunbird ( Leptocoma

minima)', published on pp.

730-732 of the Journal Vol.

xxxii ... ... ... 957

- and Whistler,

Hugh ; The Ornithology of

Travancore and Cochin, Part

I. ( With a map , four plates

and five diagrams) ... ... 814

Augier, P. W. ; Abundance of

the Fantail and Pintail Snipe 956

Ayyar, T. V. Ramakrishna,

b.a. ph.D. ; Termites as food 966

Baker, E. C. Stuart, c.i.e.,

F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.

A.o.u.;The Long-tailed Duck

( With a coloured plate) ... 549

Barnes, Edward, b.Sc. ; Some

Observations on the genus

Ariscema on the Nilgiri Hills,

South India ( With two plates) 630

Bates, Capt. R. S. P., m.b.o.u.;

Notes on the Habits of some

Indian Birds ( With three

plates) ... ... ... 902

W. ; Nidification of the

Travancore Laughing- Thrush

\Trochalopteron jerdoni fair-

banki, (Blanf.)] and the Black-

headed Babbler {Rhopocich-

la atriceps atriceps, (Oates)] . 727

XXXVII

and 4

Page

Berry, John, m. a. (Cantab.);

An interesting case of Semi-

cyclopia in a Shark. ( With

two plates and one dia-

gram) ... 912

Bhattacharya, Gopal Chan-

dra ; A new Spider of Bengal

mimicking Oecophylla sma-

ragdina ( With three text

figures) 960

Blackburn, H. V. ; A Bull

Gaur ( B. gaurus) and a

Tigress fight to death ... 950

Blatter, E. (The late), s.j.,

ph.D., f.l.s. ; Revision of the

Flora of the Bombay Presi-

dency, Part XXV. {With four

plates and one text- photo) ... 532

; Part XXVI ( With

two plates) ... ... ... 764

and Fernandez,

J. ; The Flora of Waziristan,

Part V. {With three plates) . 604

and Millard,

W.S., f.z.s. ; Some Beautiful

Indian Trees, Part XVI

( With one coloured and

one black and white plates

and 2 text-figures) ... ... 513

; Some Beautiful

Indian Trees, Part XVII.

( With one coloured and one

black and white plates) ... 749

j Bonnell, Bonavis ; Notes on

| the Habits of the Magpie

Robin ( Copsychus saularis

saularis, Linn.) ... ... 729

| Brander, A. A. Dunbar ;

White Bison ... ... 951

The Loch Ness Monster ... 954

X

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Page

Brander, A. A. Dunbar ;

* Ratels and Corpses ’ ... 719

Burton, R. W. ; A Tiger feed-

ing on a Cow while yet alive. 945

Cadell, Sir Patrick, kt.,

c. s.i., c.i.e. ; The Preserva-

tion of Wild Life in India.

No. 5. The Indian Lion ... 162

Caius, J. F., s.j., f.l.s. ; The

Medicinal and Poisonous

Palms of India ... ... 917

Champion, F. W., i.f.s.,; Notes

on Indian Monitors in the

United Provinces ... ... 740

; Ratels

and Corpses ... ... 952

Chance, P. V. ; Occurrence of

the Woodsnipe [ Scolopax r.

rusticola , (Linn.)] in the Cen-

tral Provinces ... ... 733

Cherian, M. C., b.a., b .sc.

d. i. c. ; Note on a Pyralid

( Argyria fuscivenalis , Hmp.)

Caterpillar pest of Crataeva

religiosa , Forst. ( With one

plate ) ... 694

— ; Notes on some

South Indian Syrphids ... 697

Dekks, E. P. ; Occurrence of

the Great Indian Bustard

( Choriotis nigriceps) near

Saugor ... ... ... 956

Desai, M. H.f B.Ag. ; Do young

Scorpions eat their parent ?... 963

Editors ; On poisonous Millet,

known as Paspalum scrobi-

culatum ... ... ... 723

; Habits of the King-

Vulture ( Sarcogyps calvus,

Scop.) ... 732

; The Migration of

Wild Fowl, The Society’s

Bird-Ringing Scheme ... 738

; Rattling of tail in

various species of Snakes ... 958

Fernandez, J. See Blatter,

E.

Fraser, Lt.-Col. F. C., i.m.s.,

f.r.e.s. ; Indian Dragonflies,

PartXLlI. {With two plates

and three text-figures) ... 553

Page

Fraser, Lt.-Col. F. C., i.m.s.,

f.r.e.s. ; A new Dragonfly

from Lower Burma ... 890

Frend, G. V. R. ; Hoof disease

in the Muntjac ( Muntiacus

munijac) ... ... ... 726

Gharpurey, Lt.-Col. K. G.,

i.m.s., Snakes in Belgaum ... 942

Gimson, C. ; Growth and

Shedding of Antlers in the

Swamp Deer ( Rucervus

duvaucelli) in Manipur

State 726

Hearsey, Capt. L. D. W. ; A

Centipede killing a mouse ... 746

Home, Lt.-Col. W. E. M. Logan;

The Butterflies of Secundera-

bad ... ... ... 892

Notes on Coorg Butter-

flies 669

Hopwood; S. F., i.f.s. ; Effect

of Mahseer eating the fruit of

the Kalaw Tree ( Taraktoge-

nos kurzii) ... ... ... 743

Hora, Sunder Lal, d.sc.,

f.r.s.e. , F.A.S.B. ; Wander-

ings of the Bombay Duck

( Harpodon nehereus , Ham.

Buch. in Indian* 1 Waters.

( With 8 text-figures ) ... 640

; On a Collection

of Fish from Afghanistan.

( With one plate and four

text- figures) ... ... 784

Jacob, K. Cherian, l. Ag.,

f.l.s.; Stem fasciation in the

Cocoanut Palm ( Cocos nuci -

I era). [With a photo) ... 966

Khan, M. Hamid, m.sc.,

ll.b. ; Habits and Habitats

of Food Fishes of the Punjab

( With one plate) ... ... 655

Kinnear, N. B., m.b.o.u. ; On

the Birds seen or collected by

Mr. H. St. J. Philby, during

his Expedition to cross the

Rub Abu A1 Khali 675

See Whistler, Hugh,

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xi

Page

Koul, S. C. ; The Dawn Carol

of Birds ... ... ... 736

La Personne, V. S. ; A note

on the appendages and barbs

on the wings of the Pheasant-

tailed Jacana [llydrophasia-

nus chirurgus, { Scop.)] ... 733

; A fur-

ther aid to differentiation

between Swinhoe’s Snipe

[i Capella megalci , (Swinh.)]

and the Pintail Snip & [Capella

stenura, (Bonap.)] ... .. 734

Livesey, T. R.; Bird notes from

Burma ... ... ... 956

McCann, Charles, f l.s. ;

Observations on Ceratophyl-

limi denier sum, Linn. ( With

two plates and 2 text-figures } 681

Occurrence of the Six-toed

Frog ( Rana hexadactyla ,

Lesson) in the Bombay Presi-

dency ... ... ... 742

Occurrence of Leith’s Frog

( Rana leithii , Bouleng.) in

Salsette Island ... ... 742

Some Observations on N\m-

phcea pubescens. ( With two

plates and one text-figure) ... 895

A Clear-winged moth ( Paran -

threne sp.) mimicking a

Scoliid Wasp. ( Scolia auri-

pennis) ... ... ... 959

Margabandhu, V., m. a. ; An

Annotated List of Indo-Ceylo-

nese Termites ... ... 700

Mathew, A. P., m.a.; Transfor-

mational deceptive resem-

blance as seen in the Life

History of a Plant Bug

( Riptortus pedestris) and of a

Mantis ( Evantissa pule hr a)

[ With one plate) ... ... 803

Matthews, W. H. ; Records of

some Clouded Leopard ( Neo -

felis nebulosa ) in the Darjee-

ling District ( With a photo)... 946

" Page

Millard, W. S. See Blatter

E.

Mooney, H. F., [i.f.s. ; Occur-

rence of the Purple Wood-

Pigeon [ Alsocomus puniceus ,

(Tickell)] in Singhbhum

District, Bihar and Orissa ... 735

Morris, R.C., f.z.s.; A Tailless

Tiger ( With a photo) ... 719

; Death of

an Elephant ( Elephas maxi-

mus , Linn.) while calling ... 722

; Death of

14 Elephants ( E . maximus)

by food poisoning ... ... 722

Mosley, Martin E., f.r.e.s. ;

The Indian Caddis-Flies

( Trichoptera) , Part II. ( With

8 text-figures) ... ... 620

Nayar, K. Karunakaran,

m.a. ; The Nesting Habits of

the Small Sun bird [ Lepto -

coma minima , (Sykes)] ... 730

Peacock, E. H. ; In ambush

for Bison ( With three

plates). ... ... 529

— ; Where Big

Game * Take the Waters ’

( With three plates) ... ... 780

Pocock, R. L, f.r.s. ; Note on

a Bear and a Panther obtained

by Colonel F. M. Bailey

from Tibet and a Panther

from Asia Minor obtained by

Mr. J. E. Whittall ... 947

PONCINS, VlSCOMTE EDMUND

de ; A Hunting Trip in the

Sunderbunds in 1892. ( With

four plates) ... ... 844

Reviews : —

The Nidification of the Birds of

the Indian Empire... ... 715

Hunters’ Moon ... ... 716

Robinson, G.C., i.f.s. ; Time

of sexual maturity of the

Elephant ( Elephas maxi-

mus) ... * 950

Shah, Sadeg Z. ; A Hybrid

American Bison and Domes-

tic Cow at the Mysore Zoo.

( With a plate)

954

xii

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sharga, U. S., m.sc., rh.D.,

F.E.S. ; Observations on Tera-

tological individuals of Apti-

nothrips ruins. ( With two

plates )

Smith, H. C.; Wild Life Pro-

tection in Burma ...

Stanford, J. K.,i.c.s., o.b.e.,

M.C., M.B.O.U. , F.R.G.S. :

Notes on the Birds of the

Sittang-Irrawaddy Plain,

Lower Burma

SOBRAHMANIAM . T. V., M A. ;

Angling of Crocodiles

Rat-Snakes and their Food

value

Page

964

167

858

738

743

On the mating habits of

Spiders ... ... ... 962

Thom, W. S. ; Tiger Shooting

in Burma. ( With two plates). 573

Thyagaraju, A. S., m.a. ; The

King-Crow [Dicrurus macro-

cercus peninsular is, (Ticeh.)] 727

Sound produced by termites

at work ... ... ... 745

Trench, C. G. Chevenix ; A

Hunting Wasp attacking a

Spider ... ... ... 745

Waite, H. W., m.b.o.u. ;

Occurrence of the Black-

headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

(Lalage sykesii) in the Ho-

shiarpur District of the Punjab 955

Waite, H. W., m.b.o.u.;

With notes by Whistler,

Hugh, m.b.o.u.; Birds

observed at Fort Munro,

Sulaiman Hills

Whistler, Hugh, m.b.o.u.

and Kinnear, N. B., m.b.o.

u. ; The Vernay-Scientific

Survey of the Eastern Ghats

( Ornithological S e c t i o n),

Part IX

Part X

See Ali, Salim.

See Waite, H. W.

Wild Animals of the Indian

Empire ; and the Problem of

their Preservation.

Part III, Plates 13-15 (colour-

ed) and

„ XXXVII— LII (unco-

loured) ...

Supplement 112-161.

Williams, J. ; Social Behavi-

our of Bison ( Bibos gaurus ,

H. Smith)

; Notes on the

Indian Monitor ( Varanus

monitor ) and Flying Lizard

( Draco mac id at us ) . . .

; Wild Do g (Cuon

d u khu n e n s i s) killed by

Domestic Dogs

Page

688

515

751

724

739

949

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME XXXVII

Nos. 3 and 4

Page

xiv

LIST OF PL A TFS

The Flora of Waziristan —

Plate

IX.

Plate

X.

XI.

Plate

(A) Capparis decidua , Edgew. on precipitous left

bank of Volam River near Shewa Post

(B) From bank of Kuram River up the river due

north. In bed Tamarix. In the middle distance

Shewa Village with Mulberry trees ...

(A) Out-crops in a vast plain W. of Spinwam

Fort

(B) River bed of Khunai. Old Olea cuspidata ,

Wall, with Viscurn album , L.

(A) From a hill S. of Razani due S. W. mostly

Quercus forest with Olea cuspidata, Wall. In the

foreground a nala with tufts of grass, Olea

and Soph or a

(B) Bank of Khaisora River with Olea cuspidata ,

Wall., Monotheca buxifolia, Dene, Daphne

oleoides , Schreb, Acacia modesta , Wall, and

clumps of grass ...

Observations (some) on the Genus Arisaema on the Nilgiri Hills, South

India —

Arisaema lesc he naulti, Blume. Female and male

inflorescences

Arisaema leschenaulti , Blume (a) Seedling,

( b ) Detached corm, ( c ) Undetached corm

Arisaema translucens , Fischer

Arisaema wightii

Arisaema barnesii , Fischer. Female left, male

right

7. Arisaema tylophorum , Fischer

8. Arisaema convolutum , Fischer

Alimentary Canals of Food Fishes —

1. Salmo fario. — Brown Trout

2. Ophiocephalus marulinus.—Vexn.. Saul.

3. Wall a go attu. — Vern. Mullee

4. Cirrhina mrigala . — Vern .Mori.

Ceratophyllum demersum

Argyria fuscivenalis

Some Beautiful Indian Trees —

Plate 25. Wavy-leafed Tecomella ( Tecomella undulata)

Plate XXVI. Wavy-leafed Tecomella ( Tecomella undulata ) (a)

Tree in flower, Maval, Rajputana ; (b) Flowers.

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency —

Plate

1. I.

II.

, in a pool near Malad,

Heyne., Tableland,

Plate I. (A) Scirpus articulatus , L.

Salsette Island

(B) Scirpus corymbosus ,

Panchgani

Plate II. (A) Scirpus grossus, L., Inflorescences of, near

Borivli, Salsttta Island

(B) Scirpus littoralis, Schrad. Ben as River, Abu

Road

PaGf

604

605

608

630

632

655

681

694

749

750

767

770

V

LIST OF PLATES

Where Big Game ‘ Take the Waters ’ —

Plate I. Bibos banteng , Lyd. A young bull and cow

Plate II. Bibos banteng , A herd of

Plate III. Bibos gaurus, H.Sm. (A) A Cow Bison feeding

near the skirts of the

forest

(B) ‘ She promptly threw

up her head and

tail and turned to

bolt’

Fish from Afghanistan—

Plate I. Fig. 1. Ventral surface of head and anterior part

of body of a young specimen of Neinac ki-

lns sp. prox. griffithii, Giinth.

Ventral surface of head and anterior part

of body of the type-specimen of Nema-

chilus farweli , sp. n.

Ventral surface of head and anterior part

of body of Orcinus sinuatus, var. griffi-

thii (McClell.)

Ventral surface of head and anterior part

of body of Schizothorax chrysochlora}

(McClell.)

Lateral view of Barbus caPito conocephalus

x Schizothorax sp.

Ventral surface of head and anterior part

of body of the above hybrid

Riptortus pedestris and Evantissa pulchra (Life history of)

Travancore and Cochin, Ornithology of—

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Plate

I.

Plate

II.

III.

(A) A Panorama of the Cardamom Hills, Santhan-

para

(B) A Cardamom Plantation, Santhanpara

(A) 1 Eeta’ ( Ochlandra iraianccrica ) facies of the

jungle at Thattakad

(B) Typical moist evergreen forest, Thattakad,

where the only 2 specimens of Batrachostomus

moniliger were obtained ...

(A) Typical country at Wadakkancheri showing

paddy cultivation in flat ‘ valleys ’

(B) Bamboo forest, Kuriarkutti, within Cochin

Forest Tramline

(C) A backwater Canal, Kottayam

(D) Tall grass ( Andropogon ) country on verge of

shola , Santhanpara

(A) Typical country about Cape Comorin with the

Ashambu Hills in the background

(B) Looking across the ‘ Gap ’ at Aramboli

Sunderbunds, A Hunting-trip in 1892 —

Plate I. (A) Sunderbunds, 1892. My boat under sail

(B) Sunderbunds, 1892. A native boat under

sail carrying firewood to Calcutta ...

Plate

IV.

xv

Page

780

782

784

804

832

833

840

841

844

XVI

LIST OF PLATES

Page:

Plate II. (A) Sunderbunds, 1892. Near Issuripore — Native

Boats

(B) Sunderbunds, 1892. My house-boat

Plate III. (A) 1892. North Sunderbunds— low tide — native

dwelling with foot bridge

(B) 1892. A small river giving access to the interior

of the jungle — low tide— big palms growing out

of the mud

Plate IV. (A) Sunderbunds, 1892. Half tide mud bank with

fringe of big palms

(B) 1892. South Sunderbunds near the sea,

Malancha River — High tide

Nymphaea pubescens , Willd. Plate (1) Root system — normal roots

(left), abnormal roots (right); (2) abnormal root system, showing

wrinkled roots

Plate II. 1. A seedling with the first leaf ; 2 & 3. Further

stages of the seedling

4. Seed within aril. 5. Seed with partially deve-

loped aril

Portion of germinated seed. 7. Section of fruit

showing septa

Dehisced fruit showing recurved segments

6.

Notes on the Habits of some Indian Birds-

Plate

III.

( TurcLus rubrocanus )

Plate

I.

II.

(A) Grey-headed Thrush

approaching nest

(B) Nest of Blue-headed Rock-Thrush ( Monlicola

cinclorhyncha) ...

Sarus Crane {Antigone anti gone , Linn.) at nest

Sarus Crane {Antigone antigone ) nest and eggs ...

Semi-cyclopia in a Shark {Charcharias dussumieri , Valenc. ) —

Plate I. (A) Head of normal shark.

(B) Head of Monster ... ...

Plate II. For Explanation see text

Hybrid American Bison and Domestic Cow —

Plate I. (A) Hybrid American Bison Calf with parent half-

bred Cow

(B) Hybrid American Bison Calf, Mysore Zoo

845

854

855

896

897

903

909

908

912

913

951

Aptinothrips rufus —

Plate I. Antennae ... ... ... ... 964

Plate II. Antennae ... ... ... ... 965

The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire. Part III— Supplement

Plate 13. Snow Leopards ... ... ... (S.) 112

Plate 14. Leopard Cat {Prionailurus bengalensis) (S.) 156

Plate 15. Clouded Leopard {Neofelis ?iebulosa) ... (S.) 161

PlateXXXVII. Skulls of Carnivores ... ... (S.) 113

Plate XXXVIII. Skull of a Tiger ... ... ... (S.) 115

Plate XXXIX. Tongues of Tiger, Cheetah and Caracal (S.) 116

Plate XL. Asiatic Lion {Panthera leo persica) ... (S.) 123

Plate XLI. Tiger {Panthera tigris) ... ... (S.) 126

Plate XLII. A Tigress at her ‘ Kill ’ ... ... (S.) 131

Plate XLIII. A Tigress feeding on her * Kill ’ ... (S.) 132

LIST OF PL A TES xvii

Page

Plate XLIV. Indian Panther ( Panthera pardus fused). (S.) 135

Plate XLV. Snow Leopard ( Uncia undo) ... (S.) 146

Plate XLVI. Cheetah or Hunting Leopard {Acinonyx jubatus) (S. ) 147

Plate XLVII. Indian Jungle Cat [Fells chaus aff inis) ... (S.) 151

Plate XLVIil. Caracal {Lynx caracal) ... ... (S.) 153

Plate XLIX. Pallas’s Cat {Trichaelurus nianul) ... (S.) 155

Plate L. Marbled Cat {Pardofelis marmorata) ... (S.) 158

Plate LI. Golden Cat {Profelis temmincki) ... (S.) 159

Plate LII. Fishing Cat {Prionailurus viverrinus) ... (S.) 160

2

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XXXVII

Nos. 3 and 4

Page

Acinonyx jubatus, PL, ... (S.) 147

Tongue, PL, fig. 2 ... (S.) 115

Anaboiia laevis , head of, fig. 1. 620

Antigone antigone, Pis. 908, 909

Aptinothrips rufus , Pis. 964, 965

Argyria fuscivenalis. PI. ... 694

Arisaema barnesi, 2d PL, fig. 6. 632

Arisaema convolutum, PL, fig. 8. 632

Arisaema leschenaultii.

Female and male inflores-

cences, pi., fig. l,(tf)Seed-

ling. (b) Detached corm.

(c) Undetached corm, PL,

fig. 2 630

Arisaema translucens.

PL, figs. 3 and 4 630

Arisaema tylophorum,P\. , fig. 7. 632

Arisaema wightii , PL, fig. 5 ... 632

Barbus capito conocephalus x

Schizothorax sp. Pl., figs.

5, 6 784

Batrachostomus, Map, fig. 4,

showing distribution of the

genus 823

Bibos americanus x B. domes -

ticuSy PI. 954

Bibos bantengy Pis ... 780, 781

Bibos gauruSy 3 Plates ... 529

Bibos gaur us, PL, figs. 1, 2 ... 782

Bombay Duck {Harpodon nehe -

reus), Wanderings of —

Lateral view of a young

specimen, fig. 1.

Chart showing principal

centres of fishery, fig. 2...

Principal food species of,

fig- 3

Chart showing seasonal

rainfall from June to

October, fig. 4

Charts showing surface

salinity of the Bay of

Bengal, figs. 5 — 8

641

644

647

649

Page

Brachypus tridactylus, PL,

fig. 3 (S.) 113

Bregmaceros macclellandi .

Lateral view, fig. 3. ... 647

Caddis-flies {Tichoptera) ... 620

Canis vulpes , PL, fig. 2. ... (S.) 113

Ceratophyllum d e me r sum ,

Pis 681, 684

Anthers of, fig. 1 ... 683

Pollen1 grains of, fig. 2 ... 684

Charcharias Dussumieri, Pis. 912, 913

Diagram 915

Cirrhina mrigala , Pl., fig. 4 ... 655

Clangida hyemalis , Pl. ... 549

Cocos nucifera, fig. ... 967

Dichoceros bicornis, Map, fig. 3.

showing distribution ... 823

fig. 1.

digitata, PL, fig. 2.

miliacea , PL, fig. 2.

— — spathacea, PL,

fig. 1

telragona, PL,

fig.l.

Food-Fishes of the Punjab —

Habits and Habitats of, Pl.

Glossosoma, Sp. Median leg of,

fig. 7.

Harpodon nehereus

Lateral view of a young

specimen, Fig. 1.

Principal food-species of,

Fig. 3

Blydropsyche, Sp. Wings of,

Fig. 3

540

541

540

541

533

655

626

641

647

622

650-653

Index to illustrations

XIX

Page

1 dionyx burliyarensis.

Vesicle in profile of 5, fig. A. 557

Anal appendage of $ lateral

view, PL, fig. 7. ... 560

coro?ia.

Vesicle in pro fi 1 e o f $

fig. 11 557

Anal appendage of $

lateral view, PL, fig. 8.... 560

galeata.

Vesicle in profile of $

Fig. E 557

galeata.

Anal appendage of £

dorsal view, PL, fig. 5. ... 560

imbricata.

Anal appendage of £

lateral view, Pl., fig. 7. ... 560

intricat a.

Vesicle in profile of $

fig. D 557

intricata.

Anal appendage of

lateral view, Pl., fig. 2.

dorsal view, Pl., fig. 4. ... 560

minima.

Anal appendage of

lateral view, PL, 1, fig. 1.

dorsal view, PL, fig. 5. ... 560

op tat a.

Vesicle in profile of $

' fig. B 557

optata.

Anal appendage of £

lateral view, Pl., fig. 3,

dorsal view. Pl., fig. 6. ... 560

rhininoceroides .

Vesicle in profile of $

Fig. F 557

saffronata, Wings of

556

saffronata.

Anal appendage of q, dorsal

view, Pl., fig. 6 ; lateral

view, Pl., fig. 8 560

selsyi.

Anal appendage of

lateral view, PL, fig. 9. ... 560

stevensi .

Anal appendage of £

lateral view, PL, fig.l.... 650

Page

ldionyx travancorensis.

Vesicle in profile of $

fig. G 557

travancorensis.

Anal appendage of lateral

view, PL, fig. 3, dorsal

view, PL, fig. 4. ... 560

unguiculata.

Vesicle in profile of $ fig. C. 557

Idiophya nilgiriensis, wings

of $ 554

Irena puella , Map fig. 2. show-

ing distribution 820

Lepidopteron , head of, fig. 2. 621

Lepidostoma , maxillary palpi,

fig. 8. 627

Leptocerus spp. maxillary

palpi, fig. 8. 627

Lynx caracal , PL ... (S.) 153

Tongue, PL, fig. 3.... (S.) 116

Mariscus comp actus , PL, fig. 2. 532

konkanen.sis , fig 535

paniccus, Pl , fig. 1... 532

Micrasema , maxillary palpi,

fig. 8. 627

Monsoon, Map illustrating the

strike of the S. W. currents

in the Indian Empire ... 827

Monticola cinchloryncha , Pl.,

fig. 2. 903

Nemachilus farwelli, Pl., fig. 2. 784

fig. d. 798

griffithii, figs. a. b. 798

var af -

ghana , fig. c. ... 798

Sp. prox griffithii ,

Pl., fig. 1 784

Neofelis nebulosa, Pl. ... (S.) 166

fig. . ... 946

Nymphaea pubescens.

Root system : normal roots

(left) ; abnormal roots

(right) , PL, fig. 1....

Abnormal root system, show

in g wrinkled roots, Pl

fig. 2.

Seeds, seedlings and fruit, Pl

figs. 1-8.

Petioles, fig. .

Ophiocephalus marulius , Pl

fig. 2

9 86

891

897

898

655

kx

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Oreinus sinuaius var. griff ithii ,

PL, fig. 3 784

Fig. 3 794

Panther a leo persica, PI. (S.) 123

parclus fusca, PL (S. ) 135

iigris, skull, Pis.,

(S.) 115, 126, 131t 132

Tongue, PL, fig. 1. ... (S.) 116

Pardofelis marmorata, PL (S.) 158

Prionailurus bengalensis , Pl.

(S.) 156

viverrinus , PL

(S.) 160

Propostera ranii , Figs. 1-3 961, 962

Rkyacophila , sp. legs of, fig. 6. 625

Riptortus pedestris , Pl. ... 804

Sahno fario, Pl., fig- 1 ••• 655

Schizothorax chrysochlora, PL,

fig. 4. ... ••• ••• 784

fig. 2. 791

in t e r m e din s,

£ g. 1, , 788

Scirpus articulatus, Pl., fig. 1.. 767

corynibosus, Pl., fig. 2. 767

grossus, PL, fig. 1. ... 770

littoralis, Pl., fig. 2 ... 770

Solan um macranthum , Plates. 513,514

Sunderbunds , A hunting-trip in. 1892

Sunderbunds, 1892. My

boat under sail, PL, fig. 1. 844

Sunderbunds, 3892. A na- .

tive-boat under sail carry-

ing firewood to Calcutta,

PL, fig. 2. 844

Sunderbunds. 1892. Near

Issuripore — Native-boats,

PL, fig. 1. 845

Sunderbunds, 1892. M y

House boat, Pl., fig. 2. ... S45

North Sunderbunds, 1892.

Low tide — native dwelling

with footbridge, Pl., fig. 1. 854

A small river giving access

to the interior of the jungle

— low tide — big palms

growing out of the mud,

PL, fig. 1 854

Sunderbunds, 1892. Half

tidemud bank, with fringe

of big palms, Pl. , fig. 3... 855

South Sunderbunds near

the sea, Malancha River

— High tide, PL, fig. 2. ...

Tecomella undulata, Pl

Pl., figs. 1 and

2

Tiger shooting in Burma,

Pl. (A) The record Tiger

for Burma, 10 ft. 4 in. shot

in the Myitkyina District

(B) The record Tiger for

Burma with the author...

Pi. (A) Skinning an 8ft.

9 in. Tigress. (B) Tiger

shot on the Ru Stream

when feeding on the

remains of a Young

Elephant

Tiger, a tailless; (photo).

Travancore and Cochin —

Map

Panorama of the Cardamom

Hills—

Santhanpara, Pl., fig. 1. ...

A Cardamom Plantation,

Pl., fig- 2

‘ Eeta ’ ( Ochlandra tra-

vancorica ), facies of the

jungle at Thattakad, Pl.,

fig. 1

Typical moist evergreen

forest, Thattakad, PL,

fig- 2

Typical country at Wadak-

kancheri, showing paddy

cultivation in flat ‘ val-

leys ’, PL, fig. 1

Bamboo Forest, Kuriar-

kutti, with Cochin Forest

Tramline, PL, fig. 2.

A Backwater Canal, Kotta-

yam, PL, fig. 3.

Tal 1 gra ss ( Andropogon )

country on verge of shola,

Santhanpara, Pl., fig. 4...

Typical country about Cape

Comorin with the Ash-

ambu Hills in the back-

ground, Pl., fig. 1

Looking across the ‘ Gap ’

at Aramboli, PL, fig 2...

Page

855

749

750

592

594

719

814

832

833

840

841

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

xsi

Page

Trichaeiurus manul, PI. (S.) 155

Trichoptera , Caddis-Flies ... 620

Trichopteron , Diagrammatic

genitalia, fig. 4. ... 623

Penis and its pro-

cesses, Fig. 5. 624

Trochalopteron, Map, fig. 1,

showing distribution of the

genus 820

Turdus rubrocanus, PI. fig, 1... 903

Uncia uncia , Pis. 112 ... (S.) 146

Wallago attic, PL, fig. 3. ... 655

Waziristan , Flora of—

Capparis decidua, on precipi-

tous left bank of the Volam

River, near She wa Post, PI.,

fig. 18.

From bank of Kuram River up

the river due north. In bed

Tamarix. In the middle

distance Shewa village with

Mulberry trees, PL, fig. 19.

Outcrops in a vast plain W. of

SpinWam Fort, PL, fig. 20.

River bed of Khunai. Old Olea

cuspidata with Vi s c um

album , PL, fig. 21.

Hill S. of Razani due S. W.

mostly Quercus forest with

Olea cuspidata . In the

foreground a nala with tufts

of grass Olea and Sophora,

PL, fig. 22.

Bank of Khaisora River with

Olea cuspidata, Monotheca

buxifolia, Daphne oleoides,

Acacia modesta and clumps

of grass, PL, fig. 22.

Page

604

605

608

ERRATA.

Vol. XXXVII, No. 4.

Page 844, line 4 from top, read 1883, instead of 1783.

,, 846, ,, 13 from top, read ‘numerous tracks of

not others.

otters ’

INDEX OF SPECIES

Alburnoides bipunctatus var. eich-

xxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXV

Page

(Glyptotermes) ceylonicus 702

coorgensis 702

dilatatus . 702

• (Neotermes) assmuthi

fletcheri

militaris

Camponotus compressus

Canarium strictum

Capella gallinago gallinago ...

megala ...

• stenura

Capparis aphylla

Caprimulgus asiaticus

europaeus unwini

monticolus

Capritermes ceylonicus

? distinctus

... 702

... 811

834, 838

... 887

... 734

734, 887

... 829

... 877

... 692

... 877

... 711

- var. cornu-

cristatum ... ... 682

demersum 681

gibbum 682

— — missionis ... ... 682

muricatum 682

submersum 685

tricorne 682

tricuspidatum ... 682

tuberculatum ... 682

unicorne 682

verticillatum 682

Cerbera odollam ... 836

Cerchneis naumanni pekin gensis ... 879

XXVI

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxvii

Delias eucharis

Delopgis^.

Dendrelaphis tristis

Dendrocalamus strictus

Dendrocitta leucogastra

— rufa kinneari

sclateri

vagabunda

: — vagabunda

Dendrocygna fulva

javanica ...

Dendronanthus indicus...

Dendrophassa bicincta ...

pompadora affinis

phayrei

Diarthrum sp.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

Diaphora cochinchinensis

Dichoceros bicornis 823,

Dicrurus leucophseus ...

macrocercus

peninsularis ,

Dinopicus javanensis intermedia

Diplacrum caricinum

Diplectronella sp.

Dipsacus inermis

Dipsadomorphus trigonatus ...

Discognathus jerdoni var. kangrae

— lamta

Discophora lepida lepida ... i

Dissemurus paradiseus

* rangoonensis

Dodonoea viscosa

Draco dussumieri

maculatus

Drusus sp.

Dryobates analis longipennis ...

namus canicapillus

Dryophis mycterizans

Ducula badia

cuprea

Dulichius inflatus

Dupetor flavicollis

Duris zibethinus ...

Dysoxylum malabaricum

Echinospermum minimum

Egretta g. garzetta

Ehretita aspera ...

laevis var. aspen

Elseis guineensis ...

— melanococca

Page

669, 892

... 635

... 943

... 834

... 835

... 861

835, 843

... 889

... 872

... 880

... 955

... 880

... 626

... 843

... 778

832, 860

... 868

... 727

... 874

... 779

... 626

... 610

... 943

... 660

... 67 1

850

868

841

819

739

626

874

943

824

838

807

888

834

611

888

611

933

843,

xxviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

I A DEX Of species

Page

Fimbristylis annua var. pancispiculata. 544

argent ea 541

complanata 547

— var. micro-

carpa ... 548

— — cylindrocarpa 539

dichotoma 541,542, 453

Geocichla c. citrina

Glareola lactea

maldivarura

Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens

Glossosoma sp. ...

Glottis guttifer -■»

nebularia...

Glyptosternum reticulatum

Glyptothorax coniostre

pectinopterum ...

Gmelina arborea

Goera sp. ...

Gomalia elma albofasciat i

Gordonia obtusa

Graucalus macei

siamensis

Gravillea robusta

Grewia villosa

Gypaetus barbatus hemachalanus

Gyps fulvus

sp

Hsematopus ostralegus ...

Hsematornis cheela

Halcyon gurial

pileata

smyrnensis

fusca

1 generosa . . .

smyrnensis

— vidali

Page

... 866

... 882

. . 878

... 626

... 859

... 886

785, 787

... 664

... 839

... 626

... 894

... 834

... 843

... 868

... 834

... 693

... 677

... 692

... 884

... 879

... 761

762, 876

837, 838

762, 876

... 762

761

... 763

856,879

838, 879

Haliaetus leucogaster

Haliastur indus

Halpe byrtacus ... ... ... 672

Hamitermes (Euhamitermes) indicus... 710

- (Synhamitermcs) cey- .

lonicus ... ... 710

— — ■ — quadri-

ceps 710

Harpactese. erytbrocephalus ...

Harpodon microchir

mortenseni

nehereus

squamosus ...

Hasora alexis alexis

taminatus

Heleocharis fistulosa

Helicopsyche sp.

Helicteres isora

Heliotropium cabulicum

eichwaldi

ramosissimum

... 877

... 641

... 640

... 641

... 894

... 674

... 537

... 621

838, 842, 843

... 611

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXX

Page

Heliotropium strigosum var. brevi-

folia ...

— undulatum

Helosciadium nodiflorum

Hemicercus canente

’cordatus

Hemiprocne coronata

Hemipus p. picatus

Hemitragus jayakari

jemlaicus

nilgiriensis

Herodias alba

intermedia

Herpestis monniera

Hestia-1. malabarica

Heterocaryum echinophorum

611

609

860

822

877

867

819

888

613

670

611

var.

minimum

Hierococcyx sparverioides

varius

Hippolais rama rama

Hirundapus giganteus indicus

Hirundo daurica

scullii

rustica gutturalis

tytleri

smithii

Hodotermes convulsionarius ...

... 611

519, 861

... 519

... 690

... 822

692, 872

... 691

... 872

... 860

... 705

(Acanthotermes) macro-

cepbalus 701

koe-

negi ...

viarum

Hopea parvi flora ...

wightiana

Hoplopterus ventralis ...

Horsfieldia a. anita

Hupua nipalensis

Huphina nadina remba

nerissa evagete

Hydnocarpus wightiana

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hydropsyche sp

Hydropsychidse ...

Hydroptila sp

Hydroptilidae

Hyphaene thebaica

Hypolimnas bolina

misippus ...

Hypolytrum latifolium ...

wightianum

... 701

834, 839, 842

... 834

... 884

... 673

... 824

... 671

671, 892

... 834

733, 822

... 621

.627, 628, 629

... 626

.627, 628, 629

... 934

670, 893

776

... 776

S6 y

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxxi

Lipocarpha sphacelata

: triceps

Lithospermum arvense ...

* dispersmum ...

Lobipes lobatus

Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis

Lodoicea seychellarum

Lophophorus impejanus

Loranthus longiflorus

Loxococcus rupicola

Lycodon aulicus

Lycopsis arvensis

Lycopus europaeus

Lymnocryptes minima

Lyncornis cerviniceps

, bourdilloni

Lynx caracal

Macrones seenghala

Macropicus hodgei

javensis crawfurdi

Macropisthodon plumbicolor ...

Maesa perrottetiana

Malacocincla separiaria abbotti

Mangifera indica

Mareca penelope

Mariscus albescens

— blatteri

bulbosus

— compactus

cyperinus

cyperoides

Mariscus konkanensis

microcephalus »

— paniceus ... ...

— pennatus

sieberianus

Marrubium vulgare

Mastacembelus armatus

-• — pancalus

Megalaima inornata

Megalurus palustris

Megaspis argyrocephalus

crassus...

errans ...

Melanitis leda ismene

phedima varaha

zitenius gokala

Melia azadirachta

Mellettophagus e. erythrocephalus

Melocanna bambusoides

Meniceros bicornis

823,

(S.

Page

773

612

611

693

885

934

908

438

935

942

612

615

887

877

823

153

.. 662

.. 822

.. 942

.. 834

.. 863

.. 835

738, 889

.. 535

.. 532

.. 533

.. 535

.. 533

.. 536

.. 534

.. 535

.. 533

.. 535

.. 533

.. 618

.. 667

... 668

.. 515

... 869

.. 699

... 699

.. 699

893

671

841

876

859

850

669

xxxii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Mentha sylvestus var. incana ...

royleana

viridis ...

viridis

Merops apiaster

— athertoni

— erythrocephalus

javanicus

leschenaulti leschenaulti

orientalis biludschicus

birmanus ...

orientalis

persicus

quinticolor

superciliosug javanicus

Mespilus cotoneaster

var. rubra

racemiflora

Mesua ferrea

Metopidius indicus

Metroxylon rumphii

sagus

Mezoneuron cucullatum * *..

Michelia nilagirica

Micropterus brachyurns phaioceps

Micropus affinis galilegeosis ...

subfurcatus ...

melba melba

pacificus pacificus ...

Microtarsus cinereoventris

— : — melanocephalus ...

Microcerotermes annandalei ...

bugnioni

cylindriceps ...

fletcheri

— green i

heimi

tenuignathus

Microsarcops cinereus ...

Microtermes anandi

Page

... 615

... 757

... 759

... 758

... 757

... 756

756, 876

... 756

... 757

.... 758

757, 876

... 608

... 834

... 882

... 936

... 935

... 835

... 834

... 874

... 692

... 877

... 692

.... 877

... 865

... 709

... 710

... 885

... 708

forma curvigna-

thus »..

globicola ...

■ incertoides...

incertus

• maronotus...

mycophagus

• obesi

obtusus

Milvus migrans govinda

lineatus

... 709

... 710

693, 879

... 879

Page

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxxiii

3

xxxiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXXV

xxxvi

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa

Sciara sp.

Sciophila sp.

Scirpus annuus allioni ..

articulatus

— ciliaris

congestus

corymbosus. ...

... 613

... 635

... 543

... 767

... 772

... 538

.537, 768, 775

-- mucronatus

•- plantaginoides

■- plantaginus

•- quinquefarius ...

— scaber

— spiralis

— supinus

var. uninodis

triqueter

Scleria annularis

biflora

caricina

767.

770

537

768

540

537

766

767

769

778

777

779

cochinchinensis

corymbosa

hebecarpa

lithosperma

melanostoma ...

oryzoides

poaeformis

stocksiana

tessellata

var. biflora

Scolia auripennis

Scolopax r. rusticola

Scops bakkamaena

Scotocerca inquieta striata

Scrophularia cabulica ...

calycina ...

lucida

scabiosmfolia

Scutellaria linearis

multi caul is

— prostrata

sp.

Sericostoma sp.

... 778

... Ill

... 778

... 779

... Ill

... 959

733, 887

... 861

... 690

... 613

... 617

... 618

... 626

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxxvii

Page

XXX VI 11

INDEX OF SPECIES

Theseiceryx zeylanicus caniceps

inornatus

kangiae

— zeylanicus

Page

515

516

515

Thespesia populnea

.. 836, 839, 841

Threskiornis melanocephalus 887

Thymus lanceolatus var. angustifolius 616

serpyilum 616

syriacus 616

Timalia pileata jerdoni 863

Trachycarpus excelsa 941

Trema orientals 834, 836

Triaenodella sp 626

Trichaelurus manul

nigripectus

(S)

(S.)

Trichiurus sp

Tricondyla rufipes

Tringa erythropus

glareola

hypoleucos

ochropus

• stagnatilis

totanus terrignotae

Triumfetta pilosa

rhomboidea...

Trochalopteron cachinnans

155

.. 646

.. 812

... 886

.. 885

693, 885

885

886

834

821

cinnamo

meum

jerdoni

fairbanki

spp.

Trochalopterum jerdoni fairbanki

Trogon maculatus

Troides minos

Tropidonotus piscator

stolatus

Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae

hector

Tunga triceps

Turdoides cinerei irons ...

Turdus obscurus

rubrocanus rubrocanus

unicolc-r

Tvrnix blanfordi

suscitator pallescens ...

TytD alba

Uncia uncia , (S.)

821

835

820

727

521

670

943

892

773

820

866

903

737

861

881

878

112, 146

Upupa epops epops

longirostris

Page

678, 692

... 877

Urocissa erythrorhyncha magnirostris.

Uroloncha malabarica

punctulata subundulata ...

striata subsquamicollis ...

Vanessa can ace virid:s ...

cardui

indica pholoe ...

Varanus monitor...

Vateria indica

Verbascum thapsus

Veronica agrestis

anagallis

beccabunga

biloba

peloponnesiaca

Vieatia conifolia

Vipera russelli

Vivia innominatus

avunculorum

Wallago attu

Wallichia disticha

Wulfenia amherstiana ...

Xant lolaema haemacephala indica

rubricapilla

malabarica.

Xylia xylocarpa 835, 839

861

.. 691

... 871

. 871

.. 672

... 893

.. 673

„. 739

834, 838

.. 613

... 614

.. 614

.. 609

.. 943

.. 822

.. 823

655, 662

.. 941

516,

Xylota bistriata

carbonaria

Ypthima asterope mahratta ...

Zamenis fasciolatus

mucosus

Zanclostomus viridirostris

Zetides agamemnon menides ...

doson eleius

sarpedon teredon

Zibethailurus viverrinus

Zipoetis saitis

Zizeeria otis decreta

lysimon...

trochilus putli

Ziziphora tenuior...

Zizyphus oenoplia

rugosa ...

Zosterops siamensis

614

875

518

517

842

699

893

943

942

524

669

160

... 670

... 894

... 616

... 833

838, 839, 842

... 873

(S.)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

OFFICE BEARERS, 1935

Patrons

H. E. The Viceroy of India, g.m.s.i., g.m.i.e.

H.R.H.The Prince of Wales, k.g.

Vice=Patrons

H.H. The Maharao of Cutch, g.c.S.i., g.c.i.e.

H.H. The Maharaja of Jodhpur, k.c.s.i., k.c.v c

H.H. The Maharaja of Rewa, k.c.s.i.

H.H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar.

H.H. The Maharaja of Travancore.

Mr. F. V. Evans, Haymans Green, Liverpool.

Mr, A. S. Vernay, New York, and London.

Sir David Ezra, Kt ., f.z.s., Calcutta.

Lt. Col. K. G. Gharpurey, i.m.S., Dhulia.

Benefactor

Mr. C. O. O’Donnell, U.S.A.

President

H. E. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, g.c.i.e,, m.c., c.m.g,

Vice=Presidents

H.H. The Maharao of Cutch, g.c.S.i., g.c.i.e.

The Hon’ble Sir Robert Bell, k.c.s.i., c.S.i , c.i.k., I.C.S .

Executive Committee

Rt. Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay ... Bombay.

Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha ... ... ... ,,

Major S. L. Bhatia (i.m.s.) ... ... ... ,,

Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, S.J. ... ... ... ,,

Mr. C, B.B. Clee, I.C.S.

Mr. Alwyn Ezra, f.r.g.s., f.z.s.... ... ... ,,

Mr. J. B. Greaves, m.l.c. ... ... ... ,,

Mr. J. G. Ridland ... ... ... ... ,,

Lt.-Col. S. S Sokhey, t.m.S. ... ... ... M

Mr. A. Forrington ( Honorary Treasurer) ... ... ,,

Mr. H. M. McGusty

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, f.z.s. Honorary Secretary ... ,,

xl

OFFICE BEARERS

Advisory Committee.

LIST OF MEMBERS

LIFE MEMBERS

Aga Khan, H. H. Aga Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah a

(G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.) ,,, ..i

Aitken, C. E.

Ali, Hamid A. (I.C.S)

Alwa\r, Col. H. H. Sawai M-aharaja Sir Jaisinghji

Bahadur (k.c.s.i., g.c.i.e.) —

Armitage, Capt. A. E. (r.e.) ...

Armstrong, Dr. J. Scaife (m.b., ch. b.d.t.m. & h.) ...

Aylesford, The Right Hon’ble The Earl of

Bahawalpur, H. H. The Nawab Capt., Sir Sadiq

Mohammad Khan Abassi (k.c.v.o.) ...

Baini Prashad, Dr. (d.Sc.)

Baker, E. C. Stuart (f.z.s.)

Balkrisha Vinayek Wassoodeo

Bansda, H. H. Maharaul Shri Indra Singhji Pratab

Singhji, Raja Saheb of

Baria, Shrimant Maharaj Kumar Shree Subhaksinhji

Sahib of Baria ...

Baroda, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Sayaji Rao Gaekwar

(g.c.s.i., k.c.s.i.)

Baroda, Sihrimant Yuvaraj Pratapsingh Gaekwar

Bhavnagar, H. H. The Maharajah Shri Krishna

Kumar Singhji {Vice-Patron)

Bhopal, H. H. Col. Sir Mahommad Hamidullah Khan

Bahadur (g.c.s.i., c.s.i., c.v.o.)

Bikaner, Lt. -General H. H. The Maharaja Shri

Sir Gunga Singhji Bahadur (g.c.s.i., g.c.i.e.,

G.C.V.O., C.B.E., K.C.B., A.D.C., LL.D)

Bikaner, Capt, H. H. Maharaj Kumar Shri Sadul

Singhji Bahadur (c.v.o.) ...

Bodenham, Count K. Lubienski

Bradshaw, J. P.

Bridgeman, Lt.-Col. Hon’ble H. G. O. (r.f.a.)

Brook, Carlton P.

Burton, Brig. -Gen. R. G.

Burton, Lt.-Col. Richard W. ...

Bute, The Most Hon’ble The Marquis of ...

Butler, Sir Harcourt (g.c.i.e., k.c.s.i., I.C.S.)

Caccia, Major A. M. (i.f.S.) ...

Cambay, H. H. Nawab Hussain Yavarkhan Jafar Ali-

khan Saheb Bahadur

Carter, Lt.-Col. H. St. M.

Cassamali Jairajbhoy Peerbhoy

Chhota-Udepur, Maharawal Natwar Sinhji F.

Christopher, Sydney A. (Bar-at-Law)

Clarke, L. O. (c.i.e., I.C.S.) ...

Europe.

Bombay.

Satara

Alwar.

Quetta.

New Zealand.

England.

Bahawalpur.

Calcutta.

England.

Bombay.

Bansda.

Devgad.

Baroda.

Bhavangar.

Bhopal.

Bikaner.

London.

Bombay.

England.

Ootacamund.

London.

ff

England.

Cambay.

London.

Bombay.

Chhota-Udepur.

Rangoon.

London.

xlii

LIST OF MEMBERS

Clutterbuck, Cap. J. E. (r.e.)...

Clutterbuck, Sir Peter

Cooch Behar, Maharaj Kumar Victor N. Narayan ...

Coode, John M.

Cork ill, Dr. Norman L. (M.B.,ch.B.)

Cowie, Rev. A. G. G.

Cox, Major-Genl. Sir Percy (g.c.i.e., k.c.S.I.,

K.C.M.G., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.)...

Craw, H. H. (I.C.S.)

Crawford, W. M. (f.e.s., I.C.S.) Retd.) ...

Cron, Herman

Culbertson, J. M. S. (a.m.i.c.e.)

Cutch, H. H. The Maharao Sir Shri Kengurji Sawai

Bahadur (g.c.s.i., g.c.i.e.,) Vice- Patron and

Vice- Pr.sid.nt)

Cutch, Kumar Shri Godji

Cutting, C. Suydam...

Dalai, Rustomjee D.

D’Almeida, J. F. R. (b.a., m.s.c,)

Dharampur, H. H. The Maharana Shree Vijayadevji

Rana, Maharaja Saheb of ...

Dhrangadhra, H. H. Maharana Sri Sir Ghanshyam

Sinhji (k.c.s.i.)...

Dhunjibhoy Bomanji, Sir, Kt. ...

Drake-Brockman, Lt. Col. H. E. (f.z.s., i.m.s.)

Dungarpur, H.H. Rai Rayan Maharajadhiraj Mahara-

wal Shri Lakshman Singhji Bahadur

Duxbury, Brigadier C. D.

Elgee, Colonel J. W. L.

Ellison, Bernard C. (c.m.z.s., f.r.g.S.) ...

English, E. E.

Erb, E. ...

Evans, F. V. ( Vice-Patron )

Ezra, Alfred (o.b.e., f.z.s,) ...

Ezra, Sri David, Kt. ( Vice-Patron )

Frere, Lt. Col. A. G. (i.a., f.z.s.)

Frey, Max

Gauripur, Raja Prabhatchandra Barna ...

Gharpurey, Lt.-Col. K. G. (i.m.s.) ( Vice-Patron )

Gonsalves, A. F.

Gregory Smith, Cap. H. G. ...

Harris, Jr., William P.

Hide, P. ...

Hill, Major R. D. O.

Holkar, Sir Tukoji Rao

Hopwood, S. F. (i.f.S.)

Hotson, Sir Ernest (k.c.s.i., o.b.e., I.C.S.)

Hoyos, Count E.

Husbands, Major H. W S. (m.c., a.m.i.c.e.,

S.m.r.e.)

Ichalkaranji, Sardar Narayanrao Govind alias

Ba-basahab Ghorpade ... ... ...

Dliolpur.

Srinagar.

Cooch Behar

England.

Khartoum.

England.

London.

Rangoon.

Ireland.

New York.

Karachi.

Bhuj-Cutch

Cutch.

New York.

Bombay.

Bandra.

Dharampur.

Dharangadhra.

Bombay.

England.

Dungarpur.

England.

London.

y y

England.

Bombay.

Liverpool.

London.

Calcutta.

Ichalkaranji.

Switzerland.

Gauripur.

Dhulia.

Bandra.

London.

U.S.A.

England.

London.

Indore.

Rangoon.

England.

Austria.

London.

Ichalkaranji.

LIST OF MEMBERS

xlii

Idar, H. H. Maharaja Shri Hiramat Singhji Saheb

Bahadur

Indore, H. H. The Maharaja, Sir Yeshawantrao

Holkar (g.c.i.e.) '

Inglis, Chas. M. (f.z.s., m.b.o.u.)

Ivens, J . H. (p.w.d.)

Jamkhandi, Shrimant Shankarrao Parashurararao

alias Appasaheb Patwardhan

Janjira State, H. H. Nawab Sidi Muhammadkhan

Nawabsaheb

Jind, H. H. Maharaja Sir Ranbir Singh (k.c.s.i.,

g.c.i.e.)

Jodhpur, Lt.-Col. H. H. The Maharaja Sir Umaid

Sing Bahadur (k.c.s.i., k.c.v.o.) [Vice- Patron) .

Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, S. M., Lt.-Gen.

Kerr, Dr. A. F. G. ...

Khairpur, H. H. Mir Ali Nawazkhan

Khetri, Raja Sirdar Singh Bahadur

Khilchipur, H. H. Durjansal Singh

Kirk-Greene, Mrs. Leslie

Kolhapur, H. H. The Maharaja Lt.-Col. Sir Rajarara

Chhatrapati (g.c.s.i., g.c.i.e.)

Kotah, H. H. The Maharajadhiraj Lt.-Col. Sir Umed

Singhji Saheb Bahadur (g.c.i.e., g.c.s.i., c.b.e.)

Kya, Saw On (m.a.)

Lewis, J. Spedan

Long, G. R. (i.f.s. ) ...

Lorimer, Lt.-Col. D. L. R. (c.i.E., i.a.) ...

Lowndes, Capt. D. G.

Ludlow, F. (M.A.. M.B.O.U., I.E.S., O.B.E.)

Lynes, Rear Admiral Herbert (c.b,,c.m.g.)

Mackenzie, J. M. D. (i.f.s.)

Mandlik, Narayan V.

Mangrol, The Shaikh Saheb ...

Marshall, Arch. McL.

Marshall, J. McL. ...

Maxwell, M.

McConaghy, Lt.-Col. C. B. (i.m.s.)

Millard, A. W. P. ...

Millard, W. S. (f.z.s.)

Miraj, Shrimant Sir Gangadhar Rao Ganesh atias

Babasaheb Patwardhan (k.c.i.k.)

Mitchell, H. H. G. ...

Montagnon, D. J. ...

Monteath, G. (I.C.S.)

Morvi, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Lakhdiriji Waghji

(k.c.s.i.)

Moose, Lt.-Col. A. H. E. (c.b.e. .i.a.)

Murland, Lt.-Col. H. F.

Mysore, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Krishnaraj Woodayar

Bahadur (G.G.s.i., G.b.k.) ...

Namjoshi, V. K. ,.. ... ...

Himatnagar.

Indore.

Darjeeling.

England.

Jamkhandi.

Janjira-Murud.

Jind.

Jodhpur.

Nepal.

England.

Khairpur.

Khetri.

Khilchipur.

London.

Kolhapur.

Kotah.

H si paw.

London.

England.

London.

Lansdowne.

Srinagar.

London.

Europe.

Bombay.

Mangrol.

England.

Scotland.

England,

» l

Miraj .

England.

Dibrugarh,

England.

Morvi.

England

Mysore.

Bombay

xliv

LIST OF MEMBERS

Naraenji, Dwarkadas

Narayanlal Bansilal, Raja

Narsingarh, H. H. Raja Vikrara Singhji Sahib

Bahadur

Nawanagar, H. H. The Maharaja Jamsaheb

Digvijiaysinhji ...

Nepal, Lt. General Shankar Shumshers Jung

Bahadur Rana ...

Nepal, Supradipta Manyaber General Sir Mohun

Shumshere Jung Bahadur Rana (k.c.i.e.)

Newman, T. H. (f.z.s., m.b.o.u.)

Noyce, Sir Frank (I.C.S.)

Oberholser, Harry C.

O’Donnell, C. O. ( Benefactor )

Ogilvie, G. H. (i.f.s.)

Page, A. J. (I.C.S-)...

Palitana, H. H. The Thakor Saheb Bahadur Sinhji

(k.c.i.e.)

Parlakimedi, Shri Shri Shri Krishnachandra Gajapati

Narayan Deo, Raja of

Parlett, L. M. (I.C.S.)

Patiala, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Sri Bhupendra

Singh (G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., G.B.E.)

Patiala, Capt. Rao Raja Birindra Singhji...

Patiala, H. H. Maharaj Kumar Brijindra Singhji ...

Patuck, P. S. (I.C.S.)

Peacock, E. H. (b.f.s.)

Pestonji Jivanji (n.g.s.)

Petit, Dhunjibhoy Bomanji

Petit, Jehangir Bomanji

Phipson, H. M. (f.z.s.)

Poncins, Viscount Edmund de ...

Porbundar, H. H. The Maharaja Natwar Singhji

Bhavsinghji

Prince of Wales, H R.H.

Radhanpur, H. H. Shri Jalaluddin Khanji

Rae, Lt.-Col. M. E, (i.a.)

Rajgarh, H. H. Raja Rawat Sir Birendra Singh

• (k.c.i.e.)

Ravenshaw, Col. C. W.

Rewa, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Gulabsingh Bahadur

(k.c.s.i., g.c i.e.) ( Vice-Patron )

Ribeiro, J. (l.c.e.) ...

Roosevelt, Kermit ...

Roosevelt, Col. Theodore

Ross, Major Tyrell ...

Roumania, H. M. the King of

Sanders, Lt.-Col. C. W.

Sanderson, Henry ...

Sangli, Meherban Sir Shrimant Chintamanrao Appa-

saheb Patwardhan (k.c.s.i.)

Savile, Sir Leopold (k.c.b.) ... ... ..,

Bombay.

Narsingarh.

Jamnagar.

Nepal.

London.

Delhi.

Washington, D. C.

U. S. A.

Rangoon.

London.

Palitana.

Parlakimedi.

England.

Patiala.

England.

Africa.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Bombay.

England.

France.

Porbundar.

London.

Radhanpur

Edinburgh,

Rajgarh.

London.

Rewa

Santa Cruz.

U.S.A.

t >

England.

Roumania.

Chitral.

U.S.A.

Sangli.

England.

LIST OF MEMBERS

xlv

Schmid, W.

Scott, R. L.

Seton-Karr, Capt. H. W

Seymour-Sewell, Lt.-Col. R. B. (i.m.s.) ...

Sirmoor, H. H. Maharaja Rajendra Prakash Bahadur.

Smith, A. Kirke

Smith, Major G. De Heriez

Smith, H. C.

Spence, Dr. Arthur D. (m.b., ch.B.) (Edin.)

Spence, Sir Reginald {Kt.t f.z.s.)

Standen, Sir B. (k.c.i.e., I.C.S.) (Retd.)

Stanton, W.C.

Stewart, C. G. (i.p.s., m.a.)

Studd, E....

Suket State, H. H. Raja Lakshman Sen ...

Surguja, Maharaja Ramanuj Saran Singh Deo

(C.B.E.)

Swaine, J. K-

Swithinbank, Mrs. B. W.

Tehri-Garhwal, H. H. Raja Sir Narendra Shah Saheb

Bahadur (c.s. i.)...

Thomson-Glover, Lt.-Col. J. W. (c.b.e.)...

Travancore, The Game Warden

Udaipur, H. H. TheMaharana Sahib Bahadur

Vaughan, Capt. W. M. (f.e.s.)

Venning, Brigadier F. E. W. (c.b.e., d.s.o.)

Vernay, A. S. {V ice- Pair on)

Vesugar, Jamshed (p.w.d.)

Waite, H. W.

Walker, Roland

Wankaner, Maharaj Kumar Shree Chandrabhanu-

singhi

Wauchope, Major R. S. (i.a.) ...

Whistler, Hugh (m.b.o.u., f.z.s.)

Williamson, Sir W. J. F. (c.m.g., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.) ...

Wilson, Sir Arnold (c.S.i., c.m.g., d.s.o., k.c.i.e.) ...

Wyndham, P. (c.b.e., I.C.S.) ...

Germany

Scotland

England

London.

Nahan.

Delhi.

Ootacamund

Burma.

England.

London.

England.

Rangoon.

Calcutta.

Suket.

Surguja.

London.

England.

Tehri.

Kashgar.

Travancore.

Udaipur.

Canada.

England.

England and U.S.A.

Ambala.

Bombay.

Wankaner.

Calcutta.

England.

» >

J >

London.

MEMBERS

Abdulali, Humayun N.

Acharya, H. N. (f.z.s., b.a.) ...

Acland, Rt. Rev. R. D. ( Bishop of Bombay )

Aitken, J. E.

Akka-Saheb Maharaj, H.H.S.S.

Alimahomed Mecklai

Ali, Salim A. (m.b.o.u.)

Alington, Capt. N. S. (m.c.) ...

Ali Rajpur, Maharaj Kumar Capt. Fattehsing

Allen, Lt.-Col. C. H. P. (i.m.s.)

Alleyne, Lt. H. Massy

Allsop, F. (i.f.s.) ...

... AndherL

... Ahmedabad.

... Bombay.

... Rajkot.

... Kolhapur.

... Bombay.

Dehra-Dun.

... Fort-Sandeman.

... Ali Rajpur.

... London.

... England.

... Rangoon.

xlvi

LIST OF MEMBEkS

Ambalal Sarabhai ...

American Museum of Natural History, The Librarian

Amir Sheikh Mahomed Khan (c.i.e.)

Anderson-Morshead, Capt. R. Y

Andrewes, Lt.-Col. H. W.

Andrews, E. A.

Angelo, Capt. N. L. (i.a.)

Aquino, V.

Arathoon, J. D. L

Ash, H. D.

Assam, H. E. The Governor of

Atkinson, D. J. (i.f. S.)

Atkinson, G.

Atkinson, T. G. (a. m. i. m. e.)

Aundh, Shrimant B. S. Pantsaheb Pratinidhi, Chief of

Australian Museum, The Secretary

Awagarh, The Raja of

Aylmer, Stuart

Bahadurji, D. N. (Bar-at-Law)

Bailey, Lt.-Col. F. M. (c.i.e.)

Baksi, G-. B. (i.f.s.)

Bale Sons and Danielsson, Ltd., Messrs. John

Ball, H. P.

Barclay, J.B.

Baria, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Ranjit Singhjee

(k.c.s.i.)

Barlee, Hon’ble Mr. Justice K. W-. (I.C.S.)

Barrett, H. B. (i.f.s.)

Barry, Miss Agnes T,

Bassett, A. E.

Bates, Major R. S. P. (m.b.o.u.)

Batra, Rai Saheb R. L. (b.a., ll.b.)

Battye, Lt. R. K. M. (i. a.)

Baudh State, Raja Narayan Prasad Deo.

Baxter, N. B.

Bayley d’Castro, Major A. (i.m.d.)

Bazett, H. M.

Beadnell, C. B. (d.s.o.)

Bedi, Capt, Kanwar Dayasingh ...

Beeson, Dr. C. F. C. (m.a., d.sc., f.e.s.)

Beg, Nawab Nazir Jung Bahadur Mirza Nazir

Begbie, Lt.-Col. A. S.

Behar and Orissa, H. E. The Governor ...

Behar and Orissa, The Conservator of Forests

Belben, Capt. T. A.

Belgium, Le Directeur, Musee Royal d’ Histoire

Natu'relle de Belgique ... ...

Bell, The Hon’ble Sir Robert (k.c.s.i., c.i.e., I.C.S.)

Bell, T. R. (c i.e.)

Bell, W. E.

Benares State, H. H. The Maharaja Saheb of

Bengal, Military Secretary to H. E. The Governor ...

Ahmedabad.

New York, U.S.A.

Ajatrai.

England.

Calcutta,

London.

Poona.

Bombay.

Indore.

Bombay.

Shillong.

Maymyo.

Dehra Dun.

Bombay.

Aundh.

Sydney.

Awagarh.

Peshawar.

Bombay.

Nepal.

Bhandara,

London.

Bombay.

9 9

Baria.

Bombay.

Rangoon.

Borsad

Rampur Hat.

Mymensingh.

Bharatpur.

Gyantse.

Baudh.

Poona.

Calcutta.

Rangoon.

Cannanore.

Mt. Abu.

Dehra Dun.

Hyderabad, Dn.

London.

Bihar and Orissa

Hinoo.

Bombay .

Brussel Is.

Bombay.

London.

Insein.

Fort Ramnagar.

Bengal.

List of members

xlvii

xiviii

LIST OF MEMBERS

Caldwell, John M.

Cambridge, University Museum of Zoology, The

Superintendent

Cameron, Thos. H (f.z.s.)

Campbell, A. A. H.

Campbell, A. S.

Campbell, S.

Canning, Fred, (i.f.s., c.i.e.)

Capito, C. Erik (o.b.e., m. inst. c.e.)

Captain, Mrs. A. H. C.

Cardew, Major C. G. (r.e.)

Carnegie Museum, The Director

Carrick, R. B.

Carrott, Capt. W. C.

Cassell, R. H.

Castens, H. E. (i.f.s.)

Cater, Sir Alexander (k. c.i.e,, c.i.e., I.C.S.)

Cave, Capt. F.O.

Central Provinces, H. E The Governor of

Ceylon, H. E. The Governor of Colombo

Chamba State, H. H. Raja Ram Singh

Chamier, Lt.-Col. R. O.

Champion, F. W. (i.f.s.)

Champion, H. G. (i.f.s)

Champion-Jones, R. N.

Chance, P. V.

Chandler, C. E. C. ...

Channer, Lt.-Col. G. O. De R.

Chaudhri, C. M. (i.f.s.)

Chevenix-Trench, C. G. (I.C.S.)

Chopra, Dr. B. N. (d.sc.)

Clee, C. B. B. (I. C. S.)

Clifford, Lt.-Col. R.

Clough. R. J.

Clubs—

Bikaner, Victoria Memorial Club

Bombay Club, The Honorary Secretary

Bombay Gymkhana Club, Ltd., The Secretary

Byculla Club, The Honorary Secretary ...

Central Provinces Club, Ltd.

Club of Western India, The Honorary Secretary ...

Cuttack Club, The Honorary Secretary

Darjeeling Club, Ltd.

Dhanbad Club ...

I. D. Gymkhana Club

Kolar Gold Field Club

Madras Club, The Secretary

Mawlaik Gymkhana Club, The Honorary Secretary

Maymyo Club, The Secretary

Muktesar Club, The Honorary Secretary

Naini Tal Club, Ltd., The Secretary

Northern Shan States Club ...

Panighatta.

Cambridge.

Devicolam .

Calicut

England.

Bara Jamda.

Naini Tal.

San Fernando

Bandra.

Poona .

U. S. A.

Madras.

Maymyo.

Moniarah.

Akyab.

Quetta.

England,

C. P.

Colombo.

Chamba.

Bel gaum.

Bahraich.

Dehra Dun.

Coimbatore.

Raipur.

Bombay.

Angul.

Udaipur.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

London.

Calcutta.

Bikaner.

Bombay.

Nagpur.

Poona.

Cuttack.

Darjeeling.

Dhanbad.

New Delhi.

Oorgaum.

Madras.

Mawlaik.

Maymyo.

Muktesar.

Naini Tal.

Lashio, Burma.

LIST OF MEMBERS

xlix

Clubs — continued.

Poona Club, Ltd.

Ranikhet Club, The Honorary Secretary

Royal Bombay Yacht Club, The Secretary

Secunderabad Club Library, The Honorary Secre-

tary

Sind Club, The Honorary Secretary

Srinagar Club, The Secretary

Trivandrum Club, The Honorary Secretary

United Service Club, Ltd.

Wellington Gymkhana Club, Tne Honorary Secre-

tary ...

Willingdon Sports Club

Coldstream, Honhle Mr. Justice J. (I.C.S.)

Cole, Lt.-Col. B.L.

Cole, Mrs. Elsie

Colleges and Scientific Institutions —

Agriculture College, The Principal

Agricultural College and Central Research Institute,

The Librarian ...

All Saints’ Diocesan College

American College, The Treasurer

Assumption College, The Principal

Barnes High School, The Head Master

Baroda College, The Principal

Burma Forest School, The Director

Calcutta, The Presidency College

Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,

The Director

Carmichael Medical College, The Principal

Central College, The Principal

Central Research Institute, The Director

China, The Science Society of China Library

Chulalongkorn University Library

Daly College, The Principal ...

Dayaram Jetharam Sind College

Forest Research Institute and College, The Forest

Botanist

Forest Research Institute and College, The Princi-

pal ...

Gujarat College, The Principal

Gwalior, Victoria College, The Principal

Haffkine-Institute, The Director

Indian Lac Research Institute

Institute of Plant Industry, The Director

Intermediate College, The Superintendent

Karnatak College, The Principal

King Institute, The Director

Lawrence Memorial Royal Military School

La Martiniere College, The Principal ...

Lingnan University Library

Ludhiana, Government College, The Principal

4

Poona.

Ranikhet.

Bombay.

Secunderabad.

Karachi.

Srinagar.

Trivandrum.

Simla.

Wellington.

Bombay.

Lahore.

Ajmer.

Peshawar.

Cawnpore.

Coimbatore.

Naini Tal.

Madura.

Bangkok.

Deolali.

Baroda.

Pyinmana.

Calcutta.

> J

Bangalore.

Kasauli.

Nanking.

Bangkok.

Indore.

Karachi.

Dehra Dun.

Ahmedabad.

Gwalior.

Bombay.

Namkum.

Indore.

Bangalore.

Dharwar.

Guindy.

Lovedale.

Lucknow.

Canton.

Ludhiana.

]

list of Members

Colleges and Scientific Institutions— continued.

Madras Christian College, The Librarian

Madras Forest College, The Principal ...

Maharaja’s College, The Principal

Mayo College, The Principal

Mrs. A. V. N. College, The Principal ...

Noble College, The Principal

Nowrosjee Wadia College, The Principal

Oakgroove School, The Principal

Osmania University College ...

Pittapur Rajah’s College

Presidency College, The Principal

Rajkumar College

Rajaram College, The Principal

Royal College of Medicine, The Professor

Royal Institute of Science, The Principal

Samaldas College

Secondary Training College...

St. Joseph’s College, The Principal

St. Mary’s High School

Trivandrum, H. H. Maharaja’s College for Women

University College, The Principal

Victoria Technical Institute, The Curator

Wilson College, The Principal

Women’s Christian College ...

Colombo Museum, The Librarian

Colvin, Lt.-Col. E. J. D. (i.a., c.i.e)

Congreve, C. R. T. ...

Conley, Andrew

Connor, Maj. -General Sir Frank (A7.,d.s.o., f.r.c.s.,

i.m.S.)

Conservator of Forests, Bhopal State

Conservator of Forests, Cochin Government

Conservator of Forests, Working Plan Circle

Conservator of Forests, The Chief

Cooper, Khan Bahadur D. B. (m.l.a.)

Cotten, Capt. J. C. ...

Cowasji Jehangir, Sir, Kt. (k. c.i.e., o.b.e.)

Cowper, G. St. John...

Cox, C. E. C. (I.F.S., f.z.s.) ...

Coyajee, Miss R. H. ...

Crawford, William G. (i.f.s.) ...

Crofton, R. M. (I.C.S.)

Croix, O. H. de St. ...

Crombie, A. D. (I.C.S)

Cunningham, G. (c.i.e., o.b.e., I.C.S.) ...

Currie, A. J.

Currie, The Hon’ble Mr. Justice M.M.L. (I.C.S ) ...

Dabholkar, Major A. Y, (i.m.s.)

Padachanji, R. R. ...

Madras.

Coimbatore.

Ernakulam.

Ajmer.

Vizagapatam.

Masulipatam

Poona.

Mussoorie.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Cocanada.

Madras.

Raipur.

Kolhapur.

Baghdad.

Bombay.

Bhavnagar.

Bombay.

Teppakulam.

Bombay.

Trivandrum.

Rangoon.

Colombo.

Nagpur.

Bombay.

Madras.

Colombo.

Srinagar.

Nilgiris.

Jamaica.

Madras.

Bhopal.

Chalakkudi.

Maymyo.

Srinagar.

Bombay.

Satara.

Baroda.

Bombay.

Amraoti.

Bombay.

Rangoon.

Nagpur.

Delhi.

Madras.

Peshawar,

Bombay.

Lahore.

Bombay.

i >

LIST OF MEMBERS

li

Dalai, N. B.

Dalai, M. P. M.

Dalai, Miss Perin P. M.

Dalai, Dr. Phiroz A. (l.m.s., d.t.m. & h.)

Danson, J. W. W. ...

Darby, A, W. (o.b.e.)

Darjeeling, The Cruator, Nat. Hist. Mus.

Daultana, Khan Bahadur Mian Ahmadyar. (m.l.c.)...

Davenport, Major C. (o.e.e., r.a.v.c.) ...

Daver, Framroze A.

Daver, The Hon’ble Mr. J. D. (Bar-at-Law)

Daver, S. R.

Davey, G. H. .a

David, Meyer I.

Davidson, E. R.

Davidson, M. N. D....

Davies, T. G. B. (a.r.s.m. , st.m.i.p.t.) ...

Davies, Capt. V. K. N. (i.a.) ...

Davis, D (i.f.s.)

Davis, G. (I C.S.) ...

Davis, P. W. (i.f.s- )

Davis, Dr. W. St. T.

Dawkins, C. G. E. (i.f.s.) ...

Dean-Drummond. Lt.-Col. J.D.

Delacour, Mons. Jean

de Mello, Prof. Col. I. F.

Dent, T. V. (i.f.s.) ...

Deo, Sri Balavadra Narayan Bhunj

DeRhe Philipe, C. W. V. (f.e.s.)

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, The Besch-

affungsamt

Deutsches Entomologisches Institut der Kaiser

Wilhelm

Dewas, Sir Prince Vikram Singrao

DickinSj M J.

Dickson, Lt.-Col. H. R. P. (c.i.b.)

Dinajpur, Maharaja J agadish Nath Ray ...

Dinshaw, Kaikobad Cowasjee (i.i\)

Director of Museums, S. S. & F. M. States

Dixie, Capt. W. J. ...

Dobson, F.

Dods, W. K. (Cii.E.)

Donald, C. H.

Donald, Lt. J. O. S....

Donovan, Lt.-Col. C. (i.m.s.) ...

Doyle, Lt.-Col. E. E.

Drake-Brockman, D L. (c.i.e., I. C.S.) ...

Drake-Brock man, Lt. R. F. H. (r.a.)

Dubash, J. K.

Duke, A. H.

Dunbar-Brander, A. A. (o.b.o. i.f.s.)

Duncan, Capt. D. L...

Bombay.

9 9

» 9

Rangoon.

Chandia.

Darjeeling.

Multan.

Bombay.

99

9 9

Kottayam.

Bombay.

Sudan.

Siam.

England.

Bombay.

9 9

England.

Coimbatore.

Dwarbund.

Rangoon ,

Madras

France.

Nova Goa.

Darjeeling.

Keonjhargarh.

London

Berlin.

Kolhapur

Bombay.

Persia.

Dinajpur.

Bombay,

Kuala Lumpur.

Karachi

Panposh.

Calcutta.

Dnarmshala.

Tonk

England.

Poona.

Lucknow.

Bangalore.

Bombay.

Bangkok.

Scotland

Loralai,

lii LIST OF MEMBERS

Duncan, John E. (p.w.d.)

Duncan, P. R. (i.f.e.s.)

Duncan, Lt.-Col. W. E. (d.s.o., m^c., r.a.)

Dunsdon, A. C.

Durand, C. H. S. ...

Dyfer, Dr. J. C.

Dyson, R. A.

Earle, P. K.

Eates, K. R.

Edmonds, A. C.

Edwards, M. Vincent (i.f.S.) ...

E. I. Railway, European Institute

Eliot, John N.

Elliot-Lockhart, Lt. Wm.

Elliot, A. (c.i.e.) ...

Ellis, E. T. H.

Ellis, Ralph, Jr.

Emerson, Gerald H. (I. C.S.) ...

Emerson, Capt. J. ...

Evans, E. J.

Evans, Col. G. H. (c.i.e., f.l.s.)

Evans, Brigadier W. H. (c.s.i., c.i.e., d.s.o.)

Evershed, John

Ezra, Alwyn (f.r.g.s., f.z.s.) ...

Fairweather, J. S. H.

Fawcus, L.R. (I. C.S.)

Featherstone, Gordon B.

Ferrar, Lt.- Col. M. L. (i.a., o.b.e.)

Field, Major F. D. S. (i.a.)

Fletcher, 'L'hos. Bainbridge (f.e.s.)

Flockhart, J. J.

Florence, James

Flynn, A. A. (c.m.z.S.)

Fooks, H. A.

Foot, A. E.

Forrington, A.

Foulkes, R.

Fountaine, Miss Margaret (f.e.s.)

Fraser, Dr. A. G. (i.m.d.) ...

Fraser, Duncan

F'raser, Lt.-Col. F, C. (i.m.s., m.d., f.l.e.S.)

Fraser, Major S. G. G.

Freke, C. G. (I. C.S.)

Frend, G. V. R.

Garthwaite, P. F. (i.f.s.)

Gallant, M. N. (b.sc., i.f.s.) ...

Garbett, Sir C. C. (k.c.e., c.m.g., f.r.g.s., I. C.S.) ...

Gaye, W.C.

Geddis, A.

Gee, E. P. ... •••

Ghosh, S. K. (I. C.S.) ... ... ...

George, Hugh S. (i.f.s.)

London.

Dehra Dun .

Mhow.

Moradabad.

Bombay.

Meerut.

Bombay.

Rangoon.

Sukkur.

Bellary.

Rangoon.

Dhanbad.

Ferozepore.

London.

j J

Calcutta.

California.

England.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

London.

England.

3 3

Bombay.

Murree.

Calcutta.

England.

Udaipur.

England.

Bombay.

Coonoor.

Karachi.

Calcutta.

Dehra Dun.

Bombay.

Madura.

London.

Deolali.

London.

Coimbatore.

Bombay.

I?

Kadur.

Rangoon.

London.

Lahore.

England.

Bombay.

Badlipar.

Rangamatti.

Hoshangabad.

LIST OF MEMBERS

liii

Gibbon, Herbert

Gibbons, J. M. B.

Gibson, E. C. (I. C.S.)

Gilbert, C. E. L. (i.f.s.)

Gill, E. H. N. (f.z.s.)

Gill, H. A. C.

Gimson, C. (I. C.S.)**.

Gladstone, Capt. H. S. (f.z.s., f.r.s.f;.) ...

Gladstone- Solomon, Capt. W. E. (i.e.s.) ...

Glennie, Major E. A. (d.s.o., r.e.)

Goldie, Dr. E. A. (m.c., i.m.s.)

Goord, T. D.

Gordon, F. W. (m.c., m.a. (oxon) i.f.s.)

Gordon, Major J. W. ...

Gorringe, Capt. W. P. H.

Gough, Major W.

Gould, B. J. (c.i.e., I. C.S.)

Gouldsbury, C. P. ...

Gove, Capt. R. V. ...

Government Departments—

Director of Agriculture, Bombay

Director, Bureau of Science ...

Director of Agriculture, B. & O.

Director of Agriculture in C. P.

Director of Agriculture, Punjab

Gow, Cedric J.

Graham, A. A.

Grant, F. A.

Gravely, Dr. F. H. ...

Gray, James

Greaves, Mrs. D. J, ...

Greaves, J. B.

Green, E. Ernest (f.e.s.)

Green, M. M.

Gregson, T. S.

Grier, J. A. B.

Gwalior, The Director of State Gardens ...

Hackney, M. J.

Hall, J. E

Halliday, Robert S. (I. C.S.) ...

Hamber, Major L. G. W.

Hambly, R. L.

Hamid Khan, M. (m.sc., llb.)

Hamilton, Major C. S. P. (d.s.o., m.r.c.s.)

Hance, Lt.-Col. J. B. (o.b.e., i.m.s.)

Hancock, Major C. P.

Hanhart, S.

Hardie, J. H.

Hare, Brigadier G. A. (r.a.) "...

Harford, Capt. C. ...

Harman, A. C.

Harper, Lt.-Col. A. Forrest

... Vandiperiyar.

... Bombay.

... England.

... Poona.

... Sitapur.

... Kulu.

... Imphal.

... Scotland.

... Bombay.

... Mussoorie.

... Lahoal, Assam.

... Baghdad.

... Scotland.

... Jodhpur.

.. Bombay.

... Ahmednagar.

... Bombay.

... Mattupatti.

... Bombay.

... Poona.

... Manila.

... Sabour.

... Nagpur.

... Lahore.

... Kuala Lumpur.

... Dehra Dun.

... London.

... Madras.

... Devicolam.

... Bombay.

••• M

... England.

... Ardmore, U.S.A,

... Bombay.

... Sholapur.

... Gwalior.

... Bombay.

... Mozufferpore.

... Hubli .

... DharmaSala Canlt.

.. Calcutta.

... Lyallpur.

... Juri.

... Rajkot.

... Bharatpur.

... Bombay.

... Simla.

• * * M

... Bettiah.

... London,

liv

LIST OF MEMBERS

lv

lvi

LIST OF MEMBERS

Ivii

lviii

LIST OF MEMBERS

lx

LIST OF MEMBERS

Redmond. L. G. (m.i.c.e.)

Regimental Officers’ Messes —

The Royal

Royal Deccan Horse

2nd Lancers (G.H.)

3/15 Punjab Regiment

3/ 17th Dogra Regiment (Semi-Z,z7> Member)

1/lOth Gurkha Rifles (Semi- Life Member)

Equitation School ...

Royal Indian Navy ...

Reuben, D. E. (l.C.S.)

Reynolds, Dr. F. [(m.b., ch.B. (Edin.)] ...

Reyonlds, K. P.

Rich, Mrs. Muriel J.

Richmond, R. D. (i.f.s.)

Ridland, J. G.

Rishworth, Dr. H. R. (i.m.s.) ...

Ritchie, Lt.-Col. W. D. (i.m.s.)

Robertson, Lawrence (c.s.i., l.C.S.)

Robinson, G. C.

Robinson, Mrs. R. B.

Rogers, C. G. (i.f.s.)

Roper, Lt. J. R. Stockley (r.a.)

Rosenthal, V.

Ross, Lt.-Col. E. J. ...

Row, Dr. R. (m.d.) ...

Rowland, J. W. (i.p.)

Rowntree, John B. (i.f.s.)

Roy, M. H. Trevor ...

Rubie, Lt.-Col. C. B. (c.b.e.) ...

Runciman, Rev. J. W.

Rusby, Capt. L. F. ...

Russell, Mrs. P. T. ...

Rustomjee, Miss Sherene B.

Sanders, D. F.

Sanderson, P. M. D. (f.z.s.)

Sandur State, Raja Shrimant ...

Sant. Maharana Shri Jarwar Singji, Raja Saheb of ...

Sarawak Museum, The Curator

Sarma, M. R. Venkatrama

Satya Churn Law, Dr. (m.a., b.l. ph.D., f.z.s.,

M.B.O.U. )

Saunders, H. F.

Savantwadi, H. H. The Sardesai of

Schering Kahlbaum, Ltd.

Schomberg, Lt.-Col. R. C. F. (d.s.o.)

Scott, A. G. (i.p.) ...

Scott, C. W. (i.f.s.)...

Scott, Lt.-Col. F. B. (i.a.)

Scroope, Lt. Col. C. F.

Secretary for Agriculture, S. S. & F.M.S. ...

Seervai, Dr. Rustom F. ... ...

Bombay.

Meerut.

Poona.

Ferozepore.

Saugor.

Jamrud.

Quetta.

Saugor.

Bombay.

Gaya

England.

Kuala Lumpur.

Bombay.

Madras.

Bombay.

Jhansi.

Borjuli.

England.

Palghat.

Negapatam.

London.

Peshawar.

Bombay.

Delhi.

Bombay.

Belgaum.

Calcutta.

London.

Karachi.

Udaipur.

Dhulia.

England.

Bombay.

Cawnpore.

Bombay.

Sandur.

Sant-Rampur.

Kuching.

Aduturai.

Calcutta.

Madras.

Savantwadi.

Bombay.

England.

London.

Rangoon.

England.

Kohat.

Kuala-Lumpur,

Bombay.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Sevastopulo, D. G. (f.e.s.)

Sewal, Dr. R. N. (m.b., f.r.c.s. e.

Shah, Lt.-Col. B. L. (i.m.s.) ...

Sharpies, C. N. (I.C.S.)

Shaw, G. E.

Shaw, John (b.f.r.s.)

Shebbeare, E. O.

Sherred, P. R.

Sherriff, Capt. George (r.a.) ...

Sheth, Chinubhair Chimanlal ...

Shirely, G. S.

Shortt, Lt.-Col. H. E. (i.m.s.)...

Shoveller, H. L. (a.c.a.)

Sidley, Harold N. ...

Simmonds, A.

Simmons, R. M.

Simonds, Major M. H.

Singh, Major Sajjan

Sinha, P. N. (b.a., ll.b.)

Sinclair Kennedy, T.

Sirohi, H. H. The Maharaja of

Skinner, Lt.-Col J. M. (i.m.s.)

Skrine, Major P. R. H.

Sladen, D. A.

Sladen, J. M. (I.C.S.)

Slingsby, Lt.-Col. T. (m.c.)

Smith, Dr. Malcolm ...

Smith, W. J. L.

Smyth, C, P.

Smythies, B. E.

Societies—

Royal Society of Edinburgh ...

New York Zoological Society

... Calcutta.

m.r.c.p.e., etc.)... Garhwal.

London.

England.

London.

Hsipaw.

Darjeeling.

Ramgarh.

Srinagar.

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Bombay.

I )

) >

Dimakusi.

Abu Road.

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London.

Calcutta.

Kutch.

♦ }

England.

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Bombay.

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Sparrow. Col. R.

Spong, Lt.-Col. William A. (r.a. m.c.)

Srinivasarao, Dr. H. (m.a., d sc.)

Stable, Major R. H. (d.s.o.) ...

Stables, Major Alex. (r.a. m.c.)

Stamper, T. H. G. ...

Stanford, J. K. (m.c., m.a., m.b.o.u., I.C.S.)

Stapylton, J. Miles (I.C.S.)

Steele-Perkins, Lt.-Col. C. S. ...

Steer-Webster, Capt. V. C. (m. eng., f.r.g.s.,

F.R.H.S., F.F.S., F.R.S.A.)

Stein, A. H. (i.f,s.)...

Stevens, Herbert (f.z.S., m.b. o.U.)

Stewart, D.

Stewart, Prof. R. R. (ph.D.) ...

Stileman, F.

Ixii

LIST OF MEMBkRS

Stirling, J. H.

Stockley, Lt.-Col. C. H. (d.s.o., o.b.e., m.c.)

Stoney, R, F.

Storrs-Fox, Rev. E. A.

Storrs, K. J.

Sudan Government Museum, The Curator

Sumner, Capt. J. F. M.

Suter, Dr. M. F. (d.Sc.)

Swat State, Shahzada Jahanzeb Wali-ahd

Sykes, H. W.

Sykes, The Right Hon’ble Sir Frederick (p.c.,

g.c.i.e. , etc.)

Symes, A. W. J.

Tait, Major H. C. (i.m.s.)

Taleyarkhan, K. M. (Bar-at-Law)

Tamkohi Raj, Raja Indrajit Pratab Bahadur Sahi

of

Tasker, T. J. (c.i.e., o.b.e., I.C.S.)

Tate, Lt.-Col. J. C. (i.a.)

Taylor, Lt.-Col. J. (d.s.o., i.m.s.)

Taylor, Dr. W. R. (m.r.c.s., f.r.c.S., d.p.h.)

Terry, A. L.

Thatcher, E. C.

Thom, W. S.

Thompson, A. K. ...

Thomson, E. S.

Thorne, J . A. (c.i.e., I.C.S.) ...

Thursfield, R. M. C.

Ticehurst, Dr. C. B. (m.a., m.b.o.u., r.a.m.c.)

Tilden, H. B. (f.c.s.)

Tilley, J. S.

Todd, A

Toogood, Lt.-Col. C. G. (d.s.o.)

Transvaal Museum, The Director

Travancore, The Conservator of Forests ...

Travers, F. G

Travers, Sir Walter ( Kt ., c.b.e., c.i.e.) ...

Treuthardt, M.

Tripura, H. H. The Maharaja Manikya Bahadur

Trivandrum, The Govt. Mus. and Public Garden, The

Superintendent

Trotter, Lt. Genl. E. W.

Tuck, Capt. P. J. H. (r.a.)

Turkhud, Dr. D. A. (m.b., c.m., etc.) ...

Tutein-Nolthenins, A. C.

Tyrrell, Lt.-Col. J. R. (c.i.e., i.m.s.)

Tyson, John D. (I.C.S.)

University of Bombay, The Registrar

University of Calcutta, The Librarian

University of Madras, The Registrar

University of .Michigan

U. P., Chief Conservator of Forests

Jodhpur.

Africa.

Ootacamund.

Murree.

Khartoum.

Bombay.

Poona.

Swat.

Calcutta.

London.

Baroda.

Bombay.

Tamkohi.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Rajkot.

Kasauli.

Insein.

Bombay

Sahuspur.

Kalaw .

Rangoon.

Banda.

Madras.

Mawlaik.

England.

London .

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

Pretoria.

Trivandrum.

Bombay.

Jalpaiguri.

Calcutta.

Agartala.

Trivandrum.

Bangkok.

Meerut.

Kcdaikanal.

Ohyia, Ceylon.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Madras.

Michigan, U. S. A.

Naini Tal.

LIST OF MEMBERS

lxiii

ixiv LIST OF MEMBERS

Wilson, The Rt. Hon’ble Lt.-Col. Sir Leslie (p.c.,

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII , No. 3.

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Trees. By the late E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D.,

f.l.s., and W. S. Millard, f.z.s. Part XVI. {With one coloured

and one black and white plates and 2 text-figures.) 513

The Verna y Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats. (Ornitho-

logical Section). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u., assisted by

N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u. Part IX 515

In Ambush for Btson. By E. H. Peacock. ( With 3 black and white

plates ) 529

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. By the late

Rev. E. Blatter, S.J.. ph.D., f.l.s. Part XXV. {With 4 plates and

one text photo ) 532

The Long-tailed Duck. By E. C. Stuart Baker, c.i.e., f.z.s., f.l.s.,

m.b.o.u., h.f. a. o.u. {With 1 coloured plate) 549

Indian Dragonflies. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s. Part XLIJ.

( With 2 plates and 3 text-figures ) 553

Tiger Shooting in Burma. By W. S. Thorn. {With 2 plates) 573

The Flora of Waziristan. By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.j.,

ph.D., f.l.s. and J. Fernandez. Part V. {With 3 plates) 604

The Indian Caddis- Flies ( Trichoptera) . By M. E. Mosely, f.r.e.s.

Part II. {With 8 text figures) 620

Some Observations on the Genus Arisaema on the Nilgiri Hills,

South India. By E. Barnes, b. sc. (Lond.). {With 2 plates) 630

Wanderings of the Bombay-Duck, Harpodon nehereus (Ham. Buch.)

in Indian Waters. By Sunder Lai Hora, d. sc., f.r.s.e., f.a.s.b.

{With 3 text-figures) 640

Habits and Habitats of Food Fishes of The Punjab. By M. H.

Kban, m.sc., ll.b. {With 1 plate) 655

Notes on the Butterflies of Coorg. By Lt.-Col. W. M. Logan

Home 669

On the Birds Seen or Collected by Mr. H. St. J, Philby during

his Expedition to Cross the Rub Al Khali. By N. B. Kinnear,

m.b.o.u, 675

Observations on Ceratophyllum demersmn Linn. By^C. McCann,

f.l.s. ( With 2 plates and 2 text-figures) ........ ... 681

Birds Observed at Fort Munro, Sulaiman Hills. By H. W. Waite,

m.b.ou. 688

Note on a Pyralid ( Argyria f uscivenalis , Hmp.) Caterpillar Pest

of Crataeva religiosa , Forst. ( With 1 plate) 694

Notes on some South Indian Syrphids. By M. C. Cherian, b.a.,

b.sc. , d.i.c • 697

An Annotated List of Indo-Ceylonese Termites. By V. Marga-

bandhu, m.a 700

REVIEWS

1. — The Nidification of the Birds of the Indian Empire 715

II. — Hunters’ Moon 716

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:-

I. — A Tailless Tiger. By R. C. Morris, f.z.s. ( With a photo). 719

II.—* Ratels and Corpses’. By A. A. Dunbar Brander 719

III. — Death of an Elephant {Elephas maximus h.) while calfing.

By R. C. Morris f.z.s.

722

ii

CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVII, No. 3

Page

IV. — Death of 14 Elephants ( Elephas maximus L.) by Food

Poisoning. By R. C. Morris, f.z.s 722

V. — Social behaviour of Bison ( B . gaurus H. Sm.) By J.

Williams 724

VI. — Growth and Shedding of Antlers in the Swamp Deer

( Rucervus duvaucelli) in Manipur State. By C. Gimson. 726

VII. — Hoof disease in the Muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjac). By

G. V. R. Frend 726

VIII. — Nidification of the Travancore Laughing Thrush ( T . J.

fairbanki Blanf.) and the Black-headed Babbler [R. A.

atricePs Oates) By W. Bates 7 27

IX. — The King-Crow (Z>. m. peninsularis Ticeh.) By A. S.

Thyagaraju, m.a 727

X. — Notes on the habits of Magpie Robin ( C . s. saularis L.) By

B. Bonnell 729

XI. — The Nesting habits of the Small Sun Bird ( L . minima

Sykes). By K. K. Nayar, m.a 730

XII. — Habits of the King Vulture (X. calvus Scop). By the

Editors 732

XIII. — A Note on the Appendages and Barbs on the Wing of the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana ( H . chirurgtis Scop). By V. S.

La Personne 733

XIV. — Occurrence of the Wood-Snipe (S. r. rusiicola Linn.) in

the Central Provinces. By P. V. Chance 733

XV.— A Further aid to differentiation between Swinhoe’s Snipe

{C. megala Swinhoe) and the Pintail Snipe ( C . stenura

Bonap.) By V. S. La Personne 734

XVI.— Occurrence of the Purple Wood-Pigeon ( A . puniceus

Tickell ) in Singhbhum District, Bihar and Orissa. By

H. F. Mooney 735

XVII.— The Dawn Carol of Birds. By S. C. Koul 736

XVIII. — The Migration of Wild Fowl, The Society’s Bird Ringing

Scheme. By the Editors 738

XIX.— Angling of Crocodiles. By T. V. Subrahmaniam 738

XX. — Notes on the Indian Monitor ( V. monitor ). By J. Williams. 739

XXL — Notes on Indian Monitors in the United Provinces. By

F. W. Champion 740

XXII. — Occurrence of the Six-toed Frog ( R . hexadactyla ) in the

Bombay Presidency. By C. McCann 742

XXIII. — Occurrence of Leith’s Frog ( R . leithii) in Salsette Island.

By C. McCann 742

XXIV. — Rat-Snakes and their Food Value. By T. V. Subrah-

maniam 743

XXV. — Effect on Mahseer eating the Fruit of the Kalaw Tree ( T.

kurzii). By S. F. Hopwood 743

XXVI. — A Hunting Wasp-attacking a Spider. By C. G. Chevenix

Trench 745

XXVII. — Sound produced by Termites at Work. By A. S. Thyaga-

raju, m.a. 745

XXVIIL— A Centipede Killing a Mouse 746

Proceedings 747

Joukn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate 24.

John Bale. Sons & Damelsson. Ltd London.

Large - flowered Nightshade or Potato Tree.

Solarium macran~bhurrL Dun.

(about 3A nat. size)

GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

Mr. Stuart Baker’s serial on the Waders and other Semi-

Sporting Birds will be concluded in the next Number. — Eds.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

December, 1934. Vol. XXXVII.

No. 3.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TBEES.

BY

The Late E. Blatter, s.j., pIi.d., f.l.s.,

and W. S. Millard, f.z.s.

Part XVI.

(With one coloured and one black-and-white plodes and

2 text-figures).

( Continued from page 313 of this volume).

The Large-leafed Night Shade or Potato Tree.

Solatium macranthum Dun. — Belongs to the family Solanaceae

of which the Potato is the best known

representative. Solanum is from the

Latin Solatium = Solace, because of the

sedative properties which its several

species exercise to lull pain. Macran-

thum from the Greek makros — large

and anthos = flower, in reference to the

size of the flowers.

Description : A shrub or small tree

occasionally reaching a height of 30-40

ft. with yellowish brown straight prickles.

Leaves large 10-15 in. long sometimes

narrowing at the base forming a winged

leafstalk. The leaf is slightly heart-

shaped, egg-shaped, lance-shaped, or el-

liptically lance-shaped with deeply cut

angles or lobes. It is paler beneath,

covered with fine star-like hairs. The

young leaves and shoots are densely covered with the same

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

covering. The leaves on the undersurface are strongly armed with

long prickles arranged at in-

tervals along the nerves.

The -flowers are arranged in

simple or branched bunches

8-5 in. long from 7-12 in

number. The corolla is bluish-

violet, l|-2^ in. in diameter,

the lobes are sharply pointed.

The anthers are large and

yellow. The fruit is almost

rounded, the size of a golf

ball.

Distribution : The Potato

Tree is a native of Brazil.

Gardening : This plant is

widely cultivated in gardens

for its large showy flowers

and beautiful leaves. It

flowers the year round. It is

easily propagated from seed or

cuttings. Thrives best in

sheltered and partially shaded

situations, up to 3,000 ft. or

higher if not exposed to

strong winds. It was first

introduced into Ceylon in 1844. This is probably the only species

of the potato family that attains the form of a tree.

(To be continued).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE XXV.

Flowers of the Large-flowered Nightshade or Potato Tree,

(Solatium macranthum, Dun.).

Photos by

H. N. Wandrehar.

The Large-flowered Nightshade or Potato Tree,

(Solatium macranthum, Dun.).

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE

EASTERN GHATS.

(Ornithological Section).

by

Hugh Whistler, m.b.o.u. , assisted by N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u.

Part IX.1

[Continued from page 297 of this volume).

Thereiceryx zeylanicus zeylanicus (Gmel.).

Bucco zeylanicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, part, i (1788), p. 408 — Ceylon.

The typical race of the Common Green Barbet extends to Travancore, where

according to Ferguson, it is uncommon in the low country. He mentions shoot-

ing one as high as 4,000 ft.

According to -Stuart Baker (Nidification, vol. iii, p. 326) Stewart took two

nests in the extreme south of Travancore on 7th March.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus inornatus (Walden).

Megalaima inornata Walden, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. v (March

1870), p. 219 — Malabar (Coorg).

The - account of the distribution of this race of the Common Green Barbet in

the New Fauna (vol. iii, p. Ill) is not at all easy to understand and there

appears to be very little accurate information about its distribution in the Presid-

ency where it is- perhaps confined to the Western side. The British Museum

contains the fallowing specimens: — 3 9 September 1882 Cannanore (Wardlaw-

Bamsay); three birds ‘Malabar’ (Tweeddale Collection); two birds, including

the- type, Coorg (Waldan). It is said to breed in the Nilgiris in March (Bhodes

Morgan), and according to Stuart Baker (Nidification, iii, p. 328) the eggs

were obtained in the Nilgiris in April by both Col. H. B. Baker and General

Betham. I have not, however, seen any skins from these hills and the species

is not included by William Davison in his list of Nilgiri birds. There also

seems to be no evidence for the statement ( New Fauna, iv, p. Ill) that this

race occurs in Northern Travancore.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps (Franklin).

Bucco caniceps -Franklin, P.Z.S. 1830-31 (October 25,, 1831), p. 31 — Between

Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place and

Gurra Mundela.

Specimens collected: — 1369 3 10-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1554 $ 16-3-30

Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill- Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

1 3 30-5 114-5 67-5 26 mm.

1 $ 33 119 70-5 29 mm.

Franklin’s race of the Common Green Barbet is recorded by Jerdon at

Goomsoor and at Jeypore by Ball. A male collected by the latter on 23 March

1 It is perhaps advisable to remark that this is the first part of the Eastern

Ghats Survey to include the records from Mr. Stuart Baker’s Nidification of

Birds of the Indian Empire. The previous parts were writteni before the publi-

cation of the relevant volumes of Mr. Stuart Baker’s book.

$16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

1877 is in the British Museum. The above two survey specimens and a male

in the British Museum, collected by Blanford north-east of Rajamundry on

29 May 1871 complete the records from this area.

Whether it occurs or not in the southern half of the east of the Presidency

needs confirmation, both as to race and species. Roscoe Allen (J.B.N.H.S.,

xviii, p. 906) states that it breeds at Horsleykonda. Dewar says that he never

saw or heard it personally at Madras, but that he had had it described to

him. There is said to be a specimen in the Madras Museum, collected at

Udayagiri.

The survey specimens agree with others from neighbouring areas in being

small compared with birds from the Western Himalayas, though they

agree with them in colour. Five males (Allahabad, Orissa, Yizagapatam, Hyde-

rabad) measure: — bill 30-5-34, wing 112-117-5, tail 67-76 mm. Seven males from

the Western Himalayas (Kangra to Gahrwal) measure: — bill 34-36-5, wing

121-5-129-5, tail 79*5-81 mm. The smaller bird is clearly Franklin’s Bucco

caniceps and I therefore propose for the other the name: —

Thereiceryx zeylanicus kangrae subsp. nov.

Type : — q Ranital 2,000 ft., Kangra 11 December 1921. Coll. H. Whistler

No. 4042. British Museum register No. 1934.10.17.1.

Thereiceryx viridis Boddaert.

Bucco viridis Boddaert, Table PI. Enlum. (1783), p. 53, based on PI. Enlum.

870 — India (Malie).

Specimens collected: — 204 9 11-5-29, 240-241 9 9 17-5-29 Shevaroy Hills

3,500-4,500 ft.; 383-384 S 9 11-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — -

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

1 d 25-5 102 66 26 mm.

4 9 25-27-5 102-109 61-67-5 25-27-5

La Personne reports that the Small Green Barbet was remarkably common

and noisy on the -Shevaroy s, and in smaller numbers on the plains below. In

the Shevaroys there seemed to be one in every tree. From the state of the

organs it appears that the breeding season was well advanced in May.

This is an extension of the recorded range of this barbet which has hitherto

been considered as confined to the West Coast. The New Fauna (iv, 114)

gives its northern limit as Mahableshwar and the Deccan but Hayes Lloyd

(S.F., i, 419) says that he obtained it in the Peint and Soorungun districts

which border on the Khandeish Dangs, and James Davidson thought that he

had seen it once or twice in the Satpuras (S.F., x, 298).

On the western side of the Presidency it is very common and well known.

A specimen in the Hume collection was obtained at Mangalore and there are

4 specimens from Cannanore in the Wardlaw-Ramsay collection. Darling met

it at Calicut (N. & E., ii, p. 326) and a specimen in Colonel Sparrow’s collec-

tion was collected at Malappuram. In Coorg, the Wynaad and the Nilgiris,

the Nelliampathies and Palnis and throughout Travancore it is extremely com-

mon at all elevations and there is no need to cite the records.

The breeding season in the Nilgiris, according to William Davison and

Darling, extends from March until the first or second week of June; and

those dates cover the records in the rest of our area except that Kinloch is

said to have taken eggs in February in the Nelliampathies.

This Barbet undoubtedly increases in size from south to north. Of 8 speci-

mens measured from Travancore, the largest has a wing of 104 mm., and

all but three have wings under 100 mm. Ten specimens from Matheran, Khan-

dala and Khandesh measure from 103 to 113 mm., specimens from other areas,

however, obscure this distinction and at present I do not see any point in

recognising two races.

Xantholaema haemacephala indica (Latham).

Bucco indicus Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 205 — India.

Specimens collected:- — 466 23-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 506 9 4-7-29

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 517

Kalai; 714 9 719 9 20-8-29 Palkonda Hills; 752 1-9-29, 803 9 11-9-29

Kodur; 909-910 S 9 12-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1164 23-12-29

Cumbum Valley; 1343 S 6-2-30, 1419 S 21-2-30, 1761-1764 9 juv. 9 c? 3-5-30

Anantagiri 3,000 ft.; 1726 <$ 24-4-30, 1729 S 26-4-30 Jeypore agency 2,000 ft.

Measurements : — -

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

10 S 17-18-5 77-83-5 34-36 17-19-5 mm.

6 9 17-19 74-81 33-35 17-5-19 mm.

The Crimson-breasted Barbet was found very commonly throughout the

hill-tracts of Vizagapatam, as the list of specimens implies. Although there

is no other record between that area and the Godavery Valley it is probably

safe to assume that this species is a common resident throughout the whole

of the eastern side of the Presidency. Dewar remarks on how he sometimes

saw 70 or 80 birds collected in a single tree at Madras.

On the west it is very common in Coorg (Betts). It is sparingly distri-

buted through the Wynaad and about the base of the Nilgiris (William

Davison). I have seen specimens from the Segore and Kotagherry Ghats and

Coonoor and these were probably all collected at low elevations. I have seen

other specimens from Calicut (2 Hume collection), Pothanore (Hume collection)

and Malappuram (Hume collection). In the Nelliampathies, according to Kin-

loch it does not occur. In the Palnis, Fairbank found it common at the base

and up to 4,000 ft. In Travancore, it is said to be very common throughout

the low country and at times on the hills up to 1,500 ft.

In the Vizagapatam hills, La Personne states that these Barbets were

feeding young in the last week of April. In Travancore, they are said to lay

in March.

In the Ibis 1919, pp. 219-22, Mr. Stuart Baker decided that there was only

the one race of this Barbet in India, Ceylon and Burma but in the New

Fauna, vol. iv, pp. 127-9, he changed his mind and recognised two races

differing only in depth of colouration. The former opinion was right. The

variation in tone and depth of colour in this species is partly individual but

more largely due to the extent of wear. The survey series from Vizagapatam

are in worn plumage and at first examination appeared to stand out markedly

from the series obtained from south of the Biver Godavery as being olive

greyish-green on the upper parts, very distinct from the more usual golden

green colour of the worn plumage. I have, however, been able to match the

Vizagapatam birds with others from the Nilgiris. Ceylon birds do not differ

in size or colour from those of the main land.

Xantholaema rubricapilla malabarica (Blyth).

Bucco malabarica Blyth, J.A.-S.B., vol. xvi (1847), pp. 386, 465 — Malabar.

Not obtained by the Survey. The Crimson-throated Barbet is confined to

the western coast of India from the Goa Frontier (Fairbank) to the south of

Travancore. There is some doubt about its northern boundary. Fairbank re-

corded it from the Savantvadi Forests (S.F., iv, 255), but doubt was later

thrown on the record (S.F., x, 423). Major Lloyd also included it as a Konkan

species, but this was in turn doubted by Butler (S.F., ix, 387).

In the Presidency, William Davison says that it seems to be spread through

the Wynaad and in some parts, as near Manantoddy, is comparatively common.

There are specimens from Goodalore and Nellacotta in the Hume collection and

there are 3 specimens collected by Wardlaw-Bamsay at Tellicherry in the

Tweeddale collection.1 It is very common in the Nelliampathies (Kinloch). In

Tarvancore it is a rare forest bird in the hills, according to Ferguson, and he

states that Bourdillon’s account (S.F., iv, 392) is based on confusion with

X. haemacephala. This fact must throw suspicion on the identity of the eggs

collected by Bourdillon and described in N. & E., 2nd ed., vol. ii, p. '332 and

mentioned by Stuart Baker (Nidification, vol. iii, p. 340).

1 I cannot trace the locality Chawachiraj from which there are six speci-

mens in the British Museum collected by Wardlaw-Bamsay.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXVII

The breeding season is in February and March according to the New Fauna,

vol. iv, p. 130.

The Crimson-throated Barbet must in my opinion be considered a race of

the Small Ceylon Barbet ( Xantholaema rubricapilla) . The latter differs from

the former merely in having the supercilium, cheek, patch, chin and throat

yellow instead of red, while the red patch on the lower throat is reduced

in size. The relationship between red and yellow is well-known and the close

connection between the two forms is shown in the juvenile plumage. The

young of the two forms are; not distinguishable, the traces of the red or yellow

patches of the adult being yellow in both juveniles. A specimen of X. haema-

cephala indica in Col. Sparrow’s collection from Muttra has the red of the

head and breast replaced by yellow with slight traces of a red wash.

Cuculus canorus Linnaeus.

Cuculus canorus Linnaeus, -Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 110 — Europe

restricted to Sweden.

There is very little information about the Common Cuckoo in the Presid-

ency though it evidently occurs. In Jaipur, Ball tells us (S.F., v, p. 414)

that he not unfrequently heard a cuckoo in April which from its note must

have been this species. La Personne says that in the Yizagapatam district in

April it was calling and that it probably breeds at Sankrametta, but unfortun-

atelv none was obtained. Koscoe Allen heard it at Hosleykonda on 29 May

(J.B.N.H.S., xviii , 905).

There is a specimen in the Government Museum at Madras which was

killed in the neighbourhood though, according to Dewar, it only occurs on very

rare occasions.

On the western- side, Ferguson says that a specimen was shot at Trivandrum

in February 1893. This bird has been obtained on two or three occasions in

Ceylon’.

As I have examined no specimen from the Presidency I am unable • to

discuss, the question of the race which occurs.

[Cuculus optatus Gould.

Cuculus optatus Gould, P.Z.S. April 1845, p. 18 — Port Essington, Northern

Territory.

William Davison (S.F., x, 359) stated that the Himalayan Cuckoo was

sparingly distributed in the Wynaad and that he had heard it calling late in

Mav- This record has however been discredited by Blanford (P.Z.S. 1893,

p. 318).]

Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Latham.

Cuculus poliocephalus Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 214 — India.

Specimen collected : — 925 o? juv. 17-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Sex? juv. 24.5 149 126 17 mm.

The Small Cuckoo is a winter visitor or passage migrant to the Presidency

but we have very little definite information about it. On the eastern side

Jerdon states that he procured it at Nellore (B. of I., i, 325) and the survey

specimen provides the second specimen.

On the west the only records are furnished by a juvenile in the Society’s

collection obtained at Mercara, Coorg, on 20 October 1918 and a male in the

British Museum, collected by Wardlaw-Bamsay at Cannanore on 7 Septem-

ber 1882.

It is commonly said to occur in the Nilgiris but I have not traced any

evidence of the fact.

The fact that it is a passage migrant in large numbers through Dhulia

(James Davidson, S.F., x, 299) from the middle of September to the middle

of October suggests that it must be more numerous in the Presidency than

the actual records indicate.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 519

Cuculus micropterus Gould.

Cuculus micropterus Gould, P.Z.S. December 5, 1837, p. 137 — Himalayas,

Simla.

Not met by the Survey. Very little is known about the Indian Cuckoo in

the Presidency. Jerdon states (B. of I., vol. i, p. 327) that he had found

it rare on the Malabar Coast and in the Carnatic. This tells us little and

there is no more definite record for the eastern side, though two specimens in

the Madras Museum are said to have been obtained locally. On the west

William Davison says he found it occasionally in the Wynaad. There is a

male in the Hume collection obtained at Coonoor on 28 July 1867. In Travan-

core Ferguson says that he never met with it in the hills but that it fre-

quents forest in the low country and that its cry may be heard in April and

May, especially towards dusk. The Trivandrum Museum then contained two

specimens, shot in February and May. According to Stuart Baker (Nidifica-

tion, iii, p. 317) an oviduct egg was obtained by Stewart in Travancore.

This southern bird appears to be identical with the Himalayan form, but

there is not sufficient material to allow of a final decision on the point.

Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vigors).

Cuculus sparverioides Vigors in Gould Cent. Birds Himalayas 1831, plate

53 — Himalayas .

The Large Hawk-Cuckoo has only been recorded from the Nilgiris so far

as the Madras Presidency is concerned. There according to William Davison

it frequents the Sholas and occasionally also well- wooded gardens. There

are three specimens in the Hume collection viz., an unsexed and undated

bird from Coonoor, a male dated 12 February 1881 from Ootacamund (Davison)

and a female from Kotagherry collected by Miss Cockburn on 7 December 1874.

Its status in the Nilgiris is not very clear. Miss Cockburn communicated

a long description to Hume (N. & E., vol. ii, p. 384) of two supposed nests

found on April 11 and May 21 but these nests had evidently nothing to do

with Hawk-Cuckoos though one was shot near the first of them.

Davison and Hume considered that these Nilgiri birds were smaller than

the Himalayan breeding form but I have examined equally small birds from

the Himalayas and can find no means of separating birds from the two areas.

Hierococcyx varius Valil.

Hierococcyx varius Vahl, Skriv. Nat. Selsk. Kjobenhavn, vol. iv (1797), pt. i,

p. 61 — Tranquebar, India.

Specimens collected: — 78 9 18-4-29, 143 3 27-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 273 3

23-5-29 -Shevaroy Hills 4,000 ft.; 1039 3 imm. 25-11-29 Nallamalai range

2,500 ft. ; 1629 9 30-3-30 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill/ Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3 3 26-5-27*5 190-195*5 162-166 24 mm.

2 9 27*5 188-194 152-166 23-24-5 mm.

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo seems to be widely, but by no means generally,

distributed in the Presidency. In the extreme north-east Ball met it at

Jeypore and La Personne obtained the above specimen at Sankrametta. Further

south La Personne obtained it also in the Nallamalai Hills. About Madras

it would seem to be scarce, as Dewar remarks that he only heard the well-

known call once in eighteen months. In May and June the Survey found

the Hawk-Cuckoo common in the Shevaroy s and Chitteri Hills. They were

calling late into the night and, when the moon was favourable, practically all

night. Similarly at Kurumbapatti in April they were found to be common

and were heard both by day and night.

On the western side of the Presidency, Betts considers it uncommon in

Coorg and remarks that he never heard it calling there. He was of opinion

that a young cuckoo which he saw being fed by Magpie-Robins was probably

of this species. William Davison found the Hawk-Cuckoo plentiful throughout

th<; Wynaad, and even more so on the slopes of the Nilgiris and on the

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

plateau. There he noticed the nestling being fed by the Nilgiri Laughing-

Thrush.

In the Nelliampathies according to Kinloch the bird does not occur. This

seems curious as in the Palnis Fairbank found it common both at the base

and on the hillsides, while in Travancore it is said to be abundant in the

semi-cultivated land of the plains. It occasionally penetrates the jungles about

the base of the hills up to about 1,000 ft. but Ferguson says he only met

it once as high as 2,000 ft.

There seem to be no records about the breeding of this cuckoo in the

Presidency beyond the implications of the above account and Stuart Baker’s

statement (Nidification, vol. iii, p. 349) that in South-west India most birds

breed in May and June and in late April. Its actual status is not very clear

though in the Nilgiris it seems to occur in most months. Baker says it is a

resident species wherever found and that it is silent, and so not observed, out

of the breeding season. Legge, however, says (Birds of Ceylon, p. 241) that

it is extremely noisy at all times, even out of the breeding season and in

Ceylon he considered it a migrant, arriving about the beginning of November.

Wait, however, thinks that a few birds may be resident.

The only two specimens which I have been able to examine from Ceylon

appeared to be darker than continental birds.

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl).

Cuculus passerinus Yahl, Skriv. Nat. Selsk. Kjobenhavn, vol. iv, pt. i

(1797), p. 57 — Tranquebar, India.

•Specimens collected : — 834 <$ 19-9-29 Xodur ; 936 c? 20-10-29 Seschachalam

Hills 2,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2 c? 22 113 105-5-110 17-17-5 mm.

The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo has not been recorded definitely from that

part of the Presidency north of Kodur and the Seschachalam Hills where it

was obtained by the Survey. There is no other record from this side beyond

an undated female, labelled Madras, in the Hume collection and Jerdon’s

general statement that it is rare in the Carnatic but found here and there in

jungly places, and on the Eastern Ghats.

On the western side it occurs in fair numbers in the Wynaad and on

the slopes of the Nilgiris at all elevations. The status here and in other

parts of the Presidency is nowhere recorded but it is doubtless a resident in

the Nilgiris as Miss Cockburn took a series of eggs from nests of Prinia

inornata at Ixotagherry from 17th to 26th September and found a nestling in

a nest of the same foster-species on 5 October (Hume, N. & E., 2nd ed.,

vol. ii, p. 386). The Hume Collection contains skins from Kotagherry dated

May, June and September as well as the above nestling killed on the 14th

October. Specimens collected at Coonoor in April and September by Wardlaw-

Bamsay are also in the British Museum.

In Travancore it appears to be rare. Ferguson only obtained two speci-

mens shot in April in forest in the low country.

In the New Fauna , vol. iv, p. 155, Western Nepal is given as the western

limit in the Himalayas. This is incorrect. It is comparatively common as

a summer visitor to Simla (J.B.N.H.S., xxxii, 727) and it occurs in smaller

numbers at Dharmsla (Ibis 1926, 749), at Murree (Rattray, J.B.N.H.S., xvi,

661) and Abbotabad (Currie, J.B.N.H.S., xxiv, 595). The account of the plu-

mages is also quite misleading.

Cacomantis merulinus querulus Heine.

Cacomantis querulus Heine, Jour, fur Orn. 1863, p. 352 — Nepal.

•Specimen collected:— 1177 S 26-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : — ■

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

22 111 112-5 17-5 mm.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 52]

The above specimen of the Burmese race of the Plaintive Cuckoo not only

furnishes the only record for the Presidency but it also extends the range of

the race in India. It has not previously been recorded south of Raipur,

whence there are two males in the Hume collection .dated January 1871 and

13 February 1871. The survey specimen is in adult plumage, except for some

traces of the juvenile dress.

Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii Latham.

Penthoceryx sonneratii Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 215 — India.

Not obtained by the Survey. The Banded Bay Cuckoo occurs in the Presi-

dency in small numbers on the western side. There are specimens in the

British Museum from Cannanore (d 9-9-82, Wardlaw-Bamsay) and the Wynaad

Xd 22-9-77, Darling) and four others from ‘Malabar’. Jerdon and William

Davison both say that it occurs on the slopes of the Nilgiris and the British

Museum contains a specimen (9 April 1878, Wardlaw-Ramsay) from Burliar,

Coonoor G-hat and another (d 8-4-83, Davison) from Coonoor.

In Travancore Jerdon considered it tolerably common but Ferguson, on

the other hand, called it decidedly rare.

On the eastern side of the Presidency the only record is Jerdon’s state-

ment that it is found more rarely in the Eastern Ghats and Mr. Boscoe

Allen’s mention of it at Horsleykonda in April (J.B.N.H.S., xviii, p. 905).

This cuckoo is apparently a resident in S.-W. India. In Hume’s N. & E.

(vol. ii, p. 382), it is stated that a broken egg was taken from the oviduct

of a female shot on the Nilgiris on 19 May 1874. The authority for this

statement is not given and the colour of the egg, pale bluish green, spotless,

is at variance with the type of eggs that Mr. Stuart Baker believes to belong

to this species. Other supposed eggs were taken in Coorg on 18th July (see

J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 680).

Chalcites xanthorhynchus (Horsfield).

Cuculus xanthorhynchus Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiii, pt. 1 (May

1821), p. 179 — Java.

Dr. Gravely kindly informs me that there is a male specimen of the

Violet Cuckoo in the Madras Museum, collected at Perambur near Madras. This

specimen does not appear to have been recorded.

Chalcites maculatus maculatus Gmelin.

Trogon maculatus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. i (1788), p. 404 — Ceylon.

In Stray Feathers, vol. ix, p. 298, Mr. W. F. Dique records that ‘on

the 6th March 1878 a lovely male Chrysococcyx maculatus was caught with

bird-lime in a garden at the Adyar, a few miles to the south of Madras. This

specimen has the ‘entire breast uniform emerald green’. This record of the

Emerald Cuckoo was overlooked by the New Fauna and it .is of especial interest

not only in view of Jerdon’s statement that ‘it has been procured rarely in

Central India’, but with reference to the type locality.

Gmelin based his description of Trogon maculatus or the Spotted Curucui

in the New Illustrations of Zoology of Peter Brown (p. 25, pi. xiii, fig. 2)

published in 1776. In his introduction Brown tells us that a number of the

‘plates are copied from the elegant Drawings, generously communicated to

me by Gideon Loten Esq., and originally furnished under his own inspection

from living subjects, during his residence in the Islands of Java

and Ceylon of the latter of which he was Governor.’ Loten was in

the Dutch Colonial Service and held appointments in Java and Ceylon,

in which latter place he served as Governor from 1752-57, and his original

plates are in the British Museum. Seventeen of Loten’s plates were used

by Brown. Three of these are of Javan birds as stated by Brown and marked

by Loten on the originals. Thirteen others are said by both Loten and Brown

to represent birds from Ceylon. Of these ten can be identified for certain with

species found in that island. Two others can only be doubtfully identified

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

and a third (pi. xxxviii) called by Brown a Bail cannot be identified with

any known species and Loten’s original drawing does not help in any way.

The remaining plate is of the Spotted Curucui which is also stated by Brown

to have come from Ceylon, but the original is missing so that we have no

means of ascertaining what Loten actually said about the bird. This fact

and the belief that the Emerald Cuckoo could not possibly occur in Ceylon

has thrown doubt on Brown’s type locality and an endeavour has been made

to reject it. This in our opinion is unnecessary in view of the Madras record,

for cuckoos are noted wanderers.

Surniculus lugubris lugubris (Horsfield).

Cuculus lugubris Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. , xiii (1820), p. 179 — Java.

Not obtained by the Survey. The Drongo-Cuckoo is so far only recorded

from the south of the Presidency and there it is mostly confined to the

western side. A fine adult captured in the Museum compound at Madras on

14 October 1879 (Dique, S.F., ix, p. 298) provides the only record from the

east.

Jerdon says that he procured it in the Wynaad. A male obtained in April

1878 on the Coonoor Ghat (Wardlaw-Bamsay) is in the British Museum. In

South Travancore, according to Ferguson it is not uncommon, and probably

resident, in the low country in open forest land.

According to Stuart Baker (Nidification, iii, p. 355) the breeding season

in Travancore is from January to March and an egg believed to be of this

species is described.

There has been some difference of opinion as to the race to which these

South Indian and Ceylon birds are to be referred. Stresemann (Nov. Zool.,

xx, p. 340, et seq.) refers them, to the typical race. ‘Stuart Baker, however

(Nov. Zool., xxvi, p. 293), considers them separable and provides them with

the name of S. 1. stewarti. I have been into the question carefully and can

find no means of separating these birds from the typical race. There appears

to be no difference in size, colour or wing-formula. S. 1. brachyura of the

Malay Peninsula has a much shorter and less deeply forked tail while S. 1.

dicruroides of the Himalayas is a larger bird.

Clamator jacobinus jacobinus (Boddaert).

Cuculus jacobinus Boddaert, Tabl. PI. Enlum. (1783), p. 53 for PI. Enlum.,

872 — Coromandel Coast.

Specimens collected : —95 $ 20-4-29, 105 21-4-29, 127 $ 25-4-29, 155 &

29-4-29 Kurumbapatti ; 475 9 23-6-29, 476 9 24-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.;

855 S 30-9-29, 924 9 17-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft. ; 984 9 8-11-29

Nallamalai range 2,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

4 $ 24-27 141-146 157-165 25-5-27-5 mm.

5 9 25 140-146 155-5-161 25-27-5 mm.

The Pied Crested Cuckoo is not recorded in the Presidency north of the

Nallamalai Bange where the Survey obtained a specimen. In the Seschachalam

Hills it was found to be common. In the Madras District, Capt. Bates informs

me that it is by no means uncommon and that he has noted it in every month

of the year. He also says that he saw it at Palmaner on 25 July. In Salem

District, La Personne says that it was fairly well distributed throughout the

plains area, preferably in the forested tracts, though it was not observed in the

hills. It was common at Harur and Tirthamalai. At Kurumbapatti the birds

were paired and very noisy by the first week in May, every part of the jungle

seeming to have its own pair.

How far north this resident form occurs on the western side is not very

clear, as the only specimen I have examined from the Nilgiris undoubtedly

belongs to the migratory race. In Travancore, Ferguson says the Pied Crested

Cuckoo is a resident and fairly common in the low country, more especially

towards the extreme south. Jerdon found it breeding at Coimbatore. Davison

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 523

records that while he had seen it only occasionally in the Wynaad it is

common in the Nilgiris, being most numerous perhaps about cultivation round

Ootacamund, Coonoor, Kotagherry and similar localities. On the western slopes,

however, Mr. Betts informs me that it is scarce, occurring only at low eleva-

tions so it is possible that hereabouts we have the boundary between the

two forms.

Rhodes Morgan considers the breeding season to be from about March to

May and this agrees well with Capt. Bates’ belief that about Madras it breeds

in April and May. The female shot at Kurumbapatti on 20 April was laying

eggs. Mr. Theobald, however, took an oviduct egg at Utnoor, -Salem, as late

as 18 August (N. & E., ii, 388).

An albinistic specimen from Madras is recorded (Dique, S.F., ix, 508).

In the Journal for September 1928 (vol. xxxiii, pp. 136-44) I attempted to

enumerate and summarise the result of the records of this cuckoo in an en-

deavour to find the winter quarters of the huge numbers of Pied Crested Cuckoos

which arrive to breed in the rains over a vast area of Northern and Central

India. I then pointed out that only Southern and South-eastern India remain-

ed as a possible wintering place for these birds if they did not go to Africa.

The former suggestion is now, I think, ruled out by the Survey which cer-

tainly never found this cuckoo in the numbers which one would expect if

all the northern birds came south and only found the smaller race. To my

mind there is now little doubt that the larger form winters in Africa.

The Survey has cleared up a further point. The original type locality of

Boddaert’s Cuculus jacobinus is the Coromandel Coast, that is the South-east

coast of India from about the mouth of the Kistna to the Palk Straits. This

area is inhabited not by the larger migrant form which has hitherto been

considered the typical race but by the smaller resident bird which is identical

with the resident Ceylon bird named taprobanus by Hartert [Nov. Zool.,

vol. xxii (1915), p. 254 — Ceylon]. This is clear from the measurements. The

complete series of Ceylon birds in the British Museum is as follows :■ —

There is no difference in plumage. Captain Bates has kindly sent me

two birds (unsexed) from Madras to supplement the survey series. They

measure: — bill 25-25-5, wing 140-142 mm. Taprobanus the name hitherto used

for this form therefore becomes a synonym of the typical form. Cuculus pica

Hempr. and Ehr., Symb. Phys. (1833), folio 2, note — type locality Ambukahl,

Dongola appears to be the oldest name applicable to the larger northern bird

which may in future, therefore, be known as Clamator jacobinus pica (Hempr.

& Ehr.).

Clamator jacobinus pica (Hempr. & Ehr.).

Cuculus pica Hempr. & Ehr., Symb. Phys. (1833), folio 2, no , Ambukahl,

Dongola.

As remarked under the last form this migratory race of the Pied Crested

Cuckoo certainly occurs in the north-west corner of the Presidency. There is

a male in the British Museum collected by Wardlaw-Ramsay on 23 August

1876 at Coonoor 6,000 ft. which has a bill of 25 mm. and wing of 152 mm.

There is however nothing else to show whether the birds said by Davison to

be common on the Nilgiris are resident or migratory or to which form they

belong.

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Clamator coroniandus (Linnaeus).

Cuculus coroniandus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, vol. i (1766), p. 171 —

Coromandel Coast.

The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo was not met by the Survey but it is

probably a regular winter visitor and passage migrant in small numbers to

the Presidency. Jerdon says that he bad seen it in the Carnatic and there

is a skin from ‘Madras’ in the Hume collection. Dewar says that he saw it

in Guindy Park and that he also saw one in Colonel Carruther’s aviary that

had been caught in that officer’s compound in Madras. A skin dated 1871

from Trichinopoly is in the Hume collection.

On the west William Davison mentions (S.F., x, 360) a report of one shot

by a native taxidermist in the S.-E. Wynaad. Miss Cockburn sent Hume a

specimen (now in the British Museum) shot at Kotagherry on 5 December 1874.

Ferguson mentions two winter specimens, then in the Trivandrum Museum,

shot at 2,500 ft. and 4,000 ft. respectively on Ponmudi in 1892.

In Ceylon it is somewhat better known.

Eudynamys scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus).

Cuculus scolopaceus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. Ill —

Bengal.

Specimens collected: — 326 d 3-6-29, 411 d 14-6-29 Chitteri Range 2,000-

3,000 ft.; 708 $ 18-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 937 d 20-10-29 Seschachalam

Hills 2,000 ft. ; 1207 $ 8-1-30 Godavery Delta.

Measurements : — •

There appears to be no record of the Common Koel in the Presidency north

of the Godavery Delta where a female was procured by the Survey on a wooded

island. This specimen is more fulvous than usual on the crown and throat

but the bill is too small for malayana and it must certainly belong to the

typical form as do Blanford’s specimens from Badrachalam (d 17-2-71) and

Rajamundry (d 30-5-71). Other specimens were collected in the Palkonda and

Seschachalam Hills and at Madras the Koel is very common, according to

Dewar. The Survey reported it common on the Shevaroys and plentiful on the

Chitteri Range, frequenting both hill and plains forest in that area. Undated

specimens from Arcot and Trichinopoly are in the British Museum.

In Coorg according to Betts the Koel is only a casual visitor. William

Davison found them common and very noisy in the Wynaad in March and

April, and also not uncommon about the lower slopes of the Nilgiris. He

remarks that he once shot a pair at Ootacamund but their occurrence at that

altitude is quite unusual. Specimens from Tellicherry (d 11-10-82 Wardlaw-

Ramsay) and Calicut (January 1873 Hume collection) are also in the British

Museum.

In the Nelliampathies according to Kinloch the bird does not occur. Fair-

bank, however, observed it a few times in the Palnis. In Travancore it is

said to be resident but not very common, being found occasionally both in the

hills and low country.

Mr. A. G. Cardew C. S. found various Koels’ eggs in House-Crows’ nests

at Madras in the last week of June (N. & E., ii, 396). With this exception

there are no breeding records for the Presidency and we have no accurate in-

formation as to its status though it appears to be resident.

Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon).

Zanclostomus viridirostris Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xi (1840),

p. 223 — Bottom of the Coonoor Pass.

Specimens collected: — 58-59 d9 15-4-29 Kurumbapatti ; 331 d 5-6-29, 348 9

6-6-29, 360 d imm. 7-6-29, 370-371 dd 9-6-29, 404 d imm. 14-6-29 Chitteri

Range 2,000-3,000 ft.; 458 d 21-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 536 9 8-7-29

Vyampatti, Trichinopoly ; , 674 d 10-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 901 d

3 d

2 9

Bill. Wing.

29-30-5 187-5-193

29-5-31 194

Tail.

186-195

190-192

Tarsus.

32-35 mm.

30-5-31-5 mm.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 525

11-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1042 o? 28-11-29 Nallamalai Bange

2,000 ft.

Measurements : —

Bill.

7 <5 ad. 29-5-32

2 U juv. 29-30

3 $ ad. 29-32-5

Wing.

132-5-138

128- 5-130

129- 139-5

Tail. Tarsus.

207-235 32-5-35*5 mm.

212-215 33-34 mm.

218-228 32-34 mm.

There has always been some doubt as to the northern limits of the -Small

Green-billed Malkoha on the eastern side of India. Hume doubted Ball’s

statement that it occurred at Midnapore (S.F., vii, p. 207) while Jerdon’s

statement that it occurs as far north as Cuttack (B. of I., i, p. 347) was

evidently only based on specimen ‘A’ in Blyth’s Catalogue (p. 76) which was

purchased in 1847. It certainly occurs, however, in Orissa for a female col-

lected by Walton at Chamundia, Daspalla on 22 January 1902 is in the Society’s

collection.

The most northern record for the Presidency is Blanford’s specimen in the

British Museum collected north of Ellore ($ 5-4-1871). South of the Godavery

it appears to be fairly general and common down to the Cauvery Biver, south

of which I have no information beyond the fact that it occurs on Bameswaram

Island (S.F., iv, 458). In Cuddapah District La Personne says that it is

common in bamboo and other forests. In Salem District he found it extremely

common from the foot of the Shevaroys to Tirthamalai both in the hill and

plains forests. Captain Bates informs me that it is not uncommon in the

Beserved forests round the groups of isolated hills near Madras, there being

apparently a pair to every hill. He adds the following note: — they seem

very attached to certain localities and on revisiting certain hills at considerable

intervals of time, I have almost always succeeded in finding the birds within

a hundred yards or so of where they were first noted. They are skulkers

with much the same habits as the Crow-Pheasant, though I have never seen

one actually on the ground. When caught in the open they often ‘freeze’,

sometimes in the most grotesque attitudes, hoping thereby to escape detection.

This Malkoha is also fairly common on the western side of the Presidency.

There are two specimens from Calicut in the Hume collection. William Davison

says that it does not ascend the hills but occurs, though never very numerously,

in the better wooded parts of the Wynaad and the country about the base

of the Nilgiris. A specimen in the British Museum was, however, killed as

high as 3,000 ft. on the Coonoor Ghat. Jerdon mentions its partiality for

the large hedges of Euphorbia in the Coimbatore District. Colonel Sparrow

informs me that it occurs near Malappuram. Fairbank met with 4 in all

in thickets at the eastern base of the Palnis. In Travancore Ferguson says

it is not uncommon about the base of the hills in open forest and he shot

it as high as 3,000 ft. at Pirmade.

As to the breeding season Mr. A. G. Cardew obtained 2 eggs from a nest

near Wandiwash (North Arcot) on 10 March (Hume, N. & E., ii, p. 399).

La Personne considered that they were breeding at Kurumbapatti in April and

in the Shevaroy-Tirthamalai area in May and June. A fledged young bird

was seen at Chitteri on 23 June. This appears late however, as the above

series contains young birds in post-juvenal moult in June.

The only variation that I can find in specimens of this Malkoha from

India and Ceylon lies in the white tips to the tail feathers. In specimens

from Ceylon these tips are very deep and in some cases the ends of the

shorter feathers almost touch the bases of the white tips of the next in the

series, so that the sides of the tail appear white from below. In 15 specimens

the tips of the second tail feathers (counting from the outside and measuring

the greatest length of white which is on the outer web) vary in depth from

35 to 51 millimetres. In the third tail-feather the variation is from 33.5 to

50 mm. In a small series from South Konkan the white tips are much nar-

rower, the corresponding measurements being 33 to 37 and 28.5 to 37.5 mm.

There is, however, such complete intergradation between these two extremes

from south to north and the difference at best is so small, that there is no

reason to recognise two races.

It does, however, appear probable that viridirostris should itself be grouped

with other members of the genus as subspecies of one widely distributed species,

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVil

but 1 am unwilling to suggest such an arrangement without further study

of the group as a whole.

Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus (Pennant).

Cuculus pyrrhocephalus Pennant, Ind. Zool. (1769), p. 16, pi. vi — Ceylon.

According to Stuart Baker (New Fauna, iii, p. 182 and Nidification, vol. iii,

p. 364) the Bed-faced Malkoha, which has hitherto been recorded as peculiar to

Ceylon, occurs in the extreme, south of Travancore where Mr. Stewart is said

to have taken eggs in April and May.

Taccocua leschenaultii leschenaultii Lesson.

Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson, Traite’ d’ Orn. (9 May 1830), p. 144 — India,

now restricted to Madras.

•Specimens collected: — 768 9 28-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 858 <$ 1-10-29

Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

1 ^ 30-5 154 229-5 43-5 mm.

1 9 29-5 148 211 45 mm.

The Sirkeer Cuckoo appears to be scarce throughout the Presidency. The

only records of this form on the eastern side, other than Jerdon’s general

remark that he had procured it on the Eastern Ghats, are furnished by the

above two survey specimens.

On the western side the Sirkeer is found but is rare on the Nilgiris. Jerdon

and William Davison both record that they met it up to 5*000-6,000 ft.

elevation. Miss Cockburn considered it was confined to the lower slopes. A

specimen collected by her near Kotagherry on 23 September 1874 is in the

British Museum.

In Travancore Ferguson says that he met it once only, in the low- country.

There is one ‘Anjango’ specimen in- the British -Museum.

The only hint of the. breeding season in our area is furnished by Miss

Cockburn’s statement that the only nest she ever found contained 2 eggs

in March.

In the J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxviii, p. 158, Mr. Stuart Baker restricted the

type locality of- leschenaultii to Kanara, Bombay, an unfortunate choice as

that -is an area where the birds are intermediate in character between lesche-

naultii and sirlcee. It cannot however be considered correct as Lesson received

his specimen from the French. Traveller M. Leschenault de la Tour who visited

India in 1816 remaining some time at Pondicherry and then travelling up

the line of Eastern Ghats to Bengal from where he went to Ceylon and

then France. However in the New Fauna, vol. vii, p. 337, Stuart Baker has

dropped his restriction and says that ‘India’ may be considered as equal to

Madras and to that district I now restrict it, as it lies within the sphere of

M. Leschenault’ s activities.

It may also be noted that Stuart Baker is clearly wrong; in placing Blyth’s

Taccocua infuscata in the North-Western Himalayas. In his footnote to

p. 187 Baker presumes that Blyth must be referring to the West Himalayan

bird because ‘he describes his bird as pale and large’ and again because

in later describing af finis from Bengal he ‘lays stress on the dark plumage’.

A reference to the original descriptions removes these difficulties. Blyth did

not describe the bird as pale and large but speaks of the ‘larger size and

infuscated colouring ’ , a very different matter and in agreement with the darker

colouration that he proceeds to elaborate ; while in describing af finis he says it

‘combines the size of Taccocua sirkee with the colouring of Taccocua infuscata’ ,

that is to say he does not attempt, as Stuart Baker implies, to distinguish

between the colouration of the two forms. As a matter of fact there need

have been no doubt in the matter at all, as Ticehurst points out (J.B.N.H.S.,

xxxiv, 471), for Blyth’s type specimen came from the Terai region near

Darjeeling. I cannot, moreover, substantiate the wing limit of 186 mm. as

given by Stuart Baker and suggest that this is a misprint for 168 mm.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 527

Taccocua leschenaultii affinis Blyth.

Taccocua affinis Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xv (1846), p. 19 — Bajmahal.

Specimen collected: — 1534 <$ 13-3-30 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

31-5 153-5 233 46-5 mm.

The single specimen of the Sirkeer Cuckoo met and collected by the Survey

in the Yizagapatam Hills can certainly not be attributed to the typical race

as it stands out markedly from the other specimens by the richness of its

colouration which is much darker both above and below, in this agreeing with

the East Himalayan form T. 1. infuscata. It agrees with a number of other

birds in the British Museum from neighbouring areas, Muddapur, Maunbhum,

Palamow, Hazaribagh, Sambalpur, Baipur and Badrachalam and a series of

fifteen such birds measure: — bill 31.5-33, wing 148-158 mm. This is noticeably

smaller than true T. 1. infuscata of which I measured four specimens from the

Eastern Terai : — bill 34-35, wing 160-163 mm., and the series evidently belong

to the intermediate form which Blyth named from the Bajmahal Hills and

Monghyr as being the same colour as infuscata but smaller. It is not perhaps

a very good race but it may be recognised. Mr. Stuart Baker’s error in

placing the type locality of T. 1. infuscata in the Western Himalayas has led

him to include the East Himalayan bird with these intermediates under

the name affinis, but if it is considered desirable to keep them together the

name infuscata (1845 after July) will of course take precedence.

Ball’s record (S.F., vii, 208) of the -Sirkeer from Jeypore is the only other

record of this form in the Presidency.

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann.

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann, Nov. Zool., vol. xx (1913), p. 323—

Ceylon.

Specimens collected: — 124 24-4-29 Kurumbapatti ; 266 S 22-5-29,' 283 $-

25-5-29 Shevaroy Hills; 341 J 6-6-29, 363 ? 8-5-29, 378-380 ~S $ 11-6-29

Chitteri Bange 2,000-3,000 ft. ; 682 ^ 12-8-29 Palkonda Hills 500 ft.; 814 [$}

13-9-29 Kodur 500 ft.; 1376 $ 12-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.

Measurements: — ■

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

9 c? 37-40.5 176-194 220-251 42-51 mm.

2 9 38-41.5 183-199 223-256 49-51.5 mm.

The Common Crow-Pheasant seems to be a common and generally distri-

buted resident species in the Presidency, though on the ‘ eastern side there is

no definite record for the area between Anantagiri, where a specimen was

procured by the Survey, and Madras. About the latter city Dewar tells us

it is common, one to be seen in almost every garden of any size. The Survey

specimens complete the records on this side save for a specimen in the Society’s

collection collected by Mr. Prater at Madura in May 1917. La Personne

comments on the grotesqueness of the display and its lack of harmony of

movement or appropriateness of sound. A step forward and one sideways and

then a backward strut, accompanied by some hideous sound that might be

either a croak or an oath !

On the west it is very common everywhere in Coorg (Betts) in the Wynaad

(William Davison) and all over the Nilgiris, more plentiful on the slopes and

less numerous on the plateau (Davison and Betts). In the Nelliampathies,

however, Kinloch considered it merely an occasional straggler to the northern

slopes in the hot weather, though Fairbank observed it up to 5,500 ft. in the

Palnis. In Travancore it is very abundant in the low country and about the

foot of the hills (Ferguson). There is a good series of skins from these areas

in the British Museum.

In the Nilgiris Miss Cockburn considered the breeding season to be in

March and April (N. & E., ii, 403) and Betts found nests at 6,500 ft. in April

and August. In Travancore Ferguson found eggs in June and August. Mr.

Car dew found a nest with eggs just ready to be hatched on 9 March and

another with one fresh egg on 20 July. This was at Madras.

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXV I i

All Presidency birds belong to the race parroti which was described from

Ceylon. The New Fauna (vol. iv, p. 189) lays emphasis on the colours of the

under wing-coverts and inter-scapulary area in the keys to the species and

subspecies. This requires a word of caution. Of twelve specimens of parroti

that lie before me at the moment nine show a greater or less amount of

chestnut on the under wing-coverts, in face of the statement in the key that

the under wing-coverts of this species are never chestnut. As regards the

inter-scapulars, this is a feature which is not easy to assess; if the scapulars

are parted there is in some birds a distinct but narrow band of chestnut join-

ing them; in others there is as clearly no such band, the black of the hind

neck and rump being uninterrupted. These birds follow the subspecific key

well enough. But there are in addition a number of specimens which one

would hesitate to assign clearly to either group, for the character is one which

is affected by make of skin and sit of the feathers and there is much inter-

grading between the two extremes.

The brownish colour of crown, chin and throat in many specimens appears

to be largely due to wear. The sooty wash on the coverts and inner secon-

daries and tertiaries found in some specimens is due to individual variation,

but it appears to be to some extent subspecific in character, in that it is

more frequently found in parroti than in sinensis.

Attention needs to be paid to the question of juvenile plumage in this

species. Some young birds are similar to the adult, others wear a barred

plumage, and this may also be of subspecific significance, but I have not seen

sufficient specimens to settle the point.

Centropus benghalensis (Gmel.) subsp.?

Cuculus benghalensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. i (1788), p. 412 —

Bengal.

The Lesser Coucal is confined to the western side of the Presidency and

even there it must be very local. William Davison says that he met with

it on some half-dozen occasions in the Wynaad, always in long grass.

In Travancore Ferguson says it is not uncommon in the hills, where also

it frequents grassland.

There are six specimens in the British Museum, all said to have come from

Peermade. They lack precise data and all appear to be females. In the

absence of a better series I am. unable to elucidate the question of the exact

race of this species which occurs in the presidency. The plumage staged are

complicated and difficult to understand and they must certainly be fully worked

out before the races of this species can be properly elucidated as the bird has

a wide range towards -South-East Asia. I am, however, satisfied that these

Travancore birds do not belong to the typical race, to which they are attributed

in the New Fauna.

Nothing seems to have been recorded about the breeding in the Presidency.

(To be continued).

■

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A herd of Bison ( Bibos gaurus, H. Sm.) grazing in sparse jungle.

IN AMBUSH FOE BISON.1

(A Big Game Photographer’s Fortune and Misfortune in Burma.)

BY

E. H. Peacock.

(With 3 plates).

If my memory is not at fault, Major Evans in his book: Big

Game Shooting in Upper Burma, mentions having seen a herd of

a hundred bison on the Iwins (grassy plains) north of Homalin in

the Upper Chindwin District, several years ago. This must have

been a momentous sight, but very likely it was due to a tem-

porary gathering of two or more bison herds.

When the new grass has begun to sprout after the annual ground

fires of March and April, bison will habitually frequent suitably

remote Iwins, and, if undisturbed, will feed greedily every morning

and evening on the tender grass shoots. At such times small herds

will often amalgamate to form large ones.

Ordinarily, a collection of 20 bison would be considered a fairly

large herd, but I have seen much greater herds on many a lonely

Iwin in the northern drainages of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers.

I recollect having seen, about ten years ago, an immense herd

of bison on one of the many fine Iwins that lie between the great

Indaw Lake and Shwedwin Village on the Uyu river. I counted

over 50 animals in this herd, but there must have been about 60

all told, if not more. Some of the Iwins in this region are immense

plains of short thekhe grass interspersed with patches and belts of

woods. At that time villages were few and far between, and the

game lived out on the Iwins for much of the dry season and the

early rains. What glorious country that was for a sanctuary and

ultimately, perhaps, a game park.

The two principal sanctuaries in Upper Burma are so small

that one might walk across either of them in less than a day; yet

they can show during May and June, when the herds from the

surrounding forests gather and amalgamate on the limns, collections

of bison numbering 50 or more.

The photograph at the head of the opposite page shows 29 ani-

mals, but the herd of which they were a part consisted of 45 bison,

including calves — a sufficiently impressive sight. The members of

this herd were so spread out that it was impossible to include them

all on one negative. On this occasion the wind persisted in the

right direction and the whole herd walked, figuratively, over the

bushes behind which I was concealed; but, in the failing light, as

they drew near to me, their movements blurred the images obtained

from the time exposures I was obliged to make, and when they

detected me they galloped away.

2

Beprinted by courtesy of The Field.

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

One is so annoyingly at the mercy of one’s subject in this

branch of photography: not in any physical sense, I hasten to aver,

because the ‘dangers and difficulties’ of animal photography as

opposed to big game shooting have been so much overdone, that

1 would not unwittingly support the fallacy. One really fine old

bison, fairly sought, tracked and shot under good game laws, -is

likely, especially when wounded, to create more difficulty and

thrills than the photography of a dozen assorted groups on Iwins,

at ‘licks’ and waterholes, and from the backs of elephants; which

is a fact too easily misunderstood or hidden from the photographer

who is not also a hunter.

The young bison calves always strike one as being remarkably

foreign to their parents; their light brown, sometimes fawn- coloured

coats are much opposed to the black bodies of the mature animals,

They are funny, ungainly-looking things when very young.

In 1920, while hunting in the Ivyauklebin forests . of the. Buby

Mines District with the local guides, Maung Naing and Maung Ba,

I met a young- bison calf that had become separated from, its re-

lations. With the wind behind him, this young, bull walked right

up and studied us from within 10 ft, with the greatest curiosity

and no atom of fear; yet, when we circled round him and he

smelt the taint of human presence, he at once galloped, .off .with

every sign of fear and unease.

It is interesting when examining the enlarged image of such

a group as that shown opposite to remark features that . have not

been observed in life; for. instance, plate II shows a cow with one

perfectly straight horn, but the other curved in the usual way. I

failed to observe this feature at the time of making the exposures.

One photograph provided, some mild thrills. I had worked my-

self into position, in breast-high grass, directly in front of the herd,

just as it was about to emerge from the forest. It was very late

in the evening, and, with a moderate aperture, I was obliged to

make exposures varying from two to five seconds, depending on

the degree of mobility in the herd at the time of making the

exposures. The camera-tripod and much of myself were, of neces-

sity, well clear of the grass, and I was soon detected.

A young bull saw me first, and complicated matters by moving

out of the picture and trotting up within 20 yds. on my right

front, where he stamped and snorted in company with a curious-

minded cow which had followed him. I remained perfectly still,

which puzzled him; but when I moved gently in focusing and

photographing the main herd, the young brute stampeded back to

his companions and set them all snorting arid staring. Neverthe-

less, they continued to advance slowly in a closely packed line,

some, tossing their heads and staring curiously, others quite placid

and obviously of opinion that it was merely another instance of

‘that young fool’s false alarms!’

The forester who was crouched behind me became nervous,

and whispered excitedly : ‘They’ll think we are tigers. They’ll ring

us round and charge.’ Of course, they were unlikely to do anything

of the sort, and in due course, when I grew over-anxious to get a

picture from well above the level of the high grass, some intelligent

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II.

Part of a herd of Bison ( Bibos gaurus, H. Sm.) grazing on a small Iwin or plain.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III.

A herd of Bison ( Bibos gaurus, H. Sm.) on the edge of the forest.

In ambush for bison

631

elders of the herd made out that I was a man; whereupon the herd

departed, and did not dwell on the order of its going.

Bison rest or sleep in heavy cover between, roughly, 10 o’clock

and 3 o’clock in the (laytime, and seldom come out of cover until

the light has definitely begun to fade or until it has become quite

dark. When they feel secure, however, they may lie up in light

forests, or move through thin forests on their way to the grazing

grounds while the sun is still high, above the horizon.

The herd shown in my first photograph was behaving in just

such an unbisonlike manner, so, thinking I had plenty of time,

I contented myself with a couple of long range photographs, and

delayed a nearer approach till it should reach a more easily-stalked

position. Unfortunately, this herd moved off into heavy forest

through which I must track it for a mile or more till it emerged

into a most beautiful little Iwin, where it settled down to serious

grazing.

The setting of this Iwin and the bison, on the slope of a hill

with dark woods on one side and hills and clouds for background,

was so fine that I hurried my stalk and was detected before I had

got my camera clear of the tangle of weeds and grass through

which I was crawling. This was a most exasperating moment: the

bison, about 20 of them, had bunched together in alarm and pre-

sented a fascinating group in a splendid setting within easy camera

range; but I was confined to shoulder-high grass, and the tripod,

at its highest, would not raise the camera lens above the top of the

grass, neither would the light permit of an instantaneous exposure

with the camera held high in my hands.

I tried to move into a better position, but it was quite hopeless;

and, after staring and snorting for a good ten -seconds, these most

unsatisfactory camera-subjects presented me with a last sight of

their tails as they disappeared into the forest.

EE VISION OF

THE FLOEA OF THE BOMBAY PEESIDENCY.

BY

The Late E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s.

Part XXV.

( Continued from page 277 of this volume).

CYPERACEAE

BY

The late E. Blatter, s.j., pIi.d., f.l.s., and C. McCann, f.l.s.

(With 4 plates and 1 text photo).

5. Mariscus Vahl (Cke. under Cy perns) . :

Erect herbs, usually perennial and glabrous ; generally resembling the genus

Gyperus. Inflorescence of a single head or in simple or compound umbels.

Spikelets usually in compact compressed or terete heads. Glumes distichous,

persistent on the rhachilla which disarticulates above the 2 lowest (which are

empty and smaller than the rest) leaving a small knob or disk with, some-

times, an annular ridge on its summit. Stamens usually 3. Style 3-fid,

continuous with the ovary; stigmas slender. Nut trigonous. — Species about 50.

— Cosmopolitan.

A. Base of stem oblong, thickened by the turgid

membranous sheaths

I. Stolons 0

II. Stolons slender

B. Base of stem not thickened by sheaths. Stem

tall, or when short, thin slender. Spikelets

narrow, not turgid, pale, bearing 1-3, rarely

4, nuts

C. A much larger and coarser plant than B.

Umbel large, rays up to 17 cm. Spikes

digitate on the rays. Spikelets fewer and

more distant, subsecund, larger, 9 mm.

D. Stem tall. Spikelets pale, turgid, bearing

several nuts

E. Stem tall, robust. Umbel large, spreading.

Spikelets innumerable in globose spikes, very

narrow, almost filiform, golden red

1. M. Blatteri.

2. M. bulbosus.

3. M. paniceus.

4. M. konkanensis.

5. M. pennatus.

0. M. compactus.

1. Mariscus Blatteri McCann, sp. nov.

[Pertinet ad sectionem Marisci bulbocaulis. Accedit ad Mariscum drege-

anum Kunth a quo tamen distingui potest culmo usque ad 70 cm. longo ,

foliis culmo brevioribus vel longioribus (usque ad 88 cm.) 6 mm. latis, acumine

acuminatissimo, margine et venis in facie superiore scabris, marginibus minu-

tim serrulatis, inflorescentia multo maiore (24x19 mm.), bracteis usque ad 9,

infima 34.5 cm.x 6 mm. attingente, spicula multo longiore duus contincnte

nuces, squama sterili superiore ad apicem biloba cum arista longa vel brevi in

sinu, rhachilla alis oblique oblongis munita, staminibus 3, nuce quam gluma

aliquantulum breviore.~\

Description: Stolons 0. Eoots numerous, fibrous, dark brown. Stems

tufted, at base, broadly ovoid, thickened by the light brown leaf-sheaths, up

Mariscus paniceus Vahl at Panchgani.

Mariscus compactus Druce, near Malad, Salsette Island.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 1

Photos by G. McCann

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

H

f|f|g§

Vw I

1 w :*f\

■mtwJM#

l^V •*’ *

^ tHkd •

Ban

Fimbristylis tetragona E. Br. growing in a marsh at Midland, Salsette Island.

A formation of Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl and F. dichotoma Vahl growing in

a marsh at Khandala, W. Ghats.

Photos by C. McCann.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 533

to 70 cm. long, slender, trigonous, smooth (striate in dry specimens). Leaves

as long as the stem or longer reaching 88 cm. by 6 mm., weak, grass-like,

tips finely acuminate, margins and veins of upper surface scabrous, the mar-

gins minutely serrulate, presenting a sharp cutting edge. Inflorescence 24 by

19 mm. appearing as one very dense head of numerous spikelets as if com-

posed of 3 congested spikes, slightly reddish in colour. Bracts up to 9 (some

appearing from within the inflorescence) similar to the leaves spreading and

ultimately drooping, lowest 34.5 cm. by 6 mm., upper portion scabrous along

the veins, margins serrulate like the leaves, tips finely acuminate. Spikelets

8 mm. long by 1.7 mm., angular, bearing 2 nuts, disarticulating below the

lowest fertile flower in one piece. Glumes all with red glandular dots; the

lowest empty glume broadly elliptic, 7-nerved, 2 by 1.5 mm., tip rounded,

margins membranous, incurved in the lower half; upper empty glume ovate-

lanceolate, 9-nerved, 3 mm. long (including the arista), tip bilobed with a

short or long arista in the sinus, margins incurved, membranous; lowest

flowering glume larger than the one above it, ovate-lanceolate, acute, 13-nerved,

6 by 2.6 mm. (opened out), margins membranous, incurved over the wings

of the rhachilla ; upper flowering glume elliptic-lanceolate, 13-nerved, 4.5 by

2.5 mm., tip produced into a short recurved point, margins membranous,

incurved over the wings of the rhachilla. Bhachilla broadly winged, the wings

together elliptic, but individually obliquely oblong, tip oblique running into

the margin of the glume above, embracing the nut. Stamens 3, filaments

strap- shaped, anthers oblong, not crested. Nut oblong, trigonous, puncticulate,

reaching 3.5 by 1.3 mm., base of style sometimes persistent. Style, including

branches, 5 mm., branches 3 mm. long.

Locality : W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Nana Sedgwick’s Coll. 7646 !

type).

2. Mariscus bulbosus C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi (1893) 620. —

Cyperus Clarkei T. Cooke in FI. Bomb, ii, 873. — Kyllinga bulbosa Koenig in

Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 376 ( in nota).

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : S. M. Country: (Woodrow 36 ex Cooke); Dharwar (Woodrow

ex Cooke, Talbot 2907 !), on dry pasture, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 in. (Sedgwick

4140 ! 6233 !) ; Badami (Woodrow ex Cooke).— N. Kanara: (Young ex Clarke).

Flowering & fruiting : August 1918 and October 1892 (Dharwar).

Distribution : S. M. Country, N. Kanara, Horsley konda , Chingleput, Salem,

Tinnevelly Dist.

3. Mariscus paniceus Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 373. — Kyllinga panicea Bottb.

Descr. et Ic. (1773) 15, t. 4, fig. 1. — Mariscus cyperinus Vahl l.c. 377; C. B.

Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 621. — M. Sieberianus Nees in Linnaea ix (1835)

286. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke l.c. 620, 621, 622.

Description: Base of stem not thickened by sheaths. Boots producing

stolons or not. Stolons long, scaly. Bhizome very short, nodulose, or thick,

creeping, clothed in the remains of old leaf-sheaths. Stems 5-75 cm. high.

Leaves shorter or longer. Bracts 3-11, 2.1-30 cm. long; umbels simple, rays

3-12; spikes sessile or peduncled, cylindric in flower. Spikelets erect or sub-

erect or spreading at right angles, subulate or cylindric, often curved, not

markedly compressed, 1-4-flowered; glumes not aristate; nut-bearing glume

cuspidate or not. Spikelets bearing 1-3, rarely 4, nuts. Nuts oblong-ellipsoid,

or obovate-oblong or narrowly elliptic-oblong, obtuse or with an acute apex,

muricate or not, straight or curved.

A most variable plant, depending much on the habitat and fertility of the

soil and on the amount of shade. The number of spikes appears to be condi-

tioned by the growth of the individual, and so also the number of flowers in

each spikelet. Spikes are found with and without branches to every degree.

This plant is so variable that to separate the Bombay material is quite a

hopeless task both in the herbarium and in the field. Specimens of this plant

have been obtained in one and the same locality and at the same time which

could be assigned to one or the other of the above species or their varieties

as given in C. B. Clarke.

It is significant that nearly all the Umbellati were considered by Bentham

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

as varieties of his Cyperus umbellatus. It would be sounder to treat those

‘varieties’ as forms.

Locality : Without locality (Dalzell !).— W. Ghats: Igatpuri (Blatter &

Hallberg 1746 ! 2800 !, McCann 2385 !); Khandala (Blatter, Hallberg &

McCann 28580 !, Sedgwick 2553 !); Panchgani (McCann 2758 ! 3010 ! 3011 !,

Sedgwick 7926 !), slope of Tableland (Fernandez 1745 !) ; foot of Tableland

(McCann 2759 !); in forest below Third Tableland (McCann 2876 I) ; Londa*

1,600 ft. (Sedgwick 2739 !). — Korikan: (Law ex Cooke); Sativali Forests,

Bassein, Thana (Ryan 1088 !) ; Parol Forest, Bassein Range (G-ammie 2441 !);

•Sion Hill, W. slope, in gravel, under the dripping of the Cracker store house

roof (Blatter & McCann 613 ! 2440 !, McCann 937 ! 940 I 945 ! 946 ! 947 !

948 !); Vetora (Sabnis 612 ! 33112 ! 33122 ! 33419 !) ; Mulgaon, Salsette

(Blatter & McCann 2440 !). — S. M. Country: Devarayi, forests, 1,500 ft.

(Sedgwick 4101 ! 4105 ! 4108 ! 4109 !) ; Tavargatti, sandy ground by forest,

2,000 ft., rainfall 70 in. (Sedgwick 2556 !) ; Badami (Bhide !); Dharwar, in

shade of trees, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 in. (Sedgwick 6211 !). — N. Kanara:

(Talbot !, Hallberg & McCann C114 ! C115 !) ; Devimane Ghat, 600 ft.,

rainfall 250 in. (Sedgwick 6946 !); Malemani Ghat, 1,000 ft., rainfall 300 in.

(Sedgwick 7204 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot !) ; Haliyal (Talbot 1884 !) ; Karwar

(Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting: May 1918 (Vetora) ; July 1883 (Karwar) ; July 1917

(Sion, Tavargatti, Khandala, Mulgaon); July 1918 (Devarayi); July 7th, 1925

(Panchgani); July 26th, 1904 (Parol); July 28th, 1930 (Panchgani); July

30th, 1903 (Sativali); August 1887 (Karwar); August 1917 (Londa) ; August

1919 (Dharwar) ; August 2nd, 1884 (Haliyal) ; August 16th and 25th, 1930

(Panchgani); August 25th, 1929 (Sion); August 31st, 1930 (Panchgani); Sep-

tember 1917 (Igatpuri); September 8th, 1911 (Badami); October 1917 (Igat-

puri); October 1919 (Malemani, Devimane); October 1921 (Panchgani); Octo-

ber 10th, 1884 (Yellapur).

Field notes : Stems 3-gonous, highly polished, stiff, dark green, inclined at

an angle, not upright. Rhizome black, hard. Spikelets pale green, becoming

straw-coloured on drying, fragile.

A monsoon species, but the rhizome is perennial, usually growing at the

margins of forests or in the shade of trees or rocks. Flowering in July.

The rhizomes are hard and woody. The internodes are very short; the

nodes appearing close together give the rhizome an annulated appearance..

Distribution: Throughout India.— Warm regions of the Old World.

4. Mariscus konkanensis Sedgwick in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xxv

(1918) 698. — Cyperus konkanensis T. Cooke in FI. Bomb. Pres, ii, 874.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell, H.I.F.I.). — W. Ghats: (Woodrow 34

ex Cooke) ; Khandala (Bhide 15417 !) ; Purandhar Fort (Blatter & McCann

5572 I, Bhide !) ; Mahableshwar, grassy bank in forest, S. side of plateau

(Sedgwick 4617 I); Fitzgerald Ghat, common (McCann 2974-2978 ! 3410 !). —

Deccan: Kirkee, Mr. Gammie’s compound (Garade 556 ! very likely culti-

vated); Singhar (Garade 62 !).

Flowering & fruiting: July 21st, 1902 (Kirkee); July 30th, 1902 (Singhar);

August 28th, 1930 (Fitzgerald Ghat); September 7th, 1907 (Purandhar); Sep-

tember 20th, 1902 (Khandala) ; September 24th, 1930 (Fitzgerald Ghat) ; Novem-

ber 1919 (Mahableshwar) ; December 1917 (Purandhar).

Field notes: A very characteristic species, and easily recognized by its

habit. Growing in dense tufts on the hillside of Mahableshwar. The rhizomes

give off bunches of blackish tubers at intervals. Inflorescence pale, almost

straw-coloured even in the fresh state. Grows on steep banks at the margin

of the forests bordering on the Fitzgerald Ghat Road and also on the cliffs

and overhanging rocks where sufficient earth has accumulated. Commences to

flower about the middle of August. The old stems of the preceding year are

frequently .to be seen with the new. During the dry season the plant “dries

up completely. The spikelets in fresh .condition are stiff and spreading. The'

leayes are paler beneath. . ,

Distribution : W. Ghats, Deccan. — So far endemic.

Though this species has been called 'Konkanensis' by Cooke, it seems very

evident that it. does, not occur in the Konkan. Cooke described the species from

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 535

a single specimen obtained by Woodrow and probably- labelled in a careless-

way ‘Konkan % without any other definite locality. From our own observations

this species does not descend far beyond the 5-mile limit down the Fitzgerald

Ghat which goes to indicate that it does not go down to the plain or to a

low . elevation.

Photo C. McCann

Mariscus konkanensis Sedg.

5. Mariscus pennatus Domin in Biblioth. Bot.; lxxxv (1915) 440. — Cyperus

pennatus Lam. 111. i, 144; Cke. ii, 875. — C. canescens Vahl Enum. ii, 355

( excl . syn. Bheede).— Mariscus albescens Gaud, in Freyc. Voy. Bot. 415.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: W. Ghats: Lonavla (Woodrow ex Cooke, Herb. E.B.B. !). —

Konkan: (Cooke, Paranjpye 168 ! several sheets of the same number labelled

‘Konkan’); Murdi, near Aiyala, seacoast, just near highwater mark (Paranj-

pye 1); Mahad (Woodrow ex Cooke).

Flowering & fruiting: March 1926 (Konkan); November 16th, 1926 (Murdi).

Distribution: From Bengal to Ceylon and Singapore, tropical Africa, Mas-

carene Islands, S.-E. Asia, Malaya, Australia, Polynesia.

6. Mariscus conipactus Druce in Eep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 1916,

634 (1917).— M. microcephalus Presl. Eel. Haenk. i (1830) 182 .—Cyperus com-

pacts Betz, Obs. v (1789) 10.— C. spinulosus Eoxb. FI. Ind. i (1832) - 203 —

C. dilutus Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 357; Cke. ii, 875.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke).— W. Ghats: Castle Bock (Gammie

15529 1 ).—Konkan: (Herb. St. X.C. 3127 !) ; Bombay Beclamation S.-W. of

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Churchgate Station1 (McCann !) ; Andheri (McCann !); Jungar Hills, Thana

(Paranjpye !) ; Mahad (Woodrow !) ; near Malad, in a ditch along railway

line (McCann 1341-1344 !). — S. M. Country : Devikop, in a pool (Sedgwick

1900 !) ; marshes near Alnavar, 2,000 ft. (Sedgwick 2916 !). — N. Kanara:

Siddhapur, 1,600 ft., rainfall 100 in. (Sedgwick 7022 !) ; Yellapnr, bank of a

tank (Talbot 1024 !).

Flowering & fruiting : September 1917 (Alnavar) ; September 29th, 1929

(near Malad); October 1919 (Siddhapur); October 24th, 1902 (Castle Bock);

October 30th, 1907 (Thana) ; November 1916 (Devikop).

Field notes : A tall, tufted, stiff looking plant with long thick arching-

leaves. The umbels are large with chocolate-brown spikelets, turning reddish

on drying and in herbarium material. The leaves have sharp serrulate margins

which cut readily.

A plant inhabiting marshes and ditches and other wet places. Purely a

monsoon species and one of the latest to come into flower — about the middle

of September.

Distribution: Throughout India, 0-3,000 ft. — Mauritius, China, Malaya.

6. Courtoisia Nees (Cke. ii, 877).

Species 2. — Tropical Asia, Africa.

I. Courtoisia cyperoides Nees in Linnaea ix (1835) 286; Benth. in Hook.

Ic. PI. (1880) t. 1341; Cke. ii, 877. — Kyllinga cyperoides Koxb. FI. Ind. i

(1832) 182. — Mariscus cyperoides Dietr. Sp. PI. ii, 348.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan: (Law ex Cooke). — S. M. Country: Hulkop, Dharwar

Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall 40 in. (Sedgwick 3451 !) ; Havasbhavi, water holes,

1,800 ft., rainfall 33 in. (Sedgwick 1973 !) ; Dastikop, 2,500 ft., rainfall 35 in.

(Sedgwick 2080 I); fairly common in Maval tract (Sedgwick). — N. Kanara:

Gersoppa Falls, 1,400 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 7153 !) ;

Yellapur (Talbot 1563 !).

Flowering & fruiting : October 1919 (G-ersoppa) ; October 10th, 1884 (Yella-

pur); December 1916 (Dastikop); December 1917 (Hulkop; Havasbhavi).

Distribution: From Sikkim and Assam to Pegu, Konkan, S. M. Country,

N. Kanara, Coorg, Mysore, Nilgiris, Malabar, Carnatic. — Madagascar, tropical

Africa.

7. Eleocharis B. Brown (Cke. ii, 887).

Species 90. — Cosmopolitan.

Key after Cooke.

A. Glumes subrigid, smooth, striate, concolorous;

stems usually stout ; stigmas 2-3

I. Nut smooth; stems terete, transversely sep-

tate when dry ...

II. Nut longitudinally striate; stems subtrique-

trous below the spikelet, not septate

1. Spikelets acute; glumes ovate, subacute .

2. Spikelets obtuse; glumes quadrate, round-

ed or subtruncate

B. Glumes membranous, usually 1-3-nerved, with

a green keel; stems usually slender

I. Stigmas 2, not compressed

1. Boots fibrous; rhizome short or 0

a. Bristles glistening, white

b. Bristles brown or rusty

2. Bhizome creeping; bristles rusty-brown ...

II. Stigmas 3

1. Nut prominently trabeculate

2. Nut smooth

1. E. plantaginea.

2. E. fistulosa.

3. E. spiralis.

4. E. atropurpurea.

5. E. capitata.

6. E. palustris.

7. E. Chaetaria.

8. E. congesta.

1 This species has in all probability been introduced from Salsette along

with the earth used for filling in.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 537

1. Eleocharis plantaginea R. Br. Prodr. (1810) 224 (in nota); Cke. ii,

888 .—Scirpus plantaginus Roxb. FI. Ind. i (1832) 212. — Stir pus plantaginoides

Rottb. Descr. et Ic. (1773) 45, t. 15, fig. 2.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Cooke in the clavis distinctly states that the glumes are keeled, but in

the description he contradicts this by saying that the glumes are not keeled.

Locality : Bombay, without locality (Herb. Kew ex Cooke). — Sind : (Pin-

will ex Cooke). — Gujarat : Dansura tank, N. Modasa (Sedgwick 1071 !) ;

Prantij (Saxton 2927 !) ; Baroda (Woodrow ex Cooke, Herb. Col. of Sc. Pa.

now in Cal. !). — Konkan: Varol Tank, Bhivandi, near Kalyan (McCann

1696 !). — S. M. Country: Bomigatti, tank, Dharwar Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall

35 in. (Sedgwick 3829 !). — N. Kanara: Hattikeri, Karwar, in a tank (Herb.

Sedgwick & Bell 6768 !, Hallberg & McCann C13 !) ; Karwar (Sedgwick

6678 !, Hallberg & McCann C14 ! C15 ! C91 !, Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : March 1918 (Bomigatti) ; August 1890 (Karwar) ;

September 1915 (Dhansura) ; October 1919 (Hattikeri, Karwar); October 26th,

1930 (Bhivandi).

Field notes : ‘In a few inches of water on the margin of the Bokh. Gre-

garious over a few square yards. Not seen elsewhere. Heads light brown.’

(Saxton).

At Varol Tank, we found this species occupying large areas both in deep

and shallow water. So dense were the groups that the stems were inter-

laced. Few specimens were in flower at the time (October 26th, 1930) as the

water level was still very high. Stem terete, striate, and of a bluish green.

Distribution: N.-W. India, Assam, Sind, Gujarat, Konkan, S. M. Country,

N. Kanara, Mysore, Coimbatore, Carnatic, Travancore. — Ceylon, Malay Penin-

sula, tropics of the Old World.

2. Eleocharis fistulosa Link, in ‘Spreng. Jahrb. Gewachs. (1820) Heft 3,

78; Cke. ii, 888. — Heleochdris fistulosa Boeck. in Linnaea xxxvi (1870) 472. —

For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 626.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Cooke states that the bristles are longer than the nut, Clarke figures them

as such (111. of Cyp.), and in Hooker the bristles are said to be shorter

than the nut. We find them longer than the nut.

Locality : W. Ghats : Panchgani, Tableland (McCann & Fernandez 1729-

1734 !) ; Castle Rock (Bhide !). — S. M. Country: Bomigatti, Dharwar Dist.,

in a tank 1,800 ft., rainfall 35 in. (Sedgwick 3826 !) ; Badami (Bhide 1). —

N. Kanara: Yellapur (Talbot 1040 !).

Flowering & fruiting: March 1918 (Bomigatti); September 8th, 1911

(Badami) ; October 1909 (Castle Rock) ; October 1st, 1884 (Yellapur) ; Novem-

ber 22nd, 1930 (Panchgani).

Field notes : In Panchgani we observed the plants in a monsoon pool on

the Tableland associated with Scirpus corymbosus, in August. The stems were

tufted, purplish below but otherwise of a dull green colour. The specimens

did not fkwer till after the middle of November. The soil was soft sticky clay.

Distribution: From Nepal and Assam to Burma, W. Ghats, S. M. Coun-

try, N. and S. Kanara, Mysore. — Ceylon, Tropics generally.

3. Eleocharis spiralis R. Br. Prodr. (1810) 224 (in nota); Cke. ii, 888. —

Scirpus sjriralis Rottb. Descr. et Ic. (1773) 45, t. 15, fig. 1.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan : Bassein (Blatter & McCann 2358 !) ; Bombay

(Blatter & Hallberg Sedgwick’s No. 3473 !) ; Sion (Blatter & McCann 2731 1) ;

Salsette (Jacquemont 725 ex Cooke). — Goa (Lisboa 45 ex Cooke). — N. Kanara:

Karwar (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : August 1885 (Karwar) ; September 1917 (Sion) ;

November 1916 (Sion).

Distribution: Bengal, Burma, Konkan, N. Kanara, Goa, Carnatic. — Ceylon,

Mauritius, Cochin-China.

4. Eleocharis atropurpurea Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 151; Cke. ii, 889.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke).— Gujarat: Ahmedabad, nala near

Watraj (Sedgwick 293 1); Godra (Woodrow ex Cooke).— W. Ghats: Igatpuri

538; JOURNAL, BOMBAY . NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

(Blatter & Hallberg 3204 ! 5141 !) ; Khandala (Blatter & McCann 1740 -!). —

Kpnkan : Parel (Blatter & McCann 3218 !) ; Sion (Blatter & McCann 3070 !

1989 !) ; Kalyan (Woodrow or Cooke H.E.B.B. !). — N. Kanara : Karwar, rice

fields (Sedgwick 6718 !, Hallberg & McCann C87 !) ; Kumpta, rice fields (Tal-

bot !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Igatpuri) ; August 1917 (Parel);

September 1914 (Wadaj) ; September ; 4th , 1895 (Kalyan); October 1919 (Kar-

war); November 1916 (Sion); December 10th, 1883 (Kumpta).

Distribution : W. Himalaya, Assam, ‘Sind, Bajputana, Gujarat, Konkan,

W. Ghats, S. and N. Kanara, Carnatic. — Ceylon, Tropics generally.

5. Eleocharis capitata B. Br. Prodr. (1810) 225; Cke. ii, 889.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality : Sind: (Dalzell ex Cooke); Jamadar ka Landa (Stocks ex

Cooke).— Gujarat : Godhra (Woodrow). — Khandesh: Bor, Tapti Biver, sandy

mud (Blatter & Hallberg 3224 !) ; Dhulia, Noti tank (Chibber !). — W. Ghats:

Mahableshwar (Chibber !) ; Londa (Gammie !). — Deccan: Poona (Woodrow ex

Cooke, Kelkar !), riverside (Bhide 24 !) ; Mangri, near Poona (Gammie

15348 !) ; Nira Canal, Poona Dist. (Chibber !) ; Chinchwad (Woodrow ,or

Cdok'e ?, H.E.B.B. !) ; Trimbak (Chibber 416 !). — Konkan: Pen (Blatter,

Hallberg & McCann 3228 !) ; Bandra, sandy shore (Vakil C90 !). — S. M. Coun-

try: Hubli (Sedgwick 4907 !) ; Devarayi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 90 in. (Sedgwick

4480 !); Bagalkot, riverbank (H.E.B.B. !). — N. Kanara: (Thomson ex Cooke);

Karwar, seashore (Sedgwick 5051 ! 5103 !) ; mouth of Kala Nuddi Biver

(Hallberg & McCann C89 !) ; Kumpta, rice fields (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting: February 1917 (Pen); March 14th, 1908 (Nira

Canal); March 20th, 1908 (Mahableshwar); April 16th, 1906 (Bagalkot); May

1900 (Londa); May 8th, 1902 (Poona); July 1919 (Bandra); August 17th, 1902

(Mangri) ; September 20th, 1895 (Poona) ; September 29th, 1895 (Chinchwad) ;

October 1918 (Devarayi) ; October 1919 (Kala Nuddi) ; November 1894 (Godhra) ;

November 30th, 1907 (Trimbak); December 1916 (Bor); December 1918 (Hubli,

Karwar); December 10th, 1883 (Kumpta); December 27th, 1907 (Dhulia).

Distribution: Bihar, Bengal, throughout the Bombay and Madras Pres.,

Singapore. — Ceylon, most warm countries.

6. Eleocharis palustris B. Br. Prodr. (1810) 224 (in nota) ; Cke. ii, 890.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pimvill ex Clarke) ; Hyderabad (Woodrow ex Cooke).

Distribution: From the W. Himalaya, ascending to 12,500 ft., to Sind

and Bengal. — Cosmopolitan except Australia.

7. Eleocharis Chaetaria Boem. & Schult. Syst. ii (1817) 154; Cke. ii, 890.

Description: Cke. l.c.

. Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Bock (Gammie 15738 !) ; Londa (Herb.

Col. of Sc. Pa. now in Cal. !, Woodrow ex Cooke). — Konkan: Vetora, near

stream. ('Sabnis C86 !). — S. M. Country: Dharwar (Woodrow ex Cooke).—

N. Kanara : 30 miles E. of Karwar, rivulet by road (Sedgwick 6570 !) ; marshes

at Supa (Sedgwick 4861 !) ; Sirsi to ‘Siddhapur (Hallberg & McCann C85 !) :

Kadra, banks of Kala Nuddi (Talbot 1316 !).

Flowering & fruiting : October 1919 (Sirsi to Siddhapur, E. of Karwar) ;

October 10th, 1889 (Kadra); October 27th, 1902 (Castle Bock); November 1918

(Supa); December 1919 (Vetora).

Distribution : More or less throughout India. — Ceylon, Malacca, Tropics

generally.

8. Eleocharis congests Don Prodr, 41. — Scirpus congestus Spreng. Syst.

Cur. post. 27. — Eleocharis purpurascens Boeck. in Linn, xxxvi, 455.

Description : A caespitose sedge 20-30 cm. high with slender nearly terete

8-10-fluted or -striate stems and a terminal many-glumed ovoid or conical

spikelet 5-7.5 mm. long, frequently with subsidiary branches from the axil of

the bract which may bear a smaller spikelet. Glumes 2 mm. ellipsoid-oblong,

concave, not keeled, hyaline in centre and with often coloured margins or a

coloured band between the centre and margins, midrib very fine. Stigmas 3,

longer than the short style. Nut straw-coloured, 1.25 mm. without or 1.5 mm.

with the narrowvconical style-base, obovoid or pyriform, obscurely 3-angled.

Bristles rather stout, a little longer than nut, retrorsely scabrous. -

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 539

Locality : S. M. Country: Devarayi, in rice fields, 1,800 ft., rainfall

90 in. (Sedgwick 4421 !).

Flowering & fruiting : October 1918 (Devarayi).

Distribution: Kashmir, Nepal, Chota Nagpur, S. M. . Country, Nilgiris and

Pulney Hills, 5,000-7,000 ft. — Ceylon.

8. Fimbristylis Vahl. (Cke. ii, 878).

Species 225. — Chiefly tropical.

A. Eleocliaroides . Stem with 1 spikelet. Glumes

not distichous (occasionally 1-3 spikelets in

F. polytrichoides ; see also F. schoenoides)

I. Nut narrowly elongate, cylindric, curved ...

II. Nut obovoid, biconvex, with 6-8 very deep

transverse corrugations

III. Nut elegantly obovoid with almost obcordate

apex, biconvex, minutely subtuberculately

dotted ... ... ...

B. Dichelostylis . Spikelets more than one. Style

bifid. Ovary and fruit compressed, biconvex

I. Spikelets 1-3, rarely up to 5, large, ovate,

pale, glistening

II. Spikelets more than 5 in fully grown indivi-

duals

1. 'Spikelets in a capitate head ...

2. Spikelets umbelled

a. Small tufted annuals

f Nut smooth

ff Nut ribbed and trabeculate

b. Taller

f Glumes obtuse with hyaline margins

and tips. Nut dark, not ribbed or

trabeculate

ft G-lumes mucronulate, glabrous. Nut

pale, ribbed and trabeculate

fit Spikelets large, dark red-brown.

G-lumes usually pubescent in upper

half. Nut pale, smooth ...

C. Trichelostylis. Spikelets more than one. Style

3-fid. Ovary and fruit trigonous

I. Spikelets in a capitate head, white

II. Spikelets not capitately arranged

1. Small annuals

a. - Nut white, trabeculate

b. Nut white, yellow or grey, tuberculate

2. Medium or tall

a. Base of stem thick, rhizomatous, leaves

short, pungent, crowded, a denizen of

grassland ...

b. Not as a

f Stem triquetrous above, glumes ob-

tuse ... ... - ... ...

ft 'Stem 4-5-angled above, glumes

acute- ... ...

Iff Stem flattened above, lowest bract

broad, quite erect

D. Abildgaardia. Lower glumes of the spikelet

distichous or subdistichous. Style 3-fid

1. F. tetragona.

2. F. acuminata.

3. F. polytrichoides.

4 VJ\ schoenoides. .

5. F. argentea.

6. F. aestivalis.

7. F. dichotoma.

8. F. spathacea .

9. F. annua var. diphylJa.

10. F. ferruginea.

11. F. digital a.

12. F. Woodrowii.

13. F. tenefa.

14. F. junciformis .

15. F. miliacea.

16. F. quinquartgularis.

17. F. complanata.

18. F. monostachya.

1. Fimbristylis tetragona B. Br. Prodr. (1810) 226; Cke. ii, 879. — F. cylin-

drocarpa Boeck. in Linnaea xxxvii (1871) 7.

' Description: Cke. l.c.

540 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Locality : Without locality (Dalzell in Herb. Kew ex Cooke). — • W . Ghats :

Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 2846 ! 3208 ! 3216 !, McCann 2379 1); Tringal-

wari, near Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 1968 i) ; Khandala (Blatter & Mc-

Cann 3153 ! 5317 !, McCann 344 ! 381 ! 382 !), marshes (Sedgwick 2550 1),

in a ditch near the station (McCann 404 !) ; Lonavla (Chibber !) ; Londa

(Gammie ! & 15839 !). — Deccan: Between Nadsur and Pali (Gammie 16046 1);

Hirdosi (Woodrow ex Cooke); Mawal (Woodrow1 ex Cooke). — Konkan: (Stocks

ex Cooke) ; Karanja Isl. (Boivin 782 ex Clarke) ; Salsette (Jacquemont 747 ex

Cooke); Lower Parel (Blatter & McCann 4252 !) ; Kalyan (Herb. St. X.C.

3121 !); Oservira, Mokhada, Thana Dist. (Byan 189 !) ; Kankeshwar Hill,

Alibag (Bhide !) ; Mulland, in a marsh (McCann 820 !) ; foot of hills W. of

Mulland, in a puddle (McCann 891 ! 894 !). — S. M. Country : Devarayi,

1,800 ft., rainfall 90 in. (Sedgwick 4461 !) ; Bidi, Belgaum Dist., 2,500 ft.,

rainfall 50 in. (Sedgwick 3020 !) ; Havasbhavi, fields, 2,000 ft., rainfall 33 in.

(Sedgwick 1942 !) ; in a nala near Yelvigi, Dharwar Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall

30 in. (Sedgwick 1904 !) ; Badami (Bhide !).— N. Kanara: (Law ex Cooke);

Karwar (Hallberg & McCann C48 ! C49 !), edges of rice fields (Talbot

1306 !), common in rice fields (Talbot 1507 !); Jog to Siddhapur (Hallberg &

McCann 35089 !) .

Flowering & fruiting : March 1917, March 1929, April 1929, June 1917

and July 1916 (Khandala) ; August 11th, 1929 (Mulland, and foot of hills

W. of Mulland); August 25th, 1885 (Karwar); September (Kalyan); September

1917 (Igatpuri, Bidi to Belgaum); September 8th, 1911 (Badami); October 1917

(Igatpuri); October 1918 (Devarayi); October 1919 (Karwar, Jog to Siddhapur);

October 4th, 1907 (Lonavla); October 6th, 1899 (Londa); October 7th, 1919

(Lonavla); October 10th, 1910 (Alibag, Kankeshwar Hills); October 16th, 1891

(Londa) ; October 17th, 1902 (Oservira) ; November 1916 (Yelvigi) ; November

1st, 1917 (Igatpuri); November 2nd, 1902 (Londa); December 1916 (Havas-

bhavi); December 9th, 1902 (Nadsur to Pali).

Field notes : Purely a monsoon species which may occasionally be met with

in and near marshes throughout the year. The monsoon forms are decidedly

larger than those obtained during the dry season. The stems are greenish

covered with a whitish or grey powdery substance — tufted, terete. The heads

are pale when young in the monsoon form and become brown when mature.

Flowering commences in early July in the monsoon forms and after the rains

are over the plants die down.

Distribution: Throughout India, except the N.-W.-^-Ceylon, E. Asia,

Australia.

2. Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 285 ; C. B. Clarke in

Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 631. — Scirpus scaber Boxb. FI. Ind. i (1832) 220.

Description: Stems 10-30 cm., slender, obscurely quadrangular, leafless,

uppermost sheath produced on one side, 0-12 mm. Spikelet one, erect, lanceo-

late, 12-18 mm. Glumes ovate, scarcely mucronate, pale or chestnut with

green keel; lowest 2-3 empty, much shorter than spikelet. Stamens usually 2.

Style nearly as long as nut, flattened, slightly villous at top; branches shorter

than style. Nut as long as J-J glume, biconvex, with 4-7 strong transverse

ridges.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — S. M. Country: Devarayi, 1,800 ft.,

rainfall 90 in. (Sedgwick 4422 !). — N. Kanara: Karwar (Hallberg & McCann

C55 !), sandy rice fields by the sea (Sedgwick 5101 !) ; in a marsh, 30 miles

E. of Karwar (Sedgwick 6561 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : September 1895 (Yellapur) ; October 1918 (Devarayi) ;

October 1919 (Karwar); December 1918 (Karwar).

Distribution: Throughout India, 0-3,500 ft., from Kumaon and Assam to

Ceylon and Malacca, S. M. Country, N. and S. Kanara, Mysore, Travancore.

3. Fimbristylis polytrichoides B. Br. Prodr. (1810) 226; Cke. ii, 879. —

F. juncea Boeck. in Linnaea xxxvii (1871) 4 ( non Boem. & Schult.).

Locality: Konkan: Bombay, seashore (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 7316 !), sea-

face near Mahalaxmi Battery (McCann 354 !), Antop Hill (Blatter & McCann

2450 !) ; Sion (Blatter & McCann 2370 ! 2726 !, Woodrow ex Cooke); in a

marsh near the station (McCann 965 !) ; Bandra, seashore (Vakil C130 !) ;

Kalyan (Woodrow ex Clarke). — N. Kanara : Karwar (Hallberg & McCann C50 1

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IIT.

Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl in a marsh at Khandala, W. Ghats.

Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl in a puddle near the Vibar Lake, Salsette Island.

Photos by C. McCann,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE IV.

Fimbristylis spathacea Roth, growing on rocks at Maval, Rajpntana.

Fimbristylis digitata Boeck. on well drained slope at Midland, Salsette Island.

Photos by G. McCann.

EE VISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 54l

C52 !), seaface (Sedgwick 6710 !, Talbot .!); mouth of the Kala Nuddi River

(Hallberg & McCann C51 !).

Flowering & fruiting: March 23rd, 1929 (Bombay); June 1917 (Sion);

August 1917 (Antop Hill); August 20th, 1885 (Bar war) ; August 25th, 1929

(Sion) ; September 25th, 1892 (near Sion) ; October 1919 (Karwar) ; November

1916 (‘Sion) ; December 1919 (Bombay) .

Field notes: A plant of the seashore and saline marshes, forming densely

tufted rosettes, partially prostrate, often radiating from the centre. The

general flowering season seems to be the monsoon, but it may be found in

flower at any time in the marshes.

Distributioyi: From Bengal to Ceylon and Malacca, Konkan, N. Kanara,

E. coast from Godavari southwards, near the sea. — Tropics of the Old World.

4. Fimbristy lis schoenoides Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 286; Cke. ii, 880. — For

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 634.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Without locality (3 sheets H.E.B.B. !). — Sind: (Pinwill ex

Cooke).— Gujarat : Talod, red earth upland (Sedgwick 274 !, Saxton 365 !) ;

Dhansura, Modasa Petlia, Ahmedabad Dist., damp ground (Sedgwick 1). —

W. Ghats: Khandala (Woodrow ex Cooke; Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3036 !;

Saxton 1204 !), St. Xavier’s Villa (McCann C57 !). — Konkan: (Woodrow ex

Cooke); Kanari Caves, Salsette (Blatter & McCann 2439 !) ; Mulgaon, Salsette

(Blatter & McCann 2444 !) ; foot of the hills W. of Mulland, in open ground

(McCann 809 !); Vickroli, foot of hills W. of Railway Station, in open ground

(McCann 1026 !). — S. M. Country: Bidi, Belgaum Dist., in water, 2,500 ft.,

rainfall 60 in. (-Sedgwick 2963 ! 3021 !). — • N . Kanara: (Hallberg & McCann

C54 !) ; Karwar, hillside (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 6693 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot

1507 !).

Flowering & fruiting : July 1916 (Khandala) ; July 1917 (Mulgaum) ; August

1914 (Dhansura, Talod); August 1917 (Kanari Caves); August lltli, 1929 (Mul-

land) ; August 25th, 1929 (Vickroli) ; September 1895 (Konkan) ; September 1917

(Bidi to Belgaum) ; September 1919 (Khandala) ; October 1919 (Kanara, Kar-

war); October 10th, 1884 (Yellapur) ; October 12th, 1915 (Khandala).

Field notes : Purely a monsoon species, growing in open land. In Salsette

we have observed this species forming close carpets intermixed with Rhyncos-

pora Wightiana and young grass ( Manisuris ?). Isolated specimens are also

to be met with in open grassland. Flowering commences soon after the break

of the rains (about the end of June). A weak-stemmed species with brown

polished spikes. When growing in grass it is soon overtopped and apparently

disappears. The more or less globose heads and polished glumes readily dis-

tinguish it from F. tetragona which it closely resembles.

Distributioyi : Throughout India. — Ceylon, China, Malaya, Australia.

5. Fimbristylis argentea Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 294; Cke. ii, 881. — For

synonyms' see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 640.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — Gujarat: Sonasan, by a small

bank (Sedgwick 327 !). — N. Kanara: Mouth of Kala Nuddi River (Hallberg

& McCann C66 !) ; Karwar (Talbot 1313 !), sandy fields by the sea (Sedgwick

5090 !).

Flowering & fruiting : October 1914 (Sonasan) ; October 1919 (Kala Nuddi

River); December 1918 (Karwar).

Distribution: Bengal, Central India, Gujarat, N. Kanara, Mysore, Cudda-

pah, Chittor, Nilgiris, Malabar, Travancore, Tinnevelly. — Ceylon, Mauritius'.

6. Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl Enum. ii (1806) .288; Oke. ii, 881.— For

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 637.

Descriptioyi : Cke. l.c.

Fischer (Flora of Madras, p. 1658) has united this species with F. dichot&ma

Vahl. Though these two plants do look alike to a certain extent, they are

really two different species and we should like them to remain as such. In the

field they very often grow together and are easily picked out. The nut is

certainly a good character in the herbarium and once familiar with the plants

in the. field they are also easily distinguished in the herbarium. F. aestivalis

542 JOURNAL, , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. .SOCIETY, VoL: XXXYLl

may also be recognized in the field by its general habit . -and finer . glaucous

leaves. It is usually smaller.

Locality: Without locality: (Dalzell X)—W, Ghats: Khandala (McCann

I860 ! 1867 ! 3190 !, Blatter & McCann 3175 ! 3177 !, Talbot 4796 !),

very -common (McCann !) , in a marsh near station (McCann 391 ! 392 !) ;

Lonavla (Garnmie 16312 ! 16284 !), bed of Lake (Saxton 1497 !) ; Matheran

(Bird-wood, Woodrow ex Cooke) ; Castle Bock, on sand-bank of Duski Biver

(McCann C60 -! Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 5533 !).— Deccan: Mawal (Woodrow

ex Cooke). — Konkan : (Woodrow Herb. !) ; Bhandup (Blatter & McCann 2411 !) ;

Pen (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3215 ! 3250 ! 3248 !) ; Eastern shore of

Vehar Lake, common (McCann 647 !) ; base of Kanari Caves (McCann 1591 !).

— Goa: Dudhsagar Falls, Goa frontier (McCann 65 !). — S. M. Country:

Konankeri, Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick 4963 !) ; Devarayi, 1,800 ft. (Sedgwick

4033 !). — N. Kanara: (Hallberg & McCann 3124 !-, Law ex^ Cooke) -Karwar

(Bell 3936 !) ; Danoli, Amboli Ghat (Garnmie 15065 »!) ; Gersoppa . Falls

(Chibber !) ; Yincholi (Talbot 943 !) ; Dandeli (Talbot 2270 !):; Palla, south

of Mundgod (Herb. Woodrow !).

Flowering & fruiting: January 11th, 1890 (Dandeli); February 1917 (Pen) ;

February 25th, 1929 (Kanari Caves) ; March 1918 (Khandala) ; March 1919

(Castle Bock, Dudhsagar); March 31st, 1929 (Khandala); April 4th, 1884 (Vin-

choli) ; April 25th, 1906 (Khandala) ; May 1917 (Khandala) ; May 1918 (Yetora) ;

May 1st, 1902 (Danoli); May 13th, 1903 (Lonavla); May 17th 1911 (Gersoppa

Falls); May 24th, 1916 (Lonavla; bed of lake); June 1918 (Devarayi); July

1917 (Bhandup); July 7 th, 1920 (Vehar Lake); December 1918 (Konankeri).

Field notes : On damp sandy places it often forms small rosettes composed

mostly of the spikes (inflorescence). — A plant evenly distributed in the Presid-

ency with the exception of the extreme North.

Distribution: More or less throughout India. — S. and E. Asia, Australia.

7. Fimbristylis dichotoma Yahl Enum. ii (1806) 287 ; Cke. ii, 880. — For

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 637.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Without locality (Dalzell !),. — Sind : (Stocks ex Cooke) ; Hydera-

bad (Chibber !). — Kathiawar: Porbandar (Janalekar !). — Gujarat: Bodeli

(Woodrow !, Blatter 3122 !) ; Dangs, S. Gujarat (Bell 5440 !) ; Kabir Vad,

Broach (Ghibber 772 !, Garnmie !) ; Nadiad (Chibber 251 !) ; Surat (Garnmie

16444 !) ; Sevalia (Chibber 515 !) ; Vasvad (Chibber !) ; in bed of stream

under Gorair Bridge, Chitrasani to Sarotra (McCann 1400 !) .—Khandesh :

Bhusawal, N.-E. Tapti Biver (Blatter & Hallberg 1926 !) ; Bor, Tapti Biver,

sandy mud (Blatter &- Hallberg 3017 !) ; Nimb, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hall-

berg 1932 !) ; Talner, Tapti bank (Blattef & Hallberg 3020 ! 3022 !) ; Chan-

seli, N. slope, Taloda (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 29576 !). — W. Ghats:

Khandala (Woodrow ex Cooke), in marsh near station (McCann 342 ! 345 !

385 ~ !), very common (McCann !, Blatter & McCann 3152 !) ; .Lonavla

(Garnmie 16284 !) ; Purandhar (Blatter & McCann 5588 !) ; Panchgani (Blatter

& Hallberg B1739 !). — Deccan: Sangli, river-bank (Blatter C61 ! C62 ! C63 !) ;

Varavandi,. Ahmednagar Dist. (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 7378 !); Kali (Garnmie

15124 !).; Poona, riverside (Bhide 2 !) ; on banks of Nira Biver (Fernandez

C174 ! C186 !). — Konkan: (Dalzell-Lambert, Stocks ex Cooke); Pen (Blatter,

Hallberg & McCann 3214 !) ; Mulgaon, Salsette (Blatter & McCann 2445 !) ;

to Karjat (Blatter & Hallberg 3179 !) ; Vetora (Sabnis 33299 !) ; Hills W. of

Tulsi Lake, in a stream (McCann 355a! 355b ! 355c !). — S. M. Country:

Bagalkot, riverbank (H.E.B.B. !); Dharwar Dist. -, ricefields, very abundant

(Sedgwick 2339 1); Sangli, riverbank- (Blatter C176 !). — V. Kanara: Yellapur

(Talbot _J); Vincholi (Talbot.!).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Bhusawal, Pen) January 22nd, 1925

(Sangli); February 1919 (Dangs); February 1920 (Yaravandi); March 1884

(Yellapur); March 1917 (to Karjat, Khandala, Dharwar Dist.); March 7th, 1929

(Nira Biver); March 24th, 1929 (Tulsi Lake); March 29th, J929 (Khandala). ;

April 3884. (Vincholi); April 1917 (Khandala); April 1918 (Karwar); April .5th,

1909 (Hyderabad); April 17th, 1906 (Bagalkot); April 19 th, 1909 (Porbandaf) ;

May 1914 (bed of Sabarmati) ; May 1917 (Khandala) ; May 3rd, 1903 (Lonavla) r

May 8th, 1902 (jPoona) ; May 16th, 1902 (Karli) ; July . 1917 (Mulgaum); Sep-

tember 1914 (Wadaj); October 24th, 1929 (Chitrasani to 'Sarotra) ; October 29th,

REVISION OF THE FLORA .OE THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 543

1903 (Surat); November- 21st, 1907 ... (Nadiad) .-r December 1916 - (Bor, .Nimb) ;

December 1917 (Purandhar). ; December 1918 : (Cbanseli)-; -December 3rd, 1907-

(Sevalia) ; December -20tli, 1904 (Kabir Yad) ; December 29tli,. 1911 (VasvadL

Field notes : The curious point about this species is - that it is mostly , con-

centrated in the drier or Northern parts of the Presidency as_ is: seen -from

the available material with occasional finds in the Konkan,. _S. M. Country and

Kanara.- In - the Deccan it is. perhaps the commonest plant of. the marshes,

along river-banks and watercourses throughout the year. It grows in dense.

rosettes -and is .extremely prolific. It is very often mixed _ witli F. aesjtivalis.

which, it closely resembles. It grows equally well in soft . sticky soil,. on _ sand

and among rocks, often attaining a large size when in the two latter situ-

ations. Specimens taken in the bed of a watercourse among rocks where

sand had collected measured 41 .5 cm. whereas the. Floras give 25 cm. as. the

maximum. The specimen referred to was taken in April 1929 and is . in

McCann’s herbarium.

This plant closely resembles F. aestivalis as has been mentioned before,

but in the field is easily distinguished from it by the colour, as F. aestivalis

is more inclined to be greyish green. There is a slight difference in the form

of the umbel but this is difficult to describe and can be made out only by -the

practised eye.

‘Common on sand and on the Bed Soil plateau, Talod. Boots of plants

collected by the Khari Biver are noted as very highly aromatic.’ (Saxton &

Sedgwick PI. N. Guj. B.B.S.I. vi, 307).

Distribution: Throughout India , especially in rice fields. — Ceylon, warm

regions of the Old World.

8. Fimbristylis spathacea Both Nov. PI. Sp. (1821) 24; Cke. ii, 882. —

For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 640.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Clarke identified Talbot’s Karwar specimen No. 551 as F. aestivalis in

Herb. Calc. We cannot agree.

The Mirpur ‘Sakro specimen was determined as F. dichotoma by B. N.

Vakil in the Flora of the Indus Delta.

Locality: Sind: (Pip will ex : Cooke); Karachi * (Woodrow ex Cooke)-,;

Landhi, near Karachi (H.E.B.B. !); Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D736 !).

— Gujarat: Loamy and salt encrusted valleys, not uncommon (Saxton and

Sedgwick) ; marshes on the Dhansura, Talod Boad (Sedgwick !) ; nala near

Wadaj, marshy ground (Saxton 1822 !) ; in sandy bed of stream under Gorair

Bridge, Chitrasani to Sarotra (McCann 1402 ! 1402a \).—Konkan: Uran, Bom-

bay Harbour (Hallberg & McCann 2745 !) ; Versova, in marsh (Blatter &

McCann 29573 !) ; Bassein (Paranjpye !) ; Bandra (Wroughton !). — S. M.

Country: Biverbed, Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick 2329 !). — N. Kanara: Karwar

(Talbot 551 !, Hallberg & McCann C69 ! C70 !), sandy seashore (Sedgwick

6674 !); •Sulgeri, Kala Nuddi (Bell 4236 !).

Flowering & fruiting: January 1917 (Uran); July 1918 (Versova); July

20th, 1883 (Karwar) ; August 1914 (Dhansura) ; August 1918 (Sulgeri) ; August

9th, 1912 (Bassein) ; August 1.6th, 1919 (Wadaj); October 1919 (Karwar);

December 1918 (Landhi).

Field notes : A densely tufted species with stiff leaves and stems usually

growing on river and tank banks and in crevicejs Of rocks in the same ^situ-

ations.

Distribution: Orissa, Bombay Pres., near the sea on both coasts of the

Madras Pres.j N. Coimbatore.— Ceylon, Singapore. Warm regions.

9. Fimbristylis annua Boem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 95, var. diphylla Kiiken-

thal .—F. diphylla Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 298; Ckei. ii, 882. — Scirpus animus

Allioni FI. Pedem. ii, 171, t. 88, f. 5.

Description: Cke. l.c.

There is a depauperate specimen in the H.E.B.B. from Bhandala (Septem-

ber 24th, 1895) determined as F. diphylla var. annua B. & S. We do not

think it Justifiable: to make a variety . of such a specimen, as the condition

may have something to do with the. locality in which the specimen was growing

— probably very poor soil. The specimen measures 11.5 cm. whereas the Floras

give 15-60 cm.

544 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. XXxvii

C. B. Clarke in F.B.I. vi, 636 has ‘Nut 5-13-striated on each face’, further

on in the description he writes: ‘Nut . . . smooth.’ We have found the

nut of the specimens obtained from Salsette, particularly the larger ones, having

the shoulders tuberculate and very obscurely striate.

Locality : Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Gujarat: Talod, red earth upland

(Sedgwick 270 !, Saxton 357 !) ; near Talod (Sedgwick !) ; Dhansura, Modasa

Petha (Sedgwick !). — W. Ghats: Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 2811 ! 2817 I);

Khandala (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3047 ! 3060 !, McCann C80 ! 372 !) ;

Panchgani, Tableland (Blatter & Hallberg B1740 ! B1741 !, McCann 2981 !) ;

Castle Bock, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 in. (Sedgwick 2740 ! 2824 !); Honda

(Garnmie 14071 !). — Deccan: Ganeshkhind Gardens (Garade !). — Konkan:

(Stocks, Woodrow ex Cooke); Bassein (Blatter & McCann 2353 !) ; Vehar

Lake, Salsette (Blatter & McCann 2761 !) ; Vetora (Sabnis 33102 ! 33429 !);

Wada Taluka, Thana Dist. (Byan 693 ! 694 !) ; Salarwady (Woodrow or

Cooke (?) H.E.B.B. !) ; ‘Sion Hill (McCann 961 !) ; Mulland, in a marsh W.

of village (McCann 812 !) ; foot of hills W. of Mulland, in open (McCann

890 !) ; hills W. of Vickroli Station (McCann 1024 !) ; E. shore of Vehar

Lake, by a stream (McCann 638 ! 654 !). — S. M. Country: Dharwar, in a

water-hole, 2,400 ft., rainfall 35 in. (Sedgwick 6199 !) ; Devarayi (Sedgwick

4046 !). — N. Kanara: Karwar, by a stream (Sedgwick 6603 !, Talbot 601 !,

Hallberg & McCann C68 !) ; Gersoppa Falls, on rocks in riverbed (Hallberg

& McCann C84 !).

Flowering & fruiting: March 31st, 1929 (Khandala); May 1918 (Vetora);

May 25th, 1900 (Londa) ; June 1918 (Devarayi) ; June 13th, 1902 (Ganeshkhind) ;

July 1917 (Khandala); July 7th, 1929 (Vehar Lake); August 1883 (Karwar);

August 1914 (Talod, near Talod, Dhansura); August 1917 (Castle Bock); August

1919 (Dharwar); August 11th, 1929 (Mulland); August 25th, 1929 (Sion, Vick-

roli); September 1902 (Wada Taluka); September 1917 (Igatpuri, Bassein,

Devikop) ; September 1919 (Khandala) ; September 20th, 1902 (Khandala) ; ‘Sep-

tember 24th, 1895 (Bliandala) ; October 1919 (Karwar, Gersoppa Falls); October

1920 (Panchgani); November 1916 (Vehar Lake).

Field notes : Generally speaking this is a monsoon species. A most vari-

able plant growing in the open, and the margins of forests. We have noticed

that those specimens which grow in open land mixed with other plants are

weak and small, with few spikes, sometimes reduced to one, the nut and

glumes being also smaller, compared with those from the margins of forests.

Distribution: Throughout India, up to 6,000 ft. — All warm regions.

9a. Fimbristylis annua Boem. & Schult. var. paucispiculata Blatter &

McCann. — F. diphylla var. annua C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 637.

Locality: W. Ghats: Khandala (Sedgwick 2588 !), St. Mary’s Villa

grounds (McCann C82 !). — Deccan: Nasik, Lena Hill (Blatter & Hallberg

4537 !). — Konkan : Antop Hill, Bombay (Blatter & McCann 2426 !) ; Trombay

(Blatter & McCann 33856 !) ; Mulgaon, Salsette (Blatter & McCann C59 !). —

S. M. Country: Devikop, in grass in forest clearing (Sedgwick 2975 !).

Flowering & fruiting : July 1917 (Mulgaon) ; August 1917 (Antop Hill) ;

September 1917 (Lena Hill, Trombay); September 1919 (Khandala).

Distribution: Bengal, Deccan, Konkan, ‘S. M. Country.

10. Fimbristylis ferruginea Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 291 ; Cke. ii, 881. — For

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 638.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Cooke says: ‘Leaves 0 or few’, some of the specimens are decidedly leafy

at the base. ‘ Spikelets § by | in.’ — in one specimen obtained in Kanara they

measure 18 by 5 mm.

The hairiness of the upper half of the glumes is a good distinguishing

character.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Cutch: Karu Boa (Blatter 1974 !).

— Gujarat : Gogha, in tank (Chibber 312 !) ; road to Lasundra (Chibber 460 !) ;

red earth upland, near Talod (Sedgwick 255 !, Saxton 309 !) ; in sandy bed

of stream under Gorair Bridge, Chitrasani to Sarotra (McCann 1398 !). —

Khandesh : Bori Biver (Blatter & Hallberg 2732 !) ; Amalner, Bori Biver

(Blatter & Hallberg 2758 !). — W. Ghats : Khandala station (Blatter & Mc-

Cann 3001 !) ; Bhor Ghat (Herb. St. N.C. 3123 !) ; Panchgani, Dalkeith

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 545

Springs (McCann 3489 !) ; Pasarni Ghat (McCann 3039 !). — Deccan: Ganga-

pui', Nasik (Blatter & Hallberg 2839 ! 4539 !) ; Poona (Blatter 3125 !, Clarke !,

H.E.B.B., Cooke, Woodrow ex Cooke), Ganeskkliind Gardens (Patwardhan !,

Garade 434 !) ; Nira Canal, Poona Dist. (Ckibber !) ; Paskan (Paranjpye !) ;

Mangri, near Poona (Gammie 15345 !) ; Happy Valley, near Alimednagar

(Paranjpye !) ; Alimednagar to Parner Eoad (Paranjpye !)-. — Konkan : (Talbot

528 ex Clarke); Bombay (Jacquemont 412, ex Clarke), Antop Hill (Blatter &

McCann 2423 !) ; Bandra (Vakil C67 !) ; Bassein (Glibber !, Blatter & Mc-

Cann 2354 !) ; Hills E. of Tulsi Lake, in a stream (McCann 356a I 356b !

356c !). — S. M. Country: Tegur, Dharwar-Belgaum Eoad (Sedgwick 5503 1) ;

Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 in. (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 4989 !) ; Yelvigi,

Dharwar Dist., 1,800 ft., rainfall 30 in. (’Sedgwick 2111 !). — N. Kanara: Sada-

shivgad, sands (Bell 7801 !) ; Karwar, salt marshes (Sedgwick 5100 !) ; Kala

Nuddi at Sulgeri (Bell 4445 !) ; Kumpta (Chibber !).

Flowering & fruiting : February 1919 (Tegur) ; March 13th, 1911 (Happy

Valley); March 14th, 1908 (Nira Canal); March 24th, 1929 (hills E. of Tulsi

Lake); June 13th, 1902 (Ganeshkhind) ; August 1914 (Talod) ; August 1917

(Antop Hill, Bandra, Khandala); August 9th, 1905 (Ganeshkhind); September

1917 (Gangapur, Bassein); September 1918 (Kala Nuddi); September 13th,

1907 (Happy Valley); September 21st, 1907 (Ahmednagar to Parner); September

26th, 1895 (Poona); October 23rd, 1914 (Pashan) ; October 24th, 1929 (Chitra-

sani to Sarotra) ; November 1st, 1910 (Kumpta); November 29th, 1907 (Gogha) ;

December 1907 (Karu Eoa) ; December 1916 (Yelvigi, Bori Eiver) ; December

1918 (Dharwar, Karwar, Dadgaon) ; December 1920 (Sadashivgad) ; December

2nd, 1907 (Eoad to Lasundra).

Field notes : In our experience a plant inhabiting the banks of rivers,

streams and tanks — sandy soil being preferred. Under these conditions it

flowers throughout the year when there is sufficient water.

Distribution : Throughout India. — Ceylon, China, Japan, Malaya, Australia,

Polynesia.

11. Fimbristylis digitata Boeck. in Flora lxi (1878) 35; Cke. ii, 884.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: W. Ghats: Khandala (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3052 !,

Sedgwick 2595 !, Blatter 1858 !, McCann 1857 ! 3194 ! 3220 !) ;. Lonavla

(Garade !, Woodrow ex Cooke). — Konkan: (Dalzell, Stocks and Law ex Cooke);

Klianoli (Herb. St. X.C. 33561 !); Bhandup to Vehar Lake, very common on

open gravelly ground (McCann 648 !) ; hillsides near Ghatkopar (Sedgwick

1028 !) ; hills W. of Mulland (McCann 1650 !). — S. M. Country: Badami

(Woodrow 56 ex Cooke). — Goa: Marmagao .(Talbot 2506, ex Cooke). — N. Kanara:

(Law ex Cooke) ; Belekerry (Talbot 491 ! 1182 !) .

Flowering Je fruiting : May 1917 (Khandala); May 1918 (Khanoli) ; June

1892 (Lonavla); June 7th, . 1916 (Lonavla) ; June 10th, 1883 (Belekerry); June

15th, 1885 (Belekerry); June 24th, 1903 (Lonavla); July 1915 (Ghatkopar);

July 1916 (Khandala); July 7th, 1929 (Bhandup to Vehar Lake); July 8th,

1902 (Lonavla); August 1908 (Khandala); August 17th, 1889 (Belekerry).

Field notes : An extremely common species growing in open ground on

gently sloping hillsides and plateaux on well drained soil usually consisting

of gravel or pebbles. Frequently occupying large areas ‘apparently’ to the

exclusion of other plants. This is due to the fact that this species appears

soon after the break of the monsoon when the grass with which it is mixed

grows slower. As soon as the plants have fruited they ‘disappear’ as they

are usually lost in the longer grasses. They commence to flower soon after

the beginning of the rains and disappear as fast.

This species is very conspicuous with its white spikelets arranged in a

head at the summit of the usually short filamentous stem and is easily recog-

nized by this Character both in the field and in the herbarium from any of

the other Cyperaceae in the Presidency.

The plants have a thick black tuberous rhizome which persists — hence it

should be classed as a perennial. The period of activity of a single plant is

barely 2 months.

• Distribution: Deccan, Konkan, N. Kanara.— Endemic.

12. Fimbristylis Woodrowii C. B. Clarke in Journ. Linn. Soc. xxxiv (1898)

68; Cke. ii, 884.

3

546 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society , voi. xxxvii

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : W. Ghats : Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 2809 !) ; Khandala

(Woodrow ex Cooke, Sedgwick 2576 !, McCann 3185 !, Blatter, Hallberg &

McCann 3002 !, H.E.B.B. !, Woodrow (?) H.E.B.B. !) ; Castle Bock (Sedg-

wick 2732 ! 2733 !, Bell 4320 ! 4355 !). — Konkan: Malvan (Woodrow ex

Cooke). — N. Kanara : Karwar (Hallberg & McCann C75 !, Talbot 999 !) ; road-

side E. of Karwar (Sedgwick 6567 !).

Flowering & fruiting : March 1917 (Khandala) ; May 1917 (Khandala) ; July

1917 (Khandala) ; August 1883 (Karwar) ; August 1916 (Khandala) ; August 1917

(Castle Bock) ; September 1917 (Igatpuri) ; September 1918 (Castle Bock) ; Sep-

tember 1919 (Khandala) ; September 24th, 1895 (Khandala) ; October 1918 (Kar-

war; E. of Karwar); October 1919 (Karwar).

Distribution : W. India.

13. Fimbristylis tenera Boem. & Schult. Syst. ii, Mant. 57. — F. monticola

Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. PI. Cyp. (1855) 111 ; Cke. ii, 885.

Description : Annual, glabrous, except the glumes. Stem slender, 20 cm.

long. Heaves half the length of the stem, 1.25-2 mm. broad. Umbel loose,

subcompound, of 7-10 solitary spikelets; bracts 2-3, setaceous, shorter than the

umbel. Spikelets ellipsoid-lanceolate, nearly 6 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, 10-

flowered. Glumes ovate, acuminate, submucronate, boat-shaped, adpressed,

glandular-puberulous, chestnut-red, keel yellow, margins conspicuously scarious.

Style 3-fid, longer than the nut, deciduous together with its pyramidal base,

glabrous. Nut hardly half the length of the glume, obovoid, round-trigonous,

white or pallid, coarsely reticulate, smooth or sometimes subtubercled.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — Gujarat: Ahmedabad, nala near

Wadaj (Sedgwick 292 !) ; red earth upland near Talod (Sedgwick 241 !). —

Khandesh: Talner, Tapti Biver (Blatter & Hallberg 1859 !) ; Bor, Tapti

bank (Blatter & Hallberg 3013 ! 3023 ! 4453 !) ; Nimb, Tapti Biver

(Blatter & Hallberg 1930 !). — W. Ghats: Khandala (Blatter, Hallberg

& McCann 3042 ! 3051 ! 3055 ! 3063 ! 3065 !) ; Lingmala, on rocks (McCann

3411 ! 3416 !) ; Panchgani, slope of Tableland (McCann 2806 !). — Deccan :

Shelarvadi, Bhor Ghat (Woodrow 10 ex Cooke). — Konkan: Antop Hill, Bombay

(Blatter & McCann 2425 !) ; Pen (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3213 ! 3237 !) ;

Nanjri, Narsery Forest (Byan 1177 ! 1178 !). — S. M. Country: Badami Hills

(Paranjpye !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Pen) ; March 1917 (Khandala) ; July

1916 (Khandala) ; August 1914 (near Talod) ; August 1917 (Antop Hill) ; August

8th, 1906 (Manjri, Nursery Forest); August 18th, 1930 (Panchgani); September

1914 (Wadaj); September 1919 (Khandala); September 1st, 1912 (Badami Hills);

September 24th, 1930 (Lingmala); December 1916 (Talner, Bor, Nimb).

Distribution: Throughout Bombay Pres., S. Kanara, Mysore, Bellary,

Chingleput, Nilgiris, Anamalais, Travancore. — Ceylon, tropical Africa.

14. Fimbristylis junciformis Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 239; Cke. ii, 886. — -

For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 647.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Gujarat: Talod, dry place on red

earth upland (Sedgwick 282 1, Saxton 376 !). — Deccan: Karli (Woodrow ex

Cooke). — Konkan: Mulgaon, Salsette (Blatter & McCann 2408 ! 2446 !) ;

Bandra (Wroughton !). — S. M. Country: Devikop, openings in deciduous forest,

Dharwar Dist., 1,800 ft., rainfall 40 in. (Sedgwick 3983 !) ; Dharwar, 2,400 ft.,

rainfall 34 in. (Sedgwick 2545 !, Talbot !). — N. Kanara: (H.E.B.B. !).

Flowering & fruiting : May 1918 (Devikop) ; June 1883 (N. Kanara) ; June

1917 (Dharwar) ; July 1917 (Mulgaon) ; August 1893 (Dharwar) ; August 1897

(Bandra); August 1914 (Talod); August 10th, 1890 (Dharwar).

Distribution: Throughout India. — Ceylon, Madagascar, Philippines.

15. Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 287 ; Cke. ii, 883. — For

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 644.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke). — Gujarat: Baroda (Blatter 3120 !,

Herb. Woodrow !)j Grassy path between rice fields, 4 miles N.-W. of Ahmeda-

bad (Sedgwick 312 !). — W. Ghats: Khandala (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann

RE VISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 547

3050 ! 3059 !, McCann 3193 !, Sedgwick 2575 !), in a marsh (McCann 352 !).

— Konkan: (Lambert ex Cooke); Bhandup (Blatter & McCann 2417 ! C73 !) ;

Trombay (Blatter & McCann 33857 !) ; Vetora (Sabnis 33596 !) ; Tungar Hills,

Thana (Paranjpye !) ; E. shore of Vehar Lake, in a stream (McCann 651 !

652 !) ; Borivli to Kanari Caves, margin of a tank (McCann 1110 !), in rice

fields (McCann 1162 !) ; Kalyan (Woodrow ex Cooke). — S. M. Country : Deva-

rayi (Herb. St. X.C. C74 !) ; Havasbhavi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 35 in. (Sedg-

wick 1986 !) ; Dastikop, high rice fields, 2,500 ft., rainfall 35 in. (Sedgwick

1859 !). — N. Kanara : Karwar (Talbot 1304 !), sandy fields by the sea (Sedg-

wick 5097 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1919 (Bhandup) ; March 1919 (Dudhsagar

Falls); March 31st, 1929 (Khandala) ; May 1917 (Khandala) ; May 1918 (Vetora);

June 1917 (Bhandup); July 1916 (Khandala); July 7th, 1929 (Vehar Lake);

September 1917 (Trombay); September 4th, 1896 (Kalyan); 'September lOtli,

1895 (Karwar) ; 'September 15th, 1929 (Borivli to Kanari Caves) ; October 1902

(Castle Bock) ; October 1914 (4 miles N.-W. of Ahmedabad) ; October 5th, 1884

(Yellapur); October 30th, 1907 (Thana); November 1910 (Kanara Dist.) ;

November 1916 (Dastikop) ; December 1916 (Havasbhavi) ; December 1918 (Kar-

war).

Field notes : Almost entirely a monsoon species, but may be found near or

in water at any time of the year. The small spikelets and the characteristically

flattened basal portion of the stem are good field characters which easily dis-

tinguish this species. Habit tufted — gregarious.

Distribution: Throughout India, up to 6,000 ft. — All warm regions.

16. Fimbristylis quinquangularis Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 229; Cke. ii, 883.

— Synonyms in C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 644.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Without locality (Dalzell !). — Sind: Chunar, Indus Bivex

(Blatter & McCann C183 !). — Gujarat: Modasa Petha, marshy banks of Wat-

rak Biver (Sedgwick 1059 !) ; Ahmedabad, rice fields (Sedgwick 311 !) ; Khara-

goda (Saxton !) ; Baroda (Woodrow ex Cooke ). — W. Ghats: Igatpuri (Blatter

& Hallberg 2843 !, McCann 2387 !) ; Khandala (Blatter & McCann 3170 !,

Sedgwick 2573 !), in a marsh near the station (McCann 388 !) ; Lonavla

(H.E.B.B. !) ; near Shivapur village (Fernandez C175 !) ; Castle Bock

(G-ammie !). — Konkan: (Law ex Cooke); Bombay (Boivin 987 ex Clarke);

Mahim (Blatter & McCann 2729 !) ; Bassein (Blatter & McCann 2357 !) ;

Andheri (Blatter & McCann 3085 !) ; Bhandup, near tank (Blatter & McCann

2744 !) ; Versova (Byan 1369 !) ; Mulland, in a marsh W. of village (McCann

821 !) ; Borivli to Kanari Caves, in open ground near a puddle (McCann

1126 !) ; along railway line near Malad (McCann 1350 !) ; Kalyan (H.E.B.B. !).

— S. M. Country: Devarayi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 30 in. (Sedgwick 4097 ! 4464 !) ;

Alnavar, 2,000 ft., rainfall 40 in. (Sedgwick 2923 !). — N. Kanara: Sampkliand

(Hallberg & McCann C71 ! C72 !) ; roadside E. of Karwar (Sedgwick 6568 !) ;

30 miles E. of Karwar (Sedgwick 6569 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot 986 !).

Flowering & fruiting: March 1917 (Khandala); March 29th, 1929 (Khan-

dala); July 1917 (Khandala); July 1918 (Devarayi); August 11th, 1929 (Mul-

land); August 22nd, 1929 (near Shivapur); September 1884 (Yellapur); Sep-

tember 1915 (Watrak); September 1917 (Igatpuri, Bassein, Alnavar); Septem-

ber 15th, 1903 (Versova); September 15th, 1929 (Borivli to Kanari Caves);

September 29th, 1929 (Malad); October 1914 (Ahmedabad); October 1917 (Igat-

puri) ; October 1918 (E. of Karwar, Devarayi) ; October 1919 (Sampkliand, 30

miles E. of Karwar); October 11th, 1914 (Ivharagoda) ; November 1916 (Mahim,

Bhandup); December 1916 (Andheri).

Distribution: More or less throughout India. — Ceylon, Malay Peninsula,

Malaya, China, Australia.

17. Fimbristylis complanata Link Hort. Berol. i (1827)i 292; Cke. ii, 886.

—For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. E.B.I. vi, 646.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke).— Gujarat : Watrak Biver banks,

Modasa Petha (Sedgwick 1060 !) ; Talod, damp ground on red earth upland

(Sedgwick 253 !). — Khandesh : Dhulia (Chibber !). — Deccan: Gfangapur, Nasik

(Blatter & Hallberg 2838 !) ; near Chattersinghi (Banade ex Cooke) ; Poona

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

(H.E.B.B. !, Clarke !). — W. Ghats : Lonavla (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann

2492 !). — S. M. Country : Shiggaon, Dharwar Dist., in a cocoanut garden,

2,000 ft., rainfall 30 in. (Sedgwick 3661 ); Yelvigi, Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick

4282 !).

Flowering & fruiting : February 1918 (Shiggaon) ; August 1914 (Talod) ;

August 1918 (Yelvigi) ; September 1896 (Poona) ; September 1915 (Watrak) ;

September 1917 (Gangapur, Lonavla); December 28th, 1907 (Dhulia).

Distribution : Throughout India in the warm region. — All warm regions.

Var. microcarpa C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 446.

Locality : Deccan: Poona (Woodrow ex Cooke); water-hole at Hewra

(Dalzell ex Cooke).

Distribution : Kumaon, up to 8,000 ft., Sikkim, Bombay.— E. Asia, Austra-

lia.

18. Fimbristylis monostachya Hassk. PI. Jav. Bar. (1848) 61; Cke. ii,

885. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 649.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — Sind : (Pinwill ex Clarke). —

Gujarat: Dhansura, Modasa Petha, damp ground (Sedgwick 249 !). — Deccan:

Gangapur, Nasik (Blatter & Hallberg 2804 !) ; Poona (Jacquemont 411 ex

Cooke, Herb. St. X.C. 3118 !, Herb. Woodrow !). — Konkan: Bandra (Wrough-

ton !) ; on open plain between the hills W. of Vickroli (McCann 1020 !) ;

foot of hills W. of Mulland (McCann 807 !). — S. M. Country: Dharwar,

2,400 ft., rainfall 34 in. (Sedgwick 2688 !), dry hills (Sedgwick 2950 !), stony

ground (Talbot 2502 1); Badami (Woodrow ex Cooke). — N. Kanara: Karwar

(Hallberg & McCann C58 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : June 27th, 1893 (Badami) ; July 1897 (Bandra) ;

July 1917 (Dharwar) ; July 10th, 1891 (Dharwar) ; August 1914 (Dhansura) ;

August 11th, 1929 (Mulland) ; August 25th, 1929 (Vickroli) ; rainy season

(Yellapur); September 1917 (Gangapur, Poona); September 12th, 1895 (Poona);

October 1917 (Ear war).

Field notes : Purely a monsoon species. Usually growing in open ground.

Forming dense rosettes. Spikes pale green, slightly polished. Isolated speci-

mens filamentous.

Distribution: Throughout warmer India. — All warm regions.

(To be continued ).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE LONG-TAILED DUCK.

BY

E. C. Stuart Baker, c.i.e., f.z.s., f.l.s.,

M.B.O.U., H.F.A.O.U.

(With a coloured plate).

Glanqula hyemalis.

The Long-tailed Duck.

Anas hyemalis Linn. Syst. Nat., 10th ed., vol. i, p. 126, 1758,

N. Europe and America. (Restricted to Sweden.)

Description. — Adult male, Winter. A white ring round the

eye; posterior ear-coverts, extending to the neck in a broad band,

chocolate brown, tinged with chestnut-buff next the neck; chin,

throat and foreneck joined to a broad ring round the hind neck

and extreme upper back pure white; sides of face and crown grey

with narrow white ring next the bill and merging into the white

hind neck on the crown; back, rump, upper tail-coverts and central

two pairs of tail-feathers chocolate brown; outermost tail-feathers

white, the next two pairs with a little brown near the centre of

the tip; intermediate pairs grading between the central and outer-

most; long attenuated scapulars and line of innermost tertiaries

pure white; lesser, median and greater coverts nearly black,

slightly glossed with green; primaries brown, the shafts of the

outer ones white at the base; secondaries dark and chestnut-brown

on the outer webs; pale dull brown on the inner; inner secondaries

blackish; whole breast and upper abdomen chocolate; abdomen,

under tail-coverts and flanks pure white; axillaries and under wing-

coverts dull brown; under aspect of wing-quills pale brown.

Colours of soft pa.rts. — Iris golden orange; tip and base of bill

as far forward as the anterior edge of the nostril black; interme-

diate portion orange red; legs, toes and a line on the web on either

side of the middle toes bluish white, remainder of the webs black.

Measurements. — Wing 219 to 236 mm.; tail 199 to 246 mm.;

tarsus 32 to 35 mm. ; bill from feathers of forehead 26 to 29 mm.

(Witherby).

Male in summer. — Centre of fore-crown and across whole hind

crown, chin, throat, cheeks and nearly entire neck black, well

marked with white on hind neck and to a lesser extent on fore-

neck; breast more black and less chocolate than in winter; scapu-

lars and outer feathers of mantle black with chestnut-buff edges.

Colours of soft parts. — Bill black, legs and feet dull blue-grey.

Male eclipse. — Mantle darker, the black more pronounced; the

sides of the body and flanks have drab or grey feathers mingled

with the white.

Adult female, winter. — Forehead generally white; lores and face

hair-brown; chin dusky changing to white on throat and again to

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

dusky on lower fore-neck; remainder of head dark brown; blackish

on .fore-crown; upper plumage and wings brown, darker and black-

ish on the mantle, each feather edged with fulvous or greyish,

conspicuous when fresh, but soon becoming worn and abraded;

extreme upper breast and lower fore-neck brown, more or less

mottled with whitish; remainder of lower parts white, axillaries

and under- wing- coverts hair brown.

Colours of soft parts. — Iris yellow, yellow-brown or golden; bill

greyish-black, sometimes tinged yellowish in the centre; legs and

feet greenish-grey, the webs darker and with the same lines next

the centre-toe as in the male.

Female, summer. — Upper parts darker and duller than in winter,

the edgings to the feathers less bright and conspicuous.

Young in down. — Whole upper parts blackish, at first with

rufous tips which soon become abraded; a band across the fore-neck

rufescent brown; remainder of lower parts white, the posterior ab-

domen, vent and flanks with brown bases showing through as a

dark mottling.

The bill and feet are black, the iris dark brown.

Distribution. — This very pretty little duck breeds in the far

north of Asia, Europe and America. It nests freely in Iceland,

the Earoes, northern Europe and Spitzbergen, being very common

in northern Lapland and Bussia and probably throughout north-

ern Siberia. It also breeds in Arctic North America. In winter

it migrates south to the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas

and the great inland lakes of Central Asia. In America it occurs

at this season as far south as the northern United States and has

been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico.

It has only occurred once in India, a male changing from

eclipse into winter plumage having been shot by Captain A. E. L.

Dredge at Chaman 'in British Baluchistan on 18th October of

1938.

Nidification. — Breeding so far north as this bird does it is natur-

ally a late breeder and in northern Lapland we found that in hot

years it began to breed the first week in June but in the bitter

cold year of 1931 no birds had begun to lay on the 23rd June.

We found it breeding on islands, on the coast a little above

high water mark, among boulders and stunted vegetation and also

on the open tundra by lakes and pools and in a few instances

some distance from water. One nest we found was in the

centre of some juniper, about 18 in. high and at least a 100 yards

from the nearest pool, a second was on a hummock standing in deep

swamp, a third under a boulder among some coarse sedge, while

a fourth was a hollow in the deep reindeer moss in among some

stunted Salix. These were very typical examples of the sites chosen

for the many others we found or had shewn to us. All the nests

found were well hidden and invariably protected by vegetable

growth of some kind or by a boulder or rock. The one we found

on a hummock, referred to above, was deep in among the roots of

Salix growing on the top of the mound and entangled with grass

and weeds, so that the nest was invisible until this tangle was

pulled on one side. The ducks sat very close and most of our

THE LONG-TAILED DUCK

551

nests were found when they rose from them within a very few

yards of us; some birds got up when we were ten or fifteen yards

away but others never stirred until we almost touched them, one

duck sitting quite still staring at us until we actually began to

move the sedge from the sides of the nest. Another duck whose

nest was under some Tamarisk on the open tundra, instead of fly-

ing off her nest as we approached walked quitely off when we

were a few yards away and stood watching us as we examined the

eggs and then as quietly walked on again and nestled down on

them as we stood close by her. Most ducks, when disturbed,

either flew straight away or circled round once or twice and then

flew off. In the latter case the duck was joined sometimes by her

mate before finally disappearing. Except on such occasions we

saw but little of the male near the nest unless they were on small

islands when they could generally be seen on the water close by,

often swimming about in company with one or two more males.

When disturbed from their nests the ducks sometimes uttered a

very deep short croak which is so unlike that made by any other

duck that it would have sufficed to identify them, even when not

seen.

The down in the nests of these ducks is very plentiful, even

before incubation has advanced. Most ducks pluck but little down

until incubation begins in earnest and the full supply is not placed

in position until the young are about to hatch. These ducks, how-

ever, start plucking the down and lining and edging the nest with

it after the first egg is laid and twice we found nests containing

six fresh eggs which were fully lined and banked all round with

a fine mass of down. The down is rather small, almost black

and with a small pale sooty-brown centre.

The clutches of eggs are small and we found six or seven to be

the usual complement while 9 was the greatest number we saw and

this only once. Witherby, however, says that ten are sometimes

laid. In colour the eggs are very similar to those of the Golden-

Eye — an olive or greyish green, sometimes quite bright in tint.

In shape, however, they differ greatly; instead of being very broad

ovals they are rather long ovals, almost elliptical in shape, the

small end hardly differing from the larger.

Jourdain gives the average of 130 eggs as 53.3x38.0 mm.

maxima 59.5x40.0 and 57.5x49.5 mm.; minima 47.2 x 35.0 and

48.3 x 34.8 mm.

The average of 48 eggs measured by myself is 52.0x37.6 m.

The male takes no part in incubation and, so far as we could

see, little interest in nest, eggs or young. Even when we were

working in the midnight hours we never found the drake near the

nest.

Habits. — This is a sea-duck and when in flocks is often found

very far from land, riding buoyantly on the roughest sea. Witherby

whose experience of the bird has been vastly greater than

my own, says that he has often watched it swimming about with

its tail held horizontally or even ‘draggling in water, when quite

undisturbed’. The vast majority, however, of the birds seen by

myself, more especially the drakes, held their tails rather high

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

out of /the water; many certainly held them more or less horizon-

tally but not had them immersed. They are fine divers but do

not stay as long under water as the Pochards. Three drakes which

gave us a fine diving display off the island of Lunasaari stayed

under water for periods of 20 to 40 seconds, the longest I timed

being 48 seconds. I have never timed the females but they stay

under at least as long and I think sometimes longer. Their flight

is? very much like that of the Pintails but not so fast though, as

I have never seen them flighting or when shot at, it is hard to

say that this is always so. Their voice is unlike that of any

other duck known to me, a very deep guttural croak carrying to a

great distance and never to be confounded with the equally deep

notes of the Eider Duck, with which it is so often associated.

During the breeding season it is a tame bird. The ducks, as shown

above, let you walk right up to the nests before quitting while

the males let you watch them fairly closely as they swim about

in sea or lake. Like some other ducks, the males during the

breeding season often consort in small parties of three to half a

dozen. Most of these little ‘club parties’ wander out far to sea

but some remain quite close to land, paddling and diving about just

off the coast. We also saw them, though rarely, swimming in

lakes and pools, generally singly.

I know nothing about what they eat but Witherby says ‘Food

— mainly animal, especially mollusca; also Crustacea (shrimps,

small crabs, sandhoppers, etc.), Pteropoda and occasionally grain

from wrecks. In summer fresh- water insects and their larvae in-

cluding diptera ( Chirononidae etc.), hemiptera ( corinca ). Small red

worms also recorded.’

Whether or not they are good to eat themselves I cannot say

as I have never eaten one but the Pins say that they are parti-

cularly tender and well flavoured.

A most interesting question in regard to the duck is its acqui-

sition of a very largely white winter plumage. It leaves its

summer quarters before the snow commences to fall although it

has generally begun to acquire its white feathers. It arrives in

its summer home while there is still much snow about but gene-

rally in full summer garb. The white plumage seems to have

little or nothing to do with winter snows and is not paralleled with

the white winter pelage and plumage of ermines, hares, ptarmi-

gan etc. Does it mean that migration with this species is a recent-

ly acquired action, if not why the white plumage when this is

of no use to it in its winter habitat, but rather the reverse.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

BY

F. G. Fraser, Lt.-Col., i.m.s., f.r.e.s.

Part XLIL

( With two plates and three text-figures).

( Continued from page 617 of volume xxxvi).

Preface.

The publication of a volume of the ‘Fauna of British India’ series, dealing

with the superfamily Goenagrioidea has rendered the continuation of the present

papers superfluous, as all species not hitherto dealt with in ‘Indian Dragon-

flies’, have been dealt with fully in the volume mentioned above.

Under these circumstances, an opportunity is now given to revise some

of the earlier parts of ‘Indian Dragonflies’, the publication of which gave

such a tremendous impetus to the study of Indian Odonata.

The monograph was started in the year 1918 at a time when both liter-

ature and material were hard to obtain and when the author himself was still

on field service at the War. It is partly owing to this and partly owing

to the enormous strides made since in the study of the Order that a revision

of the earlier parts, dealing with the Anisoptera, has become so urgent a

matter.

The present paper deals with the genus I dionyx, and serves to illustrate how

great is the need for revision. Only seven species of this genus were known

to science in the year 1921 when Part X of Indian Dragonflies was published

in this Journal, but we now know of twenty. Of the seven species, only four

were known to occur within Indian limits, but we can now list fourteen.

One species has become obsolete as it has been found to be the opposite

sex of an already described species, whilst, on the other hand, the male sex

of another species has been found to be nonconspecific and is entirely new.

Yet another species thought to belong to genus Phyllomacromia and afterwards

transferred to genus I dionyx, is, in this paper, raised to generic rank under

the name of Idiophya.

In 1921 we knew absolutely nothing about the ecology of the genus but

since then, much of the life-history and habits of various species has been

learnt first-hand. Nothing further need be said to stress the argument for

revision.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who have contri-

buted to the compilation of the monograph, either by the gift of material

or advice from specialists in the Order. More especially are my thanks

due to Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, Imperial Entomologist, who was the

first to come forward with offers of material, and who continued to supply

me with a mass of species for over a decade. To Mr. Chas. Inglis I am

also indebted for material from Darjeeling District and Sikkim, and to Col.

F. Wall for large collections from Burma and Ceylon. Major Frere collected

for me in the Palni Hills and Mr. H. V. O’Donel opened up a new area in

the Duars, Bengal. A large collection was received from Bengal from Mr.

H. Stevens, another collection from Assam came from Mr. Chas. Antram,

whilst a third and very interesting lot came from Mr. Elton Bott of King

Island, Mergui. To all of these collectors I tender my sincere thanks, for it

is largely owing to their disinterested efforts that the dragonfly fauna of

India is now so well known; the number of species in 1918 totalled only 160,

but has now passed the figure of 500.

(Revision of Genus Idionyx).

Genus : Idiophya gen nov.

Medium sized dragonflies belonging to the subfamily Corduliinae. Head

very large, almost as large as the thorax; eyes globular, broadly contiguous;

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

occiput very small; frons rounded, deeply grooved; vesicle swollen, rounded

at summit, simple in both sexes so far as at present known. Prothorax small,

completely concealed by the overhanging head, its posterior lobe simple, thorax

comparatively small, metallic, broadly marked with yellow laterally; legs

rather long and slim ; hind femora extending to a little beyond the end of

thorax and furnished with a row of rather widely-set, very tiny spines; tibiae

furnished with moderately long fine hair-like spines. Tibial keels absent

in the female.

Pig. 1. — Wings of Idiophya nilgiriensis (Fras.) 9 •

Wings hyaline, tinted only at extreme base and variably enfumed with

dull brown only in adults; reticulation moderately close, nodal index moderately

high; hind wing much broader than fore; 1 cubital nervure in forewings, 2 in

the hind where the subtrigone does not exist; anal loop sausage-shaped, made

up of 9 to 10 cells ; hypertrigone of forewing traversed once, that of the hind

entire ; discoidal triangles entire, that of forewing four-sided, the costal and

distal sides usually widely separated ; that of hindwing with the costal side

convex and slightly longer than the basal and distal sides ; subtrigone of fore-

wing equilateral, entirely absent in the hind; discoidal field of forewing single-

celled to the level of node; Rspl well developed in fore- and hind-wings, a single

row of cells between it and IRii; Mspl absent; pterostigma very short, oblique

at both ends, a little swollen at its middle, unbraced; membrane well developed.

Abdomen tumid at base, then cylindrical and constricted and again ex-

panded towards the anal segments, where, in the female, it is markedly de-

pressed; vulvar scale short, triangular, projecting but slightly from the apical

end of segment 8; anal appendages of female shortly cylindrical.

Distribution. — Known only from South India and by on© species which

is riverine and submontane in its habits. This new genus is closely related

to Idionyx but is more archaic and sharply differentiated by the broken character

of the costal side of the discoidal triangle in the forewing, which recalls the

more archaic members of the Libellulinae such as Tetrathemis or similar archaic

genera of the Corduliinae such as Pentathemis, Neophya and Cordulephya.

From the former it is separated by its much simpler venation, the single-celled

subtrigone of fore wings, only a single cubital nervure present in these wings,

by the shorter anal loop and by the discoidal triangle of hindwing entire

etc. ; from Neophya it is separated by the narrower hindwing, this being enor-

mously expanded in Neophya ; finally from Cordulephya, the broader hindwing

and the presence of an anal loop will serve to distinguish it, the fore and

hindwings of that genus being of the same depth at base. Idiophya also differs

from species of Idionyx by the shape of thq abdomen which is expanded and

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

555

compressed at the end in the female instead of markedly compressed and of

even width as in Idionyx; the dorsum of segment 2 marked broadly with

yellow is also foreign to Idionyx. Probably when the male is discovered we

shall find that more characters for differentiation will be added to the above.

In habits, Idiophya appears to be more retiring and solitary; when ovipositing,

it retires deep into the scrub or enters dark caverns and deposits its ova

in wet sand or mud. Male and larva unknown.

Genotype. — Idiophya nilgiriensis (Fras.).

Idiophya nilgiriensis (Fraser).

Phyllomacromia nilgiriensis Fras. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Yol. xxv,

pp. 383, 384 (1918); Id. ibid., Vol. xxvii, pp. 687, 688 (1921).

Idionyx nilgiriensis Fras. Rec. Ind. Mas., Vol. xxvi, pp. 427, 460, 461 ( saf -

fronata nec nilgiriensis) (1924); Id. ibid., Vol. xxviii, pp.

196, 197, 198 (1926); Id. ibid., Vol. xxxiii, p. 447 (1931).

Female. — Abdomen 30-32 mm. Hindwing 32 mm. (Male unknown).

Head. — Labium dark brown ; labrum bright citron or pale yellow bordered

narrowly with blackish brown ; clypeus glossy black ; frons and vesicle dark

metallic green; occiput black; eyes emerald green during life, paler above than

below.

Prothorax brown; thorax metallic green with a narrow oblique pale yellow

stripe on each side on middle of mesepimeron and a similar coloured stripe

on the lower border of metepimeron ; beneath pale yellow with a transverse

stripe across the paired sclerites and a small obscure spot on the unpaired

one. Legs yellow, femora black at distal ends, the anterior pair of tibiae

also black; coxae yellow, this colour on the middle pair continued up a short

distance on to thorax.

Wings hyaline palely tinted with golden yellow at the extreme base, in

some specimens this area extends out nearly to the discoidal cells and in

others, more adult, the whole of the wings are enfumed pale brown, this brown

forming an areola around each cell of the wings, the cell middles being clear;

membrane white; pterostigma black, very small, covering only 1 to 1J cells;

anal loop made up of 8 or 10 cells ; discoidal cell in forewing four-sided ; the

costal and distal sides well separated ; only a single row of cells between

the beginnings of I A and Guii; nodal index. — ^ 12|12^7 6

86 7-8 I 8-6’ 8-8 I 8-8

Abdomen black; segment 2 with a crown-shaped citron yellow spot on

middorsum, the base of the crown turned to the jugal suture and some obscure

yellow markings extending outwards and apicalwards to join an incomplete

yellow apical ring; segments 1 to 3 broadly yellow along the ventral borders.

Vulvar scales small, triangular, not visible in profile. Anal appendages very

small, shortly conical.

Distribution. — Known only from the Burliyar river, Nilgiri Hills. I have

taken seven specimens in all of this interesting species, all being females

and all taken within a small area during the months of June and July.

The type, now in the British Museum, was taken in 1917 and five more

specimens were taken at the same spot in 1920 and 1921. I searched in vain

for it during June 1931. The disastrous floods of 1923 tore the bottom out

of the Burliyar river and swept most of the fauna away; several species

once common there, such as I. burliyar ensis , have totally disappeared. How-

ever, last year, 1932, I was fortunate enough to secure a seventh female

quite near the old haunts so that the species still exists and the male may

yet come to light. This was the only specimen seen although I repeatedly

visited the river.

As mentioned above, the habits of Idiophya nilgiriensis are rather different

from species of Idionyx as it keeps to close undergrowth along the banks of

the river, threading its way with a very erratic and rather swift flight among

the scrub or giant colladiums which grow in patches in marshy spots along the

borders of the Burliyar. In flight it is remarkably invisible and a most be-

wildering inseet to follow. The specimen I took in 1932 was seen and lost

sight of four times before I took it with what was a blind cut at it with the

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

net. It deposits its eggs in wet sand or mnd, either in dark caverns among

the rocks or under shelter of the colladiums which rise from a bed of black

slimy mud.

Fig. 2. — Wings of Idionyx saffronata Fras. <$ .

Genus: Idionyx Hagen-Selys.

Idionyx Hagen, Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, xvii, p. 58 (1867); Brauer, ibid.,

xviii, pp. 370, 742 (1868); Selys, C. B. Soc. Ent. Belg. xiv,

p. 6 (1870); Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xxxi, p. 519 (1871);

Id. ibid, xlv, p. 212 (1878); Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 56 (1890);

Karsch, Ent. Nach. xvii, p. 27 (1891) ; Martin, Cat. Coll.

Selys, Cordulines, pp. 57, 80 (1906); Bis, Suppl. Ent.

No. 1, p. 79 (1912) ; Fras. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol. xxvii, p. 688 (1921); Id. Bee. Ind. Mus. Yol. xxvi,

p. 458 (1924); Id. ibid. Vol. xxviii, pp. 195-200 (1926); Id,

ibid. Vol. xxxiii, p. 453 (1931).

Dragonflies of medium size belonging to the subfamily Corduliinae. Head

very large., as large as the thorax ; eyes globular, broadly contiguous ; occiput

very small; frons and vesicle metallic, the latter often of bizarre shape in the

female. Prothorax small, posterior lobe simple; thorax small, metallic marked

with yellow; legs long and slim, the hind femora extending to a little beyond

the posterior end of thorax and armed with numerous closely-set, minute im-

bricated spines and two rows of fine hair-like spines on all three pairs. Tibial

spines numerous, fine, long and closely-set; all tibiae with a membranous keel

on the flexor surface, a long keel on the posterior pair but only a short distal

one on the middle and anterior pairs of tibiae; tibial claws bifid. Keels' absent

in the females, otherwise the armature similar.

Wings hyaline, often saffronated at the bases in the females, rarely so in

the males; occasionally deeply enfumed in the females, reticulation moderately

close ; bases shallowly notched in the male, broadly rounded in the female ;

hindwing much broader than the fore, especially in the female ; 1 or 2 cubital

nervures in forewings, only 1 in the hind; anal-loop, shorter than in the Libel-

lulinae and without the toe-like prolongation, of 4 to 7 cells in the male,

8 to 10 in the female ; nodal index moderately high ; hypertrigones traversed

once or twice in the forewings, only once or entire in the hind; discoidal

triangles and subtrigones entire; discoidal triangles in forewings equilateral,

smaller than the adjacent subtrigone, its base situated far distad the level of

the arc; in the hindwings, the distal and costal sides longer than the basal,

the base slightly distad the level of the arc; sectors of arc in both fore and

hindwings fused for a long distance; discoidal field in forewing made up of a

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

557

single row of cells to beyond the level of the node and sometimes almost to

border of wings ; a single or a double row of cells for about 5 cells in the

hindwing; 2 rows of postanal cells in forewings. Pterostigma short, covering

1J to 3 cells, unbraced.

Abdomen cylindrical in the male, markedly compressed in the female, tumid

at base and again somewhat expanded at the anal end ; segment 10 in the

male with a more or less marked carina or ridge which in some species

is produced into a robust spine. Anal appendages of male markedly variable

and complex, the superiors occasionally spined beneath, the inferiors usually

more or less trifid or with lateral spines. Genitalia of male very homo-

geneous; lamina depressed, anterior hamules fine stilet-shaped organs, the

posterior tumid and bearing a robust strongly curved spine; vulvar scale abbre-

viated, scoop-shaped, shortly triangular and projecting rather markedly in

profile.

Distribution. — The Western Ghats of India, Himalayas, Assam, Burma,

Java, Sumatra, Borneo, S. China, Malaysia and the Philippines.

Since I described the four species in Part X of this monograph, a mass

of material has been collected and about 150 specimens including 16 species,

have been available for this paper. Much also has been learnt of the habits

of several species, more especially of those found in the Western Ghats which

I have been able to study first-hand. Some species are gregarious and I

have seen as many as thirty in one group engaged in a dancing flight like

that of a swarm of midges. Both sexes mingle without any attempts at

pairing, an action which I have only observed on two occasions in spite of

great numbers observed. A male was seen to pounce from nowhere on to a

solitary female and the two then flew swiftly down a deep culvert towards

the bed of the major stream. I. burlyarensis has been seen frequently flying

swiftly over the small pools in beds of streams apparently searching for fe-

males. Most species are found flying at about ten to thirty feet in the air

in forest ridings and glades, others toward dusk descend and fly low over dirty

cattle-standings on ghat roads where they probably find an abundance of

food. All species breed in torrential mountain streams and none has been

observed below an altitude of 2,000 ft.; the larva is distinctly Libelluline in

character. The eggs are not laid direct into the parent stream but into

seepages along their borders, ova being often laid direct on damp sand. Geno-

type.— I. optata Selys.

B. I. optata Selys. C. I. unguiculata Fras. D. I. intricata Fras. E. I. galeata

Fras. F. I. rhinoceroides sp. nov. G. I. travancorensis Fras. H. I. corona

Fras.

Key to the males of genus I dionyx.

, f Humeral yellow stripe present on thorax ... ... 2.

' \ Humeral yellow stripe absent on thorax ... ... 5.

„ f Segment 10 without a dorsal spine ... selysi Fras.

‘ | Segment 10 with a long erect dorsal spine ... ... 3.

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVil

f Superior anal appendages with a medio-

2 ! ventral snipe ... ... ... ... ... 4.

i Superior anal appendages without such a

l spine ... ... ... ... intricata Fras.

f Inferior anal appendage with a very small

I lateral spine surmounting the posterior

4. angle of a quadrate projection ... optata Selys.

j Inferior anal appendage with a very robust

(. simple lateral spine ... ... stevensi Fras.

{Labrum bright citron yellow narrowly bor-

dered with black ... ... ... ... ... 6.

Labrum entirely black ... ... ... minima Fras.

{Superior anal appendages with a row of

teeth beneath basal half ... ... ... ... 7.

Superior anal appendages naked beneath ... ... 8.

f Inferior anal appendage trifid, the apical

I portion very narrowly and deeply emar-

| ginate, sloping strongly up at an angle

[ to the basal portion ... ... ... galeata Fras.

Inferior anal appendage trifid, the apical

y J portion broad and shallowly emarginate,

' directed straight back in line with the

basal portion ... ... ... saffronata Fras.

Inferior anal appendage trifid, the apical

I portion very narrowly and deeply emar-

I ginate, directed straight back in line with

l the basal portion ... ... ... travancorensis Fras.

f Superior anal appendages simple at apices ;

j inferior variable ... ... ... ... ... 9.

8. «{ Superior ,anal appendages curldd spiral-

j wise at apex and ending in a tuft of

t hairs ... ... ... unguiculata Fras.

Lateral lobes of inferior anal appendage

mere tiny thin erect spines ; superior

anal appendages shorter than inferior ... burliyarensis Fras.

Lateral lobes of inferior anal appendage

q represented by a mere angulation up-

‘ * ' wards of the lateral border ; superior

anal appendage shorter than inferior corona Fras.

Lateral lobes of inferior anal appendage

long robust spines; superior anal appen-

k dages longer than inferior imbricata Fras.

(The males of I. rhinoceroidcs and nadganiensis are unknown.)

Key to the females of genus Idionyx.

C Vesicle produced and occasionally complex

1. s Vesicle simple, rounded or slightly notched

( at apex ... ... ... ...

{Humeral thoracic stripe present ; vesicle

surmounted by four tubercles ... optata Selys.

Humeral thoracic stripe absent ...

r, f Vesicle produced as a simple spine or horn

( Vesicle produced as a complex horn

... 2.

... 6.

8.

... 4.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

559

4.

5.

r

Vesicle a short blunt horn

Vesicle a short tapering horn with bifid

apex

Vesicle a short cone surmounted by a long

fine acutely pointed spine

Vesicle an elongate bluntly pointed curved

cone

travancorensis Fras.

intricata Fras.

unguiculata Fras.

burliyarensis Fras.

Vesicle a short cone with a sinuous spine

extending back from its apex ... ... coronata Fras.

Vesicle a short cone with a long simple

straight spine extending back from its

apex rhinoceroides sp. nov.

Vesicle a short cone surmounted by an

obtuse tubercle with a tent-shaped spine

extending back from its apex ... ... selysi Fras.

Humeral thoracic stripe present ... ... ... ... 7.

Humeral thoracic stripe absent ... ... ... 9.

7.

f

l

Bases of wings broadly tinted with golden

amber to the level of distal end of dis-

coidal cells; vesicle conical ... ... stevensi Fras.

Bases of wings uncoloured or but slightly

so at extreme bases; vesicle blunt,

slightly notched

... 8.

f All tibiae bright citron yellow ; ptero-

| stigma short, covering less than 2 cells ;

g ! abdomen shorter than wings ... ... selysi Fras.

' Only the hind tibiae yellow ; pterostigma

long, covering 2 to 3 cells; abdomen

^ longer than the wings ... ... nadganiensis Fras.

{Labrum entirely black ... ... ... minima Fras.

Labrum bright citron yellow narrowly

bordered with black ... ... 10.

f Bases of wings broadly tinted with golden

j amber to or beyond the level of distal

10. J, end of discoidal cells ... ... saffronata Fras.

Bases of wings not tinted- or only at

i. extreme bases ... ... ... imbricata Fras.

Group I. — optata.

Humeral yellow stripe present in both sexes; superior anal appendages of

male shorter than the inferior and possessing a ventral spine ; female with

abdomen markedly compressed and not dilated at the end; vesicle simple or

specialized; wings variably tinted with golden yellow at the base. — optata ,

yolanda, carinata, intricata, stevensi and nadganiensis.

Group II. — corona.

Humeral stripe absent in both sexes ; superior anal appendages as long as

or longer than the inferior and without a ventral spine ; no dorsal spine to

segment 10 ; female with abdomen markedly compressed and not dilated at the

end; vesicle specialized; wings not tinted at base or only at the extreme base.

“ corona , burliyarensis, unguiculata and rhinoceroides.

Group III. — dohrni.

Characters similar to the last group save that the female vesicle is

simple and the female of imbricata has a vestigial humeral stripe present. —

montana, imbricata, philippa and dohrni.

Group IV. — saffronata.

Humeral stripe absent in both sexes ; superior anal appendages longer than

the inferior and with a row of minute teeth on the ventral surface; female

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

with vesicle simple except in galeata and with the wings usually broadly tinted

at the. base. — galeata, saffronata, minima and travancorensis.

Group Y. — claudia.

Humeral stripe absent in both sexes ; superior anal appendages of male

of the same length as the inferior, short, simple and Libelluline in character;

female with abdomen markedly compressed, not dilated at the end; wings

broadly tinted at base ; vesicle simple ; male with robust spine on dorsum

of segment 10. — claudia.

Group VI. — selysi.

Humeral stripe present in both sexes ; female with abdomen markedly

compressed and not dilated at the end; wings not tinted at base; vesicle sim-

ple; male with a long tapering spine on dorsum of segment 10; superior anal

appendages slightly longer than inferior and without a ventral spine.— selysi.

Idionyx saffronata Fraser.

Idionyx saffronata Fras. Eec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxvi, pp. 427, 458-4601 (1924);

Id. ibid. Vol. xxviii, pp. 196, 197 and 198 (1926); Id. ibid.

Vol. xxxiii, pp. 447, 456 (1931).

Male. — Abdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 34 mm.

Head. — Labium brownish yellow bordered diffusely with brown; labrum

bright chrome yellow bordered with black; ante- and post-clypeus glossy black;

frons dark metallic blue or violet; vesicle dark metallic violet, tumid, nearly

as broad as frons, rounded above; occiput black; eyes emerald green.

Prothorax blackish brown. Thorax brilliant metallic green with a narrow

medial oblique stripe on each side and the posteriori half of the metepimeron

yellow. Beneath striped alternately black and yellow, two stripes of each colour.

Legs black, the middle and anterior pairs of femora yellow on the inner

sides ; tibiae yellow striped with black on the flexor surface.

Wings hyaline, very palely enfumed or saffronated as far out as a little

beyond the tornus, more deeply so in the subcostal and cubital spaces and

anal triangle; pterostigma biack, small, covering lj cells; membrane cinereous;

7-13

anal-loop made up of 7 to 8 cells ; nodal index — g-

Abdomen black, the first and second segments marked narrowly along

the ventral borders with citron yellow..;., segments 7 to 10 bordered with bright

yellow beneath; segment 10. strongly keeled' but without a dorsal spine.

Anal appendages black ; superiors tapering from base to apex, flattened on

the inner side, apical third angled obtusely inward; an irregular row of minute

teeth on the ventral surface near the base of the appendage; inferior directed

straight back, the apex not curled up, but deeply trifurcate, the lateral lobes

robust, slightly upturned widely divaricate spines, the middle lobe excavate,

broad at apex and with a slight prominence at its middle. Genitalia: — lamina

broadly and deeply excavate, an emarginate plate projecting from its free

border; hamules very tumid, chelate, the outer claw tumid, short, the inner

of the same length, prolonged as a long curled spine; lobe rounded, broad,

yellow and coated with long yellow hairs.

Female. — Abdomen 34 mm. Hindwing 35 mm.

Closely similar to the male, but differing as follows: — -wings hyaline or more

or less deeply enfumed especially towards the apices, the bases tinted with

deep golden yellow as far out as the level of the outer end of trigones and for

the whole breadth of forewings and nearly to the apex of anal-loop in the

hind; pterostigma black, small, unbraced, covering 2 cells; nodal index. —

7-13112-7 7-15(14-6

9-8 I 8-9’ 9-9 I 9-9'

Abdomen glossy black, the central lateral borders of segments 1 to 3 and

special borders of 1 and 2 moderately broadly citron yellow. Vulvar scale

very prominent as viewed from the side, acute and strongly keeled.

13-8

8-9'

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

Anal appendages of Dbagonflies. (For explanation of plate see end of article.)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

564

Distribution . — Coorg' at altitudes of about 3,000 ft. and upwards, Annai*

mallai Hills, S. Malabar and Travancore; common in the first of these localities

but far less so in the others. Iii Coorg, during May and June it was common

to see swarms of these insects engaged in what appeared to be a nuptial flight ;

30 or more would be seen dancing up and down in the air in a forest clearing

or over the forest roads. They fly only during sunlight ; even a cloud passing

over being sufficient to send them off into the jungle for shelter.

The broadly saffronated wings of the female together with the simple

shape of the rounded vesicle will serve to distinguish it from other females

except minima, which latter however is much smaller and has the labrum

entirely black. The male is distinguished by the specific shape- of its inferior

anal appendage, the middle lobe of whch is very broad and directed straight

back.

Type male and allotype female have been deposited in the British Museum.

May and June are the months to seek this insect.

Idionyx travancorensis Fraser.

Idionyx travancorensis Fras. Kec. Ind. Mus. Yol. xxxiii, pp. 447, 455, 45G

(4931).

Male. — Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 32 mm.

Head. — Labium blackish brown, paler laterally; labrum citron yellow broadly

bordered with black ; clypeus and genae black ; frons anteriorly and above

metallic bluish green; vesicle metallic bluish violet; occiput black; eyes emerald

green.

Protliorax blackish brown; thorax metallic green, humeral stripe absent;

laterally a narrow oblique stripe at the level of the spiracle and another on

the hinder border of metepimeron ; beneath black bordered with yellow and

with a stripe of paler yellow at its middle. Legs black, tibiae yellow on

extensor surface.

Wings hyaline very palely and uniformly tinted with yellow. Pterostigma

black, covering 4J cells, short; membrane cinereous; anal-loop made up of

7- 12112-7

7 to 8 cells; nodal index. — 5— 5- ~o*lV

0-0 1 o-U

Abdomen black, unmarked save for the ventral border of segment 2 and

a narrow apical stripe on the same segment yellow; segment 10 strongly cari*

nated but without a dorsal spine.

Anal appendages black; superiors shaped very similarly to those of I. saf-

jronata but with the apex angulated more abruptly down. The minute ventral

.spines present as two groups of 2 or 3 respectively. Inferior appendage differ-

ing more widely, its apex tapering to an obtuse emarginate point less than

half the breadth of that of I. saffronata; the lateral robust spines are much

stouter and turned more abruptly outward. ViewTed in profile, this appendage

however is strikingly like that of I. saffronata.

Female. — Abdomen 32-35 111m. Hindwing 34-35 mm.

Resembles the male closely but differs by the colour of the wings and

sexual morphology. Aresicle cone-shaped, the cone blunt and differing rather

strongly from! that of I. burliyarensis. The abdomen depressed and fusiform in

shape towards the anal segments and somewhat similar to that of the female

of I. nilyiricnsis.

Wings burnt brown throughout, the cell-middles paler giving a stippled

appearance to the wing ; the bases deeply saffronated or golden yellow as

far out as the level of trigones ; other details of the wings similar to the

male. Vulvar scale similar to that found in I. saffronata.

Distribution. — Travancore and the Annaimallai Hills at altitudes of 3,000-

4,000 ft. during May and June. The male is easily distinguished by the shape

of its inferior anal appendage and the female by its saffronated wings and

conical vesicle. Habits similar to those of I. saffronata with which I found

it in company on the ghat road leading from Munnar, Travancore to Cochin

State. Type and allotype female at present in my own collection. Closely

related to I. saffronata, minima and galeata.

4

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Idionyx minima Fraser.

Idionyx minima Fras. Eec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxxiii, pp. 447, 453-455 (1931).

Male. — Abdomen 27 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head.— Labium, labrum, clypeus and genae black, unmarked; frons ante-

riorly and above metallic prussian blue; vesicle metallic blue; occiput black;

eyes emerald green.

Prothorax blackish brown ; thorax metallic green changing on the lower

parts of sides to metallic blue ; humeral stripe absent but a narrow oblique

citron yellow stripe on each side at level of the spiracle and a similar stripe

on the posterior border of metepimeron. Beneath brownish black encircled

with yellow. Legs black, tibiae striped with yellow on extensor surface.

Wings hyaline, the bases very palely satfronated as far out as 2 cells distad

the trigones; pterostigma black, very short, twice as long as broad, only

covering 1 to 1J cells ; anal-loop made up of 7 cells ; membrane cinereous ;

.... 7-12113-6

nodal index. — .

7-8 I 9-6

Abdomen black,, unmarked ; segment 10 strongly keeled but without a dorsal

spine. Anal appendages black; superiors rather longer than segment 10, broad

at base, tapering as far as apex, the distal half curved inwards at an obtuse

angle and also downward, the apex ending in a short point; a row of minute

teeth on the ventral surface of the basal two-thirds as in I. saffronata.

Inferior appendage shorter than superiors, deeply trifid and shaped like a

bird’s claw, the middle lobe very broad and only shallowly emarginate as

viewed from above and its apex curled rather strongly up, the lateral spines

rather narrow and widely divaricate.

Female. — Abdomen 29-31 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Marked similarly to the male. Differs only in sexual characters and in

the colouring of the wings which are a deep golden amber as far out as 2

cells beyond the trigones. Vesicle simple, rounded and very slightly notched

above.

Distribution. — From Travancore only. I took a few specimens of both sexes

flying among tea off the Munnar ghat road during June. It is the smallest

species of the genus and is closely related to the two foregoing species and

to I. galeata by the shape of the anal appendages and especially that of the

superiors with the characteristic row of minute teeth beneath near the base.

The glossy jet black labrum will serve to distinguish it at once from all of

these species, this character applying equally to both sexes.

Idionyx galeata Fraser.

Idionyx galeata Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxvi, pp. 517, 519 (1924); Id.

ibid. Vol. xxviii, pp. 196, 197, 198 (1926); Id. ibid. Vol.

xxxiii, p. 447 (1931).

Male. — Abdomen 35 mm. Hindwing 35 mm.

Head. — Labium, labrum and face dark blackish brown; frons in front

and above brilliant metallic green ; vesicle metallic bluisli green or violaceous ;

occiput black ; eyes emerald green.

Prothorax blackish brown ; thorax metallic green with a golden reflex

laterally ; humeral stripe absent ; laterally an oblique citron yellow stripe bor-

dering the antero-lateral suture posteriorly and a similar stripe on the lower

posterior border of metepimeron. Beneath blackish striped with yellow ob-

scurely, the paired sclerites black.

Legs black, anterior and middle coxae yellow ; tibiae yellow on extensor

surface ; the keel on hind tibiae with an interruption in its continuity near

the distal end.

Wings hyaline, palely and uniformly tinted with yellow; the neuration

sometimes surrounded with an areola of brownish, the cell-middles being clear;

pterostigma black, covering only 1J cells; membrane dark cinereous; anal loop

made up of 8 cells ; nodal

8-14114-8 8-13H4-7

■ndex-— L)_9 | 9_9’ 10_9 | 9_9*

Abdomen black, the borders of segment 2 ventrally yellow as also a fine

incomplete annule on the apical border. Anal appendages black ; superiors

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

56 3

rather longer than the inferior, subcylnMrical and tapering to apex which is

a little dilated and turned inwards and a little downwards as viewed from

the side ; a row of fine teeth along the ventral border especially near the

base. Inferior broadly and deeply trifid, shaped like an eagle’s talon, the apex

narrowly emarginate and turned up very steeply; the lateral lobes large robust

spines slanted almost straight upward.

- Female. — Abdomen 37 mm. Hindwing 37 mm.

Closely resembles the male save for its sexual characters ; differs as fol-

lows: — vesicle remarkably specialized, its apex obtuse and with a protuberance

behind it shaped like a minaret ending in a fine spine ; prothorax a paler

brown ; thorax without the yellow bordering to the metepimeron ; ventral bor-

ders of segments 2 and 3 citron yellow; wings hyaline, the bases palely tinted

with golden yellow as far out as the third antenodal1 nervure in the forewing

and the second in the hind. Occasionally females are taken with the tinted

area extending as fan out as the outer end of discoidal triangles in the hind-

wing and the whole wing more or less deeply enfumed or stippled with

warm brown. The female differs from the male and from most other species

of the genus by having a double row of cells between the origins of IA and

Cuii in the hind wing.

Distribution. — Coorg and S. Kanara. I took a number of both sexes at

Ivatlikad Estate near Mercara but never found it elsewhere in Coorg. Mr.

S. A. Souter found it swarming at about 4,500 ft. on the slopes of Kudremukh,

S. Kanara about the middle of June. Most of the specimens were flying

quite low over coffee bushes or along the borders of ferny banks. The male

is easily distinguished by the shape of its anal appendages and the female

by the unique shape of its vesicle.

Idionyx burliyarensis Fraser.

Idionyx corona race nilgiriensis Fras. Mem. Dept. Agric. India, Yol. vii,

No. 7, pp. 65, 66 (1922).

Idionyx corona burliyarensis Fras. Eec. Ind. Mus. Yol. xxvi, pp. 427, 461,

462 (1924).

Idionyx burliyarensis Fras. Eec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxviii, pp. 196-198 (1926);

Id. ibid. Yol. xxxiii, p. 447 (1931).

Idionyx corona fulvia Fras. Eec. Ind. Mus. Yol. xxvi, pp. 516, 517 (1924).

Male. — Abdomen 35 mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

Head. — Labium bright citron yellow; labrum citron yellow heavily bordered

with dark brown ; clypeus dark metallic blue ; frons broadly rounded, dark

metallic green ; vesicle dark metallic blue ; occiput black ; eyes emerald green

during life.

Prothorax brown ; thorax metallic emerald green with a golden reflex ;

humeral stripe absent ; laterally a moderately broad citron yellow stripe obliquely

traversing the spiracle and a similar stripe on the posterior and lower border

of metepimeron; beneath yellow, the paired and unpaired sclerites black with

a bluish reflex.

Legs black; tibiae paler on extensor surface; the anterior pair with a keel on

the outer third, the hinder with a complete keel.

Wings hyaline, untinted save in very adult; specimens which may be slightly

enfumed; pterostigma black, covering 2J cells; anal-loop made up of 8 cells;

hypertrigones traversed, those of the forewing often twice; usually 2 cubital

nervures in forewings, 1 in the hind; membrane palely cinereous; nodal index. —

6-13114-8

9-9 I 9-10*

Abdomen black, the ventral borders of segments 1 to 3 yellow as also the

intersegmental joint between segments 2 and 3. Anal appendages black;

superiors much shorter than the inferior, subcylindrical, rather flattened to-

wards the apex which is bevelled beneath and furnished with a tuft of long

coarse golden hairs; inferior very massive, its apex curled strongly up and

narrowly emarginate, its lateral spines very small, finely pointed and directed

straight up ; the appendage deeply hollowed out above in its apical half. Geni-

talia very similar to that of I. saffronata.

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

(This sex has not been described heretofore.)

Female. — Abdomen 35 mm. Hindwing 35 mm.

Closely similar to the male, differing only in sexual characters and a few

minor points. The eyes are emerald green capped with brown; the labrum

entirely yellow and there is also a small triangular spot of yellow on the

anteclypeus. The wings have amber tinted streaks or rays in the subcostal

and cubital spaces and they are more or less enfumed according to age. Anal-

loop made up of 8 to 10 cells; nodal index. —

9-17jl5-8 8— 14|13-8

10-1010-10’ 10-8 i 9-10‘

vesicle is specialized and shaped like the horn of a rhinoceros, its apex pro-

longed, curling back and bluntly acuminate. Abdomen with the ventral borders

of segments 1 to 4 yellow, as also the intersegmental joints between 2nd and

3rd and 3rd and 4th segments. Vulvar scale shaped as in I. saffronata, pro-

minent and projecting.

The race fulvia has the male similar to type but the females have the

wings very deeply enfumed ; in some this is a warm uniform reddish brown

tint throughout but in others it is paler, but the basal marking is a rich

maroon extending out fanwise as far as the outer end of discoidal triangles

in both wings; the pterostigma is slightly longer and often covering 3 cells.

Distribution. — Coorg, S. Malabar, and rare in the Annaimallai Hills and

Travancore. The race fulvia is confined to Coorg on the Sampaji Ghat road.

I. burliyarensis used to be plentiful in the bed of the Burliyar river, Mettu-

palayam Ghat but has completely disappeared of late years since the dis-

satrous floods of 1923, which tore the bottom out of the river and swept away

its fauna. It is quite common in Coorg and the race fulvia is plentiful near

Sampaji. The males appear on the wing about four in the afternoon and are

found flying over the river bed, whilst the females hug the ground around

villages or at spots where carts rest for the night ; over these dirty cattle-

standings an abundance of small flies and midges afford them all the food

they need. The dark colpured wings render them almost invisible when flying

low over the ground and their dancing erratic aery flight make them most

difficult to capture. May and early June are the months in which they\ should

be sought. The male is easily determined by the curious shape of its anal

appendages, and the female equally so by its curious shaped vesicle. Type

and allotype female in the British Museum.

Idionyx corona Fraser.

Idionyx corona Fras. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xxviii, pp. 690,

691 (1921); Id. Mem. Dept. Agric. India, Vol. vii, No. 7,

pp. 64, 65, pi. vii, fig. 5 (1922); Id. Bee. Ind. Mus.,

Vol. xxvi,- pp. 427, 462 (1924); Id. ibid. Vol. xxviii,

p. 197 (1926).

Male. — Abdomen 29 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head. — Labium bright yellow; labrum citron yellow changing to pale brown

at the border ; anteclypeus with a triangular spot of citron yellow at its centre ;

postclypeus black; frons and vesicle metallic dark bluish green, the latter coni-

cal; occiput black; eyes emerald green.

Prothorax yellowish ; thorax metallic green with a golden reflex, with only

a vestigial humeral yellow stripe which is entirely concealed by the head; later-

ally a narrow oblique yellow stripe traversing the spiracle and another along the

lower border of metepimeron ; beneath yellow, the sclerites dark brownish black.

Legs black, tibiae yellow on extensor surface; a short distal keel on anterior

tibiae and a complete one on the posterior pair.

Wings hyaline tinted with pale golden yellow at base and diffusely so along

the costal border nearly as far as pterostigma ; the latter organ black, rather

longer than usual, covering 3 cells ; membrane pale brown ; anal-loop with

8 to 9 cells ; 2 cubital nervures in fore wings, one in the hind ; hypertrigones

8_13[14 g

traversed twice in forewings, only once in the hind; nodal index, "ft Jo-li*

Abdomen black, segments 2 and 3 narrowly yellow along the ventral border;

•segment 10 prominently keeled. Genitalia closely similar to that of I . saffro-

nata. Anal appendages black; superiors much shorter than inferior, subcylin-

drical, the end bevelled beneath and bearing a few long hairs; seen laterally

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

Anal appendages of Dragonflies. (For explanation of plate see end of article.)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

565

this appendage is curved gently downwards ; inferior very similar to that of

I. burliyarensis but the lateral spines are entirely missing or merely represented

by a lateral angulation of the appendage.

Female. Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 38 mm.

Closely similar to the male in colour and markings, the labrum bordered

with dark brown and the anteclypeus without the central triangular yellow spot;

vesicle markedly specialized, prolonged into an elevated spine shaped like the

spout of a tea-pot, this spine springing from the posterior aspect of the apex of

the vesicle; wings hyaline but with a dark brown areola surrounding all the

neuration, the cell-middles being clear; the base of all wings tinted with

golden yellow, this colour extending also along the costa as far as the ptero-

stigma; pterostigma black, covering 2J cells; membrane white changing to brown

posteriorly ; anal-loop made up of 11 cells ; hypertrigones traversed once in

forewings, entire in the hind ; nodal index. —

Abdomen and legs similar to the male; vulvar scale prominent, triangular

and projecting.

Distribution. — Only a single pair of this insect is known, the type being a

female from the Bababuddin Hills, Mysore, taken June 1915. The male allo-

type is in my own collection and was taken by Mr. C. A. Souter, I. C. S.,

at Shiradi, Saklespur Ghat, S. Kanara, 8-5-22. The species is a small one

and varies from others by the male, as well as by the female, having the

wings tinted with golden yellow along the costa nearly to the pterostigma.

The inferior appendage without lateral spines will serve to distinguish it from

others of the same group, whilst the female is easily distinguished by the

shape of its unique vesicle. Type in the British Museum.

Idionyx rhinoceroides sp. nov.

Female. — Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 35 mm. (Male unknown).

Head. — Labium dark brown; labrum yellow diffusely and narrowly bordered

with brown; clypeus black; frons and vesicle dark metallic violet or violaceous

blue, the latter highly specialized, the base prolonged and blunt at apex

from the back of which projects a very long straight tapering spine; occiput

black; eyes emerald green.

Prothorax yellowish; thorax emerald metallic green, densely coated with

long yellow hairs on dorsum ; laterally a narrow oblique citron yellow stripe

traversing the spiracle and another bordering the lower part of metepimeron ;

beneath yellow with oblique bluish black stripes on the paired sclerites and a

triangular blackish brown spot on the unpaired. Humeral stripe absent.

Legs black; coxae yellow as also the extensor surfaces of all tibiae.

Wings hyaline but enfumed with warm reddish brown which forms a thick

network corresponding to the neuration of the wings, the cell middles being

clear ; this brown colour deepest at the apices of liindwings ; extreme bases

tinted with golden yellow; pterostigma short, black, covering 1J cells only;

hypertrigones traversed once in the forewings, entire in the hind; anal-loop

made up of 12 to 13 cells; nodal index,—

Abdomen black, the ventral borders of segments 2 and 3 citron yellow ;

vulvar scale triangular, projecting as in the last species.

Distribution. — South Malabar; a single female in my own collection col-

lected at Dhoni near Mannarghat in May. Distinguished from all other species

by the unique shape of its vesicle. It is evidently closely allied to the last

species and probably belongs to the same group.

Idionyx unguiculata Fraser.

Idionyx unguiculata Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxviii, pp. 20-4205 (1926).

Male. — Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 31 mm.

Head. — Labium pale brownish yellow ; labrum citron yellow narrowly bor-

dered with black; anteclypeus black with a yellow centre; postclypeus black

with a bronzed reflex; frons and vesicle metallic bluish green; occiput black;

eyes emerald green during life.

Prothorax brown, the posterior lobe yellowish; thorax metallic green;

humeral stripe absent; laterally a narrow oblique citron yellow stripe travers-

8-13112-7

£Mr| 9-9’

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

ing the spiracle and the lower border of metepimeron the same colour; beneath

yellow, paired sclerites brownish black with bluish reflex. Legs black; tibiae

paler on extensor surface, their keels similar to those of I. corona.

Wings hyaline, only the extreme bases palely tinted with golden yellow;

pterostigma black, covering from 1J to 2 cells ; anal-loop made up of 9 to 10

7-131 14—7

cells ; membrane greyish white ; nodal index. — 9 g g_^‘

Abdomen black, the ventral borders of segments 1 to 3 and a fine mid-

dorsal stripe extending from segment 1 to the middle of 3 citron yellow; the

intersegmental nodes palely yellow from segments 3 to 7, the latter segment

with a ventral tuft of yellow hairs as seen in most species ; segment 10 strongly

keeled, this keel almost amounting to a dorsal spine. Anal appendages black;

superiors as long as segments 9 and 10, subcylindrical, tapering slightly to-

wards the apex which has a spiral twist from within downwards and out,

the apex of the spiral bearing a tuft of coarse yellow hairs. Inferior

appendage considerably longer and of much heavier build, the basal half broad

and deep and directed almost straight back on a horizontal plane, the apical

portion curled rapidly and strongly up and tapering to a fine point ; deeply

grooved and hollowed out above and with a small upright spine at its middle

on each side perched on the thin lateral borders. Genitalia similar to that

of I. saffronata.

Female. — Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 28 mm.

Very similar to the male, differing in sexual characters and the following

points: — vesicle markedly specialized, produced into a long horn somewhat like

that seen in I. corona but its point recurved forwards instead of backwards

and not hollowed out in front ; a short vestigial humeral stripe completely

obscured by the head; wings with dark golden yellow rays in the subcostal and

cubital spaces, the intervening parts more palely tinted as far distal as the

2nd antenodal nervure ; ip tenerals this tinting is deeper and more extensive

outwards. Adults also have the whole of the wing membrane palely enfumed;

there are 2 rows of cells between IA and Cuii in' the hindwing at their com-

mencement instead of only 1 row found in the male; anal-loop with 9 to 11

cells ;

nodal index. —

8- 12114-7

9- 8 I 8-8’

7- 13112-8

8- 8 1 7-10’

5-13112-6

8-8 \Tm-

Vulvar scales not

differing from the last species.

Distribution. — Maymyo, Upper Burma. A single, male and three females

collected by Col. F. W. Wall, I.M.S., are now in my collection. The male is

easily distinguished by the spiral twist of the apex of the superior appendages

and by the tuft of yellow hairs on the same; the female may be distinguished

by the shape of its vesicle and also by its vestigial humeral stripe.

Idioiivx imbricaita Fraser.

Idionyx imbricata Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxviii, pp. 197, 198, 205, 206

(1926).

Male. — Abdomen 28 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head. — Labium bright yellow; labrum bright citron yellow narrowly bordered

with black; anteclypeus black with a small triangular spot of citron yellow at

its middle confluent with the yellow on labrum; postclypeus black; frons and

sides of latter metallic bluish green ; vesicle blue metallic ; occiput black ;

eyes emerald green.

Prothorax blackish brown, posterior lobe bright yellow. Thorax metallic

green or bluish green with a golden reflex ; humeral stripe absent ; laterally

a narrow oblique median citron yellow stripe and the lower posterior half of

metepimeron of the same colour; beneath yellow with the paired and unpaired

sclerites bluish black. Legs black ; the two posterior pairs of tibiae bright

yellow, the anterior pair of the same colour on the outer side; tibial keels on

anterior pair extending nearly half the length of limb, and for four-fifths

the length of tibiae on the posterior pair.

Wings hyaline, bases palely tinted with golden yellow as far distad as

the discoidal triangles; anal-loop made up of 9 to 10 cells; pterostigma black,

1 ~ .. , , . , 6— 12i 12—7

covering only 2 cells; nodal index. — 9~8"| glq"

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

567

Abdomen black; segments 1 and 2 with a broad middorsal bright yellow

stripe extending from base to apex; segment 3 with a similar but finer stripe,

whilst all three are yellow along the ventral borders, as also are segments 7

to 9 along the lower border. Segment 10 with a blunt middorsal keel not

amounting to a spine.

Anal appendages black; superiors longer than inferior, subcylindrical, directed

straight back but the extreme apex abruptly turned downwards and slightly

inwards; the appendage twisted on itself so that the external surface ultimately

comes to look upwards and inwards; inferior appendage more massive, deeply

trifid, the apical median portion curled strongly upwards, pointed at the

end and tumid immediately before this point above; the outer lohes robust

spines, directed slightly upwards, backwards and outwards.

Female. — Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

Very similar to the male save for sexual characters; the postclypeus yellow-

ish; vesicle simple, rounded as in the male; a vestigial humeral stripe present

but which is entirely concealed by the overhanging head; legs blackish brown.

Wings hyaline, brightly tinted with golden-yellow at the extreme base;

anal-loop with 10 cells ; 2 cubital nervures in the hindwing ; all hypertrigones

traversed once; pterostigma small, covering 2 to 2J cells; only a single row

of cells between the commencements of I A and Guii in the hindwing as in

the male;

nodal index. —

8-13:13-8

10-9 I 9-10'

Abdomen black; segments 2 and 3 with the middorsal ridge narrowly yellow

as also the joint between the two segments; ventral borders of segments 2, 3,

7 and 8 yellow. Vulvar scale not differing markedly from others of the genus

but rather shorter and obtuse at apex.

Distribution. — Reported only from Shillong, Assam from June to August

at an altitude of 6,000 ft. Type in the British Museum, allotype female in

the Morton collection. (In the' original description it was stated that the

female was unknown although this sex was actually described ; the mistake

arose from the latter description being added later during correction of the

proofs and without deleting the former note.) This species is closely related

to I. dolirni by the shape of its appendages etc. The female may be determined

from others by the vestigial humeral stripe combined with a simple vesicle,

and from I. dolirni, from Borneo, by the wings less tinted with yellow; the

male is easily distinguished from all other Indian species by its long attenuated

appendages, much longer than the inferior, whilst it differs from I. dolirni by

the shape of the inferior appendage, more robust, the apex not ending in a

fine prolonged spine and the lateral spines much longer and more robust, these

being almost vestigial in the latter species.

Idionyx optata Selys.

Idionyx optata Selys, 2nd Additions Syn. Cordulines, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2)

xlv, p. 196 (1878);. Id. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov, xxx (x),

p. 472 (1891) ; Mart. Cat. Coll. Selys. (Cordulines) p. 80

(1906) ; Bis. Suppl. Ent. No. 1, pp. 82, 83 ( carinata nec

optata ) (1912); Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxxiii^ pp. 196,

198, 200, 201 (1926).

Idionyx ornata Fras. (the female of optata) Mem. Dept. Agric. India. Vol.

vii, No. 7, pp. 66, 67 (1922); Id. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc. Vol. xxvii, pp. 688, 689 (1921).

Male. — Abdomen 33-34 mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

Head. — Labium bright ochreous ; labrum bright yellow bordered with dark

brown; clypeus and front of frons as well as its sides and genae bright yellow;

frons above metallic bluish green ; vesicle metallic bluish green marked in

front with ochreous ; occiput black ; eyes emerald green during life.

Prothorax dark ochreous ; thorax metallic emerald green on dorsum, dark

metallic blue on the sides, marked with short bright clear cut humeral stripes

of citron yellow extending halfway up the dorsum and laterally, by similarly

coloured oblique stripes on the mesepimeron and lower part of metepimeron ;

beneath yellow, the sclerites dark brown with a bluish reflex. Legs dark

reddish brown, tibiae bright ochreous; tibial keels complete on the hinder

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

tibiae save at the extreme proximal end, and extending for rather less than

the distal half of the anterior pair.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma black, covering to 1J to 2 cells; anal-loop made

np of 9 to 10 cells; hypertrigones all traversed once; 1 cubital nervure in fore-

7— 14i 12—8 7-12(21-6

wings, 1 or 2 in the hind

brown.

nodal index. —

9-9 9-9 8-7 7-8

membrane

Abdomen black; segments 2 and 3 with the ventral borders yellow, seg-

ment 2 with a broad middorsal citron yellow stripe extending its whole length

and continued onto segment 3 as a fine middorsal line; the joint between these

two segments also yellow. Segment 10 with a very long attenuated middorsal

spine directed or sloping somewhat posterior wards ; no ventral tuft of hairs,

present as in most other species. Genitalia not differing markedly from that

of I. saffronata.

Female. — Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Differing in but few respects from the male. The vesicle specialized, a

broad short cone, its summit flattened and bearing a transverse sulcus in

two directions which cuts it into four small tubercles, yellow the top metallic

dark green. Wings deeply tinted with golden yellow at bases as far out as

the 2nd or 3rd antenodal nervures and discoidal triangles; anal-loop made

up of 12 cells ;

nodal

index. -

8-12)13-7

10-8 1 9-10

other details of venation similar

to the male; abdomen black marked as in the male; vulvar scale not as pro-

minent as in other species, rounded at margin.

Distribution. — Assam. The type is from Cherrapunji and is now in

the Selysian collection. Paratypes of both sexes in the British Museum and

mv own collections.

The male is distinguished at once by the curious shape of its appendages

as also by the face entirely yellow, thus differing strikingly from other species.

Prom I. carinata Bis., from S. China, to which this species is closely related,

the smaller ventral spine on the superior anal appendages and the long fine spine

on the sides of the inferior appendage will serve to distinguish it. The female

is distinguished from all other species by the flat topped vesicle bearing four

small tubercles; in carinata the vesicle bears three tubercles, the middle one

the longest.

Idionjx intricata Eraser.

Idionyx intricata Eras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Yol. xxviii, pp. 197, 198, 202, 203

(1926).

Male. — Abdomen 28 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head. — Labium yellow; labrum dark ochreous, its borders bronzed brown,

clypeus black, the anteclypeus with a small triangular medial yellow spot;

frons dark metallic green ; vesicle dark metallic bluish green ; occiput black ;

eyes emerald green .

Prothorax blackish brown, yellowish laterally ; thorax dark metallic green

with a short vestigial humeral citron yellow stripe; laterally an oblique citron

yellow stripe on the mesepimeron and another on the lower part of thei mete-

pimeron ; beneath yellowdsh, the sclerites blackish brown. Legs blackish brown ;

tibiae yellow changing to reddish brown at proximal ends ; tibial keels closely

similar to those of the last species.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma black, covering 2 cells; membrane white at

base, brownish posteriorly; anal-loop made up of 8 cells only; hypertrigones of

forewings traversed twice, but once only in the hind; nodal index .-

6-13

10-10

13-7 .

10-10*

Abdomen black; segments 2 and 3 with the ventral borders broadly yellow;

segment 2 has also a narrow bilobate middorsal yellow stripe ; segment 10

with a prominent triangular middorsal spine but not tapered to a point as

in I. optata. Genitalia not differing markedly from others of the genus.

Anal appendages black; superiors short and thick, compressed, broad at

base and again at apex where the appendage expands into a flattened or-

gan, shaped like a hand shorn of its fingers, save the stumps, of which four

may be noted : — a robust spine at the inner angle sloping inwrards and down-

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

569

wards, a second adjacent to the last, directed straight hack and followed by

a third which is a mere kunckle, lastly a fourth at the outer angle, a long

robust spine directed straight outwards. The inferior appendage much longer

and closely resembling that of I. optata but the lateral spines with a greater

spread and larger, their inner margins crenulate, whilst the ape.x is curved

strongly and steeply upwards.

Female. — Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 35 mm.

Closely similar to the male save for sexual characters and a few other

points. Vesicle highly specialized, shaped like the dome of a pagoda, its

tapering apex split into two minute points. Wings evenly, diffusely and

deeply enfumed especially towards the apices, the bases t inted with golden -

yellow as far as the distal ends of discoidal triangles ; anal-loop of 10-11 cells ;

2 rows of cells between the beginnings of I A and Cuii in the hind wings ;

pterostigma covering 2J to 3 cells, black, longer than in the male; nodal

index. —

8—14*14—8

10-10| 9-11*

Abdomen similar to the male but markedly compressed as in the rest of

the females of the genus; vulvar scales prominent, projecting in a beak-like

manner.

Distribution. — Clierrapunji, Assam. A single pair in my own collection.

The male is easily distinguished by the shape of its anal appendages which

bear some close resemblance however to I. optata. From the latter, the short

stouter middorsal spine on segment 10 will at once serve to distinguish it ;

it is also a much smaller insect. The female is quite easily identified by the

unique shape of its vesicle. (In the original description, the two sexes were

described apart but subsequently included under one name — thus ‘Female un-

known’, and ‘Male unknown’, should have been erased but were overlooked

when correcting the final proofs.)

Idionyx stevensi Fraser.

Idionyx stevensi Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxvi, pp. 402, 463 (1924); Id.

ibid. Vol. xxviii, pp. 196-198 (1926).

Male. — Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

Head. — Labium and labrum bright ochreous; clypeus black; frons and vesi-

cle dark metallic blue ; eyes emerald green ; occiput black.

Prothorax brownish; thorax metallic bluish green or green, with a short

bright citron yellow humeral stripe deficient on the upper half of dorsum,

and the usual oblique lateral stripes, one on the mesepimeron, the other on

the lower part and border of metepimeron; beneath yellow with a dark oblique

metallic green stripe,' on each of the paired sclerites and a large spot on the

unpaired.

Legs blackish brown; the two hinder pairs of tibiae yellow on outer surface,

the anterior pair pale brown.

Wings hyaline, the extreme bases only tinted with golden yellow; membrane

ashy white; pterostigma black, covering 1J cells; anal-loop made up of 8 cells;

, i . , 7-13(13-7

i i-y I y-i -L

Abdomen black; segments 2 and 3 yellow along the ventral border; inter-

segmental joints from 1 to 4 also yellow. Anal appendages black; superiors

broad at base, tapering somewhat towards apex which is squared at the end,

hollowed out below and presenting on the inner border a short curled digitate

obtuse spine and a deep incision just distad of this; the apex bearing a tuft

of coarse golden hair. Inferior directed horizontally back, broadly trifid, the

apex not upturned save its extreme point; the lateral lobes robust, divaricate,

upturned spines. Genitalia very similar to that of I. saffronata. Segment 10

of abdomen bearing a prominent triangular spine on its middorsum but not

long and tapering as in I. optata.

Female. — rAbdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 34 mm.

Closely similar to the male, differing only in sexual characters and a few

minor points; vesicle simple, rounded as in the male; wings very broadly

tinted with golden amber at the bases as far out as the distal ends of

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

discoidal triangles; membrane pure white; pterostigma longer and narrower,

covering 2 to 2J cells; anal-loop made up of 9 to 10 cells; nodal index.—

7-13 12-8 8-12113-8

10-9 9-10’ 9-7 [ 7-9'

Abdomen compressed markedly as in other species, black, marked as in

the male. Vulvar scale similar to that of I. saffronata.

Distribution. — North Bengal, especially common in the Darjeeling district.

I found it quite common at Mangpu during May ; its habits, especially those

of the female, were quite similar to those of I. saffronata which the female

greatly resembles when in the air. The male is easily distinguished by the

shape of its superior anal appendages, whilst the female with its broadly

tinted wings, simple vesicle and short humeral stripe possesses a complex shared

by no other species.

Idionyx nadganiensis Fraser.

Idionyx nadganiensis Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxvi, pp. 427, 460 (1924) ;

Id. ibid. Vol. xxviii, pp. 197, 198 (1926); Id. ibid. Vol.

xxxiii, p. 447 (1931).

Female. — Abdomen 35 mm. Hindwing 35 mm. (Male unknown.)

Head. — Labium bright chrome yellow narrowly bordered with brown; labrum

bright citron yellow narrowly bordered with black; clypeus black; frons and

vesicle dark metallic blue; occiput black; eyes emerald green during life.

Vesicle rounded, simple.

Protliorax brown; thorax brilliant metallic green marked with bright citron

yellow. — a narrow clear-cut humeral dorsal stripe on the lower half of thorax,

a narrow oblique stripe on the middle of mesepimeron and another on the

lower half of metepimeron. Beneath yellow with an oblique stripe of black on

the paired sclerites and a transverse one on the unpaired one.

Legs black; tibiae bright yellow on outer surfaces except the anterior pair.

Wings hyaline, very palely enfumed, the extreme bases only tinted with

golden-yellow to as far as the cubital nervure or distal end of cubital space;

pterostigma black, covering 2J- cells; anal-loop made up of 9 cells; membrane

-. . . -i 8-14114-7

cinereous; nodal index. — 9_9~lg_~9 ‘

Abdomen black, markedly compressed; segments 1 and 2 with the ventral

borders yellow and the intersegmental joints between these and segments 3

and 4 narrowly yellow. Vulvar scales hardly visible in profile, extending

beyond the apical border of segment 8.

Distribution. — At the top of the Nadgani Ghat, Nilgiri Wynaad, during

August. Only two females are known of this rare insect, the type in the

British Museum, and one other in my own collection. The specimens I have

quoted in the Bee. Ind. Mus., from Coorg and Kanara are doubtfully identified

and have the humeral stripe very poorly developed as compared to the type of

1. nadganiensis.

It is to be distinguished from other species by the simple vesicle coupled

with a well-developed humeral stripe. Except for the very restricted tinting

of wings at the bases, this species closely resembles the female of I. stevensi

from Bengal.

Idionyx selyst Fraser.

Idionyx selysi Fras. Bee. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxviii, pp. 197, 198, 201, 202 (1926).

Idionyx yolanda Selys, (Male) 2nd Add. Cordulines, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2)

xlv (1878); Fras. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. xxvii,

pp. 689, 690 (1921).

Male. — Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head. — Labium bright chrome yellow; labrum bright citron yellow narrowly

bordered with black; clypeus steely black; frons and vesicle dark metallic blue;

occiput black; eyes emerald green during life.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

571

Prothorax brownish; thorax metallic green marked with bright citron yellow:

a short humeral stripe extending up the lower third or slightly more, of dorsum

of thorax, an oblique rather broad stripe on the middle of mesepimeron and

an equally broad stripe on the. lower part of metepimeron ; beneath yellow,

the paired sclerites broadly bordered with bluish metallic, stripes outwardly.

Legs black, all tibiae bright citron yellow.

Wings hyaline, only a faint tint of yellow at the base of the hindwings ;

pterostigma black, covering less than 2 cells, short; anal-loop made up of 8

to 9 cells; occasionally 2 cubital nervures in the hindwing; nodal index. — -

6-12112-6

8-8 I 9-7 ‘

Abdomen black, segments 1 to 3 broadly bright yellow along the ventral

borders, and with a fine stripe along the middorsal carina which broadens

considerably on segment 2. Segment 10 with a robust middorsal carinal spine

which rises steeply up and is variably yellow in part or wdiole.

Anal appendages black; superiors very long, nearly as long as the last three

segments of abdomen, narrow, slightly sinuous and slightly tapered, the

extreme apex abruptly turned down at a right angle and pointed ; inferior

of the same length, very narrow and long as compared to other species except

I. dohrni and montana, the extreme apex tapered to a needle-like point and

curled strongly up and over ; the usual lateral spines situated very near the

apex and very small and inconpsicuous in character. Genitalia very similar to

other species of the genus.

Female. — Abdomen 27 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Closely resembles the male save for sexual characters ; the yellow markings

more conspicuous and extensive, the humeral stripe tapering to a point above

and nearly extending to antealar sinus ; the lateral stripes broader and the

underside without its bordering black or with a mere line of this colour.

Abdomen with the yellow middorsal stripe on segment 2 very broad especially

near the base; this segment remarkably expanded on the dorsum immediately

apicad to the jugal suture (There is a suggestion of this in other species but

not to the extent seen in selysi ) ; segments 7 and 8 with the middorsal carina

bright yellow. Vesicle quite simple as in I. stevensi or nadganiensis, rounded.

Wings only slightly tinted at the base, but little more so than in the male;

pterostigma not much longer than in the male ; anal-loop with 9 cells ; only

a single row of cells between the origins of I A and Cuii in the hindwings ;

I. saffronata.

Distribution. — The male, described as the male of I. yolanda by Selys,

from the Karen Hills, Upper Burma, is now in the Selysian collection. One

pair, the type and allotype, in the British Museum, and one male and two

females in my own collection, are all from Maymyo, Upper Burma, collected

by Col. F. Wall in June and July. This species is remarkable for the broad

extent of its yellow markings especially the humeral stripe in the female and

the abdominal markings. The male is easily distinguished at a glance by

the long yellow dorsal spine on segment 10 as well as by the shape of the

anal appendages. (These latter are very similar to those of dohrni and

montana but neither of these have the dorsal spine on segment 10.) The

female is distinguished by the long clearly defined humeral stripe and dorsal

markings on segments 7 and 8.

Anal appendages of the males of. —

1. I. minima Fras., lateral view.

2. I. galeata Fras., lateral view.

3. I. travancorensis Fras., lateral view.

4. The same dorsal view.

5. I. minima Fras., dorsal view.

6-13113-6,

8-9 | 8-7

Vulvar scale similar to that of

Explanation of Plate I.

572

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

6. I. saffronata Fras., dorsal view.

7. I. burliyarensis Fras., lateral view.

8. I. saffronata Fras., lateral view.

9. I. unguiculata Fras., lateral view.

(Camera lucida studies drawn to the same scale.)

Explanation of Tlate II.

Anal appendages of the males of. —

1. I. stevensi Fras., lateral view.

2. I. intricata Fras., lateral view.

3. I. optata Selys, lateral view.

4. I. intricata Fras., dorsal view.

5. I. galeata Fras., dorsal view.

G. I. optata Selys, dorsal view.

7. I. imbricata Fras., lateral view.

8. I. corona Fras., lateral view.

9. I. selysi Fras., lateral view.

(Camera lucida studies drawn to the same scale.)

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA.

BY

W. S. THOM.

{With 2 plates).

It may be presumptuous on my part to write about tigers when

such a very great deal has already been written on this subject

by many well-known sportsmen who have accounted for large num-

bers of these animals in India, where they abound. I trust

nevertheless that I may be pardoned for adding my modest quota

of observations on Tigers ancl tiger shooting, as it is to be obtained

in Burma. It does not necessarily follow that a man who lias

shot his 100 or more tigers from a machan, in a beat or, off the

back of an elephant knows more about them than the sportsman

who like myself has shot a modest 55 of them on foot as well as

from a machan at night and who has studied their habits carefully

for many years.

I am not jirepared to say that tigers are so plentiful in Burma

as in India. If, however, the sportsman will take the trouble to

look for them in the proper way he will come across them in

plenty. They are certainly not so get-at-able here nor are they

so easily located as in India.

As trackers and shikaries for marking animals down, the natives

of India are I think, perhaps on the whole more persevering

workers than are Burmans. Baksheesh has, I dare say, a good

deal to do with this. Rupees tempt the former more than the

latter who are not by any means money grabbers. But when it

comes to tracking up bison, rhinoceros, tsaing and elephant, I

think the Burman can hold his own with any tracker in the world.

Some of the Burmese hunters and trackers employed by me in

Upper Burma in the Momeik State of the Ruby Mines and Tlia-

yetmyo districts, seldom failed me in following a trail to a success-

ful finish. Among them was Maung Tha Yauk of Kadaing village,

Mindon, of Thayetmyo district, to whose peerless skill and fear-

lessness I owe many a grand day’s sport, the memory of which

will be with me when my time comes to enter the unknown. All

my hunters have joined the vast majority and passed to the bourne

of silence from whence none return. If so be that the power is

given them, may their spirits be permitted to repass that bourne

and to wander afield after the lordly denizens of the jungles they

knew so well, when they roamed this earthly world with me.

Owing to the uninhabited state of many parts of the country

and the absence of large herds of cattle, tigers in Burma confine

their depredations to hamlets situated usually at the foot of ranges

of densely wooded hills like the Yomas or in the midst of large

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

tracts of virgin forest or low-lying bush jungle. These wooded

hills and stretches of grass jungle and forests in Burma were

teeming to such an extent with game when I first came to Burma

in the eighties that tigers obtained a full meal whenever they re-

quired it without coming down to harry the small herds of out-

lying villages. In India tigers are attracted to the neighbourhood

of villages by the large herds of cattle on which they levy a big

toll from time to time. The country being on the whole thickly

populated, native hunters find it an easy matter to keep an eye

on likely patches of jungle and mark down tigers till some ‘sahib’

willing to pay for the information, comes along. Burmans unfor-

tunately rarely take the trouble to give information when any of

their cattle have been killed. They generally prefer to cut up the

animal at once and sell or eat the meat. In some districts, tigers

j)lay great havoc with buffaloes, bullocks, ponies, pigs, mules and

even goats. Tigers are rarely walked up on foot in Burma; whilst

organized beats for them with beaters and elephants are seldom

undertaken for the simple reason that the jungles in most places

are generally too dense and a sufficient number of staunch elephants

and beaters are not available. If you are lucky you may have a

tiger driven out to you in a beat by Burman beaters who have

started originally with the intention of only beating for pig, sam-

bar, barking deer, peafowl and junglefowl. The Burman hunter,

owing to inexperience in this kind of work is not particularly keen

about beating out a tiger. When it is known that one of these

animals is likely to appear in a beat he naturally enough fears

having to face the brute should it break back after being wounded.

Then again he is somewhat superstitious. In the jungle a

Burman hunter will only refer to a tiger as ‘ say a’ i.e. the ‘master’.

He does not refer to the animal as ‘kya’ i.e. tiger, but mentions

any other name in preference. There are many things one may

not do when out shooting in the jungles of Burma with Burman

hunters. For instance, it was not considered correct in my time

when after big game in the jungles of the Momeik State, Ruby

Mines District, for a man to lay himself out at full length on

his stomach to drink at a stream when the water could be drunk

from the hollow of the hand or out of a bamboo. When eating a

cold roast chicken in nature’s way in the jungle, it was considered

by my hunters unlucky to lay hold of a leg with both hands. It

could, however, be held in one hand when eating. If you shot

any animal the tip of its tail, or perhaps the tips of its ears or

tongue, or sometimes all four portions were tied up to the stem

of a bamboo or branch of a tree to propitiate the spirits of the

woods after a ‘mantrum’ of a few words had been mumbled by the

person who performed the operation. This was to bring good luck

in getting the sportsman a good bull bison, or a good tusker ele-

phant that day, or the next. If these offerings were not made,

bad luck might attend the party.

However, unsporting it may seem, the usual method of bagging

tigers in Burma is by sitting up in a ‘machan* erected in a tree

over a kill, i.e., a live or dead bait, such as a cow or a buffalo.

Kills or baits are more expensive in Burma than they are in India.

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

575

In Burma in the majority, of districts they may cost anything from

Rs. 15 to 11s. 80. Besides a Burman is usually a good Buddhist

so it is often impossible to obtain a bait unless it is the carcase

of some animal that may have been dead some days, or happened

to have died, or to have been killed, by a tiger just as the sports-

man arrived in the vicinity. I invariably undertook to give the

owner of the cow the Government reward, viz., Rs. 40 for the

tiger should I succeed in shooting it from a ‘machan’.

No suitable electric contrivances were available in my day

when I shot my tigers. I regret to say I haven’t any flashlight

photographs of tigers to illustrate this article, such as the really

wonderful pictures taken by Messrs. Champion and Peacock and

reproduced in the. respective books recently published by them.

More than half the tigers killed by me were shot on foot.

Some people think that it is not very sporting to shoot a tiger

from a ‘machan’ whilst sitting up over a ‘kill’ during the night

or in the day. This subject has been discussed acl nauseam but

perhaps I may be pardoned for adding my humble opinion to the

rest. It seems to me that shooting a tiger over a ‘kill’ from a

machan in a tree at night is no less sporting than it is to shoot

a tiger in safety from the back of an elephant, or one that has

been driven up to the guns posted high up in trees in a beat

during the way. It has been done and is being done daily at the

present time in India but not in Burma. It may be argued again

that a tiger when fired at, at night from a machan is more liable

to go away wounded than when driven up to the guns posted in

trees, by elephants and beaters in broad daylight or when fired at

from the back of an elephant. I have never done any shooting

from the back of an elephant and never want to do so, knowing

nothing about it. 1 did try it many many years ago but found it

so tedious and unsatisfactory that I gave it up. It seems to me

nevertheless that driven tigers are just as likely to get away

wounded when fired at by the sportsman posted on a tree, or

when walked up and fired at from the back of an elephant, as when

fired at, approaching, or standing at a ‘kill’, by a sportsman seated

up in a machan at night. An inexperienced sportsman, or an in-

different shot might make a mess of things of course wherever he

might be. But it should not be forgotten that a tiger driven to

posted guns often travels fairly quickly or slinks away through

bushes, when only a fleeting glimpse of him is obtained. He does

not therefore present as good a target as would be given to any

one posted on a machan at night, who usually nowadays has the

advantage of an electric contrivance with which to draw a bead

on the animal at a range of generally not more than from about

15 to 20 paces. There are also occasions when tigers have been

shot from a machan before the sun has set'. Then, last but not

least, it should not be forgotten that sitting up over a kill for a

tiger is usually the only method available to the sportsman in

Burma or to the poor man in India, who cannot arrange for a

long line, of beaters or elephants. A tiger has, I suppose, a better

chance of escaping with his life when fired at by a sportsman,

seated, shall we say on the pad of a moving elephant, than he

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

lias perhaps when he is driven towards a sportsman seated on a

machan up a tree, or when fired at from a rnachan at night over

a ‘kill’. I dare say just as many tigers have been fired at, wounded

and lost by sportsmen shooting off the back of an elephant, as from

a tree in a beat, or from a machan at night. Ultimately, one is

led back to the question as to which method is the most humane

and sporting. That is not an easy question to answer, as every

one has his own opinions on the subject.

I cannot agree that sitting up for a tiger on a machan at

night with an electric contrivance is unsportsmanlike. 1 have never

done so myself because I never had an opportunity of using an

electric contrivance, but I see no more harm in doing that than

in shooting at a tiger from a ‘machan’ with a good moon in one’s

favour. With an up-to-date electric contrivance a tiger has less

chance of getting away badly wounded. In case of a tiger being fired

at and wounded, the correct and humane thing to do is of course

to follow the beast and finish it off. If possible, this should be

done not only to prevent the animal dying a lingering death but

because a partially disabled tiger with a leg or shoulder shattered

might become a maneater through not being able to pull down

game or village cattle, as before. It is very easy to point out one’s

duty in this respect and say that wounded tigers should always be

followed up and finished. It is all very well when one can do it

riding on the back of an elephant, or can so manipulate a herd of

buffaloes as to keep them between one and the tiger when he

charges. It is the devil when one has neither one nor the other

at one’s disposal and one is finally egged on to proceed on foot

by the thought that at any moment the animal is sure to be found

lying stretched out dead. Everything depends upon where the tiger

has been hit. If the bullet has been placed too far back and only

gone through his intestines, like bison, a tiger will often survive

several days and will be a devil incarnate before succumbing to

a body shot. It should be borne in mind that a tiger when mortally

wounded rarely utters a sound, except perhaps to emit a faint

groan, or grunt, but, an animal that has had, say, a leg broken, or

a hit on some other non- vulnerable spot, where the bones may

have been badly damaged, invariably utters a succession of short

angry grunting snarls or- roars. There is no mistaking the noises

made by an infuriated, wounded charging tiger that means business,

and intends getting home on to some one. Once heard, they will

never be forgotten. Hearing those awful hoarse, coughing roars, one

feels as if one’s bowels, in Biblical terms, had turned to water.

The great thing to remember in tiger shooting is that the bullet

should be a big and heavy one with a fairly large charge of powder

behind it. It is all very well shooting at a tiger from a machan

with a small bore rifle or a 12-bore shot gun, burning say 3|

drachms of powder and taking a spherical bullet, when one is 15

or 20 feet off the ground. One may be lucky with one’s first

shot from the tree, and kill the beast, but unless equally lucky

one would be courting almost certain death to fire at the animal

when on foot on the ground. 3J or even drs. of black powder

or its equivalent charge in smokeless or cordite, hardly gives suffi-

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

577

cient penetration. Moreover the feeling of confidence in being up

a tree makes one hold much straighter than one would ordinarily

do facing the tiger on foot. An experienced European shikari,

who it seems to me was lucky to escape death, followed up and

faced a wounded tiger armed only with a -280 Ross rifle.

There was nothing in the old days to beat the good old magnum

•577 black powder rifle which burnt a charge of about 7 drs. of

black powder. The heavy, soft lead bullet of this rifle, when it

acted effectively, usually mushroomed and, after passing through

the body and doing a lot of damage in its course, was held up

from passing out by the skin on the outer side. Of course there

would be occasions also when the bullet passed clean through the

animal’s body after mushrooming and doing much damage.

Some men swear by small bore high velocity magazine rifles

such as a -318, -280, -303, "276, *240 or -256 because they are light

and easy to carry whilst the trajectory is also low. Bell, the

author of ‘The wanderings of an elephant hunter’, shot all his ele-

phants and lions in Africa with one or other of the small bore-

rifles mentioned above; whereas Sutherland, who shot over 500

elephants in Africa used a double ‘577 cordite rifle. A rifle that is

suitable for dispatching an elephant, rhinoceros, bison or buffalo

is also required for killing a tiger. A high velocity -500, '475, *465,

•470 or '450 bore cordite rifle burning between 70 or 80 grains of

cordite would be quite suitable to use on a tiger whether on foot,

on the back of an elephant, or on a machan. I personally would

just as soon use a Westley Richard’s double -12 bore magnum

Explora cordite gun at close quarters on a charging tiger. A

double barrelled '577 hammerless ejector cordite rifle burning a

100 grains of cordite might be of use in the hands of some sports-

men for tiger, but I should relegate it to its proper place, namely

for use say, on a solitary tusker elephant, bull gaur, rhinoceros,

buffalo, or tsaing, when a picked shot can be taken or when one

of these animals was charging. But it is a deuce of a weapon to

have to carry any distance when the thermometer registers 95 or

100 degrees, although in the old days I used to think nothing of

carrying a heavy black powder -8 bore ‘Paradox’ burning 10 drs.

many a mile over steep and broken ground. The -577 if held

straight will usually knock out most animals although I have had

it fail me on two separate occasions on solitary bull bison.

Can it be said by any one that there is not fascination or excite-

ment enough in sitting up in the jungle, alone with nature and a

full moon, far away from any village or human being waiting for

a tiger to put in an appearance? Can any one swear that his pulse

and heart does not beat faster or that his senses are not stretched

to their utmost tension on hearing the sounds of a breaking twig

accompanied by the subdued sniffs which are sometimes emitted

by a tiger as he cautiously pushes his way up to the kill? If he

cannot experience all these feelings then, all I can say is that

he need not imagine he is a sportsman in the sense that I mean.

I do not believe in the calm phlegmatic sportsman devoid of all

nerves or any sense of excitement. There are quite a number of

men of this description nevertheless, who do not experience any

5

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

sensation in the jungle. I have known others who having sat

up for a tiger have not had sufficient guts to fire at the animal

when it did put in an appearance, or, who were so shaken that

they made the machan creak so badly as to cause the tiger to

take alarm and make off. Captain F. C. Selous, the famous

African hunter, and I believe the original of Rider Haggard’s Allan

Quatermain, who was shot dead at the head of his company in East

Africa during the war when he was over 60, although of a quiet

undemonstrative disposition was yet possessed of any amount of

quiet fiery nervous energy and pluck. He was known to be one

of the keenest sighted and quickest observers of his time in the

jungle. There is no doubt that a long sojourn in the jungle when

one is continually tracking up and coming in contact with large

wild dangerous animals sharpens a man’s wits and senses to a very

great extent. I trust I may be pardoned for remarking that I

found from a lengthy experience in the jungles of Burma that all

my senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, soon became

very highly developed. I could also walk through the jungle as

lightly as a cat and still be able to ' see everything ahead and all

around me without treading on a leaf or snapping a twig. Then

again my sense of direction also became almost as good as some

of my trackers.

Considering Selous had done so much big game shooting in

other countries, it had always appeared strange to me why this

noted sportsman never came out to India or Burma to shoot

tigers or the lordly gaur, the largest of all the bovines in the world,

not to speak of the tsaing or banting ( Bibos banteng birmanicus )

and the brow-antlered deer ( Rucervus thamin) none of which he

had ever seen, and which are only to be found in the East. It

was only when I was last at home in Scotland in 1897 after being

introduced to him at Perth by Sir Scott Montcrief after a lecture

given by Selous that I learnt his real reasons for not visiting India

or Burma to shoot. During the course of a long conversation I

had with him on shikar he informed me that the reasons which

had deterred him from visiting India or Burma were that he was

married for one thing, and was moreover growing old, whilst he

was not a rich man. He told me then also that he was collecting

specimens for museums and wealthy men owning collections such as

the Rothschilds and others.

Among several of the tigers bagged by me in Upper Burma was

one I accounted for at a place called Nanyaseik in the Myitkyina

District, a place once famous for its big game, now somewhat

thinned out by the Kachin, Burman, Shan and Gurkha hunters.

After a hard morning’s work with bison — there was a big bull

in a herd which I had to my disgust missed most disgracefully — , I

was just stepping out of my bath preparatory to having breakfast,

when the Gurkha caretaker of the Nanyaseik Public Works Depart-

ment bungalow came galloping along on his pony up to my camp

and after dismounting shouted out to me in a great state of excite-

ment that a tiger had killed a cow that morning close to the village

and was still feeding upon the carcase when he left Nanyaseik.

It was then about 10-30 a.m. The poor man had come along at

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

579

such a pace that he had fallen off en route and barked himself

badly in two or three places. As I was on my way to Nanyaseik

to inspect a Police outpost there, the ‘Khubber’ suited me down

to the ground. On my arrival at the village at about 2 p.m. I

learnt that no one knew anything about the animal or kill but

that a Shan on his way home early that morning, when within

about five or six hundred yards of Nanyaseik village had seen the

tiger which had sprung backwards and forwards across the road in

front of him several times and had then disappeared. The Shan

it seems thinking the animal meant mischief had drawn his long

fighting ‘dah’ out of its sheath to defend himself, and had then

bolted for the village after uttering a shout or two to frighten it

away. This had the desired effect for he did not see it again.- I

now learnt also that an old emaciated cow belonging to no one

which used to wander round the village had at last dropped down

from sheer exhaustion and old age. It was lying helpless in a small

clump of plantain trees situated within about 40 yards of the vil-

lage and about three paces from the high road along which the

Shan had been travelling when he encountered the tiger. The

whole affair had been grossly exaggerated and I saw at once what

had really happenecl. Tfie tiger had evidently been on his way to

stalk and kill the cow when the meeting with the Shan disturbed

him and put an end to his plans. The encounter had evidently

displeased the tiger who had shown his displeasure by acting as

he had done. The villagers and the durwan or caretaker of the

bungalow on hearing the Shan’s story had at once taken it for

granted that a cow had been killed by the tiger, and, although it

was broad daylight when the affair took place, and there was a

gun in the village belonging to the headman, no one thought for

a moment of going out to see whether the cow had or had not

been killed. I settled the matter when my pack mules turned up

with my kit and guns by going and seeing for myself. It is mar-

vellous what confidence is inspired in these villagers by the pre-

sence of a white man. Although they kept at a respectable

distance behind me, some 20 villagers in all accompanied me to

the scene of the supposed kill. Here I found the cow lying down

untouched, and of course there were no signs of the tiger. The

unfortunate animal it seems from enquiries made by me on the

spot, had, for the past two days, been left lying helpless where

it had fallen, in the blazing sun, without either food or water. It

is against the Buddhist creed of course to put an animal out of

its misery by killing it, or indeed to take any life at all except in

self-defence, so I killed the poor brute myself as mercifully as

possible by shooting it and then had it disembowelled and its

throat cut. This sounds rather gruesome I will admit, but it

was necessary to have the scent of fresh meat and blood wafted

abroad north, south, east and west so as to attract the tiger as

soon as possible as I had no time to spare.

As it was full moon that night, and there was some possibility

of the tiger turning up, I decided to sit up in a machan over the

carcase of the cow as soon as the villagers erected one for me. A

small rickety platform of bamboos was accordingly erected by

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

the villagers at a height of only about 10 feet from the ground in

the centre of three or four plantain trees which stood within about

15 feet of the spot where the carcase lay. My instructions regard-

ing the erection of a proper maclian had not been followed much

to my disgust. A Burman of course will sit on the branch of a

tree and wait all night for a shot at anything without feeling-

fatigued. The Shans in the locality did not apparently know any-

thing about the erection of a ‘ maclian ’ and did not understand

what I really wanted, so I had to sit on a single platform. I

went back however to the village 1 was camping at for a cane

‘morah’ or stool and laid a rug over this. That made matters a

little easier for me, but of course I was by no means as comfort-

able as 1 might have been had two platforms been erected. I

usually made a point of having a maclian made of the green boughs

of trees, as if bamboos are used they invariably creak when any

movement is made on the maclian, which would be sure to scare

away the tiger or keeji it from coming up to the kill. I also pre-

ferred a double platform, one above the other as it were, about 2 '

6; 1 apart. Each platform would also be 7; long by 4J wide. This

enabled me to sit on the upper platform and rest my feet on the

lower one or I could lie down and rest on the upper one when I

wanted to, and stand on the lower one when necessary, so as to

enable me to turn round and shoot at the tiger in an erect position

from any direction over the parapet of leaves, usually erected

round the sides, front and back of the maclian to shield the hunter

from being seen. I also invariably wore rubber shoes and had

a dhurrie or rug laid on each platform to (leaden any sound I might

make when I moved about on the maclian. I found a rope ladder

very useful for getting into the machan. from the ground. I never

as a rule sat on a machan at a lower height from the ground than

15 or 20 feet. That is really the minimum height one should be

installed from the ground. Charpoys and ready-made maclians

can also be obtained and put up in a very short time. A good

double platform machan takes several hours to make properly and

at least 8 or 10 men are required to carry out the work. I might

mention here for beginners that villagers who have been deputed

to erect a machan over a kill should see that all the material is

cut at some spot a good distance away from the tree on which

the machan is to be built. The work should be done with as little

noise as possible so as not to disturb the tiger should it be lying-

up, as they often do, near the kill. Then again, if the erection

of the ‘machan’ has for some reason been delayed till a later hour,

say sunset, the villagers, after they have completed the erection

of the ‘maclian’, should return to the village talking, laughing and

singing, so that the tiger, should he be in the vicinity, may hear

them, and imagining that all was well turn up at the kill at an

earlier hour than he would ordinarily have done.

All the split bamboo shavings or withes used for securing

the machan, the cut boughs and branches and other odds and ends,

left lying about on the ground near the/ ‘machan’, or near the kill,

-should be collected and hidden or taken away altogether a good

“distance from v the machan. If' this is not done a knowing tiger

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

581

might after reaching the kill become suspicious on seeing all this

rubbish lying about, rubbish that was not there when he was last

at the kill, and clear off at once in consequence. I have however

shot several tigers that have come up to the' kill in broad daylight

before 5 p.m. In fact some have started feeding at once without-

taking any notice whatsoever of the rubbish heaps that had been

left lying on the ground in the vicinity of the ‘kill ’ or the machan.

Tigers do not as a rule like feeding on a kill that has been dragged

into an open space near a suitable tree for the erection of

a machan. I always made a point of having two large stout stakes

driven into the ground for several feet and secured one at the

neck and the other at the hind quarters of the kill. It is a good

thing to take into the machan a small haversack full of stones with

which to bombard the body of a tiger that you may have fired al-

and that may be lying within sight of the machan in order to

see whether it has any life left in it. Some people say you must-

not smoke whilst seated on a machan waiting for a tiger to put-

in an appearance in case the animal should scent the tobacco smoke

and not turn up. I doubt whether there is much in this. If the

tiger can scent the tobacco smoke he can also scent the sportsman.

It is much better sitting up alone for a tiger. I personally prefer

being alone. My experiences of sitting up with Burmans is that

they either go to sleep and snore, develop a cough, or want to

clear their throats, which, as can be understood, does not facilitate

the arrival of the tiger at the kill. It is better to wear a pair

of long lose dark coloured flannel trousers, stuffed for choice at

the bottom, into long soft leather mosquito boots with crepe rubber

soles. The lower platform of the machan should have very strong

stout branches well-laced closely together in such a way as to

shut out any possibility of the tiger being able to force his wav

through it should he scramble up the tree in an attempt to get-

at and claw the sportsman off his perch, a thing which tigers are

capable of doing and which has been done in India on several

occasions. One has only to watch a cat scramble up a tree to

a considerable height when frightened or chased by dogs to under-

stand this and after all a tiger is nothing more than a large cat

although a very dangerous one. I could go on ad infinitum and

mention other tips useful to the beginner in the jungle, only I

should be afraid that my readers would be bored stiff if they have

not already reached that stage. I shall risk it however, and only

refer to one more tip which will certainly be the last. Sometimes

one is belated in the jungle through having covered more country

than one intended doing and finds on one’s return in failing light

that the fore-sight cannot be seen very clearly it being only, shall

we say, a fine black bead. One then meets a tiger, which, under

these conditions, if one is wise, is not fired at. Messrs. West-ley

Richards the well-known gun and rifle makers invented, a black

metal sheath with a white circular porcelain or enamel bead

fore-sight which can be slipped on at once and is easily seen in

fading light when the ordinary black bead would be more or less

invisible. If I mistake not, there is a set of four of these slip-

on night sights made, graduated from the size of a large pinhead

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

to one the size of a pea. They cost about half a crown the set.

Some makers call them gloaming enamel fore-sights. Messrs.

Manton & Co., Calcutta, I know keeps them in stock. For a

young man with good eye-sight an ordinary fine black bead fore-sight

is good enough during the day except in failing light, when one

of the above mentioned slip-on sights would be required. For a

sportsman like myself who is nearing his seventies, a platina,

platinum or German silver bead fore-sight (these three sights are

pretty nearly all alike in appearance) would be preferable. It is

more easily seen than a black bead fore-sight especially when one

is using shooting spectacles. Ivory-tipped fore-sights wear more

rapidly, and are more easily broken. As a matter of fact the

sportsman should have a spare fore-sight for each rifle in case of

accidents and it should be possible to screw these on without much

difficulty.

I must apologize for this lengthy digression. The majority of

the suggestions made by me are all well known to experienced

sportsmen and are probably considerably out of date in the opinion

of some. However, they may be of some use to the sportsman

who has not accounted for a tiger and is keen on doing so.

To come back to my tiger, taking a revolver and my 12-bore

‘Cosmos’ ball and shot gun built by Cogswell & Harrison to burn

only 4^ drs. of black powder and throwing a heavy conical bullet,

the only suitable weapon I had with me at the time, other than

a heavy 8-bore rifle I entered the machan alone at 6 p.m. At

7-30 p.m. the moon having risen well above the tree tops in a

cloudless sky everything was brilliantly illuminated. Drops of

shining moisture, the result of a heavy dew were now falling from

all the bushes and trees around me with a steady patter. Sud-

denly from a neighbouring hillside away in front of me about a

mile off where there was some very heavy cover I heard the roar

of a tiger followed by others at intervals. These drew nearer and

nearer, and then ceased altogether as the animal approached the

village. She, for it turned out to be a tigress, was noted for the

noise she made when she began her nocturnal prowls. I was only

hoping fervently that she would come near enough to the kill to

obtain a whiff of it. She turned up as a matter of fact much

sooner than I expected taking me completely by surprise. About

8 p.m. while I was leaning forward staring vacantly at the kill,

and dreaming of the past, my gun lying across my knees, I was

thunderstruck at suddenly seeing on the other side of the kill,

within a foot or two of it, a shadow, a something that was not

there before, which vanished again as noiselessly as it had appear-

ed. It was the tigress which had come and gone without so much

as deigning to even sniff or look at the carcase, far less give me

an opportunity of levelling my gun. at her. I should have said

that before disappearing she lifted her head and looked at me full

in the face for a second. Whether she saw me or not or suspected

something I am unable to say; at any rate she did not appear to

be particularly hungry. It was marvellous how the colours of her

coat blended with her surroundings and made her partially invisible

when standing in front of me with a full moon overhead. Think-

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

583

ing that she might perhaps turn up again I waited for another hour.

She did not put in an appearance however, so I descended from

my perch, went to the village and to bed. My Madrassi boy on

waking me in the morning with my tea and toast greeted me with

the comforting news that the tiger had ‘done finished’ eating the

cow, his way of putting it, that the tiger had had a meal at the

carcase during the night. I was in the ‘machan’ again that even-

ing alone at 6 p.m. determined not to be caught napping again.

As a matter of fact 4-30 or 5 p.m. would be a better hour to get

into the ‘machan’ than 6 p.m. as there is no knowing when the

tiger may turn up. If the kill is far from any village it may turn

up early, if it is close to a village and it is a sophisticated animal,

it will not come before 8 or even 9 p.m. I have shot several

tigers that turned up at the kill at 5 p.m. but these were kills

situated several miles from any village. At 6-30 p.m. some way

off from the edge of a neighbouring clearing I heard a jungle fowl

get up with a cackle and fly away screaming. Some monkeys

also which had been feeding close by kept up an incessant chatter

till darkness set in when all sounds ceased. These were distinct

signs that the tiger was afoot, for I knew that no villagers were

about here. Although no roars were uttered this time she made no

secret about her approach, for, at about 7-30 p.m. after the moon

had been up some time, I heard her moving stealthily along the

undergrowth towards the carcase. She did not hesitate once but

came straight on being evidently quite unsuspicious of any danger.

On reaching the body of the cow she sniffed at it once or twice

and then suddenly throwing up her head directed a piercing glance

at the ‘machan’. Her yellow eyes appeared to be looking straight

into mine. Appearing satisfied with her inspection she lay down

on all fours and after making one or two determined efforts to

remove the carcase which I omitted to say had been very carefully

staked down, gave it up as useless, and then set to work and

buried, her teeth in the meat. I was determined to let her have

plenty of time so waited fully five minutes during which she raised

her head a number of times and listening to every sound that came

from the village.

I should have stated that my gun was fitted with a large

white flat circular porcelain night-sight about the size of a pea.

This night-sight could be folded down flush with the rib of the

gun when it was not in use, i.e. , during the day, when the other

bead fore-sight for use in daylight was required. I found this

night fore-sight showed up very well when I had the moon at my

back and I always made it a point when I did sit up at night in

a machan to see that the machan was constructed in such a

way that I could face the kill and the tiger with the moon at my

back, for with the moon’s rays shining in one’s face it was almost

impossible to see the night sight at all. Confound these digres-

sions and old fashioned ideas and explanations I hear some one

say. I trust nevertheless that I shall be forgiven for making

them.

Finally I aimed for a point between her neck and shoulders

and fired. A series of the most appalling snarls and roars followed

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

my shot as she dived out of sight with a crash into the under-

growth some five or six paces from the kill. Here she rolled about

roaring and snarling in a manner exceedingly trying to the nerves.

From the sounds emitted between her growls she seemed to be

alternately swallowing and ejecting mouthfuls of blood. As the

undergrowth was about 5 or 6 feet in height here, I was unable

to see any portion of her or else I would have at once put her out

of her misery by bring again. It became apparent to me that

she was fast getting into a comatose, and therefore harmless state.

She had by now begun to breathe stertorously, the loud snoring

noise being audible at a distance of at least 150 yards. I descend-

ed from my perch and got out on to the road where I joined the

villagers who had turned up en masse armed with spears and

‘dahs’. I was exceedingly puzzled to know where 1 had hit the

animal and assumed that the bullet must have got her about the

head somewhere and had then passed down her throat. Directing

the villagers to make a big fire at a safe distance and let me know

when all sounds ceased I went back to the bungalow and sat down

to dinner. I had not been absent more than 25 minutes when

my ears were greeted bv a series of yells and cheers from the

direction of the kill. Guessing what had happened I jumped up

from the table sending my pudding of plantain fritters flying,

seized my gun and was out of the bungalow and at the scene of

the kill in a trice. As soon as they had heard the tiger’s groans

cease the whole village to the number of 20 or 30 hard turned

out in a body during my absence with bamboo torches and lan-

terns. In spite of my warnings, they literally cut a passage

through the undergrowth to the spot where the tigress, fortun-

ately for them, lay dead. I found them all congregated round

the animal, busily engaged jabbering away and measuring the

beast. Mv bullet had caught her below the right eye, crashed

straight through the! base of the skull fracturing it slightly without

damaging the brain, and then continuing its course through her

mouth and throat lodged eventually in her hind quarters near the

root of the tail. She had I suppose really died of suffocation, loss

of blood and shock to the brain. The tape showed her to be only

8^ feet in length.

The circumstances connected with the shooting and bagging of

a large tiger which measured 10 feet 4 inches, is the record for

Burma, which was wounded and then followed up on foot accom-

panied by a few Military Police Gurkhas and Burmans, bring back

very unpleasant recollections. They can never be erased from my

memory for they resulted in the mauling and subsequent death

of one of the Gurkhas with me at the time. 1 was then encamped

at Sinbo, a village situated on the banks of the Irrawaddy in the

district of Myitkyina. Information reached me that a tiger had

killed a cow during the small hours of the morning at P. a village

on the banks of the Irrawaddy about one and a half miles above

Sinbo. Directing my clerk to send out word at once to the head-

man of P. to see that the carcase of the cow was not broken up

and distributed amongst the villagers, I hurried through with

breakfast and ordering only my pony to be saddled galloped out

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

585

to P. with the object of superintending the erection of a machan

with the view to sitting up for the tiger the same night. I found

the cow lying in the jungle with its neck broken. It was some

20 to 30 paces from the cart track leading into the village which

was distant from tlieN scene about 150 yards. This tiger was evi-

dently a noted cattle lifter for he had often been heard of in these

parts and though he committed his last offence in such close proxi-

mity to the village no one heard a sound. He had evidently

helped himself considerably in his first meal. Some big junks of

meat probably 15 to 20 lbs. had disappeared from the cow’s hind

quarters. After turning out the villagers I had the carcase

dragged out on to the road where, to begin with, I had it securely

staked down to the ground. Most tigers dislike feeding in the

open, and invariably move the carcase if they can, out of sight,

into cover. As there was not to be a vestige of a moon during

the night, and torches had not yet been invented, I was obliged

to have the platform, rigged up as low as possible to enable me to

see anything at, all. Owing to the absence of trees in the vicinity

of the road it was necessary to have three poles inserted in the

ground as supports in the shape of a triangle amongst the bushes

by the side of the road. Upon these at a height of about eight

feet a seat or double platform (such as has already been described

by me in this article), large enough for one person only, was

constructed. It faced the road and kill which lay in the centre

of the road way. After seeing the machan completed a matter of

about three hours’ hard work I cantered back to Sinbo and after

bathing, changing, and having some tea, galloped back to P. and

entered the machan alone at 6 p.m. I had not been seated in

the machan ten minutes before I heard the tiger ‘fitting’ from a

neighbouring plantain grove about 150 yards or So from my

machan. Carts and buffaloes were still passing at the time along

the road on their way back to the village from work. This tiger

which had evidently never been fired at before was a noted cattle

lifter. He just used to walk up in broad daylight, help himself

to a good fat heifer and then walk off again. He was evidently

a greedy animal and was in a devil of a hurry to get back to his

‘kill’, but he did not like hearing all this traffic viz., the creaking-

carts and the loud knocking sounds emitted by the hollow wooden

clappers or bells worn round the necks of the buffaloes, also the

noise of the commands which were issued by the cartmen to their

bullocks. The tiger knew perfectly well that these noises were

being made near his kill and he did not like it at all, so gave vent

to his anxiety, impatience, suspicion and perhaps annoyance, by

uttering there ‘fitting’ calls. These calls or ‘tits’, which is a

Burmese expression, are almost exact imitations of the bells of a

sambar that has been disturbed, except that they are sharper and

shorter.

I trust I may be pardoned for referring to this subject again

and that the Editors of the Journal as well as the readers of this

article will forgive me for being so egotistical as to lay claim to

being, I believe, the first European sportsman to bring forward a

suggestion that the true reason for a tiger making these ‘fitting’

586 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

calls was that it does so on being disturbed suddenly by human

agency. To begin with it is not a call from one tiger to another,

or in other words a mate call, for in this case I am quite con-

vinced there was no mate in the vicinity. I have moreover heard

these calls, uttered by tigers on no less than twelve different occa-

sions in Burma, when the animals that made them, had either

been shot at and missed, or had been disturbed, suddenly when at

the kill or in some other way by human agency. On each, and

every occasion, there was certainly no mate. An article by me

on this subject entitled ‘Notes on tigers and their calls’, will be

found on page 548, vol. xxix, No. 2, dated 25th August 1923

of the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal where my views

on the subject are clearly stated. On j) ages 462 and 463, vol. xxx,

No. 2 of the same journal , dated 25th January 1925 will also be

found an article by Major James on the same subject. Mr. Dun-

bar Brander also discusses the matter on page 905, vol. xxx, No. 4,

dated 15th December 1925. He states however that the origin of

the call has to do with a mate. I am afraid I cannot agree as

to the supposition that the sambar is lured to his destruction by

the tiger’s mimic bell or ‘tit’. Why should a tiger, monarch of all

he surveys in the jungle, with eye-sight, hearing, strength, agility

and speed beyond compare, and who has little or no difficulty in

procuring a meal at any time have recourse to such deception.

Mr. Peacock calls a tiger’s ‘tits’ a note of surprise. He might

add doubt, alarm, suspicion and apprehension, but I suppose these

after all amount to the same thing.

The Editors of the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal

in summing up the matter on tigers’ ‘titting’ were, I flatter myself

inclined to take my view of the matter, namely, that these

‘titting’ calls are made by the animal when it is in doubt, or has

been thoroughly alarmed by human agency. Even if two tigers,

which are mates had become separated through having been dis-

turbed by human agency and were ‘titting’ together at intervals,

it seems to me quite clear that they were ‘titting’ not necessarily

to let each other know the other’s whereabouts, a thing surely

that any tiger could easily ascertain in no time by instinct alone,

as indeed could most wild animals, but because they had both been

alarmed and were on the qui vive and were perplexed and upset,

or suspicious regarding the situation. I heard a tiger calling or

‘fitting’ incessantly round our camp on the Lemro River in Arakan

one night, after Walker, D. C. Forests, had shot a tiger over a kill

which I had tied up for him about a mile from camp. The tiger

was shot at about 8 p.m. and the ‘fitting’, whether made by the

dead animal’s mate or by another animal, it is impossible to say,

began in the vicinity of our camp the same night at about 10 p.m.

We left the carcase of the tiger lying on the ground, after the

skin had been removed, about 150 yards from the bamboo huts

we were camping in. There was no doubt that this ‘titting’ tiger

was alarmed not only by our camp being where it was but also

probably because of the smell of the carcase of the dead tiger.

Our camp had been constructed on both banks of the Lemro River

in such a way as to block (not intentionally) the passage of any

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

587

animal coming up or going down stream, along the banks of which

a regular cat walk for tigers existed. The animals could not make

a detour at this particular spot as the hills were much too preci-

pitous on both sides. Even if the ‘fitting’ animal was attempting

to call up its dead mate if was a note indicative of suspicion and

alarm. Shortly after my article in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Journal appeared putting forward my views as to the

reason for tigers making these ‘fitting’ calls, a gentleman writing

anonymously from Mandalay, who had seen a similar article of

mine in the Rangoon Gazette prior to the one published in the

Society’s Journal on the subject of tigers’ ‘fitting’, which by the

way is a much nicer word than ‘pooking’, wrote as follows to the

Rangoon Gazette. ‘For the information of your correspondent

W. S. T. (which are my initials) whose interesting article “A few

notes on Tigers and their calls” appeared in your paper dated the

12th July, 1923, the well-known Burmese proverb “Lu-kyauk-yin-

hit-the,-kya-kyauk-yin-tit-the, ” will tell W. S. T. or any one who is

in doubt as to the cause of tigers “fittings”, that tigers “tit” only

when they are alarmed or frightened.’ The literal translation of

the proverb means ‘when a man is suddenly startled he makes an

exclamation like “hit-the” and when a tiger is startled suddenly

he “tits”.’ I was not aware till the Mandalay note (which I sub-

sequently learned was written by the late Lt.-Col. H. H. Harring-

ton, 62nd and 92nd Punjabis, a well-known ornithologist and an

authority on the birds of Burma) appeared in the Rangoon

Gazette, that any such Burmese proverb existed. This would

therefore bear out my contention that a tiger only ‘tits’ when

alarmed or suspicious and that it has nothing whatsoever to do

with a mate call.

Although I trust T will not be accused of appearing to be

tedious on this subject I will drop it for ever after giving one final

instance of a tiger ‘ fitting ’ on being suddenly alarmed.

I was sitting on the banks of the Lemro River in

Arakan one night at about 9-30 p.m. about 100 yards or so above

our camp after dinner, smoking and talking with Walker of the

Forests. A tiger, which, judging by its tracks, had been walking-

down stream along its usual beat bn the side on which our camp

stood, there being no villages for miles around, almost walked into

Walker and myself before noticing us. On suddenly discovering

our presence from a distance of only about six yards, a bunch of

rocks having hidden us from view, it dashed away up the steep

bank above us sending a stream of gravel and small stones hurtling

down upon us. Then, from the jungle above us, it made the

welkin ring at intervals, with its short, sharp, nervous bells,

or ‘tits’ of alarm. I am afraid however I have made a. very

long digression so let me get back to the tiger I was sitting up

for.

All noises gradually subsided as the light faded and the stars

came out one by one. I was attracted at first by hearing some

harsh grating, purring sounds from the jungle behind. They

appeared to be drawing nearer and yet nearer. I listened, my

heart pounding like a sledge hammer, and peered down steadfastly

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

at the kill which I could just see dimly lying out along the bare

portion of the road not more than 12 to 13 paces from where I

was seated. At first I thought they were leopards but they turned

out to be hungry jungle cats which, having scented the dead cow

from afar, were dying to get within eating distance, but (fared

not knowing full well that it was the kill of the dreaded midnight

prowler and that if he found them there it would be all up with

them. These animals were moving fussily round the kill for a

long time, making a great show of coming right up to it for a

mouthful. But they could never screw up enough courage to do

so. Suddenly they scurried away in a terrible hurry and dis-

appeared for good. I was certain now that they had winded the

tiger and that the latter could not be far off. Getting my gun

noiselessly forward into position, I leant over, and remaining

motionless, kept my eyes fixed on the carcase in front of me. Its

outline could now be seen with difficulty. It was an exciting

moment, as any one knows who has sat up on a dark night and

within springing distance, waiting for a tiger to put in an appear-

ance. In order to be able to see the muzzle of my gun more easily

when taking aim I had tied a small triangular-shaped piece of white

cloth, on to the muzzle about half an inch above the fore-siglit.

The small white procelain night sight being quite invisible without

a moon, this served the purpose fairly well, although I could only

just see it when the gun was at my shoulder. It was now 7 p.m.

and quite dark. I could hardly see the carcase as it lay at full

length along the bare patch of pathway which showed up along

the centre of the cart track. Suddenly without any preliminary

warning, the kill in front of me, at which I had been steadfastly

peering, until my eyes felt like starting out of my head, was blot-

ted out of my view and I knew the tiger had caused the trans-

formation and was now standing between me and it like a huge

black shadow. There was a death-like stillness for about three or

four seconds and then a loud sniff followed by a crunch and the

breaking of sinews and bones as the tiger seized the cow by the

neck and pulled and tugged for all he was worth to try and remove

it. The stout pins and rope however withstood all his mighty

efforts although they were continued for the space of half a minute.

In the position he was then in I could not see him clearly enough

to risk a shot. Moreover he appeared to be all over the place.

I preferred to risk a shot only when he was lying down on all fours

feeding on the carcase. Just then a buffalo, which had evidently

got scent of the tiger or the dead cow, broke loose from the village

and came careering along the road towards the carcase. This was

evidently too much for the tiger for all sounds from the ‘kill’ ceased

immediately, and he disappeared as quietly as he had come. The

buffalo swerved off the road on seeing the body of the cow and

then, breaking past the platform on which I was seated, nearly

carrying me and it away with him in his mad rush, disappeared

into the jungle with a terrific clatter. I was terribly disappointed,

for of course I never expected to see the tiger again. All became

still once more and the minutes went past like hours. I was deter-

mined to give the tiger two full hours’ grace before descending and

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

589

giving it irp as a bad job. But the animal turned up sooner than

I expected, within an hour in fact, when the kill received the same

violent treatment as on the first occasion. This time, however,

having failed in his efforts to remove it, he began feeding on the

hind quarters, lying out at full length along the road broadside on

to me in the exact position I had hoped to see him occupy. I

waited for some seconds which appeared to me like hours, till his

suspicions had been thoroughly lulled and his teeth were well home

into the meat. Hardly daring to move a muscle for fear of alarm-

ing him, yet, raising the end of the gun over the parapet of

leaves in front of me and taking a long, careful aim for what I

took to be the tiger’s shoulder, I pulled the trigger. A succession

of short, sharp, angry grunts and roars split the air as the animal,

evidently hard hit, dashed headlong over the carcase to fight an

imaginary foe. 1 was unable to see from the cloud of smoke which

hung between us and hid everything from view, what the brute

was really doing. During the few seconds he roared, snarled, and

fought over the body of the cow, it was evident to me from the

diabolical sounds emitted that he had been badly wounded. Pre-

sently all sounds ceased and then a few feet away beyond the ‘kill’

in front of me, I heard the rattle of some dry bean pods on some

small dead bushes, and then all was quiet. I waited for fully

twenty minutes before moving or uttering a sound in case the

tiger should be lying up close by. Having meanwhile loaded both

chambers of my gun with cartridges filled with slugs, draw-

ing a whistle from my pocket I blew several shrill calls to bring

up my men. They were not long in putting in an appearance

with two hurricane lanterns. I shouted to them when they were

about 80 yards off, to hold hard and not to be in too great a

hurry. After we had shouted and yelled ourselves hoarse for a

few minutes and conversed with one another at a respectable dis-

tance, the men came along the road holding their lanterns high

above their heads, whilst I stood and covered their approach with

my gun. As they came up I descended from the machan, and

with them carefully examined the ‘kill’ and the surrounding ground

for any marks of a bullet-hole. After a lengthy inspection, we

failed to find any bullet-liole but we noticed that the tiger, after

being hit, in his rage and agony had sprung upon the cow’s head

and worried it, pulling off a horn with its teeth during the mad

struggle which followed my shot. There was only a splash of

blood on the carcase of the cow which, according to one of my

men, had fallen from the tiger’s mouth. ‘This is a good sign’,

another man said, ‘he has been shot through the lungs and we

will find him in the morning, close by, dead. ’ I had considerable

doubt about this in< my own mind at the time. A tiger which has

been shot through the heart, liver or lungs, that is to say, which

has received a mortal body wound, seldom utters any sound at

all, or only emits an almost inaudible grunt as he makes off. But

a tiger that has had a shoulder or a leg broken or gets a smack

from a bullet on the face or head without the brain being injured,

invariably roars or snarls loudly when hit. There was nothing

more to be done that evening so I mounted my pony and galloped

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

back to Sinbo where 1 arrived in time for dinner. On the follow-

ing morning I was off again to the scene of yesterday’s adventure

accompanied by three military Police Sepoys, two being Gurkhas

and the third a Kachin who expressed a keen desire to accompany

me. They were armed with Martini Henry rifles and kukries.

Three Burman villagers also begged to be allowed to come. There

were seven of us all told including myself, four or five too many

perhaps. It was a case of footing it of course. Elephants were

not available and no one would undertake to either lend us their

buffaloes or drive a herd ahead of us in order to induce the tiger to

charge them and enable a shot to be got in before he got home

on to some one. We had not followed the blood trail into the

jungle many yards — about eighty or so perhaps altogether, when

we came upon two pools of blood, and the impression of the tiger’s

form on the grass where he had evidently lain down and rolled

about the night before. Village Police Constable Maung Po, one

of the most experienced men of our party, who, like his two con-

freres was armed with a muzzle -loading Enfield musket, the

Gurkhas having their Martini Henry rifles, now turned to me with

a look and said in an undertone, ‘Sir, I am afraid it is a case of

having to shoot again should we come up with him, for he is

alive.’ I had thought this was coming.

Down to zero sank all my hopes at once of ever seeing the

tiger again. However there was no getting out of it now. I

decided to push on regardless of all consequences. To cut a long

story short, let me say that after taking on the blood spoor for

another 150 yards or so and crossing the dry bed of a small nullah

a few feet in width, all traces of the wounded animal disappeared

Casting carefully round for these, my men scattered slightly to

right and left of me in a crescent, with no one anywhere ahead

of me. We were then only about 600 yards or so from the village.

The spoor led us round in a semicircle inclining back towards the

village. The jungle showed signs of becoming denser than any

we had as yet passed through. Two men viz., Maung Po, the

village Policeman already referred to, and a Gurkha Sepoy, had

branched off together to my right; two other men turned off at

right angles to my left, whilst the remaining two men, a Kachin

Sepoy, and a village constable, who had dropped to the rear a

little, some 20 yards behind me, also turned off to the right and

began walking up the dry bed of the stream we had just crossed. We

were all busily engaged looking ahead and stooping every now and

then scanning the ground for the lost blood spoor, and had hardly

parted company many seconds when my ears were greeted by a

succession of short, grunting, coughing roars from my right, in

the direction taken by Maung Po and his companion. The whole

affair was over in ten or fifteen seconds. According to Maung Po,

the tiger which did not come along at any great pace, made a

bee line for the Gurkha, who was standing some three paces from

his right, having evidently spotted him from the beginning. He,

unfortunately was wearing a pair of white cotton shorts, a fact

which, when starting on the trail and in the excitement of the

moment, had escaped my notice. Maung Po was more sensibly

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

591

dressed in nature’s garb principally, having nothing on but a dark

coloured cotton loin cloth, tucked up in front and behind accord-

ing to the custom of the country. He jumped to one side, and

at a distance of about six paces fired at the tiger’s shoulder as

it came on at the Gurkha, failing however to stop it. The sepoy,

according to his own statement, and that of Maung Po’s elicited

by me afterwards, fired at the tiger when it was three paces from

him, hitting it rather low down in the face below the right eye,

the bullet eventually finding a billet in the muscles of the neck,

where it mushroomed without doing much harm beyond tempora-

rily stunning the animal which still came on at a trot in a dazed

manner. A third or fourth shot was fired in rapid succession, but

somewhat wildly by the other two men who had gone up the bed

of the nullah some way behind. Neither of these shots had the

desired effect however, of disabling or turning the brute. A harm-

less slug from the muzzle-loading Enfield of one of the constables

the man who fired the fourth shot was afterwards found embedded

in the muscles of the animal’s hind legs. The Gurkha, after firing,

apparently lost his head. Instead of clubbing his rifle, or jumping

to one side which he could easily have done, or attempting to

unsheatli his ‘‘Kukri”, the curved heavy knife that all Gurkhas

carry when in the jungle, the unfortunate man stood and thrust his

rifle towards the animal holding the weapon with both arms at

full length before him. The tiger seized the rifle in its teeth, and

after chewing and splintering the woodwork, and scoring the barrel

with its teeth, three of which were afterwards found broken in

consequence, changed its grip from the rifle to the man’s right

thigh, the latter going over on to his back, screaming wildly. Maung

Po, having witnessed this, rushed back to me yelling for assistance.

We met half-way, for as soon as I heard the screams of the un-

fortunate man I rushed forward as quickly as the circumstances

would permit till I came within sight of the tiger and at a distance

of about half-a-dozen paces, put in three shots behind the shoulder.

Fortunately there was not much chance of hitting the Gurkha

by mistake, as when I appeared on the scene the tiger was stand-

ing broadside on to me in an open space affording a clear view and

an excellent shot. It had its head down and with closed eyes

was silently chewing away at the man’s right thigh whilst the

Gurkha, whose screams were most unnerving, was engaged with

the fingers of- both hands clawing away aimlessly at the tiger’s face

which paid not the slightest attention to his movements but con-

tinued its horrible work. I wondered at the time that this action

on the part of its victim did not infuriate the animal and make

it relinquish its grip to a more vital spot higher up thp man’s body.

Maung Po, whose companionship at this time was most accept-

able, stood calmly by with an empty gun whilst I loaded and

fired. My first shot did not seem to trouble the tiger at all for

he paid not the slightest attention to it. It may have been a miss

of course, for I was feeling far from comfortable and the whole

situation was not conducive to steady shooting. My second shot

hit him hard in a vital spot, for, leaping up several feet into the

air, two or three seconds after the report, and snarling like the

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

devil, lie turned a complete somersault and fell a few yards away,

clear of tlie prostrate man. Hurriedly ejecting the two empty

cases, and loading the right chamber only, I, much to my relief,

finished him with a third shot. I was only using a 12-bore ball

and shot gun burning 4| drs. of black powder, with a heavy conical

bullet, a weapon hardly powerful enough for an encounter of this

description. After reloading both barrels, I threw a few sticks at

the body in order to make sure that the animal was really dead,

and then seeing that it remained motionless, approached the

wounded Gurkha, who sat up and asked for a cigarette, remarking

in a broken voice that he was afraid his time had come. I

cheered him up at once and told him that he would soon be alright.

After removing his shorts, I examined his wounds, which at first

sight, though deep and badly lacerated, showed that no vital organs

had been perforated. They did not, at the time, appear likely to

be fatal. Of course it is well known how quickly and easily the

whole system is poisoned by bites or wounds inflicted by any of

the Felidae and how rapidly a wounded man, even though possess-

ed of a powerful constitution, succumbs to his wouncls. Snatch-

ing a long, new, white muslin turban, some two or three yards in

length, from the head of a Kachin sepoy who was standing close

by, I bound up the Gurkha’s wounds as quickly as possible, and

had him carried into the Sinbo hospital within an hour of the

occurrence. The wounds, of which there were about six in all,

were situated in the front and upper part of the right thigh, be-

tween it and the groin but nearer the groin if anything, and there

were also one or two deep punctures and scratches on the lower

part of the unfortunate man’s back. When the wounded man,

before being lifted off the ground, told me he could not lift his

right leg off the ground, I guessed at once that it had either been

broken or dislocated at the hip. It turned out to be the latter.

The femoral artery had also been severed partially as the Assis-

tant Surgeon in charge of the hospital told me after the unfortu-

nate man’s death, which occurred the following morning at about

3 a. m., he passing away in an unconscious condition. I asked the

Gurkha at the time after the accident occurred why he had not

attempted to draw and use his Kukri, which he was wearing,

either as a stabbing or a cutting weapon. His reply was, ‘Sahib,

I knew nothing. I did not know what to do, I lost my head.’

My first bullet fired from the maclian had, after hitting the tiger

on the top of the neck and missing the spine by a very little,

continued its course, shattering the whole of the left shoulder and

rendering the leg absolutely useless as the shoulder was a mass

of pulp. I forgot to mention that the tiger, according to those who

had seen him charging, came out on three legs, with the left leg

swinging clear of the ground. No man, however good a sprinter he

may be, can expect to escape from a charging tiger, even though

the latter has the use of only three legs.

Although a badly woundqd tiger should be followed up and

killed as soon as possible after being wounded, so that the brute

will not maul^ villagers and become, very possibly', a man-eater, he

should be followed up, if possible, by the sportsman, mounted' on

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

1. The record tiger for Burma, 10 ft. 4 in., shot in the Myitkyina District.

2. The record tiger for Burma with the author.

Tiger shooting in burMA

593

the back of an elephant, or, if these animals are not available, a

herd of buffaloes should be collected and driven through the jungle

where the animal may be lying up so that he may be induced to

charge these and thus give those following him a chance of seeing

and shooting him. For a photograph of this tiger see plate I,

1 and 2.

The circumstances under which the third tiger was shot were

somewhat peculiar and thrilling.

I was out after rhinoceros, bison and elephant along the water

shed of the hills which divide Arakan from Thayetmyo. It was in

the month of May. We were encamped amongst the Arakan Yoma

Mountains at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. A lovelier spot for

a station could not be desired. Long undulating stretches of per-

fectly open grass country rolled away on either side of my camp

for a distance of at least two miles and plenty of delightfully cool

clear water was to be had within easy reach of the summit from

which point a magnificent view of the surrounding country was

obtainable. What with the mighty Irrawaddy to the east on one

side, lying as it were at my feet some 45 miles away, with its tiny

specks of sailing boats and smoking steamers and a pagoda here

and there glittering along its banks, and Arakan some 90 to 100

miles to the west on the other side with its broken coast and

shimmering sea clearly visible to the naked eye, and studded here

and there with islands of all shapes and sizes, it was altogether a

glorious scene and one alone well worth the trouble of coming to

see. When I threw myself down on the ground and buried my

face in the short sweet smelling crisp grass I could almost fancy

myself back again amongst the bracken and heather of ‘Mine ain

countree ’ .

Next day I saw no less than ten sambar feeding along the

tops of the hills in the open and during the day my bag was a

very fine bull gaur, a good serow standing as high as a small

donkey with 11 inch horns and a very good stag sambar. I found

the -303 with soft-nosed bullets, only the tips being exposed, very

effective on serow, sambar, and boar. For elephant, bison, and

tsaing, the bullet and powder charge is not heavy enough. About

1-30 p.m. on the following day whilst my hunters and I were

marching along rather aimlessly down a stream, Tha Yauk, who

was leading with my double 8-bore ‘Paradox’ suddenly drew up

and, stooping, pointed to the fresh tracks of a tiger. Their wet

and fresh appearance on the gravel bed of the stream showed

that the animal could not be very far ahead of us, and that there

was a good chance of our coming up with him provided he did

not leave the stream and turn off into the jungle. I immediately

changed the solid nickel-coated bullets with which the chambers

of my double -303 Enfield had been loaded, for others loaded with

soft-nosed projectiles, and instructed Tha Yauk to remain handy

with the double 8-bore ‘Paradox’ loaded with conical hollow-pointed

soft lead bullets. When out shooting, I always made a point of

taking out a few 8-bore cartridges loaded with large buck shot and

6 drs. of powder for an emergency of this sort. They had un-

fortunately been forgotten on this occasion. As a stopper in case

6

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL til ST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVlI

of a charge from a wounded tiger at close quarters, there is nothing

so effective as large buck shot when delivered from an 8-bore

‘Paradox’ as the pattern is generally fairly close. I then took the

lead down the bed of the stream which was full of rocks and

boulders and pools of water here and there. I had only gone

perhaps about 150 yards, when I suddenly became aware by sounds

which emanated from in front, that some animal was splashing

about in a pool ahead of me. Could it be a rhinoceros? I moved

quickly forward a few more paces when the head and shoulders

of a tiger followed immediately by the rest of its body suddenly

appeared within full view round the bend in the rocks directly

facing me. The animal which was only some 20 paces off stopped

dead on perceiving us. We were all in full view in mid-stream.

After raising her, head to its utmost, to obtain a better view of us,

she took us all in with the steadfast gaze of her fierce yellow eyes

for about the space of three seconds and then came towards us

snarling like the devil. ‘Well,’ said I to myself, ‘we are in for it

now, this is a most unusual procedure for a tiger surprised in this

fashion to take.’

But, whether after coming up to within 5 paces of us, she

realised that we were not the kind of animals she had been accus-

tomed to meet in the jungles, or whether she had got a whiff of

our scent, she suddenly pulled up and sprang sideways up into

the air most gracefully to a height of 8 or 10 ft. to give us a

wide berth, affording me a lovely broadside shot of which I at

once availed myself with the -303. She made no sound on receiv-

ing the shot but galloped off down stream and disappeared amongst

the bushes. Tha Yauk then said to me, ‘Sir, you have hit her

fair and square behind the shoulder and I saw the place distinctly

where the bullet hit.’ A statement of this description would pro-

bably stagger some people' without any jungle experience and seem

to be a bit too tall to swallow but it is quite true nevertheless

and I am not going into further particulars here as to the why

and the wherefore of things.

We then decided to call a halt to have some breakfast and a

smoke. After a great many cautious manoeuvres and detours

during which several trees were climbed Tha Yauk caught sight of

her ladyship lying stretched out at full length on her right side.

I picked up a stone and threw it at the body to make sure but

she never moved. So much for the efficacy of the -303 with soft-

nosed Tweedie bullets. That is the first and the last time I ever

used a '303 on a tiger. The tigress measured 8 ft. 9 in. of which

her tail was 2 ft. 4 in. (For a photograph of this tigress being

skinned see PI. II, 1.) We found on examining the pool of water

from which she had emerged when we surprised her that it con-

tained two newly-killed red land crabs of 4 and 3 in. in length.

One crab was lying out of the water on the bank whilst the other

one was still in the pool and had only just been killed. The con-

tents of the animal’s stomach showed that she had not had a

solid meal for some time and although she was full-grown and in

prime condition otherwise, she was distinctly tucked in under the

ribs. Tha lrauk, one of the most experienced hunters Burma has

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

PLATE II.

2. Tiger shot on the Ku Stream when feeding on the remains of a youn;

elephant. Note the remains of the elephant in the background.

tiger shooting In BURMA

595

ever seen, informed me that from his own experience and observa-

tions of tigers and leopards in these hills, he firmly believed that

all the cat tribe, when hard pushed for food during the hot season,

that is to say from April to the end, of May, when they were un-

able to approach and stalk game as easily as at other times,

owing to the dry state of the undergrowth, leaves, and twigs, were

driven to eat fish, fowl, tortoises, snakes, crabs, and the like, in

fact anything that was edible.

A fourth tiger was shot in Arakan under rather peculiar cir-

cumstances. I was out after rhinoceros and bison one very hot

day in April. Marching well ahead of my men and baggage ele-

phants along the banks of the Ru stream accompanied by a couple

of Kami hunters, I caught sight of something red glistening in

the sun in mid-stream. It turned out to be the head and neck

of a tiger sitting submerged in a pool of water on a rock. The

range being about 80 to 90 yarcls the shot was not an easy one

as there was a nasty reflection or shimmer from the water owing

to the sun. As it was quite impossible to get any nearer without

attracting the tiger’s attention I sat down on the ground and

risked a shot from where I was. The tiger on the report of the

rifle, a single-barelled -500-bore burning 80 grains of cordite, by

Westley Richards, disappeared into the water and sank out of

view. Then to my astonishment a tigress with two cubs galloped

out of a patch of jungle some 30 yards above the spot where the

tiger had been fired at, followed immediately by about 20 elephants,

the rear being brought up by a stag Sambar and two does. They

were all travelling as fast as they could move in the same direction

having evidently been disturbed by my shot. This was certainly

one of the strangest processions I have ever witnessed for all

26 animals were in sight at the same time before they disappeared

round a bend of the stream into the jungle. I had no time to

draw a bead on to the tigress but doubled up to the pool into

which the tiger had vanished, and retrieved the dead animal from

the bottom with much reluctance as bubbles were still reaching

the surface of the water. I knew; however, that the animal if not

killed outright by my shot must have been drowned. I found that

my bullet had passed clean through the neck severing the

vertebrae. This tiger was a very heavy massive animal measuring

9 ft. 4 in. taken straight across between uprights and had a magni-

ficent coat as well as a very fine ruff round his face. I noticed

that his stomach was considerably distended whilst a foul odour

emanated from his mouth. It did not take me long to discover

that he with the tigress and cubs had been feeding on a baby

elephant that they had killed up a neighbouring nullah and off

which he had evidently had a big feed previous to his immersion.

What astonished me was how it was that two full-grown tigers

and two cubs had not succeeded in demolishing the elephant en-

tirely for it was not a large animal. A photograph of the dead

tiger and the hind quarters of the baby elephant together with

the author seated alongside will be found on PI. II, 2.

Touching on the subject of sounds uttered by tigers the majority

of these are well known and have been commented on by a nuni-

596 JOURNAL, ROMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVlI

ber of sportsmen. I have heard them all, the cat-like call made

by a wounded tiger when on the point of death, a whine, a husky

half suppressed kind of grunt, a snarl, a purr, a miaow and the

‘tak’ referred to by Mr. Peacock in page 171 of his book. I have

also heard them roar continuously for no apparent reason what-

soever on getting up from their lairs at dark preparatory to making

their nightly perambulations and also when they are on the move

in search of food. In fact I am of opinion that they often roar

in the exuberance of their own spirits. I have heard them also

utter the same roar when leaving their kills near Nanyaseik in

the Myitkyina District, and in the Pidaung plains of the same

district, as well as in many other places on the tops of the Yoma

hills between Arakan and Thayetmyo, in places where human

beings were seldom met with and where they had not been much

disturbed. Mr. Dunbar Brander says that when tigers roar three

or four times in succession they are generally trying to get in

touch with a mate. I shouldn’t think tigers had much if any diffi-

culty in finding their mates when they wanted to do so at any

time, by instinct alone. Either animal as a matter of fact, should

they become separated for any reason, ought to be able to find its

mate. Birds seem to have no difficulty in doing so. A tiger also

when on the prowl moves along through the jungle at a long steady

swinging silent walk for hours on end uttering roar after roar just

as the spirit moves him. I have on two occasions in the cold

weather caught the male and female busily engaged in coitu and

the row they made could be heard a long way off. On these occa-

sions the animals have terrific scraps and kick up a devil of a

noise as does the ordinary household cat. I was fortunate enough

on one of these occasions in the Tavoy District to be able to shoot

the male, the other animal bolting at once. I have on several

occasions doubled after a solitary tiger that was on the move,

roaring steadily at intervals, in the hope that I might be able to

come up with and shoot the animal before the roars ceased, with-

out however any success. Sometimes it seemed to me that I was

no nearer the animal than when I started, as the roars although

seeming to be quite close were much further away than I thought.

The vision and hearing of a tiger in my opinion is infinitely

superior to his sense of smell which it seems to me is practically

negligible and not to be compared with that possessed by a rhino-

ceros, elephant, bison, or tapir.

One evening about 5 p.m. a tigress passed along a game track

on the top of the Yoma hills within about ten paces of where I

was seated on a rock smoking a cigarette armed with only a shot

gun. My camp was only distant about 250 yards. I had the

shock of my life of course, but had sufficient presence of mind to

remain absolutely still till she disappeared from view. If however,

the wind is right a tiger is quite capable of scenting a human

being or indeed any other animal.

I was once seated on a low machan about 10 ft. from the

ground in some open fields waiting for a tiger to put in an appear-

ance at his kill or rather the remains of one, viz., half a hind leg

of a cow. It had little or no meat left on it and I had brought

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

597

from a neighbouring nullah, a distance of about 250 yards to a

position beside my tree as there were no suitable trees in its

vicinity on which to erect a machan. There was a full moon on

at the time. The tiger appeared at about 8 p.m. and was taking

a bee line through the fields at a quick walk for the nullah where

he had last left the cow’s leg when I suppose that from a distance

of about 50 yards he must have suddenly got a whiff of his

kill. He turned at once sharply at right angles, and took a straight

line for it without increasing his pace in the slightest. This ani-

mal gave me an easy shot as he sauntered, up to annex the leg

of the cow but I missed him most disgracefully and he turned a

back somersault into some neighbouring undergrowth and then

started ‘titting’ most vehemently at intervals.

The tiger in my opinion trusts more to his speed, noiseless

tread, hearing, eyesight and strength, than to anything else to

capture his quarry. When the ground is wet and, it is raining the

odour given off by a tiger, and indeed by almost all animals other

than human beings, except when the latter are perspiring, is

usually stronger then than at other times, and warns most animals

and assists them in keeping out of harm’s way. I was able after

years of experience, to distinguish, especially during the wet

weather, by the odour left on the grass, undergrowth, or bushes,

what animal had passed as each animal has his own pronounced

smell. There is for instance to begin with, no mistaking the odour

of all the cat tribe. There is almost no difference between the

odour left by a rhinoceros and an elephant. There is little or no

difference between that left by a pig, monkey or sambar. A bear

left little or no odour at all. The same remarks apply to a tapir.

I saw a tigress that I subsequently bagged stalk and kill a

doe sambar during the monsoons simply by making an exceed-

ingly rapid noiseless movement towards the deer on the crouch

the whole way until the psychological moment when it literally

flung itself upon its quarry with lightning rapidity, fastening its

jaws upon the sambar ’s throat and, neck and bringing it to the

ground with a crash. There was only one startled bell from the

sambar before the end came. One might almost say that the

attack was as sudden and as rapid as the swoop of a kestrel hawk

upon a pigeon or dove. The wind I also noticed was in favour

of the tiger. I was within 15 yards when the sambar was seized

and was lucky enough to be able to bag the tiger with one shot

through the head with a 500-bore cordite rifle whilst it was still

gripping the sambar by the throat. One paw of the tiger was

over the neck and back of the sambar whilst the other, the left

one, was underneath the neck, when I fired. Had I a cinecamera

with me at the time I might have been able to get some good

snapshots of the scene. The sambar was kicking spasmodically

for some seconds after the tiger was dead.

Tigers have a wholesome respect for bull bison and buffalo

and consequently prefer to hamstring them first thus disabling

them before delivering the couy-de-grace at the throat. I have

noticed on several occasions that the hind legs of bullocks had

been broken when they have been attacked by a tiger but have

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

not always been able to tell whether this had been done by the

force of the tiger’s weight on the body of the bullock and the stum-

bling gait of the latter when the tiger sprang upon and seized it,

as fang and claw marks were not always visible on the hind quar-

ters. There is no doubt however, that tigers as well as leopards

do not kill animals in a uniform manner. Their favourite method

in my opinion, and I have inspected many head of bullocks, buffa-

loes, mules and ponies that had been killed by tigers, is to kill

by seizing the head or throat of nearly every animal other than a

buffalo or a bison.

I do not think that the sense of smell of the leopard is any

greater than that of the tiger. He is certainly a far more wary

animal, and is quieter in his movements and more cunning in his

approach towards a kill. Under certain conditions both tigers and

leopards will visit a kill even though they may get a whiff of their

enemy — man, provided they don’t see him. In these hard times —

hard I mean for the Felidae — they are continually meeting the

genus Homo and his scent so often, that they are getting more

accustomed to it, and sometimes accordingly disregard it. This

applies more to the unsophisticated tiger or leopard, by which I

mean those animals that have never been fired at before. They

usually fear nothing and often just come on up to the kill regard-

less of the scent of a human being. The cunning tiger, i.e., the

animal that has been fired at, and hit, or missed many times,

often does not come near a kill after he has had his first meal of

it, and certainly rarely, if ever, comes up to a kill that has been

handled or moved to a more favourable position for the erection

of a ‘machan’. It really makes no difference to a tiger that has

never been shot at in Burma how much the kill has been handled

or even removed to a new position. He turns up just the same,

but I understand the reverse is more often the case in India. Is

this because there are fewer unsophisticated tigers in India than

in Burma and that the tigers in India are more harassed than

those in Burma?

Some tigers have been shot with a lamp placed over a kill to

light it and the tiger up. 90 per cent of tigers and leopards will

never go near a kill with a lamp over it. An electric contrivance

turned on after a tiger or leopard has arrived at the kill dazzles

the animal long enough to enable the sportsman to get in a shot.

Tigers and leopards are often dazzled and remain motionless on

a road at night and can be approached to within a few yards by

a car with its head lights full on. They are generally shot with

ease but this form of sport is hardly legitimate.

I personally have never shot either a tiger or a leopard from a

car or from a machan with an electric projector or contrivance.

I have stated before in this article 1 do not consider it more un-

sporting to use an electric contrivance or torch from a machan

when shooting at a tiger than if one was shooting at a tiger from

a machan by moonlight. In the first case, with a torch, or other

electric contrivance, one has a better chance of killing the animal

outright, whilst in the second case the animal is more likely to

get away wounded when fired at by moonlight.

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

599

I am afraid I cannot quite see eye to eye with what Mr.

Peacock says on page 170 of his excellent book ‘A Game book for

Burma and Adjoining Territories’ regarding the height he considers

‘machans’ should be from the ground and the distance the sports-

man should be seated on the machan from the kill. Thirty feet

he says should be the height of a machan. This it seems to me

is overdoing it a little. I never had a machan higher than 15 to

20 ft. at the very most from the ground. The machan from which

I sat up alone and shot the tiger in Myitkyina which killed the

Gurkha was only situated about 8 ft. from the ground and I

suppose about 7 or 8 yards from the kill. In this case I had to

be as low as possible to be able to see the kill as well as the tiger,

there being no moon whatsoever.

As stated before, if a tiger is going to wind a man on a machan

who is smoking a cigarette, he will do so just as easily as if the

man did not smoke at all. In other words if he is capable of

getting one scent he will get the other also. A sportsman may

have thfe luck to be winded by a tiger and he may not. If the

tiger is returning shall we say to his kill along a 100 ft. high ridge

which happens not to be very far from the machan, whilst the

sportsman’s scent happens to be blowing along this ridge from the

machan in the direction of the approaching tiger, the latter will

in all likelihood get the scent and be suspicious and not turn up

at the kill at all. It is all luck. There is no understanding the

ways of some tigers. Sportsmen have shot tigers from a pit dug

in the ground over and over again. I have had many disappoint-

ments sitting up for tigers that have never turned up whilst on

other occasions I have also had the most glorious luck. My want

of luck on those occasions where tigers ought to have turned up

and didn’t, was not due to any carelessness on my part or through

my not taking proper precautions. But I must confess that on

the successful as well on the unsuccessful occasions I invariably

smoked cigarettes when in the machan but never allowed the butts

to reach the ground. Life would not be worth living, I am afraid,

if one were to take all one’s pleasures too seriously and make

tiger shooting for instance from a machan at night an exact science

or a matter of life and death.

It is not perhaps generally known and this may perhaps be

the first time it has ever been reported viz., that tigers sometimes

roll playfully on any offal, filth, decayed substance or animal drop-

pings they may come across in their wanderings as do dogs,

especially in the early morning, after rain has fallen the night

before. This was brought to my notice very clearly on one occasion.

I was making my way through the jungle on foot alone one morning

early with the intention of visiting a clearing where the grass had

recently been burnt in the hope that I would find a very large

solitary bull tsaing whose tracks I had often come across. En

route when within about 25 yards of the ‘Kwin’, (Burmese for

clearing) I had to jump a small nullah. Just as I cleared it and

had landed on the other side I caught sight of a tiger out in the

open clearing rolling about on his back, from side to side, in a

most playful manner, with all four legs in the air, exactly as a

600 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

dog does when he rolls on something really smelly, the more smelly

the better. The thud of my feet, as I landed, unfortunately, dis-

turbed him for he sprang up and made off at a terrific pace after

uttering a single ‘whoof’. I went up to the spot and found that

the tiger had been rolling on fresh elephant droppings. My bag-

gage elephants had passed through the clearing the evening before

and rain had fallen the same night.

With regard to the subject of maneaters and as to how they

begin to get a liking for human flesh I would say that my ex-

perience has taught me that it may be due to several causes.

Tigers do not necessarily become maneaters because they are un-

able to pull down game through old age, or failing vision, or bad

hearing, although there is no doubt that cases of this sort do

occur from time to time, poor vision being as much responsible

as anything else. Tigers are more likely to go in for killing-

human beings when they have been crippled or disabled in some

manner, say, through a bullet wound or through a scrap with

another tiger, boar, or bison. The principal reason in my opinion

however why tigers become maneaters is because the tiger kills

a human being in mistake for a four-footed animal. He then finds

what an easy matter it is to kill the two-footed animal as com-

pared with the four-footed beast and sticks to the killing of human

beings. Tor instance I know of several cases in Burma where

Burman hunters have been carried off by tigers when they have

been crawling over the ground to stalk say a sambar, pig, or

barking deer. They in turn have been stalked and killed by a

tiger which in the first instance mistook them for four-footed ani-

mals. Had these tigers however, when stalking these hunters,

got a whiff of human scent, in all likelihood, they would have

made off at once and not continued the stalk. A tiger unless he

is a maneater is more afraid of a human being than he is of

anything else in the world. I know also of several cases in Burma

where villagers sitting alone in thickets in the jungle with a decoy

cock with the object of attracting and snaring jungle fowl have

been carried off by prowling tigers. They have mistaken the soli-

tary watchmen with their decoy cocks, for four-footed animals.

The difference in the tenderness or flavour of1- the meat of a human

being as compared with that of a four-footed animal has nothing

whatsoever to do with it. A maneater in due course if not

accounted for pretty soon terrorizes the neighbourhood and

becomes an adept at the game. Besides getting very wily and one

never can tell where or at what hour he will next turn up and carry

of a victim, he becomes bolder and bolder after every kill.

I was fortunate in being able to kill a maneating tiger in the

Thayetmyo District of Lower Burma many years ago. He had

accounted for several villagers. He used to frequent a certain

cart track in the jungle some miles from any village and then

walk up to and grab hold of any one that came along. At other

times he would be heard of along another cart track some miles

away in a different part of the district. When I thought it was

the turn of the first cart road to get another visit I began to walk

up and down it for several miles alone backwards and forwards

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

601

between the hours of 4 and 6-30 p.m. I was armed with a double

• 500-bore rifle. I hadf been perambulating along the road for three

successive days when on the fourth day he trotted out of the jungle

on the road in front of me some 70 to 80 yards away. I stepped

behind a tree and waited for him to come up feeling far from happy.

On catching sight of me in the distance he gave a couple of low

grunts and began to trot towards me slowly down the track. 1

waited till he got within! about five paces and was then fortunately

able to brain him with one shot through the right ear making him

turn a complete somersault. He was found to be a heavy male

9 ft. long in splendid condition with a beautiful coat.

Tigers are also sometimes driven to killing human beings owing

to the scarcity of game and absence of village cattle.

The habit tigers, as well as leopards, have of easing themselves

on a bare patch of ground which they have scraped clear is exactly

the same as that of an ordinary household cat. There is no differ-

ence at all. The operation is sometimes accompanied by a faint

‘miaow’, whine, or grunt in the case of all three animals. I saw

from a machan in which I was seated a tiger relieve himself

within a yard or two of his kill in broad daylight in the Myitkyina

District. This tiger was shot by me at the same moment through

the head, the time being about 4-30 p.m. The animal gets into a

peculiar cramped crouching attitude as if about to become para-

lized in the hind quarters, the two hind feet moving backwards

and forwards, the tail twitching at the same time with peculiar

spasmodic jerks. I saw and bagged a black' leopard which was

performing the same operation, in exactly the same manner as a

tiger along a jungle path a few yarcls in front of me before I

shot it. I raked him with a soft-nosed ‘303 bullet which entered

the spine at the root of the tail and broke up in his chest killing

him practically on the spot.

In order to see whether there was any difference between the

methods of a cat, tiger, and leopard I watched a black cat of mine

ease itself on numerous occasions and came to the conclusion that

all three animals behaved more or less in a similar manner when

easing themselves. There isn’t a more cleanly animal in the world,

so far as outward appearances are concerned than the household

cat. Although its fur is full of millions of germs, it has as

perfectly groomed a coat as any leopard or tiger, except that the

two last-named have numerous ticks on them which the first-named

seldom if ever has. Because of this incessant use of the tongue

and saliva upon the coats of all three of these animals they are

rarely attacked by any skin disease. You will see many dogs with

skin-disease wild as well as tame and also jackals for I have shot

wild dogs suffering from skin-disease, but rarely if ever any of

the cat tribe owing to this method of cleansing the coat with the

tongue and saliva. As a matter of fact any one that handles a

cat’s fur at all should wash his or her hands at once afterwards

before smoking or eating food as there is no knowing what dis-

eases are communicated through handling their fur. I expect the

same remarks apply to the fur of the Felidae but not to the same

extent.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

All the Felidae will eat putrid meat when they are hungry

and they all clean and sharpen their claws on trunks of trees.

A tiger has no cut and dried method^ of finding his prey when

he is hungry but there is no doubt that he often visits salt-licks

at night in the hope of seizing a sambar, bison calf, or perhaps

a barking deer. Pigs do not usually visit a salt-lick as they do

not eat the saline earth or partake of the waters as clo all rumi-

nants. The only animals that visit salt-licks in Burma are the

deer tribe, elephant, tapir, rhinoceros and all the bovines such as

gaur and tsaing. I have, however, seen jungle fowl, peafowl,

imperial, as well as green pigeon, and also the Gibbons sip at the

waters of a salt-lick. There is some mysterious fascination about

a salt-lick that seems to attract all kinds of animals and birds to

it, whether they do or do not partake of the waters or salty- earth

there, for I have often found all sorts of birds there including horn-

bills and heard a regular twittering and chattering going on.

I remember one evening about 6 p.m. in the Myitkyina Dis-

trict visiting a jheel where I was tolcl we might find a good sambar

stag towards sunset -feeding on the young grass growing on the

edge of the water. We were walking slowly round the jheel which

was only about 200 yards in length by about 150 yards wide when

a flock of cotton teal got up with a splash and went off into space

with a whirr. Almost immediately after I caught sight of a tiger

running up out of the jungle towards the edge of the jheel on the

side opposite to that on which I was standing with its head up

in an expectant attitude. He was off like a flash however when

he caught sight of me and my hunter, and unfortunately, I was

unable to draw a bead on him. There was no doubt that this tiger

was questing for food and was on the watch at the jheel and knew

right well that the teal had been disturbed by some animal which

he came out with the intention of bagging.

A tiger seems to wander aimlessly about at night along path-

ways, forest firelines, the beds of streams, cart tracks or even

public high roads for miles at a time. He may or may not be

questing for food. It just depends when he last had a meal. Any

way he wanders long distances during the night and does not neces-

sarily return the same night but lies up in the thickest, coolest,

and darkest place he can find where he is not likely to be molest-

ed till dark when his peregrinations begin again. Should he come

upon anything to kill on these occasions he does so and has a

meal, but he does not seem to me to put himself about a great

deal to obtain it. It is only when he finds game is scarce and

gets very hungry that he begins stalking and killing village cattle.

A tiger it seems to me can carry on for at least a week if not

more without having a meal. Tigers do not like the damp at all

and they invariably move into the hills if there are any in the

vicinity in preference to living in flat country when the rains are

on. In Burma, at any rate, tigers that come down from hilly

country to kill cattle or find game, invariably go back into the

hills towards the beginning or middle of July. This applies to

bison as well.

Tigers seem to be extremely fond of pork for they will follow

TIGER SHOOTING IN BURMA

603

a sounder of pigs for days together and make several kills one

after the other, and there is no doubt that the tiger that once

starts killing pigs will stick to pork as long as he can, even though

it should be village pork. A tiger, as indeed a leopard, rarely

bounds or gallops after any animal he has missed in his first

spring. If he does not succeed in seizing his prey in the first

two or three bounds he usually relinquishes it. He loves a bath

as much as any other animal when the weather is warm and his

stomach is full of meat and is often found immersed in a stream

up to his neck. As is well known he is a powerful swimmer. I

was once coming down the Lemro River in Arakan in a dug out

spinning for mahsir with a spoon about 10 a.m. one morning when

I was suddenly startled by hearing something rise out of a pool

of water amongst some rocks to my right some ten to fifteen paces

off. Presently a tiger rose out of the water and trotted slowly up

the bank out of sight into the jungle before 1 could pick up and

use a -355 Manlicher rifle that I had in the boat at the time.

We were going down rather a rapid run at the time and the dug out

was wobbling about a bit, whilst I was expecting to get into a

good Mahsir at any moment. The rapid and the pool at the end

of it was a particularly famous one for big fish I having caught in

it not many days before, a 48| pounder.

I once came face to face to within about 4 yards of a tiger.

I was hurrying along back to camp at dusk with only a walking

stick in my hands as camp was within 300 yards. All the animal

did was to give a snarl and a ‘whoof’ as he sprang back off the

track into the jungle where I heard him bounding away through

the undergrowth for the first 25 or 30 yards when all sounds ceased.

There might have been a very different story to tell had it been

a tigress with cubs.

With regard to the colouration of tigers and leopards I have

shot tigers in heavy ever-green jungle as well as in scrubby light

jungle and I do not think there was much if any difference in

the coats or colouration of the animals. There is no doubt how-

ever that the hill leopard that inhabits dense ever-green clad hills

and forests usually possesses a magnificent dark coat with very

fine dark-coloured clearly defined rosettes as compared with his

brother of the plains. A tiger or leopard shot in any place where

frost or a good cold weather is experienced usually possesses a

better coat from December to the middle of February than during

the rest of the year. I have also noticed that tigers which in-

habit very steep hilly country are not as a rule as large as those

animals found in low-lying dense ever-green tree forests.

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN.

BY

The Late E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s. and J. Fernandez.

Part V.

( Continued from page 424 of this volume ).

ROSACEAE1

2,000 species. — Cosmopolitan.

Prunu s (Tourn . ) L .

85 species. — N. temperate; a few tropical.

Prunus communis Hudson FI. Angl. ed. 2, i, 212.

Vernacular name : Plum, Prune, Sloe, Damson; Alicha (Waziri).

Locality : N.W. : Boya, 4,000 ft., cultivated (F. 898 !).

S.W. : Wana, 4,500 ft., cultivated (F. 3580 ! 3612 ! 3663 ! 3665 !

3670 ! 3671 !).

Distribution: Indigenous in Europe and W. Asia. Cultivated in Balu-

chistan, Afghanistan, Punjab, and the N.-W. Himalaya.

Prunus leucophylla Blatter in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. ix (1930) 206.

Vernacular name: Mamumiae (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Boya, on hills, 4,000 ft. (F. 424 ! 425 !). — Bazani,

5,000 ft. (F. 2751 !).

Young fruit in April.

Uses : Fruit eaten.

Prunus eburnea Aitch. in Journ. Linn. Soc. xviii (1880) 50.

Locality: N.W.: Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15625 !).

Flowers: 19-5-1895 (Shakai).

Distribution: Afghanistan, Persia.

Prunus Padus L. Sp. PI. 473; Stewart Punj. PI. (1869) Bosac. 83; Aitchis.

FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 51; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911) 280. — P. cornuta

Wall. Cat. (1828) no. 716; Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 205.

Vernacular name: Bird Cherry.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Hay !, J. Williams 7806 !).

Distribution: Kuram Valley, Trans-Indus, Himalaya, Hazara to Sikkim,

4,000-10,000 ft. (Brandis).

Prunus Amygdalus Stokes Bot. Mat. Med. iii, 101.

Vernacular name: The Almond tree; Badam (Waziri).

Locality: S. W. : Wana, 4,500 ft., cultivated (F. 3587 ! 3659 !).— Near

Bazmak (Stewart).

Distribution: Indigenous in W. Asia and the Kuram Valley. Cultivated

in the Mediterranean region, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Punjab, Kash-

mir.

Prunus persica Stokes Bot. Mat. Med. iii (1812) 100.

Vernacular name: The Peach; Shavtalai, Shevtali, Perai kalkundie

(Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Boya, 4,000 ft. (F. 896 ! 1365 ! 1376 ! 1377 !).—

Miram Shah, 3,000 ft., cultivated (F. 1073 ! 1088 ! 1090 !). — Bazani,

5,000 ft. (F. 2102 ! 2103 ! 2106 ! 2107 ! 2108 ! 2109 ! 2759 ! 2825 ? 2840 f

2884 !).

This order should be inserted after the Leguminosae.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE IX.

18. Capparis decidua Edgew. on precipitous left bank of Yolam River near

Shewa Post.

19. From bank of Kuram River up the river due North. In bed Tamarix. In

the middle distance Shewa Village with Mulberry trees.

Photos by J. Fernandez.

20. Out-crops in a vast plain W. of Spinwam Fort.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE X.

21. Eiver bed of Khunai. Old Olea cuspidata Wall, with Viscum album L.

Photos by J. Fernandez.

606

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

$.1F. : Wana, 4,500 ft., cultivated (F. 3633 ! 3666 ! 3668 !). — Above

Anai Gorge (Stewart). — Kaniguram, about 6,500 ft, (Stewart). — Between

Makin and Bazmak (Stewart).

Flowers : March.

Unripe fruit in June.

Distribution : Probably a native of China. Cultivated in N. India, in the

Himalaya up to 10,000 ft. , Baluchistan, W. Asia, Europe.

Primus armeniaca L. Sp. PI. i (1753) 474.

Vernacular name: Apricot; Mandata (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Miram Shah, 3,000 ft. (F. 1072 ! 1075 ! 1082 !

1083 !).— Boya, 4,000 ft., cultivated (F. 1344 ! 1345 ! 1346 ! 1368 ! 1369 !).—

Razani, 5,000 ft. (F. 2166 ! 2187 ! 2196 ! 2752 ! 2753 !).

S.W.: Wana, 4,500 ft., cultivated (F. 3604 ! 3613 ! 3669 !).— Near

Kaniguram, at 6,500 and 8,200 ft. (Stewart).

Young fruit in April.

Fruit : June.

Distribution: Perhaps indigenous in the Caucasus. Bailey thinks it is indi-

genous in Siberia (Dahuria, Manchuria) to China. Commonly cultivated in

Europe, W. and Central Asia, Baluchistan, N.-W. Himalaya, Tibet to

12,000 ft. and in the plains of Punjab.

Spiraea L.

50 species. — N. temperate regions.

Spiraea sorbifolla L. -Sp. PI. 490; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911) 283. — S. Lind-

leyana Wall. Cat. (1828) no. 703; Stewart Punj. PI. (1869) 88; Parker For.

FI. Punj. (1918) 212.

Vernacular name: Balanza (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Bazani, on stony slopes, 5,000 ft. (F. 2766 ! 2783 !

2841 ! 2842 ! 2845 ! 2859 ! 2869 ! 2871 ! 2887 ! 2889 ! 2891 ! 2905 I

2908 !). — Bazmak, growing on lower slopes, 6,500 ft. (F. 1626 ! 1632 !).

S.W. : Near Kaniguram, about 6,500 ft. (Stewart), also at 8,200 ft.

(Stewart).

Fruit of previous year found in April.

Distribution: Punjab, N.-W. Himalaya, 5,000-11,000 ft., Trans-Indus.

Spiraea brahuica Boiss. FI. Or. ii (1872) 690.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Duthie’s Collect. 15799 !).

Flowers : 15-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution : Baluchistan.

Bpjbus (Tourn.) L.

225 species. — Cosmopolitan, especially N. temperate regions.

Rubus fruticosus L. Sp. PI. (1753) 493; Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880)

52; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911) 286; Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 209.

Vernacular name: European Blackberry; Spangar (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Datta Khel, near village, 4,500 ft. (F. 1302 !).

S.W. : Above Anai Gorge, about 4,000 ft., hanging in masses from the

cliffs (Stewart). — Kaniguram, about 8,200 ft. (Stewart).

Flowers : May 1860.

Distribution: Europe, N. and W~. Asia, Afghanistan, Kuram Valley,

Hazara, Kashmir, Salt Range.

Rubus gracilis Boxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 39. — R. niveus Wall. Cat. (1828)

no. 734; Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 52 (var.) ; Parker For. FI. Punj.

(1918) 210.

Vernacular name: Spangair (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Bazani, near stream, 5,000 ft. (F. 2977 ! 2978 !).

S.W.: Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 1766 ! 1771 !).

Distribution: Kuram Valley, Trans-Indus, Outer Himalaya from Kashmir

to Bhutan, 6,000-12,000 ft., Manipur.

Rubus sp.

Locality: N.W.: Boya, on stony ground, 4,000 ft. (F. 1353 !).

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Fragaria (Tourn.) L.

46 species. — N. hemisphere, Chili.

Fragaria indica Andr. Bot. Bep. t. 479; Stewart Punj. PL (1869) 80;

Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 52.

Locality : S.W. : Barrarra Pass (Stewart).

Distribution : Afghanistan, Kuram Valley, temperate and subtropical Hima-

laya from the Punjab to Assam, Khasia Hills, Malay Islands, Japan, Corea,

Formosa.

Fragaria visca L. Sp. PI. 494; Stewart Punj. PI. (1869) 80; Aitchis. FI.

Kuram Valley (1880) 52.

Locality : N.W.: Bazani, 5,000 ft. (F. 2953 !). — Miram Shah, planted

(B. & F. 644 !).

S.W. : Near Kaniguram brook (Stewart); Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 1643 !

1657 ! 1683 ! 1688 ! 1692 ! 1701 ! 1706 ! 1733 ! 1751 ! 1878 ! 1879 !

1880 ! '2231 ! 2506 ! 3114 ! 3117 !). — Shuidar Peak near Bazmak, 10,980 ft.

(F. 2506 !). — Pre Ghal (Duthie’s Collect. 15612 !).

Flowers : May, 26-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution : Europe, Canaries, N. Africa, Afghanistan, Kuram Valley,

temperate Himalaya, N. temperate zone, Java.

POTENTILLA L.

300 species. — Nearly cosmopolitan, chiefly N. temperate and arctic regions.

Potentilla fragarioides L. Sp. PI. (1753) 496; Boiss. FI. Or. Suppl. (1880)

234; Burkill FI. PI. Baluch. (1909) 30; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FL

Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 34.

Vernacular name: Serai (Waziri).

Locality : N.W.: Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15698 !).

S.W.: Bazmak, 6,500 ft., common (F. 2030 ! 2270 ! 2295 ! 3074 !

3268 ! 3276 ! 3282 !).

Flowers : 30-4-1895 (Shakai) ; May.

Distribution : Kuram Valley, Baluchistan, temperate Himalaya, Turkestan,

E. Bussia, Siberia, China, Japan.

Potentilla sericea L. -Sp. PI. (1753) 495; Boiss. FI. Or. ii (1872) 709;

Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 53; Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. ii (1878) 354

( excl . syn. P. soongarica Bunge) ; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FI. Tur-

kest. pt. 3 (1909) 16; T. Wolf Monogr. Gattg. Potentilla p. 161, no. 58, in

Luerssen Biblioth. Bot.

Locality: S.W. : Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 1907 ! 1914 !).

Flowers : May.

Distribution: Caucasus, Afghanistan, Kuram Valley, W. alpine Himalaya

from Kashmir to Kumaon, Soongaria, N. China, N. America.

Potentilla reptans L. Sp. PI. (1753) 499; Boiss. FI. Or. ii (1872) 723:

Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 53; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FI.

Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 35; Blatter FI. Arab. pt. 2 (1921) 190.

Locality: S. TV. : Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 3188 ! 3198 !). — Kaniguram

(Duthie’s Collect. 15751 !).

Tank : Near Tank.

Flowers: 14-5-1895 (Kaniguram).

Distribution: Europe, N. Africa, Abyssinia, Persia, Turkestan, Afghanis-

tan, Kuram Valley, Siberia, N. China, Japan.

Potentilla supina L. Sp. PI. (1753) 497; Boiss. FI. Or. ii (1872) 725;

Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 53; Burkill FI. PI. Baluch. (1909) 30; Fedts-

chenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FI. Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 25.

Vernacular name: Yezhei (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 1583 ! 1584 ! 1600 ! 1621 !

1647 ! 1667 ! 2336 !).

S.W. : Zam (J. Williams 7810 !).

Tank: Near Tank (J. Williams 7809 !).

THE FLORA OF WAZlRISTAN

60?

Flowers : May (Bazmak) ; June (Zam) ; August (Tank).

Distribution : Cape, tropical Africa, N. Africa, Central and S. Europe,

Arabia, Mesopotamia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, warmer parts of

India.

Potentilla sp.

Locality: N.W.: Boya, along Toclii Biver, 4,000 ft. (E. 535 !).

Flowers : April.

Poterium L.

1 species. — Italy, E. Mediterranean.

Poterium sanguisorba L. Sp. PI. 994; Boiss. El. Or. ii (1872) 733; Aitchis.

El. Kuram Valley (1880) 54; Aitchis. Bot. Afgh. Del. Com. (1888) 62.

Locality: S.W.: 8 miles below Kaniguram village (Stewart).

Distribution: Europe, Caucasus, Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab, N. Asia.

Sanguisorba Bupp. ex L.

30 species. — N. temperate regions.

Sanguisorba sp.

Locality: S.W.: In the upper regions (Stewart).

Bosa Tourn. ex L.

150 species.— N. temperate and on tropical mountains.

Rosa Beggeriana Schrenk in Fisch. & Mey. Enum. (la) pi. nov. (1841) 73;

Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FI. Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 38. — R. Silverh-

jelmi Schrenk in Bull. Ac. St. Petersb. ii (1844) 195. — R. Lehmanniana Bunge

Beliq. Lehm. no. 468 in Mem. Sav. Etr. Petersb. xii (1851) 287. — R. anseri-

naefolia Boiss. Diagn. ser. i, 6, 51, El. Or. ii (1782) 677; Aitchis Bot. Afgh.

Del. Com. (1888) 63; Burkill FI. PI. Baluch. (1909) 30; Brandis Ind. Trees

(1911) 287.

Locality : Waziristan, 5,000 ft. (Stewart ex Hook. f.).

Distribution: Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kuram Valley.

Rosa Webbiana Wall. Cat. (1828) no. 683; Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley

(1880) 54; Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 218; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp.

FI. Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 38. — R. maracandica Bunge Beliq. Lehm. no. 467. —

R. elasmacantha Trautv. Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. (1868) 25.

Vernacular name: Perai sakharzie (Waziri).

Locality: S.W.: Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 2793 ! 2814 !). — Pre Ghal

(Duthie’s Collect. 15611 !).

Flowers: 16-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution: Turkestan, Kuram Valley, Baluchistan, Inner and N.-W.

Himalaya up to 13,500 ft.

Rosa sp.

Locality: S.JF. : Jandola, 2,200 ft., cultivated (F. 1527 I).

Neurada L.

1 species. — Mediterranean to Indian desert.

Neurada procumbens L. Sp. PI. (1753) 441.

Locality: Tank: Near Tank (Stewart).

Flowers: April 1860 (Tank).

Distribution: Sind, Baluchistan, Bajputana Desert, Punjab, Afghanistan,

Persia, Arabia.

Cydonia Tourn. ex Mill.

5 species. — Europe, N. Asia.

Cydonia oblonga Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. 8 (1768) no. 1; C. Iv. Schneider

Handb. Laubholzk. 654; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp. FI. Turkest. pt. i

(1909) 46. — C. cydonia Pers. Syn. ii (1807) 40. — C. vulgaris Pers. Syn. ii in

corriqend. ; Boiss. FI. Or. ii (1872) 656; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911) 289; Parker

For.' FI. Punj. (1918) 220.

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVlI

Vernacular name: The Quince; Behi (Waziri).

Locality : N.W.: Miram Sliah, cultivated, 3,000 ft. (F. 1084 ! 1093 !).

Yowig fruit : April.

Distribution: Probably wild in Persia and Turkestan. Cultivated in S.

Europe and in N.-W. India. ‘Barely if ever self-sown.’ — Parker.

Pyrus (Tourn.) L.

65 species. — N. temperate regions.

Pyrus communis L. Sp. PL (1753) 479.

Vernacular name: The Pear; Amrith (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Miram Shah, 3,000 ft., cultivated (F. 1071 ! 1074 !

1077 ! 1087 !).

Distribution: Indigenous in E. and Central Europe and W. Asia, culti-

vated in the N.-W. Himalaya, also in Baluchistan.

Pyrus inalus L. Sp. PI. (1753) 479.

Vernacular name: The Apple; Manna (Waziri).

Locality: N.W.: Miram Shah, 3,000 ft., cultivated (F. 1076 ! 1081 !). —

Boya, 4,000 ft. (F. 893 !).

S.W.: Wana, 4,500 ft. (F. 3537 ! 3588 ! 3635 ! 3667 !).— Bazmak,

6,500 ft. (F. 2847 !).

Distribution: Native of Europe and W. Asia, perhaps also of the N.-W.

Himalaya.

Pyrus parvifolia Blatter in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. ix (1930) 207.

Vernacular name: Sherva (Waziri).

Locality : N.W.: Bazani, 5,000 ft. (F. 2073 ! 2117 ! 2171 ! 2221 !

2931 !)'.

S.W.: Bazmak, 6,500 ft. (F. 1693 ! 2786 ! 2811 ! 3084 ! 3100 !

3189 ! 3312 ! 3344 ! 3346 !), Bazmak, open stony ground (F. 2689 ! 3345 !).

Flowers : April.

Uses : Fruit eaten.

Crataegus Tourn. ex L.

100 species. — N. temperate regions.

Crataegus sp.

Locality : SHF. : About Kaniguram (Stewart).

CoTONEASTER Bupp.

50 species. — N. temperate regions.

Cotoneaster microphylla Wall, in Lindl. Bot. Beg. (1827) t. 1113, va

buxifolia Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 228. — C. rotundifolia Wall. Cat. no.

663; Stewart Punj. PI. (1869) 79. — C. buxifolia Wall. Cat. no. 661; Hook. f.

FI. Brit. Ind. ii (1878) 387 ( partim ).

Locality : S. W. : On a wide shingly plateau at Tandachina (Stewart).

Distribution: Punjab, Garhwal, Ivumaon, Sikkim.

Cotoneaster integerrima Med. Ges. d. Bot. (1793) 85, var. a ; C. K. Schnei-

der 111. Handb. d. Laubholzk. 5, Lief. 748; Fedtschenko & Fedtschenko Consp.

FI. Turkest. pt. 3 (1909) 42; Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 227. — Mespilus

Cotoneaster L. Sp. PL (1753) 479 (partim). — M. Cotoneaster L. var. rubra

Ehrb. Beitr. iv (1789) 18. — Cotoneaster vulgaris Lindl. in Trans. Linn. Soc.

xiii (1821) 101; Stewart Punj. Pl. (1869) 80; Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880)

56; Burkill FI. Pl. Baluch. (1909) 32.

Locality: Waziristan (ex Brandis, ex Hook. f. , Stewart)..

Distribution: Europe, W. Asia, Turkestan, Kuram Valley, Baluchistan,

Punjab, Kashmir, Garhwal, W. Tibet.

Cotoneaster racemiflora K. Koch Dendr. i (1869) 170; C. K. Schneider 111.

Laubholzk. fasc. 5, 754; Fedtschenko Fedtschenko Consp. FI. Turkest.

pt. 3 (1909) 43. — R. racemiflora K. Koch. var. Kotschyi C. K. Schneider l.c-

754. — Mespilus racemiflora Desf. PL Hort. Paris ed. iii (1829) 409. — Cotoneaster

Fontanesii Spaeh Hist. Veg. ii (1834) 77. — C. Fontanesii var. songorica Bgl.

Act. Hort. Petrop. ii, 313. — C. nummularia Fisch. & Mey. Ind. Sem. Hort.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE XI.

22. Erom a hill S. of Eazani due S.W. mostly Quercus forest with Olea

cuspidata Wall. In the foreground a nala with tufts of grass, Olea

and Sophora.

23. Bank of Khaisora Biver with Olea cuspidata Wall, Monotheca huxifolia

Dene., Daphne oleoides Schreb, Acacia modesta Wall and clumps of grass.

Photos by J. Fernandez.

■mm

THE FLORA OF WAZIR1STAN

609

Petrop. ii (1835) 31; Aitchis. FI. Kuram Valley (1880) 56, Bot. Afgh. Del.

Com. (1888) 64; Burkill FI. PI. Baluch. (1909) 32; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911)

295; Parker For. FI. Punj. (1918) 228.

Vernacular name : Marmomae.

Locality: S.W.: Near Kaniguram, about 6,500 ft., common (Stewart). —

Pre Ghal (J. Williams 7813 !).

Tank (J. Williams 9213 !).

Distribution: W. Asia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Kuram Valley, Baluchis-

tan, Punjab, Kashmir, Himalaya, 6,000-10,000 ft., W. Tibet.

Cotoneaster baci Haris Wall, in Lindl. Bot. Beg. (1829) ad. t. 1229.

Locality : Waziristan (ex Hook. f. vol. 2, 384).

Distribution: Temperate Himalaya 4,000-8,000 ft., Murree and Kashmir to

Nepal, Salt Bange 1,500-2,500 ft.

UMBELLIFERAE1

2,700 species. — Cosmopolitan, chiefly N. temperate.

Vic ati a DC.

3 species. — Himalayas.

Vicatia coniifolia DC. Prod, iv (1830) 243.

Locality: S. W. : Pre Ghal (Hay).

Distribution : Himalayan region.

Bupleurum (Tourn.) L.

100 species. — Europe, Asia, Africa, N. America.

Bupleurum falcatum L. Sp. PI. 237. — B. marginatum Wall. Cat. 566/

Locality: S.W. : Kaniguram (Stewart). — Pre Ghal (Hay).

Distribution: Himalaya, from Kashmir to Bhutan, 3,000-12,000 ft., Khasia

Mts., Orient, Central Asia, -S. Europe.

Carum Bupp. ex L.

20 species. — Temperate and subtropical.

Carum Bulbocastanum (E.) G. Koch Umbell. 121, ex Ledeb. FI. Boss, ii,

249. — Bunium Bulbocastanum L. Sp. PI. (1753) 243.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15674).

Distribution: Kashmir 6,000-9,000 ft., Baluchistan, N. Asia, Europe,

N. Africa.

Helosciadium Koch.

Helosciadium nodiflorum (L.) Koch Umb. 26.

Locality: S'.W. : Wana, stony plain, marsh, 4,500 ft. (F. 3452 !);

Flowers: 16-6-27 (Wana).

Distribution: Central and S. Europe, N. Africa, Abyssinia, Orient.

Scandix Tourn. ex L.

12 species. — Europe, Mediterranean.

Scandix pecten Veneris L. var. breyirostris Boiss. FI. Or. ii, 915.

Locality: N.W.: Datta Khel village, 4,600 ft. (B. & F. 1490 ! 1506 !).

Flowers & Fruit: 17-4-30.

Distribution of var. : Mediterranean to Baluchistan and Afghanistan.

Prangos Lindl.

36 species. — Mediterranean, Central Asia.

Prangos pabularia Lindl. in Quart. Journ. Soc. xix (1825) 7.

Locality: S.W.: In the higher regions (Stewart).'

Distribution : Himalayan region.

This order should be inserted after the Ficoideae.

7

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVll

PSAMMOGETON EdgeW.

4 species. — W. Asia.

Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xx, 57.

Locality : S. W. : In the lower regions (Stewart).

Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15741)

Distribution : N.-W. India up to 3,000 ft., Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan,

Persia.

DIP5ACACEAE1

150 species. — Chiefly N. temperate regions, Old World, and tropical and

S. Africa.

Morina Tourn. ex L.

10 species.- — E. Europe, Asia.

Morina Coulteriana Royle 111. 245.

Locality: SHF. : Pre Ghal (Duthie’s Collect. 15603 !).

Flowers : 17-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution: Subalpine Himalaya 9,000-13,000 ft., from Kashmir to Garh-

wal, Kashgar.

Morina persica L. Sp. PI. 39. — M. W allichiana Royle 111. 245, t. 55, fig. 1.

Locality: S.W.: Near Kaniguram brook (Stewart).

Distribution: W. Himalaya 7,000-9,000 ft., from Kashmir to Kumaon,

Orient (from Persia to Greece).

Dipsacus L.

12 species. — Mediterranean, Europe, Africa.

Dipsacus inermis Wall, in Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. Carey & Wall, i, 367. .

Locality: 6MC. : Pre Ghal (Hay).

Distribution: Temperate Himalaya 6,000-12,000 ft., from Kashmir to

Bhutan.

Scabiosa (Tourn.) L.

60 species. — Europe, Mediterranean.

Scabiosa Candolliana Wall. Cat. 430.

Locality: N.W.: Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15623 1). —

Son Khel, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15760 !).

Flowers: 12-5-1895 (Son Khel); 19-5-1895 (Shakai).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Murree to Kumaon, 3,000-5,000 ft.,

Persian Baluchistan.

Scabiosa Olivieri Coult. Dips. 36, t. 2, fig. 10.

Locality: Tank: Near Tank (J. Williams !). — Shaur Hill near Tank

(J. Williams !).

Flowers & Fruit: 1-5-1891 (Tank).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Punjab, Afghanistan, Persia, Mesopotamia,

Arabia.

Succisa Neck.

4 species. — Mediterranean, Europe.

Succisa pratensis Moench. Meth. 489. — Scabiosa succisa L. Sp. PI. 142.

Locality: Near Kaniguram brook (Stewart).

Distribution: Caucasus, Mediterranean, Europe, Siberia.

BORAGINACEAE2

1,800 species. — Tropical and temperate regions, especially Mediterranean.

EhretiA L.

40 species. — Tropical, chiefly Old World.

1 This order should be inserted after the V alerianaceae .

2 ^his order should be inserted after the Gentianaceae.

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

611

Ehretita aspera Willd. Phyt. 4, t. 2, fig. 1; Roxb. Corom. PI. t. 55. —

E. laevis Roxb. var. aspera C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. iv, 142.

Locality : N.W.: Dwa Warkha (Stewart).

Flowers : May 1860.

Distribution: Punjab, W. Peninsula, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Abyssinia.

Heliotropium (Tourn.) L.

220 species. — -Tropical and temperate regions.

Heliotropium Eichwaldi Steud. Nom. ed. 2; Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 131.

Vernacular name: Nil buti (Williams).

Locality: N.W.: Dwa Warkha (Stewart).

Tank: (J. Williams 7174 !).

Flowers: 4-5-1888 (Tank).

Distribution: Punjab, Kashmir, Rajputana Desert, Sind, Baluchistan,

Orient, Central Asia, Australia.

Heliotropium undulatum Vahl 'Symb. Bot. i (1790) 13.— H. ramosissimum DC.

Prod, ix, 536.

Vernacular name: Juthe musag (Williams).

Locality: N.W.: Razani (Stewart).

Tank: (J. Williams 7173 ! 7876 !).

Flowers: 9-5-1888 (Tank).

Fruit: 9-5-1888; 6-6-1888 (Tank).

Distribution: Tropical Asia, Orient, Mediterranean.

Heliotropium strigosum Willd. var. brevifolia C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. iv, 151.

Locality: N.W.: Razani (Stewart).

Tank: (J. Williams 7878 !).

Flowers: 25-6-1888 (Tank).

Distribution: Throughout India, Orient, Malaya, Australia.

Heliotropium cabulicum Bunge in Bull. Soe. Nat. Mosc. xlii (1869) i, 328.

Locality : Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect 15800 !).

Distribution : Afghanistan.

Heterocaryum A. DC.

Heterocaryum echinophorum (Pallas) Brand in Engler’s Pflanzenr. iv, 252

(1931) 95, var. minimum (Lehm.) Brand, l.c. — Echinospermum minimiim

Lehm. PI. Asperifol. (1818) 126, n. 97 ; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. iv

(1883) 162.

Locality: N.W.: Near Datta Khel village, 4,600 ft. (B. & F. 1428 !).

Flowers & Fruit: 17-4-30 (Datta Khel).

Distribution: Punjab, Baluchistan, Afghanistan to Asia Minor, S. Russia,

Soongaria.

Rochelia Reiclrb.

12 species. — Mediterranean to Australia.

Rochelia disperma (L.) Wettst. in Stapf Bot. Ergeb. Poluk’s Reise (1885)

31. — Lithospermum dispermum L. Dec. pi. rar. hort. Upsal. t. 7 ; Sp. PL

(1762) 191. — R. stellulata Rchb. PL Crit. ii (1823) t. 122; Rchb. in Flora (1824)

243. — R. Bungei Trautv. Contr. ad FI. Turcom. no. 163, in Acta Hort. Petr,

ix, 2, 462. — R. incana Kar. ct Kir. Enum. pi. alt. no. 605; Ledeb. FI. Ross,

iii, 176; Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 244.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15801 !).

S.W. : About Kaniguram (Stewart).

Flowers: September 1860 (Kaniguram).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Orient, Europe,

N. Africa, Soongaria.

Asperugo (Tourn.) L.

1 species. — Europe, Asia.

Asperugo procumbens L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 138 ; Ledeb. FL -Ross. - iii-, 165;

Boiss. Fl. Or. iv, 201.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Locality : N.W.: Dariawasti (B. & F.).

Flowers : April 1930 (Dariawasti).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Orient, Europe, N. Africa, Sibe-

ria, Altai Mts.

*Anchusa L.

45 species. — Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia.

*Anchusa italica Betz. Obs. i, 12.

Vernacular name : Alkanet.

Locality: S.W.: Razmak, in garden (B. & F. !).

Distribution : Mediterranean.

Lycopsis L.

3 species. — Europe, Asia.

Lycopsis arvensis L. Sp. PI. 139.

Locality: N.W.: Kliaisora (Stewart).

Distribution : Europe.

Nonnea Medic.

30 species. — Mediterranean.

Nonnea pulla Lam. et DC. FI. Fr. iii, 626, in note.

Locality: S.W.: About Kaniguram (Stewart).

Lithospermum (Tourn.) L.

50 species. — Temperate regions.

Lithospermum arvetise L. Sp. PI. 132.

Locality: S. W. : To Bazmak (Stewart).

Distribution: Europe, Orient.

Arnebia Forsk.

12 species. — Mediterranean, tropical Africa, Himalaya.

Arnebia Grifiithii Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 213. — A. echioides Hook. Bot. Mag. t.

4409.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15802 !).

$.W. : Palosina (Stewart).

Distribution: Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan, Afghanistan.

Note. — The flower has a very agreeable odour and a pretty yellow corolla,

with 5 dark purple spots on it, which pious Musulmans assert to be the

marks of Mahomed’s fingers. Hence they call it Paighambari phul (Prophet’s

flower), and hold it in high favour (Stewart).

Arnebia sp.

Locality: S.W.: (Duthie’s Collect. 15803 !).

Onosma L.

80 species. — Mediterranean, Himalayan.

Onosma echioides L. Sp. PI. (1753) 196; Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 181.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15804 ! 15805 ! 15806 !).

Distribution: Orient, Europe, Siberia, Altai Mts.

Onosma sp.

Locality: SHF. : About Palosina (Stewart).

SCROPHULAR I ACEAE1

2,600 species. — Cosmopolitan.

Verbascum Tourn. ex L.

210 species. — N. temperate regions of the Old World.

This order should be inserted after the Solanaceae.

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

613

Verbascum Thapsus L. Sp. PI. 177.

Locality : N.W.: Razani (Stewart).

<SHF. : Between Makin and Razmak (Stewart).

Flowers : April (Razani).

Distribution : Temperate Himalaya, 6,000-11,000 ft. from Kashmir to Bhutan

westwards to the Atlantic.

Linaria Tourn. ex Mill.

100 species. — N. hemisphere and S. America, chiefly extra-tropical.

Linaria bipartita Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. (1809) 640.

Locality : N.W.: Miram Shah Fort, in garden (B. & F. 524 !).

Flowers : 28-3-30.

Distribution: Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia.

Linaria cabulica Benth. in DC. Prodr. x, 270.

Locality: N.W.: Razani (Stewart).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Persia.

Linaria ramosissima Wall. PI. As. Rar. ii, 43, t. 153.

Locality: N.W.: ‘Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15692 !). —

Razani (Stewart).

Tank : (J. Williams 7185 !).

Flowers: 30-4-1895 (Shakai); 4-5-1888 (Tank).

Distribution: Throughout India, Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan, Afghanistan,

Burma, Ceylon.

ScHWEINFURTHIA A. Br.

3 species. — E. Africa to W. India.

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa A. Braun, in Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin

(1866) 875.

Locality: S.W.: Jandola (F. 4128 !).

Fruit : 29-5-27 (Jandola).

Distribution: Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan.

Scrophularia Tourn. ex L.

120 species. — N. temperate.

Scrophularia calycina Benth. Scroph. Ind. 18.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Duthie’s Collect. 15620 !).

Flowers: 17-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon; 6,000-12,000 ft.

Scrophularia scabiosaefolia Benth. in DC. Prod, x, 313.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15724 !).

Flowers : 26-4-1895.

Distribution: Punjab, W. Himalaya 10,000-12,000 ft., Afghanistan, Balu-

chistan.

Scrophularia cabulica Benth. in DC. Prodr. x, 316.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15724 !).

S.W. : In the upper regions (Stewart).

Flowers : September 1860.

Distribution : Afghanistan.

Scrophularia Iucida L. Sp. PI. 865.

Locality: S.W. : In the upper regions (Stewart; Duthie’s Collect. 15646).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 8,000-13,000 ft.

Afghanistan, westward to Italy.

Scrophularia sp.

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15619).

Herpestis Gaertn. f.

50 species. — Tropical and subtropical, chiefly American.

Herpestis Monniera H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. ii, 366.

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Locality: N.W. : Eazani (Stewart).

Tank (J. Williams 7184 !).

Flowers : 10-5-1888 (Tank) ; October 1860 (Eazani).

Distribution : All warm countries.

Wulfenia Jacq.

3 species. — E. Mediterranean, Himalaya.

Wulfenia amherstiana Benth. Scroph. Ind. 46.

Locality : N.W.: Alexandra Eidge, on shaded banks, 7,500-7,700 ft.,

scarce (Lieut. Abbott 10 !).

Flowers : 1-9-32.

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon 7,000-11,000 ft.,

Afghanistan.

Veronica (Tourn.) L.

250 species. — Extratropical, many alpine.

Veronica Beccabunga L. Sp. PI. (1753) 12.

Locality: S.W.: Kaniguram (Duthie’s Collect. 15744 !). — In a pool on

way to the Springs N. of Eazmak, 6,750-7,300 ft. (B. & E. 1771 !).

Flowers: 25-4-30 (Eazmak); 14-5-1895 (Kaniguram).

Distribution: W. Himalaya 9,000-12,000 ft., Afghanistan to Europe, N.

Africa, N. Asia to Japan.

Veronica anagallis L. Sp. PI. (1753) 12.

Locality: N.W. : Upper regions (Stewart). — Sliakai, 6,000-7,000 ft.

(Duthie’s Collect. 15647 !).

Tank (J. Williams 7183 !).

Floioers : 30-4-1895 (Shakai) ; 17-5-1888 (Tank).

Distribution: N.-W. India up to 15,000 ft., to Bhutan, Bengal, Assam,

Deccan, Asia, Europe, N. and S. Africa, N. America.

Veronica Peloponnesiaca Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 462.

Locality: N.W. : Near Datta Khel village, on sand in dry water-course,

4,600 ft. (B. & F. 1451 !).

Flowers & Fruit: 17-4-30 (Datta Khel).

Distribution : Asia Minor.

Veronica biloba L. Mant. ii, 172.

Vernacular name: Babarkiae (Waziri).

Locality: N.W. : Along irrigation channel near Datta Khel village,

4,600 ft. (B. & F. 1427 !).

-SHF. : 8 miles below Kaniguram valley, abundant in fields (Stewart).

Flowers: 17-4-30 (Datta Khel).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 5,000-15,000 ft.,

westward to Asia Minor, Soongaria.

Veronica agrestis L. Sp. PI. 13.

Locality: S. & N.W. (Stewart).

Distribution: Punjab, W. Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon up to

9,000 ft., Orient, Europe, N. and E. Asia to Japan, China, N. Africa.

Leptorhabdos Schrenk.

4 species. — Central and S. Asia.

Leptorhabdos Benthamiana Walp. Eep. Hi, 387.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Hay).

Distribution: Temperate W. Himalaya, Kashmir to Kumaon, 5,000-11,000

ft., Afghanistan, Persia.

Euphrasia L.

100 species. — Extratropical.

Euphrasia officinalis L. Sp. PI. 604.

Locality: #.TF. : Pre Ghal (Hay).

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

615

Distribution : Temperate Himalaya, 4,000-13,000 ft., Afghanistan, N. Persia

to Europe, N., Central and E. Asia, N. America.

Lagotis J. Gaertn.

10 species. — N. and Central Asia.

Lagotis stolonifera Maxim in Bull. Acad. Petersb. xxvii (1881) 525.

See note by 0. E. Schulz in Fedde Eepert. xxxi (1933) 161-162.

Locality : Waziristan, close to the British Frontier (Hook. f. FI. Brit.

Ind. iv, 558) collected by Stewart.

Distribution : Asia Minor, Armenia to N. Persia.

Lagotis Blatteri 0. E. Schulz in Fedde Eepert. xxxi (1933) 161, t. cxxxiv.

Vernacular name : Ambreshia (Waziri).

Locality: S.W.: Eazmak plain, forming dense patches on gravel and

sand, 6,750 ft. (B. & F. 47 ! 47b !).

Flowers : 20-3-30.

Distribution : Endemic.

LABIATAE1

3,000 species. — Cosmopolitan, chiefly Mediterranean region.

Plectranthus L’Herit.

110 species. — Palaeotropics, E. Asia.

Plectranthus rugosus Wall. PI. As. Ear. ii, 17.

Locality: SHF. : In the lower regions (Stewart).

Distribution : Himalayan region.

*Lavandula Tourn. ex L.

20 species. — Mediterranean to India.

*Lavandula Spica Cav. Desc. 69.

Vernacular name : Lavender.

Locality: S.W.: Eazmak, in garden (B. & F. !).

Distribution : Mediterranean region.

Mentha (Tourn.) L.

25 species. — Old World.

Mentha viridis L. Sp. PI. ed. ii, 804. — M. sylvestris L. var. viridis Boiss.

FI. Or. iv, 544.

Locality : Everywhere.

Distribution : Orient, Europe.

Mentha sylvestris L. var. Royleana Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. iv, 647.

Locality : Tank («T. Williams 7891 !).

Flowers: 29-5-1888 (Tank).

Mentha sylvestris L., var. incana Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. iv, 647.

Locality: S.W.: Near Kaniguram brook (Stewart).

Distribution of type: Temperate W. Himalaya, 4,000-12,000 ft., Afghan-

istan, Orient, Central Asia, temperate Europe.

Lycopus Tourn. ex L.

10 species. — N. temperate regions.

Lycopus europaeus L. Sp. PI. 21.

Locality: N.W.: Dwa Warkha (Stewart).

Distribution : W. Himalaya, 1,000-6,000 ft., Orient, Europe, N. and

Central Asia.

This order should be inserted after the Verbenaceae.

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Thymus Tourn. ex L.

33 species.- — N. Old World.

Thymus syriacus Boiss. Diagn. ser. 1, xii, 47 ; FI. Or. iv, 659. — T. lanceo-

latus var. angustifolius Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii, 203.

Locality: S.W.: On top of Shuidar, 10,990 ft. (F. 1519 1).

Flowers: 18-4-30 (Shuidar).

Distribution : -Syria.

Thymus serpyilum B. Sp. PI. 590.

Locality: S. W. : (Duthie’s Collect. 15616 !). — Near Kaniguram, about

6,500 ft. (ex Stewart). — Near Kaniguram brook (ex Stewart).

Distribution : Europe, Asia and N. Africa.

Ziziphora L.

12 species. — Mediterranean, Central Asia.

Ziziphora tenuior L. Sp. PI. (1753) 31; Ledeb. FI. Boss, iii, 370.

Vernacular name: Papar boti (Williams).

Locality: Waziristan (Duthie’s Collect. 15664 !).

Tank : Shaur Hill (J. Williams !).

Flowers: 21-5-1891 (Tank).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Orient, Asia Minor, Soongaria,

Altai.

Perovskia Karel.

4 species. — W. Asia.

Perovskia atriplicifolia Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii, 261.

V ernacular name : Sansobe.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (J. Williams 7901 !).

Flowers: 24-8-1888 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution : Baluchistan, Afghanistan.

Salvia (Tourn.) L.

550 species. — Tropical and temperate regions.

Salvia santolimefolia Boiss. Diagn. ser. 1, v, 13; FI. Or. iv, 632.

Locality: S.W.: Barwand (Duthie’s Collect. 15778 !).

Tank (J. Williams 7960 !).

Distribution: Sind, Afghanistan, Persia.

Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. Diagn. ser. 1, v, 11, var. Kotschyi Boiss. FI.

Or. iv, 615.

Locality: N.W.: Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15789 !).

Tank: ISTear Tank (J. Williams 7908 !).

Flowers: April; August.

Distribution of var. : Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Persia.

Salvia aegyptiaca L. Sp. PI. (1753) 23.

Vernacular name: Bang boti (-J. Williams); Paska ( J . Williams).

Locality: Tank: Near Tank (J. Williams !).— Shaur Hill, near Tank

(J. Williams !).

Flowers : May (Tank).

Distribution: Punjab, Afghanistan, Orient, N. Africa to the Cape Verde

Islands.

Salvia lanata Boxb. FI. Ind. i (1832) 146.

Locality: N.W.: Bazani (Stewart).

Distribution: W. temperate Himalaya, Kashmir to Kumaon, 5,000-8,000 ft.

Salvia glutinosa L. Sp. PI. 26.

Locality: S.W.: In the higher regions (Stewart).

Distribution: Temperate Himalaya, 6,000-9,000 ft.., from Kashmir to

Sikkim, Afghanistan, Orient, S. Europe.

Salvia asgyptiaca L. Sp. PI. (1753) 23, var. pumila Hook. f. in FI. Brit.

Ind. 4 (1885) 656— pumila Benth. Lab. 726.

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

617

Locality: N.W.: Dwa Warkha (Stewart).

Flowers: May 1860 (Dwa Warkha).

Distribution: Punjab Plains, W. Peninsula, Sind, Bajputana Desert, Balu-

chistan, Afghanistan. Type in Orient, N. Africa, Cape Verde Islands.

Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. Diagn. ser. 1, v, 11.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (J. Williams 7894 !).

Distribution : Persia.

Uses: Poultice for gangrene (J. Williams).

Nepeta Biv. ex L.

150 species. — N. hemisphere.

Nepeta spicata Benth. in Wall. PI. As. Bar. i, 64.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Hay, J. Williams 7898 !).

Flowers: 17-8-1885; September (Pre Ghal).

Distribution : W. temperate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 6, GOO-

12. 000 ft., Afghanistan.

Nepeta raphanorrhiza Benth. Lab. 734.

Locality: Waziristan (J. Williams 9173 !).

S.W.: Near Kaniguram (Stewart).

Distribution: W. temperate Himalaya, 5,000-12,000 ft., Afghanistan.

Nepeta distans Benth. in Hook. Bot. Misc. iii (1833) 378; Lab. 475. —

N: mollis Benth. Lab. 734.

Locality: S.W. (J. Williams 7909 !).

Flowers : 10-8-1888 (S.W.).

Distribution: W. Temperate Himalaya, 8,000-9,000 ft., Punjab Himalaya.

Nepeta juncea Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii, 379; Boiss. FI. Or. iv, 651.

Locality: N.W.: In bed of Khunai Biver below Bazani, 5,050 ft. (B. &

F. 1125 !).

S.W.: Barwand, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15642 !). — Wana,

4,500 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15670 !).

Flowers: 28-4-1895 (Barwand); 12-4-30 (Bazani); 5-5-1895 (Wana).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Afghanistan.

Lallemantia Fisch. & Mey.

4 species. — W. Asia.

Lallemantia Royleana Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii, 404.

Locality: N.W.: Bazani (Stewart).

SHF. : Kaniguram (Stewart). — Barwand, 4,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect.

15705 ! 15709 !).

Flowers : April 1895 (Barwand).

Distribution : Punjab, Afghanistan, Persia, Turkestan.

Scutellaria Biv. ex L.

200 species. — Cosmopolitan, except S. Africa.

Scutellaria linearis Benth. in Wall. PI. As. Bar. i, 66.

Locality: S.W. : Near Kaniguram, about 6,500 ft. (Stewart), near Kani-

guram brook (Stewart) .

Flowers: September 1860 (Kaniguram).

Distribution: Temperate W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 3,000-

8.000 ft., Afghanistan.

Scutellaria multicaulis Boiss. Diagn. n. ser. 1, vii, 61; FI. Or. iv, 685.

V ernacular name : Sandor boti.

Locality : Tank : Near Tank, Shaur Hill (T. Williams !).

Flowers : 1-5-9 (Tank).

Distribution: Afghanistan, Persia, Turkestan.

Scutellaria prostrata Benth. Lab. 733.

Locality: N.W.: Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15652 !).

S.W.: Pre Ghal (Duthie’s Collect. 15597 !).

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Flowers : 30-4-1895 (Shakai) ; 19-5-1895 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution : W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 8,000-14,000 ft.

Scutellaria sp.

Locality: S.W.: In the upper regions ('Stewart).

Stachys (Tourn.) L.

200 species. — Cosmopolitan except Australia.

Stachys parviflora Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii, 490.

Locality: S.W.: Wana, 4,000-5,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15657 !). — Pre

Ghal (J. Williams 7895 !).

Flowers: 5-8-1888 (Pre Ghal); 2-5-1895 (Wana).

Distribution: Punjab, Afghanistan.

Stachys floccosa Benth. Lab. 739.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (J. Williams 7903 !).

Flowers: 17-8-1888 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution: W. temperate Himalaya, 5,000-6,000 ft., Afghanistan.

Marrubium Tourn. ex L.

30 species. — Europe, N. Africa, temperate Asia.

Marrubium vulgare L. Sp. PI. (1753) 583.

Locality: N.W.: Bazmak (Stewart). — Shakai, 6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s

Collect. 15691 !).

S.W.: Wana, 4,500 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15655 !). — Pre Ghal

(J. Williams 7906 !).

Flowers: 30-4-1895 (Shakai); 2-5-1895 (Wana); 1-8-1888 (Pre Ghal).

Distribution: Baluchistan, Orient, Europe, N. and tropical Africa.

Moluccella L.

2 species. — Mediterranean

Moluccella otostegioides Prain in. Journ. As. Soc. Beng. lix (1891) ii, 311.

Locality: S'. W.: Wana, 4,500 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15788 !). — Shakai,

6,000-7,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15643 !).

Flowers: 30-4-1895 (Shakai); 8-5-1895 (Wana).

Distribution: India.

Leonurus L.

8 species. — Europe, Asia and tropical regions.

Leonurus sibiricus L. Sp. PI. 584.

Locality: S.W.: Pre Ghal (Hay).

Distribution: Siberia, China.

Phlomis L.

70 species. — N. palaeotemperate.

Phlomis Stewartii Hook. f. in El. Brit. Ind. iv, 692.

Vernacular name: Chambar-boti (Williams).

Locality: S.W.: Wana (Duthie’s Collect. 15633 ! 15677 !).

Tank: Near Shaur Hill (J. Williams !).

Flowers: 7-5-1895 (Wana); 21-5-1891 (Tank).

Distribution: Punjab, 'Salt Range, 2,500-4,500 ft.

Phlomis sp.

Locality: S.W.: In the higher regions (Stewart).

Eremostachys Bunge.

40 species. — Middle and W. Asia.

Eremostachys acanthocalyx Boiss. Diagn. 2, iv, 49. — E. lacimata Aitchis.

Cat. Punj. PI. & Scinde 118 ( non Bunge).

THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN

619

Locality : N.W.: Dwa Warkha (Stewart).

<S.KL: Above Palosina (Stewart).

Distribution: W. Punjab, Baluchistan, Afghanistan.

Teucrium (Tourn.) L.

100 species. — Cosmopolitan.

Teucrium Stocksianum Boiss. Diagn. ser. 2, iv, 58.

V ernacular name : Kastorai.

Locality : S. W.: Wana, 4,500 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15678 !). — Barwand

4,000 ft. (Duthie’s Collect. 15700 !).

Tank : Shaur Hill (J. Williams !).

Flowers: 17-4-1895 (Barwand); 7-5-1895 (Wana); 31-5-1891 (Tank).

Distribution : Baluchistan.

Ajuga L.

30 species. — Palaeotemperate.

Ajuga parviflora Benth. in Wall. PL As. Bar. i, 59.

Locality: Near Kaniguram, about 6,500 ft. (Stewart).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, 2,000-7,000 ft.,

Afghanistan.

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Cat. 2032.

Locality: N.W.: Shakai (Duthie’s Collect. 15649 !).

Flowers : 30-4-1895 (Shakai).

Distribution: W. Himalaya, from Kashmir to Nepal, 1,000-7,000 ft., Af-

ghanistan, Abyssinia, China, Japan.

[Certain Orders have been omitted, but these will appear when they have

been worked out by the specialist to whom they have been submitted].

THE INDIAN CADDIS-ELIES ( TRICHOPTERA )

BY

Martin E. Mosely, f.r.e.s.

Part II.

(With 8 text-figures).

( Continued from p. 664 of volume xxxvi).

Classification.

In my last article I dealt with the life-history of the Caddis-flies

and the methods to be adopted for their collection and preserva-

tion. We have now to consider how to name the insects we may

have captured.

Fig. 1. — Head of Anabolia laevis McL. —

oc, ocellus; ant, antenna; ocu, oculus; mxp, maxillary palpus; gal, galea;

Ibp, labial palpus. — after Packard.

Before attempting this task, it is necessary that we should have

a certain amount of knowledge as to the structures of the head

particularly the mouth-parts, the neuration of the wings, the form

and construction of the genitalia, etc.

Parts of importance to be recognised in the head are the ocelli

or simple eyes, three in number when present, the form of the

THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES

621

basal joints of the antennae and above all, the structure of the

maxillary palpi.

I have already pointed out that one of the main differences be-

tween the Trichoptera and the Lepidoptera is to be found in the

form of two processes of the mouth known as the galea and that

-Fig. 2. — Head of a Lepidopteron, lettering as in figure 1.

in the latter Order, these processes are enormously produced and

form the long sucking proboscis. I will therefore call the atten-

tion of my readers to the galea (gal.) indicated in figs. 1 and 2

which are diagrammatic representations of the heads of a Tricliop-

teron and a Lepidopteron respectively. Other parts of importance

are indicated in the legends accompanjdng the figures.

With regard to the wing neuration 1 am adopting the nomen-

clature used by Ulmer in the Genera Insector um. , based on the

Comstock and Needham notation rather than that of McLachlan, as

Ulmer’s work has a more general application than McLachlan ’s

Monograph of purely European species;

Many of the genera have been erected on characters of neuration

so that it is extremely important for the student to make himself

thoroughly conversant with the general pattern and the names of

the various cells and nervures. They will be referred to again

and again and a little time spent in mastering them will be amply

repaid when the practical work is taken in hand.

I give here the figure of the wings of a Hydropsyche species in

which the neuration is practically complete.

The nervure forming the anterior margin of the wing is termed

the costa (C); beneath this is the sub -costa (Sc) which sometimes

continues parallel with the costa almost for its entire length but

generally joins it before the extreme apex of the wing; the sub-

costa is usually connected to the costa by one or more cross-veins,

rarely more than two. Arising near the base of the sub -costa is a

vein which soon forks in two branches; the upper. of these branches

is the radius (E) and the lower, the radial-sector (Es). The radius

generally flows directly into the costa; in Hydropsyche and many

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVll

other genera, the radial-sector is forked and each branch of the

fork is itself forked thus forming apical forks 1 and 2. There is

frequently a cross-vein uniting the two branches beyond the first

furcation and this encloses a space known as the discoidal cell (dc).

Below the radial sector, proceeding from the base of the wing, we

Z

3

5

2

Fig. 3. — Wings of Hydropsyche species. — •

C, costa; Sc, sub-costa; ptr, pterostigma; R, radius; Rs, radial-sector;

dc, discoidal cell; M, media; me, median cell; Cu, cubitus; ct, cellular

thyridii; Alf A2, d3, anal veins; 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 apical forks.

find another nervure which forks almost immediately to make the

media (M) the upper, and the cubitus (Cu) the lower of the two

branches. Following the course of the media, we find that it again

branches and each branch terminates in a fork, the upper being' the

apical fork 3 and the lower, apical fork 4. Here again we find a

cross-vein close to the first furcation of the media enclosing what

is known as the median cell (me); the media is generally united to

the radial-sector by a cross-vein. Tracing the cubitus, we find

that it forks before meeting the margin of the wing to make apical

fork 5. In the anterior wing, there is a cross-vein uniting the

media to the cubitus in the region of the median cell and this en-

closes an area known as the cellular thyridii (ct). The remaining

veins are called anal veins (Aj, A2, A3) and sometimes anal vein 2

is seen to run parallel with the basal margin of the wing when

it is known also as the post-costa.

In the posterior wing, almost invariably we find the lower

fork of the media unbranched at the margin of the wing so that

fork 4 is wanting. The only known exception to this is found

in the genus Helicopsuche.

Some allusion will be made to the apical sectors. These are

the nervures meeting the apical margin of the wing between the

upper nervure of fork 1 (when present) and the lower nervure

of fork 5 inclusive.

?HE INDIAN CADDIS-FLlfiS

623

If we consider the spaces between the nervures, we find, begin-

ning with fork 1 , ten cells towards the margin in the anterior

and eight in the posterior wing. A dark spot may be observed at

the base of fork 2 in each wing. A small area of the membrane

at the costal margin between the termination of the sub -costa and

the radius is frequently different in texture to the rest of the wing

and perhaps darker in colour. This is termed the ptcrostigma (ptr.).

These are the main features that we have to consider. We

shall find that in most of the genera some modification of this

neuration has taken place and the apical forks, which are of ex-

treme importance in the classification, are frequently reduced and

sometimes rather hard to recognise, giving cause unfortunately to

much theorising amongst various authors.

We have now to consider the abdomen with the all-important

structures of the genitalia. In the Triclioptera there are nine seg-

ments. Dorsally, eight may easily be defined. The first, i.e. the

one nearest the thorax, is somewhat in the form of a plate and

when the abdomen is detached this plate is seen to have no corre-

Fig. 4. — -Diagrammatic genitalia of a Trichopteron.

ter, tergite; dp, dorsal plate; sup. app., superior appendage;

int. app., intermediate appendage; inf. app., inferior appendage;

p., penis; sp., side-piece; vpl., ventral plate; ster., sternite;

pi., pleurite; vpr., ventral process.

sponding ventral segment beneath it. If there is such a segment

it is so reduced as to be practically non-existing. We must there-

fore call the first visible ventral segment No. 2 in order that it

may correspond with its dorsal fellow.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVil

The second to the eighth segments inclusive are formed of

chitinous plates, the dorsal often rather more strongly chitinised

than the ventral and generally darker in colour. These plates are

joined at the sides, dorsal to ventral, by thin membranes. The

dorsal segments are termed tergites (ter.), the ventral, sternites

(ster.), and the thin lateral membranes, pleurites (pi.).

The ninth segment is generally partly withdrawn into the eighth

and is constructed after a different fashion. Instead of dorsal and

ventral plates joined by lateral membranes, we find a strongly

chitinised hoop or ring without any lateral divisions. To this seg-

ment are attached the parts of the genitalia which, by their

variations, give the main characters for the separation of the

species.

I give here a diagrammatic figure of the genitalia of an imaginary

caddis-fly which is supposed to be equipped with all the parts which

compose these structures, a condition which probably does not occur

in any individual fly.

Projecting from the centre of the dorsal margin we may have

a dorsal plate (dp.) On each side of this and from a little below

it there arises a pair of superior appendages (sup. app.), sometimes

long and slender, sometimes very short. Below these and still to-

wards the upper half of the segment is a pair of intermediate ap-

pendages (int. app.) of varying shape. Then, towards the Centre

of the segment, we find the penis (p.) with its upper (upc.) and

lower (lpc) penis-covers and sheaths (psh), all attached together

towards the base of the penis.. I am giving a separate outline of

these processes in order to avoid confusion in the figure. The

lateral margins of the ninth segment are sometimes produced in

what are known as side pieces (sp.). Beneath the penis and aris-

ing from the lower half of the segment, we nearly always find a pair

Fig. 5. — Penis and its processes. — -

upc, upper penis-cover; p., penis; psh., penis-sheath; lpc.,; lower penis-cover.

of inferior appendages (inf. app.), frequently two-jointed. Some-

times the lower margin of the segment is produced at its centre in

the same way as the upper, to form a ventral plate (vpl.). There

THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES

625

is frequently a spur, sometimes more than one, termed a ventral

process (vpr.) arising from the centre of the margin of one or

more of the terminal ventral segments.

It generally happens that some of the above parts are missing

and it is difficult sometimes to homologise the processes we do

find with this diagrammatic conception of a complete genitalia.

It follows, therefore, that in describing new species, it is of the

utmost importance to give full figures of these parts rather than

to depend on a verbal description which may not invariably be

interpreted as intended by the author.

Now as to the legs, these are long and slender, often with the

tibiae and tarsi of the median legs dilated in the female sex, some-

times in both, and carrying not only numerous short spines but

spurs as well though these may be absent in one or other of the

legs, never in -all three. These spurs are of considerable impor-

tance in classification and at one time were considered to furnish

good and sufficient characters for the separation of the genera.

With a more advanced knowledge of the Order, the importance of

the spurs has been somewhat diminished as a generic character so

that we may find species with varying spur-formulae placed in

the same genus. When we talk of the spurs being let us sav

3, 4, 4 or 0, 2, 3, we mean that the anterior leg carries 3 or 0

spurs, the median 4 or 2 and the |>osterior 4 or 3. As the spurs

are apt to meet with accidents and get rubbed off, we must not

attach undue importance to their presence or absence. Generally,

though, a socket can be made out where a spur has been lost.

Spurs are usually longer and paler in colour than the spines.

Finally we occasionally find some modification of structure in

various parts which may furnish a clue to the identity of a capture.

In the head there are sometimes specialised structures such as

scent-organs. These may be situated at the back of the -head as

8

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

in Hydpoptila, or at the base of the antennae as in Triaenodella

or even in the maxillary palpi as in Sericostoma and Goera. Some-

times we find long filaments attached to the fourth ventral seg-

ment at the lateral margins as in Diplectron'ella and other genera.

Or we may find a fold or a callosity at the base of the anterior

wing as occurs in Glossosoma and Beraea. In Drusus and the allied

Fig. 7. — Median leg of 9 Glossosoma species.

genera, there is a long pencil of hairs situated in a fold towards

the base of the posterior wing. Sometimes the wings are clothed

with modified scales in addition to hairs ( Dinarthrum and its allies)

and in some species androconia, which are specialised scent-distri-

buting scales, are present on the wings or other parts ( Beraea ,

Pseudostenophylax, etc.). These modifications are nearly always

restricted to the male sex, though lateral filaments occur in both.

Every insect captured should be examined with the utmost cir-

cumspection and it is astonishing how many curious and interesting

characters of this nature will be found amongst the Trichoptera.

We will now consider the subject of Classification. A little his-

tory is called for here. Until Pictet published his renowned

Recherches sur Vhistoire des Phryganides in 1834, the condition

of this group of insects appears to have been chaotic. The Caddis-

flies were then considered as a Family in the Neuroptera. Pictet

brought some order out of this chaos, dividing them into eight

genera.

Kolenati, in 1848, carried the classification a stage further and

created two main groups or sub-divisions based on the relative

number of joints in the maxillary palpi in the two sexes. His first

sub-division, the Inaequipalpia, contains all the groups with species

in which the number of joints are unequal in the two sexes, fewer

in the male than in the female. In the second sub-division, the

Aequipalpia, are placed the groups whose species have an equal

number of joints in both sexes. This was indeed a great step for-

ward and his sub-divisions were retained both by McLaclilan in

his Monographic Revision and Syyiopsis of the Trichoptera of the

European Fauna 1884 and also by Ulmer in the fascicule of the

Genera Insectorum dealing with the Trichoptera 1907. It may be

that this broad sub-division is artificial and perhaps not in true

accord, with the relationship .of the various groups, now regarded as

families since the Trichoptera have been elevated to an Order. Other

THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES

627

Triclropterists, notably Mr. A. B. Martynov in bis Practical Ento-

mology published in Russian in 1924, have not accepted this group-

ing on the ground that it disregards more important natural affini-

ties. Possibly they may have reason. Nevertheless for the

student, Iiolenati’s division has the merit of extreme simplicity

whilst Martynov depends for the division of the Trichoptera into

his sub -orders the Annulipalpia and the Integripalpia partly on

the form and habits of the larvae which, in India at any rate are

practically unknown, and partly on structures in the adult insect,

some of which are very obscure. Moreover, the characters selected

a <$, a 9 Phryganeidae ; b , b 9 Limnophilidae ; c rf, c $ ( Lepido -

stoma)-, d <$ ( Micrasema ) Sericostomatidae ; e, Leptoceridae ; f and g,

enlarged figures of terminal joints of the max. palpi of /, Leptocerus

annulicornis and g, Leptocerus albifrons ; h, H y dropsy chidae ; i, Rhyaco-

philidae ; j, Hydroptilidae.

for the sub-orders are not invariably present in the Families they

contain. To give an instance, the larvae in the Annulipalpia are

supposed to be all of non-case making habits. Yet the sub-order

includes the Hydroptilidae and the Rhyacophilidae, the former all

making cases as far as is at present known and certainly some of

the latter such as Agapetus and its allied genera. Again, in the

628 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Integripalpia, the discoidal cell is given as being ‘rather long in

the forewing’. But the sub-order includes the Beraeidae and the

Molannidae in which the discoidal cell is entirely wanting and in

some of the Sericostomatidae, a family which is also included in

this sub -order, the discoidal cell is very short, Micrasema for in-

stance. Nevertheless, in spite of these objections his sub-orders are

very natural and, for the advanced student, no doubt practicable.

But, after due consideration I am convinced that, for the beginner

it is better to retain Kolenati’s old divisions and to follow the

system adopted by Ulmer in the Genera Insectorum. The main

thing with which we are here concerned is the correct determination

of the insects we may capture and, for this, the easier method is

undoubtedly the better even though it may be found wanting by

the ultra-scientific school.

Throughout the Trichoptera the joints of the maxillary palpi in

the female sex number five excepting in the genus Anisocentropus

where they number six and in a few genera in the Hydropsychidae

where they are completely wanting in both sexes.

The In aequipalpia contains the following families: —

1 Phryganeidae.

2 Limnophilidae.

3 Sericostomatidae.

For these, McLachlan gives the following characters : —

1. Maxillary palpi of the male four jointed, only slightly

pubescent, their form similar in both sexes. Phryganeidae Burm,

2. Maxillary palpi of the male three jointed, scarcely pubes-

cent, their form similar in both sexes. Limnophilidae Kol.

3. Maxillary palpi of the male two (?) or three jointed, ordi-

narily very pubescent or pilose and always formed in quite a

different manner from those of the female, varying very greatly

according to genus. Sericostomatidae McL.

The Aequipalpia contains the following families : —

4 Beraeidae.

5 Molannidae.

6 Oalamoceratidae.

7 Odontoceridae.

8 Leptoceridae.

9 Hydropsychidae.

10 Polycentropidae.

11 Psychomyidae.

12 Piiilopotamidae.

13 Bhyacophilidae.

14 Hydroptilidae.

As there are so many families in the Aequipalpia, I will give

here, for convenience, a modification of Ulmer’s table in the Genera

Insectorum, reserving the consideration of the family characters in

greater detail until later.

THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES

629

Aequipalpia.

Maxillary palpi five-jointed in both sexes excepting in some of

the Hydropsychidae genera in which they are entirely wanting in

both male and female and also in the genus Anisocentropus where,

in the female, the joints number six.

1. Insects very minute, very strongly pubescent; the wings

with numerous erect hairs, fringes very long, those of the posterior

wing longer than the greatest breadth of the wing; antennae short

and stout, shorter in the 9 than in the A , terminal joint of the

maxillary palpus simple. 14 Hydroptilidae Piet.

— Insects rarely small, generally medium sized or large, anterior

wings without thick erect hairs, or at the most such hairs are

thinly sprinkled; fringes of the posterior wing not as long as the

breadth of the wing; antennae as long as or longer than the anterior

wing, only very occasionally shorter. 2

2. Terminal joint of the maxillary palpi articulated (except in

Hyalopsychodes ), generally much longer than all the other joints

together. 3

— Terminal joint not articulated, sometimes flexible, only a

little, or not longer than the other joints together. 6

3. Ocelli present. 12 Philopotamidae Walleng.

— Ocelli absent. 4

4. Anterior tibiae generally with three spurs (in some species

of Ecnomus only two). 10 Polycentropidae Ulmer.

— Anterior tibiae with fewer than three spurs. 5

5. Fork 1 in the anterior wing present.

9 Hydropsychidae Curtis.

— Fork 1 in the anterior wing (and in the posterior wing) absent.

11 PsYCHOMYIDAE Kol.

6. Ocelli present. 13 Rhyacophilidae Stephens.

— Ocelli absent. 7

7. Median cell in the anterior wing closed.

6 Calamoceratidae Ulmer.

— Median cell in the anterior wing absent. 8

8. Discoidal cell in the anterior (and posterior) wing absent. 9

— Discoidal cell in the anterior wing present. 10

9. Spurs 2 4 4. 5 Molannidae Walleng.

— Spurs 2 2 4. 4 Beraeidae Walleng.

10. Fork 2 in the anterior wing present.

7 Odontoceridae Walleng.

— Fork 2 in the anterior wing generally absent (in Triaenodcs

and Sympliitoneufia the apparent fork 2 is probably a false fork).

8 Leptoceridae Leach.

Many of the above families have been again split up into sub-

families. I will deal with these when later I am discussing their

individual composition.

(To be continued).

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS AR1SAEMA

ON THE NILGIRI HILLS, SOUTH INDIA

Edward Barnes, B.Sc. (LoncL).

(With 2 plates).

The South Indian species of this interesting genus do not

appear to have received the attention that they deserve. Of the

five species of Arisaema included in the Elora of the Presidency

of Madras (Part IX by Mr. C. E, 0. Fischer, published in 1931)

A. pulchrum is known from only one specimen and A. Wightii

until recently was known only from material ‘all in a more or less

dilapidated condition, hardly permitting a precise conception’

(Fischer); and even the two very common species, A. tortuosum,

Schott, and A. Leschenaultii, Blume, have received little atten-

tion in the field for many years. The collections made by the

writer have resulted in the founding of four new species, descrip-

tions of which have recently appeared or are in process of publi-

cation (A. Barnesii, Fischer, A. translucens, Fischer, A. tylopho-

rum, Fischer, Kew Bull. 1933, 339, and A. convolutum, Fischer,

in the press).1 The observations recorded below include some

additional information about these new species as well as some

further obervations on several of the older ones.

Distribution

In South India this genus is almost entirely confined to the

higher hills.

On the Nilgiris by far the commonest species is Arisaema Les-

chenaultii, Blume. It is usually found in shojas, and there are

very few sholas above 6,000 ft. in which it is not to be found. It

generally grows on the ground in leaf-mould. A number of sholas

on the Wenlock Downs show a remarkable absence of under-

growth; in these sholas A. Leschenaultii becomes epiphytic. An

example that may be quoted is the shola on the side of Anikal-

betta (‘Staircase’), where at least 90 per cent of the plants of this

species were found to be growing on moss-covered branches, in

forks or on outstanding roots of trees. On some of the highest

hills, such as Pichalbetta, its characteristic place of occurrence is

on the margins of sholas or under the shade of bushes. In wet

places it is not uncommon in the open amongst grass or in cracks

between rocks. The spathe of A. Leschenaultii varies in colour

from light green or yellowish-green striped with white to dark

crimson-purple with lighter stripes. Generally those plants that

grow in dense shade or in wet situations have spathes that are

green and white while those that grow in dry or exposed places

tend to have more or less purple spathes.

A. tortuosum, Schott, appears to be the most widely distri-

buted species of this genus in India. It is found in dryer places

and down to lower levels than the other species in the Nilgiris.

1 Now published Kew Bull. 1934, 167,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

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Arisaema translucens Fischer. 4. Arisaema translucens Fischer.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS AH1SAEMA

631

It is not found much above 6,000 ft. except the non-typical form

with five leaflets, which grows up to about 8,000 ft. It often

grows in the open and is common on road sides and on the mar-

gins of clearings in sholas on the ghats. The colour of the spatlie

and appendage of the spadix varies from green or purplisli-green

to almost black.

A. Barnesil, Fischer, is not uncommon between 5,000 ft. and

6,500 ft. in sholas, but does not appear to occur at higher levels.

It has been found in Longwood Shola, Kotagiri, near Pykara Falls,

at Neduvattam and in Thiashola. It has been found only in the

ground. The colour of the spathe varies from green with white

stripes to dark purple with white stripes.

A. convolution, Fischer, has been found to be common in

several sholas above Parson’s Valley, and a few specimens have

been seen in Governor Shola near Ootacamund and on the sides

of Emerald Valley. It appears to require a wet climate and a

fairly high altitude (7,500 ft.). It grows both in leaf -mould on

the ground and on moss-covered branches or roots of trees.

A. translucens, Fischer, has been found only in Thiashola and

its neighbourhood. It is found amongst undergrowth in dry sholas

down to about 5,500 ft. It was also found growing in cracks in

rocks in a dry shola.

A. tylophofum, Fischer, has been found at Neduvattam^ at the

upper end of the Ouchterlony Valley and, in Thiashola (6,000-

7,000 ft.). It grows in the ground and is usually found on the

edges or in the more open parts of sholas.

Except the non-typical form of A. tortuosum which flowers in

March and April, all the above mentioned species of Arisaema

flower in May and June on the Nilgiris.

Number of Leaflets

Below are given the results of counts made of all plants seen

at the times and places mentioned. The number in the brackets

is the number of leaflets, and the number before the bracket is

the number of plants found to have that number of leaflets.

A. Leschenaultii. Longwood Shola. 27-5-32.

Each plant had one leaf.

Males: 2 (5), 5 (6), 96 (7), 80 (8), 50.(9), 16 (10), 4 (11),

Females: 3 (8) , 6 (9), 12 (10), 4 (11), 3 (12).

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets: 168.

Number of leaves with even number of leaflets: 119.

A. tortuosum, typical form. Banagudi Shola. 18-6-32.

Each plant had two leaves.

Monoecious: 2 (7), 5 (8), 32 (9), 4 (10); 4 (11), 1 (12).

Males: 5 (5), A (6), 37 (7), 6 (8).

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets: 78.

Number of leaves with even number of leaflets: 20.

Early flowering, non-typical form. Longwood Shola and Docht-

betta. April 1933,

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Each plant had two leaves with five leaflets.

This plant differs from the normal form in having pedatisect

leaves always having five leaflets, in occurring at higher alti-

tudes, in flowering in March and April, and in the spathe becoming

black on withering, and not yellow.

A. Barnesii, typical form. Thiashola at lower altitudes. 12-6-33.

Each plant had one leaf.

Males: 23 (5), 5 (6), 13 (7), 8 (8), 2 (9).

Females: 1 (7), 3 (8), 1 (10).

Non-typical form. Thiashola at higher altitudes. 12-6-33.

Males: 3 (5), 10 (7), 1 (8),

Females: 2 (7), 1 (9).

This plant differs from the typical form in the markings on the

spathe, notably in the presence of a white patch at the base of

the limb, and in the appendage becoming green and filamentous

at the tip instead of ending in a knob. It may be a variety of

A. Barnesii or, less probably, a cross between this species and A.

tylophorum in which most of the characters of the former are

dominant.

Species as a whole:

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets: 67.

Number of leaves with even (number of leaflets: 14.

A. convolutum . Pennant Shola, Nilgiri Downs. 21-5-33 and 3-6-33.

Each plant had one leaf.

Males: 1 (7), 4 (8), 11 (9), 11 (10), 7 (11), 2 (12), 1 (13).

Females: 2 (10), 4 (11), 6 (13), 1 (13), 1 (14), 1 (15).

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets : 26.

Number of leaves with even number of leaflets: 26.

A. translucens. Thiashola. 9 and 12-6-33.

Each plant had one leaf.

Males: 2 (6), 7 (7), 9 (8), 15 (9), 11! (10), 3 (11).

Females: 3 (11), 5 (12).

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets: 28.

Number of leaves with even number of leaflets: 27.

A. tylophorum. Thiashola 8-6-33 and Neduvattam 14-6-33.

Each plant had one leaf.

Males: 19 (5), 8 (6), 5 (7).

Females: 1 (5), 10 (6), 24 (7).

Number of leaves with odd number of leaflets : 49.

Number of leaves with even number of leaflets : 18.

(The proportion of plants having odd numbers of leaflets was

considerably greater than is indicated by the above figures, as

at the time of counting, the inflorescences of many male plants

had disappeared. There were very many leaves with five leaflets,

but it was not possible to be certain in many cases whether these

were immature plants or males whose inflorescences had died off.

Only plants with recognisable inflorescences were counted.)

On examining these figures it will be seen that only in two

species, A, translucens and A, convolutum, are there approxi-

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

Arisaema convolutum Fischer.

Hi

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS ARISAEMA

633

mately equal numbers of leaves with an odd and an even number

of leaflets. In these two species only may the leaves be regarded

as strictly radiatisect, and even in these the leaflets are not all

of exactly the same size. In the other species the leaves with

an od.d number of leaflets are in a large majority. The: leaves of

A. Barnesii and A. tylophorum are therefore to be regarded as

palmate. A. Wightii has obviously palmate leaves. In the case

of A. Leschenaultii, the count suggests that the palmate arrange-

ment of the leaflets is not very pronounced ; the leaflets are of

slightly different size, but mere inspection gives the impression

of a radiate leaf. A. tortwosum stands apart in having pedatelv

arranged leaflets.

These results may be interesting in connection with the evolu-

tion of this genus. It appears probable that the species having-

most typically radiatisect leaves (A. convolution and A. trans-

lucens) have evolved from plants having sagittate simple leaves,

which are common in related genera, by way of genera having-

palmate leaves. This suggestion is supported by the fact that in

A. convolutum and in A. Leschenaultii (and probably in other

species) in the bud the leaflets are arranged in three groups, one

at the end of the petiole and in a line with it, and one folded

downwards on each side of the petiole.

Proportions between the Sexes

The following figures were obtained at the same times as those

of the previous section.

A. Leschenaultii. This species is dioecious.

Female: 28.

Male: 253.

It is seen that nine times as many male as female inflores-

cences were found. It is thought that probably there is not a

constant ratio between the sexes, but that the ratio varies with

conditions. In making the count it was noticed that in moist

and more favourable situations females were relatively more nume-

rous than in dry places. In Governor Shola, which is much

moister in May and June than Longwood Shola, no complete count

was made, but females appeared to be almost as numerous as

males.

A. tortuosum. Some inflorescences contain both male and female

flowers, and others male only.

Monoecious: 24.

Male: 26.

A. Barnesii. This species is dioecious.

Typical: Female: 5. Male ^ 51.

Non-typical: Female: 3. Male: 14.

A. convolutum. This species is dioecious.

Female: 15.

Male: 37.

In this case males were certainly relatively more numerous

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

than these figures indicate. Many leaves were seen without in-

florescences; some of these were immature plants, but many were

males whose inflorescences had died and disappeared, the leaf ex-

panding fully later than the opening of the inflorescence in this

species.

A. translucent. This species is dioecious.

Female: 8.

Male: 47.

A. tylophopum. This species is dioecious.

Female: 35.

Male: 32.

This count was taken too late in the season when many male

inflorescences had disappeared. Almost certainly males outnum-

ber females.

It is seen that in the dioecious species, with the possible ex-

ception of A. tylophorum, the male inflorescences greatly out-

number the females. In the case of A. tortuosum there are al-

most equal numbers of male and monoecious inflorescences.

Fertilisation

A. Leschenaultii. In this species at the bottom of the tube of

the spathe in front where the edges overlap, it will be noticed that

in the male inflorescence the two edges arch away from one an-

other so as to form a small roundish orifice about 1x2 mm. in

medium-sized plants (Fig. 1). The male flowers do not extend

to the bottom of the spadix, but there is a bare space at the base

of the column. At the same level the spathe is slightly dilated.

There is thus an annular space at the bottom of the inflorescence

for which the orifice referred to acts as an exit. In the case of

the female inflorescence there is no definite orifice at the base

of the spathe, but the outer edge of the spathe^ is slightly thick-

ened and presses firmly on the under edge and overlaps it to a

greater extent than in the case of male spathes. The female flowers

also extend to the bottom of the column in most cases so that

there is no free annular space, or only a very narrow one. The

way in which these modifications of the spathe aid cross-fertilisa-

tion appears to be as follows. An insect entering a male inflores-

cence is able, if not too large, to crawl down the spadix to the

bottom, and by way of the annular space get to the orifice and

escape. It is probable that insects crawl down the spadix and

not down the inner side of the spathe as the surface of the latter

is very smooth (and, incidentally, not wetted by water). The ob-

vious purpose of the appendage of the spadix appears to be to at-

tract insects and lead them to the fertile parts of the inflorescence.

In a well-developed male inflorescence of about average size there

were found to be 130 male flowers each consisting of 3 or 4

stamens. The male flowers at the middle of the fertile part of

the spadix ripen first, then those lower down, and lastly the upper-

most. The indehisced anthers contain so much pollen that they

ftre distended to about three tirqes tbe diameter of the empty

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS ARISAEMA

635

cell. When the ripe anther is touched, the pollen is exuded in

great quantity through a slit in the top. So much pollen is pro-

duced that by the time all anthers have dehisced the annular

space at the bottom of the inflorescence is usually choked with

it. An insect that enters the inflorescence and makes its escape

by the orifice will therefore almost certainly carry away a good

deal of pollen with it. If in crawling down the spadix it does

not get covered with pollen from the dehiscing anthers with

which it comes into contact, it will do so in wading through the

pollen in the annular space at the bottom. Should such an insect

now enter a female inflorescence it will crawl down the appendage

of the spadix to the female flowers. The ovaries are packed tight-

ly together and the insect will have to pass between two rows of

stigmas. Before reaching the bottom, however, it will get jammed,

as space becomes more and more restricted owing to the conical

shape of the column on which the female flowers are packed.

In its struggles to escape, the insect is very likely to scatter a

good deal of the pollen it is carrying onto the stigmas in its neigh-

bourhood. Numerous insects thus caught are found in almost

every female inflorescence after it has been open for a few days.

A collection of such insects was forwarded to the British Museum

and Dr. F. W. Edwards has very kindly furnished the following

determinations .

Tube A.

Contains 6 species

Platyura sp. 1,

Acnemia sp.,

Phronia sp.,

Mycetophila sp.,

Delopsis sp. 1,

Delopsis sp. 2,

of Mycetophilidae

2 specimens.

1 specimen.

5 specimens.

1 specimen.

Tube B.

Contains the following Dipterw :

Mycetophilidae.

Platyura sp. 1, 1 specimen.

Platyura sp. 2, 1 specimen.

Sciophila sp., 1 specimen.

Sciara (at least 3 spp.), 12 specimens.

Dolichopodidae .

Psilopus sp., 2 specimens.

Neurigona sp., 1 specimen.

Phoridae.

Gen. indet., sp. 4, 1 specimen of each.

Acalyptrata.

Gen. indet., sp. 2, 1 specimen of each.

Also 3 small Homoptera (2 species).

The flies in Tube A were all small enough to be able to

escape from the male inflorescence by way of the aperture at the

base of the spathe. It appears probable therefore that some or

all of these insects are conceded in cross-fertilisation of this

species of Arisaema ,

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

The insects in Tube B were all of such a size that they would

not be able to escape from a normal sized male inflorescence by

•way of the aperture. They would therefore appear to be casual

visitors and not usually concerned in cross-fertilisation, In addi-

tion to these insects a number of other visitors are frequently

found in the inflorescences. A small spider finds them a good

hunting ground, a cricket appears to use them to shelter in and

a small caterpillar finds in them a suitable place for pupation.

On the female spadix above the fertile flowers there are almost

always a number of filiform neuters. The uppermost of these are

often turned upwards at some distance from the end. These

neuters probably act as an obstacle to large insects which, as they

are not likely to be carrying pollen, are to be excluded, for they

are likely to damage the female flowers or at least to act as

obstructions. Neuters are very rarely found on male spadices.

The large excess of male inflorescences (see previous section)

makes it likely that many of the smaller insects that enter a female

inflorescence will have previously been in a male inflorescence,

The length of time the inflorescences remain open probably varies

with elevation and weather. A male inflorescence observed lasted

10 days and a female one showed no signs of being over after an

equal length of time. This long period of activity will also help

to insure efficient cross-fertilisation. That- cross-fertilisation is

successfully brought about is shown by the high percentage of

ovaries that develop. In a plant that was examined it was found

that out of 155 ovaries all were developing except three, and1 these

developing berries contained 1-7 seeds, mostly 3, 4 or 5. Two

female inflorescences examined had respectively 7 and 12 neuters

and 125 and 198 female flowers which contained up to 9 ovules.

The inflorescences of all the species of Arisaema referred to in

these notes have an unpleasant smell, which is cloubtless for the

purpose of attracting the flies concerned in their cross-fertilisa-

tion. In many specimens the smell is not very strong and it is

difficult to locate the place of origin of the smell. In some- large

specimens of A. LeschenauVtii found in Thiashola which had dark

purple spathes and very stout appendages to the spadix, the smell

was very strong. By cutting off the spathe at the base and smell-

ing the various parts of the inflorescence, it was found that the

smell came from the appendage of the spadix. By contact with

the appendage the upper part of the tube of the spathe had also

acquired the smell, but other parts appeared to be free from it.

The pendant acuminate or caudate end of the limb of the spathe

probably serves as a first alighting place for the attracted flies.

What induces the flies to penetrate to the bottom of the inflores-

cence is not obvious.

A. tortuosum. In this species there is an aperture at the base

of the spathes of both the male and the monoecious inflorescences.

The probability of cross-fertilisation taking place is obviously in-

creased if the insect is able to escape from one monoecious in-

florescence and enter another.

As in A. Leschenaultii the smell is definitely associated with

the appendage of the spadix. Here the long exserted appendage

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS ARISAEMA

637

serves both as an attraction to the flies because of its smell, and

as an alighting place for them. The lowest1 male flowers ripen

first. Ovaries contain up to 7 ovules. Three ripening spadices

had 112, 141 and 167 berries, which mostly contained 3, 4 or

5 seeds.

A. translucens and A. Barnesii. In these species there is an

orifice at the base of the male spathe; but not in the case of the

female. The general scheme for cross-fertilisation is probably like

that in A. Leschenaultii. The smell was not sufficiently strong in

the specimens examined and the parts were too small for the locat-

ing of the source of the smell. In the non-typical form of A.

Barnesii female inflorescences had about 100 ovaries containing

4-8 ovules. The berries contained one or two seeds.

A. convolutum. In this species there is a definite orifice at

the base of the male spathe, but not at the base of the female.

Cross-fertilisation is probably brought about as in A. Leschenaultii.

In contrast with A. Leschenaultii and A. tortuosum, in this case

it is the very long tail of tlie\ limb of the spathe that is the source

of the very unpleasant smell that the inflorescence has; this tail

also serves as a settling place for the flies that are attracted.

One plant had 185 female flowers and the ovaries contained up

to 4 ovules.

A. tylophorum. In this species the base of the spathe in both

male and female inflorescences is dilated. There is a definite

aperture in the case of the male spathe and apparently one in the

female, but observations are incomplete. There are fewer flowers

to an inflorescence in this species than in the others — about 60-80

in both male and female — and it appears probable that the scheme

of cross-fertilisation is not quite the same as with A. Leschenaultii.

The inflorescences have only a faint smell and its location could

not be determined. There are usually 6 ovules in each ovary,

sometimes 5 or 4. There are usually 1 or 2 seeds in each berry,

occasionally three.

In each of these species the pollen consists of spherical bodies

0.015-0.02 mm. in diameter: in A. Leschenaultii , A. Barnesii and

A. translucens the surface of the grains is slightly echinate; in

A. tortuosum, A. tylophorum and A. convolutum it is granular.

Folding of the Spathe

In this genus one side of the spathe overlaps the other side.

It was thought that it would be of interest to find whether, as

in certain twining plants, some species are right-handed and others

left-handed.

638 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

(Right means the side of the spathe on the observer’s right

overlaps the other side, and left the opposite. No distinction

is made between males and females in this count.)

It is quite definite that none of these species is completely

right- or left-handed. In the cases of A. Barnesii and A. convo-

lution the right side is the outer as often as the left. The right

side appears to overlap the left more often than the reverse in

A. Leschenaultii, A. tortuosum and A. tyloyhorum, and the oppo-

site is the case with A. translucens. Whether the statements

made in the last sentence would be confirmed if sufficiently large

numbers were counted appears to be somewhat doubtful.

Root and Vegetative Reproduction

In A. Leschenaultii there is a corm, oblately spherical in shape

and up to about 2 in. in diameter in normal-sized specimens.

The under surface is very much puckered and pale green in colour.

Dissection shows that this puckered surface is that of the corm

of the previous season. In, May it is only about ^ in. thick and

easily separates leaving the surface of the new corm white and

smooth. The foot of the stem is broadened where it joins the corm

and from this broadened base there emerge about 20 stout fleshy

roots. These roots radiate more or less ' horizontally. They

have numerous branches and these are provided with root hairs.

The surface of the main roots is puckered transversely for its

first inch or two and is pinkish, this colour being due to numerous

minute pinkish-purple longitudinal dashes. The finer roots are

white and the root tips yellow. The lowest part of the stem

is covered with a brown membranous skin broken irregularly along

its upper edge. Above and within this there are three or more

membranous blunt-tipped leaves clasping the stem; these vary in

colour from white below to dark purple above. From the outer

edge of the corm at a slightly lower level than that at which

the roots emerge, and originating apparently from the old corm,

several underground stems grow out. These run horizontally for

about 4 ins. and the tip enlarges till it is about \ in. in diameter.

The greater part of the stem then shrivels and the enlarged part

forms a new corm. The horizontal stems and the enlarged ends

are covered with membranous blunt-tipped scales which are brown,

except the two end ones which cover the bud on the corm, and

these are light purple. The newly-formed corm is pear-shaped and

lies horizontally with the bud at the blunt end and the residue

of the stem at its narrow end. Apparently these corms produce

only a leaf next season and establish a larger corm, and produce

an inflorescence only in a subsequent season.

In A. tortuosum the under side of the corm is covered with

the cream-coloured shrivelling residue of the corm of the previous

season. Embedded in this old corm near its edges there are to

be found several small spherical white corms. These have their

bluntly conical buds facing upwards. Round the bottom of the

stem just above the level at which the roots emerge small buds

are found. It appears, therefore, that in this species the new

corms take two years to form, being present as buds oil the side

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS AHlSAEMA

639

of the mature corm one year and developing in the residue of

that corm the next season.

In A. convolutum small upward-pointing corms were found

round the upper part of the mature corm. An immature plant

growing near a mature one had a corm about f in. in diameter.

On one side of this small corm there was a brown shrivelled stem

which tapered down to about -J in. in diameter. This narrow end

was near the upper part of the corm of the mature plant and

had evidently grown out of it although connection had now ceased.

Whether the underground stem and the small corm on the side

of the mature one are somewhat different modes of reproduction or

only stages of the same mode is not certain.

In the case of A. translucens underground stems developing

into corms are also found. In June stems were found about 5

ins. long; the forward 1^ ins. was enlarged, to about J in. in dia-

meter and the other part was shrivelling. The widened end was

dark green with purple markings, and narrowed suddenly to a

long point. Round the terminal bud there were a few membran-

ous scales and behind these a few white root-tips were emerging.

In the case of A. tylophorum there were small corms emerg-

ing from the upper part of the mature corm at a slightly higher

level than the roots. These were found on immature plants that

had not yet produced an inflorescence as well as on mature male

and female plants. No underground stems were found and the

fact that the small corms had their tips pointing upwards sug-

gests that they develop beside the parent plant. Small corms

with tips upwards were also found round the upper part of the

mature corm in A. Barnesii.

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMB AY-DUCK,

HARPODON NEHEREUS (HAM. BUCH.), IN INDIAN

WATERS.

BY

Sunder Lal Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.a. s.b.

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With 8 text-figures).

(Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India).

CONTENTS.

Taxonomy ... ... ... ... ... ... 640

Fishing in Indian Waters ... ... ... ... 642

Food of Harpodon nehereus (H. B.) ... ... ... ... 646

Explanation of the Seasonal Occurrence and Distribution of

Harpodon nehereus in Indian Waters ... ... ... 647

Local Names ... ... ... ... ... 654

Acknowledgments ... ... ... ... ... 654

Taxonomy.

The first scientific reference to the fish known as ‘Bombay-

Duck’ is found in Hamilton’s Gangetic Fishes.1 The species was

discovered2 by him ‘in the mouths of the Ganges’, and doubt-

fully referred to the genus Osmerus. In 1825, however, La Sueur3

proposed the genus Harpodon for his Salnio microps, which, later

on, proved to be synonymous with Osmerus? nehereus Ham.

Buch. As often happens, the fish was described under various

names by different ichthyologists till the present name — Harpodon

nehereus (Ham. Buch.) — was assignd to it by the famous ichthy-

ologist Dr. A. Gunther in his Catalogue of Fishes in the British

Museum (vol. v, p. 401, 1864). Since its discovery, the fish has

been found in widely separated localities and its range is now

known to extend ‘from Zanzibar tox China, seas and estuaries of

India, most common at Bombay but decreasing in numbers down

the Malabar Coast. It is not very common at Madras but aug-

ments in numbers up the Coromandal Coast, being very abundant

in the rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burmah. Bleeker

observes that it appears to be very abundant in the straits of

Malacca, more rare at Java, and uncommon at Batavia.’4 For

a considerable time, the genus Harpodon remained monotypic and

was included in the family Scopelidae, comprising exclusively

marine, pelagic or deep-sea fishes. In 1881, Gunther5 described

1 Hamilton, “ Gangetic Fishes", p. 209 (Edinburgh, 1822).

2 In the ‘Original Notes’ concerning the Gangetic Fishes the description of

the species is dated ‘Botanical Gardens, 29tli January, 1815’.

3 La Sueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, v, p. 50 (1825).

4 Day, Fish India, p. 506, pi. cxviii, fig. 1 (1877).

5 Gunther, Rep. Sci. Res. Challenger, xxii, p. 180, pi. xlvii, fig. A (1887).

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK 641

another species from a single specimen, 27 inches long, obtained

at Tokyo by the Challenger Expedition as H. microchir and re-

marked, ‘although it is not known at what depth the fish was

obtained, it is evident from its organisation that it should be

referred to the deep-sea fauna’. A few years later, a third species,

H. squamosus was described by Alcock1 from the Bay of Bengal

occurring at depths ranging from ‘240 to 276 and 281 to

258 fathoms’. Quite recently a new species, H. mortenseni, has

been described by Hardenberg2 from the Bali Sea from a depth

of 800 meters.

Fig. 1. — Lateral view of a young specimen of Harpodon neliereus (Ham. Buch.).

X».

Bombay-Ducks are elongate and rather compressed fishes, in

which the head is thick, short and provided with a very short

rounded snout. The scales are cycloid and deciduous. A lateral

line is present. The cleft of the mouth is very wide and is bord-

ered above by the slender, long intermaxillary bone; the maxillary

bone is absent. The lower jaw is prominent. Both the jaws

are provided with unequal, partly covered, subulate and depressible

teeth in a band; the inner teeth, especially in the lower jaw, are

enlarged and conspicuously hastate. There are similar teeth in

one or two rows on the vomer, palatines, pterygoids, tongue and

branchial arches. The dorsal fin is in the middle of the length

without the caudal, and there is also a narrow adipose fin opposite

to the middle of the anal fin. The caudal fin is three-lob ed. The

ventral fins are exceedingly long. The gill-openings are extremely

wide and are covered with membranous opercula. The branchio-

stegal membranes are free and extend beyond the opercula. Th$re

are 17 to 25 branchiostegal rays.

The exact affinities of this remarkable genus are not well known,

but it is no longer included in the family Scopelidae, Goode and

Bean3 and Regan4 refer it to the family Synodontidae ( Synoddtu

Saurida, Bathysaurus and Harpodon), while Jordan5 has proposed

1 Alcock, Ann, Mag , Nat. Hist., p. 127 (1891); III. Zool. Investigator, pi.

xxx, fig. 1.

2 Hardenberg, Treubia, xiv, pp, 221-222, fig. 1 (1934).

3 G-oadn '& Beam, Oceanic Ichthyology, p. 59 (Washington, 1895).

4 Began, ^Fishes’ in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th ed., ix (1929).

5 Jordan, Classification of Fishes, p. 154 (California, 1923).

9

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot XXXVII

a new family for this genus. Weber and Beaufort1 have treated

the genus under the order Myctophoidea and finding ‘no concor-

dance among ichthyologists’ regarding the forms treated under

Iniomi, they have not grouped the Indo-Australian genera into

families.

Harpodon nehereus, when fresh, is said to be brilliantly phos-

phorescent all over the body, but Kemp2 by his observations on

specimens from the Matlah River was not able to corroborate this

statement. It shows some curious features that resemble adapt-

ations to deep-sea existence, though it is remarkable that the fish

is not known to occur at any great depth. Still further remark-

able is the fact that it is not even restricted to the sea, being very

abundant in the estuaries of Bengal and Burma. In its gelatinous

consistency and large mouth with the lower jaw loosely articulated

and furnished with recurved teeth, it resembles the deep-sea species.

This resemblance to a deep-sea form misled even so great an autho-

rity as Gunther, for in his Study of Fishes (p. 584, 1880) he re-

marked, in reference to the two species of Harpodon known to him,

that ‘both are evidently inhabitants of considerable depths, and

periodically come nearer to the surface’.

Fishing in Indian Waters.

In a recent article on the ‘Fishing for “Bombay-Duck” ’, Setna3

has made some observations on the movements of this fish. He

remarks that ‘the peak period of the fishing season in Bombay

(for “Bombay-Duck”) is from June to September, and at this time

the inshore waters are the haunts of innumerable kinds of fishes,

both large and small, and crustaceans’. Towards the close of the

monsoon season, the quantity of the catches of this fish falls off

very sharply and inshore fishing is gradually discontinued. In

October, it is not worth while to fish for them. After October and

till the commencement of the south-west monsoon, the fish is still

available in fair quantities but in places about 20 to 25 miles from

Bombay. Here they are netted to be discarded as they are liable

to putrefy by the time the boats reach the shore, as they have to

beat up against the north-east monsoon at this period. According

to the statistics collected by Setna, the fish is most abundant in

Bombay during September.

The principal fishery of the Bombay-Duck is at the entrance of

the Bombay harbour where the water is about 40 to 60 feet deep

and the bottom of the sea consists largely of sandy banks. As a

result of the trawling on the Western Coast by William Garrick,

Hefford4 found that Harpodon nehdreus was sometimes taken in

fair quantities, especially in the shallower water, but it suffered

1 Weber and Beaufort, Fish Indo-Austral. Archipel., ii, pp. 139, 150 (Leiden,

1913).

2 Kemp, Rec. Ind. Mus., xiii, p. 238 (1917).

3 Setna, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxv, pp. 867-872 (1932).

4 Hefford, Report on the Work of the Steam Trawler ‘ William Carrick' ,

May 1921 to February 1922, p. 31 (Bombay, 1923).

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY-DUCK 643

a great deal of damage in the trawl and it was considered profit-

less to keep it for market. It is unfortunate that no statistics were

kept by Hefford regarding its distribution in Bombay waters and

the seasons of its occurrence.

Dr. S. B. Setna informs me that he has been examining the

gonads of this fish during the intensive fishing season off the Bombay

Coast and can say with certainty that the gonads are not ripe at

any time during June to October, whereas the fish examined in

February and March were full of ripe eggs and active sperma-

tozoa. These ripe specimens were taken far out at sea. Females

with eggs were taken mostly in November and December while

the young fish have been observed mainly in January and February.

According to Sorley,1 the chief fishing grounds for Harpodon

nehereus in the Bombay Presidency are in the area off Bombay

extending northwards towards the Gulf of Cambay. In this region

Bombay-Duck appears to be one of the commonest fish. On the

south side of Bombay, the waters are deficient in this species and

no regular fishing for it exists. Sorley states that in the Konkan

area Bombay-Ducks usually appear in October to December and

March to May when they ‘come in shoals landwards to escape pre-

daceous fish that pursue them’. From his enquiries, Sorley is led

to believe that Bombay-Duck would be found to have a distinct

oceanographical distribution.

In the Madras waters, H. nehereus is found in fair numbers at

the mouths and in the estuaries of the Kistna and Godavari Bivers

and along the Ganjam Coast. In 1916, Govindan2 recorded that

this species is not brought to the yards on the west coast, whereas

on the east coast the curing yards at Calingapatam, Kommaravani-

peta and Pukkillapeta in the extreme south coastal region of the

Ganjam District receive it throughout the year. Hornell3 in his

statistical analysis of the fishing industry at Tuticorin makes no

mention of H. nehereus among the principal food fishes that are

caught there. Similarly Nayudu,4 in his statistical analysis of an

inshore fishing experiment at Madras during 1919, does not record

this species in catches from Bayapuram. Moses,5 while investi-

gating the fish supply of Madras, found that ‘Vangaravasi ( Har -

podon nehereus), the Bombay-Duck, is a rare fish, 10 lb. having

been available in March’. Mr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala of the

Department of Fisheries, Ceylon, has informed me that ‘the fish

known as Bombay-Duck “ Harpodon nehereus” has never been cap-

tured by us when trawling on Pedro or Wadge banks. ... I

have never noticed it at any of our fish markets. ’ These observa-

tions indicate that the species is very rare, if not totally absent,

from the Malabar Coast and the Coromandal Coast as far up as

Madras, while at the mouths of large rivers northwards and

1 Sorley, The Marine Fisheries of the Bombay Presidency (Bombay, 1933).

2 G-ovindan, Madras Fish. Bull., ix (1916).

3 Hornell, Madras Fish. Bull., ix (1916).

4 Nayudu, Madras Fish. Bull., xi, pp. 61-119 (1917).

6 Moses, Madras Fish. Bull., xv, pp. 131-166 (1922).

644 journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xxxvu

along the Ganjam Coast it makes its appearance in sufficient num-

bers to be of some commercial importance.

Fig. 2. — Chart showing principal centres of Bombay-Duck fishery in India.

• shows abundance of fish.

O shows possible occurrence of fish.

In Bengal, so far as I have been able to ascertain, Harpodou

nehereus is not sold inland either in the fresh or dried condition.

The fish is so delicate and the means of conveyance so primitive

that it is not even brought to the Calcutta market from the lower

reaches of the Gangetic Delta. At Chittagong, Noakhali and

Bakargang ‘the fish is largely caught and sold, and is esteemed

as a good, fish by all classes, both as fresh or dried.’1 Gupta2 in

his preliminary report on the fisheries of Bengal mentioned Har-

podon nehereus as one of the fish commonly caught in the estuaries

and remarked that ‘Bombay-Duck ( Harpodou nehereus) is by no

means rare, especially at the Sandheads; if it could be brought

into Calcutta fresh, it would find a ready market’. As a result

of the trawling operations of the ‘Golden Crown’, it was ascer-

tained that Harpodon nehereus is more abundant round the Mutlah

light vessel and right away to the westward of.it past the entrance

to the Eastern Channel down to the vicinity of the Pilot’s Ridge.

1 De, Report on the Fisheries of Eastern Bengal and Assam, p. 26 (Shil-

long, 1910).

2 Gupta, Coll. Papers Fish. Surv. Bengal, pp. 2, 6 (Calcutta, 1911).

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK

645

Jenkins1 considered the species as ‘a true estuarine form, the young

of which are found all over the Sunderbans in brackish water’.

From the details of the fish caught by the ‘Golden Crown’, it

appears that the species was obtained in sufficient numbers to be

recorded for commercial purposes only during trips 8, 9, 10 and 27.

Though during the first three of these trips the trawler worked

on the Orissa Coast between Konarak (Black Pagoda) and Puri,

the Bummaloes seem to have been obtained during its passage uj:>

and down the estuary. During trip number 27, the ‘Golden Crown’

trawled off the entrance to the Eastern Channel, on Pilot’s Bidge,

off the Devi Biver, off Konarak and then again off the Eastern

Channel. Details of the catches of Bombay-Duck made by the

‘Golden Crown’ are given below: —

According to Southwell,2 3 Bombay-Duck is ‘very plentiful in the

river between the sea and Diamond Harbour ; in the vicinity of

the latter place it was scarce and ten miles further north entirely

absent’.

I am informed by the fishermen of Port Canning (Matlah

Biver) that Bummalo is to be found in the Matlah Biver in fair

quantities during the cold season from November to February, and

that it disappears during the rainy season. Both young and adult

forms are found. While investigating the brackish water fauna of

the Piali Nadi at Uttarbhag, 25 miles from Calcutta, it was ob-

served that in February to March large quantities of Harpodon

nehereus , mostly . young, were captured during spring tides, while

at other periods the fish was absent or very rare in the fish market.

For an ecological account of the estuarine area reference may

be made to Kemp’s1 paper on the fauna of the Matlah Biver.

There are two main factors in this environment, the nature of

the bottom which consists of very finely divided, soft mud and the

seasonal variation in the salinity of these waters from almost fresh

to highly brackish. In December 1915, Kemp found Harpodon

nehereus fairly' abundant in the Matlah Biver, where the condi-

tions: for its existence are very similar to those prevailing in the

deep-sea. The bottom fauna of the Matlah Biver, including

1 Jenkins, Coll. Papers Fish. Surv. Bengal, p. 66 (1911).

2 Southwell, Rec. Ind. Mus., xi, p. 329 (1915).

3 Kemp, Rec. Ind. Mus., xiii, pp. 233-241 (1917).

646 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fob XXXVII

Harpodon nehereus, has a superficial resemblance to the deep-sea

fauna.

H. nehereus is found in fairly large numbers along the coast

of Burma but is chiefly caught at Akyab and in the deltaic region

of the Irrawaddi. Unfortunately I have not been able to find any

reference to the fishery of this species along the Burmese Coast

so it is not possible to give statistics of catches.

The Secretary to the Financial Commissioner, Burma, informs

me that ‘the fish known as Bombay-Duck (locally known as Baraga)

are not found in large numbers in this province. They are found

in estuaries and salt-water areas of some of the rivers in the

Arakan Division mainly during the cold weather. There are no

fishing centres for these fish, but they are occasionally caught in

nets though they form only a very small proportion of the catches.

The fish apparently live in the open sea but go up and down the

river with the tide. Akyab is the only district in which they are

found in numbers : even in that district it is reported that most

of the Bombay-Duck (dried) sold in the bazaars are imported from

Chittagong. ’

It is clear from the above that the roaming movements of

Harpodon nehereus are not connected with the reproduction of the

species, and, therefore, in the strictest sense, are not migratory.

The bionomics of the species are not known. We do not know

from where they come and are not acquainted with their usual

breeding haunts. The structural features of the body indicate a

deep-sea habitat, but we have no knowledge of the fact whether it

is a deep-sea or a surface species. Its occurrence round our shores

and the fact that Bombay-Ducks are available in Bombay and the

estuaries of larger rivers all the year round render the study of the

bionomics of the species of special interest. The elucidation of the

breeding habits and bionomics of Harpodon nehereus will throw a

considerable light on the relative merits of the two opposing con-

ceptions in organic evolution — adaptation and predetermination.

Food of Harpodon nehereus (H. B.).

So far as I am aware no observations exist on the food of

Harpodon nehereus. At my request Dr. S. B. Setna sent me two

samples of the stomach contents of this species which have shown

that H. nehereus feeds mainly on small fish and shrimps. The

analysis of the fish removed from the stomach of H . nehereus has

yielded the following results : —

2 young specimens, 30 and 35 mm. long. Harpodon nehereus (H. B.).

1 young specimen, 66 mm. long. Trichiurus sp.

2 young specimens, 35 mm. long. Engraulis sp.

38 specimens, 15 mm. to 70 mm. long. Bregmaceros macclellandi Thomson.

Among shrimps the principal food-species is Acetes indicus

Milne-Edwards which is represented in the stomach contents by

hundreds of specimens. Some larger Palaemonid and Peneid

shrimps were also found but their number is insignificant. A young

cuttle-fish was also present among the stomach contents of

H. nehereus.

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK

647

It is clear from the above that Bregmaceros macclellandi and

Acetes indicus are the two principal food-species of H. nehereus.

Fig. 3. — Principal food-species of Harpodon nehereus (Ham. Buch.).

a. Lateral view of Acetes indicus Milne-Edwards (Modified after Milne-

Edwards).

h. Lateral view of Bregmaceros macclellandi Thompson (Modified after

Weber & Beaufort).

B. macclellandi is a small species which is said to grow to about

three inches in length; it is found in the mouths of rivers and

along the coasts of India to China and the Philippine Islands.

Acetes indicus is found at Bombay, in the Bay of Bengal and the

Gulf of Siam; it is mainly found in brackish waters but also

occurs in the open sea near land. It will thus be seen that the

range of distribution of the two principal food-species is co-exten-

sive with that of H. nehereus and it seems probable that the

wanderings of the Bombay-Duck are influenced by the wanderings

of the food-species. The subject deserves closer investigation.

Explanation of the Seasonal Occurrence and Distribution

of Harpodon nehereus in Indian Waters.

From the foregoing account it is clear that Harpodon nehereus

is numerous in the Gulf of Cambay and down the coast as far as

Bombay, becomes rarer all down the Malabar Coast, is absent at

Tuticorin and in Ceylon Waters, a few are taken at Madras but

it increases largely in numbers along the Golconda Coast and is

numerous again along the coasts of Bengal and Burma where it

ascends the estuaries of the larger rivers. At Bombay it is found

CL.

648 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

near the coast during the monsoon season and is most abundant

in September, but in the estuaries and near the mouths of larger

rivers it is found throughout the year. Jenkins found a large

number of young specimens in the Gangetic Delta and regarded

the species as an estuarine form.

The explanation of the mass-movements of Harpodon nehereus

as depicted above is not clear. It is believed that the species

visits our shores and estuaries in quest of food and its movements

appear to be governed by the movements of its food-species, such

as small fish, shrimps, prawns and other small crustaceans that

have been found in its stomach. It is clear, therefore, that to

elucidate the wanderings! of this species it is essential to study the

movements of the fish and crustaceans that constitute its food.

Such a study will probably reveal further complications. The

disturbance of one factor upsets an entire association, and it is

probable that the mass-movements of the Bombay-Duck will ulti-

mately be found to be induced by marked changes in the physical

conditions of our shore-waters.

The study of the distribution of the fishery of Bombay-Duck

in Indian Waters shows that there is one obvious factor, the effect

of low salinity due to rains or to the water discharged by larger

rivers, that can account for the discontinuous distribution of the

species.

As is well known, during the monsoon months — June to October

— Bombay receives heavy rainfall and in consequence the water

near the shore becomes diluted and the salinity falls considerably.

The sea-water thus becomes capable of holding more oxygen in

solution for the respiration of aquatic animals. This lighter and

more oxygenated water flowing far out to the sea probably supplies

the initial stimulus to the organisms to move towards the shore

and then a regular cycle of migrants is set up. Even Bombay-

Duck is followed by' sharks and other larger fish that feed upon

it. Setna (op. cit.) has described an ingenious device used by the

fishermen of the Bombay coast to protect their catch from the de-

predation of the larger species.

Our knowledge of the physical conditions of the waters along

the western coast is very meagre1 and I have not been able to

find any details of the variation in salinity and temperature during

different seasons of the year in this area. However, a perusal of

any physical map of India will show that the Gulf of Cambay

receives larger volume of water from the Narbada and Tapti Bivers,

and that no other big river or stream falls into the sea on the

Malabar Coast. There is no doubt that the salinity of the water

in the Gulf of Cambay must always be lower than that of the

sea and be subject to considerable variation depending on the

quantity of water discharged by the rivers at different seasons of

1 Reference may liere be made to the work of Matthews (Trans. Linn.

Soc. London, Zoology (2), xix, pt. i, pp. 169-205, pis. x-xiii, 1926) on the

Physical Oceanography of the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian

Ocean in 1905. Matthews gives charts of the variation in salinity of the

surface waters of the Arabian Sea, but does not deal with the coastal waters

which are of special significance for studying the movements of Bombay-Duck.

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK

649

the year. It is probable that this diluted sea water affects the

salinity as far down as Bombay, but it has also to be remembered

that this portion of the western coast receives between 75" and

100" of rainfall during June to October, and this is likely to have

Fig. 4. — Chart showing seasonal rainfall in India from June to October.

considerable effect in lowering the salinity of the sea water in

the neighbourhood. The- accumulative effect of this rainfall will

be felt most in September and at this period the salinity is likely

to be the lowest . Corresponding with this period of low salinity,

we find that Bombay-Duck is most numerous on the Bombay

coast in September. This presumption is supported by the popular

beliefs of the fishermen of the Bombay Presidency, for instance,

‘it is a common belief among fishermen that if there be good rainy

season with record floods, the prospects of good sea fishing are

assured.’ (Sorley, l.c., p. 117.) The rainfall on the Malabar Coast

is also heavy, but the rain that falls is drained off by the Godavari,

Kistna and Cauvery Rivers, all of which fall into the sea on the

east coast (Coromandal Coast). It is thus seen that the dilution

of sea water may result from local heavy rainfalls or through the

drainage of larger rivers, and it is significant that none of these

two factors is operative over the stretch of the coast from below

650 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Bombay to Madras and the result is that there is no fishing of the

Bombay-Duck in the whole of this area.

As a result of the researches of Dallas1 and Sewell2 and his

predecessors on the ‘Investigator’, we are in a much better position

with regard to the study of physical factors in the Bay of Bengal.

At all times the surface water throughout the Bay of Bengal and

the Andaman Sea possesses a low salinity owing to the influx of

large volumes of fresh water from the great rivers of India and

Pig. 5. — Chart showing surface salinity of the Bay of Bengal during the period

from September to November (Modified after Sewell).

Burma, and this influx must also to some extent affect the tem-

perature of the surface water. Moreover, the Bay is exposed at

different times of the year to such opposite influences as the

south-west and north-east monsoons and as most of the larger

rivers of India empty themselves into it, one would naturally expect

to find that the conditions present in the surface waters would

show a considerable range of variation both as regards the salinity

of water and its temperature. These variations can be attributed

largely to the different seasons of the year. With the changing

seasons, the salinity of the surface waters changes considerably, and

this can be readily understood by a reference to Sewell’s charts,

reproduced here in a modified form, of the surface salinity of the

1 Dallas, Charts of the Bay of Bengal and Adjacent Sea north of Equator,

showing the Specific . Gravity , Temperature and Currents of the Sea Surface

(Calcuta, 1887).

2 'Sewell, Mem. As. Soc. Bengal, ix, pp. 207-356 (1929).

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK

651

Bay of Bengal during September to November, December to Febru-

ary, March to May and June to August. It has to be borne in

mind that owing to the geographical configuration of India, most

of the rivers of India open into the Bay of Bengal and in conse-

quence the major portion of the rainfall over not only the Indian

Peninsula but also the region lying to the north finds its way

eventually into the Bay, though 'this will of necessity take some

time, depending on the length of the river. This means that the

salinity of the Bay in October will be influenced to a large extent

by the rainfall of the preceding south-west monsoon in July and

August over United Provinces, Bihar, etc. In this country mon-

soon forecasts are made use of in connection with agricultural

operations, but it is hardly realized thah the same forecasts can be

made use of in connection with the fisheries. The collective rainfall

over India varies from year to year and in any one year the effect

of the monsoons may vary very considerably in different parts of

India. All these are important considerations in connection with

the problems of fisheries in this country.

I have remarked above that the movements of the Bombay-

Duck are, in all probability, governed by the stimulus supplied by

the low salinity of the sea- water.1 In this connection the salinity

chart of the Bay of Bengal for the quarter September to Novem-

™ the head of the Bay the salinity is affected to a depth of at least

50 fathoms.

652 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

ber is of special significance. This chart shows three definite areas

of low salinity, (i) the mouths of the Irrawaddy and Salween

Rivers,, (ii) the mouths of the Ganges and (iii) the Ganjam coast

and the mouths of the Godavari and Kistna Rivers. Whereas the

low salinity of the Bay at the mouth of the Ganges and the Irra-

waddi may be due to the accumulative effect of the south-west

monsoon, on the western side of the Bay considerable lowering of

the salinity in September to November at the mouth of Godavari

and Kistna may be due to the autumn rains which fall in the penin-

sula and especially the coast districts. It has been indicated above

that these very areas are the chief centres of the fishery for the

Bombay-Duck. It is abundantly clear, therefore, both from the

seasons of occurrence of the Bombay-Duck near the shores and

from the record of the areas where it occurs in abundance, that

Fig. 7. — Chart showing surface salinity of the Bay of Bengal during the period

from March to May (Modified after Sewell).

there is a definite correlation between the low salinity of the water

and the occurrence of Harpodon nehereus.

The low salinity of water is only one of the factors that bring

about the mass-movements of the Bombay-Duck. The river-water

and rain-water are more highly oxygenated and have a somewhat

lower temperature than that of the sea-water. Another possible

factor, especially in the estuarine areas, is the great increase in

the available food supply. The flow of the rivers brings down

with it great quantity of valuable vegetable debris and detritus.

This serves as a source of food for small animals on which larger

WANDERINGS OF THE BOMBAY -DUCK 653

animals prey. Large quantities of nutrient salts, derived from the

land, are poured into the sea and this results in a very large in-

crease in the diatom flora, that in turn serves as a food supply for

the smaller marine organisms. Probably it is a combination of

these and other factors that induce Bombay-Duck to visit our

shores. The nature of the bottom does not seem to effect these

movements, for near Bombay the sea bottom consists of sandy

banks, while in the Bay of Bengal the sea bottom consists of

Fig. 8. — Chart showing surface salinity of the Bay of Bengal during the period

from June to August (Modified after Sewell).

brown mud in the chief centres of the fishery. As regards the

salinity and temperature of deeper waters very little is known.

Judging by the above criterion, there are two areas along the

coast of India where Bombay-Duck should be plentiful, but, so

far as I am aware, it is not found there. These two areas are

the Chilka Lake along the Ganjam Coast and the Delta of the

Indus. In both the localities the salinity is very low at times on

account of fresh water brought down by rivers, etc. It seems

likely that the food-species of the Bombay-Duck do not occur in

these areas, and as the movements of the fish are for feeding-

purposes, its absence in these localities can be explained on this

assumption. This is merely a tentative suggestion as the subject

has never been investigated so far.

It has been noted above that Harpodon nehereus is found in

the estuaries of the Irrawaddi, the Ganges, the Godavari and the

Kistna Rivers throughout the year, and that young specimens have

been collected by several workers from such regions. It seems

654 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

likely that the low salinity and other physical and biological factors

of the estuarine waters suit the Bombay-Duck or the species of

fish and shrimps on which it preys. In the Ganges, the fish is

stated to ascend as high up as Diamond Harbour where on the

5th of March, 1933, I found the salinity to vary from 7.90 per

mille (midstream, tide flooding) to 8.50 per mille (near shore,

last phase of ebb tide). In the rainy season, the salinity falls

considerably lower. It would thus seem probable that Bombay-

Duck ascends and descends in the estuarine region with the rise

and fall of the salinity at different seasons of the year and that

the fish or its food-species does not live below a certain range of

salinity. The observations of the fishermen of Port Canning sup-

port this view.

Some of the possible factors, such as low-salinity, temperature,

movements of food-species, ' oxygenated water, water rich in food-

material etc., that may be responsible for the mass-movements of

H. nehereus are indicated above from the meagre data available so

far, but it should be clearly understood that the problem has not

been investigated in detail anywhere in India in connection with

any species of fish. It is clear, however, that there is a great

scope to increase the yield of this fishery and to put it on a

permanent basis provided the exploitation of the fishery is under-

taken along well recognised scientific principles. The fish is easily

cured by drying and in this condition it is known as Bombay-Duck

and is greatly relished with curry.

Local Names.

Bombay ; — Bummalo.

Madras: — Gucah sawahri ; Cocomottah (Tel.); Vangaravasi at

Madras; and Vanamottalu on the East Coast.

Bengal: — Nehare in the Gangetic Delta; Lotya at Chittagong

and Lotia or Lotya at Noakhali and Bakarganj.

Burma : — Baraga.

Malay: — Luli and Aruan-tassik.

When fresh the fish is familiar to Europeans as Bummalo and

when dried as Bombay-Duck.

Acknowledgments .

I have to express my sincerest thanks to Lt.-Col. R. B. S.

Sewell and to Dr. Baini Prashad for going through the manuscript

and for making valuable suggestions. Babu R. Bagchi has made

all the figures, except figure 4, for this article with his usual skill

and care and I am thankful to him for this. Dr. B. Chopra has

identified the crustaceans for me and Mr. Dev Dev Mukerji has

helped me in various ways. I am greatly indebted to them for

their kindness.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ALIMENTABY CANALS OF FOOL FISHES.

Fig. 1. — Salmo fario

Brown Trout.

<Wux6

Lu\>ev'-

Fig. 2. — Ophiocephalus marulius.

Vern. Saul.

CX-Vtu^

- L

\ wV«X>Kv»C

Fig. 3. — Wallago attu.

Vern. Mullee.

Fig

. 4. — Cirrhina mrigala.

Vern. Mori.

HABITS AND HABITATS OF FOOD FISHES OF THE PUNJAB.

BY

M. Hamid Khan, m.sc., ll.b.,

Fisheries Research Officer , Punjab.

( With one plate).

Most of the inhabitants of the Province, especially those residing in the

hills and in the riverian districts have no scruples to eating fish. There are

others who, on religious grounds, do not kill and eat them. Some, however,

object to certain kinds of fish which they consider repulsive, while others,

though not averse to eating fish, object to them being captured in certain

sacred places. Such sacred places are protected under the Fisheries Regulations

as Sanctuaries1 and some of these form the best natural spawning grounds of

many of the local species and are situated in Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Hissar, Am-

balla and Jhelum Districts.

Fishes, like other main divisions of the animal kingdom, may conveniently

be divided into two groups namely : —

(1) Herbivorous or vegetarian and (2) Carnivorous.

In the first group are included those fishes which live mostly on weeds

and other aquatic vegetation such are the Cyprinidae (Carps). These fishes are

devoid of teeth in their jaws and like all other herbivorous animals, possess a

long alimentary canal. They are wholesome and well-flavoured and are con-

sumed in large numbers and without any scruples.

The second group includes those fishes which thrive mostly on animal diet,

such as insects, molluscs or other fishes, and also feed on dead bodies. They

all possess teeth in their jaws and have a straight alimentary canal. This

group may be further sub-divided into firstly: — those carnivorous fishes which

are voracious, predaceous and consume offal and carcases, such are the Silu-

ridae or Cat fishes. Being scaleless, they are forbidden to Jews and Shia

Mohammadans. The Jews2 are only permitted to eat ‘Whatsoever hath fins

and scales in the waters, in the seas and rivers’, and this law is strictly observed

by Shia Mohammadans as well. They are not considered very wholesome.

Secondly : — those carnivorous fishes which live mostly on insects and their

larvae, molluscs, crustaceans and other fishes, such are the Salmonidae, Ophio-

cephalidae, and others. They are wholesome and are considered excellent eating.

The difference in the alimentary canal of the carnivorous and vegetarian

fishes is remarkable. In Salmo fario (Brown Trout, fig. 1), the short gullet

leads into a U-shaped stomach, and the intestine after the duodenum becomes

bent upon itself and then passes backwards without any convolution. There are

forty-six blind glandular tubes, the pyloric caeca, which open into the duodenum.

In Ophiocephalus marulius (Murrel : fig. 2), the short gullet opens into a bag-

like stomach, which is capable of accommodating prey of any length. In a

14 1 1 Murrel, with a normal stomach of l1', a Botia of 2*7 M was found extend-

ing from the gullet to the posterior extremity of the stomach. The intestine,

after the duodenum, becomes bent upon itself and then passes backwards,

without any convolution, to the anus. Two pyloric caeca open into the duo-

denum. In Wallago attu ( Vern . Mullett, fig. 3), the short gullet opens into a

wide stomach, capable of being stretched to a considerable extent. The intes-

tine after the duodenum, becomes bent upon itself and then wdth one con-

volution passes backwards to the anus. In Cyprinidae , e.g., Cirrhina inrigala

(Vern. Mori, fig. 4), the gullet passes into a long tubular stomach, and the

intestine is convoluted like a watch spring. The intestine, if fully extended,

measures many feet in length.

Hamid Khan, The Punjab Fisheries Manual, 1930, p. 12.

Day, F., Ind. Med. Gaz., Vol. vi, 1871, pp. 5-8 and 26-29.

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

The Punjab with all its rivers, canals and jhils is essentially a fish

producing tract of country. Its fisheries extend from the junction of the five

rivers to almost every place where water exists in any quantity even high

up in the hills. Important fishing waters1 in the Province are the following: —

1. The Indus River and its tributaries, such as Chel, Haro, Reshi,

Soan, Chablat, Saggar, Nandra, Shakardara Fatehjung Sil, Wadala and

Pindigheb Sil, Sohan, Kurang, Leh and Ling in Attock and Rawalpindi Dis-

tricts. These are mostly Mahseer waters.

2. The Jhelum River with its tributaries, and canals with their heads

at Mangla, and Rasul. Tangrot, the famous Mahseer sporting resort is on

the River Jhelum in Kashmir State territory.

3. The Chenab River and its tributaries, such as Nalas, Palkhu, Dhan,

Sabskot, G-adgor, Lunda, Tawi, Bhimber, Bhandar, etc., and its canals with

their Heads at Marala and Khanki.

4. The Ravi River and its tributaries such as Basantar, Aik, Deg,

Bhed, Sakki, Naumani, Naluha, Ujh, etc., and its canals with their Heads

at Madhopur, Balloki and Sidhnai.

5. The Beas River and its tributaries, the ‘Trout Waters’ in Kulu

such as Sarbarri, Sainj, Tirthan, Parbatti, Chhaki, Fojal, Nashal, and Uhl

streams; and Mahseer streams of Kangra Valley e.g. Binnun Khad, Uaj

stream, Baner Khad and Chaki Nala.

6. The Sutlej River and its tributaries such as Karnali Gad, Kajo

Gad and Kurpan River, Buddha Nala, and its canals with their Heads at

Ropar, Ferozepore, Suleimanki and Panjnad.

7. G-haggar, Jaiya, Markanda, Tangari, Sarusti and their tributaries

in Ambala and Hissar Districts.

8. Right Bank of the Jumna River near Tajewala weir and its tribu-

tary Somb Nala, near Dadhupur; and the Western Jumna Canal near Dadhu-

pur Regulator, which lie in the Punjab.

Fisheries in the Districts of Montgomery, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Jhang,

Lyallpur, Mianwali, Shahpur and Sheikhupura are leased annually, while .

in all the other districts yearly individual licenses are issued for nets as

well as for rod and line.

A fairly large collection of the food fishes of the Province has been made :

and observations on their habits and habitats have been recorded from

various streams. Arranged according to their relative economic value the food

fishes2 of the Province may be included in the following families : —

1. Cyprinidae (Carps).

2. Siluridae (Cat-fishes).

3. Ophiocephalidae (Murrel).

4. Salmonidaa (Trout).

5. Notopteridae .

6. Rhynchobdellidae (Spiny Eels).

The classification followed in this paper is that of Dr. Day, but the nomen-

clature. of. the fishes has . been corrected according to the recent researches,

and synonyms are given where necessary. Local names of the fishes, given

here, vary in different localities.

" Family: Cyprinidae.

Cyprinidae or Carps with scales on their bodies, one dorsal fin and without

teeth in their jaws, are well-represented in all the rivers of the Punjab. They

have wholesome, well-flavoured flesh, though bony, and are considered excellent

food. Arranged according to their relative economic value the following genera

represent the food fishes of the Province : —

1. Labeo (Cuvier).

2. Barbus (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

1 Hamid Khan, The Punjab Fisheries Manual, 1930.

2 Coloured illustrations of some of these fishes appear in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvi (1932), pp. 29-66, ‘G-ame Fishes of Bombay’ by Sir

Reginald Spence and :S. H. Prater.

tiABifs And habitats of food fishes of The Punjab 65?

3. Cirrhina (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

4. Catla (Cuvier and Valenciennes).

5. Aspidoparia (Heckel), Bleeker.

6. Barilius (Ham. Buch.).

7. Chela (Ham. Buch.).

8. Orelnus (McClelland).

9. Garra (Ham. Buch.).

10. Scaphiodon (Heckel).

Genus : Labeo.

Labeo rohita ( Vern . Pohu, Tapra, Dhambra ) occurs in all the rivers, streams

and dhans of the Province in the plains and never goes up to the hills. It feeds

on weeds and vegetation, and takes a bait of wheat flour mixed with spices. It

is a very active fish. It is often seen jumping clean over the nets of fishermen

with considerable force and velocity. It breeds during the monsoon, in July

and August, and is a prolific breeder. A ripe female of 10 lbs. contained

1,905,000 ripe eggs. The egg measures 1-5 mm. and is non-floating. It swells

to 3 or 4 times its size by the absorption of water by the vitelline membrane

and hatches out in less than 30 hours. During the rainy season as soon as the

streams are flooded, these fishes run up to shallow waters to spawn, and after

laying their eggs they fall back into dhans or jhils or side streams, which,

after the floods, are cut off from the main channel. From these dhans these

fishes are caught in nets in large numbers.

It grows to 3' or more in length, and is one of the best edible fish of the

Province. Its flesh is wholesome and well-flavoured. If is good for stocking

tanks. Common in the market.

Labeo gonius Ham. Buch. (Vern. Seereha), is another Carp of the plains,

common in Sutlej and Beas rivers. It breeds during July and August, and

is a prolific breeder. The egg measures 1-5 mm., is non-floating and swells

to 3 times its size as soon as it sinks. It hatches out within 24 hours in a

temperature ranging from 78°F. to 82°F. It grows to 2' or more in length

and is considered excellent food. It is good for stocking tanks. Common in

the market.

Labeo calbasu Ham. Buch. (Vern. Dhai, Kalahan, Kalbons, Di), occurs in

the plains only and is readily recognised by its blackish colouration. It spawns

during July and August and is a prolific breeder. A ripe female, weighing

4 lbs., contained 739,400 eggs. It attains 2/ or more in length and is good

eating. Common in the market.

Labeo diplostomus Heckel (Vern. Gid ), occurs in the submontane streams,

but never goes up to snow-fed streams, and is found in Mahseer waters of

Kangra, Gurdaspur, Rawalpindi and Jhelum Districts. It breeds during the

monsoon. It grows to 1' or more in length and possesses wholesome but bony

flesh; eaten by the local inhabitants.

Labeo microphthabnus Day (Vern. Bhangan ), occurs in the plains as well

as in the submontane streams. Its snout is smooth without any groove. It

breeds in the rains, during July and August, is a prolific breeder. A single

ripe female contained 6,105 eggs per lb. of its weight. It has bred successfully

in the tanks and its fry often move in shoals. It grows to 18" or more in

length, is good eating but bony, and is consumed locally.

Labeo sindensis Day (Vern. Gheri, Gher ) is another hill Carp, but comes

down in the canals and is often caught in the plains. It is silvery in colour

with a reddish tinge, and reddish fins. It grows to over 1' in length, is good

eating but bony. Consumed locally.

Labeo dijochilus McClell. (Vern. Butal, Paratha, Dhai , Torki, Kunni), also

belongs to submontane streams and is often found in tanks fed by canals. It

breeds during the rains, in July and August. It grows to 2' or more in

length, is considered excellent as food, and is eaten by the local inhabitants.

Labeo nigripinnis Day (Vern. Kali or Bagi Machhi ), is found in Mahseer

waters and is common in Attock, Rawalpindi and Jhelum Districts. It grows

to over a foot in length and is eaten by the local inhabitants.

10

6§8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV H

Genus : Barbus.

Barbus tor Ham. Buch. ( Vein . Mahsir, Bhor, Chiniaru, Chitratu, Machh,

Ghaur, Khakliiaru ) represents the Mahseer of sportsmen, and includes many

different varieties in the Punjab. A collection is being made from different

localities to ascertain their chief characteristics. The Mahseer occurs in all

the hill tracts of the Punjab, but is not met with in snow fed streams, where

the temperature falls below 60°F. in summer. In the Beas it goes up to

Mandi State, but so far has not been recorded from Kulu. Sanctuaries in

Kangra are its favourite resorts and it frequently breeds there. During winter

it travels down as far as Multan and Mozaffargarh, but as soon as the water

gets warmer, it begins to ascend the hill streams.

Its sex organs and fry are being collected from various streams to study

its breeding season. Fry of all sizes are found in abundance in the hill streams

of Kangra, Gurdaspur, Bawalpindi, Attock, Jhelum and Hoshiarpur Districts;

Biver Beas near Dera Gopipur (Kangra District) ; Kavi near Muktesar and

Madhopur; Biver Chenab above Marala Head; Biver Jhelum above Basul Head

and at Tangrot; Chablat, Sohan and Kurang streams in Attock and Bawalpindi

Districts are the best fishing streams and localities for Mahseer.

Barbus tor feeds on insects and aquatic vegetation. It takes artificial fly

and spoon and likes wheat flour as well. In ponds and tanks attached to

sacred places, they become easily domesticated and are fed on wheat flour.

It is a very active fish and can leap over obstacles. It grows to 3' or more

in length and is said to reach 200 lbs. in weight.

Barbus hexastichus McClell. ( Vern . Lubar, Chitratu, and Barbus chili-

noides McClell. (Vern. Chitratu), resemble Barbus tor in general habits aiid<

are found in Mahseer waters. They have been caught from the Biver Bavi .near

Muktesar and from Kangra streams. They attain 2 or 3 feet in length, are con-

sidered excellent food, and are consumed locally.

Barbus sar ana Ham. Buch. (Vern. Kharni, Khangni, Kangrota, Karati,

‘Olive Carp’)- occurs in all the rivers and streams in the plains as- well as;

in submontane streams. It is a prolific breeder and lays its ' spawn in shallow

waters during, the- monsoon, in July and August. Bipe females have been

easily stripped. The hatching takes place within 20 hours in water -where the’

temperature ranges from 78°F. to 82°F. It grows to about a foot in lnpgth.

It is' good eating, ' but bony.

Genus: Catla.

Catla catla 1 Ham. Buch. (Vern. Theila, Theil) occurs in all the rivers^ and

streams in the plains. It is a prolific breeder. A ripe female weighing about

10J lbs. contained 400,275 ripe' eggs. It spawns during the monsoon, in - July

and August, and its fry have often been found in shallow pits left after the' floods

have subsided. ‘It is a very strong and active animal, and often leaps over

the nets of fishermen with great force and velocity.’1 2 It grows to 3 feet- or

more in length and has a very wide girth, hence the local name Theila, Theil

(i.e. like a bag). It possesses rich, sweet and well-flavoured flesh and is not

bony. ‘The head is very fat and delicious and the flavour of the whole is

excellent when the size is moderate . • . but when large it acquires a rank

taste. ’3

Genus : Cirrhina.

Cirrhina mrigala Ham. Buch. (Vern. Mori, Morakha, Naraini, Mirgal)

occurs in all the rivers, streams and canals in the Punjab. It

is a vegetable feeder, but has no objection to taking a bait of worms. It

is a prolific breeder, and a ripe female weighing about 3| lb. contained 216,800

eggs. It spawns during the rains, in July and August. As soon as the

streams, rivers and tanks are flooded by the first monsoon flood, the fish

1 S. Baj, Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xii, 1916, p. 254.

2 Ham. Buch., Fish., Ganges, 1822, p. 287.

3 Hamid Khan, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix, 1924, p. 258.

HabiTs and habitats of food fishes of the Punjab m

run up the shallow water in flooded fields and side streams, females followed

by males, play together, come in contact with each other, and the female lays

its eggs while the male pours its milt at the same time. Very often the fishes

have been heard to make a guttural sound, as if calling their mates. Since

there is an immense waste of eggs and fry, Nature has provided these fishes

with an enormous power of reproduction. The egg measures 1-5 mm., is non-

floating and swells to 3 or 4 times its size as soon as it sinks. The hatching

takes place within 24 hours in temperature ranging from 78°F. to 82°F. It

breeds successfully in tanks and ponds if they are flooded during the rains.

It grows from 8 to 10 inches in its first year, and reaches 14 inches in the

second, becoming mature in its third year. It grows to 3 feet or more in

length and is one of the commonest and the cheapest carp in the Province.

It possesses white, well-flavoured flesh and is considered excellent eating.

Cirrhina reba Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Sunni), is a smaller representative of

the genua. It is common in all the rivers and streams and breeds during the

monsoon. It is a prolific breeder, and a half-a-pound female contained 3,200

eggs. It attains a foot in length. It is eaten, by the local inhabitants but is

bony.

Genus : Crossochilus.

1889, Cirrhina latia Day, Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, p. 279.

Crossochilus latia1 Ham. Buch. (Vern. Taler, Golu, Dogru, Mura ) is com-

mon in all the hill; streams of the Punjab and is found sticking to stones like

a loach. It grows to hardly 8" in length and is often caught in Kangra by

means of Kalerni2, a horse-hair noose. It is eaten by the local inhabitants.

Genus : Aspidoparia.

Aspidoparia morar Ham. Buch. (Vern. Chilwa, Chal, Reta, Gachal )

or chilwa of the Punjab, occurs in almost all the rivers and is often

seen jumping out of water in large numbers just below the canal weirs. It is

migratory in its habits and runs up in shoals in March in search, of its breed-

ing grounds, and descends in October after spawning. In the Beas Biver,

near Gurdaspur, where it is known as Reta or Gachal, it is caught in March

and October by diversion of the water. When chilwa are running up stream

in shoals, the fishermen select side stream and stop it both up and down stream

during the night. A screen made of reeds, known as chipli, which allows the

water to run through, but stops the fish, is placed in the lower bund. The

water is then diverted into a new channel just before dawn. The water be-

tween the bunds is drained off and the stranded fish are collected in large

quantities.

Aspidoparia morar breeds in April and May. A female caught on 31st March

contained fully ripe eggs. It reaches 6 or 7 inches in length and is used

as bait. Its bones are soft and it is fried whole. Its flesh is rich, wholesome

and well-flavoured and it is said to possess nourishing and invigorating quali-

ties. It is consumed locally.

Genus : Barilius.

Barilius vagra Ham. Buch. (Vern. Chilwa, Chal, Lohari) occurs in the hills

as well 'as in the plains and is also called Chilwa. It is migratory in habit

and has been caught in all the rivers and canals. It attains 5 1 ‘ or more in

length. It is very rarely caught by the fishermen, as the regulated mesh of

their nets is 1J inches square or 6 inches all round and such small fishes escape

through it. It is good eating.

Barilius bendelisis Ham. Buch. (Vern. Chilwa, Chal ) resembles B. vagra in

its habits and attains 6 inches or more in length. It is good eating.

1 Vinciguerra, Anier. Mus. Stor. Nat. Genova, xxix, p. 246, pi. vii, fig. 4,

and Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii, p. 183.

2 Hora, S. L., Journ., Proc. As. Soc. Beng. (New series), Yol. xxii, 1926,

No. 1, pp. 81-84.

660 JOURNAL , JBOMMY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV it

Genus : Chela.

Chela gora Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Chilwa, Chal) is another Chilwa of the

Punjab. It possesses a long, flat, silvery body, with cutting abdomen, up-

turned mouth and concave lateral line. It occurs in all the streams and is

very often near the canal weirs. It moves in shoals and is migratory. It

attains 9 or 10 inches in length, is used as bait and is good eating when

fried. It is seldom caught by the fishermen as it passes through the mesh

of their nets. It rises to fly.

Chela bacaila Ham. Buch. (also Chilwa, Chal or Parranda ) occurs in all

the streams. It reaches 1 1 1 or more in length, and is used as a bait. It is

good eating.

Genus: Oreinus.

Orienus sinuatus 1 Heckel. (Vern. Gulguli, Saloh, Galda, Slaon) or Hima-

layan barbel is one of the hill carps possessing very minute scales.

It is the only indigenous fish that occurs in the Kulu Valley and

is found in the Beas Biver as far down as Mirthal where the

hills end. Further down in the plains no one knows it. During winter in

Kulu, it is not found in waters eblow 50°F. In the Bavi Biver it comes up

to Madhopur and very often goes down the canal as far as Dhariwal. Its

mouth is inferior and the lower lip is well- developed and forms an adhesive

sucker to enable the fish to adhere to rocks and live in rapid hill streams.

Bipe females have been caught from April to October, which is its breeding

period, and fry seen with yolk sac from April to December. In the last

week of April newly hatched alevins have been found in a spring in Kulu, and

in November a ripe male has been caught. In August a ripe female caught

in Fojal Nal in Kulu in temperature 60° F. yielded eggs quite easily. Eggs

measure 2 mm. or 11 to the inch, and when left in water they swell to the

size of 5 mm. A 2J lbs. female, 17" in length contained about 15,000' eggs.

Orienus sinuatus creeps over stones, eating the green vegetation which covers

them and also the small cadis larvae which are attached to them. It takes

a worm in clean water, and is said to like mulberries. It grows to at least

2' in length. It is good eating, but bony. ‘It is too rich for some people,

but does not deleteriously affect those used to it.

Genus: Garra.

1919. Discognathus jerdoni Var. kangrae Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus. xviii,

p. 74. Garra gotyla 2 Gray (Vern. Kurka, Dhogun) is a hill carp and occurs in

abundance in the Kangra hill streams. It possesses a suctorial disc on the

chin, formed on the lip, which enables it to adhere - to rocks. It attains at

least 8" in length and is often caught by a horse-hair noose (Kalerni) in

Kangra. It is eaten by the local inhabitants.

1872. Discognathus lamta Day, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xli (2), p. 318.

Garra monti-salsi1 * 3 4 Hora, occurs in the streams of the Salt Bange., Punjab,

and has been collected from Choa Saidan, Shah streams. It is eaten by the

local inhabitants.

Genus : Scaphiodon.

Scaphiodon reading P Hora, occurs in the Salt Bange streams and is com-

mon in Choa Saidan Shah. In the adult, the colour is dark-grey above, yellow-

ish underneath. The young ones are golden yellow in colour with indistinct

dark bands on the dorsal surface. In many specifnens, the snout, anal fin,

and posterior sides of the body are covered with a regular series of tubercles

which are of parasitic origin.5 Bipe males and females have been caught in

April and June. It reaches at least 1' in length and is eaten by the local

inhabitants.

1 Day, F., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, i, p. 249.

* Hora, S. L., Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii, 1921, p. 653.

3 Hora, S. L., Rec. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 378.

4 Hora, S. L., Rec. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 397, pi. viii.

5 Prashad, Rec. Ind. Mus., xviii, p. 160 (1920).

HABITS AND HABITATS OF FOOD FISHES OF THE PUNJAB 661

Family : Siluridae.

Siluridae in the Punjab are all scaleless and are known as Cat-fishes. They

have one to four pairs of barbels. They prefer muddy to clean waters, and

are all carnivorous, having teeth in their jaws and palate. They also possess

strong dorsal and pectoral spines, which are usually serrated or toothed, and

often cause poisonous or irritating wounds if handled carelessly. Siluridae of

the hills are small in size and often possess an adhesive apparatus on throat

and chest to enable them to adhere to rocks.

Siluridae in general are not considered ‘to be very wholesome,1 either being

too rich or too hard and indigestible, whilst their flavour is inspid.’ The

small branched intermuscular bones present in Cyprinidae, are absent in Siluri-

dae. They are common in all the rivers and streams of the Punjab, and

some of the species in the plains reach a large size. On account of their

cheapness they are much in demand by the local inhabitants. Arranged accord-

ing to their relative economic importance they include the following edible

genera : —

1. Rita (Bleeker).

2. Wallago (Bleeker).

3. Ooria (Jordan).2

4. Pseudeutropius (Bleeker).

5. Eutropiicthys (Bleeker).

6. Callichrous (Ham. Buch.).

7. Silundia (Cuv. & Valen.).

8. Blyptothorax (Blyth).3

9. Saccobranchus (Cuv. & Valenc.).

10. Sisor (Ham. Buch.).

Genus : Bit a.

1889. Rita buchanani Bay, Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, i, p. 165.

Rita rita Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Khakka, Trikunda) occurs in all the rivers

and streams. It has three strong spines and is thus locally -known as trikunda

(three -spined). It is very tenacious of life and can be carried alive to long dis-

tances wrapped in a moist cloth. It makes a quaking or grating sound by the

movements of its strong pectoral spines in their sockets, while a guttural sound

is produced if the ventral surface of the living fish is pressed. This is due

to the air in the air-bladder being pressed out through the mouth and gill

clefts. This can be verified if the fish is put under water and its ventral surface

pressed, air bubbles issue from the mouth and from, underneath the operculum.

They prefer muddy to clear water and possess six long barbels, which they

employ in moving about, and consequently have less use for their eyes, which

are comparatively very small in the adult. One specimen, caught from Biver

Bavi, near Lahore, was healthy in all respects but totally blind. During winter

they conceal their heads in crevices of stones or fallen trees and are often caught

by divers, who catch them firmly between their three spines and do not permit

them to move. When annoyed they raise their spines and often inflict ugly

wounds.

Rita rita is carnivorous and feeds mostly on insects, their larvae and on

young fishes. It also feeds even on carrion. It takes live bait, worms, chilwa

or raw meat. Bipe females have been caught in June and July and successfully

stripped. Many males caught from the Biver Jhelum (temperature 62 °F. to

68°F.) were spent up in June. Testes are branched, comb-like, and are full

of milt. During the breeding season which lasts from June to the end of

July, it migrates to colder waters and moves in shoals. It is a prolific breeder,

a ripe female weighing 1 lb. contained 3,000 eggs.

1 Day, F., Rept. Fish and Fisheries, Fresh Water, Ind. 1871, p. 47.

2 Jordan, D. S., Genera of Fishes, iv, p. 567 (1919).

3 Blyth, Journ., As. Soc. Beng., xxix, 1860, pp. 153, 155, and Hora, Rec,

Ind, Mus., xxiv, 1922, p. 33.

662 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.- SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

It attains 3' or more in length, though the specimens commonly obtained

are 1-2' in length. It is very common in the River Ravi and its tributaries.

The flesh is rich and firm and its soup is said to possess nourishing and in-

vigorating qualities. It is to be avoided in places where it is a foul feeder.

Genus : Wallago.

Wallago attu Blotch & Schneid. ( Vern . Mulee) is one of the so-called ‘Fresh-

water Sharks’ of the Punjab. It has an elongate body, deeply cleft mouth,

extending behind the eyes, and formidable rows of teeth in the jaws and vomer,

and bites viciously if handled carelessly. It inhabits both fast and sluggish

waters, and is common in all the rivers and tanks. It is not only carnivorous,

feeding on fishes, their eggs and fry, but a voracious and foul feeder devouring

carcasses. It is considered to be one of the scavengers of the rivers and feeds

both during day and night. Just below the canal weirs, where chilwa abound

it may be seen chasing them all day long. Near Ropar (River Sutlej) a

family of professional fishermen gave up their profession as they found in the

stomach of a Mulee the arm of a child, which they recognised by the gold

bangle on it to be the arm of their own child, the body of which they had

thrown in the river the previous day. Seshachar and Das1 record a nearly fully

grown mud snake, Cerberus rhynchops, inside the stomach of a 22-22-75" long

Wallago attu, obtained from Caluctta market. The snake measured 25" in

length and 1.5" in girth.

The spawning season of Wallago attu lasts from July to August. As soon

as the streams or tanks are flooded by rains, they run up the shallow waters

and lay their spawn. Ripe females are easily stripped. Eggs are yellowish

in colour and each measures 1.5 mm. As soon as they sink in water they

swell to double their size. Embryo differentiates in less than 12 hours and

hatches out in from 14 to 24 hours, depending upon the temperature of the

water. A newly hatched embryo possesses a long yolk sac, and show’s lobular

projections at the antero-ventral end of the head, which grow to form the

barbels. The yolk sac is soon absorbed and the fry wander about, attack each

other and begin to prey upon the eggs and fry of other fishes.

Wallago attu grows to 6 feet or more in length. It thrives in tanks but

its culture is to be avoided on account of its carnivorous habits. It takes

live bait, worms, chilwa or raw meat. Its flesh is not well-flavoured but on

account of its cheapness and the'" absence of tiny bones, it is very much in

demand in the Province and is eaten cooked or fried.

Genus: Aoeia.

1889. Macr'ones seenghala Day, Faun. Br. Ind. i, p. 150.

Aoria seenghala Sykes. (Vern. Chaija, Singoa, Singharee, Seengala) occurs

in all the streams and rivers, and flourishes in tanks as well. Its . maxillary

barbels extend to the middle or just beyond the hind margin of the dorsal fin,

while in Aoria aor (Ham. Buch.) they are much longer and reach the base of the,

caudal fin. It breeds during June and July. Ripe females have been caught in

June. It is carnivorous and feeds on eggs and fry of other fishes. It grows to

3 feet or more in length, while Aoria aor is said to attain 6 feet in length. Its

flesh is firm and sweet, but decomposes rapidly if kept long without being

salted. Considered excellent food. Common in the: market.

Aoria cavasius Ham. Buch. (Vern. Tingara), and Aoria tengara, Ham.

Buch. (Vern. Kingar or Tingara) are smaller varieties. The former2 is said to.

attain 18" though the specimens caught measure 6 to 8 inches, and the latter

4 or 5" in length. They are common in submontane streams and are eaten

by the local inhabitants. In a specimen of Aoria tengara, caught in -the

River Ravi near Madliopur, the maxillary barbels reach beyond the anal fin

and the adipose fin commences immediately behind the first dorsal.

1 B. R. Seshachar and B. K. Das, Proc. 18th Indian Sc. Cong. 1931, p. 229,

2 Day, E., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, i, pp. 155-156, >

HABITS AND HABITATS OF FOOD FISHES OF THE PUNJAB 663

Genus : Pseudeutropius.

Pseudeutropius garua Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Bachwa, Dhuan, Dhunga, Baikiri,

Karad) or Bachwa occurs in all the rivers of the Province. It is

migratory in habits, and its movements have now become restricted

owing to the erection of the canal weirs. Only a few years ago numerous

Bachica could be seen in the Biver Jhelum just below the Basul Head Works,

but now their number is considerably reduced. It is common in the Biver

Jhelum above Basul Head and in the Biver Sutlej near Ferozepur and Bopar.

It is caught on long line or rod and line from March till the end of October.

Bipe males and females have been caught from June till the beginning of

August. Mature females can easily be stripped. The testes, comb-like and

swollen with milt yield their contents with slight pressure. During the breeding

season from March, they ascend the cold waters to spawn in a temperature

ranging from 62 °F. to 68°F. in the Biver Jhelum. They move in shoals and

lay their eggs in shallow parts of '•the main stream. It is at this time that'

they are caught and killed in large numbers. Bachwa are carnivorous and feed

on insects and their larvae, crustaceans and small fishes. In clear waters they

take a fly or a small spoon and in muddy and flooded waters, especially from

May to August, worms, pieces of raw liver or clotted blood from an excellent

bait. Dorsal and pectoral spines often cause severe wounds if handled care-

lessly. It grows to 2' or more in length. The adipose fin is absent in the

adult. One of the best food fishes of the Province. Possesses wholesome and

well-flavoured flesh and is without any intramuscular bones. Bachwa is com-

mon in the markets of Ferozepore and Jhelum in the months of March to

August.

Pseudeutropius murius Ham. Buch. (Vern. Pahari, Bachwa, Gulgut ,

Karad) possesses an adipose fin throughout its life. There are 8 bar-

bels and their length is generally variable and differs from that

given by Day.1 The nasal ones reach a distance behind the poste-

rior edge of the orbit, the maxillary reach the commencement of the ventral

or extend to a short distance beyond the end of the pectoral. Mandibulars are

as long as, or a little shorter than, the head. It occurs in the submontane

parts of the river, and is common in the Biver Jhelum above Basul Head and

in the Biver Sutlej near Bopar, and in canals as well. It is migratory and

moves in shoals. It ripens earlier than Pseudeutropius garua, and ripe females

have been stripped successfully in June. Many females caught in the beginning

of July were spent. The temperature of water, where they spawn, ranges from

62 °F. to 68 °F. It is carnivorous and feeds on insects and their larvae and on

small fishes. Takes worm, chilwa., piece of raw liver or .clotted blood as a

bait. It reaches one foot or more in length, and one of the largest femafe

specimens, caught in the Biver Jhelum, measured 12-8". Its flesh is rich,

wholesome and well-flavoured.

Genus : Eutropiicthys.

Eutropiicthys vacha Ham. Buch. (Vern. Jhalli,. Challi , Bachwa, Bargin',

Dhungan, Dhuan, Baikiri, Baiki) is another Bachwa. It has got a pointed

snout and the cleft of the mouth extends to the posterior margin of the orbit.

There are 8 barbels. The nasal barbels extend a short distance beyond the

posterior margin of the orbit, the maxillary reach the middle of the preoper-

culum and the mandibular extend upto or a little behind the cleft of the mouth.

It occurs in all the streams and is migratory. It moves in shoals. Its

favourite resorts are the Biver Sutlej near Bopal, Ferozepore, and the Biver

Beas near Talwara, Mirthal and Naushera. It is carnivorous, lives on insects,

their larvae and on small fishes. It takes a 2' spoon, clotted blood, raw liver

and raw meat. It attains a foot or more in length and is considered excellent

eating.

Day, F., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, i, pp. 139-140.

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Genus : Callichrous.

Callichrous bimaculatus Blotch (Fern. Pallu, Pafta. ‘Butter Fish’) occurs

in all streams and is common in tanks. It has no adipose fin and possesses

a long anal fin. It feeds mostly on insects and their larvae. Bipe females

have been caught in August. It breeds during the rains, in July and August.

It reaches a foot and a half in length. It is considered excellent eating and is

one of the so-called Butter Fish.

Callichrous pabda Ham. Buch. is a smaller species, reaching 8 or 9" in

length. It is good eating, but females with ripe eggs are to be avoided

during their breeding months, July and August, as they produce nausea when

eaten.

Genus : Silundia.

Silundia gangetica Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Silund ) is another fresh-water shark

and a scavenger of the rivers. It occurs in Jumna, near Tajewala weir, and has

not so far been recorded from any river in the Northern Punjab. It is carni-

vorous and voracious. It grows to 6' in length. The flesh is not whole-

some, but owing to its cheapness and absence of intramuscular bones, it is

much in demand locally.

Genus: Glyptothorax.

Glyptothorax pectinopterum McClell. (Vern. Mochi, Nao, Nai, Dhobia,

Juppah, Nungrari, Kuggar, Pahari, Khagga) is a hill Cat-fish with horse-shoe-

shaped adhesive apparatus on the chest which enables it to adhere to rocks.

It occurs in the hill streams of Kangra, Gurdaspur and Jhelum districts and

often gets down the canals. If is less than a foot in length and is eaten by

the local inhabitants.

Glyptothorax coniostre Steind. is another mochi or ‘Cobber fish’ differing

from G. pectinopterum in having a wider mouth, a narrow head, broader barbels,

and more elongated and adhesive apparatus. It occurs in Kangra and other

hill streams. It reaches 8 or 9' in length and is eaten by the local inhabitants.

Genus : Saccobranchus.

Saccrobranchus fossilis Bloch. (Vern. Singhi, Naulahi, Naulahhi) is the

much-dreaded ‘Scorpion Fish’, and occurs generally in sluggish waters, streams

and tanks. ‘It possesses accessory respiratory chambers in the shape of long air

sacs, with vascular walls, lying internally to the trunk muscles and passing

backwards close to the vertebral column.’1 They are visible if the fish is

dissected from the dorsal surface.

‘Wounds from its pectoral spines are poisonous, cause fever and inflamma-

tion’.2 Immersion of the fisherman’s hand, wThen the wound had been caused,

into 10 per cent formalin for a quarter of an hour gave great relief and checked

the inflammation. The fish is killed and the spine broken before it is removed

from the net. It breeds during the rains. The colour of the eggs is pea-

green. They fry are of reddish colour. The fish grows to V or more in

length.- Its flesh is said to possess invigorating qualities. But in the Punjab,

these fishes are as much dreaded as snakes and are eaten by the poor and low

caste people only.

Genus : Sisor.

Sisor rhabdophorus Ham. Buch. (Vern. Kirrla, Kirrlu) as one of the Cat-

fishes with osseous plates on the back. Its adipose fin is represented as a

short spine, with upper caudal ray elongated into a caudal filament. It attains

about 8" in length excluding the caudal filament, and has been caught from

the Biver Sutlej near Bopar, Deg Nala, and from streams in the Gurdaspur

district. It is seldom eaten, but it is said to possess nourishing and medicinal

qualities.

Day, F., Fish. Ind., ii, 1878, p. 439.

Day, F., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish , i, 1889, p. 126,

HABITS AND HABITATS OF FOOD FISHES OF THE PUNJAB 665

Family : Ophiocephalidae.

Genus : Ophiocephalus.

Ophiocephalus marulius Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Saul ) is one of the snake-headed

mud fish. It occurs in all the rivers and streams, prefers sluggish to swift

running water, and is common in tanks. It is carnivorous and has fine pointed

teeth in the jaws, vomer and palate. It lives mostly on small fishes, frogs

and tadpoles. It possesses a respiratory chamber in the head. When the

tanks or ponds become dry it burrows under the mud and remains there till

fresh water releases it from its confinement. It is monogamous. During the

spawning season, which lasts from April to June, a male and female make, near

the bank, a floating nest of weeds or grass cut with the mouth. Spawning

has successfully taken place in the Departmental tanks at Madhopur and Chhana-

wan. The reddish yellow eggs float and lie in the ‘nest’. Each egg measures

2 mm. and a single large oil globule in the yolk makes each egg buoyant.

The embryonic development goes on rapidly, but depends considerably on the

temperature of water. The eggs hatch out in 54 hours in a temperature

of 61 °F. to 79PF., and in 30 hours in 83°F. to 92°F. The nest is guarded

by the parents, and after a week or so the fry are taken out from the nest

in the company of the parents, which guard them zealously for about six weeks.

The fry swim together and frequently come to the surface leaving air bubbles,

and are easily distinguishable by their bluish-black ground colouration. As

soon as the fry begin to leave their parents and wander about, the parent

fish themselves begin to devour them, and those which escape continue the

progeny.

The colour of the adult varies with its* environment. It is dark dirty green

above, side-s yellowish green, belly bluish white. There are 6 to 7 distinct

black blotches over the lateral line with numerous pearly white spots. Pearly

white spots are also' present on the sides above the lateral line, and on the

dorsal, caudal and anal fins. Fins dark grey. There is a large black ocellus

with white margin at upper part of base of caudal fin. The ocellus1 appears in

fry ranging from 70 mm. to 90 mm. in length, age 7 weeks to II weeks, and

remains distinct till the second year, when the fish reaches 15-18" in length.

Afterwards it becomes indistinct and is lost in the dark colour of the caudal

fin. It grows to 4' in length. Flesh firm, white- and flaky, without any intra-

muscular bones, and with a wholesome agreeable flavour. It is considered

excellent food.

Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch. (Vern. Saul Daula ) occurs in sluggish streams

and tanks and has bred successfully in ponds. It breeds from April to June

and only once a year. It builds a nest or a receptacle near the banks and

both parents mount guard. The fry move in groups, followed by the parents,

and come to the surface to exhale air bubbles and are easily distinguishable by

their soft reddish brown colour. In the adult there are bands of grey on the

sides of the abdomen. It grows to 3' or more in length and is considered

excellent food.

Ophiocephalus punctatus Bloch. (Vern. Daula , Karrar, Dalunga ) cocurs in

all the rivers, streams, borrow pits, ditches and tanks. It burrows in mud and

prefers stagnant and muddy to running water. It is carnivorous. Breeds once

in the year, from April to June. It lays its floating eggs in a rude receptacle

along the banks and guards its nest and fry. Ground colour of fry black and

yellow. Often come to the surface to exhale air bubbles. It grows to a foot

or more in length and is eaten by the local inhabitants but is bony.

Ophiocephalus gachua Ham. Buch. (Vern. Dauli, Dhaunku ) is found in all

the rivers, tanks, ditches and borrow-pits. Burrows under the mud in ponds

which dry completely in summer, where it remains concealed till the rains

release it from its captivity. It is very tenacious of life and has been kept

alive out of water, and even carried long distances, for considerable lengths

of time. It is carnivorous and destroys eggs and fry of other fishes. It is

1 Hamid Khan, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxx, 1925, p. 534.

666 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

monogamous and breeds from April to June. When spawning1 the pair lie

submerged in clear but sluggish water without any nest or receptacle. The

female turns upside down and the male lies above it crosswise, so that their

genital pores are in close contact. Two or three hundred eggs are liberated at

intervals of a minute or so, and the fish remain in the same position and

at the same place till all the eggs have been laid. The male pours its milt

at the same time. Eggs are floating. They rise to the surface of the water

and spread there. The fish use their fins all the time to keep their balance.

The eggs yellowish in colour, measure 1-5 mm. in diameter. The eggs and

fry are guarded by the parents. The fry frequently come to the surface and

are easily distinguishable by their yellowish broWn ground colour. Ocellus

with light edge on the dorsal fin mentioned by Day2 is present in specimens

of 1J inch to 2 inches] in length. It attains a foot or more in length. It is

eaten by the local inhabitants, but is bony. Its soup is nourishing.

Family: Salmonidae.

Genus: Salmo.

Salmo fario3 Linnaeus, or Brown Trout was introduced : into the Punjab

from Kashmir in 1909 in the form of eyed ova and were hatched in Kulu.

From small beginnings the culture of trout has progressed satisfactorily and

wild trout are now breeding in many streams in the hills. The Brown Trout

thrives in clear, cold, rapid, snow-fed streams. It is active in its habits and

leaps over obstructions. It feeds on insects and on their larvae, worms, molluscs

and small fishes. In ^hatcheries they are fed on slugs, snails, worms, minced

meat, goat liver and fresh fish mixed with wheat or maize flour. Spawning

begins in November and continues till February. The eggs measuring 4 to

6 mm. in diameter, are yellowish or reddish in colour. They are deposited a £

intervals in crude ’ nests excavated by spawning fish and covered over with

gravel. In the Department Hatcheries at Mahili (Kulu) fish are stripped from

November to February as they ripen and ova after being fertilized are placed

in trays in ova sheds. It takes 2 to 7 weeks, depending upon the temperature

of water, for the eyes to appear. These eyed ova are quite hardy and can be

moved without danger and sent to far off places. After 6 weeks more, the

eggs are hatched out and 4 weeks later the fish begin to feed. By May and

June the fry are collected from rearing ponds, taken in carriers and let into

streams. Over a lac of fry are planted annually in the Beas and its branches

in Kulu. Bivers and streams in the Punjab stocked with Brown Trout include

1. Bavi Biver in Chamba.

2. Beas Biver in Kulu and its branches.

3. Uhl Biver in Mandi State.

4. Baner and Gaj streams in Kangra and various other streams in Simla

Hills.

Brown Trout in the Punjab have been reported to have reached 16 lbs.

in weight.4 The biggest hen fish in the pond near Srinagar (Kashmir) , which

was probably the mother of the first ova that came to Kulu weighed, when dead,

16 lbs. 1 oz. Brown Trout are one of the finest game fish, take artificial and

natural fly and worms. Its flesh, wholesome and well-flavoured, without any

intramuscular bones, is considered excellent eating. Its sale is confined to Kulu

Valley only.

Salmo chasta5 Jordan is Salmo irridens or Bainbow Trout of most writers

and especially of fish culturists. It is, however, not Salmo iridens 6 (Gibbons),

1 Hamid Khan, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix, 1924, p. 961.

2 Day, F., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, ii, p. 364.

* Howell, G. C. L., Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiv, 1915, p. 317.

4 Mitchel, F. J. , Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiv, 1915, p. 371.

5 Jordan, Evermann and Clark, Rept. U.S. Comm., 1928, B.F. 1055, p. 58

and Jordan, D. S., Fishes, 1925, pp. 320, 321, figs. 230 and 231.

6 Gibbons, Proc. Calif. Aceda. Nat> Sci.,- i, 1855,

HABITS AND HABITATS OF FOOD FISHES OF THE PUNJAB 667

which is based on coastwise* specimens. Five thousand Rainbow Trout ova

were imported from Kashmir in 1920, but only 992 arrived to hatch out in

Kulu. Out of these only 57 fry survived in the Hatcheries. In 1922 they

came into season and were stripped, but the results were not satisfactory .

The temperature of water in Kulu ranges from 33°F. to 38°F. in winter and

58 °F. in summer, and it appears to have proved unfavourable for Rainbow

Trout, which in their natural conditions are usually found in waters varying from

38°F. in winter to 70°F. in summer. They can live in water with compa-

ratively higher temperature if it is plentiful and running with a strong current,

and are found in swift running streams.

The Rainbow Trout breeds from January to February and lays its eggs in

round or elongate nests, made on gravelly bottoms by the parents. The eggs

sink into the nests and lie there protected until hatched. In the Departmental

Hatcheries the fish are stripped from January till the middle of March. In

May and June the fry are carried in tin carriers and put in the streams.

Streams so far stocked in the Punjab are:

1. Beas in Kulu and its tributaries.

2. Luni Khad, Gaj, Baner and Binun streams in Kangara.

Rainbow Trout is a superior game fish and has wholesome, well flavoured

flesh and is esteemed excellent as food.

Family : Notopteridae.

Genus : Notopterus.

Notopterus cliitala Ham. Buch. ( Vern . Pari, But , Moh) occurs in

all the streams, rivers and tanks in the plains. It has a laterally

compressed body, and often swims on its side. It is carnivorous

with teeth in jaws, vomer, palate and on the tongue as well. Ripe

females have been caught in June. They breed in June and July. Eggs

measure 3 mm. to 4 mm. each and are glutinous,1 and adhere to objects on

which they are deposited and are fertilized by the. male at the same time.'

During the laying and hatching the parent fish is said to guard its nest. It

is said to grow to 3' in length. ‘The belly is uncommonly rich and well

flavoured but the back contains numerous small bones, and a strong prejudice

exists against this fish as food, owing' to its being supposed to live on human

carcases.’2 In the Punjab, however, there is no objection to the eating of this

fish. It is not very common in the market.

Notopterus3 notopterus Pallas grows to 2' and occurs in all the rivers and

streams in the plains. Its belly is eaten, the dorsal portion is bony.

Family : Rhynchobdellidae.

Genus: Mastacembelus.

Mastacembelus armatus Lacep. (Vern. Barn, Groj, Sample Machhi) is

regarded as one of the local Eels with spines on the back. It has a long cylin-

drical body and is very slippery. It occurs in all the rivers and tanks. It is

carnivorous and has minute teeth in the jaws and is very destructive to eggs

and fry of other fish. In the adult, the colour is brown above and

yellowish on the abdomen. In the young there are three black bands passing

from the eye backwards. The black band in the middle is on the lateral line.

It is broad and becomes wavy posteriorly. It attains 2' or more in length.

Specimen caught from Chhanawan Fish Farm measures 27-7" in length. In

the Punjab, these spiny eels are considered to be as repulsive as snakes and

are eaten only by low caste and poor people. The flesh is firm and tough and

is said to be heating and invigorating.

1 Southwell and Prashad, Rec. Ind. Mus., xvi, 1919, p. 217.

2 Hamilton-Buchanan, Fish, Ganges, 1822, p. 382.

3 Pallas, Spicil. Zool., vii, 1769, p. 40; Weber, Fishes, Indo-Austr. Arch.,

iii, 1913, p. 9; Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus., xiv, 1918, p. 53.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

Mastacembelus pancalus Ham. Buch. is a smaller variety of spiny eel, at-

taining 7 inches in length and is occasionally caught on rod and line, and

does not form an article of food.

Genus : Bhynchobdella.

Rhynchobdella aculeata 1 Bloch, is another representative of this family.

Only two specimens have so far been obtained from the River Sutlej measuring

151 mm. and 116 mm. respectively. There are four well defined ocelli having

a white edge at the base of the soft dorsal.

1 Day, F., Faun. Br. Ind. Fish, ii, p. 331.

NOTES ON COORG BUTTERFLIES.

BY

Lt.-Col. W. M. Logan Home.

It may be of interest to members of the Society who collect butterflies to

know of my experiences in Coorg during the season 1932-33.

The monsoon that year was distributed over a longer period than usual,

in fact the S.-W. Monsoon was merged into the N.-E., so that rain conti-

nued into November, which undoubtedly had an effect on the appearance of

butterflies. The usual post-monsoon hatch out was very much smaller than

usual, some species appeared off and on throughout the period in markedly smaller

numbers, wdiile many species were conspicuous by their absence. Others,

recorded by Yates as appearing in September-October, were not seen till the

end of December to February. I have followed J. A. Yates’ list in the

order and naming he gives in vol. xxxiv, No. 4, and vol. xxxv, No. 1, to

make comparison easy. (Many of the names and numbers have since been

altered in Evans’ latest edition.)

The district worked out was practically the whole of Coorg with the

exception of the Tittimatti area and the Brahmagiris.

The period was from July 1932 to February 1933.

The species can be conveniently divided into 4 groups.

1. Those seen or caught throughout the period.

2. Those seen or caught between July and October, mostly W.S.F.

3. Those seen or caught between November and February, mostly

4. Those not seen at all.

Group I. — Those seen and caught throughout the year.

A. Papilionidae.

A. 2. 100. Byasa a. aristolochiae.

A. 4. 19 0. Papilio selenus daksha.

A. 4. 25a-. Papilio polytes romulus.

A. 6. 2a. Zetides sarpedon teredon.

A. 6. 3 0. Zetides doson eleius.

A. 6. 8 a. Zetides agamemnon menides.

B. PlERIDAE.

B. 1. a. Leptosia nina nina.

B. 6. 2. Delias eucharis.

B. 11. 1.

11. 2. Catopsilia

11. 4.

11. 5.

B. 19. 0. H. glaucippe australis.

B. 15 Terias { ,ibUhea, bfanda siluetana.

1 v. venata, hecabe simulata,

crocale.

pomona Not as common as crocale.

pyranthe nina.

florella. Not as common as pyranthe.

C. 2. la. D. a. aglea.

2. 7. D. limniace.

2. 12. D. plexippus.

2. 14. D. chrysippus.

C. Danaidae.

D. Satyridae.

D. 2. 9a. Mycalesis p. typhlus f W.S.F. from August to November.

,, m. polydecta \ D.S.F. from November to February.

D. 22. 1. Melanitis leda ismene.

D., 24. Parantirrhoea marshalli. Bare. A few seen here and there in the

wate’ from August to February. Only 3 taken.

670 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, voi. xxXvll

F. Nymphalidae.

F. 18. 3. ct.

Urti Ghat.

F. 26. 6. ct.

26. 3. 2 . 0.

30. 1.

2.

F. 35. 6.

F. 41. 0.

49. 1. a.

2(3.

Euthalia lepidea miyana.

Neptis hylas varmona

Nepds hordonia.

Hypolimnas misippus.

Hypolimnas bolina.

Precis ephita pluviatis.

Cupha erymanthis maja.

Ergoiis ariadne indica.

Ergolis m. merione.

Common all over the ghats.

H. Lycaenidae.

H. 14. Id. Castalius rosimon. Not common.

H. 15. 2. Tarucus theophrastus nara. Not common.

H. 75. Cheritra freja jaffra.

I. Hesperidae.

I. 1. 6.

I. 20. Y (3.

I. 20. 9.

I. 25.

I. 26. 3:0.

1. 58. 5d.

I. 61. 2d.

I. 67.

I. 105. 4.

Badamia exclamationis.

Tagiades obscurus athos.

Tagiades litigiosa vajuna.

Coladenia indrani indra.

Sarangesa d. davidsoni.

Aeromachus pygmaeus.

Iambrix salsala luteipalpus.

Sancus pulligo subfasciatus.

Taractrocera c. ceramas.

Group II. — Those seen and caught between July and October only (during

the rains).

A. Papilionidae.

A. 1. Troides minos. Plentiful from July to . October, after which it dis-

appeared.

A. 2. 8‘0 Byasa jophon pandiyana. Scarce. Only seen and caught during

July to August, all those seen only flew in dull or actually rainy weather.

A. 2. 9. Byasa hector. Plentiful from July to October. It disappeared,

like T. minos, after October.

A. 4. 10. Papilio p. polymnestor. Plentiful.

A. 4. 10d. P. paris tamilana. Plentiful. None seen after October.

A. 4. 14. P. huddha. Not uncommon, mostly low down.

A. 4. 16. P. dravidarum. Scarce. Only one caught. This species ap-

peared for a very short period, end July to August.

A. 4. 26 ci. P. d. liomedon. Scarce. Only one caught and very few seen.

C. Danaidae.

C. 1. 1.0. Hestia 1. maiabarica. Not uncommon from Urti upwards.

D. Satyridae.

D. 15. 1. Zipoetis saitis. Not uncommon in ‘wate’, not seen after October.

D. 25. Id. Elymaias h. caudata. Scarce, a few seen and caught in August

to September; low down.

F. Amathusiidae.

F. 20. 0. Parthenos s. virens. Not uncommon from August to October

after which it disappeared.

F.24. 7 0. Limenitis procris undifragus. Well distributed all over the

ghats, but nowhere common. A difficult species to catch.

H. Hesperiidae;

H. 105. .2*0. Taractrocera m. flaccus. Very rare, only one seen and caught

on 15-9-32. ‘

Notes on cooro Butterflies

671

Group III. — Those species seen and caught, between October to February ;

after the rains.

A. Papilionidae.

A. 3. 5 p. Chilasa clytia clytiaj Scarce, a few seen, mostly dissimilar,

v. dissimilis. \ low down on ghats.

A. 4. 27 a. Papilio d. demoleus. Common.

A. 5. 6'p. Pathysa antiphates naira. Very scarce. 5 seen and all caught,

sitting among myriads of Appias a. darada at edge of river at Maukut, on

22-1-33, none seen previously to this date, though I had visited the place

frequently, expecting to see them.

B. PlERIDAE.

B. 7. 2. Prioneris sita. Scarce. A few seen above Vitecolli from October

onwards ; 3 caught out of a bunch of 10 sitting on wet sand on the Paiaswami

river at m. 13 ? on 27-12-32.

B. 9. 2ct. Huphina n. evagete. Common between Urti and Vitecolli.

B. 9. 3p. H. nadina remba. SS common from October on, the only

2 9 9 seen were taken by me on 20-10-32.

B. 10. 3a. Appias indra shiva. Scarce. A few seen near Vitecolli in Octo-

ber only.

B. 10.5 p. A. lyncida latifasciata. Very rare. One only seen (and missed)

sitting among a host of A. a. darada near Maukut. Curiously enough, I took

2 and saw others in my compound at Cannanore in June.

B. 10. 6p. Appias albina darada. First seen on 2nd October, after which

it disappeared till it reappeared in myriads at the end of December, all along

the river from Urti downwards.

9 var. semiflava. Scarce. Only a few seen and 3 caught on 22-1-33.

B. 10. 7*p. A. p. wardii. None seen till January when it appeared with

the last named in fair numbers.

B. 17. 1. Ixias marianne f Common from Urti to 2 miles' below

B. 17. 2‘p. Ixias pyrene frequens ( Vitecolli.

B. 18. Colotis. fausta. Seen and taUen about 1 mile above Urti in

November.

C. etrida and C. danae also seen at the same spot.

C. Danaidae.

C. 3. Euploea c. coreta Fairly common above Urti. .

r, . D. Satyridae.

D. 2. 3 a. Mycalesis a. anaxias. Very rare. Only one seen and caught,, on

Sampaje ghat at m. 13 on 29-10-32. I never saw any in the ‘wate’, where

Yates records it flying with Z. saitis ; though I combed out the area from

above Vitecolli right down to below Urti. I frequently disturbed D. 1. Jepida

but nothing else besides Z. saitis, and a very occasional Parantirrhoea marshalli.

D. 2. 32/3. M. p. junonia Only taken close round Vitecolli in November,

none seen there (or anywhere else) , before or after.

D. 3. 24a-. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis. Fairly common.

D. 3.25" p. L. drypetis todara. Very common round Vitecolli, but no-

where else. •

D. 16ct. 0. medus mandata. Commonest in the Eastern jungles from

November, to January; it swarmed in Nagerhole: in December. Aery few seen

on the ghat road.

D. 22. 2 p. Melanitis phedima varaha. Not met with till October, when

2 or 3 W.S.F. were taken near Vitecolli; later on, in November, D.S.F. were

common at the same spot, and also at m. 13. Sampaje ghat.

D. 22. 3a,. Melanitis z. gokala. Bare. Saw and took a few on the Sam-

paje ghat road in December.

E. 10. 3’p. Discophora I. lepida. Not uncommon. First seen near Urti

at end of October; fresh specimens caught up to 22-1-33.

F. Nymphalidae. •

F. 1. 2' p. Charaxes polyxena imna. Bare. Only 2 seen, one on Sampaje

ghat, sitting on shingle, and one, also sitting on shingle, at Maukut. A diffi-

cult insect to catch.

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiSf. SOCIETY, VoL XXX'Vll

F. 1. 7 0. Cliaraxes I. fabius. Eare. Only one seen and taken, on human

excreta at roadside, below Urti.

F. 2. let. Eriboea sch. wardi. Very rare. Only one seen (and missed)

sitting on cowdung in middle of the road below Urti.

F. 2. 2 0. Eriboea a. agrarius. Common from December onwards, mostly

from Urti downwards.

F. 6. 8 0. Apatura p. atacinus. Eare. One $ taken on Sampaje ghat on

27-12-32. No others seen.

F. 18. 26 0. Euthalia e. laudabilis. Eare. One only seen on Urti ghat.

F. 25. Pantoporia ranga karwara. Eare. A few seen near Vitecolli in

November.

F. 26. Neptis c. nilgirica. Eare. Only seen on Sampaje ghat.

F. 27. 4ot. Cyrestis th. indica. Common on the Sampaje ghat, only a few

seen on the Urti ghat.

F. 34. 1'0. Kallima philarchus horsfieldii. Eare. One or two only seen on

the Sampaje ghat in December, and one seen at Maukut in February.

F. 35. Precis. All seen, atlites the commonest.

F. 36. 1. Vanessa canace viridls. Not common. Mostly high up, Vitecolli

and above.

F. 42. 1. Atella phalanta. Fairly common.

F. 42. 2'0. Atella a. mercea. First seen on Sampaje ghat in October,

later found all over both ghats, but not high up.

F. 44. 0 Cynthia erota saloma. Eare. No 9 9 seen at all. None seen

after November.

F. 45. 4'0. Cirrochroa t. thais. This only appeared at end of October.

F. 47. 2'0. Cethosia m. mahratta. Eare. 9 9 especially so. Not seen

after November.

F. 52. Telchinia violae. Not common.

G. 1. 3*. 0. Libythea myrrha carma. Very local; appeared at beginning of

January, near Urti only.

G-. 4. 5-0. Abisara echerius suffusa. Not common, a 9 taken at Vitecolli

in November.

H. Lycaenidae.

With the exception of : —

Castalius rosimon.

Tarucus t. naira.

Cheritra f. jaffra.

The Lycaenids appeared in October and continued up to February, when

I left the area. Those not seen at . all are given in Group IV.

I. Hesperiidae.

I. 16. 13ct

I. 25. 2.

I. 31. 1.

I. 32. 1.

I. 34.

I. 56. 2.

C. 1. Ieucocera Eare. Only 2 seen and taken.

Col. d. dan. Not rare. From Urti to Vitecolli.

0. angulata. Not rare. Appeared early in December.

Caprona r. photiphera. Not rare. Low down on Urti road.

S. galba. Scarce. A few seen at Mercara in December.

Baracus v. hampsoni. Eare. One one seen and taken at Sam-

paje.

I. 62. la. Suastus gremius.

I. 74. &d. Notocrypta p. alysia. Eare. Only 2 seen at Vitecolli in Nov-

ember.

I. 74. 5. Notocrypta curvifascia. Eare. Only 2 seen at Vitecolli in

November.

I. 75. 10. Gangarat. thyrsis. Eare. One seen at Maukut. This species

is very common on the coast, large numbers used to arrive on the flowers of

the club garden at Cannanore after sunset, in January 1933.

I. 99. 4. Halpe hyrtacus. Eare. One taken on ‘ramtulasi’ at Vitecolli,

2 others seen at same spot, in November.

I. 106. 7. Padraona d. pseudomoesa. Scarce. A few seen and taken at

end of October near Urti.

I. 106 . 80. P. p. tropica. As above.

I. 108. 1. Telicota a. augias. Scarce. As above.

I. 108. 2d. Telicota p. bambusae. Common and well distributed.

NOTES ON COORG BUTTERFLIES 673

I. 115. 15 0. Baoris p. philippina. Eare. 2 caught and seen at end of

November at Vitecolli.

I. 115. 18a.. Baoris conjuncta narooa. Eare. One only seen and caught

at Mercara at end of December.

I. 115. 23. Baoris p. contigua. Scarce. One only seen and caught at Vite-

colli in December.

I. 115. 30 13. Baoris zelleri collaca. Not uncommon, from November on-

wards.

Group IV. — Those species not seen at all.

A. Papilionidae.

A. 4. 13. P. crino.

B. PlERIDAE.

B. 8j3. Beleuois m. mesentina.

B. 10. 4a.. Appias 1. libythea.

B. 20 2a.. Pareronia c. ceylonica.

B. 20. 3. Pareronia v. hippia. This species was taken by me at Can-

nanore, but not in Coorg.

C. Danaidae.

Danais d. nilgiriensis.

D. Satyridae.

D. 2. 11. Mycalesis igilia.

D. 2. 14. Mycalesis subdita.

D. 2.16(3. Mycalesis khasia orcha.

D. 2. 20. Mycalesis khasia adolphei.

D. 42. 3a. Lethe europa ragalva.

F. Nymphalidae.

F. 10. la. Euripus c. meridionalis.

F. 19. 10. Euthalia telchinia.

F. 18. 140. Euthalia g. meridionalis.

F. 18. 170. Euthalia I. arasada.

F. 18. 27. Euthalia nais.

F. 33. 0. Doleschallia b. malabarica.

F. 36. 1. Vanessa cardui.

F. 36. Vanessa indica pholoe. I searched the localities at Mercara in De-

cember (mentioned by Yates), but saw none.

F. 48. Byblia illythia.

G. 1. 2a. Libythea 1. lepitoides.

G. 4. 5a. Abisara echerius prunosa.

H. Lycaenidae.

H. 5. 4. G. biggsii.

H. 16. 30. Euchrysops p. pandava.

H. 20. 16. Lycaenopsis 1. lilacea.

H. 21. a. Chilades laius.

H. 22. la. Zizera trochilus putli

II. 32. 1. Azanus uranus.

H. 32. Azanus jesous.

H. 4 . 10. Iraota t. timoleon.

H. 47. 10. Horsfieldi a. anita. This species was abundant on the Kodai-

kanal ghat road in May 1932, but I never saw one in Coorg.

H. 48. a. Thaduka m. kanara.

H. 50. No Amblypodia seen except centaurus pirama and this was scarce,

though common at Cannanore.

H. 57. Apharitis lilacinus.

H. 58. No Spindasis seen at all.

H. 59. Zesius chrysomallus.

11

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVII

H. 61. No Pratapa seen.

H. 65. No Tajuria seen.

H. 82. No Horaga seen.

H. 83. C.e. myositina. This was not uncommon on the Kodaikanal ghat

in May, but I never saw it in Coorg.

H. 84. No Chliaria seen.

H. 88. No Deudoryx seen.

H. 89. No Virachola seen.

H. 90. No Rapala seen in Coorg, but I took R. schistacea in Malabar.

H. 92. No Bindahara seen.

I. Hesperiidae not seen.

I. 16.

1. 12.

1. 13.

Coorg.

I. 2.

I. 3.

I. 5.

I. 16. 1.

Coorg.

I. 16. 19.

I. 26.

I. 28.

I. 54. 0.

I. 57. 1.

1. 60.1.

I. 62. 3 .

I. 80.

I. 82. 10.

I. 82. 2.

I. 83.

I. 87.

I. 99. 8.

Hasora b. badra.

Hasora alexis.

Hasora t. taminatus.

Several taken in Malabar but not seen in

Ismene.

Bibasis

Rhopalocampta benjamini.

Celaenorrhinus ambareesa.

Taken on the Vaitri but not seen in

Celaenorrhinus ruf. area.

Sarangesa purendra.

Tapena thw. hampsoni.

Astictopterus j. olivasces.

Amphittia dioscorides.

Arnetta vindhiana.

Suastus rama bipuvetus.

Matapa aria.

Hyarotis a. adrastus.

Hyarotis basiflava.

Stys (Kineta) microstictum.

Plastinaga s. kanara.

f sitala,

astigmata.

honorei.

I moorei .

I. 99. 33d. Halpe homolea.

I. 103. Cupitha purreea.

I. 104. 1. Nicevillea concinna.

I. 104. 2. Nicevillea gola.

1. 115. 1. Baoris oceia farri. Takep in Malabar only.

1. 115. 5a. Baoris s. subochracea.

1. 115. 67. Baoris mathias.

1. 115. 14. Baoris kumara.

1. 115. 280. Baoris guttatus bada.

1. 115. 29. Baoris canaraica.

1. 115. 31 0. Baoris bevani bevani.

Halpe <

Points of special interest are the extreme rarity of certain species which

Yates recorded as quite common.

Such were (1) Mycalesis a. anaxias ; for which I searched all over Coorg,

but only obtained one specimen, on the Sampaje ghat, in October.

(2) Mycalesis p. junonia. This species was very common this year (1933)

in the Nilgiris, but it was scarce in Coorg in 1932-33.

(3) Apatura p. atacinus. This butterfly is common at Kodaikanal, but

I only saw and caught 1, a $ in Coorg.

(4) Cynthia erota saloma. This was quite common on the Manantoddy

Ghat road (Malabar), but it was rare in Coorg.

ON THE BIRDS SEEN OR COLLECTED BY MR. H. ST. J. PHILBY

DURING HIS - EXPEDITION TO CROSS THE RUB AL KHALI.

BY

N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u.

(Zoological Department, British Museum).

During his journey through the ‘Empty Quarter’, or the Rub al Khali,

Mr. Phil by collected a number of birds which were presented to the British

Museum by H. M. King ’Abdul ’Aziz ibn Saud of Arabia. They consist of

37 specimens belonging to seventeen species. In addition Mr. Philby kept daily

notes of the birds seen which he has included in his book The Empty Quarter,

and these notes I have extracted which, together with the specimens, form the

basis of this paper. Of the birds collected the Arabian Stone-Curlew, Cream-

coloured Courser, Houbara (also a winter visitor), Bifasciated Lark,

Arabian Black-tailed Lark and Raven are residents; the Desert- Warbler

is also probably a resident and perhaps the Aucher’s -Shrike. The remainder

— the Sparrow Hawk, Scops Owl, Hoopoe, Wagtails, Persian Short-toed Lark,

Eastern Desert Wheateater, Pied Chat, Persian Stone-Chat are either winter

visitors or migrants passing through to their breeding grounds further north.

It is unnecessary to give a description of the journey, since Mr. Philby has

given full details in his book, and in a more condensed form in the Journal of

the Royal Geographical Society, vol. lxxxi, pp. 1-26 as well as in the Times

newspaper. Eor those, however, who have not read any of these accounts

it will suffice to say that Mr. Philby started from Hufuf in Hasa on 6th

January 1932, and went S.-E. to the head of the Gulf of Bahrain, from there

S.-W. to the Jabrin oasis, thence more or less due south to about latitude 19°,

the furthest point south reached. The expedition then eventually went due

west to Sulaiyil which was reached on 15th March.

The monotony of desert travelling was frequently relieved by the presence

of desert warblers or bifasciated larks, but the sight of migrants on their way

north, especially on the march through the dead world of sand, was specially

pleasing and Mr. Philby describes how he was thrilled by the sight of a

hoopoe and a passing swallow. Then, after the final effort over the ‘waterless

waste’, as he calls the desert of the last five or six days of the journey,

Sulaiyil was reached and: — The Sarh trees in full bloom were a delight after

the treeless desert, standing 20 to 30 feet high, as also the acacias, adorned

with their charming yellow tassels. Birds sang or twittered in their branches

and swallows swooped low along the ground snapping, up the insects that

hummed gently among the flowers of spring. It was indeed a charming scene !

Mr. Philby unfortunately had very little previous experience in preparing

specimens, and it was no wonder that he found the skinning of birds a great

tax on the short time available at the end of each day’s march. Three or

four days after starting he came to the conclusion that he could no longer

prepare birds himself since, he writes: — ‘I had to do everything myself and

found in consequence that everything was falling sadly into arrears. Even my

journal was not up to date, and I was aware from previous experience that

arrears of work accumulated beyond a certain point can never be overtaken.

This applied frequently to the collecting of birds and mammals which had

either to be skinned when fresh or thrown away before they came too un-

pleasant. So far we had met with little to shoot except a few birds, but

most of these had been thrown away and I regretfully arrived at the con-

clusion that to make time for other things I must jettison the activities

connected with collecting anything that required skinning. Before doing so,

however, I decided, as a forlorn hope, to teach Sa’dan the very little I knew

about the art of skinning. So we struggled that night with the curlew, the

blind leading the blind, and after a day or two of similar joint efforts it

676 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

was he who took on the whole responsibility of preparing the specimens col-

lected during our wanderings !’

With the help of Sa’dan, his servant, Mr. Philby managed to get together

the collection of skins, indifferent perhaps as cabinet specimens, but sufficient

to show what species inhabit these desolate and arid regions. At Shanna,

the furthest point south reached by the expedition and about half way, un-

fortunately Mr. Philby ’s gun was put out of order and so no further speci-

mens could be obtained, but he continued to keep careful notes of all the birds

he saw. Mr. Philby is to be heartily congratulated on the collections he made,

in spite of the many difficulties and discomforts of desert travelling. In

addition to the birds he brought back 24 mammals, 81 reptiles and amphibia,

over 370 insects, a number of recent and fossil shells, many rock specimens,

several pieces of meteorites and a collection of plants, all of which have been

presented to the British Museum by H. M. King ’Abdul ’Aziz ibn Baud of

Arabia.

Burhinus oedicnemus astutus. Arabian Stone Curlew.

$ 10 January Jaub Ba’aij ; 11 January Jafura.

Native name. — Karwan.

Cheesman met with this Stone Curlew in the Jafura desert and shot one

at Salwa, where also Mr. Philby obtained an example on 11 January and

another at Jaub al Ba’aij on the 10th. Just south of latitude 20° at ‘Ain

Sala, in the Bub’ at Khali, tracks of a Stone Curlew were noted in the

vicinity of the camp and though the bird was never seen it appeared from

its tracks to have visited the camp every night during the five days’ stay.

Mr. Philby remarks that ‘its persistence suggested some attraction by the

water or moisture of the well area’ but since the well at this camp was a ‘dead’

one there must have been something else which was attracting the bird. Tracks

of another were seen further south in the Hibaka tract, but again the bird

itself was not seen.

The Arabian Stone Curlew ranges right across Arabia and in addition to

Cheesman ’s examples we have specimens from Mascat and two from the Amiri

district of the Yemen. Meinertzhagen collected two near Aden in January.

Beyond these limits it is found in Iraq, Southern Persia and Baluchistan.

Chlamyodotis undulata macqueenii. Houbara.

1? 4 February Hadida.

Native name. — Houbara.

In the appendix to The Empty Quarter I omitted to state that the Houbara

breeds in Arabia as well as coming there in winter. Mr. Philby found a

nest with four eggs on 10 April 1918 near Shauki, between Hafaral Batin and

Bujadh and Major Cheesman had three eggs given him, which were taken

between Hufuf and Bujadh on 14 February. He also saw tracks in Jabrin

in February. Of the Houbara in northern Jafura, Mr. Philby writes ‘Tracks

of bustard were observed quite frequently, but only once during these early

days did we have a distinct glimpse of the bird itself, which has now grown

very timid of man’s presence and is being rapidly thrust back into the more

inaccessible parts of the desert by the new habit of hunting with motor cars.

Ibn Jiluwi, like the King himself, decimates them at the rate of 50 or 60

a day in his shooting expeditions, and one wonders how long the bird, pre-

sumably a migrant to Arabia, where it breeds, will take to develop an aversion

for these parts of the country where cars can overtake their rapid flight’. We,

I regret to say, introduced this pernicious sport of hunting both gazelle and

bustard by motor car, and during the war in Iraq a general order was issued

forbidding the hunting of gazelle by motor car. Mr. Philby tells me that in

certain parts of Arabia gazelle have been practically exterminated through conti-

nual shooting from cars and the numbers of Houbara are bound to be affected

if this form of hunting is continued, unless the birds betake themselves,

as Mr. Philby suggests, to parts where they cannot be pursued in a car. But

the Houbara is not only hunted with motor cars since the Arabs still take it

in the old way by falcons and three so captured were presented to Mr. Philby

by a young Shaikh. In Southern Jafura tracks are also seen and at Sanam in

Wabar on 4 February fresh tracks were met with and ‘ Ali following them up

with my gun brought back the only specimen of the bird to be secured during

all our wanderings.’ Near Naifa, well in the middle of the Bub al Khali

BIRDS COLLECTED BY MR. PHILBY

677

tracks were seen abundantly, also in the Bani Jafnan district and at Unm al

Tina near the most southerly point reached by the expedition three were actually

seen. These records of actual birds and tracks have been given in full to

show that the Houbara ranges right across the Bub al Khali. This bustard

breeds in Central Asia, Baluchistan and Persia westwards to South Bussia and

Syria. In winter it moves south and is not uncommon at that season in north-

western India, while, though some breed in Arabia, the majority found there

in the cold weather are probably winter visitors. Stragglers not unfrequently

occur in Europe and four examples have been recorded from the British

Isles.

Cursorius cursor cursor. Cream-coloured Courser.

$ 19 December Ma’aizila (near Biyadh).

Native name. — Daraja or Darjalan.

This was the only specimen collected but Mr. Philby had previously met

with this species at Biyadh and remarks that ‘in Northern Jafura the Cream-

coloured Courser was fairly often seen but by no means as plentiful as I have

found it in other parts of the country’. A single example was obtained by

Col. Miles at Mascat. Cheesman met with it near Hufuf and it occurs near

Aden.

The Cream-coloured Courser breeds in the arid or semi-arid areas from

Algeria to N.-W. India and some in winter are found as far south as Somali-

land.

Vultures.

Native name. — Nasr.

In Northern Jafura a pair of vultures were seen which Mr. Philby was

unable to identify. He writes: — ‘A diversion was created by the appearance

of a pair of vultures (Nasr) at which Ibn Humaiyid had an unsuccessful shot

after some elaborate manoeuvring while ’Ali Johman, his close relative,

stoutly refused to try his prowess on such creatures. The Oryx-hunter, he

said by the way of explanation, does not go after such carrion. But it tran-

spired later that, in the days when he had studied religion seriously, his

teacher had discouraged the shooting of the unclean bird’. Major Cheesman

saw both the griffon ( G . fulvus) and the Egyptian vulture (N. percnopterus ) in

Hufuf.

Acquila sp. ? Eagle.

Native name. — ’ Agab .

Eagles are reported by Mr. Philby on several occasions, but unfortunately

no specimens were obtained. A pair were stalked and missed on the Esturary

of Jiban, one was seen in Jafura and another unsuccessfully approached above

the plain of Shuqqat al Ivhalfat. After Mr. Philby’s gun was out of action

one was observed at close quarters near Ziqirt, 15 miles from Naif a and again

in the Bani Jafuan, while in the Hibaka Qa ’amiyat district ‘afar off ahead

of us an eagle was soaring about in stately solitude, stalking food’. Cheesman

saw a very dark eagle at Jabrin chasing a hare, Yerbury and Barnes reported

the Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetus ) near Aden, but obtained no example,

while the latter author also records Aquila imperialis from the same locality,

but again was unable to confirm his observation by a skin. The only species

actually recorded from S.-W. Arabia is the Abyssinian Tawny Eagle ( Aquila

rapax raptor), which Meinertzhagen obtained near Aden on 13 April 1923.

Accipiter nisus nisus. Sparrow Hawk.

9 12 January Anbak.

Native name. — Shabbut.

At Anbak on 12 January Mr. Philby writes ‘Tamarisks also struggled

with reeds and palms for existence, and a pair of Sparrow Hawks (“Shabbut”!

seemed to have good hunting amongst the numerous warblers and small

creatures until one of them was stalked by Salih and shot at such close range

with my gun that its head was almost completely blown off’. Further north

at Hufuf Cheesman also met with a pair in November and on 10 April 1921

he saw one at Bahrain. To the southwards there are other records of the

■Sparrow Hawk — a male was obtained by Col. Yerbury at Lahej on 8 March

and he reported the species to be not uncommon in the Aden district, where

also Col. Meinertzhagen shot a female on 24 January.

678 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

This form of the Sparrow Hawk breeds in Europe and Western Asia and

some migrate as far south as the Sudan and Abyssinia.

Otus scops scops. Scops Owl.

.1-13 March Hidbat al Earsha.

Native name. — Qubaisa.

After crossing the waterless desert and the gravel plain the expedition

passed into a country still covered with gravel, but intersected with numerous

channels along which grew a dark green plant the ‘Harmal’ of the Arabs

( Rhazya stricta Dene.) and Acacia bushes. Here a Scops owl was found by

Salih in the deserted burrow of a spiny-tailed lizard (‘Dhabb’).

At Shanna on February 22 Mr. Philby heard a small owl, which he took

to be this species, but was unable to locate it.

The ‘Scops Owl is a migrant in Arabia and we have in the British Museum

an undated example collected by Col. Miles at Muscat, another obtained

by Barnes near Aden on 28 September and a female shot by Bury on 21 March

in the Amiri district. These are all the records for iS.-E. and S.-W. Arabia

I know of for this little owl, which breeds in Europe eastwards to Asia

Minor and Palestine and migrates south in winter as far as Uganda. It is

a rare wanderer to the British Isles.

Upupa epops epops. Hoopoe.

Native name. — Hudhud.

About the middle of the Sanam, on 4 February, a hoopoe was seen, which

Mr. Philby says gave him as great a thrill as the swallow in the Numaila

sands, he adds ‘Salih went in pursuit and after an elaborate stalk fired at it,

but the only result was to hasten its passage.’

According to Cheesman the Hoopoe does not winter in Hasa, but he noted

it on passage during March. In the Aden district however, it appears to be

a cold weather visitor and there are specimens or records of it in January,

February, March, July, August and September.

Motacilla alba subsp.? White Wagtail.

1?-15 March Sulaiyil.

Native name. — Aqaili or mislik.

This single example is not in sufficiently good condition to identify the

race, but probably it is the Indian White Wagtail M. alba dukhunensis , record-

ed by Cheesman as a common winter visitor to the Hasa oasis. He also

noted it at ’Uqair on 6 March, on the 29th at Salwa and again on 5 April

all of which he considers were probably migrants on their way north.

Meinertzhagen also observed small parties of this same face moving north at

Aden early in February, the movement continuing till about 25 April.

Mr. Philby records seeing wagtails in the desert on two occasions, which

may have belonged to this race. The first was on the second day out from

Naifa, at the close of a march of 27 miles through a particularly lifeless

region, described by Mr. Philby as ‘very depressing and only relieved by the

presence of a wagtail and a desert warbler’. The second occurrence was a

few days later during the crossing of Shanna when ‘a wagtail greeted us

with its unfamiliar chirrup and fled from us with graceful dives, but it was

the only sign of life in that waste scene.’

Motacilla feldegg feldegg. Black-headed Yellow Wagtail.

? 14 March, 2 [d] 15 March 1932 Sulaiyil.

Native name. — Sa'u d Sa'wa 9 •

These three examples were obtained at Sulaiyil after completing the desert

journey. According to Yerbury and Barnes, this species is occasionally met

with in the Aden Protectorate and we have in the Museum a female from thence,

shot by Chevallier in May 1885, as well as a male obtained by Messrs. Percival

and Dodson on 20 September 1899. Major Cheesman saw this wagtail on

migration at ’Uqair in March.

Suliva nana nana. Desert Warbler.

?9 6 February Sanam; 1-7 February Majari; 1-8 February Bani Jallab;

II February ’Ain Sala cl 12 February Adraj.

Native name. — Suwaiwala.

Cheesman found the Desert Warbler common in Jabrin and Mr. Philby

obtained specimens as far south as ’Ain Sala, latitude 19°57' N., right in the

BIRDS COLLECTED BY MR. PHILBY

679

middle of the Rub ’al Khali, some seventy miles north of his most southerly

point. He remarks that ‘it was interesting to see how these little warblers

tiy. from bush to bush almost invisibly in long graceful swoops close along the

ground — to avoid the keen eye of hawk or raven.’ While crossing the water-

less waste, after leaving Naif a, he records on 6 March that ‘the only living

thing we saw before our morning halt about 11 a.m. was a single Desert

Warbler.’ During the rest of the march the country became more and more

bare with only scattered abal bushes and very little (though still something) of

other plants.’ The absence of any life became very depressing and by the

end of the day’s march — twenty miles — only four birds had been seen, another

desert warbler, a wagtail and a single raven. On the next day the desert

was more lifeless than ever and all the plants were dry and dead, the only

sign of life being a swallow passing on migration, a butterfly and a desert

warbler while on the following day in similar drought-stricken country another

desert warbler was disturbed in passing.

This little warbler breeds in the desert parts of Eastern Persia and further

north in the Caspian region. It may perhaps breed in Arabia and Palestine

but there is no definite information. In winter it is found in Egypt, Palestine,

Arabia and N.-W. India.

Lanius excubiter aucheri. Aucher’s Shrike.

9 21 November 1931 Qai ’iya 3,500.

This single example was collected in Najd before commencement of the

journey proper. Mr. Philby saw a shrike at Slianna, the only one seen during

the crossing, which he thought was the same. This shrike is often confused

with L. e. palliderostris , but we have examples in the Museum from South

Jabrin (Cheesman), Muscat (Cox and Mills) and Aden and vicinity (various

collectors).

It breeds in Persia, Iraq, parts of Northern Arabia and Palestine migrating

in winter as far south as Somaliland.

Alaemon alaudipes doriae. Bifasciated Lark.

1 (J 2 9 , 25 January, Maqaimama; 9 27 January, Hawuja, , 1?, 31 Janu-

ary Tuwairifa; 1?, 1 February, Sa’afij ; 9 6 February Sanam.

Native name. — TJrnm Salim.

The Bifasciated Lark was met with at many places throughout the journey

and, along with the Raven and the Desert Warbler, was the most frequently

seen bird. It is found in the interior of the Rub al Khali as also are these

two species.

Apparently these larks were more often heard than seen and Mr. Philby

mentions time after time that he heard the piping note but could not make

out the bird. This is not to be wondered at since this lark must be very

difficult to see, on account of its sandy colour, as long as it keeps still. On

the march to Faraja, Mr. Philby writes ‘The only sign of life on the whole

march had been a single Bifasciated Lark, whose piping announced its pre-

sence long before I could detect it tripping along the ground out of our way.

In all these bare districts the desert birds seldom seem to take to their wings,

generally preferring to run along the ground which provides them with almost

perfect protection from birds of prey. A flying bird is often betrayed by its

dark shadow on the ground ! On 6 March Mr. Philby again writes ‘a pair

of larks piped at each other in the cool, still air of the morning, the notes of

the sexes being as I thought, very different.’ Later while crossing the gravel

plain the only living thing actually seen in that desolate waste was one of

these larks.

Calandrula rufescens persica. Persian Short-toed Lark.

9 23 January 1932 Summan camp near ’Uj 22°40' N. ; 1? 29 January 1932

Numaila 22° 56' N.

Native name. — Hamra.

This Short-toed Lark, which breeds in Persia, was obtained by Cheesman

at Umm-al Salar, Hufuf in January and December. In Mr. Philby ’s book

I recorded this lark as C. bracdyetta hermonensis , but the specimens have

since been cleaned and turn out to be the above species.

680 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Ammomanes cinctura pallida. Arabian Black-tailed Sand Lark.

9 (?) 22 November 1931 Khufaifiya, Najd; 9 14 January 1932 Jafura.

Native name. — Hamra.

Previous to Major Cheesman’s discovery of this small desert lark in Hasa

it was only known from the type, which came from Qunfida in the ’Asir Pro-

vince on the Bed sea littoral. Then in 1930 Mr. Thomas collected a specimen

in Dhufar and now Mr. Philby, besides obtaining an example in Jafura, also

procured one at Khufaifiya west of Biyadh. This bird is probably widely dis-

tributed over Arabia and two birds collected at the south end of the Bed Sea

in 1909 by Mr. Douglas Carruthers, appear to belong to this race. The two

specimens listed, I at first thought were darker than Hasa examples, but this

was due to the feathers being soiled with grease.

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis. Eastern Desert Wheateater.

$ 21 January Maquainama ; 2 J 31 January Tuwairifa; $ 2 February

Sa'afij.

Native name. — Umm Ghurair.

This Desert Wheatear nests in Central Asia and passes south in- winter to

North Africa and India, many wintering in Arabia. Stragglers have occurred

in the British Isles, in Kent and the Orkney Islands.

Bertram Thomas obtained one at A’ain water-hole on the edge of the Bub

al Khali in January and a second at Sa’atan in Dhufar on 30 February.

According to Cheesman this is the most plentiful wheatear in Jabrin during

the winter and he obtained specimens in November and February, while

Meinertzhagen found it common at Aden, where' Kalsal also collected a male in

February and near Lahej Percival and Dodson met with it in September.

Oenanthe leucomela. Pied Chat.

d\ [9] 15 March 1932 Sulaiyil.

Native name. — Bijri or Da'ja.

This specimen was brought to Mr. Philby at Sulaiyil after the desert

journey had been completed. Major Cheesman records Pied Chats on migration

at Jabrin, Bahrain and Salwa in February, March and April and there are

other records of it during the spring and autumn migration from Mascat, the

Yemen and the Aden district, where a certain number of birds appear to pass

the winter.

Saxicola torquata maura. Persian Stonechat.

15 March Sulaiyil.

Native name. — Busaiya.

This is the second record for the Persian race of the stonechat in Arabia,

Bury having previously obtained one at Majeilah, Yemen in April 1913. The

summer quarters are in the Urals and Caucasus.

Corvus corax ruficollis. Brown-necked Baven.

Native name. — Ghurab.

21 January Jabrin; $ , 9 25 January Numailu; , 8 February Hadh

Faris.

As already mentioned under the Bifasciated Lark, the Baven was one

of the three commonest birds seen during the journey, but even in the desert

it was a difficult bird to approach. In Northern Jabrin Mr. Philby records

that ‘whenever the camels were turned out to graze a pair of ravens circled

round them, perching now and then on their backs in search of ticks.’ He

attempted to secure one as a specimen ‘ Ali piloting me by a devious route,

but the birds of this desert are mistrustful of human beings and I had to

be content in the end with a distant, unsuccessful shot, after which we saw

our visitors no more.’ Two pairs were seen near Hadh Faris, one in the

vicinity of a new nest in which however no eggs had been laid in yet. Old

nests were seen at numerous places and on January 28 three unfledged young

were found at Madara. At ’Ain Sala ‘a pair of ravens circled round to witness

our arrival and remained in attendance, though at a discreet distance, during

our sojourn of five days from February 10th to 15th’. At times however they

almost forgot their fear of man and ‘occasionally they even ventured into our

camp during its somnolent moments.’

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

Figures copied from various works attributed to C. demersum L.

1. A Students' III. Irish FI. (1931), p. 19, fig. 7.

2. Families of Flowering Plants, I. Dicotyledons (1926), p. 95, fig. 17-c.

3. Deutsche FI. (Karstens) (1880-1883), p. 581, fig. 346, 6.

4. leones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, vol. vi (1853), t. 1948, i, 11 ( C .

muricatum Cham.).

5. Ibid., t. 1948, i, 9 ( C . muricatum Cham.).

6. Ibid., t. 1948, ii, 6 ( C . muricatum Cham.).

7. Ibid., t. 1948, iii, 3 ( G . tuberculatum Cham.).

8. Ibid., t. 1948, vi, 4 ( G . missionis Wall.).

9. Flora de Catalunya, vol. ii, p. 352.

OBSERVATIONS ON CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM

LINN.

BY

Charles McCann, f.l.s.

(With 2 plates and 2 text- figures).

Introduction.

The Indian species of Ceratophyllum have presented many

difficulties to the systematist, especially when in the shape of her-

barium material which is frequently without flowers or fruit. The

same is true of the genus Ceratophyllum in general. Hooker (11),

after examining all the material at his disposal, writes: ‘I have

failed in establishing species amongst the dried specimens of the

Indian forms of Ceratophyllum, but there are differences in those

figured by Wight, that require to be verified by living specimens,

and especially the single and bifid segments of the perianth, and

the truncate and bicuspidate connective of the anthers, I find great

variety in the fruit upon which species have generally been found-

ed, but in no Indian specimens have I seen the short lateral spines

which are characteristic of the European species or variety sub-

mersum’ . Hooker considers all the Indian material as one species,

namely, C. demersum L. and treats the species illustrated in

Wight’s leones (27) as mere forms. That there is but a single

species, is probably correct; I think, however, that Wight’s figures

do not represent forms, but certain phases in the maturation of

the fruit, as I shall endeavour to explain. Cooke (5) follows

Hooker in dealing with the Bombay material.

Hooker’s difficulty with regard to the perianth segments and

anthers can be explained. Owing to their delicate nature these

characters tend to disappear in dried material, and are easily over-

looked in fresh specimens. The difficulty arising from the absence

of the lateral spines may be explained by the fact that Hooker

had to do with either immature or damaged specimens, more likely

the former. Ascherson and Graebner (2) have attempted to split

the species C. demepsum into several groups based chiefly on the

characters of the fruit. My observations, however, cannot sup-

port such a division, and I totally agree with Muschler (22) that

‘several species and varieties have been proposed, based on the

spurs, spines, or wings of the fruit, but none of them seem to be

of any value’. According to the Treasury of Botany (19) ‘it varies

much in the shape and excrescences of the fruit, and has been

accordingly divided by some botanists into six or more supposed

species, more generally considered varieties’. There has been

much confusion regarding the true characters of the fruit of

C. demersum, as will be readily seen from plate I. We have here

several distinct types of fruit which are all said to be C. demersum,,

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

But surely, there cannot be such marked variations in the fruit

of a single species?

Observation and examination of living specimens of C. demer-

sum under natural and artifical conditions for a period of over a

year have shown many interesting details and given satisfactory

explanations for the ‘errors’ which have arisen with regard to the

flowering and fruiting. At first I experienced extreme difficulty

in determining the Bombay species owing to the meagreness of the

descriptions and the discrepancies in the drawings of the fruit.

My observations have led me to conclude that, (i) there is no wide

variation in the form of the fruit; (ii) many important details are

lost in herbarium material; and, (iii) several significant points have

been overlooked by previous workers. In order to facilitate the

explanation of the various items of interest I shall refer to them

under their respective heads.

In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to Rev. Fr. J. F.

Caius, s.J., St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for many valuable sug-

gestions and for consulting much literature in the College Library,

and to Mr. C. E. C. Fischer of Kew for copies of certain literature.

Synonymy.

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. Sp. PI. (1758), p. 992; Gaertn. Fruct. t.

44; Lindley Treas. Bot. (1876), p. 254; LeMaout & Decaine, Syst. Bot. (1876),

p. 735; Boiss, FI. Orient., v, 4 (1879), p. 1202; Karstens, Deut. FI. (1880-1883),

p. 581, f. 346, 6; Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind., v. 5 (1888), p.- 639; 0. Ktze., Bev.

Gen. PL, pars, ii, p* 644; Krause, Sturms FI. v. Deut., v. 5, p. 215, f. 48;

Cooke, FI. Bom. Pres. (1907), v. 2, p. 663; Muschler, Man. FI. Egyp., v. 1

(1912), p. 363; Merrill, FI. Man. (1912), p. 202; Haines, FI. Bih. & Or.

(1922), p. 841; Aschn. & Graebs., Syn. d. Mitteleurop. FI., v. 5 (1923), p. 538;

Fischer, FI. Madr. Pres., p. 1391; Herter, FI. Uruguay (1930), v. 4, p. 61.

apiculatum Cham, in Linnaea, iv (1829), 504.

aquaticum H. C. Wats, Topogr. Bot., i, 165.

asperum Lam., FI. Fr., ii, 196.

cornutum Beich. in Ann. Mus. Par., v, xvi (1810), 299.

cristatum Spruce ex K. Sehum. in Mart. FI. Bras., iii, 3 (1894), p. 748.

gibbum Laforet, ex Nym. Consp., 251.

missionis Wall. Cat. (1828), n. 7007; Wight & Arn., Prodr., p. 310; Wight

Icon. (1853), t. 1948, f. 4.

muricatum Cham, in Linnaea (1829), v. 4, p. 405, t. 5, fig. 6-c; Wight

& Arn., Prodr., p. 309; Wight Icon. (1853), t. 1948, fs. 1 and 2.

tricorne Dum., FI. Belg., 165.

tricuspidatum Dum., FI. Belg., 165.

tuberculatum Cham, in Linnaea, v. 4 (1829), p. 504, t. 5, f. 6-d; Wight

& Arn., Prodr., p. 309; Wight Icon., t. 1948, f. 3.

unicorne Dum., FI. Belg., 165.

verticillatum Boxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 68; FI. Ind., v. 3 (1832), p. 624;

Trimem, FI. Ceyl. v. 4 (1898), p. 120.

Description.

A much branched, rootless, submerged plant with stems ex-

ceeding 2 m. in length, when favourably situated. It frequently

grows in pure masses.

Leaves : The leaves are arranged in whorls of 8, 5-20 cm. apart;

fu^rtherest apart on the oldest stems and branches; 1-3 times

dichotomously cleft into filamentous lobes; up to 15 mm. long;

stiff and brittle, minutely toothed at irregular intervals, each tooth

OBSERVATIONS ON CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM LINN. 683

surmounted by a sharp transparent bristle, single and groups of

hairs are irregularly scattered throughout. The extremity of each

segment is surmounted by two sharp bristles. The colour (a

character used by some authors ) is variable, pale yellowish green

to dark green according to the age of the plants and the situation

they are growing in. The tassels of the young leaves are usually

paler, and frequently streaked with a reddish tinge. Dark green

is apparent when the plant grows old or when it develops in dense

shade (PI. II, fig. 2).

Male flowers : Solitary, in separate axils to the female flowers

and usually placed above them. When the plants are growing in

dense masses the male flowers are irregularly placed above or below

the female flowers and are only developed on the topmost branches

which are near the surface of the water and exposed to the maximum

of light. Involucre (PI. II,' fig. 7) composed of 6-12, narrow

lanceolate 2-fid segments with a transparent glandular appendage

in the sinus of the tips, somewhat longer than the depth of the

sinus. The bifid nature of the segments is frequently difficult to

discern as the tips stick together and are also apparently glandu-

lar. Below the tips are usually a few transparent bristles. The

tips are usually lost in the herbarium (PI. II, fig. 5).

Anthers : 1 *8-2-5 mm. long, ellipsoid, narrowed into the base,

subsessile; apex divided into two spinous incurved processes with

a short, transparent glandular process between (turning brown

with age). The shape of the anthers is not always constant due

to their respective positions and pressure. Anthers 8-30 in each

A B

Text-fig. 1. — Anthers of C. demersum L.

flower, pinkish. Anther lobes 2, imbedded in spongy air-contain-

ing tissue composed of ‘float’ cells. Some of the cells are filled

with a deep purple colouring matter giving the anthers the pink

tinge when viewed by the naked eye. The lobes dehisce by longi-

684 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

tudinal slits which are only seen on one side of the anthers, the

reverse is composed of a mass of ‘float’ cells. The anthers always

float with the lobes in contact with the surface of the water (PL II,

fig. 6 and text-figures 1, A, B).

Pollen: Copious, colourless, ellipsoid or reniform, with motile

circulating protoplasm within, giving the grains a rotary move-

ment. The pollen tubes are sometimes developed before dehis-

cence of the anther lobes.

Text-fig. 2. — Pollen grains of C. demersum L.

Female flowers : Perianth as in the male flowers. Segments

also as in the male. (Cooke (5) says not 2-fid). The tips and the

glandular appendage often adhere so closely as to give a non-bifid

appearance. Ovary sessile, 1-celled. Style curved as in PI. II,

fig. 3, but commences to straighten after fertilisation. The style

elongates in fruit and is surrounded by a continuation of the seed

coat throughout its length and eventually forming the apical

spine.

Fruit: The fruit (PI. II, fig. 4) is a small subsessile, ovoid or

ellipsoid, somewhat dorso-ventrally compressed nutlet (excluding

the spines). At the apex is a strong spine (already referred to)

and on either side near the base are 2 lateral spines (I have ob-

tained a specimen with 3 basal spines) tapering to a fine point,

6-7 mm. long. These spines generally grow straight (especially

in plants which are not in dense masses) but occasionally may

be curved, or somewhat abbreviated, possibly due to obstruction

when growing densely. The fruit is covered by a thin, smooth,

membranous, translucent outer coat (no tubercles or wings are

present). Seed 3-4 mm. long, ovoid, slightly compressed, hard,

brown, slightly longitudinally rugose along the margins or smooth.

The spines are formed as a continuation of the woody seedcoat

and frequently persist, but are generally broken off.

Habitat : G. demersum is a submerged herb of still fresh-

waters. It is exceedingly common throughout the islands of

Bombay and Salsette, frequently associated with other aquatic

vegetation, mostly Utriculana stellaris, but generally in almost

■l/T Tvm

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

1. A branch with fruit and <$ flowers in position. 2. Leaf. 3. Young fruit.

4. Fruit. 5. S flower. 6. Anther. 7. Segments of S involucre.

OBSERVATIONS ON CERATOPHY LLU M DEMERSUM LINN. 685

pure societies under the shade of overhanging trees where some

of the other aquatic plants cannot thrive. It may occur in deep

or shallow water. In situations which dry up during the hot

weather bulky masses may be found on the banks coloured grey-

ish white owing to a large deposit of lime within the tissues. As

one walks on them there is a crepitating sound like the snapping

of dry sticks; and if fragments be held they feel like a heap of

brittle glass fibres.

Distribution : Throughout the temperate and warmer zones of

the world: Europe, Asia, North and South America, Africa and

Australia.

Flowering and Fruiting: Under natural conditions, the

flowering and fruiting occur in August-November ; but the speci-

mens in my aquarium also flowered and fruited in April-May and

continued doing so till the beginning of the rains.

Development of the Fruit.

The young fruit is at first ellipsoid, like the ovary, without

any indication of lateral spines. The style begins to straighten

after fertilisation, forming the apical spinq together with the cylin-

dric elongation of the outer coat of the fruit which gradually creeps

up all round like a sheath. As growth proceeds two lateral

tubercles appear on either side of the base of the fruit which finally

develop into the two strong, but brittle, lateral spines. As already

indicated the fruit is covered by a thin outer coat. It is this

coat (pericarp) which has led to so much confusion in the diagnosis

of this species. At maturity this outer coat begins to disintegrate

and break up very irregularly and in different ways: —

(a) it may contract to form small tubercles or wrinkles giving

the fruit a tuberculate or rugose appearance :

( b ) it may split in different ways and flap over giving the

fruit a ‘winged’ appearance as figured by Wight:

(c) it may split down longitudinally to one side without dis-

integrating; the seed escaping from the slit.

This may all happen while the fruit is still attached to the

plant or after it has fallen off. At first I was inclined to believe

that the wings were algae adhering to the surface of the fruit;

but a careful examination soon dispelled this idea.

Considering the different/' modes the seed coat comes away from

the seed it is not difficult to account for the discrepancies in the

different drawing reproduced on PI. I. Fig. 1 is evidently the fruit

of C. submersum L.; fig. 2 I cannot account for; figs. 3, 7, 9 are

an approach to my own drawing; figs. 4-6 undoubtedly represent

fruit in which the outer coat has begun to disintegrate. Hence

a division of the species on a point of ‘winged fruit’ falls, as also

a separation based on the presence or absence of spines, which is

accounted for by the age of the fruit.

The fruit when ripe generally detaches itself from the plant

and being heavier than water sinks to the bottom.

Fertilisation.

Fertilisation in C. demersum affords curious and interesting

details. The male and female flower are borne on the same

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

branches, the males are generally protruded above the females.

Neither male nor female flowers are ever produced above the sur-

face of the water. The question naturally arises, How is ferti-

lisation affected? Delpino (21) recognised that Ceratophyllum was

one of the plants adapted for fertilisation under water, adding that

‘these require for cross-fertilisation that the stigma or the pollen-

grains, or both should be thin and filiform, and the pollen should

be abundant and of like specific gravity to the water’.

The large anthers are copiously provided with ‘float’ cells as

already indicated. They may either dehisce below the surface of

the water while still on the plant, or break away from the flower

in which latter case they float on the surface and then dehisce.

In the latter position the anthers drift about discharging their

pollen as they go. The pollen contains circulating protoplasm

which gives the pollen a rotary motion. This movement is not

continuous but interrupted, and gives the pollen the power of

mobility. As it sinks in water, the pollen falls on stigmas situated

below the male flowers, this naturally results in self-pollinisation

in so much as the pollen is from the same individual as the style.

However, Nature has provided for more than self-pollinisaiton. The

anthers which float on the surface do so in a particular manner,

with the sutures downwards. As they are blown about by winds

and conveyed by water currents they shed their pollen which

reaches ‘foreign’ stigmas, thus effecting cross-fertilisation. The

subulate styles are bent over in such a way (PI. II, fig. 3) as to

offer the greatest possible surface to a ‘rain’ of pollen. Here we

have an extraordinary adaptation of floral parts of submerged

aquatic plants to ensure fertilisation.

Summary.

So far as is known but a single species of Ceratophyllum occurs

within Indian limits. The confusion which has arisen with regard

to the status of the Indian species is explained by the fact that

species and varieties have beejn based on phases of the fruit

before and at the time of maturation. Another factor which has

contributed largely to this misunderstanding is a reference to her-

barium material which is generally imperfectly preserved. A refer-

ence to specimens preserved in formalin is always necessary when

describing species of Ceratophyllum as the delicate portions are

lost.

The fruit exhibits a series of developmental stages which have

led to much confusion in the determination of the species.

Fertilisation is effected by extraordinary adaptations of the

plant to pollinisation under water, particularly by floating anthers

and motile pollen grains which are of the same specific gravity as

water or nearly so.

Bibliography.

1. Adams, J. (1931), A Students' Illustrated Irish Flora, p. 19, fig. 7.

2. Ascherson and Graebner (1923), Synopsis der Mitteleuropaischen Flora,

vol. v, part 2, p. 638.

3. Boissier, E. (1879), Flora Orientalis, vol. iv, p. 1202.

OBSERVATIONS ON CERATOPHY LLUM DEMERSUM LINN . 687

4. Cadeval, J. and Salient, A. (1915-1932), Flora de Catalunya.

5. Cooke, T. (1907), Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, p. 663.

6. Engler Prantl. (1891), Pflanzenfamilien, vol. iii, t. iii, Ab. 2, p. 10.

7. Fischer, C. E. C. (1928), Flora of the Madras Presidency, p. 1391.

8. Haines, H. H. (1922), Flora of Bihar and Orissa, p. 841.

9. Hamilton, A. G-. (1887), A List of the Indigenous Plants of the Mudgee

District, Proc. Linn. -Soc. N.S.W., ser. 2, vol. ii, p. 276.

10. Herter, G-. (1930), Estudios Botanicos en la Region Uruguay a, vol. iv,

p. 61.

11. Hooker, J. D. (1888), Flora of British India, vol. v, p. 639.

12. Horwood, A. E. (1919), British Wild Flowers, vol. vi, p. 110.

13. Hutchinson, J. (1926), Families of Flowering Plants, I. Dicotyledons,

p. 95, fig. 17-c.

14. Karstens, H. (1880-1883), Deutsche Flora, p. 581, fig. 346, 6.

15. Knuth, P. (1906-1909), Hand Book of Flower Pollination (Trans, by

E. A. Davis), vol. i (1906), p. 68; vol. iii (1909), p. 390.

16. Krause, E. H. L. (1901), J. Sturms Flora von Deutschland, vol. v,

p. 215, fig. 48.

17. Kuntze, O. (1891), Revisio Generum Plantarum, part, ii, p. 644.

18. LeMaout, E. and Decaisue, J. (1876), System of Botany, p. 735.

19. Lindley, J. (1876), The Treasury of Botany, p. 254.

20. Merrill, E. D. (1912), A Flora of Manila, p. 202.

21. Muller, H. (1883), The Fertilisation of Flowers (Trans, by D. W.

Thompson), p. 14.

22. Muschler,E. (1912), A Manual of Flora of Egypt, vol. i, p. 363.

23. Post, G-. E., Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai, p. 745.

24. Eoxburg, W. (1832), Flora Indica, vol. iii, p. 624.

25. Stuhr, E. T. (1933), Manual of Pacific Coast Drug Plants, p. 148.

26. Trimen, H. (1898), A Hand Book of the Flora of Ceylon, vol. iv, p. 120.

27. Wight, E. (1853), leones Plantarum, t. 1948.

BIRDS OBSERVED AT FORT MUNRO, SUL AIM AN HILLS.

BY

H. W. Waite, m.b.o.u.

(Indian Police).

With Notes by Hugh Whistler.

Fort Munro is situated on the main Sulaiman range at an

altitude of 6,300 feet, and is about 50 miles from the Indus,

which here runs North and South parallel to the Range. It lies

within the Punjab District of Dera Ghazi Khan and is part of

the ‘political area’, a strip of hill territory marching with the

Loralai Agency of Baluchistan and administered separately from

the District proper.

The Sulaiman hills in this neighbourhood may roughly be de-

scribed as sandstone with occasional outcrops of limestone. The

station is a very small one, there being only about half a. dozen

residential bungalows, and nothing in the nature of a bazaar.

Immediately to the west, and some 500 ft. lower, is Khar, a

small, cultivated valley with a fruit and vegetable garden water-

ed by a spring. To the East, about 300 ft. below, are two tanks

known as Dames’ and Trimmu, the former of which provides water

for a small garden, while the latter boasts a spring from which the

station obtains its drinking supply. At these tanks, and other

smaller ones on the hillside, a few poplar and mulberry trees have

been planted, and at Fort Munro itself partial success has at-

tended efforts to grow the Blue Pine, Deodar, and Juniper. Other-

wise the neighbourhood is bare of trees, save for an occasional

stunted olive, and large areas are devoid even of bushes. Clumps

of Dwarf-Palm (Namiorhops ritchieana) are fairly common, and

here and there one comes across patches of a red-berried shrub

which the Baluchis call ‘pipal’ and a species of Grewia known

locally as ‘kirkok’. The Oleander is found in the numerous dry

water-courses, and after good rain there is everywhere an abun-

dance of grass. The rainfall in summer is much greater than in

the plains below, but even so only averages 10 ins. The winter

rainfall is inconsiderable; snow falls in small quantity in some

years. The night temperature in June averages 70° or under

and indoors during the day is seldom much above 80°. The cold

in winter is severe and aggravated by strong winds.

This portion of the Sulaiman Hills was toured in the seventies

by Professor V. Ball of the Geological Survey, whose notes on

birds which he observed there are to be found in Stray Feathers

(vol. iii, p. 204), The locality is also mentioned occasionally in

Ticehurst’s Birds of British Baluchistan (J .B .N .H.S., vols. xxxi

and xxxii).

The following notes are based on observations made for a few

days at the end of September 1930, a day at the end of the same

BIRDS OBSERVED AT FORT MUNRO, SULAIMAN HILLS 68§

month in the following year, and throughout June and July in

1932.

The nomenclature is that of the Fauna of British India , Birds j

Revised Edition.

I have to thank Mr. Hugh Whistler for much help and interest

in my observations and for the identification of all specimens

obtained. Notes which he has kindly made are appended within

brackets.

1. Corvus corax laurencei Hume.

Common and shares the scavenging of the place with Neophron and

Milvus . When, as was usually the case, a high wind was blowing these

birds would noisily chase each other and give a wonderful exhibition of aerial

gymnastics.

[A pair in moult sent clearly belong to this form.]

2. Argya caudata caudata (Dum.)

Eesident in small numbers. A nest found in a Grewia bush on! 4th July

contained two hard-set eggs.

[Two males, wings 83 and 85 mm., are very close indeed to A. c. eclipes

in colour and go better with that form than with the typical race.]

3. Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould).

Present in small numbers in the gardens and their immediate neighbour-

hood. A nest found in a Pine tree on 4th June contained three slightly in-

cubated eggs.

4. Oenanthe picata (Blyth).

Abundant in June, when numbers of young birds were still being fed

by their parents, largely on Grewia berries and those of the ‘ pipal' shrub.

Practically all specimens obtained, both adult and juvenile, were infested

with ticks about the head and neck. A nest still occupied was found on 7th

June. This was situated on a beam in the verandah roof of an empty bunga-

low and consisted of a shallow pad of grass on a substantial foundation of

stone chips. The chips averaged about the size of a rupee and had evidently

been carried up by the birds. There were three callow young in the nest,

one of them dead but showing no signs of decomposition. Several old nests

were discovered in holes in walls, rocks, and boulders, and in every case a

similar foundation of stone chips had been provided.

By the middle of July there was a marked decline in the number of these

birds, which had presumably started moving down to the plains. Odd birds

were met with at the end of September. CEnanthe capistrata was not seen

on any of my visits.

[Ticehurst informs us that the first birds reach Sind in July (J.B.N.H .S.,

xxxi, 707) and I met the first male in Jhang District in 1919 on 2nd August,

so it is evident that the decline in numbers noted at Port Munro by the

middle of July really represented the starting of the Autumn migration.]

5. Oenanthe opisitholeuca (Strickl.).

Adults and young birds were fairly frequently met with in June on the

same ground as picata, but their number was markedly less. They disappeared

at the beginning of July, and I did not observe any after the 4th of that

month. Doubtless some of the old nests seen belonged to this species.

[My earliest dates for the Punjab are August 15, 1915, at Gujranwala,

August 16, 1918, at Lalian, Jhang District, and August 15, 1919, at Jhang-

Maghiana].

6. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Lath.).

Apparently rare at Fort Munro. Only observed on two occasions, on 7th

June (two males) and 4th July (one male). No specimen secured.

7. Monticola solitaria longirostris (Blyth).

Single birds were met with on four occasions at the end of June. All

were juveniles. Not noted in September.

12

690 JOURNAL, BOM BAX NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

[These juveniles, all apparently males, have the wings respectively 121,

123-5, 125 and 125-5. They clearly differ from juveniles of M. s. pandoo in

being much paler, both above and below, and in having heavier beaks.]

8. Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche.

Common on passage in September.

9. Siphia parva parva (Bechst.).

A few were met with on passage in September.

10. Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swains.).

A male in chestnut plumage was obtained in the garden at Khar on 24th

September 1931. This was the only one seen.

1 1 . Lanius vittatus Valenc.

Common in June and July. Young birds were about in the middle of

June, A nest found on 13th June in a Deodar in the compound of an un-

occupied bungalow contained three slightly incubated eggs. Another nest in

an olive tree by the road-side held two fresh eggs on 26th June.

12. Lanius cristatus phoenicuroides Severtz.

A juvenile was obtained on 23rd September, 1931. No others seen.

[A migrant on its way to Africa by the Arabian route. It passes through

Sind in small numbers from mid- September to mid-October (Ibis 1922, p. 609).]

13. Agrobates galactotes familiaris (Menet.).

The only one seen •was obtained on 1st August, 1932.

[Also a migrant to Africa by the Arabian route. Ticehurst found in Sind

that its passage lasted for but a short time, 3rd to 24th September. The

earliest date for the Quetta Valley is 30th July.]

14. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth.

One was obtained at Khar on 1st August, 1932.

15. Hippolais rama rama (Sykes).

Sparingly met with on passage towards the end of July.

16. Sylvia hortensis jerdoni Blyth.

Observed on three occasions, on 26th June (a juvenile), 14th July, and

22nd July.

17. Sylvia althaea Hume.

The only one seen was obtained on 21st July.

18. Sylvia curruca affinis Blyth.

One was obtained on passage on 25th September, 1930.

19. Acanthopneuste nitidus nitidus Blyth.

One was obtained in the garden at Khar on 28th July, 1932. Common on

passage in September.

20. Scotocerca inquieta striata (Brooks).

A pair was obtained on 9th June. These were the only ones met with.

21 . Suya criniger striatula (Hume).

Abundant in June and July, when, its monotonous ‘song’ was to be heard

on . all. .sides. The organs of specimens obtained were in breeding condition,

but only one nest was found. This appeared to be ready for eggs on 18th

June, but wTas subsequently deserted. Seldom seen in September.

22. Pastor roseus (L.).

First appeared on the Autumn passage on. 27th June, when a fair-sized

dock was found resting in some pine trees, and a few were seen about the

hill on the two following days. On 5th July numbers were observed in a

fruit garden on the Kakhni plain (Loralai) below Khar, where they were

attacking the grapes. From the 14th until the end of the month numerous

flocks passed over Fort Munro every morning from West to East. They were

BIRDS OBSERVED AT FORT MUNRO, SU LAI MAN HILLS 69i

swarming on the date, palms and devouring the ripe fruit when I passed

through the Muzaffargarh District on 4th August.

23. Uroloncha malabarica L.

Not seen at Fort Munro, but two were obtained at Khar on 28th July.

These Munias were exceedingly numerous in a fruit garden at Bakhni on

5th July.

24. Passer domesticus sub-sp. ?

Common on each of my visits, nesting in buildings in June and July.

Very partial to the fruit of the few mulberry trees in the place.

[The two males measured, wings 75 and 75-5 mm., can only be attributed

to the race indicus, to which also I should therefore attribute two males from

Loralai with wings of 77 mm.]

25. Emberiza stewarti Blyth.

Met with in small - numbers at Fort Munro and the garden at Khar in

September.

26. Emberiza bruniceps Brandt.

A small party of what appeared to be Bed-headed Buntings rested in a

bush a few yards from me on 23rd July, but were off again before I had

time to secure a specimen.

27. Emberiza striolata striolata (Licht.).

First seen on 18th July when a male appeared in the compound of my

bungalow. By the end of the month these birds had become fairly common,

and their cheery little ‘song’ was frequently to be heard on the hill-sides.

The testes of males obtained were greatly enlarged.

28. Krimnocheiidon obsoieta pallida Hume.

Observed from time to time, singly nr in pairs, throughout June and July.

From the organs of specimens obtained they appeared to be breeding, but

I failed to find any nests. Noted as common in September, occasionally

nesting on the roof cornices of buildings.

[These birds seem to bleach rapidly and most skins in collections are

poorly made and greasy. From the series I have been able to examine I am

by no means satisfied that birds from the , north-west frontiers of India are

separable from those of north-east Africa.]

29. Hirundo daurica scullii Seebohm.

Common in June and July, nesting in the roofs of bungalow verandahs and

out-houses. Slightly incubated eggs were taken on 13th June, 14th July, and

2nd August, the clutch numbering two or three. Nests broken open were

repaired and more eggs laid. Not noted in September. 5 specimens were

obtained and are those referred to by Ticehurst in his note on this bird

(Ibis 1933, p. 547).

30. Motacilla cinerea caspica S. G. Gmelin.

A few, were observed in the neighbourhood of the tanks in September. A

solitary wagtail seen in a torrent bed on 24th July was almost certainly of

this species.

31. Anthus trivialis trivialis (L.).

A few were met with on passage in September.

32. Anthus sordidus decaptus Meinertzhagen.

Common on each of my visits. Nests were found with two downy young

on 3rd June, c/3 hard-set on 4th June and c/3 hard-set on 18th June. Many

young birds were seen throughout June and July.

33. Oreocorys sylvanus (Hodgs.).

Only met with on the northern - face of a steep . hill immediately to the

West of Fort Munro. A juvenile was secured at the end of June and three

adults in the first-half of July, one unsexed ' and the -other . two males with

organs in breeding -condition. The curious call was usually uttered from, the

tops of large boulders and was very difficult to locate.

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV H

[A welcome record as very little is known of this species in this area.

The adults sent appear somewhat paler than Himalayan birds but they are

very worn and this may be only due to bleaching.]

34. Galerida cristata magna Hume.

Observed occasionally on each of my visits. Adults were seen feeding

young birds at the beginning of June.

[Four adult males obtained at Fort Munro are definitely assignable to

this race with wing measurements 108-114 mm. It is interesting to note,

however, that two other males from Badin, Loralai Agency, are smaller,

wings 105.5-106 mm.]

35. Ammomaues deserti phoeoicuroides (Blyth).

Observed occasionally on each of my visits. Young birds were met with

in Juno and an adult was seen carrying food on the 6th of that month.

[Two adult c?s have the wings 101-5 and 106 mm. respectively, showing

that these birds are typical phoenicuroides, like the Sibi, Bolan Pass and

Fort Sandeman birds mentioned by Ticehurst ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxi, 876). The

two juveniles have the longer, broader and blunter first primary than the

adult as noted by Ticehurst (Ibis 1923, p. 20). In colour they agree with

adults, but the feathers of the upper parts show indistinct subterminal dark

bars and pale tips. The primary and greater coverts, the wing and tail

quills have the pale edges broader than in adults and more rufous in colour.]

36. Leptocotna asiatica brevirostris (Blanf.).

Only once observed at Fort Munro, a female on 18th July. A pair was

seen in a fruit garden on the Bakhni plain on 5th July.

37. Coracias garrula semenowi Loud and Tschusi.

Appeared on passage at the end of July when one or two were seen at

Fort Munro and Khar.

38. Upupa epops epops L.

A few were met with at Fort Munro and Khar at the end of July.

39. Micropus melba melba (L.).

Two or three were seen hawking in company with Hirundo daurica on

21st, 25th and 28th July and 2nd August. Not noted in September. No

specimen obtained.

40. Micropus affinis galilegensis (Ant.).

A few were observed in company with Hirundo daurica on two occasions

in the middle of July and again at the beginning of August. Not noted in

September.

[The single obtained, wing 132, evidently belongs to this race.]

41. Caprimulgus europaeus unwini, Hume.

Throughout the latter half of June two or three of these Nightjars were

to be seen regularly at dusk hawking in the vicinity of the bungalows. One

was shot on 28th June.

[An unusually silvery specimen compared with the majority of examples

of this form.]

42. Aegypius monachus (L.).

A pair of very dafk vultures seen on 12th June were possibly of this

species.

43. Gyps sp.?

Griffons of sorts were noted on three occasions in June.

44. Pseudogyps bengalensis (6m.).

Twice seen in June, once in a party of about half a dozen.

45. Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (L.).

Common on each of my visits. It presumably breeds in the cliffs round

about and a number of young birds were noted.

BIRDS OBSERVED AT FORT MUNRO, SULAIMAN HILLS 693

46. Gypaetus barbatus hetnachalanus Storr.

One or more of these grand birds were frequently observed throughout

June and July, often flying quite low over the hill-side and coming within

a few yards of one.

47. Cerchneis tinnunculus sub-sp.?

A pair of Kestrels was observed, either singly or together, almost daily

throughout June and again at the end of July, occasionally being mobbed

by Kavens. Several were met with in the garden at Khar in September,

when a male was secured.

[This male, wing 249 mm., is a very pale immature bird but I should

not like to say to what race it belongs. See Ibis 1923, p. 261.]

48. Aquila heliaca heliaca (Savigny).

An eagle seen perched on a large boulder at the end of July was possibly

a young bird of this species.

49. Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.

One or more of these kites were scavenging round the hill throughout June

and July.

50. Accipiter nisus melanoschistus Hume.

Only met with once, on 24th September, 1930, when a female was shot

in a small plantation of pines near Dames’ tank.

51. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmel.).

A few pairs were constantly met with throughout June and July. This

Dove and S. d. decaocto were common on the Bakhni plain in June, but the

latter apparently does not ascend to Fort Munro.

[Two males collected at Fort Munro and Badin, Loralai, have the wings

respectively 130 and 131-5 mm.]

52. Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L.).

One was flushed from the hill-side on 17th June. I had previously put

one up from the bank of a stream on the Bakhni plain on the 12th.

53. Alectoris graeca sub-sp.?

A small covey was seen on two' occasions at the end of June and a pair

on the 15th July, but I did not succeed in obtaining a specimen.

54. Francolinus poudicerianus sub-sp. ?

Grey Partridges were heard calling round Khar in June and July. Several

were seen by the road-side when motoring over the Bakhni plain in June.

No specimen obtained.

55. Tringa ochropus L.

What appeared to be a Green Sandpiper was noticed at one of the tanks

on the 12th July, but it flew off before I got near and was not seen

again.

56. Tringa hypoleucos L.

A party of three was found on one of the tanks on 24th July, They were

extremely wild, and I with difficulty secured a female, which was loaded

with fat.

57. Lobipes lobatus (L.).

A small flock was met with on Trimmu tank on 25th September, 1930. They

were remarkably tame and showed little signs of alarm even after a pair-

had been shot.

NOTE ON A PYRALID (ARGYRIA FUSCIVENALIS Hmp.),

CATERPILLAR PEST OE CRATAEVA RELIGIOSA Eorst.

BY

M. 0. ChERIAN, B.A., B. SC. , D.I.C.

( Lecturer in Entomology, Agricultural College, Coimbatore).

(With a plate).

Introduction. — The present paper deals with Argyria fuscivenalis;, Hmp.,

a serious pest of Crataeva religiosa, Forst., an ornamental tree found in

Coimbatore and its environs. An account is given of the life history and

habits of this insect together with the control methods for the same.

Life history. — The adult moths (Fig. 7) measure 6 mm. long with ai wing

expanse of 13 mm. They have pale yellow fore wings and pale white hind

wings. There are two dark wavy lines on each of the fore wings. The adults

have got the peculiar habit of resting on leaves with their heads directed

downwards. Moths kept in captivity were found to feed freely on jaggery

water. Longevity records of the moths (Table I) show* that one moth topped

the list with 24 days while the average period for* 23 moths was 12 days.

Eggs are generally laid 2 days after the emergence of moths. One female

laid as many as 225 eggs in 11 days (Table II). For egg laying the fe-

male prefers infested leaves (Fig. 1) with webs on them. Eggs are either

laid on these webs or on portions of leaves from which the green matter

has been scraped off by young caterpillars. The newly laid eggs (Fig. 2) are

pale yellow in colour and roughly oval in shape measuring 0-5 mm. long.

On the second day the colour of the egg changes and three transverse bars

(Fig. 3) pinkish in colour are noticed on the egg. The egg period] is 3 to 4

days.

The newly hatched larvae (Fig. 4) are 1 mm. long and 0*2 mm. broad,

pale yellow in colour with black head capsule and white, hairs all over the

body. They begin to make webs and feed under cover of these and undergo

four months in all before pupation (Table III) . When they are full fed

(Fig. 5) they measure about 3 mm. long and 2 mm. broad and have two

dorsal longitudinal lines of violet colour. On every segment are seen tri-

angular black spots with their bases touching the lines. White hairs are

also seen on the body. The larval period is 12-13 days.

The caterpillars when full fed make silken cocoons and pupate inside

hese. The pupae (Fig. 6) are deep brown in colour and measure about

mm. long and 2 mm. broad. The pupal period is 9-10 days.

The whole life cycle lasts 23-27 days (Table IV).

Parasites. — Three parasites have been noticed on the caterpillars one of

which is Apanteles creatonot (Fig. 8) and the other two Heterogamus sp.

and un unidentified Ichneumonid. These however are not found in large

numbers as to check the pest.

Remedial measures. — Spraying with Lead arsenate at the rate of half an

ounce to one gallon of water has been found to be useful against the. pest.

In the case of small trees hand picking of the caterpillars may be tried with

advantage.

-I

Journ

Bombay Nat. Hist. See,

1. Crataeva religiosa (attacked leaf).

2. Egg (newly laid).

3. Egg (second day).

4. Young caterpillar.

5. Full grown caterpillar.

6. Pupa.

7. Adult moth.

8. Parasite.

NOTE ON A PYRALID

695

TABLE I.

Longevity records of adults.

Total No. of eggs

225

* Of this number only 18 were freshly laid eggs while 37 found on the

cotton wool placed in the rearing jars may have been laid probably two or

three days previously.

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

TABLE III.

Records of detailed life history observations.

TABLE IY.

Table of life history records.

NOTES ON SOME SOUTH INDIAN SYEPHIDS.

BY

M. C. ChERIAN, B.A., B.SC. , D.I.C.

( Lecturer in Entomology, Agricultural College, Coimbatore).

Introduction. — Syrphids, commonly known as ‘Hover flies’ or ‘Sun flies’,

play an important part in checking one of the worst insect pests of cultivated

crops, viz., Aphids and as such these are very valuable to the farmer. Along

with Lady birds ( Coccinellidae ), Lace wings ( Chrysopidae ) and Leucopis flies

(. Argomyzidae ) these prey upon Aphids and destroy them in numbers.

Though in other countries a few have been noted as pests yet in India this

has not been the case. The present paper is an attempt to bring together

information regarding the distribution of species, hosts etc. of the South

Indian forms. The description and life history notes are the writer’s own

but information gathered from the labels of the Coimbatore collections while

the writer was the Assistant Entomologist has also been included. The

thanks of the writer are due to the Director, Imperial Institute of Entomology,

London, for identifying some of the specimens included in the list.

Description of Adults and General Life History. — Adult flies are generally

brightly coloured with bands of yellow and black predominating. This colour-

ing gives them the resemblance to wasps. The ‘false vein’ is an important

character of the family. While the adult flies feed on the nectar of flowers

the maggots have varied habits. Some of these are predaceous on Aphids ;

others are found living in decaying organic matter and yet a third group

consists of plant feeders.

Classification. — The classification followed is that adopted by Yerrall and

used by Brunetti in the Fauna of British India series. Of the seven sub-

families included in the Fauna viz., Syrphinae, Eristalinae, Milesiinae, Chryso-

toxinae, Volucellinae , Microdontinae and Ceriinae, the first four alone are

represented in the list. The various Syrphids met with in South India are

arranged under their respective sub-families.

Sub-Family : Syrphinae.

1. Paragus serratus, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 31.

Life history and habits. — Eggs are laid by female flies on plants infested

with Aphids. These are white and oval and measure about 0.75 mm. long.

The newly hatched maggots have stiff black hairs all over the body. They

feed on Aphids by sucking out their body contents. The maggots are known

to attack both root and shoot infesting aphids. In the case of those feeding

on root infesting forms the colour of the maggot is generally pale white.

Those which feed on Aphids on shoots have generally bright colours. The

pupae, about 5.5 mm. long, are found on the leaves. The pupal period lasts

7 to 8 days. The longevity of two adults fed on jaggery- water in captivity

came to 5 and 11 days respectively.

Food. — Maggots have been noted feeding on Aphids on Cholam and Ragi

both on the shoot and root forms. Also on Aphids on Sweet potato and

water melon .

Distribution. — The Coimbatore collection contains specimens from Coimba-

tore ; Hadagalle (Bellary) ; Samalkota (G-odavari) and Eamnad.

Remarks. — This is a common species found in Coimbatore along with

Lschiodon scutellaris. The presence of the serrated scutellum is one of the

most important characters of the fly.

2. lschiodon scutellaris, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p, 97.

Lefroy, Indian Insect Life, Plate lxiv, p. 611.

Fletcher, Some South Indian Insects, Plate xv, p. 358.

698 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoZ. XXXVII

Life history and habits. — The habits are similar to those of Paragus. Two

forms of maggots noticed are those with green colour and those with bright

colours. The latter look like those of Paragus but the brightly coloured

transverse bar about the middle of the body found in Paragus is absent.

The larval period is about 5 days and the pupal period about 5 to 6 days.

The maximum longevity in the case of a fly fed with jaggery water in capti-

vity came to 17 days. Three females laid 154 eggs between them.

Food. — Maggots have been noted feeding on Aphids on red gram, cholam,

Calotropis sp., water melon and cotton. Adult flies have also been collected

resting on brinjal, mustard, turnip, cabbage and groundnut.

Distribution. — Coimbatore; Marudamalai (Coimbatore); Hagari (Bellary);

Kallar (Nilgiris) ; Saidapet (Chingleput) ; Samalkota (Godavari) ; Villupuram

(South Arcot).

Remarks. — The presence of a slender tooth on the under surface of the

hind trochanter is an important mark of the species.

3. Asarcina aegrota , F.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera , vol. iii, p. 64.

Food. — Maggots were found feeding on the dark brown Aphids on citrus.

Distribution. — Coimbatore.

4. Asarcina ericetorum, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India , Diptera, vol. iii, p. 63.

Food. — Adults found resting on cholam leaves.

Distribution. — South Canara; Coimbatore; Bellary; Godavari; Chepauk

(Madras).

5. Syrphus balteatus, De Geer.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 82.

Rood. — Maggots found feeding on Aphids on Arundo donax and certain

grasses.

Distribution. — Salem; South Canara; Coimbatore; Malabar; Kallar (Nilgiri

Hills); Yercaud (Salem) and Maruthamalai (Coimbatore).

6. Sphaerophoria, javana, Wied.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 100.

Distribution. — Maruthamalai (Coimbatore) .

7. Baccha nubilipennis , Aust.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 116.

Distribution. — South Canara .

8. Baccha triangulifera, Aust.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 124.

Distribution. — South Canara.

9. Baccha sapphirina, Wied.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India . JPipfera, vol. iii, p. 122.

Food. — Predaceous on Psyllid bugs.

Distribution . — Coimbatore.

Sub-Family : Eristalinae.

10. Eristalis arvorum, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 181.

Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Devakonda (Kurnool) ; Hadagalle (Bellary) ;

Amalapuram (Godavari); Madanapalle (Chittoor).

11. Eristalis multifarius. Walk.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 194.

Distribution. — Coimbatore.

NOTES ON SOME SOUTH INDIAN SYRPHIDS

699

12. Eristalis laetus, Wied.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 165.

Distribution. — Bababudin hills (Mysore).

13. Eristalis obscuritarsis, deMeij.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 190.

Distribution. — Kurnool.

14. Eristalis quinquestriatus , Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 187.

Distribution.— Bababudin hills (Mysore).

15. Eristalis quinquelineatus , Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 183.

Distribution: Yercaud (Salem).

16. Megaspis crassus, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 197.

Food. — Flies collected resting on safflower.

Distribution. — Coimbatore; Kurnool; Amalapuram (Godavari); Saidapet

(Chingleput).

Remarks. — A tooth on the hind femora is an important mark of the species.

17. Megaspis errans, Fabr.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 199.

Food. — Adults collected resting on manure heap, safflower, cholam and

sugarcand.

Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Amalapuram (Godavari) ; Hadagalle (Bellary) ;

Devakonda (Kurnool) ; Madanapalle (Chittoor).

18. Megaspis argyrocephalus , Macq.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 201.

Distribution. — Coimbatore.

Sub-Family : Milesiinae.

19. Xijlota bistriata, Brun.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 288.

Food. — Adults collected resting on coffee flowers.

Distribution. — North Coorg.

20. Xylota carbonaria, Brun.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 240.

Distribution. — Yercaud (Salem).

21. Syritta rufifacis, Big.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 247.

Food. — Maggots found feeding on Aphids on mango flowers.

Distribution : Coimbatore.

22. Syritta pipiens, L.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 245.

Food. — Maggots in rotting paddy, rotting ash gourd.

Distribution. — Coimbatore; Bellary; Madanapalle (Chittoor).

23. Eumerus albifrons. Walk.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 257.

Food. — Adults resting on castor and water melon leaves.

Distribution. — Salem ; Coimbatore.

Sub-Family : Chrysotoxinae.

24. Chrysotoxum baphyrus , Walk.

Reference. — Brunetti, Fauna of British India, Diptera, vol. iii, p. 296.

Distribution. — Yercaud (Shevroys).

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF INDO-CEYLONESE TERMITES

BY

V. Margabandhu, m.a.

[Assistant to Government Entomologist, Coimbatore).

The Termites or ‘white ants’ are a group of insects which

have not received enough attention during recent years. They

are of great economic importance, in view of their ravages to

wooden structures, cotton and woollen clothings, books, etc., not

to speak of their damage to cultivated crops such as sugarcane,

tea, wheat etc.

The earliest known observations on termites were made on

South Indian termites by Koenig about 150 years ago, which

centred about Tanjore and Nagari hills.1 He has given an ana-

tomical account of the different castes and has made mention of

Hodotermes viarum Koenig, Termes convulsionarius Koenig and

a species of Eutermes which, according to him, is similar to the

one noted by him in Ceylon later. In this connecton, Fletcher

is of opinion that the species Koenig refers to as Eutermes mono-

ceros, — the ‘black termite’ of Ceylon, is different and the latter

has not been recorded in India. Since that time collections were

made by several and specimens were sent outside for identifica-

tion. Father Assmuth from Bombay sent collections to Dr. Holm-

gren of Stockholm with very interesting observations and the

results were published in the Bombay Journal.2 The same writer

has also published an account on the wood destroying white ants

in the same journal.3 In South India impetus to the study of white

ants was given by Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher whose keen interest

on this group of insects is well known; and a good collection of

termites of South India was made by him and sent to Dr.

Holmgren, the results of which have found a place in one of the

Pusa Memoirs.4 Late Dr. Annandale of the Indian Zoological

Survey collected some material from the Barkuda Island, Chilka

Lake and the material was examined by Silvestri and recorded in

the Records of the Indian Museum.5 In addition to these, there

are several earlier records of Indian termites by Desneaux, Was-

mann and others.

The classification adopted in this list is that of Dr. Holmgren

which is so far the simplest in the present state of our knowledge

1 Koenig, 1779, Naturgeschichte der sogenannte weissen Ameisen; Besch.

der Berlin. Ges. naturforsch. Freunde, T. iv, pp. 1-28.

2 Holmgren, N. , 1912, J. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, 774-793.

1913, J. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, 101-117.

3 Assmuth, A. J., 1913, J. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, 372-384.

1915, J. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiii, 690-694.

4 Holmgren, N., 1917, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, 138-171.

* Silvestri, F., 1923, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxv, 221-232.

An Annotated list of indo-ceylonese termites foi

of the Indo-Ceylonese forms. The oldest classification has been

retained in order to avoid confusion, as the classification of this

group requires careful handling. It is the considered opinion of

the writer that the classification may be changed as more and

more material of the different forms are examined and studied.

Some years back, the writer had occasion to deal with termites

that cause damage to sugarcane and in that connection undertook

a study of this group since then. As time permitted, the

available literature has been gathered and the known species have

been arranged in the form of a list in the hope that this will

form a basis for study to those interested in this highly economic

group. It is with this object this list has been prepared. In so

doing, it is not presumed that this is a complete one. It cannot

but have several drawbacks as most of the literature is in foreign

languages and not easily accessible.

A study of the termite fauna of India will not be complete

unless a study of the Ceylonese forms is also made and with this

object Indo-Ceylonese forms have been given in this list. The

writer had to depend mainly on Mr. Green’s catalogue of Ceylo-

nese forms.1

In order that the list may be of some use and to make it inter-

esting, instead of making it merely bibliographical, such useful

information as the nature of damage they cause, the localities

where they were recorded and observations made by collectors and

any additional information which may be of systematic importance

have also been given.

The writer wishes to express his thanks to Rao Sahib Y.

Ramachandra Rao, now Locust Research Entomologist, for having

given him an opportunity to study these insects and to Dr. T. Y.

Ramakrishna Ayyar, Government Entomologist, Coimbatore, for

affording all facilities in the continuance of this study and for going

through the manuscript.

ORDER: ISOPTERA.

FAMILY : PROTERMITIDAE , HOLMGEEN.

Sub-family : Hodotermitinae, Holmgren.

Hodotermes, Hagen.

Hodotermes viarum, Koenig, Fletcher, Bull. Dept. Agr. India, No. 100,

o. 246 (1921). ‘Commonly occurring at Coimbatore doing some damage to

grass lawns by cutting off grass.’

Sub-genus : Acanthotermes , Sjost.

Hodotermes ( Aacnthotermes ) koenegi, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ser. y, No. 3, pp. 138-139 (August 1917). Species described and recorded

from Coimbatore, South India. ‘Extracted from tunnels in the ground.’

Hodotermes ( Acanthotermes ) macrocephalus, Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Bel-

gique, xlix, pp. 344-348 (1905). Species described and recorded from Sind,

India ; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 139 (August

1917). Also recorded from Sind, India.

1 Green, E. E., 1913, Spolia Zeylanica, .Ceylon, ix, 7-15.

702 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVII

Sub-family: Calotermitinae, Holmgren.

Calotermes, Hagen.

Calotermes domesticus , Haviland, Jl. Linn. Soc. London, xxvi, p. 374

(.1898); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. xxxiii, p. 8 (June 1913). ‘In window

and door frames of buildings, in furniture, shelves of almirahs etc. The pre-

sence of this species is indicated by small heaps' of egg-like pellets of excreta

which collect below the articles that contain the termites. Occasionally the

insects emerge from the wood and are found congregated in masses in the open.’

Recorded from Peradeniya, Ceylon.

Calotermes greeni, Deseneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, li, pp. 388-389

(1907). Species described; Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. xxxiii, p. 8 (June

1913). Green records in stems of living tea bushes, in stems of Anacardium and

other trees , occurring more commonly at lower elevations , from Ambalangoda ,

Kalutara, Yatiyantota, Jaffna, and from Peradeniya in Ceylon; Hutson, Tropi-

cal Agriculturist, lix, pp. 83-87 (February 1923). Notes on termites attacking

tea and their control are given. Recorded from Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent.

Res., xvi, pt. 4, pp. 382-383 (1926). Briefly described and recorded from dead

stems of Grevillea, stem and roots of tea, and living tea bush, from; Ceylon;

Jepson, Tropical Agriculturist, lxvii, pp. 77-78 (August 1926). Deals with the

control of the insect attacking tea bushes along with C. militaris in Ceylon ;

Dept, of Agriculture, Ceylon, Leaflet No. 24, giving notes on termites attack-

ing tea, their habits and control, recorded from Ceylon.

Sub-genus : Glyptotermes, Froggatt.

Calotermes ( Glyptotermes ) ceylonicus, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben

auf Ceylon, p. 189 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 8 (June 1913).

‘In decaying logs and branches.’ Recorded from Peradeniya, Ceylon; Holm-

gren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, pp. 279-280 (January 1913). Imago and

soldiers described. Imagines of C. ceylonicus and C. dilatatus compared. Also

recorded from Peradeniya.

Calotermes ( Glyptotermes ) coorgensis , Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 139-140 (August 1917). ‘Tunnelling in the still solid

wood of an old log of red cedar.’ Recorded from Coorg, Sidapur, 3,500 ft.,

India.

Calotermes ( Glyptotermes ) dilatatus, Bugnion & Popoff. Bugnion, Mem. Soc.

Zool. France, xxiii, pp. 137-143 (1910). Describes and figures as found in a

tea stump at Ambalangoda, Ceylon; Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32,

p. 278 (January 1913). Imago described from Peradeniya; Hutson, Tropical

Agriculturist, lix, pp. 83-87 (February 1923). Notes on termites attacking tea

and their control are given. Also recorded from Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent.

Res., xvi, pt. 4, pp. 383-384 (1926). Species briefly described. Recorded from

Ceylon, found in living tea bush, stem and roots of tea; Jepson, Tropical

Agriculturist, lxvii, pp. 69-79 (August 1926). Notes on the species of the

genus attacking tea bushes, nature of injury, extent of damage, control etc.

given. Recorded from Ceylon; Jepson, Tropical Agriculturist, Ixxii, pp. 307-311

(1929). Recorded as attacking living plants in Ceylon. Deals with control;

Dept, of Agriculture, Ceylon, Leaflet No. 24. Gives notes on termites attacking

tea with their habits and control.

Sub-genus: Neotermes, Holmgren.

Calotermes (Neotermes) assmuthi, Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xxii, No. 1, pp. 102-103 (April 1913). Species described. ‘Termites in dry

trunk of tree in garden. Tunnels built irregularly in wood and these, strange

to say, altogether without inner lining of earthy material as is usually the

case with termites.’ Bangalore, India. Holmgren says that the said lining

of tunnels is very often waiting with Calotermes, a species frequently found

on living trees.

Calotermes ( Neotermes ) fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. _ India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, p. 139 (August 1917). Recorded from Coimbatore, South India.

Calotermes [Neoter ernes) militaris, Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, xlviii,

p. 146 (1904). Species described; Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 7

(June 1913). ‘In stems of living tea throughout the tea districts of Central

An Annotated list of indo-ceylonese termites 703

Provinces; collected also in the Eatnapura District.’ Becorded from Ceylon;

Green, Tropical Agriculturist, xxviii, pp. 181-188 (March 1907). Here he

gives an account of the nature of injury done to tea bushes, the extent of

damage, the habits of the termite and control measures to be adopted; Holm-

gren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, pp. 277-278 (January 1913). The imago

described. Becorded from Peradeniya ; Hutson, Tropical Agriculturist, lix,

pp. 83-87 (February 1923). Notes on termites attacking tea, their habits and

their control given. Becorded from Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes., xvi,

pt. 4, pp. 380-381 (1926). Species briefly described, from tea bushes, branches

of tea and stems and roots of tea, recorded from Ceylon; Jepson, Tropical

Agriculturist, Lxvii, pp. 69-79 (August 1926). Deals with host plants in

Ceylon, nature of injury to tea bushes and extent of damage and control;

Jepson, Tropical Agriculturist, lxxii, pp. 307-311 (1929). Deals with the control

of termites attacking living plants in Ceylon; Dept, of Agriculture, Ceylon,

Leaflet No. 24. This deals with notes on termites attacking tea, their habits

and control in Ceylon.

Caloterm.es militaris ab. unidentatus , Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes., xvi, pt. 4,

pp. 381-382 (1926). Species described, from branches, stems and roots of tea

in Ceylon.

FAMILY: MESOTERMITIDAE, HOLMGBEN.

Sub-family : Leucoteemitinae, Holmgren.

Leucotermes, Silvestri.

Leucotermes ceylonicus, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon,

p. 190 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 8 (June 1913). ‘A trouble-

some domestic pest, destructive to wood work, packing cases etc., in outhouses:

also in a dead Grevillea stump: from Peradeniya. Ceylon.’

Leucotermes indicola, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., p. 118 (1902). Becorded

from Bombay, India; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3,

p. 776 (July 1912). ‘From the Chemical Laboratory of St. Xavier’s College

room on ground floor; the termites seem to have come out from underground

and had almost completely eaten up several boxes of dealwood of which

they are specially fond; caught by lamplight in room.’ Becorded from Bombay,

Khandala; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xxii, No. 1, p. 103 (April

1913). ‘In pillars of mound of O. obesus, in middle of nest, quite close to

royal cell.’ Becorded from Borivli near Bombay; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2, pp. 372-384 (1913). Described as one of the wood-

destroying white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Holmgren, Mem. Dept.

Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 140 (August 1917). Becorded from Punjab,

Dhar (Gurdaspur District), India.

Arrhinotermes , Wasmann.

Arrhinotermes flavus, Bugnion, Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr., xxiii, p. 117 (1907);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 9 (June 1913). ‘Discovered by Dr.

Bugnion in stems of mangrove, Ambalangoda’ in Ceylon.

Arrhinotermes heimi, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb. Syst., xvii, p. 104 (1902).

Species described and noted from Ceylon.

Sub-family : Coptoteemitinae, Holmgren.

Coptotermes, Silvestri.

Coptotermes ceylonicus, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon,

p. 192 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 9 (June 1913). ‘Com-

monly under decaying logs of wood; also about buildings, where it is destruc-

tive to deal packing cases; recorded as damaging books, in damp situations,

the wood of tea chests and window frames in a tea factory; Peradeniya, Matala,

Lindula, Nalanda, Trincomalee, Battota, Batnapura, Henaratgoda, Ambalan-

goda and -Jaffna’ in Ceylon; Holmgren, Termitenstudien, iv, p. 76 (1913);

Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes,, xvi, pt. 4, p. 384 (1926). Brief description given

and recorded from Ceylon in dealwood, rafters of bungalow, and dead bark

of Hevea; Jepson, Tropical Agriculturist, lxxii, pp. 308-309 (1929) . Becorded

as attacking living plants from Ceylon and deals with control.

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS1?. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Coptotermes gestroi, Wasmann, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, p. 145 (August 1917). Becorded from Assam, India. ‘In mound

and wood in wall.’

Coptotermes heimi, Wasmann. Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Sac., xxi,

pp. 777-778 (July 1912). Other species of the genus compared and obtained

by lamplight, on footpath and in room in wooden shelves partly eaten up.

Noted from Bombay, India; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. , xxii, No. 2

(1913). Described as one of the wood-destroying white ants of the Bombay

Presidency; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 144-

145 (August 1917). Noted in various parts of India viz., Punjab, Bihar, Ben-

gal, Madras, Coorg etc., with varying habits such as under galleries, on bark

of Ficus, under log, running galleries into stem of mango tree, attacking

wood of old cement-barrel filled with earth and used as a flower pot etc. ;

Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 225 (1923). ‘Collected under the bark of

dead tree trunk ( Ficus bengalensis ) lying on the ground. Widely distributed

in South India.’ Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, India; Annandale, Bee. Ind.

Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Coptotermes parvulus, Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1,

p. 104 (April 1913). Species described. Becorded from G-uzerat, India, on

trunks of trees and in dry firewood. Also recorded from Anand and Yadtal.

Holmgren says that some Coptoterynes dwell in live trees and thinks that

this species is close to the Indo-Chinese C. travians ; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2, pp. 372-384 (1913). Described as one of the wood-

destroying white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus.,

xxv, p. 225 (1923). ‘Workers and soldiers.’ Becorded from Barkuda Island,

Chilka Lake, India; Annandale, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 233-235 (1923).

Nesting and swarming habits given.

Coptotermes travians, Haviland, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, p. 145 (August 1917). ‘In galleries run over tarred beams

in a house’ and ‘under galleries on bark of Ficus.’ Becorded from Bengal,

India; Bugnion, Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr., pp. 109-123 (1910). Becorded from

Ceylon.

Termitogeton, Desneaux.

Termitogeton umbilicatus, Hagen, Zool. Bot. Yer. Wien, p. 472 (1858) ;

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 9 (June 1913). ‘A rare jungle

species, Hantana (Kandy District), 3,000 ft.; Bamboda, 4,000 ft.,’ Ceylon;

Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., lxxxiii, pp. 39-47 (1914). Description and

notes given and also recorded from Ceylon.

Stylotermes, Holmgren.

Stylotermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 142-144 (August 1917). ‘Burrowing in rotten interior and in sound

wood of a mango tree.’ Becorded from Shevaroy Hills, about 4,000 ft., South

India; Fletcher, Bull. Dept. Agr. India, No. 100, p. 246 (1921).

FAMILY: METATERMITIDAE , HOLMGBEN.

Termes, Linnaeus.

Termes belli, Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, xlix, pp. 352-354 (1904).

Species described. Mr. Bell gives a short account of the nest. Becorded

from Karachi (Sind), India.

Termes brunneus, Hagen, Linn. Ent. xii, p. 133 (?) ; Green, Spolia

Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘Soldiers said to be intermediate in

size between horni and Ceylonicus. Precise locality uncertain.’

Termes estherae = (convulsionarius) , Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique,

li, pp. 390-394 (1907). Becorded from Bippen, Bombay; Green, Spolia Zeyla-

nica, ix, pt. 33, p. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘A very large species with soldiers

of two or more sizes. Larger soldier with an enormous head and powerful

jaws. Hambantota.’ Ceylon. Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher is of opinion that this

name will have to givd place to convulsionarius of Koenig- Schrift Ber. Naturf.,

iv, pt. 1, p. 24 (1779); Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, p. 280 (January

An Annotated list of indo-ce y l onese termites too

1913). Recorded from Ceylon; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 145-146 (August 1917). Recorded from various parts of the Madras

Presidency from nests in ground. Fletcher and Bugnion art of opinion that

this species is identical with Hodotermes cpnvulsionarius ; but Holmgren thinks

that proof for, this is wanting.

Termes fatalis, Koenig, Schrift d. Berlin Naturf. iv, p. 1 (1779); Desneaux,

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, xlix, pp. 359-360 (1905). Synonymical notes given;

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘Holmgren gives Ceylon

as a locality for this species, probably on the authority of Hagen; but he

doubts its generic position. It is said to be common mound- building termite

of Tanjore, India; and its occurrence in Ceylon is doubtful.’

Termes mycophagus, Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, xlix, pp. 348-352

(1905). Species described and recorded from Karachi, Sind, India. Mr. Bell

gives a short account about the nest and fungus combs.

Termes preliminaris, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p.

196 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 10 (June 1913). ‘While

describing this as a new species from winged adults caught’ around a lamp

at the Peradeniya resthouse Dr. Holmgren suggests that it may possibly be

referable to some other species of which the adults are yet unknown.’ Recorded

from Ceylon.

Termes sindensis, Desneaux, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, xlix, pp. 354-355

(1905). Species described and recorded from Karachi, Sind, India. Mr. Bell

adds a note re-nest.

Termes taprobanes , Walker, Cat. Neur. Br. Mus., p. 522 (1853). (Syn.

T. peradeniya, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p. 197); Green,

Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 10 (June 1913). ‘This species has hitherto been

unrecognized by recent workers. Dr. Holmgren has identified specimens from

Peradeniya, and Koslanda as referable to this species, but suggests that it is

equivalent to horni. He also relegates his peradeniya (described from winged

adults) to taprobanes .’ Recorded from Ceylon.

Odontotermes, Holmgren.

Odontotermes anamailensis , Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 157-158 (August 1917). Recorded from ‘rotten log by roadside’,

3,000 ft.; ‘in rotten stump covered with sheets of mud.’ Anamalai hills,

north slope, about 4,000 ft.

Odontotermes assamensis , Holmgren, Stockholm Vet.-Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 114, pi. iv, f. 16 and v, f. 15 (1913?). Species new described from Assam,

India.

Odontotermes assmuthi, Holmgren, Yet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2, p. 140

(1913?). Species described and noted from Bombay; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 112-113 (April 1913). Species described. ‘Termites

on trunk of tree, in tunnels and covered galleries built of friable greyish-black

material.’ Recorded from Borivli Jungle, India; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr.

India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 154-155 (August 1917). Short description given.

Noted among dead leaves under rotting branch, attacking a log of Saissu

( Dalbergia saissoo) lying on the ground, and on wing at 9 a.m. after rain;

Shevaroy Hills, Coorg, Bihar and Punjab in India.

Odontotermes bangalorensis, Holmgren, Stockholm Yet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 112, pi. iv, f. 15 (1913?). Species new, described from Bangalore; Holmgren,

(Nee. Bengalensis ) Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 105-109 (April

1913). Described. A detailed account of the several nests from which the

specimens were collected is given by Father Assmuth. Recorded from Banga-

lore, Krishnarajapuram, Hubli, India; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.,

Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 151-152 (August 1917). 'Noted in cattle dung eating a piece

of rope, eating a bamboo ‘chick’, nibbling roots of cholam (Andropogon) ; galle-

ries over bark of ‘babul’ tree ( Acacia arabica) at light and on wing. Recorded

from Coimbatore, Shevaroy hills, Bellary, Mysore and Punjab— India ; Fletcher,

Bull. Dept. Agr. India, No. 100, p. 246 (1921). Recorded from Hadagalli,

South India nibbling roots of cholam.

Odontotermes bellahunisensis, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser.

v, No. 3, pp. 150-151 (August 1917). ‘Issuing from holes in gravelly soil at

dusk’, and ‘from a hole in ground alongside road just before heavy rain; no

mound at all, only one hole of exit.’ Recorded from Madras and Mysore,

13

706 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVil

Odontotermes ceylonicus, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. 113 (1902);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 9 (June 1913). ‘Intermediate in size

between horni and redemenni. Nests in the ground, without superstructure.

Attacks roots of diseased or dying plants and trees. Peradeniya ; Yatiyantota;

Ratnapura; Balangoda.’ — Ceylon; Bugnion, Deutsch Ent. National Bibliothek,

ii, pp. 86-96; Bugnion, Rev. suisse de Zool. xix, pp. .383-395 (1911) ; Holmgren,

Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, pp. 280-281 (January 1913). Recorded from

Peradeniya. ‘0. ceylonicus is readily distinguishable from other Ceylon species

by the extensive yellow area surrounding the fontanelle.’ The imago is

described; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4, p. 386 (1926). Briefly de-

scribed and recorded from tea bush riddled by Calotermes dilatatus, in dead

bark of Hevea (with one soldier of Coptotermes ceylonicus ) and in dead tea

wood.

Odontotermes distans, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 153 (August 1917). Species described. ‘Winged imagines caught in

a spider’s web.’ Recorded from Shevaroy Hills, Kadiar Rocks, about 4,000 ft.—

India.

Odontotermes escherichi, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon,

p. 195 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 10 (June 1913). ‘A small

species, occurring in dead tree stems and under decayed logs. Peradeniya.’—

Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4, pp. 386-387 (1926). Described

from dead stems of Grevillea and in soil near dead tea bush, from Ceylon.

Odontotermes faeoides, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 156-157 (August 1917). ‘Under log lying on ground amongst coffee.’

Recorded from Coorg, India.

Odontotermes flavomaculatus , Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser.

v, No. 3, p. 150 (August 1917). Described. ‘On the wing’. Assam, India.

Odontotermes hornii, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. Ill (1902);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 9 (June 1913). ‘A comparatively large

species, common in decaying trees, and in soil treated with cattle manure;

nests in the soil without conspicuous mounds; widely distributed; Ruenwella,

Avisawlla, Ambalangoda, Hambantota,’ — Ceylon; Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica,

viii, pt. 32, p. 280 (January 1913). Recorded from Peradeniya, Koslanda in

.Ceylon ‘in branches of Croton tigilum'. According to Holmgren this is synony-

mous with Termes peradeniyae Holmgren and Termes taprobanes? ; Oscar John,

Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 102-103 (October 1913). Notes on the habits

of the species given; Bugnion, Rev. suisse Zool., xxi, pp. 299-330, pis. 3

(1913 ?). Recorded from Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Res. xvi, pt. 4, p. 384

(1926). Prom nests in Ceylon.

Odontotermes horni var. hutsoni, Kemner, Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4,

pp.. 384-385 (1926). Fully described. ‘In dead coconut log, living tea bush and

in roots of cacao.’ — Ceylon.

Odontotermes horni var. minor, Kemner, Ball. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4, pp.

385-386 (1926). Fully described and recorded from dead . wood of living tea

and dead bark of Hevea. — Ceylon.

Odontotermes mala ha ricus, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 155 (August 1917). Under mud galleries on coconut stems; under

log of Grevillea lying on the ground. Recorded from Malabar, Shevaroy Hills

and Mysore in India.

Odontotermes mirganjensis, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 158 (August 1917). ‘In rotten branch lying on the ground. Noted

.from Mirganj in Bengal, India.’

Odontotermes redemenni, Wasmann, Wien. Ent. Zeit., xii, pt. 7, p. 239

(1893); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 10 (June 1913). ‘The

commonest of the mound-building species in Ceylon. Widely distributed. Kandy,

Colombo; Ambalangoda, Trincomalle, Hambantota, Jaffna and probably through-

out the island of Ceylon’; Hutson, Tropical Agriculturist, lix, pp. 85-87

(February 1923). Deals with the habits and control of this scavenging termite

from Ceylon; Hutson, Tropical Agriculturist, lix, pp. 294-298 (May 1923). Deals

with habits, control etc. ; Dept. Agr. Leaflet, No. 24. ; Annandale, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxx, pt. 1, pp. 25-34 (October 1924). Nest described; Kemner,

Bull. Ent. Res. xvi, pt. 4, p. 386 (1926). ‘In living tea bush’ in Ceylon.

Odontotermes wallonensis, Wasmann, Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xxiiy no. 1, pp. 109-110 (April 1913). A detailed account of the nests examined

An annotated list of Indo-ceylonese termites lot

is given by Assmuth. . Recorded from Tuwa (Guzerat), Bangalore, Krishnaraja-

puram. According to Dr. Holmgren, Wasmann considers this species to be a

subspecies of 0. obesus with which the former does not agree but is inclined

to group the species with1 0. brunneus which is confirmed by the structure of

the nest of both the types; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 152-153 (August 1917). Ih mounds and under railway sleepers and

under logs. Noted from Coimbatore, Bellary Dt., Mysore, Maddur, Bababudin

Hills, Ivollegal etc., from South India; Poona in Bombay Presidency and

Hosangabad in Central Provinces.

Sub-genus: Cyclotermes, Holmgren.

Odontotermes ( Cyclotermes ) brunneus, Hagen, Linn. Ent. xii, p. 133 ( ? );

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘Soldiers said to be

intermediate in size between horni and ceylonicus. Precise locality uncertain’;

Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3, pp. 783-784 (July 1912). For

description vide Hagen’s Monographic der Termiten, 1858. ‘In dry cow dung

completely perforated and' traversed with tunnels . . .’ from Khandala, India.

Also from nest. A complete description of the nest, is given by Assmuth.

Also from different mounds and nests from different places. From Kirkee and

from Poona. Species compared with others of the same genus. Also a note

has been appended as regards its affinities with other species ; Holmgren,

Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 153 (August 1917). From an

earth mound from Poona in India.

Odontotermes- {Cyclotermes) obesus, Bamb. Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxi, No. 3, pp. 778-783 (July 1912). In this paper Holmgren divides

the species into a, b and c out of the specimens collected from numerous

colonies and nests. Comparative measurements are given. All mostly taken

from nests at different localities. Nests of these three types are discussed and

a note at the end has been appended comparing them with the mound of

0. redemenni. Localities: Khandala, Borivli Jungle (Salsette Island); Holm-

gren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist., Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 104-105 (April 1913). ‘Typi-

cal hillock nest. Koyal cell in middle of mound slightly higher than the sur-

rounding ground. 1 king and 1 queen. Nests abounding in guests . . .’; also

on trunks of trees, in dry cow dung, logs of fire wood, nest under developed

cactus shrub, in galleries of earth on Pipal tree etc.; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb. Nat,

Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2, pp. 372-384 (1913). Described as one of the wood-

destroying white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Fletcher, Bull. Dept. Agr.

India, No. 100, p. 246 (1921). Becorded from Quilandy, Malabar — damaging

young cocconut palms, Coimbatore — galleries on tree trunks, Hadagalli— nibbling

bark of small tree, Mysore city— on bark of Grevillea, Lyallpur, — on tree trunk,

Bankura — eating sugarcane setts ; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 146-149 (August 1917). Has very wide distribution through-

out India of varying habits such as damaging young coconut palms, eating

fallen leaves and sugarcane setts, under tree trunks, running galleries on tree

trunks, in stumps of Grevillea, on Tasmanian railway sleepers etc. ; Silvestri,

Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 223-224 (1923). Briefly described. ‘Queen and king

from a nest’ from Barkuda, Chilka Lake, India; Annandale, Bee. Ind. Mus.,

xxv, pp. 233-235 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Odontotermes obesus /. gurdaspurensis , Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 149-150 (August 1917). ‘Swarming from hole in

ground, at 9 a.m. after rain.’ Gurdaspur, India.

Odontotermes obesus var. oculatus, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 224-

225 (1923). Described from a nest, Barkuda, Chilka Lake, India; Annandale;

Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Annandale, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxx, pt. 1, pp. 25-34 (October 1924).

The nest is described. India.

Odontotermes obesus var. typicus, Annandale, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xxx, pt. 1, pp. 25-34 (October 1924). The nest described— India.

Sub-genus: Euscaiotermes , Silvestri.

Odontotermes ( Euscaiotermes ) primus, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp.

221-222 (1923). A few workers and a soldier under stone. Species, described,

Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake— India.

708 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIS f. SOCIETY, VoL XXXVil

Sub-genus: Hypotermes, Holmgren.

Odontotermes (H ypotermes) marshalli, Kemner, Bull. Ent. Ees., xvi, pt. 4,

pp. 387-388 (1926). Described from a nest in ground, bamboo fence, and in dead

stumps of Grevillea — Ceylon.

Odontotermes ( Hypotermes ) obscuriceps, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1,

p. 113 (1902); Green, Spolia Zeylaniea, ix, pt. 33, p. 10 (June 1913). ‘Another

common mound-building species. The mounds indistinguishable from those of

redemenni, but the insects easily recognizable by their dark brown heads. Ap-

parently not so widely distributed as the previous species. Eecorded from Pera-

deniya and Diyatalawa; Holmgren, Termitenstudien, iv, p. 141; Hutson, Tro-

pical Agriculturist,’ lix, pp. 85-87 (February 1923). Deals with habits and

control of this scavenging termite. Ceylon; Hutson, Tropical Agriculturist, lix,

pp. 294-298 (May 1923). Deals with habits and control; Dept. Agr. Ceylon,

Leaflet No. 24.

Odontotermes ( Hypotermes ) xenotermitis , Wasmann, Holmgren, Mem. Dept.

Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 158-159 (August 1917). In mud galleries

on tree trunks, under logs and in a pine post. Bengal, Dacca, Assam.

Sub-genus: Odontotermes, Holmgren.

Odontotermes ( Odontotermes ) feae , Wasmann, Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3, pp. 786-787 (July 1912). ‘Eating up books and woollen

goods after covering them with friable crusts of red soil. Eoom on underground

floor; termites had come up from underground through crack in cemented pave-

ment.’ ‘Also under stone, the surroundings of which clearly showed that this

is one of the several kinds of white ants which, during nights, cover the surface

of ground in neighbourhood of nest with friable galleries and more or less

extensive coatings of red earthy material ; the termites then eat what they

have covered, leaving any portions outside the crust untouched.’ These notes

are by Father Assmuth. Eecorded from Khandala, India; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 110-111 (April 1913). ‘Mound described.

Imagines swarming at sunset; also from a dry big leaf of fan-palm lying

plastered over with tunnels of friable earthy material and eaten up, as far as

covered by termites ; also in half dry cow-dung completely hollowed out by

them.’ This note is by Father Assmuth. Eecorded from Bombay and sur-

roundings. Holmgren appends a note in which he says that this species of

termites closes the nest-openings with a convex cover and is interesting because

the South American Eutermes do the same when walling up the exits of their

dwellings; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 156

(August 1917). ‘In rotten logs, at light, running mud galleries up trunk of

living trees, constructing mud galleries on grass, in dead Grevillea, in mud

galleries of a mango tree, eating the bark of Eucalyptus etc.’ Noted from

Coimbatore, Coorg, Shevaroy Hills, Bangalore, Mysore, in South India; Dhar-

war and Belgaum in Bombay; Harra in Bengal; and Maymyo in Burma; Sil-

vestri, Eec. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 223 (1923). ‘Winged specimens, swarming in

middle night,’ and a few soldiers and workers collected among roots of a dead

tree ; a few workers found in interior of a dead tree-trunk ; species widely

distributed in South India.’ Barkuda, Chilka Lake, South India; Annandale,

Eec. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Odontotermes ( Odontotermes ) oblongatus, Holmgren, Silvestri, Eec. Ind. Mus.,

xxv, p. 223 (1923). ‘A few soldiers and workers collected in a dead tree-trunk,'

Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, South India.

Odontotermes ( Odontotermes ) parvidens, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 154 (August 1917). Described. Under logs, in wood

and on bark of living tagar trees. In South India, Punjab, Bengal and Assam;

Fletcher, Bull. Dept. Agr. India, No. 100, p. 245 (1921). ‘On the Gauhati-

Shillong road as a serious pest of Cajanus indicus, eating the roots.’

Microtermes, Wasmann.

Microtermes anandi, Holmgren ?, Stockholm Vet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 152 (1913?). Anand, India. Species described; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, p. 114 (April 1913). Species described. ‘Termites

together with 0. obesus in some half-burnt boards of dealwood lying on ground

in garden.’ This is a note by Assmuth recorded from Anand (Guzerat) ; Holm-

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF INDO-CEYLONESE TERMITES 709

gren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 160 (August 1917).

Fletcher is of opinion that anandi should sink as a synonym of 0. obesi. Found

in logs of wood, under stone, under logs, in dead bamboo, attacking ripening

wheat in fields, damaging growing cabbages, eating wood buried under ground,

in tree stumps etc., recorded from Coimbatore, Slievaroy Hills, Bellary District,

and Mysore in South India ; Pusa in Bihar ; Mirganj in Bengal ; Silvestri,

Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 225 (1923). ‘Soldiers and workers in dead tree-trunk,

numerous workers and few soldiers in galleries. Widely distributed in South

India.’ Barkuda Islan.d, Chilka Lake, South India; Annandale, Bee. Ind. Mus.,

xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Microtermes anandi forma curvignathus , Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxii, No. 1, p. 114 (April 1913). Species described from Bombay.

Microtermes globicola, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. 116 (1902);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘A very small species,

constructing chambers and small spherical combs in the walls of mound-

building termites: Precise locality undetermined.’ Noted from Ceylon; Holm-

gren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 159 (August 1917). Noted

from under a flower pot in company with Staphylinid beetles, and under log

of trimmed wood left lying on the ground, in Coimbatore and Mysore State.

Microtermes incertoides , Holmgren, Stockholm Yet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 151 (1913?). Species described and recorded from Wallon, India; Holmgren,

Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 113-114 (April 1913). From

Wallon, found together with O. wallonensis. Holmgren says that Wasmann

regarded this species as identical with M. incertus. Species described.

Microtermes ? incertus, Hagen, Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi,

No. 3, pp. 788-789 (July 1912). Distribution discussed and compared with

M. obesi, M. sindensis, M. tragardh etc. Noted from Khandala, from galleries

constructed in a nest of O. obesus form b and under stone.

Microtermes macronotus, Holmgren, Termitenstudien, iii, p. 43 (1912); Green,

Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘Becorded without description

from Ceylon’; Holmgren, Stockholm Vet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2, p. 145, pi. vi,

f. 1, p. 145 (1913?). Species new, described from Ceylon.

Microtermes mycophagus, Desneaux, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 159-160 (August 1917). ‘Destroying furniture in bunga-

low’ from Punjab, Lyallpur, India.

Microtermes obesi, Holmgren, Stockholm Yet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2, p. 150,

pi. vi, f. 4 (1913?). Species new, described from Bombay; Holmgren, Jl.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3, pp. 787-788 (July 1912). Species described

and compared with M. sindensis. Noted from Khandala. Taken in nest of

Odontotermes obesus a, Bamb. ; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, p. 159 (August 1917). At light from Mysore and Bihar; Fletcher,

Bull. Dept. Agr. India, No. 100, p. 245 (1921). ‘This termite is a serious

pest of wheat seedlings at Pusa etc., and of wheat when coming into ear at

Hosangabad. It also attacks cabbage and cauliflower at Pusa.’

Microcerotermes , Silvestri.

Microcerotermes annandalei, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 225-228

(1923). Fully described. ‘A small number of specimens under bark of dead

tree-trunk.’ Barkuda, Chilka Lake, South India; Annandale, Bee. Ind. Mus.,

xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Microcerotermes bugnioni, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon,

p. 203 (1911); Green, -Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 11 (June 1913). ‘A

minute species, found under logs of wood, in hollow stems of coconut palms

etc., Ambalangoda; Maha Illuppallama (Anuradhapura District)’ — Ceylon;

Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, pp. 283-284 (January 1913). Imago

described. Noted from Ambalangoda; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes., xvi, pt. 4,

pp. 390-391 (1926). Found in dead bark of coconut. Brief description given.

Microcerotermes cylindriceps , Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. 121

(1902); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 12 (June 1913). Holmgren (in

Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, pp. 203-204) records this species from

Galle ‘in decayed pines of stem’.

Microcerotermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No, 3? pp. 170-171 (August 1917). ‘Under dead log of sandalwood by path-

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

side; red clayey soil; termites in galleries under mud along lower side of log.

Very few soldiers.’ From Mysore, Bababudin Hills, about 4,000 ft.

Microcerotermes greeni, Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, p. 284

(1913); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 12 (June 1913). ‘Distinguished

by Dr. Holmgren, by the small size of the soldier’; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes.,

xvi, pt. 4, p. 391 (1926). Very brief description given. In nest of dead tea.

Ceylon.

Microcerotermes heimi, Wasmann. Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soo.,

xxi, No. 3, pp. 789-792 (July 1912). Father Assmuth gives an exhaustive note

on the nest. All taken from nests. From Borivli. Jungle (Salsette Island).

Holmgren has appended a note in which he discusses about the different types

of nests in the case of those of Eutermes and Microcerotermes ; Assmuth, Jl.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2 (1913). Described as one of the wood-

destroying white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr.

India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 171 (August 1917). ‘In galleries excavated in

dead branches of a thorny bush. . .’. Mysore, Bababudin Hills about 4,200 ft.,

India.

Microcerotermes tenuignathus , Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii,

No. 1, pp. 116-117 (April 1913). Species described. ‘In dry food.’ Vadtal in

Guzerat, India.

Mirotermes, Wasmann.

Mirotermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3,

pp. 168-169 (August 1917). Species new described. From Bellary District.

Humpi ruins about 1,200 ft. ‘Found under stone’; also Bellary District, Hada-

galli, ‘in galleries in soil under a stone .

Sub-genus : Mirotermes, Wasmann.

Mirotermes ( Mirotermes ) obtusus, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, p. 168 (August 1917). Bellary District, Hospet. ‘Found in soil

between surface and a depth of about one foot when digging up a nest of

Termes convulsionarius .’

Hamitermes, Silvestri.

Sub-genus : Synhamitermes, Holmgren.

Hamitermes ( Synhamitermes ) ceylonicus, Holmgren, Stockholm. Vet. Ak.

Handl., 50, No. 2, p. 225 (1913?). Species new described from Ceylon; Holm-

gren, Termitenstudien, iii, p. 91 (1912); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33,

p. 13 (June 1913). This is at present a ‘nomen nudum.’ The name will pro-

bably replace IL. quadriceps for the Ceylon species.

Hamitermes ( Synhamitermes ) quadriceps, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb. xvii, pt. 1,

p. 123 (1902); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). From

‘under stones, Ambalangoda ; Peradeniya’ in Ceylon; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3, p. 792 (July 1912). Holmgren creates a new sub-

genus Synhamitermes. From Khandala, India. Assmuth records the tunnels

constructed in the pillars of a nest of O. obesus form c.

Sub-genus : Euhami termes , Holmgren.

Hamitermes ( Euhamitermes ) indicus, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 165-166 (August 1917). Species new described. From

Shevaroy Hills, South India, from ‘under a stone amongst dead leaves . . .’

Eury termes, Wasmann.

Eurytermes assmuthi, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. 124 (1902);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 12 (June 1913). ‘Becorded from the

collection of Dr. Escherich as “in association with Termes obscuriceps ; and in

earthen galleries under a stone, in the jungle.” My own acquaintance with

the species consists of the discovery of a small procession (containing winged

adults and workers) travelling quite exposed — across a bare compound. They

were emerging from one hole and entering another at a distance of about

5 yards’; Silvestri, Bee. Ind, Mus., xxv, p. 228 (1923). ‘A number of nym-

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF INDO-CEYLONESE TERMITES 711

phae, workers and a soldier collected from a bank of earth among roots of

Hemigyrosa canescens and a few specimens from small chambers at the roots

of a fig tree.’ Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, South India; Annandale, Bee.

Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Eurytermes assmuthi, Wasm. var. modestior, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv,

pp. 228-229 (1923). Described. ‘A small nest with very young queen and

king, a number of workers and a soldier.’ Barkuda, Chilka Lake, South India;

Annandale, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming

habits given.

Eurytermes ceylonicus, Holmgren, Stockholm Vet. Ak Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 222 (1913?). From Ceyjon ; Holmgren, Termitenstudien, iii, p. 83 (1912) ;

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 12 (June 1913). ‘Noted as a species,

but without description. Bainbrigge Fletcher (in litt) suggests that, as Holm-

gren records assmuthi from Bombay only, it is- probable that he has separated

the Sinhalese species as distinct.’

Capritermes, Wasmann.

Capritermes ceylonicus , Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon,

p. 204 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). ‘Deter-

mined, by Dr. Holmgren, from specimens collected by Dr. Escherich in nests of

Termes obscuriceps at Peradeniya’ — Ceylon.

Capritermes distinctus, Holmgren, Stockholm. Vet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 246 (1913?), pi. vi, f. 24, 30. Becorded from Ceylon.

Capritermes distortus, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxiv, pp. 541-543 (1922).

Fully described. Noted from Iiavalai (1,300-3,000 ft.), Cochin State.

Capritermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 169 (August 1917). Species described. From Malabar, Puthupadi

Forest ‘under a rotting bamboo’; from Anamalai Hills about 4,000 ft. ‘Colony

in a dead log’; from Mysore, Bababudin Hills, 4,400 ft. ‘In galleries and

chambers two to ten inches below soil at roots of coffee.’

Capritermes gravelyi, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus,, xxiv, pp. 535-537 (1922).

Koyna valley, Satara District, 2,000-2,100 ft., Kas, Satara District, 3,700 ft.— i

India.

Capritermes hutsoni, Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes., xvi, pt. 4, pp. 391-392 (1926).

In roots of tea, from Ceylon. Species described.

Capritermes incola, Wasmann, Wien. Ent. Zeit., xii, pt. 7, p. 242 (1893);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). ‘In nests of Termes

obscuriceps, Peradeniya,’ Ceylon; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi,

No. 3, pp. 792-793 (July 1912). ‘Termites in pillars of nest of O. obesus form

a.' Also under stone. Becorded from Khandala, India; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2 (1913). Described as one of the wood-destroying

white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 170 (August 1917). From Nilgiri Hills, Ketti, 6,500 ft.

in a potato field; from Coorg, Mercara, about 4,000 ft. in soil under sods and

roots of grass; Mysore, Bababudin Hills, 4,600 ft. in galleries at roots of grass.

Capritermes longicornis, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, pp. 126-128

(1902); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). ‘Dr. Holmgren

doubts if this is specifically distinct from incola. ’

Capritermes longirostris Wasm. var. cornutella, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus.,

xxiv, pp. 537-538 (1922). Described from Bandal Valley, Batnagiri District.

Capritermes obtusus, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv, pp. 229-231 (1923).

Fully described. ‘Few specimens under stone on damp soil at base of small

fig tree.’ Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, South India; Annandale, Bee. Ind.

Mus., xxv, pp. 233-251 (1923). Nesting and swarming habits given.

Capritermes obtusus Silv. var. abbreviatus, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxv,

pp. 231-232 (1923). Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, South India.

Capritermes punjabensis, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 170 (August 1917). From Lyallpur, Punjab.

Capritermes speciosus, Haviland, Jl. Linn. Soc. London, xxvi, p. 413 (1898);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). ‘Doubtfully from

Trincomalle’.

Capritermes tetraphilous, Silvestri, Bee. Ind. Mus., xxiv, pp. 543-544 (1922).

Fully described. From Bangamati, Chittagong, Bengal,

712 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

Eutermes, Heer,

Eutermes biformis, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, pt. 1, p. 133 (1902);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 14 (June 1913). ‘Possibly a variety of

rubidus, Galle; Ambalangoda : both rubidus and biformis have soldiers of two

sizes’; Holmgren, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, No. 3, p„ 793 (July 1912).

Borivli Jungle, Salsette Island: in small galleries built on surface of bare

ground; Khandala : most of these taken from under stone; Assmuth, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 2 (1913). Described as one of the wood-destroying

white ants of the Bombay Presidency; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 162-163 (August 1917). Shevaroy Hills about 4,500 ft. —

‘Nest under stone, interior of galleries blackened; also Madras and Saidapet’;

Hingston, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxii, pt. 4, pp. 717-725 (31st May 1928).

The author gives a very interesting account of the insect from Central India ;

he also gives an account of the nest, foraging expeditions, duties of soldiers,

special senses, and the insects compared with Hymenoptera.

Eutermes ceylonicus, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p.

179 (1911). ( ? = inania var. horni, Wasmann); Green, Soplia Zeylanica, ix,

pt. 33, p. 14 (June 1913). ‘Nests in decayed wood. Constructs galleries of

earthy or ligneous material, extending up the trunks of trees. A widely distri-

buted species. Peradeniya, Kudugannawa, Batnapura, Trincomalee, Passara,

Diyata.lawa’ — Ceylon; Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent. Er., lxxxiii, p. 361 (1914).

Deals about the buccal pieces. Ceylon; Ilemner, Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4,

pp. 388-389 (1926). Short description given. From galleries and bark of tea

bush ; reported ring-barking tea stem ; dead wood of tea ; and dead portion

of dadap stem.

Eutermes ceyloniellus , Kemner, Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, pt. 4, p. 389 (1926).

Ceylon : in stem and roots of tea.

Eutermes crassicornis, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, p. 162 (August 1917). Anamalai Hills, 4,000 ft. in ‘galleries in iron-

wood’; Coorg, Sidapur, Margalli Estate, 3,500 ft. ‘In gallery leading up

tree trunk. The nest could be seen about 20 ft. up there’ ; Mysore, Bababudin

Hills about 4,700 ft. ‘in galleries over rotten logs and in these logs’.

Eutermes escherichi, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p.

199 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 15 (June 1913). ‘Collected

by Escherich in a nest of Termes obscuriceps, Peradeniya’ — Ceylon; Oscar John,

Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 107-109 (October 1913). Notes' on the1 species

given.

Eutermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3,

pp. 161-162 (August 1917). Species described. Shevaroy Hills, 4,000 ft. ‘Run-

ning black galleries over a rock in the cracks of which were found large

numbers of soldiers, workers, nymphs and young.’ Also in ‘galleries over dead

tree-stump and in chambers excavated in mud and bark of same.’

Eutermes hantanae, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p.

198 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 14 (June 1913). ‘A rare

species; recorded from Hantana range only’ — Ceylon; Bugnion, Spolia Zeylanica,

ix, pt. 35, pp. 155-162 (March 1914). Described and compared with other

species of the genus; Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent. Er., lxxxiii, p. 362 (1914). Deals

about the buccal pieces.

Eutermes heimi , Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb., xvii, p. 135 (1902). Erom India;

Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, p. 163 (August 1917).

Coimbatore — ‘abundant here coming out towards sunset and foraging little bits

of dead grass etc., and sometimes biting off pieces of green grass and carrying

them into the nest. The individuals have a very characteristic aromatic odour’;

Madras — ‘At light’; Bellary District — ‘Under a stone in Humpi ruins’; Mysore

State, Maddur — ‘in the ground at roots of a tree alongside a colony of Campo-

notus\

Eutermes inanis, Haviland, Jl. Linn. Soc. London, xxvi, p. 425 (1898);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 14 (1913). ‘Recorded by Dr. Bugnion

from Ambalangoda’ — Ceylon.

Eutermes indicola, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3,

p. 161 (August 1917)-. From Coorg and Anamalai Hills. ‘From nests in live

trees and in dead stump.’ Species described.

Eutermes kotuae, Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., lxxxiii, pp. 351-359 (1914).

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF INDO-CEY LONESE TERMITES 713

Deals about the buccal pieces, Ceylon; Bugnion, Ann. Soc. entom. suisse.,

xii, pp. 192-200 (1914) — Ceylon.

Eutermes lacustris, Bugnion, Compt. Bend. Sci. Soc. Biol. (Fr.), lxxii, p.

1091 (1912); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt 33, p. 15 (June 1913). ‘In stems

of “Kaju-nut” (Anacardium) , Hevea, Elaeocarpus. Ambalangoda, Kalutara.

Distinguished from all the other local species of Eutermes by the dark brown

heads of the soldiers’; Bugnion, Bev. suisse de Zool., xx, pp. 487-505 (1912) —

Ceylon; Holmgren, Spolia Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, pp. 282-283 (January 1913).

Green has added a footnote wherein he states that Dr. Holmgren originally

described this species as a new species E. greeni, but Dr. Bugnion has already

published this as E. lacustris thereby taking precedence. Soldier and worker

described; Oscar John, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 110-112 (October 1913).

( = E . greeni, Holmgren, 1912.) Notes on the species given; Bugnion, Spolia

Zeylanica, ix, pt. 35, pp. 149-154 (March 1914). The imago described.

Eutermes longicornis, Holmgren, Stockholm Yet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2,

p. 172, pi. vii, f. 5 (1913?). Species new from Ceylon; Holmgren, Spolia

Zeylanica, viii, pt. 32, p. 283 (1913); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33,

p. 15 (June 1913). ‘On stems of “Giant Bamboo’’ (Dendro calamus giganteus)

and also in a nest of Termes obscuriceps Peradeniya’ — Ceylon; Bugnion, Ann.

Soc. Ent. Fr., lxxxiii, pp. 361-362 (1914). On the buccal pieces — Deylon.

Eutermes monoceros, Koenig, Schrift Berl. Nat., iv, 17, p. 25 (1779);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 14 (June 1913). ‘The common black

termite of Ceylon. It constructs its nests in hollow stems and branches of

trees, guarding the entrances by pendent masses of black material composed

of the excreta of the insects. Long processions of the termites, sometimes

extending several hundred yards, may often be seen crossing the roads. Found

throughout the island, upto about 2,000 ft.’ — Ceylon; Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent.

Fr., pp. 271-281 (1909); Bugnion, Bull. Soc., v and Sc. Nat., xlvii, pp. 417-

437 (1911); Bugnion, Bull. Soc. ent. suisse, xii, f. 4, pp. 119-123 (1912);

Oscar John, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 112-116 (October 1913). Notes on

the habits of the species given; Petch, Ann. Boyal Bot. Gardens (November

1913); Bugnion, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., lxxxiii, pp. 359-360 (1914). Gives an

account of the buccal pieces — Ceylon.

Eutermes oculatus, Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p. 200

(1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 15 (June 1913). ‘Described from

winged adults only, Peradeniya. Probably the winged stage of E. escherichi ' ;

Oscar John, Spoliai Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, p. 109 (October 1913). ( = Eutermes

longicornis, Holmgren, 1912). Notes on the species.

Eutermes preparvus , Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, p.

201 (1911); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 15 (June 1913). ‘Also de-

scribed from winged adults only, collected by Dr. Uzel at Peradeniya and

Henaratgoda ’ — Ceylon .

Sub-genus : Grallatotermes , Holmgren.

Eutermes ( Grallatotermes ) grallatoriformis , Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr.

India, Ent. Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 163-164 (August 1917). Anamalai Hills, Tell-

kadi, ‘under long galleries on mango stem’; in South Kanara, Aryapur. Holm-

gren is of opinion that the species is noteworthy in that it reminds one strongly

of Eutermes grallator, from NewT Guinea.

Sub-genus: Subulitermes , Holmgren.

Eutermes ( Subulitermes ) inaniformis, Holmgren, Stockholm Vet. Ak. Handl.,

50, No. 2, p. 154, pi. vii, f. 1 (1913?). Species new. Hinterindien.

Sub-genus: Trinervitermes , Holmgren.

Eutermes ( Trinervitermes ) rubidus, Hagen, Linn. Ent., xiv, p. 117 (1860);

Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 14 (June 1913). ‘A widely distributed

species. Found under stones, and forming small piles of fine earth on the

surface of the soil. Peradeniya, Anuradhapura, Ambalangoda, Diyatalawa’;

Holmgren, Escherich’s Termitenleben auf Ceylon, pp. 133-134 (1910). Observa-

tions on the species; Oscar John, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 104-107 (Octo-

ber 1913). Noes on the species; Bugnion/ Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., lxxxiii, p. 362

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

(1914). Deals with the buccal pieces, Ceylon; Kemner, Bull. Ent. Bes., xvi,

pp. 389-390 (1926). Description brief. Grass lawn. Ceylon.

Anoplotermes, Er. Muller.

Sub-genus: Speculitermes , Wasmann.

Anoplotermes ( Speculitermes ) cyclops, Wasmann, Zool. Jahrb. xvii, pt. 1,

p. 161 (1902); Green, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 33, p. 13 (June 1913). ‘Under

logs of wood, Peradeniya, Maha Illuppallama,’ Ceylon. Anoplotermes is dis-

tinguished by the absence of the soldier caste. The workers might readily be

mistaken for those of Eutermes, of which Dr. Holmgren considers this genus

to be an offshoot; Oscar John, Spolia Zeylanica, ix, pt. 34, pp. 103-104 (October

1913). Notes on the species given; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 164-165 (August 1917). Shevaroy Hills, ‘under stone’; Bellary

District, ‘from galleries in earth’ and ‘under dead agave stumps lying on the

ground’; Coorg, ‘in soil, said to damage coffee, roots, but this is doubtful’;

Mysore, Bababudin Hills, ‘in galleries and chambers in the ground . . .’

Termopsis , Heer.

Termopsis ivroughtoni, Desneaux, Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xv, pt. 3,

pp. 445-446 (1904). Kashmir, species new, described; Desneaux, Jl. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xvii, pp. 293-298 (1906). ( = Termopsis Radcliffe: Indian

Forester, p. 412. Gives an account of the genus.) In old stumps of Pinus

excels a.

Eremotermes, Silvestri.

Eremotermes fletcheri, Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser. v,

No. 3, pp. 167-168 (August 1917). Species described. Coimbatore, ‘issuing

from holes in ground at 0-30 p.m. during sunshine’.

Eremotermes paradoxalis , Holmgren ( = Pseudomirotermes , Holmgren) Stock-

holm Vet. Ak. Handl., 50, No. 2, p. 232 (1913?). Vorderindien. Species new;

Jl. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 1, pp. 115-116 (April 1913). Bangalore, ‘in

remarkably flat tunnels (transverse section oblong-ovate) constructed in pillars

of mound of 0. bangalorensis.' Holmgren thinks that it will be interesting

to know whether this genus — like Mirotermes — contains forms jumping by the

aid of their mandibles ; in this case the parallelism with Mirotermes would

be nearly complete. Species new; Holmgren, Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Ent.

Ser. v, No. 3, pp. 166-167 (August 1917). Coimbatore, ‘emerging from small

holes in the ground after a shower of rain, at about 4 p.m. . . .’; Central

Provinces, ‘on outskirts of mound-nest . . .’; Bihar, ‘on wing, 5-30 to 6-30 p.m.

over grass lawn’. '

REVIEWS.

THE NIDIFICATION OF THE BIKDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. By

E. C. Stuart Baker, c.i.e., o.b.e. , f.z.s., etc. Volume III. Ploceidae-Asioni-

dae. (Taylor and Francis, 30/-.)

The present volume completes the account of the nidification of the Passeres,

the families dealt with being the Weavers, Finches and Buntings, Swallows and

Martins, Wagtails and Pipits, Larks, White-Eyes, Buby Cheek, Sunbirds,

Flowerpeckers, Pittas and Broadbills.

It continues with the Non-Passerine or Pico-Passerine birds, including the

Woodpeckers and Wryneck, Barbets, Cuckoos, Parrots, Boilers, Bee-eaters, King-

fishers, Hornbills, Hoopoes, Trogons, Swifts, Nightjars, and concludes with

the Owls.

In a review of Mr. Stuart Baker’s second volume of this work which appeared

in a contemporary, exception was taken to the classification, which the writer

held to be inaccurate, and it therefore seems to us essential that we should

also refer to this point.

The volumes on Nidification are written on the same lines as the Bird

volumes of the Fauna of British India by the same author, and it stands to

reason that the same classification is adopted in both works.

So far from being inaccurate, this work is, in the words of an American

review, ‘the last word in patient and exhaustive research, bringing nomen-

clature up to date, and laying a wonderful foundation for further detailed

research’. The author has, moreover, himself carried the nomenclature in the

present work to a still further degree of accuracy, and has included all the

corrections rendered necessary by his own discoveries and by those of other

ornithologists since the dates on which the Fauna appeared.

Yet another point to which we would allude is the alteration in so many

of the trivial names, which have been made in the interests of future, and

not of past, ornithologists and students. As the author himself remarks, to

call a bird by a man’s name, e.g. ‘Baker’s Sparrow’ or ‘Jones’ Titmouse’

conveys nothing to the mind of the student, whereas such names as ‘The Punjab

House Sparrow’ or ‘The Ceylon Black-headed Titmouse’ to give a couple of

imaginary names, would at once convey an idea both of description and locality.

Field naturalists have long deplored the use of these meaningless compli-

mentary names in trivial nomenclature, and we congratulate the author on

his break with tradition in the interests of common sense.

These being our views on the above points, it is almost needless to add

that in the present work Mr. Stuart Baker fully maintains the high standard

which he set himself in the previous volumes. We have learnt to anticipate

this from past experience of his writings and expectations are more than

realised. In fact, we will go so far as to say that this book surpasses in

interest even the two preceding, dealing as it does with some of the most

extraordinary and varied nesting habits .that it is possible to conceive.

As in the earlier volumes, the serial number given corresponds with that

in the Avifauna, and of the total of 704 species and subspecies included in

that work, the nidification of 545 species and subspecies is now recorded.

Of the remainder, 61 breed outside the area of the present work, whilst

nothing is so far known of the breeding habits of the remaining 92.

It is possible, that some disappointment will be felt that limitations of

space have precluded the author from telling us more about the parasitic

Cuckoos, a subject upon which he is undoubtedly the greatest living authority.

Consolation however is forthcoming in his promise to devote a separate

work exclusively to this fascinating subject, and in this book all that is

known will be exhaustively dealt with and the various theories, with the

evidence for and against them, fully discussed. This work, when it appears,

should be of the most absorbing interest, and will be eagerly awaited.

Beturning to the book under review, the description of the nests and

lovely eggs of the Bose Finches makes most fascinating reading, and there

are very full accounts of that curious species the Forest Wagtail, of the

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

exquisite nests of the Spider Hunters, of the Sunbirds, and of the tiny Flower-

peckers.

Of different, but equal interest are ,what may, for want of a better

term, be called the curiosities of bird architecture. Among these we would

draw attention to the (apparently unnecessarily) huge structures of some of

the Broadbills, and going to the other extreme, the tiny felted pads of the

Frogmouths, birds of considerable size; and to the penchant of certain Wood-

peckers and Kingfishers for ants’ nests in which to lay their eggs, and to

the immunity of these from destruction by the ants.

To these may be added the well known immuring of female Hornbills

during incubation and often for some time after the eggs are hatched; the

nesting habits of the Spinetails, which for so long defied all the efforts of

field workers; the Swiftlets, famed as the producers of edible nests, and

the well nigh invisible saucer of the Crested 'Swifts, barely large enough

to contain the single egg.

It is safe to say that from the first page to the last the book is a mine

of information, much of which is new, and all of which is set out in the

eminently readable style, coupled with scrupulous accuracy,. , which one has

come to associate with everything that emanates from Mr. Stuart Baker’s

pen.

We have only been able to detect one error, and this doubtless occurred

in copying the manuscript note accompanying the eggs. We refer to the

description of the nesting of the Javan Small House Swallow on the cliffs

in Arakan, where the nests were only 18 inches and not 18 feet from the

top. This accounts, of course, for the remark that the nests were easily

accessible from above, as the finder informs us that he had merely to walk

along the top from the land side to reach the nests, though these would

have been quite inaccessible from the sea below.

The book contains eight beautiful photographs, the work of Col. Battray

and Capt. Bates, with a frontispiece by the author, and once again the

printing leaves nothing to be desired.

Volume iv, which will be the last, is nearing completion, and will in-

clude the Accipitrine birds, Game birds and Waterfowl.

C. H.

HITNTEBS’ MOON. By Major Leonard M. H. Handley, m.c., pp. 267,

price 15/. (Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London.)

There surely should be some limit to the inaccuracies which find their

way into modern books which purport to set forth observations of interest to

Natural Scientists and Shikaris.

A recent book Hunters' Moon, by Leonard Handley, is so open to criticism

in this respect that one is led to the conclusion that the author has depended

on his imagination and trusted to the credulity of the public, for purposes of

producing a ‘best seller’ rather than a work of sporting or scientific value.

The following observations in this book are I consider inaccurate : —

(1) The author’s trackers having tied a full grown sambhur stag to a

jungle branch shouldered and carried it off. To anyone knowing the size and

weight of a full grown sambhur stag this feat would seem to be an impossible

one.

(2) A part of the C. P. jungles is described as being unknown and

unowned. This information should be of interest to the Government of India

and to the Forest Department of the C. P.

(3) The author describes the Sladang as Malay buffalo !

(4) The author sees ‘two luminous eyes’ of what he takes to be a snake

watching him from the ‘depths of a tree trunk’ at night.

(5) An elephant, mortally wounded in its spine, managed to cross a

river and dies in the effort !

(6) The author speaks of trying to eat the ‘perfectly formed foetus’ of

an Octopus, although an Octopus is oviparous. If the author did eat one at

all it must have either been a very young specimen or an embryo from an egg.

(7) The author apparently had a good moon for the whole period of

two months he was in the Tenasserim jungles.

liB VIEWS

111

(8) He is not accurate in his dates. He starts of! after a man-eater in

February and on the 9th January he arrives at his destination !

(9) In his descriptions of the man-eater’s victims the left leg in each

case is said to have been devoured. The photo of one of the victims shows

the left leg intact !

(10) The author arrives in the evening at a Gond village. Later he and

four of the villagers (‘tired out with the gathering of the day’s crop’) sleep

round a fire. The man-eater seizes one of the villagers and a photo is shown

of the victim holding the author’s rifle and described as his ‘favourite Gond’,

regardless of the fact that the author had not met him before, and no photo-

graph could have been taken when the author and his two Gonds from another

village arrived late and tired.

(11) The author writes that no animal could recover almost instantaneously

from a solid .470 bore bullet and get clean away: quite a mistaken idea.

Elephants and the larger game animals frequently do so, if hit in a non-vital

spot, just as a bison shot by the author with his .470 bore rifle nearly gets

away.

(12) The old fallacy about the necessity of allowing a leech to drink to

satiation, otherwise if pulled off ‘a portion of the epidermis is removed’ is

repeated by the author.

(13) The author should make it clear that his Tanoy (the Siamese

poacher) has no connection with the well-known Tracker (and poacher) of the

same name of those parts — who is still alive and active.

(14) Besides moths, flying ants, tree spiders, mosquitoes and horned

beetles are apparently included in the ‘ flying lepidoptera of the Ceylon jungles’.

(15) It is not understood why the hills of Banga are persistently termed

‘Blue Hills’ when it is admitted that their Canarese name indicates ‘white

hills’. The Nilgiris, an adjoining range, are the Blue Hills.

(16) Blue Gums aj’e incorrectly described as growing in Mysore City.

(17) The western boundary of a shooting Block is described as being ‘lost

in Mysorean infinity’. In actual fact another shooting Block intervenes between

this and the Mysore territory.

(18) The big game on the Billigirirangans in ‘South India is described

as migrating to the small jungle clad sholas during the monsoon to avoid the

‘torture of leeches’. Actually during the monsoon most of the big game ani-

mals leave the sholas (evergreen jungle) which are then infested with swarms

of leeches.

(19) Quite incorrectly ‘Mulay Kadu’ is described as meaning ‘great rain

forest’. It is nothing of the kind. Mullay Kadu means ‘hill forest’ (Canarese :

Malay — hills; kadu — forest) and the deciduous jungle alone is termed thus by

the local Sholagas. The author errs in this with better company, as the

late G. P. Sanderson in his Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India

makes the same mistake, and this error is presumably copied by the author

as he quotes from Sanderson’s book on another page.

(20) The bite of green Grass Adders is described as being fatal. This is

hardly correct, as only small children, or a person in a very wreak state of

health, would be likely to die from the effects of the bite of one of these snakes,

nor is it understood how the author came across so many of these species

during the S.-W. monsoon.

(21) A honey bird is described as leading the author and his trackers

to its hive, an old and incorrect fairy tale. A honey bird is so called I believe

on account of its habit of feeding on the nectar in the flowers.

(22) A saddle is incorrectly described as meaning ‘Elephant crossing’ :

actually the name means ‘Mara’s (man’s name) Saddle’.

(28) ‘F’ of Bedaguli is described as having been killed in the war and

buried ‘betwixt the Tigris and the Euphrates’. Actually ‘F’ died from perni-

cious anaemia and was buried in Kent some years after the war.

(24) The author’s sadness is described at seeing relics of ‘F’s’ huts etc.

in the jungle. ‘F’ was still alive at the time of the author’s tale and more-

over used those very huts later.

(25) All sportsmen will condemn the author’s advice that a snapshot

should be taken at a bull bison if no clear shot is obtainable. Many a wounded

bull has been lost, and a cow shot in mistake for a bull, by shikaris adopting

these tactics, and this type of advice cannot be too strongly deprecated.

718 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVlI

(26) The author speaks of the great forest of ‘Sal’ on the Billigirirangans.

There is no sal growing on the Billigirirangans, nor, I think I am correct

in saying, anywhere in South India.

(27) ‘Shaking with excitement I throw all precautions to the wind and

aim into the brown of the great shadow ahead’ ! The unfortunate ‘great

shadow ahead’ is a bison which the author very luckily managed to bag.

(28) The bison is described as making for ‘the wall of the great Mulay

Kadu’, and it is indicated that the bison would have been lost had it reached

its objective. The Mulay Kadu is the natural habitat of bison, open deciduous

jungle where most bison are tracked and shot.

(29) Jackals are described as being near the author’s camp on the Billi-

girirangans. There are however no jackals on these hills.

(30) Dodsampagai block is described as stretching west from a certain

spot. Actually this shooting! Block lies north from the locality indicated, Coim-

batore lying to the South.

(31) A rough palisade of jungle bamboo, described as having been placed

by the author round his camp to give warning of the approach of elephants

and shown in the photo of his hut on page 260 was not erected by the

author but by a Planter on the Billigirirangans. The fence was erected to

keep out cattle. The photo is of the Planter’s camp which he was permitted

the use of.

(32) The story of the elephant cow ‘galloping off’, on the author’s ap-

proach, after giving birth to a still born calf sounds incredible. A cow ele-

phant with a newly born calf (alive or dead) is an exceedingly dangerous and

aggressive animal.

(33) It is not explained how the author’s *Sholaga tracker blew off the

Russel Viper’s head with the rifle the author was carrying. If it is meant

that the tracker accomplished this with a second gun, the author must have

been as near to death from the tracker’s feat as from the Viper, unused as

are Sholagas to modern weapons.

(34) The tale of the Hyaena and the wild dog pack sharing the same

meal is incredible. I doubt if any authentic case has been known of wild

dogs tolerating the close proximity of another animal while feeding?

(35) The District Forest Office unfortunately shows no record of 12 wild

dogs and a tiger having been shot by the author at the time described. A

tiger, and about this number of wild dogs, were however shot by another

sportsman in the same Block that year.

(36) The story on page 253 of the author climbing down from his machan,

leaving his rifle (surely a very foolish act), to investigate a noise is remark-

able. He describes a bamboo jungle as being inky black (although there was

a ‘full moon in a cloudless sky’) and yet he manages to see a black sloth

bear. Beturning the author sees ‘in the distance’ a great carnivorous beast

approaching along a fire line which he had to cross. It is not explained how

the animal did not see him, but it passed so close that ‘he could have touched

every spot on his sleek body’.

(37) The reference to a bamboo receptacle as a requirement on a machan

for certain purposes is crude and vulgar. Most normal sportsmen find no

necessity for this.

(38) The stories of the elephant removing the author’s machan ladder, the

tin of Army Rations bursting in his tracker’s face, and the visit of an elephant

to his Hulpatchayhulla camp (which the author was invited to) are a remark-

able series of coincidences as these were also the experiences of a Planter on

the Billigirirangans and were related to the author.

There is no record in the Office of the Deputy Commissioner, Mandla, nor

in the Mandla Division (including the Danauli Reserve) Forest Office, of the

author having destroyed the Danauli man-eater, which is said to have been

killed later by a Mrs. Haygate. The author shot in the Bajag Block in

February 1925, to my knowledge, and the man-eater was destroyed in 1926

in the same area.

In conclusion I consider the author’s ‘Apologia’ at the end of his book as

inadequate- and misleading.

R. C. M.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I. — A TAILLESS TIGEE.

(With a photo).

Early in the morning of the 1st instant I shot a very large

tailless tiger. On examination I was interested to find that there

was merely a blob of flesh ending up with loose skin, much the

same as goats have, and that there was no sign of gristle or

hard root that would indicate that the tiger had had a normal

tail previously.

The tiger measured 6j ft. between pegs and would have

measured quite 10 ft. had it possessed a normal tail judging from

the length of the tail of a 10 ft. tiger I shot in 1931.

I enclose a photo of the tiger and a close-up of its ‘goaty’

tail.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O., Via Mysore, K. C. MOBBIS, f.z.s.

S. India.

May 26, 1934.

II. — ‘BATELS AND COBPSES’.

Mr. Champion in his book The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow

writes thus: ‘This accusation of eating corpses is a libel which is

widely brought against this animal by people who do not know

what a Batel is. So far as I am aware no reputable naturalist

7 (2o Journal, Bombay natural His t. society, Vot. xxxvll

has ever obtained first-hand evidence of such an act on the part

of these creatures which are so omnivorous that they can have

little difficulty in obtaining ample food of other kinds. True it

is Dunbar Brander states in his book that he once gave evidence

in a murder case of this habit of the Ratel; but if I had been

the Judge, I am afraid that I should have questioned his evidence

very closely indeed, for it ivas almost certainly based on Indian

superstition , which by no means always follows facts.’

What I wrote in Wild Animals in Central India was as follows:

‘They also eat carrion and one of their names “The Grave-

Digger” is thoroughly earned as I have known them exhume a

corpse. I once had to give evidence regarding this habit in a

murder trial, the defence relying on the exposed human remains

being those of a corpse removed from an adjoining grave.’

In view of the fact that Mr. Champion has freely quoted from

Wild Animals in Central India as well as obviously finding its text-

ual content very useful, it is lamentable that he should not have

referred to me before publishing the rash and incorrect statement

to which he has committed himself.

Had the name ‘Grave Digger’ rested merely on Indian super-

stition, this would have been stated. Brom the context of what

I wrote, it is obvious, that it rested on no such insecure found-

ation. ‘Gt-lier Jungle Animals’ are treated in the concluding chap-

ter of Wild Animals in Central India, and this chapter commences

by definitely stating, that the difficulty arose as to what to say,

and what to omit. As a matter of fact to have said all, would

have entailed at least another, and companionate volume, to the

one jmblished.

It is now necessary to satisfy Mr. Champion’s unfulfilled desires

to cross-examine me. Before doing so, however, it is pertinent

to enter an objection to the self-appointed ‘Judge’ — -as he confuses

‘eating’ his word, in his book, with the word ‘exhume’ — my word,

in my book. It is a point worth mentioning, although not one

to which I attach great importance, as I certainly will not acquit

the Ratel of possibly eating from a corpse. The point is on the

judge not the Ratel. Mr. Champion in his book refers to the

Ratel having been known to eat the flesh of a dead animal :

whether fresh or decayed is not stated, but from the human point

of view, probably the latter. I have known them eat decayed

buffalo and from the Ratel’s point of view I see no reason why

it should reject decayed humanity. Perhaps Mr. Champion will

tell us why it should, and according to him does? The significance

of my use of the word ‘exhume’ now becomes apparent. I have

no direct evidence of ‘eating’ corpses, and in writing of animals

of Central India I endeavoured to be as accurate as I could, es-

pecially so with regard to fact. I tried to avoid one step beyond

which evidence would carry me. Whether the Ratel merely

‘exhumes’ the corpse for what he hopes to find associated with

it, or for the purpose of eating it, I cannot say. My belief is

both: but from Mr. Champion’s own quotation about Ratel’s

unearthing dung in search of grubs, ample motive for unearthing

a corpse can be inferred. Incidentally I take this opportunity to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

721

mention that it is due to dung dropping that one so frequently

finds bears’ excavations on paths and jungle roads.

Now for some evidence. During the rains, when one is more

or less confined to headquarters, there was a colony of Ratels about

2 miles distant from my house on the bank of a considerable nala:

lower down on the banks of the same nala, there was a native

cemetery. The Ratels came under my frequent observation. One

of their favourite excavating grounds was the cemetery and human

remains were frequently exposed. Perhaps Mr. Champion will tell

us where he has observed Ratels in the vicinity of a cemetery?

and where they did not burrow in it? Ratels living in jungles like

North Kheri have no opportunity of exhuming corpses. Duty once

compelled me to spend a few days in camp in one of these miser-

able way-side stations on the main line near Harda. As usual

there was no regular camping ground. My tents were pitched on

the bank of a wretched nala. During the first night, infuriated

dogs showed that some animal was prowling round. Daylight dis-

closed a large hole dug about 30 yards from the tent-door which

exposed putrid human remains : part of the corpse was found some

30 yards further off in the bottom of the nala. The desecrater

was a Ratel. Enquiry disclosed that some 2 months previously a

very sick Mohammedan had descended from the train and was

found dead next day on the platform. Whence he came, and

who he was had not been discovered, so he was ‘planted’ on the

bank of the nala, whence the Ratel subsequently excavated him.

There is some of the evidence which can account for human re-

mains being exposed by the Ratel, and I may add by asking how

rarely the occurrence can come under interested, and intelligent

observation ?

It is a matter of some surprise to me that according to Mr.

Champion local people in the United Provinces are unaware of

the Ratel ’s existence as evidences of its presence were abundant.

In the Central Provinces although Ratels dwell ‘out’, they nearly

always have a base, usually an earth, sometimes hollow trees,

rocks or a fallen bamboo clump. Animals which live in burrows

usually require freedom from flooding and good drainage. Much

of the North Kheri division, to which Mr. Champion refers more

particularly, does not lend itself to burrows; possibly, in conse-

quence, these are dispensed with.

There is no mystery about the Ratel’s climbing abilities. Two

Ratels used to inhabit the patch of jungle below the Telekeri Tank,

at Nagpur, J mile from the club. Any one interested may pos-

sibly still see their claw marks, just like a miniature bear’s, on

some of the trees: especially the end trees where the jungle

narrows a to Y before petering out. I used to surmise that they

went up these trees to have a ‘look-see’ before entering the station.

It is impossible to say if the peculiar colouring of the Ratel has

been specially developed for protective purposes. That it is pro-

tective it is hard to deny, especially in the face of the beautiful

photograph published by Mr. Champion opposite page 56, and one

would imagine more protective in moonlight than otherwise — espe-

cially to an animal which habitually quests in bare ground. The

14

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVlI

argument that the moon does not function continuously has only

a very modified implication — protective colouring in animals does

not necessarily operate under all conditions, all the time. It may

develop to meet a particular hazard. It is gratifying to find cor-

roboration of the Ratel’s courage, as so far as I know I was the

first person to draw attention to this attribute of the gallant little

beast.

Ivy Bank, Elgin, N.B.,

Scotland. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

June 24, 1934.

III. — DEATH OE AN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS

LINN.) WHILE CALLING.

On the 30th of last month my wife and I came on a cow-

elephant that had just died while giving birth to a calf, a case

of breech presentation. The elephant had apparently been lying

there in great pain and had actually been shifted a few yards by

other members of the herd in their attempts to help her up. An

examination of the elephant showed that the breech and hind

legs of the calf were born. While we were there another elephant

came up within a few yards of us very silently. A day or two

later I shot a wild dog feeding on the dead elephant’s trunk. Some

days after I observed that 5 King-Vultures were in full possession

of the carcase while hundreds of their common kindred were perch-

ed on the surrounding trees. The herd remained in the vicinity

for 3 or 4 days and were, from the volume of trumpeting and

other vocal efforts, apparently disturbed over the whole affair.

I understand that a cow-elephant died under very similar cir-

cumstances on the borders of Pampadampara Cardamom Estate on

the Cardamom Hills in Travancore last month.

The half -born dead calf was removed from its dead mother,

under instructions from the local Forest subordinates I was in-

formed. This is interesting in view of the prevailing Hindu cus-

tom in South India of extracting the dead body of a child from

the corpse of a pregnant woman.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O., Via Mysore, R. C. MORRIS, f.z.s.

S. India.

April 25, 1934.

IV. — DEATH OF 14 ELEPHANTS ( ELEPHAS MAXIMUS

LINN.) BY FOOD POISONING.

I am indebted to Mr. A. Wimbush, the Chief Conservator of

Forests, Madras, for the following information connected with the

death of 14 elephants from eating Kodo millet known locally as

‘Varagu’.

On the morning of 17th December, 1933, the villagers in the

fields adjoining the Vannathiparai Reserve Forest came upon 11

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

723

elephants lying in the patta fields and 3 in the adjoining Reserve.

By 3 p.m. in the afternoon the elephants in the fields were dead

while the 3 in the Reserved Forest were obviously in a very bad

condition and died later. The Veterinary Surgeon of Periyakulam

conducted a post-mortem on two of the elephants and the viscera

were sent to the Chemical Examiner.

Ripe ‘Varagu’ occasionally gets into a poisonous condition

though its appearance then is no indication of this and the knowl-

edge that the grain is fit for consumption is said to be gained by

either cooking and tasting a very small quantity or observing the

condition of the cattle during the threshing season. The antidote

for the poison is said to be tamarind-water or buttermilk in large

quantities.

Results of the chemical examination showed that the elephants

had died from Kodo millet poisoning. It is reported that a similar

case of elephants being poisoned by ‘Varagu’ occurred some years

previously in a field in the same area. When this grain is in a

poisonous condition it is apparently known as ‘Kiruku Varagu’.

In the case of the 3 elephants that were found in the Reserve

Forest the Range Forest Officer reported that water and tamarind

fruit were supplied to them by the villagers and by this means

the life of one of them was saved, but this is not confirmed.

Honnametti Estate,

Attikan P.O., Via Mysore, R. C. MORRIS, f.z.s.

S. India.

May 22, 1934.

[The poisonous millet referred to by Mr. Morris as ‘Varagu’

is undoubtedly the millet known as Kodra or scientifically as Pas-

palum scrobiculatum Linn. The species is well known for its occa-

sional poisonous properties and effects on man and beast. Dr.

Mann writes: ‘The grain as well as the straw of Kodra frequently,

if not always, contains a poisonous narcotic principle which causes

vomiting and vertigo. For this reason care is taken at least in the

Konkan to prevent cattle straying into Kodra fields. The poisonous

principle is probably produced under unfavourable conditions of

climate and season and the grain and straw are only poisonous in

particular seasons. It is said that . . . the narcotic property is

to some extent neutralised by steeping in cowdung and water, or

by keeping the grain for a number of years. Though the poisonous

and non-poisonous grain cannot usually be distinguished by ordin-

ary people, yet cultivators in Gujarat claim that the diseased

grain can be detected while threshing as then the effects of the

poisonous dust is felt both by the threshing bullocks and their

driver. ’

According to Dr. Lisboa the symptoms of poisoning resemble

those caused by Datura and are severer in cattle than in man,

due no doubt to the eating of the grain and husk and also to the

absence of vomiting. — Eds.].

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

V. — SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF BISON ( BIBOS GAURUS

H. SMITH).

I was lucky enough last Sunday to be able to spend a consid-

erable time watching the interesting behaviour of a herd of bison

in their breeding season.

The Grass Hills above the Anamallai District run up to about

8,000 ft. and adjoin the Kanan Devan Hills of Travancore. They

are very similar country to both these Hills and the Nilgiri downs.

There is a considerable variation in altitude in our Grass Hills

but the bulk of them are rolling grass land split up by streams

and large and small sholahs.

At about half past eleven we were sitting on a ridge having

a snack when we spotted a herd of bison about 1000 ft. below us

grazing in the open between two sholahs. Through the glasses

there was obviously nothing very big amongst them but a few

minutes later two large bulls appeared on the edge of a sholali

about a quarter of a mile behind the herd. One of them was doing

a great deal of dancing about and demonstrating at the other and

from subsequent examination of the ground they must have been

scrapping out of sight of us for some time. The demonstrator was

strangely enough the loser as presently he trecked off by himself

and lay down on a small hill top right in the open a good distance

away from any sholah whilst his opponent grazed his way towards

the herd and joined them.

We watched the loser for some time but he made no attempt

to move and looked so dejected that I came to the conclusion that

he must have been badly damaged. My companion had never

seen a bison before so we decided to go and have a look at him.

It took us some time to get down to him and by the time we got

there we could find no sign of him. Probably he winded us as

this stretch of country is a mass of small round topped hillocks

and the wind was all over the place as there were several thunder-

storms going on down below us.

We then went on to have a look at the herd which had not

shifted, and were moving about between two small sholahs and a

patch of grass. This is unusual in this type of country in the

middle of the day, as bison generally prefer to lie up in sholah, but

the thunder may have made them restless, or possibly their rest-

lessness was due to the fact that several of the cows were on heat.

We got well in and sat down to wait as it was impossible to

move any further the intervening ground being absolutely bare

with no dead ground.

The only members of the herd which remained permanently in

the open were some six or seven calves of 2 or 3 months old.

These calves were in the charge of a young bull who lay with

them and moved with them whenever they moved. Incidentally

the calves all lay together in a bunch and never attempted to

straggle. Presently a young cow came out of the sholah and one

of the calves got up and rushed at her for a drink. After being-

suckled for a few minutes it rejoined the others and the cow

started to graze. A young bull not quite in his prime promptly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

725

tried to mount her but she would not stand to him. A few minutes

later out came the victor of the morning’s battle, a fine old jet

black bull with very worn horns but a small head of not more

than 35 in. He did not attempt to chastise the impertinent young-

ster who moved off well out of his way. There were at least four

young bulls in the herd, in their prime but not as dark as he,

and although they kept out of his way they appeared to graze

quite happily with the herd.

In the course of the next quarter of an hour the master bull

tried to mount two cows who were evidently not quite in season,

and spent a good deal of time talking to himself and the world in

general. This mating noise made by bull bison is best described

as being very similar to that made by a domestic bull in a loose

box wdien he hears the cows being driven out past his box door,

only it is not so loud. It is delivered in much the same way as

with a domestic bull with the head stretched out and slightly up,

and the mouth just open. I have heard it used by a bull which

had lain up some distance behind a herd and was hurrying to

catch them up when they had grazed on in the evening. This

was not in the mating season, so that perhaps it is wrong to call

it a mating noise. It is quite distinct from the shrill bellow some-

times used by bull bison and which may easily be mistaken for an

elephant’s trumpet.

Now several interesting points arise out of this observation.

Bison in these hills drop their calves from about the beginning

of March until the end of May which seems on the face of it an

odd proceeding when the young calves, a few months old, have to

face a very severe S.-W. Monsoon which has been known even in

this district, two thousand feet lower, to register 80 in. of rain in a

month. Occasional calves are born at other times of the year but

the bulk are born within the three months mentioned. As the

cows are now being mated this would put the gestation period at

roughly 9 months or the same as domestic cattle.

The breeding season of bison evidently varies considerably with

locality. There are plenty of calves to be seen in the bamboo and

deciduous forests below us, round about Christmas time. I once

watched a herd of bison in bamboo country for the whole of one

day. The bulk of the herd lay up in a large patch of bamboo but

one cow left them, and wandered off by herself, and eventually

went into a small patch of bamboo about half a mile away at about

midday. At three o’clock she came out with a new-born calf

which was still damp. It could just walk very groggily but got

almost visibly stronger every minute. The mother grazed quietly

and slowly along just in front of it to join up with the herd again.

This was at Christmas time.

There has been a considerable amount of controversy on the

subject of solitary bulls. From my last Sunday’s observation the

master bull was of the type one would expect to find solitary at

most times of the year. His opponent was I should say younger

as he was not quite so dark in colour but there was nothing to

choose in size. Size of head does not apparently necessarily mean

victory, as this bull’s head was small and from the worn state of

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

his horns he had evidently been fighting for some years for his

privileges.

It would seem that bison calves when old enough to be herded

are discouraged from making a nuisance of themselves to their

elders during the resting period of the day and are left in charge

of a nurse. 1 have noticed this several times before, the nurse

generally being a three parts grown young bull. Another point on

which one hears and reads a number of different opinions is as to

whether bison have dewlaps. From observation of a large number

of bison there is no doubt that some have and some have not.

The bull described above had one of the best developed dewlaps

I have ever seen. I am inclined to think that dewlaps are often a

family characteristic of bison inhabiting a certain district, but even

this is not necessarily a certain characteristic.

Monica Estate,

Nalparai P.O., J. WILLIAMS.

S. India.

June 7, 1934.

YI.— GROWTH AND SHEDDING OF ANTLERS IN

THE SWAMP DEER (RUGERVUS DUVAUGELLI)

IN MANIPUR STATE.

Mr. Higgins has made over to me your letter of the 26th

January making some enquiries about the Manipuri stag. I have

no personal knowledge, but I have had enquiries made among men

who are likely to know, and report as follows :

A. Time of shedding antlers — June and July.

B. Period when antlers are in velvet — August and September.

G. Period when clean — January and February.

D. Pairing season — March and April.

E. Time when young are born — October and November.

Imphal, Manipur State,

Assam. C. GIMSON.

April 9, 1934.

VII.— HOOF DISEASE IN THE MUNTJAO ( MUNTIACUS

MUNTJAG).

The following account of a Muntjac may be of interest to you

in as much as the feet were infected with some disease and the

‘nails’ came off! My dogs are not particularly brilliant and would

not have caught him (a male) had it not been in a weak condition,

although he was only about a third or half-grown. They caught

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

727

him in the river in, the estate and I thought at first it was an otter

and I was all out for blood! When I realised what it was I ran

to the rescue and was surprised to see several of the hooves had

come off whilst the dogs were chasing him. I realised it was a

sick animal so killed it and found the remaining hooves came off

easily and had grown to an abnormal length. I don’t know if

it is a common disease and would be interested to hear if you

have had similar cases.

Kurady Khan Estate,

Sangameswarpet P.O., G. V. R. FREND.

Kadur District.

July 14, 1934.

VIII . — NID1FIC ATION OF THE TRAYANCORE LAUGHING-

THRUSH [ TROCHALOPTERON JERDONI FAIRBANKI

(BLANE.)J AND THE BLACK-HEADED BABBLER

[RHOPOGICHLA ATRICEPS ATRICEP8 (OATES)].

In vol. i, p. 140 of Mr. Stuart Baker’s Nidification of Birds of

the Indian Empire , I see I am credited with finding my eight

nests of the Travancore Laughing-Thrush in the month of March.

This is of course incorrect vide my note in vol. xxxv, p. 204 of the

Journal , all the nests with eggs or young having been taken be-

tween April 23rd and May 19th.

On p. 252 of the same volume Mr. Stuart Baker refers to my

remarks on the Nilgiri Black-fronted Babbler wherein I stated

that I was inclined to accuse these birds of nesting in colonies. On

the same page he quotes Davidson who says ‘It seems to spend

most of its time building unnecessary nests’. This aspect of the

case had not struck me. Davidson is perhaps right and I wrong,

though it seems hardly likely that one or even two pairs of these

birds would go to the trouble of building seven nests in a row.

Further investigation into this point is obviously desirable.

Incidentally ‘Mercana’ should read ‘Mercara’, the capital of

Coorg.

Shillong. W. BATES.

June 20, 1934.

IX. — THE KING-CROW [DICRURUS MAGROGERCUS

PEN1NSU LARIS (TICEHURST)] .

In the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats

(J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvi, p. 348), it is said that ‘the Survey did

not procure specimens of the Black Drongo or Common King- Crow

in the Yizagapatam area, but Ball cites Jeypore in his list of local-'

ities for it. It is probably generally distributed and resident down

the whole of the eastern side of the Presidency. Though the only

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

published records refer to Madras itself where Dewar has rtecorded

some interesting notes on its habits (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, pp. 364-6

and 486) . . in the rest of the Presidency we certainly require

more information about the King- Crow. ’

I thought that the following will be of some interest. The King-

Crow is one of the commonest birds in the Godavery District. It

is always seen either perched on telegraph wires or riding easily

on some lazy buffalo or cow. It is a very active bird, always

on the wing, hying hither and thither and chasing away enemies

far larger than itself — like that blackguard the Crow (whence its

name) or even the Common or Pariah Kite. And it beats the lark

in its early rising, I have heard the beautiful song of this bird as

early as 2 in the morning, during the summer months. And it

is equally a hard worker, foraging late into the evening even after

sunset. The bird is of course most pugnacious when brooding and

most active when bringing up its family. The young ones remain

quite a long time with their parents even after the characteristic

fork- tail is grown, obeying the harsh screech which is their

danger signal and an alternative to their whistling song. Its diet

seems to be mostly flies and butterflies and such other insects, but

I suspect that along with the local people, it has a partiality for

palm- juice or toddy. It either hawks butterflies on the wing or

catches little insects from the crevices of palm fronds, and folds

of buffalo-hide. In keeping with its royal nomenclature, it always

affects the topmost and most conspicuous perch on trees- — sitting

well outside the foliage. Sitting on such a perch it surveys the

land around to dart with lightning speed at some passing swallow-

tail. It must surely be thankful to the Government Telegraph

Department for erecting those perches without the, encumbrance of

leaves. Its grandest banquet is when termites emerge in large

numbers from an ant-hill.

The bird builds its nest on any tree for it is not afraid of

enemies. It selects usually Acalia trees in this district, but also

builds on Bain and Tamarind trees. They brood with their forked

tail stretching beyond the small cup-shaped nest. The parent

birds brood in turns. The following is from my records.

24th April 1926

29th, after 5 days

1st May, after 8 days

8th May, after 10 days

14th May, after 17 days

22nd May 14 days after

hatching

2nd June 25 days after

hatching

5th June

8th June 31 days after

hatching

Discovered nest with 3 eggs ;

two large and one small egg.

Birds sitting close.

Birds getting irritable.

The smallest egg hatched out.

All hatched, getting feathers.

Still in the nest, tail feathers,

appearing.

Left the nest ; within 100 yards

of the nest ; just able to fly a

Jittle. Tail not yet forked.

The family is progressing.

Being fed by parents still.

Tail still short.

Presidency College,

Madras.

April 3, 1934.

A. S. THYAGAKAJU, m.a.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

720

X.— NOTES ON THE HABITS OF THE MAGPIE ROBIN

(COPSYCHUS SAULARIS SAULARIS LINN.).

The Magpie Robin is one of the most familiar birds in South

India and yet there is very little mentioned about its habits in

literature. A pair had taken up their abode in the front hedge of

the S.P.G. Parsonage at Nangur, Tanjore District, South India,

a village some twelve miles from Tranquebar. The distance be-

tween the Parsonage buildings and the gate is about 50 yards. The

birds sang sweetly and occupied the fence on one side of the gate.

In the last week of April this year my attention was drawn by the

peculiar sound produced by the pair as they were trying alternately

to strike at something about 40 yards from the house on the road

leading from the Parsonage to the gate. It had rained the pre-

vious day and so I was inclined to think they were catching ter-

mites on the wing, but came out to see what the matter was. A

green Whipsnake ( Dryophis mycterizans) was seen on the road with

its head raised in a posture ready to strike. The plucky little

birds were able to prevent it from moving even an inch, till I

despatched it with a stick. A Red-vented Bulbul ( Molpastes

haemorrhous haemorrhous Gmel.) was also in an agitated state

hopping from branch to branch, raising its crest, and watching the

attack but not feeling bold enough to join in it.

A week or ten days later my attention was drawn a second

time by the birds which were producing the same alarming notes.

On looking out I found the birds flying about hither and thither

and frequently perching on a cocoanut palm on this side of the

same road a few feet closer to the Parsonage from the spot where

the snake was found. On closer examination an owl ( Strix flam-

med) was found to be hiding at the base of the very same cocoanut

leaf at the tip of which a Magpie Robin was sitting. The owl

which had visited the bungalow during the night had failed to

retire and the watchful eyes of the Magpie Robins were able to

detect its presence. As they were unable to tackle the bird them-

selves they did the next best thing i.e., raising an alarm till those

more powerful than themselves attended to their enemy.

The breeding season of the Magpie Robin appears to be from

March to July. It may be that during this period the birds are

more vigilant than at other times. Maternal instinct may force

even a weak bird to protect its offspring from imminent danger, but

attacking a snake on the road away from the hedge in which the

birds had taken up their abode, coupled with their daring in ap-

proaching the tree on which the owl had hidden itself makes one

feel that the birds are by no means cowards and that they possess

the grit in them to put up a fight when the occasion demands it.

Wall, in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, vol.

xxvi, p. 576, mentions an instance when he heard a prodigious

hissing and discovered the presence of a black Cobra ( Naia tripu-

dians) through a window in a hedge, and adds that the ‘prodigious

hissing’ proved to be the scoldings of a Magpie Robin.

Dogs are known to attack snakes and reveal their presence to

man. My experience with regard to the Magpie Robin coupled

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

with the instance mentioned by Wall, makes me feel that in this

bird we have a friend who would inform us of the presence of

snakes and attack them if it can.

Ever since the incidents mentioned in this note, I have observ-

ed the Magpie Eobin more carefully. The Tailor bird ( Orthotomus

sutorius sutorius Forst.) has been reported to be a most confiding

bird and it is stated that it frequently nests among the plants

in one’s verandah. This habit appears to me to be, not only an

attempt to escape the depredations of carnivorous birds but still

more a desire to court human protection. I have had the chance

of noticing these birds in the presence of Magpie Bobins. In

another part of the Parsonage garden they lived in the same bush

along with Magpie Eobins and kept up a continuous ‘Tweet’.

During the day they were seen in various places in the compound

and were always along with the Eobins. When they flew away

the Tailor birds followed them. This I have noticed for over a

month. The explanation for this comradeship appears to me to

be that the weak Tailor birds court the protecting care of the more

daring Magpie Eobins. They retire in the same bush and move

always together, the Magpie Eobins leading.

The Tamil name for the Magpie Eobin is gundoo-karitchan.

gundoo means round, and, karitchan is the Black Drongo ( Dicru -

rus macrocercus macrocercus Vieill.). It is possible the Tamilians

call it gundoo-karitchan because the bird looks round when the

tail is lifted up and will look like a Drongo if it is black completely.

The pugnacity of the Drongo is well known. It drives away car-

nivorous birds but weaker birds nest in the same tree and count

on the protection it can afford. It is possible that a situation

similar to this is found in the association of the Tailor bird and

the Magpie Eobin though to a less extent.

Whether the name gundoo-karitchan has risen as the result

of the observation of the Tamilian who has seen the bird attack

other birds, I have not been able to find out, but I dare say the

Magpie Eobin would have attacked the owl when I saw it, but for

the protected position the owl occupied.

These notes are communicated in the hope that others may be

able to record similar experiences.

‘Niton’, Letangs Eoad,

Vepery, Madras. BONAVIS BONNELL.

July 21, 1934.

XI.— THE NESTING HABITS OF THE SMALL SUNBIED

[. LEPTOCOMA MINIMA (SYKES)].

On the 5th February, 1934, I observed a pair of these pretty

little birds building a nest in my garden at the tip of a slender

branch of Mimusops elenghi, under an awning of leaves, at a

height of about 10 ft. from the ground. The nest has made some

progress by that time, so that, it was obvious that it must have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

731

been begun earlier. It was suspended from the tip of the branch,

and was more or less domeshaped, with a circular opening on the

treeward side overhung by a hood, apparently meant as a protec-

tion against the inclemencies of weather and unwelcome intruders.

The nest was made of lichens, fibres, and such other materials.

On the 5th and 6th February, the male was doing all the work,

but, on the 7th morning, I observed the female busy working

at the nest. The male was merely flying to and fro, covering the

female in its flight to get the materials for, as I discovered, lining

the nest. The lining was arranged, first with the beak, and then

with the feet, the bird entering the nest for the purpose. Almost

every time fresh material was brought the process was repeated

alternately with the beak and legs. The same activity was ob-

served on the part of the female on the two succeeding days, the

male, as before, covering its mate in its flight. The nest building

activity was particularly noticeable in the morning on all these

days.

On the 10th and 11th I did not see these birds. They appeared

to me from the very beginning exceedingly nervous and suspicious.

I was wondering whether they had deserted their nest, seeing that

they were being watched. To my relief, they were seen again on

the 12th morning at about 9 o’clock. The female came to the

nest only once or twice. It was evident that the nest had been

completed. My observation shows that the coarser part of the

work of nest construction, the building of the body, is allotted to

the male, the finer part of it, the lining, being undertaken by the

female, which, naturally knew better than its mate the require-

ments of the eggs and nestlings.

At 2 p.m., on the day in question, I saw the female bird alone

coming to the nest. It entered the nest and sat inside putting

the head and beak out through the opening, which was eminently

shaped for the purpose. The male bird could not he seen any-

where in the neighbourhood. The behaviour of the female led

me to suspect that it had laid eggs, and when, taking advantage

of the bird’s temporary absence, I examined the nest at 4-30 p.m.,

my suspicion was confirmed by the presence of two small dirty

white eggs. I had examined the nest the previous evening. There

were no eggs then, and there was no doubt that the eggs were

laid only this day, i.e. 12th Feburary. The female bird came to

the nest almost immediately I finished my inspection of it, and

after about 15 minutes, flew away. A little after 5 p.m. I saw

the male for a very brief while, sitting on a neighbouring branch

of the tree.

From the 13th to the 22nd of February, I saw the female sitting

in the nest on and off, the male not being visible anywhere in

the neighbourhood. On the 23rd at about 9 a.m. I saw the male

again coming with the female. The male bird sat on the branch

of a neighbouring tree for a very short while and then flew away.

On the 24th the attention of the male became more assiduous.

The pair could be seen very often flying together and hovering

about the nest. Once I saw the male actually putting its head

into the nest. The behaviour of the male, on the whole, gave

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

the impression that some great event was impending, and that

event could be none other than the hatching of the eggs. This

sort of attention on the part of the male continued on the follow-

ing days, and, every evening I examined the nest to see if the

hatching had taken place. On the 1st of March, at about 5 p.m.

I saw the pair visiting the nest. I suspected them to be feeding

or ‘fondling’ the nestlings, and the examination of the nest showed

that the eggs had been hatched. The incubation period extended

from the 12th February to the 1st March, about 18 days.

I found that, although the male visited the nest now and then

the feeding and practically all care of the nestlings devolved on

the female. I had hopes of seeing the nestlings in their first

efforts at flight, but these hopes were not destined to be realised.

Unusual for that part of the year, there were a few sharp down-

pours from the 15th to the 18th March, and as I was otherwise

busy on those days, I do not know what happened to them during

that period. But certain it is that on the 18th evening, when I

examined the nest, which was partly damaged by the) rains, I dis-

covered to my great discomfiture that the nestlings were no longer

there. I have not seen them or their parents since.

Maharajah’s College,

XII.— HABITS OF THE KING-VULTURE {SARCOGYPS

CALVU8 SCOP.).

Mr. Ali writing on the habits of the King- Vulture in his recent

paper (Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey, vol. xxxvii, p. 425)

holds views opposite to those of most ornithologists who preceded

him. He says that he has found ‘this so called King- Vulture, to

be the most cowardly member of the fraternity that usually gathers

to a feast, keeping himself aloof from the scrimage, only venturing

forward in obvious fear and trembling to tug at a gobbet and

withdrawing hurriedly when overwhelmed by the press’. Obvious-

ly a case of lese majeste — which suggests a development among

Vultures of the modern disregard for the divine rights of kings.

Mr. Morris in his note on the death of an Elephant when calf-

ing, published on page 722 of this number says that he observed

five King- Vultures in ‘full possession of the carcase while hundreds

of their common kindred were perched on the surrounding trees’.

From this one might gather that the disaffection has not spread

through all parts of the country — and that there are places where

the King- Vulture’s claim to supremacy remains undisputed.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Ernaculam.

April 4, 1934.

K. KARUNAKARAN NAYAR, m.a.,

Professor of Zoology.

Bombay.

EDITORS.

August 16, 1934.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

733

XIII.— A NOTE ON THE APPENDAGES AND DABBS ON

THE WINGS OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED JAOANA

[HY DROP H ASIAN US CHIRURGUS (SCOP.)].

Mr. W. A. Hewitt of Bihar in his letter to us with regard to

the appendages and barbs on the wings of the Pheasant-tailed

Jacanas obtained by him says: ‘I have examined four immature

specimens of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana and in every one of the

four birds I found that the first and second primary were pro-

duced into a filamentous lanceolate appendage, and the fourth into

an attenuated point.’

Mr. Hewitt suggests that the present Fauna of British India

is wrong, as are many other books on Indian Ornithology, in as-

suming that only the first primary ends in a filamentous lanceolate

appendage.

On going through the large series of Hydrophasianus chirurgus

in the Society’s collection I find that the present Fauna and all

other books on Indian Ornithology seem to have described the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana from the first bird at hand.

The characteristics displayed by the wing appendages in Mr.

Hewitt’s specimens are only confined to immature birds. As the

bird grows older, the webs fall off or disintegrate, leaving a feather-

less barb. The third primary loses its web first, then the second

primary and finally, in very old birds, the first.

Mr. Hewitt’s observations have led us into other channels. 1

find that the absence or presence of webs on the primaries gives an

indication as to the age of the bird. The older the bird, the less

are the webs and even barbs on the primaries. In one old male

bird’s skin, in the Society’s collection, there are no evidences of

barbs or webs on any of the primaries. The only constant feature

in all birds is the attenuated point in the fourth primary.

Bombay Natural History Society,

XIV.— OCCUBBENCE OF THE WOOD SNIPE [SCOLOPAX

R. RUSTIGOLA (LINN.)] IN THE CENTBAL PBOVINCES.

I enclose the wing of a Wood Snipe shot in the Balagliat Divi-

sion of the Central Provinces on the 25th February presumably

while migrating.

The place and date may be of interest.

Bombay.

V. S. La PEBSONNE,

Assistant Curator.

May 5, 1934.

Baipur, C.P.,

March 3, 1934.

P. V. CHANCE.

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot XXXV 1 1

XV.— A FUETHEE AID TO DIFFEEENTIATION BETWEEN

SWINHOE’S SNIPE [ CAPELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE)]

AND THE PINTAIL SNIPE [GAPELLA STENURA

(BONAPAETE)].

The similarity in the colouration of Swinhoe’s Snipe and the

Pintail Snipe frequently leads to confusion of the two species by

sportsmen.

The key to the identification is given as :

Tail features 26 in number, never less than 22 C. stenura.

Tail feathers 20 in number ... ... C. megala.

The above seems ample enough to identify either bird, except

when the tails are in moult! Mr. Gimson recently sent us two

skins of snipe which he thought were Swinhoe’s, on the strength

of them not showing any pin-feathers in the tails. Both birds

were in heavy tail-moult, and except for the partly-grown 4 central

tail-feathers the rest were mere stumps of one millimeter or less.

With the aid of a magnifying glass it was possible to count these

stumps, which inumbered 22. They were therefone the Pintail

Snipe.

In the absence of the most essential features of differentiation

between these two birds, 1 have found, on examining the series in

the Society’s collection, that there is one constant feature which

will be an aid to differentiation between these two snipes. The

following key was sent to Mr. Stuart Baker for verification.

Longest feather in bastard : wing never under

20 mm. ... ... ... ... G. megala.

Longest feather in bastard wing never over

17 mm. ... ... ... G. stenura.

Mr. Stuart Baker has sent the following letter:

‘You are quite right about the bastard wing of C. megala and

G. stenura and I find my notes say — Bastard wing of C. megala

(Swinhoe’s) never under 20 mm.; that of C. stenura (Pintail) never

over 18 mm.

A very good key would be :

A. Bastard wing always over 19 mm. ... G. megala.

B. Bastard wing always under 19 mm. ... G. stenura

In view of the little known habits and distribution of Swinhoe’s

Snipe and the possibility of it being overlooked in large bags, the

above key it is hoped will help sportsmen towards a correct identi-

fication in the future.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. V. S. La PEESONNE,

May 25, 1934. Assistant Curator.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

735

XYI. — OCCURRENCE OF THE PURPLE WOOD-PIGEON

[ALSOGOMU S PUN1CEUS (TIOKELL.)] IN SINGHBHUM

DISTRICT, BIHAR AND ORISSA.

I am sending you two skins of what I believe to be Purple

Wood-Pigeon (Alsocomiis puniceus) shot in the Saranda forest divi-

sion of Singhbhum district on the 12th May.

Speaking from memory, I think the only record of the occur-

rence of this bird is that of Col. Tickell, referred to in Stuart

Baker’s ‘Indian Pigeons and Doves’. Tickell was Deputy Commis-

sioner of Singhbhum sometime in the ’fifties and I have heard of

no other reference to the bird’s existence in the district. For some

years past I have endeavoured to verify the original record in

Singhbhum and the adjacent States of Orissa, but hitherto without

success.

It appears that this pigeon is not alone very rare but is extreme-

ly local; although where I encountered it I saw no less than thirty

or forty birds. They inhabit a few cool valleys at about 2,000 ft.

elevation in sal forest characterised by a dense evergreen under-

growth consisting mainly of Litsaea nitida and Symplocos spicata,

and watered by fresh perennial streams. The local people, Hos,

know the bird as gara putam and say that it is never found

outside three or four high valleys where this type of forest is met

with.

When found by me the birds were congregated feeding on the

unripe fruits of Litsaea nitida; and the crops of both specimens

shot were full of the berries. The birds were not particularly shy

and kept moving in short flights as I followed them : soon settling

down to feed if not approached too close. Their flight is not very

rapid, rather resembling that of the Green Imperial Pigeon; and

their call is also rather similar to that bird, though the note is

not so low nor so prolonged.

I have not heard of the occurrence of this bird elsewhere in

the province but I should think it not improbable that it might

be found in the higher hills of Mayurbhanj and Bonai States, the

latter adjoining Singhbhum on the south.

The Green Imperial Pigeon does not appear to occur in this

district or elsewhere in Chota Nagpur; although I have seen it

forty miles further south and thence throughout the forest tracts

of Orissa to the northern borders of Madras.

H. F. MOONEY,

Camp Tholkobad,

Singhbhum District.

May 14, 1934.

I.F.S.

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXVII

XVII.— THE HAWN CAROL OF BIRDS.

Observations of the dawn carol on April Ylth, 1934.

At 10 minutes to 5 a.m. the Mynas began to make a noise. They

stopped it for 10 minutes and then began again and stopped after

15 minutes.

The Jackdaws ( Gorvus monedula sommeringii ) joined in.

At 5-20 a.m. Tickell’s Thrush began its song and was joined

in after a few seconds by the Great Tit.

Sparrows took part in it and the concert was in full swing until

10 minutes to 6 a.m.

Then there was a silence.

This place of observation is east of Srinagar towards the lake

side.

On May 28 th.

At 4-35 a.m. The silence was broken by Mynas, 10 minutes

after, rose the song of Tickell’s Thrush and was followed by the

Golden Oriole’s song. By this time the concourse of finches was

great. The Ringdove lifted its note and the short and pleasing-

warble of the Paradise Flycatcher and the singing of the Bulbul

added more tunes to the morning song. The Great Tit joined in

and the Hoopoe was the last bird to join the concert.

The song died away slowly at 5-35 a.m.

The sun rose at 6-10 a.m.

On June 3rd.

Observations were taken in a boat on the Dal Lake near Sri-

nagar.

During the night we heard several deep ‘wak’ calls of a Heron

(Night Heron or Common Heron). At 3-55 a.m. the silence of

the dawn was broken by Tickell’s Thrush and was soon after joined

in by the Golden Oriole. I could not recognise the shrill call of

some bird coming from a poplar tree. At 4-30 a.m. the Great

Reed Warbler ( Actocephalus stentoreus) joined the chorus.

The chorus slowly died away.

The sun rose at 6-10 a.m.

The following observations of the serial succession of bird songs

at dawn were taken on 4th June at Srinagar in the gardens of the

Rev. Canon Tyndale-Biscoe and Mr. F. Jacob, which are adjacent

to each other. The gardens are full of plant life of almost all

dimensions from small bushes to tall stately trees and present

the aspect of a forest or woodland interspersed here and there

with lawn. The place is a bird sanctuary. What a joy it gives

to an early riser to hear the sweet symphony into which in all

probability he merges his own soul!

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

737

Dr. Brut observed the Himalayan Cuckoo’s song at 3-50 a.m.

at Islamabad 35 miles S.-E. of Srinagar.

C.M.S.- High School,

Srinagar, S. C. KOUD.

Kashmir.

June 19, 1934.

15

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

XVIII;— THE MIGRATION OF WILD FOWL,

THE SOCIETY’S BIRD RINGING SCHEME.

Since the publication of vol. xxxvi, No. 2, two recoveries of

Ringed Birds have been reported by the Director, The Bird Band-

ing Bureau of Moscow, 13 Argo-biostation, Moscow.

One recovery of the Glossy Ibis ( Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus)

ringed in U.S.S.R. was recovered by Capt. Wright at Deolali.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. EDITORS.

August 16, 1934.

XIX.— ANGLING OF CROCODILES.

In Kottayam, a village near Tellicherry, North Malabar, there

is a large pond which is an abode of hundreds of crocodiles. It is

not exactly a pond as the dimensions are so big that it can be

termed a lake. Once I happened to see some people engaged in

capturing a crocodile.

Their method of catching these animals is mainly by angling.

In the place of a float, used in fishing, two pieces of plantain-tree

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

739

stems two or three feet in length tied together served as the float.

To this float is firmly fixed an iron hook which is. similar in shape

to the ordinary fish-hook but has more barbs and is as big as the

handle of an umbrella.

The float together with the hook attached, is floated to the

centre of the lake by a man in a small canoe. He fixps a moder-

ately large piece of flesh to the hook. The hook is so fixed to the

float that the piece of flesh just touches the water. The man

then leaves the whole thing there and returns to the bank. The

free end of the rope is held by the people on the bank.

After a while a crocodile comes out and takes the bait. The

barbs fasten to the floor of its mouth and the helpless reptile

struggles vainly. Now the men on the bank holding the rope pull

it towards the land. They drag it out of water and beat it to

death. This method of catching crocodiles is familiarly known in

the vernacular as Kalam.

Government Museum,

Madras. T. V. SUBRAHMANIAM, b.a.

July 18, 1934.

XX.— NOTES ON THE INDIAN MONITOR

(VARANUS MONITOR) AND FLYING LIZARD (DRACO

MACULATUS ).

I am sending you under separate cover the skin of a lizard

for identification. I am pretty sure in my own mind that it is

a small specimen of the Common Monitor Lizard which is fairly

common in the Hills (the Anamallai Hills) but is not often seen.

This particular specimen was noticed wandering about the verandah

of a stone-built bungalow and was killed in the bedroom of the

wife of the owner of the bungalow. As a matter of interest I

should be glad to know whether the diet of this lizard is known

to include ants. This particular bungalow and garden is infested

with millions of the small black ant and also has a goodly sprinkl-

ing of white ants. The bungalow servants and also the office staff

were emphatic that the lizard was not a monitor the Tamil name

for which is udumbu but stated that it was a lizard that lived

on ants by sticking out its tongue to which they stick. I fancy

they were guessing at its habits, but there was a curious persis-

tence of the tale that there were three kinds of lizard like the

Udumbu — this one being an ant-eater. The local jungle tribes and

also most of our out caste labour forces from the plains are very

fond of the Monitor Lizard as a delicacy. When caught they do

not as a rule kill them outright but break all their legs and tie

them into knots like a whiting. The lizard is then cooked alive

in its skin at leisure, a hideously cruel habit but possibly not much

worse than the usual methods of cooking lobsters, prawns or

shrimps.

I once caught a Monitor Lizard when tracing a road through

the middle of a 300-acre clearing of evergreen jungle which had

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

just been burnt. This lizard had lived right through the fire and

except for a few burnt toes which snapped off on being pressed

and a small fire scar near the tail was unhurt and in good con-

dition. When it is realised that it is not possible to get into a

burnt clearing for 3 or 4 days after the burn and that even then

one is apt to find boot-soles burnt through after the day’s work

it seems incredible than anything could live through the fire.

Whilst in Bombay in December I mentioned the matter of a

flying or gliding lizard which is fairly common here to Mr. Prater

I should be glad to know whether the society has any specimens.

Should there not be any specimens in Bombay I will try and

collect some although they are very difficult to catch as they

seem to spend most of their life at the top of tall trees. I had the

opportunity of observing a very fine and unusually large specimen

at fairly close quarters last week. It happened to finish a glide on

the side of a dady tree close to me and I watched it make a leisurely

way up the tree. I have noticed before what I took to be the

shooting out of a long tongue as the animal travels up a tree,

which shows up a bright yellow colour in the sun. On this occa-

sion I was close enough to see that this is not a tongue at all

but a small auxiliary parachute web on both sides of the neck im-

mediately under the head which shows up a bright yellow colour

when the sun shines through it. This web is expanded and con-

tracted at frequent intervals as the lizard climbs the tree and

except at close range would be mistaken for the tongue. The main

parachute along the ribs remains folded and unnoticeable, in the

same way as a cobra’s hood, when the lizard is climbing.

Colonel Fraser, i.m.s., from Coimbatore caught a fine specimen

about this time last year when hunting for dragon-flies up here.

He told me that he had set it up and was I believe going to send

it to you.

Monica Estate,

Valparai P.O., J. WILLIAMS.

S. India.

April 18, 1984.

[The skin sent by Mr. Williams was that of the Common Indian

Monitor ( V . monitor). The lizard referred to is the Flying Lizard

( D . maculatus), a specimen of which was subsequently received. —

Eds.}.

XXI.— NOTES ON INDIAN MONITORS IN THE

UNITED PROVINCES.

I am afraid that I have never made much of a study of lizards

and my information on the subject is sketchy.

In the four divisions I know well — Lansdowne, Dehra Dun,

North Kheri and Bahraich — large lizards of all kinds except croco-

diles appear to me to be distinctly scarce, although there are many

species of small lizards, There used to be a fair number of Goh

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

741

( Varanus monitor) at Nauri in Lansdowne but they seemed .to get

scarcer year by year. In Dehra Dun and North Kheri I only

came across odd specimens at fairly long intervals and in Bahraicli

I have not so far seen a single one. Varanus flavescens may occur

in water-logged areas in Bahraicli, but if it does, it must be un-

common as nobody here seems to know anything about it and I

have personally seen none at all. There used to be large numbers

of an iridescent greeny-blue lizard that lived on stone walls in

Lansdowne. This reptile was up to 2 ft. long and I don’t know its

scientific name, but the 2nd/ 20th Burma rifles came to Lansdowne

Cantonment and their men captured and ate practically the whole

lot. This battalion has now left the cantonment and the species

may be recovering again, but from being very common it had

become scarce when I left there in 1929. The Burma rifles may

also have been the cause of the disappearance of Varanus monitor

from Nauri.

I do not know accurately the position as regards the abundance

or otherwise of Goh in divisions where I have not been posted,

but I am under the impression that they are not particularly com-

mon anywhere inside reserved forests. The breeding season is not

absolutely definitely known but it is almost certainly late in the

hot weather or at the beginning of the monsoon.

In view of the fact that Goh are not generally particularly

common inside reserved forests and that a merciless campaign

against them is being waged in many places outside the forests

where control is much more difficult, may I suggest that, instead

of trying to enforce a close period for an uncertain breeding season,

we should forbid the commercial exploitation of lizard skins alto-

gether from reserved forests? I mean by this that Divisional

Forest Officers should not give permission for any one to capture

lizards with the object of selling their skins from anywhere inside

the reserved forests. This will not result in any loss or interfere

with the present trade in lizard skins, and the few Goh that we

have will thus be protected and form a reservoir from which a

certain percentage will certainly stray outside and probably be

captured.

It is sometimes said that Goh are destructive to the eggs of

Jungle Fowl and Kalej Pheasant. I do not know definitely how

far this is true but it is a fact the Nauri in Lansdowne division

is the best place I know for Kalej and it is (or rather used to be)

also the best place I know for Goh. It may be that because Goh

eat Kalej eggs, they used to collect at Nauri, but in any case the

stock of Kalej there did not seem to suffer from their depredations.

With the limited number of Goh that we have inside reserve

forests I do nol think the question of their possible destructiveness

to game-birds need be taken into consideration.

I am afraid that this is not a very valuable note but I will try

to collect some more information on the subject.

Divisional Forest Office, F. W. CHAMPION, i.f.s.

Bahraich Division, U.P.

June 15, 1934,

742 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. .XXXVII

XXII. — OCCURRENCE OF THE SIX-TOED FROG

(RAN A HEXADAGTYLA LESSON) IN THE BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY.

On the 25th February this year in company of Mr. H. Ali

and his cousin, I visited the Karnala Fort (Funnel Hill in the

Kolaba Dist. While in quest of natural history specimens I noticed

some frogs in one of the rock-cut reservoirs. At first I took them

to be the ordinary Water Skipper ( Rana cyanophlictis Schneider)

but they appeared larger and heavier in build and did not skim

the water in elegant ‘skipper style’ — the jumps were more laboured

and not so long. Not having a net I shot two of them as they

floated on the surface. They immediately sank to the bottom

from where Mr. Ali was fortunately able to retrieve them, as they

were only wounded.

Once they were in my hand I immediately recognised that they

were not the Wrater Skipper but the Six-toed Frog ( Rana hexa-

dactyla). On examination both proved to be gravid females. The

eggs were well advanced and would have in all probability been

deposited in a short while. It is curious that these frogs should

be gravid at this time of the year, but this might be explained

by their totally aquatic habit in which case they may possibly breed

the year round when favourably situated. The cisterns have water

all the year round. It is interesting to note that the frogs were

commoner in those cisterns which were exposed to -a certain amount

of sunlight — the frogs would bask in the sun as they floated.

Karnala is. 1,560 ft. high.

As far as I am aware this constitutes the first record of Rana

hexadactyla in the Bombay Presidency.

Subsequent to th,is discovery, Mr. Ali brought me a single

immature specimen which he secured under stones in a pool of a

drying nulla at Apsoli, Alibag, Kolaba Dist., on the 12th May of

this year.

Possibly this species is not at all rare in the Presidency but

has been probably mistaken for its cogener Rana cyanophlictis

which it closely resembles.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. C. McCANN,

October 16, 1934. Assistant Curator.

XXIII.— OCCURRENCE OF LEITH’S FROG (RANA LE1THII

BOULENG.) IN SALSETTE ISLAND.

On the 14th October this year I secured three specimens of

Rana leithii at the Kanari Caves (1,300 ft.), Salsette Island. In

my paper Notes on Indian Batrachians (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 167),

I recorded this rare species from Khandala, Western Ghats. One

of the specimens was caught as it was crossing some dry rocks,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

743

the other two were found in damp places near some of the rock-

cut cisterns. The one crossing the rocks was pale yellowish brown,

much like the Khandala specimens, but those caught near the

cistern were dark brown (they all turned pale on preservation)

simulating the colour of the rocks. A blackish band extended

along the upper mandible to the tympanum. The skin was

covered with small warts particularly in those which were caught

at rest near the cisterns.

This frog is extremely active in its movements and is able to

take considerable jumps particularly when disturbed, but tries to

hide itself at once.

The Kanari Caves is apparently a good ground for Amphibians

as I have taken some of the rarer species in the locality.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. C. McCANN,

October 16, 1934. Assistant Curator.

XXIV.— RAT-SNAKES AND THEIR FOOD VALUE.

Rat-snakes ( Pytas mucosus ) are commonly eaten in some parts

of North Malabar. They call it by the name Paramba vala or Kara

vala thereby meaning in English ‘Land eel’. The term ‘eel’

applied to a snake is surely misleading but it must be due to the

external resemblance in shape that they call it so.

Two or three men surround a snake and catch it with their

hands. Then they pull the animal through a hole in a cocoanut

shell in such a way that the tail end passes through the hole first.

By so doing the animal is not only killed but its scales also

removed. The head portion is cut away and the rest is used as

meat.

Government Museum, T. V. SUBRAHMANIAM, b.a.

Madras.

July 18, 1934.

XXV.— EFFECT ON MAHSEER OF EATING THE FRUIT

OF THE KALAW TREE (TARAKTOGENOS KURZI1).

There are numerous species of mahseer found in Burma. The

commonest Burmese names for mahseer are nganangyaung , ngatlia-

lein and ngatauh. A very widely-spread belief prevails among

Burmans that mahseer caught in streams which flow through cer-

tain evergreen forests are poisonous if eaten. Mahseer when found

in such streams are called ngatauh. The poisonous effect is said

to be due to the fish eating the fruit of the halaw tree. If anj^

one eats a mahseer from such a stream it has a delirious effect

744 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV 11

as the name ‘ ngatauk ’ implies. ‘ Nga ’ means fish and ‘ tank ’

means to be giddy. Two streams where the mahseer are ‘poison-

ous’ in this way are the Kodan and the Nankamu in the Upper

Cliindwin District. These streams are left bank tributaries of the

River Cliindwin; they flow through dense evergreen forest in which

the kalaw tree is plentiful. There are other tributaries of the Chind-

win River in which mahseer are also called ngatauk. Here also

the fish are said to be poisonous, but most of the streams draining

the right bank of the Chindwin flow through ordinary deciduous

forests ; the fish from these streams are edible and in these streams

mahseer are locally called nganangyaung .

U Pe Kin, Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests, while work-

ing near the Nankamu stream was told by the local inhabitants

that the flesh of the ngatauk from that particular stream was very

poisonous. He did not believe what he was told and ate one of

these fish. He became seriously ill. He says that the effect was

similar to that of drinking country spirits — ‘I felt very giddy and

slightly delirious. . . . Many of the Chin coolies ate the

fish and they all suffered in the same way. One of the

Chins died two days later. The Chins said it was the fish, but

after making enquiries it was found that he ate only a small quan-

tity. The death was in my opinion due to pneumonia.’

U Pe Kin, in the course of his researches on this subject, has

eaten ngatauk from streams on either bank of the Chindwin and

he is now convinced that what the jungle Burmans say is correct,

namely that it is only the fish found in streams which flow through

forest in which the kalaw tree is plentiful that are poisonous and

he has come to the conclusion that the local Burmans have two

names for the same fish namely ngatauk in streams flowing

through kalaw jungle and nganangyaung in other streams.

A European Assistant of a firm of timber lessees was seriously

ill some years ago due it is said to eating a mahseer caught in the

Kodan stream.

The oil derived from the fruit of the kalaw tree has valuable

properties. It is used very largely in the treatment of leprosy.

Maymyo. S. F. HOPWOOD, i.f.s.,

June 7, 1934. Chief Conservator of Forests, Burma .

[J. F. Rock writing on ‘The Chaulmoogra Tree and some re-

lated species/ in United States Department of Agriculture

Bulletin, No. 1057, p. 18, says:

‘Bears also (author has previously referred to Monkeys) are

very fond of the fruit flesh, and, large numbers of them roam the

forests in search of kalaw fruits. . . . The heavy rains wash the

large and often buoyant seeds into the creek and thence into

the Khodan stream, the fish of which feed on them. The natives

stated that they dare not eat any fish from the Khodan stream, as

it would produce the same effect as the eating of a number of fresh

kalaw seeds. Wild pigs are also fond of the seeds, and the natives

refrain from eating pork at the kalaw fruiting seasons, as the flesh

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

745

of pigs which have fed on kalaw seeds is poisonous, producing

nausea and vomiting. ’

‘It is well to bear in mind that the seeds of all these species

(of Taraktogenos and Hydnocarpus) so far examined have been found

to contain cyanogenetic glucosides, which liberate small quantities

of prussic acid when the seeds are ground up in a moist condition,

and that the oils they contain are toxic. It is on record, for ex-

ample that a Hydnocarpus oil imported into Hamberg in 1911 and

used for the manufacture of edible products gave rise to poisoning

cases’ — Kew Bulletin (1926), p. 20. — Eds.].

XXVI.— A HUNTING WASP ATTACKING A SPIDER.

Apropos of the story of the Hunting Wasp and Trapdoor Spider,

published on pages 239 and following of your Journal , issue dated

the 15th April last.

In a jungle of the Central Provinces I once saw a large spider

racing over a bare patch of dried earth, pursued by a big emerald

and green wasp. When the wasp swooped down on the spider,

the latter flung itself on its back, and held the wasp ‘at arms’

length, the wasp trying in vain to reach the spider with its sting.

The spider then threw off its enemy and made another bolt for

safety. Down came the wasp again and again the spider repeated

its former tactics. This happened, as far as I remember, three or

four times, until, in a last lap, the spider gained a crack in the

ground and the wasp retired, defeated.

Udaipur, Mewar. C. G. CHEVENIX TRENCH.

May 12, 1934.

XXVII.— SOUND PRODUCED BY TERMITES AT WORK.

Col. F. P. Connor’s note in the Journal on page 1018 (vol. xxxvi,

No. 4) on ‘Rhythmic sound produced by Termites at work’, reminds

me of a similar observation I made, while at Peddapuram, a town

about ten miles north of Cocanada. This place is famous for its

large white-ants, known as Gopre-chedalu in Telugu. They build

huge ant-hills inside dark rooms. Their presence is usually known

by a burring sound, and that is a sign that our best books are

being devoured. This sound is quite distinct and is audible even

in the daytime, for these termites work at all times provided the

place is dark. The sound may be compared to a harsh grating

noise bur bur bur, indeed the name Gorre is I imagine an attempt

to indicate it.

Presidency College,

Madras. A. S. THYAGARAJU, m.a.

February 28, 1934.

16

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

XXY1II. — A CENTIPEDE KILLING A MOUSE.

My family, servants, and I witnessed an extraordinary sight

this morning at 8-30 a.m. and that was a 6 inch red centipede kill

a full grown mouse inside a fruit basket containing green man-

goes. The centipede held both hind legs of the mouse so that it

could not move and buried his legs along the length of its body

and fixed his nippers or whatever they are called in the mouse’s

neck killing it in about five minutes. We had heavy rain last night

and that must have driven the centipede into the verandah and the

basket.

Haripur P.O.. L. D. W. HEAKSEY,

Kheri District, U.P. Captain.

June 6, 1934.

WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

Part III of this serial will appear in the next Number- — Eds.

PROCEEDINGS.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

A meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society and then-

friends was held at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on Wednesday, the 22nd

August, at 6-15 p.m. Mr. J. G. Ridland presided.

The Honorary Secretary, Mr. H. M. McGusty, announced the election of

46 members since the last meeting held on 19th March 1934.

Mr. T. Sinclair-Kennedy, Bombay; Mr. Harold N. Sidney, Bombay; Dr.

Ram Narain Sewal, Pauri; The Honorary Secretary, E.I. Rly. European In-

stitute, Dhanbad; Capt. H. P. E. Waters, Bombay; Mr. R. E. Parsons,

Assam; Capt. W. T. Dixie, i.a.s.c., Karachi; Mr. L. G. D. Wakely, Karachi;

Mr. Donald G. Hill, f.r.g.s., Bombay; Mr. W. A. Hewitt, Samastipur; Major-

General S. B. Pope, c.b., d.s.o., Poona; Mr. A. E. Hubbard, Asansol; Capt.

J. Lindsay Smith, Quetta; The Principal, Pittapur Rajah’s College, Cocanada ;

Mr. R. A. Dyson, Bombay; Mr. M. J. Hackney, Bombay; Mr. M. C. Jacob,

i.f.s., Gauhati; Mr. H. A. Keatinge, Kurseong ; Mr. A. F. W. Humphrys,

Karachi; Mr. E. Raghavendra Rao, Nagpur; Mr. V. S. Rao, i.f.s., Jalpaiguri;

Mr. R. B. Carrick, Madras; Capt. C. Harford, Simla; The Librarian, J. N.

Petit Institute, Bombay; Mr. H. V. Blackburn, Manipur; H. H. The Maharaja

of Orchha, Tikamgarh; The Raja of Jaunpur, Jaunpur; Mr. H. E. W. Braund,

Rangoon; The Principal, Lawrence Memorial Royal Military School, Lovedale ;

The Raja and Ruling Chief of the Feudatory State of Ranpur State; Ranpur ;

Mr. G. B. Baksi, i.f.s., Bhandara; H. H. The Raja Saheb of Nilgiri State,

Raj-Nilgiri; Mr. E. S. Lewis, m.b.e., i.c.s., Lyallpur; The Inspector-General

of Forests, H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, Hyderabad; H. H. the Maharajadhi-

raj of Sirohi, Sirohi ; Mr. L. G. Redmond, m.i.c.e., Bombay; Mr. C. J. West,

Bombay; Mr. D. Davis, Bombay; Mr. A. L. Terry, Bombay; The Director of

State Gardens, Gwalior; The Raja Saheb of Bhinga Raj, Bhinga; Mr. S. A.

Vahid, i.f.s., Khandwa; The Raja of Baudh State, Baudhraj ; Col. A. M. Leake,

v.c., v.d., Calcutta; Major D. M. Fraser, i.m.s., Cawnpore; Capt. Sardar

Bhimrao Nagojirao Patankar, Satara.

Mr. Stanley Jepson then delivered his lecture on ‘Wild Animals and their

Ways’.

The lecturer dealt with some fascinating features of the animal mind and

disputed problems. Speaking of the oft-mooted point whether wild animals

possess a sixth sense which enables their subconscious mind to register the evil

intentions of poachers, sportsmen or even of the carnivora, Mr. Jepson said

many people had enlarged on the theory including Col. A. T. R. Glasfurd, who,

in his last book had devoted several pages to it. After a lifetime of shikar

Col. Glasfurd was convinced that certain animals did possess this mysterious

sense.

‘He must have known I had a rifle’, was a remark often heard when sports-

men related their experiences of animals who remained still until the last

minute following careful stalking and then cleared off. Mr. F. W. Champion

in his last book had stated that he found the same problem in stalking animals

to photograph them. It was always when he was about to take a picture

that the animal fled. M. Jepson thought that the explanation was that the

animal mind merely feared the attentions of humanity, good or evil, in the

same way that a child resented being made a fuss of by a stranger. It was

the fear of the unknown.

Curiosity in animals, especially the deer, often led to their losing their

lives to carnivora or hunters. This the lecturer said, was more marked in the

female.

Dealing with the larger carnivora the lecturer produced a panther cub and

said observation of its habits showed how potent a factor instinct was in

animal movements. Even though kept as a pet since it was a week old, the

cub could not walk straight across a room but had to stalk under chairs . and

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

slink about. It carried things backwards in the same way as a large tiger

dragged a carcase. Speaking about the disputed point whether panthers had

scent, Mr. Jepson said his experiments with the cub showed that it had no

scent.

In conclusion, Mr. Jepson made a plear for legislative action towards the

conservation of India’s very^ rich and varied fauna. The causes of the present

marked diminution of wild life, he said, were the production of cheap rifles,

the commercialised value and marketing of things like venison, hides and horns,

the growth of poaching partly due to the large number of ‘crop protection

rifles’, which were often used for supplying villagers with meat, the inevitable

spread of cultivation of erstwhile forest areas and the lowered ethics oh present-

day shikar, shooting from motor cars.

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EDITED BY

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VOL. XXXVII, No. 4.

Date of Publication , 15th April , 1935 •

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI/, No. 4.

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Trees. By the late E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D.,

f.l.s., and W. S. Millard, f.z.s. Part XVII. {With one coloured

and one black and white plates) 749

The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats. (Ornitho-

logical Section). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u., assisted by

N. B. Kinnear, m.b.o.u. Part X. ... 751

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. By the late

E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s. Part XXVI. ( With two plates) 764

Where Btg Game 1 Take the Waters ’. By E. H. Peacock. ( With

three plates) 780

On a Collection of Fish from Afghanistan. By Dr. S. L. Hora,

d.sc. , f.r.s.e. , f.a.s.b. ( With a plate and four text- figures.) ..... 784

Transformational deceptive resemblance as seen in the Life

History of a Plant Bug ( Riptortus pedestris ), and of a Mantis

{Evantissa pulchra) . By A. P. Mathew, m.a. {With a plate) ...... 803

The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin. By Salim Ali. With

Notes by H. Whistler. Part I. ( With a map , 4 plates and 5 dia-

grams) 814

A Hunting Trip in the Sunderbunds in 1892. By Vicomte Edmond

de Poncins. {With four plates) 844

Notes on the Birds of the Sittang-Irrawaddy Plain, Lower

Burma. By J. K. Stanford, i.c.S., o.b.e., m.c., m.b.o.u., f.r.g.s. 859

A New Dragonfly from Lower Burma. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser,

i.m.s. (Retd.), f.r.e.s 890

The Butterflies of Secunderabad. By Lt.-Col. W. E. M. Logan

Home 892

Some Observations on Nymphaea pubescens Willd. By C. McCann,

f.l.s. ( With two plates and one text-figure) 895

Notes on the Habits of Some Indian Birds. By Capt. R. S. P, Bates,

m.b.o.u. {With three plates) 902

An Interesting case of Semi-Cyclopia in a Shark. By John Berry,

m.a. ( With two plates and one diagram) 912

The Medicinal and Poisonous Palms of India. By J. F. Caius, s.j.,

F.L.S 917

Snakes in Belgaum. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, i.m.s 942

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I. — A Tiger feeding on a cow while yet alive. By Col. R. W.

Burton 945

II. — Records of some Clouded Leopard {Neofelis nebulosa) in the

Darjeeling District. By W. H. Matthews 946

ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVII , No. I

Page

III. — Note on a Bear and a Panther obtained by Col. F. M. Bailey

from Tibet and a Panther from Asia Minor obtained by

Mr. J. E. Whittall. By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s 947

IV. — Wild Dog ( Cuon dukhunensis) killed by domestic dogs. By

J. Williams 949

V. — Time of sexual maturity of the Elephant {Elephas maximus

L.) By G. C. Robinson, i.f.s 950

VI. — A Bull Gaur ( B . gaums) and a Tigress fight to death. By

H. V. Blackburn 950

VII. — White Bison. By A. A. Dunbar Brander 951

VIII. — Ratels and Corpses. By F. W. Champion, i.f.s 952

IX. — A Hybrid American Bison and Domestic Cow at the Mysore

Zoo. By Sadeg Z. Shah. ( With a photo ) 954

X. — The Loch Ness Monster. By A. A. Dunbar Brander 954

XI. — Occurrence of the Black-Headed Cuckoo Shrike ( Lalage

sykesii , Strickl.) in the Hoshiarpur District of the Punjab.

By H. W. Waite, m.b.o.u ... 955

XII. — Occurrence of the Grey-fronted Green Pigeon {Dendrophassa

Pompadora at finis, Jerdon) in the Kolaba District. By

Humayun Abdulali 955

XIII. — Occurrence of the Great Indian Bustard ( Choriotis nigricePs )

nearSaugor. ByE.P. Deeks 956

XIV. — Abundance of the Fantail and Pintail Snipe. By P. W.

Augier 956

XV. — Bird Notes from Burma. By T. R. Livesey 956

XVI. — A Comment on * the Nesting habits of the Small Sunbird

( Leptocoma minima , Sykes) published on pp. 730-732 of

the Journal Vol. XXXII. By Salim A. Ali 957

XVII. — A Dhaman ( Ptyas mucosus ) ' Rattling * its tail. By

Humayun Abdulali 958

XVIII. — A clear-winged Moth ( Paranthrene sp.) mimicking a Scoliid

Wasp ( Scolia auripennis, Lepel). By C. McCann 959

XIX. — A New Spider of Bengal mimicking Oecophylla smaragdina

(Fabr.) By G. C. Bh attach ary a. ( With three text-

figures) 960

XX.— On the mating habits of Spiders. By T. V. Subrah-

m an ay am 962

XXL— Do young Scorpions eat their parent ? By M. H. Desai,

B.Ag 963

XXII. — Observations on Teratological individuals of Aptinothrips

rufus, Gmelin. By. U. S. Sharga. {With two plates) ... 964

XXIII. — Termites as food. By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar 966

XXIV. — Stem fasciation in the Cocoanut Palm ( Cocos nucifera , Linn.)

By K. Cherian Jacob. ( With a photo) 966

Supplement. — The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the

Problem of their Preservation. Part III.

Journ. Bomrav Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate Z5.

Wavy- leafed Tecomella.

Tecome 1 la u n d u 1 ata , Seem,

(about. z/s nat.size)

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

April, 1935. Vol. XXXVII. No. 4.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.

BY

The late E. Blatter, s.j., pIi.d., f.l.s.,

and W. S. Millard, f.z.s.

Part XVII.

(With one coloured and one black-and-white plates).

( Continued from page 514 of this volume).

Plate XXV. — Wavy-leafed Tecomella.

Popular names: Bori (Bal.); Lohero (Sind); Lahura (Punjab);

Boheri, Boira (Merwara).

Tecomella undulata Seem, in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3,

vol. 10 (1862), p. 30. Tecoma undulata G. Don, Gen. Syst. V. H.

(1837 j, p. 223. — Belongs to the family Bignoniaceae . Tecomella is

derived from the generic name Tecoma itself derived from the

Mexican name of a plant: Tecomaxochitl ( tecomatl = vessel +

xochitl = flower).

Description : A large shrub or small tree with drooping

branches and greyish green foliage. Leaves 2-5 by f-1^ in. nar-

rowly oblong, blunt at the apex and with wavy margins, covered

wdh minute hairs and slightly rough; leaf stalk 1 in. long. Flowers

large, from pale yellow to deep orange; inodorous, in smaller or

larger 5-10 flowered bunches at the ends of the smaller lateral

branches; stalks in. long, cup-shaped with 5 almost equally

rounded lobes, veined. Stamens 4, filaments smooth. Stigma

divided into two lobes. Fruit 8 in. long by § in. broad, slightly

curved, parallel sided, smooth and sharply pointed at the tip. Seed

winged 1 by f in. (including the wing), wing thin, very narrow,

rounded at the top and absent at the base of the seed.

Distribution: India, Western Peninsula, Punjab, Bajputana,

Baluchistan; Arabia.

Gardening : A very handsome tree when in full bloom and

really worthy of cultivation. It is easily propagated from seed or

750 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

cuttings (Troup). It is not uncommon in the drier tracts of India,

flowering between February and April.

Uses : Tlie bark is employed in Sind as a remedy for syphilis.

The leaves are eaten by cattle. The wood is strong, tough and

durable; takes a fine polish* and is highly prized for furniture

(Watt. Diet. Econ. Prod.). The ' wood is yellowish brown,

mottled, handsome, highly-prized for furniture, carving and agrb

cultural implements (Brandis). It is drought-hardy and very

resistent to fire. It would be a useful species for afforesting dty

tracts (Troup).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XXVI.

Wavy-leafed Tecomella ( Tecomella undulata Seem.) Tree in flower, Maval, Rajputana.

Flowers of the Wavy-leafed Tecomella ( Tecomella undulata Seem.)

Photos by C. McCann.

s

rJTHE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE

EASTERN GHATS.

(Ornithological Section),

by

Hugh Whistler, m.b.o.u., assisted by N. B. Iyinnear, m.b.o.u

Part X.

( Continued from page 528 of this volume).

[Psittacula eupatria Linnaeus.

Psittacus eupatria Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii (1766), p. 140- — Gingee.

The Large Parakeet is said to occur in the Presidency, but the fact never

appears to have been properly verified. Jerdon says that it is found in the

forests of Malabar, in the Northern Circars and occasionally in parts of the

Carnatic. Stewart is said to have found it in Travancore though none of the

other observers in that State record it.

In the New Fauna (vol. vii, p. 339) the type locality is given as Ceylon.

It should, however, be Gingee as Linnaeus based his description on the Psittaca

ginginiana of Brisson (Aves, iv, p. 343).

The arrangement of the races of this species in the New Fauna does not

appear to me to be satisfactory. Birds from Sikkim and the Duars are attri-

buted to the race indoburmanica, as are also birds from Burma generally. I

have examined a good series of these Parakeets from the Sikkim-Duars area

and cannot find that they differ in any particular from Psittacula e. nepalensis

(Nepal, Punjab, United Provinces). Burmese birds on the other hand are

definitely distinguishable from nepalensis. They lack the bluish wash on the

sides of the head and nape and the mandibular stripe is most markedly nar-

rower; whilst their larger size and narrower mandibular stripe equally separates

them from the typical race. The difference between the Sikkim-Duars and

Burmese birds was recognised by Hume in naming his Palaeornis indoburmam-

cus (S.F., vii, p. 459) but he expressly stated that further subdivision was

unnecessary. How he came to consider the Sikkim-Duars birds separable from

nepalensis is not clear to me. Accepting their identity there is no doubt that

the name indob urmanicus must become a synonym for nepalensis. Beading

the original description one has no difficulty in seeing that Hume primarily

intended to apply it to the Sikkim bird with which he contrasts Burmese birds.

This was recognised by Kloss [J.N.H.S. (Siam), vol. ii (1917), p. 219] who

made the point clearer by restricting the type locality to Sikkim. He then

proceeded to name Burmese birds Palaeornis eupatria avensis (type locality

Bhamo) and this name will stand for them.]

Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein).

Palzornis manillensis Beehst., Stubenvogel (1794), p. 612 — Africa and the

Philippines errore — Ceylon.

Specimens collected: — 518 U 5-7-29 Kalai, Triehinopoly ; 940-941 U $

30-10-29 Nallamallai range 2,000 ft. ; 1129 c? 17-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : —

Bill from cere. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3 8 22.5-23 171-172 243.5 16-17 mm.

1 9 22 155.5 185.5 17 mm.

There is curiously little information on record about the Green Parakeet

in the Presidency though one suspects it to be common and generally spread.

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

On the eastern side I have found no actual records of it except the above

Survey specimens and Dewar’s statement that it is common at Madras in the

cold weather but less frequently seen in the hot weather. On the western

side it is only actually recorded in the Palnis and Travancore. Of the Palnis

Fairbank said that it is common round the base, sometimes ascending the

hillsides. Terry found it on the slopes below Pulungi and in the Pittur Valley.

In Travancore according to Ferguson it is very common throughout the low

country, breeding in February and March.

It is curious that everyone appears to have overlooked the variation in

size from north to south of this common species. Four males from the type

locality Ceylon measure: bill (from cere) 22-5-23-5 mm., wing 156-5-165 mm.,

tail 197-225 mm. and I have no hesitation in keeping with the typical form

the few specimens available from Travancore, Mysore and the Madras Presi-

dency up to the Cumbum Valley. Eleven males from this area, including the

above Survey and Ceylon specimens, yield a range of bill (from cere) 22-24 mm.,

wing 156-5-172, tail 197-243-5 mm. Ten males from the Punjab, on the other

hand, measure: bill (from cere) 23-5-26-5 mm., wing 175-186-5 (once 190-5) mm.,

tail (once 189) 225-263 mm. This marked difference cannot be overlooked

even though the advance in size throughout the Peninsula is gradual as in

other species. There is no sharply defined boundary between the races, there-

fore, but for convenience it may be fixed arbitrarily at the 20° latitude.

Northern birds also average very slightly paler and yellower in colour. On

the other hand I am unable to agree with the separation of Assamese from

North Indian birds on the colour of the lower mandible. This is a feature

which is rather hard to assess as roughly 50 per cent of specimens throughout

India and Assam have the lower mandible parti-coloured so that one is at

a loss whether to consider it black or red. Examination of a number of

specimens however gives the following figures: —

Locality. Lower mandible red. Intermediate. Lower mandible black.

Punjab, Sind 6 6 2

Assam 9 8 2

S. India & Ceylon — 6 8

These figures show clearly that, while the black lower mandible is of

service as a racial distinction in the smaller southern race, it is no distinction

as between the larger northern birds and birds from Assam. They are alike

in colour and size, unless Assamese birds average slightly more blue in tint.

The difference, if it exists, is not however marked enough to warrant racial

separation.

Psittacula krameri borealis Neumann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. xxii (1915), p.

178 — Assam, should therefore include the large North Indian birds.

Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linnaeus).

Psittacus cyanocephalus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., i (1766), p. 141 — India Orien-

tale, now restricted to Gingee, S. Arcot.

Specimens collected: — 4 o 9-4-29 Kurumbapatti ; 783 <$ 1-9-29 Kodur; 1553

c? 16-3-30 Sankrametta 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill from cere. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3 S 16-18 133-138 177-222 11-13 mm.

The Blossom-headed Parakeet is probably very generally spread in the

Presidency as a resident species. On the eastern side it is common in the

Northern Circars and the Carnatic according to Jerdon and in addition to the

three Survey localities we know that it occurs at Madras, where Dewar states

it is not so common as the Common Green Parakeet.

On the West it is extremely common in Coorg (Betts). William Davison

says that it is not uncommon in the Wynaad and at the base of the hills,

ascending the Nilgiris to about 3,500 ft. I have seen specimens from Canna-

nore (c? 9-10-82 Wardlaw'-Ptamsay), Calicut 9-3-83 Wardlaw-Bamsay) and

Malappuram (c? 2-7-12 Sparrow Collection).

On the Palnis it is common at Pulungi and other localities on the slopes

up to 4,000 ft. In Travancore, Ferguson says that it is common in the low

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 753

country, wherever there is forest and also about the foot of the hills, which

however it does not ascend.

Betts says that the nesting season begins in Coorg at the beginning of

January and Ferguson gives March for Travancore.

As in the case of the last species this Parakeet must be divided into a

northern and southern race in the Peninsula on the question of size, though

there is of course the usual intergrading between them. Twenty males from

Ceylon, Travancore, Kurumbapatti, Wynaad and the Nilgiris measure: — wings

131-143 mm., tail 171-222 mm. Seventeen males from Northern India (Punjab,

United Provinces, Orissa, Bengal) measure: — wings 137-5-151-5 mm., tail 172-

234 mm. As names already exist applicable, to these areas the two races may

be recognised and the boundary between them may be taken as the 20th degree

of latitude.

Only two races are recognised in the New Fauna, the Eastern and the

Western — the latter including our North Indian and South Indian — both of

which were considered as species in the Old Fauna. Considerable dispute has

from time to time taken place over the correct names for these birds and it

is desirable to settle the question. The evidence to go upon is not very good

but nevertheless sufficient we think to prove our case.

The differences between the Eastern and Western birds are in the colour

of the head- — a difference not very easily shown in a coloured plate — and in

the colour of the under wing-coverts. This last cannot of course be seen in

a picture and it is not mentioned in any of the descriptions.

To begin with the oldest name is Psittacus cyanocephalus Linnaeus, Syst.

Nat., i, p. 141, 1766, based on the description and uncoloured plate in Brisson’s

La Perruche a tete Bleue (Ornithologie, iv, p. 359, pi. xix, fig. 2, 1760). This

bird was a female in the collection of Abbe Aubray and was said to have

come from Inde Orientale — a vague term in those days for anywhere east

of Suez. This Abbe Aubray apparently had a considerable collection, from

all parts of the world, since Brisson frequently refers to it in his volumes,

but after a search we can only discover two species which are definitely said

to have come from India. These are La Perruche a tete rouge de Gingi

(vol. iv, p. 346, pi. xxix, fig. 2) and La Perruche de Gingi (vol. iv, p. 343,

pi. xxix, fig. 1). The first is a synonym of Psittacus cyanocephalus — a male —

and the second the origin of Psittacus eupatria Linnaeus. Since both the birds

came from Gingi we may fairly well assume that La Perruche a tete Bleue

also came from the same locality and the name cyanocephalus will stand for

the South Indian raice. For the North Indian bird Psittacus bengalensis Forster

Indische Zoologie, 1781, p. 40, is available and is founded on Brisson’s plate

and description (Ornithologie, iv, p. 348, 1781) of La Perruche de Bengale.

But Brisson never saw the bird himself and copied his description from

Edward’s plate and description of the Bose-headed Bing Parakeet (History of

Birds, vol. v, p. 47, pi. 233) and Albin, History of Birds, vol. iii, p. 14, pi. 14,

of a bird sent home from Bengal — almost certainly Calcutta1 — to which place

the type locality may be restricted. To the Eastern race we may restrict

the name rosea of Boddaert, Table PI. Enlum., p. 53, 1783, which was given

to the plate and description of the Perruche de Mahe in Daubenton’s Planche

Enl., vol. vii, pi. 41.

In the letterpress Daubenton makes no mention of any locality but says

his bird is similar to Edward’s Bose-headed Bing Parakeet. On the plate

however it is given as de Mahe.

The colour of the head of the bird on this plate is too light for any

Blossom-headed Parakeet from Western India and probably came from some-

where east of Calcutta; we restrict the type locality to Chittagong.

PsittacuSa columboides (Vigors).

Palaeornis columboides Vigors, Zool. Jour., vol. v, pt. xviii (June 1830),

p. 274, no locality — restricted to Aneichardi, Travancore.2

1 We are very grateful to Dr. Baini Prashad, Director of the Indian

Museum, for specially procuring us topotypes of this Parakeet from the neigh-

bourhood of Calcutta to enable us to verify the correctness of this restriction.

2 Stuart Baker, J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, p. 160.

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Not met by the Survey, as in the Presidency it is confined to the western

side. Betts reports that it is common in Coorg. William Davison states that

it occurs throughout the Wynaad and the Nilgiris. It is perhaps most numer-

ous on the slopes up to about 5,000 ft. but occasionally ascends to the plateau

and the good series in the British Museum contains specimens from Ootaca-

mund.

According to K inloch, this is the only species of Parakeet in the Nelliam-

pathies. Fairbank found it common on the Lower Palnis and along the hill-

sides and Terry records it from the slopes below Pulungi.

In Travancore it is confined to the hills, not ascending about 3,000 ft.

in the south but found at 5,000 ft. in the High Range.

According to Betts, the breeding season of the Blue-winged Parakeet starts

in Coorg in .January. In Travancore, Bourdillon considered the breeding season

to last from 1st January to the end of March and most eggs appear to have

been taken in January and February (see Hume’s Nests & Eggs, vol. iii, p. 89

and Stuart Baker, Nidification, vol. iii, p. 381).

This beautiful bird occurs along the Western Ghats as far north as Khandala.

In its limited range it exhibits the slight increase in size from South to North

common to many species with a similar distribution, but the increase is too

slight and the range too limited for any useful purpose to be served by an

attempt to recognise two subspecies.

Coryllis vernalis rubropygius Stuart Baker.

Coryllis vernalis rubropygius Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., vol. xlvii (1926),

p. 44 — Belgaum.

Specimens collected: — 1329 $ 6-3-1930, 1777 S 5-5-1930 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — «

Bill from cere. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2 (J 12-12-5 92-96-5 42-42-5 10-10-5 mm.

The Survey found the Indian Lorikeet common at Anantagiri when the

Silk-Cotton tree was in bloom, and Mr. La Personne considered that it was

probably breeding in April. He also found it at Sankrametta at 3,000 ft.,

but there it was not common.

This is another of the interesting discoveries made by the Survey as hither-

to this species was not known to occur anywhere between the Himalayas and

Assam and South-West India. In the latter area it is of course common and

well-known.

In Coorg it is very common (Betts). William Davison found it generally

distributed throughout the Wynaad and remarks that in some parts, especially

along the old avenues of Jack trees about Manantoddy, it was quite common.

It ascends the slopes of the Nilgiris to about 6,000 ft. Jerdon remarks how

intoxicated birds were taken at Tellicherry, this little bird often imbibing too

freely from the juice of the Toddy tree.

JGnloch considered the Lorikeet common in the Nelliampathies. Fairbank

noted it several times at the eastern base of the Palnis and Terry met several

in the Pittur Valley. In Travancore, Ferguson says that it is common on the

hills and he describes a nest with 3 hard-set eggs found at 2,000 ft. by

Bourdillon. This was on 15 March, and another with 3 eggs was found by

Stewart on 6 January (Stuart Baker, Nidification, iii, 386).

It is with considerable hesitation that I have kept up the race rubropygius ,

which, if separable, differs from the typical race solely in the duller more

saturated red of the rump patch as compared with the vivid red of this patch

in Assamese birds.1 In my experience this distinction only holds good for a

limited number of specimens, and I am not sure how much it depends on indi-

vidual variation, wear or age. The two Anantagiri specimens, for instance,

vary greatly in the colour of their rumps, one agreeing with the northern,

the other with the southern race, and it is probable that a larger series would

merit inclusion in the typical race. I am also very doubtful as to the correct-

ness of the present grouping of these small Lorikeets into species and sub-

1 In vol. vii, p. 343 of the New Fauna, Stuart Baker has omitted his

restriction of the type locality to Cachar (J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 161).

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 755

Species and suspect that ultimately vernalis will prove to be a race of Coryllis

beryllinus of Ceylon. A decision of this point should however only be made

after a full study of the whole group to ascertain the respective extent of

its specific and subspecific characters.

Coracias benghalensis indica Linnaeus.

Coracias indica Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, vol. i (1766), p. 159 — Ceylon.

Specimens collected: — 373 (J 9-6-29, 388 (J juv. 12-6-29, 405 <$ 14-6-29

Chitteri range 2,000-3,000 ft.; 532 9 7-7-29 Ivalai ; 602 9 24-5-29 Gfingee;

1152 9 21-12-29, 1179 9 27-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2 S 40-42 174-184-5 120-123 25-26 mm.

4 9 40-42-5 177-186 119-125 25-26 mm.

As in the case of many other common and doubtless generally distributed

species, I am unable to find any actual record of the Indian Boiler or Blue- Jay

in the Presidency north of the Biver Godavery. Southwards it occurs in some

numbers though not apparently quite so numerously as in Northern India.

La Personne found it plentiful and breeding everywhere in June in the

Chitteri Bange at 3,000 ft., occurring also in the Shevaroys up to 4,000 ft.

On the West it is much less common. In Coorg, Betts says that it is

an occasional visitor in the dry season, never staying very long. While it

occurs in the Wynaad and about the base of the Nilgiris it is not abundant

and does not ascend the latter. In the Palnis, it seems to be confined mostly

to the eastern base and Terry records it in the Pittur Valley. In

Travancore also it is said by Ferguson to be confined to the low country,

being common only towards Cape Comorin. Elwes however met it in the

Cardamum Hills ( Ibis 1870, p. 526).

Nothing is recorded about the breeding season in the Presidency.

In the New Fauna (iv, pp. 224-226) Stuart Baker confines this race of

the Blue-Jay to Ceylon and South Travancore, stating that it differs from

the typical race both in size and colour. The difference in colour I am not,

however, able to confirm, and as regards size I find that the Blue-Jay agrees

with so many other species in showing a gradual increase in size from south

to north. The available series from Ceylon is a poor one, seven specimens

in the British Museum and these not all1 sexed. They measure: — bill 37-47 mm.,

wing 171-184 mm., tail 116-128 mm. Fourteen birds from the Presidency, in-

cluding the Survey series, and Bangalore measure: — bill 39-49 mm., wing 171.5-

186 mm., tail 109-125 mm. These are clearly not separable from the Ceylon

series and birds from Hyderabad, Ivanara, Belgaum and Ahmednagar are

certainly nearer to these than to the large northern race of which I measure

a series of thirteen specimens (Punjab): — bill 42-49 mm., wing 183.5-201 mm.,

tail 128.5-139.5 mm. The line of division between the two races must neces-

sarily be arbitrary and it may most conveniently be fixed along the 20th degree

of latitude. •

Eurystomus orientalis (Linnaeus).

Coracias orientalis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii (1766), vol. i, p. 159 —

India.

The Broad-billed Boiler is not known to occur on the eastern side of the

Presidency and it was not observed by the Survey. On the West it appears

to be fairly general but scarce. William Davison says that he once met with

it in the Wynaad. Vipan (S.F., i, 495) says that he saw several in August

1872 in the Malabar jungles near the foot of the Carcoor Ghat of the Nilgiris,

and this was apparently at Nellumbore where B. W. Morgan also obtained

several specimens and procured the eggs (S.F., ii, 532). William Davison

says that he had sometimes seen it on the Coonoor Ghat.

Kinloch found it breeding in the, Nelliampathies, a pair with young in

March.

In Travancore it seems to be better known, though there is some doubt

about its actual status. F. W. Bourdillon (S.F., iv, 382) says: ‘This bird,

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

nowhere abundant, is, I think, only a visitor, although I have observed it in

August, during the winter months, in April and as late as May’. This is

amplified by T. F. Bourdillon (N. & E., iii, 58): — ‘They come to us about

the beginning of August and leave towards the end of April, after breeding.

They are not very common but almost every estate has its pair which generally

are to be found at about 1,000-2,000 ft. above sea-level. This he again ex-

pands (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 658): — ‘Comes to us to breed, leaving Travancore

again before the commencement of the monsoon. Pairs of these birds may be

seen here and there throughout the length of the hills at elevations from

500-3,000 ft., any time between September and the end of April; but they

are by no means common.’ Ferguson says that it is eminently a forest

species but he only procured a single specimen. I find it hard to believe that

the bird is not a resident.

F. W. Bourdillon took 3 eggs on the 17th March. T. F. Bourdillon found

an occupied nest on 20th April and in Nidification (iii, 392) Stuart Baker

gives the breeding season in Travancore variously as September to May and

March to May on the authority of the Bourdillons.

Sharpe described these South-West Indian Boilers as a separate form Eury -

stomus loetior P.Z.S. 1890 (October), p. 551 — Malabar, but the New Fauna

attributes them to the typical race. I have seen too poor a series of Indian

specimens to decide between these conflicting opinions.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham.

Merops orientalis Latham, Suppl., Index Orn. (1801), p. xxxiii — Mahratta,

India.

Specimens collected: — 173 9 2-5-29 Kurumbapatti ; 292-3 juv., 9 30-5-29,

421 $ 15-6-29 Chitteri Bange 2,000-3,000 ft.; 515-6 <$ 9 5-7-29 Kalai; 664

sex? 8-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 781 1-9-29, 785 2-9-29 Kodur 500 ft.;

912 9 13-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.; 1035 9 25-11-29 Nallamallai

Bange 2,500 ft.; 1058-60 U U 6 8-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

7 c I 31-33 92-98-5 119-129-5 9-10 mm.

5 9 31-33-5 92-94 109-126-5 8-10 mm.

The Little Green Bee-eater does not appear to have been actually recorded

in the northern part of the Presidency down to the Godavery, but it doubtless

occurs in this area as plentifully as elsewhere. Southwards it appears to be

very generally and plentifully distributed presumably as a more or less resi-

dent bird though it is true that Dewar seems to have some doubt whether

it bred about Madras City or not (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 492; xvii, 522).

On the West, Ferguson considered it one of the commonest birds in the low

country in Travancore. Fairbank found it plentiful at the base of the Palnis

and in the adjacent plains, Terry mentioning it in the Pittur Valley. William

Davison tells us that it is common on the slopes of the Nilgiris up to 5,500 ft.,

occurring also up to 6,000 ft.; it is also common about the foot of the hills

and in the V/ynaad. Here it seems to be a resident, breeding in the Nilgiris

in March and April. In Coorg, on the other hand, Betts (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiii,

548) says that it is exceedingly common as a winter visitor, arriving in

October (10 October, 1928) and leaving at the beginning of March (7 March,

1929). In 1932 he first saw it on September 12 (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 225).

This corresponds well with Taylor’s experience at Manzeerabad, Mysore (S.F.,

x, 456) that the birds arrived in the middle of September, leaving again in

June, with John Davidson s experience in Kanara that it was absent in the

-rains (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 43), and Benjamin Aitken’s account (N. & E., 2nd ed,,

iii, 61) that it leaves Bombay from April to September.

Merops orientalis orientalis occupies the rather unsatisfactory position of an

intermediate race between the pale, clear-coloured green of M. o. biludschicus

with little golden sheen on the crown and the more opaque green of M. o.

birmanus which has a very definite ferruginous-golden sheen on the crown and

hind part. These two extreme races when contrasted with each other are

very distinct, and orientalis and birmanus are as a rule sufficiently recognisable

inter The difference between biludschicus and orientalis on the other

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 757

hand is poorly defined and can only be recognised on series of which the

locality is known. The blue on the throat is a variable feature of no racial

significance in the three Indo-Burmese races. The few Travancore specimens

that I have seen approximate, as might be expected, towards the richer colour

of birmanus but it is unnecessary to do more than note the point, as orientalis

orientalis varies a good deal in depth of colouration throughout its whole

range.

Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsfield.

Merops javanicus Horsf., Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiii, pt. i (May 1821),

p. 171 — Java.

Specimens collected: — 1142 0 19-12-29, 1143 <$ 21-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : —

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

2 S 45 133-138 139-5-141 11-13 mm.

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater appears to be widely distributed in the Presi-

dency. Ball met it at Jeypore in April (S.F., v, 413). Colonel Sparrow obtained

a specimen, now in his collection, at the Kolair Lake on February 1st. The

Survey obtained two specimens in December in the Cumbum Valley. In the

neighbourhood of Madras, according to Dewar, it is very common in the paddy,

fields in the cold weather. Jerdon tells us — with his usual irritating in-

difference to dates — that on one occasion he saw an immense flock, probably

many thousands at Caroor (Karur) on the road from Trichinopoly to the

Nilgiris.

On the western side a specimen from Calicut (B 4-4-83 Wardlaw-Bamsay)

is in the British Museum. Wulliam Davison says that these Bee-eaters, are very

locally distributed and not numerous, always in small flocks which never stay

more than a few days in any one locality. He goes on to say that he has

seen them on the Coonoor Ghat, on the skirts of the Government Cinchona

Plantations at Neddivattum, and in the Wynaad at the foot of the Brahma-

gherries. In the Nelliampathies, according to Kinloch, they are very common

on the Northern slopes.

In the Palnis in October 1866 Fairbank found the Blue-tailed Bee-eater

abundant by the town of Palni, near the north base of the hills. On his

later visit he only observed it once, near Periur.

In Travancore Ferguson only knew of one specimen, shot near Trivandrum

in August 1893.

Rhodes Morgan ( Ibis 1870, p. 314) says that this species breeds in large

numbers in the banks of the Kistna and Cauvery Rivers. I do not know if

this record is reliable and there is no other record of the breeding of this

Bee-eater in the Presidency. It is a winter visitor to Ceylon and its move-

ments in most localities are difficult to understand so I will not attempt to

define its status.

To prevent further confusion I may note that the young Bee-eater obtained

at Pundharpur in October (S.F., vii, 77) was persicus. In the New Fauna ,

vol. iv, p. 233, it masquerades as apiaster while in the Journal, Bombay

Natural History Society, xxxvii, it has become javanicus.

Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot.1

Merops leschenaulti Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., vol. xiv (1817), p. 17 — Ceylon.

No specimen of the Chestnut-headed Bee-eater was obtained by the Survey

but La Personne states that a single specimen was seen at K/urumbapatti

after a heavy shower of rain. He considered it had probably come down from

the Shevaroys from which hills there is a specimen in the Madras Museum.

No one else has recorded it on this side of the Presidency except Rhodes

For genus see Ticehurst, J.B.N.H .S., xxxiv, 471 and xxxvi, 934,

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Morgan who states that it breeds in large numbers on the banks of the

Kistna and the Cauvery ( Ibis 1870, p. 314).

On the western side it is far better known though its movements seem

rather erratic and difficult to understand. In Coorg Mr. Betts considered it

a passage migrant as it was extremely common in large flocks in June 1928.

It disappeared entirely at the end of the month and was not again observed

save for a flock on September 24th. It is not uncommon in the Wynaad.

In the Nilgiris it is common up to about 4,500 ft. and occurs certainly

up to 5,500 ft. though it does not ascend to the plateau. Here it breeds

in March and April (W. Davison) and Mr. Betts informs me that it leaves

the western side (at any rate) of the hills in June, returning about November.

In the Nelliampathies it is common on the northern slopes (Kinloch). In

the Palnis Fairbank found it common on the eastern side of the hills at

2,000-3,000 ft. on his first visit in 1866 but on a subsequent trip only saw it

once. Terry saw several in the Pittur Valley.

In Travancore, Ferguson says it is confined to the hills where it is not

uncommon in North Travancore about Pirmerd and the High Range. Here he

says it breeds in February.

All Indian specimens are quite inseparable in colour from Ceylon birds.

The few Ceylon specimens that I have seen, however, appear to have shorter

bills than Peninsula specimens ; but a proper series may prove that this is

incorrect.

The name of this bird has long been a cause of dispute amongst ornitho-

logists. Many years ago both Hume and Lord Tweeddale pointed out that

Merops erythrocephalus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, p. 433 (1778), based on Leguepier

a tete rouge des Indes of Brisson Aves, vol. iv, p. 563, pi. 44, fig. 3 (1760)

could not be used. Unfortunately however in 1919 Stuart Baker, Jour., Siam

Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. iii, p. 432, saw fit. to revert to its use, since he said

Brisson’s description and figure were quite recognisable. Brisson’s figure was

uncoloured, but Shaw and Nodder, Nat. Misc. , pi. 357 (1778), gave an exact

copy which they coloured from the description. Neither in this coloured plate

nor in Brisson’s description is there any sign or mention of the black line across

the breast, nor the turquoise blue of the rump. From the position the bird is

drawn in this last colour should be ®very evident. Shaw’s figure shows a bird

with a chestnut head, green back, tail and wings and yellowish- white below

and does not represent, as far as we know, the colour of any known Bee-eater.

The next name which must be considered is Merops leschenaulti Vieillot,

Nouv. Diet., vol. xiv, p. 17, 1817, based on Le Vaillant’s Le guepier laichenot,

pi. 18, p. 55 in Hist. Nat. Des Promerops (1806). The figure and description

agree except in one particular viz., the throat which is described as follows:

‘La gorge est couverte d’une plaque triangulaire, d’un roux jaunatre, laquelle

se termine par un collier etroit gris-vert, qui, dans 1 ’ombre, semble noiratre’,

whereas in the plate it is pale yellow. The figure is that of a young bird

of the Ceylon-Indo-Malayan race, with some greenish feathers on the head,

black line passing from the base of the bill to several millimetres beyond

the eye, and a not very distinct black line across the throat. The green

feathers on the crown and the indistinct breast line are both signs of im-

maturity.

The bird is said to come from Java but it certainly never did, and there

is in the British Museum Collection a young specimen from Assam which

agrees with the picture very closely.

The name therefore for the typical race will have to be Merops leschenaulti

leschenaulti Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., vol. xiv, p. 18, 1817, and the type locality

Ceylon.

For the Javan race the name Merops quinticolor Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., vol.

xiv, p. 21, 1817, is available. The description is taken from Le Vaillant’s Le

guepier quinticolor Hist. Nat. Des Promerops, pi. 51, p. 15, 1906, which is

said to come from Ceylon. The figure and description however are clearly

that of a bird with a narrow black band across the breast, the black line

not passing beyond the eye, the characters of the Javan race. Exception may

be taken to the blue feathers in the wing-coverts of the figure, but these

are not uncommonly seen in this species and probably may be accounted for

by the fact that the feathers are worn. This race will therefore stand as

Merops leschenaulti quinticolor Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., vol. xiv, p. 21, 1817. Type

locality Java,

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 759

From the descriptions and figures it appears quite evident that Le Vaillant

had mixed his localities as Oates many years ago pointed out in Birds of

Burma, vol. ii, p. 68, 1883.

Alcemerops athertoni (Jardine & Selby).

Merops athertoni Jardine & Selby, Illustr. Orn., vol. ii (1828), pi. 58 —

India; Bangalore (see Ibis 1925, p. 751).

Specimens collected : —290 ? 30-5-29, 299 9 31-5-29 Chitteri Bange 2,000 ft.;

1416-17 G 9 20-2-30, 1441 $ 25-2-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

1 51 137 131 17 mm.

4 9 43-5-49 128-5-142 117-141 15-17 mm.

Mr. La Persortne reports that the Blue-bearded Bee-eaters were spread over

a wide area in the Yizagapatam district and that they were very partial to

the Silk-Cotton trees from which they made sallies after insects. They were

also met in the Shevaroys and in the Chitteri Bange where they appeared to

be uncommon and low level birds, haunting very dense forests. The only

other record on this side is by Jerdon (B. of I., i, 212) who says that on

one occasion he met the species on the Nackenary Pass leading from the Car-

natic into Mysore at about 1,400 ft.

In the western side of the Presidency it occurs in Coorg for Mr. Betts

told me (in epist.) that a small party were living on the borders of some

paddy fields just below his bungalow. Both Jerdon and William Davison

noted it in the Wynaad and on the slopes of the Nilgiris, the former up to

3,000 ft., the latter up to about 5,000 ft. A male from Sigur (10, vi, 67)

and three birds from Kullar (October-November 1867) are in the Hume Col-

lection. Col. H. B. Baker (Birds of Southern India, p. 174) states that he

procured one specimen only on the Sigur Ghat at 4,000 ft., and this specimen

is now in my collection.

Fairbank says (S.F., v, 394) that in December 1866 he obtained it at

the head of the Kambam Valley which skirts the Palnis along their south-

eastern base, besides observing a pair at Periur on the Lower Palnis in

March. On the subsequent visit however he was unable to find it at all.

Terry does not give it in his Palni list, and all that Ferguson knew about it

in Travancore was derived from the labels of some old specimens in the

Museum at Trivandrum. The Blue-bearded Bee-eater is presumably a resident

in the Presidency but nothing is recorded about the breeding season, except

that one of the February females from Anantagiri had the organs enlarged.

This species has no races.

Ceryle rudis leuconielanura Keichenbach.

Ceryle leucomelanura Beichenbach , Handb. Alced. (1851), p. 21 — Ceylon.

Specimens collected: — 788-89 9 9 3-9-29, 797 $ 799 $ 10-9-29 Kodur;

1219 9 10-1-30 Godavery Delta.

Measurements : — -

Bill.

2 66-5-67

3 9 69-70

Wing. Tail.

136-138 66-5-68

139-140 65-71

Tarsus.

8-5-10-5 mm.

10-10-5 mm.

The Pied Kingfisher is not yet recorded in the Presidency north of the

Godavery Delta, over the whole of which La Personne reports it to be common,

extending also up the river. In Cuddapah he saw it at suitable waters all

over the district. About Madras, Dewar reports it as very common. On the

eastern side of the Presidency right across to the foot of the Nilgiris and

the eastern base of the Palni Hills it is doubtless far more generally distri-

buted on suitable waters than these records illustrate. Nothing has been

recorded about the breeding season in this area.

On the western side the Pied Kingfisher is common in Coorg on the Cauvery

and other big streams (Betts). Hume belieyed (S.F., x, 352) thgl it occurred

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

in the Wynaad. A specimen from Calicut (Tweeddale Collection) is in the

British Museum. In Travancore it is common along the backwaters.

I have seen no specimens from Coorg or the Wynaad, but Travancore

specimens as well as the above Calicut bird are clearly separable from Indian

birds generally and must be considered as furnishing another example of the

local Travancore races. They are much darker looking birds giving a

general impression of black spotted with white on the upper parts, whereas in

Indian birds the general impression is white spotted with black. Not only

is the actual extent of the white markings much smaller but they are a less

pure white, sometimes almost smoky grey in tint. The black spotting on

the flanks also tends to be more extensive. The series from Ceylon in the

British Museum is not very good but it is sufficient to show that leucomelanura

is the pale form, agreeing with Indian birds generally. I therefore propose

for the above Travancore race the name

Ceryle rudis travancoreensis Subsp. nov.

Type : — Travancore (Surgeon-General Fry), British Museum Reg. No. 1910.

5.11.34.

Alcedo atthis taprobana Ivleinschmidt.

Alcedo ispida var. taprobana Ivleinschmidt, Orn. Monatsb., vol. ii (1894),

p. 126 — Ceylon.

Specimens collected: — 780 9 1-9-29, 798 $ 10-9-29 Kodur; 1096 irnm.

13-12-29 Cumbum Valley.

Measurements : —

Bill.

6 43-5

$ 45

Wing.

72

72-5

Tail. Tarsus.

33 8-5 mm.

32 8 mm.

With the exception of Dewar’s statement that the Common Kingfisher is

very numerous at Madras, the above specimens provide the only definite records

for the eastern side of the Presidency, though it is probably more common

and more generally distributed than this fact would lead one to believe.

On the western side it is common in Coorg, the Wynaad and the Nilgiris

and I possess a specimen from the Palghat gap. In the Nelliampathies, Kinloch

considered it very rare, found only on perennial streams on the plateau. Fair-

bank did not meet with it in the Palnis, but Terry observed a pair near the

Goondar stream in the Pittur Valley. In Travancore it is common about

the backwaters everywhere and also about tanks and ponds in the low country,

though it does not ascend the hills.

Ferguson’s statement that the Kingfisher breeds in March in Travancore

appears to be the only information about the breeding season in the Presi-

dency.

All the specimens which I have examined from the Presidency, south of

the Godavery Biver, most certainly belong to the very blue Cinghalese race

and not to Alcedo a. bengalensis.

Alcedo meninting subsp. ?

Alcedo meninting Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiii (1821), p. 172 —

Java.

Beavan’s Kingfisher was not procured by the Survey and it appears to be

very local in the Presidency. William Davison (S.F., x, 351) thought that

he recognised one on the banks of a small stream between Goodalore and

Nellacotta in the Wynaad. Bourdillon and Ferguson considered it not un-

common in Travancore where it is confined to the small patches of paddy

cultivation and the streams which irrigate them about the base of the hills.

A specimen from the Mynall Estate (Bourdillon) is in the British Museum,

as is also a male collected by Theobald on 18 October 1868 at Pothanore in

Salem district. Nothing is known as to the status of Beavan’s Kingfisher

in the Presidency but it is presumably a resident, as Stuart Baker records

eggs taken by Stewart in Travancore at 2,000 ft. on 17th January (Nev;

Fauna, iv, 255; Nidification , iv, p. 409).

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 761

There is a good deal of difficulty over the identification of the form of

Beavan’s Kingfisher which occurs in the Presidency. Mr. Stuart Baker is

of opinion that two forms occur ( New Fauna, iv, pp. 255-56) namely his

Ceylon race phillipsi to which he attributes the Pothanore bird and the Mynall

bird and A. m. asiatica which he considers occurs from the rest of Travaneore

northwards to Belgaum.

I have unfortunately been unable to inspect the Tring collection and the

series of 9 birds from Ceylon on which Mr. Stuart Baker bases his race

phillipsi. There is only one specimen from Ceylon in the British Museum.

I have therefore been unable to complete my examination of this group, which

does however suggest to me that the number of races recognised in the New

Fauna are too many. Of the two Presidency specimens mentioned above the

Mynall bird agrees well enough with the single Ceylon specimen examined.

The Pothanore bird on the other hand is quite different, being a deeper blue

in colour, agreeing far better with the Javan form. For the present there-

fore I do not feel justified in attributing Presidency birds to any particular

race.

[Ceyx erithaca (Linnaeus).

Alcedo erithaca Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x (1758), p. 115 — Bengal.

The Three-toed Kingfisher is included by Inglis and Baker in their Birds

of Southern India without comment and presumably on the authority of the

Neiv Fauna (iv, 260) where it is said to occur in ‘Ceylon, Travaneore and the

Malabar Coast to Kanara’. It is of course well known in Ceylon, but I can

find no original record of it from the Presidency beyond Jerdon’s statement

(B. of I., i, 230) that he obtained it in Southern India. Elsewhere he speaks

of this as in the Carnatic. As this species is only authentically recorded

from one area in India, namely the Sahyadris towards Bombay (Matheran

and Khandala, Kinnear, J.B.N.H.S., xix, 749; Butler, S.F., ii, 455; v, 503;

between Ambolee and Danowlee, Butler, S.F., ix, 383), I think further evi-

dence is required for its full inclusion in the Presidency list.]

Ramphalcyon capensis gurial (Pearson).

Halcyon gurial Pearson, J.A.S.B., vol. x (1841 after 11 August), p. 635

— Calcutta, Midnapore.

The Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher was not reported by the Survey,

and the only record of it in the eastern side of the Presidency appears to

be Jerdon’s statement (B. of I., i, 223) that it is occasionally found in the

Northern Circars and is rarely seen in the Carnatic.

On the western side William Davison tells us that he saw it on some of

the larger streams in the Wynaad, though only occasionally. Fairbank saw

it twice at the eastern base of the Palni Hills. Ferguson says that in

Travaneore it is confined to the low country about the foot of the hills, being

nowhere abundant.

Nothing is known about the breeding season in the Presidency except

that in Travaneore Stewart and Bourdillon found eggs in February and

March, and Bourdillon also obtained 4 fresh eggs on 20 July (Stuart Baker,

Nidification, iii, p. 416).

There seems to be only the one race of this species in India proper.

Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (Linnaeus).

Alcedo smyrnensis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 116—

Smyrna.

Specimens collected : —468 juv. 23-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 841 $

20-9-29 Kodur; 978 7-11-29 Nallamalai Bange 2,000 ft.

Measurements : — •

-Bill- Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

6 60 114 76 14 mm.

$ 58-5 119 79 14 mm.

The Survey has provided us with surprisingly little information about the

status of the White-breasted Kingfisher in the Presidency and there is no

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVll

record of it anywhere north of the Nallamalai Bange and Kodur in both of

which places single specimens were preserved. In South Cuddapah, Mr. La

Personne remarks that it was found frequently in dense forest far from any

water, feeding apparently on grasshoppers. About Madras, Dewar found it

most abundant, occurring in almost every garden. Southwards, La Personne

saw it in the low country around Harur and secured the above specimen at

Tirthamalai. Nothing is recorded about the breeding season.

The Survey specimens cannot be distinguished from north-western birds in

colour though they appear to be smaller. 8 Punjab specimens measure: — bill

from skull 59-66 mm., wing 122-129 mm., tail 75-87 mm. These figures suggest

the existence of a northern and a southern race, depending on size, but

before recognising it one would require to see more birds from the Presidency.

Apart from this detail, I disagree with Stuart Baker’s treatment of this

species. He confines the typical race in India to the north-west, viz., Baluchis-

tan, Sind, Punjab and Kashmir, separates birds from Ceylon and the extreme

south of Travancore as Halcyon s. generosa Madarasz, and attributes birds from

the whole of the rest of India, Burma and farther east to an intermediate race

H. s. fusca.

This is unsatisfactory. It is quite impossible to distinguish Ceylon birds

from those found along the western side of the Presidency in the rain area

from Coorg to the south of Travancore. They differ neither in size nor in

the rich darkness of the chocolate brown parts of the plumage (I can see no

difference in the colour of the back of this species anywhere in India ; the

tint of blue varies individually and is also affected by wear). For these birds

the oldest name is Alcedo fusca Boddaert. The birds from the whole of the

rest of India, including the north-west, appear to me to belong to one form in

which the chocolate-brown is definitely paler, though individuals differ a little

inter se. As stated above these will probably prove to be divisible on size

into a northern and southern race.

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Boddaert).

Alcedo fusca Boddaert, Table PI. Enlum. (1783), p. 54, based on PI. Enlum. ,

894 — Malabar.

If my views expressed above are correct, this race of the White-breasted

Kingfisher is entirely confined to the west of the Presidency from Coorg to

Cape Comorin. In Coorg according to Betts it is common and there is a

specimen from here in the Tweeddale Collection in the British Museum.

A male obtained on 29-3-1881 by William Davison at Nellacotta is in the

British Museum. He says (S.F., x, 351) that at the base of the Nilgiris,

especially in the better-wooded parts it is not uncommon but that it is only a

straggler to the tableland where he had shot it two or three times at Ootaca-

mund.

Fairbank saw it at Periur in the Lower Palnis, and Terry saw one near the

Goondar stream in the Pittur Valley.

In Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is the commonest Kingfisher. It

appears however never to ascend to any height in the hills, being found in

the small patches of paddy cultivation and on the banks of the larger streams.

Bourdillon adds that it lays about the beginning of April.

Halcyon pileata Boddaert.

Alcedo pileata Boddaert, Tabl. PI. Enlum. (1783), p. 41 based on PL Enlum.,

673 — China.

The Black-capped Kingfisher was not procured by the Survey, but it seems

to be sparingly distributed round the coasts of the Presidency. Jerdon tells

its (B. of I., i, 226) that he once personally shot a specimen at Tellicherry

and also had seen others from the same locality. Ferguson had a specimen

which was caught alive in a well near Trivandrum (J.B.N.H.S., xii, p. 203;

xv, 659).

On the eastern side it must be well established in the Godavery Delta for

Boscoe Allen records (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, pp. 373 and 511) that he shot one on

15 January, 1905, on the Naidupalem Creek, a tributary of the Upputeru

Biver which flows into the sea between the Kistna and the Godavery. Another

was seen next day near the Lutchmapuram Lock on the Upputeru Biver, and

THE VERNA Y SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 763

yet another on the Yelem drain near Cocanada on 13 February, 1905. It

follows these rivers some distance inland as Blanford obtained a male near

Dumagudiam in the Godavery Valley on 21 February, 1871. This specimen is

now in the British Museum.

There appears to be no difference between Indian and Chinese specimens.

Entomothera coromanda coronianda (Latham).

Alcedo coromanda Latham, Index Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 252 — Coromandel

Coast.

The sole authority for the occurrence of this lovely species, the Buddy

Kingfisher, in the Presidency is the specimen in the Government Museum at

Madras which was shot by the superintendent Mr. Edgar Thurston at Gudu-

vancheri about 16 miles south of Madras.1 It renders unnecessary, however,

Blanford’s refusal ( Old Fauna, iii, 135) to accept Latham’s name for this

species and Oberholser’s proposal to designate the type locality as Bangoon on

the grounds that the Coromandel Coast must be a mistake.

[Sauropatis chloris vidali (Sharpe).

Halcyon vidali Sharpe, Cat. Birds B.M., vol. xvii (1892), p. 278 — South

Konkan.

The White-collared Kingfisher is included in their Birds of South India by

Baker and Inglis on the authority of the New Fauna, vol. iv, p. 277, where its

distribution is given as ‘South-west Coast of India. Stewart and Bourdillon

both record it from Travancore and it appears to inhabit the coastal region

from Travancore to the Konkan.’ This race was of course discovered by Vidal

in the Batnagiri district where he found two distinct colonies in the mangrove

swamps at Kelsi and Batnagiri (S.F., vii, 168; viii, 414; ix, 50). The bird

was not however found in Kanara by James Davidson nor can I trace any

original record of its occurrence anywhere southwards to Travancore. The old

E.I.C.’s Museum contained a specimen said to be from Madras but this

locality was discredited by Jerdon (B. of I., i, 228). Under the circumstances

further evidence seems necessary before this species can be admitted to the

Presidency list. I am also very doubtful whether this race can be maintained.

Vidal’s birds do not appear to differ in any way from the only other Indian

specimens in the British Museum, namely four from the Sunderbunds in the

Hume Collection and these are usually attributed to S. c. armstrongi.']

1 This specimen was recorded in the Administration Beport of the Madras

Government Museum for the year 1902-1903. Guduvancheri is in Chingleput

District and the Kingfisher was shot in November.

(To he continued).

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

BY

The late E. Blatter, s..j., pIi.d., f.l.s.

Part XXVI.

( Continued from page 548 of this volume).

CYPERACEAE

BY

The late E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s., and C. McCann, f.l.s.

(With two plates).

9. Bulbostylis Kunth.

(Stenophyllus Rafin. Cke. ii, 886.)

Annual herbs; rhizome short or 0. Stems tufted, leafy only at the base.

Leaves very narrow, rarely absent; sheaths usually finely hairy. Spikelets of

few to many flowers, flattened in umbelled or congested corymbs, sometimes

reduced to a solitary one. Glumes imbricate on all sides, 1-2 lowest empty,

the uppermost few tabescent, the intermediate 2-sexual. Hypogynous bristles 0.

Stamens 1-3, usually 2. Style 3-fid, deciduous, as long as the nut, with a

small bulbiform base which remains as a minute button on the apex of the

nut when the style falls off. Nut obovoid, 3-gonous, smooth, hardly stalked.

Species about 70. — Most warm regions.

Key

1. Spikelets in a capitate head ... ...

2. Spikelets in a lax umbel or compound umbel.

Stem glabrous below the inflorescence ...

3. Spikelets in a contracted umbel or compound

umbel. Stem pubescent below the inflores-

cence

1. B. barhata.

2. B. capillaris var.

trifida.

3. B. puberula.

1. Bulbostylis barbata Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 208. — Stenoj)hyllus barhata

Th. Cooke in FI. Bomb. Pres, ii, 887. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in

Hook. f. vi, 651.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Gujarat : Nadiad Farm (Bhide !) ;

Ahmedabad, very common (Saxton 1728 !, Cooper !). — Deccan: Ivarli (Woodrow

ex Cooke). — S. M. Country: Badami (Herb. St. X. C. 3116 !, Woodrow or

Cooke !, H.E.B.B. !) ; Badami Hills (Paranjpye !) ; Gokak (Slievdye !) ;

Hubli, 2,000 ft., rainfall 30 in. (Sedgwick 4982 1). — N. Kanara: Karwar,

common on sandy soil (Talbot 555 ! 1314 1, Sedgwick 6592 !, Bell 2700 !,

Hallberg & McCann C145 !).

Flowering & fruiting: July 1917 (Karwar); July 12th, 1919 (Ahmedabad);

August 10th, 1883 (Karwar); August 17tli, 1909 (Gokak); August 30th, 1892

(Badami); September 1st, 1912 (Badami); September 27th, 1913 (Ahmedabad);

October 1911 (Nadiad); October 1919 (Karwar); December 1918 (Hubli).

Field notes : A monsoon species. In the northern part of the Presidency

it dies down soon after the monsoon, but may be found near water at later

periods. A plant that prefers sandy soil.

Distribution : Throughout India. — Ceylon, warm regions.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 765

2. Bulbostylis capillaris Kunth var. trifida C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.

F.B.I. vi, 652. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke l.c.

Description : A densely tufted annual. Stems 5-30 cm. long, setaceous,

at the top glabrous. Leaves half as long as the stems, setaceous; sheaths with

iong white hairs in the throat. Spikelets in a simple or compound lax umbel,

all solitary, or in weak examples, only 3-1 to a stem; bracts setaceous, short.

Spikelets usually 3 by 1.25 mm., about 12-flowered, but vary from 1.25 to

6 mm., from dark brown to pale brown. Glumes boat-shaped, ovate, hardly

acute, nerveless, pubescent; keel pallid. Stamens usually 2; anthers narrow-

oblong, muticous. Style as long as the nut, filiform, glabrous; branches 3,

long. Nut 2/5 the length of the glume, trigonous, obovoid, truncate, pallid or

pale brown, smooth, without vertical or transverse undulate lines, or the

transverse undulations faintly indicated; outermost cells short oblong longitudi-

nally; style-base persistent on the nut as a small depressed ovoid button.

Locality : W. Ghats : Khandala (Gammie 15424 !) ; Mahableshwar, summit

of Sindola, 4,700 ft., rainfall 300 in. (Sedgwick 4844 !), hillsides (Sedgwick

4672 ! 4673 !) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1742 ! B1744 !) ; Purandhar

Fort (Bhide !) ; Castle Bock (Bell 4289 !). — S. M. Country : Astoli, open

ground in forest (Sedgwick 2554 !). — N. Kayiara : Karwar (Hallberg & Mc-

Cann C146 !).

Flowering & f ruiting : July 1917 (Astoli) ; September 1918 (Castle Bock) ;

September 7th, 1907 (Purandhar) ; September 20th, 1902 (Khandala) ; October

1919 (Karwar); October 1920 (Panchgani); November 1918 (Mahableshwar).

Distribution : Very common from the Himalaya, 8,500 ft., to Ceylon. —

Warm regions of the Old World.

3. Bulbostylis puberula Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 213; C. B. Clarke in

Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 652. — Ibidem see synonyms.

Description : A densely tufted annual. Stems 5-30 cm. long, setaceous,

at the top hairy. Leaves half as long as the stem, setaceous; sheaths with

long white hairs in the throat. Spikelets in a simple or compound umbel

very nearly contracted into a head ; the pedicels of the solitary spikelets often

only 1.25-2.5 mm. long; bracts long or short, setaceous. Spikelets 5 mm.

long, 10-flowered, oblong, dark brown. Glumes boat-shaped, ovate, haxdly

acute, pubescent. Style 3-branched. Nut the length of the glume, trigonous,

obovoid, truncate, pallid, transversely marked by wavy lines; style-base per-

sistent on the nut, small, ovoid, depressed, dark red.

Locality: N. Kanara : Karwar, on sandy soil (Talbot 1314 ! 1512 !) ;

sandy fields by the sea (Sedgwick 5089 !, Bell 2699 !).

Flowering & fruiting : July 1917, August 10th, 1885, October 1st, 1885,

December 1918 (Karwar).

Distribution: N. Kanara, near the coasts of Madras Pres., Travancore,

Malay Peninsula.— Ceylon, tropical Africa, Mascarene Islands, Malaya, Cochin

China.

10. Scirpus Linn. Cke. ii, 890.

Species 200.— Cosmopolitan, characteristic of wet moors, bogs and marshes.

Cooke describes 11 species from the Presidency. Of these we have united

S. Kysoor with S. grossus, and S. Michelianus with Juncellus pygmaeus. Four

species new to the Presidency have been added: S. holoschoenus, S. erectus,

S. mucronatus , and S. triqueten

Key

A. Large or middle sized. Stems leafy only near

the base. Spikelets in clusters. No trace

of hypogynous bristles. Style long, trifid ...

B. Large or middle sized. Stems leafy only near

the base. Inflorescence various, but spikelets

not spicate. Hypogynous bristles often pre-

sent. Style long

2

1. a S', holoschoenus.

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXVIl

I. Nut marked with transverse wavy lines;

liypogynous bristles 0

1. Stems flowering nearer to the top than the

base, slender, obtusely trigonous; glumes

2.5 mm. long, with tapering (not subcor-

date) base, not inflated in front, strongly

keeled

2. Stems stout, septate when dry, head usual-

ly near the base of the stem. Nut tri-

quetrous

3. Stems rather slender, head usually above

the middle of the stem. Spikelets yellow-

ish, flaccid, glumes 5 -ranked, concave, in-

flated in the upper part. Nut triquetrous

II. Nut not marked with transverse wavy lines

1. Hypogynous bristles 0

2. Hypogynous bristles present

a. Hypogynous bristles retro versely scabrid

(not plumose)

f Glumes bifid at apex

§ Bristles usually somewhat shorter

than the nut, often unequal

§ § Bristles often about as long as nut

ft" Glumes not bifid at apex

b. Hypogynous bristles plumose

III. Nut more or less distinctly marked with

transverse wavy lines. Hypogynous

bristles present

1. Stems stout, septate wren dry, head usual-

ly near the apex of the stem. Nut tri-

quetrous

2. Stems medium, heads usually near the apex

of the stem; spikelets few, terete, turgid,

ovate, acute; glumes broad, incurved,

shortly aristate. Nut plano-convex or bi-

convex

C. Small tufted herbs with slender stems, never

reaching 30 cm. ; hypogynous bristles 0

I. Perennial herb

II. Annual herb; glumes trapeziform; cusp as

long as the blade; bracts 1-3, reaching

2.5 cm. long

2. S. supinus.

3. S. articulatus.

4. S. quinquefarius.

5. S. corymbosus.

6. S. maritimus,

7. S. triqueter.

8. S. grossus.

9. S. littoralis.

10. S. mucronatus .

11. S. erectus.

12. S. hyllingoides.

13. S. squarrosus.

1. Scirpus holoschoenus Linn. Sp. PI. 72; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, 655. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description : Rhizome horizontal, woody, covered by ovate chestnut scales;

fibrous roots thick, often (when growing in sand) woolly. Stems 20-75 cm.,

approximate, terete. Leaves all near the base of the stem, sometimes 15 cm.

long, usually shorter, or reduced almost to sheaths. Umbel simple or very

compound of 1-80 usually (2-10) heads; lowest bract sometimes 10-20 cm.,

sometimes 8-25 mm. Spikelets scarcely 5 mm., ellipsoid, dense-flowered.

Glumes ovate, keel subexcurrent, tip hairy (rarely glabrous). Stamens 3; an-

thers red-crested. Nut small, as long as J-§ glume, subtriquetrous, obtuse,

minutely apiculate; outermost cells minute, quadrate-hexagonal, obscure, wither-

ing (nut more or less white-veiled by such withered fragments on the dark

nut).

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).

Distribution: Punjab, Sind. — W. Asia, Africa, Europe.

2. Scirpus supinus Linn. Sp. PI. (1753) 49; Cke. ii, 892. — For synonyms

see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 655.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Gujarat: Dakor (Karnitkar ex Cooke).

'-W. Ghats: Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 3207 !) ; Khandala, in marsh land

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

Photos by

Scirpus corymbosus Heyne, Tableland, Panchgani.

C. McCann.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY ?67

(McCann Cll !) , in a marsh near station (McCann 383 ! 386 ! 387 ! 390 !) ;

Lonavla (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 28387 !) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hall-

berg B1499 !). — Deccan : Varawandi, Ahmednagar Dist. (Herb. Sedwgick &

Bell 7368 !) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar (Blatter & McCann 5579 ! 5581 !). —

Konkan : (Law ex Cooke); Kalyan (H.E.B.B. !, Woodrow ex Cooke);

Nagothna to Pen (Gammie 16088 !) ; Pen (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3226 !) ;

Bansda (Woodrow ex Cooke). — S. M. Cowitry : Devarayi (Sedgwick 4420 !) ;

Yelvigi, Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick 3701 !). — N. Kanara : Karwar, rice fields

(Sedgwick 6719 !, Talbot 1115 !, Hallberg & McCann C178 ! C179 !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Igatpuri) ; February 1917 (Pen) ;

February 1918 (Yelvigi) ; February 1920 (Varawandi) ; March 1929 (Khandala) ;

September 4th, 1896 (Ivalyan); October 1918 (Lonavla, Devarayi); October 1919

(Karwar); October 1920 (Panchgani); November 1918 (Khandala); December

1917 (Bairawadi); December 14th, 1902 (Nagothna to Pen).

Field notes : A plant commonly met with in marshes throughout the year.

Usually partially in water. Spikelets pale green or straw-coloured.

Distribution : More or less throughout India, except Assam — Old World

generally and in America.

Var. uninodis C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 656; Cke. ii, 892. —

S. mucronatus Boxb. FI. Ind. i (1832) 216 ( non Linn.).

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).

Distribution: Bengal,” Sind, Coromandel. — Ethiopia, Java, Queensland.

3. Scirpus articulatus Linn. Sp. PI. (1753) 47; Cke. ii, 891. — For synonyms

see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 656.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !).■ — Sind : (Pinwill ex Cooke).—

Gujarat: Godhra (Chibber 593 !) ; Talod, marshy land near tank (Saxton

568 !) ; Sonasan, by a small tank (Sedgwick 329 !) ; Dakor (Karnitkar ex

Cooke). — W. Ghats: Khandala (McCann 27447 !).— Konkan: (Woodrow ex

Cooke); Sion (Blatter & McCann 3071 !) ; Uran, Bombay Harbour (Hallberg

& McCann 2740 !) ; Bandra (Herb. St. X. C. 3080 !) ; Kondita, Salsette

(Blatter & McCann 3081 !) ; Borivli (Chibber !) ; Pali to Nagothna (Gammie !) ;

Gokhirwa, Bassein (Byan 85 !) ; Borivli, in a ditch (McCann 1118 ! 1118a !

1118b ! 1119 ! 1119a !) ; Goregaon to Malad, in a ditch (McCann 1348 !) ;

near Malad in a ditch (McCann 1357 !) ; Varol Tank, Bhivandi, near Kalyan

(McCann 1727 !) ; Bhivandi (Chibber !). — S. M. Country: Havasbhavi, 2,000 ft.,

rainfall 35 in. (Sedgwick 1949 !) tanks W. of Kunnur, Dharwar Dist. (Sedg-

wick 4919 !) ; Kulgeri, tank (Bhide !). — N. Kanara: Karwar, on edge of

tank (Hallberg & McCann CIO !) ; Kumpta, rice fields (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Uran) ; January 2nd, 1912 (Borivli) ;

January 30th, 1912 (Bhivandi); May 1919 (Khandala); September 6th, 1911

(Dharwar); September 15th, 1929 (Borivli); September 29th, 1929 (Goregaon

to Malad; near Malad); October 1919 (Karwar); November 1916 (Sion); Novem-

ber 21st, 1902 (Gokirwa, Bassein); December 1902 (Pali to Nagothna); Decem-

ber 1915 (Sion, Bandra) ; December 1916 (Kondita, Havasbhavi) ; December

1918 (W. of. Kunnur) ; December 5th, 1907 (Godhra).

Field notes : A late comer among the Cyperaceae. Flowering takes place

about the first week of September. The plants first appear in July and

August, but at this time life is spent under water, and the juvenile state does

not look anything like one of the Cyperaceae. The leaves in the juveniles

never appear above the water; they are long, tufted, ribbon-like structures.

Soon after the inflorescence appears the leaves decompose and fall away leaving

a spathe surrounding each culm. The culms are erect, hollow (not spongy),

light green, with thin white septa at intervals. In fresh specimens the septa

are as clearly visible as in dried specimens. The height of the inflorescence on

the culm depends on the depth of the water at the time when the plant

is coming into flower. Thus we have individuals with the inflorescence well

up the culms and others with the inflorescence low down near the base. This

may be said to be an ‘amphibious’ species — the early stages being spent

under water, while the plant in flower exists on moist ground long after

the monsoon.

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

The Floras give, leaves 0. This is incorrect as the leaves appear before

the inflorescence- bearing culms, and unless known to be those of S. articulatus,

appear to be quite different from those of any of the Cyperaceae. Specimens in

McCann’s herbarium clearly show this. The Borivili specimens are particularly

interesting as they show the juvenile state of this species (McCann No. 1118) ;

while McCann No. 1119 proves that the species has leaves.

Distribution: Throughout India. — Ceylon, Africa, Philippines, Australia.

4. Scirpus quinquefarius Ham. in Wall. Cat. (1828) 3465; Cke. ii, 892.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke, Blatter & McCann C3113 !, H.E.B.B.

!) ; Rhubak (Woodrow !) ; Gholam (Blatter & McCann D740 !), in a field

(Blatter & McCann D741 !) ; Tatta (Blatter & McCann D742 ! D743 ) ;

Bughar, on the Indus (Blatter & McCann D744 \).—Cutch: (Stoliczka ex

Clarke). — Gujarat: (Hove ex Clarke); Ahmedabad (Gammie 16361 !) ; Munna-

gar, rice fields, Ahmedabad Dist. (Sedgwick 332 !) ; Talod (Saxton 708 !) ;

Umrat (Woodrow ex Cooke). — Deccan: Varawandi, Ahmednagar Dist. (Herb.

Sedgwick & Bell 7370 !) ; Poona (H.E.B.B. !). — Konkan: (Dalzell ex Cooke).

Though Cooke has seen a specimen we doubt very much whether this species

occurs in the Konkan.

Flowering & fruiting: February 1920 (Varawandi); October 24th, 1903

(Ahmedabad); December 1892 (Bhubak).

Distribution: N.-W. India, Central India, W. Bengal, Sind, Cutch, Guja-

rat, Deccan. — Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Africa.

5. Scirpus corymbosus Heyne ex Roth. Nov. PI. Sp. (1821) 28; Cke. ii,

892. Synonyms in C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 657.

Description: Cke. l.c. — '“Stem round or slightly oval, firm but spongy’

(Fernandez).

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Guja-

rat: Kabir Vad, Broach Dist. (Chibber !). — Khandesh: Dhulia, Thikki tank

(Chibber I). — W. Ghats: Panchgani, in rocky pool on Third Tableland (Fer-

nandez C147 I C148 ! C149 !), in mud along banks of monsoon pools (Fer-

nandez C150 ! C151 1), Second Tableland (Blatter & Hallberg B1733 !). —

Goa: (Herb. St. X. C. 3112 I, Herb. Woodrow !).

Flowering & fruiting: September 28th, 1928 (Panchgani); October 1920

(Panchgani); November 26th, 1929 (Panchgani); December 10th, 1907 (Kabir

Vad); December 28th, 1907 (Dhulia).

Field notes : A tall densely growing species with terete striate spongy

stems. At Panchgani we have found this species forming almost pure associ-

ations in the shallow pools and lakes on the tablelands. It commences to

flower in September and remains erect long after the monsoon, even after

the pools have dried up. The roots are densely matted in the clayish soil.

Here we have found it associated with Eleocharis fistulosa Link.

Distribution: Bundelkhand, Sind, Gujarat, Khandesh, Deccan, N. Kanara,

Mysore. — Africa, Madagascar.

6. Scirpus maritimus Linn. Sp. PI. (1753) 51; Cke. ii, 893. — For synonyms

see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 658.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Sind : (Dalzell & Stocks 1094 ex Cooke) ; Karachi (Woodrow ex

Cooke, H.E.B.B. !) ; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D745 ! D746 ! D747 !) ;

Tatta (Blatter & McCann D748 ! D749 !), in a lake (Blatter & McCann

D750 !) ; Bughar, on the Indus (Blatter & McCann D751 !). — Cutch: Banner

(Blatter 3733 !) ; Anjar (Blatter 1978 !). — Gujarat: Chharod Farm (Javle-

kar !) ; Umreth (Clarke !, Woodrow ex Cooke); Godhra (Chibber !), tank

(Chibber 347 !) ; Kabir Vad, Broach Dist. (Chibber 1) ; Kharagoda (Saxton

482b !) ; Mishwa River Harsol (Sedgwick !). — Kandesh : Dhulia (Chibber I).—

Deccan: Miraj (Woodrow ex Cooke). — Konkan: Bombay (Woodrow ex Cooke),

race-course (Blatter & McCann 3203 !) ; Mahim (McCann 5265 !) ; Parsik,

railway line (Blatter & McCann 28920 1) ; Bandra (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell

7400 !) ; Sion (Blatter & McCann 2376 !) ; common in marshes near Diva

and Kalyan (McCann 1); Kurla, in marshes (McCann !). — S. M. Country:

Tank near Yelvigi, Dliarwar Dist., 1,800 ft., rainfall 28 in. (Sedgwick 3605 !).

— N. Kanara: Haveri (Talbot 2226 I).

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 769

Flowering & fruiting : January 1920 (Bandra) ; January 2nd, 1890 (Haveri) ;

February 1918 (Yelvigi) ; March 1917 (Bombay); April 26th, 1909 (Chharod) ;

April 29th, 1904 (Karachi) ; June 1917 (Sion) ; August 1914 (Harsol) ; October

11th, 1914 (Kharagoda) ; November 9th, 1907 (Godhra) ; November 15th, 1916

(Mahim) ; November 29th, 1907 (Godhra); December (Bombay); December 1907

(Banner); December 1907 (Anjar); December 1915 (Sion); December 1918 (Par-

sik)-; December 10th, 1907 (Kabir Yad) ; December 28th, 1907 (Dhulia).

Field notes : The typical form is the commonest in marshes near the sea

and also inland. It is extremely common in the beds of tanks and pools that

dry up during the dry season, flowering after the water has dried but when

the soil is still marshy. The plants arise in tufts or singly from the long

rhizomes. A tough plant usually persisting throughout the dry season and

breaking up in the next monsoon.

Uses : ‘The seeds are used and the plant produces them abundantly’

(Gammie).

Distribution: Kashmir, Kashgar, Moradabad, Bajputana Desert, Bombay

Presidency, Mysore, Nellore. — Old World, with varieties in Australia and

America.

var. affinis C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 659; Cke. ii, 893.

Description : Cke. l.c.

The Sangli specimens have from 4 to 5 spikelets.

Locality : Sind: (Dalzell ex Cooke, Stocks 82 ex Clarke, Pin will ex

Clarke). — Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Chibber !, Saxton 1819 !) ; Surat (Gammie

16448 !) ; Sabarmati (Sedgwick !). — Khandesh: Bhusawal (Gammie !). — Deccan:

Nasik (Clarke 4 !, Cooke). — -Konkan: Bombay (Law ex Cooke); race-course

(Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3200 ! 3203 !). — S. M. Country: Kudchi, near

Miraj (Blatter 3111 !) ; Sangli, riverbank (Blatter C40 ! C41 ! C42 !) ; Kolha-

pur Wadi (H.E.B.B. !) ; Bagalkot, riverbank (H.E.B.B. !).

Field notes : This variety is the common form met on riverbanks and is

extremely variable. Some of the specimens appear to be intermediate between

the variety and the typical form.

Distribution: Throughout N. India, in the plains, from the Punjab and

Bombay to Assam and Pegu. — N. Asia, Turkestan, N. China, Amurland.

7. Scirpus triqueter Linn. Mant. 29; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi,

658.

Description: Glabrous, stoloniferous. Stem 25-75 cm. long, nearly leafless,

triquetrous at the top, with one lateral head, or a simple umbel of heads;

lowest bract as though a continuation of the stem, triquetrous, 2.5-7. 5 cm.

long, acute. Spikelets 3-10, up to 1.3 by 0.5 cm., cylindric, obtuse, brown.

Glumes ovate, scarious at the tip, notched, with a minute bristle in the

notch; hypogynous bristles 3-4 (or 6), often overtopping the nut, dark brown,

obscurely scabrous. Stamens 3; anthers linear-oblong, not crested. Nut more

than half the length of the glume, obovoid, much dorsally compressed, pale,

finally brown, smooth; style shorter than the nut; branches 2, long, sparingly

papillose, slightly fusiform.

Locality: Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke).

Distribution: Kashmir, Baltistan, 6,000-8,000 ft., Sind.— Europe, Central

Asia to Japan, S. Africa.

8. Scirpus grossus Linn. f. Suppl. (1781) 104; Cke. ii, 893.— S. Kysoor

Eoxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 6; FI. Ind. i (1832) 230; Cke. i, 894.— S. grossus

var. Kysoor C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 660.

Description: Cke. l.c. See also Haines Bot. Bih. & Or. 927,

. In the Poona Herbarium we examined 23 sheets including 4 sheets deter-

mined by Clarke in 1896 (May 1st, 1896) as S. grossus Linn. f. The hypogy-

nous bristles in these cases are plumose or shortly ciliate. In the remainder

they are plumose or ciliate. Another specimen obtained at Bassein by Byan

has the bristle shortly ciliate. The bristles are generally red. In young speci-

mens we can find no trace of hypogynous bristles which may be developed

We are quite unable to distinguish between S. grossus and S. Kysoor which

we think may. only be a form. Is this character alone, namely the presence

of plumose bristles, sufficient to make a new species of one which otherwise

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

answers to the description of S. grossus ? We do not feel justified in keeping

the two apart and therefore unite them under the older name of Scirpus

grossus Linn. f.

Locality : Sind: (Pinwill ex Clarke). — Deccan: Poona (H.E.B.B. !) ;

College of Science garden (H.E.B.B. !, G-arade 594 !). — Konkan: Beds of

rivers in both Konkans (G-raham ex Cooke) ; Bombay (Dalzell ex Cooke) ;

Borivli to Kanari Caves, on the margin of a tank, in water (McCann 1097 !

1098 ! 1101 !) ; Borivli (Chibber !) ; Bhandup (Blatter & McCann 2752 !,

McCann C45 !) ; Bassein (By an 1858 !, Chibber !) ; Bhivandi (Bhagawat 1) ;

near Kalyan, Varol Tank (McCann 1687 !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 2nd, 1912 (Borivli) ; June 1892 (Poona) ;

July 24th, 1902 (Poona1); September 15th, 1929 (Borivli to Kanari Caves);

October 9th, 1903 (Bassein) ; November 1916 (Bhandup) ; December 1919

(Bhandup).

Field notes : Purely a marsh sedge appearing during the monsoon. It

flourishes best where the soil is soft and sticky. The inflorescences appear in

August. The stems are very sharply triquetrous with concavities between the

angles. The margins of the leaves and bracts are minutely serrulate, thus

offering a cutting edge if brushed the wrong way. The teeth are weak. As

the tanks and pools in which they flourish dry up, the plants also dry. During

life the plants send out long stolons which produce large tubers, often more

than 2.5 cm. in diameter.

Uses : The tubers are much sought after by local people for food. The

plant is used for coarse matting in Bengal.

Distribution: Throughout India, except the N.-W. — Malaya, Tonkin, Philip-

pines.

9. Scirpus littor alls Schrad. El. Germ, i (1806) 142, t. 5, fig. 7; Cke.

ii, 894. — Synonyms in C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. E.B.I. vi, 659.

Description : Cke. l.c.

The Tatta specimens were identified as Fimbristylis ferruginea by Vakil

in the Flora of the Indus Delta.

Locality : Sind : (Dalzell ex Cooke) ; Tatta (Blatter & McCann D737 !

D738 !). — Kathiawar : (Mehta ex Drummond ex Cooke); Bajkot (H.E.B.B. !,

Cooke). — Gujarat: Dharsana (Chibber !) ; Kharagoda, in a tank, in 3 ft. of

water (Saxton 493b !) ; Watrak Biver, Modasa Petha (Sedgwick 1172 !) ; in

sandy bed of stream, Gorair Bridge, Chitrasani to Sarotra (McCann 1394 !

1394a !) ; Ahmedabad (Burkhill ex Drummond ex Cooke). — N. Kanara: Karwar

(Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting: August 30th, 1885 (Karwar); October 11th, 1914

(Kharagoda); October 24th, 1929 (Chitrasani to Sarotra); December 1915 (Wat-

rak Biver); December 27th, 1911 (Dharasana).

Field notes A hygrophylous species commonly met with in pools along

banks of rivers and tanks. Long leaves are developed under the surface or

float near the top of the water. As soon as the water begins to dry the

leaves decay and fall away leaving the culm and the inflorescence. The culms

remain standing for quite a long period after the rains. Long creeping stolons

are given off which frequently make the plant look as though it were growing

in rows.

Distribution: Punjab, Central India, Bajputana Desert, Sind, Kathiawar,

Gujarat, N. Kanara, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Chingleput, Travancore, up to

2,000 ft. — Ceylon, Persia, Central Asia, Africa, Mediterranean region.

10. Scirpus mucronatus Linn. Sp. PI. 73; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, 657. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description: Glabrous. Boots fibrous, or rarely a horizontal rhizome

10-15 cm. long. Stems tufted, 15-75 cm. long, stout, triquetrous, bearing one

apparently lateral head; lowest bract trigonous, appearing as a continuation

of the stem, 1.3-9 cm. long. Leaves 0. Spikelets few or numerous 5-13 mm.

long, ellipsoid, subacute. Glumes ovate, subacute, nearly entire at the tip.

Hypogynous bristles usually 5 (or 6), unequal, some nearly as long as the

1 Most of the Poona material is duplicate material or sheets without loca-

lity. Only one sheet identified by Clarke bears date and locality.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

Inflorescences of Scirpus grossus L. near Borivli, Salsette Island.

Photos by

Scirpus litoralis Schrad. Benas River, Abu Road.

C, McCann.

Note the submerged leaves.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 771

nut, brown, retrorse scabrid (but the bristles are sometimes small and occa-

sionally 0). Style linear; branches 3. Nut less than half the length of the

glume, obovoid, trigonous, shining black-chestnut, smooth or obscurely trans-

versely wavy.

Locality: Gujarat: The Bokh, Prantij, Ahmedabad Dist. (Sedgwick 1278 !).

— Konkan: (Law ex Clarke). — S. M. Country: Tegur, Dharwar-Belgaum Road,

in a nala fed by a perennial stream, 2,000 ft., rainfall 30 in. (Sedgwick 5504 !).

— W. Ghats: Londa (G-ammie 14072 !). — N. Kanara: (Talbot 588 ex Clarke);

Yellapur (Talbot 588 !).

Flowering & fruiting: March 1919 (Tegur); April 1916 (Prantij); May 21st,

1900 (Londa).

Distribution : Throughout India, up to 6,000 ft. — Europe, tropical Africa,

Madagascar, W. Asia to Japan, Australia, Polynesia.

11. Scirpus erectus Poir. Encycl. vi (1804) 761; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.

F.B.I., vi, 656. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description: Roots fibrous. Stems 10-38 cm. high, terete, tufted, sheaths

with an oblique mouth, sometimes produced in a short erect blade. Spikelets

1-3 in a single lateral head near the apex of the stem, 6-13 mm. long. Glumes

broadly ovate, acute, concave, keel not very prominent. Bristles 5-6, retrorsely

scabrid (rarely 0, C. B. Clarke). Style usually 2-fid. Nut 2 mm. long, plano-

convex, broadly obovoid, apiculate, slightly transversely undulate, straw-

coloured, brown, ashy-grey, finally usually nearly black.

Locality: S. M. Country : Devarayi, in a marsh (Sedgwick 4045 !). —

N. Kanara: Anmod, rice fields (Sedgwick 3274 !, Talbot 3133 !).

Flowering & fruiting: June 1918 (Devarayi); December 1917 (Anmod).

Distribution: Throughout India. — Ceylon, temperate Asia, N. America,

Australia.

12. Scirpus kyllingoides Boeck. in Linnaea xxxvi (1870) 733; Cke. ii, 895.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: N. Kanara: (Young . ex Clarke).

Distribution: N.-W. India, Bengal, Mt. Abu, Rajputana, N. Kanara. —

Tropical Africa.

13. Scirpus squarrosus Linn. Mant. (1771) 181; Cke. ii, 896. — For synonyms

see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 663.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Herb. St. X. C. 3108 !). — Sind: (Pinwill ex

Clarke). — Gujarat: Sevalia, Kaira Dist. (Chibber !). — N. Kanara: (Talbot

867 !) ; sandy fields by the sea, Karwar (Sedgwick 5087 !, Talbot 1511 !). —

W. Ghats : Dudhsagar Falls, near Castle Rock (McCann C128 ! C177 !).

Flowering & fruiting : March 1919 (Dudhsagar) ; August 1885 (Karwar) ;

December 1918 (Karwar); December 3rd, 1907 (Sevalia).

Distribution: More or less throughout India. — Ceylon, tropical Africa, Java,

China.

11. Eriophorum Linn. (Cke. ii, 896).

Species 15. — N. temperate, chiefly in wet moors.

1. Eriophorum comosum Wall. Cat. (1828) 3446; Cke. ii, 896. — For syno-

nyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 664.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Without locality (Dalzell !). — Sind: (Pinwill ex Cooke). — Guja-

rat: Champanir (Woodrow ex Cooke). — Khandesh: N. of Chanseli Hill, Taloda

taluka (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 29580 !). — Deccan: Shivneri Fort, Junnar

(Paranjpye, several sheets !) ; W. Deccan near Junnar (Dalzell & Gibson) ;

near Junnar (Bhiva ex Cooke).

Flowering & fruiting: March 22nd, 1911 (Junnar); May 10th, 1912 (Shiv-

neri Fort); December 1918 (Chanseli).

Field notes: A densely tufted sedge, growing pendulous from perpendicular

rock faces in cracks and fissures. The whole plant is flexuous.

Uses : Used to make ropes.

Distribution: Throughout India. — Tonkin, China.

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

12. Fuirena Eottb. (Cke. ii, 897).

Species 25. — Tropics and subtropics.

Key in Cke. ii, 897.

1. Fuirena Wallichiana Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 182; Cke. ii, 897. — For

snyonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 665.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Khandesh: Dhulia, Noti Tank (Chibber !). — Deccan : Watery

places (Dalzell ex Cooke) ; Poona (Woodrow 882, Jacquemont 413 ex Cooke,

Herb. St. X. C. 3103 !, Garade 648 !, Gammie !, Paranjpye !, H.E.B.B. !) ;

Pashan (Paranjpye !) ; Yarawandi, Ahmednagar Dist. (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell

7388 !) ; between Nadsur and Pali, in rice fields (Gammie 16038 !). — S. M.

Country: Dharwar, in clumps of Pennisetum alopecuros, 2,400 ft., rainfall

34 in. (Sedgwick 6147 !) ; Mugadkhan, Hubli, in a canal (Bhide !). —

W. Ghats: Londa (H.E.B.B. !) ; Castle Bock (Gammie !).

Flowering & fruiting : February 1920 (Varawandi) ; July 1919 (Dharwar) ;

July 25th, 1912 (Pashan); September 26th, 1902 (Pashan); October 23rd, 1914

(Pashan); December 8th, 1910 (Hubli, Mugadkhan); December 27th, 1907

(Dhulia).

Distribution: N.-W. India, Central India, Khandwa, Khandesh, Deccan,

S. M. Country, N. Coimbatore Hills.

2. Fuirena ciliaris (Linn.) Boxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 81. — Scirpus ciliaris

Linn. Mant. 182. — Fuirena glomerata Lam. 111. i, 150; Cke. ii, 898.

Locality: Kathiawar: Suchipur (Herb. Col. of Sc. now in Calcutta !). —

Gujarat: Sonasan, in rice fields (Sedgwick 330 !) ; Godra (Woodrow ex Cooke).

— -Konkan: (Stocks, Law ex Cooke); Bhandup (Blatter & McCann C35 ! 2751 !) ;

Vetora (Sabnis 33764 I); Pen (Blatter, Hallberg & McCann 3230 ! 3231 !

3233 !) ; Tliana Dist. (Bell 3625 !) ; Savantvadi (Woodrow ex Cooke) ; rice

fields (Blatter 3105 I); Kulgaum, rice fields (Herb. Woodrow !). — W. Ghats:

Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 3008 !) ; Castle Bock, 1,800 ft., rainfall 300 in.

(Bell 4353 !) ; Londa (Herb. Col. of Sc., now in Calcutta !). — S. M. Country:

Devarayi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 90 in. (Sedgwick 4418 !, McCann C44 !) ; Byadgi,

Dharwar Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall 33 in., fields (Sedgwick 1972 !). — N. Kanara:

(Talbot 1032 ex Clarke); Karwar (Talbot 1532 !, Hallberg & McCann C36 !

C37 !) ; sandy fields (Sedgwick 5094 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot 779 !).

Flowering & fruiting : January 1917 (Igatpuri) ; January 1919 (Bhandup) ;

February 1917 (Pen) ; February 1918 (Thana Dist.) ; March 1919 (Devarayi) ;

September 1918 (Castle Bock); September 20th, 1884 (Yellapur); September 25th,

1885 (Karwar); October 1902 (Castle Bock); October 1914 (Sonasan)'; October

1918 (Vetora, Devarayi); October 1919 (Karwar); October 26th, 1883 (Yella-

pur); November 1891 (Kulgaum); November 1st, 1883 (Yellapur); November

5th, 1891 (Londa); November 1916 (Bhandup); November 1917 (Savantvadi);

December 1916 (Byadgi) ; December 1918 (Karwar) ; December 9th, 1902 (Nadsur

to Pali).

Distribution: Throughout the warmer parts of India, common in rice

fields. — Ceylon, tropical Africa, S.-E. Asia, Australia.

3. Fuirena uncinata Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 184; Cke. ii, 898. — For syno-

nyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 666.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality : N. Kanara : (Thomson ex Cooke) ; Gersoppa Falls (Hallberg &

McCann C38 ! C39 !), on sand (Sedgwick 7148 !) ; Karwar (Talbot 1312 !),

sandy rice fields (Sedgwick 5032 !) ; Jugglepet (Talbot 1570 !).

Flowering & fruiting : September 20th, 1885 (Karwar) ; October 1919 (Ger-

soppa Falls); November 15th, 1885 (Jugglepet); December 1918 (Karwar).

Distribution: N. Kanara, E. districts from Ganjam to Chingleput, Salem

and Coimbatore, sea-level to 2,000 ft. — Ceylon.

4. Fuirena umbellafa Bottb. Descr. et Ic. (1773) 70, t. 19, fig. 3; Cke.

ii, 899. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 666.

Description : Cke. l.c,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 773

Talbot’s No. 1032 was identified by Clarke as F. glomerata. We cannot

agree. The following is a note by Clarke in Talbot’s sheet No. 1032:

'Fuirena glomerata, Lam. This has been marked F. pubescens, Kunth

(doubtless) because the squamellae are 0. The squamellae are difficult to see

when very young as in these examples. If the young ovary is soaked in

water the 3 young squamellae will separate off it as infinitely thin scarious

scales, but having the exact battledore form and nervation of the squamellae

as F. glomerata. C. B. Clarke. December 1884.’

These sheets are in the herbarium at Calcutta.

Locality : Deccan : Alandi (Woodrow ex Cooke). — W. Ghats: Castle Bock

(Herb. St. X. C. 3104 !, Sedgwick 3397 !, Bhide !, Herb. Woodrow !) ;

Londa (Woodrow ex Cooke), bank of a stream (Bhiva Babajee ! Col. of Sc.

now in Calcutta). — N. Kanara : Yellapur (Sedgwick 5840 !, Talbot 1032 !).

Flowering & fruiting : April 1919 (Yellapur); October 1919 (Sampkhand,

Gersoppa Falls); October 10th, 1884 (Yellapur); November 10th, 1911 (Castle

Bock); November 14th, 1890 (Castle Bock); December 1917 (Castle Bock).

Distribution: More or less throughout India. — Ceylon, most warm, not too

dry countries.

13. Lipocarpha B. Br.

Glabrous herbs ; rhizome 0 or short. Stems tufted, obtusely triangular.

Leaves grass-like, from the base of the stem only. Spikelets 1-20 in a single

terminal bracteate head, many-flowered. Glumes spirally imbricate, 1-2 lowest

empty, uppermost few tabescent, intervening bisexual, falling away successively

from the base of the persistent rhachilla. Hypogynous bristles replaced by 2

subequal opposite hyaline scales more or less adherent to the nut. Stamens

1-3, usually 2. Style short, slender, stigmas 2, sometimes 3. Nut sessile,

plano-convex or trigonous, obovoid or linear-oblong, smooth, usually minutely

punctate. — Species 7. — Tropics.

1. Spikelets whitish ... ... ... 1. L. argentea.

2. Spikelets dark chocolate-brown, smaller than

the last ... ... ... 2. L. triceps.

1. Lipocarpha argentea B. Br. in Append. Tuckey Congo 459; C. B.

Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 667. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description: Glabrous, annual; stems 15-60 cm. long, tufted, nearly round,

each with one head. Leaves £-§ the length of the stem, 2.5 by 5 mm. broad,

almost without a midrib; bracts 3-4, lowest 2.5-10 cm. long, spreading. Spike-

lets 1-5 sometimes 10 in the head, usually 6 by 4 mm. (but they lengthen

in fruit sometimes up to 2 cm.), dense, with numerous flower-glumes, white

or straw-coloured; rhachilla persistent; glumes narrowly obovate-truncate, rather

thick, deciduous seriatim from the base or the spikelet leaving the rhachilla

prominently covered by lozenge-shaped scars ; lower bracteole § the length of

the glume, hyaline, obtuse, 5-nerved, central nerve sometimes green (so thin

that if the nut is placed in water the bracteoles enclosing it may be easily

overlooked under a microscope) ; upper bracteoles similar but narrower ;

stamens usually 2. Nut sessile, shorter than the bracteoles, obovoid-ellipsoid,

trigonous, smooth, dark brown, reticulate. Style linear, branches 3, linear,

rather short.

Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Bock, 1,800 ft., rainfall 300 in. (Sedgwick

3426 !). — N. Kanara: Siddhapur, rice fields (Sedgwick 7017 !) ; Yellapur, Ar-

bail Ghat, 1,800 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 5848 !, Talbot !) ; Sampkhand

(Hallberg & McCann C7 !).

Flowering & fruiting: April 1919 (Yellapur); September 1st, 1884 (Yella-

pur); October 1919 (Siddhapur, Sampkhand); December 1917 (Castle Bock).

Distribution: From the W. Himalaya, up to 6,000 ft. from the Kangra

Dist. to Assam. — Tropics and subtropics of the Old World.

2. Lipocarpha triceps Nees in Wight Contr. (1835) 92 .—Tunga triceps

Boxb. FI. Ind. (1832) 183. — L. sphacelata Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 267 ; C. B.

Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 667.

Description: Glabrous. Stems annual, tufted, 10-40 cm. long, trigonous,

striated, smooth. Leaves J-J the length of the stem, linear. Spikelets 3-18

774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

in the head, 8 by 3 mm., cylindric, very dense, obtuse, smooth, usually purple

or dark reddish, sometimes paler; bracts 3-7, spreading, up to 2.5-10 cm.

long. Glumes obovate, with a triangular tip erect or incurved in fruit. Hyaline

scales a little shorter than the glumes, lower narrowly elliptic, upper oblong.

Nut broadly oblong, round-trigonous, nearly as long as the hyaline scale,

black-brown, smooth. Style 0 or hardly any; branches 3, linear, shortly ex-

serted.

‘This species was sorted from L. argentea (the white-headed) by its deep

purple-spotted (sphacelate) heads ; but the character is not a safe one any

more than the number of spikelets (triceps). The length of the style draws

a strong line between the two.’ (C. B. Clarke.)

Locality: S. M. Country: Bidi, Belgaum Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall 50 in.

(Sedgwick 3062 !) ; Havasbhavi, 2,000 ft., rainfall 30 in. (Sedgwick 2156 !). —

N. Kanara : Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg & McCann C9 ! C46 !) ; Karwar

Dist. (Chibber !) ; Karwar, rice fields (Talbot 1534 !).

Flowering & fruiting : September 1917 (Bidi) ; October 1919 (Sirsi to Siddha-

pur); November 1910 (Karwar Dist.); December 1916 (Havasbhavi).

Distribution: Throughout India, except the dry N.-W., up to 2,000 ft.,

from Nepal and Assam to Ceylon and Tavoy. — Tropical Africa and America.

14. Rhyncospoea Yahl (Cke. ii, 900).

Species 175. — Temperate and tropics.

Cooke has 3 species. His R. Wallichiana has to be excluded as the only

specimen he has heard of is not this species but R. Wightiana. His R. aurea

has to be changed to R. corymbosa.

1. Stem leafy towards the base only. Spikelets

in a single terminal head ... ... 1. R. Wightiana.

2. Stem leafy throughout its entire length.

Spikelets in paniculately arranged corymbs 2. R. corymbosa.

1. Rhyncospora Wightiana Steud. Cyper. (1855) 148; Cke. ii, 901.

Description : Cke. l.c.

We have examined Woodrow’s Kalyan specimen and found it is this species

and not R. Wallichiana.

Locality: W. Ghats : Igatpuri (McCann 2381 !, Blatter & Hallberg

2812 !); Khandala (Jacquemont 649 !, Woodrow ex Cooke), wet grassy banks

(Sedgwick 2589 !, McCann. 28067 ! 29550 !, Gammie 15401 !, Saxton 1195 !) ;

Lonavla (Bhide !, Chibber !) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15699 !, Bhide !). —

Deccan: Poona (Woodrow ex Cooke). — Konkan: (Law ex Cooke); Trombay,

on hill (Blatter & McCann 2829 !) ; Parsik Hill (Blatter & McCann 2360 !) ;

Uran, Bombay Harbour (Hallberg & McCann 2735 ! 3198 !) ; Thana (Herb.

St. X. C. 3101 !) ; Bassein (Chibber !) ; Kalyan (H.E.B.B. !) ; Jutara, Bandra

(Ryan 1344 !) ; Borivli (Chibber !) ; Thana to Kalyan (Herb. Woodrow !). —

N. Kanara: Hattikeri, Karwar, rocky hillside (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 6772 !,

Hallberg & McCann C16 !) ; Sulgeri (Bell 4262 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot 980 !) ;

Karwar (Talbot !).

Flowering & fruiting: January 1917 (Igatpuri, Uran); July 1917 (Khan-

dala); August 1896 (Khandala, Kalyan); August 1887 (Karwar); August 1918

(Sulgeri); August 10th, 1884 (Yellapur); September 1917 (Trombay, Igatpuri);

September 1919 (Thana); September 10th, 1884 (Yellapur); September 10th,

1912 (Borivli) ; September 18th (Khandala) ; September 20th, 1902 (Khandala) ;

September 28th, 1903 (Jutara); October 1909 (Castle Rock); October 1917

(Igatpuri); October 1919 (Karwar, Hattikeri); October 8th, 1907 (Lonavla);

October 14th, 1909 (Lonavla); October 27th, 1902 (Castle Rock); November 1919

(Trombay).

Field notes : A purely monsoon species confined to open grassland where the

grasses are not too tall. Frequently forming pure formations, but generally

mixed with grasses and other Cyper aceae. When in tall species of grasses it

is soon lost; but as the plant commences to flower at the end of July, before

the grasses attain to any great height, it does not suffer. In August the nuts

qre mature, but the plants remain, standing till the dry weathqr,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 775

This species is easily recognised by its rusty-brown bead looking at first

sight like a Composite.

Distribution : Bombay Pres., Mysore and W. Coast of Madras Pres. —

Cochip-China.

2. Rhyncospora corymbosa Dom. in Bibliotli. Bot. lxxxv (1915) 468. — R. aurea

Vahl Enum. ii (1806) 229; Cke. ii, 901. — Scirpus corymbosus Linn. Amoen.

Acad, iv, 303. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 670.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Eock (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell 5536 !, Mc-

Cann C18 ! C19 !). — S. M. Country: (Young ex Woodrow ex Cooke). —

N. Kanara: Gersoppa Falls, 1,400 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Herb. Sedgwick &

Bell 7954 !, Hallberg & McCann C12 !) ; Anmod, in rice fields, 2,000 ft.,

rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 3280 !) ; Ekamli (Gammie 13834 !) ; Yellapur,

bank of river (Talbot 1028 ! 1045 !).

Flowering & fruiting : March 1919 (Castle Eock) ; April 22nd, 1900

(Ekamli); September 1884 (Yellapur); September 20th, 1884 (Yellapur); Octo-

ber 1919 (Gersoppa Falls); December 1917 (Anmod).

Field notes : A plant of heavy rain forest.

Distribution: Throughout India, except the N.-W. — Ceylon, warm regions

of the globe.

15. Schoenus Linn, (partim).

Spikelets capitate or panicled; flowers axillary. Glumes (except the upper-

most tabescent) distichous; 3 (or more) lowest empty, 1-4 following perfect,

nut-bearing, somewhat remote. Hypogynous bristles often present, setaceous,

not dilated at base. Stamens 3, anterior. Style 3-fid, gradually passing into

the nut without any construction below style-base. Nut in a hollow of the

zigzag persistent rhachilla, trigonous. — Species 70. — Australia, New Zealand,

a few in Malaya, America, Europe.

1. Schoenus nigricans Linn. Sp. PI. 64; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, 673.

Description: Almost glabrous. Ehizome horizontal, woody; stolons 0.

Stems 10-60 cm., subterete, without nodes except near base. Leaves 10-30 cm.,

often half stem, very narrow with incurved margins. Spikelets 1-15, almost

capitate, 3-13 mm. long, in a close distinctly compound head; lowest bract

suberect, often 2.5-10 cm. Hypogynous bristles nut or nearly obsolete.

Glumes ovate, obtuse, microscopically hispid on keel, chestnut or brown; 3

lowest empty, 1-3 next nut-bearing; style 3-fid. Nut sessile, ovoid, ellipsoid,

marble-white, 1.2 mm., top acutely pyramidal.

Locality: Sind: (Pin will ex Clarke).

Distribution: Kuram Valley, Sind, Punjab. — Nearly cosmopolitan, except

S.E. Asia and Australia.

16. Eemirea Aublet (Cke. ii, 902).

Species 1. — Tropics.

1. Remirea maritima Aubl. Hist. PI. Guian. i (1775) 45, t. 16; Cke. ii,

902. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 677.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality : N. Kanara : (Thomson ex Cooke) ; Karwar, sandy shore (Hall-

berg & McCann Cl !, Sedgwick 5083 ! 6677 !) ; Honavar, sandy shore (Mc-

Cann C4 !) ; sandy shore at Sidceshyagud (label illegible) , near Karwar (Tal-

bot 552 !).

Flowering & fruiting: August 1st, 1883 (Sidceshyagud, near Karwar);

October 1919 (Karwar) ; December 1921 (Honavar).

Field notes : Purely a sandy shore species almost within tidal limits.

Being the only species it is easily recognizable by its very stiff leaves and

compact heads. Very common at Karwar and Honavar. It produces long

creeping stolons giving off aerial shoots at intervals.

Distribution • Seacoasts in India. — Ceylon, most tropical seacoasts.

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

17. Hypolytrum L. C. Rich. (Cke. ii, 899).

Species 40. — Tropics and subtropics.

1. Hypolytrum latifolium L. C. Rich, in Pers. Syn. i, 70; C. B. Clarke

in Hook. f. P.B.I. vi, 678; Fischer FI. Madras 1673. — H. Wightianum Boeck.

in Linnaea xxxvii (1871) 130; Cke. ii, 899.

Description : Stem 0.6-0. 9 m. high, trigonous. Leaves sometimes longer,

acuminate, base narrowed, 1.3-2 cm. wide, margins and midrib below spinu-

lose, especially near the apex; bracts like the leaves, up to 43 cm. long. Spikes

sessile or pedunculate in compound corymbose or contracted panicles, oblong-

cylindric in flower, sub-globose and lobed in fruit, 5-6.5 mm. long. Empty

glume brown with darker dots, oblong or obovate, rounded or subacute,

1.75-3 mm. long, slightly concave, keeled, rigid, male glumes complicate, nar-

rowly boat-shaped or oblanceolate, acute or subacute, 1.25-3 mm. long, mem-

branous or hyaline, keel brownish and more or less ciliate, appressed to the

ripe nut; intercalated glumes 0. Nut either fusiform and acuminate, or broad-

ly ovoid, acute or cuspidate, base narrowed or rounded, turgidly biconvex or

nearly terete, 2. 5-3. 5 mm. long, including the inconspicuous or large and patent

sometimes swollen beak which is often longer than the nut itself and as broad

or broader, often pale and speckled with brown; nut brown, smooth or rugose,

sometimes empty.

Locality: W. Ghats : Castle Rock (Chibber !, Bhide !, Kanitkar ex

Cooke). — N. Kanara: (Dalzell ex Cooke); Arbail Ghat, 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in.

(Sedgwick 5124 !) ; Anmod, watercourse in evergreen (Sedgwick 3239 !) ; Samp-

khand (Hallberg & McCann C5 !) ; Gersoppa Falls (Talbot 1075 !) ; Mysore

side (Hallberg & McCann C6 !) ; Gersoppa Road (Chibber !) ; Yellapur, com-

mon in some evergreen near (Talbot 1075 !) ; Dodmune (Talbot 3596 !) ; Katgal

(Woodrow ex Cooke).

Flowering & fruiting: March 7th, 1896 (Dodmune); March 23rd, 1908

(Castle Rock); April 13tli, 1909 (Castle Rock); May 11th, 1911 (Gersoppa Falls);

October 1919 (Gersoppa Falls); November 18th, 1884 (Gersoppa Falls); Decem-

ber 1917 (Anmod) ; December 1918 (Arbail Ghat).

Distribution: Sikkim and Assam to Singapore, Travancore, Ceylon, Nico-

bars and Andamans. — Malaya, China, Australia, Polynesia.

18. Scleria Berg. (Cke. ii, 902).

Plants of open grassland and forests. Those that appear in open places

are generally monsoon species, but those in evergrei

the year. — Species 160. — Tropics.

Cooke has 6 species. We consider S. biflora Rc

sellata. The following are new to the Presidency :

and S. cochinchinensis .

Key

A. Annuals. Rhizome 0 or very small

B. Perennials with woody rhizome

I. Disk obsolete. Nut smooth

1. Spikelets in small clusters on a filiform

rhachis ... ...

2. Spikelets very many, clustered

II. Disk 3-lobed

1. Nut smooth

a. Panicle with many capillary bracteoles

b. Panicle with few or no capillary brac-

teoles

2. Nut reticulate

III. Disk cupular

IY. Disk 3-6-lobed. Nut cancellately sculptured

1. Scleria tessellata Willd. Sp. PI. iv (180E

synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 686,

Description : Cke. l.c.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 1 77

Locality : Konkan : Near Panvel (Jacquemont ex Cooke).

Distribution: Throughout India except the W. arid area. — Ceylon, Malaya,

China, Japan, Australia.

Scleria tessellata Willd. var. biflora (Boxb.) Blatter et McCann comb. nov.

—S. biflora Boxb. FI. Ind. iii (1832) 573; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, 687 ; Cke. ii, 904.

Description: Cke. l.c.

We have made S. biflora Boxb. a variety of S. tessellata to which it is

intimately allied. The leaves are broader, the disk-lobes are larger, and the

nut is beaked. But otherwise it is hardly distinguishable.

Locality: Konkan: (Woodrow 77 ex Cooke); Foot of hills W. of Mulland,

in shade of bushes (McCann 799 ! 893 ! 1268 ! 1269 ! 1282 !) ; Mulgaum

(Blatter & McCann 3661 !, Herb. Sedgwick 3570 !) ; hills near Matheran

(Kantekar !). — N. Kanara: Karwar (Talbot !), on pathway (Sedgwick 6626 !),

on broken ground on hillside (Sedgwick 6590 !) ; Ainshi Ghat (Talbot 1506 !).

Flowering & fruiting: July 1919 (Mulgaum); August 11th, 1929 (Hills

W. of Mulland); August 12th, 1885 (Ainshi Ghat); August 25th, 1885 (Kar-

war); September 2nd, 1890 (Hills near Matheran); September 22nd, 1929

(Hills W. of Mulland); October 1919 (Karwar).

Field notes : A monsoon species appearing in July in open places. A

curious fact is that it usually grows near bushes, not under, by which it

is sheltered from the morning sun. The hairs on the nut are at first white but

become ferruginous with age. The stems are erect or decumbent with sharp

angles.

Distribution: N. and E. Bengal, Cachar, Konkan, N. Kanara. — Ceylon,

Malaya, S. China.

2. Scleria lithosperma Sw. Prodr. (1788) 18; Cke. ii, 903. — For synonyms

see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 685.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan: Hills above Kanari Caves, 1,400 ft., Salsette Isl.

(Blatter & McCann 28637 !). — W. Ghats: Matheran (Woodrow ex Cooke). —

N. Kanara: Karwrar (Talbot 526 !), in forest on hillside by sea, very abun-

dant (Sedgwick 6511 !), coast forest (Sedgwick 5069 !, Hallberg & McCann

C33 !) ; Guddehulli, Karwar (Sedgwick 6531 !).

Flowering & fruiting: July 10th, 1883 (Karwar); October 1919 (Karwar,

Guddehulli); November 1918 (Kanari Caves).

Field notes: Purely a forest species — evergreen forests, growing in dense

tussocks. It is easily distinguished from S. hebecarpa, which it closely re-

sembles, by its lax inflorescence. It grows all the year round but is not

always in flower. Quite common in the higher hills of Salsette where there

is evergreen.

Distribution: Throughout India, except the W. arid area, up to 4,000 ft.,

from Sikkim to Ceylon and Malacca, Andamans and Nicobars. — All warm

regions except Continental Africa.

3. Scleria corymbosa Boxb. FI. Ind. iii (1832) 574; C. B. Clarke in Hook,

f. F.B.I. vi, 686. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description: A stout robust plant, nearly glabrous; culms 0.6-2. 4 m. tall.

Leaves 30-50 cm. long, 1.3-2. 5 cm. wide; sheaths angled or strongly winged.

Panicle 45-60 cm. long, of 6 or 7 compound corymbose axillary panicles 7.5 cm.

long. Bracts setaceous. Spikelets 6 mm. long, nearly all bisexual. Glumes

greenish, pale. Nut ellipsoid, acute at both ends, smooth, white 3 mm. long.

Disc small, brown, obscurely 3-lobed.

Locality : S. M. Country : Belgaum (Bitchie 869 part ex Clarke).

Distribution: Warm moist region of India, sparsely scattered from Khasia

Terai to Ceylon and Malacca; S. M. Country, Bampa Dist., Godavari, Chingle-

put, Malabar Districts, Travancore.

4. Scleria hebecarpa Ness in Linnaea ix (1835) 303; Cke, ii, 904. — Syno-

nyms in C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 689.

Description : Cke. l.c.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVll

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks, Law ex Cooke); Okde Forest, Thana Dist.

(Eyan 716 !). — N. Kanara : Karwar, coastal forests (Sedgwick 5068 !, Hall-

berg & McCann C34 !), in forest on hillside by sea, abundant (Sedgwick

6515 !) ; G-ersoppa Falls, 1,400 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Herb. Sedgwick & Bell

7176 !) ; Sulgeri, 500 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Bell 4261 !) ; Tinai Ghat (Gammie

15818 !).

Flowering & fruiting : August 1918 (Sulgeri) ; October 1919 (Karwar, Ger-

soppa Falls) ; October 22nd, 1902 (Okde Forest) ; November 1st, 1902 (Tinai

Ghat); December 1918 (Karwar).

Distribution : Throughout India except the N.-W. arid region. — Ceylon,

Malaya, China, Japan, Australia, Polynesia.

5. Scleria poaeformis Eetz. Obs. iv, 13; Fischer FI. Madras 1679. — S.

oryzoides Presl. Eel. Haenk. i, 201; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 691. —

Ibidem synonyms.

Description: Glabrous, robust. Stolons elongate, 8 mm. diam., without

scales, probably floating. Stems 0. 9-1.8 m. long, stout; sheaths 3- winged.

Leaves 0.9 m. by 1.7 cm., or the upper 25 cm. by more than 2.5 cm. Panicle

apparently terminal without bracts (a small axillary remote one rarely added),

15 by 7.5 cm., dense with innumerable branches and spikelets ; usually the

upper spikelets on the branches are male, a few of the lower female. Spike-

lets 6 mm. long, oblong, sessile, a rich brown. Nut 3 mm. diam., sub-

globose, smooth, white; disc obpyramidal, truncated, with a narrow, rusty

brown rim, hardly 3-lobed.

Locality : N. Kanara : Birchy (Talbot 1694 !) ; Tatwal (Talbot 1907 !).

Flowering & fruiting: May 10th, 1888 (Birchy); August 15th, 1889 (Tat-

wal).

Distribution: S.-E. India, from Assam to Ceylon and Malacca. — Tropical

Africa, Malaya, Philippines, Australia.

6. Scleria eochinchinensis Druce in Bep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 1916

(1917) 646; Fischer FI. Madras 1678.— S. elata Thw. Enum. 353. — Diaphora

eochinchinensis Lour. FI. Cochinch. 709. — S. melanostoma Boeck. in Linnaea

xxxviii, 514. — For synonyms see C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 690 and

692.

Description : A perennial with woody rhizome. Stem stout, sharply trigo-

nous, angles scabrid, up to 1.8 m. high, glabrous. Leaves up to 60 cm. long

and 17 mm. wide; sheaths sharply trigonous, those of the midstem often

winged, mouth with a short, rounded, coriaceous ligule. Spikelets sessile or

peduncled, subsolitary in large, long-peduncled, decompound panicles, 3.5 mm.

long. Nuts reticulate, globose or broadly ellipsoid, obtuse or apiculate, 2.5-4 mm.

long, white, pale- or dark-brown, sometimes purplish-brown; disk lobes 3,

short, rounded.

The specimen obtained by McCann at Castle Eock was about 6 m. high,

double the size given by Hooker even for the Yar.

Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Eock, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 in. (Sedgwick

2765 !, McCann C32 !, Bhide !, Gammie 15639 I). — N. Kanara: Sampkhand,

1,600 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 6970 !, Hallberg & McCann C29 !) ;

Gersoppa Falls (Talbot 2669 !).

Flowering & fruiting : March 1919 (Castle Eock) ; April 13th, 1909 (Castle

Eock); August 1917 (Castle Eock); October 1919 (Sampkhand); October 25th,

1902 (Castle Eo'ck) ; December 28th, 1891! (Gersoppa Falls).

Field notes : A species of the evergreen forest in -the heavy rainfall tracts.

Distribution: Throughout India except the N.-W. arid regions, up to

2,000 ft. — Ceylon, Java, China.

7. Scleria annularis Kunth Enum. ii (1837) 359; Cke. ii, 903.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks, Law ex Cooke); Satiwali, Bassein (Eyan

1437 !). — N. Kanara: (Law ex Cooke).

Flowering & fruiting : September 21st, 1903 (Satiwali).

Distribution: N.-W. India, Central India, Konkan, N. Kanara, Malabar.

— China.

Ills VISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 779

8. Scleria Stocksiana Boeck. in Linnaea xxxviii (1874) 474; Cke. ii, 905.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Sedgwick in his paper on the Cyperaceae of the Bombay Presidency refers

to a form from the red laterite of Talod. We have examined this particular

specimen and found the nut cancellate. Though, as Sedgwick remarks, the

usual form of the nut is corrugose, we have found that in the same plant the

nuts may vary from the common corrugose texture to the cancellate form.

Locality : Without locality (Dalzell !). — Gujarat: Talod, red earth upland

(Sedgwick 252 !). — W. Ghats : Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 2818 !) ; Khan-

dala, The Saddle (Blatter & McCann 27593 !) ; Panchgani, Tableland (Blatter

3796 !, Sedgwick 7597 ! 7670 !), below Third Tableland (McCann !) ; Londa

(Woodrow ex Cooke). — Deccan : Talegaon (H.E.B.B. !). — Konkan : (Stocks,

Law ex Cooke). — S. M. Country : Tadas, Dharwar Dist., 2,500 ft., rainfall

35 in. (Sedgwick 1909); Dharwar, in a marsh, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 in.

(Sedgwick 6613 !) ; Bidi, Belgaum Dist., 2,500 ft., rainfall 60 in. (Sedgwick

2976 !) ; Devarayi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 90 in. (Sedgwick 4476 !). — N. Kanara :

(Woodrow ex Cooke); Haliyal (Talbot 2066 !) ; Kilgerry (Talbot 2615 !).

Flowering & fruiting : August 1914 (Talod); August 15th, 1891 (Kilgerry);

September 1917 (Igatpuri, Bidi); September 27th, 1895 (Talegaon); October

1918 (Khandala, Devarayi); October 1920 (Panchgani); October 6th (Panchgani);

October 10th, 1888 (Haliyal); November 1916 (Tadas); November 20th, 1889

(Haliyal).

Field notes : A plant of marshy soil. We have noticed that it usually

grows in the shade of vegetation, protected from the morning sun.

Distribution : Endemic in the Bombay Presidency.

19. Diplacrum B. Br. (not in Cke.).

Small, tufted, glabrous, annual herbs. Stems leafy throughout. Spikelets

very small in small, dense terminal and axillary clusters at the mouth of . the

leaf-sheaths, 1-sexual; male 3-4 at the base, 1-2-fLowered with about 3 glumes,

stamens 1-2; female terminal, 1-flowered with 2 opposite glumes. Style sletider;

stigmas 3. Nut globose or nearly so. — Species 3. — Tropics.

1. Diplacrum caricinum B. Br. Prodr. 241. — Scleria caricina Benth. El.

Austral, vii, 426; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. E.B.I. vi, 688. — Ibidem synonyms.

Description: Stems slender, 2.5-35 cm. high, clothed with the leaf-sheaths.

Leaves linear, flat, 1.3-7. 5 cm. long; bracts short, lanceolate, margins minutely

scabrid. Clusters of spikelets small; spikelets minute, male 3-5 at the base,

1.25-1.5 cm. long, glumes 3-4, membranous or hyaline, brownish, female nar-

rowly ovate; glumes 2, slightly united at the base and falling with the nut

from the minute knobbed pedicel, coriaceous, ribbed, 1.75 cm. long, 3-cuspidate;

lobes acuminate, midlobe longest, lateral lobes and part of the margins some-

times hyaline. Nut nearly globose, minutely apiculate, 1.25 mm. long, whitish

or pale brown, strongly 15-ribbed, the ribs sometimes anastomosing.

Locality: N. Kanara: Siddhapur, grassland (Sedgwick 7019 !) ; Gersoppa

Falls, on sand, 1,400 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 7147 !, Hallberg & Mc-

Cann C25 !) ; Sirsi, grassland, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100 in. (Sedgwick 7001 !) ;

to Sirsi (Hallberg & McCann C26 !) ; Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg & McCann

C28 !) ; Yellapur (Talbot 3 sheets !).

Flowering & fruiting : August 20th, 1884 (Yellapur) ; September 1884 (Yella-

pur); October 1919 (to Sirsi, Sirsi, Gersoppa Falls, Sirsi to Siddhapur, Siddha-

pur); October 25th, 1883 (Yellapur).

Distribution: From the Sikkim Terai and Assam to Ceylon and Tenas-

serim, N. Kanara. — Malaya, China, Australia.

WHERE BIG GAME ‘TAKE THE WATERS’.1

A Hidden Watcher at a Burmese ‘Salt-lick’,

by

E. H. Peacock.

( With 3 plates).

There can be few places more likely to appeal to the lover of

Nature than a secluded ‘salt-lick’ in some remote forest of Burma.

Situated, generally, in a small clearing near some lonely forest

stream, among rugged tree-clad hills these Ticks’ are very often

possessed of a charming scenic value besides being the haunt of a

variety of wild animals and birds.

‘Salt-licks’ may take the form of earth banks or springs of water

impregnated with mineral salts, sulphur springs, hot springs or

those peculiar mud-volcanoes formed by the upheaval of decom-

posed volcanic rock by the pressure of gases escaping from below.

Ye-ngan, sa-dwin, chit, chit-ngan, the Burmese call these natural

dispensaries from which the wild animals of the forest obtain the

salts and sulphates that they know, instinctively, to be so beneficial

to their health. So strong is this instinct and the amount of im-

pregnated earth consumed so great that the animal droppings found

near some of the ‘dry-licks’ are often composed almost wholly of

mud.

The carnivora are only less eager than the deer, bison and saing

to avail themselves of the tonic properties of the Ticks’, and the

trees surrounding well-situated ‘wet-licks’ in glades or clearings are

often covered by flocks of green pigeons and other birds waiting for

a safe moment in which to venture on to the ground and sip the

waters of these healing springs.

Some natural law appears to protect the game at these Ticks’

from ambuscade by the carnivora; at least I like to think so. I

have never seen or heard of a ‘kill’ at, or very near, a ‘salt-lick’.

Men, however, are not to be so governed, and a ‘lick’ is generally

the favourite resort of the poacher and, too frequently, some so-

called sportsmen. The magnitude of the offence is appreciated

and given expression to by the game laws; but surely such depra-

vity deserves an even higher penalty than is generally imposed on

the ordinary poacher.

When a ‘salt-lick’ is situated in very remote and secluded

forests, wild animals will frequently emerge in the day-time. No

more interesting scene for the work of the nature photographer can

be imagined than a well-situated ‘lick’.

1 By courtesy of the Field.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A young bull and cow Saing ( Bibos banteng, Lyd.) came embarrassingly close to our ‘ hide.’

'

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

A herd of Saing ( B . banteng, Lyd.) cows stood staring about them in perplexity and alarm.

WHERE BIG GAME 'TAKE THE WATERS'

78l

Compared with the pastime of tracking or still-hunting for game,

the practice of lying in wait with a camera near a ‘salt-lick’ is a

comparatively sedentary sport; nevertheless, it is a delightful one

and a welcome change from more strenuous pursuits.

There was a ‘wet-lick’ which we knew as the Kason-chit near

which I had spent many fruitless hours in spite of the tracks indi-

cating that it was frequently visited by bison, saing, sambur, hog-

deer and barking-deer. On each occasion when I had watched

over this ‘lick’, approaching game had crossed my tracks or an irri-

tatingly changeable wind had made known my presence. Came a

day, however, when Nature was kind and 1 obtained a mixed bag

of photographs that recalls many pleasant memories.

The luck of this day was evident early in the morning as we

were settling down to a five-mile tramp to the ‘lick’. There had

been rain during the night and the wet grass on the Iwins was

shimmering in waves of green and silver under the breath of the

dawn- wind and a rising sun. It wanted some hours before the

growing heat should bathe us in an uncomfortable bath of perspi-

ration, and I found very little wrong with the world this pleasant

morning. W e followed a game path through a belt of woods and

were about to cross a narrow Iwin of short grass, when I spied a

bison cow feeding near the skirts of the forest and, in the woods

behind her, the dark shapes of a number of her companions.

The light had grown strong enough to dispense, with a tripod and

time exposures, so I made a quick stalk and, by good fortune, ob-

tained a close photograph of this cow with her head down in the act

of grazing. But some of the herd, which was on its way to its day-

time lair in the forest, detected my presence and snorted. The cow

near me promptly threw up her head and tail and turned to bolt.

One more exposure I made while she was in this position and

then they had all gone.

Feeling well pleased at this good start, I rejoined my men and,

after still-hunting quietly through. the intervening forests and Iwins,

we arrived at the Kason-chit before ten o’clock. Here we made a

small ‘hide’ of leafy branches and, with a novel and a comfortable

seat of leaves and grass, prepared to pass an enjoyable slack day.

I was engrossed in a thrilling drama of ‘murder, mystery and

love’, when Maung Po Hte’s rude tug at my sleeve brought me

back to a world of facts.

‘I)aye’ — hog-deer — he said, and stooped to look through a hole

in the leafy wall of our hide.

An Elephant Pays a Call.

They were only two shy little hinds that walked mincingly to a

pool of water on our left and, after many anxious glances around

them, drank slowly. They would not cross the clearing and, after

I had made a few long-range exposures, they walked quietly back

into the long grass from which they had come.

When these hog-deer had gone, I went back into the world of

Edgar Wallace; but it was not long before a loud crashing noise

behind us brought me to my feet with the unpleasant conviction

3

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

that a herd of wild elephants was close beside us. But it was only

a young bull elephant that crashed carelessly down to the pool, got

our wind and made an undignified retreat before ever I could get

my camera aligned.

At mid-day we had food, and I tried to photograph the monkeys,

hornbills and green pigeons perched on the trees upwind of our hide.

Mostly I failed, but now and again I would make a few doubtful

exposures.

The wanderer in these hills must carry away with him the

memory of two sounds more frequently heard and insistent than

others; the plaintive cooing of the green pigeons and the wonder-

fully clear, loud and varied scale of notes produced by the gibbons.

White-browed in the north, white-handed in the south, these little

tailless apes are ever within hearing, but most difficult to approach

and photograph, unless one is prepared to give more time to their

pursuit than is usually available. Yet there are few more attractive

creatures to observe.

We had arranged to leave the ‘lick’ and still-hunt on the home-

ward route from about four or five o’clock in the evening; but it

was very nearly four o’clock before any large game appeared at

the ‘lick’. I was becoming restless and tired of sitting still, when

a slight noise on the opposite side of the clearing attracted my at-

tention. I pressed my face close to a small gap in the leafy wall

of our ‘hide’ and saw, to my delight, that a herd of saing had

approached the ‘lick’ and that two or three cows had already walk-

ed out of the forest and into the clearing. A young bull and a cow

saing came embarrassingly close to our ‘hide’; the others spread

themselves over the clearing and nibbled at the short grass at a

range of about 40 to 60 yards. The wind was favourable, but, with

two saing within 20 yards of our ‘hide’, I dared not make any but

the gentlest movements.

I made two or three exposures on the young bull and cow near

me, and was congratulating myself on this opportunity when some

movement on my part, or instinct on theirs, warned the animals

near me of my presence. They grew restless and walked off stiff-

ly, their heads up and their eyes ready to catch the first sign of

danger.

The alarm was communicated to the other members of the herd,

which ran together and stood staring about them in perplexity and

alarm. I made three or four exposures on this herd before they

eventually made up their minds that something was definitely

wrong and moved off into the woods.

I calculated that I had obtained one, if not two, good negatives

of a bison cow, one of liog-deer and half a dozen of the saing herd

— not to mention odds and ends of photos of birds and monkeys.

I felt pleased and happy as we packed our few goods and left the

‘hide’ for our return journey.

1 was carrying the camera, with tripod attached, over my arm

and had just moved out of the ‘hide’ to one side of the clearing

when I saw, within 20 yards, a sambur stag staring at me in wide-

eyed horror. The surprise was mutual and, of course, before I

could bring my camera to bear, he had gone like a wraith. What

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A cow Bison (B. gaums, H. Sm.) feeding near the “ She promptly threw up her head and tail and turned

skirts of the forest. to bolt.'

.

WHERE BIG GAME ‘ TAKE THE WATERS'

783

an opportunity to have lost! If only I had remained in the ‘hide’

for five more minutes he would probably have walked out into

open view! These ‘its’ !

So home we went, feeling a bit depressed about that lost oppor-

tunity; hoping for something to occur which might soften the

memory of that fine stag standing within 20 yards of us. And the

hope was not altogether vain, for, just before the light began to

fade, I saw three sambur hinds on a grass-covered knoll and made

a close, though not entirely unobserved approach.

With them it was a case of tail up and ears up and: ‘Who the

devil are you?’ a sharp stamping of feet, a resounding ‘tit’ and the

clatter of hoofs as they bolted for the cover of the woods. And

that was the last memory I hold of a day at the Kason-chit ; but

some photos remain, otherwise how shall ‘the years which the

locusts have eaten’ be restored to us? .

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN.

BY

Sunder Lal Hora, d. sc., f.r.s.e., f.a.s.b.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

( With a plate and 4 text-figures )

(Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.)

In 1933, in the Journal of the Society an account was given

of the fish of Afghanistan (vol. xxxvi, No. 3, pp. 688-706, 2 pis. and

2 text-figs.) and a small collection of five specimens was dealt

with. During 1933, Sir Richard Maconachie, Major A. E. Farwell

and Capt. E. W. Fletcher sent further material from Afghanistan

to the Bombay Natural History Society which was kindly forwarded

to me by Mr. S. H. Prater for examination and report. I am

deeply indebted to these gentlemen for affording me an opportunity

to report on a very valuable collection which has helped greatly

in understanding the precise specific limits of a number of

McClelland’s hitherto ill-defined species from this country. Suffi-

cient stress cannot be laid on the fact that, with the increased

knowledge of the ichthyology of Afghanistan, the taxonomy and

geographical distribution of the Central Asiatic fishes will become

clear, and it will then be possible to standardise the classification

of the fishes of this vast region.

The collection reported below was made at different places in

all the three main river basins of Afghanistan: namely, those of

the Kabul, the Helmand and the Oxus. At my request the collec-

tors have supplied short ecological notes on the various localities

in which the fish were collected and I propose to give below a

list of these stations with the names of species collected therefrom.

Kabul System.

1. Sar-i-Chashma. — ‘The head springs of the Kabul river.

Bottom stony, water clear and swift. Water cress and such like

vegetation on the banks’ (Major A. E. Farwell).

i. Oreinus sinuatus var. griffithii McClell. 1 specimen,

ii. Nemachilus griffithii var. afghana, nov. 4 specimens.

2. Chahiltran stream. — ‘A tributary of the Kabul river about

6 miles west of the Kabul City. The small stream has a pebbly

bottom and has water cress and such like vegetation on its banks

(Sir R. Maconachie).

i. Nemachilus griffithii var. afghana, nov. 1 specimen.

3. Logar river. — ‘Has a muddy bed and somewhat sluggish cur-

rent. Runs through cultivation, — rice, wheat and barley predomin-

ating. No information as to where fish were caught, but believed

to be in a pool’ (Major A. E. Farwell). The Logar river is a tri-

butary of the Kabul river; it arises in the Gul-Koh on the south

FISHES OF AFGHANISTAN.

Fig. 1. — Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of a young specimen

of Nemachilus sp. prox. griff ithii Gunther, xl 3/5.

Fig. 2. — Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of the type-specimen

of Nemachilus farwelli, sp. nov. Nat. size.

Fig. 3. — Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of Oreinus sirmatus

var. griff ithii McClell. x4/5.

Fig. 4. — Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of Schizothorax

chrysochlora (McClell.). x4/5.

Fig. 5. — Lateral view of Barbus capito conocephalus x Schizothorax sp. xl 1/5.

Fig. 6 . — Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of the above hybrid.

Xl 1/5.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

'

.X

^ :

/ 1

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

785

about 70 miles west of Kabul and joins the Kabul river about 10

miles below Kabul City. It has a length of about 200 miles and

at its junction is as large as the Kabul river itself.

i. Schizothorax intermedins McClell. 2 specimens,

ii. Schizothorax chrysochlora (McClell.). 2 specimens.

Helmand System.

1. Helmand river (no definite locality is indicated).

i. Nemachilus jarwelli, sp. nov. 1 specimen.

2. Sar-i-Bulak stream. — A tributary of the Helmand river

‘approximately 100 miles due west of Kabul as the crow flies.

Pebbly bottom, clear water, swift current. Little vegetation but

barley and lucerne cultivation in places’ (Major A. E. Far well).

i. Nemachilus sp. prox. griffithii Gunther. 17 specimens.

Oxus System.

1. Darra Ashraf and Margh streams. — ‘Mountain rivers on the

north side of Hindukush. Rocky, stony bottoms, clear water and

swift current. They join the B amain river (there known as Sur-

khab) at Tala which is roughly 85 miles north-west of Kabul as

the crow flies’ (Major A. E. Farwell).

a. Darra Ashraf: —

i. Salmo trutta aralensis oxianus Kessler. 2 specimens.

b. Margh: —

i. Salmo trutta aralensis oxianus Kessler. 1 specimen,

ii. Alburnoides bipunctatus var. eichwaldi (Filippi). 1 specimen.

2. Anderab river at Banu. — The Anderab river ‘rises on north-

west side of Hindukush at Khawak Pass (35°40' N., 69°45' E.).

Flows due west through Banu to Doshi (35° 40' N., 68° 40' E.) where

it joins Surkhab which flows north into Oxus at about Kudukh

Toba (37° N., 68°20' E.). Bed rocky at Banu with a few deep

pools. Current very rapid and water in July was very discoloured

owing to irrigation of rice fields which line the banks. Willow

fairly numerous along the banks, mulberry trees further inland.

The two fish were taken in a small shallow backwater’ (Capt.

E. W. Fletcher).

i. Glyptosternum reticulatum McClell. 1 specimen,

ii. Barbus capito conocephalus x Schizothorax sp.

(Hybrid). 1 specimen.

Capt. E. W. Fletcher has kindly supplied the following addi-

tional notes on the fish fauna of the Anderab river : —

‘Local fishermen catch many “Chush”1 in this stream with

1 So far as my information goes, the local name ‘Chush’ or ‘Choosh’ is

used in Kashmir for Schizothorax micropogon Heckel, though Heckel gave

‘Kamghurdi’ as its local name. Sch. micropogon is probably not found outside

the Kashmir Valley, but it seems likely that in the name ‘Chush’ Capt. Fletcher

makes a reference to a species of Schizothorax, of which, unfortunately, he did

not collect a specimen. In the fishes collected by him from the Anderab river

at Banu, there is a hybrid between a Barbus and a Schizothorax and it seems

likely that both the genera are well represented in the Anderab river.

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

mulberries and they also catch trout1 with slices of “Chush” on a

hook. Twelve miles south of Banu lies the Arzu pass from which

a small stream of the same name flows north to join the Anderab

at Banu. This stream contains no “Chush” but is full of Oxus

trout. About 6 miles from Banu it flows through a narrow gorge

where there are many rocks. The current here is very swift and

trout abound. In July 1933 trout were taken easily on locusts

and averaged ^ to f lb., running up to 1| lb. Only one was

taken on a fly. The vegetation consisted chiefly of grass and

small scrub bushes, but rice cultivation and willow trees lined the

banks up to about 3 miles north of Banu.

‘At Khinjan (35°40' N., 68°50' E.) the Khinjan Biver flows

into the Anderab from the south. This stream holds “Chush”

certainly up to 3 miles from its junction with the Anderab. The

vegetation consists chiefly of mulberry trees with some fields near

the junction. Higher up, the banks are lined with small bushes

and grass. About 14 miles from Khinjan trout were taken on fly

in July. They averaged \ lb. to } lb. and ran up to 1| lb.

The stream was very swift and rocky. There were few locusts

to be seen here and, in contradistinction to the Arzu stream,' the

trout would not look at them.’

It will be seen from the above that the collection dealt with

here comprises only 34 specimens belonging to nine species or

varieties and a hybrid form. Through the kindness of Dr. C. Tate

Began and Mr. J. B. Norman, a type-specimen of Nemachilus grif-

fitliii was sent to me for study and I have availed myself of this

opportunity to add a few further notes on the species and to give

a drawing of the specimen. The specimens from the Paghman river

described under this specific name in 1933, as well as those ob-

tained at Sar-i-Chashma and in the Chahiltran stream as noted

above, are separated into a new variety afghana of N. griff ithii. A

very characteristic new species of N emachilus is described from the

Helmand river. Schizothorax chrysochlora (McClelland) is de-

scribed in detail for the first time, and the probable specific limits

of Sch. intermedins McClelland are indicated. Oreinus sinuatus

var. griff ithii, Alburnoides bipunctatus var. eichwaldi, Salmo trutta

aralensis oxianus, and Glyptosternum reticulatum are recorded

from new localities. A full description of a hybrid form between

a Barbus and a Schizothorax is given.

Through the generosity of the Bombay Natural History Society

it has been possible to illustrate the paper adequately, and I have

great pleasure in offering my sincerest thanks to Mr. S. H. Prater

for his kind interest. Mr. B. Bagchi has delineated the fishes

under my supervision with his usual skill and care, and my best

thanks are due to him for this.

The material is preserved in the collection of the Zoological

Survey of India, with the exception of a few specimens of loaches

sent to the British Museum (Natural History). The types are

deposited in the Indian Museum.

1 The commonest trout in these parts is Salmo trutta aralensis oxianus

Kessler.

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

787

Salmo trutta aralensis oxianus Kessler.

1842. Salmo orientalis, McClelland ( nee Pallas), Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist.

ii, 585.

1843. Salmo orientalis, McClelland ( nec Pallas), Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist.

iii, pp. 283-287.

1874. Salmo oxianus, Kessler, ‘Pisces’ in Pedtschenko’s Reise in Turke-

stan, p. 35.

1932. Salmo trutta aralensis Berg morpha fario L., Berg. Poiss. Eaux

Douces de V U.R.S.S. et des Pays Limitrophes 3rd. Edition, i, p. 161 (See

earlier references) .

1933. The Bamean Trout, Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxvi,

pp. 700-705, pi. -figs. 3 & 4, 2 text-figs.

In the recent collection of fish from Afghanistan, there are 3

specimens of the Bamean Trout, the largest is about 150 mm. in

total length. Two of these were caught in the Darra Ashraf and

one in the Margh stream. These two streams are 4 miles apart

and run into the Surkhab river (Bamean river) which is a tributary

of the Oxus.

Through the kindness of Prof. L. Berg, the Zoological Survey

of India now possesses one of the typical specimens of Salmo

oxianus Kessler (No. 2840 of the Zoological Museum at Leningrad).

It is 208 mm. in total length and is in a very good state of pre-

servation. It was obtained from ‘Kyzyl-su river, Basin of the

Upper Amu-darya, Alai Valley, Pamir’. A comparison between

this and the Afghanistan specimen has shown that they are abso-

lutely identical with the exception of such characters which are

liable to vary with the length of the individuals.

The specimens from Afghanistan are in the Parr state and

possess the characteristic colouration.

The vernacular name of the trout is Mdhl-i- Khaidar which lite-

rally means ‘a fish with spots’. I am informed that in standard

Persian it is called mahi-i-qizil-dld ‘the red-speckled fish’ and in

the Turkish-speaking provinces of Persia dla-bdliq ‘the spotted fish’.

The Afghan name (not Kabuli but Persian) is, in view of the charac-

teristic colouration, very appropriate.

Glyptosternum reticulatum McClelland.

1933. Glyptosternum reticulatum, Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

xxxyi, p. 697 (see for earlier references).

A fine specimen of Glyptosternum reticulatum, 196 mm. in total

length, was collected by Capt.. E. W. Fletcher from the Banu

Andrab river, about 79 miles north of Kabul at an altitude of

4,300 ft. The entire dorsal and lateral surfaces of the fish are

reticulated with blackish spots and markings, and it is likely that

such a colour-pattern may have been responsible for the specific

name reticulatum. The caudal fin and the distal half of the anal

fin are more deeply pigmented. The ventral surface in front of

the ventral fins is roughened by small and hard papillae. The adi-

pose dorsal is well developed, it is as long as the tail portion of

the body without the caudal fin and its height is equal to half

the width of the mouth,

788. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY VoL XXXVII

In the group of the Sisorid fishes to which Glyptosternum

belongs, a new genus — Oreoglanis — has been described recently by

Smith.1 To indicate the relationship of this genus, he has given

a key to the genera of Glyptosternoid cat-fishes. Moreover, he

has indicated that, as already pointed out by me,2 Par exostoma

.Regan is synonymous with Glyptosternum McClelland.

G. reticulatum has recently been found at two different places

within the limits of Afghanistan.

Schizothorax intermedius McClelland.

1842. Schizothorax intermedius, McClelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist, ii,

p. 579.

1868. Schizothorax intermedius , Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. vii, p. 165.

In grouping species of Schizothorax, McClelland included Sell,

intermedius and Sch. esocinus among those forms in which the

lower lip presents ‘a free reflected margin only at the angles of

the mouth’. Besides this character, there is no other indication

in the description of the former species by which it could be dis-

tinguished from the allied forms. Unfortunately McClelland did

not publish any drawing of the species, so its determination would

have always remained a guess-work had McClelland not sent 3

specimens of the species to the ‘Museum at the India House’,

whence two examples (stuffed, 11 in. long and skin, 9 in. long)

passed to the collection at the British Museum and served for the

description of the species by Gunther in his Catalogue of Fishes.

I have no doubt that Gunther had before him the typical speci-

mens of the species. In the collection of fish from Afghanistan,

there are two specimens — badly preserved and somewhat damaged

— which agree very closely with Gunther’s description of Sch. inter-

medius. These were collected in the Logar river, a tributary of

the Kabul river, to the south of Kabul. It is significant that the

original specimens of the species were collected by Griffith in the

Kabul river at Jallalabad and in the Tarnuck river.

Text-fig. 1. — Lateral view of Schizothorax intermedius McClelland, x \.

From Gunther’s description of Sch. intermedius and from an

examination of specimens before me, the following salient charac-

ters of the species may be mentioned: —

(i) Lower labial fold interrupted in the middle.

1 Smith, Journ. Siam Soc., Nat. Hist. Suppl. ix, pp. 70-74, pi. iii, 1 text-

fig. (1933).

a Hora, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) x, pp. 176-179 (1932); Cur. Sci. i,

p. 130 (1932). ' ’

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

789

(ii) Commencement of dorsal fin nearly midway between the

tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin.

(iii) Eyes situated not entirely in the anterior half of the head.

(iv) Anal scales not much developed, the largest being scarcely

half as broad as the orbit.

(v) Height of head at occiput considerably greater than its

width.

(vi) Body without spots.

A perusal of the literature shows that a very wide interpretation

has been given to Sch. intermedius and that several unrelated forms

have been designated by this title. The confusion seems to have

been started by Bay,1 who, in 1876 and 1878, described and figured

specimens from Kashgar, Yangihissar and Sirikol as Sch. inter-

medius. I have examined some of these specimens in the collection

of the Indian Museum, and find that in all of them the eye is

situated entirely in the anterior half of the head, and that the

anal scales are relatively larger. The dorsal spine is stronger and

more coarsely serrated, and the scales are relatively much larger

in size. Herzenstein2 relegated Sch. aksaiensis Kessler and Sch.

af finis Kessler to the rank of the subspecies of Sch. intermedius

and described malacorrhynchus as a new subspecies. Berg3 in his

latest work has given a comprehensive scheme of classification of the

various subspecies of Sch. intermedius. I am unable to agree to

the system proposed by Berg, and in the absence of sufficient

material of the Central Asiatic forms associated with McClelland’s

species, I am unable to define the specific limits of these forms.

In order to facilitate reference, I give below a table of measure-

ments of the two specimens, but it has to be understood that, due

to the damaged condition and poor preservation of the specimens,

some of the measurements are likely to be faulty.

Measurements i?i millimetres

Total length without caudal ...

Length of head

Height of head

Width of head

Length of snout

Diameter of eye

Interorbital width ...

Depth of body

Longest ray of dorsal

Longest ray of anal

Length of pectoral

Length of ventral ...

Length of caudal peduncle

Least height of caudal peduncle

1 Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 786 (1876); Ichthyology, Sci. Res. 2nd

Yarkand Miss., p. 5 (1878).

2 Herzenstein, ‘Dische’, in Wiss Res. Przewalski Central As. Reis. Zool.

Theil, iii (2), pp. 106-117 (1889).

3 Berg, Poissons des Eaux Donees de V U.R.S.S. , i, pp. 458-462 (1932),

See earlier references.

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Local name'. — The two specimens of Sch. intermedins were sent

with the two specimens of the following species under the common

name Sheer-Mdhi.

Schizothorax chrysochlora McClelland.

(PI. -fig. 4; text-fig. 2.)

1842. Racoma chrysochlora , McClelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. ii,

p. 577, pi. xv, fig. 2.

Schizothorax chrysochlora was described by McClelland from

Mr. Griffith’s notes and the figure is stated to have been ‘reduced

from his very excellent drawing’. The diagnosis of the species

is very poor and of a generalized nature. It reads as ‘Mouth

directed forward, intermaxillaries protractile, without spots, scales

small, raised on the lateral line, vertical anal scales large, colour

brownish yellow, operculum square behind, intestine convoluted in

a conical form in the anterior part of the abdomen, and equal to

six lengths of the body’. Sch. chrysochlora is stated to grow to

a length of 10 inches and was collected in the Kabul river at

Lalpore. At Lalpore, Mr. Griffith ‘procured a fish I believe

identical with the nepoora of Assam, C. falcatus of Hardwicke, a

Barbus, a Gonorhynchus, a small Mahasir, and a remarkable fish,

which appears to me the type of types of Carnivorous Poeonominae’ .

It would thus appear that Sch. chrysochlora was obtained from

the lower region of the Kabul river where there is a mixture of

the Indian and Central Asiatic species of fishes. Under the des-

cription of Racoma lahiatus, McClelland says: ‘Mr. Griffith remarks

that this singular form is nearly allied to the Lalpore species, but

that the intestines of the latter are infinitely longer, nor is there

any enlargement of the lips in the latter; but this last character

Mr. Griffith remarks is not so remarkable in young specimens’. It

is this indication of a close similarity between labiatus and chryso-

chlora that has helped me in assigning two badly preserved and

damaged specimens from the Logar river, a tributary of the Kabul

river, to Sch. chrysochlora. Sell, labiatus is the commonest species

in the Chitral Valley, whence my colleague, Dr. B. N.

Chopra, obtained a large series of nicely preserved specimens. This

material has proved very useful in studying the form referred to

as Sch. chrysochlora by McClelland.

In 1876, Bay1 described and two years later figured certain

specimens collected by the Second Yarkand Mission at ‘Ivashghar,

Yangihissar, and Yarkand’ as Sch. chrysochlorus. In the collec-

tion of the Zoological Survey of India, there are several specimens

purchased from Bay and labelled as Sch. chrysochlorus. In these

specimens the eye is entirely in the anterior half of the head, which

is low and elongate. The snout is also very long and the fold of

the lower lip does not extend beyond the symphysis. The anal

scales are but little developed. In McClelland’s Sch. chrysochlora

the vertical anal scales are large and the fold of the lower lip is

1 Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 784 (1876); Sci. Res. 2nd Yarkand Miss.,

Ichthyology, p. 3, pi. i, fig. 2 (1878).

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

791

free throughout and somewhat trilobate as in Sch. labiatus. It

would thus appear that Day’s identification of the Yarkand Mission

specimens as Sch. chrysochlora was not correct and that they in

reality belong to Sch. biddulphi Gunther. 1

It would thus appear that since its discovery, Sch. chrysochlora

has remained unknown and that both the description and figure

of it by McClelland have not proved sufficient for elucidating its

precise specific limits. Gunther2 included it among other ill-

defined species of Schizothorax, and in 18893 doubted the use of the

name by Day for a species from Yarkand. This point was ela-

borated by Herzenstein4 who showed that Day was not justified in

applying McClelland’s name Sch. chrysochlora to a species so

different from McClelland’s original form.

From McClelland’s original description and figure of Sch. chryso-

chlora, the following salient features may be noted, though the

description is .certainly very meagre and applicable ‘to more than

one species of Schizothorax ’ as remarked by Gunther.

(i) Body without spots.

(ii) ‘Scales small, raised on the lateral line, vertical anal

scales large ’ (italics are mine).

(iii) The head is short and high.

(iv) The eye is situated almost in the middle of the length

of the head.

(v) The species is found in the lower reaches of the Kabul

river where certain species of the Indian fauna are also

found.

The two specimens before me agree in all these points with

McClelland’s description, but unfortunately they are not in a good

state of preservation and, therefore, a detailed description cannot

be given. Attention may, however, be directed to some of the

salient features to facilitate reference in future.

1 Gunther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii, p. 400 (1876).

Schizothorax biddulphi was described by Gunther from two skins, the

larger being 15.5 in. long. In Day’s specimens and description of Sch. chryso-

chlorus the length of the head is about 4| to 5^ in the total length, but Gunther

says ‘one-fifth of the total (without caudal)’. Gunther usually excluded the

caudal fin in giving the total length, but in this case I believe he meant to

say with caudal’. In all other respects Day’s Sch. chrysochlorus and Gunther’s

Sch. biddulphi appear to be almost identical.

2 Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., vii, p. 162 (1868).

3 Gunther, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2), v, p. 107 (1889).

4 Herzenstein, ‘Fische’, in Wiss , Res. Przewglski Central Asi. Reis. ZqoI.

Theil, iii (2), pp. 154-156 (1889).

m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XXXV 11

D. 3/8; A. 3/5; P. 20; Y. 10.

The dorsal profile rises abruptly from the tip of the snout

to the nape and then gently to the base of the dorsal fin beyond

which it slopes down to the base of the caudal fin. The ventral

profile in front of the anal fin is almost straight or only slightly

arched. The ventral surface of the head and the anterior part of

the body is somewhat flattened. In the larger specimen, the maxil-

laries are protruded and the length of the head cannot be ascer-

tained accurately. The length of the head is contained from 3'5

to 3*7 times in the total length without the caudal. The width of

the head is contained 1-7 to 1*8 times and the. height of the head

1-6 to 1*7 times in its length. The eye is dorso-lateral in position

and is barely visible from the ventral surface; in the smaller speci-

men it is situated considerably nearer to the tip of the snout than

to the posterior margin of the operculum, but in the larger specimen

the eye is almost in the middle of the length of the head. The

diameter of the eye is contained 4*7 to 5-0 times in the length of

the head, 1‘5 to 2'3 times in the length of the snout and 1-2 to

1-6 times in the interorbital width. These proportions indicate that

the eyes undergo considerable variation both in size and position

with the growth of the fish. The interorbital space is broad and

flattened. The mouth is sub terminal, transverse and arched; it is

bordered by thick lips which are continuous all round the mouth

so that the reflected posterior margin of the lower lip is entire. In

the larger specimen, this labial fold is trilobed. The edge of the

lower jaw is sharp and strong, and is covered with a horny cover-

ing. The barbels are subequal and longer than the diameter of

the eye. The depth of the body is contained 5‘2 times in the total

length without the caudal. The scales are small', but those on

the lateral line are somewhat larger and raised. There are several

transverse rows of larger scales behind the gill-opening, and the

anal scales are almost as long as half the diameter of the eye. The

ventral surface between the pectorals is devoid of scales. The late-

ral line is complete and runs to the middle of the base of the

caudal fin.

The dorsal fin arises slightly in advance of the ventrals and its

commencement is considerably nearer the base of caudal than the

tip of the snout. The last dorsal spine is bony, but quite flexible

in the distal one-third of its length, and is serrated along the poste-

rior border. The longest ray of the dorsal fin is shorter than the

depth of the body. The pectoral, ventral and anal fins are long

and pointed, but none of these fins, when laid flat, reaches the

one following it. The caudal fin is damaged in both the speci-

mens, but McClelland’s figure shows it to be a deeply bifurcate

structure. The anal opening is situated just before the anal fin.

There is an adnate scaly appendage in the axil of the ventral fin.

The caudal peduncle is about 1-7 to 1-9 times as long as its least

height.

The colour is greyish above the lateral line, pale-olivaceous

below it and much lighter on the ventral surface.

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

793

Remarks. — As remarked by Griffith, Sch. chrysochlora has much

in common with Sch. labiatus McClelland, and especially with

those specimens of the latter in which the labial fold is not well-

developed. I have dealt with the variation exhibited by Sch. labia-

tus in my report on the Chitral Fishes published in the Records

of the Indian Mitseum. I have compared the larger specimen of

Sch. chrysochlora with a specimen of the same size of Sch. labiatus

with the following results : —

In Sch. labiatus the body is more slender and the head is

considerably pointed; the labial fold is well-developed and promi-

nently trilobed, the commencement of the dorsal fin is almost mid-

way between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin,

and the anal scales are very small, considerably less than half

the diameter of the eye. It is thus seen that the two species

can be readily distinguished from each other.

Measurements in millimetres.1

Local name. — Sch. chrysochlora is locally known as Sheer Mdhi,

which literally means milk-fish or sweet-fish. It seems to be a

common name for species of Schissothorax in Afghanistan, and in

this reference is made probably to the taste of the flesh of these

fishes.

On account of the protruded condition of the upper jaw and poor condition

of preservation of the specimens, the measurements are likely to be faulty in

ceitain cases, and should, therefore, be taken with considerable reserve.

794 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Oreinus sinuatus var. griffithii McClelland

(Plate-fig. 3; text-fig. 3.)

1933. Oreinus sinuatus var. griffithii, Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. xxxvi, p. 700.

In the collections of fish made in Afghanistan during 1933,

there is a single specimen of the genus Oreinus, which I refer to

0. sinuatus var. griffithii. The specimen was collected by Major

A. E. Farwell at Sar-i-Chashma, the source of the Kabul river; it

is 136' 5 mm. in length without the caudal and is in a fine state

of preservation. In my article1 on the fish of Afghanistan, reasons

were given for regarding the Kabul river form as distinct from

0. sinuatus, though both are very much alike superficially. I have

described this form in detail in my account of the fish of Chitral

which will be published in the Records of the Indian Museum.

Text-fig. 3. — Lateral view of Oreinus sinuatus var. griffithii McClelland.

The following note from Griffith’s observations is of special signi-

ficance. Writing of the fish fauna of the Kabul river, he says:

‘Towards its origin, and throughout the upper part of the Mydan

Valley, a species of Oreinus is very abundant, numbers may be

taken with a worm, the only instance I know of a fish with a

Gonorhynchoid mouth taking bait. This same species swarms in

the fine springs (from limestone) at Sar-i-Chashmah, which are the

main source of the river; the fish are considered sacred, ancl appear

to eat anything presented to them; the size does not exceed 5 lbs.’2

Alburnoides bipunctatus var. eichwaldi (Filippi).

1932. Alburnoides bipunctatus eichwaldi, Berg, Poiss . des Eaux Douces

U.R.S.S., i, p. 493 (see synonyms).

There is a single specimen, 74 mm. in length without the caudal,

which I assign to Alburnoides bipunctatus var. eichwaldi . It was

collected from the Margh river, a tributary of the Surkhab river.

It has alrealy been indicated3 that this is one of the species com-

monly found in the Upper Amudaria.

The fish is locally known as Mdht putrd .

1 Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvi, p. 700 (1938)

2 Griffith, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc., ii, p. 564 (1842).

3 Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvi, p. 706 (1933).

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHAN I STAN 79o

Barbus capito conocephalus Kessler x Schizothorax sp.

(Plate-figs. 5 & 6.)

In the small collection made by Capt. E. W. Fletcher in July

1933 from the Banu Anderab river, there is a small fish, 95 mm.

in total length, which appears to be a hybrid between Barbus capito

conocephalus and some species of Schizothorax. In general facies,

it resembles the fishes of the subfamily Schizothoracinae, but

possesses relatively larger scales. The lower jaw is bare anteriorly

and the lip is somewhat papillated, so that the ventral surface of

the head gives the appearance of a young Oreinus. A somewhat

similar hybrid — Barbus capito conocephalus x Schizothorax pseudak-

saiensis issykkuli — has been figured by Berg,1 but, as compared

with it, the head in the specimen under report is relatively short,

high and much more rounded anteriorly. From the build of its

head, it seems likely that the Afghanistan specimen is the result

of crossing of the species of Barbus referred to above and Schizo-

thorax irregularis (Berg, Sch. intermedius irregularis, l.c., p. 460,

fig. 385), but in the absence of sufficient material, it is not possible

to be dogmatic about this suggestion. The interesting specimen is,

however, described and figured here for future reference.

D. 3/8; A. 2/5; P. 15; Y. 9; C. 20, besides smaller rays at

the sides.

The specimen is subcylindrical with a short and rounded head.

The ventral surface of the head is somewhat flattish and both the

profiles are only slightly arched. The length of the head, of the

caudal fin and the depth of the body are equal and are contained

5 times in the total length and 4 times in the length without the

caudal. The width of the head is contained 1'6 times and the

height of the head at the occiput 1*4 times in the length of the

head. The eyes are large, dorso-lateral in position and hardly

visible from the ventral surface; they are mostly situated in the

anterior half of the head. The diameter of the eye is contained

3*8 times in the length of the head and 1-2 times in the length

of the snout and the interorbital width. The nostrils are situated

near the anterio-superior border of the eye. The mouth is trans-

verse, semicircular and inferior; it is bordered by flat lips which

are continuous at the angles of the mouth; the labial fold is inter-

rupted in the middle; the flat, lower lip is finely papillated. The

distal portion of the upper jaw is vertical and, when the mouth is

closed, it lies in front of the lower jaw, which is hard, sharp and

shovel-shaped for rasping purposes. A portion of the lower jaw

is not covered by the lip anteriorly. There are two pairs of well-

developed barbels, both longer than the diameter of the eye.

The base of the dorsal fin is midway between the anterior border

of the eye and the base of the caudal fin; its longest ray is not as

high as the depth of the body below it. The last spine is bony,

but weak, and strongly denticulated posteriorly; there are about

a dozen pair of teeth along the posterior border. The dorsal fin

1 I3erg, Poisson des Eaux Donees U.R.S.S., 3rd ed., i, p. 450 (Leningrad:

1932).

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVLI

commences considerably in advance of the ventrals. The pectoral

fins are long and pointed, but do not extend as far as the base of

the ventrals, which are similar to the pectorals and do not reach

the anal-opening. The anal fin, when adpressed, does not reach

the base of the caudal fin. The caudal fin is deeply forked and

the lobes are sharp and pointed; the upper lobe is slightly longer

than the lower. The caudal peduncle is 1*4 times as long as its

least height.

The lateral line is complete and runs to the middle of the base

of the caudal fin. The scales are small and imbricate. There

are about 82 rows of scales in a longitudinal series, 14 between the

lateral line and the commencement of the dorsal and 11 rows bet-

ween the lateral line and the base of the ventral. There is a

fleshy appendage in the axil of the pectoral fin, but none above the

base of the ventral fin. The anal-opening and the anterior part

of the base of the anal fin are provided with rows of somewhat

larger scales. On the ventral surface the scales are embedded in

the skin and there are only faint indications externally.

The colour is grayish above and pale-olivaceous below. The

sides are marked with small, irregular patches of black colour which

usually characterize the young Schizothoracinae.

Measurements in millimetres .

Total length including caudal ... .. ••• 95'0

Length of caudal ... ... ... ••• 19’0

Depth of body ... ... ... ••• 19'0

Length of head ... ... ••• ••• 19’0

Width of head ... ... ... •• 11*8

Height of head at occiput ... ... ... ••• 13 5

Length of snout ... ... ... ••• 6‘0

Diameter of eye ... ... ••• ••• 50

Interorbital width ... ... ... ••• 6-0

Longest ray of dorsal ... ... ••• 16’0

Longest ray of anal ... ... ... ... 13*0

Length of pectoral ... ... ... ... 16‘0

Length of ventral ... ... ... ... 13*3

Length of caudal peduncle ... ... ... ... IPO

Least height of caudal peduncle ... ... ... 9-S

Genus: Nemachilus van Hasselt.

(Plate-figs. 1 & 2; text-fig. 4.)

The species of the genus Nemachilus are so numerous and the

characters by which they are usually differentiated are so variable

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

79?

that considerable difficulty has ofte ' been experienced in separating

one form from the other. This is specially so in the case of related

species. The Nemachili from Afghanistan have hitherto proved to

be a very confusing lot, but an attempt is made here to elucidate

the precise limits of the various forms.

In 1929 1 attention was directed to the type material of two

loaches from Afghanistan in the collection of the British Museum

which had been erroneously stated to have come from ‘Blioutan’

and ‘Assam’ in Gunther’s Catalogue.2 Short notes were published

then on the type specimens of Adiposia boutanensis (McClell.)

and N emachilus griffithii Gunther, and their probable affinities were

discussed. It was further stated that the former species was pro-

bably obtained in the Helmand basin near the Bolan Pass and

the latter from the Arghandab river near Candahar. In 1933, 3 I

assigned two specimens collected in the Paghman river, a tributary

of the Kabul river near Kabul, to N. griffithii and published a de-

tailed account with figures. It was indicated that the Paghman

specimens differed from the typical examples in several important

respects, but on account of the paucity of the material and the

much smaller size of the fresh specimens, it was not considered

advisable to propose a new name for them. In the collection

under report, there are 23 specimens of the genus N emachilus, 18

from the Helmand river basin and 5 from the Kabul river basin.

Of the Kabul river specimens, 4 were obtained in the spring at

Sar-i-Cliashma and 1 in the Chahiltran stream; and these (text-fig.

4c) correspond in every respect with the specimens already report-

ed from the Paghman river. It may be recalled that Griffith4

observed a loach very common in the small channels by which

the springs at Sar-i-Chashma run off. It is thus clear that in the

Kabul river and its tributary streams, at least in the neighbour-

hood of Kabul, this particular type of loach is common, and as

it differs in certain particulars from N. griffithii, I propose to treat

it here as a separate variety which may be designated as afghana.

Through the kindness of Dr. C> Tate Began and Mr. J. B.

Norman, 1 have received on loan one of the two typical specimens

of N. griffithii from the British Museum (Natural History). In for-

warding the specimens Mr. Norman has observed that it ‘differs

somewhat from the other type in having a generally shorter and

thicker body, shorter and less slender caudal peduncle and a rather

larger head. We have little doubt, however, that in spite

of these differences, the two types represent the same

species’. The specimen (text-fig. 4a), which I have studied,

•is not in a good state of preservation, and is too flabby

for accurate measurements. So far as it can be ascer-

tained the length of the head is contained 4-7 times in the total

length without the caudal, and the commencement of the dorsal

1 Hora, Journ. Proc. As. Soc. Bengal (n.s.), xxiv, pp. 481-484, 1928 (1929).

a Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., vii, pp. 358, 360 (1868).

3 Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvi, pp. 697-699, pi. -figs. 1 & 2

(1933).

4 Griffith, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist., ii, p. 564 (1842).

4

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL NIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

tin is nearer to the base of the caudal than to the tip of the snout.

The distance between the pectoral and the ventral fins is about

equal to the length of the pectoral. The least height of the caudal

peduncle is contained 2-5 times in its length. The caudal peduncle

Text-fig. 4. — Nemachilus from Afghanistan.

Lateral view of (a) Nemachilus griffithii Gunther, type-specimen xf;

(b) Nemachilus griffithii Gunther, young specimen xlj; (c) Nemachilus

griffithii var. afghana, nov., type-specimen xl; ( d ) Nemachilus farwelli,

sp. nov., type-specimen x§.

is muscular but is not much compressed from side to side. The dia-

meter of the eye is contained 7-5 times in the length of the head,

3 times in the length of the snout and 1*5 times in the interorbital

width. The snout is shorter than the postorbital part of the head.

On comparing the above notes with the description of the species

by Gunther, two conclusions seem to be justified, (1) that Gunther

probably used the longer and narrower specimen for drawing up

his description and (2) the species is subject to considerable vari-

799

ON A COLLECTION. OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

ation in proportions, etc. It is for these reasons that I have still

linked the Kabul river specimens with N. griffithii.

There are in the collection 17 specimens collected by Major

A. E. Earwell in the Sar-i-Bulak stream, a tributary of the Helmand

river, which appear to belong to N. griffithii . The specimens are

young (Plate-fig. 1, and text-fig. 46) and in all cases the fins are

greatly damaged. However, in these examples the fins are rela-

tively longer, the eyes are larger, the head is longer, and there are

other points in which they differ from the typical examples, but,

probably, all these differences are due to their juvenile state. It

may, however, be indicated that these examples are very different

from specimens of the same size of the form afghana referred to

above from the Kabul river.

A fine specimen (plate-fig. 2 & text-fig. 4 d) collected by Major

A. E. Farwell in the Helmand river is so different in the form

and shape of its caudal peduncle, general facies and proportions

that it seems to represent a form hitherto undescribed. It is asso-

ciated with the name of Major Farwell in slight recognition of the

interest taken by the officers of the British Legation at Kabul

in making known the ichthyology of this interesting region.

Nemachilus griffithii var. afghana, nov.

1933. Nemachilus griffithii, Hora, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. "xkxvi,

pp. 697-699, pi. i, figs. 1 & 2.

Major A. E. Farwell obtained 4 young specimens ranging in

length from 54 mm. to 97 mm. including the caudal fin from the

springs at Sar-i-Chashma, the source of the Kabul river. Griffith1

remarked that ‘In the small channels by which the springs run off,

a loach is very common’. These specimens agree very closely with

the examples described by me (1933) from the Paghman river. It

has to be noted, however, that the latter were not well preserved

and the swollen nature of the opercular region was a mere arti-

fact. Both the lips are fleshy and plicated; the lower lip is very

narrowly interrupted in the middle. The colour varies with the

size of the specimens. Along the lateral line there is either a series

of rounded spots, a moniliform band or a grayish streak. The

caudal fin is more or less truncate and not emarginate.

A young specimen of the species was also collected by Sir

Bichard Maconachie in the Chahiltran stream, a tributary of the

Kabul river about 6 miles to the west of the Kabul City.

Type-specimen. — No. F

11525

1

Zoological

Survey

of India,

Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Nemachilus farwelli, sp. nov.

(PI. -fig. 2; text-fig. Ad.)

D. 2/7; A. 2/5; P. 1/11; V. 1/8; G. 16 (besides smaller rays at

the sides).

Griffith, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist., ii, p. 564 (1842).

866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVli

The new species of Nemachilus, which I have great pleasure in

associating with the name of Major A. E. Farwell, Military

Attache to the British Legation at Kabul, has a very characteristic

form. It is somewhat broad and depressed in the anterior region,

but behind the dorsal fin it is greatly compressed from side to side.

The tail portion is long and oar-like. All along the dorsal surface

behind the head, the neural spines of the vertebrae form a pro-

minent ridge. The following measurements give an idea of the

form of the fish : —

Height oLhead in the region ofieves ...

Height of head at occiput ...

Greatest height of body above middle of pectorals

Height of body at the commencement of dorsal fin

Height of body at the commencement oc anal fin

Least height of caudal peduncle

Width of head in the region of eyes ...

Width of head in the opercular region

Width behind bases of pectorals

Width at the commencement of ventrals

Width at the commencement of anal ...

Least width of caudal peduncle

mm.

9-0

10-6

12-7

10- 3

7-8

6-8

11- 7

147

11*7

6'5

4-3

1-6

The dorsal profile is slightly arched, but the ventral profile is

straight and horizontal throughout. The ventral surface is flatfish

and the paired fins are horizontally placed.

The head is depressed on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces;

its length is contained 6-1 times in the total length with the caudal

and 51 times without the caudal. The width of the head is con-

tained 1-5 times and its height 2*1 times in its length. The snout

is almost equal to the height of the head at the occiput. The eye

is dorso-lateral in position and is not visible from the ventral sur-

face; its diameter is contained 5'3 times in the length of the head,

2*4 times in the length of the snout, and 1-3 times in the inter-

orbital width. The interorbital arc is almost flat. The nostrils

are well developed and are situated much nearer the eye than the

tip of the snout. The dorsal surface of the head is marked with

series of lateral line organs which will be described below. The

mouth is inferior, transverse and crescentic; it is situated consider-

ably behind the tip of the snout and is co-extensive with the width

of the head. The lips are well developed, fleshy and continuous

at the angles; the lower lip is narrowly interrupted in the middle

line. Both the lips are greatly fimbriated; the lower lip leaves the

ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM AFGHANISTAN

801

jaw bare anteriorly. Both the jaws are strong and well developed;

the anterior jaw lies in front and forms a hood-like covering over the

posterior jaw which is provided with a sharp, rasping edge and is

shovel-like. There are 6 barbels which are longer than the dia-

meter of the eye; the maxillary barbels are the longest, but they

are considerably shorter than half the length of the head. The

gill -opening is lateral, extending for a short distance only on the

ventral surface.

The body is smooth and devoid of scales; its greatest depth is

contained 11 times in the total length with the caudal and 9-2 times

without it. The lateral line is complete and forms a ridge-like pro-

minence on the body. The lateral lines of the two sides are united

dorsally by a transverse series of perforations along the posterior

border of the head. Each lateral line is continued forwards to the

middle of the eye where it is divided into two branches, the dorsal

reaches the nostrils, while the ventral branch extends as far for-

wards as the angle of the mouth.

The dorsal fin commences slightly in advance of the ventrals,

and its longest ray is considerably greater than the depth of the

body below it. The commencement of the dorsal is nearer tip of

snout than base of caudal; its free end is truncate. The pectorals

are broad and horizontal in position; they are somewhat shorter

than the head and are separated from the ventrals by a considerable

distance. The ventrals are long and pointed, and extend beyond

the anal opening, but do not reach the base of the anal fin; they

are slightly shorter than the pectorals. The anal fin is similar to

the dorsal. The caudal fin is almost as long as the head and is

slightly emarginate. The caudal peduncle is oar-like; it is about

4 times as long as its least height.

The anal-opening is preceded by a tube in which there is a

papilla-like structure. Between the anus and the anal fin there is

a well-defined, narrow groove with raised margins. It is not pos-

sible to give the function of this structure which is very characteristic

of the species.

The colouration in the spirit specimen is almost black along the

dorsal surface and dirty white on the ventral surface. There are

few indications of regular spots on the body below the lateral line.

The dorsal and the caudal fins are marked with several indistinct

bands and the other fins are also provided with a few irregular

colour patches.

Locality. — Helmand river, Afghanistan.

Type-specimen. — No. F Zoological Survey of India,

Indian Museum , Calcutta.

Remarks. — In general facies Nemachilus farwelli is remarkable,

and though I have handled big collections of Nemachili, I have

not come across any form approaching it in the shape of its caudal

peduncle. The position of the dorsal fin and the nature of its

lips are other distinguishing characters. The w^ell-marked groove

between the anus and the anal fin is also characteristic of the

species. Nemachilus farwelli has no resemblance to the species of

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Adiposia1 A. macmahoni (Chaudhuri), A. rhadinaea (Began) and

A. boutanensis (McClelland) — known from the lower reaches of the

Helmand system. N. tenuis Bay, which has been recorded from

the Helmand river,2 possesses a rounded, slender and long caudal

peduncle.

Measurements in millimetres.

Total length including caudal ... ... ... 140*0

Length of caudal ... ... ... ... 22*0

Depth of body ... ... ... ... ... 12*7

Length of head ... ... ... ... 22*8

Length of snout ... ... ... ... 10*5

Interorbital width ... ... ... ... 5*5

Diameter of eye ... ... ... ... 4-3

Width of head ... ... ... ... ... 14*7

Height of head at occiput ... ... ... ... 10*6

Longest ray of dorsal ... ... ... ... 20*8

Length of pectoral ... ... ... ... 20*0

Length of ventral ... ... ... ... 19*0

Longest ray of anal ... ... ... ... 18*0

Length of caudal peduncle ... ... ... 27*2

Least height of caudal peduncle ... ... ... 6*8

1 Annandale & Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., xviii, pp. 182-190, text-figs. 10, 12-15,

pi. xv, fig. 4; pi. xvi, figs. 1 & 2 (1920); Hora, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal (n.s.),

xxiv, pp. 481, 482, fig. 1 (1929).

2 Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus.,, xxiv, p. 77 (1922),

TRANSFORMATIONAL DECEPTIVE RESEMBLANCE AS

SEEN IN THE LIFE HISTORY OF A PLANT BUG

(. RIPTORTUS PEDESTRIS), AND OF A MANTIS

(EVANTISSA PULCHRA).

BY

A. P. Mathew, m.a.,

( Lecturer in Zoology , H. H. The Maharajah's College of Science ,

Trivandrum).

(With a plate).

Riptortus pedestris.

While making a collection of ant mimics from Mavalikara,

Central Travancore, in 1930, I came across certain bugs which

were moving about on Cassia occidentalis and which presented a

very perfect resemblance to the Red Ant, Oecophylla — even more

perfect than the mimicry which I was observing and studying in

the Attid spiders. On closer examination I found a number of

other bugs, imitating other ants, also moving about in close proxi-

mity. Some were smaller and lighter coloured — the very images

of Plagiolepis ants; others were quite dark and larger, resembling

perfectly certain species of Black Ant, Camponotus. Whether these

ant mimics were separate species or merely successive stages of the

same species or of different species could not be ascertained. So a

number of them were collected and reared in cages at home. Their

development showed that these bugs were only successive stages

in the life history of a common Coreid bug ( Riptortus pedestris)

which, by the way, when fully grown, has no resemblance to an

ant. Desiring to work out this interesting life history I secured a

few males and females and reared them in cages at home. They

paired and laid eggs. These hatched and the stages were followed.

The Eggs. — These when freshly laid are of a greenish colour

but soon become dark brown. They are more or less oval struc-

tures attached singly to the leaves of Cassiai occidentalis or to any

other convenient object. The upper surface of the egg is flat-

tened and broad, while towards the base, by which it is attached

to the leaf, it becomes narrower. A female seems to lay only

8 to 10 eggs at a time.

The eggs hatch in 6, 7 or sometimes 8 days. The upper broad

part is slit and lifted away like a lid and the young one crawls

out of the egg case. Even as it crawls out it appears to undergo

the first moult — the shrivelled up cast off skin is left peeping out

of the egg case (Figs. 1-A & B).

The First Stage. — The young bug, immediately after it has

come out of the egg case is of a beautiful red colour which gradu-

ally turns brown from the abdomen forwards and in a short time

becomes quite dark brown. It is a perfectly ant like little insect

there being no trace of the dorso-ventral flattening of the body,

so characteristic of the Hemiptera. The large head followed by

an elongated and cylindrical thorax, at the end of which is the

swollen oval abdomen, gives this insect its striking ant-likeness.

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

The resemblance is increased by the antennae, usually extended

forwards and waved to and fro as the insect moves about. In

colour, general movements, size and appearance, it is almost in-

distinguishable from the small dark brown ants — Prenolepis longi-

cornis — so common here (Figs. 2 & 3).

The Coreidae as a family are characterised by a disproportionate

enlargement of the third pair of legs; but in these newly hatched

young there is no such enlargement.

The head is oblong, longer than the pronotum and produced in

front of the eyes. Behind the eyes it is convex. There are a

number of short stiff white hairs on the head, directed forwards.

Antenna four jointed, slightly longer than the body, the fourth joint

being the longest. The eyes are prominent, placed slightly behind

the middle of the head; ocelli absent. The rostrum reaches a little

beyond the second coxa. It is four jointed, the first joint being

stout and less than half the length of the head. The second and

third joints are each more or less equal in length to the first, but

the last joint is a little longer.

Just behind the head, at the neck region there is a narrow

white band forming a ‘collar’. The thorax is much elongated and

almost cylindrical, quite unlike the usual hemipteran thorax. The

characteristic pronotal angles are not developed. The pronotum is

short, convex dorsally and on the sides, and truncate behind.

Behind the thorax, in the anterior part of the abdomen, is a

broad white band vefntrally, extending upwards in triangular

patches on either side, which effectively produce the appearance of

the narrow ‘waist’ of the ant. The abdomen is globose with dorsal

stink glands.

A specimen prior to the next moult measured 3*3 mm. When

just hatched it measured only 2-2 mm.

The Second Stage. — In two days’ time the young bugs moult.

The similarity to the ant becomes intensified. The bug, now larger

and more elongated, is of a bright yellowish-brown colour. Its

antennae are long and held forwards. In coloration, general ap-

pearance and movements, it now bears a very striking resemblance

to a PlagioJepis ant. At Mavalikara, where I have seen large

numbers of these bugs breeding under natural conditions, I have

mostly come across the young bugs at this stage on their food-

plant, in company with many PlagioJepis ants which roam over it.

Distinction between the young bugs and the PlagioJepis ants is by

no means easy. The bug’s mimicry at this stage is almost perfect

(Figs. 4 & 5).

When the PlagioJepis ants are disturbed they run about wildly

and many of them fall to the ground. The young bugs behave in

a similar manner. When disturbed they quicken their pace, run

about wildly and often fall down into the debris below. This must

be protective; once among the debris, with many of the ants moving

about detection of the bugs is almost impossible.

The general build of the body is the same as in the previous

stage. The head in front of the eyes is pubescent with white hairs

directed forwards. Behind the eyes there are a few stouter and

shorter black hairs directed upwards in the middle, and outwards

Trans-deceptive resemblances as seen in the life-history of a Bug ( Riptortus

pedestris).

(For explanation of plate see end of article.)

DECEPTIVE RESEMBLANCE OF PLANT BUG AND MANTIS 805

on the sides. On the thorax are a few black hairs mixed with

white. The abdomen bears shorter and softer white hairs. The

rostrum has the third joint shortest and the fourth the longest. The

hinder border of the mesonotum develops a median extension back-

wards— the beginning of the scutellum. The first two segments of

the abdomen are narrow. The first segment has a small process

projecting upwards. The second segment has two broad triangular

white patches, one on either side, which mask a good region of the

sides, and produce the appearance of a narrow ‘waist’ — so charac-

teristic of the Hymenoptera, but not found in the Hemiptera. Im-

mediately beyond this, the abdomen is swollen and globose. On

the dorsal surface are two tubercles on which the stink-glands open.

In this stage, while the majority retained their reddish-yellow

coloration, a few showed a tendency to turn darker. Some turned

dark-red while others became quite dark. The latter individuals

thus lost all similarity to Plagiolepis ants; but their appearance

and colour made them almost indistinguishable from the smaller

individuals of a species of Camponotus ants which are also common

in the locality.

A specimen in this stage measured 4*4 mm.

The Third Stage. — The next moult takes place within 4 to 6

days. During this moult variations in colour are even more pro-

nounced than in the previous stage, Some of the reddish-yellow

forms on moulting retain the reddish yellow coloration; others

turn several shades darker while a third lot turn quite dark. The

dark-red forms and the dark forms on moulting to this stage pro-

duce the dark types. Thus in this third stage there are three

forms of bugs — reddish yellow, dark reddish, and black. An

attempt was made to ascertain if this change of coloration had any

relation to the colours of the surroundings. Individuals were reared

in different backgrounds but the results were negative. Whatever

the nature of the background the bugs on moulting seemed to

produce all three colour forms. Nor does variation in colour depend

on the food; for they are all fed on the same diet.

The reddish-j-ellow forms bear the closest possible similarity to

the red ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, in size, coloration, and general

build of the body. The ant’s abdomen has a conspicuous black

mark on its under side and it is quite striking to note a similar

dark patch on the ventral side of the swollen part of the abdomen

of the bug. In both, ant and bug, this black patch is an internal

structure seen through the translucent abdomen and not a

superficial mark. The ant, when alarmed raises its abdomen —

an act which makes this mark quite visible; the bug too, raises

its abdomen as it moves about, though to a much less extent.

Thus its behaviour is very similar to that of the ant. The antennae

are ordinarily held either forwards or sideways with a distinct bend

or ‘elbow’, a little above the base, thus simulating the elbowed

antennae of Oecophylla (Digs. 6 & 7).

The ants and the bugs are frequently found on a species of

Cassia. The bugs ordinarily remain stationary on the leaves or

pods; the ants though by nature very active are often reduced to

passivity when stroking the glands of or ‘milking’ aphides. When

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

disturbed the bugs become active and move about quickly after

the fashion of the ants. They often fall down from the plant to

the debris below when disturbed — which Oecophylla seldom does

though some other ants do it. This, as has been already

explained, must be an additional protective device.

The general build of the body of the bug is similar to that

in the previous stage; but a closer examination shows that traces

of the adult characteristics have begun to form, though still not

quite obvious at a casual glance. The pronotum is shorter than

broad and, at the hinder margin, the pronotal angles are distinct.

The hinder margin of the mesonotum is seen to be divided into

three lobes projecting backwards — two lateral and one median.

The lateral lobes represent the incipient tegmina while the median

lobe is the hinder end of the scutellum.

The rostrum reaches to between the third coxa. The third

joint is the shortest and the fourth the longest.

The first abdominal segment has a well developed spine pro-

jecting upwards. The hinder portion of the abdomen is globular.

Dorsally on this globular portion are two tubercles on which the

stink glands open.

A specimen in this stage measured 6 mm.

The Fourth Stage. — The next moult takes place in 2 to 4 days.

All the black specimens when moulted retained the dark coloura-

tion. Some of the reddish ones on moulting retained their colour,

others became dark like those produced from the dark ones. Some

which retained the red coloration on moulting, gradually changed

several shades darker as they grew. Perhaps this is only an in-

stance of delayed pigment development. In all instances, when

just moulted, the specimens are reddish; the dark ones attain their

colour only after a short interval. In this stage therefore, there

is a definite preponderance of black, the lighter-coloured individuals

being few.

Red individuals still continue their resemblance to Oecophylla

though, as they grow fast and the body gets more enlarged, the

similarity decreases. The characteristics of the adult get more

evident. It is from this stage then that the typical Hemipteran

and Coreid characters become more clearly distinguishable in

these bugs and the ant-likeness gradually lessens. The more

pronounced development of the scutellum, tegmina and the wings,

pronotal angles, etc., make the bugs more Or less easily distinguish-

able to a careful observer, though at a casual glance, these may

yet be overlooked. Black individuals still mimic the Camponotus

ants, the larger individuals of the ants serving as models now. Still,

as in the case of the red ones, the distinctions have already become

evident and the mimicry is much less perfect than in the earlier

stages. It is also to be noted that the bugs now become more

sluggish in their movements compared to the earlier stages.

Compared with the previous stage the bugs show marked

differences in the thorax. It loses the cylindrical nodular form

which gave it such a striking similarity to the curious thorax of

the Oecophylla. It is now slightly flattened above and the scutel-

lum and the rudiments of the tegmina and the wings are all dis-

DECEPTIVE RESEMBLANCE OF PLANT BUG AND MANTIS 807

tinct. The pronotal angles are well-developed. The white trian-

gular patch on either side of the anterior region of the abdomen

is still distinct. The last leg has become comparatively stouter

than in the previous stages and the femur just shows the begin-

nings of the spines which are so characteristic of the adult (Figs.

8 & 9).

The total length of a specimen measured was 8 mm.

The Fifth Stage. — The specimens moulted to the penultimate

stage in 4 days. They have now grown considerably larger and

have a dirty dark-brown colour. The almost exact ant-likeness of

the previous stages is lost, though a general resemblance may still

be recognised (Fig. 10).

The dorsal surface of the pro-thorax slopes upwards and post-

eriorly inclining at an angle of 45°, thus producing a bend for this

region which is characteristic of the adult but is absent in the

previous stages, where the pronotum is quite horizontal. The

hinder border of the pronotum projects backwards as a distinct

ledge, bearing spines at the angles and also one spine in the middle

at the base of the scutellum. Behind the first coxa and faintly

behind the second also, are marks representing the stink glands of

the adult. The glands are being formed; but they are not yet

open.

The abdomen is still swollen but has lost the almost globular

shape of the previous stages. Seen from above it is more or less

lozenge-shaped in outline having the centre considerably raised.

Here are the stink-glands which are to close up by the next moult.

Posteriorly the abdomen tapers. The ‘waist region’ so deceptively

formed by white patches in the previous stages has disappeared

altogether.

Length of a specimen measured was 11 mm.

In this as also in the previous stage, the bug presents a very

striking similarity to Dulichius and strangely enough on comparing

the specimen with the description of Dulichius inflatus as given in

the F.B.I. they were found to agree in most respects. A few

specimens were sent to the Indian Museum and I was informed

that these specimens should certainly be put in the genus Duli-

chius and quite probably are D. inflatus. From this species, how-

ever, it differs slightly in the proportionate length of the rostral

joints. In the nymph though the second joint is the longest, it is

longer than the third and fourth joint together. In Dulichius ,

however, the second is the longest being a little longer

than the third and the fourth together. But for this, in all

other details, the two appear to agree perfectly. Curiously enough,

the single specimen of Dulichius in flatus in the Indian Museum,

in this respect, agrees with these nymphs and differs from the

description in the F.B.I. since in this specimen also the second

joint is not longer than the third and the fourth together. Per-

haps it is this or a similar stage of some closely-allied form that

has been described as D. inflatus. What Dr. Bergroth remarks

with reference to the specimens sent by Mr. Wroughton is quite

interesting. He says ‘Mr. Wroughton has only found the brachyp-

terous form. If the species has a macropterous form it is probable

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

that the form has little or no resemblance to an ant’ (Ent. Month.

Mag., 1892, 107).

A number of bugs have been described without wings but which

later on were found to have fully- winged forms — for example,

Eugubinus. The case of Dulichius inflatus might be only similar;

it is only the nymph of a Coreid bug with fully-developed wings in

the adult stage during which there is absolutely no trace of ant-

likeness.

The Sixth Stage. — The next moult, by which the bugs become

adults takes place in 5 to 8 days. The moulting is similar to the

previous ones. The cuticle splits at the median line on the thorax

and the thorax is first pushed out, the head being bent double.

Then gradually the insect pushes itself forwards, drawing out the

limbs, antennae and rostrum. The hinder part of its abdomen still

remains in the old skin. The wings are pale and do not reach up

to the tip of the abdomen. The legs and antennae are raised and

slowly moved about. The bug is now of a beautiful coral red colour

with lighter bands on the legs and antennae. As the cuticle hardens

this colour changes to a dirty-brown.

The adult has no likeness to the ant and is of a dull brown

colour. The wings are developed; ocelli are present; abdomen

typical; tarsus three-jointed. As the bugs sit quietly on the dry

pods of Cassia occidental is or on its withered leaves — a position

where they are quite often encountered — they are quite unrecog-

nisable. They have the habit of collecting together in small num-

bers on the dry pods. The hind legs are much enlarged as in all

the Coreidae; in the earlier stages this was not marked (Eig. 11).

The total length of a specimen measured was 15 mm.

General Remarks. — The life-history sketched above is a very

curious and interesting one. It may be represented thus: —

STAGE I.

Dark Brown

II

V

Reddish yellow >Black

Ant-mimicry

III.

!

.Reddish yellow > Black

.

,, IV..., ..Reddish yellow >Black 1 Mimicry gradually

is perfect.

'V V

V Dirty brown

lost ; the earlier

stage retains a

l general resem-

blance. “ Tran-

sitional.”

/

'V

VI Yellowish brown } Not ant-like at all.

(Adult)

Deceptive resemblance of plant bug and mantis 809

The different colour-patterns produced at a moult is instructive.

Black seems to be the dominant colour. Black individuals always

retain their colour on moulting, except in the last two stages where

all individuals once again assume a uniform coloration. The

reddish-yellow young on the other hand remain reddish-yellow or

change to black. That this variability does not depend on the

surroundings or on the food has been already pointed out; and

my observations have shown conclusively that it does not depend

on sex either.

Such a variability has been also noted by Yosseler (1909) in his

classical account of Myrmecophana (synonym Eurycorypha), the

life-history of which is in many ways similar to the one described

here. In Yosseler ’s grasshopper, at the first stage all the nymphs

are black; in the next stage a few brown ones appear and in the

third stage the number of brown specimens increases and a few

individuals of intermediate shade arise. In both cases the ant-

likeness gradually vanishes. The variability of coloration also

ceases, the individuals all developing a more or less uniform colour.

This tendency to produce differently shaded individuals during

the immature ant-like stages seems to me, a very significant pheno-

menon though no one as yet appears to have drawn attention

to it. In places where I have come across numbers of these

bugs, breeding under natural conditions on Cassia occidentalism I

have also seen different types of ants. Thus Prenolepis, some

species of Dolichodorinae , Camponotus, Solenopsis, Plagiolepis,

Oecophylla and a few more forms were found on adjacent plants

or, quite often, two or three of these types were on the same plant.

The ants haunt these plants for the sake of the aphides which live

on them or to suck the ‘glands’ found at the bases of the leaves.

It often happens that one form of ant may desert one plant and

establish itself on another. When we consider this variability • of

the companion ants found on any plant, the significance of this

dimorphism becomes evident. In an environment in which either

black or the reddish models may be found, or with equal possibility

both together, a rigid adherence to one form alone may not be so

advantageous as the use of both colour forms as models. The

chances of deception and hence of protection are therefore increased.

It is instructive in this connection to recall the instance of the

green and brown larvae of the Large Emerald Moth ( Geometra

papilionaria) mentioned by Prof. Poulton (1890), which resemble

the catkins of the birch. There are green and brown larvae just as

there are green and brown catkins. Commenting on this, Beddard

(1892) says ‘Thus a larger number would have a chance of escaping

the attention of insect-eating birds than if the caterpillars were

all green or brown’. The same argument with even greater force

is applicable to the present instance; the nymphs are dark or

reddish-brown just as the ants of the vicinity may be either dark

or reddish-brown species.

That this mimicry is protective is generally accepted. On one

occasion I removed a few of these bugs to a plant where there

wTere no ants. After a while I came back to look at them and

saw a number of Attid spiders each holding a bug in its jaws.

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

Evidently the mere ant likeness was no sufficient safety ; but it is

significant that on plants with plenty of ants these spiders were

seldom seen.

The transformation of the typical ant-like nymph into the adult

bug without any ant-like appearance is brought about by gradual

stages, there is no sudden or abrupt transformation. This is evi-

dent from the description given above of each stage. In addition

to those points already referred to, mention may be made of one

or two others which are of considerable interest since they concern

characters which are much used in classification.

The adult Riptortus like most Coreidae lacks bright colouration

and has a disproportionately enlarged third leg with spines on the

femora. Its pronotum posteriorly is broader than the head and, in

the four-jointed rostrum, the third joint is the shortest and the

second the longest. The early nymph however differs from the

adult in all these characters. The juicy reddish and yellowish

colour of the nymph is not quite inconspicuous; the third legs are

normal and the femora bear no spines; the pronotum posteriorly is

not broader than the head and in the rostrum the second and the

third joints are of equal length.

At every moult there is a short step taken forward in the direc-

tion of the adult characters. The third leg shows a gradual en-

largement. Thus the ratio of the length of the third leg to that

of the first leg is 13 in the first stage, 1‘5 in the later stages

and 1-7 in the adult. The femora of the third leg begins to

develop spines from the fourth stage. It is interesting that it is

at this stage that the other adult peculiarities also become evi-

dent. Thus the thorax loses its cylindrical nature and the tegmina

and the scutellum appear. In colouration also, the rich reddish

hue of the previous stages vanishes, though still retained by a few,

most nymphs put on a dark garb to soon become grayish at the

next moult. In the rostrum, the ratio of the second to the third

joints is 1 in the first stage, where both the joints are equal, in

the next stage, If in the third stage and in the fourth stage it is 2,

which ratio continues for the succeeding stages. Thus in the fourth

stage the adult proportions have been already reached. The ratio

of the second joint to the third and the fourth together appears

to increase steadily up to the penultimate stage; the ratio are '4, *5,

•6, 6*6, -7 and 7*6 respectively.

Evantissa pulchra.

Evantissa pulchra is a common green mantis found on low

shrubs. Its uniform green colour makes it quite inconspicuous on

its foliage where it sits quietly watching for any tiny insect that

might unwarily get within its grasp. Its cryptic green coloration

protects it from its enemies.

Mr. Henry of the Colombo Museum to whom 1 sent my Speci-

mens from Trivandrum for identification informs me that this is

one of the commonest mantises of Ceylon.

On the 29th October 1930, I secured a gravid female and kept

it in a glass cage. The next day she began to make the egg case

decepti ve resemblance of plant hue and Mantis Mi

and to lay her eggs. On the 21st November they hatched. I

was not able to observe the actual emergence of the nymphs from

the egg case. When I looked at the egg case early in the morning,

I was surprised to see a cluster of small yellowish ants covering it.

Fearing that the cage was not properly closed and that the ants

had got in and were destroying the eggs, I disturbed them to drive

them away. To my great surprise I saw that my supposed ants

were a number of small mantises, each a very striking imitation

of the Plagiolepis ant.

This yellowish colouration of the mantis, however, does not

last long. It gradually gets darker and darker till in about 15

minutes from the time of hatching it is quite dark. This change

is to be looked upon as only due to the chitin which develops

normal coloration as it hardens. A dead specimen was also noted

to undergo the darkening.

These mantises are perfect mimics of the common black ants,

Camponotus compressus. The Camponotus ants are graded in

different sizes which serve the early and grown-up mantises of this

stage as models. The young black mantis feeds voraciously and

grows fast. As it gets larger the glossy black colouration fades

a little. It undergoes its first moult in about three weeks.

In the subsequent stages the ant-mimicry gets less and less

pronounced. The colour gradually turns dark-brown and the legs

turn greenish. Specimens kept in cages were found to be darker

than the individuals of the corresponding stages obtained from the

field. The succeeding moults took place within 7 to 12 days till

they reached the penultimate stage. In this stage the nymphs are

long and stout having the legs and the ventral side of the body,

greenish. The dorsal side is still of a light dark colour. Budi-

ments of the wings are clearly visible. The last moult took place

in two weeks.

Evantissa pulchra begins life as an ant-mimic. From the

second stage onwards the ant-mimicry is gradually lost till in the

adult stage it is green and leaf-like. The life-cycle takes about

10 weeks — 3 weeks for the hatching and 7 weeks for the young

to attain the adult characteristics.

Transformational Deceptive Resemblance.

In an earlier paper on the life-history of the spider Myrmarachne

plataleoicles (1934) I have drawn attention to those curious trans-

formations noted in the protective methods exhibited by a parti-

cular organism in the different stages of its life-cycle. The few

instances known to us may fall under three divisions : * —

(i) Those, which like Vosseler’s Myrmecophana (1909) or

Hingston’s Isopsera (1929), begin life as ant-mimics. By gradual

steps they lose the ant-likeness and become green and leaf-like,

thus depending upon cryptic coloration for protection. Evantissa

pulchra is an example of this class.

(ii) Those, which like M. plataleoides (1934), stick to one

method of protection all through life viz. ant-mimicry. To make

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

this mimicry effective in different stages of its growth different

ants of the suitable sizes are used as models.

(hi) The life-history of Riptortus agrees with the first division

since it seeks protection by ant-mimicry in the earlier stages and

at the final stage loses this ant-likeness and puts on a brownish in-

conspicuous coloration. But, unlike the instances given under

this section, here the ant mimicry is considerably prolonged ex-

tending over a number of the earlier stages. During these ant-

mimicking stages the nymphs imitate different types of ants of

corresponding sizes, as is seen in the second section. To this may

be compared Uvarov ’s account of Leptoderes ornatipennis (1922),

one of the Phaneropteridae from Java. In this insect, the earlier

larvae mimic certain tiger beetles of the genus Collyris while the

later larvae resemble another tiger beetle Tricondyla cyanea. The

adult is green and leaf -like. The life-history of Riptortus however

appears to be more varied in imitation of other insects viz. ants, —

each stage imitating a different ant and most stages marked by

colour dimorphism enabling the individuals of a particular stage

to mimic two different kinds of ants at least.

It is interesting to note that these strangely deceptive appear-

ing larvae have been mistaken in many instances for separate

insects and named and described as such by different observers.

Thus the larva of Eurycoryplia (Vosseler, 1909) was described as a

new genus Myrmecophana by earlier workers. Mr. Uvarov has

shown (1922) that the early larva of Leptoderes ornatipennis was

described as Tricondyla rufipes, in mistake for 'a tiger beetle; and

that two of the later larvae have also been described as Condy-

lodera and Trochalodera. The Hemipteran parallel, whose life

history is described above, also appears to have succeeded in a

similar deception; for most probably it is the larva of one of its

later stages, that has been described as a most peculiar bug under

the name Dulichius inflatus.

Literature

1890. Poulton, E. B., ‘Colours of Animals’.

1892. Beddard, F. E., ‘Animal Colouration’.

1909. Vosseler, J., ‘Die Gattung Myrmecophana, Brunner’, Zool. Jalirb. Abt.

Syst.

1922. UVarov, B. P., ‘A New Case of Transformative Deceptive Resem-

blance’, Trans. Ent. Soc., London.

1922. Poulton, E. B., Proc. Ent. Soc., London.

1929. Hingston, Major, ‘A Grasshopper-mimic’, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxxiii, No. 3.

1934. Mathew, A. P., ‘The Life-history of M. palataleoides' , Journ., Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvii, No. 2.

Explanation of Plate.

1-A — An egg attached to the edge of a leaf.

1-B. — An egg after the young has hatched and escaped, showing the moulted

skin peeping out of it.

2. — First instar, soon after hatching.

DECEPTIVE RESEMBLANCE OF PLANT BUG AND MANTIS 813

3. Prenolepis sp. the ant which is mimicked by the first instar (2).

4. Second instar.

5. Plagiolepis sp. the ant of which (4) is a mimic.

6. Third instar.

7. Oecophylla smaragdina the red ant which is mimicked by the third

instar (6).

8 & 10. Dulichius stages — the fourth and fifth instars during which they

mimic the Camponotus ants.

9. Camponotus sp. which is imitated by the fourth instar and to a less

extent by the fifth instar.

11. The Adult Riptortus pedestris.

5

THE ORNITHOLOGY OP TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.

BY

Salim Ali.

With Notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part I.

(With a map, 4 plates and 5 diagrams).

Introduction.

Since the publication of Hume’s1 and Ferguson’s2 papers on

the birds of Travancore, and Kinloch’s3 meagre but tantalising

notes on the Nelliampathy Hills (Cochin), considerable advances

have been made in our knowledge of the avifauna of Peninsular

India, notably through the recent surveys of the Eastern Ghats

and the Hyderabad State.

In order to bring our information concerning the rest of the

Peninsula uniformly up to date, it became desirable for a fresh

and thorough investigation to be undertaken of that interesting

strip of country, occupied by the States of Travancore and Cochin,

which forms part of the coastal rain belt at the extreme south-

west corner and is comprehensively known as Malabar.

Thanks to the keen interest traditionally taken by them in all

matters connected with scientific research and education, the rulers

of these States readily recognised the need and granted the faci-

lities necessary for the carrying out of ornithological surveys in

their respective territories. In this connection I am especially

indebted to the two Dewans, Mr. T. Austin, I.C.S., of Travancore

and Mr. C. G. Herbert, I.C.S., of Cochin, to whose sympathetic

consideration of the initial representations, the Surveys owe their

inception, and to whose personal interest throughout, their smooth

and successful working.

It would be impossible here to acknowledge individually all the

kindness and help the Surveys received during the course of their

work, nevertheless there are some of whom special mention seems

called for. Amongst such are Messrs. Dhanakoti Pillai, Conser-

1 lA First List of Birds of the Travancore Hills’, by A. 0. Hume, Stray

Feathers, vol. iv, pp. 351-405 (December 1876).

‘A Second List of Birds of South Travancore’, by A. 0. Hume, ibid.,

vol. vii, pp. 33-39 (August 1878).

2 ‘The Birds of Travancore’, by Harold S. Ferguson, Journal, Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc.. vol. xv, pp. 249-264 (October 1903) ; pp. 455-474 (February 1904) ;

pp. 654-673 (June 1904); vol. xvi, pp. 1-18 (December 1904).

3 ‘Bough Notes on the Avifauna of the Nelliampathy Hills’, by A. P.

Kinloch, Journal, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxvii, pp. 939-944.

‘On the Birds of the Nelliampathy Hills’, by A. P. Kinloch, ibid., vol.

xxix, pp. 564-565.

SOUTHERN INDIA

TRAVANCORE

815

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

vator of Forests, Travancore; K. Raman Pillai, Divisional Forest

Officer, Kottayam; and T. Narayana Menon, Conservator of

Forests, Cochin.

Mr. N. G. Pillai, Curator of the Trivandrum Museum, who

was attached to the Travancore Survey on deputation and who

subsequently volunteered his services in Cochin for as long as his

official duties could spare him, also deserves a word of appreci-

ation. The great keenness he displayed in the field is highly com-

mendable, and it is to be hoped that his career may provide him

with opportunities of devoting himself to the various ornithological

problems peculiar to his part of the country. It is unfortunate

that owing to his college term my young cousin Humayun Abdulali

could not join me earlier than he did in the Travancore Survey.

His enthusiasm as a birds’ nester contributed materially to this

department of the Survey’s activities even during the short time

he was in the field.

Without the continued and active co-operation of the Bombay

Natural History Society it is extremely doubtful if any work of

this kind can be successfully undertaken in India. The amount

of field research and organised collecting that has been carried

out in recent years under the aegis of the Society, despite the

universal economic depression, is an eloquent tribute to the push

and resourcefulness of the people at its helm. For the Travancore

Survey the Society again loaned the services of their skinner and

rendered much other help in various ways in return for which

their study collections will benefit appreciably.

To Mr. Hugh Whistler who deals with most of the systematic

and taxonomic section of this paper and is virtually the author

thereof, I wish to express my highest appreciation for his unfail-

ing and continued interest and valued advice in the work of the

Surveys. With the vast experience he has recently acquired in

handling ornithological material from the Peninsula, it would have

been impossible to wish for an abler collaborator. It is also due

to him that an extra month’s collecting by Mr. Pillai in the en-

virons of Trivandrum town, after the Survey proper had concluded

its work in the field, was made possible. Being in July- August,

this has enabled us to deduce much useful information concern-

ing the commoner resident birds of that locality.

I am greatly obliged to Mr. B. B. Osmaston, c.i.e. , i.f.s.

(Retd.), for the trouble he has taken in the preparation of the

excellent diagram maps which accompany this paper.

It would not do to close this catalogue of acknowledgments

without a mention of the help rendered in more ways than one

by my wife. She accompanied the Surveys throughout, often

when the travelling and living arrangements left almost everything

to be desired, and was responsible for most of the tedious secre-

tarial and writing-up work.

General.

The States of Travancore and Cochin, which adjoin each other,

are treated here as one physiographical unit. They comprise the

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVU

southernmost portion of Malabar which, in its widest sense, is

the belt of country (rarely over 50 miles broad) lying between the

Arabian Sea on the west, and the Western Ghats up to their

watershed on the east. It stretches from about Goa to Cape

Comorin and encompasses Kanara and Coorg, besides the British

district of Malabar. The area here dealt with lies between 8° 4'

and 10°45/ N. lat., and 76° IT and 77°13/ E. long. It is very

irregular in shape but roughly triangular, the base being the

Arabian Sea coastline. Its greatest length is about 210 miles and

greatest width about 75. The combined area of the two States

is 9,042*75 sq. miles, Travancore being 7,625 and Cochin 1,417*75.

The western half of the northern boundary is represented by

the Shoranur or Ponnani River, the eastern half by that curious

break known as the Palghat Gap — a transverse valley which cuts

abruptly across the Western Ghats, sharply dividing the Nelliam-

pathies of Cochin from the Wynaad and Nilgiri Hills, and carry-

ing plant species characteristic of the Malabar flora almost across

the Peninsula. The frontiers on the two other sides are defined

by natural features : all along the west is the Arabian Sea, while

on the east the Western Ghats separate the area from the ad-

joining British districts of the Madras Presidency — mostly flat and

dry except in the western portion of Madura between about 9°30/

and 10° 30 1 N. lat., which contains the Palni, Varushnad and

other hill ranges. In physical characters these latter are essen-

tially the same as the Travancore and Cochin hills and therefore,

for the sake of greater completeness, I have included in my notes

the gist of Fairbank’s1 and Terry’s2 * contributions to the ornitho-

logy of the Palni Hills.

The country exhibits considerable diversity of terrain, but is

broadly divisible into three well-defined parts: the hills, the plains

and the seaboard. The northern parts, especially where the two

States meet, are abrupt and mountainous. Stretching westwards

in gentler slopes and gradually widening valleys, but broken here

and there by isolated low hillocks, the plains succeed the forest-

clad uplands. Intersected by numerous rivers and streams, dotted

everywhere by homesteads and farms and closely cultivated where-

ever possible, these plains extend in a succession of undulations

towards a line of backwaters on the coast. In the southern and

drier portions, the country closely resembles Tinnevelly, the

adjoining Madras district, but is less arid and sterile.

The mountainous character is due to the Western Ghats,

sections of which are known here under different names. From

north to south these are as follows :

1. The Nelliampathy Hills with a maximum elevation of

about 5,000 ft. comprise a section of the Ghats which, rising

abruptly on the southern boundary of the Palghat Gap, extends for

some 20 miles south. They lie between lO^G7 and 10°42/ N.

and 76°31 1 and 76°52,' E.

1 'A List of Birds collected and observed in the Palani Hills’, by Bev.

S. B. Bairbank, Stray Feathers, vol. v, pp. 387-410 (December 1877).

2 ‘A Few Additional Notes on the Birds of the Pulney Hills’, by H. A.

Terry, Stray Feathers, vol. x, pp. 467-480 (December 1887).

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

817

2. The Annemalai Hills in the N.-E. portion of Travancore

extend into the south-west comer of Coimbatore District on the

one hand and northward into Cochin on the other, where they

merge into the Nelliampathies. Annaimudi (8,841 ft.) the highest

peak in this range and also the highest in South India (10°10/ N.

x 77°4y E.) in North Travancore, is surrounded by many hills

of over 7,000 ft.

3. The High Range, arising in the Annemalais, includes the

Kanan Devan Hills. South of these the section is termed Car-

damom Hills which in turn merge farther south into Peermade,

where the land spreads out in a plateau of considerable width with

hills rising up to 5,000 ft.

4. South of the Cardamom and Peermade Hills, which

section may be said to terminate at the Periyar Lake, begin the

Panthalam (or Pandalam) Hills which run until a gap or pass

across them is reached at ca. 9° N. lat. , known as the Achankovil

Gap.

5. South of Achankovil Gap and of another pass, the

Ariankavu (through which runs the railway line connecting Tri-

vandrum with Madras), the hills continue to within a short dis-

tance of Cape Comorin, this section being the Ashambu Hills. In

the main they consist of a ridge at an elevation of about 4,000 ft.

with isolated peaks of which Agastyamalai (6,132 ft.) and

Mahendragiri (5,427 ft.) are the most important.

From the main range of the Ghats, which includes all the above

sections, rocky spurs run out to the west, in some cases to within

a short distance of the sea. From Quilon (8°53/ N. x 76°35/ E.)

southwards, these secondary ranges soften down to undulating

slopes intersected by glens and valleys which grow wider as the

elevation of the hills decreases, and are very fertile.

Owing to the mountainous nature of the country, streams are

numerous. They have mostly very winding courses and the major-

ity discharge themselves into the backwaters. The largest river

is the Periyar which rises at about 3,000 ft. in the Sivagiri forests

roughly between 9° and 9°3Q/ N. x 77° and 77 ° 30 / E. and falls

into the sea through the backwaters at about 10° 11 1 N. x

76°10' E. Near its mouth (in Cochin) it is known as the Alwaye

River. There are other streams of fair size of which the Chala-

kudi in Cochin and the Minachil, Pambiyar and Kodayar in Tra-

vancore may be mentioned.

A chain of backwaters and canals extends along the coast from

almost the northernmost frontier to Trivandrum. The backwaters

are the expansions of the rivers at their mouths, or extensive

sheets of water receiving the accumulated flow of several rivers

and streams. They are separated from the sea by a bar of sand

and silt varying from 7 miles to half a mile in width, with several

outlets through which the water is discharged into the sea. The

flood tides often overflow the sandbars, raising the level of the

backwaters by as much as 2 ft. The total area covered by these

backwaters is about 180 sq. miles. The long narrow stretch of

sand between them and the sea, as well as their banks, are densely

covered with a luxuriant and unbroken growth of cocoanut palms

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

which provide the staple produce of the country. In some parts

where there are natural or artificial embankments, there is a vast

extent of rice fields. The country lining the backwaters is low

and generally swampy, and often liable to be flooded during the

monsoon inundations.

Climate : Along the coast the climate is equable and damp ;

the temperature seldom rises above 90° F. or falls below 70° F.

At the foot of the hills, the variations range 5 or 6 degrees on

either side of the above. On the hills the temperature varies with

the altitude, the climate being generally of a moist temperate

region. During the winter months the temperature is sometimes

50° to 70° F. during the day, while frost at night is not unknown.

The rainfall is heavy, the greatest incidence being of the

South-West Monsoon between May and September. The country,

however, gets considerable benefit of the North-East Monsoon as

well. The average annual rainfall is as follows: Nelliampathy

Hills 150" and over; Chittur (in the Palghat Gap) 66//; Trichur

132 " ; Ernakulam 102/r ; Peermade 20CF ; Trivandrum 66/; ; Ashambu

Hills 80-100L It varies between these limits according to aspect

and physical features of the locality.

The mean humidity of the atmosphere is as much as 70 per cent

of saturation at its lowest and about 90 per cent at its highest,

contrasting with the minimum and maximum in Coimbatore, just

on the eastern side of the Ghats, which are only 52 and 75 per

cent, respectively.

The abundant rainfall and excessive humidity are responsible

for effects of climate and scenery which find their parallel in

Ceylon. The great difference between the southernmost portions

of the Indian Peninsula east of Travancore (Tinnevelly District)

and Ceylon which is so near it, and the marked similarity of the

island to Travancore and the Malabar zone generally, are a curious

feature of Indian physiography. All the physical aspects of the

Nilgiris, and the Annemalais and other Travancore-Cochin ranges

are repeated in the highlands of Ceylon.

Forests : The forests of Travancore-Cochin are divisible into

four classes, as follows:

1. Heavy moist evergreen, confined to the Ghats (chiefly the

western slopes) and ravines, and perhaps to one-third of the upper

hill plateau.

2. Land originally covered with evergreen forest, but now

overgrown by secondary scrub jungle of various ages.

3. Deciduous forest with grass growing under the trees,

which covers the ridges and the higher ground and a part of the

hill plateau.

4. Rock and stony land covered with short grass.

Peculiarities of the Fauna of Travancore-Cochin.

As has been observed before by Ferguson (J.B .N.H.S., vol. xv,

p. 249) there is a curious but marked similarity between the verte-

brate animal life of Travancore-Cochin (in fact of all the heavy-

rainfall zone or belt herein treated of under the comprehensive

term Malabar) together with the south-western hilly regions of

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRA VANCORE AND COCHIN

819

Ceylon on the one hand, and that of the Himalayas (especially

from the east of Nepal to the extreme North-Eastern frontier of

British India, and beyond into Yunnan and Western China),

Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, Siam, Malay Peninsula extending

often into Java, Sumatra, Borneo and adjacent islands on the

other. The same applies to insects and many of the other inverte-

brate forms as well.

Before attempting to analyse these remarkable affinities and

parallelisms in areas often separated by stretches of 1,500 miles

or more of intervening country over which the forms are absent,

and investigating the causes and factors which may help to explain

the origin and continuance of these isolated colonies, it will be

necessary first to enumerate some of the more outstanding

examples exhibiting these distributional peculiarities.

Among Mammals, the Tahr ( Hemitragus ) and the Marten

( Charronia flavigula ) will suffice.

Hemitragus nilgiriensis : The Nilgiri Tahr, or ‘Ibex’ as it is

popularly misnamed, is found in a section of the hills of South-

Western India from the Nilgiris down through the Nelliampathies

into the Annemalais to about 10° N. lat. Over 1,000 miles separate

it from the only other Indian representative of the genus viz.

Hemitragus jemlaicus the Himalayan Tahr, whose range is from

Kashmir to Bhutan. A third species, H. jayakari, also lives in an

isolated colony in the hinterland of Oman (Arabia). These animals

inhabit mountainous country with cliffs and precipices.

Charronia flavigula : Found throughout the Himalayas from

the Hazara country to the eastern extremity of Assam at eleva-

tions of not exceeding 7,000-8,000 ft., also through the hilly

parts of Burma, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; South China and

Amurland.

In the Peninsula of India this Marten occurs in the higher

portions of the Western Ghats south of the Nilgiris, and in the

Travancore ranges. It is also said to be found in the Ceylon hills.

Among Reptiles a prominent example is furnished by the genus

of Flying Lizards, Draco. It is represented by 3 species ranging

from Assam to Yunnan, down through Tenasserim and Siam to

Singapore and probably still farther south into the islands of the

Malay Archipelago. A fourth species, Draco dussumieri , occurs in

Malabar, Cochin and Travancore.

Ixalus, a beautiful little tree-frog, is a notable instance of dis-

continuous parallel distribution among Amphibians. The genus is

found in Borneo, Malay Peninsula, Burma and Eastern Assam.

It is well represented (by at least 6 species) in the wet Travancore

hills, and probably elsewhere in similar facies in the Malabar

monsoon zone.

Coming to our own group, Birds, we find that instances can

be multiplied many fold. In the following I have selected some

of the more outstanding examples : the species occurring in the

Himalayas, Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula and

Islands, are enumerated first, followed by their representatives

living in isolated colonies within the Malabar zone as above limited,

and in Ceylon.

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Genus Garrulax1 : Laughing Thrushes.

(Forest-frequenting birds, found from the level of the plains up

to about 9,000 ft. but usually to 4,500 ft., varying with locality

and species.)

Represented within Indian limits by 6 species in 12 geographic-

al races, inhabiting the Himalayas from the Hazara Country in

the west to the North Chin and Kachin Hills on the east; Assam,

Cachar, Shan States, Central Burma, Pegu, Tenasserim. Outside

our limits, it extends to Yunnan, Hainan, Siam, Annam, Cam-

bodia, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and other islands of the

Malay Archipelago.

An isolated seventh species Garrulax delesserti occurs in South

India, its distribution being confined to the hills of Wynaad to

South Travancore. It is absent in Ceylon.2 The distance sepa-

rating G. delesserti from its nearest congener in the other areas

is 1,000 miles in the Himalayas, and 1,500 miles across the Bay

of Bengal in Burma.

Genus Trochalopteron: Laughing Thrushes.

(Forest-frequenting birds, found at elevations over about 4,000

ft. They have obviously some biotic connection with the wild

Raspberry, Hubus,3 at least in Southern India, the distribution of

which plant exhibits parallel peculiarities. In the hills of the

Malabar zone Rubus is met with only at elevations above 3,500-

4,000 ft. Immediately this altitude is reached and Rubus appears,

Trochalopteron may be confidently looked for.)

Represented in Northern India and the Eastern Peninsula by

11 species in 27 races, from the frontier of Afghanistan on the

west, right through the Himalayas to the Mishmi Hills and the

extreme North-East Frontier, and beyond. (Quetta and Ziarat in

Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, Chitral, Gilgit,

Hazara Country, Murree, Kashmir, Tibet, Garhwal, Kumaon and

Simla Hills, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, etc.) The genus is found

1 As there is disagreement among different authors regarding the scope of

the genus Garrulax, it might here be explained that in the above it has been

limited as accepted in the New Fauna.

2 It is a matter of opinion whether the genus is represented in Ceylon or

not. Turdoides cinereijrons of the Fauna was formerly reckoned a Garrulax

and originally named by Blyth as such. Mr. Whistler indeed considers it so

extremely close to Garrulax that he even compared it with delesserti to see

if they could be considered subspecies of each other ! He himself would prefer

to consider it a Garrulax.

3 Of the 41 species of this Genus admitted by Hooker in the Flora of

British India, mostly confined to the Himalayas, Assam, Burma, etc., and

growing at altitudes of over 3,000 ft., four are recorded from Ceylon. Three

of the latter are found in the hills of South India, one, R. ellipticus, also

occurring from the Western Himalayas to Burma. It is significant that in

Ceylon, Rubus moluccanus var. macrocarpus, contrary to the habitat of the

genus descends as low as 1,000 ft. A species of Oreocincla, endemic to the

island, viz., 0. spiloptera, contrary likewise to the habitat of its congeners

elsewhere, descends in its distribution to about the same low level.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

Fig. i. The distribution of the genus Trochalopteron

(Laughing-Thrushes) in the Indian Empire.

Fig. 2. The distribution of the Fairy Blue-bird

[Irena puella) in the Indian Empire.

VITTY & SEABORNE LTD.

LONDON.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

821

in all the Assamese Hills (Dafla, Mikir, Naga, Manipur, Lushai,

Khasia) and the Burmese Hills (Chin and Kachin), Arakan,

Shan States, Karenni, and down to Muleyit Mountain in Tenas-

serim.

Beyond Indian limits the genus extends eastward to Eastern

China and southward to the Malay Peninsula.

In Peninsular India it occurs in the Malabar zone in 2 species

viz. Troclialopteron cachinnans and T. jercloni, the former having

2 (? cinnamomeum extremely doubtful!) and the latter 3 local

races. Its distribution is confined to a section of the Western

Ghats which is almost exactly coincident with the range of the

Nilgiri Tahr. Like the Tahr also, it does not extend to Ceylon.

(See diagram map.)

Genus Oreocincla\\ Mountain Thrushes.

(Inhabitants of hill-forests and sholas, usually at elevations

between 2,000 and 4,000 ft. — often considerably higher in the

Himalayas.)

Represented in Northern India and the Eastern Peninsula by

3 species in 5 races, distributed throughout the Himalayas from

the Afghan frontier on the extreme North-West, over the Hazara

Country, Chamba, Kashmir, Garhwal and Simla Hills, Nepal etc.

to the extreme North-East frontier, and beyond into Yunnan,

Annam and Siam. It also occurs in the Chin and Kachin Hills,

North and South Shan States and in the mountains of Central

Burma to Tenasserim.

In South-West India it is represented by a race of the Hima-

layan 0. dauma, viz., nilgiriensis, which occupies the hill ranges

from the Nilgiris south to Central Travancore at altitudes between

2.000 ft. and the highest hills. In Ceylon a third race of the same

viz. imbricata, inhabits the hills from 3,000 ft. up, while another

species 0. spiloptepa, found from the level of the Plains up to

4.000 ft., is endemic in the island.

Irena puella: The Fairy Bluebird.

(Typically an inhabitant of evergreen jungles and sholas, from

almost the level of the plains to 4,000 ft. or occasionally higher.)

The distribution of this bird within Indian limits, confined to

one species and two races, is significant. In North India and the

Eastern Peninsula the longer winged race sikkimensis is found

in the Himalayas from Sikkim and Bhutan to Eastern Assam;

the whole of Burma (in the wet forests) and south to the Malay

Peninsula (where it intergrades into a third Malayan race cyanea)

and east into Siam, Annam and Cochin China.

With an intervening break of at least 1,200 miles to Sikkim and

of 1,000 miles across the Bay of Bengal to the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands the species makes its appearance (in the typical

race puella) in the Chitteri and possibly adjoining hills of South

Arcot and thence westward, presumably through the Shevaroy Hills,

into the rainy Malabar zone of South-West India. Here it in-

habits the evergreen jungles and sholas of Travancore, Cochin, the

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Nilgiri and adjoining ranges, extending northward to Kanara.1

(See diagram map.)

Genus Arachnothera : Spider-Hunters.

(Birds of tropical and sub-tropical rain forests.)

Represented in the Himalayas and the Eastern Peninsula by 4

species in 5 races distributed from the Sutlej Valley to the ex-

treme south and east of Assam, and through Burma, Tenasserim

and the Malay Peninsula down into Sumatra, Borneo and neigh-

bouring islands. Also Yunnan, Siam, Annam, Cochin-China, etc.

The distribution of one species and race, Arachnothera l. longi-

rostris, is remarkable. It occurs in eastern and southern Assam,

E. Bengal (Tipperah), Chittagong, the hill-tracts from Manipur to

the Chin Hills; Shan States and Burma south to the whole of the

Malay Peninsula, Siam, Annam and Cochin-China.

After a break of over 1,000 miles from its nearest inhabited

area, A. 7. longirostris re-appears in the extreme south-west of the

Indian Peninsula where it ranges from South Travancore, north

through the Nilgiri and Palni Hills to the forests west of Belgaum.

Genus Hemicircus :

(Small woodpeckers inhabiting dense deciduous forest on the

verge of evergreen jungle, i.e., the transition zone between deci-

duous and evergreen.)

Represented by 2 species in 2 races in Assam, Burma, Tenas-

serim, Malay Peninsula, Siam, Cochin-China and Annam.

A third race — Hemicircus canente copdatus — is confined to the

the Malabar zone of S.-W. India.

Genus Macropicus : The Great Black Woodpecker.

(Inhabitants of mixed evergreen and deciduous forest.)

Represented by 1 species in 2 races in Burma from Northern

Shan States to Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra,

Java, Bali, etc. A second species — M. hodgei — is restricted to the

Andaman Islands.

In S.-W. India a third race of the continental species, namely

Macropicus javensis crawfurdi occurs in the Malabar zone from

Travancore to Belgaum.

Genus Vivia ( Picumnus ): Speckled Piculets.

(This genus has several species in South and Central America ( ?)

but only a single — innominatus — in the Old World.)

The above species, in 2 races, ranges in the Himalayas from

Kumaon to Assam, Karen Hills, Shan States, Burma, Tenasserim,

Annam, Siam, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, etc.

1 There is no record of this species in Khandesh and it of course does

not occur there. The most northerly record in this area is for Savantvadi

(near Goa) where a single specimen was obtained by Mr. Crawford’s shikari

(S.F., ix, 65). Butler says that a Mr. Laird obtained it in the ‘forests

south-west of Belgaum’ (S.P., ix, 403) and it is of course common in suitable

forests in North Kanara. The extension to Khandesh is one of the inaccu-

racies entirely typical of the Neiv Fauna.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

Fig. 3. The distribution of the Great Hornbill (. Dichoceros

bicornis) in the Indian Empire.

Fig. 4. The known distribution of the genus Batrachostomus

(Frogmouths) in the Indian Empire.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRA VANCORE AND COCHIN 823

In S.-W. India a third race, Vivia innominatus avunculorum

(Hartert), inhabits the TIavancore, Wynaad and Nilgiri hills and

as far north as the Sirsi Taluka of N. Kanara.

Genus Alcemerops: Bearded Bee-eaters.

(Birds of rain forest country, up to 5,000 ft.)

Represented by 2 species in the lower Himalayas from Dehra

Dun to Eastern and Southern Assam and down through Burma,

Siam, Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, etc.

One of these species — Alcemerops athertoni- — after a break in

its distribution of well over 1,000 miles, occurs again in S.-W.

India (Malabar zone) from Travancore to Belgaum.

Dichoceros bicornis : The Great Indian Hornbill.

(Typically a bird of the tropical and sub -tropical rain forests

of Asia.)

Distributed in the Himalayas and Eastern Peninsula from

Kumaon to Eastern Assam, Chittagong, Burma (wet portions),

S.-W. Siam, Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, etc.

Occurs in S.-W. India in the Malabar zone, separated from

the rest of its range by at least 1,000 miles of intervening country.

(See diagram map.)

Genus Hirundapus : The Spine-tail Swifts.

(Residents of rain-forest country.)

Represented by 2 species in 3 races over the Himalayas from

the Hazara country to the extreme N.-E. Frontier; hills of Assam,

Burma, Malay States and Cochin-China. The genus extends

farther to Java and neighbouring islands.

Hirundapus giganteus indicus also occurs in the Malabar zone,

an area separated from the rest of its range by over 1,000 miles.

Lyncornis cerviniceps : The Great Eared Nightjar.

(Birds of the lower hill forests, most commonly below 3,000 ft.)

Represented by the typical race L. c. cerviniceps in Eastern

Bengal and Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula and S.-W. Siam.

Various geographical races of this species (or probably a second

al^o) are found right up to New Guinea.

A race of L. cerviniceps , viz., bourdilloni, is confined to South

and Central Travancore only.

Genus B atrachostomus : The Erogmouth.

(Closely allied to the Australian genus Podargus which is

found over the greater part of the Australasian region. Birds of

deep evergreen forest.)

Represented by 2 species in the Eastern Himalayas from

Sikkim to the N.-E. Frontier; Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula,

Peninsular Siam, Java, Borneo, etc.

A third species — B atrachostomus moniliger — is common to

Ceylon and the Malabar zone. (See diagram map.)

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Genus Huliua : Eagle Owl.

(Dwellers of heavy jungle.)

Represented by 2 species in the Himalayas from Kumaon to

Eastern Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,

Java, Borneo, etc.

One of the above species — Huhua nipalensis — also occurs in the

forests of the Malabar zone from the Nilgiris through Travan-

core to the hills of Ceylon.

Genus Baza :

(Birds of deep well- watered forests. Found in Africa, Mada-

gascar, the Oriental Region to Australia.)

1. Baza leuphotes : The Black-crested Baza.

Represented by 2 races from the Nepal Terai to Eastern

Assam, Burma, Siam, Indo-China and N. Malay Peninsula.

One of the above — Baza leuphotes leuphotes — is also found in

Travancore and Ceylon.

2. Baza jerdoni: Jerdon’s Baza.

Represented by the typical race jerdoni from Sikkim to Eastern

Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.

A second race — Baza jerdoni ceylonensis — occurs in the Mala-

bar zone and Ceylon.

Besides the above, numerous other examples from almost

every endemic family could be cited which exhibit the same dis-

tributional peculiarities in a greater or lesser degree. Some of

these are : Mieroscelis, Eurystomus , Alcedo meninting , Geyx tridac-

tylus, Sauropatis, Anthracoceros, Collocalia, Phodilus badius,

Ninox scutulata, Ictinaetus, Spizaetus , Accipiter virgatus, Ducula

badia, Muscadivora, Chalcophaps, Gorsakius.

To the question of the origin of these isolated South Indian

and Ceylonese colonies we shall revert later. In the meantime let

us first consider, one by one, the factors that seem most impor-

tant in giving rise to and maintaining the parallel environmental

conditions which conduce to the existence of so many specialised

forms in such widely sundered areas.

Geology.

Some general remarks on the Geology of India seem called for

in order to convey a proper idea of the physical features and their

resultant effect upon the meteorology of the country, particularly

of the tracts here concerned.

Peninsular India is an example of a solid land mass which

has neither been folded nor disturbed since the earliest geological

times. South of the Gangetic ‘Valley’ and of the Vindhyan

Range, the country, except for some places near the coast-line,

has not been under the sea. Its orographical features therefore,

are merely the outcome of differential erosion. The square-cut,

deep-sided hills of the Deccan proper, composed of horizontal

layers of lava flows, are of what is known as the ‘relict’ type,

caused by the toning down of intervening portions of a once

continuous plateau by long exposure to the weather. The

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 825

shallow open valleys, with rivers near their base level of erosion,

and the gently undulating plains are all the result of this

process.

In contrast with this stable land mass of the Peninsula proper,

the extra-peninsular area, i.e. , the land lying to the west, north

and east of the Indo-Ganegtic alluvial plain (viz., Sind, Baluchis-

tan, the Himalayan Mountain belt, North Assam and Burma) pro-

vides abundant evidence of repeated submergence beneath the

ocean, marine fossils being in some cases found as high up as

20,000 ft. above sea level. The Himalayas are the result of the

folding of the Earth’s crust and its elevation due to> pressure from

the north, during the latest geological period.

After the Palaeozoic era, and during the secondary stage of

elevation, while ocean currents swept from the Persian Gulf to

the Aravalli Hills ( the oldest of all Indian physical features), the

rock area of the Peninsula extended over Assam and the Eastern

Himalayas, while Burma, the North-West Himalayas and the up-

lands beyond the Indus were still submarine or undergoing alter-

nations of elevation and depression. The North-West Himalayas,

Tibet and Burma were gradually upraised and fashioned during

the epoch at the close of the Cretaceous period; but there is evi-

dence to show that Burma is a much more recent geographical

feature than the North-West Himalayas which were formidable

mountains even in Pliocene ages. The Andamans and Nicobars

have been isolated from the Arakan coast by submergence at a

probably recent date.

Geological science inclines to the opinion that the elevation of

the Western Ghats to present altitudes was comparatively recent.

The steep-sided narrow valleys where the streams are still cutting

their way back to their sources and gradually working their beds

down to a permanent level, appear to be in the same stage of

development as those of the extra-peninsular region. One result

of this process of evolution has been that nearly all the great

rivers of South India take their rise in the Western Ghats and

flow across the continent to the Bay of Bengal. The Nerbadda

and Tapti alone cut their way in deep channels westward, and

there are indications further south that a great third river may

once have found its way to the Indian Ocean across the continent

through the Palghat Gap. The inference drawn by geologists from

the general distribution of the hydrographical features of India

seems to be that the peninsula as we now know it, is but the

eastern half of a far wider land area of which the main water-

parting was nearly if not absolutely coincident with that of the

Western Ghats, and that the rivers flowing westward therefrom

have disappeared with the land which they intersected.

The geological history of Travancore is the same as that of the

rest of the Madras Presidency and the greater part of Ceylon.

This is also the case with Tenasserim, most of the rocks found

there being similar to those met with in Travancore and the

Madras Presidency.

Investigations in other parts of the Globe, viz., Africa, Mada-

gascar, Australia, and even South America, have brought to light

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

an exactly parallel group of continental formations exhibiting

much the same physical as well as organic characters (Gondwana

System). It is argued from many palaeontological discoveries in

the Cretaceous Systems of Africa and India- that an unbroken land

connection existed between these regions, across what is now the

Indian Ocean, in a large southern continent which extended from

West Africa to Ceylon and South India and possibly united within

its boundaries the Malay Archipelago and Australia as well.

The presence of such terrestrial mammals as the Lemuridae in

the Indo-Malayan Region on the one hand and in Madagascar on

the other, seems difficult to account for in any other way, and is

generally cited as one of the proofs for the existence of a land

connection sufficiently continuous to bring about the present pecu-

liarities of distribution. It is postulated that the intervening land

mass has since subsided under the ocean, the submerged Indo-

African continent being termed Lemuria.

There is also a certain amount of typically Indian element in

the avifauna of Madagascar which seems to have been severed

from Africa even in the early Tertiary epoch. Sedentary forms

such as Copsychus, Microscelis and Ninox may be considered as

undoubted examples. In Mauritius the incursions of the Indian

avifauna appear to be Collocalia, and Palaeornis ( Psittacula )

while in the island of Reunion, the parrot Mascarinus possesses

undoubted affinity to our Indian Psittacula. The presence of

all these forms lends further support to the theory of the Lost

Continent.

The bird-life of Africa is now cut off from that of India by

the arid belt of North Africa which stretches across Arabia and

Baluchistan to Sind and Rajputana. There is overwhelming evi-

dence that both these regions were once connected by a forest belt

which permitted an exchange of forms. Presumably Africa got

the following in this manner: Bucerotidae, Eurylaemidae, Treron-

idae and the genera Palaeornis ( Psittacula ) and Pitta, furnishing

in return Indicator and Salpornis (13, p. 656).

It was in the early Tertiary or the end of the Cretaceous period

that Gondwanaland (which included Lemuria), the most prominent

feature of the Earth’s Mesozoic geography, finally broke up and

the Peninsula of India acquired its present restricted form. In-

cidental to this change a profound redistribution of land and sea

took place in the Southern Hemisphere. Few geographical changes

of any magnitude have occurred since these events and the trian-

gular outline of South India acquired then has not been altered

since to any material extent.

While there is little in the geological history of the Malabar

zone on the one hand and the areas to which its fauna so closely

approximates on the other to suggest any direct influence of this

factor in the existence of such convergence, yet it is undoubtedly

the geological movements and evolution that are responsible for

producing physical features which, by regulating meteorological

conditions, have produced parallel environments adapted to the

existence^ of peculiar and parallel forms of life in these widely

sundered areas.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

Map to illustrate the strike of the S.W. Monsoon currents in the Indian Empire.

HHH ORNITHOLOGY of TRAVANCORE and cochin

82?

Meteorology.

The physical and geographical features of India are of great

importance in so far as they modify more or less considerably

the lower air movement, and hence the distribution of tempera-

ture, humidity and rainfall.

Its northern districts are more excessive in climate than the

southern because they are broader expanses of land, and the western

side of the Peninsula is more equable than the eastern because

it is much more humid. The great extent and elevation of the

high land in South Ceylon powerfully influences the meteorology

of the whole island.

For our purpose it will suffice to consider only the conditions

that produce the excessive humidity and heavy rainfall common to

the tracts under discussion, for as is well known, the principal

factor which regulates vegetation is rainfall, the quantity and dis-

tribution of which, controlled by the physiographical characters of

the locality, decide to a great extent the nature of its most im-

portant plant formations. Analysis shows that it is the similarity

of the physical features of the Malabar zone and of S.-W. Ceylon

on the one hand, and those of the Eastern Himalayas, Assam,

Burma, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago on the

other that is primarily responsible for producing more or less

parallel conditions of climate.

By far the greatest amount of rainfall is precipitated during

the South-West Monsoon. The heated atmosphere over the Indian

land mass and beyond in Central Asia ascends during the hot

season giving rise to a low pressure area which is rapidly filled by

oceanic air currents from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal,

of great volume and elevation and heavily charged with aqueous

vapour. One of the main causes that determine the distribution

of rainfall during the season of the South-West Monsoon (May tq

September) is ascensional movement due to forced ascent across

natural barriers. Such forced ascent across or against hill-ranges

into the cooler and higher atmospheric strata enveloping the

heights results in condensation of the moisture-laden vapour and

produces heavy rainfall in (a) Malabar, the Konkan and Gujerat

(?); ( b ) Ceylon; (c) Tenasserim and Arakan; ( d ) the Assam Hills

and Sylhet, the lower Himalayas and submontane districts, more

especially in the eastern half. The portion of the Himalayas west

of about Sikkim is not exposed to the full burst of the annual

monsoon currents. The Bay current advances towards them, but

is deflected, and though there is much ascensional movement, it

is not forced ascent accompanying movement across the line of

hills. Hence the distribution of the rainfall here does not follow

the same law as in the Western Ghats or the Assam Hills, neither

is it on the whole so heavy.

The North-East Monsoon (November to January) which pro-

duces rainfall of considerably less extent, also reacts to the hill

ranges of Assam, Burma, Ceylon and South India in the same

way. It is caused by the high-pressure system which develops in

Central Asia at this season and the consequent outflow of the cooled

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

air towards the Equator. Travelling over vast spaces of dry land

it is not charged with much moisture. Such rain as falls at this

period in the North-Eastern parts of India is mainly the result of

the driving back against the mountain barriers of the moisture-

laden winds of the South-West Monsoon that have escaped undis-

charged. A certain amount of moisture is collected by the winds

in travelling over the Bay of Bengal, and the winter rains in the

Southern part of the Peninsula are due to this. On the Pfdni,

Nilgiri, Annemalai and other Travancore and Cochin Hills the

amounts registered during the months from October to December

are about two-thirds of the fall received during the last 2 months

(August and September) of the South-West Monsoon.

We find, therefore, that climatologically the Malabar zone,

Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim, parts of Burma, the

Eastern Himalayas and Assam present very similar features as

regards the Monsoons especially the South-West which is by far

the more important of the two. On account of the similarity of

physical features and relative geographical position, the South-

West Monsoon currents strike the seaward faces of all their hills

directly and all these areas consequently receive heavy rainfall at

that period. (See diagram map.)

Vegetation.

The distribution of a flora depends chiefly on geographical and

climatal features, especially rainfall and humidity. Plant forma-

tions, besides, are also influenced by aspect, by the composition

of the soil and by the depth of the permanent sub-soil water

supply, all of which influences account for the appearance of

species (covering it may be large areas) in zones generally deemed

unsuitable to their growth.

In the previous section it was seen how similarity in physical

features and geographical situation has combined to influence the

main factors in the meteorology of the widely separated areas

under consideration, and to give rise to the moist and humid con-

ditions common to all of them. It now remains to analyse some

of the more outstanding features in the vegetation of these areas

to see whether, and how far, the similarity in climate has resulted

in discontinuous but parallel distribution of plant formations and

associations.

The abrupt western face of Malabar, especially towards the

south, is clothed with a luxuriant forest vegetation in which there

is a marked preponderance of Malayan types over those of the

adjoining Deccan area. Travancore and Cochin, isolated by natu-

ral barriers, present a remarkable similarity to Ceylon in position

and many features of topography, climate and vegetation. The

botanical featues of the island, as may be expected, coincide with

its physical. The moist mountainous southern and south-western

districts have a flora of the Malabar type though showing even

more Malayan affinities, and the hot dry northern districts one of

the Coromandel type. It may be mentioned here that there is a

marked resemblance between the northern districts of Ceylon and

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

829

those of Madras east of the Malabar Ghats (viz. Madura and Tinne-

velly) on the one hand, and Egypt on the other. The umbrella-

shaped Acacia planifrons , confined in India to the above districts,

is common to both these regions while the prevalence of Gocculus

Leaeba and Cap paris aphylla, the production of fine cotton and the

best Senna ( Cassia obovata and C> angustifolia) enhances the simi-

larity.

Though tropical Asia and Africa are now separated by a vast

expanse of ocean, there is a striking similarity in their vegetation,

both in the annual forms that spring up during the rainy season

and in the families and genera of trees and shrubs, e.g., Capparis,

Grewia, Sterculiaceae, Acacia, Rubiaceae , etc.

Densely wooded gorges known as Sholas, similar to those of

the Nilgiris, occur in the Annemalai, Palni and other ranges of

the Malabar Ghats south to Travancore and also in the highlands

of Ceylon. These sheltered and wooded dells, which are a feature

of the Khasia and other Assam and Burma hills as well, possess a

vegetation which closely resembles that of similar spots in the

Eastern Archipelago and contain many representatives of the Malay-

an flora such as Ternstrcemiacece, Rhododendron arboreum,

Vaccinia , Gaultheria, Symplocos, Michelia, Goughia and Gom-

pliandra which seem equally frequent at analogous elevations.

Notwithstanding the enormous precipitation and great humidity

the upper parts of the Nilgiris, Travancore-Cochin and other South

Indian hills, as well as those of South-West Ceylon, are charac-

terized by the presence of expanses of open undulating grassland,

generally bare of trees. This curious anomaly is due partly to

the nature of the surface and the free drainage, but mainly to

the removal of the soil by the heavy rains and to the furious winds

which sweep over the level tops of the hills. It is a feature that

is also repeated in the Khasia and other hills of Assam.

The most interesting feature of the Nilgiri flora as a whole

and that of the Malabar Ghats and the Ceylon hills, is its affinity

with the cool regions of the far distant Khasi, Manipur, Naga and

other hills of Assam and North Burma. Many trees and shrubs

are common to these two localities, and most of them to the

temperate Eastern Himalayas as well. The herbaceous plants are

particularly numerous. Hooker and Thomson (7, p. 104) remark:

‘Constantly during our examination of the temperate as well as

the tropical plants of the Nilgiri, Khasia, Ceylon and the Hima-

laya, we find them identical in species with Javanese mountain

plants. . .’ ‘Besides Gaultheria nummularia found in the Javanese

mountains but extending from N.-W. Himalayas along the wjiole

Himalayan range and in the Khasia Mountains; also probably in

the mountains of the Malay Peninsula and of Sumatra (over

3,000 miles), there are many other Java plants spread over the

hilly districts of India and Ceylon.’

Enough has been said to show that the great similarity in the

areas under consideration (namely Malabar zone, Ceylon, the

Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra, Java, Borneo and probably farther east) though often

widely separated, is not merely a haphazard circumstance but

6

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

based upon an obvious and demonstrable concatenation of ecological

conditions brought about by analogous natural causes. It is not

surprising therefore, that scrutinized further, the links in this sym-

biotic chain should be found to be equally well-forged. The simi-

larity of physical features accounts for more or less identical

climatic conditions, which in turn are responsible for parallelisms

in the vegetation. Similarity in plant-life conduces to a similarity

in the insect forms dependent upon it,, while these again have

similar hosts predatory on them, and so on through divers rami-

fications ad infinitum.

It has hitherto been believed that the distribution of bird-life

was controlled directly by climatic conditions, but we now begin

to realize that it is not so much the bird itself but its most im-

portant vegetable or animal food that is dependent upon such con-

ditions. The distribution for instance of the kingfisher Alcedo

atthis on its northern boundary is controlled by the winter isotherm

which precludes the possibility of its obtaining fish food in the

frozen rivers and streams of Northern Siberia. We also realise

now that many species of birds are wholly dependent for their dis-

tribution upon the distribution of particular plant-formations and

animal associations.

While it is clear that the existence of homogeneous animate

forms in widely sundered areas is explainable by a careful scrutiny

of analogous natural conditions, the origin of their presence in such

isolated colonies as those in Travancore-Cochin and Ceylon on the

one hand and in the Eastern Himalayas, Assam and Burma hills

or Tenasserim on the other must be sought directly in the geolo-

gical history of the Earth.

Origin of Discontinuous Parallel Distribution.

Hooker and Thomson (7, p. 37) are of opinion that ‘the majo-

rity of the many plants common to the Himalayas and Java,

migrated over continuous intervening land which has been broken

up by geological causes, chiefly subsidence; just as the partial

subsidence of Java itself would effect a further dismemberment

of the area now continuously peopled with plants, and which

would result in a cluster of islets having a vegetation in common.

Extending this idea of submergence and emergence of land, one

island may at different epochs have been continuous with different

continents from all of which it may have received immigrants.’

They do not deny the active agency of wind and animals in aiding

distribution and also of oceanic currents to a limited extent, but

between some of the present-day isolated colonies the distances are

so great that the above seems to be the more plausible, and cer-

tainly the more wholesale, explanation.

Meinertzhagen (9) is also of the opinion that the present-day

patchy distribution of the genus Rhododendron in such widely

separated areas as the Himalayas, the hills of Ceylon and Malabar,

the Malay Archipelago and Queensland can be satisfactorily ac-

counted for only on the assumption that at one time its distri-

bution was more or less continuous (possibly in distributional waves)

to the limits of its present range. The same explanation would

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

831

also hold in the case of the genus Bubus which, as I have suggest-

ed above is more or less coincident in its range with Trochaloy -

teron.

As regards animals such as the Nilgiri Tahr and Marten among

Mammals and the genera Garrulax and Trochaloyteron among

Birds, and indeed all the peculiar rain-forest forms above named,

as well as the forms common to Africa, Madagascar, India, Malay

Peninsula and Archipelago and elsewhere, the origin of their pre-

sent-day colonies seems most satisfactorily explainable only by the

theory (based on good geological and palaeontological evidence) of

their being relic colonies of a former extensive and continuous dis-

tribution, the intervening population having disappeared owing to

adverse competition either climatic or physical.

Summary.

1. Geological action has produced similar physical features in

the widely separated areas under reference.

2. Owing to the similarity of their relief and geographical

position relative to the strike of the South-West Monsoon currents,

they are all areas of heavy rainfall and great humidity.

3. The homogeneous nature of the flora which — through subsi-

diary ramifications such as the attendant insect-life and other

symbiotic inter-connections — must be considered the final deter-

mining factor, accounts for the homogeneous nature of the avi-

fauna resident therein.

Bibliography.

1. Baker, E. C. Stuart, Fauna of British India, Birds (2nd edition), vols.

i-viii, London (July 1922- September 1930).

2. Bartholomew, J. G. , Meteorological Atlas.

3. Blanford, W. T., Fauna of British India, Mammals, London (1888).

4. Eliot, Sir John, Climatological Atlas of India (Government of India

publication , 1906) .

5. Hesse, B., Tiergeographie auf okologischer Grundlage, Jena (1924).

6. Hooker, Sir Joseph, A Sketch of the Flora of British India (1906).

7. Hooker, J. D., & Thomson, Thomas, Introductory Essay to the Flora

Indica, London (1855).

8. Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908 edition).

9. Meinertzhagen, B., Some Biological Problems connected with the Hima-

laya, ‘Ibis’, July 1928.

10. Pearson, B. S., & Brown, H. P., Commercial Timbers of India, Intro-

duction, Calcutta (1932).

11. Bensch, B., Das Princip geogr aphis cher Rassenkreise und das Problem

der Artbildung, Berlin (1929).

12. Bensch, B., Der Emfluss Tropenklimas auf den Vogel; Proc. VII In-

ternational Ornithological Coyigress, Amsterdam (1930).

13. Stresemann,E., Thilo Krumbach Handbuch der Zoologie, Aves, Parts

I-VIII, Berlin (1927-1934).

14. Troup, B. S., Sylviculture of hidian Trees, Introduction, Oxford (1921).

15. Wadia, D. N., Geology of India, Oxford University Press (1919).

16. Wallace, A. B. , Geographical Distribution of Animals, 2 vols., London

(1876).

Itinerary and Ecological Data of Areas Worked.

In the following pages I have been at special pains to record

as accurately as possible the topography and ecological features of

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVli

the areas worked by the Surveys, the rough data for which were

actually obtained on the spot. This necessitated the collection of

a large number of characteristic plant specimens and those that

appeared in any way to influence or be influenced by the local

bird-life, for the identification of which material I am indebted to

Mr. C. McCann of the Bombay Natural History Society and Mr.

K. Biswas of the Calcutta Herbarium.

With the universal recognition of geographical variations and

their crystallization into local races or sub-species, coupled with

the refreshing tendency in recent years towards breadth in the

handling of biological problems, it is obvious that greater precision

than heretofore in statements concerning the distribution of

animal-life has not only become increasingly desirable but a posi-

tive necessity if the utmost scientific value is to be extracted

from records and specimens. When working such a physically

complex region as Travancore-Cochin it becomes evident how im-

portant is the study of ecology, i.e., of the connection between

organisms and their animate and inanimate environment, and how

misleading the use of loose generalisations in describing the distri-

bution of animal forms. To one unacquainted with the divers

aspects of relief and vegetation obtaining within such a compara-

tively small tract of country the occurrence, apparently side by

side, of two such forms as Dichoceros bicornis — essentially a bird

of tropical and sub-tropical evergreen forests — and of, say, Eremop-

terix grisea — usually associated with barren wastes — would seem

anomalous. Instances of this kind of incongruity are for ever ob-

truding themselves on the critical student throughout the New

Fauna volumes. Loose statements like ‘the whole of Burma’,

‘Assam’, ‘Ceylon’ or ‘Travancore’ are there common, and when

applied to such specialised and narrowly restricted forms as the

above, without any relative ecological data, they only mean con-

fusion.

Careful and rational field-work on species in their natural en-

vironment is the sine qua non for the study of Bird Ecology, which

is clearly a subject that can best be taken up by enthusiasts

resident in the country. It is a virgin field and every student

with an observant eye and an enquiring mind can make some con-

tribution to the study, howsoever small and seemingly insigni-

ficant. A great many biological puzzles await solution by inten-

sive ecological study and it is a line of research that may now be

recommended to workers in India as being of far greater impor-

tance and potentialities than the mere collection and labelling of

skins.

Barring restricted areas and particular groups which still

require careful collecting and working out, we can now claim to

have a sufficiency of dead ornithological material from India in

the great museums of the world to satisfy the needs of even an

exacting taxonomist. Most bird-lovers in this country possess

neither the inclination, training nor facilities for making any sub-

stantial additions to our knowledge of systematics. Speaking

generally, therefore, Indian systematic ornithology is best left in

the hands of the specialist or museum worker who has the neces-

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A Cardamom Plantation (Santhanpara)

A Favourite Bird Haunt.

A Panorama of the Cardamom Hills, Santhanpara.

Photos

A uthor

PLATE

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Photos A uthor

“ Eeta ” ( Ochlandra travancorica) , facies of the jungle at Typical moist evergreen forest, Thattakad, where the only

Thattakad. 2 specimens of Batrachostomus moniliger were obtained.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

833

sary material and facilities at his command. This is not by way

of disparagement to workers in India; far from it. But the point

must be stressed that workers in India are in a position to con-

tribute to the solution of the many problems in a different, but

by no means less important, way, i.e., by intensive inductive and

deductive field observation of a rational kind, an investigation

denied to the musem worker abroad. My plea therefore is merely

for division of labour.

I hope to be able in a subsequent paper to make some sugges-

tions which may help to obviate the existing generalisations in

distributional, terminology, so often misleading. The first desidera-

tum is to classify and define different biotopes and facies such as

Evergreen Forest, Sandy Desert, etc. on the strength of easily

recognisable characters. Isozoic tracts or units inhabited by simi-

lar forms of life (such as are dealt with in this paper) might be

appropriately named after their most salient features, vegetable or

animal, and the distribution of animal forms expressed in terms of

these.

In the course of this paper I have frequently made use of the

terms Biotope and Facies in describing the habitat of birds. The

latter differs from the former in the same way as race from species

i.e. a Biotope may be split up into several Facies. Just as

Species rise into Genera, and these in turn into Families, Sub-

orders and Orders, so can Biotopes be arranged according to their

affinities into higher groups and these again into still higher units.

Some excellent suggestions are given by Hesse in his Tiergeo-

graphie (5) .

Travancore State.

1. Maraiyur, alt. ca. 3,500' — 3-15 January, 1933.

In North Travancore, ca. 10° 17' N. x 77°10' E., 11 miles south of the

frontier station of Chinnar.

A valley among high hills of the Annemalai range, which here rise to

over 8,000 ft. There is extensive paddy cultivation throughout the length

and breadth of this valley, which, on account of its hilly nature, has to be

terraced into small fields of irregular shape, coincident with the contours of

the slopes. Paddy is also cultivated higher up in the hills in terraced fields.

One of such hillmen’s settlements is Kudakkadu, about 4 miles from Marai-

yur and at about 4,000 ft. elevation.

Intersecting these terraced fields are numerous hill nullahs of which the

perennial ones supply the irrigation for them. The sides of these nullahs,

especially higher up, are heavily overgrown with bushes and scrub of every

description in which the prickly wild ‘Kaspberry’ ( Rubus ellipticus Smith)

predominates, often rendering the growth impenetrable. The larger perennial

nullahs have boulder-strewn beds and are bordered by strips of varying width

of evergreen jungle.

Immediately surrounding the little village and camp shed, the country is

deciduous scrub-and-bush where Lantana predominates. Zizyphus oenoplia

also occurs sporadically. It was only in this little patch that Pycnonotus luteo-

lus was met. In the vicinity are a number of dense Sandalwood Deserves

planted by the Forest Department, this locality being especially suited to

the growth of the plant.

Many of the surrounding hills have their higher slopes and tops of bare

sheet rock with sparse coarse grass and shrubs springing from hollows and

crevices where sufficient soil has accumulated to afford roothold. The hills

up to about 4,000 ft. are clothed in mixed evergreen and deciduous jungle,

alternating with open patches of coarse grass and dwarf Phoenix (jarinifera ?)

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XXXVII

clumps. Lower down, on the slopes rising from the valley, Bamboo (Den-

drocalamus strictus) with culms up to 3 in. in diameter and 30-40 ft. high,

preponderates.

Above 4,000 ft. the bare slopes alternate with patches of evergreen sholas

growing in damp ravines. These sholas are a characteristic feature of the

landscape here as they are elsewhere in the Nilgiris and other South Indian

Hills. They are composed mostly of evergreen trees of comparatively small

size with rounded crowns and have a rich undergrowth in which species of

Strobiianthes are well represented. Among the more characteristic trees are :

Michelia nilagirica, Ternstroemia japonica, Eurya japonica, Gordonia obtusa,

species of Eugenia, Ilex, Meliosma, Euonymus, Symplocos and various

Lauraceae.

The temperature ranges from 56° -78° F. The rainfall averages 58-5 inches

per annum and the locality, except in winter, is notoriously malarious.

2. Munnar, alt. ca. 5,000' — 16-20 January, 1933.

(10° 5' N. X 77°4' E.; ca. 15 miles S.S.W. of Maraiyur.)

The centre of the tea-planting district in the Kanan Devan Hills (the

northernmost section of the High Range) within the concession of the Kanan

Devan Hills Produce Co. Ltd. This concession, about 1,37,000 acres in extent,

has been in existence for about 60 years with the result that the hilly country

for miles around has been cleared of all forest and planted over with tea,

with Grevillea robusta and Erythrina lithosperma for shade. Large patches

have also been planted with a species of Eucalyptus for fuel. With

the absence of forest, there is a marked paucity of bird-life, and such as

there is, is mostly confined to the scrub jungle in ravines and bordering the

streams that run through the tea estates. These scrub patches consist for a

great part of Rubus ellipticus Smith and Eeta Bamboo (Ochlandra travancorica).

Two of the commonest shrubs in these associations are : Trema orientalis

Blume, generally by streams and nullahs, with berries largely sought after by

Turdus, Carpodacus, etc., and Maesa perrottetiana D.C. whose white berries are

a favourite of Trochalopteron, Carpodacus and other birds. Average annual

rainfall 153".

3. Santhanpara, alt. ca. 3,500' — 22-31 January, 1933.

(ca. 15 miles S.S.E. of Munnar; 9°58' N, x 77°13' E.)

In the Cardamom Hills section of the High Range, about 6 miles distant

from the ridge which marks the boundary between Travancore State and

Madura District of Madras. The country here is very hilly. The higher slopes

anj tops of many of the hills are devoid of forest, being clothed with coarse

grass, the bareness being here and there relieved by patches of evergreen shola,

mostly in the ravines. The hills to the N.-E. of the camp-shed are heavily

covered with evergreen forest mostly thinned for cardamom cultivation which

is here practised on an extensive scale. This is ideal bird country; one can

walk long under the canopy of the lofty trees for miles, and the visibility

is as good ara in a park. The forests contain gigantic trees often over 100 ft.

high and of enormous girth, many of them being buttressed. Cullenia

excelsa with its spiny fruit resembling miniature Durian ( Durio zibethinus) is

one of the commonest species, Mesua ferrea being another. Gigantic dammer

trees ( Canarium strictum), with outwardly flaking bark, are frequent. Some of

the other common species are : Vateria indica, Calophyllum tomentosum,

Hopea parviflora and H. Wightiana, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Acrocarpus

fraxinifolius , Artocarpus hirsuta and Hydnocarpus Wightiana. Many species of

Ficus occur, affording sustenance to numerous birds. Bamboos, except

Ochlandra travancorica, are practically absent. The latter is found growing

in dense thickets on the banks of streams, but more plentifully higher up

on the hills about the upper limit of cardamom cultivation (4,500 ft. or so).

In scrub patches on the outskirts of evergreen jungle Rubus ellipticus is plenti-

ful. In association with this are usually found Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

and T. pilosa Roth., Solanum verb as ci folium L., and Polygonum chinense L.

whose slaty black berries are largely eaten by Bulbuls and other birds. Bracken

also grows freely among the scrub. The lower hill-slopes are covered with

dense clumps of coarse elephant grass often over a man’s height, sprinkled

here and there by thin scraggy trees of Grewia villosa Willd. or Phyllanthus

emblica. This facies is generally more or less bare of bird-life; only near

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

835

the tops of the hillocks where the grass is often short (and now burnt) and

interspersed with outcrops of sheet-rock, are there any pipits and larks, albeit

scarce.

On a hill-top above cardamom cultivation, at ca. 5,000 ft. (Kallipara) there

is a small perennial tank in a hollow, about 100 yds. x 50 yds. called Noolam-

kulam. The hill-tops round this place are covered with sparse evergreen forest

with tall straight seedlings often over 7 ft. high, and an undergrowth of

Strobilanthes . A good deal of Eeta Bamboo is also met with here in patches

that are almost impenetrable. The trunks and branches of the forest trees

are heavily covered and hung with moss. The only birds met with here

were Trochalopteron j. fairbanki , Acrocephalus dumetorum, Pellorenum ruficeps

granti and Sitta frontalis.

Around the cardamom store-sheds and coolie-lines which are dotted about

the forest, Bananas grow luxuriantly, their flowers being in regular attendance

and most probably fertilised by Arachnothera longirostris .

The temperature ranged between 56° and 80° F. The average annual

rainfall is 74-2".

4. Thattakad (Thatta = plains, kad = forest), alt. ca. 200' — 2-13 February,

1933.

(ca. 10°7' N. x 76°41' E.; on the left bank of the Periyar Biver.)

The forest which is principally confined to the right bank of the river,

consists in patches of both deciduous and tropical evergreen with frequently a

mixture of the two. The commonest species in the evergreen are Terminalia

paniculata and T. ( chebula ?), Calophyllum tomentosum, Artocarpus and species

of Pterocarpus, Cedrella toona (?) and Mangifera indica. Among these are

often intermixed Teak, Ironwood ( Xylia xylocarpa), Dipterocarpus , Albizzia, etc.

The evergreen undergrowth consists of a good deal of rattan ( Calamus ) and

many prickly species of which Acacia concinna DC and the ‘Incha’ (Acacia

intsia) a sprawling and climbing species with recurved thorns, are perhaps the

most plentiful and troublesome. They also occur abundantly in scrub growth

on the outskirts of forest. Many of the trees in secondary jungle are thickly -

draped and festooned with their tangles. A feature of the evergreen jungle

is the fern-like creeper with longish drooping leaves, Stenochlaena palustre L.

and the wild pepper vines, both of which climb up the tree-trunks to great

heights. The prickly climber Mezoneuron cucullatum W. & A. var. grandis

thickly drapes the trees in secondary evergreen patches here as at Santhanpara.

Its yellow flowers are regularly probed into by Sunbirds, Spider-hunters, White-

eyes and Chloropses.

On the right bank of the river also, there is a series of plantations of

the Forest Department: Teak, Bubber and Bombax. The first is about

6 years old, mostly devoid of undergrowth and poor in bird-life. The rubber

is about 25 years old, but owing to default of the contractor the weeding has

not been done for some years with the result that Lantana, ‘Incha’ and a

host of other species have overrun the place in impenetrable denseness. This

area is the best of the three as regards birds. The Bombax plantation (25 acres)

is only a year old and little more than a forest clearing so far. When the

trees are old enough to flower, this place will become a paradise for the bird-

watcher. In the Bombax clearing may always be seen Hirundo, Indicapus,

Merops, Melittophagus, Coracias, Eurystomus and Dicrurus, while in the Lan-

tana and scrub separating the clearing from the forest are met Acrocephalus

dumetorum, Phragmaticola, Prinia inornata and Franklinia.

In the Government Bubber Plantation and adjoining forest there is a great

deal of Erythrina lithosperma now in flower (with foliage on), which are

visited by innumerable species, especially by hundreds of Lorikeets all day

long but chiefly in the mornings up to 11 o’clock or so. Among the other

visitors the most regular are Parakeets, Sturnia malabarica, Dicruridae , Den-

drocitta vagabunda and D. leucogastra, Arachnothera and Leptocoma.

In the evergreen forest there is a sprinkling of gigantic trees with enormous

straight boles often 70-80 ft. to the first branch. The undergrowth consists

of seedlings with sparse Calamus brakes, lianas, creepers and fallen brushwood.

In places the ground is dank and almost marshy.

On the left bank of the river, upstream, and about J mile distant from

the camp-shed, commences the Palamattam Bubber Estate (about 900 acres)

836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

which stretches along the river almost up to Neriamangalam. It is fairly

well-weeded and is on the whole poor in bird-life except for woodpeckers which

fly about among the tree-trunks. Beyond the rubber belt is paddy cultivation,

flanked by fairly open deciduous jungle which in places degnerates into stony

undulating grassland.

About four miles downstream, on the left bank of the river, open undulating

and stony grassland is met, with sparse deciduous shrubs. The dry nullahs

intersecting the undulations are heavily clothed in scrub. Lantana, Triumfetta,

Acacia incia etc. , intermixed with tall elephant-grass. It is the typical decid-

uous country of many places on the Deccan Plateau and here, for the first

time in Travancore, were also met Mirafra and Saxicoloides , so common in the

Deccan.

Along the banks of the Periyar River, and those of the many small streams

that flow into it, are dense clumps of Eeta ( Ochlandra travancorica) and they

are likewise often lined with ‘Omd’ trees ( Trema orientalis) whose berries

are a great attraction to all frugivorous birds.

The river here for a considerable distance, runs in a succession of shallow

rapids. All along there are numerous diminutive islets in its beds often

merely a couple of smooth rounded moss-covered stones on which clumps of

Cyperaceae grow. On the mud-banks in the middle and at the sides there

also grows much Phyllanthus Lawii (?) or some similar sort of ‘tamarisk’.

No water-birds were seen except kingfishers, Ardeola grayi, Arihinga melano-

gaster and Motacilla madraspatensis which were usually present in small

numbers.

The country hereabouts is stiff with Wild Elephants and bird-collecting

often provided unexpected thrills !

Thattakad principally gets the S.-W. Monsoon, but a few falls of the

N.-E. Monsoon are also received. The average annual rainfall is about 141-5".

On 4 February, the following temperatures were recorded: 6-30 a.m.,

70° F. ; 4 p.m., 90° F. ; 8 p.m., 80° F. The humidity is great.

5. Kottayam alt. ca. 100' — 13-20 February, 1933.

(ca. 9°35' N. x 76°31' E.)

A fairly large town and the district headquarters, surrounded by extensive

cocoanut and paddy cultivation. Canals connect the town on the western side

with the Vembanad Lake, a larger backwater lagoon. The water in this lake

is brackish except for a couple of months during the monsoon when it is

said to be potable. All around the margin of this lake are extensive cocoanut

plantations and paddy cultivation. The paddy lands are below the level of

the lake and the water has to be kept out by laboriously constructed dykes.

A species of Pandanus is largely grown on these dykes or bunds its roots

acting as reinforcement material and helping to hold the mud from being

washed away. The paddy lands are left fallow every alternate year. The

dyke is breached and the water allowed to flow in and completely submerge

the land.

Ploughing in the submerged fields is done by means of buffaloes whose

backs and snouts alone show as little ridges above the surface of the water

while the ploughman walks behind them often immersed to his chest. Two

crops are sown and gathered in quick succession between the end of the

S.-W. Monsoon and its commencement next year.

The bunds or portions of them with the tall grass and Pandanus stand

out like little islets, forming ideal haunts for Acrocephalus stentoreus and

Prinia inornaia and offering favourite nesting sites to Ploceus manyar. The

backwater canals are lined with Cocoanut, Pandanus, Thespesia populnea and

Cerbera odollam trees, the last with white flowers and round green fruit of

the size of tennis balls.

Beyond the paddy-lands and in among the cocoanut groves are little habi-

tations and homesteads surrounded by trees of Areca-nut, Jack-fruit, Cashew,

Mango and Banana. In this facies are to be found such birds as Leucocirca,

Tchitrea, Molpastes, Mynas, Parakeets, Lorikeets, Striated Munias and the

like.

The places visited in Vembanad Lake were: Aleppey, Kumaragam and

Munro Island (Padlramanal). The first is a sea-port and a busy trade centre.

Kumaragam is one vast expanse of cocoanuts and paddy with huts here and

there surrounded by banana and jack. It was here that the first lot of Psitta-

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

837

cula krameri in Travancore was met. Munro Island is a flat oval piece of

land, 8-10 miles west of Kottayam, under paddy and cocoanut. It is cut up

by irrigation channels or trenches for watering the young cocoanuts, whose

banks are in places covered with Pandanus tangles, as are also the edges of

the island itself for the most part. In the paddy-fields here, snipe are

plentiful.

Vembanad Lake has crystal clear water through which the sandy bottom (8-

10 ft. or more) below is clearly visible. It is on the whole a disappointing place

from the ornithological point of view as it presents an open expanse of water

for many miles in every direction with no sandbanks or reed-covered islets.

Except for some gulls and terns and one or two gigantic flocks (10,000 or

more !) of teals — chiefly Garganey, and a few Whistlers — little else was noted.

On the eastern (the land) side of Kottayam there are again extensive

groves of cocoanut, which a few miles inland gradually give place to pepper

cultivation. This in turn changes into rubber plantations interspersed, as at

Urumbikera, with reserved forest areas, mostly deciduous but often intermingled

with evergreen species. The nullahs here are densely lined and overgrown

with Sarcocephalus missionis trees. In the thickets much Lantana and Acacia

incia with sprawling pliant branches and recurved thorns, occurs. The damper

portions of the banks and dank hollows are thickly overgrown with a species

of wild zingiberous plant with tall straight stems knotted like bamboos, the

knots being much swollen. They are known in Malay alam as ‘Channa’.

The rubber plantations extend all the way up to Mundakayam and the

foot of the Peermade hills.

The temperature at Kottayam was as follows: 6-30 a.m., 76-80° F. ; highest

during the day 94° F. The humidity is excessive. The annual rainfall is

124 -6" received principally during the S.-W. Monsoon.

While in the Travellers’ Bungalow at Kottayam, I had a visit from a

local ‘sportsman’, a retired police constable, who having heard that I was

collecting birds, called to book orders. The ‘bag’ he brought along as sample

consisted of battered specimens as follows: 3 Acridotheres tristis, 2 Halcyon

smyrnensis, 1 YEthiopsar fuscus, 1 Oriolus kundoo , 1 O. xanthornus, 2 Therei-

ceryx viridis, 1 Chloropsis jerdoni. The man boasted that he got, and could

get, them in every month of the year — -whether they were breeding or not —

ostensibly for food. He said there were in that locality several other shikaris

like himself who shot everything that came along provided it was large

enough or in sufficient numbers to expend powder and shot on. This is a

practice that the authorities must take immediate notice of and put a stop to.

6. Peermade alt. ca. 3,200' — 20-26 February, 1933.

(ca. 9°34' N. x 77°0' E. About 40 miles due east of Kottayam, in the

High Bange.)

Bare open hills covered with dense clumps of a tall coarse grass. The

hill-tops are often rounded, but some have jagged, precipitous contours. The

ravines and valleys of streams, both down the slopes as well as along the

foot of the hills, are everywhere clothed in patches of evergreen forest. In

these sholas lofty trees of Cullenia excelsa are common. Calamus is a feature

of the undergrowth in such spots, which, throwing out their fine lash-like

‘climbers’ covered with recurved thorns make progress through the jungle

painful and slow. In the damper places, the wild Zingiber (Malayalam :

Channa) is abundant. The open grass hill-tops and slopes are punctuated by

clumps of a dwarf Phoenix. Guava trees are plentiful for miles around the

town, and the scrub in the drier places is composed principally of Lantana.

In the environs of Peermade, especially to the north, are numerous tea plant-

ations. Little patches of cardamom cultivation also occur. The Arudai stream

(Arudai being the original name lof Peermade) winds through the town,

running through deep-cut ravines.

Rubus absent, so also Trochalopteron.

The temperature at 6-30 a.m. was about 70° F., the highest during the day

being 78°. The average annual rainfall is about 200".

7. Kumili, alt. ca. 3,000 ft. — 26 February-8 March, 1933.

(ca. 9°37' N. x 77°10' E. About 14 miles east of Peermade.)

The country to the south and in the environs of Periyar Lake consists

largely of deciduous forest which is interlarded here and there with patches

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

of evergreen. The former is comprised principally of Teak, Phyllanthus

emblica, Termmalia pamculata (very common), Carey a arbor ea and sparse

bushes of a species of Grewia and of Helicteres isora. The country is undulat-

ing with many hills and ravines and much flat grassland in between. Every-

where the undergrowth in the deciduous forest consists of dense clumps of

tall elephant-grass often over 7 ft. high with, at intervals, dwarf clumps of

a wild Phoenix and straggly sprawling bushes of Zizyphus rugosa.

Mortality among birds must be heavy when these large tracts of grassland

are burnt, as at this season (March), both in the species which roost in the

grass clumps and bushes as well as in those which nest in tree-holes at moderate

heights, such as Parus etc. and of course in all ground-birds like Bush-and

Bustard-Quails. These fires must be especially destructive during night when

fanned by a strong breeze, and when escape for the birds is impossible.

Gigantic Bombax malabaricum and Calophyllum tomentosum trees are com-

mon in the evergreen patches where they tower above the surrounding

vegetation. The former are frequently 6 ft. or more in diameter at 10 ft.

height, and practically uniform in girth up to the first branch at 50-70 ft.

The Periyar Lake has a maximum level of 2,861 ft. above mean sea-level.

It is formed by the damming up of the Periyar River near its source. The

dense evergreen forest that once covered the ravines and valleys has become

submerged and at present only the gaunt trunks of the forest giants stand

out of the water. This lake supplies irrigation to the rice-fields of the plains

of Madura District beyond the eastern confines of Travancore. Owing to the

perennial water supply and the cover afforded by the jungles of the catchment

area, the environs of the lake are full of Bison, Elephants and other forms of

wild life, and have lately been selected by the Travancore Government for a

Game Sanctuary.

The lake itself is an absolute washout as far as birds are concerned. With

the exception of a few Anhinga, Halcyon smyrnensis and Haliastur indus near

the head-works, there is nothing, the water being mostly deep with steep

shelving banks.

The country north of the Periyar Lake, towards Wundamet or Vandamettu

is all open, bare grassy hills with an occasional sprinkling of light scraggy

deciduous species of trees such as Phyllanthus emblica, Buchanania latifolia and

Dalbergia latifolia with some Teak here and there. In the ravines on the

hillsides or in between them, are small patches of evergreen shola, sometimes

only half an acre or less in extent, with luxuriant undergrowth of the wild

zingiberous plant ( Channa ) and rattan (Calamus). In these isolated patches

were met pairs or a few each of Pomatorhinus , Pellorneum, Rhopocichla, Culi-

cicapa, Hypothymis, I ole, Irena and Ducula cuprea.

The bottom valleys among the grass hills (at present all burnt out) are

moist and often swampy, with dense growth of finer grass of a different species,

tangled and spongy to the tread, and sometimes over 3 ft. high. In these

patches Schoenicola was not uncommon though singly and scattered, also Prinia

socialis. These marshy patches with their fresh green grass, and reeds at

their margins, were the only features to relieve the monotony of the charred

and dreary landscape. Average annual raifall 71-5".

8. Camp Deramalai, ca. 3,000' — 9-13 March, 1933.

(In the Panthalam Hills, ca. 10 miles due south of Kumili across the

Periyar Lake.)

The country between the southern end of the Periyar Lake, i.e., from about

the dam almost to Camp Deramalai, consists of a vast succession of open

grass-topped hills interspersed with patches of evergreen shola in the moist

protected ravines. Evergreen forest commences in the neighbourhood of Dera-

malai and the forest-clad hills and ridges (Panthalam) succeed one another

almost unbroken southwards down to Koni in Central Travancore.

Enormous trees of Canarium strictum, Calophyllum tomentosum, Cullenia

excels a and Vateria indica are prominent, while the many species of lofty

Ficus (now in fruit) attract numerous birds everywhere. The dammer

trees ( C . strictum ) with their peculiar outwardly flaking bark are suggestively

known in Malayalam by a name which means ‘that which a lizard cannot

climb’.

To the south-west of Deramalai the forest extends to Rani over very hilly

country which forms the catchment area of the Pambaiyar River. The tops

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN

839

of many of the evergreen hills in this direction present open, dome-shaped

grass-covered patches with outcrops of sheet rock.

Camp Deramalai is on the northern fringe of the Panthalam Hills. Beyond

Downton Estate (Cardamoms) — where thanks to the hospitality of the genial

proprietor Mr. J. B. Vincent and his sister, we are encamped — to southward

there is practically no human habitation in the forest.

Average annual rainfall ca. 71-5".

9. Rajampara, ca. 1,350' — 15-21 March, 1933.

(ca. 9°22' N. x 76°54' E. About 20 miles W.S.W. of Deramalai on the

western boundary of the Panthalam Hills.)

Hilly country, ridge upon ridge, mostly deciduous forest or open slopes

under tall coarse grass, with patches of evergreen here and there in the ravines.

In the deciduous forest, gigantic trees often over 120 ft. high and 10 ft. girth,

of Calophyllum tomentosum are common, at present leafless and heavily laden

with fruit which is largely eaten by birds such as Thereiceryx, Dendrophasa,

Ducula and many others. Other common species in this facies are Xylia

xylocarpa, Dalbergia latifolia, Careya arborea, Gmelina arborea, Terminalia

paniculata and Bombax malabaricum. Among the undergrowth in deciduous

country, by far the most abundant species is Lantana camara, with Acacia intsia

a close second. Sprawling trees and bushes of Zizyphus rugosa are also com-

mon. Thickly bordering the ravines and anywhere where the hillsides retain

any moisture, i.e., where there is any depth of soil (for the bed-rock is often

denuded and exposed) grows! in great profusion the wild zingiberous plant known

as ‘channa’ already alluded to. Evidences of recent abundance of bamboo are-

noticeable here and there, especially about ravines and nullahs, in the shape

of decaying root-clumps of those that died after flowering, a couple of years

ago. Here and there also are common, usually singly, Cycad palms ( Cycas

circinalis) now mostly leafless with fruit, or sprouting their fern-like leaves.

Also common here is a species like the Asparagus fern.

The evergreen patches contain the usual species, Calamus brakes being

somewhat more prominent among the undergrowth.

Bubber is largely grown in this area, one estate of the Malay alam Plant-

ations, Ltd. alone (Lahai) having a planted acreage of 2,300. The locality

at this season is subject to sudden and terrific cloudbursts of short duration,

but heavy precipitation. On two successive evenings rain fell for about an

hour measuring over 2" each time.

The highest temperature recorded was 90-92° F. ; the lowest 70-72° F.

The annual rainfall averages 139-4", by far the greater part being received

during the S.-W. Monsoon.

10. Tenmalai, alt. ca. 500' — 22-28 March, 1933.

(ca. 8°58' N. x 76°4' E. On the railway line near Ariankavu Pass in

Central Travancore.)

Hilly foothills country with mixed deciduous and evergreen jungle, more

of the latter, the facies being similar to that at Thattakad. Teak, Hopea

parviflora and Bombax malabaricum are plentiful, and there is much Calamus

in the evergreens.

Many of the hillsides present precipitous scarps of rock, and outcrops of

huge boulders occur here and there. The hills in the neighbourhood of Ten-

malai rise to about 2,000 ft. It was only at this camp that Lyncornis was

met with, and a whistling owl (identity problematical) heard for the first time

in Travancore.

The temperature ranged between 80° and 96° F. The average rainfall is

about 115-2" annually.

11. Trivandrum, ca. Rea-level; 29 March-6 April and 16 July-15 August,

1933.

(ca. 8°30' N. x 76°57' E. Capital of Travancore State.)

Low coastal terrain, more or less similar to that about the Konkan coast

near Bombay. Bice cultivation and cocoanuts plentiful; also Palmyra palms

( Borassus flabelliformis). Other familiar features of the vegetation are Thes-

pesia populnea and Calophyllum inophyllum. Paddy crops now (April) standing

in fields bordering tanks, and Weaver Birds ( Ploceus philippinus ) busy nesting.

840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Mr. N. G. Pillai has furnished the following information regarding the

localities in Trivandrum Taluk where he collected between 15 July-15 August.

(a) Trivandrum Beach : 16-7-83, 21-7-33, 1-8-33, 12-8-33.

‘There are two main roads diverging from the Beach and entering

the town, one at the northern end, the other at the southern. On either side

of these roads are planted a good many Casuarina trees. The roads traverse a

long tract of sandy waste, on the extreme west of which is a long line of

houses, mostly fishermen’s huts, and cocoanut plantations. During the rainy

season most of this sandy tract is under water, leaving small islets here and

there. On these can be seen plovers, terns, paddy-birds etc. Among the Casu-

arinas and neighbouring palms, the Swallow-shrike, Boiler, Bee-eater, King-

fisher, Magpie, Bobin, etc., are frequently met with.’

(b) Pattom : 17-7-33, 22-7-33.

‘It is about 3 miles away from the heart of the town (Trivandrum)

with an elevation of ca. 100 ft. Small hillocks covered with laterite pebbles

and bearing tapioca cultivation are quite common here. In between the hillocks

are paddy-fields. These are in blocks separated by bunds, each block being

cultivated separately. In one whole patch of paddy with different plots, some

will be nearing harvest, some just ploughed, while yet others will bear half-

grown plants.’

(c) Pulayanarkotta : 18-7-33, 6-8-33, 11-8-33.

‘This is a small hill, ca. 200 ft., overlooking the Veli Lake, about

5 miles from Trivandrum. The soil is mainly laterite, in some places chalky

and covered with pebbles. The hill is a Casuarina reserve. There is a dense

undergrowth of Ixora, Acacia and other thorny plants. The common birds of

this place are Otocompsa, Molpastes, Glaucidium , Dendrocitta, Acridotheres ,

Leiopicus, Micropternus , Oriolus, Dendroplnasa, etc.’

(d) Thirumaldi : 20-7-33, 24-7-33, 25-7-33, 30-7-33, 6-8-33.

‘This is another small hill about 5 miles east of Trivandrum, the

highest point of which is about 200 ft. It is studded with granite boulders

of various sizes and shapes. The south-eastern side of the hill is covered with

lemon grass ( Andropogon ). Towards evening on 30 July, I saw at this place

about a hundred bulbuls ( Otocompsa ) flying about here and there before retir-

ing to roost.’

(e) Kuttani: 26-7-33, 29-7-33, 10-8-33.

‘This is a piece of hummocky country with small hills varying from

100-200 ft' Most of these bear tapioca, plantain and cocoanut trees, etc.

leaving patches of evergreen forest here and there. One such is the Serpent

Grove alluded to in Ferguson’s paper, about half an acre in extent, adjoining

a paddy-field. Huge trees like Ficus, and Talipot palms ( Caryota mens ) are

seen here. The dense undergrowth of canes, screwpine and a host of climbers

makes the places well-nigh impenetrable. It was here that I came across

Rhopocichla. From a similar patch about a mile from here I got Melitto-

phagus.'

(f) Mdruthdnkuzhi : 27-7-33, 28-7-33, 31-7-33, 2-8-33, 15-8-33.

‘About 3 miles east of Trivandrum. There is a small river — the Killiar

— flowing past this place. A dam is constructed across this river and the

Kochar takes water from this river to a big tank in the Fort. The Kochar

flows oast the foot of a hill covered with cultivation.

(g) Veh': 30-7-33, 13-8-33.

‘There is a small lagoon here which communicates with the sea during

the Monsoon. It is principally sandy country with stunted Cashewnut, Calo-

phyllum inophyllum and other trees. Cocoanut and Palmyra palms are also

very abundant. About a mile east of this place and on one side of the lagoon

is a small grass-covered hill about 100 ft. high, studded with granite boulders.’

(h) Akkiilam : 31-7-33.

‘This is a bit of hilly tract about 3 miles north-west of the town.

Hillocks covered with stunted Ixora are a feature of the place. Lower down

the slopes we get tapioca cultivation followed by trees like Tamarind, Arto-

carpus and Ficus, and still lower down, by paddy fields. The ground is

covered with pebbles of laterite. Larks and Pipits are very common here.

Towards the end of April I had come across a number of Yellow- wattled

Lapwings here, all of which have now disappeared.’

(i) Golf Links: 2-8-33, 7-8-33, 14-8-33.

‘This is a slightly elevated plateau (about 150 ft.) about 3 miles from

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE III.

A Backwater Canal, Kottayam.

Tall grass ( Andropogon ) country on verge of shot a , Santhan-

para, with an unlooked-for thrill in the middle distance !

Photos

A uthor

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE IV.

Typical country aboutCape Comorin with the Ashambu Hills in the background.

Photos

Looking across the “ Gap ” at Aramboli.

A uthor

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRA VANCORE AND COCHIN

84i

Trivandrum. It is an extensive green where Yellow-wattled Lapwings, Larks

and Pipits are found in large numbers. There are trees like Mango, Tamarind,

etc. planted all round the border and here the commoner birds Orioles, Wood-

shrikes, Chloropsis, Magpie Bobins, etc. are met with.

(j) Kovdlam : 8-8-33.

‘About 8 miles south-west of Trivandrum, near the sea. The coast is

formed of rocky cliffs forming a sort of belt between the low lying paddy-fields

on one side and the sea on the other. Small hillocks covered with boulders

may be seen slightly removed from the shore. The ground is covered with

vegetation. I did not come across any sea birds here.’

(k) Cattle Farm : 4-8-33.

‘Slightly wooded country about 8 miles north-east of the town. Similar

in features to Pattom, Akkulam, etc.’

(l) Nettayam : 5-8-33, 9-8-33.

‘About 8 miles east of the town. Hilly country about 200 ft. alt.,

covered with cultivation. Farther to the east, about 12 miles from this place,

the Karamanai Biver meets this chain of hills.’

(m) Poojappura : 5-8-33.

‘ca. 120 ft. Country similar to Pattom. The Karamanai Biver flows

past here. Slightly removed from the river is a large sheet of water, about

10 acres in extent. The Skua, included in my collection, was captured from

this place.’

(n) Mukkunnimalai : 8-8-33.

'This is the highest hill in Trivandrum (ca. 800 ft.). About 5 miles

S.-E. of the town. It is an evergreen forest and the sides of the hill are

covered with a thick undergrowth of shrubs and thorny creepers. Granite

boulders of varying sizes and shapes cover the hillsides. I came across the

Buby-throated Bulbul here.’

The average annual rainfall at Trivandrum is 66 -9".

12. Cape Comorin, ca. Sea-level; 6-14 April, 1933.

(ca. 8° 5' N. x 77° 34' E. The extreme southern point of the Indian

Peninsula.)

Plains country similar to that about Trivandrum, with paddy cultivation

here and there. Tkespesia populnea, Calophyllum inophyllum, Cashew (Ana-

cardium occidentale ) and the umbrella-shaped Acacia planifrons are amongst

the most prominent trees. Boras sus and Cocoanut palms are abundant. ‘Milk-

bush’ and Inga dulcis are largely used for hedges, and Cactus of a peculiar

species, E. antiquorum (?), is plentiful.

Tamarind and Pithecolobium saman, an introduced species, are both very

common and the latter grows to large size. Melia azadirachta also occurs

freely.

The soil is chiefly moorum. A few miles north of the Cape commence

the Ashambu Hills, steep, ragged precipitous and pinnacled peaks and ridges,

mostly bare and rocky, with stunted vegetation, greener and more luxuriant

in the ravines.

The temperature and humidity are about the same as at Trivandrum though

the rainfall is considerably less, the average being about 40" per annum.

13. Arumboli, alt. ca. 250— 15-22 April, 1933.

(ca. 8°15/ N. x 77°15' E. In a gap or pass through the Ashambu Bange,

through which runs the highway from Nagercoil in South Travancore to Tinne-

velly in Madras Presidency.)

The gap at its narrowest is about 2 miles wide. The hills on the northern

and southern side of it are rocky, jagged and often precipitous with ragged

pinnacles and deep clefts. The lower slopes are covered with sparse stunted

vegetation of which the principal species are: Dodonoea viscosa, Euphorbia

neriifolia and E. antiquorum, Opuntia Dillenii and very sprawling and spread-

ing bushes (usually up to about 2 ft. high) of a small leaved thorny Randia (?)

and of Acacia intsia. At the foot of the hills and in the ‘Gap’ there is culti-

vation bordered by scrub jungle consisting of Melia, Babool, etc. with Borassus

palms sprinkled freely, especially along the bunds separating the fields. Acacia

planifrons lends tone to the botanical features. Dense bushes of Lonicera sp.

occur among the scrub of which Phyllanthus reticulatus and Salvadora persica

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVll

(now in fruit and attracting many birds) are also common components. The

rainfall averages 35.3" per annum.

14. Balamore Estate, alt. ca. 2,000' — 23-28 April, 1933.

(ca. 8° 27' N. x 77°23' E. In the Ashambu Hills.)

Evergreen forest interspersed with coarse grassland on many of the hilltops

and slopes. On these are scattered moderate-sized trees of Careya arborea,

Calophyllum Wightianum and sprawling sparse bushes of Zizyphus rugosa.

The surrounding hills, which rise to 6,000 ft. are more precipitous and rocky

with jagged peaks and contours than in North Travancore. In the evergreens

there is a dense and luxuriant undergrowth of rattan (Calamus.) The hills

all over this locality bear traces of abandoned tea and coffee estates, the soil

having proved too poor for them. The areas once cleared for these, are now

overgrown with coarse grass or more commonly with Lantana scrub, the thick-

ness of which must be seen to be believed. About 4 miles to the north as the

crow flies, and at an elevation of about 4,000 ft., is Muthukuzhi Palace,

formerly used by the Maharajas as a hot weather resort. After about 3,000 ft.,

bracken begins to increase. It is extremely abundant higher up where also

appears (between 3,500 and 4,000 ft.) Rubus ellipticus. Patches at this ele-

vation are densely under Eeta ( Ochlandra travancorica) and the facies domi-

nated by these three species seems to be the most suitable for Trochalopteron,

which came into evidence as soon as about 4,000 ft. was reached.

About 4 miles west of Balamore is the Kodayar Lake, formed like the

Pcriyar, by damming up the Kodayar Eiver, and used for irrigation pur-

poses. At the elevation of the Travellers’ Bungalow, 2,000 ft. (situated on

the edge of the Tea Estate), Mango and Jack trees appear to thrive.

Bainfall average: 81-5" per annum.

Cochin State.

15. Kuriarkutti, alt. ca. 1,600' — 12-22 November, 1933.

(ca. 10°25' N. x 76°43' E. In Kodasseri State Forest.)

Forest mixed deciduous and evergreen, more of the latter on the higher

surrounding hills, especially in ravines etc. On the hillsides, where steep and

precipitous, tall coarse grass grows on a denuded rocky soil with outcrops

of sheet rock. In such places Cochlospermum gossypium grows. The forest

round Kuriarkutti is now full of Bambusa aruyidinacea. Forty years ago there

was no bamboo available in this part, so that the Forest Working Plans

Officer reporting on the area mentioned that owing to want of bamboos for

rafts, the logs could not be floated down the Parambikolam Eiver and recom-

mended the building of the existing Forest Tramway. The timber extraction

has been carried on in a very destructive manner and in place of the denuded

forest, bamboo has made its appearance in great density and profusion. Some

of the commoner trees in the forest are Calophyllum (‘Poon’), Hopea parvi-

flora, Xylia xylocarpa, Lagerstroemia parviflora (‘Venteak’). They grow to

magnificent size and quality. Here and there are also sprinkled enormous

trees of Bombax malabaricum.

Creepers of Butea superb a are common in the deciduous-and-bamboo-forest,

festooning the trees and twining up their stems.

Helicteres is or a is a common component of the undergrowth. It is now in

flower and invariably attracts Chloropsis and Sunbirds.

The bottom valleys among the hillocks in the bamboo forest are often open

swampy spaces of varying size, covered with rank grass and other vegetation

and much frequented by Elephants, Gaur and other game.

Men and boys of the aboriginal Kadar tribe scour the country all day long

with bows and pellets killing everything they can. I saw Pycnonotus gularis

and AEgithina tiphia killed in this way. They also wage unceasing war upon

the nests of the Great Hornbill whose young are esteemed a great delicacy.

The average rainfall is 125-130" annually.

16. Wadakkancheri, alt. ca. 400' — 23 November-2 December, 1933.

(ca. 10° 40' N. x 76°15' E.)

Hummocky country, soil mostly laterite. The little hillocks are usually

denuded of soil and littered with loose stones. They are covered with deciduous

forest but in the damp ravines evergreen species occur. Xylia and Calophyllum

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRVANCORE AND COCHIN

843

saplings are common while the undergrowth is mainly of Helicteres is or a.

Lower down bordering the flats or bottom valleys (which are fertile owing to

soil washed down from the hillsides, and in which paddy is extensively grown

— 2 crops a year) are dense thickets of Lantana.

Teak and Dalbergia are fairly plentiful in patches among the deciduous

secondary jungle on the hillocks. On the sides of the hummocks, wherever

the soil permits, are terraced fields of Gram and tapioca {Manioc).

Phyllanthus reticulatus grows commonly among the hedges, and its berries

are largely eaten by Bulbuls, Orioles and other birds. Around the homesteads

Cashew, Jack and Cocoanuts and Plantains are grown.

The localised bird associations or mixed hunting parties commonly met

in this locality, at the edge of forest clearings, consisted chiefly of: Dendro-

citta vagabunda, Parus major, Graucalus macei , Tephrodornis sylvicola, Peri-

crocotus flammeus, Chaptia aenea (very common), Dissemurus paradiseus and

Oriolus kundoo. They invariably had Turdoides or some other ground rummag-

ing species, and woodpeckers for their nucleus.

Loranthus longiflorus largely parasitizes Dalbergia and Cashew trees in

this locality. It was now in flower and attended by the usual visitors, Sun-

birds and Flowerpeckers.

17. Nemmara, alt. ca. 300' — 3-11 December, 1933.

(ca. 10° 35' N. x 76° 37' E. On the southern edge of the Palghat Gap.)

The Nelliampathy Hills commence here. Among the low rocky hillocks

or foothills as they may be called, Nim, Tamarind and Terminalia paniculata

seedlings are common. Lantana and sparse scraggy grass grows everywhere

from accumulations of the soil in fissures and hollows among the rocks. The

lower hills are covered with Teak, Boswellia serrata, Xylia, Dalbergia and

other deciduous species, the undergrowth being composed for the most part

of Helicteres is ora and Acacia intsia. The teak trees in this locality are heavily

parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus, the Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

being noted as the chief, if not sole, mischief maker.

Sparse grass-covered or bare hillocks of sheet-rock are commonly interspersed

among the wooded ones. In the valleys or flats among the hills, paddy grows

luxuriantly and there are also many natural tanks- formed in the hollows

which supply the irrigation to the paddy-fields.

18. Padaslri, alt. ca. 3,000'— -11-22 December, 1933.

(ca. 10° 30' N. x 76°41' E. Nelliampathy Hills.)

This place is close to the Lily Downs mentioned by A. P. Kinloch in his

‘Notes on the Avifauna of the Nelliampathy Hills’ where also will be found

some details of the topography. At 4,000 ft. and above, the hills have mostly

bare tops with sheet-rock and straggly grass, which grows wherever sufficient

soil has accumulated in the fissures and hollows to afford roothold. There are

also steep scarps and precipices which form favourite haunts of the Nilgiri

Tahr. On some of the gentler slopes there is the same tall coarse grass

( Andropogon ) as in the High Kange of Travancore, similarly dotted with clumps

of the dwarf Phoenix. Here and there in the ravines are evergreen sholas.

The country and vegetation are on the whole very reminiscent of Santhanpara

in the Cardamom Hills of Travancore.

The Palghat Gap which is overlooked from the neighbouring hills is a

stretch of flat country about 18 miles broad, dotted over with little hummocks

or mounds of outcrop rock, but mostly under paddy with patches of light

deciduous jungle and groves of Borassus palms.

At Tattamangalam (Chittur) on the Palghat Gap, the average annual rain-

fall is 66" while on the Nelliampathies over 150" are usually registered. The

mean annual rainfall at Ernakulam is 102"; at Trichur 132".

19. Karupadanna, alt. ca. Sea-level — 25-31 December, 1933.

(ca. 10°16' N. x 76°12' E. On the backwaters.)

Typical vegetation and other features the same as at Kottayam.

(To be continued).

A HUNTING TBIP IN THE SUNBEBBUNDS IN 1892.

BY

Vicomte Edmond de Poncins;

(With four plates).

On January 2nd, 1892, I left Calcutta for a trip in the Sunder-

bunds. The area was not very well known at that time, the only

available map was the one by James Ellison (4 miles to 1 inch),

published in 1783 and revised in 1891. On this map the maze of

rivers of the delta was roughly indicated, but there were many

blanks. Islands were shown by numbers, and rivers between them

were often nameless. Some of them changed names on their way

down to the Bay of Bengal. I shall refer to that map because

I have no other and, if the reader wants fuller information, it

will be easy to refer to more modern maps.

My plan was to try and see something of the more or less

legendary rhinoceros which were supposed to dwell somewhere

in this region and, at the same time, to get as much sport as I

could with any available game. Tigers were said to be very nume-

rous, deer and pigs swarming; so little known was that part of

the world, that the unexpected might happen. It was then so

out of the beaten track.

I hired from Kelso and Stewart, at Calcutta, a sort of house-

boat with two small cabins as bed and dining rooms, and with it

a crew of five Bengalis, another smaller boat with three men, as

kitchen boat, and later on, added a small dinghy for shooting. Two

so-called shikaris came with the last boat. I took my private

servant and one or two of the ‘nondescript’ sort. They served as

guides at places which they happened or pretended to know and

were useful sometimes when sending for supplies or information,

but otherwise often perfect nuisances. As I intended to stay a

fairly long time I had to ship about two hundred and fifty gallons

of sweet water. It was a difficult job as only earthem jars were

available. Some broke when just filled up, others during the trip

when I happened to be out. I always thought that the men,

sick of the Sunderbunds after a time, did it on purpose to shorten

our stay there for want of water. I had to send a boat, several

times, to get fresh supplies as the life, if difficult, was intensely

interesting.

The reputation of the Sunderbunds as a health resort stands very

low indeed, and I should not dare to deny it. Nevertheless there

were fifteen of us there for about a month and a half, and nobody

ever got fever. The thermometer stood the whole time between

seventy and ninety-five; the dampness was very trying. Inside my

cabin, every morning, water dripped along the rifle barrels. I had

to clean them every day. Frequently, there was a dense fog in

the morning, the thermometer stood at eighty; while the dripping

dew in the forest made a noise like heavy rain. During the rest

of the day a dead stillness prevailed. More than once, when

paddling up or down the rivers in a narrow dinghy, exposed to

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE I

Sunderbunds, 1892. A native boat under sail carrying firewood

to Calcutta — note the water line.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

Sunderbunds, 1892. Near Issuripore — -Native Boats.

Sunderbunds, 1892. My house-boat.

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS 845

the full glare of the sun in a blinding haze of pervading damp,

I thought that the limit of discomfort had been reached. But

when one had to wait between two walls of glittering mud, with

just enough water to float the boat, until the tide returned to

resume the journey, I concluded that that paddling in the open

was better.

The northern fringe of the Sunderbunds is more less inhabited

and cultivated, but where the forest has the upper hand it is mud,

trees and water. During my whole stay I never saw a clear space

ten yards across. It was a dense forest of stunted trees with

heavy foliage, or of enormous trees overgrown with creepers and

thorny canes and of palms with immense leaves shooting straight

out of the mud along the banks of small rivers. Everywhere roots

sprung up forming a barrier which made walking very trying.

Near the sea, the trees stood like gigantic spiders on roots four

feet clear out of the mud. At spring tides, the whole of the

forest was, for a while, inundated. I dare say there is not a

square foot of dry soil in the great majority of the Sunderbunds.

Landing meant sinking up to the knees in a sloping bank of sticky

mud, the like of which I saw only at the mouth of the Guadal-

quivir. Once on the level under the forest, one had to plod along

in deep mud. There was no grass, no undergrowth, some parts

were covered by very dense tangle of thorny bushes, other parts

were clearer under a canopy of foliage impervious to the sun, but

so close were the trunks that the view was limited to not many

yards.

The best and shortest way to reach the distant parts of the

forest was by making use of the many small rivulets, when broad

enough to take the dinghy. They were generally six feet broad

and several feet deep, flowing between sheerly cut banks covered

by big trees or lined by big screw palms. With the tide coming-

in, it was possible to proceed with it at a fairly rapid rate. The

rising water raised the boat and brought one’s head level with

the top of the banks. Thus it was often possible to get a view

under the vegetation for some distance. It was marvellous to

inspect silently these deep forests without movement, noise, or

exertion, the only thing to do being to keep the boat straight on.

Sometimes it was necessary to land and pull the boat over a

bump of mud or round a too sharp curve. As the boat completely

blocked the bed of the little channel, the water collected rapidly

behind it so that it was quickly raised and shot forward at great

pace. I used to sit in the middle of the boat as low as possible,

with one paddler astride the prow and another astern, their feet

just tipping the water. If anything interesting came in sight it

was possible to get a shot at close range or land for tracking.

When the tide turned it was necessary to come down with it so

as not to be left stranded far away in the forest. The great

drawback was that our movements were controlled by the tides,

which made it impossible to reserve the more comfortable hours of

the day for the work in hand.

The whole of the Sunderbunds is teeming with life of every

sort. I still regret not having been more learned in every branch

of Natural History to make the best of my trip there. Forty-

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

two years ago knowledge of tlie subject was yet, to a certain

extent, in its infancy. What had been printed was scarce and

difficult to get. We were explorers.

I joined my boats, sent ahead from Calcutta, at Mutlah and

Canning, and began travelling with the tide. I went east to

Bampurah, then to Sahabkhali and the Jaboona River. There

were some cultivated rice fields on the way. A few natives of

rather wretched physique took a great interest in my boats and

kept following them on the bank. They were handling quantities

of a fairly large fish with a very hard skin and an enormous flat

head. They used to rub them sharply on the boards of their boats

so as to soften the skins before eating them. A tiger had followed

a path along the river. Numerous tracks of others were to be

seen everywhere. Muggers were fairly numerous, and birds of

prey of many sorts conspicuous all over. One of them, a large

brown buzzard with a white head and chest is common all over the

Sunderbunds.

Near Patang, the Jaboona may be about four hundred yards

broad. By a small branch of the river I got a short cut to Bungsi-

pore. The crossing was made during a dark night, with branches

of overhanging trees brushing the decks every now and then.

Jackals were howling at us along the banks and the men insisted

on my keeping on deck with a rifle, afraid of a possible tiger

coming to pick up one of them. I don’t yet believe that there

was really any risk of that sort.

Bungsipore was teeming with birds of prey, waders, and several

species of heron. Here, I enlisted two so-called shikaris who pre-

tended to know the Sunderbunds, and went with them for a stroll

ashore.

I found rice fields all along the limits of the forest. To protect

them against game, very long and coarse nets, made of bark,

were fixed on posts over six feet high and machans for watchers

were to be seen at frequent intervals. Footprints of wild boar and

spotted deer were exceedingly numerous, and pugs of two different

tigers were on the path, a sort of narrow embankment along the

rice fields.

The soil was wet and muddy, the jungle very dense and the

view was so restricted that I could not see anything. But I was

introduced to a novel form of shooting. The men made me climb

one of the big trees after them. Once fairly seated amongst the

branches, twenty feet at least over the ground, they set up a

growling, howling and shaking of the branches, in fact doing exactly

what I should specially object to if wanting game. The reason for

their behaviour is this :

A brown short- tailed monkey, going in packs of sometimes fifty

is common in the majority of the Sunderbunds. The deer are

quite used to them and to their antics and seek their company.

When these pugnacious brutes dispute or fight amongst themselves,

they break small branches in the trees and the deer then get the

leaves which fall to the ground. This is their staple food as no

grass grows in the forest. It is an interesting example of com-

mensalism. That is why an imitation of the noise made by

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE S UNDER B UNDS 647

monkeys attracts the deer. I tried it many a time after and shot

a few deer coming under my tree.

borne marvellous birds passed quite close to me. One, a glossy

black racket-tailed drongo shone in the sun like silver. The broad

terminal tufts of its wire like tail feathers appeared like two butter-

flies following its flight. Another black fellow, probably a species

of king crow, had a fine forked tail. A little later, a dark brown

squirrel with a sharp pointed head, a very long tail with rather

short hairs, came to eat some leaves at a few feet distance only.

He was darker and a little bigger than our common squirrel.

This I gather may have been some species of tree shrew and there

were always troops of short tailed macaques in evidence.

On the main river, from four to six hundred yards wide, many

muggers were basking in the sun on the sloping mud bank. Some

appeared to be enormous — the great majority about ten feet long.

When coming out of the water they generally go up the bank

and then turn round so as to have the head looking down on the

water. As the mud slopes at a fairly steep angle they have only

to glide down to get into water again. They do it extremely quick.

I lost many wounded or dead ones tobogganing in that way. As

the rivers are very often fifteen to twenty feet deep, and the muddy

slope goes right down, any mugger moving is lost. I never saw

one floating at any time, though I shot many when coming back

to my boats in the evening. I measured a large one, shot dead

in a patch of flat mud and found it to be 21 ft. 5 in. I lost

another looking a little bigger. I dare say they have been shot a

few feet longer. They are all of the broad mouthed variety, sup-

posed to be possible man-eaters. Without saying decidedly that

they are not, I don’t believe it; because not only did I never see

one take a man, but I can almost say the reverse.

During all my stay in the Sunderbunds, I had muggers in sight

almost continually. I shot a good many heads of various game

and, after cutting what I required, used to push the remains over-

board, in the water. When anchored in the same place for several

days, each tide brought back the bodies thrown overboard, so

that they passed to and fro, twice a day. No mugger touched

them, and there were hundreds all about. All the same I should

not like to trust one, and never refused them a cartridge when

it did not interfere with my sport. 1 remember vividly two ex-

periences in which muggers played a dominant part. Once at

sunset, paddling back after a long hard day in difficult jungle, 1

was drifting slowly with the tide in the small dinghy, surveying

the bank of a large river. At any turn I expected to come on a

rhino I had been tracking the whole day and which I knew to

be not far away. The dinghy was, at most, eighteen feet long

and three feet broad, I sat low down in the middle to balance

it properly. The two men, fore and aft, sat astride on the narrow

ends of the boat, their feet just tipping the water. Every now

and then they slowly and silently touched the water with

their paddles so as to guide the boat. Left hand on the

gunwale, with the barrel of my rifle resting on it, I intently

took stock of everything coming in sight. Suddenly I had the

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVll

impression that the colour of the water under my left hand, along

the boat, was undergoing a change. At a certain depth the muddy

water was getting greyish, then slowly, the dim, almost foggy,

patch took the form of a large mugger coming more clearly into

view as lie rose alongside the dinghy. Just under my left hand

1 could see liis outstretched toes, then his grey wicked eyes broke

ihe suriace of the water without hardly a ripple, lie floated

alongside for a short distance, then sank slowly down without a

move and faded away in the muddy depths. A small bubble rose

to the surface and stood there for a while and it was all over. It

was so unexpected, so ghost-like that I could hardly believe 10.

I think he came to see what we were. The slightest move from

any of us might have spelt disaster. The forward man had his

feet not more than three feet from the tip of the mugger nose,

he never saw anything, and just turned round to inquire what

it was when he heard the man astern muttering something.

Sometime after this, 1 was trying for tiger about fifteen miles

south of Issuripore. The jungle there was extremely dense. After

being reclaimed for cultivation at a distant time, it had been given

up as hopeless. In deep forest, a sort of embankment, about three

feet high over the surrounding ground, afforded a narrow path. It

ran some 2,600 paces, at right angles with the river and then

took a right-hand turn for another 1,500 paces. Tigers used this

open, narrow and dry bund during their wanderings. 1 tied a

goat as a bait, and sat up for them at night. One night, at about

eleven, with a glorious moon, having seen nothing, I started back

for my boats. The tide would not allow me to return much later.

The path I had to follow was the only one, and a regular one for

tigers. Fully expecting to meet a tiger there I walked first, rifle

in hand, my two men following with two spare rifles. Shortly

after turning the corner, some 2,600 paces from the river, I heard

a move ahead in the heavy jungle on the right of the path, about

ten yards -away. I stopped sharp, rifle at the shoulder, fully ex-

pecting -a charge from a tiger. A short silence, then a slow move-

ment in- the low branches, as if an animal was making a cautious

advance in my direction before an open charge. Then came a

rush straight at me and out of the low branches emerged the

ugly head of a mugger which I shot dead. He was an ordinary

mugger not particularly big. The distance to the nearest water,

over deep muddy soil and heavy jungle, was at least 2,500 paces.

He may have meant business, but what interested me was to

have, proof that these brutes do travel long distances out of the

water, at least at night in the Sunderbunds.

Spotted deer were common all over, right down to the sea.

I several times, heard them braying or calling, without any appar-

ent cause, in the middle of the day. One of them even answered

our poor imitation of its call and came a certain distance our way.

They don’t seem to grow particularly good heads there. Hog deer

were also to be found, at least half way down to the sea. Both

these deer feed exclusively on leaves as there is no herbaceous

vegetation in the Sunderbunds. The low branches are devoid of

leaves to a certain height as if pruned and I even saw one stag

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS

849

standing on his hind legs to reach some branches just as Waller’s

gazelle does for the same purpose. Round broken leafy branches

their tracks are many. They drink the brackish water of the

rivers.

Wild boar with good tusks are common. I found them mostly

when going with the dinghy through forest. They appear to eat

the roots of the screw palms along the water edge and certainly

rely a good deal on crabs, which are about in enormous quan-

tities. There is also a sort of tree with a large round fruit which

splits in four and is full of closely pressed seeds. I found these

trees in one or two places when tracking rhinos and they are

common near the seashore. They grow small, thick, darkish-green

almost round leaves. Boar tracks were profuse round them in the

north, where my men were very much interested in them and told

me they had never seen them. By the sea they were many.

Otters may be the commonest animal in the Sunderbunds, I

never missed seeing their tracks anywhere from north to south.

They travel overland and may be seen anywhere at any time.

They are not much above ten to twelve pounds in weight and

generally travel in twos or threes. I even once saw eight in a row

following each other. They are great crab hunters and break the

heavy shells without effort.

On certain mud slopes exposed, at low tide, to the full sun

one may see scores of a little brown fish, about the size of gud-

geon, resting on its two enlarged pectoral fins, near vertical holes

which they dig in the mud. At the first sign of danger, with a

jerk of the tail, they dive into their holes and disappear. But

not for a long time. Soon one head will show here and another

there. A gentle tapping on the mud with a stick will induce

some of them to come out to inquire. At high tide all their holes

are under water and must be blotted out. But they burrow

again as soon as the water recedes.

A brute which gave me a lot of work for nothing is the Monitor

Lizard. Once, when going up a tree to call stags I heard a com-

motion in the leaves overhead, then a bump on the mud twenty

feet lower, then a great splash in the water and a dive? What

could it be? ‘ Gua ’, said my men. But what on earth was a Gua ?

What is it made like? After long and complicated explanations I

laboriously made out that the Gua was a large animal, climbing

trees like a monkey, diving like a mugger, with the long claws of

a bear, head of a python and the body as large as a child’s.

With that description I wondered whether there was not in the

deep jungles of the Sunderbunds, an unknown animal within reach

of me. If I could only get a glimpse of the brute? The tracks

showed long-clawed toes and something dragging on the mud be-

tween them. Then I set to work until finally I found a large

lizard which I shot. There was the Gua — a species of Monitor,

66 in. long. The description was not very far from the mark

after all. After that I saw many others. Once at the mouth of

the Malancha, near the sea, five of them, one after the other,

dropped from a tree almost on the top of me, in their fright and

rushed to the water.

850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Snakes, in spite of periodic flooding at high tide of many

islands, are not rare. When passing under the jungle, in the

dinghy, carried on a very swift tide current, a yellow cobra swam

hurriedly across, just in front of the boat, and went up the sloping

left bank. The impetus made us shoot past before the snake was

yet quite up the slope. The fore end paddler lifting his feet fell

back into the dinghy, I, sitting in the muddle, had to lean as

much as possible to the right. The snake was not two feet dis-

tant when we passed and the rivulet wras so narrow that I was

afraid the gunwale might catch its tail and roll it against bank,

bringing it back into the boat in the worst of temper. In fact, the

margin was only a question of inches. Another day a large

python happened to be coiled just on the very brink of a little

river when we passed it with our heads level with it. The snake

did not appear to notice us. There was only a slow heaving move

of the coils. As we were then on a rhino’s tracks, and trying to

head him, I did not get the snake. Its thickness pointed to a

big one, but I never saw the head.

Insects of any sort, even mosquitoes, are certainly not abun-

dant as, in my notes, there is no mention of them. Probably the

brackish water does not agree with the larvae. I don’t remember

even seeing a butterfly. Once, on a tree, I was stung by a long,

slender, black ant which could sting like a wasp. The sting, with

a minute drop of venom, could easily be seen when the ant tried

to drive it into one’s skin. It could not penetrate except in the

very soft parts of the hand. The pain was trifling and did not

last more than a few minutes. This ant, at the slightest vibration

of the tree, went hurriedly to cover on the underpart of the branches

where it lay flat and motionless for a while. Probably it was its

way of escaping certain woodpeckers which I never managed to

see but which I heard several times at work on the trees.

The wealth of the Sunderbunds lies in its birds. In deep

jungles they may be scarce. Excepting the black drongo with the

long tail, the one with the forked tail, and another black species,

few birds are to be met with. But, along the river, there is a

marvellous display of the most gorgeous plumage. Kingfishers

swarm all over, birds of prey and wading birds of different species

are common. I tried, in the Calcutta Museum, to find out some-

thing about them and made out that Dissemurus paradiseus and

Bhringa remifer were the scientific names of two of the above

Drongos. A spotted eagle was Spilornis melanotis, a fishing eagle

Haliaetus leucogaster, a grey hornbill, Meniceros bicornis. But I

could not go any farther, in 1892! This is a short list from my

diary.

I saw no ducks or geese whatever, no divers; some of the waders

were the same as we see at home. The red-legged sand-piper

seems to me, with the grey heron, the most ubiquitous bird in the

world — (A year later I was confronted with twTo of them at the

small lake in the Kilik Pass, at an altitude of roughly 18,000 ft.).

Several other shore birds had a very familiar aspect, but they are

so difficult to distinguish from each other that I will not say any-

thing more about them. In January, swallows were in small flocks

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS

851

by the sea going north, curlews, whimbrels were many at the

mouth of the Malancha, and our fishing eagle, Pandion haliaetus,

was common. But what of the rest? Herons of several sorts

were by the sea or along the swamps of the north fringe, night

herons, white herons and red, snake birds perched on the dead

branches all along the Eshamuttee and other rivers. Crows and black

or grey vultures were in evidence on the north side, nightjars

appeared in numbers every night specially on the Kudum Tullee

and Pizzon Khalee Rivers, I even saw a large owl, a sort of Eagle

owl. I jotted down the following list which I copy from my diary.

Large white eagle, span of six feet, slate colour over back and

wings; beak slate grey without any special colour at the base on

the lore, fairly long tail with a white cross bar at the end (Arabi

Bankee River).

Malancha River. Large heron, red brown under, iron grey on

the back.

Malancha River. Fishing eagle, grey head, body brown, legs,

lower parts of the body, under parts of the tail, pure wrhite; a

brown bar at the end of the tail.

Fishing eagle black and white, with bright red legs (Eshamuttee

River).

Large black storks, under parts of the body white, neck yellow-

ish and naked, light crest of feathers at back of head.

Large brown eagle.

Brown eagle spotted white; yellow bill fading to blue in certain

parts, longish stiff feathers at the back of head.

Black and white eagle with stiff feathers as a crest, at the

back of the head.

Of the kingfishers I specially made notes of the following ones.

A big one, about the size of a dove, with a long coral red bill,

head and underparts yellow, back and wings brown, light bright

blue above the tail. Another smaller one black, white and blue.

Then a white one, spotted black. (I saw one of his species in

the Suez Canal hovering along the ship two years later.)

Another, very much like our home kingfisher in size and colour,

but certainly brighter all over.

And yet another almost exactly similar in shape and colour, but

so minute that I believe it is hardly as big as our blue tit.

Jungle fowl were common, specially in islands 170, 173, 174,

179, and down to the sea. I think they were Gallus ferrugineus,

smaller in size than our domestic fowl, ‘dark red and black, with

bright yellow feathers at the root of the tail. Some had a yellow

head with naked white patches on the ears.

About the jungle fowl my men told me a story which may or

may not be true but there it is.

When I was on the small Lullabeer Doanea River, north of

island 182, I was asked not to shoot any jungle fowl there, as

I often used to for the pot, because in that particular island, a

certain god, Bandeao or Banadeo by name, did not like it and

repaid with the worst of bad luck anybody not taking his wishes

into account. He was a little known god whose existence, in

that part of the Sunderbunds, had been disclosed, in a dream, to

852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

a very holy headman of a distant village in the north. The god

did not allow anybody to cut wood in this same island. I am not

absolutely certain that this beautiful story had nothing to do with

the anxiety of my men not to stay any more on that small river,

where, during the night, we had heard two tigers roaring as I never

heard one roar before or after. But as it was extremely hot

there, in the middle of the day and fearfully dense jungle, and as

I was on my way farther on, I obeyed the order of Banadeo very

readily.

All the animals living in the Sunderbunds have to lead a special

life under peculiar conditions. I saw monkeys drinking the

brackish water; tigers, which are many, have to do the same and

think nothing of swimming across rivers nearly half a mile broad.

I saw this at the mouth of the Malancha, and had ample evidence

of their having done so in many smaller rivers. Jackals, com-

mon on the northern border, are unknown further south, and may

object to brackish water and swimming. Deer and wild boar are

quite happy with both, even the pretty Dishing Cat (Felis viverina )

which I found in island 169, must feel happv with it. But, I

think, buffaloes and, I am certain, rhinos need sweet water.

Of buffaloes I have very little to say. There was not one to

my knowledge anywhere south of Issuripore, but in the north

where there is also dense jungle and several islands covered with

thick jungle, there were one or two small herds of them. I am

not certain that they were not tame buffaloes turned wild, after

some cultivated parts had been given up. As the domestic water

buffalo (and they were water buffaloes) is identical with the wild

one, it is hard to tell; and I did not trouble much about them,

seeing that I was going to Assam later. I just spent two or three

days after them, and had proof of their high jumping capacities.

Three of them when disturbed, jumped frog fashion into a river

from a high bank, certainly twelve feet above water level. The

splash was magnificent. I treasured the fine sight in my

memory. Ten years later, when trying to spear hippopotami by

the Aouash river in the Danakil country, a hippo that I had inter-

cepted on his way back to the river and speared with a large

Somali spear, took a clear jump from the bank into the river

from a measured height of 14 ft. That was a sight by moonlight.

In January and February 1892, rhinoceros were to be found at

only one place in the Sunderbunds as far as I know, and that

is in islands 165, 172, 171, 170, 169. There may have been rhinos

farther east or west, but here where there is a maze of forests,

islands and rivers, I spent days and days tracking them. I pene-

trated this slough of deep slush and clammy heat, going through

the most abominable mud-covered thorny thickets, without ever

seeing an open space ten yards across. The rhinos lived there for

one reason. In the middle of this jungle there was sweet water.

How is it possible to explain such an occurrence in this delta,

where two mighty rivers, the Ganges and Brahmapootra, have

slowly filled up the Bay of Bengal with alluvial soil, washed down

since centuries from the Himalayas, to a depth of seven hundred

feet over a surface of many square miles? But the fact remains:

some pools of sweet water are to be found in the jungle about

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS

853

fifteen miles south of Issuripore, while the whole country is sur-

rounded by tidal rivers of brackish water and inundated with salt

water.

The first rhino tracks that I came across were when after

crossing the river Pizon Khalee, I was going up a steep mud

slope. They were deep tracks, the hind foot stepping exactly into

the spoor of the fore foot, the central toe boldly cutting the

ground, and the two lateral toes just tipping it in hard places.

Foot a little broader than long. Soft parts of the foot, behind

and between the toes, very hard and without any wrinkles. In

this character the Sunderbund rhino differs from other rhinos

living on hard soil. The foot is decidedly broader than the girth

of the leg as, even in sinking, as is the rule, over ten inches

in mud, the leg itself does not touch the walls of the foot hole.

The foot is lifted, and comes out absolutely neat and clean,

without any drag of any sort. Inspection of the lower part of

the hole shows that the weight of the body does not make it

expand as would appear likely under the pressure. The animal

must be extremely tough, and apt to a lot of work. The hind

foot steps exactly into the print of the fore foot. It is a little

smaller and more oval. It seems also that the hind foot rests

on the ground at a little outward slant. The beast goes at a

quiet slow walk, under the big trees and through the heaviest

thickets, without paying the slightest heed to obstruction. The

spoor is made in a regular zigzag line like a cat’s track on snow.

A rhino browses very steadily. He is quite at home. No flies

to disturb him, he seizes the tips of branches in his stride without

altering the position of his feet in any way. He does not trouble

to move his head right or left to inspect his food. He does not

pull at a branch sideways, as so many browsing animals do; the

branch is crushed and cut sharp without a move of the head.

His meal lasts until late in the morning, his tracks lie over the

ones left by numerous crabs, which travel about mostly before nine

in the morning. He does not rub against any tree but rather

avoids them. When he goes into ' a thorny or leafy thicket, he

does it as a needle piercing a cushion. The sort of tunnel left

behind is hardly visible and, at most, three feet high, as the

branches spring back almost exactly. After an hour’s careful

tracking I came to the conclusion that I had to deal with a very

tough and hardy animal which was going to give me a lot of

work and which might be found on the move at any time of the

day. For the rest: the food specially selected by rhinos, the

difference in the footprints of male and female, the surface of

ground covered in an average day, the number of animals in the

area of jungle inhabited, their peculiarities and minor habits and

so on I had to trust to time to learn them. I was beginning a

course of intensely interesting study.

I started it, in earnest, and kept at it steadily. There is no

use in hurry. It is a mistake to jump to hasty conclusions.

Everything is written, for a patient tracker in the footprints of an

animal. In this terrible jungle, plodding along in deep mud with

the temperature like a steam bath, in the close atmosphere of

these deep forests, I kept for days and days on the track of these

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

rhino coming on them several times at close range, in places

where it was impossible to see anything. Once, when wet and

tired after a long day, I saw, betwen branches and leaves, a long

grey head only a few yards away. It had no horn — no trophy.

Why shoot for the lust of killing only? The rifle just touching

the shoulder came slowly down, the rhino went off unscathed;

as I had suspected it was the Lesser one-horned Ehino ( R . son-

daicus) exceedingly rare! It is forty-two years ago now and I

don’t regret it, sport is not slaughter, killing a very rare animal,

without a trophy as an excuse, is criminal.

I should say that, at that time, there were only three rhinos

in this part of the Sunderbunds — perhaps four at the most . They

were all the same size, full-grown animals, without much to choose

between them. They were generally on the move without follow-

ing any beaten or regular track. My average day was this.

As early in the morning as the tide would allow, from mv

dinghy I inspected the banks of the rivers until I found a fresh

track. If a little river through the jungle was available I used

it as far as possible, and then made a detour across to come on

the track again. If none was handy I landed and followed the

spoor at once. Sometimes the track led under big trees where the

going was a little better, oftener, through dense thickets of various

sorts. At spring tides these were inundated and the whole vege-

tation, up to several feet, was smeared with dried mud which fell

in a shower of dust, when forcing a way through. Some of the

trees were rather like hollies with heavy thorny leaves, others

might have been a sort of Dracaena : straight stem about the size

of a man’s arm from six to ten feet high, then a bunch of arched

leaves fringed with hard thorns. Quantities of dead leaves pro-

jecting all along the stem were most objectionable. Often, the

only thing to do was to go under, on all fours; but, with the mud,

it was not pleasant, and the rifle had to be kept above ground.

The rhinos travelled singly, only occasionally did I see tracks

of two together, and that only for a short time. Following them

led to the discovery of some strange ruins, near which I came

across some small ponds of sweet water. They were the reason

of the rhino’s presence there. Under tall trees and in the middle

of patches of thorny bushes, were some mounds of earth, slightly

higher than the surrounding ground. It was so abnormal to find

a dry place in the Sunderbunds that I examined these mounds

more closely to discover what they could be. There were old

decayed bricks rather like those found in the ruins of Issuripore.

Some of the mounds were built in a row, almost in a straight

line for about one hundred yards. On the other side of a small

river, were one or two more. The vegetation, owing probably to

a slight upraising of the soil, was a little different there. One

tree, with an extremely hard brown wood and long oval dark

green leaves, grew there. Another, overgrown with creepers, had

been fairly choked : its dead trunk was visible through a network

of ashy grey creepers which terminated high above in a magni-

ficent canopy of green leaves. One of the mounds had been

hollowed out by some animal which had dug a burrow, hardly

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE Til

1892. North Sunderbunds — low tide — native dwelling with footbridge.

1892. A small river giving access to the interior of the jungle — low tide — big palms

growing out of the mud.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE IV.

Sunderbunds, 1892. Half tide mud bank with fringe of big palms.

892. South Sunderbunds near the Sea. Malancha River — High tide.

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS

855

bigger than a rabbit’s. The soil all round was too hard and dry

to bear any footprints.

For a very long time rhinos had wandered about the place. It

was simply covered with and beaten flat by their tracks. Dung,

which they don’t seem to drop regularly in fixed places like the

other rhinos, was to be seen there and also a few places where

they had lain down. Some ponds of sweet water were scattered

about, none more than a few feet across except one, much deeper

than the others. This particular tank might have been twenty

to thirty yards broad and of an unknown length as it disappeared

under overhanging trees and creepers, and I could not go round

it.

Waiting at night there was impossible, so close was the jungle.

I tried several times to find a rhino there, either lying down, or

standing motionless for hours, as they do, but never succeeded.

I was afraid of disturbing them too much, as when disturbed, they

go off for several days without coming back. It made me believe

that they might have other sweet water drinking places somewhere

in, the unknown parts of the forests. If not, they may go without

drinking for several days.

The river Pizum Khalee seems to be the centre of their wan-

derings. They often swam across it. I even saw unmistakable

signs that they sometimes swam long distances up and down the

river. One day a rhino went up river and fed on the leaves of

branches overhanging the water. The depth at this place was

certainly over ten feet. A long smooth furrow along the vertical

muddy bank was proof of his rubbing against it and showed that

he had kept in the river for over four hundred yards swimming

along the bank. Several times I had proof of their prolonged

swims.

It seems that they travel long distances in almost a straight

line at a long easy stride without taking much care to keep to

special runs. Arriving at a favourable place, they roam about over

short distances turning over and over again on their tracks. As

the jungle is very often extremely thick, tracking is difficult.

Again, when leaving such a patch of jungle, they make in a

straight line for another favoured spot which may be several miles

away. But the proof that they travel to a known destination is

that I never saw them going north or south but exclusively east or

wrest. They know exactly where they want to go. I tracked them

for five or six miles in a straight line several times. It was

always the same long easy stride, keeping unerringly in the same

direction. The difficulty of coming back to my boats, at the time

when the tide would be right, did not allow me to see the end

of their journeys.

The jungle was so extremely dense that my range of view was

very limited — at the most under twenty yards. On several occa-

sions I kept in close proximity to the rhinos for a fairly long time,

following them, marching parallel with them, trying to head them.

In this very close atmosphere it seems that scent does not travel

far; so still is the air. I could hear them browsing, pulling their

feet with a dull flop out of the mud, breaking dead branches

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

in their stride, all very quietly and slowly. When quite near I

took great care never to move except when they were moving them-

selves or munching, so that any possible noise might be covered

by the sounds they were making themselves. Sometimes, when

on all fours under cover, I happened to be nearer than I

thought comfortable. Once I got a glimpse of a huge leg very

near indeed. Another time some branches were shaken by a rhino

very near my head. If I had only seen a part of the animal it

would have been possible to guess where to shoot; but it was

never possible to see one clearly. Certainly these rhinos are not

quick tempered and apt to charge like the black African rhino or

even the Assamese species. Any of these would have resented

my close proximity. Instead of that, when after a while, one got

suspicious it stood absolutely motionless for a long time, once

certainly over ten minutes. I remained absolutely motionless also,

wondering what would happen next. I found it extremely trying.

Then with a rush of a few yards through the dense undergrowth,

then a long stop again, then another rush, off he went at a long

stride making a bee line for some distant jungle patch unknown

to me. For at least three miles he went straight on, never gallop-

ing, but ambling, and putting his hind foot over, and cleanly in

advance of the fore-foot.

One evening, when after tracking vainly the whole day, I was

slowly paddling back to my boats, I heard a branch breaking quite

close to the river bank. A rhino was leisurely following the

margin of the river. I kept along the bank for a long time expect-

ing him at any minute to show a bit of himself or even swim

across. But he kept inside the deep jungle, never more than a

few yards away, until, when it was pitch dark, he got a whiff of

my wind. Then he stood motionless for a long while and after a

short rush, stood again, then made another rush and went off for

good. The next day I read these movements in his tracks. The

dinghy was not much above ten yards from him when he got to

know we were there. The first rush was not more than ten yards;

when he stopped, he turned round as if trying to look behind him;

the second rush was about forty yards. The tracks were wide

apart as if, with the head up, he had been looking right and left

over his shoulder, a common habit with all rhinos. Then he had

come back a few paces along his track, and stood for a while

moving his fore feet several times and, finally, he took a bee line,

at a long easy stride, to some distant part of the forest. I tracked

him for four hours without result. Some people would say that,

when he turned on his track, he meant business and was ready to

charge. I say: no. Many animals do this when disturbed with-

out being much alarmed. They look over their shoulders or turn

round to look behind when they stop. Sometimes, out of sheer

curiosity, an animal will come back on its tracks, and may appear

as though viciously waiting to catch the intruder. But it is

curiosity not mischievousness. Animals do this when they don’t

know exactly what the cause of the disturbance is. When they

start again, they turn sharp, head held low and sideways, gallop

for a few yards, then break into a long trot, tail up or flourished

A HUNTING TRIP IN THE SUNDERBUNDS

857

rapidly, head carried high to look behind over their backs. After

a while the head comes lower and the animal goes away at a

steady trot or gallop. Buffalo, of every sort I know, act very

often in this way. 1 do not mean to say that many an accident

has not been caused by animals waiting by their track, in deep

jungle, and charging the hunter following the direct one. But

it is not calculated action as many people would believe,

it is mere reflex and normal action. The animal wants to make

out the cause of the disturbance, he stops and goes a few steps

back. But a bulky brute does not turn sharp on his feet, he

does it in a curve and that curve brings him out of the main

track and alongside it ; when resuming his flight he will often

take a new line. Many an accident and many a rash conclusion

is derived from this very simple manoeuvre. A wounded animal,

or even a disturbed animal, may take the chance offered and

charge viciously. In such a case, he but takes his opportunity,

he does not make it as many people believe. If people want to

go for so-called dangerous game they ought, first of all, to know

better than keep blundering about, as is so often the case. I

consider that these rhinos that I found in the Sunderbunds were

not as quick tempered as other species. They had many a chance

to come for me or turn ‘difficult’, but never made the best of

such chances. The Assamese rhino would have been different

though they are not to be compared with the African species.

These last would have turned me out of this dense jungle in

no time.

The opinion which I acquired slowly made me wonder if they

were not another species. At the time, the problem of Rhinoceros

sondaicus was not much discussed, forty-two years ago all these

questions were not yet to the fore; but my suspicions so aroused

made me observe them better.

One thing which struck me first was the complete absence of

places where a rhino had been wallowing in the mud. I never

saw any. They very rarely rubbed against trees as the other

species so commonly do. This may arise from different causes;

perhaps from an exclusively forest life. But in one place where

one of them had been lying down I could faintly discern that the

skin, where not rubbed and polished by the branches, was some-

thing like a mosaic, leaving on the mud a sort of network of little

lines. That was queer. Then I found a tree where a rhino had

rubbed his head and cheeks. In a case like this the marks start

at the level of the head, held horizontally or raised, but some mud,

sticking on the bark, showed that he had lowered his head almost

to the level of the ground. That is generally evidence of an animal

turning its head sideways and trying to scratch it over the nose.

That could not happen if there was a horn, and a horn would make

a mark on the bark of the tree, if the rubbing had taken place just

behind it. But then he had rubbed both cheeks, one after the

other, on both sides of the tree, and left no mark when, with his

head very low, he passed his nose from one side to the other?

And finally, as explained above, I got a glimpse of a strange profile

at a very short distance. For the first and, I am sorry to say,

858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XXXVll

the last time in my life I saw that long, grey, hornless head and

everything was explained: these rhinos were B. sondaicus, they

had no trophy worth having and shooting them was without

excuse.

What has become of the Sunderbund rhinos now in spite of

the extreme difficulty involved in their pursuit ? They were then

very few : I am certain of three, I consider that a fourth is pro-

bable, and that six is the maximum. They are probably shot out.

Even when I was there, poaching was rife in the Sunderbunds.

Boats coming to get firewood for Calcutta had generally a gun on

board. Almost every two or three days I heard a distant shot

somewhere in the forest : it meant food for the boatmen. I also

met one small boat which came to beg for some water, on board

were two men and two guns. They disappeared to the south.

The Government in response to some, absurd but misplaced,

philanthropic feeling, I have been told, gives fifty rupees as a

reward for every tiger shot in the Sunderbunds. That is enough

to start poaching to an uncontrollable extent. I do not intend

to say that any regular rhino-shooting ever took place; but, certain

it is, that any of the poachers meeting one of them either in the

forest or, more probably, crossing a river, would take a shot at

one. That is enough, wounded or killed it is one less, and there

were none to spare. Nobody took the slightest notice : white men

did not go out shooting much in the Sunderbunds in my time,

I don’t think many have done so since. What does it matter if

one more of the rare animals of the old world is extinct? Still,

amongst the most cherished souvenirs of many years big game

shooting in the world, in spite of a great many drawbacks, these

days in the strange stillness of the big Sunderbunds forests are

among the best.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SlTTAN G-IBEAW ADD V

PLAIN, LOWER BURMA.

BY

J. K. Stanford, i.c.s., o.b.e., m.c., m.b.o.u., f.r.g.s.

These rough notes were made between April 1929 and Novem-

ber 1932 in various parts of the Henzada, Insein, Pegu, Pyapon,

Maiibin, Hanthawaddy and Tliaton districts of Lower Burma. My

excuse for putting them on record is that, since Oates published

his Birds of British Burmah in 1883, practically no one has col-

lected in the huge area which lies between the mouth of the

Sittang on the East, and the hills which fringe the western side

of the Prome, Henzada and Bassein districts.

The area is drained by four large rivers, the Sittang, the Pegu,

the Hlaing (or Rangoon) river, and the Irrawaddy, and their tri-

butaries. It is bounded on the east by the heavily wooded left

bank of the Sittang, down the centre runs the line of the Pegu

yoma , and along the western side the foothills of the Arakan

yoma. Though a vast amount of swamp and forest land since

Oates’ day has been cleared and converted into corn land, though

the southern half of the heavily-timbered Pegu yoma, running

down to Rangoon, has long been stripped of all but its scrub and

bush jungle, though the line of forest reserves which, in 1912,

stretched from the Sittang to China Bakir and beyond, has become

one endless paddy-plain, yet there are still enormous areas, diffi-

cult of access, which are, it is not too much to say, less known by

naturalists now than they were in 1883.

There is now but a small remnant of the swampy forests bor-

dering the Sittang which in 1883 formed a stronghold for Pelicans

and Adjutants, in the breeding season. At the southern end of

the plain, the remnants of the old primeval woodland, and of the

forest avifauna which peopled it, still survives in the Zepathwe

reserve near the sea. But despite these changes, rapid as they

have been, there are still vast solitudes in the yomas , and along

the seashore, as inaccessible and quite as little known ornitholo-

gically, as they were fifty years ago. The dense evergreen foot-

hills of Insein and Pegu, covered with wanwe and wathabut

(bamboo) jungle, the Lemyethna and Kyangin foothills bordering

the Arakan yoma, covered with kayinwa (Melocanna bambusoides),

which resembles, as someone described it, ‘miles of corn fields

grown to nightmare height’, and the enormous area of tidal mud,

intersected by creeks and fringed with mangrove and willow jungle

( Sonneratia apetala) are still almost unknown to the naturalist.

To give but two instances, Armstrong’s Sandpiper ( Glottis guttifer)

has never been obtained by anyone in Burma or India since Doctor

Armstrong worked the river near Elephant Point in 1875-1876,

860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Jerdon’s Babbler ( Pyctorhis altirostris ) has not been recorded by

any naturalist since Oates, in 1883, stated that it was ‘very abun-

dant in the Bangoon and Shwe'gyin districts’.

These notes are most incomplete, and the gaps in them will

show Burma observers how much remains to be done. I started

collecting in Henzada in 1930, with the assistance of Mr. E. Hen-

ricks, whose services were again lent me by the courtesy of the

Bombay Museum authorities. Our task had to be dropped abrupt-

ly in February 1931 on the outbreak of the Henzada rebellion

(which had been simmering for two months previously), and it

could only be resumed in a partial manner later. I am indebted

to Mr. Henricks and to his successor, Mr. W. Stubbs, for their

painstaking work done often under very trying and difficult cir-

cumstances.

To Doctor C. B. Ticehurst, m.b., m.r.c.s., m.b.o.u, f.r.g.s.,

who has identified the skins sent home, and has at all times given

me invaluable advice, my grateful acknowledgments are also due.

His notes are given in square brackets.

Most of all, I regret that I had little or no opportunity to

study the birds of that wild and lonely area lying between Elephant

Point and China Bakir. As remarked above, it is probably the

one place, in the southern part of the Pegu division, where the

original forest avifauna of Lower Burma survives more or less

unchanged, cut off, as it is, on one side by the sea and, on the

other, by a hundred miles of paddy plain. I do not know of any

area in Burma so rich in varied bird life, or in which the bird

watcher is so sure to find his time and trouble repaid. Beyond

the paddy land there is dense tree forest intersected by creeks

winding through mangrove jungle, miles of streams [fringed with

willow ( Sonneratia apetala), and a form of sea holly], which de-

bouch through open sandy dunes, or on to unending levels of sand

and mud, and which are covered at low tide by tens of thousands

of wading and water birds.

The rainfall in the area varies from 90 inches in the South-

-west to about 65 in the North and North-east.

The number of skins sent home is approximately 400, belong-

ing to 166 species. Others mentioned were fully identified in the

field, or in the case of some of the ducks and waders, shot and

not preserved. In all 291 species have been noted, and of these

3 are new to Lower Burma.

In his paper on the Birds of Bangoon (J.B.N.H. S., vol. xxv,

p. 358) Colonel Harington recorded 152 species, of which those

seen by him and not found by me were

Prinia flaviventris,

Alseonax latirostris,

Hirundo smithii,

Arachnothera longirostris,

Pitta oatesi,

Pitta cyanoptera,

Gecinus occipitalis,

Homicercus canente,

Dichoceros bicornis,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-IRRAWADDY PLAIN 861

Cuculus micropterus,

Hierococcyx sparverioides,

Palaeoj'nis indob urmanicus,

Ketupa ceylonensis,

Scops bakkamoena ,

Polioaetus humilis,

Alsocomus puniceus,

Arboricola brunneipectas ,

Turnix blanfordi.

Corvus coronoides subsp. Jungle Crow. 9 640.

Common, but only one was collected. Harington noted that where jungle

crows take to living in or near towns and villages, they tend to breed smaller

than those in the jungle. There is certainly considerable variation in size

observable.

[It does not seem at all certain that our Indian jungle crows are races

of the Australian bird ( coronoides ), or that the Burmese birds are inseparable

from the typical Java form. — C.B.T.]

Corvus splendens insolens Burmese House Crow.

Ubiquitous. Though they return to their breeding haunts in early Febru-

ary, they seem to start breeding much later, and I have found fresh eggs in

mid-April.

I have seen crows flighting eastwards in January at dusk from the Henzada

yomas at a very great height, and obviously coming from a considerable dis-

tance, in exactly the same way as Paroquets do. The noise made with their

wings by a flock of Corvus insolens flying overhead, appears to be produced

at will, in the same manner as a breeding male Lapwing can suddenly pro-

duce a resonant noise with his wings, when flying over an intruder.

21. Urocissa erythrorhyncha magnirostris Bed-billed Blue Magpie.

Local name: — Hnget-aungma. Common in the foothills of the Arakan

yoma in Henzada. Harington and Wickham found it fairly plentiful near

Kangoon and breeding at Taukkyan (Insein) in April, but I have not seen

it there.

29. Dendrocilta rufa kinneari Burmese Tree Pie. -501, 652.

Common in Henzada and Insein and occurs in the outskirts of Bangoon.

A female shot in February showed signs of breeding. One seen on October

25th was just acquiring its new tail, the feathers on one side being complete,

and on the other only half the normal length.

[This race is just recognizable on a good series. Single specimens cannot

be differentiated. It was compared in the Fauna (i, 50) with sclateri (Chin

Hills) but it is much nearer to vagabunda (Bengal) from which on a series it

differs in having the head less dark, mantle less foxy-red and less contrasting

with the head, and underparts less deep. A series of adults from Lower

Burma $ 9 measure: wing 140, 145-62; tail 220, 222, 236, 262, one 278.

Tails run rather longer than in vagabunda but wing measurements are the

same. Birds during their first year can be differentiated from adults by the

less black flight feathers and by the pale tips to the tail.]

36. Crypsirina temia varians Black Backet-tailed Magpie. SSQ 605,

626, 651.

Not uncommon in the Insein and Henzada districts, even close to Bangoon.

Those I saw along the Henzada yomas were in pairs in early February.

[Two AS measure: wing 118-122.5 mm.; tails 185, 195 mm.; 9 wing

119 mm. ; tail 187 mm.

The central tail feathers are less spatuiate in the female than in the male.

— C.B.T.]

37. Crypsirina cucullata Hooded Backet-tailed Magpie. 9 534.

Local name: — Naba-chu.

I saw several in the northern part of the Henzada district near Pauktaing

where Argya gularis also occurs. It may be a dry weather visitor, but in

view of the fact that I saw one in Myitkyina in January 1934, and that

8

862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVll

Argya gularis has also occurred outside its usual range (the dry zone), further

observation is clearly necessary as to this Magpie’s distribution in the pro-

vince.

[Venning first pointed out that in three specimens of cucullata there were

only ten tail feathers. This I can confirm on half a dozen more and also

note that temia has only ten tail feathers. This is very remarkable as I

know of no other member of the Corvidae which has less than twelve. —

C.B.T.]

51. Parus major cinereus Indian Geey Tit. 9 55.

It was interesting to find, as Armstrong did in 1876, that this Tit was

abundant in the ‘tidal jungle’ near the mouth of the Bangoon river. Not only

do the willow trees along the creeks attract it, but the old and dead trees in the

remnants of primeval forest, which form the Zepathwe and Pilakat reserves,

are clearly favourite breeding grounds. I saw it nowhere else, and should

describe it as a rare bird over the greater part of Lower Burma.

112. Sitta castanea neglecta Burmese Nuthatch. 444.

Not uncommon in the Henzada plain and in places very tame. It is

partial to tamarind and kokko trees. I have never seen it in flocks as I have

frontalis, nor have I any records from the rest of the area.

119. Sitta frontalis corallina Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, 9 623, 624.

I shot a pair on February 13th in the Henzada yomas which showed no

signs of breeding, and saw a flock of six on the same date accompanied by

Minivets and other birds. I have frequently seen this nuthatch moving about

in small and very active travelling parties like Tits, mingled with other

species,

128/129. Garrulax leucolophus subsp. White-crested Laughing Thrush.

Abundant in Prome but seems uncommon or very local in Henzada, as I

saw only one small party near Shwelaunggyin in the yoma foothills in Febru-

ary. In Insein also it is local, and not found near Bangoon.

131. Garrulax pectoralis Black-gorgeted Laughing' Thrush.

134. Garrulax moniliger Necklaced Laughing Thrush. 212, 505, 510, 511.

I have never been able to distinguish these two species in the field, and

usually only by measurement in the hand. The only specimens obtained were

at Kywezin (Henzada), where three shot in bamboo jungle in the yoma foot-

hills were undoubtedly moniliger moniliger.

A male out of a pair shot at Aukkanyinmyaung in May 1932 on the eastern

side of the Pegu yoma was identified as moniliger fuscata.

[An interesting problem in distribution yet remains to be solved with regard

to this common bird. The Fauna gives the distribution in Burma of moniliger

moniliger as ‘Northern Burma or Northern Shan States’, and of moniliger

fuscata as ‘South Central Burma to South Tenasserim’. Mr. Stanford’s

Kywezin birds are undoubtedly moniliger with white tips to the tail, which

are buff in fuscata. In the British Museum are typical moniliger from

Thayetinyo or ‘Pegu’ but others labelled ‘Lower Pegu’ are fuscata. Of birds

labelled ‘Toungoo’, some are typical moniliger and some are more or less typical

fuscata. Possibly moniliger is the hill form, but this needs working out.]

191. Argya earlii Striated Babbler. 3 9 422, 586, 587.

The commonest bird of the Henzada riverine plain where Oates noted its

abundance. It occurs in Insein, Pyapon, Maubin, and Pegu in the kaing grass

areas, and was seen in family parties from December to July.

194. Argya gularis White-throated Babbler. $ 538, 551.

As already reported in the Journal (vol. xxxv, 15th November, 1932) I saw

a few in the northern corner of the Henzada district at Pauktaing in January

1931 and obtained two specimens. This country approximates fairly closely

to that of the dry zone and seems to be a continuation of the Prome-Tarokmaw

ridge on the other side of the river.

In May 1932, I saw a party on the laterite ridge south of Mingaladon

aerodrome about ten miles north of Bangoon on several occasions, and a single

bird on the other side of the Bangoon-Prome Boad. On September 25th, I saw

a single bird on the General s Mile’ at Mingaladon and on November 5th a

NOTES ON The BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-IRRAWADDY PLAiN 853

party of four near Tadagale lunatic asylum, two miles further south. It

is difficult for me to believe that these birds were not migrants or waifs. I

have ridden almost daily through this country at all seasons of the year and

think that if they were resident, or bred there, I must have observed them. It

is to be hoped that other observers will look out for this species south of the

dry zone.

[This bird is evidently the counterpart of, and is in the dry zone of Burma,

the representative of Argya caudata of the dry area of India. Some ornitholo-

gists would therefore no doubt place it as a race of caudata since it replaces

it geographically. To do so would in my opinion, be quite unsound. A. caudata

ranges no further east than Western Bengal, and between its range limits

and that of gularis, there is interposed the very different Argya longirostris .

Argya caudata has never been proved to inhabit Burma; Blyth many years

ago recorded it from Thayetmyo and Arakan (Birds of Burma, vol. i, p. 118),

and the Arakan record is indicated as based on a specimen from Phayre. It

is certain, I think, that a mistake has crept in, as in the Catalogue of the

Asiatic Society, Blyth makes no mention of any specimen thence from Phayre.

The only other record is from Iv. C. Macdonald who records this bird as

less common than earlii round certain ]heels in Myingyan (J.B.N.H.S., xvii,

185). This record cannot be accepted without specimens to substantiate it. —

C.B.T.]

228. Timalia pileata jerdoni Redcapped Babbler. 3 9 65, 216, 572.

Common in kaing grass jungle in Henzada and probably elsewhere, but it

is a great skulker and is more often heard than seen.

232. Gampsorhynchus r. rufulus White-headed Shrike Babbler. 9 648.

A female was obtained in February in dense evergreen bamboo jungle near

Kanazo in the foothills of the Henzada yoma.

234. Pyctorhis sinensis Yellow-eyed Babbler. 2 3 219, 517.

Seen occasionally in kaing grass jungle in Henzada but a great skulker. I

saw one feeding young on April 24th.

245. Pellorneum ruficeps Spotted Babbler. 1 3 5 9 79, 208, 515, 516,

543, 644.

A great skulker, nearly all I saw being in pairs where there is bamboo

in more or less evergreen forest. Seems to spend most of its time hunting about

on the ground.

[Birds from the Henzada foothills (100 ft. to 700 ft.) and from Ngapali

at sea-level and Leindon, Thayetmyo, I think are all the same. The coloration

of the upper part varies ; in one from Sandoway it is quite as in the Thayet-

myo bird. Two others from Sandoway shot the same day are greyer on the

mantle; all have the dark marks at the side of the neck, and blackish marks

behind the occiput as in mandelli , but have shorter wings and finer and

paler breast markings, and the ear-coverts and flanks are paler. The type of

minus came from Thayetmyo and is a very bad skin. Mr. Kinnear could

not of course have seen the above series when (Ibis 1929, p. 294) he made

minus a synonym of subochraceum. Minus 3 69.5-70 mm., 9 65.5-69.5 mm.

Mandelli large series 3 9 67-74 mm., mostly over 70 mm. The bird referred

to as ‘ ruficeps subsp. ?’ from east of the Irrawaddy at Ngaphaw (Prome dis-

trict) (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. 671) is quite different again and belongs to the

subochraceum group, though it does not quite match any others available to me.

In the British Museum birds from Mount Victoria (Chin Hills), Mount

Popa (Myingyan), Meiktila and ‘Saw-Kawton Road’ (?) I consider to be also

minus. Birds from Mingin and Kani (Upper and Lower Chindwin) appear

to be mandelli. Birds from Pegu, Rangoon, Toungoo, ‘Tapraw’, Karenni,

‘Taroar’ and ‘Shan States’ are subochraceum or a race of it.

The distribution of these birds still requires working out ; it seems almost

certain that subochraceum is a species and not a race of ruficeps .]

267. Malacocincla sepiaria abbotti Abbott’s Babbler. 3 9 113, 114.

This is also a great skulker and though I believe it to be common in

cane-brake and palm-fern jungle a few miles from Rangoon, it is very rarely

seen. But for its Thrush-like song, it would rarely be detected. I shot a

breeding male which was singing on December 27th, 1931, and on March 26th,

1932, shot a juvenile just out of the nest.

864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVll

As the juvenile plumage has not been described, I may record that the

legs were pinkish flesh, instead of brownish-flesh colour, and the lower mandible

dull yellow instead of grey. The ferruginous on the tail and under-tail coverts

is much less pronounced and the crown is streaked with yellow.

The adults crept all round me, churring harshly and occasionally singing,

in a dense tangle of palm-fern.

283. Mixornis r. rubricapilla Yellow -breasted Babbler. 2 3 51, 205, 218,

619.

This probably occurs all over the area but is a skulker in bamboo jungle

and scrub, and rarely observed. I obtained one in the Pilakat reserve, one

in the Henzada foothills and two on the eastern side of the Pegu yoma.

[The Henzada bird is a typical rubricapilla, and not the race I consider

to be sulphureus which Mr. Stanford obtained near Prome.]

290. Alcippe poioicephala phayrei Arakan Quaker-Babbler. 3 9 610, 611.

Several seen along the Nyaung stream in evergreen jungle and bamboo

near Kyibin (Henzada) on February 12th, 1931. One male showed signs of

breeding.

[As I have already pointed out (Bull B.O.C., vol. 1, p. 84) the acquisition

of a small series of this babbler from its type locality, proves that the Assam

race is not phayrei but must stand as i. p. fusca, Godwin Austen (type

examined), from Garo Hills in British Museum. — C.B.T.]

362. >Egithina tlphia Common Iora.

Occurs over the whole area, but is nowhere very common.

368. Chloropsis aurifrons Gold-fronted Chloropsis. 3 c? 2 9 209, 507,

544-45, 553.

Seems a common forest bird all over the area. I did not observe, or obtain,

any of the other species of Chloropsis.

400. Molpastes cafer burmanicus Burmese Bedvented Bulbul.

Fairly common as far south as Bangoon wherever there is scrub-jungle.

412. Otocompsa jocosa erythrotis Burmese Bedwhiskered Bulbul.

This bird seems to be much commoner in Insein and Henzada than it

is in Prome, and is probably the commonest plains bulbul, and found right

down to the sea in the Sittang-Elephant Point plain, where I have seen it

in the holly scrub in the tidal creeks.

I have seen birds paired on December 8th, and it breeds in bamboo round

Bangoon throughout February, being very common in the scrub south of

Mingaladon.

413. Otocompsa f. flaviventris Black-crested Yellow Bulbul. 2 3 31,

500, 520.

Common and apparently resident at a low altitude in both yomas. It is

partial to streams bordered by evergreen bamboo jungle. A large flock appeared

in my garden at Insein for about an hour on November 9th, 1929, and then

moved southwards as if migrating. A single bird seen on the Secretariat in

Bangoon on October 31st was also probably a migrant. Armstrong noted that

it occurred even on the ships in Bangoon harbour, and Harington found it in

the gardens of Bangoon from which, with the spread of building, it has long

since disappeared. I have not seen it in the scrub jungle south of Mingaladon

where four other species of Bulbuls are common.

[These two birds labelled males have wings of 87 and 87.5 mm. thus reach-

ing the maximum given for the southern race minor. Most Pegu birds re-

semble Indian ones. — C.B.T.]

420. Iole v. virescens Olive Bulbul. 9 604.

Oates considered it a common forest bird in Pegu. The only one seen or

obtained by me was one shot on February 11th near Kyibin (in Henzada).

427. Pycnonotus finlaysoni finlaysoni Finlayson’s Stripe-throated Bulbul.

428. Pycnonotus finlaysoni davisoni Davison’s Stripe-throated Bulbul.

2 3 1 9 2, 197-98.

Davisoni occurs in the scrub jungle on the laterite ridge between Bangoon

and Mingaladon, but it is a great skulker and I have found it difficult to

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-IRRAWADDY PLAIN 865

observe. This is close to the place where Davison, according to Oates, pro-

cured the type, though according to the Fauna (i, p. 413) this race was first

described by Hume ( Stray Feathers, iii, p. 301, 1895) from Arakan. I also

saw a pair in the old Zepathwe reserve on February 18th close to the sea.

I obtained two finlaysoni in similar country on the laterite ridge behind

Kawkadut where it was breeding. This is in Thaton district and presumably

the Sittang-Bangoon river plain is the boundary between the two races. In

this area, I heard several times a song rather like that of an Acrocephalus

which seemed to be of this bird.

I saw a pair of davisoni on November 15th near Bangoon which from their

behaviour undoubtedly had a nest or young close by. Several were seen in

pairs in January, but after that they seemed to disappear and were rarely

seen, though the liquid babbling alarm note was frequently heard in the cane-

brake valleys of the scrub near Mingaladon.

In the Fauna the iris is described as ‘pale to deep brown’. Oates correctly

notes it as ‘pale yellow’ and the iris is most conspicuous in the field, as is a

fulvous-yellow line just above the lores.

434. Pycnonotus plumosus blanfordi Blanford’s Olive Bulbul, 9 9 47,

485, 637.

Common and very widely distributed, but not a forest bird. A female ob-

tained on February 14th was about to breed and a nest in bamboo on

June 15th contained half-grown young.

439. Microtarsus melanocephalus Black-headed Bulbul.

442. Microtarsus cinereoventris Grey-bellied Bulbul. 2^3 $ 3, 4,

10, 46, 64, 498, 499.

Melanocephalus is common in the cane-brake and scrub jungle between Ban-

goon and Hlawga. On January 1st, 1930 I shot a female cinereoventris sitting

beside a male melanocephalus while the latter was singing to it. I also ob-

tained this bird in the Henzada foothills in company with Otocompsa flavi-

ventris. A male melanocephalus seen courting on February 16th sat at right

angles to the female and bowed repeatedly up and down on a telegraph wire.

492. Saxicola caprata burmanica Burmese Stonechat. <$ $ 478, 598.

Common and distributed over the whole area, except in the Sittang paddy-

plain where I never saw any. On February 8th most seemed to have paired.

497. Saxicola torquata stejnegeri Japanese Bushchat. 582.

Common over the whole area down to the sea from November to April.

I noticed on January 30th, 1931, while motoring across the paddy-plain near

Danubyu, that males of this species were to be seen every hundred yards along

the road for six or seven miles but no females.

498. Saxicola torquata leucura White-tailed Bushchat. 3 3 9 423-4,

450, 452, 580-1.

Seems common in Prome, Henzada and North Insein but is confined to

the riverine area where pea-fields or kaing grass occur, exactly the same

country as the Striated Marsh Warbler haunts. I have seen birds obviously

paired in early January, and young on the wing on May 21st. A male with

enlarged gonads was shot on February 3rd.

501. Oreicola jerdoni Bushchat. 596.

I shot one on February 8th, 1931 in kaing grass at Leikchaung near Hen-

zada. As Oates thought, it appears to be a bird of ‘extreme rarity’ in Lower

Burma.

520. Enicurus immaculatus Black-backed Forktail.

Occurs on the yoma streams in Insein and Henzada. I did not collect any.

538. Cyanosylvia suecica robusta Chinese Bed-spotted Blue-throat. 18,

72, 134, 169.

Seen both in Insein and Henzada. On the great Sittang plain it is a

common bird of the open stubble but very shy, and all the view one gets of

it is of a dark bird flitting away some distance off. If watched on the

ground, its robin-like carriage and eyestripe are noticeable. I have seen birds

ill the Yandoon Island as late as April 23rd,

866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

542. Calliope calliope Common Euby-throat. 504.

The only one seen or shot in four years was one obtained by Mr. Henricks

in scrub-jungle at Htugyi (Henzada) on January 12th, 1931.

559. Copsychus s. saularis Magpie Eobin. 496.

Common and occurs right down to the sea in the scrub- jungle along the

tidal creeks.

563. Kittacincla malabarica iodica Shama. 22, 23, 512.

Common in both districts, but a bird of dense bamboo jungle and seldom

seen. Eggs were found in April and May.

[There seems no doubt that Burmese and North Indian birds are not the

same as birds from South India, as they have considerably shorter tails,

S 138-162 mm. against 160-200 in South India. Mr. Baker named this

northern bird (Fauna, ii, p. 118) indica distinguishing it from Malayan birds

which he called macroura. As he described and named a bird from Bhutan,

his name must stand though he did not distinguish the North Indian bird

from the southern one ; indica is not a pure renaming of malabarica as Mr.

Kloss has suggested (Ibis 1931, p. 338). — C.B.T.]

581. Turdus obscurus subsp. Dark Thrush. <$ 9 621, 634.

I obtained three solitary birds in scrub- jungle (a) near Nyaunggon, Insein

district in January 1930; (b) on February 13th, 1931 near Kyibin in Henzada;

(c) on February 14th, a few miles from Kyibin at Legongyi. Of the first only

a wing was preserved. One was with pipits and Motacilla alba at a pool

in a stream and flew silently up into the jungle, and sat there motionless for

a long time. The last also, when disturbed flitted away under a bush and

remained motionless. The stomach of this bird contained fragments of dead

leaves and ants.

587. Geokichla c. citrina Orange-headed Ground Thrush.

Not seen, except for a solitary bird on the Thanat stream in Insein in

October 1929.

610. Monticola solitaria affinis Burmese Blue Bock Thrush. <5* 600.

Not uncommon in the cold weather and I have seen it in the middle of

Eangoon.

[Under the name affinis Blyth described from Tenasserim a bird with more

or less chestnut on the underparts. Such birds are common in Burma. The

Chinese form ( philippensis ) has the underparts, from breast to undertail coverts,

chestnut, while pandoo has none at all. Between these two extremes, all inter-

gradations are to be met with. — C.B.T.]

614-615. Myiophoneus temmincki subsp. Whistling Thrush.

I saw a pair on the Nankatu stream near Kyibin (Henzada) in the yoma

foothills in February 1931. Otherwise I did not observe this bird in the

area and obtained no specimens.

639. Siphia parva albicilla Eed-breasted Fly-catcher.

Common from September to March over a great part of the area.

659. Cyornis rubeculoides dialilaema Salvadori’s Blue Fly-catcher. $ 9

447, 618, 647.

I obtained one in December and two in February in bamboo jungle along

the Henzada foothills.

665. Eumyias thalassina Verditer Fly-catcher. $ 9 427, 467.

I shot two in Henzada and did not observe many elsewhere.

674. Anthipes olivaceus poliogenys Brook’s Fly-catcher. 9 647.

I shot one at Kanazo near Chondaung in the Henzada yoma on February

16th, 1931. It was not shy and sat near me like a Eobin for some time in

dense evergreen jungle.

679. Culicicapa ceylonensis Grey-headed Fly-catcher.

Fairly common in the cold weather all over the area, and a bird of open

woodland.

689. Tchitrea paradisi Paradise Fly-catcher.

In viewr of Oates’ statement that this bird ‘occurs in large numbers in

September and October’ in Pegu, I looked out for it, but the only one observed

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-1RRAWADDY PLAIN 867

was a single female which appeared in my garden in Eangoon on October 17th,

1932.

693. Hypothymis azurea styani Northern Indian Black-naped Fly-catcher.

52.

Common in the Henzada foothills in February 1931, and also in the cold

weather near Insein.

701. Rhipidura aureola burmanica White-browed Fantail Fly-catcher.

9 539.

Not uncommon, though only one was obtained.

[703.? Rhipidura albicollis vel. javanica? White-throated or Java Fantail

Fly -catcher.

I noted one of these species as common in the Zepathwe reserve near the

sea, and all I saw in February 1932 were in pairs, or single birds. The

supercilium in the field is practically invisible, and the bird in the field looks

completely black except for a white line on the throat and the tips of the

tail feathers. I regret not having collected any Specimens as this bird was

very partial to mangrove jungle, in which situation Davison found R. javanica

in Mergui (B.B., i, 267). It is to be hoped that specimens of the Fantail

Fly-catcher occurring on the Hanthawaddy coast will be forthcoming ere long.

I assumed at the time they were albicollis and was unfortunately unable to

return to this area to make certain.]

711. Lanius colluroides Burmese Shrike. <$ 537.

Occurs in winter in Henzada but south of this it is by no means common.

712-713. Lanius nigriceps Black-headed Shrike.

Despite Oates’ remark that it is resident in Burma and 'far commoner

in the rains’, I am satisfied that over the greater part of the area dealt with,

this large and distinctive bird is now very uncommon. In 1931-1932 I kept a

very close watch on the Shrikes and in the huge area covered only saw one,

a single bird near the coast at Kamakalok. In ten days in August 1931 at

Kalaw, Southern Shan States, I only saw one, where colluroides was very

common.

720. Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike. 2 2 9 540, 542, 555, 575.

The common Shrike of Lower Burma from early September to April ; its

harsh swearing note can be heard all day long in and around Bangoon.

724. Hemipus p. picafus Black-backed Pied Shrike. 603.

Not seen except for a male shot in the Henzada foothills in February

which showed signs of breeding.

[Typical picatus, which is slightly smaller than capitalis. — C.B.T.]

729. Tephrodornis pondicerianus Common Wood Shrike. 217, 552, 627.

Apart from a single bird shot on the eastern side of the Pegu yomas at

Dodan on 10th May, 1932, few Wood Shrikes were observed over the greater

part of the area, but I obtained males about to breed on January 23rd and

February 13th in Henzada.

734. Pericrocotus speciosus fraterculus Burmese Scarlet Minivet. 9 622.

I collected very few minivets and found them difficult to distinguish in

the field. The only one shot of this species was accompanying a travelling

flock of Velvet-fronted Nuthatches and other birds.

744. Pericrocotus r. roseus Rosy Minivet. 446.

I shot one out of a large flock at Inbin (Henzada) in December 1930,

the only ones identified for certain.

746. Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus Burmese Small Minivet. 13, 14, 27.

This was the common Minivet of the woodland west of Elephant Point,

nearly all being seen in the ‘Kambala’ trees. Armstrong noted its abundance

along the coast.

754. Lalage melaschista avensis Pale Grey Cuckoo Shrike. $ 115, 548.

Only odd birds seen both in Insein and Henzada, one of which in very

worn plumage was shot at Kyetpyugan on March 25th,

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

758. Graucalus macei siamensis Siamese Large Cuckoo Shrike. 517.

A forest bird and very local in Henzada and Insein. Partial to teak jungle.

763. Artamus f. fuscus Ashy Swallow Shrike. c S 9 433, 588.

Only seen in small numbers except at Inbin on December 27th when a

large flight appeared at dusk and disappeared into a leafy tree to roost.

[There seems to be very little variation in this species. Birds from North

India, Madras and Burma are indistinguishable. — C.B.T.]

767-769. Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo. $ S 434, 569.

In the cold weather this bird gathers at night in amazing numbers to roost

in bamboo near Bangoon. Until 1931 I was under the impression — as appar-

ently was Oates — that it was ‘either absent or very rare’ in Lower Burma

after March (‘January to October’, Oates) and in his day it was apparently

not known to breed.

A number of pairs undoubtedly bred in tamarind, gold mohur and other

trees near Henzada in 1931. I saw a bird sitting in May, and on May 30th

two young drongos just out of the nest. Another nest was high up in a huge

tree in my garden. All these birds seemed to be extraordinarily silent and

self-effacing at this time of year, and a close watch had to be kept to find

them at all.

In 1932 I noticed Drongos near Bangoon till late May 1932 after which

they disappeared, and breeding pairs were seen in the Yandoon Island in

late April. I also saw pairs I suspected to be breeding on the Thanatpin-

Kamase Boad in Pegu in April. This bird’s status in Lower Burma needs

working out.

771. Dicrurus leucophaeus subsp. ? Grey Drongo.

773. Drongo. 12, 13, 17, 69, 519, 620.

I obtained a few specimens of this puzzling species both in Henzada and

Insein, but not enough to throw any light on the distribution of the races,

nor did I see any breeding. I got the impression that the same bird in

different lights presented considerable apparent variation in colouring, most as

far as I could see being of the pale variety, though some seen in the grounds

of the Bangoon University at close range in early November had very dark

cheeks, wings and back, with the pale breast noticeable by contrast.

A further large series is necessary to determine the race.

780. Chaptia aenea aenea Northern Bronzed Drongo.

This is a forest bird and occurs in the foothills of the yomas on both

sides.

[The Bronzed Drongo is one of those species which exhibits a smaller

race at the end of the arc South India-Malaya. Pegu birds are nearer the

typical race (wing up to 126 mm.), than to malayensis but are slightly inter-

mediate as one might expect. — C.B.T.]

782. Chibia h. hottentotta Indian Hair-crested Drongo. 612, 617.

Occurs all along the Henzada yoma from Tonbo in Prome southwards. It

seems to be a forest bird and I saw few near Bangoon, but a party of five

which were seen in the University Estate on November 5th were probably

migrants.

[The long hairs on the head of this bird do not spring from the posterior

part of the crown, as has been stated, but from the forehead. The first year

bird has less glossy tail and wings, and less curled outer tail feathers, as well

as shorter frontal hairs than adults. 5 <$ wing 161-168 mm. — C.B.T.]

788. Dissemurus paradiseus rangoonensis Burmese Large Backet-tailed

Drongo. 116.

Common throughout the area wherever there is fairly dense woodland and

is still seen in and near Bangoon. It struck me as being very abundant on

the western edge of the Pegu yoma.

797. Acrocephalus arundinaceus orientalis Eastern Great Beed Warbler.

2 SS 23, 129, 173, 528.

I obtained one skulking in kaing grass in Henzada on January 18th and

each small tank on the Sittang Plain held -one or two of these birds through-

out the open season. One was shot while singing, and I heard others, in

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN G-IRRAW ADDY PLAIN 869

bushes far out on the plain of the Yandoon Island, at the end of April 1932.

Possibly they breed here in the rains.

[ Locustella‘> I frequently flushed undoubted Grasshopper Warblers in the

Sittang Plain, especially out of the tufts of tall grass growing between the

paddy-fields, but they rarely offered one a chance to shoot and would dive into

the undergrowth at one’s feet and disappear like a mouse.]

814. Orthotomus sutorius patia Burmese Tailor Bird. 56.

Common and breeds in the gardens of Rangoon, but I only collected one

specimen.

825. Cisticola juncidis nialayana Streaked Fantail Warbler. 2 2 9

468, 469, 480, 530.

Seems fairly common.

827. Franklinia gracilis Franklin’s Wren Warbler. $ 206, 207.

The only ones seen for certain were males obtained — apparently about

to breed — in paddy-cultivation on the edge of forestland in Pegu — east of the

yoma — on May 10th.

828. Franklinia r. rufescens Beavan’s Wren Warbler. $ 653, 654.

Mr. Henricks obtained two males near Legongyi on the edge of the Henzada

yoma on February 17th.

836. IWegalurus palustris Striated Marsh Warbler. 2 1 9 477, 577,

663.

Extremely common in the Irrawaddy- Sittang Plain wherever peafields, or

rough grass and cane-grass occur along streams. Individuals were in full song

on December 8th.

839. Phragmaticola aedon Thick-billed Warbler. 2 2 9 491, 535-36,

549.

A number were shot in Henzada in January and February, mostly in

bushes near water.

852. Phylloscopus affinis Tickell’s Willow Warbler. 177.

I shot a single bird in tamarind scrub near Prome on 17th February, 1929.

860. Phylloscopus fuscatus Dusky Willow Warbler. 5 $ 2 9 16, 174,

176, 493, 494, 495, 518, 564, 565.

I obtained three in Prome in 1929 and most of those seen in Henzada

were of this species. They were usually in scrub jungle near pools, but two

were in peas and high grass and in this situation, with their low ‘ chuck ’-ing

note and skulking movements, looked much like Acrocephali. It was also com-

mon in the Zepathwe reserve near the sea, and along the coast.

[In a series of this warbler one can see differences in the colouration of

the upper parts, some being browner, others greyer. This difference may

possibly be due to age and it would not be safe to recognise any races on

birds in their winter quarters. I have seen no specimens of homey eri nor

of altaicus. — C.B.T.]

876. Phylloscopus nitidus plumbeitarsus Middendorff’s Willow Warbler.

502.

Mr. Henricks obtained one on January 12th at Htugyi in Henzada.

943. Prinia inornata blanfordi Tenasserim Wren-Warbler. 2 <5 2 9 225,

470-74, 523, 562-63.

Common, usually in grassland near water, but occasionally in bush jungle

in quite waterless grazing grounds.

[I do not think that burmanica (type locality Mandalay) is a recognisable

race. The type and two others from that locality were obtained in June and

are in somewhat worn breeding dress. There are also available birds in

similar dress from Maymyo in August. This series does not differ in colouration

from a series of Pegu birds obtained in July. It is said that blanfordi (type

locality Toungoo) never attains a black bill in the breeding season, and possibly

this is quite correct, but, although the type of burmanica has a black bill,

none of the rest of the series has, so his distinction falls to the ground also.

Winter birds from Mandalay district are badly needed. 4 males from

Henzada: wing 50.5-53 mm., tail 69-76 mm. (winter). 2 females from Hen-

zada: wing 46.5-50, tail 63-66 mm. (winter). — C.B.T.]

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

950-51. Irena puella subsp. Fairy Blue Bird.

Not seen apart from one or two in the Henzada yomas at about 1,000 ft.

955. Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris Burmese Black-naped Oriole. $ 556.

Few Orioles were collected. This was the only one shot in Henzada and

seemed to be the common Oriole round Rangoon.

964. Eulabes religiosa subsp. Indian Grackle.

Not uncommon in the yomas on both sides but I have never seen it in

the plains. A forest bird.

972. Psaroglossa spiloptera Spotted-winged Stare. $ $ 601, 602.

The only ones seen were a large flock on a Bombax tree near Kwingauk

(Henzada), on February 11th. This flock presented a remarkably beautiful

appearance, as each bird was sitting, in a curiously upright posture, on the

top of a tree, with the chestnut throat gleaming in the sun.

This is a bird only occasionally., seen, and its movements are all too

little known. Oates never met it.

[This bird is very variable in the male plumage. The type of assamensis

from the Khasia Hills is an exceptionally deep-coloured bird and there are

very few like it in the British Museum. From Assam, however, there are a

great many birds which are not different from Western Himalayan birds, and,

therefore, I cannot recognise assamensis as a tenable race. — C.B.T.]

987. Sturnia malabarica nemoricola Grey-headed Mynah, $ 522, 568.

Mostly seen from October to April but certainly breeds in Insein. It is

very partial to feeding on the branches of mango-trees.

[This race varies very much in the colouration of the underparts and, no

doubt, pink-breasted birds, such as one of these males from Henzada with

black primary coverts, have given rise to the old records of malabarica in

Burma. This bird is not distinguished from females of malabarica but is

paler than any male of that race. — C.B.T.]

996. Acridotheres t. tristis Common Mynah.

Very common and resident. It is the only bird I know which habitually

walks about singing while looking for its food.

999. iCthiopsar fuscus subsp.? Jungle Mynah.

A common bird all over the area, and even in outer Rangoon ; I have

seen very large gatherings at roosting time at the Tadagale sewage farm,

and in kaing grass and bushes near Henzada.

1007. Sturnopastor contra superciliaris Burmese Pied Mynah. 9 558.

Common and resident.

1011. Ploceus inforlunatus burmanicus = passerinus auct. Eastern Baya. U 429.

I did not collect any breeding Bay as. A non-breeding bird shot at Kyangin

(Henzada) in December was the only one obtained.

[This, unlike those collected by Mr. Stanford at Ngaphaw, Prome District,

undoubtedly belong to this species and not to philippinus. As I have already

pointed out, the name passerinus , which has been used for this weaver, as

well as atrigula and baya, are synonyms of philippinus. — C.B.T.]

1015. Ploceus manyar Striated Weaver Bird.

I saw a few but did not collect any, and am unable to define the bird’s

status in the area.

1016. Ploceella chrysaea Golden Weaver Bird. 579.

Common. I saw a colony breeding on toddy palms in Henzada on June 12th

and another colony of nests in a small acacia tree in the Rangoon Turf Club

stables quite regardless of the constant disturbance of horses and men within

a few feet of them. In Prome it breeds in reed beds with Ploceus infortu-

natus.

1020. Munia atricaoilla rubronigra Northern Chestnut-bellied Munia. c? 488.

Common. In Henzada it was still in flocks in mid-June but I found

many nests in the third week of July. In Insein I have seen birds building

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN G-1RRA WADDY PLAIN 871

as late as November 1st. Bushes or kaing grass clumps close to water are

the favourite situations.

[Typical Nepal birds ( rubronigra ) have the belly and undertail coverts black,

whereas Malay examples ( atricapilla ) have these parts sullied chestnut. Nepal

birds are larger, wing 55-56 mm., against 52-53 mm. in Malay birds. A

series from Pegu measures 52-56 mm. and not only do they show the extreme

measurements of both races but every intergradation in the colour of the

underparts. They are in fact, exact intermediates between the two races.

1025. Uroloncha striata subsquamicollis White-backed Munia. 4 9 629,

632.

In Henzada it is either rare or very local and was not seen elsewhere.

I shot four out of a flock near Kyibin feeding on seeds of Cephalostachyum

pergracile. Later, on May 2nd, I saw a pair building in a bush in the bazaar

quarter of Henzada town and on May 22nd another pair was collecting nesting

material in my garden. This struck me as unusual, as this munia is normally

a forest munia and very rarely seen elsewhere.

[I leave these for the present as subsquamicollis pending revision of the

group.]

1032. Uroloncha punctulata subundulata Burmese Spotted Munia. $ 9 425,

426.

Common, and breeds on houses even in Bangoon. I have seen pairs build-

ing in late November when most Munias were in flocks and have also seen

flocks as late as mid-dune.

[This very difficult species of munia wants revising. In the meantime I

leave these Burmese birds under the name given to the Assam race. Baker

recognised this race in the Fauna (iii, 92) but in the synonymy (vii, 223) it

is sunk as a synonym of punctulata. — C.B.T.]

1037. Amandava a. f lavidiventris Burmese Bed Munia. 3 S 463-4-5, 599.

Common and winters. Seen in flocks up to mid- June. A bird of kaing

grass.

[I certainly should regard this bird as a race of the Indian Bed Munia.

Outside India there are such obvious gaps in the distribution of A. amandava

that it seems certain that where it occurs, it must have been introduced. —

C.B.T.]

1097, Passer domesticus nigricollis Burmese House Sparrow. S 9 437,

438.

Those obtained were from a breeding colony at Inbin (Henzada) in Decem-

ber. This sparrow is very local all over the area, montayius taking its place

as a house-sparrow, and in Henzada it is more often seen round fishing huts

and near the river where, I suspect, it nests in the holes made by Sand

Martins. I have seen both domesticus and montanus in large flocks in mid-

June.

1102. Passer montanus malaccensis Indian Tree Sparrow. 6.

This is the true house-sparrow throughout the area and far more abundant

and less shy than domesticus. It seems to nest at all seasons, but mainly

from August to November. Harington’s description of it as ‘partially migra-

tory, disappearing in the middle of the rains and returning in November’ is

not now true of the Bangoon district.

1108. Passer flaveolus Pegu House- Sparrow. 3 (S' 1 9 449, 492, 559,

560.

Common in Henzada and winters. Breeds in bungalows in company with

montanus. Not common in Insein.

1120-1. Emberiza fucata subsp. Grey-headed Bunting. 1 S' 4 9 66-68,

133, 177.

I saw one- in Henzada on April 26th with a flock of aureola and found

it common in the Sittang-China Bakir plain. It is a shy bird of the stubble

and easily overlooked, unless specially searched for, but in the Yandoon

Island, where water is scarce, it is very familiar and comes close up to the

cultivators’ field huts. In April, besides the chestnut cheek-patch, the chest-

nut scapulars are very noticeable in the field.

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

1131. Emberiza aureola Yellow-breasted Bunting. 3 2 o 171. 191,

428, 479, 660.

Very common from October to early May. Boosts in very large numbers

in the bushes fringing streams. In late April many old males are completely

black about the lores and cheeks and the pectoral band is very pronounced,

but the rest show great individual variation.

1148. Riparia paludicola chinensis Indian Sand Martin. <5 9 489, 591.

I have never so far been able to detect ijimae. Many are breeding by

November, but I have shot non-breeding females in January. It is apparently

resident as I have seen large flocks in June and July.

The young of this bird when on the wing, appear to show a good deal of

white on the rump, due to the pale edges of the feathers.

1153. Hirundo rustica gutturalis Eastern Swallow. 4 9 117-18, 201, 557.

1154. Hirundo rustica tytleri Tytler’s Swallow.

Local name: Pyan-hlwa.

As Oates did, I have noticed individuals of gutturalis almost throughout the

year, except possibly from June 1st to July 15th. I have seen a good many

tytleri both in November and April with rich chestnut flanks and belly, but

failed to obtain any in Lower Burma.

1159-63. Hirundo daurlca subsp. Striated Swallow. 2^1$ 457-8-9.

Very common in the cold weather and a jheel-haunting bird, in Lower

Burma, which does not appear to breed. I have seen individuals in mid- July.

(I kept a close lookout for H. smithii which was obtained near Bangoon in

Oates’ day, and recorded by Harington, but failed to detect it.)

1170. Motacilla alba ocularis Streak-eyed Wagtail. $ 184.

I shot one near Yandoon (Maiibin) on April 25.

1173. Motacilla alba leucopsis White Wagtail. 1 cf 3 9 484, 497, 649, 650.

All obtained in Henzada were of this race and it is common until about

mid-March.

1176. Motacilla flava simillima G-rey-headed Wagtail. 8 $ 7 9 134,

174-5-6, 182, 186-7-8, 200, 210, 451-3, 521, 660, 662.

All obtained in Henzada were of this race, and occurred up to early May.

In the hot weather of 1932 I obtained a further series in April and May in

Yandoon (Maiibin), Kyaikto (Thaton) and in parts of the Pegu division, two of

which from Maiibin ■ were identified as macronyx. The majority, after very

careful observation with powerful glasses at short range, were noted as having

‘dark greyish head and nape, lores, cheeks and ear-coverts almost black, throat

and breast bright yellow, tail very dark. A few birds with paler heads have

a faint streak behind the eye.’ A male in very fresh plumage (175) had the tip

of the chin pure white and a pure white patch behind the gape. There is no

doubt that none of the full plumaged males in the field seem to show any trace

of a supercilium which is supposed in the Fauna to be characteristic of flava.

In Lower Burma, the Yellow Wagtail is not a water-hunting bird : the great

majority feed on the dry grassy uplands or far out on the paddy plain. In

Maiibin they follow the plough. On April 24th I saw many large flocks flight-

ing to roost in Yandoon.

[These birds are of the same type of flava as were in the Prome collection

and which, for the present, I keep as simillima. They resemble thunbergi but

have slightly longer bills. The supercilium is absent in some and slightly in-

dicated in others. This may be pure individual variation. — C.B.T.]

1174. Motacilla cinerea caspica Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Common from late September to March and I have frequently seen birds

feeding on laterite roads far from water.

1181. Motacilla c. citreola Yellow-headed Wagtail, d 9 9 132, 183, 430.

This is the real water-wagtail, being a bird of jlieels and rivers, and rarely

seen far from water. It occurs all over the area and I have twice seen large

numbers on the Irrawaddy flocking at roosting time, once as late as April 25th.

1182. Dendronanthus indicus Forest Wagtail.

By no means uncommon, even in the ‘Suburban Development’ area near

Bangoon, where Harington describes it as a rare winter visitor. I have only

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG -IRRAWADDY PLAIN &73

noticed it from October to March and saw it in bamboo jungle, dry deciduous

jungle in the Henzada yomas, and in mango clumps. It has a faint single

note which is difficult to locate, and when flushed flies into a tree and much

resembles a Tree Pipit.

1186. Anthus hodgsoni subsp. Teee Pipit.

A winter visitor and nearly always found in the shade of tamarind trees,

though occasionally seen in bamboo. Leaves in early April.

1193. Anthus r. richardi Bichard’s Pipit.

Common all over the area. In the hot weather when motoring at mid-day

along a road through the Sittang Plain, where small trees have been planted at

regular intervals, I noticed single Pipits sitting in the shade of each tree for

a distance of three or four miles.

In 1931 some remained until the first week in May.

1195. Anthus richardi rufinus Indian Pipit. 2^49 431, 471, 473, 483,

659.

Very common. A male shot on February 18th had enlarged gonads and I

found a sitting bird in mid-April.

1199. Anthus cervinus Bed-throated Pipit. $ 33, 59, 124-5, 222.

In Henzada a bird of the kaing -cultivation and partial to water, but out

in the great Sittang paddy-plain in March and April, frequently seen in large

flocks on burnt stubble, the immense number in the area only being realised

when one sees the constant stream of birds coming to drink at the scattered

tanks. I saw birds assuming spring plumage as early as February 10th and

it occurs up to the fourth week in April on the stubble.

1215. Alauda g. gulgula Indian Skylark. S 6 9 121, 122, 481, 482.

Noted as singing in December and a young bird just out of the nest was

obtained on January 7th. Two breeding males with enlarged gonads were shot

in the Sittang Plain on April 1st. These birds seem to prefer the wide ex-

panses of ‘dhoob’ grass and the peafields to the stubble; I saw flocks in

mid- August near Bangoon which were probably immigrants.

[These birds are a richer creamy brown below and darker above than

most gulgula and have more buff on the tail. Winter birds from Pegu in the

British Museum I cannot differentiate from gulgula. — C.B.T.]

1225. Calandrella r. raytal Ganges Sand Lark. 3 S 2 9 455-56, 584-85,

589.

Though Oates thought it did not occur South of Prome, I found it abundant

right through the Prome and Henzada districts and down the Irrawaddy as

far south as the Yandoon Island. So little of the island land survives at

the height of the rains that it would be interesting to know if this bird per-

forms a local migration then.

I have heard it singing in early December and saw many paired on Decem-

ber 26th but they apparently do not start breeding before mid-February.

[These are quite indistinguishable from birds from the Ganges. 3 males :

wing 82 mm.; 2 females: wing 75 mm. — C.B.T.]

1253. Zosterops siamensis Siamese White-eye. 29.

I saw several large parties in the Zepathwe reserve near the sea in mid-

February 1932 and did not observe it otherwise.

1257. Chalcoparia singalensis Buby Cheek.

I saw a single male near Henzada in July 1931.

1279. Cinnyris asiatica intermedia Burmese Purple Sunbird. 3$ 9 145,

513, 614, 656.

Several were obtained along the foot of the Henzada yomas from Decem-

ber to February.

1284. Cinnyris f. flammaxillaris Yellow-breasted Sunbird. $ 486, 645.

Two obtained in Henzada at Ingabu and Legongyi.

[The difference in the amount of white in the tail, between this Sunbird

and asiatica, in the females is not distinct, and in the absence of paired females

of flammaxillaris I can give no certain distinctions for separating the two. —

C.B.T.]

874 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVil

1345. Picus canus hessei Burmese Black-naped Green Woodpecker. 9

508.

I shot a female which wTas ydth a flock of Laughing Thrushes at Kywezin

in the Henzada yoma on January 13th. (wing 155 mm.)

[Wing 155 mm. Glydenstolpei (Assam) $ wing 140-146 mm. ; hessei (North

Siam) (J wing 142-154 mm. This specimen in colour also is nearest to hessei

but the two races intergrade. — C.B.T.]

1346-8. Picus chlorolophus Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

I saw individuals in the yoma foothills of Henzada and Insein but collected

none,

1372. Dryobates analis Iongipennis Spotted -breasted Pied Woodpecker.

<$ 9 533, 550.

Two were obtained on the northern border of the Henzada district in

January 1931. They are small, shy and difficult to observe.

[Wing 97 mm. D. analis (Java) measure mostly $ 92-96 mm. and longi-

pennis (Siam, Bangkok) mostly 98-102 mm. Burmese birds correspond fairly

well with Siamese birds in being on the whole longer than Javan birds. The

spotting on the breast seems variable in both races and good skins are needed

to see any constant difference. Single birds from Burma (Thayetmyo) are no

longer than Javanese birds (wing 92-94 mm.) while a female from Karenni

measures 105 mm. I think Iongipennis should be recognised though it is not a

very well defined race. — C.B.T.]

1379. Dryobtes nanus canicapillus Burmese Pigmy Woodpecker. 3 9

607, 608.

I shot a breeding pair in February 12th in indaing jungle near Kyibin

(Henzada). This bird’s small size, weak flight, and rudimentary crest made

me think both were juveniles.

1389. Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps Burmese Bufous Woodpecker.

3 443.

I shot one of a pair seen at Inbin (Henzada) in teak trees in January 1931

(wing 127 mm.).

1399. Dinopicus javanensis intermedia Golden-backed Three-toed Wood-

pecker. 1 <3 2 9 443, 633-39.

I obtained three at Inbin and Legon in the foothills of Henzada in January

and February, which showed no signs of breeding.

[These types are practically topotypes. — C.B.T.]

1404. Chrysocolaptes g. guttacristatus Tickell’s Golden-backed Wood-

pecker. 9 616.

Fairly common both in Insein and Henzada.

[Wing 162 mm. — C.B.T.]

1424. lynx torquilla japonica Japanese Wryneck. <3 448.

Occasionally seen in winter both in Henzada and Insein, in all sorts of

places.

[Wing 87 mm. This and other Wrynecks from Burma in winter are on

the whole more ochraceous on the underparts than European birds and in this

respect they resemble japonica. The latter are, however, smaller and have

the upper parts and wings darker and more rusty in colouration, whereas the

Burmese birds are like torguilla on these parts. — C.B.T.]

1433. Thereiceryx Iineatus intermedius Burmese Lineated Barbet. 9 641.

Common in both yomas, but a forest, and not a garden bird, as it is in

Northern Burma; I saw a large gathering in Henzada on a Ficus tree in mid-

February.

1436. Cyanops a. asiatica Blue-throated Barbet. 3 643.

I shot one of a pair feeding on Dillenia pulcherrima seeds at Chondaung in

the Henzada yoma foothills on February 16th, 1931, the only ones seen by

me. Oates appears to have no records from the western part of Pegu or the

delta, but this bird was exceedingly common in the Prome yomas on the

Arakan side and probably extends down through Henzada.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN G-1RRA WADDY PLAIN 875

1446. Xantholaema haemacephala indica Burmese Crimson-breasted Barbet.

9 487.

Common all over the area, and a bird of gardens, fields and open country.

1463. Cacomantis menilinus querulus Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo. 2 $

2 $ 7, 35, 460, 546, 547.

Common throughout the area and (except in the breeding season, when

I have seen it in dry scrub jungle, a bird of marshland and jheel sides. This

bird is far from shy, and the only Cuckoo which gives one a good opportunity

to watch it in the field.

[By a slip, two birds obtained by Mr. Stanford in Prome were listed under

Cacomantis sonneratii. — J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 33. — C.B.T.]

1474. Clamator coromandus Bed-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Several times seen in September, October and November, apparently on

passage in Insein. I never observed it at any other time.

1475-76. Eudynamis scolapaceus subsp. ? Koel.

Common, and widely distributed. The only young one seen by me was on

May 4th, being fed by Corvus insolens.

1480. Rhopodytes tristis Large Green-billed Malkoha.

1491. Centropus sinensis intermedius Hume’s Crow Pheasant.

1495. Cenlropus b. benghalensis Lesser Crow Pheasant.

These three birds all occur in the area, Hume’s Crow Pheasant being com-

mon and the others rarely seen.

PSITTACULIDAE.

The region of the foothills west of the railway in Henzada district was

the only place where I had any opportunity to collect these birds, and it was

curious that at each place, only one species was collected and the others were

not seen at all.

1501. Psittacula krameri borealis Eastern Bose-ringed Paroquet.

I saw a few at various places in Henzada but it was not common.

1503. Psittacula cvanocephala benghalensis Blossom-headed Paroquet. 2 G

1 9 439, 440, 441.

Common at Inbin (Henzada) in late December 1930 and a pair seen court-

ing.

1505. Psittacula schisticeps finschi Burmese Slaty-headed Paroquet. 2

506, 509.

Great numbers in flocks near Kywezin (Henzada) in mid- January 1931, and

probably the commonest Paroquet in Henzada. I watched some feeding on

the seeds of Dendrocalamus longispathus.

1508. Psittacula alexandri fasciata Bed-breasted Paroquet. 1 0* 2 9

615, 636, 642.

Abundant down the yoma edge from lvyibin to Legon in mid-February

1931, in pairs and flocks and about to breed. Many were feeding on flowering

Bombax.

1513. Coryllis v. vernalis Indian Loriquet.

Seen both in Insein and Henzada, but it is one of the small silent un-

obtrusive birds which is easy to overlook, and whose status is hard to deter-

mine. I have watched them feeding in a small tree on a village road, taking

no notice of the people passing beneath.

1519. Coracias benghalensis affinis Burmese Boller.

For much of the year, this bird appears to be entirely solitary and one

rarely sees more than one at a time. At certain seasons, considerable num-

bers can be seen together, e.g. on January 14th I watched a large gathering

fighting together among teak trees where they probably intended to breed.

Again on November 22nd I saw a large number on a grazing ground near

Insein, the males displaying and chasing each other and taking long flights

to and fro.

In the rains, only a few single individuals can be seen.

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXVU

1524. Merops orientalis birmanus Buemese G-eeen Bee-eatee. 3 $ 1 9

592, 593.

Common throughout the area, breeding from February onwards. I saw

fledged young on May 2nd. In the sea coast area a large number breed in

holes out on the flat open dunes above the normal tide-mark. I found Bee-

eaters nesting in similar country in the Sunderbunds of the Khulna district,

(Bengal) .

A certain number remain throughout the rains but it is certainly not

nearly so common.

1526. Merops superciliosus javanicus Blue-tailed Bee-eatee.

In Henzada and Insein this bird breeds all over the cultivated kaing land,

in small holes in the pea-fields, in banks and the sides of earthen wells.

On the sea coast on February 21st, I found a number of birds just commencing

to breed on the open flat sand dunes behind the beach. (A party seen flying

North on February 18th were probably on migration.)

Some undoubtedly winter on the Henzada jheels and the Hlawga lakes, but

though it is then very local and easy to overlook, I believe the majority

migrate, and migrants appeared in my garden on October 16th.

1528. Melittophagus e. erythrocephalus Chestnut-headed Bee-eatee.

I saw pairs in forest land in Henzada and Insein and a pair in the

Zepathwe reserve on February 19th. It is a shy bird and easy to overlook.

I think some undoubtedly winter on the Hlawga lakes but Armstrong thought

it a migrant, appearing in February.

1529. Bucia athertoni Blue-beaeded Bee-eatee.

I saw a single bird at an elevation of about 800 ft. in the foothills near

Kongyi (Henzada) in April 1931. It probably extends along the foothills of

both yomas wherever there is evergreen forest.

1531. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Indian Pied Kingfishee. 475, 476.

Common, a bird of the jheels and the shallows of the larger rivers. Mr.

Henricks obtained two young ones just out of the nest on January 7th in

Henzada.

1533. Alcedo attliis benghalensis Common Indian Kingfishee. 26.

Common and widely distributed down to the neighbourhood of the sea

where a few occur in tidal waters in the Zepathwe reserve.

1540. Alcedo meninting subsp. Blue-eaeed Kingfishee.

I am quite sure that I saw this Kingfisher near Kyachaung on the western

side of the Pegu yoma in Insein district in October 1929. I did not obtain any,

but the birds were common in dense bamboo jungle and their very brilliant

colouring was most noticeable. At that time of year I expect they feed largely

on insects.

1544. Ceyx tridactylus Indian Theee-toed Kingfishee.

I saw a single bird in April 1931 at a low altitude in the Henzada foot-

hills and one was shown me as having been obtained in the grounds of the

old Rangoon College near the ‘Old Maidan’. It is a shy species, fond of

bamboo jungle and easy to overlook.

1549. Ramphalcyon capensis Stoek-billed Kingfishee.

Fairly common and widely distributed. Occasionally occurs on the Ran-

goon Lakes.

1551. Halcyon smyrnensis fusca White-beeasted Kingfishee.

Common all over the area, occurring even in the gardens of Rangoon, and

far out on the tidal mud of the sea coast.

1554. Halcyon pileata Black-capped Kingfishee. 24, 25.

Apart from one seen by Mr. Henricks on February 10th, 1931, on the

Kwingauk stream in the Henzada foothills, this bird is confined to tidal

water and was rightly considered by Armstrong to be the most ‘markedly

characteristic’ bird of the Rangoon river coast line. Here it is extremely

abundant, not only alongshore, where it feeds on crabs, but inland as well in

the willow and mangrove jungle, where it is not at all shy. It occurs up to

Rangoon and Insein along the tidal creeks, and I once saw one on the Rangoon

Lakes. In the tidal area, I saw no banks suitable for nesting holes and

possibly it breeds in ants’ nests.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN 0-1RRAW ADDY PLAIN 877

1557. Sauropatis ch. chloris White-collared Kingfisher, 58.

Armstrong obtained four in the Kangoon Kiver delta and considered it

rare. I saw four or five in the forest area west of the Kangoon river, in

Sonneratia jungle along tidal streams, and once in very dry open scrub jungle

with an undergrowth of what Burmans call ‘sea-sessamum’, where a pair were

apparently insect-hunting. The flight is curiously hesitant and weak and they

look more like a Guckoo- Shrike than a Kingfisher in flight. One out of a

pair uttered a cry like a Wryneck. They were not at all shy and are probably

confined to forest country in tidal limits.

1566. Anthracoceros malabaricus Burmese Pied Hornbill.

Harington records both this and Dichoceros bicornis from Taukkyan, Whence

the heavy jungle has long since disappeared. I have seen Anthracoceros in

both the Henzada and Pegu yomas.

15S3. Upupa epops longirostris Burmese Hoopoe. <$ 638.

I think this bird probably performs a local migration to the foothills and

more wooded parts of the country to breed. In 1929 the first birds noticed

were on October 10th and from then on it is common till February. I saw

birds paired and about to breed in the Henzada foothills in mid-February and

in the same year saw young just able to fly, near Kalaw (S.S.S.) in early

August.

1586. Hsrpactes e. erythrocephalus Ked-headed Trogon. B 646.

Occurs in some numbers in the foothills in both yomas.

1593. Micropus p. pacificus Large White-rumped Swift. 9 609.

I shot two out of a large flock hawking over indaing jungle near Kyibin

(Henzada) on February 12th, 1931, the only ones seen for certain.

[This specimen belongs to the typical race; cooki from the Shan States has

much coarser streaks on the throat and rump. As regards the general colour-

ation of the upper parts, season evidently makes a good deal of difference,

for pacificus from Siberia in May is more different from pacificus from Austra-

lia in winter than the latter is to cooki in May. — C.B.T.]

1599. Micropus affinis subfurcatus Malay House Swift.

Breeds in the High Court and Secretariat at Kangoon from June up to

early October. I have seen parties in Kangoon in mid-December but the

bird is usually not noticeable except in the rains. It is noteworthy that Oates

found a pair of Swifts nesting at Wanetkon on the Kangoon-Pegu Koad in

January.

1602. Tachornis batassiensis infumatus Eastern Palm-swift.

Occurs throughout the area, breeding in toddy and cocoanut palms where

they occur. I have not noticed it breeding in the roofs of thatched huts as

it does in Northern Burma.

1616. Hemiprocne coronata Indian Crested-swift.

A very local bird. Nearly all I have seen have been in places where

girdled, or dead, teak-trees occur in fairly open country. This type of country

is common in the northern part of Henzada and in places in Insein.

1629. Caprimulgus monticalus Franklin’s Nightjar. 606.

I shot one and saw others on February 11th, 1931, in the Henzada yoma

foothills. The male shot uttered a curious loud single note unlike a nightjar.

It is noteworthy that all the occurrences noted by Oates are from Eastern

Burma, roughly Toungoo to the Thaungyin valley and that neither Harington,

Mackenzie or Wickham apparently met with this Nightjar.

1630. Caprimulgus asiaticus Common Indian Nightjar. 9 9 657, 658.

On the flood embankments of Insein, numbers could be seen sitting 'after

dark, their eyes gleaming redly from a distance in the lights of a motor. Those

obtained were accidentally killed by me in this way and in Insein 1 once

killed three with my car during an early morning drive. These birds spend

the day in the bushes near the embankments and have probably left to breed

in March, as far as I have observed.

1631. Lyncornis cerviniceps Great-eared Nightjar.

I saw a gathering at Kyachaung in the Insein yomas on October 22nd, 1929 ;

at dusk they were seen flying high over the forest and then six or seven

9

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

gathered to hawk flying-ants, circling close to a tree-top and uttering a low

deep croak. Their size and stately flight distinguished them from the other

Nightjars round the tree. The ears of one shot remained fully erect for some

time after death, and its throat was full of wingless white ants, many still

alive.

1636. Tyto alba The Barn Owl.

1636A. Tyto alba The Barn Owl.

I have seen a few in Hanthawaddy and around Bangoon. Harington

describes it as common in Bangoon — I have not collected any.

[Dr. Hartert has shown that the Indian Barn Owl is not the same as

the Javanese bird (Novit. Zool., xxxv, p. 98, 1929). He has named the

Indian bird (type locality, Cachar) stertens. I have not gone into the question

to which race Burmese birds belong. — C.B.T.]

1643. Asio f. flammeus Short-eared Owl. 421.

I shot one on a sandy island on the Irrawaddy in Henzada on December

24th, 1930, which did not seem to mind the glare of afternoon sunlight on the

sand at all. On February 3rd, 1931, I flushed another while walking pea-

fields for quail near Yele, and in February 1932, two more out of paddy stubble

close to the sea at Kamakalok in the Hanthawaddy district. All these birds

had chosen remarkably shadeless places to lie in by day, and those at Kamaka-

lok had undoubtedly been attracted by a plague of rats.

[No paler than some British examples of the same date. — C.B.T.]

1685. Athene brama pulchra Burmese Spotted-owlet.

This bird is certainly common in Henzada, but Harington observes (p. 55)

that in Bangoon their place is taken by Glaucidium cuculoides.

1690. Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens Burmese Barred-owlet. 211.

The only one seen for certain was obtained on the eastern side of the

Pegu yomas at Aukkanyinmyaung in May 1923. Harington noted it as breed-

ing in February near Bangoon.

1704. Pandion h. haliaetus Osprey..

I have seen this bird on Hlawga Lake in Insein and at various places in

Lower Burma along the larger rivers up to the end of March.

Harington thought it might breed in Burma and, if it does anywhere, the

lonely forest fringing the creeks near China Bakir seems admirably suited

to this species.

1706. Sarcogyps calvus Black Vulture.

Seen in small numbers all over the area. A pair were repairing a nest

in Bangoon in early October and I found another pair in February nesting

in the old Pilakat reserve. At the nest they are remarkably tame, even if

a gun is fired near them.

One seen at close quarters in November 1931 had a noticeable white patch

at the base of the neck.

1713. Pseudogyps bengalensis Indian White-backed Vulture.

Common. It breeds in cocoanut palms in Bangoon where I saw several

incubating on November 9th and I saw others breeding in forest trees in

the Mingalun reserve (Hanthawaddy).

The nests are usually made of dead leaves and branches with the leaves

adhering.

1718. Fa!co peregrinus calidus Eastern Peregrine Falcon.

It is fairly common all over the area from December to mid-April and is

most frequently seen at dusk, when it often takes the same route night after

night. Individuals were seen far out on the muds below the tide line.

A Peregrine haunted the roof of the Secretariat in November 1931, and used

to puzzle me by lying flat on its belly on a narrow ledge with its wings

spread out and its head towards the wall of the building. In this attitude it

would remain for ten minutes or more at a time as if rubbing its feathers

on the stone. I watched it on numerous occasions with glasses at close

quarters, and could never make out what it was doing.

1719. Falco peregrinus peregrinator Shahin.

I saw one in the old mule-grazing ground at Yegu in October 1929, and

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE S1TTANG-1RRA WADDY PLAIN !379

had a good view of its rich rufous breast. This, and its large size, made it

a most conspicuous bird.

1724-28. Falco subbuteo ? Hobby.

I have twice seen Hobbies in Henzada district at fairly close quarters but

never managed to obtain them.

1741-42. Cerchneis tinnunculus Kestrel.

Fairly common from November to March throughout the area. Saw no

signs of any breeding.

1745. Cerchneis naurnanni pekingensis Chinese Lesser Kestrel.

As already recorded ( Journal , November 15th, 1932) I shot two males out

of a large gathering which were presumably on migration at Lunbye in the

Sittang Plain on April 1st, 1932. This is the first record for Burma.

1765-66-67. Haematornis cheela Crested Serpent-Eagle.

I had a close view of one in high forest on the Insein yoma in October

1929, but failed to obtain this, or others, seen later on.

1775. Butastur liventer Rufous-winged Buzzard Eagle.

I saw a party of five or six on January 23rd at Pauktaing in Henzada

which from their actions seemed to be pairing. These birds are partial to

teak forest on the border of cultivation and though apparently rather sluggish

birds, they are extremely wary and difficult to get a shot at.

1778. Haliaetus leucogaster White-bellied Sea Eagle.

Armstrong, who obtained one near China Bakir, describes it as ‘found

sparingly along the coast and very shy’. He also obtained Icthyophaga ichthy-

aetus on the Rangoon river. I saw at least two species of pale-headed eagles

on the creeks near China Bakir but failed to obtain any, or get a satisfactory

view of them on the ground. The distribution in Burma of these two species

and Haliaetus leucoryphus, which are all stated to occur in Burma, urgently

needs careful working out.

1784. Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite. $ 177.

Breeds all over the area, and in the' south of the Sittang-Rangoon river

plain sometimes very low down on account of the paucity of trees. I found

both eggs and young birds in early February in Hanthawaddy. Only a small

number appear to stay throughout the rains but possibly they move to the

big j heels which are rarely visited at this time of year.

1787. Milvus migrans govinda Common- Pariah Kite.

1788. Milvus migrans lineatus Black-eared Kite.

Immense numbers of these Kites appear in mid- September and early Octo-

ber, one of their principal strongholds being the woodlands round the Royal

Lakes in Rangoon. Though I have never shot any, I have been able clearly

to distinguish the slim, smaller chocolate-brown Kite which breeds, from the

larger, darker Kite with a blackish back and yellow- white patches under the

wing, which can be seen resting on waste ground throughout the day and

which Harington says is the more numerous. Govinda undoubtedly breeds on

the Secretariat in Rangoon, and all over the plain in small numbers down to

the sea. I saw a pair of which the female was sitting on November 2nd, 1931,

at Yegu, and another bird carrying sticks on November 4th. In the Sittang

Plain, some of the nests are in very low and conspicuous positions owing to

the shortage of trees.

The evening flight of Kites over the Royal Lakes is one of the features

of Rangoon, and a large troop of them hawking flying-ants, when the latter

are swarming, is a wonderful sight. The ants are frequently taken in the

talons and transferred to the mouth. I watched one on November 5th, 1931,

being attacked by a Peregrine just over the roof of the Secretariat, and as

the Falcon stooped on its tail and dropped its claws, the Kite turned grace-

fully upside-down in the air and struck upwards at the Falcon with its claws —

a manoeuvre requiring marvellous timing. Lineatus in the Sittang Plain is a

village-haunting bird feeding largely on offal, and gathering in large numbers

to roost in the few clumps of trees in the area.

1789. Elanus caeruleus Black-winged Kite. J 529.

Not uncommon all over the area, and like the Kestrel, which in its habits

8&0 Journal, bombAy natural hist, society , vot. xxxvii

it much resembles, a bird of the plains. I have seen as many as five or six

together towards nightfall, when all Raptores congregate. I feel certain it

breeds in Henzada as I saw two pairing in April, and individuals as late

as mid-June, but have never found a nest.

1790. Circus macrourus Pale Harrier.

I twice saw a single adult bird in 1931 crossing the Eikpyet jheel in

Henzada, but very pale immature birds which I shot in the Sittang Plain

turned out to be melanoleucus . I saw one adult near the Eastern G-rove light-

house in February. Oates seemed to consider this bird was common but I

am inclined to doubt if it is at the present day.

1793. Circus melanoleucus Pied Harrier. 2 $ 2 9 71, 127, 130, 136.

Common all over the area from November to early April, both on marsh

and stubble, and often allows a very near approach. I have watched a great

many hunting, and small birds seem to take so little notice of them that

their food must be principally mice, beetles, etc.

1794. Circus ae. aeruginosus Marsh Harrier. 3 $ 123, 126, 566.

Common all over the area, mainly on jheels but in the Sittang Plain in

the wide grassy depressions which are jheels only in the rains, from November

to mid-April.

1805. Astur badius poliopsis Hume’s Shikra.

Not uncommon and seems partial to bamboo jungle. In January one was

frequently ‘mewing’ in my garden in Henzada and, on one occasion, when

mobbed by Corvus insolens took refuge on the ground under a bamboo clump.

1811. Accipiter nisus Sparrow-hawk.

Several times seen in Henzada in the foothills but I failed to obtain any.

1918. Pernis ptilorhynchus subsp. Crested Honey-buzzard.

Seems to breed along the foot of the Henzada yomas and its curious note

can be heard a long way off. I saw one which had a nest at Chondaung in

Henzada in February 1931 and was told a pair nested there annually.

1827. Crocopus phoenicopterus viridifrons Burmese Green Pigeon. U 655,

216.

Common in Henzada but I shot very few Green Pigeons elsewhere. A

male shot on February 17th was about to breed.

1 noticed some feeding on the berries of the 'zV thorn. They were still

in flocks on the eastern side of the Pegu yomas on May 10th.

1830. Dendrophassa pompadora phayrei Ashy-headed Green Pigeon. $ 628.

Not uncommon in the Lemyethna foothills (Henzada) in February; a male

shot . on February 13th was about to breed. Harington recorded it from

Bangoon.

1836. Dendrophassa bicincta Orange-breasted Green Pigeon. $ 54.

One was shot out of a pair in the Zepathwe reserve on February 19th.

1846. Muscadivora aenea Green Imperial Pigeon.

Seen in small numbers along the foothills in Henzada and Insein.

1852. Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove.

Seen in small numbers in both Insein and Henzada and breeds in the

cane-brake portions of the scrub jungle close to Bangoon.

1870-72. Streptopelia orientalis subsp. Bufous Turtle Dove.

In Lower Burma this is much more a jungle bird than chinensis or oenopo-

pelia, and is rarely seen away from it. Occurs -> in some numbers in the

Henzada and Insein foothills, and appeared to be breeding in the latter in

late October.

1874-75. Streptopelia chinensis tigrina Burmese Spotted Dove.

Common and comes into the gardens round Bangoon to breed at the end

of the rains.

1881. Oenopopelia tranqtiebarica humilis Burmese Bed Turtle Dove.

Very common in flocks from November to March. I saw pairs which

were undoubtedly breeding in April in the sparsd jungle on the north of the

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN O-IRRAW ADDY PLAIN 881

Yandoon Island (Maubin), but have not seen them else; where in the area during

the breeding season.

1897. Pavo muticus Burmese Peafowl.

It is said to be very plentiful in parts of the Henzada yomas. Mr. C. W.

Scott, i.f.s., who has an extensive acquaintance with the Insein yoma reserves,

states that peafowl are very rare in Insein, but that an occasional bird is

reported as far south as Taikkyi.

Mr. E. 0. Bloech confirms this and saw some still further south a few

years ago.

1904. Gallus bankiva robinsoni Burmese Jungle Fowl.

Very common in suitable places in all districts where it is not persecuted.

I have seen some near the sea in the Zepathwe reserve and it still, survives in

the scrub-jungle, which has replaced the old forest between Mingaladon and

Bangoon.

A hen, shot in a beat in January 1933, had a number of small firm

tumours on the neck, legs and wings varying in size from a millet seed to

a hazel nut. There was a group of seven or eight on the anterior margin of

the wing, which prevented the bird flying.

I have seen eggs in late January. Many jungle-fowl live on the densely-

wooded islands of the Hlawga Lake, apparently throughout the year. These

birds are a long way from any source of grain supply, and I have seen

wounded ones, dropped on the water, swim strongly to land.

1923. Gennaeus lineafus subsp. Silver Pheasant. 1, 2.

I failed to obtain any, except a pair shot near the seventeenth mile on

the Eangoon-Prome Boad by Mr. Mather which are now in the. British Museum.

The Insein Forest Division Working Plans Beport states that they are very

common in the Mahuya reserve.

1948. Excalfactoria c. chinensis Blue-breasted Quail.

I have shot this in stubble in Henzada and seen it on the Kya-in swamp

in Insein. It certainly breeds in some numbers during the rains in the long

grass, both on the polo-ground in Bangoon and on the new race-course at

Ivyaikkasan where I flushed numbers in August.

1952. Coturnix coroniandellca Black-breasted Quail. $ 578.

I shot a male of this species on the Irrawaddy pea-fields in South Henzada

on February 3rd, 1931, with enlarged gonads and it was, I should say, breeding

there in some numbers. All this land is under water by mid- June, so they

presumably migrate locally before then.

1981. Francolinus pintadeanus phayrei Phayre’s Burmese Francolin. g

532.

Oates considered that this bird was not found below Prome. It is possible

that it has extended southwards with the spread of cultivation and the rapid

reclamation of swamp and forest due to the growth of population, embank-

ments, etc. I have one or two records from the Insein district about 30 miles

north of Bangoon, and it is certainly not uncommon in the Henzada district

along the yoma edge within ten miles of the southern boundary of the dis-

trict. I also heard Francolins calling in the Irrawaddy pea-fields below Hen-

zada town. In some places I have heard ten or twelve birds calling simul-

taneously before dusk but have been unable to prove if they actually congre-

gate to roost. It is a bird far more often heard than seen. As an instance of

this bird’s skulking powers, Mr. Gallant, i.f.s., and myself spent a fruitless

evening looking and listening for Francolins near Legongyi, and at dawn next

morning one was calling loudly from some bushes, where presumably it had

been roosting, within 15 yards of our camp. Nothing we could do with

beaters, etc., succeeded in dislodging this bird.

2008. Turnix suscitator pallescens Pegu Bustard-Quail. 9 635.

I shot a female which was not breeding at Legon (Henzada) on February

14th and Mr. Villar obtained one in the Kyangin reserve in March.

[These Turnix seem very variable and the series in the British Museum

is none too good. Pallescens is possibly recognisable on the average of a

series but it is pot at all a distinct race. — C.B.T.]

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XXXVII

2008, Hypotaenidia striata Indian Blue-breasted Banded Bail.

I saw several in the Insein district and have reason to believe it breeds

on the Bangoon race-course at Kyaikkasan. I believe it to be a rains immi-

grant, as. it is never seen at other times.

2022. Amaurornis phoenicurus chinensis Chinese White-breasted Water-

hen.

Common. In mid-May 1931 a pair bred in my garden in Henzada, the

nest being 25 feet from the ground in a bamboo clump, a long way from water.

The birds fed on my lawn morning and evening, apparently on insects. They

were silent all day but occasionally indulged in their customary outbursts about

dusk. There were one or two other nests in similar situations, and for a month

or so, remarkably far from water.

2026. Gallinula chloropus indicus Indian Moorhen.

Occurs in Henzada in small numbers.

2027. Gallicrex cinerea The Watercock.

I saw individuals in Henzada in flooded paddy land in the rains, where

they were presumably breeding. This is rather a mysterious bird whose status

is most difficult to define, and like the Chestnut Bittern, it is usually only

visible, in the rains.

2028. Porphyrio p. poliocephalus Indian Purple Moorhen.

Common on suitable large swamps. I found these Moorhens flighting in

large numbers at dusk to the rice-fields near the Kya-in swamp, where they

were said to do a great deal of damage with their heavy feet.

2031. Metopidius indicus Bronze-winged Jacana.

2032. Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Both these Jacanas occur all over the area, and on the jheels where they

breed, the majority seem to leave after the breeding season.

2033. Rostratula b. benghalensis Painted Snipe.

Probably resident, but little seen. In April 1931 I flushed a number feed-

ing in dry grass a considerable distance from water.

2047. Burhinus oedicnemus indicus Indian Stone Plover.

The only ones observed were a breeding pair whose eggs I found on March

15th on a sandbank below Henzada. They were remarkably tame and com-

pletely silent and allowed a very near approach.

The eggs were sheltered from the afternoon sun by a tuft of grass growing

on the sand.

I have never heard in Burma the wild and musical outcries so characteristic

of this bird in its European breeding haunts.

2049. Esacus recurvirostris Great Stone Plover.

Not seen except for three birds seen on December 24th on a sandy island

above Henzada, but I had little chance to explore some of the larger islands.

2055. Gl areola maldivarum Large Indian Pratincole.

Perhaps the most distinctive breeding bird of the great plains of the delta,

both in Pegu, Henzada, Maubin, Pyapon and Hanthawaddy. These great

expanses of burnt stubble in March and April exactly suit it as a breeding

haunt, and though there are no large colonies, scattered pairs occur all over

the area. Some nest on short grass, e.g at Eikpyet near Henzada, and I have

seen a fair-sized colony on the Kyungale grazing ground, but the majority prefer

the open stubble. In the late afternoon individuals can be seen hawking miles

from their breeding grounds. It certainly remains in its nesting haunts till

mid-June and Oates thought a few remained up to mid-August. I saw a small

flock near Pazundaung on November 1st, 1931, so possibly some are resident

throughout the year.

2056. Glareola lactea Small Indian Pratincole.

Breeds in Henzada and Maubin on the Irrawaddy islands. A few probably

stay throughout the rains and it becomes common again from November on-

wards.

2060. Larus ichthyaetus Great Black-headed Gull. 9 57.

Armstrong did not meet with this Gull, which Oates mentions as abundant

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-IRRAW ADD? PLAIN 883

in the Sittang canal. I saw several on the sands at Wetkaik (Hanthawaddy)

on February 20th, two at least of which appeared to be in full summer dress.

I did not see any at Kamakalok during a few days’ stay in April. This bird

has the orbital skin crimson, a character noted by Hume but not in the Fauna.

Its great size and black head and neck are distinctive field characters.

2062. Larus brunneicephalus Brown-headed Gull. $ $ 48, 59.

Winters in large numbers on the Rangoon river as far as Rangoon but does

not seem to come up higher, except on migration. I saw several parties at Yan-

doon (Maiibin district) on April 27th which were apparently migrants and saw

a large flock of Black-headed God wits at the same time.

I kept a look-out for ridibundus and though many immature birds seen

following steamers look to me indistinguishable from European examples of

ridibundus, I never saw a full-plumaged bird. This iris of immature brunnei-

cephalus is olive-green but when mature the pale iris contrasts with the ash-

brown head.

2068. Chlidonias leucopareia indica Whiskered Tern. 21, 70, 165-66, 170,

172.

I saw parties in Insein apparently migrating across country on October 5th

and 15th, and a very large gathering on the Ingyi lake in Lemyethna (Hen-

zada) on February 18th. On April 26th, a large number appeared below

Henzada, hawking insects over the pea-fields.

2072. Gelochelidon n. nilotica Gull-billed Tern. 15, 62, 141-42, 161, 199.

It is curious that Oates never met this bird on the Sittang or elsewhere,

as in January and February it was one of the most conspicuous birds of the

vast paddy plain, to a distance of ten miles or so from the sea. Large num-

bers could be seen daily hawking over the stubble, and the pools and depres-

sions left after the rains. Like the Whiskered Tern, I suspect this Tern feeds

to a considerable extent on insects. I saw very large numbers in April and

May all along the sea coast (Armstrong also noted its abundance in 1875-76),

but those shot did not appear to be breeding and a bird in immature plumage

was shot on May 5th. I found no suitable place for a breeding colony

and all local Burmans, of whom I enquired, were positive that there was no

place between the Sittang mouth and the Rangoon river mouth which was

not covered by the spring tides. At the same time, the bird is so common

that it almost certainly breeds somewhere on this coast or in the Andamans.

I did not see this bird in Henzada, Maiibin or elsewhere in the area.

2080. Sterna aurantia Indian River Tern. 9 570.

Breeds on the islands in Henzada and Maiibin in some numbers. The

local name for all Terns is lzin-yaw\ It occurs in Henzada from November

to June but I am unable to say if some stay throughout the year. At dusk

these Terns nearly always flight up or down the river, probably catching

insects.

2081. Sterna melanogaster Black-bellied Tern. <$ 9 583, 597.

This is the only freshwater Tern which habitually leaves the main rivers,

and hawks over wayside ditches and ponds. Nests along the river in Henzada

and Maiibin, and one of a pair shot on February 8th had a large soft egg

in the ovary. I saw a very big flight going north up the river on Decem-

ber 25th and some appeared to have paired already in this month.

2088. Sterna albifrons sinensis White-shafted Ternlet. 44, 45.

I shot individuals alongshore in February and saw a few single birds in

April but saw no signs of breeding colonies alongshore. The only breeding

colonies found were one in Maiibin on an island in the Irrawaddy above

Yandoon, and several in Henzada. I saw one nest with eggs on April 27th.

I noted individuals in Henzada up to July.

2100. Rhynchops albicollis Indian Skimmer.

Breeds in small numbers both in Henzada and North Maiibin on suitable

islands along the river. It is a bird which, being so conspicuous, prefers to

nest far out in the middle of a vast stretch of open sand, from which it

can see ap intruder a long way off,

884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

2101. Strepsilas i. interpres Turnstone. $ 156.

Armstrong did not meet with this bird, and I can only find one Burma

record of a September migrant shot by Oates. I obtained a male — which may

have been a newly-arrived immigrant — at Kamakalok, on April 16th, 1932. It

was feeding busily in the middle of the afternoon, among a flock of sleeping

Cirrepidesmus on grass-covered mud.

2102-03. Squatarola squatarola Grey Plover. 19.

Not met with by Oates, but by no means uncommon along the shoreline

from Kyaikto to Elephant Point. Armstrong noted its shyness, and it is

certainly less approachable than the Golden Plover and keeps to the tide mark

especially where rocks occur. I did not shoot any in breeding dress to ascertain

the race.

2106-07-08. Leucopolius a. alexandrinus Kentish Plover. 16, 154, 594.

Armstrong noted that it was quite as abundant as Cirrepidesmus and I

found it common on the mud flats and nearly always in their company all

along the coast. Small parties haunt the Rangoon race-course at high tide,

where they are very fond of the worn circles round which ponies are led,

and I have twice seen parties in breeding dress — apparently on migration —

on the Irrawaddy in late April. Pairs were seen mating on February 5th.

2110-11. Haematopus ostralegus Oyster-catcher.

Neither Oates, Armstrong nor myself met this conspicuous bird for which

I kept a careful look-out. Mr. S. F. Hop wood told me he had seen it some

years ago on the beach at Eetkokkon near China Bakir.

2113. Charadrius dubius Little Binged Plover. $ $ 185, 436, 466.

Among the many thousand waders seen by me daily on the sea-coast mud,

I failed to detect a single Binged Plover of any species. There is no doubt

that in its winter haunts, this bird, and not Cirrepidesmus , is the real Sand

Plover. A few Ch. dubius were to be seen on the sandy beaches (relics of

former tide-marks) which occur in the paddy-fields, and they were frequently

to be seen on threshing floors far out on the stubble, as also on the laterite

ridge near Rangoon where the hard short grass seems to suit them. On the

tidal mud, wrhere the bulk of the waders congregate, they were not to be seen.

2117. Cirrepidesmus mongolus atrifrons Lesser Sand Plover. 20, 31, 195,

196, 204.

This bird is locally known to the Karens in Thaton as dilon-gaung , an

allusion apparently to the brick-red colour of the crown and upper breast in

breeding plumage. The Fauna accidentally omits any mention of its occurrence

in Burma, but it occurs in immense numbers on the tidal mud of the coast

line, and in small numbers up the tidal creeks.

It must pass up the Irrawaddy on migration, but no one seems to have

recorded it.

2118. Cirrepidesmus leschenaulti Large Sand Plover. 64, 140.

Does not seem to occur in quite such numbers as atrifrons, but I saw a

good many on the tide line and in April and May, when they look foxy-red

with a black line through the eyes and on the forehead, they are remarkably

beautiful birds.

The Fauna states that leschenaulti has a white forehead, but one seen in a

good light seemed to have a completely black forehead and another obtained

had black on the centre of the forehead.

2120. Charadrius domiuicus fulvus Eastern Golden Plover.

Arrives with the first snipe about mid-August and is present in breeding

plumage in the first week in May. It does not haunt the actual mud of the

coast line, but is found on the grass above the tide line, on stubble and

grazing-grounds, and also on the short grass covering the laterite ridges near

Mingaladon. Numbers are caught by the Hlegu bird-catchers.

A bird shot on April 14th had a wing of 174 mm. (the Fauna gives 160-165).

2124. Hoplopterus ventralis Spur-winged Plover. 9 595.

Common in the higher sandy reaches of the delta rivers, and on the hill

streams, but not found within tidal limits. In Henzada and Insein it pre-

sumably performs a local migration when the river rises.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTAN G-IRRAW ADDY PLAIN 885

2127. Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis Burmese Bedwattled Lapwing.

Common in Henzada and Insein and a bird of the paddy fields. I have

not seen it on shingle and sand-banks, nor within tidal limits.

2129. Microsarcops cinereus Grey-headed Lapwing.

Occurs from October to April on the edges of all the big jheels and is

very common in the Sittang Plain on the big grassy depressions which in

the rains are uncultivated swamps. The Fauna states that in Assam it is

never found in flocks but I have seen quite large flocks in various parts of

Burma.

2134. Numenius arquata lineatus Eastern Curlew. S 160.

Very common on the tidal mud all along the coast, and seen up to

May 10th. Armstrong remarks that they were always ‘excessively shy’, but

I found them at first easy to drive by hiding in creeks or behind old stumps

on the tide line. They are occasionally seen flying over Rangoon.

2135-36. Numenius phaeopus subsp. Whimbrel.

Armstrong noted its abundance on the tide line, but thought it was not

so common as the Curlew. In April 1932 my impression was that Whimbrel

were the more numerous. In this area, both Curlew and Whimbrel follow

the narrow winding creeks when feeding, far up into the interior, and 1

have frequently flushed them from under bushes almost at my feet, or in

mangrove jungle, and once in high forest in the Pilakat reserve where one

might expect to see a Jungle Fowl or a Pheasant, and certainly not such

a shy and wary bird as Numenius.

2138. Limcsa 1. melanuroides Black-tailed Godwit. G S S 9 138, 139,

192, 193.

I saw two or three large flocks on the tide line on April 13th and 14th,

and a flock of forty on passage near Yandoon on April 27th on the Irrawaddy.

Only two of this last flock showed any signs of assuming summer plumage,

apart from rusty streaks on the throat. There was great individual variation

in measurements and those of five measured by me, before skinning were:

wing 188.5-204 mm. ; culmen 75-97 mm. ; tarsus 65-72 mm.

All these Godwits — and I examined a number which were shot and not

preserved — had a conspicuous white patch immediately below the eye and

a white supercilium, and the basal portion of the bill was deep mauve-pink

(not as described in the Fauna).

2141-42. Terekia cinerea Terek Sandpiper. 43, 144.

Oates considered it common, but I never saw it far away from the tidal

line of the sea and Armstrong described it as by no means abundant and

only obtained two or three. I saw a good many at Kamakalok in February

and mid-April, nearly all on the grass-covered mud above the normal tide

line. Two obtained in April had bills of 47 and 52 mm. and were apparently

of the western race.

2143. Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper.

Occurs from August to April all over the area and is never seen except

singly or in pairs.

2144. Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper. $ 9 39, 525, 561.

Observed on jheels in Henzada and Insein, and individuals were seen near

the coast with Redshanks and Spotted Shanks, both at small pools on the

saltings. Its trivial name in Oates’ day was the ‘Little Greenshank’ which

well describes it, the sharp double note ‘Kewip’ being also distinctive.

2145. Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper.

Armstrong describes it as ‘usually in small parties in cultivated lands and

ploughed fields’. The Common Sandpiper in Burma is always, in my experience,

a solitary bird, though one occasionally sees two together, and the description

better suits the Wood Sandpiper or Temminck’s Stint. The bird haunts the

tidal creeks, even in dense mangrove jungle, but is not a bird of the mud flats.

It is common on every river in Lower Burma.

2146. Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper. 9 530.

Very common from August to April and occurs in immense numbers at

the same time as the first Pintail Snipe come in. Later it is spread over

886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

every jheel and along every river, but is a bird of fresh-water and does not

occur on the tidal mud.

2148. Tringa totanus terrignotae Central Asian Eedshank. 14, 36, 37,

150-52, 152a, 163.

Very common in flocks at Kamakalok and also on the Kyaikto estuary from

February to early May. All those shot in April were identified as terrignotae,

and were very heavily spotted on the throat, breast and sides, and showed traces

of cinnamon brown on the crown and back. In February some of these birds

had a noticeably pale supercilium (specimens measured fresh were as follows :

wing 155-170 mm.; culmen 42-47 mm.; tarsus 47-52.5 mm.).

2149. Tringa erythropus Dusky Eedshank

A few were seen with terrignotae at Kamakalok in February.

2150. Glottis nebularia Greenshank. 9 490.

Abundant in every part of the five districts, both on jheels, rivers and the

tide line, and in February and March sometimes assembles in large parties.

I kept a close look-out for Armstrong’s Sandpiper ( Glottis guttifer) which

was shot out of Sand Plovers near China Bakir in December 1875, but until

someone describes the field characteristics of this bird, it will probably go

unrecorded.

2155. Erolia m. minuta Little Stint. 9 202.

2156. Erolia m. ruflcollis Eastern Little Stint, 95* 145, 146, 153, (winter)

S 526.

Common along the Sittang-Eangoon Eiver coast line, its favourite haunts

being the grass-covered mud just above the normal tide limit. Many undoubted

ruficollis were seen at Kamakalok in April, the rufous cheeks and throat

being most noticeable. I obtained a single minuta on Kyaikto estuary (Thaton)

on May 6th, in spring dress with dark-brown ear coverts and no trace of

rufous on cheeks or throat.

I obtained one in Henzada but the bulk of the Stints seen there were

temminckii.

2157. Erolia subminuta Long-toed Stint. 60, 61, 147, 155, 157, 164, 166,

168.

Oates described this bird as abundant all over Pegu and it is curious that

Armstrong did not apparently meet with it. I shot one when snipe shooting

inland in Insein, but failed to detect it in Henzada.

It was common on the coast line, and in April and early May could be

easily distinguished by its remarkably dark, almost black, crown and upper

parts, contrasting strongly with the pale rufous, or whitish grey of E. minuta.

One shot on February 20th had the first primary on both sides in sheath

and about an inch long.

2158. Erolia temminckii Temminck’s Stint. S 432, 180-81, 189, 190, 213-14.

Away from the coast line, where Armstrong did not meet it, and I saw

very few indeed, in February, this Stint is the commonest Stint in Lower

Burma. I have seen considerable flocks on the Eikpyet jheel in Henzada

in December and at various places when snipe shooting, in August and Sep-

tember. In April, I failed to detect a single one among the thousands of

waders on the coast but shot numerous specimens along streams inland in

the Pegu district and on the sandy islands of the Irrawaddy near Yandoon.

The late F. M. Ogilvie had a theory that E. minuta and temminckii had

quite different food and feeding grounds, and in Burma, except when on

passage, temminckii seems to haunt much the same terrain as the Common

Sandpiper, being partial to sand and fresh water, and not a bird of the tidal

mud.

2160. Erolia testacea Curlew Sandpiper. 34, 148, 158, 165.

Common alongshore, and in mid-April, many were seen in breeding plumage,

others not having yet changed at all. It is certainly not spread over the

whole of Burma as the Fauna suggests, and Armstrong described it as ‘by

no means common’ at the mouth of the Eangoon river.

2161a. Calidris c. caoutus Knot. $ 143.

Armstrong obtained a specimen near China Bakir, apparently tenuirostris ,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITT AN G-IRRAW ADDY PLAIN 887

and describes it as ‘rare’. I shot an example of canutus just assuming its

spring dress, out of a flock of Curlew Sandpipers and Sand Plovers at Kamaka-

lok on April 14th, 1932 (culmen 31 mm.; tarsus 30 mm.; wing 160 mm.).

There are only two previous Indian records, and I saw no other Knots among

the many thousand waders on this coast.

2164. Limicola faclinella sibirica Eastern Broad-billed Sandpiper. 40, 149,

149a, 203.

Armstrong described it as ‘excessively common along the coast and up the

Bangoon river as far as the Pegu river mouth’. It is curious that Oates

only obtained one. I found it common from Kyaikto to the China Bakir, in

the company of Stints, Cirrepidesmus and Kentish Plovers, up to the first

week in May. I never saw individuals feeding alone and it was not easy

to get near among the large flocks of waders. The Fauna gives the wing

measurements as 100-111 mm. I shot two of 113.5 and 114 respectively.

2167. Scolopax r. rusticola Woodcock.

Easily overlooked but a regular winter visitor to the wet jungle all along

the Pegu yoma where Mr. E. W. Bloech tells me he shoots a number every

year. It is probably common right down to Bangoon but many of its haunts

are never disturbed. Mr. E. W. Allan found it common at Sababontaung in

the Henzada- Arakan yomas at about 3,000 ft.

2170. Capella g. gallinago Common Snipe.

All over Lower Burma, this bird appears to be a much later arrival than

stenura and is a bird of the paddy (particularly the winter planted mayin

paddy) and of the jheel-side, whereas stenura is a bird of the grasslands and

bogs round which cane-brake, etc., flourish.

2173. Capella stenura Pintail Snipe.

Arrives in mid- August in incredible numbers, and in addition to the large

numbers shot, thousands are caught in hand-nets at night by professional

fowlers, who use a wooden bell or Kalauk and a lantern. The Kalauk appar-

ently deceives the snipe into thinking the fowler is a grazing buffalo.

2175. Lymnocryptes minima Jack Snipe.

This bird must be rare as I have never seen one, or heard of one being

shot, except one obtained by Mr. E. B. Bloech, twenty-five years ago, near

Ledaunggan in the Insein district. Mr. Bloech has probably shot more snipe

in Lower Burma than almost anyone and he only remembers one other being

obtained. Hume had one brought him from near Bangoon (BB., ii, 385).

[2176-79. Pelecanus sp.? Pelican.

Apart from a single bird seen swimming on the Victoria Lakes at Bangoon

on December 14th, 1931 — which was too far off to identify — I have never seen

one in Lower Burma. I was assured by villagers that Pelicans still breed in

the remnants of the forest along the right bank of the Sittang but I failed

to get there in the breeding season. Most of the area where Oates found them

has long since been cleared of its timber.]

2180. Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis Large Cormorant.

Seen on various jheels in Henzada, and on the Hlawga lakes where, accord-

ing to Harington, it bred in January. A few haunt the yoma streams of

Henzada.

2182. Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant.

Local name : — Awyaw .

Breeds at various places throughout Henzada district both in bamboo and

toddy palms in company with Bubulcus coromandus, commencing in May.

2183. Anhinga melanogaster Indian Darter.

Common throughout the year.

2203. Threskiornis melanocephalus White Ibis.

I have seen large flocks in February in parts of Henzada and it is abundant

on and near the sea coast in the Sittang-Bangoon Biver area.

2215. Anastomus oscitans Open-bill.

This bird was very common in April in the Yandoon Island, where it was

spread ah over the dry plain feeding.

888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

2216. Ardea purpurea Purple Heron.

Occurs throughout the area but is nowhere common. Wickham believed it

bred in Henzada but I did not discover it, and visited none of the large

jheels in the rains.

2218. Ardea cinerea subsp. ? Grey Heron.

Very common on the Irrawaddy and Hlaing Rivers, large gatherings being

observable on the backwaters in December and January. Oates did not find it

breeding. It was also common on the tide-line in company with Herodias alba.

I found a colony of about ten pairs with half-built nests in a huge Ficus tree

in the Kwingauk Police Station compound (Henzada) on February lltli. They

were not at all shy but were afterwards greatly disturbed by the huge influx

of. surrendered rebels in early March, 1931.

2223. Herodias alba subsp. Large Egret.

2224. Herodias intermedia subsp. Smaller Egret.

I have never been able to distinguish the latter in the field but alba occurs

all over the area and on the sea-coast is remarkably common. As the tide

comes in hundreds can be seen belly-deep in the shallow water often two or

three hundred yards out to sea.

2225. Egretta g. garzetta Little Egret.

Seen in small numbers all over the area. The black legs and yellow feet

are a noticeable field characteristic.

2226. Bubulcus ibis coromandus Cattle Egret.

Common in the whole area and breeds from May to August, often with

Phalacrocorax niger, and usually in close proximity to houses.

2229. Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron.

Extremely common, especially on the huge expanse of grass-covered mud

near the sea, where hundreds can be seen, looking oddly like Curlews in the

distance.

2231. Butorides striatus javanicus Little Green Heron. $ 625.

Common along the smaller streams and found within tidal limits in forest.

One shot on February 13th showed signs of being about to breed.

[ U juvenile wing 183 mm. — C.B.T.]

2233. Nycticorax n. nycticorax Night Heron. <3 524.

Common, and I have seen some big breeding colonies in Henzada and Insein

in the rains, often with Cattle Egrets and Cormorants, so that the din of

the colony never ceases day or night.

The Burmese name ‘lin-wet’, which 1 believe to mean the ‘twilight pig’,

aptly describes the confused squealing which goes on when a colony of Night

Herons is waking up at dusk or returning to roost at dawn.

2237. Ixobrychus s. sinensis Yellow Bittern.

Barely seen and possibly a summer migrant arriving to breed and leaving in

October.

2238. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Chestnut Bittern.

From the start of the rains, this bird becomes very common and conspicuous

in Lower Burma and by no means crepuscular. Individuals can be seen

chasing each other or flying to their nests at all hours of the day. In Henzada

I saw none before May 24th but possibly like Butorides striatus, the breeding

colonies split up over a wide area in the dry weather and are thus rarely

seen. I found it breeding in July in bamboo with Cormorants, Cattle Egrets

and Dupetor flavicollis near Henzada.

2239. Dupetor flavicollis Black Bittern.

I found it breeding in July in bamboos along a stream in Henzada, with

Cattle Egrets, Ixobrychus, Cormorants, etc., and repeatedly saw birds flying

high from the Hlawga Lakes (Insein) in the rains to a nesting ground some

two miles away to the South-West.

Except in the rains, I have never seen it.

2240. Botaurus s. stellaris Bittern.

I flushed one in February 1930 out of rough grass on the huge Kya-in

swamp in the Bawle Island in Insein. I failed to secure it but was quite

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE SITTANG-IRRAWADDY PLAIN 889

satisfied of its identity. This is much larger, and quite unlike, any of the

other Burmese Bitterns.

2247. Sarkidiornis melanotus Comb Duck.

Occasionally seen in Insein and Henzada but owing to persecution by

Burmans, it is getting a rare bird now.

2248. Asarcornis scutulatus White-winged Wood Duck.

I saw a pair in December 1925 in the Paunggyi valley of the Insein

district, and it probably survives still in the remote and heavily- wooded

jheels of the yoma foothills. Oates' (BB., ii, 281) was very sceptical of its

occurrence in Pegu, but in this country it could be easily overlooked and Mr.

C. E. Milner tells me he saw it in Tharrawaddy before the war.

2250. Nettapus coromondelianus Cotton Teal.

Very common indeed on certain jheels in Henzada and Insein up to March.

After that these birds split up and breed all over the country, sometimes

miles from water. Sir Harcourt Butler recorded some years ago a case of

a Cotton Teal nesting in the roof of Government House.

Geese.

I have never seen or heard of any geese in the area.

2260. Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling Teal.

2261. Dendrocygna fulva Large Whistling Teal.

Both occur in Henzada and Insein but are much persecuted by every

Burman with a gun, and no longer common. I shot fulva flighting to a patch

of rice in the Bawle Island along with Pintail and other ducks.

2262. Tadorna tadorna Sheldrake.

I saw a pair on the Irrawaddy above Henzada on December 24th, 1930,

as already recorded in the Ibis.

2263. Casarca ferruginea Buddy Sheldrake.

Not uncommon above tidal limits. It is a bird of the sand. Two small

parties seen flying west to east near Mingaladon on November 21st were

probably newly arrived immigrants.

2270. Mareca penelope Wigeon.

This seems to be a rare bird but Mr. Bloech tells me he has occasionally

shot it on the Hlaing Biver in Insein.

2271. Nettion c. crecca Common Teal.

Occurs throughout Henzada, Maubin and Insein in small numbers and I

saw four with Garganey on a tidal creek close . to the sea. This Teal and

Garganey were the only ducks seen near the shore at all.

2274. Dafila a. acuta Pintail.

I have seen flocks in Henzada and shot birds in Insein but it is such

a shy duck that it is rarely obtained, and haunts the big jheels in Maubin

and the Bawle Island which are very difficult of access.

2275. Querquedula querquedula Garganey Teal.

I saw large gatherings in February and March in various parts -of the

area and it is probably the commonest duck in the area in winter. I saw

many on a tidal creek close to the sea in mangrove jungle on February 20th.

In the latter country Nettion albigulare is likely to occur as it has been

obtained in the Bassein district.

2276. Spatula clypeata Shoveller.

Not common. I saw a pair of drakes on the big Ye-gyi swamp in Henzada

in February 1931 and Mr. Bloech has occasionally shot it in the Insein district.

2283. Nyroca f. fuligula Tufted Pochard.

I have seen small parties on the Kya-in swamp in Insein and near

Letpanbin in Henzada.

2292. Podiceps ruficollis capensis Indian Little Grebe. 574.

Seems to be resident and not uncommon.- Several pairs were breedin0, in

borrow, pits below the Eikpyet retirement in Henzada in July 1931. In summer

this bird shows a bright yellow patch just in front of the eye, contrasting

with the chestnut head.

A NEW DRAGONFLY FROM LOWER BURMA.

BY

Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s. (Retd.), f.r.e.s.

While examining a series of Tetrathemis platyptera \ in my own

collection, I came upon a couple of males from Mergui, Lower

Burma. There was nothing in them to excite interest except that

I did not remember receiving any of that species from Lower

Burma. I examined the markings to see if there might be any

racial differences present but except that the labrum bore two

basal spots of yellow and the terminal segments of the abdomen

were unmarked I could see no departures from type. The absence

of abdominal markings could be explained by decomposition

changes obliterating them after death. The wings bore no trace

of the usual basal yellow colouring but this is not uncommonly

absent in teneral specimens. I was about to put them aside when

I chanced to glance at the venation of the wings and was asto-

nished to find that this differed entirely from that of Tetrathemis.

It would be difficult to find two insects of different genera so

closely alike in size, colouring and markings, and it was therefore

not difficult to see how they had come to be overlooked on first

receipt. This is not a case of mimicry but one of similarity by

convergence probably brought about by the response to similar

local influences and surroundings.

These two specimens belong to a new genus which by its

archaic characters lies at the base of the family Lihellulidae and

form a connecting link between the two first groups as defined by

the late Dr. F. Ris, viz., groups Tetrathemis and Amphithemis.

Systematic.

Genus: Phyllothemis gen. nov.

Head moderately large; eyes meeting broadly; forehead mark-

edly rounded and without a frontal ridge; frontal sulcus shallow;

vesicle high, two-pointed. Posterior lobe of prothorax rather

large, rounded, not fissured at its middle; thorax rather small.

Legs long and slim; hind femora with a row of very small, very

closely-set spines of even size throughout; abdomen short, slim,

dilated at both ends, cylindrical in the middle segments; genitalia

prominent, the lamina very large, hood-like and projecting mark-

edly, the hamules small and inconspicuous. Wings hyaline, un-

coloured, narrow, the hind not noticeably broader than the fore;

reticulation moderately close; discoidal cells at the same level,

that of forewing with but a slight and very distal bend in its

costal side, triangular, its distal and basal sides decidedly longer

than the costal, that of the hind slightly or markedly distal to

the level of the arc, both entire; arc between the second and

891

A NEW DRAGONFLY FROM LOWER BURMA

third antenodal nervures; sectors of arc with a long fusion; Cuii

and IA arising together from the anal angle of the discoidal cell

in hindwing; 11 to 12 antenodal nervures, the last complete; Rspl

indistinctly built, only a single row of cells between it and IRiii ;

1 cubital nervure in forewing, 2 in the hind; no accessory nervures

to the bridge; all lits entire; 1 row of cells in the discoidal field

for a distance of 4 to 5 cells, after which the field is widely

dilated to the border of wing; anal loop very small, made up of

5 to 6 cells only; pterostigma rather short; membrane nearly

obsolete. Genotype: Phyllothemis eltoni sp. nov.

Phyllothemis eltoni sp. nov.

Male. — Abdomen 19 mm. ; hindwing 22 mm.

Head : labium bright citron yellow the middle lobe at its centre

and the lateral lobes at their borders broadly black; labrum black

with two triangular basal citron yellow spots; face bright yellow

as also a large spot on each side of frons, the latter and vesicle

dark metallic blue; occiput dark brownish black; eyes probably

green during life. Prothorax black, the anterior and posterior

lobes bright greenish yellow, the latter narrowly black at base;

thorax black dorsally marked with a narrow antehumeral greenish

yellow stripe on each side and an oval humeral spot above, which

lies transversely and is confluent with the yellow antealar sinus;

laterally greenish yellow with a very broad black median oblique

stripe; black beneath. Legs black, coxae and trochanters yellow;

abdomen black marked with citron yellow as follows : — segment 1

with a large quadrate spot on each side ; segment 2 with . two

large baso-lateral spots and a small rounded spot on its middle;

segment 3 with a tapering stripe on each side and a linear spot

on the middorsum beginning after the jugal suture; segments 4

to 7 with the median stripe-like spot only. Anal appendages twice

the length of segment 10, superiors curved, dilated at the apical

end, acutely pointed at apex and with a ventral spine below just

before the apex; inferior triangular, its apex upturned. Female

unknown. Type in my own collection.

Distribution : King Island, Mergui, Lower Burma. Two males

taken by Mr. J. Elton Bott, during September. This species

closely resembles Tetrathemis platyptera and cannot be distin-

guished from it on the wing, nor without examining the venation,

save by the presence of two yellow spots on the labrum. The

genus appears to lie somewhere near Orchithemis but is distin-

guished by the genitalia, the discoidal cells untraversed as well

as the Hts , by the anal loop better formed and Cuii arising from

the anal angle of discoidal cell, etc.

Me Butteeflies of secundeeabad.

BY

Lt.-Col. W. E. M. Logan Home.

As no article on Secunderabad butterflies seems to have appeared in the

Journal, I thought it might interest readers to know what species occur there.

I have included all butterflies met with in a radius of 10 miles of the Secun-

derabad Club, though as a matter of fact, the majority of species I actually

caught in my own garden, J mile from the Club. The period covered was

one year, from February 1933 to February 1934.

A. Papilionidae.

L Tros hector (Ev. A. 2. 9). Common everywhere throughout the year.

2. Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae (Ev. A. 2. 10). Common everywhere

throughout the year.

3. Papilio polymnestor polymnestor (Ev. A. 4. 1. b). Eare; two seen,

one in the Eesidency garden in Hyderabad in March 1933 and one in my

garden in February., 1934.

4. Papilio polytes romulus (Ev. A. 4. 25) N.E. throughout the year.

5. Papilio demoleus demoleus (Bv. A. 4. 27. cl). Common everywhere

throughout the year.

B. PlERIDiE.

6. Delias eucharis (Ev. B. 6. 3). Very common everywhere. This butter-

fly appears to be more richly coloured in the Secunderabad area than else-

where; I have compared specimens with those taken from Coorg, Nilgiris,

Deolali, Ajmer, etc., many of the 9 $ taken in my garden were yellow on

the upperside as well as underside. I have not seen this in specimens else-

where; perhaps some members could give some further data about this?

7. Belenois mesentina mesentina (Ev. B. 8. |3). Common in the gardens

in the cantonment, less common outside. This species also appears to be

more highly coloured in Secunderabad than elsewhere in India.

8. Huphina nerissa evagete (Ev. B. 9. 2. ct). Common everywhere.

9. Catopsilia crccale. Not common. A few seen at the end of the Mon-

soon.

10. Catopsilia pomona. Eare. One taken during the Monsoon.

11- Catopsilia pyranthe. Common during the Monsoon months. Not seen

between October to June.

12. Terias libythea (Ev. B. 15. 1). Very common everywhere.

13. Terias mecabe simulata (Ev. B. 15. 5. ct). Common during the Mon-

soon; scarce from October to June.

14. Ixias marfanne (Ev. B. 17. 1). Common during the Monsoon. Not

seen afterwards.

15. Ixias pyrene frequens (Ev. B. 7. 2. 0). Not common. A few seen

in the jungle towards close of the Monsoon.

16. Colotis fausta fulvia (Ev. B. 18. 4. ct). N.E. Met with throughout

the year, chiefly in grass jungle.

17. Colotis e. etrida (Bv, B 18. 5. 0). Common in the scrub jungle out-

side the cantonment.

18. Colotis danae danae (Ev. B. 18. 7. ct). Not common. A few seen

in the grass jungle. Those caught appeared to be larger and more highly

coloured than Coorg, Deolali and Palnis specimens.

19. Pareronia Valeria hippia (Ev. B. 20. 3). N.E. This species appeared

at the end of the Monsoon and disappeared again in January,

THE' BUTTERFLIES OF SECUNDERABAD

893

C. Danaidae.

20. Danais limniace mutina (Ev. C. 2. 9). Not common. An occasional

specimen seen in my garden and outside the cantonment.

21. Danais plexippus (Ev. C. 2. 12). Not rare. This species was not seen

till the Monsoon, it occurred up to January.

22. Danais chrysippus (Ev. C. 2. 15). Very common everywhere.

23. Euploea core core (Ev. C. 3. 3). Not rare. This species was not seen

till October; it continued till February.

D. Satyridae.

24. Mycalesis niineus polydecta (D. 2. 10. a). Not rare. It did not appear

till the end of the Monsoon and disappeared in January.

25. Lethe europa ragalva [D. 3. 23. (24a)]. In my garden. The specimen

caught has very much longer ‘tails’ than I have seen elsewhere.

26. Ypthima asterope mahratta (D. 14. 6). Common in the scrub jungle

outside cantonments.

27. Melanitis leda ismene (D. 22. 1). Common everywhere.

F. Nymphalidae.

28. Charaxes fabius fabius (Ev. F. 1. 7. 3). Fare. 2 seen; one sitting

on lantana, when I hadn’t a net.

29. Eriboea athamas agrarius (Ev. F. 2. 2. 3)* Fare. 1 only seen.

30. Euthalia nais (Ev. 28). Not rare. Seen throughout the year, gene-

rally in rocky jungle.

31. Neptis hylas varmona (Ev. F. 26. 6. a). Not common. Seen at the

end of the Monsoon occasionally.

32. Hypolimnas misippus (Ev. F. 30. 1). Very common everywhere.

33. Hypolimnas bolina (Ev. F. 30. 2). Not rare. Mostly seen outside the

cantonments.

34. Precis hierta hierta (Ev. F. 35. 1. a); Not rare; never very common;

but met with throughout the year, in the proportion of about 1 to -every 100

P. orithya.

35. Precis orithyea swinhoei (Ev. 35. 2. a). Very common everywhere.

36. Precis lenionias vaisya (Ev. 35. 3. a). Very common everywhere.

37. Precis almana almana (Ev. 35. 4). Not rare; generally round paddy-

fields.

38. Precis atlites (Ev. 35. 5). Not common. A few seen at end of the

Monsoon round some paddy-fields 8 miles out of Secunderabad.

39. Precis iphita pluviatalis. Fare. Only one seen, in my garden, during

the Monsoon.

40. Vanessa cardui (Ev. F. 36. 1). Not rare; from October to February.

41. Atella phalanta (Ev. F. 42. 1.). Common at the end of the rains for

about 2 months, after which it was seldom met with.

42. Ergolis ariadne indica (Ev. 40. 1. 3)- Common during the Monsoon

months till October, after which it disappeared.

43. Telchinia violae (Ev. F. 52). Very common everywhere throughout the

year. The commonest butterfly in Secunderabad. The larvae swarmed all over

the ‘Mudpot’ golf links throughout the year.

H. Lycaenidae.

44. Spalgis epius epius (Ev. H. 8. a). Fare. Only one seen, in my

garden, in January.

10

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVll

45. Castalius r. rosimon (Ev. H. 11. 1). Not rare, at the end of the

Monsoon, after which it disappeared.

46. Tarucus nara (H. 12. 9). Rare. A few seen during the Monsoon.

47. Syntarucus plinius (H. B). Not rare; at the end of Monsoon and up

to March.

48. Zizeeria trochilus putli (H. 24. 1). Not rare; after the Monsoon till

March.

49. Zizeeria lysimon (H. 24. 4). Not rare; throughout the year.

50. Zizeeria otis decreta (H. 24. 6. a). Very common everywhere through-

out the dry months, scarce during the monsoon.

51. Catacrysops strabo (H. 27. 1). Not rare during and at the end of

Monsoon; scarce in the dry months.

52. Lampides boeticus (H. 28). Common throughout the year.

53. Jamides bochus (H. 29. 1. &). Not rare during the Monsoon, after

which it disappeared.

54. Jamides c. celeno (H. 29. 5. 0). Common everywhere during the

Monsoon, scarce afterwards.

55. Nacaduba n. nora (H. 32. 15). Not rare at the end of the Monsoon;

it gradually disappeared.

56. Nacaduba dubiosa indica (H. 32. 16). Common throughout the Mon-

soon up to January.

57. Curetis thetis (Ev. H. 44. 1). Not common. A few seen, mostly

9 9 > during the Monsoon months.

58. Spindasis v. vulcanus (H. 57. 1. 0). Not rare during the Monsoon

and up to January, after which it was not seen.

59. Spindasis i. ictis (H. 57. 6. |3). Rare. A few seen and 2 caught in

August flying round a single tree at the top of a hill. No others seen any-

where.

60. Tajuria jehana (H. 60. 18). Common at the end of the Monsoon, not

seen from December to July; noticeably smaller than Bombay specimens.

61. Rathinda amor (H. 76). Rare. Only 1 seen.

62. Rapala schistacea (H. 85. 12). Not common. Occurred during the

Monsoon months till December.

63. Rapala melampus Not rare. Just seen in August, when a number

were seen flying round the same tree where S. ictis were seen. Later I

caught it in my garden in January.

I. Hesperiidae.

64. Hasora a. alexis (Ev. I. 1. 16). Appeared in numbers in July- August,

not seen at any other time. This insect only flew at dawn and dusk, dis-

appearing during the day-time, like Asthopaetus, Capila etc.

65. Coladenia indrani indra (Ev. I. 20. 2. 0). Not rare during the Monsoon.

66. Gomalia elma albofasciata (Ev. I. 27. d) Rare, 2 only seen and caught,

in my garden, in August.

67. Syrichtus galba (Ev. I. 28. 2). Common everywhere throughout the

year.

68. Suastus g. gremius (Ev. I. 47. 1. 0). Common everywhere throughout

the year.

69. Astycus augias (Ev. I. 91. 1. a). Rare. Only 1 seen in September.

70. Baoris b. bevani (Ev. I. 97. 34. 0). Common throughout the year.

Some observations on nymphaea pujbesceNS

WILLD.

BY

Charles McCann, f.l.s.

(Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society).

(With two plates and one text- fig are).

The Water-Lily, Nymphaea pubescens, needs no introduction.

It is a plant common in most tanks and pools in India. Though

so common, much of its life-history is still obscure. The observa-

tions recorded in this paper are based purely on held study — a

close observation of the plants in their natural habitat. D ’Almeida

has contributed an interesting paper on this Nymphaea to the

Journal of the Indian Botanical Society, vol. v (1926), p. 62.

Description.

Rhizome : To understand the true nature of the rhizomatous

stem of N. pubescens it is best to follow its development from

the seedling, and its subsequent growth. In my opinion,

N. pubescens does not flower in the first season or two (perhaps

more) of its existence — not until such time as the rhizome is

large enough to contain a fair surplus of reserve material. In

shallow water the activity of these plants is very limited. During

the first season of its activity the young plant develops a rosette

of a few small submerged leaves, and a few roots. Amidst the

roots a small ovoid or rotund ‘tuber’ is developed — the future

rhizome.

The plant next rapidly produces three or four small leaves, as

many roots, and a small rhizome. The young plant grows near

the margin of the tank in shallow water, and as the water dries

up the leaves disappear and the newly formed rhizome is left to

tide over the dry season. Activity is resumed with the next mon-

soon, the plant producing larger and more numerous leaves and

roots and ultimately a larger rhizome, and so on year by year till

the rhizome is large enough to produce flowers and fruit.

At the close of each vegetative season and the drying up of

the pool the leaves, and finally the roots, are lost. The rhizome

may then be found either free on the surface or imbedded in

the soil. If free, the rhizome may be washed into a deeper portion

of the pool with the rush of water at the break of the next mon-

soon.

The rhizome during the vegetative period always anchors itself

to the substratum by numerous spongy roots developed at the

base of each petiole or from any j:>oint lower down. D ’Almeida

affirms that ‘the rhizome is not buried in the mud at the bottom

of the pond like those of other Water-lilies’. Whether the

rhizome is only anchored to the substratum by roots or imbedded

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXKVIl

in the soil is, in my opinion, a matter of circumstance. I have

found rhizomes anchored and imbedded — this would depend on

the movement of the silt at . the bottom of the tank. During the

dry weather the rhizomes retain their roots as long as there is

moisture in the soil, but in the case of anchored rhizomes the

roots soon die away leaving the rhizomes free on the surface.

When thus situated, rhizomes may be moved about freely by vari-

ous agents. It is only necessary to dig up the bed of a tank

where Nymphaeas are known to grow, during the dry season, to

see the number of rhizomes that are turned out!

With the break of the next monsoon the free rhizomes may be

seen rolled about by the inrush of water. They usually keep

moving about at the water level till fresh roots are developed

which anchor them. Numerous rhizomes are cast about in this

way. An examination of one of these free rhizomes, particularly

if it be an old one, may show that its lower end is in a partially

decomposed condition. This decomposing portion is sometimes

broken off by the action of the water, leaving only the active

portion which soon grows a fresh outer coating around the ex-

posed tender tissue (solid rhizomes do not float). In some cases

the decomposing area is so large that it acts as a float due to

the gases within. In this way the rhizome is kept at the surface

of the water for a considerable time — until the decomposed area

falls away from the active portion, which sinks to the bottom.

In this way an active rhizome is carried about from one part of

the tank to another by currents and wind. It generally comes to

rest near the bank or it may sink anywhere as it is blown across

the tank. This may possibly be a natural device to enable the

plant to change its ground!

Normally, the rhizome grows vertically imbedded in the sub-

stratum. With the advance of growth and the rise in the level

of the soil it tends to elongate and it becomes broader above. It

may be described as obovate or spindle-shaped. I have frequently

obtained such rhizomes measuring 20-25 cm. long and about

10 cm. broad when in the fresh state; but they shrink very much

when dry. Generally the rhizome has but a single growing point,

but may frequently ‘branch’ — showing several growing points.

Possibly these ‘branches’ eventually separate by forming absciss

layers. This point needs further investigation. As the rhizome

elongates, the lower portion decomposes internally, leaving a hard

woody shell. At the death of the rhizome the roots are lost, leaving

it free in the substratum. Presumably, due to the decomposition

gases within the outer shell, the entire rhizome rises out of the soil

and floats to the surface of the water. Hollow rhizomes are fre-

quently found floating in tanks. They form excellent harbours for

aquatic insects.

Another point worthy of note is that rhizomes occasionally pro-

duce secondary ovoid or roundish ‘tubers’, 1-4 cm. long, on short

or long stolons (Plate I, 1, A). This I have noticed in anchored

and imbedded rhizomes both young and old. Surrounding an

anchored rhizome, I once found several detached roundish ‘tubers’

which had evidently separated from the parent rhizome to which

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

Root system of Nymphaea pubescens Willd., normal 2. Abnormal root system of Nymphaea pubescens Willd.,

roots (left); abnormal roots (right). (Note small showing wrinkled roots. (Note small tuber at A.)

‘tuber’.)

Photos by Author.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

Nymphaea pubescens Willd.

1. A seedling with the first leaf. 2 & 3. Further stages of the seedling.

4. Seed within aril. 5. Seed with partially developed aril. 6. Portion

of germinated seed. 7. Section of fruit showing septa. 8. Dehisced

fruit showing recurved segments.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NYMPHAEA PUBESCENS

897

there were still two or three attached. When rhizomes are im-

bedded in slush, hastate, sagittate or linear leaves are produced till

the ground dries up, when all vegetative growth is arrested. The

rhizome is surrounded by a protective covering of long silky hairs

sometimes interspersed with scale-like appendages which, in my

opinion, are the remains of the wings of the petioles.

Roots : The roots of N. pubescens are adventitious. A fresh

crop is produced each season in plants which are in tanks that

dry up, but when in perennial water, new roots continually sprout.

D ’Almeida (l.c.) writes, ‘Associated with each leaf-base are usually

two roots, sometimes one, rarely three’. I have observed that at

the base of each petiole there are generally three roots produced

(Text-fig. 1, D), of which one, two, or all, may develop equally at

the same time. However, this point often varies with different

individuals. These roots are stout and spongy, and form the main

root system [PI. I, fig. 1 (left)]. Each one may reach a yard,

rarely more, in length. At first they are greyish white becoming

eventually white or sometimes stained russet. The extremity of

these roots is protected by a well-developed, yellowish root-cap.

After these roots have entered the substratum they develop nume-

rous, lateral, filamentous, branching roots; but the main roots

themselves never branch.

D ’Almeida (l.c.) under the subheading of roots writes: ‘Ordi-

narily the roots serve to anchor the rhizome to the soil and absorb

nutriment therefrom. But occasionally some roots function as

pull-roots and by their contraction bring about a firmer anchoring

of the plant in the mud and thus prevent the rhizome (which we

have seen is not buried in the mud but merely held down to the

surface of the earth by its roots) from being swayed about by

the movements of the water. . . They can be recognised at once

by their transverse wrinkling.’ After examining several dozen

specimens during the vegetative period, I am forced to the con-

clusion that such ‘pull-roots’ ( sensu stricto) do not exist in N.

pubescens, and that the wrinkled roots [PI. I, fig. 1 (right) &

fig. 2] occasionally found, result from the roots meeting with firm

resistance, and being thus confined within a circumscribed area.

When growing in soft mud the roots are all straight and long with-

out any wrinkles. The roots spread out in all directions near the

surface of the substratum. But, should the roots meet with resis-

tance or grow in a pot-hole, or the like, they tend to form spirals,

and many of them become very decidedly wrinkled. A point about

these roots is that they are much firmer in consistency than roots

that are able to spread out. In all cases I have carefully examined

the substratum before removing the plants. This I have done by

means of a stick, and also by going under water when necessary.

Leaves : The size, texture and shape of the leaves are depen-

dent on the size of the rhizome, on the amount of moisture and

water present, and on whether the apex of the rhizome is sub-

merged or not at the time when the leaves are developed. The

seed at first develops a single small broadly lanceolate leaf (Plate

II, fig. 1). This is soon followed by larger membraneous submerged

leaves which eventually form a rosette. The margins are entire,

898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

the upper surface pale green, the underside is a paler glaucous

green rarely tinged with purple. Young plants have small leaves

on thin petioles. Old rhizomes, which are partially submerged or

Fig. 1. — A. Wings of petiole in young plant. B. Wings of petiole of old

plant. C. Wings of a young leaf of an old plant. D. Section of petiole

showing wings, roots and ‘hairy’ stipule (Diagrammatic).

in damp soil during the hot weather, produce erect, short petioled,

hastate, sagittate, or linear .leaves above the surface of the water,

or if submerged, near and above the surface. These are really the

‘dry season’ leaves which appear just before the plants aestivate,

and not during the monsoon. Whether such leaves would be pro-

duced under artificial conditions at any season, I am unable to say.

These ‘dry season’ leaves are uniform in colour on both surfaces,

unlike the floating ‘monsoon’ leaves which are purplish beneath.

Again, the margins of the ‘dry season’ leaves are usually entire.

In texture they are more or less membraneous. Plants in deep

water throughout the year, produce the regular floating

‘monsoon’ leaves. During the monsoon which is the true vege-

tative period of Nymphaea, the floating leaves are produced on

long, almost cylindric petioles, the length of which depends on the

depth of water the plants happen to be growing in, or upon the

available space for their even distribution on the surface of the

water. At the base of the petioles there are usually two linear-

oblong wings adnate by their inner margins to the petiole for the

greater part of their length (Text-fig. 1, B & 0), the upper portions

alone being free and ending in acute or subacute tips. These

wings separate from the petiole when the latter increases in dia-

meter, and often remain as ‘scales’ attached to the rhizome, or fall

away entirely. Thus it is that many of the older leaves appear

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NYMPHAEA PUBESCENS

899

wingless. D ’Almeida in regard to the wings (stipules) of the peti-

oles says: ‘In the early juvenile form of the leaves the stipules are

absent,, but in the later ones they occur as slight lateral wings of

the base of the petiole.’ I have observed that these wings are

present throughout, but to a varying degree according to the age

of the plants. In all young plants the wings to the petiole are

generally narrow and adnate to the petiole throughout their entire

length (Text-fig. 1, A), whereas in the leaves of older plants, the

wings are free above from a very early stage.

Partially surrounding the base of each petiole is a fringe of fine

long, white, silky hairs (when dry) (Text-fig. 1, D). In young-

leaves these hairs are so united as to appear like membraneous

adaxial stipules (as which I regard them). On ‘dry’ rhizome these

hairy appendages form the fluffy protective covering. These ‘mem-

braneous’ appendages are, in my opinion, really adaxial stipules

transformed to serve a dual purpose. Occasionally such a trans-

formation from a membraneous to a fimbriate appendage is seen

in the development of the ligules of some of the Gramineae .

Flowers : N. pubescens commences to flower about mid- July

and continues to do so as long as there is sufficient water. During

the dry season flowers are scarce even in perennial water. The

size of the flowers is, I believe,, in proportion to that of the rhizome

— the oldest rhizomes producing the largest flowers, as already indi-

cated. The peduncles, like the petioles, vary in length with the

depth of water. There are no membraneous wings at the base of

the peduncles. The flowers are partially nocturnal and partially

diurnal. At about 7 p.m. they commence to open and remain

open all night, closing next day about noon or a little before.

Fruit : After fertilisation the flowers do not open again, and

no longer stand erect on their peduncles out of the water. Hence-

forth the young fruit gradually sinks as it matures, and generally

remains just below the surface of the water till ripe when it rises to

the surface once more. After fertilisation, the petals are the first

segments of the perianth to decompose and fall away. During this

time the sepals usually become green and foliaceous, but they too

soon fall away. The broad filaments of the anthers are yellow

in the fresh flowers; but now they undergo a remarkable change.

They gradually lose their yellow colour, increase in width and

thickness, turn green, and lose the upper portion which supported

the anthers. In this condition the filaments remain as a persistent

crown to the fruit. The outermost are the largest, diminishing in

size towards the centre. The outer frequently show lines of ‘union’

on the outside of the fruit giving the appearance as though the

carpels of the fruit were composed of fused filaments. The ex-

tremities of the outer rings of enlarged filaments are usually re-

curved, while those of the inner ones are incurved. Eventually

the outer coat of the fruit splits more or less regularly into 8-10

segments which become strongly reflexed (PI. II, fig. 8) the apical

‘corona’ of filaments coming away in the form of a disc. The

seeds float for some time and are blown about by the wind.

The fruit is globose, internally divided by 12 radial septa to

which the seeds are attached by short stalks (PI. II, fig. 7).

900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

Seeds : The seeds are numerous, 2 mm. (excluding the aril),

rotund, slightly umbonate, 14-16 longitudinal ribs, trabeculate

(when young) becoming mottled with age (PI. II, fig. 5); reddish

brown or brick red in the indehisced fruit, becoming green when

they leave the aril and eventually mottled with brown when old.

Each seed is contained in a transparent funnel-shaped aril (PI. II,

fig. 4) which on contact with the water swells considerably, finally

becoming mucilaginous. The aril is marked with fine reticulations.

When the arils swell to their fullest the seeds drop through the

mouth of the ‘funnel’ and sink to the bottom. The aril acts as a

float.

Habitat: N. pubescens is commonly found in all the still

waters of the Bombay Presidency, often associated with other

members of the same genus, Limnanthemum spp., Potamogeton

spp., Pseudoraphis aspera Pilger, and many other aquatic and

marsh plants.

Development of the Seedling.

The seeds when liberated from the fruit are generally blown

towards the bank when they fall away from the arils and sink to

the bottom. If the water does not dry up too rapidly, there is no

long period of rest and the seeds soon germinate in the shallows;

but should the water dry, the seeds do not germinate till the next

monsoon.

On germination the seed produces a single radicle and two small

cotyledons between which arises a short or long stolon-like process

at the extremity of which is developed a single small broadly

lanceolate leaf and a single adventitious root (PI. II, fig. 1). The

first leaf is soon followed by another larger and broader one and

so on till a small rosette is formed (PI. II, figs. 2 & 3). Accom-

panying each leaf is a root at its base. At the point where the

first leaf is developed a small rhizome is produced. In the follow-

ing period of activity a fresh rosette of leaves is formed. These

leaves are followed by small floating leaves year by year till the

plants reach maturity. The seed-coat persists for a considerable

time before it falls away to be washed up at the break of the next

rains. In this condition large quantities of shells may be seen

floating about.

Dispersal.

Seed : The dispersal of seed may be attributed to many

agencies. Wallowing animals undoubtedly carry away numerous

seeds adhering to their bodies. The buffalo, for example, would

be an excellent dispersing agent in India. It wallows in the

rapidly drying boggy beds of tanks and pools — just at the time

when all the seeds are mature. Aquatic birds probably account

for a large number conveyed in the small clots of earth sticking

to their feet and feathers. Water is another excellent carrier of

seed.

Rhizomes : Apart from the role water plays in the dispersal

of the seeds, at the time of floods, rhizomes and even entire plants

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NYMPHAEA PUBESCENS

901

are washed away to great distances from the place of their origin.

Finally whether accidentally or deliberately, Man is responsible

for the transportation of seeds and rhizomes; as for instance when

large quantities of earth are carried long distances off.

Summary.

There still remains much to be studied with regard to the life

history of N. pubescens. The few points touched on in this paper

are the result of field observations made over a period of several

years in the Bombay Presidency, chiefly in the Islands of

Bombay and Salsette, where this species is extremely abundant.

In situations which dry up soon after the rains the plant presents

two almost distinct phases: (a) the ‘monsoon’ or true vegetative

phase; ( b ) the ‘dry season’ or quiescent phase — at times one

gradually passing into the other.

Normally the rhizomes are vertically imbedded in the soil, but

they may occur only anchored to the substratum by roots — depend-

ing on circumstances. The rhizome often produces secondary

‘tubers’. The dead rhizomes generally leave the substratum due to

the formation of gases within their woody outer layers, and float

to the surface. This is frequently observed also in ‘free’ active

rhizomes which have their lower extremity in a state of decompo-

sition.

The leaves vary in shape, size and texture according to the

seasons and according to the age of the plant. All roots are of

the absorbent type, and only become coiled and wrinkled as a

result of resistance or confinement within a circumscribed area,

giving them the appearance of pull roots.

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS.

BY

Captain R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u.

(With three plates).

In Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire, vol. ii, p. 76, is

a reference to Whymper’s record of a nest of Rhyacornis fuliginosa

fuliginosa, the Himalayan Plumbeous Redstart, built in a tree. Un-

doubtedly holes in banks and walls, and natural hollows in trees

overhanging, or close to, the water provide the usual sites for

these nests, but I can add three records of conventionally shaped

ones built in forks of trees. The first, which was empty, was on

the Madmatti River, near Bandipur, Kashmir, in the crown of a

pollarded willow; date May 25, 1920. Moss and leaves formed

the bulk of this nest. The second was in a fairly well concealed

upright fork of a low willow on the bank of the same river about

two miles further upstream; elevation approximately 5,500 ft. and

date May 27, 1921. It was made mainly of moss lined with hair

and thin grass, was about the size of a Hedge-Sparrow’s nest,

and contained four hard set eggs. The third and last was also

in a fork of a willow tree on the landward side of a thick hedge

a few yards from the Lidar River near Pahlgam Village (6,800 ft.).

It might well have been that of a Hedge Sparrow, being substan-

tially built of moss and a few leaves with a wool and hair lining.

On May 31, 1932 it contained large young ones.

Incidentally nests are occasionally some distance from water.

In addition to the one I found in 1921 fifty yards from the river

at Lidarwat, two years ago I came across one at Tanin about the

same distance up a steep slope overlooking the Astanmarg stream.

It was in a hollow of a fallen tree. I put down the reflex camera

while I looked at it. My spaniel came rushing up the hillside,

bumped into the case and sent it spinning down into the torrent

below. Fortunately it came to rest in shallow water. The only

damage was a broken plate-holder!

At Lidarwat, late in July 1928, I came upon three very curi-

ously placed nests, none of which, I might add, survived for any

length of time. Crossing a tumbled down fence by the pathside

I almost put my hand into a nest wedged into a slight recess at

the top of a post. Another was in a slight indentation in the

side of a gently sloping grassy bank, the sort of situation a Lark

might choose, while the third was two feet from the ground stuck

against the trunk of a pine tree by the water’s edge. Someone

had taken a chip out of the bark with an axe, the resultant depres-

sion accommodating about one third of the nest.

I see Buchanan and Whymper are quoted as finding cup-shaped

nests of Calliope pectoralis pectoralis, the Himalayan Ruby-throat

(. Nidification , vol. ii, p. 82), but did Buchanan really mean cup-

shaped without the semblance of a dome? Every nest I have

. ' i t <

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE III.

Grey-headed Thrush ( Turdus rubrocanus ) approaching nest. Pahlgam 7,000', Lidar

Valley, Kashmir.

Copyright R. S. P. Bates.

Nest of Blue-headed Rock Thrush ( Monticola cinchlovyncha ), made largely of pine

needles. Pahlgam 7,000', Lidar Valley, Kashmir.

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS

903

ever seen I would certainly describe as domed, but semi-domed

would apply equally as well. Cup shaped would apply to none.

The entrance is decidedly on the large side taking into account

the proportions of the nest, and is situated towards the top, thus

displacing the better part of half the dome, but the structure still

inclines towards the shape of a coconut with a piece cut out of it.

And what does Mr. Stuart Baker mean when he says their

nests are always in the open? On open ground above the tree-line

— yes, but a most favoured situation is in the roots of juniper

where it grows in patches on the hillsides. Usually the nest is

near the outer edge of its patch where the scrub is but one or

two feet high. So far I have not been lucky enough to find a

nest in any other situation, and nests in grass tufts on open hill-

sides have never come my way. This may of course account for

my never having found a cup shaped affair.

On the subject of the Western Grey-headed Thrush (T urdus

rubrocanus rubrocanus) I feel I could really spread myself, but I

will restrain myself as far as possible. The somewhat limited

information in Hume’s Nests and Eggs infers that nests are only

to be found in banks. It seems to me that subsequently, taking

this for granted, collectors, including myself, have hunted about

at ground level, and with occasional success. Stuart Baker ( Nidi -

fication, vol. ii, p. 119) has therefore been compelled to carry on

the tradition, adding a note of Rattray’s of a nest in a hole of

a tree trunk up to ten or twelve feet from the ground, and that

I found them building their nests in hollows in decayed stumps

and considered such places were more often used than banks.

This certainly was my impression until circumstances forced me

to look elsewhere with immediate and most fruitful results.

Pahlgam was the scene of my enlightenment. Those who have

visited that delightful spot will remember the shady path which

leads through the extensive pine and mixed forests passing just

above the little church to Rainspal Marg and on up the left bank

of the East Lidar River.

On May 17 on the very edge of this path I found an empty

nest built at eye-level on a couple of small horizontal branches

and close up against the trunk of a pine tree. It looked uncom-

monly like a thrush’s nest.

The following day while forcing my way through a little copse

of young pines in a wood on the right bank of the West Lidar

River, a bird fluttered out of the crown of one of the young trees,

disclosing a nest about eight feet from the ground well concealed

amongst the twigs. This contained three naked young but alas

I had hardly seen the owner. As a lynx-eyed Jungle Crow was

becoming unpleasantly curious, I beat a hasty retreat, but next

morning watched a Grey-headed Thrush on to the nest.

My suspicions were now aroused as on the 19th I saw no less

than three pairs of these birds while walking along the Rainspal

path, and to quote from my diary for that- day ‘One had a nest

well-concealed about nine feet up in the crown of a fir sapling. It

contained one young one about a week old, so the egg or eggs

904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

must have been laid in the latter half of April. I did not realise

that this bird was so common at only 7,000 ft., nor that it bred

so early’.

Further extracts from my diary will complete the story.

‘May 20. — Went up to Baisaran. Found a number of old or

empty Grey-headed Thrush’s nests in tree forks about six or

eight feet from the ground. At length we found a lately deserted

one at the top of the hill (8,000 ft.) with three somewhat bad

eggs in it which I took. As if to show that the exception proves

the rule, the nest was in the roots of a hazel only a few inches

off the ground.’

‘May 22.— Spent the morning in the woods on the left bank

of the East Lidar. Within fifty yards of the Grey-headed

Thrush’s with one young one, found the following : —Another

Thrush’s with three eggs six feet up in the fork of a hazel; a

Blue-throated Fly-catcher’s being built. . . . Eventually I found

two more Thrushes’ against pine trunks, one five and one ten

feet from the ground, the former with three eggs and the other

with two new young and an egg. Also found two new but empty

ones in same kind of site and a number of old ones.’

‘May 26. — Found yet another Grey-headed Thrush’s nest

with the bird sitting on two eggs. Usual situation (six feet up in

fork of hazel).’

‘June 5. — Another Grey-headed Thrush’s in the same old

wood well-concealed against the trunk of a fir on the path-side.

It is only five feet from the ground, contains three incubated eggs,

and in an excellent position for photography.’

Between May 17 and June 5, I therefore found no less than

eight nests containing eggs or young and at least an equal num-

ber of old ones and new ones being built. Out of these only one

was near ground level, the remainder being against tree trunks,

usually where a couple of horizontal branches sprang out together,

and to a lesser extent in forks, varying from five to twelve feet

from the ground. Some were very well- concealed, many far from

it, but once having realised that far more nests were to be found

off the ground than on it, I simply could not help discovering

them. In character I found these birds very close sitters, though

extremely wary in returning to nests containing eggs. They

become bold and very fussy after the appearance of the young.

Of the Blue-headed Rock-Thrush ( Monticola cinclorhyncha)

in Nidification , vol. ii, p. 150, Stuart Baker writes as follows:

‘Hume also notes that they sometimes incorporate pine needles in

their nests but, though all my nests have been taken in pine wood

country, I have seen no pine needles used, nor have I ever seen

the birds breeding inside these woods, although they may be all

round them.’

Near Pahlgam I know of a certain pine wood roughly quarter

of a mile square. Through this wood runs a small but ever-

deepening nullah, the pines growing down its sides. One or two

channels, mere depressions forming sloping banks but two or

three feet deep, run through the wood into the nullah. As is

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS

m

usual in pine woods undergrowth is conspicuous by its almost com-

plete absence, though a few scattered brambles occur here and

there along the nullah.

On June 5, when some thirty yards inside the wood at a point

where the nullah was perhaps some fifteen feet deep with fairly

steep banks, my wife’s spaniel pushed his head into the base of

one of the few bushes, whereupon a female Blue-headed Bock-

Thrush burst out from under his very nose. So close had she

sat that he could easily have caught her, but her flustered exit

so startled him that all he achieved was to push a small twig

through one of the four fresh eggs which the nest Contained.

Although so startled the bird made no sound and flew straight

down the nullah till lost to view. The nest was composed almost

wholly of pine needles with a few short lengths of quite stout

twigs incorporated on the outside. I removed the broken egg and

tidied up the nest but alas she deserted, as next day only one egg

remained and this was quite cold.

Ten days later, hoping that this pair, which were still hanging

about, might be nesting again I thoroughly searched every likely

spot I could find in the wood. I traced no occupied nest but

found two disused ones under the buttress roots of pines growing

on the edge of one of the shallow channels. One of these was

almost wholly made of needles; the other lined with them.

In 1931, on July 1, I stumbled on a nest of this bird when

crossing the Hayan Pass on our way back to Srinagar from the

Sind Valley. The surroundings of the nest were as follows: —

Elevation about 9,000 ft. The bridle path we were on ran dia-

gonally upwards across a steep slope. Above the path the pines

grew thickly; below it the fall of the ground steepened and pines

and other trees were somewhat scarcer. The nest was in a hollow

formed by a sloping stone projecting from the bank on the inner

side of the path. Its lining was of pine needles, the rest of the

structure being of a little moss and some stout twigs with two or

three really large pieces of bark buttressing up the front. It con-

tained four eggs on the point of hatching.

Of its habits Stuart Baker states that he has always found

both male and female shy during the breeding season, very loth

to visit the nest when watched, and leaving it before an intruder

approaches the nest very close. He does hotvever go on to quote

that Marshall and Cock found it otherwise. Personally I have

found it an exceptionally close sitter. For instance in the case

of the Hayan Pass nest the female only left when my boot-— I

was riding — literally brushed past the front of the nest. On

another occasion I stood over a sitting bird for some minutes talk-

ing to the shikari who had spotted her, while as Stated my dog

nearly caught one though the nest contained fresh eggs. Once

flushed, it is another matter. I have always found it to leave

the nest with a swift direct flight, usually straight downhill, and

to pass completely from view without uttering a sound. As regards

approaching the nest when watched, Stuart Baker is undoubtedly

correct. I have waited in vain for hours. And my only attempt

at photographing one at the nest likewise ended in failure. Half

906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVll

an hour after entering the hide, the female descended to the edge

of the nest, but hearing a slight sound from within, she left im-

mediately and never appeared again although I waited the whole

morning.

What is the incubation period of the Himalayan Whistling

Thrush’s egg? On May 18, I found a nest containing one fresh

egg. By the 21st it held its full complement of four; that is, an

egg had been deposited each day. Unfortunately I did not visit

this nest again until June 9 when to my surprise I found four

healthy naked young ones so large that they filled the nest cavity

entirely. I judged them to be at least four to five days old, which

places the incubation period in the neighbourhood of 14 days. This

is shorter than I had expected it to be, but it is perhaps offset

by the fact that the young ones remain in the nest a considerable

time.

This note refers to Bareilly in the United Provinces. On July

21, 1932, I noticed a very busy little Tailor-bird ( Orthotomus

sutorius sutorius) making frequent visits to a small mango tree

bordering a lawn. By August 2nd the female was sitting on eggs

in a decidedly well concealed nest built within three drooping

leaves carefully stitched together. It was a good nest for obser-

vation purposes being but six feet from the ground, but alas on

the 7th I found it empty and slightly depressed on one side, as

if a somewhat heavy creature had stood upon its rim.

Two days later I found that they must have immediately

turned their attention to a croton on the verandah and here a new

nest very rapidly appeared. Although decidedly conspicuous, and

within six feet of where my bearer sat every morning cleaning my

gear, this nest survived and a brood was successfully reared. I

cannot say which bird was responsible for sewing the leaves to-

gether but I noticed that both helped with the construction of

the nest within. Building activities ceased on the 11th and an

egg was deposited on each of the three following days (I looked in

at approximately 10 a.m. every day).

The female did not wait for the deposition of the full clutch,

but commenced sitting on the 13th when the nest held two eggs.

On the 25th at 10 a.m. I saw the female fly off with a piece of

egg-shell in her bill and found that one egg had hatched out and

that another egg was cracked. This had also hatched off by mid-

day. As I expected the third young one appeared the following

morning. The period of incubation was therefore 12 days.

When we went up to Pahlgam in May 1932 I hoped for photo-

graphs of the handsome Black and Orange Grosbeak ( Perissospiza

icteroides). Photographs of a sort I did obtain but not in the

manner I had expected. When exactly do these birds breed at

this level (7,000 ft.)? Very early on I suspect.

On arrival, May 17, I noted a pair, male and female, in the

vicinity of the church. Another pair, also male and female, used

to haunt our camp and were in the habit of hopping up quite close

to the tent in the early mornings and evenings to crack the

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS

907

pine seeds unearthed by our servants in their passage to and from

the so-called kitchen. It was through this that I got a photograph

of a male. We were having a lazy afternoon in the tent when my

wife heard the faint cracking of seeds just the other side of the

flap. Cautiously pushing out the lens of the reflex, I found the

image of a male Grosbeak taking up the whole of the focussing

screen. Alas at that moment I had no sufficiently colour sensitive

plate available, so the resultant photograph might well be of his

dull coloured consort.

Towards the end of the month the female disappeared, but

two males kept up the practice.

On June 4, I found myself constrained to write in my diary

‘Have seen numbers of male Grosbeaks together the last few

days’.

On the 9th, I wrote: ‘In the afternoon two male Grosbeaks

came to the tent. I took one through the window. One sees no

females about now but the males are not alone and sometimes in

flocks of four or five.’ Where were the females?

Soon after this we moved to Tanin (9,000 ft.). Unfortunately

I failed to keep a clear record of the Grosbeaks there. On

June 24 I noted ‘Saw a flock of at least half a dozen Grosbeaks’.

Sex I did not state and I cannot now remember whether this

refers to a roosting party which I disturbed late one evening.

Coming down a steep hillside when the light was rapidly fading,

I threw a stone into a patch of thick bushes about eight or ten

feet high. To my surprise the place at once became alive with

fluttering birds which dashed out on the lower side of the clump.

Going quietly round I got my wife to throw in a couple more

stones when out came more birds, those close enough to me to

be recognised in the bad light turning out to be about half a

dozen Grosbeaks. From their size and flight I think it more than

likely that every one of the birds which came out was of this

species. If so they must have collected from a wide area to roost

together in the security of these thick bushes on this somewhat

open hillside. Incidentally there were pine woods in plenty on

both sides and above, the nearest real wood being about three

hundred yards distant.

The Red-browed Finch ( Callacanthis burtoni) is a most in-

triguing bird. Very little seems to be known of its nesting. In

fact the few records extant are somewhat vague. It is by no means

an uncommon bird, so how it has succeeded in maintaining its

secret is somewhat of a mystery. It certainly breeds around

Sonamarg (approximately 9,000 ft.) in May and June. On

June 12, I found myself literally face to face with a young bird

so uncertain of its wing power that I almost caught it before it

fluttered oh its perch, while a pair certainly had a nest in the

vicinity of some isolated pine trees near the mouth of Glacier

Valley. I watched this pair frequently up to June 20, but any

amount of searching failed to disclose a nest though just as we

were leaving Sonamarg on that date I disturbed them feeding two

young ones on the ground near these same pines.

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlSf. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXvli

When feeding they are really quite tame. I have often come

upon parties feeding on the ground which have only flown up into

the nearby bushes or trees, uttering soft ‘tews’, when I have been

right amongst them, and almost before I have got twenty yards

away they have commenced dropping down again in ones and twos

to the same spot. When disturbed like this, they always seem to

fly up onto the nearest eminence, be it a tree or a stump but

two feet high, and here they remain sitting quietly until the dis-

turbing element has passed.

Last year I came across an excellent example of the necessity

of not allowing enthusiasm to lead one into reporting . supposed

discoveries without making the most careful investigation into

their authenticity. On June 8, I found myself looking into a

Monal’s ( Lophopkorus impejanus ) nest with no less than eight

eggs in it. It will be remembered that in Nests and Eggs, vol. iii,

p. 408, Hume quotes Major Cock who writes of clutches of from

five to eight in number. In his Game Birds, vol. iii, Stuart Baker

discounts these reports, pointing out that recent collectors have

never found more than six eggs in a nest and that only rarely.

I was recently sent a beautiful photograph of a nest of six eggs

by Mr. E. H. N. Lowther. About his nest there is of course

no doubt as he found it himself, but my clutch of eight eggs pro-

vides a very different story.

On June 7, I had met a local shikari at a log bridge over the

East Lidar a couple of miles above Pahlgam. He wanted me

to shoot a bear, but when I said I only shot birds and their

nests with a camera, he volunteered the information that he had

just seen a Monal on its nest on the steep wooded hillside whence

he had obviously come.

I went out with him the very next morning and attempted to

photograph the bird on the nest. It was in a hollow under a

small fir seedling at the top of some steep rocks by the edge of

a log shoot, an impossible place for a hiding tent. All I could do

Was to rig up the half-plate camera within three feet of the sitting

bird. In order to focus I had to lean out over a twenty-foot drop,

holding on to the shikari, who in turn was grasping a tree trunk.

Having got the focussing done, I then had to clear grass and some

dead twigs out of the line of sight. Her Majesty submitted to

this turmoil without the flicker of an eyelid, so after quarter of

an hour’s hard work I thought I would succeed. But pride comes

before a fall. An irritating twig, the very last obstacle, was right

across her face. An attempt to move it was followed by a whirr

of wings and away she sailed down the hillside, swerving shortly

into the cover on the left of the shoot.

Of the eight eggs one was very much matted with dirty down.

The nest too was by no means clean, containing amongst other

debris three large beetles which had evidently been sheltering under

her warm breast.

I suggested to the shikari that I should make a further attempt

the following day, whereupon he told me that he had received

orders to take the eggs and send them down at once under a

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

iarus Crane ( Antigone antigone, Linn. ) at nest. Bareilly, United Provinces.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II.

Nest and eggs of the Sarus Crane ( Antigone antigone, Linn. ) near Bareilly, United Provinces.

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BIRDS

1)09

hen to the authorities in Srinagar where I gathered the young

birds would be placed in an aviary.

After due cogitation I felt there was something fishy about this

story, as the man was only a local shikari and not one of the

official game watchers. On my return to the plains I therefore

wrote to the Game Department in Srinagar asking whether, in

view of the fact that I was very interested in the discovery of a

nest of eight Monal eggs, they would be kind enough to tell me

whether the young birds had all hatched out and at what intervals.

The reply was enlightening to say the least of it. No instructions

whatsoever had been issued regarding this nest. After giving the

Department further information, I received a final reply to the

effect that the eggs had indeed been sent to Srinagar but to no

State Department, implying that the shikari had been indulging

in some underhand trading, that the young birds had all died, and

that there was good reason to suspect that the eggs were not the

product ‘ of one hen. The last bit is of course what I had sus-

pected. For his own convenience the shikari had probably put the

eggs from a second nest into the one he showed to me.

I have related this story at length to show that it is not safe

to trust even one’s own eyes in the case of a nest which has

been previously found by some worthy who is likely to put per-

sonal gain before scientific accuracy. I don’t know whether Major

Cock employed native collectors (who are so very often unreliable,

being more mindful of increased kudos, and bakshish, for dis-

coveries, than of the necessity for the strictest veracity where

science is concerned), but this is perhaps the true explanation of

these reputed clutches of nine eggs.

In spite of the fact that the Sarus Crane ( Antigone antigone

(untigone) is very common around Bareilly in the United Provinces,

I found it most difficult to hit upon a nest which promised any

chance of successful photography, but in my search for the ideal

I remarked many interesting incidents. On August 9 for instance

I spent some profitable minutes observing nest building. The pair

in question were both hard at it well out in a shallow swamp. One

bird remained building up the nest while the other worked round

it in a circle, pulling up the reeds and throwing them in the

direction of the nest over its left shoulder in one sweeping motion.

It worked decidedly fast, averaging round about twenty-five pulls

to the minute. I watched them for perhaps twenty minutes.

They then broke off and, wandering away together, commenced

feeding.

On August 14, not so very far from this same nest, I thought

I spotted a Crane’s neck protruding above the rice stalks a good

half mile from the road I was on. The glasses confirmed my sus-

picions. As it was obviously a sitting bird I went to investigate.

The very moment I left the road the neck disappeared. Fortun-

ately I had marked the place fairly accurately otherwise I might

quite easily have missed the nest. She let me walk past her

some thirty yards away without moving. Out of the corner of

my eye I saw her lying flat in the nest with head and neck laid

11

910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlSf. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

along the ground straight to her front. It was really most sur-

prising to find how inconspicuous, one might almost say insigni-

ficant, this huge bird had become. The nest was merely a cir-

cular mound of hardened mud roughly eight feet across, with

about half a pound of dried rice-stalks round the edge of the

shallow glazed mud central portion containing a single egg. The

mound had in all probability been formed from the accumulations

of some years of nests.

On August 20, I at last found a nest containing two eggs

so placed that the receding waters in the depression in whicii

it had been built had laid bare a patch of mud of sufficiently sub-

stantial consistency to enable me to erect the hiding tent at a

convenient distance from the nest without fear of coming to a

sticky, not to mention a slimy, end. This depression, surrounded

on two sides by sugarcane and bordering a weedy tank behind the

ISadar bazaar, was usually a rice field, but abnormal rain had

filled it up to the very edge of the cane-brakes. Some thirty yards

out was a slight hump just under water, a continuation ot the

muddy spit on which 1 was eventually on August 26 able to erect

the tent. According to my usual practice 1 put it up late that

evening.

In order to have the sun in the right direction and as it was

still very hot, I got into the hide at 7 a.m. the next morning.

Although there had been no signs of either bird I had only a

short time to wait before one of them put in an appearance.

Approaching in the usual stately crane manner she stood for a few

moments by the nest eyeing the hide, but soon came to the con-

clusion that it was quite harmless. Mounting the nest, she placed

her feet slightly behind the eggs and, lowering her long neck,

gently rearranged them with the tip of her bill. She then sank

down, ever so slowly — in real cinema slow motion as it were.

This action brought her so far back in the nest that it looked as

if she would miss the eggs altogether. Naturally she didn’t, but

they were only just out of sight covered by her breast feathers.

She seemed quite content, sitting with head erect, but within

five minutes she stood up, had a good shake, and puffed out all

her body, feathers until she looked like a thoroughly overgrown

powder puff. At this moment a very much moulting Whiskered

Tern alighted between the nest and the hide but so close that I

had to stop the lens right down to get both birds in focus. For-

tunately they had the decency to remain quite motionless while

I gave a time exposure. I nearly repeated the performance with

a Pheasant-tailed Jacana but it moved out of the field just too

soon.

Quarter of an hour after the Sarus had once more composed

herself on the nest, I heard a loud trumpet from the direction

of Chanehti village. My victim at once took notice, gave forth

two terrific blasts in return, and stalked off the nest out of sight

to my right. A moment later I heard the powerful beat of her

great wings, then all was silence.

For how long w&s the nest to be left unguarded? I was just

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF SOME INDIAN hlRDS

911

wondering when both Saruses walked calmly into view. Alas they

were as like as two peas. I had hoped there might be some dis-

tinguishing mark by which I could find out whether both or only

one parent incubated the eggs, but there was no way whatsoever

of telling the one from the other. I have talked all through of

the sitting bird as ‘she’, but perhaps it is quite wrong of me to

have done so.

I had at this time another pair under observation but they

alas steadfastly refused to nest. One of these was perceptibly

smaller than its mate, had a much wider pale band round the

neck, and a definitely higher pitched voice.

I took a further number of photographs of both my birds at

the nest but the incubation problem remained unsolved. Unfor-

tunately further work at this nest was summarily cut short. The

same afternoon heavy rain set in. Next morning the nest was

not to be seen — it was a foot or more under water, but wonder

of wonders the Sarus was quite calmly incubating one surviving

egg, which had been rescued by a villager and placed on a pro-

montory projecting from a canebrake a hundred yards from the

late-lamented nest. I never discovered what eventually transpired,

but a couple of days afterwards the single egg too had gone, leav-

ing a disconsolate pair of Cranes wandering about the fields of

Chanehti.

‘AN INTERESTING CASE OF SEMI-CYCLOPIA IN A SHARE:/

BY

John Berry, m.a. (Cantab.).

From the Natural History Department , University College,

( University of St. Andrew’s), Dundee.

( With two plates and one diagram).

Acknowledgment .

Before dealing with this specimen, I should like first to acknow-

ledge my indebtedness to those who have assisted me with

valuable co-operation and help in the examination of the specimen.

Thanks are due, in the first instance, to Mr. C. Boden Kloss,

Director of Museums, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay

States, for sending the monster together with a normal specimen

to University College, Dundee, for investigation. For allowing me

to conduct the examination, and for technical advice I am greatly

indebted to Professor A. D. Peacock, D.Sc., Natural History

Department, and to Dr. G. R. Tudhope, Department of Pathology;

also to Mr. A. T. Baxter who prepared the material for microsco-

pical study.

University College, Dundee,

February 1931.

Introductory Remark s .

Obtained by the Raffles Museum, Singapore, from a shark in

the local fish-market, this specimen was sent, preserved in

formalin, to Professor Peacock at Dundee for examination. It was

an example of Charcharias Dussumieri (Valenciennes), one of the

‘true sharks’ all of which are viviparous, and the genus is charac-

terised by absence of spiracles, and dorso-ventral compression of

the snout which is not greatly produced longitudinally.

In normal specimens, commencing with the anterior extremity

of the rostrum and continuing posteriorly, the ethmoidal rods are

more nearly coplanar than in most forms, being also rather shorter

and stouter. The chondrocranium is strongly made, having a small

anterior fontanelle, and being traversed dorsally by a well-marked

longitudinal median depression which serves to mark the separa-

tion of the parencephalic lobes; but with other divisions of the

brain, these suffered considerable dissectional rupture in preparation

of the slides (Plate II, No. 1).

At this stage of development olfactory capsules are large, and

olfactory epithelium well developed, since the embryos cannot

(Note. — Although written in 1931, this paper was mislaid and forgotten,

hence the delay in publication. — J.B., 1934.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

Semi-cyclopia in a Shark.

-Head of normal shark. B. — Head of monster.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE II.

&LF ACTOR Y RE< i ! ON — ( N't irma i>.

OLFACTORY REGION* — ( Ahmmaalj

Median depression.

Roof <?£ <'Ji>Kidiocran'iinj

Chou rtK-rtn.-it"

■vsnceplAio

Anterior ProscrM*J»balu»»,

!<j. a->rMal -'b

OiPi-.t.'r;. jiet’nm. i‘. <~ivcO

Olfactory fenlhs.

Oifescsofy eapsvsSar earblstge.

Olfactory epithelium.

CpuVdmtr. . ' >!!.siS.i-iy taJItv

Methc&meidi

Bt'taoidsd septum.

Mcdi.'s.mu'Ci.

IRTERORBITAL REGION-- Korns*!;

; ORBITAL RECKON ~< Abnormal >.

:tt-i i<sr end >: ; .c si'hid >

Stsjser’osr <ds!i<it

tannins.

A> tc.i

dupes'

lives i'-s .■!>!» ficts.iMi'.ly ti scd

Fas-.:<n of orbital p

cartilages. ? }

l NTEROR BITA L REG K >N— ' A lm«nn»! i

(KXIHTAL REGION— {Ni

t ercbtdbim.

Ojjtk lobes.:

Vi-K >U>

"ii n

X. »«>• i- ■

: Hs

Inactions

S’ ■'‘O1'.. ev ‘ !

, h’i <>(s tap- <

Anterior end of

B.adii<s?y capsnie.

i tni'.< sn_- 1 ». - '

Single optic tor-naen.

Deers ssatioti of

optic nerves —

Anterior rectus

sni.iscies.

v <■ go« i . >„• .a: e.

net >

Le v

/ Xieextl s -amslagc.

f\it-.torteryS'>iiaad.-ite

' >' . ati >bytss

Fusion of or1 ■ ul cartilage.

Ceratobranrbfsd, S,

Semi-cyclopia in a Shark.

(For explanation see text.)

'AN INTERESTING CASE OF SEMI-CYCLOPIA IN A SHARK' 913

have been far from birth when their parent was taken. Methes-

moid and ethmoidal septum are strong and thick, which is of

interest when this region (Pl. II, No. 1) is compared with corre-

sponding parts of the monster (PI. II, No. 2). Passing backwards

towards the interorbital region (PI. II, No. 3) palatopterygoqua-

drates are large but devoid of teeth, and the same is also the case

with Meckel’s cartilages. Unfortunately sections in this region

are not as clear as one could wish and the facial nerves were

hard to follow; however, in common with the optic nerves and

muscles, they are typically elasmobranchian in character and distri-

bution, and detailed description is therefore here superfluous.

Auditory capsules are fully developed, and extend in both normal

and monster from interorbital to occipital regions. The basihyal

is narrow and strongly arched; the first ceratobranchials run up-

wards and ‘overlap’ the ceratohyals. Hyomandibulars are short,

thick, and articulate at their proximal extremities with the audi-

tory region of the cranium by means of the usual distinct articular

facets; but since the monster is from here normally developed,

further comparison between the two specimens is uncalled-for.

Abnormalities in the monster appeared to be confined to the

anterior portion of the head; posterior to the mouth normality of

development was soon evident, and since it was complete from

the occipital region, detailed examination was consequently con-

fined almost entirely to the fore and mid brain.

Photographs having first been taken of the monster and a

normal specimen of similar age (Plate I), the heads of both were

embedded in celloidin and slides prepared from transverse sections

‘ fi ’ in thickness, these having been first stained in Delafield’s

‘haematoxylin’, and then counter-stained in Van Gieson’s ‘picro-

saurefuschin’.

Some difficulty was occasioned by contortion of the heads

causing apparent asymmetry to appear in the sections, but those

selected for reproduction are but slightly affected.

Extent and Nature of Malformation in the Monster.

The rostrum of the monster shows profound malformation.

The extremity of the snout consists of a vertical mucilaginous ridge

compressed laterally, and immediately under this is a confused

mass of cartilage caused by compression of the ethmoidal rods,

which in turn are in close approximation to the olfactory capsule.

In the olfactory region (Plate II, No. 2), the head broadens

rapidly, but ‘depth’ still remains considerably greater than

‘breadth’, — exactly the opposite of the corresponding region in the

normal. Olfactory bulbs have undergone complete displacement in

a downward direction, lie ‘side by side’, and even show partial

fusion of the olfactory epithelium, especially at the posterior end

of the olfactory capsule. Concurrently, methesmoid and

ethmoidal septum have been forced downwards to the floor of the

olfactory capsule where they form an irregular distorted bar, in

places completely fused with the olfactory capsular cartilage.

From the olfactory bulbs the olfactory peduncles rise almost

914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

vertically, and enter the true brain through the base of the

prosencephalon; they are completely fused throughout.

Immediately posterior to the olfactory capsule come the orbits,

which — at least externally — are the most striking aberrations which

the monster exhibited. Hind, and even mid brains, are funda-

mentally normal, and although the foramina are unusual in

position, the chondrocranium itself is not so far abnormal as to

have caused constriction or malformation of any of the chief

cranial regions. The orbits are directly ventral to the chondro-

cranium (PI. II, No. 4), and so closely have they been compressed

by their downward rotation that fusion of orbital cartilages has

taken place along what normally would have been their ventral

surfaces. In spite of this, however, the ‘eye-balls’ themselves are

quite normal, but as is so often the case, toughness of the lens

has caused such severe dissectional rupture that it is seldom pos-

sible to recognise all integral portions on the slides. Optic muscles

have maintained a normal position relative to the orbits— the an-

terior rectus being vertically above the ‘eye-ball’, posterior rectus

immediately behind it, and other muscles in equivalent positions

on either side. Superior oblique and superior rectus muscles, being

now external relative to the others, have undergone no important

modifications, but inferior oblique and inferior rectus muscles are

largely fused along the greater part of their lengths.

In the cranium, the cerebellum reaches its maximum dilation

point slightly anterior to the vertical mid-line through the orbits,

and below it the optic lobes, although showing slight downward

lateral displacement, are otherwise normal (PL II, No. 4). But if

the brain be called normal, the same cannot be said of the cranial

nerves, and while the majority follow the malformations of the

head exactly as would be expected, the optic nerves are so mark-

edly unusual that they seem to call for particular mention.

In the extreme ventral ridge of the chondrocranium there is a

single optic foramen (PI. II, No. 6), and through this the two

optic nerves — although closely compressed together they maintain

their individuality throughout — enter the cranial cavity. There is

no optic chiasma in the usual meaning of the term, but decussa-

tion of the optic fibres appears to take place at the point of

entrance to the cranial cavity in the optic foramen itself. There-

after the optic nerves run upwards round the inside of the chondro-

cranium and between that and the brain, to enter the optic lobes

mid-laterally.

Posterior to the orbits comes the palatopterygoquadrate bar

which has undergone considerable modification as would be expect-

ed. This has taken the form of downward, inward and backward

compression which transforms these cartilages into a thick trans-

verse block, while a corresponding modification of Meckel’s carti-

lages ( see diagram) has made of the normally strongly arched

mouth practically a straight transverse slit (Plate I, A & B).

Directly above the mouth are the auditory capsules which are

perfectly normal except for negligible downward and lateral com-

pression.

Visceral arches are all normal, but the basihyal has become

Medulla Oblongata

0

3

Diagram to show malformations of the head region.

'AN INTERESTING CASE OF SEMI-CYCLOPIA IN A SHARK ’ 915

slightly more flattened transversely than is normal, and the hyo-

mandibular is somewhat curved to conform to alteration in point

of articulation of palatopterygoquadrates and Meckel’s cartilages.

As has already been stated, posterior to the occipital region the

monster appears to be entirely normal.

Discussion.

Professor J. E. Gemmill1 made two postulates in dealing with

questions of teratological causation, first, that each recognised type

of monstrosity could arise in a spontaneous or autogenetic manner

by abrupt germinal variation, and second, that most recognised

types could be produced by environmental factors acting during

course of development; but he qualified the latter by saying that

external factors were only causative in the sense that they could

divert a course of development along certain fixed lines of which

the limits were strictly governed by those potentialities which

allowed for occurrence of the first or autogenetic type of abnorma-

lity.

Where monstrosity has arisen from abrupt germinal variation,

abnormality of development, if it has not already commenced in

the embryonic cranium, has at least become evident at so early

a stage that the brain will exhibit the chief germinant irregularities,

and to these such associated characteristics as reduction or fusion

of optic lenses in cyclopia, for example, are merely secondary.

If, however, origin of teratological condition be neither atavistic

nor autogenetic, and assuming no pathogenic inception, it is only

natural to expect that the brain, which is that portion of the head

best shielded to withstand external stresses, will be least affected

by mechanical results of adverse environmental conditions.

In the present instance, if consideration be given to the degree

of developmental irregularity essential in production of malforma-

tions so profoundly and obviously abnormal, it is evident that com-

pared with cranial conditions usually associated with cyclopia and

allied monstrosities, the brain, and in fact the whole median and

posterior chondrocranium, are singularly unaffected by whatever

cause incited teratological aberration of rostrum and orbits.

Compressed and fused ethmoidal rods, together with signs of

extreme external pressure on the olfactory capsular cartilage, to-

gether with comparative normality of the eye-contents compared

to their position and fusion of the sclerotic cartilages, can

leave but little doubt that the origin of partial cyclopia in this

shark was a purely mechanical effect of adverse environmental

conditions during uterine growth.

Although cyclopia is so well-known a type of monstrosity in

fishes and other animals, almost all ichthyological examples record-

ed have been from members of the salmonidae of which embryos

are so easily obtained from fish-hatcheries and the like. Besides

the present case, only one other example of total or partial cyclopia

has been recorded from the elasmobranchii — the historic Eagle Bay

1 The Teratology of Fishes by J. F. Gemmill; Glasgow, 1912.

916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

( Myliobatis noctula — or aquila) described by F. Paolucci,1 and now

in the collection of the Technical Institute of Ancona; that speci-

men had not only been born, but had even survived until the day of

its capture by fishermen. It is interesting to note that Mylioba-

tidae, like Charcharidae, are viviparous.

It is possible that the malformation in the present case arose in

some such manner as the following : after the embryo had deve-

loped normally for some time the outgrowing snout encountered

obstruction at two points slightly above, and on either side of the

median longitudinal axis, and the rostrum was compressed laterally

and depressed downwards. As in the course of embryonic deve-

lopment the fore-part of the head was more and more strongly

urged against the obstructions, the frontal extremity and sides

became deflected downwards until they met. in the mid-ventral line

where continued constriction caused partial fusion of various

organs.

According to Dr. Gemmill’s theory, external pressure would

have so upset the normal course of development that latent poten-

tialities of cyclopia would have been given opportunity to assert

themselves in formation of a specific and recognised teratological

type.

There only remains the question as to whether the embryo could

have survived, had it ever been born. In the vast majority of

cases, any cyclopic tendency is accompanied by so great a mal-

formation of the jaws, that the embryo is unable to feed; even did

condition of the brain not preclude any possibility of survival.

From the morphology of this specimen, however, there appears no

sufficient reason for stating definitely that the young fish could not

have survived. Paolucci ’s ray had the eye set in the anterior

border of the head, which doubtless allowed it a wide range of

vision, above, below and on either side. The position of the orbit

in this shark would only have permitted of its seeing objects direct-

ly beneath it, or nearly so; while this should have been quite suffi-

cient to have allowed it to have obtained its food, it is unlikely

that with so limited a range of vision it could for long have es-

caped its natural enemies.

1 Supra una Forma Monstuosa della ‘ Myliobatis Noctula' by F. Paolucci;

Atti, d. Soc. It. d. Sc. Nat. 17, fsc. 1; Milano, 1874.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA.

BY

J. F. Caius, S.J., F.L.S.

The Palmae include about 200 genera with about 1,500 species,

natives of tropical and subtropical regions, a few being found in

the warmer temperate countries.

The medicinal and poisonous Palms of the world belong to 34

different genera : — Acanthophoenix (Mascarene Islands) ; Acro-

comia (Tropical America; Brazil); Areca (Tropical Asia; Malay-

Archipelago; New Guinea; Australia); Arenga (Tropical Asia;

Malay- Archipelago; New Guinea; Australia); Astrocaryum (Tropi-

cal America); Attalea (Tropical America); Borassus (Tropical

Africa; India, from Ceylon to the Sunda Islands); Calamus (Tropi-

cal and Sub -tropical Asia; Tropical West Africa; Australia);

Oaryota (Tropical Asia; Malay- Archipelago ; Australia); Chamae-

rops (Mediterranean region); Cocos (Tropical and Sub-tropical

America); Copernicia (America); Corypha (Tropical Asia; Malay-

Archipelago) ; Diplothemium (Brazil); Elaeis (Tropical Africa and

America); Euterpe (Tropical America; West Indies); Hyphaene

(Africa; India); Licuala (Indo-Malayan region; New Guinea; North

Australia); Lodoicea (Seychelles Islands); Loxococcus (Ceylon);

Mauritia (Northern Brazil; Guiana; West Indies); Maximiliana

(Tropical Brazil; Guiana; Trinidad); Metroxylon (Malay-Archipe-

lago; New Guinea); Nannorhops (India; Afghanistan; Southern

Persia); Neodypsis (Madagascar); Nipa (Tropical Asia; New

Guinea; Australia); OenoCArpus (Tropical America); Orania (Malay -

Archipelago; Papua); Phoenix (Sub-tropical Africa; Tropical Asia);

Pinanga (Malay- Archipelago) ; Raphia (Tropical Africa; Madagas-

car; Tropical America); Serenoa (Florida, Southern California);

Trachycarpus (Northern India; Burma; Northern China; Japan);

Wallichia (East India).

The medicinal and poisonous Palms of India belong to 24

genera, either indigenous or introduced: — Acanthophoenix, Areca,

Arenga, Attalea, Borassus, Calamus, Caryota, Chamaerops,

Cocos, Copernicia, Corypha, Elaeis, Hyphaene, Licuala, Lodoi-

cea, Loxococcus, Metroxylon, Nannorhops, Nipa, Phoenix,

Pinanga, Raphia, Trachycarpus, Wallichia.

A. Leaves pinnatisecf , leaflets free with reduplicate sides

or confluent as a plaited limb. Flowers monoecious

or dioecious : — -

1. Male flowers minute, solitary or binate towards the

tips of the branches, 3- or 6-androus ; female larger,

solitary

2. Male flower one on each side of a female, stamens

6 or more : — •

a. Leaves unarmed

b. Leaves with long spines

3. Male flowers 9-12-androus, female petals with

valvate tips

Areca

Pinanga.

Acanthophoenix .

Loxococcus.

918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

4. Male calyx tubular. Stamens 6. Albumen equable

5. Male sepals 3. Stamens many. Albumen equable

6. Male sepals 3. Stamens many. Albumen ruminate

7. Male flower in catkin-like branches of a drooping

androgynous spadix; female capitate at the apex

of the spadix

B. Leaves pinnatisect ; leaflets with implicate sides.

Spadices interfoliar; spathe solitary. Blowers

dioecious

C. Leaves flabelliform, orbicular or cuneiform. Spadices

interfoliar; spathes many. Flowers usually bi-

sexual :

1. Fruit with a smooth pericarp. 3 free carpels ; each

carpel with its own style or stigma: — -

a. Seed curved-reniform ; albumen with a single ex-

cavation near the raphe

b. Seed erect elliptic; albumen ruminate ...

2. Fruit with a smooth pericarp. 3 appressed carpels,

or carpels united where they meet ; stigma one :

a. Spadix terminal ; remains of stigma at the base

of the fruit :

II Style short. Embryo apical

HU 'Style subulate. Embryo dorsal

b. Spadix axillary lateral; remains of stigma apical:

If Berry drupaceous ; endocarp hard brittle. Albu-

men equable

HH Berry with a soft membranous endocarp.

Albumen deeply ruminate

IX Leaves pinnatisect; leaflets with reduplicate sides.

Spathes usually many. Fruit clothed with reflexed

shining closely imbricating scales : —

1. Stem short, stout, annulated. Leaflets linear with

the midrib and edges spinulose. No common spathe,

but many small incomplete sheaths

2. Stem elongate. Leaflets acuminate, quite entire,

nerves parallel. Spathes tubular, persistent : —

a. Polycarpic spadices axillary ...

b. Monocarpic spadix very large, terminal

E. Leaves flabelliform. Spadices interfoliar; spathes

numerous, sheathing. Flowers dioecious; males

minute, sunk in the cavities of the catkin-like

branches :

1. Stamens 6. Fruit mostly with 3 stones; pericarp

thinly fleshy, seeds sinuate

2. Stamens 6. Fruit by the abortion of the carpels,

unilocular with one central, woody, ovate stone;

pericarp fibrous with a shining epiderm ...

3. Stamens 8. Fruit generally with 1 bilobed kidney-

shaped stone. Seeds bilobed

4. Fruit large, ovate or oblong, with a dry fibrous outer

covering, red or greenish-brown. 'Seeds usually 3,

sometimes 4 or 5

5. Fruit obovoid, terete or trigonous, 1-seeded

6. Fruit ovoid or obovoid, 1-3-seeded. Pericarp spongy

and oily

Wallichia.

Arenga.

Caryota.

Nipa.

Phoenix.

Trachycarpus.

Chamaerops.

CoRYPHA.

Nannorhops.

Licuala.

CoPERNICIA.

Raphia.

Calamus.

Metroxylon.

Borassus.

Hyphaene.

Lodoicea.

Attalea.

Cocos.

Elaeis.

Acanthophoenix.

This genus numbers only four species, natives of the Mas-

carene Islands where they grow abundantly. Two of them,

A. rubra with a globose fruit and A. nobilis with an oblong-cylindric

fruit, are cultivated in some of our Indian gardens.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

919

Acanthophoenix rubra Wendl. ( — Areca rubra Bory) is a very

elegant palm. Its root is a popular diuretic at La Reunion, and

the light red decoction is a favourite cooling drink.

Areca.

The genus comprises about 40 species. They are very orna-

mental and graceful palms inhabiting Tropical Asia, the Malay

Archipelago, New Guinea, and Australia.

Only one species, A. catechu, is known to be medicinal. Its

seed, the betel-nut, is a masticatory of great antiquity with most

of the Asiatic races. It is used as an astringent, stimulant and

anthelmintic in China, Indo-China, the Malay Archipelago, Aus-

tralia, Melanesia, Polynesia, the West Indies, Madagascar, La

Reunion, and Guiana. It was officinal in the pharmacopoeias of

Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Mention must, however, be made of two other species, A. con-

cinna and A. nagensis, the fruits of which are used as substitutes

for the betel-nut.

1. Stamens 6. Fruit 1J-2 in., smooth, orange or scarlet A. catechu.

2. Stamens 6. Fruit 1J in., umbonate, reddish-yellow . A. concinna.

3. Stamens 3. Fruit 1 in., narrowed at both ends ... A. nagensis.

1. Areca catechu Linn. The Betel Nut Palm is cultivated

exclusively within the moist tropical tracts that fringe the coast

of India, and practically within a belt of land that, with a few

exceptions, does not extend inland for more than 200 miles. It

rarely ascends to altitudes of 3,000 ft. and gradually disappears,

even from the littoral area, as localities are entered where the

duration of the dry hot months equals or exceeds the monsoons.

It flourishes in the dry plateau of Mysore, Kanara and Malabar.

It is usually seen as a garden plant, but occasionally and in certain

localities, especially of Western and Southern India, of Ceylon

and of Burma, it is grown in special gardens. In Eastern and

Northern Bengal, in some portions of Assam and in Ceylon, its

cultivation has assumed still greater dimensions.

In some parts of India a decoction of the root is a reputed

cure for sore lips.

The root is used in Cambodia for the treatment of liver com-

plaints. It is mixed with numerous other drugs, and made into a

decoction to be administered in jaundice.

Malay women use the young green shoots as an abortifacient

in early pregnancy.

The dry expanded petioles serve as excellent ready-made splints

for fractures.

In some parts of India the juice of the young tender leaves

mixed with oil is applied as an embrocation in cases of lumbago.

In Cambodia the leaves are considered a good remedy for cough.

Mixed with other drugs they are given in bronchitis after macera-

tion in alcohol or vinegar. For lumbago they are reduced to pulp

in a mortar and applied hot to the loins.

In Malabar an inebriating lozenge is prepared from the sap of

the tree,

920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

In Malaya the green fruit in its unripe state is sometimes used

as a poison in combination with opium.

The fact that the use of fresh betel-nuts gives rise to a sensation

of strangling and giddiness is well known in the East, and it has

also been observed that the nuts of certain trees in most betel

plantations retain their poisonous properties when dried. These

trees cannot be distinguished from the others, so that not unfre-

quently accidents happen from their nuts becoming mixed with the

produce of the plantation before their presence has been detected.

The poisonous properties are destroyed by heat, and consequently

many people use the cooked or red betel-nuts of commerce to

avoid the possibility of accident. When such nuts have been

eaten by mistake, salt or lime juice, or acid pickles are the best

remedies.

Yunani practitioners consider the nut digestive, astringent,

diuretic and emmenagogue. They recommend it as a cardiac and

nervine tonic; and they use it as an astringent lotion for the eyes.

Hindu medical writers describe the unripe nuts as laxative and

carminative; the fresh nuts as intoxicating, productive of giddiness,

and harmful to the eyesight; when dried, they are said to sweeten

the breath, strengthen the gupis, remove bad taste from the

mouth, and produce a stimulant and exhilarant effect on the sys-

tem. Their use is recommended in calculous affections and other

urinary disorders, and as an aphrodisiac; for the latter purpose a

confection is made by boiling the nuts in milk and adding a num-

ber of aromatic and stimulant substances.

The nut is commonly used as an astringent for bleeding gums;

in the Punjab, women employ it both internally and locally for

stopping discharges from the vagina. In Ceylon it is scraped and

applied externally to ulcers.

The seed, reduced to charcoal and powdered, is said to be an

excellent dentifrice.

The water in which unripe nuts have been boiled is often given

to women along with powdered red betel and other spices after

confinement as a gentle stimulant.

The nut is useful in checking the heartburn of pregnancy.

Control experiments made with tincture of catechu have shown

the superiority of the nut, and would seem to demonstrate that

this is not merely due to astringent action; it is quite possible

that its property as a nervine stimulant enhances its utility.

In Cambodia the unripe fruit is considered a good remedy for

diarrhoea. Five green nuts are heated over a slow fire until they

become burning hot inside; they are then cut into slices and, while

still hot, made into about a half -pint of infusion to be taken in

the course of the day. In cases of dysentery the nut is combined

with opium; a pellet of opium about the size of a large grain of

maize for every nut. Seven incisions are made obliquely on the

surface of the nut and they are filled with opium. The nut is

then warmed over a very slow fire and whenever the opium swells

it is forced back into the cuts until the whole mass has sunk into

the flesh of the fruit. The cooking operation over, the nut is cut

into slices and thrown in a pint of water. The whole is then boiled

THE medicinal and POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA 921

down to one third, and this is to be taken in the course of the

day.

Concerning the immature fruit Koman writes : ‘ On the sug-

gestion of a patient who informed me that he was cured of his

consumption by a preliminary administration of the fresh juice of

tender arecanuts followed by a prolonged use of pellitory, this drug

was given to eight patients. The dose suggested was five ounces

of the juice to be gradually sipped in the morning in the course

of an hour or two. None of the patients could stand this dose,

as it produced violent vomiting and purging. The dose was

consequently reduced to half an ounce. Even half an ounce had

a nauseating effect and generally produced two or three eva-

cuations. I* cannot understand why this preliminary treat-

ment by this special method of purgation is considered

necessary. As stated above the juice of the tender nuts acts in

small doses as a laxative.’

In Travancore the nuts are variously prepared for use. Those

that are used by families of rank are collected while the fruit is

tender; the husks or the outer pod is removed; the kernel, a round

fleshy mass, is boiled in water; in the first boiling of the nut, when

properly done, the water becomes red, thick and starch-like, and

this is afterwards evaporated into a substance like catechu. The

boiled nuts being now removed, sliced and dried, the catechu-like

substance is rubbed to the same and dried again in the sun, when

they become of a shining black, ready for use. Whole nuts, with-

out being sliced, are also prepared in the same form for use among

the higher classes, while ripe nu|s as well as young nuts in a raw

state are used by all classes of people generally; and ripe nuts

preserved in water with the pod are also used.

In Mysore the nuts are taken as they come from the tree, and

boiled for some hours in an iron vessel. They are then taken out,

and the remaining water is inspissated by continual boiling. This

process furnishes Kossa, or most astringent terra japonica, which

is black, and mixed with paddy-husks and other impurities. After

the nuts are dried they are put into a fresh quantity of water and

boiled again, and this water being inspissated like the former, yields

the best or dearest kind of catechu, called coony. It is yellowish

brown, has an earthy fracture, and is free from the admixture of

foreign bodies.

In the north of China, small pieces of the nut are boiled and

the decoction is taken as a domestic remedy in various visceral

affections.

The powdered nut, in doses of ten or fifteen grains every three

or four hours, has been used with satisfactory results in the relaxed

condition of the bowels which sometimes occurs in tropical

climates. Large doses, six drachms to one ounce, however, produce

griping and irritation; and loose motions may start as a result of

such irritation.

In some parts of China the nuts, bruised and powdered, are

mixed with the green food given to horses, and they are thus con-

sidered a preventive against diarrhoea.

In Europe betel-nuts have been used as an anthelmintic for

922 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVll

tapeworm and as an astringent; and in veterinary practice their

reputation as a vermifuge is well established.

In India and China the powdered nut is generally given for

the expulsion of tapeworm in the dose of 4 to 6 drachms, taken

in milk. It is said to be efficacious against round as well as tape-

worms. Powell thought so highly ot its anthelmintic properties

that he expressed the opinion that the habit of chewing arecanut

among the inhabitants of certain countries where intestinal para-

sites are common, is a protective habit instinctively acquired on

account of its prophylactic value against these parasites. Waring,

however, declared that the nut ‘can hardly have any claim to this

character, as amongst the Hindu and Burmese, who use it habit-

ually as a masticatory, intestinal worms (lumbrici) are •almost uni-

versally met with’.

Bentley (1904) and Scliueffner (1912) treated a number of cases

of hookworm disease with half to one ounce doses of the powdered

nuts with little effect. Caius and Mhaskar (1924) gave four drachms

of the recently-dried seeds in the form of a powder without any

preliminary preparation and without any after purgative in cases

of roundworm and hookworm infections. The patients passed one

to three semi-solid stools, but no worms were expelled. The pow-

dered fresh nut produced a stronger irritant effect on the intestine,

but no worms were expelled. Chopra and Chandler (1928) believe

that the chewing of betel-nut and betel-le&f does influence the

number of hookworms harboured. This result is not, however,

attributable to any anthelmintic power of the juice, which is not

swallowed; but to the constant spitting which tends to eliminate

the immature hookworms while making their way from the trachea

to the oesophagus. The chewing of tobacco has a similar effect,

and in some places is credited with anthelmintic power.

Sushruta recommends arecanut as an antidote to snake and

scorpion venoms. By injecting cobra venom into (logs and scorpion

venom into mice Mhaskar and Caius (1931, 1932) have shown ex-

perimentally that the nut has no preventive, antidotal, or thera-

peutic value.

The seeds were first examined by Bombelon (1886) and later

by Jhans (1888-1891), who isolated, in addition to choline,

the four alkaloids arecoline, arecaidine, arecaine, and guvacine,

of which arecaine is now known to be identical with arecaidine.

Emde (1915) added to these arecolidine, and K. Hess (1918) guva-

coline.

Of these alkaloids arecoline alone exhibits markedly toxic pro-

perties. It belongs to the nicotine-pilocarpine group and acts on

the central and peripheral nervous system producing paralysis,

which may be preceded by convulsions. With nicotine the central

and with pilocarpine the peripheral action is more marked, whilst

both are about equal in arecoline. Arecoline hydrobromide is recog-

nised in the pharmacopoeias of France, Germany, Hungary, Russia,

Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey; it is used internally in

small doses as a sialogogue and diaphoretic, and as an anthelmintic.

It has also been employed like physostigmine to produce contrac-

tion of the pupil.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

023

Amboina : Buah, Puah— ; Andamans : Ahbuddah, Ahpurruddah— ; Annam :

Cay cau, Cay cau gia — ; Arabic: Fofal, Fufal — ; Assam : Tambul — ; Banda:

Pua — ; Bengal: Gua, Supari — ; Burma: Kun, Kunsi, Kuntheebin, Kwamthee-

beng — ; Cagayan: Bua — ; Cambodia : Dom sla, Sla — ; Canarese: Adake, Adaki,

Adike, Betta, Bettadike, Bette, Chikaniyadike, Chikke, Cotadike, Kaungu,

Khhapura, Poga, Puga, Pugiphala, Tambula — ; Camarines : Banga — ; Canto-

nese: Pan Long — ; Chinese: Ping Lang — ; Deccan: Supari, Supyari — ;

Dutch: Areeapalmboom, Pinang — ; English: Areca Nut Palm, Areca Palm,

Betel Nut Palm, Betel Nut Tree, Betel Palm, Caslioo Nut Tree, Catechu Palm,

Catechu Tree, Drunken Date Tree, Fasel Nut, Fauselnut Tree, Medi-

cinal Cabbage Tree, Indian Nut Tree, Pinang Palm, Supari Palm — ;

French : Arec, Arec betel, Arec cachou, Arec de l’lnde, Areque, Are-

quier, Pinangue — ; French Guiana: Arec — ; German: Arecapalme, Arika-

palme, Betelnusspalme, Betelpalme, Catechupalme, Katechupalme, Kaupalme,

Pinangpalme — ; Guam: Pugua — ; Gujerati: Hopari, Phophal, Sopari — ;

Hindi: Supari, ‘Suppari, Supyari — ; Ilocano : Boa — ; Italian: Areca — ;

Java: Bhunghanapenang, Jambe, Jebug — ; Konkani : Fufal, Maddi, Supari — ;

Laos: Kok mak — ; La Reunion: Arec, Pak — ; Malay: Pinang — ; Malaya:

Chiniping — ; Malayalam: Atekka, Chempalukka, Chhonta, Kalunnu, Kamuka,

Kavunnu, Kazhangu, Khhapuram, Kramukam, Pakka, Pugam — ; Marathi:

Pophali, Pung, Supari — ; Mundari: Kasailidaru — ; New Britain: Bue — ; Pam-

pangan: Luyos — ; Pelew Islands: Bua — ; Persian: Girdchob, Popal, Pupal — ;

Philippines: Bongapalo, Bongasantol, Lugos, Mangupod — ; Porebunder :

Hopari — ; Portuguese: Areca, Arequeira — ; Russian: Areka, Kapustnaya

palma — ; Sanskrit: Akota, Chhataphala, Chikkana, Dirghapadapa, Dridhaval-

kala, Ghonta, Gopadala, Guvaka, Kapitana, Ivaramatta, Khapura, Kramuka,

Puga, Pugi, Bajatala, Suranjana, Tambula, Tantusara, Yalkataru — ; Santali:

Gua — ; Sinhalese: Puvakka, Puwak — ; Solomon Islands: Boa — ; Spanish:

Arequiero — ; Swedish: Areka — ; Tagalog : Bonga, Bongangmatulis, Bunga,

Mangipod, Sacsic — ; Tamil: Kamugu, Kandi, Kiramugam, Kugagam, Pakku,

Pakkuppanai, Pugam, Tuvarkkay — ; Telugu: Chikinamu, Chikini, Gautupoka,

Khapuramu, Kolapoka, Kramukamu, Oppulu, Oppuvakkulu, Poka, Prakka, Puga-

mu, Vakka— ; Tulu: Kangu — ; Urdu: Supari — ; Uriya: Gua, Pugo, Supari,

Trinodrumo — ; Visayan : Bonga — .

2. Areca concinna Thw. is endemic in Ceylon and is to be

found in the forests of the moist low country; Subarayamuwa,

Reigam Korale, Pasdun Korale. It is known as Len-teri. It is

occasionally planted; the fruits, however, which are also chewed

with betel, like those of A. catechu, are generally obtained from

wild trees.

3. Areca nagensis Griff, is found in the Naga Hills, up to

800 ft., very scarce, usually on high situations on river sides. The

Nagas and Abors use its fruit as a substitute for the betel-nut.

Naga: Talpat — ; Singpho: Tongtau— .

Arenga.

This genus comprises about 10 species of tall, stout palms,

distributed throughout Tropical Asia, the Malay Archipelago, New

Guinea, and Australia.

A. Engleri Becc. and A. saccharifera Labill. are used medici-

nally by the Chinese.

A. obtusifolia Mart, and A. saccharifera Labill. are used as

poisons by the Malays. They are both cultivated in India.

1. Leaflets bifarious ... ... •*. ••• A. obtusifolia.

2. Leaflets 4-5-fariously fascicled ... ... ... A. saccharifera.

1. Arenga obtusifolia Mart. ( = A. Westerhoutii Griff.) is a

native of the Malay Peninsula — Naning, Penang — cultivated in

India.

924 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXV 1 1

The ripe fruit is an irritant to the mucous membranes. It

causes an acute swelling of the mouth and fauces when taken in-

ternally, and this is probably due to the mechanical irritation of

needle crystals. The juice obtained from it is used by the Malays

to poison their enemies. The pulpy part of the fruit is boiled

and crushed; and the juice, after straining, is administered in

coffee. It is said to cause dyspnoea and restlessness. In the

Philippine Islands it is used by the Tagals for poisoning fish.

Malacca : Anooee Bufcaree — ; Penang : Langkab, Langcap — .

2. Arenga saccharifera Labill. Sago Palm ( = 8aguerus rumphii

Roxb. = Boras sus gomutus Lour.) is a beautiful and magnificent

palm found in Assam, Martaban and Tenasserim, occasionally on

the Pegu Yoma; commonly cultivated in India. It is distributed

throughout the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, and ascends in

Java up to 4,000 ft.

In Cambodia the root is considered stomachic and pectoral. It

is said to be very serviceable in bronchitis marked with profuse

expectoration.

The petioles .are credited in Cambodia with diuretic and anti-

thermic properties. They are prescribed in chronic paludism with

enlargement of the spleen.

The juice of the fleshy outer covering of the fruit is highly

stimulating and corrosive. If applied to the skin it causes great

pain and inflammation. It is said that the inhabitants of the

Moluccas were in the habit of using in the defence of posts during

the war a liquor obtained by the maceration of this fruit, which

the Dutch appropriately called ‘hell-water’. It is used, by the

Malays to poison their enemies. The pulpy part of the fruit is

boiled and crushed, and the juice, after straining, is given in coffee.

Burma: Taungong, Toungong — ; Cambodia : Thnotnhi — ; Chinese: So Mu

Mien — ; Dutch: Aren, Arenboom, Sreng, Arengboom, Arengpalm, Arenpalm,

Gamoetoeboom, Gomoetipalm, Gomoetoepalm , Sagoeweerpalm, Sagueerboom,

Sagueerpalm, Saguweerpalm, ‘Suikerboom — ; English: Areng Palm, Gomuti

Palm, Malay Sago Palm, Sago Palm, Sugar Palm — ; French: Anou, Arbre au

sagou, Aren a sucre, Areng, Gomonto, Gomuti, Lantar, Lontar, Palmier areng,

Palmier rondier, Palmier a sucre, Bondier — ; German: Eckte Zuckerpalme,

Gomutipalme, Sagwirepalme, Zuckerpalme — ; Ilocano : Batipan — ; Java: Aren,

Buwah atap, Duk, Bolang Baling, Lirang — ; Madura Island: Dhuk, Edhuk — ;

Malacca: Gumuti — ; Malay: Anan, Berkat, Kabong — ; Pangasinan: Anibung — ;

Philippines: Baru — ; Sunda Islands: Bawling — ; Tagalog: Cauon, Iroc, Puga-

han — ; Tamil: Bichilippanai, Bumudippanai, -Segovarisi — ; Visayan: Bahi,

Hibioc, Hidioc, Ibioc, Idioc — .

Attalea.

The genus is Tropical American. It consists of about 23 species

distributed in various parts of South America, especially in the

vicinity of the Amazon and its tributaries, from the level of the

sea to a height of 4,000 ft. above it.

Attalea speciosa Mart, is the Uanassu Palm of Brazil and

Guiana, cultivated in India. The oil from the fruit is much used

in Guiana in the treatment of rheumatic pains.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

y*25

Borassus.

Marlelli (1913) lias proved conclusively that there are at least

7 species belonging to this genus. They inhabit Tropical Africa,

India, from Ceylon to the Sunda Islands, and Northern Australia.

B. flabellifer var. aethiopum Warb. is used medicinally in the

Gold Coast.

Borassus flabellifer Linn. The Palmyra Palm is a native of

India. It extends in North-West India as far north as Aligarh and

Shahjehanpur. Isolated trees in gardens are found in llohilkhand

and the Upper Ganges Doab, as far as Saharanpur. Also on both

sides of the Persian Gulf, attaining there about the same latitude

as in North-West India. Immense groves of it are found on the

Malabar Coast, extending from Cape Comorin through Travancore,

Calicut, Goa, and the Bombay Presidency, on through Gujerat and,

some distance up, on the banks of the Indus. But what are em-

phatically called the Palmyra regions may be included in a line

extending along the Coromandel coast from Cape Comorin to

Madras, including the northern portion of Ceylon, and from Madras

all along, taking in a considerable belt of the coast between that

and Point Palmyras, and then passing up to Gaya. After that

the line should be carried on about due east until it reaches Ava,

below which, on the banks of the Irrawaddy, there are immense

groves of this palm.

The Palmyra Palm is found in various parts of the mountain

district of Ceylon, including the vicinity of Kandy and Badulla at

elevations of 1,680 and 2,450 ft., respectively, having a mean

annual temperature of 74° at the former and 72° at the latter.

Although immense groves are found on the banks of the Irra-

waddy, from the sea coast up to nearly as far as Ava or Amara-

pura in Burma, and as far inland as Gaya in Bengal, and in

isolated patches all round and through Ceylon, still the most con-

genial places for the favourable development of the Palmyra Palm

will be found, in low sandy plains scarcely elevated above the level

of the sea, and where they are exposed to the burning sun, and

the force of at least one of the monsoons. Such are Jaffna, with

the surrounding islands, and other portions of the Northern Pro-

vince of Ceylon, the District of Tinnevelly, with portions of the

Madura Collectorate, and portions of the Madras and Bombay

Presidencies.

The therapeutic properties of the various parts of the Palmyra

are described in detail in Sanskrit and Persian medical works.

They may easily be gathered from the following records of popular

therapy.

The root is considered cooling and restorative. The expressed

juice of the young root is used in cases of gastric catarrh and ta

check hiccup.

In Cambodia the root is said to be a good diuretic and anthel-

mintic; it is much employed as a cure for gonorrhoea. In Guinea

the young roots are boiled in water and the decoction is given in

diseases of the respiratory tract.

The decoction of the bark, with a little salt added to it. is a

good astringent gargle for strengthening the gums and the teeth.

12

920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Reduced to charcoal and pulverised, the bark makes a good denti-

frice.

In some parts of Southern India an extract of the green leaves

is used internally in secondary syphilis.

The light-brown cotton-like substance from the outside of the

base' of the leaves is employed in Ceylon as a styptic for arresting

haemorrhage from superficial wounds.

The ash of the spathe is an antacid in heartburn. It acts as

a powerful blister, and is applied on enlarged liver and spleen in

combination with some other demulcents.

In Cambodia the spadix is considered anthelmintic, diuretic, and

antithermic. It is useful in abdominal troubles complicated with

swelling and fever, more especially in chronic malarial poisoning

with enlargement of the spleen.

The ash of the spadix is given internally in bilious affections,

and is largely used as an antiperiodic in many parts of India.

The fresh juice of the plant or toddy is cooling, sweet and use-

ful in inflammatory dropsy, and gastric catarrh. It acts as a laxa-

tive when taken regularly for several mornings. It is helpful in

checking hiccup. It is a good diuretic in gonorrhoea, and a good

tonic in emaciation or phthisis. It is used as an adjunct to stimu-

lating drugs in the low stages of intermittent and remittent fevers.

The juice is used as a stimulant and antiphlegmatic. A useful

stimulant application, called toddy-poultice, is prepared by add-

ing fresli-drawn toddy to rice-flour till it has the consistence of a

Soft poultice, and this being subjected to a gentle fire, fermenta-

tion takes place. This, spread on a cloth and applied to the parts

affected, acts as a valuable application to gangrenous ulcerations,

carbuncles, and indolent ulcers.

The fermented juice is intoxicating. Slightly fermented it is

prescribed in diabetes. The Avurvedists of Southern India pre-

scribe it also in consumptive cases.

The pulp of the ripe fruit is applied externally in skin diseases.

Tire kernel is bruised and applied to the sting of scorpions; but,

Cams and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that this has no

preventive, antidotal or therapeutic value.

The gelatinous contents of the unripe seeds is considered cool-

ing and restorative. It is used as a remedy for nausea and

vomiting.

The embryo of the germinating seed is said to be cooling, nutri-

tive and diuretic.

In Cambodia the young plant is given in gonorrhoea and is,

moreover, considered antibilious and antidy sent eric.

The terminal bud of the tree is credited with the same thera-

peutic properties as the embryo of the germinating seed, and is

considered cooling, nutritive, and diuretic.

: -Palm sugar is antibilious- and alterative; it -is used in hepatic

disprders and gleet. Candy is given in coughs and pulmonary

affections. •

The sugar from the Palmyra Palm is considered a valuable

antidote in Cambodia,, The Ivhmers say it is a specific for Strych-

nv.s . poisoning.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OE INDIA

927

Bengal: Tal, Talg'achh — ; Burma: Tan — ; Cambodia: Tlmot chhmoul — ;

Canarese: Karitale, Ole, Oleya, Pane, Tala, Tale, Tali, Trinaraja — ; Ceylon:

Pannamaram — ; Deccan: Taarkdizaar — ; Dutch: Jagerboom, Weingeevende

palmboom — ; English : Brab Tree, Char Palm, Desert Palm, Fan Palm. Palmyra

Palm — ; French: Cocotier de mer, Bondier, Eondier eventail- — ; Fulah : Doube — ;

German: Palmyrapalme — ; Gujerati: Tad — ; Hindi: Tal, Tar, Tarkajliar — ;

Konkani: Tadmadd — ; Malayalam: Ampana, Eta, Karimpana, Pana, Talam,

Trinarajan — ; Malinke : Cebe — ; Marathi: Tad, Tamar — ; Porebunder : Moto-

tad — ; Portuguese : Palmeira madia brava— ; Sanskrit: Asavadru, BhumipishaJcha,

Chirayu, Dhvajadruma, Dirghadrn, Dirgbapadapa, Dirghaskanda, Dirghataru,

Drumashreshtha, Drumeslivara, Guchliapatra, Ivarapatravan, Lekhyapatra, Mada-

dbya, Madhurasa, Mahonnata, Patri, Sliataparva, Tala, Taladruma, Tamsi,

Tantugarbha, Tantuniryasa, Taruraja — ; Sinhalese: Tal, Talgalia — ; Sous sou :

Ivanke — ; Tamil: Anbanai, Edagam, Karadalam, Ivarambanai, Nilam, Nungn,

Panai, Pondai, Pondu, Pul, Purbadi, Puttrani, Sattruppanai, Talai, Talam,

Tali — ; Telugu: Karatalamu, Namatadu, Pentitadu, Potutadu, Tadu, Trinara-

jamu — ; Tula: Ole, Tari — ; Urdu: Tad — ; Uriya: Talo, Tanlo, Trinorajo — -.

Calamus.

This genus numbers over *200 species inhabiting tropical and

sub-tropical Asia, Malaya, the Philippine Islands, New Guinea,

and Australia; a few are met with in tropical Africa.

C. margaritae Hce. is used medicinally in China; C. rotcuiy Linn,

and C. verus Lour, in Annam and Cambodia.

C. verus also enters into the composition of poisons prepared

by the Malays for arrows and blowpipe darts.

The resin from C. draco Willd. is officinal in Portugal,

Three out of the 52 Indian species are credited with medicinal

properties.

1. Leaflets many, equidistant, linear uniform ... C. rotang.

2. Leaflets in distant opposite groups of 3-5 ... ... C. trav anconeus.

3. Leaflets in very distant groups of 3 ... ... C. rhcedci.

1. Calamus rotang Linn. The liattan is distributed over the

Central Provinces, the Deccan, the Carnatic, and Ceylon; not in

Bengal.

The root in combination with other drugs is prescribed for

snake-bite in Bhavaprakasha, Basaratnakara, Yogaratnakara, and

Sharangdliar-samhita. It is also prescribed for scorpion-sting in

Basaratnakara, and Yaidyavinoda. Mhaskar and Cams have, how-

ever, proved conclusively that the drug either single or in combi-

nation does not in any way counteract the poisoning effects of

either snake or scorpion venom.

The root is much used medicinally in Cambodia where it is

credited with antidysenteric, antibilious, hypotensive, tonic, febri-

fuge, and depurative properties. In veterinary practice it is em-

ployed as a tonic and aperient.

The wood is given as a vermifuge in Annam.

Annam: Cay may-' — ; Bengal: Bet, Beta, Cliachibet — ; Bombay: Bet — ;

Cambodia: Lompeak, Bompeak — ; Canarese: Betta, Habbe, Nagabetta — ; Central-

Provinces: Piabba, Pepa — ; Dutch: Lotting, Bottinggewas, Bottingriet runt,

Buntstek, .Spaansch riet— ; English : Cane, Chair-bottom Cane, Common Battan,

Battan, Botang, Slender Battan, Water Battan— ■; .French : Canne de Bengale,

Canne epineuse, Canne a main, done de P Inde, Batin, Botang, Botin, Bottain — ;

German: Palmriet, Battangpalme, Botang, Bettang, Lotting, Spanisches Bolir,

Steinrottang, Stuhlrohr — ; Gujerati : Natar — ; Hindi : Bet,, Beta, Cliachibet — ;

Malay: Bottamm, Botan— ; Malayalam: Chural, Nirvanni, Purampu— ■;

928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXX VII

Marathi: Beta, Yeta — ; Persian : Bed — ; Sanskrit: Abhrapushpa, Dirglia-

patraka, Dirghavalli, Gandhapushpa , Kalana, Latavamsa, Manjari namra,

Nichula, Batha, Bathabhra, 'Sliita, Susliena, Yanira, Vanjula, Yetasa, Yetasi,

Vetra, Vidula — ; Sinhalese: Wewel — ; Spanish: Cana de Bengala, Cana de

Tndias — ; Tamil: Arini, Mellisuppirambu, Nirvanji, Pirambu, Pisin, Sadi, Sural,

Suvedagandam , Suvedam, Vaniram, Vanjikkodi, Yedasam, Vettiram — ; Telugu:

Bethama, Bettamu, Niruprabba, Pemu, Prabba, Prabili, Sannabettamu — ; Tula:

Suralbetta — .

2. Calamus travancoricus Bedd. is found in the Deccan penin-

sula: from Malabar to Travaneore. The tender leaves are used in

dyspepsia, biliousness, and ear troubles; they are considered anthel-

mintic.

Canarese: Nayibetta— ; Malayalam : Cherucliural, Kattuchiiral — .

3. Calamus rheedei Griff, grows in Malabar where its powder-

ed dried seed is applied to ulcers.

Malayalam : Kattuchiiral — .

Caryota.

The 12 species which compose this genus are distributed

throughout Tropical Asia, Malaya and Australia.

Of the three indigenous species two are used medicinally.

1. Leaves 18-20 ft. long ... ... ... ... C. urens.

2. Leaves 4-9 ft. long ... ... C. mitis.

1. Caryota urens Linn. The Fish-tail Palm is found all over

India in the forests of the western and eastern moist zones. It is

common in Burma, Bengal and Orissa, ascending in Sikkim to

5,000 ft. On the Western Ghats, it extends to near Mahablesh-

war. It is reported to abound in the south-eastern corner of

Aheree in the Chanda District.

According to Avurvedists the nut is acrid and cooling; it allays

thirst and fatigue.

The nut is used as an application to the head in cases of lienii-

crania.

A. glass of the freshly drawn toddy, taken early in the morning,

acts as a laxative; it is thus much used by the people of Malabar.

Assam: Baraflawar — ; Bombay : Birlimhad, Birlimhar — ; Burma: Kimbo,

Minbaw, Minbo — ; Canarese: Bagani, Baini, Bayne — ; Deccan: Marikajhar — ;

Dutch: Jagerieboom, Nieboom, Sagueerboom, Wilde Sagueerboom — ; English:

Bastard 'Sago Palm, East Indian Wine Palm, Elephant’s Palm, Fish-tail Palm,

Ghaut Palm, Hill Palm, Indian Sago Palm, Jaggery Palm, Kittul Tree, Malabar

Sago Palm, Mhar Palm, Toddy Palm, Wine Palm — ; French : Caryote brulant,

Faux sagonier de 1’ Inde, Palmier celeri — ; German: Bastardsagopalme, Ostin-

disclie Brennpalme, Sagopalme — ; Gujerati: Sliankrajata, Shivajata — ; Hindi:

Mari, Marikajhad — ; Khond : Sarta — ; Konkani: Birlamadd, Birlimad — ;

Lepcha: Bunbong, Simong — ; Mag alii: IPlyamban— ; Malayalam: Anappana,

Chundapana, Chuntappana, Irampana, Kalapana, Vainavu — ; Marathi: Ardliim-

pari, Ardhisupari, Berli, Berlimad, Berlimada, Berlimhar, Bherawa, Bherlamuda,

Bherlimad, Bhirlimaliad, Birli, Mad — ; Philippines: Cabonegro, Sagu, Taguipan ;

Porebunder : Mervajata — : Portuguese : Palmeira brava — ; Sanskrit: Dhoajav-

riksha, Dirgha, Madia, Madadruma, Madyadru, Madyadruma, Mohakari, Bajju,

Yitanaka — ; Saora : Jivalaggu — ; Sinhalese: Kittul, Nepora — ; Tagalog : Puga-

han, Taquipan— ; Tanlil: Adam, Irambanai, Kondapauni, Kundarbanai, Pugam,

Talam, Thippali, Tippilippanai, Udalarbanai — ; Telugu : Bakini, Jivalaggu,

Konda,jivalaggu, Jiluga, Mare, Yatrakatari — ; Tulu : Indu, Kannida — ; Uriya:

Modhura, Salapo, Solopo — .

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

929

2. Caryota mitis Lour. This very elegant palm is found in

Burma — from Arakan southwards, Martaban, the Malay Peninsula*

Penang, the Andaman Islands, and the Malay Archipelago.

In Malaya the fruit is put into wells with intent to cause

annoyance. Bathing with well-water that has been treated in this

way gives rise to an intense itching of the skin, and may cause

an acute inflammation of the eyes. The fresh juice of the fruit

when applied directly to the skin is extremely irritating.

The juice of the fruit, mixed with bamboo hairs and an extract

of toad, is considered a very potent poison in Kelantan.

In Cambodia the soft fibres at the base of the leaf- sheath are

used in the cauterisation of wounds.

Cambodia: Anse — ; Malay: Beredin, Meredin, Tukkus — ; Penang: Dudur — .

Chamaerops.

The two species of this genus inhabit the western part of the

M editerranean region .

Chamaerops humilis Linn., Dwarf Fan Palm, is the only

palm indigenous to Europe. It is found as far up as Nizza in

Italy; but thence southwards it has a great range, being met with

in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It is very

common in Algeria.

The fruit is astringent.

Andalusia: Palma — ; Arabic: Doum — ; Catalan: Margallo, Margallonera — ;

English: Dwarf Fan-Palm, European Palm — ; French: Palmier nain, Pal-

Portuguese: Palma das Vassouras, Palmeira — ; Sicily: Carina, Giummara,

Palmetta, Piumara— ; Spanish : Palma enana, Palmito — .

Cocos.

The genus consists of about 30 species, all American, one of

them cosmopolitan in the tropics.

C. coronata Mart., C. flexuosa Mart., C. nucifcra Linn., C. sclii-

zophylla Mart., C. yatai Mart, are used medicinally in Brazil;

G. nucifcra Linn, is similarly used in India, Indo- China and China.

The fat from the kernel of C. nucifcra Linn, is officinal in

Holland and in Portugal.

Three of the therapeutically active species are to be met with

in India.

1. Leaves 1.8-4. 5 m. long ... ... ... ... C. nucifera.

2. Leaves 1.8-2. 4 m. long ... ... ... ... C. schizophylla.

3. Leaves surrect, arcuate; leaflets concinnous ... C. yati.

1. Cocos nucifera Linn. The Coconut Palm is found at present

in every part of the tropics, where it flourishes in the greatest

luxuriance in the vicinity of the sea, especially a few feet above

high-water mark. Although that is its chief habitat, it cannot be

termed an exclusively littoral plant, for it has been met with far

inland — at Merida in Yucatan, at Patna in Bihar, at Concepcion del

Pao — . Whenever the Coconut Palm ventures beyond the limits

of the tropics, it loses in elegance of aspect and power of product-

iveness. In the Sandwich Islands, just at the edge of the torrid

930 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

zone, it lias a mean look, and yields fruit in comparatively small

quantities.

The young root is employed as an astringent gargle in sore

throat. Boiled with ginger and salt it is efficacious in fevers.

The Ayurvedists credit it with anthelmintic value; but it is

rarely, if ever, used as a worm remedy in India. It is popularly

known as a diuretic and commonly used as such. It is also pre-

scribed in uterine diseases and in dysentery.

In Cambodia an infusion of the root is considered as a valuable

diuretic which is administered in gleet, bronchitis, and liver troubles

with or without jaundice.

In Ceylon the root is said to strengthen the gums, and in

Tahiti it is occasionally used instead of arecanut by betel-chewers.

In the Gold Coast the bark is used for curing toothache and

earache. Yunani practitioners in India recommend the ash of

the bark as a dentifrice and an antiseptic; they prescribe it in

scabies.

The tomentum — a soft, downy, light-brown coloured substance

found on the outside of the lower part of the leaves, where they

spring from the stem — is used for stopping hlood in cases of

wounds, bruises, leech-bites, etc. It is said to be a good styptic.

The flowers, when used medicinally, are given as an astrin-

gent. Sanskrit authors recommended them as useful in the treat-

ment of diabetes, dysentery, leprosy, and urinary discharges,

though liable to induce constipation.

If toddy is drawn early in the morning and drunk at once,

it forms a pleasant drink having a slightly stimulating effect and

acting as a gentle laxative.

Toddy is refrigerant and diuretic. Its immoderate use causes

great harm, resulting in sleepiness, loss of appetite, premature old

age, extraordinary obesity, and diseases resembling dropsy and

scurvy. Some of those who are addicted to it lose their intel-

lectual faculties, are seized with trembling, or become stupid,

absent-minded, or even insane.

Toddy is considered by Europeans as highly unwholesome during

the rainy season.

A toddv-poultice is prepared by adding fresh-drawn toddy to

rice-flour till the consistence of a soft poultice, subjecting to a

gentle fire, and spreading on a cloth. It forms a valuable appli-

cation to gangrenous ulcerations, indolent ulcers and carbuncles.

The outside scrapings of the husk and leaves applied to

ulcers will cleanse and heal them rapidly if soaked in proof rum.

The husk of the fruit is used in the treatment of tapeworm.

The green fruit is given as a refrigerant, and especially . em-

ployed as an astrigent in the sore-throats of children.

The milk of the green fruit is a cooling drink, antiemetic and

soothing, and useful in allaying urinary irritation. It is a good

drink for cholera cases, and it is said to check vomiting when

other means fail. If drunk in immoderate quantity the milk of

young nuts may produce a slight degree of strangury and a predis-

position to dropsical complaints. It is commonly admitted in

Bengal that too much cocoanut milk induces a hydrocele swelling

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

981

of the scrotum. Among the Tahitians the. milk is considered as

one of the exciting causes of elephantiasis.

In Brazil the milk of immature nuts is applied as a lotion to

ulcers of the penis.

The expressed juice of the fresh kernel has been successfully

employed in general ill-health, malnutrition, debility, incipient

phthisis, thirst, fever and urinary disorders. In large doses it

proves aperient, and in some cases actively purgative, on which

account it has been suggested as a substitute for castor-oil.

The water of the ripe nut is unwholesome and can be drunk

only sparingly, as it is strongly diuretic and is apt to produce an

irritation of the bladder and urethra.

In French India the milk is given internally as an antidote for

snake venom; but Mhaskar and Caius have proved satisfactorily

that it has no such action. Bapat had already noted that two

parts of eocoanut milk and 20 parts of sprouts of AJbizzia Icbbek

given internally for three consecutive days cure all snake-

bites ‘with the exception of those of the cobra and the Russell’s

viper’.

Fresh eocoanut water is the antidote used by Malays to coun-

teract Sarcolobiis poison.

The fresh kernel or the tender pulp is nourishing, cooling and

diuretic. In Ceylon it is given in sunstroke. The ash obtained

from its calcination is said to be a valuable • antacid and

digestive.

The milk and meat of one nut eaten early in the morning,

fasting, will expel the tapeworm if present. Caius and Mhaskar

found this treatment ineffective in the case of hookworms.

The fresh oil obtained by boiling the milk of the ripe fruit

is used as an application for burns and in baldness. It is thought

to have special properties in strengthening the hair, hence it is

much in use as a local application in alopecia; and in loss of hair

after fevers and debilitating diseases.

In the Ivonkan the oil which sej^arates from the freshly-rasped

kernel, alone or mixed with tamarind-seed oil, is used as an appli-

cation to burns and rheumatic swellings.

An inunction of the oil to the whole body is used in fevers,

and to the chest in lung diseases. In Ceylon the oil is applied

to the head for cooling.

The oil is given in plethora and as a vermifuge in Jamaica. An

emulsion of the oil and kernel is prescribed in coughs and pul-

monary diseases generally.

In the Maldives eocoanut oil is esteemed a powerful antidote

against the bite of poisonous reptiles.

The purified and prepared oil is used as a substitute for cod-liver

oil in debility and phthisis. Its prolonged use, however, is apt

to disturb the digestive organs and induce diarrhoea.

In Germany it is used in pharmacy, to a considerable extent,

as a substitute for lard.

The tar, obtained by covering the thoroughly ignited shell with

a stone cup, is a rubefacient and an effectual domestic remedy

for ringworm, itch and other parasitic affections.

932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

The old and dried kernel is cut into thin slices and used as

an aphrodisiac ingredient in confection; also as an anthelmintic,

it is given to remove tapeworms.

The terminal bud or cabbage is nourishing and digestive. Its

fresh juice is cooling and diuretic.

In Cambodia the wood enters into the composition of a fumi-

gant prescribed in the treatment of piles.

Ahanta : Kukui — ; Annum : Cay dua — ; Aowin : Agye — ; Arabic : Jadhirdali,

Jouzehindi, Narjil, Shajratul jouzehindi, Shajratunnarjil — ; Banziri: Diko — ;

Bengal : Dab, Narakel, Narikel, Nairyal — ; Betsimisaraka: Voaniho — ; Bic-ol :

Niog — ; Bombay: Maar, Maliad, Mar, Naralchajkada, Narel, Naril, Naural — :

Brazil: Coco da Bahia, Coqueiro da India, Inajaguasuiba — ; Burma: On, Ondi,

Ong, Onsi, Onti, Ung, Ungbin — : Cagayan: Niog — ; Cambodia: Daung — :

Canarese: G-itaka, Gitaku, Kobari, Kobbari, Kurube, Matte, Narikela, Narikera,

Siyala, Tare, Tenginakayi, Tengu, Trinaraja — ; Chinese: Yeh Tzu — ; Deccan:

Narel, Narelkajhar — ; Dutch: Calappusboom, Cocos, Cocosboom, Cocospalm,

Ivalappus, Klapper, Klapperboom, Klapperpalm, Koko, Kokosboom, Kokosnooten-

boora, Kokosnootpalm , Kokospalm — ; English: Cocoa Nut, Cocoanut Palm, Coco-

nut Palm, Cocoanut Tree — ; Ewe: Yevunai — ; Fanti: Kube — ; French: Cocotier,

Eoi des vegetaux, Cocotier commun, Cocotier des Indes, Cocotier nucifere, Coco-

tier ordinaire, Cocotier porte-noix, Palmier — ; Ga: Akokoshicho — ; Gabon: Oman-

gata — ; German: Calappabaum, Calappusbaum, Cocosnussbaum, Cocospalme,

Echte Kokospalme, Indianischer Nussbaum, Kokosbaum, Kokosgalen, Kokos-

palme, Kokospalm enbaum, Wandernde Seeuferpalme — ; Guam: Niyog — ; Guje-

rati : Naliyer, Nariel, Nariera, Nariyela, Naryal — ; Hama: Kwakwar Atta-

gara — ; Hindi: Narel, Nariel, Nariyal, Nariyalkaper, Nariyel — ; Ilocano :

Niog — ; Italian: Cocco — ; Java: Bhungkana, Bhungkananjijor, Enjor, Ijor,

Ivalapa, Kerambil, Klapa, Klendali, Njejor, Njijor, Njor, Tangkalkalapa, Wiik-

lapa, Witkrambil — : Konkani : Madd — : Krepi : Agorne, Naiti, Yevone,

Yevune — ; Krobo : Kokosi, Ngmaicho — ; Malayalam: Chentennu, Chocham,

Karikku, Kulittai, Langalam, Nalikeram, Narikelam, Tenna, Tennu — ;

Marathi: Mad, Mada, Mahad, Mar, Naral, Naralchajhada, Naralmad, Narel,

Narela, Narnia, Tenginmar, Varala — ; Mundari: Burkadaru, Narieldaru — ;

Mysore: Nur — ; New Caledonia: Nou, Nou boibate, Nou bouangae, Non do,

Nou goine, Nou jomalate, Nou kigoute, Nou mia, Nou pougne, Nou tamen,

Nou tiguit — ; Nzirna: Kukwe — ; Pahuin : M’ban n’tang — : Pampangan: Ngon-

got — ; Persian: Badinj, Darakbtebandinj, Darakbtenargil, Nargil — ; Philip-

pines: Coco, Lubi, Pangosin, Tapiasin — ; Polynesia: Niu — ; Portuguese:

Coqueiro, Palmeira — ; Quittah: Ene — ; Roumanian: Cocotier — ; Russian: Koko-

sovoe dyerevo — ; Sanskrit: Dakshinatriya, Dridhanira, Dridhapliala, Duraruba,

Garikera, Jataphala, dung a, Karakambha, Kaushikapliale. Kurchashekhara , Kur-

chashirasliaka, Langali, Mahaphala, Mangalya, Mridupliala, Mutkuna, Nadi-

keli, Narikari, Narikela, Nilataru, Payodhara, Phalakeshara, Phalamunda, Puto-

daka, Easaphala, Sadapbala, Sadapushpa, Shiraphala, Skandhapal, Skandha-

taru, Subhanga, Sutanga, Toyagarbha, Trinaraja, Tryakshaphala, Tryambaka-

phala, Uchhataru, Varapliala, Vishvamitrapriya — ; Sinhalese: Pol, Polgaha, Pol-

gass, Polnawasi, Tambili — ; Spanish: Cocotero, Eey de los vegetales — ;

Tagalog: Adiavan, Niog, Pamocol — ; Tamil: Edagam, Ilangali, Keli, Muppu-

daikay, Nadigelam, Naligelam, Naligeram, Narigelam, Papparettennai,

Talai, Ten, Tengay, Tengu, Tennai — ; Telugu: Ettabondalakobbari Gujju-

narikadamu, Kobbari, Kobbera, Nalikeramu, Narikadamu, Narikelamu, Narike-

ramu, Langali, Mukkantipandu, Te, Temranu, Tenkaya, Trinarajamu — ; Tula :

Tare ; Twi: Kokosi — ; Urdu: Nariyel — ; Uriya : Gotoma, Langoli, Nodia,

I aido, Poiu, Trinodrumo — ; V Isay an: Anibong, Bonotan, Botong, Cayomanis,

Dabili, Lobi, Lubacan, Niogngapoti, Lobingahinbaon, Lobingapilipog, Limbaon,

Eiog, Pangonn, Pilipog, Potot, Tamis, Tamisan, Tayoinanis — ; Zambales :

On got— .

2. Cocos schizophylla Mart., Aracuri Palm, is a native of

Brazil found in the Province of Bahia at Camamu and Bahia, San

Jorge dos Lheos. It is cultivated in Indian gardens.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

933

In the Province of Bahia the juice of the unripe fruit is used

for inflammation of the eyes.

Brazil: Alicuri, Aracui, Aricuri, Arid — ; English: Aracuri Palm —

3. Cocos yatai Mart, inhabits Argentine — provinces of Con-

cordia, Corrientes and Entre Rios — and Brazil. It is cultivated in

Indian gardens.

In Argentine, where it is known as yatai, the fleshy parts of

the fruit are considered anthelmintic.

Copernicia.

The genus numbers 9 species spread over Brazil, Venezuela,

Argentine, San Domingo, Cuba and New Granada.

Copernicia cerifera Mart., Brazilian Wax Palm, inhabits

Brazil and is found in the Provinces of Bahia, Pernambuco and

Piauhy. It is sometimes grown in Indian gardens.

The root is alterative and diuretic, and is in high popular esteem

as a tonic and blood purifier.

Brazil: Carnauba — ; English: Brazilian Wax Palm — .

CORYPHA.

The 6 species of this genus inhabit Tropical Asia.

Corypha umbraculifera Linn. The Talipot Palm is rather

common in Ceylon in the moist low region below 2,000 ft. It is

also met with on the Malabar Coast and in Ivanara — in the moist

forests of the Kumpta and Honavar talukas of Northern Ivanara,

covering extensive areas near the Gersoppa and Yena rivers, also

on the Yellapur Ghats; sometimes planted in gardens near the

coast. It extends to the South Andaman Islands, the Little Coco

and the Great Coco. It is cultivated in tropical India and Burma.

The fruit is a fish poison.

Bengal: Bajarbattuler, Tali, Tallier, Tara, Tarit — ; Burma: Pebin — ;

Canarcse: Baini, Indn, Sritale, Sritali, Tali — ; English: Fan Palm, Great Fan

Palm, Holy Palm, Java Fan Palm, Malabar Coast Fan Palm, South Indian

Talipot Palm, Talipot Palm, Umbrella Palm — ; Malayalam: Ivutappana, Sita-

lam, Talippana — ; Marathi: Bajarbattu, Tali — ; Sanskrit: Alpayushi, Karalika,

Katakali, Pakti, Sritala, Tali — ; Sinhalese: Tala — ; Tamil: Kudaippanai, Sida:

lam, Talappam, Talippanai — ; Telugu: Dridhatalamu, Sritalamn— ; Tula:

Panoli — .

Elaeis.

The genus numbers 4 species, inhabitants of Tropical Africa

and Eastern Tropical South America.

E. guineensis Jacq. is used medicinally in Equatorial West

Africa and in Brazil; E. melanococca Gaertn. too is used in Brazil.

Elaeis guineensis Jack. The African Oil Palm is a native

of Africa, cultivated in India.

In Guinea the oil from the sarcocarp is applied to wounds as

a vulnerary. It is used as a liniment for rheumatism and cour-

b at ure.

The Bubis of the Island of Fernando Po make an excellent

poultice of the oil which they apply to wounds.

934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

In Equatorial West Africa the roots are used as a diuretic, and

the fresh sap as a laxative.

Angola : Dihoho — ; Bacongo : Matebbe — ; Baffuru: M’bila — ; Baga:

M’Bia — ; Banziri : Bete — ; Brazil : Coqueiro de Dente — ; Congo: Leba — ;

Dutch : Afrikaansc'he awarra, Afrikaansclie oliepalm, Obepalm, Oliepalm van

Guinea, Oliepalm van West Africa, Oliepalm van de Kust van Guinea, Palmiet-

boom — ; English: African Oil Palm, Oil Palm, True Oil Palm — ; French: Aouara

d’Afrique, Aouara des Caraibes, Aoura de Guinee, Aovora, Arouara des Car-

axbes, Avoira de Guinee, Elais de Guinee, Eleide, Eleide de Guinee, Noix de

palme, Noix de palmier, Palmier croero, Palmier epineux, Palmier a huile,

Palmiste epineux — ; Ga : Ngmetsho — ; Gaboon: Oila — ; German: Afrikanische

Oelpalme, Guineische Oelpalme, Oelpalme — ; Guinea: Toehntis — ; Hausa:

.Kwakwa — ; Malinlce : Tintulu — ; Nzima: Arairlair — ; Pahuin: Aline — ; St.

Thomas Island: Denden, Palmeira andim — ; Surinam: Aaavora, Avoora, Avou-

ara, Avuara, Maba, Obe — ; Susu: Tugi — ; Twi : Abair — ; Yahoma: Zamba — .

Hyphaene.

This genus numbers 27 species distributed all over tropical and

sub-tropical Africa, Arabia, and Western India.

Hyphaene thebaica Mart. The Egyptian Doum Palm grows

along the valley of the Nile in Middle and Upper Egypt, and is to

be met with at Shaik Othman near Aden. Old specimens may be

seen in many a garden of India and Ceylon, and, as a rule, they

are much better developed than the tree growing in Egypt.

The fruit is considered anthelmintic.

Diu Island: Okamundel — ; Egypt: Mama—; English: Egyptian Doum

Palm, Gingerbread Tree — ; Ewe: Sokuti — ; Gold Coast: Dum Palm, Ginger-

bread Palm — .

Licuala.

This genus comprises -about 50 species inhabiting Asia, Australia

and the Pacific Islands.

Licuala spinosa Wurmb. ( = Coryplia pilcaria Lour.) is found in

Malacca, common in wet places, particularly in hedges. It is

also met with in the tidal forests of the Andamans, in the Nico-

bars and the Malay Islands.

In Cambodia the bark is used in combination with other drugs

for the treatment of tuberculosis with spitting of blood.

Cambodia: Chak — ; Malay: Plass— .

Lodoicea.

The genus is limited to 1 species endemic in two of the Seychelles

Islands: Praslin and Curieuse.

Lodoicea seychellarum Labill., Double Cocoanut Palm. — The

marvellous medicinal properties which are ascribed to the nuts' by

ancient physicians, both European and Asiatic, have now been

recognized as fanciful and due solely to the rarity of the fruit.

The water of the green fruit or its soft kernel is said to be

antibilious and antacid when taken after meals. The ripe fruit is

also used similarly, but is at the same time purgative.

The kernel is a tonic and stomachic. With rose water it is

given in indigestion, diarrhoea, and for the relief of colic. In com-

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OF INDIA

935

bination with other drugs it is made into a paste and applied to

swollen glands.

In Southern India the kernel is given in woman’s milk for the

treatment of typhus fever. It is credited with antiscorbutic and

antivenereal properties.

In Bombay it is prescribed as a tonic and febrifuge, and is

used to check diarrhoea and vomiting, especially in cholera. It

is also commonly given to children, mixed with the root of Nux-

vomica, for colic.

The nut is in great repute among the Arabs as a tonic, pre-

servative and alexipharmic.

The fibrous husk of the nut is used in the form of a decoction

in the Tamil country. It is considered useful in reducing the

quantity of sugar in the urine in cases of diabetes. Ivoman (1919)

gave the decoction to two patients in the hospital with diabetes

mellitus. The sugar eliminated decreased considerably, but did

not disappear altogether. There was relapse as soon as the decoction

was stopped.

Arabic: Narjilebahri — ; Bombay: Jaharinaral, .Teharinaryal — ; Burma:

Penle-on-si — ; Deccan: Daryakanarel— ; Dutch : Dubbele cocosnoot van de Sey-

chelles, Dubbele Klapper, Maledivische noot, Seychellennoot, Zeeklapper— ;

English: Coeoanut of the Maldives, Double Cocoanut Palm, Sea Cocoanut

Palm — ; French: Coco de Pile Praslin, Coco des Echelles, Coco de mer, Coco

de Salomon, Coco, des Seychelles, Cocotier des lies Seychelles, Cocotier des Mal-

dives, Cocotier des Seychelles, Cul de negresse, Double Coco, Lodoice des Mal-

dives, Lodoicee, Lodoicee des Seychelles, Lontar domestique, Rendier eventail,

Eendier lontar, Tobel — ; German: Doppelte Cocosnuss, Kokosartige Lodoicee,

Maldivisc-he Russ,- Meercocos, Seecocos, Wundernuss Salomons — ; Gmjerati :

Daryanunariyal — ; Hindi: Daryakanaryal — ; Indian Archipelago : Calappalaut — ;

Java: Djenggi, Djenggli, Kelapalaut, Kepodjenggi, Pelokdjenggi — ; Malaya! am :

Akraritennu, Kataltenna — ; Persian: Nargilebahri — ; Portuguese: Coco das

Maldivas, Coco do Mar — ; Seychelles : C-oquinko, Tavacarre — ; Sinhalese : Mucin-,

pol — ; Tamil: Ivadattengai — ; Telugu: Samudraputenkaya — .

Loxococcus.

The genus is limited to 1 species endemic in Ceylon.

Loxococcus ruprcola Wendl. and Drude is known in the verna-

cular as dotalu. Its seed is used for mastication with betel, like

arecanut.

Metroxylon.

This genus comprises about 9 species, natives of the Malay

Archipelago, New Guinea and Fiji.

1. Spikes 4-5 in. long, ^ in. in diameter ... ... M. sagas.

2. Spikes 2J in. long of the size of the little finger ... M. rumphii.

1. Metroxylon sagus Rottb. ( = Sagus laevis Humph.). The

common Sago Palm is to be found in the entire group of the

Moluccas, and in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, the Philippine Islands,

the Malay Peninsula; chiefly cultivated.

The fruit is used as a poison in Malaya.

Dutch: Meeboom, Meelgevende palmboom, Moluksche palmboom, Sagoboom.

Sagoeboom, Sagopalm — ; English : Common Sago Palm, Kumphius’s Sago Palm,

Sago Palm, Sago Tree — ; French: Arbre an sagon, Palmier du Japon, Palmier

sagon, Sagonier, Sagonier farinifere, Sagoutier — ; German: Echte Sagopalme,

Molukkische Sapfenpalme, Rumph’s •Sagopalme, Sagobaum, Sagopalme — .

936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

2- Metroxylon rumphii Mart. ( = Sagus rumphii Willd.) is

distributed throughout the Malay Archipelago.

The fruit is used as a poison by the Malays.

English : Rumph’s Sago Palm — ; Malay : Sagu — .

Nannorhops.

The genus is limited to 1 species distributed through Sind,

Baluchistan, Punjab and Afghanistan. It is abundant in the Pesha-

war Valley, in Koliat and in the trans-Indus territory along the

eastern skirts of the Suliman range, ascending up to 3,000 ft. Also

very common on the hills which form the western boundary of

Sind. It is common locally on a limited area in the central Salt

Range, between 2,000 and 5,000 ft. and on Mount Sakesar. In

one place in the Siwalik tract east of the Jhelum, near Sumani

above Bhimbur. It is common in the Ivhaiber Pass, and gene-

rally in the low arid mountains of eastern Afghanistan. It is

found everywhere up to 5,000 ft. in Baluchistan and Makran,

except near the coast.

Nannorhops ritchieana H. Wendl. is a low gregarious shrub,

the leaves usually tufted from an underground, much-branched

rhizome.

The young leaves are given in diarrhoea and dysentery. They

are also purgative, but chiefly used in veterinary medicine.

Bang ash Hills : Fiesch — ; B a rich an : Dhora, Mazari — ; Duki : Dhora, Maza-

ri— ; Hindi: Mazari, Mazri — ; Jhalawan: Pish — ; Kohlu: Dhora, Mazari,

Pish — ; Musa Khel: Dhora, Mazari — ; Pushtu: Maizurrye — ; Salt Range:

Kalian, Ivilu — ; Shahrig : Dhora, Mazari, Pish — ; Sibi: Dhora, Mazari, Pish — ;

Sindh: Dhora, Fease, Pease, Pesh, Pfarra, Phana, Pfis — ; Trans-Indus: Mazari,

Mazi’ai, Mzarai — ■.

Nip a.

The genus is limited to 1 species which covers thousands and

thousands of acres of the salt marshes of the islands and coasts

of the Indian Ocean. It inhabits the river estuaries and tidal

forests of the S underbans, Chittagong, Burma and the Andamans,

and extends throughout Malaya to Queensland. Its Western limit

is Ceylon where it is to be found at the mouth of rivers on the

south-west coast, Kalutara, Gindura River near Galle.

Nipa fruticans Wurmb. The Nipa Palm is used medicinally

in the Philippine Islands.

The fresh leaves are much used in the treatment of ulcers

in the form of cataplasm or lotion. They are- considered a- valuable

remedy for the bites of centipedes.

The alcohol obtained from the toddy by distillation is mixed

with water and used as an eye wash in inflammations of the eyelids

and of the conjunctiva.

Andamans: Poothada — ; Bengal: Gabna, Gulga — ; Burma: Dane — ; Caga-

yan: Tata — ; English: Nipa Palm, Water Cocoanut — ;■ Guam: Nipa, Sasa — ;

Gujerat: Paradeshitadio — ; Hindi: Gulga — ; Philippines: Lasa — ; Ponape :

Parran — ; Sinhalese: Gimpot — ; Sulu Archipelago: Ballang — ; Tagalog : Nipa,

Sasa — ; Telugu: Kotitikaya, Nipamu — Zambalcs : Saga — .

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OE INDIA

'J37

Phoenix.

The genus consists of about 12 species which inhabit sub-

tropical Africa and Tropical Asia.

Four of the species are credited with medicinal properties.

1. Leaves ‘2-6 ft. long

2. Leaves 8-10 ft. long

3. Leaves 10-15 ft. long

4. Leaves longer

P. pus ilia.

P. yaludosa.

P. sylvestris.

P. dactylifera.

1. Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. is to be found on the Coromandel

Coast, not far from the sea, and in the dry forests of the northern

part of Ceylon.

The fresh sap is cooling and laxative.

The gum is used in diarrhoea and in genito-urinary diseases.

The fruit is prescribed in cough, asthma, fetid breath, also in

fever and gonorrhoea.

The seeds are made into a paste by trituration with water and

applied over the eye in inflammations and for opacity of the cornea.

Canarese: Hullicliala, Ichalu, Sannayichalu — ; Ceylon : Inchu — ; Hindi:

1’alawat — ; Malayalam : Chittintal, Inta — ; Tamil: Ichu, Indu, Inju, Ivalangu,

Ivurinji, Sagi, Sirnyinju, Sittinjn — .

2. Phoenix paludosa Boxb. The Wild Date Palm is tolerably

common throughout India, wild or more often cultivated. It forms

siderable portion of the impenetrable woods which cover the Sunder-

bans. It is met with along the Selwin, between Amherst and

Moulmein, and extends to Penang, Siam and Cochin China.

The fruit is acidulous, sweet and cooling. It relieves flatulence

and assuages pain. It is given in fever and inflammation.

Bengal: Golpatta, Hintal, Hital — ; Burma: Thinboung — ; Hindi: Hiatal — ■;

Penang: Dangsa — ; Sanskrit: Hintala — ; Telugu: Giruka tati, Hintalanm — .

3. Phoenix sylvestris Boxb. The Wild Date Palm is tolerably

common throughout) India, wild or more often cultivated. It forms

extensive forests in Bohilkhand, on the low ground along the Bam-,

ganga Biver, and on the plateau of Mysore, between Shimoga and

Tumkur, in the moister stretches of low ground which intersect

and drain the rocky undulating granite hills. It is most abundant

in Bengal, Behar, on the Coromandel Coast and in Gujerat. In

the Bombay Presidency it is common in moist ground throughout

the dry districts, usually along banks and in the beds of streams

and watercourses. It is not uncommon in the Siwalik tract and

the outer Himalaya, reaching up to 5,000 ft. in Kumaon. It is

met with at Ghiaunla in Garliwal at 3,500 ft., along the banks of

the Bias above Mandi, in the Jamu hills at 2,000 ft. elevation, and

in the Salt Bange.

The root is given for toothache.

The fresh toddy, is considered a cooling drink.

The fruit is prescribed in gonorrhoea and gleet.

The fruit, pounded and mixed with almonds, quince seeds, pis-

tachio nuts, spices and sugar forms a very popular restorative

remedy.

938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hi ST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV11

A paste, formed of the kernels and the root of Achyranthcs

as pc? a, is eaten with betel-leaves as a remedy for ague.

Bengal: Kajar, Ivejur — ; Berar : Seindi — ; Bombay: Kliajur, Kliajura, Kiia-

j mi, Sendi — ; Canarese: Andadayiclialu, Icliala, Icliale, Iclialu, Ichela, Idiil,

Kaliiclialu, Ivallu, Siyindu — ; Deccan: Sandolekanar — ; English: Date-sugar

Palm,- Indian Wine Palm, 'Sugar Palm, Wild Date Palm — ; Gond : Hindi — ■;

Gujerati : Kajuii, Kharak, Tadi — ; Hindi: Kejur, Khaji, Kliajur, Khajuri,

Salma, Sendlii, Tliakil, Thalma — ; Kola-mi : Kliajur — ; Konkani : Kajuri — ;

Malayalam: Inta, Intappana, Kattinta — ; Marathi: Boicliand, Sendri, Shindi,

Sindikajuri — ; Mundari: Darukita, Kitadaru — ; Porebunder : Klialelananjliad,

Tadi — ; Punjab : Khaji, Kliajur — ; Sanskrit: Bhumikharjurika, Durarolia, Dura-

rulia, Duslipradarslia, Haluka, Haripriya, Kakakarkati, Kapila, Kasliayi, Kharju,

Kliarjuri, Mriduclihada, Nishreni, Skandhappala, Svadi, Svadumastaka, Aava-

neshta— ; Santal : Khijur — ; Tamil: Ichambanai, Inju, Karavam, Kattinju,

Madal, Periyayinju — ; Telugu: Ita, Peddayita — ; Uriya: Khorjuri, Khorjuro — .

4. Phoenix dactylifera Linn. The Edible Date Palm is culti-

vated and self-sown in Sind and in the Southern Punjab, particu-

larly near Multan and Muzaffargarh, also in the Sind Sagar Doab

and trans-Indus territory. Near Dehra Ghazi Khan, date-palms

are very numerous on a strip 10-1*2 miles long from north to south.

A few trees are found planted at many places in the Eastern Pun-

jab, also at Saharanpur, and here and there in the Ganges Doab

and Bandelkhand. It is also grown in the Deccan and Gujerat,

but does not thrive in Bengal. It thrives luxuriantly in the arid

rainless regions of North Africa and West Asia, where it is exposed

to extreme heat in the daytime, and not uncommonly to frost at

night, but it requires a certain amount of moisture in the soil.

In Europe it is cultivated in Spain, on the Hyeres Islands, the

lliviera near Nice, San Kemo and Genoa, where it attains its

northernmost point. There is a wood of date-palms at Bordighera

near San Remo, said to contain over 4,000 stems cultivated mainly

to yield palms for Palm Sunday at Rome. In South Italy, Sicily

and Greece, the tree is not uncommon, but the fruit is small and

poor.

The tree yields a gum which is considered a demulcent, diuretic

and refrigerant. It is esteemed in the Punjab as a valuable remedy

in diarrhoea and diseases of the genito-urinary system.

When the heart of the leaves is cut out a sweet thickisli fluid

collects in the cavity, which is very refreshing and slightly pur-

gative. Yunani practitioners use the leaf as an aphrodisiac and

prescribe it in liver complaints.

The fresh sap is cooling and laxative.

The flower is bitter. The Mahommedans say it is purgative,

expectorant and tonic to the liver; they recommend its use in fever

and blood diseases.

The fresh fruit is considered demulcent, expectorant, laxative,

tonic and diuretic. But a long continued use is said to produce

soreness of the gums. Water in which fresh dates have been

steeped for a while is given to relieve alcoholic intoxication. Milk

in which clean and fresh dates have been infused is a very nourish-

ing and restorative drink especially during convalescence from

fevers and small-pox.

Dates are said to promote expectoration, soothe the chest and

also prevent constipation. They are prescribed in cases of. cough,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OE INDIA 939

asthma, consumption and generally for all kinds of chest troubles.

They are also given in fever, gonorrhoea, liver complaints and abdo-

minal troubles; and they are recommended for the treatment of

dysentery.

The dried fruit, pounded and mixed with almonds, quince seeds,

pistachio nuts, spices and sugar, forms a much esteemed restor-

ative. It is also used as an ingredient in various tonic and aphro-

disiac preparations.

In Southern India the ground seeds are made into a paste by

trituration with water and applied over the eyelids for opacity of

the cornea. The paste is also said to be efficacious in relieving

headaches and hemicrania.

A fine paste made of the seed of the date-fruit and the root

of Achyranthes aspcra is applied to betel-leaves and made into little

packets together with clove, cardamom, catechu and arecanut.

Three packets are administered at intervals of one hour before an

expected attack of ague.

The smoke from the burning powdered seeds affords great relief

when used as a fumigant for piles.

Arabic: Nakhleli — ; Badaga: Gajjira — ; Bengal: Khajur — ; Bhote : Ivlias-

ser — ; Bombay: Khajur — ; Burma: Sunbalun, Svonpalwon — ; Candrese: Kajura,

Karika, Karjura, Kliarjura — ; Chinese: Wu Lou Tzu — ; English: Arabian Date

Palm, Cultivated Date Palm, Edible Date, Large Date, Persian Date — ;

French: Dattier, Dattier cultive — ; German: Dattelbaum, Dattelpalme — ;

Greek: Plioinix — ; Gujerati: Karek, Kliajur — ; Hebrew: Chhomer,

Tomer — ; Hindi : Khaji, Kliajur — ; Italian : Dattero, Palma — ; Kaehhi :

Khaji — ; Kej : Abdandan, Abrauglian, Amiri, Anguro, Arrasht, Bambai,

Banduk, Barni, Barral, Bingu, Bulediraughani, Burshakri, Buzband, Cliafsliak,

Charpan, Daslitari, Gognai, Gozti, Gundgoreg, Gurbagu, Gwazo, Haleni, Husai-

ni, Jafasli, Jafsliakjalgi, Jamsaki, Jowanabushmas, Johanajaski, Jozo, Kalerak,

Kalunti, Karpaso, Kliargi, Khurmazard, Kohijalgi, Kuleri, Kuzanabat, Mairi-

surkh, Makli, Mataftaza, Mulkijalgi, Nazamdazi, Nazantabaqi, Nazbibilanguk,

Naznin, Pandi, Peshnai, Pingu, Pull, Bagom, Baugliani, Santgwaragli, Shagash-

kliand, Sliipga, Sialikanok, Soliri, Suhrebegamjangi, Tigal, Ushtarkor, Waklislii,

Waslikalunt, Waslikung, Washnao, Zard — ; Kohhaja : Mach — ; Malayalam:

Itta, Ittappalain, Tenitta — ; Malta: Palma, Palma da datteri, Palma tat-

tamar — ; Marathi: Kharjur — ; Nasirabad: Kliajji, Khurma— ; Nushki: Mach — ■;

Panjgur: Begamjangi, Dandari, Dashtlafaslisabzo, Fard, Fofo, Haraksabzo, Hus-

sainizard, Joshandakalut, Joshandasabzo, Kliurmakarmachi, Khurmaikalut ,

Kungo, Mozawati, Rabi, Radag, Zardan, Zardpanjguri — ; Portuguese: Pal-

meira, Tamareira — ; Punjab: Khaji, Kliajur—; Pushtu: Kajura, Shewa — ;

Roumanian: Curmal — ; Russian: Phinikovoe dyerevo — ; Sanskrit: Dipva,

Hayabliakslia, Madhurasraoa, Mudarika, Phalapushpa, Pindakharjura, Pinda-

kharjurika, Pindipliala, Rajajambu, Sapinda, Svadupinda — ; Sharig : Khajur — :

Sibi: Khajji, Khurma — ; Sind: Kaji, Kurma, Pindchirdi, Tar — ; Sinhalese:

Ind — ; Spanish : Datilera, Palma datilera, Palmera — ; Swedish : Palmtrae — :

Tamil: Ichu, Inju, Karchuram, Kuravam, Perindu, Perinju, Titti — ; Telugu:

Gajjuramu, Ita, Kharjuramu, Manjiyita, Muddakharjuramu, Peridu, Perita,

Simakharjuramu — ; Turki: Karmah — ; Urdu: Khurma — ; Uriya: Khorjjuri — :

W aziri : Kha j u rra— .

5. According to the authors of the Encyclopaedia Mundariea

Kindacl is a stemless palm different from Kita ( = Phoenix acaulis

Buch.). The pinnae of its pinnatisect leaves are shorter and re-

curved at the end, they spread at a much greater angle to the

axis than the pinnae in an of child leaf.

The root-stock is pounded and thrown into pools and rivers to

poison fish.

940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BUST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVll

6. Kitamuli is sakl to be a stemless palm, different from

Phoenix acaulis Buch. It has only two plicately multifid leaves

like those of the male acaulis, and is said to die after two or three

years. Its corm is slender having the size and form of a carrot,

and containing nevertheless a farinaceous substance.

The mealy substance of the corm, edible in the Kita, is deadly

poisonous in the Kitamuli. It acts as a vesicant and is, therefore,

applied to the chest in pneumonia. It is also rubbed on the her-

petic eruptions called dinai.

PlNANGA.

This genus numbers about 50 species distributed over the Iiido-

M a lay an region.

Pinanga dicksonii Bl. (—Areca dicks onii Boxb.) is found in

great abundance on the mountains of Travancore and Malabar. It

]s gregarious and locally abundant in the evergreen forests near the

Gersoppa and Nilkund Ghats of Northern Ivanara.

The poorer classes eat the nut as a substitute for the common

arecanut.

The dried husk of the fruit is used medicinally in China, Japan

and Annam. It is in much request in flatulent, dropsical or ob-

structive diseases of the stomach. It is also given in choleraic

affections.

China: Ta Fu Tzu — ; Malayalam: Ivanakamuka — ; Telugu: lvondapoka — .

Bapiiia.

This genus numbers about 20 species which inhabit Tropical

Africa and America.

Two of them are credited with medicinal properties.

1. Leaves rising straight up ... ... ... R. raffia.

2. Leaves rising nearly vertically from the stem, bend-

ing out on every side in curves, forming a plume R. vinifera.

1. Raphia ruffia Mart. ( = R. pcdunculata Beau v. = Sagus ruffia

Jacq.) is indigenous in Madagascar. It is extensively cultivated

on the Mascarene Islands and naturalized in America.

The root is given for toothache.

The fresh juice is a valuable laxative.

Dutch: Madagascarsclie sagoboom, Sagodragende palm — ; English: Raffia,

Raffia Palm, Rafia Palm, Raphia Palm, Roffia, Roffia Palm — ; French : Mouffia,

Palmier de Mayotte, Raffia, Rafia, Raphia — ; German: Bambuspalme, Madagas-

karisebe Sagopabne, Raffiabastpalme, RaffiaAveinpalme — ; Hova: Rafia, Rofia,

Voarafy — ; Madagascar : Fomby, Maivanaty, Raofia.

2. Raphia vinifera Beauv. The Wine Palm grows in commu-

nities in the freshwater swamps of Lower Nigeria.

The seeds contain a bitter oil which in Guinea is much used

for courbature and rheumatic pains.

In the Gold Coast the pounded seeds are thrown in pools and

rivers to stupefy the fish.

Aowin : Dong'kang — ; Ashanti: Adobair — ; Awuna : Alati — ; Dutch: Rapliia-

vezelpahn — ; English: Bamboo Palm, Jupatic Palm, Pharaoh’s Date-palm, Wine

Palm — ; Ewe : Ala — ; Fanti: Adobair — ; French: Bourdon, Palmier a vin,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PALMS OE INDIA

941

Bapliier — ; Ga : Adobair — ; German : Bainbuspalme, Eolite Weinpalme, Wein-

gebende Sagopalme, Weinpalme — ; Krepi : Adoka, Altai — ; Krobo: Sowaircko — ;

Malinke : Bail — ; Nizima : Dorka, Eduiri — ; Qnittah : Adoka — ; Twi : Adobair — ;

Was saw : Tombo — .

TrACHYCARPUS.

TJie genus consists of three species inhabiting the Himalayas,

China and Japan.

Trachycarpus excelsa H. Wendl. ( = Chamaerops excelsa

Tliunb.) Fortune’s Chusan Palm is found in Upper Burma and

extends through Yunan to China and Japan.

The fruit is astringent.

Chinese : Tsung Lu — ; English : Fortune’s Cliusan Palm— .

Wallichia.

The genus numbers three species which inhabit India and

Malaya.

Wallichia disticha T. Anders, occurs in the Gonda Hills of

Oudh, the valleys of Sikkim Himalaya to 2,000 ft., the Makum

forest in Assam. It is found in Upper Burma ascending to

4,000 ft. in the hills east of Bhamo, and on the Pegu Yoma, chiefly

on the eastern slopes.

The berries irritate the skin.

Lepcha: Katong — ; Lower Burma : Letme, Zanaung — ; Upper Burma :

Minbaw — .

IB

SNAKES IN BEL GAUM.

BY

Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, i.m.s.

I had written a small note in the Bombay Natural History

Society Journal of 15tli July, 1930 (vol. xxxiv, No. 2, p. 585), on

‘Snakes collected at Belgaum’, in which 18 snakes seen by me

there in 1927-1928 were mentioned. Of these, 3 were Phipson’s

Earth Snake, 5 common wolf snakes, 7 green keelbacks, 2 common

Bat snakes or dhamans, and one Bussell’s Viper. This number

was too small to find out the common species seen there. I hap-

pened to be re-posted to Belgaum again as Civil Surgeon in the

rains and I started collecting snakes there as the rains bring them

out in numbers. I saw and identified 65 snakes in six months

from August 1933 to Eebruary 1934. The collection was interest-

ing in that more species were seen than those in my previous

note and I came across half a dozen cases of snake-bite also.

Of the snakes seen 8 were cobras, so my remark at the end of

my previous note, that cobras are not common does not hold good.

Only few of the snakes were from the district, most of them being

from Belgaum itself or its vicinity within a few miles. Of the 65

that were seen, 21 were poisonous (8 cobras, 6 common kraits

and 7 Bussell’s Viper), nearly 33 per cent. — rather a high per-

centage.

The species were : —

Family: Uropeltidae .

1. Silybura phipsoni or Phipson’s Earth Snake — 9. A very

common snake seen in the earth in the gardens and compounds. It

is considered double-headed by some as its tail end is truncated

and sliced. It is also called a Mud Snake.

Family : Colubridae.

2. Ly codon aulicus or Common Wolf Snake — 9. Infant speci-

mens were seen in August, so the hatching month seems to be

July.

3. Macropisthodon plumbicolor or Green Keelback — 10. Two

were seen bottled in spirit in the British Military Hospital and

one in the Sardar High School. Most of the others were seen

about the Civil Hospital and its compound.

4. Zamenis mucosus or Common Bat Snake or Dhaman — 4.

One was seen bottled in British Military Hospital and one in

the Vaccine Institute. One killed on 23rd September 1933 was

74 in. long and on dissection was found to have eaten a small

snake and a lizard. One, killed on 30tli January 1934, was 69 in.

long.

SNAKES iN BELGAUM

943

5. Zamenis fasciolatus or the Fasciolated Eat Snake — 2. Both

these were small specimens 13 in. and 10^ in. and were seen

bottled in Sardar High School.

6. Tropidonotus piscator or the Chequered Keelbaek — 1. It

was 37 in. long and was shot in water. It had an olive-coloured

back, flanked red due to the red laterite soil.

7. Tropidonotus stolatus or the Buff-striped Keelbaek or the

Dandy Snake — 3. One was preserved in the British Military Hos-

pital and two were seen from the Fort, near the Superintending

Engineer’s bungalow.

8. Coluber helcna or Trinket Snake — 1. Seen also bottled in

Sardar High School.

9. Dipsadomorphus trigonatus or Common Brown Tree-snake

— 1. Small specimen 13 in. long; killed near the Civil Hospital.

10. Dendrelapliis tristis or Seba’s Bronze Back — 1. This good

specimen was sent from the District by Mr. Kowlands, D.S.P. It

was 41 in. long.

11. Dryophis mycterizans or the Green Whip Snake — 1. A flue

specimen sent from the district by Mr. J. Harris, A.S.P. It was

nearly 6 ft. long (71 in.).

12. Bungarus caeruleus or the Common Ivrajt — 6. Three were

seen preserved in the British Military Hospital and one in the

Sardar High School. Two were brought from the Military Dairy

Grass Farm area about 2 miles from Belgaum, one male 37J in.

and a female 36 in. long.

13. Naia tripudians or the Common Indian Cobra — 8. All were

binocellate. Two were seen preserved in spirit in the British Mili-

tary Hospital, nicely set up with the hood expanded showing the

ocelli well. One was seen bottled in the Vaccine Institute. Two

were killed in the Fort, both 57 in. long. Three were brought

from the Military Dairy Grass Farm; two of these, biggish speci-

mens, were lying together and brought on 27th January 1934, one

being male 59 in. long and the other a female 60 in.

Family: Viperidae.

14. Yipcra russelli or Kussell’s Viper — 7. One was seen bottled

in the British Military Hospital and one in the Vaccine Institute.

Two were killed in the Military Dairy Grass Farm area, one 51 in.

and one 42 \ in. One was killed near the cookhouse of the Senior

Officers’ School Mess on 5th November 1933 and was 45 in. long.

One was killed on 19th November 1933 at Dupdhal, near Gokak.

This one, 39 in. long, had bitten a P.W.D. cooly working in the

grass in the late afternoon. Fortunately Mr. J. Brooks, District

Forest Officer, was there. He gave prompt first aid and took the

cooly in his car to the Gokak Mill Dispensary where the bitten

persop got intravenous Antivenene within an hour of the bite, and

the man recovered completely without showing any symptoms. Mr.

Brooks sent the snake also the same evening to me at Belgaum for

identification.

Another one bit a person in the garden near the Hindalgi

Jail about 12 noon on 1st February 1934. The snake was killed

944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol. XXX VI 1

and brought to me at tlie Civil Hospital by the Junior Medical

Officer who came on his motor-bike, got it identified as Russell’s

Viper returned with the Antivenene, and the bitten person received

the injection within an hour of the bite and there was complete

recovery.

Both these cases show that if people do not waste time but

carry out prompt treatment, the bitten person has a very good

chance of quick and complete recovery.

There is a village called Turgamatti about 2 miles from Bel-

gaum, near which are acres of land belonging to the Military Dairy

Barm wdiere grass is stacked. These stacks are a good sheltering

place for snakes. When one stack was nearly cleared, the men

working there found a large number of snakes at the bottom. Only

the big snakes were brought to me, some alive and these were

3 Cobras, 2 Russell’s Vipers, 2 Kraits and 1 Dliaman, all except

one being caught in the month of January.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I— A TIGEB FEEDING ON A COW WHILE YET ALIVE.

With reference to the paragraph in the Beview on Mr. Peacock's

book at page 206 of vol. xxxvi, No. 1 of this Journal, ‘Has anyone

ever known a case, in India, of an animal being fed upon by a

tiger when alive? That, surely, must be peculiar to the tiger of

Burma.’ Mr. M. Freeman of Madras relates for the information

of the writer that in 1930, when in the Palni Hills at the small

village of Pambarai some twelve miles from Kodaikanal, he was

taken late one evening by the village munsiff to a cattle-shed. In-

side two cows were lying dead, killed by tigers and partly eaten,

while a third one was lying on its rear side with the whole of its

right haunch eaten, and the stomach so torn that a portion of the

bowel was protruding. This cow was alive, chewing the cud, and

did not appear to be suffering greatly.

Proceeding at dawn next day with a shot gun in order to shoot

the cow, and using an electric torch to give light into the shed,

Mr. Freeman found himself facing a tiger, backed a few steps,

and, as the animal came out and made off, fired at it with S.S.G.

It was then announced that there was another tiger in the

shed, and this beast was killed as it rushed out by one shot from

a .500 express rifle.

The first animal was then beaten out of adjacent cover and

killed; these two beasts measuring 7 ft. 2 in. and 7 ft. 4 in. One

of them a female.

It was found that during the night the tigers had fed upon ,

and almost completely demolished, the live cow.

The uproar made by the villagers proceeding with the slain

to the local temple roused a third tiger which Mr. Freeman wound-

ed, and then killed by a shot in the chest as it bounded towards

him.

The next morning the villagers brought to Kodaikanal the body

of a fourth tiger, which they bad managed to kill, after watching

it go into the cattle-shed. They hammered a big stake in the

doorway to keep it closed and shot the tiger by the light of a lan-

tern lowered through a hole in the thatched-roof.

Mr. Freeman does not note the size of these two other animals,

or whether either of them was mature, so it may be that all four

were immature. If this was so, possibly' they had been deprived

early in life of their mother and been forced to feed themselves

without the usual tuition in expert methods of killing.

This instance, the first heard of by the writer during a residence

in India of forty-five years, and the first to be recorded in the

pages of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society during

the half century of its publication, is not of the kind referred to

by the author of A Game Book for Burma. It is within the ex-

perience of many sportsmen, past and present, in Burma, that a

946 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

full-grown able-bodied tiger not infrequently commences eating-

while the animal brought down by its attack is still alive.

The instance now noticed is of immature animals acting in this

way, and must be, even in that case, a very exceptional occurrence.

Coonoor. R. W. BURTON.

October 25, 1934.

II.— RECORDS OF SOME CLOUDED LEOPARD ( NEOFELIS

NEBULOSA ) IN THE DARJEELING DISTRICT.

(With a photo).

1. January 1920. 3,000 ft., near Ivurseong. Length of mount-

ed skin 6 ft. 9J in. Upper canines outside If in. Breadth of

skull 4f in. Male.

2. January 1920. Same place as No. 1. Length of mounted

skin 6 ft. in. Upper canines 1J in. Breadth of skull 4| in.

Male,

Clouded Leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa) in Darjeeling District.

Both these animals were shot in the same beat by one gun, as

they came out together.

3. May 1926. Same place as No. 1 and 2. Male. Shot over

a goat kill. All Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were full-grown with grey rather

than fulvous predominating and appeared to be in their prime.

4. August 22, 1926. Runjeet Valley, 2,500 ft. Length 5 ft.

in. Weight 42| lbs. Male. Shot in a beat in sal jungle.

5. December 23, 1926. Runjeet Valley, 2,500 ft. Greyish.

Head and body 3 ft. 1 in. Tail 2 ft. 6 in. Weight 48£ lbs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

947

Height at shoulder 21 in. Girth of fore-arm 9J in. Male. Pick-

ed up dead after an all-night fight with another leopard, species

unknown. Greyish. Photo enclosed.

6. February 2, 1928. By the side of the Runjeet River,

1,000 ft. A favourite haunt of jungle fowl. Length 4 ft. 8 in.

Weight 39 lbs. Male. About 10 in. had been severed from the

end of the tail. Shot up. a tree. A rich fulvous with whitish

underparts.

7-8. October 1932. Two females length 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft.

1 in. respectively found dead side by side at the foot of a 100 ft.

cliff by the side of a side stream of the Teesta River. 2,000 ft.

9. May 12, 1934. Above Rungbee. Teesta Valley, 2,000 ft.

Very old female found dying and killed off by dogs. Skull sent to

the Society for examination. Skin very greyish with poor mark-

ings.

Namrong, W. H. MATTHEWS.

Rungli Rungliot P.O.,

N. Bengal.

August 19, 1934.

III.— NOTE ON A BEAR AND A PANTHER OBTAINED

BY COL. F. M. BAILEY FROM TIBET AND A PANTHER

FROM ASIA MINOR OBTAINED BY MR. J. E. WHITTALL.

The following supplement to my accounts of the Asiatic

Panthers and Bears published respectively in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society , xxxiv, pp. 64-82, 1930 and xxxv,

pp. 771-823, 1932, is based upon the skins of two rare panthers

and the skin and skull of an equally rare bear recently received

at the Natural History Museum.

One of the panther skins was most generously presented to

the Museum by Col. F. M. Bailey who, while recently in Kashmir,

received it from a Tibetan with the information that it came from

near Shigatse, south of the Brahmaputra, some 100 miles north of

Sikkim, a district from which no panther, so far as I am aware,

has as yet been recorded. It is clearly a winter skin and is one

of the most beautiful I have handled. The coat is full and long,

about 45 mm. or If in. in length. The ground colour is rich

orange yellow, paling to buff on the paws and low down on the

flanks where the tint passes into the white of the belly. Every-

where on the upper side the under hair is dark smoky grey to a

height of about 19 mm. from the skin. The pattern consists of

rather close-set, medium-sized black rings not broken up into spots.

I -am at present unable to distinguish this panther from the

race I described in this Journal as Panthera pardus bedfordi, the

original example of which came from S.-E. Shensi. But the dis-

covery of this panther south of the Brahmaputra suggests that it

may possibly extend its range to the northern slopes of the Hima-

layas which would bring it within the precincts of the Fauna of

British India. The skull of the Tibetan specimen was unfortu-

nately not preserved.

£148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

The second panther skin is of a very different kind. It belongs

to the Asia Minor race Panthera pardus tuliiana\ of which, as

recorded in my paper, the Museum had previously only a single

skin, in a poor state of preservation, collected many years ago in

Anatolia. The new skin came from the mountains near Karaja-

hissav, South-East of Kuluk in South-West Asia Minor and was

kindly presented to the Museum by Mr. E. H. Givand at the

request of Mr. J. E. Whittall of Constantinople with whom I

had been in correspondence regarding the Museum’s requirements

in the way of mammals from Asia Minor. This panther is a par-

ticularly important addition because, as I learn from Mr. Whittall,

it is now very rare.

The skin is in summer coat, the hair being short and sleek;

the colour of the median dorsal area is ochreous buff gradually

fading on the flanks and limbs and passing into white on the

belly and into cream or buffy white on the paws; the tail is pale

with some buff alongside the spots on the basal half, the terminal

portion being grey; the hairs in the terminal third of its length

gradually lengthen and are long at the tip; the pattern consists

of well-spaced annular rosettes, mostly broken up into spots.

This skin is paler in colour and shorter in the coat than the skin

from Anatolia and was evidently killed at a different, time of the

year.

The Tibetan Bear is an example of the so-called Snow Bear

(Ursus arctos pruinosus). The condition of the coat which is long,

thickened with abundance of underwool and tufted suggests that

the animal was killed soon after emerging from winter quarters.

The general colour is black, showing dark brown patches of under-

wool when the hair is parted; but the tips of the hairs of the

crown, nape, on each side of the shoulder mat and on the middle

of the back are extensively yellowish tawny; this tawny hue dies

away on the hind quarters and the hairs of the flanks are only

faintly tipped with grey. There is a dirty white collar extending

from the breast up the sides of the neck but not passing over the

nape. The face and cheeks are tawny-brown and there is a good

deal of tawny on the chest behind the fore legs, which like the

hind legs are black. The claws are ‘horn-coloured’ and the toe

pads are not united as described by Lonnberg.

This skin being in dead coat entirely lacks the coppery or

silvery lustre I described in connection with Eenwick Owen’s skins

from W. Kansu which were collected in October.

The following are the dimensions of the skull in English inches

and of the teeth in millimeters.

In English Inches. In millims.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

949

The general conformation of the skull and the open basioeeipital

suture show that it had not reached full size but in total length

it is only about 3 mm. shorter than the longest entered in my

table, which was recorded by Leclie, and it would certainly have

surpassed the latter considerably, when full grown. The zygomata

are narrower; but that is a matter of age. The teeth are actually

and relatively small, the length of the last upper molar, 37 mm.,

coming between the two smallest examples of this tooth recorded

in my table, namely those of the 9 from Kansu, 39 mm., and the

9 from North-East of Lhasa, 35 mm.

British Museum (Natural History), K. I. POCOCK, f.r.s.,

London. ( Unofficial Assistant in

Zoology Department.)

IV.— WILD DOG (CUON DU KHUN EN SIS) KILLED BY

DOMESTIC DOGS.

A wild dog was killed by two dogs owned by a friend of mine

Mr. H. Vaughan Arbuckle on the neighbouring Estate of Siri-

kundra last month.

Mr. Arbuckle ’s dogs are a beagle from Ceylon, and a small

cross bred Airdale — Irish Terrier. The latter is an exceptional

game little devil with a predominance of Irish blood and they both

spend a good deal of time hunting anything that runs from Civet

cats to deer.

Mr. Arbuckle was in a field of tea superintending plucking

coolies when his dogs started kicking up a terrific racket close to

him. Before he could get to them they started to run and after

a very short hunt he came up with them mixed up in a rough

and tumble with a wild dog which they were just finishing off.

The wild dog was about three-quarters grown, his testicles having

not long dropped. I saw the skin subsequently myself but un-

fortunately it was not cured and has since decomposed.

It seems incredible that a wild dog with his great speed should

not be able to get away from domestic dogs if he wanted to.

When finally killed he was in a pretty good mess and it was very

difficult to sort out his injuries, but Mr. Arbuckle advances the

theory that his two dogs probably ham-strung him in one leg by

a lucky bite when they first bayed him in the tea. The two dogs

came out of the scrap with very little damage in which they must

have been extremely lucky.

There is a considerable amount of virgin evergreen forest and

Cardamom jungle round the boundaries of Sirikundra Estate

which contains a lot of sambur and barking deer and wild dogs are

constant periodical visitors. For some time past there has been a

pack of four dogs hanging about, a large dog, a bitch and two

small dogs presumably her pups. In all probability, the dog

killed, was one of these pups which was very likely either sick or

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

had been damaged in a hunt and was lying up asleep in the . tea

when it was surprised.

Monica Estate, J. WILLIAMS.

Valparai P.O.

August 31, 1934.

V. — time of sexual maturity of the elephant

(ELEPHAS MAXIMUS L.).

Air. Gordon Hundley’s very interesting letter of February 26,

1934 in vol. xxxvii, No. 2, records certain details regarding

Burmese elephants which accord closely with facts recorded from

South India. In Coorg, a Forest Department tusker named

Krishna came into musth when his age was believed to be only

15 years. A Madras Forest Department cow elephant, Meenakshi,

herself born in captivity, calved when she was only 13 years old,

two years younger than the cow mentioned by Mr. Hundley.

Meenakshi was the daughter, by a wild bull, of chik Lakshmi,

who was the daughter of Lakshmi. Tradition has it that Lakshmi

was a Burmese elephant transferred from the Commissariat

Department. Meenakshi’s son referred to above, Dosti Jehan,

was a muckna, and being also precocious like his mother, was a

father at 20, his son Abdul Ali being a tusker. The last-named

is now 11 years old, so before many years the Forest Department

may expect the arrival of the sixth generation of this family.

Salem. G. C. ROBINSON,

September 6, 1934. i.f.s.

VI.— A BULL GAUR (B . GAURUS) AND A TIGRESS FIGHT

TO DEATH.

I have read with interest Mr. W. S. Thom’s Notes on Bison

( Bibos gaurus ) in Burma (vol. xxxvii, No. 1), in which he. states

‘Bison have only two enemies to fear, viz., tiger and man, but

the former is no match for a full-grown bull’.

In view of this statement, the following may be of interest

to readers of the Journal. In October 1931, on my return from

leave, to my Forest Division, I was informed by some of my

sawyers that about 10 days previous to my visit to their camp,

they, whilst roaming about the forest, had come across the decom-

posed carcases of a bison and a tiger lying within 10 feet of

each other. I visited the spot, and from what I saw, I was con-

vinced that a battle royal had taken place, which had ended in

the death of both combatants. For a radius of about 40 feet the

jungle had been absolutely cleared, small saplings broken, and

from the large trees chunks of bark had been tom off. The

carcases were lying within 10 feet of each other, and on examining

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

951

them I found that a tigress on one hand, and a bull bison in the

prime of life on the other had been the. combatants. The incident

took place in the Makri Reserve on the Bastar State, C.P., which

is a sanctuary for buffalo, bison and barasingh, and my statement

can easily be verified by referring to the Forest Officer of the State,

who enquired into the matter, and sent subordinates to inspect the

spot.

Camp Bardulla,

Mainpur P.O., H. V. BLACKBURN.

Via Rajim, B.N. Rly.

September 7, 1934.

VII. — WHITE BISON.

In your issue of August 15, 1934, Mr. Morris has asked if I

would refer to the appearance of these animals ‘from a consider-

able distance’ as being ‘startling’. The answer is most emphatic-

ally ‘yes’. It is for this reason that I made special mention of

the variety in ‘Wild Animals in Central India’.

I am probably as familiar as Mr. Wilson with the normal

variations of colour, including light coloured animals. The bison

however to which I referred do not come within this category, they

are ‘startling’ different.

In my original description I referred to them as ‘dormouse

coloured’. Mr. Morris in his description calls them ‘sandy or

light fawn’. My point is that these are identical descriptions, as

anyone who knows a dormouse will agree. We now get Mr. Wilson

multiplying confusion by calling them ‘a very light cream’. The

above is evidence of the difficulty of describing a shade of colour

in terms of language.

It is hoped that your Society will procure a skin from the

Central Provinces and from Madras : it will then be possible to

determine what difference if any, exists between specimens from

these two parts of India. It is probable that a good many years

may elapse before a C.P. specimen is secured. I base this state-

ment on the fact that I have seen hundreds of bison on hundreds

of occasions, all over the C.P., but only on very rare occasions

have I seen a so-called ‘white’ variety. Your Society on procur-

ing specimens could more precisely define the colour description,

and possibly suggest a name.

I never suggested that they should be called ‘Dormouse-

coloured Bison’ as Mr. Wilson implies, the nomenclature is far

too clumsy to start with.

Mr. Morris makes a point over the adjective ‘white’ being

applied to the Rhino : when that animal was christened sportsmen

attached much less importance to scientific accuracy. Were the

952 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXVII

‘White Rhino ’ discovered today, it would probably be called ‘The

Grey Bhino’ and to my mind preferably so. In adopting therefore

a specific name to a particular variety of bison, I would advocate,

if possible some qualifying adjective, which is less of a misnomer

than ‘white’.

September 18, 1934. A. A. DUNBAB B BANDER.

VIII. — RATELS AND COBBSES.

I have read in your last issue a note under the above title from

Mr. Dunbar Brander, in which he takes exception to my not having-

written to him personally before casting doubts in my recent book

as to the accuracy of his statement that ratels are in the habit

of exhuming corpses. Before answering what he writes I would

like to say that I am a profound admirer of Mr. Dunbar Brander ’s

excellent book, which I consider to be one of the best works ever

published on the subject, and I am sorry to have caused him

offence by disagreeing with just one of the statements contained

therein.

He says that, as a self-appointed judge, I have confused the

word ‘exhume’ with the word ‘eat’, but surely that is rather a

quibble. If a ratel exhumes a corpse it is presumably not for the

fun of doing so, or because he admires its pretty shape and appear-

ance, but because he wants to eat it or the grubs that it contains,

which is practically the same thing.

1 wrote that ‘So far as I am aware, no reputable naturalist has

ever obtained first-hand evidence of such an act’. It would cer-

tainly have been better if I had used the word ‘recorded’ instead

of ‘obtained’ but the puiq^ose of a Journal such as this is to record

observations on animal life, and I have found no such record either

in this Journal or in any book that I have ever read. • Hence it

seems to me singularly unfortunate that Mr. Dunbar Brander

could not have found space in his book or in a note to this Journal

for the interesting experience that he now relates. However,

‘better late than never’ and he has now given a single instance

of a ratel having exhumed a corpse, although, even so, it appears

to have been a deduction only that a ratel was the culprit, with

no actual eye-witnesses. It is also possible that some other readers

of this Journal may be able to provide further isolated instances,

but Mr. Dunbar Brander has quite failed to appreciate the whole

point of my argument. What I wrote was ‘an exceptional ratel

may very rarely happen upon a corpse and sample it, but the ex-

huming of corpses is most certainly not a habit of this species’.

I still stand by that statement until I am proved wrong; and it

seems to me deplorable that a man with the vast experience of

Mr. Dunbar Brander can dare to state as evidence, on the grounds

that he has once come across a single case, that ‘the name of

grave-digger is thoroughly -earned, as I have known them exhume a

(a single !) corpse, I once had to give evidence of this habit.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 953

. • . The word habit means ‘settled tendency or practice’, and

this ‘self-appointed’ and discredited judge is not prepared to accept

one single instance during the long service of an experienced

observer like Mr. Dunbar Brander as justification for the employ-

ment of the terms ‘thoroughly earned’ and ‘habit’ in evidence.

Further, my book was essentially a book concerning the animals

of the jungle and I do not spend my time outside my charge

sitting in Mohamadan cemeteries trying to catch an odd ratel, pro-

bably desperate for food, trying to exhume corpses. My judgment

is therefore ‘not proved’ as regards the charge that ratels are in

the habit of doing this, although, as I wrote in my book, an excep-

tional ratel might be 2>roved guilty.

As regards burrows, I think that Mr. Dunbar Brander ’s

memories of the North Kheri forests must have become somewhat

blurred since he retired. About two-thirds of the total area (I

can give the exact figures if he likes) of these forests consist of an

elevated plateau bounded by steep banks or ‘damars’, and the

greater part of this plateau is not liable to flooding. It therefore

affords excellent opportunities for good and dry burrows, particu-

larly on the ‘damars’. Yet, as I stated in my book, I never suc-

ceeded in finding an occupied burrow or den even in that favoured

locality.

As Mr. Dunbar Brander remarks, it is impossible to say if the

peculiar colouring of the ratel has been specially developed for

protective purposes, but the subject is of great interest and I do

not agree that the argument that the moon does not function con-

tinuously can be dismissed quite so easily as Mr. Dunbar Brander

appears to assume. Perhaps he can tell us for what purpose ratels

require protective or assimilative colouring?

I have been attacked in a Bombay newspaper for claiming that

the ratel is the hero of the jungle and I have now been taken to

task by Mr. Dunbar Brander for daring to disagree with him as to

the justification for the insulting name of grave-digger. I am sorry

that my humble effort to stand up for ratels has caused such a

storm, but I do think it such a pity to give any wild creature a

bad name without proof that the name is thoroughly earned;

There is quite enough indiscriminate killing (apart from genuine

sport) going on as it is without providing further excuses for

destroying wild creatures.

In conclusion I would point out that, after all, neither

Mr. Dunbar Brander nor I know much about ratels. It would

therefore help if all readers of this Journal who are interested in the

subject would send in any observations that they may have made,

so that we may perhaps come to learn a little more concerning

the habits of these most interesting creatures.

Camp, Via Almora ,

U.P.

January 2, 1935.

F. W. CHAMPION,

I.F.S.

954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVlt

IX.— A HYBRID AMERICAN BISON AND DOMESTIC

COW AT THE MYSORE ZOO.

(With a plate).

Thinking that it may interest your readers I am sending you

a photo of a cross between an American Bison and a half-bred

cow. The second photo shows the mother with the young one.

In another two weeks we hope to have another similar one born

at the Zoo.

The Palace, SADEG Z. SHAH,

Mysore. Assistant Secretary to the Maharaja

October 2, 1934. of Mysore.

[The above is a result of some experiments in cross-breeding

which are being carried out at the Mysore Zoo. Two previous at-

tempts were made to cross American Bison with domestic cattle

but unfortunately both the mother and young succumbed. Eds.]

X.— THE LOCH NESS MONSTER.

The trouble is that most of the witnesses are utterly ignorant

of nature and wliat to look for; they are only all at one, in being

prepared to see a monster — and anything unusual is a monster.

The evidence quite satisfies me that on a number of occasions a

school of otters moving in single file, as they do, has been taken

for the monster, each otter forming a hump. If I had been asked

to guess what that photo was (knowing nothing of the monster)

I would have said, ‘An otter preaching in the water . They can

sit right up for an interval, like a dog begging, to look round, and

imagine the leader doing this with perhaps half a dozen behind

him, e.g. the monster. Last week a witness said it travelled in

to the shore, and then along the shore in 6 inches of water for

some distance, and had 6 humps; 7 otters obviously — the leader

being the monster’s head and the other 6 the humps. The photo

was quite genuine and bona fide all right. There has been nothing

published lately which at all indicates the real monster having

been seen, but a very large grey seal was seen in the bay off Ness

Mouth.

August 1934. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDED.

[The above is an extract of a letter addressed to Mr. J. Rid-

land by Mr. Dunbar Brander. — Eds.]

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE I.

Hybrid American Bison Calf with parent half-bred cow.

Hybrid American Bison Calf, Mysore Zoo.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

955

XI.— OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-HEADED CUCKOO

SHRIKE ( LALAGE 8YKE8II , STRICKL.) IN

THE H 0 S HI ARP UR DISTRICT OF THE PUNJAB.

One of these Cuckoo Shrikes was obtained near Bharwain in

the Hoshiarpur District on August 6, 1934 and another in the

same locality on the following day. Bharwain (3,200 ft.) is situ-

ated on the crest of a range of the Siwalik foot-hills which here

forms the boundary between the Hoshiarpur and Kangra Districts.

Both birds were males with organs in breeding condition. Mr.

Hugh Whistler, to whom they were sent, informs me that this is

the first record of the bird in the Punjab, to which it had not

previously been recorded nearer than Bareilly; it is probably a

rains visitor.

PIGEON ( DENDROPHASSA POMPADORA AFFINIS JERDON)

IN THE KOLABA DISTRICT.

Blanford in the Old Fauna stated that the Grey-fronted Green

Pigeon (. Dendrophassa pompadora af finis ) was to be found in the

‘forests of Malabar from the neighbourhood of Bombay to Cape

Comorin’. He discredited Jerdon’s records from Central India and

the Eastern Ghats.

Sinclair, reviewing Blanford (/ .B .N .IP .S ., vol. xii, p. 185),

wondered what brought Bombay into Malabar, and recorded seeing

a specimen shot in the Police Lines at Alibag, Kolaba District

(North Konkan).

Barnes in his Birds of Bombay said it occurred in the Sahya-

dris as far north as Khandala.

On 25th February, while ‘doing’ Karnala Fort (Funnel Hill),

Panvel Taluka, Kolaba District, with Messrs. N. Futehally and

C. McCann, I saw several of these birds in heavy forest at about

1.000 ft., and later obtained a specimen on the road under the

It would therefore appear that the ‘Distribution’ in the New

Fauna ‘West Coast of India from Kanara to Cape Comorin’ stands

in need of correction.

Godrej House,

Ambala,

H. W. WAITE,

Punjab.

October 28, 1934.

M.B.O.U. ,

Indian Police.

hill.

Andheri.

March 8, 1934.

HUMAYUN ABDUL ALL

956 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVU

XIII.— OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

{OHO RIOT IS N I GRICE PS) NEAR SAUGOR.

I write to inform you that on Sunday, July 15, while out

shooting blackbuck on the Dhana Ridge — a locality about 12 miles

distant from Saguor East by E.S.E. — I and two friends spotted

a Great Indian Bustard. It was stalked for about 10 minutes,

and eventually shot with a rifle; it obviously saw its pursuer but

would not take the trouble to fly, but rather seemed to prefer

hiding behind such bushes as were there.

This took place at about 8-80 a.m., and the bird was eaten

the next day. It had a very strong flavour (not ‘garney’), and

was very tender.

As this bird is supposed to be very rare in these parts, I thought

you might be interested to hear of its being seen and shot.

Officers’ Mess,

3/ 15th Punjab Regiment, E. P. DEEKS.

Saugor.

July 1, 1934.

XIV.— ABUNDANCE OF THE FANTAIL AND

PINTAIL SNIPE.

I send you these two observations on these two common snipe

made by myself and confirmed by one or two friends and hope

that they are original and interesting, and that they may be con-

firmed by shikaris in other parts of India.

(1) The incidence of snipe (Common, Fantail and Pintail) varies

with the incidence of the Pintail, e.g., in a bad snipe year only

few Pintail come over and in a good year many Pintail. Apparently

Fantails are fairly constant in number each year.

(2) The last snipe to return are Pintail. At this time of the

year they are usually mistaken for Fantails by the unwary as

the pins have shed their fluff and this is usually not noticed. The

other ordinary characters relied upon by the common or garden

man i.e. the crochet hook top beak of the Pintail and the spatm

late top beak of the Fantail however easily give away the birds.

Porahat Forest Bungalow,

Ciiaibassa P.O., B.N. Ry. P. W, AUGIER,

September 6, 1934.

XV.— BIRD NOTES FROM BURMA.

The following I record, for what it is worth, from Burma.

1. A pair of Luggur Falcons breeding on a cotton tree (Let-

panbin) on the Loikaw Plain, Karenni, South of S.S.S.

Have these falcons been observed east of this?

MISCELLANEOUS notes

95)

2. I have seen the large solitary Cineraceous Vulture twice in

Burma — once on the flat lands by the Taping Biver in the Bhamo

District — and once on the high lands near Namkham on the

Chinese border of the N.S.S.

It has not been recorded from Burma and Shelein.

3. A starling, species or race unknown, at Bhamo. This was

a solitary bird feeding with the Mynas out on the flat lands south

of Bhamo. In appearance it was exactly like the Starling of

Kashmir.

Taunggyi, S.S.S.,

Burma. T. B. LIVESEY.

September 14, 1934.

XVI.— A COMMENT ON ‘THE NESTING HABITS OF THE

SMALL SUNBIBD ( LEPTOCOMA MINIMA SYKES)

PUBLISHED ON PP. 730-732 OF THE JOURNAL

VOL. XXXII.

Professor Nayar’s breeding record of the Little Sunbird at

Ernakulam is interesting. During my recent bird surveys of

Travancore and Cochin I failed to come across this species in the

low country along the backwaters and coast and found it confined

to evergreen forest tracts commencing with the hummocky broken

country further inland and extending up to about 5 or 6 thousand

feet in the hills. Ferguson (J .B .N xv, 473) also found it

common in the hills only.

As I had found both Leptocoma asiatica and L. zeylonica ,

especially the latter, common in the low country near the coast,

I wrote to Prof. Nayar asking for confirmation of his record. In

reply he states that he has no doubt aS to the correctness of his

identification since he is fairly familiar with both the Purple and

the Purple-rumped Sunbirds and his note refers to neither of them.

So far so good.

The next point is less clear. Mr. Nayar notes that the nest

was examined by him on the evening of 11 February and found

empty, whereas at 4-30 p.m. the next day it contained two eggs

and that ‘there was no doubt that the eggs were laid on this

day, i.e., 12 February’.

As the laying in one day of two normal eggs — as evidenced by

the fact of both hatching later — is contrary to experience and to

the condition usually prevailing in a state of nature, I suggested

to Mr. Nayar that he may perhaps have overlooked the presence

of the first egg in the nest on 11 February. Mr. Nayar in reply-

ing says: ‘About the other point you have raised, I think I have

possibly made a mistake. There was probably one egg in the nest

on the 11th evening which I failed to feel. The next day I am

sure there were two eggs because not only did I feel them but I

14

958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXVII

also saw them by craning over the mouth of the nest to enable

me to peep into it.’

The interval between the’ laying of eggs in almost all Passerine

birds is the same as in the domestic hen, viz., 20 to 24 hours.

Laying may at times be voluntarily retarded owing to adverse en-

vironmental causes, but only in very exceptional cases is the inter-

val shortened and then it is usually due to some pathological

condition, the eggs thus laid being malformed and unproductive.

In the case of Leptocoma asiatica and L. zeylonica I have repeat-

edly found the interval between the laying of the first and second

egg to conform to the usual rule in this Order, being something

in the neighbourhood of 22 to 24 hours.

An extraordinary occurrence as described in the note requires

careful verification before it is accepted as a fact. In the absence

of such evidence it must remain a doubtful if not inaccurate record.

Dehra Lux, U.P. SALIM A. ALL

January 22, 1935.

XVII.— A LHAMAN ( PTYAS MUCOSUS) ‘BATTLING’

ITS TAIL.

The other day I was walking along a dusty Gujerat road when

a rustle in a Euphorbia hedge drew my attention to a bull-frog in

the grip of a large dhaman. Picking up a piece of dry earth, I

flicked it at the snake. It raised its head a few inches off the

ground and rapidly struck its tail against some dry leaves, produc-

ing a steady rapping noise distinctly audible at a couple of yards.

On further irritation, the snake glided off carrying the frog some

9 inches off the ground.

The American rattle- snake is well-known to have a similar

but greatly specialised method of warning. Is this habit common

among snakes? I would be grateful for any information that you

may be able to give me on the matter.

Godrej House,

Andheri. HUMAYUN ABLULALI.

October 4, 1934.

[A rapid muscular movement of the end of the tail is a reaction

observed in many snakes when under stress of excitement. It

is developed in a marked degree in the rattlesnake and in this

species has resulted in the evolution of the peculiar rattle appa-

ratus. Most vipers display this habit. The Green Pit- Viper

( Lachesis gramineus ) rapidly vibrates the tip of its tail when about

to strike at its prey. It is a uniformly green snake; in some indi-

viduals the tip of the tail is red. The theory is that the red end

of the tail sharply differentiated from the rest of the body by its

colour, takes the semblance and movements of a worm and so

draws the attention of birds etc. on which the snake preys. This

is the theory. There are many such theories and how far they

MISCELLANEOUS NOfES

059

&re correct we do not know. The habit is common also in many

Colubrine species and in Boas and Pythons. — Eds.]

XVIII.— A CLEAR-WINGED MOTH (. PARANTHRENE SP.)

MIMICKING A SCOLIID WASP (SCO LI A AU RIP ENNIS

LEPEL).

While botanising at Andlieri (Salsette Island) during the month

of August this year (1934), I noticed some Scoliid wasps collecting

the pollen from the flowers of the Leea then in bloom ( Leea crispa

L. and L. sambucina Willd.). Numbers of these wasps were col-

lected on almost every inflorescence. On one inflorescence among

the wasps there was one which to all intents and purposes looked

like a Scoliid wasp, but with an inexplicable something about it

which attracted my attention and singled itself out from the others.

Its colour, size, shape and its behaviour as it moved over the

flowers among the wasps, were Scoliid, but yet that something dis-

tinguished it from its fellows. I watched it for a time but could

not fathom the mystery. I caught it in a glass tube and on close

examination, to my astonishment discovered that the ‘wasp’ was

really a moth! It was an exact replica of the Scoliids. Mimicry

is a well-known phenomenon in the insect world, but what parti-

cular advantage did this moth derive from such mimicry and asso-

ciation? Protection from its would be enemies! There is much

room for speculation, but the answer will be only found by un-

veiling the life-history of these two insects.

On further investigation I discovered that the appearance of

the wasp was linked with the flowering period of the Leea. A

few wasps appeared during the early period when the Leeas were

in flower, but they ‘disappeared’ when the flowering season termi-

nated. Where do the wasps go? The answer is awaited.

The specimen of the moth was submitted to the Entomological

Department of the British Museum (Natural History) for identi-

fication. Mr. Arrow in replying wrote: — ‘I am returning the

Clear-Winged Moth sent to me for identification. It has been

examined by Mr. Stringer who finds it to be a species of Paran-

threne, unknown to us, but near celebica . de Cerf. The Family

is Aegeriidae . It is very interesting to know that the specimen

was found in company with the Scoliid which it resembles. ’

Four interesting points arise from this small observation: —

(1) The fertilisation of the two species of Leea by the wasp

Scolia auripennis .

(2) The mimicry of S. auripennis by Paranthrene sp.

(3) The possible existence of a new species of Paranthrene.

(4) The periodical ‘appearance’ and ‘disappearance’ of the

wasps, their movements being apparently controlled by the flower-

ing of Leea.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Society, C. McCANN,

Bombay. Assistant Curator.

December 5, 1934.

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIl

XIX.— A NEW SPIDER OF BENGAL, MIMICKING

OEGOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA (FABR.).

(With three text -figures).

So far as I am aware, two species of spiders have been recorded

by different authors, as mimics of the red-ant ( Oecophylla smarag-

dina);1 one of them, Myrmarchne plataleoides of the family Salti-

cidae or Attidae2 is a perfect mimic while the other, Amyciaea

forticeps, Camb. of the family Thomisidae3 is not so prominent.

In 1931, while collecting spiders from Lonsing, a village in

East Bengal, I came across a peculiar female spider with its small

pea-like faint brownish cocoon hanging from some tiny irregular

silk-lines upon a middle-sized plant (Nyctanthes arbor tristis

Linn.). The red-ants were in abundance upon the plant, though

the spider itself was not found in company with them. She was

very busy with her cocoon on a secluded branch of the plant,

From external structure, the spider seems to be of the genus

Propostira, Simon, of the Theridiidae family and is described below

under the name Propostira ranii, sp. nov.

The spider showed a peculiar resemblance to Amyciaea forti-

ceps Camb. in colour and in some other respects; but there are

some striking differences in the formation of the body and its

appendages. This seems to exhibit ‘protective mimicry’ or ‘bene-

ficial likeness’ to Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.). The general

appearance, colour and movements of the spider are so very ant-

like that it can pass unnoticed in the midst of the ants, though the

ant and the spider are not much alike when examined minutely.

About the protective mimicry of Line-weaving or Orb-weaving

ant-like spiders Dr. McCook says: — ‘Whether or not any ant-like

species are found among sedentary tribes I do not know. But it

entirely passes my imagination to conceive what possible advan-

tage could accrue to an Orb -weaver, for example from resem-

blance to an ant. Orb -weavers, and yet more frequently Line-

weavers prey upon ants; but it is not necessary that there should

be any resemblance to the emmet in order to accomplish the

destruction of vast numbers of them, as I can fully testify. As

the Orb -weavers and Line-weavers do not leave their snares to

capture prey and move among the ants after the fashion of the

1 (a) Hingston, Major R. W. G-., i.m.s., f.z.s., ‘Field Observations on

Spider Mimics’, Proa. Zool. Soc. Lond., ii, p. 844 (1927).

(b) Simon, E., Hist. Nat. Des Araignees, Paris, T., ii, p. 502 (1897-

1901) .

2 Simon, E., Hist. Nat. Des Araignees , Paris, T. ii, pp. 496-505 (1897-

1901).

8 (a) Ibid., Tome premier, p. 986 (1892-1895).

(b) Hingston, R. W. G., Proe. Zool. Soc. Lond., ii, pp. 844-848 (1927).

(c) Kunhikannan, K., ‘An Aggressive Mimic of the Red Tree Ant’,

Jour., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxiv, pp. 373-374 (1915).

(d) Mnkerji, D. D., ‘Report on a Collection of Ants (7V. oecophyllini

F orel) ’ , Jour., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxiv, pp. 157-158 (1930).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

961

prowling Saltigrades that do mimic ant forms, the fact of ant

resemblance, should it exist among them, must have a quite differ-

ent solution. One could suggest in their case, a protective value

in resemblance to wasps, but none at all as against ants.’1

The mimicry of this sjuder to Oecophylla smaragdina may not

be a case of protective mimicry against the ants, but it seems that

this likeness helps to protect them from their natural enemies, viz.,

spider-eating lizards and birds, etc., as these are always found to

keep at a safe distance from the biting red-ants.

Propostira ranii sp. nov.

The length of the female spider is 3.5 mm. Its cephalothorax

is somewhat flat and oval-shaped, being longer rather than broad

(Fig 1). The thoracic region is somewhat raised

and triangular towards the back. The pedicle

is very short and slender. The abdomen is

truncated at the posterior extremity and much

broader than the cephalo-thoracic region. The

dorsum appears to be flattened or slightly con-

cave. Down the abdomen, there are two pro-

tuberances or hump-like projections, one on each

side, presenting a dorso-lateral aspect, with pro-

minent broad black spot at the base of each of

them. Further down, at the edge of the poste-

rior extremity there are two more similar pro-

tuberances with similar black spots at their

bases. Near the apex, the abdomen is rugose

with some transverse black linings extending to-

wards the ventral portion. The body is pubes-

cent and brick-red all over with some blackish

shades on the cephalo-thoracic region.

The eyes, which are eight in number, are

arranged in three rows. The anterior row contains the biggest pair

of eyes which are projecting forward. The posterior row is pro-

curved and contains four middle-sized eyes. The median row con-

tains the smallest pair of eyes.

Legs are extended more or less in normal fore and aft directions.

They are slender and pubescent, the front pair of which is the

longest and strongest of all, measuring about 12 mm. The third

pair of legs is the shortest while the second and fourth pairs are

subequal. All the legs are bright brick-red in colour except the

middle tibial and metatarsal portions of the front pair which are

pale brown. Tarsal claws are black and two in number without

any terminal tenent hairs.

Tibiae and tarsi of the pedipalpi are somewhat swollen in com-

parison with the rest of the joints. There is one black tarsal claw

on each of the pedipalp.

Mandibles are unicate and pluridentate and covered with

sparsely distributed black hairs. Maxillae are broad and long

1 McCook, H. G., American Spiders and their Spinnma Works, vol ii

pp. 364-365 (1890).

Fig. 1.— Dorsal

view of P. ranii

with 4 humps and

prominent black

spots.

962 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

exceeding the mandibles and thinly covered with black hairs. They

are strongly divergent with the semi-circular labium in between

them. The sternum is slightly convex and

more or less triangular in shape (Fig. 2).

Ventrally, there are some semi-circular folds

with black linings on them, around the poste-

rior margin of the abdomen (Fig. 3). The

epigynum is very simple, occupying a small

space between the pulmonary sacs, with a

crescent cup-like atriolum which is swelled in

the back. Six spinnerets are seen ventrally

and behind them the anal papilla is conspicu-

ous. The anterior pair of spinnerets are broad,

sub-cylindrical and thickly covered with short

black hairs. The posterior pair is less broad

than the anterior pair. In the middle of these two pairs there is

a rudimentary pair of spinnerets.

The spider, I collected, spun some

irregular lines of thread, covering a

small space, to which a pea-like

cocoon was attached. The cocoon

which I collected along with the spider

contained 51 minute eggs which were

hatched after 13 days, counting from

the date of capture. I have with me

a type specimen which has been care-

fully preserved.

Bose Research Institute,

Calcutta. GOPAL CHANDRA BHATTACHARYA.

March 1934.

Fig. 3. — Abdomen ventral view.

E. epigynum, P. pulmonary

sac, S. spinnerets.

M

Fig. 2. — M. maxillae,

L. labium, S. sternum.

XX.— ON THE MATING HABITS OF SPIDERS.

A study of the courtship among Spiders reveals evidence in

favour of Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Engaged in col-

lecting spiders, my one hour’s attempt among the bushes was

rewarded with five spiders. I secured them alive in separate

tubes. They all appeared to be of the same species included in

the genus Peucetia. One of them was a female and the remaining

four males. I performed the following experiment: —

I took a conveniently big glass jar and introduced a circular

piece of blotting paper into it to cover the bottom. I put the

female specimen and one of the males into the jar and closed its

mouth. Above the white background, their actions were clearly

visible. At first the male remained still. After five minutes he

seemed to exhibit some amorous movements of the limbs, but the

menacing attitude of the female drove him away to the side of the

jar. She did not wait any more but ferociously pounced on him;

a contest ensued in which she gained the victory by killing her

suitor,

MISCELLANEOVS NOTES

963

I put another male into the jar. The course and the result

were the same as in the previous case, but the battle was longer.

I tried with the third one. He was an active fellow and as soon

as he appeared on the stage he stood on his two pairs of hinder

legs, lowered his abdomen, elevated his cephalothorax and greeted

the female, raising his sexual appendages, front legs and all.

She watched him carefully. Remaining in the same posture he

glided towards this side and that, always shaking his palpal organs.

Then he slowly advanced towards and began to run round and

round her, she always turning about to face him. About fifty

times he thus encircled her and taking advantage of one of her

careless moments, smartly jumped on her and, sat comfortably

on her cephalothorax facing her abdomen. He with his front legs

embraced her. She did not object to this. The pair remained so

for more than an hour but as I had to attend to office work I

left them there and wrote these lines.

Why did the female not accept the first two suitors? Why did

she allow the third one to mate with her? The only answer is

the latter appealed most to her eyes perhaps he danced cleverly.

But for his dancing he might have also become her prey. There

is a selection of mates in this species and this selection is based

apparently on the degree of attractiveness and power of dancing

on the part of the males.

Maiiim P.O.,

Bombay. T. Y. SUBRAHMANAYAM.

August 18, 1934.

XXI.— HO YOUNG SCORPIONS EAT THEIR PARENT?

There is a common belief regarding scorpions in Gujarat that

the young scorpions, soon after being bom feed upon the mother

— the latter voluntarily succumbing to the injury. Is this not too

much to expect of a mother of the class of Arachnida to wilfully

perform such an act of self-immolation simply for furnishing food

to her progeny?

The belief is, however, very common and reference to this is

found in Gujarati poetry, bestowing praise on the scorpion female

for her supremely self-sacrificing behaviour. In this connection it

would be very interesting to know from any of the readers of your

Journal, observations regarding the breeding habits of scorpions, if

possible, about a series of generations and particularly about the

Indian species.

Burma Forest School,

Pyinmana. M. H. HESAI, b. Ag. (Entomology).

August 28, 1934,

964 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

XXII.— OBSERVATIONS ON TERATOLOGICAL

INDIVIDUALS OF APTINOTHRIPS RUFUS 1 GMELIN.

(With two plates).

There are two forms of Aptinothrips rufus, the commoner with

six- jointed antennae, and the scarcer with eight joints. Priesner2

found a single case with seven- jointed antennae which he has des-

cribed as forma intermedia*.3 This is important in view of its

inter-relationship with the two forms of the species found in

Europe and America.

The types of abnormalities in the antennae are classified here

under five divisions : —

1. Deduction in the number of joints.

2. Malformation of individual joints.

3. Presence of single median antenna.

4. Fusion of two joints.

5. Presence of normal six- and eight-jointed antenna in the

same individual.

1. Reduction in the number of joints. — This type of deformity

is very common (PI. I, figs. 1-3 and Pl. II, figs. 5, 6, 9) and the

reduction is found in one or both antennae. In Plate I, fig. 1, the

left antenna is five- jointed and the right six- jointed and normal.

The measurements are: — Eight: — Length ( Breadth ) 22 (25); 33

(25); 25 (18); 25 (18); 25 (22); 66 (18). Total 192 p. Left:— 22

(29); 29 (18); 18 (18); 22 (22); 55 (22). Total 137^ . Eight

normal. Left shorter than the right, first joint normal, second

smaller. Joints 1-3 pale yellow concolorous with those of the right

side, fourth absent, sixth short and dark.

In PI. I, fig. 2, right antenna is eight- jointed and normal, left

seven-jointed and abnormal. Measurements are: — Eight: — 22

(29); 29 (25); 29 (18); 25 (18); 25 (18); 44 (18); 11 (7); 14 (3).

Total 191 p. Left:— 22 (29); 29.(22); 22 (18); 22 (22); 33 (18);

22 (14); 14 (3). Total 155 p. Fifth joint large and darker than

the right. Sixth short. Seventh absent.

In PI. I, fig. 3, right antenna is deformed and five-jointed, left

normal and six-jointed. Measurements are: — Eight: — 25 (29); 29

(22); 22 (16); 22 (18); 59 (22). Total 151 p. Left:— 25 (29); 33

(25); 29 (18); 29 (18); 29 (18); 66 (18). Total 196 p. Fourth

absent, sixth shorter.

In PI. II, fig. 5, left antenna is deformed and right is normal

and six-jointed. Measurements are: — Eight: — 25 (29); 33 (25);

25 (18); 25 (18); 25 (18); 62 (18). Total 192 p. Left:— 25 (29);

29 (22); 18 (14); 29 (25); 18 (11). Total 107 p. Third joint very

1 The material was collected at Edinburgh in 1930-1931. I am thankful

to Dr. C. B. Williams, Chief Entomologist, Bothamsted Experimental Station,

for the use of his collection and papers on thrips while at Bothamsted.

2 Priesner, H. (1921), Die verschmelzung der Fuhlerenglieder bei Aptino-

thrips rufus Hal (Ord. Thysanoptera) und ihre Ursachen. Kranchers Ent.

Jahrb. , pp. 162-166, fig. 1.

3 Priesner, H. (1928), Die Thysanopteren Europas, i.iv, Wien,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 1.

,01 mm.

Antennae of Aptinothrips rufus.

Text figs. 1-4.

(For explanation see body of note.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II.

( For explanation see body of note.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

965

small, fourth absent, fifth much swollen and dark, sixth very short

and deeply pigmented.

In PL II, fig. 6, both antennae are deformed. Left has four

and the right six abnormal joints. Measurements are: — Bight: —

25 (29); 33 (25); 22 (14); 25 (22); 33 (22); 25 (14). Total 159 yW.

Left:— 25 (29); 37 (22); 37 (22); 62 (18). Total 148 /u . Bight

antenna six-jointed, third joint short, fifth longer than the normal,

sixth much smaller and deeply pigmented. Left four-jointed, third

joint absent, fourth much longer, fifth absent, sixth long and

appearing normal.

In PI. II, fig. 9 right antenna is six-jointed and abnormal and

the left is eight- jointed and normal. Measurements are: — Bight: —

22 (33); 29 (25); 22 (14); 25 (22); 59 (22); 22 (3). Total 174 p .

Left:— 29 (29); 33 (25); 29 (18); 29 (22); 25 (18); 44 (18); 11 (7);

14 (3). Total 207 p. First and second joints of the right shorter

than the left, third shorter, fifth absent, sixth longer and wider

than the normal. Seventh absent. Eighth longer and as wide as

the left.

2. Malformation of individual joints. — It is seen in most cases

(PL I, figs. 1, 3 and Pl. II, figs. 5, 7) that reduction or fusion is

followed by malformation of joints. The joints are shorter or

longer than the normal and some have grotesque appearances. The

basal joints are invariably normal.

3. Presence of a single median antenna. — In this specimen

(Pl. I, fig. 4) no trace of second antenna is visible. Measurements

are:— 18 (22); 37 (29); 33 (18); 22 (18); 18 (18); 59 (18). Total

188 fx . Basal boundary of the first joint not clear, second joint

prominent and large, fourth curved, fifth rounded, sixth deeply

pigmented.

4. Fusion of two joints. — Occasionally two joints are fused

(PL II, fig. 7) to make a single joint. In some cases the line of

demarcation between the joints is not visible.

5. Presence of nojmal six- and eight-jointed antenna in the

same individual. — The presence of six- and eight- jointed antenna

(Pl. II, fig. 8) in the same individual was found in a very large

collection of eight- jointed forms. Measurements are: — Bight: — 25

(29); 29 (25); 29 ’(18); 25 (18); 25 (18); 44 (18); 11 (7); 14 (3).

Total 196 n . Left:— 22 (29); 29 (25); 29 (18); 25 (18); 25 (18);

51 (18). Total 185 P. The right antenna is eight-jointed and the

left six- jointed.

Length, breadth and pigmentation of individual joints are

almost like the normal ones on two separate forms. It seems

very probable that this and the seven-jointed intermediate form

(forma intermedia, Priesner) suggests the connection between the

two forms of Aptinothrips rufus which are distinguished by antennal

characters.

Zoology Department,

Agricultural College, U. S. SHABGA,

Cawnpore. M.SC., Pll.D., F.E.S,

March 14, 1934,

966 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

XXIII.— TERMITES AS FOOD.

I have perused the small note on ‘Termite Collection in South

India for Food’ sent to you by Mr. T. V. Subramaniam of the

Government Museum, Madras, published as note xxii on p. 498

of your last issue. I may inform the writer that the fact that

white ants are edible is not at all new. I am afraid he has not

read the previous literature on this subject which is as old as

1779 when the Danish naturalist Dr. Koenig published a very in-

teresting account of white ants in South India. I would advise

the writer to peruse a translation of Dr. Koenig’s paper by

Eletclier in the Report of the Fourth Entomological Meeting, Pusa,

1921 (pp. 301-333). In that paper the learned naturalist gives a

very interesting account of termites and also explains how people

in parts of Tanjore catch termites for food and Fletcher also gives

photographs of the methods adopted in parts of Coimbatore.

Catching of winged termites (Easel) for food is quite a common

thing in all parts of South India.

Agricultural Research Institute,

Coimbatore. T. V. RAMAIvRISHNA AYYAR, b.a., ph.D.,

September 15, 1934. 0//#. Government Entomologist .

XXIV.— STEM FASCIATION IN THE COCOANUT PALM

(COCOS NUCIFERA, LINN.).

(With a photo).

Many instances of stem fasciation in dicotyledonous plants are

on record (1, 2 and 3) while in monocotyledonous species, the

phenomenon is apparently rare.

An interesting specimen of stem fasciation in the cocoanut was

noted by the author in June 1932 in a garden near Erode, Coim-

batore District (Vide photograph). The tree is about 20 years old

and appears to have had quite a normal growth up to the time

of fasciation. Above the normal trunk of about 25 ft., the stem

flattened and seven growing points appeared and began to develop

in one plane. The first leaves were plaited like those of coconut

seedlings. These leaves, however, soon became normal pinnate

ones with distinct leaflets. There are six healthy branches as seen

in the photograph. The position of a dead branch is where a boy

is seated.

The exact cause of the phenomenon is not known. The usual

causes producing stem fasciation, viz., super-abundant nutrition

aiici diseases do not seem to hold good in this instance. The gar-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

967

den was quite an ordinary one and no special treatment was given

to the tree. There was no evidence of any disease.

Stem fasciation in the Coconut ( Cocos nucifera, L.).

Literature.

1. C. Tadulingam and K. Cherian Jacob, Journal of the Indian Botanical

Society , Vol. iv, No. 6 (1925), pp. 225-226.

2. W. C. Wordsell, ? , Vol. i, p. 111.

3. 0. Penzig, Pflanzen-teratology , p. 439.

K. CHERIAN JACOB, l. Ag. , f.l.s.

PRINTED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, AND PUBLISHED BY

MR. P. M. D. SANDERSON FOR THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY,

Continued from page 111 of Vol. XXXVII, No. 1,

of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE

INDIAN EMPIRE

AND THE

Problem of their Preservation

Part III.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE No. 13

SNOW LEOPARDS.

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

Part III.

CARNIVORA OR BEASTS OE PREY.

The Carnivora or flesh-eaters is a name given to a distinctive

group of animals known familiarly as ‘Beasts of Prey’. The

assemblage includes the cats, great and small, and such varied

animals as civets, dogs, bears and the weasels and their numer-

ous kindred. It also includes the aquatic beasts of prey — seals,

sea-lions and walruses.

Not all these animals are exclusively or even mainly flesh-

eaters. Some live partly on vegetable food. Again, many mammals

not classed as carnivores feed on flesh. The Australian Dassyures,

creatures not much bigger than a cat with the predaceous habits

of weasels are wholly carnivorous. But they, like the well-known

kangaroo, are broadly distinguished as Marsupials or ‘pouched’

animals. With this exception it might be said that there is no

group of mammals which feeds so generally on flesh.

The Carnivora as a whole reveal in their structure certain char-

acters which are common to all of them and which mark them as

animals whose particular role is the capture and destruction of

living prey. The evidence of a predatory life is most signally re-

vealed in the structure of their teeth and claws — essential weapons

designed to secure for the beast of prey its appropriate food. Very

striking in the skull of a carnivore are the canine teeth. The major-

ity of mammals have canine teeth, but in carnivores the canines

tend to become larger and stronger than the incisors and in some

of the great cats these teeth are represented by enormous offens-

ive fangs. Their special purpose is the seizing and holding of

prey. All carnivores have 6 incisors. Usually, the outer incisor

in the upper jaw is the largest and sometimes it is so large and

pointed that it looks like a small canine. Canines and incisors

provide the beast of prey with appropriate weapons for seizing,

holding and biting. The mastication of food is the work of the

cheek or molar teeth. Among carnivores there is much variation

in form and structure of the molar teeth — variation which is related

to some extent to the degree to which a particular animal is or

is not wholly carnivorous.

Apart from the teeth, the' most distinctive feature in the skull

of a carnivore is the mode of articulation of the lower jaw. It

is connected to the skull and moves on a small transverse hinge.

The device gives strength to the joint but deprives the animal of

the power of moving its jaws from side to side or backwards and

forwards. Movement is limited to an up and down biting or snap-

ping action, and the grip of the jaws is intensified by the great

biting muscles which secure the lower jaw to the skull. Strong

cheek arches and ridges have been developed in the skull to pro-

vide an attachment for these muscles.

113 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

All the carnivores have never less than four toes on each foot

and these are generally armed with strong sharp claws. The clavicle

or collar bone is frequently absent in beasts of prey. This is a

feature which they share with hoofed animals. When present, it

never forms a complete connection between the breast bone and

the shoulder blade. It is reduced to a splint of bone embedded in

the muscles of the chest. The brain of a carnivore is well deve-

loped and the stomach is always simple.

These are some of the characters which distinguish carnivores

from other mammals.

In themselves they form a varied assemblage in which two

great divisions are recognised. One includes the terrestrial and the

other the aquatic Beasts of Prey.

Seals, walruses and sea-lions form the latter group. Descen-

dants of land-dwelling carnivores, as a result of subsequent deve-

lopment into animals whose element is the water, they have

undergone many changes in form and structure and have lost some

of the main features which distinguish their terrestrial relatives.

The name Pinnipedia or ‘fin-footed’, by which this sub-division of

the Carnivores is known, describes the condition of their hands and

feet which have been modified into flippers. Mainly inhabitants

of cold seas, none of these animals is found in India.

The terrestrial Beasts of Prey are called Fissipedia or ‘free-

footed’, in allusion to their distinct and separate toes which are

never encased in skin to form a fin or flipper.

As organs of locomotion the limbs are not swimming but essen-

tially walking, running or climbing organs. Walking is effected

either on the entire sole of the foot as in the bears or, as in cats

and dogs, mainly upon the toes with the hinder part of the foot

held clear from the ground. A somewhat intermediate mode of

walking is found among weasels, otters and badgers. Most carni-

vores are good climbers. Some live almost entirely in trees.

Terrestrial beasts of prey display a varied and highly developed

armament of teeth. While the canine and incisor teeth of various

species are on the whole tolerably uniform, the molar or cheek

teeth display numerous and interesting variations. A reduction in

the number of cheek teeth and the compression of their crowns

into narrow cutting edges generally indicate an exclusive diet of

flesh. While the more numerous the cheek teeth and the broader

their crowns, the more likely it is that the owner subsists on a

mixed diet. Extremes of these two types are seen in the cats

and the bears — one wholly carnivorous the other mainly herbi-

vorous; while stages between the two may be traced through other

forms of Carnivora. A striking peculiarity in the molar teeth of

beasts of prey is the development of a carnassial or ‘flesh-tooth’.

In the majority of families it is larger than the other cheek teeth.

The flesh tooth in the upper jaw is always the last premolar — its

antagonist in the lower jaw is the first true molar. The crown of

the upper flesh tooth consists of two parts, a sharp edged blade

divided by notches into two or more cusps borne upon two inner

roots and the ‘tubercle’ a short blunt cusp supported by a separate

root. In carnivores which are purely flesh feeders— the flesh

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE XXXVII.

Skulls of Carnivores.

To show variation, in the number and form of cheek teeth

>

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

114

tooth is conspicuous — its blade well developed and its ‘tubercle’

reduced in size. An increase in the tubercular character of the

tooth is usually traceable through those genera which are mixed

feeders. In bears, the flesh tooth is scarcely distinguishable from

the other cheek teeth. The lower flesh tooth varies in form. In

cats, its crown consists solely of a blade which is divided into two

large pointed cusps. Behind these cusps there is a small rudi-

mentary third division. The opposing blades of the upper and

lower flesh teeth work against one another with a scissor-like

action. They provide the mechanism for shearing flesh from bones

or crushing hard food. Generally the molars in front of the flesh

tooth are sharp pointed and compressed, those behind are broad

and tuberculated.

With the exception of Australia and New Zealand, the Carni-

vora inhabit all the countries and larger islands of the Globe from

the icy oceans of the Arctic Circle to the tropical plains of India

and Africa. Some, like cats and dogs, have a world- wide distri-

bution; others, like the hyaenas and civets, are restricted in their

range. In the earliest part of the Tertiary epoch there were nume-

rous Carnivores small and large. Their skulls were much like

those of existing Carnivora. They had cutting teeth and clawed

feet. The brain was small. They are now grouped in a distinct

sub-order — the Creodonta. Some of them were the ancestors of

modern Carnivores. Others have left no descendants. In habit

and general appearance these primitive carnivores were like the

modern beasts of prey — but the various distinctive features of

the modern races are found in these ancient forms in different

combinations.

Various carnivores related to the modern forms lived during

the latter part of the Tertiary period. Perhaps the largest of them

were the Amphicyons. Classed among the dogs, the amphicyon

equalled the biggest bear in size and revealed in its structure some

affinity to these animals. A survivor of this archaic animal lived

in the Siwaliks. These mountains were also the home of two

species of sabre-toothed tigers (Machcerodus) representatives of a

family of extinct cats. The sabre-toothed tiger had enormous

upper canines. They took the form of great slightly curved com-

pressed fangs with serrated edges. The jaws were loose hung and

could be opened wide enough to allow full play for the action of

the tusks and so allow the powerful muscles at the back of the

neck to drive them down vigorously into the body of an enemy.

The modem land Carnivora are divided into three sections,

the distinctive characters between them being derived mainly from

difference in the structure of the base of the skull. These sections

are: (1) the Aeluroidea or Cat Section; (2) Cynoidea or Dog Sec-

tion; and (3) the Arctoidea or Bear Section. Each of these three

animals the cat, the dog and the bear provides the pattern of its

group.

The Cat group or Mluroidea includes the cats, civets, mon-

gooses and hyaenas. The Dog group, Cynoidea : dogs, jackals,

wolves and foxes. The Bear group, Arctoidea: bears, badgers,

racoons, martins and weasels.

15

ii5 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, You xxxvii

zELUROIDEA : Cat Section.

Family I. FELIDAE : CATS.

The Cats, great and small, though they vary much in size

and habits, form a well-marked tribe with characters which distin-

guish them from all other Carnivores. Splendidly equipped for

their role in life, they represent the Beast of Prey in its perfec-

tion. The Cats are supreme in armament of tooth and claw, in

their combination of grace, strength and agility.

None of the Beasts of Prey display so powerful a development

of teeth as some of the great cats and in none are the teeth so

perfectly adapted to a purely carnivorous diet. Increased sturdi-

ness and strength has been attained in their jaw bones by a

reduction in their length. The comparative shortness of the jaws

in relation to the length of the head gives the Cats that flatness of

feature which contrasts so markedly with the pointed muzzles of

civets or the long snouts of dogs and bears.

With the shortening of the jaw bones there has been a corres-

ponding loss in the number of cheek teeth. Cats have much

fewer cheek teeth than dogs or other more generalised forms of

carnivores. Speaking generally, an exclusive diet of flesh is indi-

cated by a level row of small pincer-like incisors, by large, deeply

implanted and widely separated canines and lastly by a reduction

in the number of molar teeth — the normally broad grinding crowns

of those that remain being compressed into sharp-edged cutting

implements.

This is a condition seen in its most perfect form in the teeth

of cats. A modification in the number and shape of their teeth

has been effected in early stages of their evolution by those pro-

cesses which adapt the structure of a creature to its specific needs.

A study of the teeth of primitive and now extinct forms of cats

shows that the perfecting of their dental armament . has been

arrived at by stages. Firstly there was a reduction in the number

of cheek teeth, followed by an enlargement of the canines which

took their conical form and finally came the modification of the

cheek teeth into purely cutting instruments.

In existing cats the first cheek tooth in the upper jaw is small

or sometimes absent. The second cheek tooth shows a sudden

increase in size. It is a large and sharply bladed tooth. The

third tooth displays even greater gain in strength and size. Its

crown is divided by two notches into 8 sharp pointed blades. This

is the upper carnassial or ‘flesh tooth’. It is the last premolar

in the upper jaw. Tucked away behind this great tooth and set

transversely to it is the solitary surviving molar. From its size

and position it can be of little significance in mastication.

Of the three cheek teeth in the lower jaw the first two are

premolars, and third and last tooth is a true molar. It is divided

by a Y-shaped notch into two blades. It functions as the lower

‘flesh tooth’. The peculiar articulation of the lower jaw to the

skull which is characteristic in beasts of prey prevents a circular

grinding action and confines the play of the cheek teeth to a ver--

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXVIII.

Skull of a Tiger.

Note the enormous widely separated canine teeth, the few blade-like cheek teeth, supported on short powerful jawbones and

the sturdy cheek arches which help to provide attachment for the great biting muscles.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Tiger (P anther inae). Cheetah ( Acinonychinae) . Caracal ( Felinae ).

The sharp-pointed conical papillae tend to form a ‘spinous patch ” on the fore part of the tongue. The proximity of this patch to the

apex of the tongue, its posterior limits, the shape of the spines are distinctive on the 3 subfamilies in which the

Cat tribe is divided. (Dr. C. F. Sontag, p.z.s, 1923).

TltD WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 116

tical up and down movement in which their compressed and sharp

edged crowns working against one another cut and coarsely divide

the flesh. The deep rooted trenchant and sharp pointed canine

teeth are well adapted to hold, to pierce and lacerate struggling

prey. We have referred to the reduction in size or complete

suppression of the first cheek tooth. This leaves a space between

the molars and canines. Thus, the great canines which interlock

in the closed jaw stand clear when the jaws open and are driven

full into the flesh of a victim. There are no contiguous teeth to

obstruct their complete penetration.

There is a level row of 6 small pincer shaped incisors in the

upper and lower jaw. Their purpose is to gnaw the soft gristly

ends of bones and scrape off the tendinous attachments of the

muscles. The array of sharp incisors, the powerful canines, the

blade-like molars, have their special function and each is perfect

for its special purpose. This armament of teeth supported on

short powerful jaws controlled by great biting muscles, for whose

attachment special provision has been made in the wide sturdy

cheek arches and the bony crest of the skull, complete the Cat’s

formidable equipment for the killing and ingestion of its prey.

But carnivorous animals which tear to pieces and swallow

their food can scarcely derive much enjoyment from its taste. It

is only in Man and those herbivorous animals which prepare their

food by mastication that the sense exhibits much delicacy of per-

ception and the tongue attains a perfect adaptation to this end.

In the Cats the mechanical function of the tongue predominates

over the sensitive. Numerous papillae which cover the tongues of

animals make them rough to the touch. In cats this roughness

is greatest. These lingual papillae are of three types. In the Cats

those which function as organs of taste are reduced to small dimen-

sions. They are scattered about the surface of the tongue and are

more abundant on its margins. Most numerous and prominent

are the ‘conical papillae’. In cats these conical papillae are en-

cased in horny, pointed sheaths which stick into one’s fingers like

so many pins. Their function is purely mechanical. Their numer-

ous sharp and rigid points give the tongue the action of a rasp.

Bones are not usually crushed and swallowed by cats. They are

licked clean and left and the rasp-like tongue is well adapted to

remove the remnants of flesh which adhere to a bone. In the Cats

the conical papillae tend to form a ‘spiny patch’ on the fore-part

of the tongue which is surrounded by a zone of smaller papillae.

The proximity of or the distance of this spinous patch from the

apex of the tongue, its extent, the shape of the spines which form

the cluster, are distinctive in certain groups of cats. A study of

the lingual papillae in the Felidae, their character and arrangement

has offered a means of throwing fresh light on the relationship

of the different species.

Like the teeth, the strongly curved claws of cats reveal a

perfection of development unequalled by other carnivores.

A beautiful and peculiar provision is seen in the structure of

the foot whereby the claws are kept constantly sharp and are

never worn down by contact with the ground. The terminal or

117 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vot. XXXVlI

claw bearing joint is so articulated that in its normal position it

lies folded back on or against the preceding joint. In this reverted,

partly erect position the claw at its summit is raised off the

ground. An elastic ligament holds the joint erect and the claw is

received into a sheath of skin specially devised for its reception.

When the animal springs upon or strikes at its prey, a tendon

clamped to the undersurface of the terminal joint and connected

to the great flexor muscles of the limb pulls upon this joint and

draws it from its reverted position downwards and forwards. The

claws emerge from their sheaths and are bared for action.

A. Retractor ligament. Tendon of extensor muscle.

Bones and tendons of toe of the Cat. A, claw retracted and held erect

by retractor ligament. B, claw extended, pulled downwards and

forwards by extensor tendon.

How far the sheaths protect the claws depends upon two

factors, the extent to which the claw-bearing joint can be drawn

backwards and the length of the sheaths themselves. The Cheetah

or Hunting Leopard is often described as having imperfectly retrac-

tile claws. A cheetah has the mechanism for retracting its claws

and can draw them back as well as some species of cats, but the

constantly bared condition of its claws is due to the rudimentary

condition of the claw sheaths. These claw sheaths are by no

means equally developed in all the Cats. In their most elaborate

form as seen in the Lynx, the Tiger or the Leopard, the pollex

or thumb is enveloped in a hood-like sheath and the lobes of the

sheaths protecting the other claws are large enough to completely

enfold them. In some of the smaller cats on the other hand the

lobes of the sheath are not equally developed on all the digits and

some of the claws are not completely covered — a condition not

far removed from that of the civets. Between these two extremes

every gradation in the development of the claw sheaths may be

seen in eats.

Let us now consider movement in cats and their faculties of

sight, scent and hearing— means by which they hunt their prey.

All cats are digitigrade. They walk on their toes and not

upon the palms or soles of their feet. When walking the hinder

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

118

part of the foot is entirely raised from the ground the weight of

the body is taken by the toes — but not by the tips of the toes as

in hoofed animals. This mode of progression is an improvement

on the flat-footed gait of bears or of those carnivores which walk

partly on their toes and partly on the soles of their feet. It makes

for. greater agility of movement.

A cat has five toes on its fore-foot and four on its hind. The

innermost toe of the fore-foot, the pollex, corresponds to the thumb

of the human hand. It is placed at a much higher level than the

other toes and is of little use when walking. The missing toe in

the hind-foot corresponds to the great toe of the human foot.

Soft pads under the toes and a broad cushion-like pad under

the ends of the bones on which the foot rests when walking help

the cat’s stealthy movements. Its sinuous supple body, its muffled

tread, its gliding progress, brought about by a simultaneous move-

ment of the limbs on each side — concur in effecting a noiseless

approach to its prey.

Cats have the largest eyes of all the carnivores. A well deve-

loped system of muscles within the eye contracts the pupils in

bright light and protects the eyes from glare and by dilating them

in darkness allows as much light as possible to enter the eye and

so improves its vision. The form taken by the contracting pupil

differs markedly in the great and small cats. In domestic cats and

in the smaller species generally, the pupil contracts to a narrow

slit with two pinholes at each end through which alone the light

enters. In the larger felines the contracting pupil takes a cir-

cular form.

It is generally agreed that when hunting the sense of smell

is the dominant factor in dogs, in cats it is the sense of vision.

It is suggested that the flat muzzle characteristic of cats leaves

less space for the development of the nasal membranes which have

greater scope for development in the longer muzzles of dogs, wolves

and foxes. The relative development of the faculties of sight and

scent appears to differ in various species of cats. The consensus

of opinion is that the Tiger and the Panther display great acute-

ness of vision and, unlike the Lion, a corresponding dullness in

their sense of smell. It is frequently held that these two animals

depend mainly on sight and hearing when hunting. But it is diffi-

cult to conceive that animals which hunt under cover of darkness

do not make the fullest use of both the faculties of sight and scent

when seeking their prey, particularly in forest where vision may

be circumscribed. At present we have only the vaguest know-

ledge as to how far purely nocturnal animals depend on vision for

obtaining their food. This is one of the reasons why it is so

difficult to arrive at any definite conclusion as to the real value of

‘concealing’ colours in nocturnal animals.

It is believed that a pattern of spots and stripes — so common in

the colouration of the cats — is protective. The variegation of tone

breaks up the mass of the body, obscures its contours and so helps

to conceal it. This is a common explanation of the purpose of

markings in tigers, leopards and other beasts of prey. But a

patterned hide, if useful to the hunter, would be equally useful to

119 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

its quarry. Many species of deer which are the accustomed prey

of great cats are uniformly coloured when adult, whereas a con-

cealing pattern on their coats would have proved a useful factor

in evading detection. Now, if a spotted condition of the young is

taken to indicate the primitive colouring of the parents, then the

majority of deer are descendants of striped or banded ancestors

and pattern in these animals has since been discarded — at least in

the colouring of the adults of most species. This suggests that in

these animals its significance as a factor in the struggle for exis-

tence could have been of no great importance.

Again, the absence of stripes and spots in the lion and other

carnivores places them at no disadvantage in securing their prey.

Like the tiger, the lion hunts in shadowy forest, in open bush or

in grassland and it is claimed that in the African reed beds — -a

favourite hunting ground of lions — a vertically striped coat would

have provided an ideal concealing pattern.

While a variegated colouration may prove a factor in the pro-

tection of lesser and more sedentary creatures; it cannot be regard-

ed as essential to the equipment of a beast of prey. Cats, great

and small, owe their ascendancy to their perfect mastery over the

craft of hunting. Strong and active, of high intelligence, they

display a perfection of senses and bodily organism which gives

them mastery over creatures in which a ceaseless struggle for

existence has perfected the means of escape.

As with all animals the ground colour of the cats varies with

environment. There is the change from the light drab tones of

desert species to the rich dark colouration of those living in more

humid forests. The law of assimilation of colour to environment

is more or less constant in Nature. Hazardous deductions of its

purpose may lead us into beliefs which are at variance with evi-

dence revealed by the actual lives and habits of animals.

The pattern of different species of cats is in general constant.

Individual variations occur. Stripes sometimes break up into

spots and spots show a tendency to run into stripes but as a

general rule each species breeds true to its local type and there is

little change in pattern except perhaps in its accentuation, light-

ening or obliteration with age. The lion and the puma are uni-

formly coloured when adult, though spotted or striped when cubs,

which is taken as an indication of their descent from striped or

spotted ancestors. There is a theory that there have been definite

stages in the evolution of stripes and spots in the Felidae. The

theory assumes that in the primitive condition, the stripes were

longitudinal — a condition now common in the civets — next of kin

to the cats. In the second stage the longitudinal stripes broke up

into spots. Many civets *and some cats again exhibit this pattern.

It is perhaps also illustrated in the pattern of the Spotted Deer —

the linear arrangement of the spots on its lower flanks suggests

longitudinal stripes which have broken up into spots. In the third

stage the spots reformed into vertical stripes such as one sees in

the tiger, in the banded civet and in certain antelopes. The

patternless hide of the adult lion or the puma is taken as the

culminating phase in the evolution of markings. If this -theory is

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE . 120

correct then the progenitors of the tiger were longitudinally banded

animals whose descendants passed through a spotted stage and

finally attained the transverse stripes of existing tigers. The

oblique direction of the stripes on the hind quarters and other

parts of the tiger’s body, the curious variations in their markings

where spots crop up between stripes or stripes tend to continue

as faint spots or to double up into loops or the rudiments of a

‘rosette’ are taken to lend support to this theory. Again the

curious variations sometimes exhibited by lion cubs in which spots

show a tendency to fuse into stripes, are also quoted as supporting-

evidence.

To sum up the distinctive characters of Cats as a tribe. There

is the shortening of the muzzle — the reduction in the number of

cheek teeth, the powerful development of the canines and flesh

teeth, the strongly curved retractile claws. These are characters

which mark them as a natural and distinctive group of animals.

But it has been the contention of zoologists during the last half

century that the comprehensive genus Felis in which all cats great

and small were included required regrouping into several distinct

genera. Various attempts to do this have been made by natural-

ists. The most recent is by Pocock. His purpose was to indi-

cate more clearly the true relationship of different forms of cats

and to dispose of such fictitious groupings as imply a close rela-

tionship between the Lion and the Puma or give an erroneous

impression of the relative affinities of such creatures as the tiger,

the domestic cat and the lynx. He based his classification on

the variations which are apparent in the structure of the hyoid

apparatus in different forms of cats, on differences in the form of

the feet and the cutaneous sheaths guarding the claws. He divides

the family Felidae into three well-marked groups :

(i) The Pantherinae which comprises the Lion, the Tiger, the

Panther, the Jaguar and the Ounce.

(ii) The Acinonychinae the Cheetahs or Hunting-Leopards.

(iii) The Felinae which includes the Puma, the Lynx, and all

the smaller cats.

As regards the scientific names of different species, many have

received more than one name from naturalists and the tracing of

the correct name from the tangle of zoological literature is a matter

of no small difficulty. Here again we have followed the nomen-

clature adopted by Pocock in his recent papers on Felidae which

include a careful revision of the synonymy of the various species with

which they deal.

With the exception of the Australian continent and Madagas-

car— the range of cats is universal — the headquarters of the tribe is

the Old World. Sixteen different species occur in India and its

dependencies, a larger concentration than is to be found in any

tract of similar size on the Earth’s surface. Of the cats living

within our borders during past geological epochs, more than 7

species are known, some similar to existing forms others now

extinct. Among them was Felis cristata which was quite as large

as the tiger and two extinct species of sabre-toothed tigers

(Machcerodus) one peculiar to India.

121 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Sub-family: I. PANTHERINAE.

The Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Jaguar and Ounce.

While most cats, particularly the larger species, are readily dis-

tinguished by their form, colour or size it is less simple to discover

among them differences in anatomy which offer a clue to the true

affinities which exist between the different members of the tribe —

distinctions which would help us to discriminate between closely

related forms and those which reveal a lesser degree of kinship.

Perhaps the most striking variation in the internal anatomy of cats

is to be found in the mode of attachment of the hyoid apparatus.

It is perhaps an obscure detail in the structure of cats but the

mode of attachment of the hyoid has an influence in some way on

the voice of the animal — on the power and variety of tone it can

produce. Now a similarity of voice is considered nearly always a

good indication of affinity among animals. Resemblances or differ-

ences in the structure of the hyoid therefore provide evidence which

is useful in the classification of the felines. In the lower Verte-

brates, in fishes for example, the' elaborate hyoid apparatus is

importantly connected with the respiratory function, but in

mammals it is reduced to a much simpler condition. The appara-

tus, usually composed of a number of small bones, is named Hyoid

because of the arrangement these bones in the shape of an arch or

of the Greek letter Y. In mammals the arms of the hyoid are

suspended from the posterior part of the skull to provide a support

for the root of the tongue and for the larynx i.e. the extended part

of the wind pipe which contains the vocal chords. The apparatus

comes away when the soft parts of the skull are removed. In

the smaller cats arms of the hyoid are composed of an uninter-

rupted chain of small bones which hold the larynx close to the

skull and so restrict its power of movement. In the great cats

— in the lion, tiger, panther, jaguar and ounce — the arms of the

hyoid are imperfectly ossified. In the lower part the small bones

are replaced by elastic ligaments. In the lion these tendons may

be 6 in. long and may stretch to 9 in. The elasticity given

to the hyoid by these tendons allows greater mobility to the

larynx. It is not drawn up close to the skull but is embedded

in the mobile muscles of the throat. The difference in the mode

of attachment of the hyoid seen in the great and smaller cats has

resulted in those differences in voice which is so noticeable among

them.

The lion, tiger, leopard and jaguar are able to roar but are

incapable of purring; while the cheetah, the puma and the smaller

cats, whose hyoid is differently constructed, do not roar but

can express contentment by purring. Though the roars of the great

felines are more or less distinguishable there is an underlying dis-

tinctiveness in the power and variety of sounds they produce which

is due to the distinctive structure of the hyoid. It differentiates

them from the other cats and offers an indication of their affinity

to one another. Evidence of relationship between the great felines

is also traced in a similarity of pattern in the cubs which may be

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

122

taken as a specific character. The lion shows a pattern interme-

diate between the tiger and the leopard and the leopard in its

markings shows a definite affinity to the jaguar. The ounce because

of similarity in the structure of the hyoid is likewise included in

this group of cats. The affinity between these animals is also

indicated in a similarity in the position, extent and nature of the

conical papillae which form the ‘spinous’ patch on the surface of

the tongue, to which reference has already been made. In the

great cats the patch commences near the apex but does not

extend to the middle of the tongue. It is a condition which does

not occur in the tongues of other cats and provides further evi-

dence of structural kinship between these great felines.

123 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

THE ASIATIC LION (PANT H ERA LEO PERSIC A MEYEB).

The racial name persica is given to lions found in India, Persia

or Mesopotamia. One species of lion inhabits both Africa and

Asia, but minor differences, more or less constant, are considered

sufficient to indicate a racial distinction between Asiatic and

African lions. These distinctions do not always hold when indi-

viduals from the two countries are compared. They can only be

regarded as average differences.

On the average, the Indian lion has a scantier mane than the

African and, curiously enough, in combination with this character

a fuller coat, a longer tassel of hair at the end of the tail, a more

pronounced tuft of hair on the elbow joints and a fuller fringe of

hairs on the belly. In size, there is little to choose between the

two. The average length of African and Asiatic lions is a few

inches over 9 ft. The largest recorded measurement of an Indian

lion is 9 ft. 7 in., of an African lion 10 ft. 7 in.

The colour of the lion is tawny. The density of the tone varies

in different individuals. Some lions are deep yellowish brown,

others are pale, in others again the prevalent tone is sandy grey.

Dark tips to the hairs may give the coat a finely mottled effect.

The cubs are spotted and striped. The pattern is taken to indi-

cate descent from a progenitor with markings midway between the

spots of a leopard and the stripes of a tiger. The markings fade

with growth though an indication of them may be seen in well-

grown animals. The colour of the mane may differ little from the

tawny tint of the body or it may be more or less sharply differen-

tiated by a lesser or greater intermingling of brown or black hairs.

A predominance of black hairs in the mane gives rise to the term

‘black maned’ lions. Both light and dark maned lions with inter-

gradations between the two may be seen in India though ‘black’

manes are rare. The mane of the lion begins to grow at 3 years

and is said to be complete in about 6 years.

Fully and poorly maned lions are found in India as in Africa.

Luxuriance or scantiness of mane is probably an individual charac-

ter; some animals being more hairy than others. The average

scantiness of mane seen in the Indian lion is certainly not due to

the mane being ‘combed’ out in the thorny forests in which these

animals live in this country.

The Gir Forest, lying within Junagadh State covers nearly 500

square miles of rugged undulating country. It is composed mainly

of stunted teak trees, palas, jambul, babul and bhor, and patches

of small bamboo with an undergrowth of thorny shrubs and bushes.

This is the nature of the only forest in which lions are now

found in India. Their movements within this forest are governed

by the movements of the animals which they hunt — cattle, ante-

lope and deer.

The Gir is bare and open during the hot weather. Its water

supply over miles of arid country is limited to a few deep pools

in the dry bed of the Hiran ‘river’ and in some of the nullahs,

in the vicinity of which game and herds of grazing cattle concen-

trate. But in the rains, when the forest is overrun with rank

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XL.

The Asiatic Lion [Panther a leo persica, Meyer).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

124

grass and vegetation, abundance of grazing and an abundance of

fresh water in its numerous nullahs results in a wider dispersal

of animal life. Cattle graze outside forest limits. The lions fol-

lowing their prey, stray into the neighbouring lands.

Indian lions have much the same habits as African. They rest

by day under cover. In the Gir they frequently lie up under the

shade of some wide spreading banyan tree. At dusk they come

out in quest for food. Their roars are heard through the night

more noticeably at dusk and again just before daybreak.

Lions are said to rely mainly on scent and hearing when hunt-

ing. When hunting alone, a lion will stalk its prey or lie in am-

bush within 20 or 30 yards of the quarry, waiting to rush upon and

seize it as it strays within reach. But when a troop of lions is

hunting together, as frequently happens when there are family

parties with half-grown young, a combination of effort has been

observed among them. Some of the troop, keeping in touch with

each other by low grunts, drive the distracted prey in the direction

of others who lying silent intercept and slay the quarry. It is said,

that in these combined hunts, it is the lion who drives the game

and the lioness which kills it; half-grown cubs when present help-

ing. The same combination in hunting has been observed occa-

sionally in family parties of tigers.

Many observers have written about the social life of lions in

Africa. How far these observations apply to the social life of lions

in the Gir remains to be discovered. The paucity of numbers,

the peculiar conditions under which lions live in the Gir may affect

their social behaviour. The underlying cause of animals herding

and remaining together is the reproductive instinct: care of the

young by the parents prolongs the association. There are some

who hold that the lion is a polygamist and that at mating time

he acquires a following of females by right of conquest. Single

lions with an attendant troop of females are frequently seen but

it has also been observed that a lion will leave the troop and go

off to live in seclusion with a mate.

There appears to be no particular breeding season. In the Gir

the majority of lions appear to mate between October and Novem-

ber and the young are born generally between January and

February. Cubs born during the wet season are less liable to

survive — conditions in the forest are unfavourable to them and food

is scarce. The lioness has her first litter when she is about 2|-3

years old. The period of gestation is 108 days. In the Gir forest

the ordinary litter numbers two, frequently three. In the wild

state the young are produced at intervals of at least 18 months

to two years. The milk canines of a lion cub are not replaced

by the permanent teeth till it is about a year old and up to

that age the young lion is said to be comparatively helpless in

fending for itself. First sharing in their ‘kills’, with growth the

young lions improve their prentice efforts at killing and finally

attain mastery in their craft. A number of lionesses with young

may associate to form large troops. This herding of females and

young is not an unusual feature among social animals. Among

lions it probably simplifies the problem of food supply. Equally

125 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

common is the forming of societies of young males. Young lions

when able to fend for themselves may band together. They in

turn join rrp with young lionesses and so form the nucleus of fresh

troops. Old lions passed the capacity to hold their own against

rivals lead solitary lives.

Within historic times the lion inhabited Northern Greece and

Macedonia. Its range extended through Persia and Mesopotamia

into the plains of Northern and Central India. Lions may still

survive in the wilder parts of Persia and in Mesopotamia; in India

they are found only within the province of Kathiawar and there

only in the Gir Forest.

Man, the agent who exterminated the lion in Europe and other

parts of Asia, wTas probably mainly responsible for bringing it to

the verge of extinction in India. Even in parts of Africa lions are

steadily retreating before European settlement. The bolder, more

confiding habits of the lion, its herding instincts, the open nature

of the country in which it lives provided the opportunity for its

destruction in India and elsewhere. Even in the Province of

Kathiawar, where tigers do not exist and where no struggle for

supremacy between these two giants of the tribe could have taken

place, the lion was slowly driven from the Barda and Aleche hills,

from parts of Dhrangadra and Jasdan as a result of human

settlement and the progress of cultivation.

The number of lions in the Gir is computed to be well below

a hundred. It is feared that the small stock will deteriorate ,

through inter-breeding. The laudable efforts of the Junagadh Dur-

bar have so far saved this animal from complete extermination in

India, but under existing circumstances it is essential that the

neighbouring States should co-operate by refraining where possible

from shooting such lions as stray into their borders.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE XLI

Copyright.

The Tiger {Panther a tigris, Linn.)

F. W. Champion,

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

126

THE TIGER (FAN THERA TIGRIS LINN.).

Like the human, the animal population of India lias its foreign

element. Our wild animals include many species which have

migrated into India from countries far beyond our frontiers. Pro-

minent among these is the tiger. Though intimately associated

with India — the home of the tiger — the country of its origin is

believed to be Central and Northern Asia.

Animals which have originated in a particular country have

spread over and colonised great portions of the Earth’s surface.

The country of their origin is traced sometimes by the location of

their fossil remains. The earliest known remains of the tiger —

indistinguishable from those now living, were discovered in the

New Siberian Islands well within the Arctic Circle. Time was,

when under a genial climate, Northern and Central Asia supported

a rich vegetation and a varied and abundant animal life. Fossil

remains of animals discovered in this now bleak and desolate

region reveal the past existence of a great variety of animals.

Among them were reindeer and red deer, elk, bison and antelopes

which, in their day, were preyed upon by tigers, lions and other

carnivores.

From Northern Asia, the Tiger extended its territory over the

greater part of the Continent, establishing itself wherever condi-

tions were favourable. It did not colonise the high tableland of

Tibet, where a combination of desert and arctic conditions prevail,

nor did it enter the great Palaearctic Desert which stretches from

the confines of Sind and Baluchistan through the greater part of

Persia, Mesopotamia and Arabia. The most westerly limits of its

migration appears to. be the eastern slopes of the Caucasus, the

forests of the Elburz Mountains, which lie between the shores

of the Caspian and Persia and the northern frontiers of Afghan-

istan. It is still found in these regions. From the Persian border

— its territory must have extended, or may still extend, through

Turkestan into Northern Asia. Today, the Tiger survives in

Amurland and Korea, in Eastern Siberia and in Mongolia and

Manchuria. Southwards, its range extends through China into

Burma, Siam and the Malay countries reaching its most southerly

limits in the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali. We are unable

to conjecture how long ago the Tiger entered and established itself

in India. Its absence from Ceylon suggests its arrival at the most

southerly point of its distribution in this country after the land-

bridge between India and Ceylon had disappeared. It was pre-

vented from colonising the island by the deep intervening seas.

That the Tiger was established in India fifty centuries ago is again

suggested by the recent excavations at Mohenjodaro, where the

records of a pre- Aryan civilization, whih flourished 5,000 years ago

include numerous seals engraved with figures of the tiger.

The Tiger apparently entered India through the hill ranges of

Assam. It colonised the thickly forested southern slopes of the

Himalayas and subsequently established itself over the greater

part of the Peninsula, avoiding its treeless and desert portions.

127 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVlt

Variation in Tigers.

It will be seen that the tiger, unlike the lion, is exclusively an

Asiatic animal. Throughout Asia there is but one species. Pocock

recently summarised the external difference of tigers in different

Asiatic countries. He considers that it is possible to distinguish

eight races. The Indian Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is accepted

as the typical tiger — a standard for comparison with the tigers

of other countries. It is described as a rich coloured, well-striped

animal with a short coat. The Caucasian Tiger is distinguished

by a tendency to brown both in body colour and stripes. More or

less distinct races are said to inhabit Mongolia, Manchuria and

Amurland, Northern and Central China, Sumatra, Java and Bali.

But series of skins and skulls from all the countries where tigers

are found are required for comparison before we can arrive at

definite conclusions as regards the extent of variation between the

various races. Little is known even about the Indian Tiger. We

have still to learn whether the tiger varies in different provinces

in India and what differences in its colouration are produced by

season or age. Individual variation is great.

Though tigers living in the more humid forests are generally

darker and richer in colouring, pale and dark animals may be

found in the same forest tract. Again the number of body stripes

appears to have little relation to the part of the country in which

the animal lives. The number varies in the same district. Some

of the characters which distinguish different genera or distantly

allied species of animals may have an adaptive significance. But

the trivial differences seen in what we describe as sub-species,

varieties or geographical races of an animal may have no adaptive

importance in its mode of life and little adaptive relationship to

the environment in which it lives.

Tigers in Northern Asia assume a heavy winter coat which is

shed during the spring. Indian tigers go through a similar though

less striking change. They moult their finer winter coats on the

approach of the hot weather : the moult is at its height in March.

Size of Tigers.

Opinions differ as to whether the Indian Tiger equals the tigers

of Northern Asia in build. Sportsmen in this country have argued

about the size of tigers for well over a hundred years. Published

records fluctuate between 9 and 14 ft. and some attain even more

ambitious lengths. The varied methods used by sportsmen in

measuring tigers would give widely different results if applied to

the same animal. A stripped skin or a generous tape over curves

yield remarkable, if inaccurate results. So might a man add to

his height by taking in the contours of his body. A straight line

measured between pegs driven at the extremities of the tiger’s

head and tail should be adopted as the standard to be followed

by all sportsmen. It is preferable to register separate measure-

ments of head and body, and the tail. A tiger measuring 10 ft.

7 in. on this basis would be a very large animal. Few Indian

tigers exceed 10 ft. in length — the majority fall short of this limit.

TriE Wild Animals of the Indian empire

128

The average length of a tiger is 9 ft. to 9 ft. 6 in. The average

height 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. The measurements of the skull may

provide an index of the size of a tiger. The length is taken in a

straight line between the end of the bony ridge which surmounts

the braincase — to a point above the incisor teeth. On this basis

the tigers of the Nepal Terai show a slight superiority in size over

the tigers of Central and Southern India; though tigers as large as

any North Indian animal may be found in Kanara or further south.

The weight of a tiger averages between 400 and 500 lbs. Indi-

viduals far exceeding this weight have been shot. Females are

smaller in build. The average length of a tigress is 8 ft. 6 in.

The average weight about a 100 lbs. less than the male. Four

to five hundred pounds of flesh and bone express the tiger’s mas-

sive build. Yet, his heavy frame is cast in lines of perfect

symmetry and endowed with astonishing suppleness of movement.

His massive head, his muscular body, which even in repose reveals

the immensity of its latent strength, his rich colouring give the

tiger a magnificence which is unequalled by any of the great cats.

Kinship between the Lion and the Tiger.

There is a close kinship between the Lion and the Tiger. There

is so much individual variation in both animals that it is difficult

to find any constant point of difference in the skeletal structure

of the two. What is written in description of one will apply

equally to the other. On the average the skull of a tiger is more

vaulted and has narrower nasal bones. The facial part of the skull

is shorter in relation to the cranial portion. This gives the tiger

a greater flatness of face when compared to the lion. The differ-

ences between the two are mainly skin deep. Even the tiger-like

pattern of many lion cubs indicates the close kinship between the

two animals. The mane, so associated with the lion, is not con-

stant in that animal and many tigers wear a ruff of lengthy hairs

about the neck and face which is as full as the mane of some lions.

The Tiger in India.

In India the tiger is found under varying conditions of climate

and environment. He has left his tracks in the winter snows of

the Himalayas at an altitude of 10,000 ft. He lives in humid

evergreen forest or in dry open jungle, in grassy swamps or in an

amphibious terrain of trees and mud and water.

No statistics are available to give an idea of the number of

tigers living in different provinces in India. The opening of the

country to settlement, the extermination of game animals, has

driven the tiger from districts where he was once common. Where

tigers are still found, their numbers probably fluctuate. Though

supreme in his forests, the tiger is but one of a community of

animals living within a particular area, and is so governed by all

those forces which regulate the constantly varying density of its

animal population. Changes in the environment in which the

animal community lives, the inter-relationships existing between

129 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

its members are some of the factors which control the number of

animals living in a given locality. The hot weather with its

scarcity of grazing and water supply may cause a concentration of

cattle and game in a favoured locality and with it, a concentration

of animals which prey upon them. The monsoon effecting a com-

plete change in plant life, in water supply, in the abundance of

parasites, results in a greater dispersal of animals. Factors such

as these may reduce or increase the number of tigers living in a

given area. Given continuity of favourable conditions a tiger may

settle in a favoured locality for an indefinite period and establish

his rights within his territory. On his death, his domain is taken

over sooner or later by a successor.

Three things are essential to the tiger’s territory — the neighbour-

hood of animals of a size commensurate with his needs, ample

shade to sleep in, and water to quench his thirst. An emigrant

from cooler northern climes, centuries of acclimatization have left

him still intolerant to tropical heat. The tiger needs shelter under

cave or coverb in the day time from the heat, his pads may blister

from long contact with the fiery ground, and many of his kind,

particularly during the hot weather take to water and lie in it

during the hot hours of the day. In common with many nocturnal

animals, should the day be cold or clouded with rain, tigers may

be up and about. Always their movements must be regulated by

the animals upon which they prey. Like them the tiger is noc-

turnal. But should game be wanting or the opportunity to take

cattle by night — hunger may compel a change of habit and make

the tiger hunt by day.

How Tigers Hunt.

Ordinarily the tiger when hungry goes out to seek his food

shortly before sunset and ends his hunting at break of day. He

will go through cover if need be, but, like most forest animals he

prefers the beaten track. He follows the accustomed trail of

game, or takes a jungle path, road, a forest fire-line, or an

open water course. In the gathering dusk he moves slowly and

silently, stopping now and then. His acute hearing makes him

conscious of any sound which betrays the presence of his quarry.

His eyes attuned to work in the dark — detect the slightest move-

ment, though like all cats, the tiger is less quick in the recogni-

tion of objects which are still. Many writers of experience main-

tain that a tiger hunts with his ears and eyes and makes little

use of an enfeebled sense of smell. While the consensus of opinion

appears to uphold this view — there are other factors which require

consideration. There are those observers who have seen a tiger

pick up the fresh ground scent of an animal, and turn in his

course to follow it. Another tiger has followed the scent of a

wounded quarry and yet another was observed to trace a kill which

was dragged from its site. The behaviour of a particular tiger

under given circumstances — his failure to discover his food by

scent, to wind a man sitting in a tree — provides no evidence that

tigers do not use their sense of smell. It is a faculty of no small

importance to a beast of prey. To live a tiger has to find, to

Tttfi WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

130

outwit and to overcome his prey. He must do all this in compe-

tition with his own kind and he is compelled to secure his quarry

under varying circumstances wherein any one of his faculties may

be at disadvantage and wherein success will imply a reliance on

others. We know little as to the extent to which nocturnal ani-

mals rely on vision in getting their food. We know less about

the inner working of the animal mind — we attempt to read it from

external behaviour — behaviour which must vary with the individual

and with circumstances. It is probable that all the tiger’s senses

play their purpose in his life — the predominance of any one of

his faculties depends upon the individual and equally upon the

factors in the environment which a're then influencing his action.

In his quest for food the tiger’s progress is described as the

‘flowing past of a phantom’. His sinuous gliding movement is

effected by the simultaneous advance of the limbs on each side

of his body. Ordinarily his feet on each side leave a double track,

the impression of the hind foot being a little in advance of the

fore-foot. The imprint of the fore-foot is larger, rounder and more

splayed out than that of the hind. The difference is usually less

marked in the spoor of a tigress.

But the type of spoor a tiger leaves varies with the gait of

the individual and depends equally upon what the tiger is doing.

A slowing down of movement impelled by rousing interest on in-

creased caution may sometimes be read in the reduction of space

between the imprints of the fore- and hind-feet. The reduction

may end in the feet imprinting a single track, the hind foot being

placed over the exact spot vacated by the fore foot. But this

is not the impress of care free movement but of highly controlled

and deliberate action.

A tiger hunts by stealth. He stalks his animal or lying hidden

takes it as it strays within reach. Whether cattle-killer or hunter

of wild game, the tiger is accustomed to the habits of his prey

and knows how and when and where to find it. His habit is to

hunt alone. When in a family party his hunting may be in the

nature of a drive; the tiger trying to rush the quarry in the direc-

tion of another lying concealed. Such combined hunts are fre-

quent among lions. They have been less frequently observed

among tigers.

The Killing of the Prey .

A tiger follows no rule in the killing of his prey. He passes

from the awkward attempts of the young to the power and mastery

of the adult. Equally must he adapt his strategy to the nature

of his quarry and the conditions of its taking. There is the

haphazard seizure of an animal in flight where desperate claws

and teeth strive to retain and hold the moving body, or the timely

leap, which takes the quarry in its stride and sends it to the

ground — its neck broken by its fall and the opposing wrench of

the tiger’s hold. Different must be the killing of a standing ani-

mal. There are two common ways in which a tiger does this.

Coming with slow deliberate approach or bewildering rush he dips

under and takes his prey by the throat, draws down and pins its

16

131 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIl

head to the ground and maintaining the pressure of his grasp,

strangles his animal. Or, rearing up on his hind legs, he seizes

the animal’s neck in his jaws and bringing his arms down about

its head and shoulders, takes it in violent hold and bears it to,

the ground. The ferocity of his strangle hold, his ruthless violence

in forcing his prey to earth may twist the neck of a heavy animal,

or bend it back upon itself till it breaks under the strain and the

opposing stress from the body as it falls or is forced to

the ground. The neck is not always broken. To break the neck

of his prey is not perhaps a tiger’s deliberate purpose. Like all

the big cats he tries to take his animal by the neck or throat

and strangle it. The neck, when broken, breaks from the manner

of its seizure, the force exerted and most frequently from the

opposing strain of the falling body.

A large animal may be seized by the hind leg. The leg is

bitten into above the hock, its tendons severed and the bone

broken. With one or both legs broken, bison, tsaine or buffalo

despite their bulk and power, fall easy victims. They are killed

as they weaken. Tigers in Burma invariably break the legs of a

large animal before killing it. The method is less common in

India. It is suggested that the more open nature of forests in

India gives the clearance a tiger needs for his normal point of

attack — the neck or throat. Not much blood is shed in the tiger’s

process of killing. His jaws maintain their grip, though his animal

is dead and its struggles have ceased. The fangs buried in the

flesh obstruct the flow and prevent the spilling of much blood.

There is no evidence to show that the tiger sucks the blood of his

prey.

The Tiger and his Kill.

A tiger brings to his eating the same ferocity and lust which

he displays in the killing of his quarry. Savagery when feeding,

a common trait in animals, is a demonstration against possible

interference. With it, the tiger combines a wild animal’s instinc-

tive anticipation of danger. When feeding, or coming to his kill,

any sound the reason for which is not apparent may cause the

tiger to disappear like a flash. While he desires to hold what lie

has, his instinct for self-preservation predominates, as it predomi-

nates in all animals. Cowardice or bravery, both human charac-

teristics are inappropriate to the description of animal behaviour.

Animals do not possess an exalted ethical code. Strong or weak,

they normally obey the primary instinct which is to preserve life;

Endangering life in defence of themselves is but obedience to the

same instinct. Though supreme in his jungles, the one rival a tiger

must fear is another tiger who can take his food from him and

destroy him in the taking. He fears and avoids Man, but com-

petition from his own kind is the more intimate factor in his

struggle for existence. This explains the common impulse of the

tiger to drag his kill under cover where he can eat it in greater

seclusion — though freedom from interference may induce or cir-

cumstances compel him to feed in the open. In eating, his first

and most usual choice is the hind quarters. In this he differs

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XL1I.

: op -y right. A TIGRESS AT HER “ KILL” E. H. Peacock.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Copyright. A TIGRESS FEEDING ON TIER “ KILL ”. H. Peacock.

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 132

from the Leopard whose custom is to start his meal in the region

of the breast bone or stomach. Like the lion, a tiger generally

disembowels the body and places the entrails to one side. It may

take a tiger the best part of two hours to finish the hind quarters

of a bullock and a hungry tiger may eat the greater part of the

body at a single meal. The remains of the carcase are left ex-

posed or dragged and hidden under bushes or even concealed with

uprooted bunches of grass when no cover is near. The tiger’s

neglect or care of Ins preserve of food must clepend much upon

the density or openness of the country in which he is accustomed

to hunt, and the chances or frequency of interference with his

kills by vultures and animals which discover and eat it. The

abundance or scarcity of food may equally govern his actions.

After satisfying iiis hunger the tiger goes to drink and then

to sleep either in the vicinity of his kill or away from it. Free-

dom from disturbance, conditions of cover, the need for cool shelter

are all factors which influence his behaviour. When darkness sets

in or even earlier he returns to his kill and may continue to repeat

his visits till the carcase is finished. Or, for various reasons he

abandons his quarry.

From hunger or individual preference a tiger may eat a car-

case not of his killing however putrid. His usual habit is to feed

on his prey when killed. He may even feed on a crippled animal

before life is extinct. Ordinarily a period, which may be anything

between 4 and 7 days, elapses between successive kills. There is

sometimes a simultaneous killing of a number of individuals in a

herd of cattle. It is generally the work of a young tiger or of a

female with cubs.

Cattle, various species of deer, nilgliai, pig and porcupine are

the common prey of the tiger. Larger animals like bison, tsaine

and wild buffalo, bear and leopard are killed occasionally. Tigers

living near villages are said to feed largely on cattle. Whether

cattle killing becomes habitual in the individual is not definitely

known. It may develop in an individual with age, when the

taking of more active and vigilant prey becomes difficult. Unlike

the panther, the tiger’s association with Man is limited to forest

areas, where a variety of food is available and wherein limitation

to domestic prey becomes less imperative. It is significant that

certain districts in Southern India, where cattle are in abundance,

but where deer and other large game are now all but exterminated,

are now devoid of tigers, which suggest that the presence or

absence of game is a factor in the tiger’s selection of a habitat.

The tiger is not usually dangerous to man except when wound-

ed or perhaps under stress of sexual excitement. A tigress with

cubs may make a demonstration of frightfulness, charge home or

even desert her cubs.

The man-eating tiger is fortunately uncommon. Insufficiency

of natural food or causes which prevent the securing of it may

convert a tiger into a man-eater. The vice is acquired in age or in

youth. The chance killing of a man may initiate the habit in

a young animal, or an old or disabled tiger may take to man

hunting. Familiarity with the presence of Man subdues his

133 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVll

fear, and hunger compels him to attack what his experiment dis-

covers to be the easiest prey. Man-eating appears to be more

frequent in females. Difficulty in finding sufficient food for the

cubs suggests a reason. Such cubs trained to the vice by their

parents may retain the habit through life. In individual instances

man hunting like cattle killing, may be a tradition passed on from

mother to offspring. This perhaps is the explanation of the

repeated occurrence of man-eaters in certain districts of India and

their comparative rarity in others where tigers are equally or

perhaps more common.

The Calls of Tigers.

In many of his habits the tiger resembles the Lion, but a tiger

is more silent. Tigers seldom roar. When they do, their roars

can be deceptively like the roar of a lion. Deep and thrilling,

the repeated gusts of sound increase in volume and fill the air

with their reverberations. This roaring is said to be a mate call.

It is sometimes uttered when the tiger rouses at dusk preparatory

to going out or while in quest for food. There is the coughing roar

which may prelude attack and the ‘whoof’ which expresses surprise

and alarm and a purring note made by blowing air through the

lips with which he gives vent to when expressing contentment.

A peculiar call of the tiger, which is much like the belling of a

sambhar, has occasioned much comment. The calls of the two

animals are so similar that it is difficult to distinguish between

them in forests where both tiger and sambhar live. This peculiar

call is not the tiger’s ruse to decoy a sambhar. It has no concern

with his hunting. One suggested explanation is that it is a mate

call. The tiger utters it when seeking or keeping in touch with

a mate. It is indicated however that the call has been frequently

uttered as a direct result of disturbance by human agency and as

such is purely an individual expression of surprise, suspicion or

alarm.

The Mating and Breeding of Tigers.

The tiger is by nature a solitary and unsociable animal. The

bond which brings and keeps tigers together is the reproductive in-

stinct and the subsequent care of the young. This is the general

basis of social life in all the lower animals. In India many tigers

seem to mate after the rains and the majority of young are born

between February and May. We do not know whether the tiger is

monogamous. The acquiring of more than one mate will depend,

among other factors, on the number of females in condition to

breed and the dominance of a particular tiger over other males in

the area. Tigers with more than one adult female in train have

been seen. Whether the association between a male and female

is ever permanent is not known. It appears to end or to be inter-

rupted when the cubs are born. The summary treatment of the

cubs by the male may induce the mother’s desire for seclusion at

this period. It has been observed however that a family party

consisting of a tigress and her cubs frequently includes an adult

male. The presence of the male may suggest an uninterrupted

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

134

association of the parents or it may indicate the renewal of sexual

activity in the female and the acquiring of a mate. We have no

definite knowledge regarding the cycles of sexual periodicity in the

larger Felidae. It is suggested that tigers breed after intervals of

not less than two or three years, the period during which the

cubs live under parental protection. The mother may however be

accompanied by cubs of more than one litter — the previous cubs

are then fairly well grown and almost in a condition to fend for

themselves.

The period of gestation is fifteen weeks. The tigress gives birth

to cubs in the jungle, or in a cave or rough shelter of rocks.

As many as six cubs may be born in a litter — usually not more

than 2 or 3 survive. The cubs are soon able to wander about

their lair and when about six months old regularly accompany the

mother. The largest family party seen by Mr. Dunbar Brander

consisted of an adult male, two full grown females and three cubs

nearly as large as the tigress. Such a family party in quest for

food may hunt in co-operation — the hunt assuming the nature of

the drive. The practice is more common with family parties of

lions and provides an opportunity for the training of the young.

That the mother tigress trains her cubs to hunt has been observed.

Her method is to disable an animal so that it cannot escape the

onslaught of her cubs who come in and take a share in the killing.

It is probably at this period that the tendencies of the individual

to cattle or game killing or even man hunting are formed.

Various observations on the behaviour of individuals have given

us our impression of the tiger and the role it plays in Nature.

With the facts that we gather we attempt to predict what an

animal will do. This is the aim of our observation. While the

individual animal obeys the fixed instincts of its species, its

behaviour is influenced by parental tradition — by the experience it

acquires through life, by its physical environment, by its changing

relationships with the animal community in which it lives. Our

knowledge of the true life of the tiger can only come to us by a

greater knowledge of the factors which influence its life. We must

study not only the animal but also the stage upon which it plays its

role. We have still to learn more about the tiger’s reactions to the

varied conditions of its physical environment, to climate, to

season, to new situations and to the animal community in which

it lives. We have still to learn about its migrations and move-

ments, its sexual relations and its social life. Such knowledge

can only come as the result of continued field observation, and

more especially from controlled systematic investigation — surely

worthwhile in an animal which plays so definite a role in the

economy of Nature in this country, and which is so surrounded

with immemorial romance and interest.

135 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXVII

THE PANTHER (PANT HERA PAR DUS LINN.).

Panther is a word of Greek and Latin derivation meaning ‘all

animals’. Greek and Roman writers applied it to many predatory

creatures, among others the Cheetah, the Weasel and the Lynx.

From common usage it is now a recognised name for the Leopard

in India.

In its structure a panther exemplifies all those characters which

unite and distinguish the Great Cats (Pantherina) from the rest

of their tribe. It has been shown that in Lions, Tigers, Panthers,

Jaguars and in the Ounce, the hyoid bone is loosely attached to

the skull as a result of the imperfect ossification of the arms of

this apparatus. In all these animals the pupil of the eye does

not narrow to a slit, but retains its circular form when contracting.

Again in all of them the patch of horn- sheathed spines on the

surface of the tongue displays a distinctive position. Now if

the skulls of a lion, tiger, panther or jaguar are compared it

will be found that they are very similar in form. Except for

differences in size and a few slight specific characters there is little

to distinguish between the skulls of these animals. Agreement in

their skeletal structure suggests their close affinity.

It is true that the Panther and the Jaguar have disinctive

colour patterns. But young lions are also spotted or striped and

the vestiges of the panther’s ‘rosettes’ are sometimes developed in

the markings of a tiger. Colour differences between these animals

are less fundamental than they appear.

Panthers and jaguars are lower in stature than tigers or lions.

They are less massive in build, longer , in body and more lithe in

limb. These distinctions are probably associated with their tree-

climbing habits. Their roars are remarkably alike but normally

quite different from the roaring of lions and tigers. It is believed

that the Panther and the Jaguar are descended from a common

ancestral stock which originated in Europe or North Asia : that

the progenitors of the Jaguar probably migrated into America by

way of Northern Asia and established the . species in the New

World.

Distribution of the Panther.

The primeval forests of Europe and North Asia are indicated

as the region from which the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther and

the Jaguar spread into various countries which they now inhabit.

Fossil remains of panthers, indistinguishable from those now

living have been found in the cave deposits of the Pleistocene Age

in Spain, France, Germany and England. At the present time the

Panther survives in Europe only in the Russian Province of

Kuban, north of the Caucasus. But its territory -covers practically

the whole of Africa and Asia.

In Asia its range extends from Palestine and Syria through

Persia to Manchuria and Korea. Southward its territory reaches

through China into Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Java and

covers practically the whole of India and Ceylon.

Whether the Panther established itself in Jndi^ before the

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLIV.

The Indian Panther ( Panthera pardus fusca, Meyer).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

136

Lion, we do not know. It may have accompanied or preceded it.

Both animals probably entered India from the West. But like the

Tiger, the Panther may have also migrated into India through the

hill ranges of Assam. That it established itself in Peninsular

India before the Tiger is suggested by its occupation of the Island of

Ceylon, where tigers are not found. Earlier colonisation of the

Peninsula may have enabled the Panther to enter Ceylon over the

land-bridge which once connected the Island with the main land.

The Tiger’s passage, it is presumed, was prevented by the dis-

appearance of this bridge.

Variations in Panthers.

Through the extent of a range covering two Continents there

is but one species of j^anther, living under contrasting conditions

of environment, of climate, temperature and rainfall. Such varied

conditions of life may have influenced the minor but more or less

apparent distinctions seen among panthers in different countries.

Variation is especially marked in Asiatic panthers whose colour

may range from the sandy grey of the Persian panther to the

golden yellow of the Indian and the rusty red of the Javanese

animal. Distinctions are also seen in the boldness, the spacing

and the size of the rosettes and in the texture, length and density

of the coat.

Eleven more or less distinct races or varieties of panther are

recognised in Asia. Three are found within the Indian Empire. .

The Kashmir Panther (Panther a pardus miliar di) is distinguish-

ed from the Indian by its softer, more furry coat, its grey buff

colouring, its small, close-set, thick rimmed rosettes.

The Sind Panther ( Panther a pardus sindica) is known only

from the barren Ivhirthar hills of the Sind-Balucli border. Its

coat is thick, but harsh and rough; its colouring brighter than the

sandy grey of a Persian panther but distinctly more pale than

the average Indian animal.

The Indian Panther ( Panthera pardus fused) ranges from the

Himalayas to Cape Comorin and Ceylon. As far as is known, it

is indistinguishable from panthers found in Assam and Burma. A

typical panther from the Indian Peninsula is a sleek short haired

animal with a fulvous or bright fulvous coat, marked with small,

close-set rosettes. There is however considerable variation of

colour in Indian panthers. At present it is not possible to define

the limits of such variation or to correlate it with particular areas.

Panthers living in dense evergreen forests are generally richer in

colouring than those found in drier open country. In the forests

of Burma the ground colour of the Panther is generally a bright

chestnut.

Among abnormal phases of colour, black is the commonest. The

black of a panther’s coat may be as deep as the black of its

spots, which are then only discernible in bright light. The black

may extend to the tongue and in varying degrees to the gums and

palate. The eyes are sometimes a curious blue. A black panther

is not a distinct species. Black and normal coloured cubs may

be produced by the same parent, The abnormal colour is due to

137 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

the excessive presence of a pigment called melanin which darkens

the hair and other parts of the body. Melanism is common among

animals which have a supra abundance of this pigment. The con-

dition is common in panthers, exceptional in tigers. Tigers on the

other hand reveal a greater tendency to albinism a condition oppo-

site to melanism in which the dark pigment is entirely or partly

wanting. Albino tigers are not uncommon; albino panthers very

rare. Melanism like albinism may arise as an individual variation,

but when either condition appears in many individuals in a given

area, it is probably due to germinal variation, and inter-breeding

among such individuals results in the perpetuation of melano or

albino forms; particularly if preferential mating takes place. This

is instanced perhaps in the successive generations of white tigers in

the Bewa State and the comparative abundance of black panthers

in certain areas. The causes which give rise to melanism are not

known. Black panthers are rarely found in drier and more open

country. One is recorded from the Central Provinces and one

from Idar State. They are plentiful in Java and in the Southern

parts of the Malay Peninsula, and are known from the evergreen

forests of Burma, Assam, Nepal and South-Western India.

They are quite common in the forests of Malabar. Whether the

colour of a black panther is adaptive to the darker conditions of

these dense forests, we do not know. Its coat is without obvious

pattern. The spotted coat of a panther blends with the checkered

light and shade of the jungle by day and converts it into an evanes-

cent phantom in the darkness or in moonlight. Yet both black

and spotted panthers thrive in the same forests, suggesting that

pattern may be of no essential significance in life of the animal.

There is marked variation in size among Indian Panthers.

Some grow to the size of small tigers, others are scarcely larger

than some of the lesser cats, though fully adult. It is suggested

that differences in size may have some relation to the habits of

the animal and that in the Central Provinces and in the drier

parts of the Peninsula panthers which live habitually on game

within the forests are larger than those which seek their food

about towns and villages. Dunbar Brander gives the average

dimensions of a forest panther as 7 ft. 5 in. and its weight at

about 150 lbs.

On the other hand small panthers are generally common in the

hill forests of South India and in the more/ wooded portions of the

Himalayas. The panthers which frequent the cliffs and precipices

of the Anamallais and Nelliampathies are distinctively small in

build and size. The smallest race is said to be found in the

forests of Java.

The average size of a male Indian Panther is 6 ft. 8 in. The

tail varies much in length; its length when included with body

measurements may give a wrong impression of the size of an other-

wise poorly-built animal. Separate measurements of head and

body, and of the tail should always be recorded.

Distinctions in size and in the shape of the skull have led to

the belief that there are two species of panther in India. Such

differences are due mainly to sex. The skull of the adult male

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

133

panther is larger with larger teeth. Its cranial portion is more

elongate, less rounded than in the female and carries a more pro-

minent median crest.

While there is local variation among panthers there is also indi-

vidual variation affecting both structure and colouring. Individuals

sometime exhibit a complete disintegration of markings far exceed-

ing similar deviations in pattern in tigers. So complete may be

the fusing and breaking up of the spots, that a particular skin

obtained in South Kanara gives the impression of a black panther

streaked and spotted with yellow.

The Panther and its Environment.

The Panther, as we have seen, is found over an immense range

of territory, covering practically the whole of Asia and Africa. In

practice an animal is limited in its distribution, by its habits

and its reactions. Its reactions to environment and other influ-

ences are so adjusted that it chooses places to live in which are

suitable to its needs. A tiger’s range is limited by its need for

the shade and shelter of forest, for continuous tracts of cover.

The lion chooses drier, more open country. Both tigers and lions

require the propinquity of large animals for food. A panther is

less bound by the physical condition of its environment. It is more

tolerant of the sun than the tiger and less dependent on shelter

from its heat or on the nearness of a water supply. It thrives in

a parched treeless terrain of rock and scrub or in rain swept forests,

under extremes of heat and cold, of dryness or humidity.

A panther can subsist on a variety of small creatures which

would give no adequate sustenance to a tiger. It can find shelter

and security in the scantiest cover. Its adaptiveness to varied

conditions of life enable it to overcome those factors which limit

the increase and confine the range of lions and tigers.

Diversity in conditions of life produce in the panthers a varia-

tion in food and habits.

The Village Panther.

Very considerable must be the influence of Man on the life

and habits of the species. The panther’s ability to live under

conditions where no tiger would survive brings it into freer and

more constant touch with Man. As such it is able to profit to

a greater extent from such opportunities of food getting as are

provided by human agency. As such it has become a greater

potential scourge on human life and human property. The panther

living near human settlements, particularly outside forest areas

preys mainly on domestic animals — on cattle, sheep and goats, on

ponies and donkeys and most commonly on dogs. It finds regu-

lar opportunity to take grazing cattle, to intercept stragglers from

flocks and herds returning home at dusk, to raid cattle pens and

enclosures or carry off dogs at night. For the village panther the

problem of food getting is simplified. The food is concentrated

within a limited area, the occasions for taking it are more or

less constant and identical. Further competition for the food is

frequently reduced by the elimination of rival beasts of prey for

139 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

whom the environment is unsuitable, and the prey itself, its alert-

ness enfeebled by domestication, is easily secured. The influence

of these conditions on the life of the Panther vary in their effects

on the individual. Domestic prey if easily taken must be taken

in conflict with Man and such competition usually develops great

boldness, cunning and resource in animals. We have come to

associate these attributes with the Panther because of their fre-

quent and singular development in panthers living under the edu-

cative influence of human association. Nevertheless association

with Man seldom changes a panther’s instinctive habit of conceal-

ment. Secrecy and stealth are the essence of its hunting. Whether

it lives in remote forests or in the neighbourhood of towns and

villages it maintains its secretive nature, is rarely seen and hunts

mainly under cover of darkness.

Faced with the sudden apparition of man in regions rarely

entered by him, a panther or a tiger usually reveal no more than

the wild beasts’ curiosity or suspicion of the unknown. Ordinarily

they betray no undue fear, stare a while at the intruder and go

quietly away. Experience gained from association with Man may

exaggerate this reaction in a panther, may develop in it great fear

and suspicion. While familiarity with Man, success in escaping

harm, will beget in another outrageous boldness, an indifference

to human activity, to lights, sounds or movements, and a dis-

regard for human presence even in broad daylight.

Panthers living near human settlements probably maintain this

mode of life through successive generations. For the life of the

animal is not only the sum of its fixed instincts — a legacy born

of the experience of countless ancestors — but also of parental

tradition and of experience acquired in life. Hence many village

panthers have come to rely mainly on human agency for their food

supply. When the supply is maintained it may lead individuals

to establish more or less permanent territory in the neighbourhood

of towns and villages, and an interruption or failure in the supply

to migration to similar environment where the accustomed food is

available. While the type of prey the panther is accustomed to hunt

is largely a matter of individual habit and upbringing, these habits

are induced in parent and offspring by the conditions of their

habitat. Changes in the nature of the habitat must produce a

transition in habits of life leading from a more or less complete

dependence on domestic animals for food to increasing or com-

plete reliance on wild animals as prey.

The Game-hilling Panther.

Conditions of life for panthers which live entirely by the killing

of wild creatures must be different. Their prey is more varied in

character and habit. It is not concentrated within limited zones.

It is less sedentary. Seasonal and other changes in the environ-

ment influence its concentration or dispersal in a given area. Such

changes in the density of the .animal population living within a

given area bring about the wider ranging habits of beasts of prey.

Equally, as in the case of village panthers, a continuity of

favourable conditions must lead an individual or a pair to establish

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

140

hunting rights over a territory sufficiently large to supply food

requirements.

Apart from these influences there is the factor of increased

competition. Forest areas which support a large and varied assem-

blage of herbivorous animals equally make possible the co-existence

of a varied assemblage of predatory species. Now competition be-

tween various carnivores is governed by the size of the prey to

which each is more or less limited. The herbivorous species form

what is called a ‘food chain’. Commencing with the smallest

forms predators and prey increase in size so that at the end of the

chain we have the largest herbivorous animals which are the prey

of the largest carnivores. The competition for food between the

tiger and panther is thus governed to some extent by the size of

the prey to which each is more or less limited. While the tiger

and panther are at the same end of the ‘food chain’ the panther

occupies a lower link. The panther must equally face the compe-

tition of its own species and in certain areas it is brought into

competition with some of the larger cats, like the Clouded

Leopard, and the Golden Cat which take a similar prey.

Again, while the strength and prowess of the predator decides

the size and nature of its prey, there are some species like wolves

and wild dogs which increase their effective size by the strategy

of numbers and are able to enter into competition with panthers

or tigers.

These are some of the factors which must influence the life

and food getting habits of panthers particularly of those individuals

whose conditions of life remain unaltered by the artificial influence

of human association. The collection of more concise data con-

cerning the panther’s reaction to varying environment, to the

animal community in which it lives, to competition with Man and

other rivals, its migrations, movements, its acquirement of territory

would help us to truer understanding of the life and habits of the

animal.

The Panther’s Method of Hunting.

Mr. Dunbar Brander indicates that panthers in the forests of

the Central Provinces which confine themselves to the killing of

wild animals display many of the habits and ways of a tiger. In

other words they display the truer habits of their species. Their

prey consists of various kinds of deer and antelopes, of monkeys,

pigs and porcupines. When food is scarce even birds or reptiles

are eaten. Like the tiger, the forest panther follows roads or

paths or the beaten track of animals through the forest, or waits

in hiding for its prey. It seizes its quarry from the ground or

leaps upon it from a height such as an overhanging branch. Deer

and other animals following their accustomed path are sometimes

taken in this way. Monkeys are hunted in the tree tops.

Watching the movements of its quarry from some elevated

perch or rise is a common method of hunting. Wild sheep and

goats feeding on open hill sides or village cattle in the plain are

frequently watched and stalked from such a position. The panther

has a keen eyesight and an acute sense of hearing. Its sense of

141 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

smell is said to be better developed than a tiger’s. Opinions differ

on this point.

To take its prey by surprise is the basis of the panther’s

strategy. Its purpose is effected by noiseless approach, an amazing

capacity for concealment and a lightning agility in attack. Failure

to surprise its quarry and to seize it in the first attempt frequently

results in the panther’s discomfiture and retreat, even before so

humble a quarry as a goat. Tigers reveal a similar trait in their

hunting and usually relinquish their prey if they do not succeed

in taking it in the initial attack. This is a common trait in the

hunting of Cats. A panther’s quarry if not small enough to be

pounced upon and carried off is seized by the throat and held in a

strangle hold. To kill their prey by strangling it is apparently

the purpose of the great Cats. The breaking of the victim’s neck

may or may not follow as result of the seizure. A large

and exceptionally powerful panther may break the neck of

an animal in the violence and fury of its onslaught. Usually

death is caused by strangulation, and may ensue without the in-

fliction of fatal wounds.

As with the tiger, there is no evidence to show that a panther

sucks the blood of its prey. Like the tiger it maintains its grip

for some time to ensure death. A premature release, as happens

when a panther is shot while holding down its prey has resulted

in the recovery of the victim.

The Panther and its Kill.

The panther’s usual impulse after killing is to drag the carcase

under cover to eat it where there is no danger of disturbance. In

obedience to this impulse individuals have displayed remarkable

ingenuity, eating through the neck or leg of a tethered animal to

carry it away. A panther usually commences his meal at the

stomach or in the region of the breast bone. The viscera, the

flesh of the ribs and the fore quarters are first eaten. The neck

and head are left to the last. The unconsumed portion of a

panther’s kill, if seen early, is remarkably even and clear in out-

line. The ribs appear as though trimmed with a butcher’s knife.

A panther may commence his meal on a large animal between the

buttocks in the accustomed manner of a tiger. This is said to be

the practice of large game-killing panthers. As with the tiger, the

unconsumed portion of the carcase is usually dragged and con-

cealed under bushes, put away among the boulders of a nullah

or a deliberate attempt is made to cover it with leaves and grass.

Though plenty of ground cover is available some individuals prefer

to carry and place the kill in a tree. Particular trees may become

the regular resorts to which the resident panther of the neighbour-

hood takes his reserve of food for safe storage. The feat of scram-

bling up a tree with a full grown cheetal stag in its mouth gives

an idea of the strength and resource of an individual panther.

Man-eating panthers who have developed this habit may dispose

of their kills in the same way.

Dragging the kill away to eat it in hiding, concealing the

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE! i4£

remains on the ground or in a tree are devices for the protection

of the food from rivals. All beasts of prey will feed on any

carcase they happen to discover. Besides professional hunters

there are professional scavengers like hyaenas and jackals, vultures,

crows and even eagles with plebean tastes. Food is the burning-

question in animal society and the habits of all animals are mainly

directed to obtaining a sufficiency of it. Having provided for the

security of its reserve of food, the panther usually lies up in its

vicinity and returns to its kill when darkness approaches. It may

return to its kill at any hour of the day, or it may abandon it

altogether. Everything depends on the situation of the kill, if

secluded or otherwise upon circumstances, upon the idiosyncrasies,

the past experiences of the individual and the state of its appetite.

While some individuals display an almost reckless confidence

in approach, a panther returning to its kill is usually the personi-

fication of cautiousness. The advance to the kill is slow and the

panther’s movements in its immediate neighbourhood highly con-

trolled and deliberate. It surveys the surroundings both around

the kill and in the trees above it. Anything unusual or abnormal

may awaken its suspicion and cause an immediate retreat or

abandonment of the meal. Boldness in returning to the kill after

being shot at or otherwise disturbed is a matter of past experience,

or temperament or hunger. A panther fired at over a kill does

not necessarily connect the sound with any particular danger. The

sudden report is alarming and puts the beast to flight but if no

harm has come to him he usually returns.

The kill, as we have seen, is a source of attraction to a number

of rivals dangerous or otherwise and the panther’s natural instinct

is to apprehend the possibility of interference. The existence of

tigers in the same forest is a source of danger of which the panther

is acutely conscious. Panthers have been destroyed at their kills

by tigers or by more powerful rivals of their own species. They

have been killed, routed or otherwise deprived of their rights to a

meal by wild dogs and hyaenas. That a hyaena or wild dogs in

company may be more than a match for a panther is shown by

the number of recorded instances in which victory has gone to

these animals. At the same time we read of wild dogs or a

hyaena being driven from a kill by the onslaught of a panther.

The circumstances of the encounter, the advantage of surprise and

other factors, which may or may not be apparent to the observer

give victory to one or the other of the contestants and obscure

conclusions as to their respective prowess.

Very curious on the other hand is the behaviour of animals —

habitual victims of the panther in the presence of their enemy at a

kill. We read of cattle and deer continuing to graze unconcerned

in close proximity to a panther absorbed in its meal. Their be-

haviour suggests that these animals appear to divine the presence or

absence of hostile intent in a traditional enemy and react accordingly.

It has been observed in Africa that zebra and other animals com-

monly hunted by lions are unaffected by their roars by day and

seem to know exactly when these roars threaten danger and when

they do not.

143 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

The Man-eating Panther.

Speaking generally, like the tiger, the panther does not attack

man if unprovoked. If taken unawares a panther may attack in

self-defence or turn on his pursuers as when wounded, or harried

in a beat. The attack may be made in error, the panther mis-

taking man for more legitimate prey. This sometimes hap-

pens when people are moving or sitting in heavy cover. This

chance killing of a man is suggested as one of the causes which

lead panthers or tigers to man-eating. The diffidence to attack

human beings once overcome may induce an individual to include

human beings amongst its prey or may convert it into a habitual

man-eater. While the confirmed man-eating panther is fortunate-

ly rare the number which occasionally take human food is not

inconsiderable.

Failure in the accustomed food supply or in the ability to obtain

it contributes to the making of a man-eater. One of the after

results of the great famine in Gujerat between 1901-1903 was a

marked increase in the number of man-eating tigers and panthers.

The village panther unable to obtain its usual food may take

to man-killing. In the recorded case of one individual whose

accustomed prey was dogs and cattle, the first victim was a baby,

the second an old woman, and the third a boy. Emboldened with

its success, such a panther first limiting itself to taking people

asleep outside their huts, takes to entering huts, to carrying off

people sitting up by a fire and finally to killing in broad, daylight.

Brought into more intimate touch with Man, the man-eating

panther is not only more frequent than the man-eating tiger but

more to be dreaded. Familiarity with Man and his ways makes it

bolder, more difficult to circumvent and gives it greater capacity

for destruction.

The Call of the Panther.

The commonest call of the panther is a succession of deep

intakes of air and hoarse barking coughs — an interval of a second

separating each respiratory effort. The call is made with the mouth

partly open. The air inhaled and expelled through the trumpet-

like cavity of the throat beats against the transverse ridges of the

palate which, it is suggested, possibly play a part in increasing the

sonority of the tone. The call is usually likened to sound produced

by the thrust and return of a coarse-toothed saw cutting through

thin wood. A pair of panther cubs in captivity gave vent to this

distinctive sawing call when moved by the prospect of a meal or

when separated from one another. The occasions when they used

it may suggest a similar usage in the adults. Among other sounds

made by panthers is the low deep threatening growl which is the

preliminary intimation of a charge by a wounded or angry beast.

The two or three deep coughs which may accompany the charge

.are very similar to the sounds made by a tiger in like circum-

stances. A soft purring ‘gr-gr’, at times hardly perceptible

is occasionally emitted in the vicinity of a ‘kill’ and there

is, as in the case of the tiger, the ‘whoof’ with which a panther

expresses alarm and disapproval when surprised and rushing off.

the wild animals op the Indian empire

l44

The Mating and Breeding of Panthers.

Panthers like tigers breed all the year round. Mating has been

observed in various months of the year. It is a common belief

that most animals have well demarcated breeding seasons. Critical

investigation has shown that a relatively large number breed

throughout the year. This is particularly true in the case of tropical

animals. When a species has a demarcated breeding season it

recurs rhythmically at the same time every year. The quiescent

reproductive organs of the male become active while the female

undergoes cycles of reproductive activity. As a general rule, the

sexual periodicity of the male is the counterpart of the female’s:

but with some species the male season may begin earlier than the

female or the male may remain reproductively potent throughout

the year, while the female experiences cycles of sexual activity and

quiescence. The reverse may also occur. We have no definite

knowledge as regards sexual periodicity in the larger Felidae. We

do not know whether the males are sexually potent throughout the

year nor do we know anything about the cycles of sexual activity

in the females. In a lioness in captivity periods of heat about a

week in duration occurred at intervals of three weeks till the animal

became pregnant. Whether similar condition obtain among the

larger felines in the wild state remains to be discovered. Such in-

formation is extremely difficult to obtain particularly in relation to

animals in the wild state. When animals are shot, microscopic,

examination in the field of the fresh contents of the reproductive

organs in both may shed some light on the points raised. It cannot

be doubted that a mass of interesting details remains to be dis-

covered which would give us a clearer understanding of the breed-

ing habits and social life of these animals.

The intervals at which panthers produce a litter in the wild

state are not definitely known. A pair of panthers in captivity

had three litters in years. That sexual activity in the female

recurs shortly after the production of a litter is [instanced; in the

case of a female accompanied by two cubs computed to be above

two, but not more than 6 months old. The parent which was

shot during the month of May was found to contain four foetuses.

If the age of the cubs was correctly estimated and if we set

their age at the estimated maximum of 6 months, then her cubs

were born approximately in December. The period of gestation

being 3 months, a second litter would have been produced approxi-

mately at the end of July. This gives an interval of nine months

between the production of two litters. The case may or may not

be exceptional but it points to a potentially high rate of breeding

among panthers which is probably one of the reasons why the

species maintains its numbers in spite of all the efforts to reduce

them.

Having acquired a mate there is little reticence in the courting

of the panther. The procreative instinct overcomes all accustomed

considerations for silence and secrecy. Their mating is accom-

panied by noisy demonstrations, by snarling and spasmodic roarings

and by intervals of play, of gamboling and chasing dictated by the

145 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVli

receptive or resentive attitude of the female. Mating may continue

even after pregnancy is well established. There is a record of a

pair seen conabiting, the female when shot, was found to be bear-

ing three foetuses about two weeks old. It is believed that the

association of the male and female continues when the cubs are

born. Whether it is ever permanent is not known. In the tiger

it is believed that the association is interrupted at this stage. We

have seen that among panthers sexual activity may recur shortly

after a litter is produced. In these circumstances the male may

be the original partner or a new-found mate. Mr. R. G. Morris has

seen a family of 6 panthers consisting of an adult male and female,

2 three-quarter grown cubs and 2 cubs (about 2 months old). The

adult male was possibly not the father of the larger cubs. That

a female losing her mate will in favourable circumstances promptly

take another is seen in the case of a panther acquiring a fresh

partner twenty-four hours after the death of her previous mate.

The period of gestation is said to be about 12 weeks. Two to

four cubs are usually produced. The mother chooses a cave, the

hollow trunk of a tree, an overhanging rock or even a porcupine’s

earth as a shelter for her litter. She is assiduous in her care of

them and is said to display greater determination in their defence

than is usually seen in the tiger. Nothing precise is known about

the period of lactation or when the cubs are weaned or how long

they continue to live with their parents or when they attain

maturity. Females accompanied by cubs almost as large as the

parent have been frequently observed. From an early age the

cubs display their predatory instincts, going through the process

of crouching, stalking and springing at one another in the manner

of the adult. As with the lions and tigers the mother is said

to watch the early attempts of the young in making a kill. Col.

Mosse records his observation of the behaviour of a female with

a cub about as large as herself at a kill. The cub was all con-

centration while the mother affected complete indifference to the

tethered bait and changed her position only to get a better view

of the efforts of the cub. The conflict between the impatience of

youth and the instinct for cautious approach was strikingly appa-

rent in the efforts of the cub to stalk its quarry. The interesting

denouement was unfortunately prevented by a shot from the

observer.

The high rate of breeding among panthers has already been

indicated. Apart from this, the panther’s wide range of food and

its powers of resistance to adverse influences of environment have

endowed it with those attributes which make for survival and

which enable it to maintain its being over the vast range of territory

which it inhabits. Man’s efforts at extermination have made but

little impression on its numbers in this country. Though it has

not the magnificence of the tiger nor the imposing presence of the

lion, the panther typifies in itself all the distinctive attributes of

the Great Cats. It exhibits in perfection that symmetry of form,

that combination of grace, strength and agility which distinguish

its tribe. The panther is the embodiment of the ideal of a beast

of prey.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLA.TE XLV.

The Snow Leopard ( Uncia uncia, Schreber).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

146

THE SNOW LEOPARD OR OUNCE

(UN CIA UNO I A SCHREBER).

The Snow Leopard is perhaps the most beautiful of all the

cats. The soft colouring and luxuriant beauty of its fur, parti-

cularly in winter, is unrivalled. In common with all creatures to

whom Nature has given a special endowment of beauty it pays

the price in being persistently sought after and killed by Man.

The known range of the Snow Leopard is the high tablelands

of Central Asia reaching northwards into the Altai Mountains and

southwards to the Hindu Kush Mountains and the Great Hima-

layan Range.

An affinity between the Snow Leopard, the Lion, Tiger, Panther

and Jaguar is deduced from a similarity in the structure of the

hyoid apparatus in these animals. The Snow Leopard is placed

in a separate genus because of peculiarities in the structure of its

skull. Among the more obvious differences are the shortness of

its muzzle, the elevation of the forehead and the vertical chin.

A more fundamental distinction is seen in the structure of the

auditory bullae — the bony swellings on the under surface of the

skull, close to the ear openings. The auditory bulla of an Ounce

is divided internally by a vertical partition into two nearly equal

chambers. In the tiger, lion, panther and jaguar the . chambers

are unequal .

The ground colour of the Snow Leopard’s coat is soft grey, paling

to pure white on the underside. The spots are unbroken and dis-

tinct on the head, nape and lower parts of the limbs. On the body

they break up into larger, paler rosettes. The rosettes are less

distinctive in the more luxuriant fur of the winter coat ; a black

streak extends from the middle of the back to the root of the tail.

Except for a few dark blotches the fur of the belly is pure white.

Little is known about the habits of the Snow Leopard. It is

entirely nocturnal. During summer the animal lives in the higher

altitudes of its range. It has been seen at a height of 18,000 ft.

upwards. In this treeless region it preys on burhel, ibex and

on marmots and other rodents, occasionally taking a calf or a

sheep from the flocks grazing in the higher reaches during Summer.

In Winter, Snow Leopards come down to the warmer valleys as

low as 6,000 to 7,000 ft. where they find more frequent occasion

to take domestic prey and offer better opportunity to be trapped

or shot. Nothing is known about their breeding habits.

17

147 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVU

Sub-Family II : ACINONYCHINAE .

THE CHEETAH OB HUNTIN G-LEOPABD

(AGINONYX JUBATUS EBXLEBEN).

In India the Cheetah is all but extinct in the wild state. It

once ranged from the confines of Bengal through the plains of the

United Provinces, the Punjab and Eajputana, through Central

India and the Deccan. It is not known to have occurred in South

India and Ceylon. Evidence of its existence in recent years in some

parts of its known range is seen in such records as the Society has

been able to collect. A Cheetah was killed in 1918 and another in

1919 in the Mirzapur District of the United Provinces. Eive

Cheetahs are recorded as having been obtained in this Province

during the previous twenty-five years. In the Central Provinces,

the Cheetah appears to have been not uncommon at one time in

the Berars. Three were shot in the Melgliat Forest area in 1890

and one in 1894 and one at Wano in 1895. Eumours of their

existence in parts of Berar, the Seoni Plateau and Saugor still

persist. They were apparently once common around Hyderabad,

Deccan. The only part of the Bombay Presidency where Cheetahs

were known to occur recently is the tract of rugged country known

as the Tanga in the centre of the province of Kathiawar. In

1884 it was estimated that there were not more than twenty of

these animals in this area. A female and four cubs were shot at

Eajkot in 1894.

Outside India, the range of the Cheetah is said to extend north-

wards to Bussian Turkestan and Trans-Caspia. In South-Western

Asia its range is believed to reach from the frontiers of Sind through

pa^ts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Persia and Mesopotamia to

Syria and Palestine and thence into Africa, where cheetahs are,

or were once found as far south as the Cape. To what extent it

survives in these Asiatic countries is not known. There is a record

of a female and cubs taken at Nasriyah in Mesopotamia in 1928,

but the animal was not known to the local Arabs.

Certain peculiarities in the structure of a Cheetah differentiate

it from all other cats. In size and form a Cheetah looks like a

long-legged slender-bodied leopard. But its slimness of body and

length of limb are equalled by sojne cats such as the African Serval.

Its head is rounded and relatively smaller than in any other form

of cat- — the facial region and particularly the cranium slopes

steeply downwards and gives its skull a dome-like shape.

The Cheetah’s most distinctive character is the structure of its

feet. Its claws are usually described as non-retractile. The claws

of cats are retracted and raised from the ground by elastic liga-

ments which pull on the terminal joints of the toes. Now the

claws of a cheetah are approximately if not quite as retractile

as in some sj^ecies of cats. Their distinctiveness lies in this that

the claws of cats are covered in varying degrees by sheaths of

skin, while the claws of a cheetah are always bared owing to the

entire absence of skin sheaths.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLVI.

The Cheetah or Hunting Leopard (Acinonyx jubatus, Erxleben).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

148

The colour of an adult cheetah varies from tawny to a bright

rufous fawn. Its coat is pale below and spotted almost everywhere

with small round solid black spots. The chin and throat are buffy

white, a black line runs from the corner of each eye to the upper

lip. and there is a less distinct line or row of spots from the corner

of the eye to below the ear. The fur is coarse; the lengthening

of the hair on the neck suggests an incipient mane. A pair of

cubs taken in the Berars are described as having long grey silky

hair, without spots, covering the head and back and reaching half

way down the flanks, giving the cub an appearance of wearing a

great coat. The remainder of the body was covered with short

grey hair sprinkled with single black sj)ots. A cub taken in

Nasiryah in Mesopotamia is described as being fawn-coloured — the

hair on the upper part of the body was 2-3 in. long and unspotted ,

while the limbs and lower part of the body showed a sprinkling

of dark spots. The head and body of a cheetah measures about

4-5 ft., the tail 2-5 ft., its height is from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 9 in.

We know little about the habits of the Cheetah in the wild

state. In India it is usually found in low rugged hill country

bordering the plains; near Hyderabad it is stated to live in holes

in rocks or among accumulations of rocks and boulders. It preys

on antelope, gazelle and nilgai and such creatures as it can master.

One was shot in the U.P. while stalking a sambhar. Unlike other

cats, speed and not stealth of movement is the essence of the

Cheetah’s hunting. All those characters which distinguish the

Cheetah from other cats have arisen from its distinctive method

of pursuing its prey. The small head, narrow chest and body,

long sinewy limbs, and powerful hind- quarters are designed for

speed; while its protruding claws, hard, pointed pads and larger

hind feet are well-fitted for securing a firm hold on hard or sandy

ground. Crouching low, a cheetah takes advantage of every inch

of cover or unequality in the ground till it gets within a distance

to make its rush upon its quarry. While it lacks the elasticity of

gait and the supjdeness of body so distinctive in the cats, not the

fastest antelope can equal a cheetah’s initial speed. Coming up

with its fleeing quarry, the Cheetah fells it by striking its hind

legs from under it. The animal falls and is then seized by the

throat. This manoeuvre of tripping up its prey was constantly

observed in the play of a pair of cheetah cubs. The pursuer going

at full speed always attempted to upset its mate by striking at

the hind legs and having felled it, made for and worried it at the

throat. Failing to seize its prey in its initial rush the Cheetah

api:>ears to have no reserve of strength or breath and usually gives

up the chase.

Nothing is known of the breeding habits of the Cheetah in

India. There is a record of female with 4 cubs which was shot

near Bajkot in Central India. The mother and one cub were away

when the other cubs were discovered under a bush. A pair of

cubs a week old were taken in the Berars in December.

The Cheetah has been for centuries the playing thing of

princes, Asiatic, African and European. When taken young it is

easily tamed and trained to show its wonderful speed. A couple

149 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXVII

of cheetahs were sent as a present to Anastasius, Emperor of the

East, at Constantinople in a.d. 439 from whence the sport reached

Italy and obtained an enormous vogue among the wealthy, extra-

vagant grandees of the great City States. The Turks, Moors and

Persians alike used cheetahs in hunting. In India the Cheetah is

usually taken blind-folded in a cart to the scene of the hunt. In

the proximity of a herd of antelope it is unhooded and slipped from

its leash: a short crouching stalk and a few bounds of great

length and rapidity and the hunt is over — the quarry has escaped

or the Cheetah holds it in a strangle-hold by the throat, till the

keeper comes up and having cut the captive’s throat rewards the

captor with a drink of warm blood collected in its accustomed feed-

ing bowl.

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

Sub-family III: FELINAE: TYPICAL CATS.

We have dealt with two groups of the Cat tribe, one, the

Acinonychinae, included the Hunting Leopards, differentiated from

all other cats by the absence of protective sheaths to their claws,

and the other, the Pantherinae, comprising the Lion, Tiger, Jaguar,

Leopard and Ounce, distinguished in their anatomy by the peculiar

attachment of the hyoid apparatus to the cranium. It has

been explained that in these Great Cats the supporting arms

of the apparatus is composed partly of elastic ligament which gives,

greater mobility to the larynx and has its influence on the voice

of these animals. The typical cats including all the smaller and

medium sized forms are grouped in a third division of the tribe:

the Felinae. In all these species the hyoid apparatus is normal.

Its arms are formed of an uninterrupted chain of small bones

which hold the larynx close up to the skull and restrict its move-

ments. From this distinction in the structure of the hyoid appara-

tus arises those differences in the character and sonority of the

voice between the great and in the lesser cats. The smaller

species do not roar in the manner of lions, tigers or leopards.

Apart from the roar, there is another distinctive feature about the

voice of those cats in which the hyoid apparatus is normal. This

is the familiar ‘purr’. The great cats never purr — on the other

hand, widely different species like cheetahs, pumas, lynxes and

the various forms of smaller cats express pleasure and contentment

by that sound.

151 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol XXXVII

No. 7. THE JUNGLE CAT ( FELIS CHAUS GULD.).

The Jungle Cat has a wide distribution ranging from North

Africa through Western Asia into India and Ceylon, Burma and

China. The typical form of this cat, Felis chans chaus, is found

in the Caspian area from whence the species was originally record-

ed and described. Over its extensive range, 3 or 4 races of the

Chaus are distinguished. The race found in India, Burma and

Ceylon is known as Felis chaus af finis. It is said to differ from

the Jungle Cats of Egypt, Palestine and the Caspian by its rela-

tively longer tail, bright foxy red ears and slighter build. Its skull

is narrower and the teeth less strongly developed. Some of the

Jungle Cats from the reed beds of the River Tigris in Mesopotamia

were indistinguishable from the Indian race, others approached the

African form.

The Jungle Cat, the common wild cat of India, is found practi-

cally all over the Peninsula from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin.

It is commoner in the drier parts of the country keeping more to

grass-land and scrub-jungle and the reedy banks of rivers. In

Ceylon and Burma it is again more common in the drier zones.

With its long legs and comparatively short tail — the Jungle Cat

has a very distinctive appearance. Its pale green eyes give it a

coldly cruel expression. The colour of its fur varies from sandy

grey, to yellowish grey. The tail is ringed with black towards the

end and has a black tip. The paws are pale yellowish; black or

sooty brown underneath. The ears are reddish, ending in a small

pencil of black hairs. The underside of the body is paler with

vestiges of stripes on the underside and flanks. Head and body

about 2 ft. in length; tail 9 in. Weight anything from 8 to 25 lbs.

The Jungle Cat is frequently about by day— more usually in

the mornings and evenings. Its movements in the open are much

like those of a small panther. It preys on small mammals, birds

and, when near villages, on poultry, making bold to seize its prey

even in the presence of the owners. Very swift and exceedingly

strong for its size, it is quite capable of bringing down larger

game. Crump, writing of these cats in Kumaon says that it was

not at all uncommon to find the quills of porcupines which they

had killed or attempted to kill embedded in their paws.

Little definite is known about its breeding habits. Blanford

states that it has two litters in a year. The kittens are easily

tamed and purr like a domestic cat when pleased. They resent

the approach of strangers and remain amusingly savage at feeding-

time.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLVII.

The Indian Jungle Cat ( Felis chaus affinis, Giild).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPI HE

152

THE DESERT CAT ( FELLS ORNATA GRAY).

The Desert Cat is found in the desert wastes and sand hills

of Sind, Cutcli, Rajputana, from whence its range extends to the

more arid portions of the Punjab, Kathiawar and the eastern parts

of the Central Provinces.

From the structure of its skull and teeth as well as from other

characters, it is deduced that our Desert Cat is the Indian repre-

sentative of a group of cats, typified in Africa by the African Wild

Cat, Felis ocreata , and in. Europe by the European Wild Cat, Felis

sylvestris. Incidentally it is interesting to mention the theory pro-

posed by Pocock that the domestic cats found about houses and

villages in India — of which there are two types, one spotted or

streaked, the other uniformly grey or yellowish grey have been

derived from the African Wild Cat, Felis ocreata, either by the in-

troduction of tamed animals or by the reclaiming from the wild

state of examples of this species which may have inhabited India

in comparatively recent times. Mr. Pocock can find no evidence

to support the older theory that our domestic cats have originated

from indigenous Indian species such as the Chaus ( Felis chaus)

the common Jungle Cat of India, the Leopard Cat, or the Rusty

Spotted Cat. It would be interesting to have authentic evidence

of the inter-breeding of wild and domestic cats in India. On the

other hand various so-called species of wild cats from India such

as the Waved Cat ( Felis torquata) from Nepal and Kashmir, Felis

inconspicua from Rajputana, and Felis huttoni from Afghanistan

are believed by Pocock to have arisen as a result of the description

by different naturalists of the various colour forms of the European

Wild Cat, Felis sylvestris, which is found in a feral state in many

tropical countries.

Not much larger than a domestic cat, the Indian Desert Cat lias

pale yellowish fur more or less infused with grey and marked with

numerous black spots. The terminal half of its tail is ringed with

black. It has two horizontal stripes on its cheeks, numerous dark

cross lines on the outside of the limbs and the usual two distinct

black bars on the inner side of each fore-arm. The chin, throat

and breast are white and unspotted. The ears are coloured like

the back, with a few black hairs at the tips. It inhabits sandy

plain and hills, where it preys on birds and rodents. One was

killed while feeding on the carcase of a sheep. Nothing is known

of its breeding habits.

153 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VoL XXXV II

THE LYNX (LYNX LYNX LIN.) AND THE CARACAL

(LYNX CARACAL GULD.).

The genus Lynx includes three distinct groups of animals —

the typical Lynx (Lynx) and its various species and races inhabiting

the boreal region of North America and the cold and temperate

regions of Europe and Asia, as far south as the Mediterranean and

the Western Himalayas. Secondly, there are the Lynxes of the

temperate region of America which range as far south as Mexico

and lastly, the Caracals (Lynx caracal) which inhabit South-

Western Asia and the greater part of Africa.

The true Lynx which occurs within our limits in the upper

Indus Valley, in Gilgit, Ladak and Tibet is probably a race of

the ordinary lynx of Northern Europe and Asia — distinctive in

its pale sandy grey or isabelline colouring — hence its name Lynx

lynx isabellina. It is strongly built cat of medium size with a

short tail, broad head, large triangular tufted ears. Its paws are

large, the claws well-sheathed, and the pads more or less con-

cealed by hair. Its face is framed with a partial pendant ruff of

long hair. In summer, its coat shows a sprinkling of spots which

may persist, but usually disappear in the heavier winter coat,

except on the limbs and flanks. The Lynx is a creature of high

altitudes where it preys upon birds and such animals as it can kill

from rodents to sheep and goats. Writers have commented upon

its wild and fierce disposition. Its keen eye-sight and hearing are

proverbial. Rarely seen — little is known of its habits. It is said

to have 2 or 3 young — the mother usually hiding her litter in a

cave or in a hole among rocks.

The Caracal (Lynx caracal) known as the Siyah gosh or ‘black-

eared one’, is found in Sind and Cutch and is said to be common

in the North and North-West Hills of the Cutch State. It is

found in the drier parts of the Punjab, Rajputana, the United

Provinces and Central India. Outside our limits its range extends

into Persia, Mesopotamia and Arabia and over the greater part of

Africa.

The Caracal has the broad head and tufted ears of a true

lynx. Like the Lynx it stands higher in the hind limbs than on

the fore, but it is smaller and lighter in build and has a longer

tail. Its skull bears a general resemblance to that of a lynx, but

is narrower in the cranial and facial portions and recalls in some

of its structural characters the skull of a typical cat (Felis). Its

coat though not as dense as that of the Lynx is yet thick and soft.

The colouring is a uniform reddish grey above fading into buff or

white below. Faint indications of spots are present on the under

surface and sometimes on the back.

An uncommon a-nd elusive animal, little is known about the

caracal in the wild state. It is a creature of desert and scrub

jungle, where it preys on birds, which it is said to take in flight

by springing up at them, on rodents, antelope and small deer.

There is a record of a caracal attacking a man in the Mirzapur

District, U.P., but it is believed that the animal was driven to the

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Caracal ( Lynx caracal, Guldenstadt).

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

154

act by hunger — it was in a very emaciated condition — or, that it

made the attack in error. A captive caracal in the Mysore Zoo

killed and partly ate a large cobra which had entered its cage.

Like the Cheetah, it is easily tamed and trained to show its

prowess in hunting small deer, gazelle, hares and foxes and also

birds such as peafowl, crane and pigeon. It relies for success

upon its extraordinary agility. So perfect is the sympathy of eyes

and feet, that champion performers in this sport, still popular in

Persia, will kill 9 or 10 of a flock of feeding pigeons before they

can leave the ground. It is interesting to note that of all the

species of cats the Caracal comes nearest to the_ Hunting Leopard

in the structure of its hind feet. It is trained to hunt in much

the same way as a Cheetah, whose wide hind feet are better-fitted

for securing a firm hold upon sandy ground and for traversing it

more swiftly and surely than are the softer more pliable feet of

other members of the cat tribe.

Nothing definite is known about the breeding habits of the

animal in India. It is said to rear its young in porcupine burrows,

in hollow trees or crevices among rocks — the average litter being 2-4.

155 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

PALLAS’S CAT ( TRIOHAELURUS MANUL PALL.).

Pallas’s Cat is a Central Asian species. Three forms of this

cat are known — the typical race is from Turkestan and Western

Siberia, a second is found in Mongolia and Siberia east of Lake

Baikal and the third known as Trichaelurus manul nigripectus

Hodgs. occurs within our limits in Ladak and Tibet. Though dis-

tinguished by a number of structural peculiarities, Pallas’s Cat

holds in some aspects a position intermediate between the Lynxes

and the true cats ( Felis ).

It is a small, long-tailed cat with a broad head, low forehead

and short widely-separated ears, which appear to be set very low

behind the cheeks and give the cat a strange and peculiar aspect.

Observation of the behaviour of a specimen in captivity sug-

gested an explanation of its low forehead and the peculiar set of

its ears. When watching its prey behind some rock or point of

vantage — this species need not lower its ears in the accustomed

manner of cats. It is able to reveal a relatively small part of

its head without depressing or partially folding its ears — a habit

which must to a certain extent interfere with quick hearing in other

species.

The prevailing colour of the face of this cat is grey, that of

the neck, back and body silvery or iron grey. The hairs on the

back are sooty black at the base, then white, and again black at

the tip. Traces of dark transverse stripes appear on the loins and

sometimes on the limbs. The distal portion of the tail is ringed

and ends in a black tip. The fur of the throat, chest, belly and

thighs is considerably longer than on the flanks. It is perhaps an

adaptation, which gives protection to the cat when lying or sleep-

ing on snow-covered or frozen ground. A parallel lengthening of

the hairs on the thighs and under parts of the body is seen in the

Yak which, like Pallas’s Cat, is a denizen of the bleak uplands of

Ladak and Tibet.

Nothing is known about the habits of this cat in the wild state.

It is said to live among rocks and to prey on small animals and

birds. In captivity, its behaviour was distinctive from that usual

in most other small felines. It showed no fear of spectators or a

desire to avoid them and was very silent never uttering the familiar

snarling growl or hiss. Its mew is described as recalling a ‘com-

bination of the bark of a small dog and the hoot of an owl’.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Pallas’s Cat ( Trichaelurus manul, Pall.)

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist* Soc. PLATE No. 14

The Leopard Cat ( Prionailurus bengalensis, Kerr.)

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

156

THE LEOPARD OAT (. PRIONAILURUS BEN GALEN SIS

KERR): THE RUSTY-SPOTTED CAT (PRIONAILURUS

RUBIGINOSUS GEOFFR.).

The Leopard Cat was originally described from a specimen which

swam on board ship in Calcutta — hence its traditional name bengal-

ensis. It is found in evergreen and mixed forests practically all

over India — in the Himalayas, the Eastern and Western Ghats

and in South India. It is recorded from Kashmir and South

Baluchistan. Eastwards from Assam its range extends through

Burma and Southern China into the Malay countries.

Rounded black ears marked with a white patch on the outer .

surface distinguish both the Leopard Cat and the Rusty- Spotted

Cat from other cats of the genus Felis. The Leopard Cat is about

the size of a domestic cat but rather longer in the leg. Its colour

and markings give it the aspect of a miniature panther. The pre-

vailing colour of the body is yellowish above, white below, orna-

mented throughout with black or brownish spots. Both colour

and pattern are very variable in the species, the ground colour

may show a tendency to grey or rufous and the spots, usually

arranged to form regular lines along the body, may coalesce into

uninterrupted longitudinal bands. Among other markings are four

more or less distinct bands running from the crown over the neck,

which break up into short bars and elongate spots on the

shoulders. There is a pair of horizontal cheek stripes, the lower

joining a black bar across the throat and the usual two black

bars on* the inside of the fore-arm. The spots on the tail form

cross bars towards its end.

This beautiful forest cat preys upon small birds and animals.

It is nocturnal in habit and seldom seen. The Society’s collectors

found it common about villages in Coorg where it is said to be very

destructive to poultry. It has 3 or 4 cubs in a litter. A kitten a

month old was taken in August in the Niligiris. It became quite

tame and though driven off by domestic cats returned more than

once to its owners after a sojourn in the forest.

The Rusty-Spotted Cat ( Prionailurus rubiginosus) is about

half or three-quarters of the size of a domestic cat. It is a slightly

built active creature with a soft, smooth, fawn grey coat, patterned

with brown bars and spots arranged in more or less regular lines.

The markings on its head and shoulders are dark brown ; they change

to rusty on the flanks and are reduced to smaller round spots on

the hind quarters. The underparts are nearly white with black

spots. Length of body nearly 17 in., tail half the length of the

body, weight about 3 lbs. It is found in Southern India and is

recorded from the hill forests of the Western Ghats at Khandala

in the Poona District, and from Seoni in the Central Provinces.

It is common in jungles over the whole island of Ceylon. This

elegant and agile little cat lives both in forest and grasslands — in

157 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, ' VoL XXXVII

Ceylon it is rarely seen away from jungle. It shelters by day in

holes in trees or under bushes, and hunts by night preying upon

small birds and mammals or on poultry, when living near villages.

The female has a litter of 2-3 young and conceals them in a hollow

log or tree. . .

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE L.

The Marbled Cat ( Pardofelis marmorata, Martin).

158

THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

THE MARBLED CAT (. PARDOFELIS M A KM Oil A TA

MARTIN).

This beautiful cat, one of the rarest of all its tribe in museum

collections is found in the forests of the Eastern Himalayas and

Assam from whence its range extends into Burma and the Malay

countries. As a genus, the Marbled Cats are distinguished from

the Leopard Cats and their oriental relatives by structural peculi-

arities of the skull which among other points of distinction is short

and broad, more rounded and has wider cheek arches. The teeth

especially the canines are relatively more robust and the chin more

vertical.

Three races or forms of this cat are known. The East Hima-

layan race, described under the name Pardofelis marmorata chart-

toni from a specimen taken at Darjeeling, is found in Sikkim and

Assam. How far this particular race, extends into Burma is not

known. The Himalayan Marbled Cat is said to be quite distinctive

in its thicker, longer, rich ochreous brown coat whose luxuriance

tends to obscure the ‘marbled’ pattern more apparent in typical

examples from Java and Sumatra.

The general pattern on the coat of these cats consists of

stripes on the crown, neck and back, of large and small blotches,

making the so-called ‘marbling’ on the flanks and of spots on the

underside of the limbs and on the tail. The marbled pattern on

the flanks is variable even in cats inhabiting the same region. In

the Himalayan race, it is limited to a few, wavy greyish buff

stripes which break up the ground colour of the flanks into large

ochreous brown patches. The heavily spotted legs are of the same

rich hue as the body. The tail is darker in tone and its pattern

is obscurely defined. Though much smaller in size, the Marbled

Cat resembles the Clouded Leopard in colour and pattern so that

young Clouded Leopards are easily confused with this species.

Nothing is known about the habits of this cat. It is conjec-

tured that it is a purely forest cat of arboreal habit. A supposi-

tion supported by the structure of its feet which show no

adaptation to ground dwelling habits. Its tree climbing and noc-

turnal habits are suggested as a reason for its rarity in most

collections.

15a JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIl

THE GOLDEN CAT (PROFELL S TEMMINOKI VIG.).

With the exception of the Clouded Leopard, the Golden Cat

is the largest of the group of smaller Oriental felines (. Felinae ).

It is a fine sturdily-built cat reaching nearly 5 ft. in length. The

typical form of this cat ( Profelis temmincki temmincki), distinctive

in the shortness and sleekness of its coat and the absence of

body markings, comes from Sumatra — from whence its range ex-

tends into the Malay Peninsula, Indo-China, Siam, Burma, Assam

and the Eastern Himalayas. Golden Cats inhabiting more

northern latitudes in South-Eastern Tibet, Southern and Western

China are said to be distinguished by a greater luxuriance of fur;

while one form from the interior of China is distinguishable by

its pronounced body markings, which form bold lines and large

rosettes.

The general colour of the typical Golden Cat varies from golden

brown to dark brown, bright red and grey. Black examples are

also known. There is usually little or no trace of pattern on the

body, when the coat is short and smooth there may be a more

or less distinct pattern of greyish lines on the flanks and

shoulders. It is suggested that the uniform colouring of the ani-

mal without markings is a result of the enlargement and subse-

quent fusion of blotches and the obliteration of the paler inter-

spaces. Kittens have longer and thicker coats than the adults but

show no pattern. But whether the body pattern in the adult is

retained or lost, it is always conspicuous on the face of this cat

giving it a very striking aspect. Most conspicuous is a horizontal

white or buff cheek stripe, sometimes edged with black running

from below the eye to behind the gape. On the inner side of

the eye there is always a whitish stripe which bifurcates above

and is continuous with a more or less distinct greyish stripe pass-

ing on to the crown. Occasionally there are curved lines running

back from above the eye to between the ears.

Nothing definite is known about the habits of this cat. The

Mishmis say that it breeds in hollow trees and lias two young.

The Lusliai hunters state that it lives among rocks and does not

climb trees. . There is however a record of one which took refuge

in a tree from a dog. It did not display the fierceness usually

ascribed to this species, which in Burma is known as Kya Min,

signifying that it dominates other cats even tigers!

The Golden Cat preys on poultry, sheep and goats and small

deer. One was shot near Maymyo on a calf that it had killed;

another was speared at Victoria Point, Mergui, after killing a

buffalo calf.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

PLATE LI

The Golden Cat ( Profelis temmincki, Vig.)

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE LII

The Fishing-Cat ( Prionailurus vivernnus, Bennett).

the wild animals of the Indian empihf

160

THE FISHING GAT (FBI ON A 1LU RUM OR Z1BE THA ILURUS

VIVERR1NUS BENNETT).

The Fishing Cat inhabits forest and swamps at the base of

the Himalayas as far west as Nepal. It is found in parts of

Bengal, the United Provinces and Sind. It is unknown from the

Peninsula of India except in the creeks and backwaters of the

Malabar Coast between Mangalore and Cape Comorin. It is

found sparingly in the jungles of Ceylon, except perhaps in the

dry Northern Zone — in the wetter parts of Burma and Tenasserim,

in Southern China and Formosa.

The body of a large fishing cat measures about 2 ft. 6 in. and

its tail is about a foot in length. It scales nearly 25 lbs. Short

in limb and rather stout in huild, its body is covered with short

coarse, earthy grey fur, infused with brown. The body markings

consist of a series of elongate spots arranged in more or less longi-

tudinal rows. They vary in size and sharpness of definition in

individuals. From 6 to 8 dark lines run from the forehead over

the crown on to the neck breaking up into shorter bars and spots

on the shoulders. The cheeks are greyish white with two usually

well-defined horizontal black or brown stripes. Markings on the

limbs are indistinct or wanting. The two usual dark bars appear

on the inside of the fore-arm. The lower parts of the body are

spotted and the tail is more or less distinctly ringed with black.

The Fishing Cat lives in heavy jungle, or in scrub, frequently

in grass swamps or in reed beds, about rivers and tidal creeks. It

preys on any animal and bird that it can secure and has been

known to kill calves and sheep, to carry off dogs and even

children. There is the record of a newly-caught male which killed

a leopardess twice its size after breaking through the partition

which separated their cages. It is given to feeding on fish and

fresh water molluscs. Its method of fishing is to crouch on a

rock or overhanging bank and to scoop up the fish with a blow of

its paw. It does not enter the water in pursuit of its prey. The

fore-feet of this cat have moderately well-developed webs between

the toes, the claw sheaths are not large enough to completely

envelope the retracted claws, the ends of which project consider-

ably beyond the sheaths.

Nothing is known about the breeding habits of this cat. A

single kitten was taken from a lair consisting of a beaten down

patch among reeds with runs leading to it from opposite sides.

161 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

THE CLOUDED LEOPAED (. NEOFELIS NEBULOSA

GEIEEITH).

The Clouded Leopard is found in the forests of Sikkim',

Bhuthn, in Assam, in the dense evergreen forests in the extreme

north and south of Burma, in Siam, the Malay Peninsula and

Borneo.

The size of a Clouded Leopard is that of a small panther. A

large male measured 6^ ft.; 3 ft. of which consisted of tail. The

animal has a long body and tail and short limbs and rounded black

ears relieved by a greyish patch in the centre. The structure of

its feet is much like that of the panther and its near relatives,

the tiger and lion. Erom the panther it differs in the structure

of the hyoid apparatus and in peculiarities in the structure of

the skull and the set of the teeth. Very striking is the Clouded

Leopard in the enormous relative development of the upper canine

teeth, which present the nearest approach among living cats to

the great tusks of the extinct sabre-toothed tiger.

The markings of the Clouded Leopard give it a beauty and

distinction equalled by a few of its tribe. The general colour of

the. body varies from grey or earthy brown to pale or rich yellow-

ish brown fading to white or pale tawny on the under-parts: The

face is marked with the usual cheek stripes so common in the

smaller cats, and the head is spotted. Two broad bands, with

narrower bands or elongate spots between them run from between

the ears to the shoulders and extend more or less regularly in the

form of large oval or elongate marks on the back. The clouded

pattern of the flanks is formed by dark blotches more or less lined

with black and divided by paler interspaces. The limbs and

under-parts are marked with large spots and the tail ornamented

with rings frequently imperfect on the sides.

Little is recorded about the habits of this beautiful animal..

It is said to be strictly arboreal in habit and to prey on animals

and birds after the manner of its kind. There is a record of one

which was killed while advancing to attack a herd boy who split

its skull with his dah.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE No. 15

The Clouded Leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa , Griffith.)

THE PRESERVATION OE WILD LIFE IN INDIA.

No. 5. THE INDIAN LION.

BY

Sir Patrick Cadell, kL, c.s.i. , c.i.e.

I have been asked by the Honorary Secretary of the Bombay

Natural History Society to write a note upon the Indian Lion,

and the measures needed for his preservation. I gladly do so

because I believe that there is no other wild animal in India which

could so easily become totally extinct. It is now preserved solely

by the efforts of one State. Should that State for any reason

become weary of well doing, the lion would disappear from India

in two or three years.

It is not necessary to write at length upon the history of the

Indian lion. Two excellent articles on the Kathiawar Lion, written

by Lieut. -Colonel Fenton, will be found in the Society’s Journal

of April 1909 and January 1911, and a chapter on the Indian

Lion, which summarises most of the available knowledge, may be

read in Brigadier General It. G. Burton’s Book of the Tiger. It

is sufficient to say that the lion was once widely distributed

over India. Less than one hundred years ago it was common

round about Delhi, and it was not very uncommon in Central

India and Guzerat not more than seventy years ago. At about the

same period it was to be found in the Barda Hills of Jamnagar

and Porbandar, while it remained in the Girnar Range near Juna-

gadh City till 1879. Now, however, the lion is entirely confined

to the Gir Forest of the Junagadh State. That forest does not

extend to 1,500 square miles, as Colonel Fenton says, but to 494

square miles only. The former figure once correctly represented

its dimensions, and the late Maharaja Jam Saheb Ranjitsinhji,

who spent a good deal of his boyhood within the limits of Junagadh,

told me that he had then heard of lions in areas now distant from

the forest. The spread of cultivation has very seriously encroached

upon the forest and if this encroachment has now been stopped,

it has largely been for the sake of the lions. Every one will agree

that five hundred square miles is not a great area for the preserva-

tion of a species, and, alas, it has not proved to be large enough

to prevent the animals straying into other jurisdictions where they

have been of late years somewhat ruthlessly shot down.

It should be noted that it has long been recognised that the

lion would disappear without preservation, and that it was believed

that even with such preservation its extinction could only be post-

poned. Colonel J. W. Watson, an excellent observer and shikari,

when writing the statistical account of Junagadh for the Bombay

District Gazetteer about 1880, stated that ‘there are probably not'

more than ten or a dozen lions and lionesses left in the whole

Gir Forest’, and this in spite of the statement that ‘these are

18

1&3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol XxXVlI

strictly preserved’. When Lord Curzon proposed to visit the Gir

to shoot a lion, a well known Bombay citizen, who happened to

be visiting Junagadh, wrote to a Bombay paper pointing out that

there were supposed to be less than a dozen animals surviving.

Immediately Lord Curzon was informed of this, he cancelled his

shoot, and advised the Junagadh Darbar to preserve the animals

strictly. Colonel Benton writing in November 1908 states that the

preservation was not very strict and that the animal was ‘slowly

but surely approaching extinction’ and again that it was ‘fast dis-

appearing ’ .

It was, I believe, entirely owing to the fact that there was a

British Administration in the State from 1911 to 1920 with a

much stricter preservation of the lion and a considerable amount of

co-operation for the time being from neighbouring jurisdictions

that the lion has survived, and to some extent increased in numbers.

One of the dangers of the extinction of the lion lies in the com-

parative ease with which it is shot, and its lack of cunning and

finesse as compared with the tiger or the panther. Before I ex-

plain the circumstances which make it easy to shoot, I should

perhaps state my own qualifications for offering an opinion. I

have never drawn a bead upon a lion, but I have been present

when some have been shot by State guests. I have also seen

lionesses come to tie-ups when a lion was sought by such guests,

and have had several tie-ups and beats purely for purposes of

observation, and not for shooting. I have of course discussed the

matter with local shikaris and others who have seen many lions

killed.

The reasons why the lion is a much easier animal to bring to

bag than the tiger or the panther are as follows : In the first

place, the lion is, as Colonel Benton points out, a much noisier

animal. He will constantly give away his presence by roaring,

which a tiger or a panther does not do except for special reasons.

Secondly he is in much more open country, especially in the hot

weather. The reader of Colonel Benton’s articles will notice that

in several cases he was able to stalk lions under trees, and to fire at

them when they were resting or lying down. Such a process

would be practically impossible with the tiger or panther. Thirdly

the lion is much more sociable, and moves about in troops, often

comprising three generations. This may not make it easier to

shoot a particular animal, but it does make it far easier for the

sportsman who is not very particular, to get something, even if it

is only a lioness or a half-grown cub. Bourthly the lion, or at

least the lioness, if one or more is accompanying the lion, comes

out far more readily to a tie-up. In the case of a very good lion,

shot two years ago by a visitor from England, the lion came out

almost immediately in broad daylight to a goat tied in the open

when there had been no previous kill. It is true that, when there

are lionesses, the lion, or the principal lion, seems to prefer to

send them out first,, either to spy out the ground, or to do the

work of killing, or perhaps from the more gentlemanly motive of

giving the lady the first morsel. In at least three cases, I have

known the lioness to come out and do the killing, while the lion

THE PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA 164

has kept in the background throughout. In another case the

lioness did a long stalk towards the tie-up, a young buffalo, through

a cotton field, and finally lay down within a few yards of it, with-

out attacking it, presumably waiting for the assistance of the lion.

She was, however, more patient than we were, and we had to

frighten her away when we got down. In a recent case, the lion

did come first, and made no attempts to kill, and the lioness

came out afterwards and did the killing : but she was a young

animal, and the lion seemed to watch her performance with bene-

volent interest. It is usual to tie-up for lions in the day-time both

a goat and young buffalo. The goat is invariably taken first

because, as the shikaris say, the lions want to tackle the more

serious problem of the buffalo in quiet. Panthers do, of course,

occasionally come to tie-ups with extraordinary boldness, but they

do not often come, unless they have already killed at the place,

with such openness and in such broad daylight as the lions do.

My experience of drives for lions is small, but I should say

that, while the lion comes rather faster than the tiger generally

does, he gives more notice of his approach, and avoids the open

spaces less than a tiger would do. He consequently gives an

easier shot.

An obvious cause of their undoing is the confidence of the

lions. When they know that they are not often interfered with,

they naturally appear more boldly in the open. A good instanc'e of

this occurred at our Christmas Camp last year. A lady and a

man were riding with an orderly in the afternoon. The lady,

riding ahead, came sharply round a corner on a forest road on to

a lioness rolling in the dust of the road. The lioness got up,

went to the side of the road, and stood there while the riders went

past. The remarkable thing was that while the lady’s horse

started slightly, the other two did not seem to see or mind the

lioness. The animal was almost certainly one that we saw in a

beat two days later, a very fine lioness of a much more golden

colour than is usual with the Kathiawar animal. In another case,

a family of lions allowed the inmates of a car to get out and take

some cinema photographs of them without any uneasiness.

It is obvious that an animal so easily brought to hand could

only be kept extant by strict preservation. This was applied, so

far as the Junagadh State is concerned, during the period of Ad-

ministration, and has since been maintained by His Highness the

Nawab of Junagadh. During the Administration, not even a

Governor of Bombay, for whom the shooting of a Kathiawar lion

had become almost a hereditary ‘hukk’, was invited to shoot in

the Forest. Unfortunately, though the true Gir Forest lies almost

wholly within Junagadh limits, the borders of it extend into at

least five jurisdictions. At first, with the cordial help of the Agent

to the Governor in Kathiawar, the other jurisdictions readily assist-

ed in the work of preservation. The Darbar of one large State

agreed originally to drive back into Junagadh limits any lions that

strayed across. This abnegation proved too trying for a British

Officer who shot several of such animals: but even then it was

agreed that only male lions that were actually doing damage should

165 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

be shot. Now, however, any such restriction seems to have gone

by the board.

Lions require a particular environment as a breeding haunt

and it is believed that there are no suitable areas outside Junagadh

territory. But the animals are easily enticed across the boundary

by a succession of tie-ups. It is not only the rulers or officials

of these jurisdictions that shoot the animals, but the practice has

now begun in one jurisdiction at least of inviting guests from

long distances to shoot the lions. One of these guests assured me

that he only enjoyed watching the animals. This may have been

his only enjoyment, but I was afterwards told that he had shot

a young lion and two lionesses. To our certain knowledge, because

the news of the slaying of an animal rapidly spreads, twenty-two

animals have been so slain within the three seasons ending in

1934. There may have been more but there certainly have not

been less. Now it must be agreed that the lions do stray volun-

tarily, apart from enticement. This occurs particularly during the

rains, when insects are bad in the Gir. At that time, however,

there is little shooting. Doubtless, however, the lions do damage

occasionally : but they would easily be frightened away, if the full-

grown males were shot, and no great damage would be done to

the stock of lions thereby. No such restriction is observed in

practice. Perhaps because, as I have noted above, lionesses and

half-grown cubs come most readily to the tie-ups, nearly all of

the twenty-two animals I have referred to have belonged to these

categories. In one case five animals, none so far as I could as-

certain of full size, were shot by the young members of one

family. In another, four animals, a young lion, two lionesses and

a cub were practically ringed in, and were slain, all the four being-

claimed as falling to the rifle of one young sportsman.

I believe that it is sometimes suggested that the Junagadh

State is selfish in trying to restrict, and, as it is alleged, reserve

for itself the shooting of lions. If this is so, the selfishness is

not personal. His Highness the Nawab, though a keen rifle shot,

has shot only one lion during the fourteen years that have passed

since he assumed the Government of the State. There is not an

official in the State who has fired at a lion. If every year the

State has the very real honour and pleasure of entertaining dis-

tinguished guests for a lion shoot, it is a distinction which costs a

good many thousands of rupees. There is also the steady annual

cost of the sums paid in compensation to villagers and herdsmen

whose cattle have been killed by lions. When the State hears of

people being invited from afar to shoot the lions bred in its limits

it cannot be a matter of surprise if the game sometimes seems

hardly worth the candle.

I am often asked how many lions still remain in the Gir. As

I have said above, there were supposed to be less than a dozen

in 1880, and about the same at the beginning of the century when

Lord Curzon’s visit was cancelled. As a result of the strict pre-

servation during the Administration the number was believed to

have increased to fifty, though even in those days poaching was

not unknown. It has since been stated in the London Times, and

THE PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN INDIA

166

the statement is quoted in General Burton’s book, that there are

now two hundred lions. I believe this number to be greatly exag-

gerated. The fact that lions move in troops, and that they cover

long distances leads to over estimation. If a man sees a troop of

six or seven animals, and hears of a similar number some miles

away within a few days, he naturally fixes too high a number

for the whole forest. My own opinion though it is only a guess

is that there are not much more than 75 to 80. It is obvious that

this number cannot stand a drain of ten or twelve being shot

yearly, especially if the animals so killed outside Junagadh limits

are all of young breeding stock.

It may be observed that there is no real excuse for shooting a

lioness in mistake for a lion. Even if the shooting of female tigers

and panthers were regarded as being unsportsmanlike and repre-

hensible, the sportsman might well plead that he had not suffi-

cient time, or sufficient knowledge, to distinguish. But he could

not truthfully say so in the case of the lioness. A lion which is

not easily distinguishable as being such, must be very young and

worthless as a trophy to the self-respecting sportsman.

What then is the remedy to be adopted against unfair or unwise

shooting? It has been recently proposed in a high official quarter

that all the jurisdictions concerned, that is all those which possess

or border upon any portion of the Gir Forest, should agree to

refrain from shooting within a mile from the boundary of another

jurisdiction, and from shooting any but full-grown males. This

would lead to some improvement though in two recent cases the

condition that the animal shot should be a full-grown male has

been, I am informed, somewhat liberally interpreted. But it may

be doubted whether this is enough, and I venture to think that

it would be better to come to an agreement that the total number

of lions to be shot in one year should not exceed some such figure

as five or six.

The pressure on Junagadh of suggestions for invitations to shoot

lions is, it may be observed, increasing year by year, and the

Junagadh Darbar would gladly welcome some such limitation.

Unless an agreement is reached, and is faithfully observed, the

danger of the disappearance of the lion from the fauna of India,

and consequently from its last home in Asia, is obvious.

No. 6. WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA.

BY

H. C. Smith,

Deputy Conservator of Forests, Honorary Game Warden.

I. — The Need for Protection —

General ... ... ... 167

Reasons why Wild Life should be protected ... 169

II. — Legislation —

Existing Legislation ... ... .... 170

Revision .... ... ... 173

A Wild Life Protection Act for Burma ... 174

Nectessary Amendments ... ... ... 174

The Enforcement of the Laws ... ... 175

Breaches of the Laws .... ... ... 177

III. — Sanctuaries and National Parks ... ... 179

IY. — Sport ... ... ... ... 182

V. — Kheddah Operations ... ... ... 183

VI. — Elephant Control ... ... ... 184

VII. — A Wild Life Protection Society .... ... 185

VIII. — The Appointment of a Game Warden ... ... 186

IX. — Revenue and Expenditure ... ... ... 187

X. — Conclusion ... ... ... ... 188

I. The Need for Protection.

General.

Most civilised Western nations have now realised what Burma

has yet to learn, namely, that the perpetuation of an indigenous

fauna is essential for a country’s welfare.

The perpetuation of wild life is impossible under modern con-

ditions without the enforcement of protective legislation. Burma

unfortunately has as yet failed to realise the necessity for such pro-

tection and unless she takes immediate and vigorous steps to cast

off the apathy which up till now has characterised the attitude of

her general public towards all matters pertaining to the perpetua-

tion of wild life she will most certainly be too late as irreparable

damage will have been done.

Endowed by nature with a wild fauna which in variety, beauty

and interest compares most favourably with that of any country

in the world it is the bounden duty of the present generation to

hand it down to posterity in as complete a form as possible.

In the early stages of the Province’s development wild animals

and birds of all kinds were plentiful, guns were few and conse-

quently there was little need for elaborate protective legislation or

at any rate for its rigid enforcement.

Recent years, however, have seen a marked change in conditions

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

168

generally, communications have been improved; more country has

been opened up; cultivation has been extended, curtailing the area

available for occupation by wild life; and an enormous increase in

the number of firearms throughout the province has resulted in the

indiscriminate slaughter of numerous kinds of animals and birds,

especially in the more accessible districts.

Development must, of course, continue and wild life must, just

as inevitably, recede before it, but, in a country like Burma, there

is no reason why the indigenous animals should not be perpetu-

ated for all time in certain areas without their presence in any

way impeding future national progress. Such animals as tigers,

elephants and thamin are entirely out of place, and their presence

cannot be tolerated in the immediate vicinity of human dwellings

or intensive cultivation, but in most of the reserved forests of the

country their existence is not only welcome but must be considered

an important national asset. Wild animals may be destructive to

crops but they are generally harmless to man unless man attacks

them first and wounds them. Even a tiger except in the rare

cases in which he has turned man-eater goes out of his way to

avoid man, and people with a true knowledge of the jungle pay

very little attention to his presence unless he starts raiding their

cattle.

The main reason why so little interest has up till now been

taken in the protection of Burma’s fauna is undoubtedly that most

people are extremely ignorant on the subject. They do not realise

that the possession of a number of wild animals and birds is a very

valuable asset to the province nor do they realise that the stock

cannot last for ever unless certain restrictions are imposed on its

destruction.

To the jungle Burman all ideas of protection are not unnatu-

rally entirely foreign and he instinctively looks for guidance in such

matters to the educated classes. If, therefore, the latter fail to

set the correct example he can scarcely be blamed for his irregu-

larities.

The average villager has always been accustomed to obtain

plenty of everything with very little trouble and is quite oblivious

of the fact that supplies must soon come to an end unless their

use is systematically controlled.

Bamboos, houseposts, thatching, firewood and water he has

always been able to get with ease close to his village. Paddy he

has been able to grow with the minimum amount of exertion and

wild animals and birds he has regarded as things to' be killed when-

ever possible either to provide meat or else because they damage

his crops.

It is extraordinarily difficult to make the villager realise that

if he goes on wastefully cutting timber and fuel according to no

plan there will soon come a time when the supply will run out and

either he or his descendants will suffer in consequence.

One of the main duties of educated Burmans should therefore

be to help villagers to realise that with the spread of development

and increase in population the time has come when the unrestricted

exploitation of all kinds of forest produce cannot be tolerated.

169 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Wild animals and birds are a very valuable form of forest pro-

duce and need to be conserved every bit as much as bamboos,

timber and fuel.

If only people from Burma could see for themselves the condi-

tions existing in parts of India and other countries where develop-

ment has already advanced much further than it has at present

in Burma and note the distress which has been caused by the

wholesale destruction of forests and all that they contain, they

would most certainly wake up and take steps now lest the country-

side of Burma should share a similar fate.

While it should be a comparatively simple matter to make the

villager understand the necessity for the maintenance of a contin-

uous supply of timber, fuel and bamboos, it may not be quite so

easy to persuade him that the preservation of a stock of wild

beasts is equally advantageous.

Certain wild animals have from time immemorial damaged his

crops, killed his cattle and at times also endangered his life and

he has therefore, grown up to regard them as his natural enemies

to be killed whenever and however possible. Other wild creatures,

though quite harmless, he has regarded as meat, of which he has

always tried to obtain as much as possible in the easiest way.

Reasons why Wild Life should he protected.

In any country the perpetuation of an indigenous fauna is

necessary for commercial, agricultural, scientific, aesthetic and

sporting reasons. In Burma the precepts of the Buddhist religion

must surely provide an additional cause for protection.

A large portion of Burma’s wealth is derived from timber which

cannot be economically extracted without elephants. These animals

cannot live for ever and a supply of wild elephants must always

be maintained from which the domestic herds can be replenished

and increased as trade expands.

A considerable amount of revenue is realised annually on ac-

count of license fees and royalty paid on the collection of various

parts and products of wild animals. There is no reason why this

revenue should not be greatly increased with careful management

without the fauna being in any way adversely affected.

An immense amount of good is done by many kinds of birds

by destroying insects and other pests which would otherwise prey

upon crops, domestic animals or human beings. Woodpeckers,

owls, nightjars, egrets, drongos, rollers and mynas, are particularly

useful in this respect.

A vast amount of information of use to science has been acquired

in the past from the study of wild animals and a great deal more

awaits discovery. The stocks of specimens in museums through-

out the world will not last indefinitely and must therefore be

periodically replenished.

Most wild animals and birds add very considerably to the beauty

and interest of a countryside by their presence. A country devoid

of all wild life, is unnatural, and under such conditions the national

character must be adversely affected.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

170

The study of the habits and ways of wild creatures provides

one of the healthiest and most beneficial forms of amusement for

the people and needs all possible encouragement. Townspeople

have few opportunities to study wild animals in their native haunts

and have therefore to be content to do so in Zoological Gardens

and National Parks. These institutions are increasing in popula-

rity all over the world and their stocks of wild animals and birds

will require periodical replenishment.

The pursuit of certain wild creatures in strict accordance with

the dictates of sport provides one of the finest forms of training for

the country’s youth and of recreation for its manhood. Individual

skill and physical prowess are involved in the location and coming

to close quarters with most kinds of wild animals. Perseverance,

patience, ability to overcome hardship and difficulty, power of en-

durance and mental and physical fitness are all virtues which are

cultivated and fostered by the pursuit of wild beasts and since

these are the qualities which go to make the ideal citizen or

soldier every effort should be made to induce the youth of the

country to acquire them.

It is the overtaking and the outwitting of an animal which pro-

vide the training and the recreation and it matters little whether

observation, photography or killing is the ultimate object. To

Buddhists whose religion forbids them to take life the first two

objects will naturally appeal whilst others will probably wish to

kill to obtain a trophy.

II. Legislation.

Existing Legislation.

The legislation at present in force for the protection of the

fauna of Burma consists of the following: —

(i) The Burma Game Rules, 1927, together with certain noti-

fications and special orders issued under them. These

are all issued under the authority of the Burma Forest

Act, 1902.

(ii) The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912, which

applies to the whole of British India.

(iii) The Indian Arms Act which provides for the control of

guns and cartridges used against wild animals and

which is also an all-India Act.

These laws together with certain other matters of interest to

sportsmen are contained in a Burma Game Manual which is on

sale to the general public at a price of twelve annas.

Also, since the regulations have necessarily been written in

much detail and in legal phraseology which may not be readily

understandable to some, an abstract containing their salient points

but having no legal significance has been compiled. This abstract

which is in the form of a pamphlet entitled Game Law in Burma

has been prepared in both English and Burmese for general cir-

culation gratis in the Districts.

171 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

The existing laws whilst making adequate provision for the

destruction of wild animals which are a menace to human life and

property, for the obtaining of scientific specimens and for the kill-

ing of game for sport should, if only they are enforced, afford

reasonable protection to the fauna of the Province.

In bona fide defence of life or property any person may kill

a wild animal in any way he pleases.

The killing of game for the purpose of sport is controlled by

the issue of game licenses, particulars of which can be obtained

from any Divisional Forest Officer.

It is illegal to hunt any kind of wild animal or bird inside a

reserve forest or game sanctuary without a game license.

All wild animals and birds except the following, namely rhino-

ceros, tapir, buffalo, mythun, elephant, bison, saing, serow, goral,

Argus pheasant, bittern, crane, drongo, egret, heron, liornbill, king-

fisher, nightjar, oriole, owl, roller, stork, tern and woodpecker may

be hunted anywhere outside reserved forests and game sanctuaries

without a license but subject to the conditions of the schedule of

close seasons which is reproduced in full below: —

The Schedule of Close Seasons.

No one may hunt any animal or bird mentioned in column 1 of

this Schedule during the period mentioned as its close season in

column 2 whether inside or outside a reserved forest with or with-

out a license.

1. 2.

Males and Females of : — A

Rhinoceros

Tapir

Buffalo

Mythun

Females of

Elephant

Bison

Saing

Thamin

Hog Deer

Sambhur

Males of : —

All species of deer, if hornless or

with horns in velvet.

) ... The whole

year.

Males and Females of : —

Serow

Goral

Gyi

1st July to

31st October.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

172

The Argus pheasant and all species of : —

Bittern

Crane

Drongo

Egret

Heron

Hornbill

Kingfisher

Nightjar

Oriole

Owl

Roller

Stork

Tern

Woodpecker

)... The whole

year.

All species of : —

Peafowl

Pheasant (other than Argus phea-

sant)

Partridge

Painted Snipe

Plover

Quail

1st March to

31st August

All species of : —

Jungle Fowl

1st April to

30th Septem-

ber.

The Masked Finfoot and all species of :

Duck

Teal

Moorhen

Jacana

Watercock

Grebe

Note — (i) Special licenses are issued for kheddah operations.

(ii) Immature males of elephant, bison and saing may

not be hunted at any time.

Mature males are defined as follows : —

Elephant. — Either tusk measured along the outer curve

must project at least thirty inches from the gum or must exceed

fourteen inches in girth.

Bison. — The horn must measure at least twenty- two inches

along the outer curve or must show clearly defined transverse cor-

rugations extending for at least four inches from the base.

1st May to

31st August.

173 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

Saing. — The horn must measure at least twenty inches along

the outer curve or must show clearly defined transverse corruga-

tions extending for at least four inches from the base.

Under Rule 4 of the Burma Game Rules certain methods of

hunting are prohibited and except when animals are actually menac-

ing human life or property no one may —

(a) shoot any animal with poisoned arrows;

( b ) lay down poison for any animal;

(c) net wild water birds;

( d ) hunt any animal by means of pitfalls;

(e) hunt within one hundred yards of the compound of a

Buddhist monstery;

(/) hunt any animal during the period shown to be a close

time for that animal;

(g) shoot any animal other than carnivora from any platform

or machan;

(h) use artificial light for the purpose of hunting any animals

other than carnivora;

(i) shoot animals other than carnivora from the back of an

elephant or from any kind of vehicle;

(/) sell or buy, or offer to sell or buy or possess or destroy

the eggs of any of the birds mentioned in the schedule

at any time of the year; and

(k) hunt any animal named in the schedule for purposes of

trade except elephants which are hunted in accordance

with a special license.

Under Section 3 (b) of the Wild Birds and Animals Protection

Act, it is unlawful in respect of any wild bird or animal for which

a close season has been declared in the schedule of close seasons,

to sell or buy or offer to sell or buy or to possess any such bird

or animal which has not been captured or killed before the com-

mencement of such close time, or the flesh or any other part

thereof.

Under the Indian Arms Act it is illegal for anyone to lend a

gun or rifle or supply cartridges to any person unauthorised to

possess them.

Revision.

In 1925 in view of the increasing number of firearms and the

development of the country, the Game Rules then in force were

found to be inadequate to safeguard the fauna against serious

depletion. A thorough revision of the Game Rules was considered

necessary and the appointment of a Game Warden was found to

be essential for the proper protection of the wild fauna. The Game

Rules and the special orders and circulars under these rules were

accordingly revised; the capture and control of wild elephants were

systematized and a Game Warden was appointed.

The Burma Game Rules, 1927, came into force on the 1st

November of that year and it was laid down that they should be

revised after five years. They are now due for revision and since

there are many points requiring consideration the matter should

receive attention as soon as possible. At the same time, all exist-

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA lH

ing legislation for the protection of the fauna should be thoroughly

scrutinized by a body of men representative of commerce, agricul-

ture, forestry, science, sport, religion and aesthetics.

A revision of the Game Rules will entail, amongst other things

re-editing the Burma Game Manual, the Game Law pamphlets and

the various Game licence forms, all of which work should be under-

taken by a whole-time Game Warden who at present does not

exist.

In 1931 as a measure of retrenchment the post of Game Warden

was suspended. Financial stringency cannot justify such a retro-

grade step in regard to a post on which the total annual expendi-

ture was approximately £1,000 irrespective of compensating

revenue.

The rehabilitation of the post of Game Warden is essential if

the progress made with wild life protection during the past five,

years is to be maintained.

A Wild Life Protection Act for Burma.

The Burma Forest Act of 1902, under the authority of which

the Burma Game Rules, 1927, are issued only applies to reserved

forests and public forest land. It is not applicable to private land.

The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912, an all-India

Act, applies to private land but no particular class of officer is

responsible for its enforcement.

These two disadvantages were fully realised in 1926 when a

new draft Act for Burma incorporating the pertinent portions of

both the above Acts was drawn up, but never pressed for in the

then newly constituted Legislative Council. The need for such

an act has not lessened during the past five years and the Burma

Game Rules and Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act should

now be replaced by a special Wild Life Protection Act for Burma.

Necessary Amendments.

During the past five years a number of weak points in the

existing rules have been shown up and certain amendments deserv-

ing consideration have been proposed. At the time of revision all

criticism whether it be of a constructive or destructive nature

should be carefully considered by a representative body.

The most urgent requirement at the moment is legislation to

control the exposure for sale or barter of all wild animals or birds

or parts thereof at all times and in all places. Until such legisla-

tion is introduced and enforced it will be practically impossible to

prevent the netting and snaring of wild fowl for trade purposes

which is carried on extensively to the accompaniment of great

cruelty.

The schedule of close seasons requires careful scrutiny mainly

with a view to removing petty inconveniences to sportsmen and

making things still simpler for the uneducated.

Close times have been fixed so as to coincide as far as possible

with the breeding seasons of the scheduled animals and birds using

a minimum number of dates to avoid unnecessary complication

17$ journal, Bombay natural hist, society- t Voi. xxxvii

and with due consideration for the requirements of sportsmen.

In Burma, where certain animals breed the whole year round and

birds of one kind or another lay their eggs in every month of the

year, the compilation of an effective schedule on these lines is not

easy.

The young of Barking Beer ( gyi ) may be bom in any month

and so these animals were given an arbitrary clos^, season from

the 1st of July to the 31st of October, this being the 'period during

which it was thought that fewest sportsmen would be in the jungle.

It now appears that many people like to spend their October holi-

days shooting and are inconvenienced, probably unnecessarily, by

October being a closed month for gyi. If the existing close season

for the males and females of serow, goral and gyi were altered to

the 15th June to 30th September, many sportsmen would be satis-

fied whilst the animals in question would be none the worse off.

In 1926 the list of birds included in the schedule underwent

close scrutiny and was considerably simplified, nevertheless, further

modification is now necessary. The list, which as it now stands,

includes approximately 260 species and sub-species, should again

be carefully scrutinised by a representative body. An authori-

tative list of the Burmese names of all scheduled birds should be

compiled.

In addition to the above proposals a number of minor amend-

ments have been suggested many of which deal with technical

points in connection with the administration of the rules. All these

should receive due consideration as soon as a Game Warden and

a representative body competent to deal with the situation can be

appointed.

The Enforcement of the Laws.

In the past, the non-enforcement of certain protective measures

was, to a certain extent, justified by conditions prevailing at the

time, but now it is necessary to emphasize the fact that nothing

short of a very strict observance of all such legislation in future

can save the fauna from serious depletion and the province from

a lasting reproach in consequence.

It is, of course, unreasonable to suppose that laws which have

hitherto not been strictly enforced can all at once be enforced

or that the apathy which has uptill now characterised the attitude

of the general public towards Wild Life Protection can, at a

moment’s notice, be converted into an enthusiasm for the further-

ance of such a cause. Nevertheless, it is hoped that when the

change in conditions is realised the whole community will take up

wholeheartedly the question of the protection of its wild fauna.

In Burma the executive* department so far as the protection of

the fauna is concerned is the Forest Department and Forest Offi-

cers supervise the regulations for the protection of Wild Life in

their jurisdictions to the extent to which they take an interest in

the matter and have the time to do so. This position may be

unsatisfactory but, under existing conditions, it is possibly the best

that can be attained.

Wild life protection In burMA

176

A Forest Officer’s duties give him exceptional opportunities for

observing the conditions relating to wild life and for developing

a sympathetic interest in the preservation of the wild fauna. It

might be supposed, therefore, that the Forest Department would

contain a large proportion of field naturalists and lovers of nature

yet the hard fact is that only a small percentage of Forest Officers

have anything but a superficial knowledge of the fauna in their

forests or evince any real enthusiasm for affording it adequate

protection. Naturalistic ability and interest in the wild fauna are

not part of the compulsory equipment of Forest Officers and a

progressive policy in respect of Wild Life Protection involves addi-

tional work which is neglected by a larger proportion of the Forest

Establishment than might be expected.

In the majority of cases the local heads of Forest Circles and

Divisions in common with many senior officials of other Govern-

ment Departments, are men from overseas whose interest in hand-

ing down to posterity an undepleted fauna can in no way approach

the viewpoint of the average colonial. This migrant official per-

sonnel to whom is entrusted the control of all matters affecting

the fauna, however conscientious it may be in regard to the work

for which it has been trained, cannot as a whole, raise sufficient

enthusiasm over an optional interest in a country in which it has

no intention to settle permanently.

Modern conditions of service have aggravated the situation and

there is a growing tendency amongst officials to dissociate them-

selves from any but those matters which are part and parcel of

their contracts and agreements. Increased office work often makes

it impossible for district officials to spend sufficient time on tour

and Forest Officers, with many special duties to perform in con-

nection with their appointments, cannot usually devote sufficient

time to the supervision of regulations for the protection of wild

life which is frequently in parts of the country where forestry

operations are practically non-existent. Leisurely touring in remote

areas, which is so essential for effective Wild Life Protection and

also incidentally, for the proper administration of a district, is no

longer encouraged.

Within the last three years the situation has been further aggra-

vated by the rebellion in Lower Burma and the economic crisis

which has affected the whole Province. During the rebellion general

lawlessness prevailed throughout several districts and in some

forests it has only recently been possible to resume normal touring.

The financial crisis led to a substantial reduction in the Forest

Establishment and to an amalgamation of certain Forest Circles

and Divisions. During this retrenchment Wild Life Protection

received little consideration with the result that certain Divisional

Forest Officers now find that it is quite impossible to enforce pro-

tective legislation throughout the vast areas under their charge.

The officers of the Forest Department are most directly con-

cerned with the enforcement of the Game Laws but it is obvious

that no matter how enthusiastic they may be, their efforts must

be largely nullified unless they receive strong support from mem-

bers of other departments and the general public as well.

177 JdURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV U

Isolated individual efforts can achieve little in a case like this;

what is required is a concerted effort on the part of every one

for the attainment of the common end.

At present an active form of public opinion in favour of Wild

Life Protection which plays such an important part in the enforce-

ment of the laws in Western countries, is almost entirely lacking

in Burma, and until it is created it is unlikely that a great deal

of progress will be made. Its creation, however, should not prove

a difficult matter if every sportsman in the country would make

up his mind once and for all to adhere rigidly to the letter of

the Law himself and make a determined effort to see that his

subordinates and followers do the same. If all such men would

learn to regard the non-observance of the Game Laws as unsport-

ing and those who infringe them as persons not playing the game

the desired form of public opinion would soon be created.

Ignorance of the necessity for protective legislation and even of

its existence has undoubtedly often been the cause of numerous

infringements in the past, but in these days there can be little

excuse for a serious breach of the law at any rate on the part of

an educated person.

Under existing conditions the killing of wild animals and birds

for food alone cannot be justified, for when due allowance is made

for the numbers which must be killed annually in defence of life

and property, properly regulated shooting for sport is all that can

be tolerated. These facts have been given due weight in the com-

pilation of the existing laws, and if only these are strictly observed

there need be little fear of any species ever being irreparably re-

duced in numbers.

Breaches of the Laws.

The practices of lending out guns and disregarding the close

seasons, above all others are responsible for most harm to the

fauna.

Many persons possess guns which they have little desire or

ability to use themselves but they are nevertheless very fond of

meat. They, therefore, lend their weapons to others to procure

meat for them. The persons thus employed usually have little

regard for the age or sex of their victims and pay little heed to

the game laws or the dictates of sport.

The lending of a gun or rifle or giving of cartridges to persons

unauthorised to possess them are practices which, besides being

illegal, dangerous and unsportsmanlike, are, more than any others

hostile to the cause of Wild Life Protection.

In respect of the disregard for the close seasons the plea is

frequently brought forward that men who are compelled to spend

most of their time in the jungle should be allowed a certain amount

of licence regarding the observance of the Game Laws. This is all

very well, but in Burma no kind of Game exists in such numbers

that its destruction purely for food purposes in contravention of

the game laws can be justified.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

178

If every one who earned his living in the jungle was allowed to

obtain as much meat as he liked in any way he liked, then the wild

fauna would very soon be exterminated.

In addition to lending out guns and non-observance of the close

seasons there are other factors the effects of which, though not so

far reaching, nevertheless form a considerable menace to the wild

life of the country.

Recent years have seen a very large increase in the numbers

of domestic cattle owned mainly by Indians. The herds in places

have assumed large proportions, and containing as they do numer-

ous weak and sickly animals they foster the spread of cattle

disease besides consuming well nigh the entire food supply which

belongs legitimately to the draught cattle of the local villages and

the indigenous fauna. Every hot weather large numbers of saing

and other wild animals succumb to disease which apparently ori-

ginates with domestic cattle, and unless steps are taken to restrict

the numbers and wanderings of the prolific herds, many of which

appear to serve no useful purpose, considerable harm is likely to

result.

Among a certain class of shikari the shooting of deer, pig and

even saing and bison by lying in wait for them in machans or in

‘hides’ built near salt-licks, waterholes, wallows and game tracks

is most popular. By this method at certain seasons of the year

great destruction can be done, and if the method were to be con-

sistently employed on a large scale game could be practically wiped

out of most areas without much difficulty. In a country like Burma

which carries such a very small head of game per square mile and

in which for several months of the year animals are compelled

through scarcity of water and fodder to concentrate round certain

definite spots, such a method can never be permitted without the

fauna suffering irreparable loss in consequence. Determined efforts

are therefore needed to put a stop to these practices and to

strengthen public opinion against them.

The shooting of thamin from carts and of other animals from

the back of an elephant are practices which cannot be permitted.

Thamin , in certain areas, can be approached comparatively easily

in a cart, and most animals will allow an elephant with a man

on its back to get to within shooting range before making off, with

the result that by the adoption of such methods they can be easily

killed.

A modern invention which is instrumental in the destruction of

large numbers of hog-deer and to a lesser extent of other animals

throughout the province is the electric torch. Its comparatively

small cost and the ease with which it can be obtained has placed

this article within the reach of all who can handle a gun and the

damage which is now being done with it is very considerable. A

deer when feeding out in the open at night can be located at a

long distance with the aid of a powerful torch and the animal being

apparently stupefied will allow the ‘sportsman’ to walk to within

easy gun-shot range of it before making off. The result of this

is that fields and open spaces are patrolled at night by men armed

with torches and guns, and as many as half a dozen deer are

19

179 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIl

often accounted for by one gun, in a single night. Needless to say,

the shooter does not trouble himself about the sex or age of his

victims. Many kinds of animals are killed with the aid of torches,

but hog-deer probably suffer most.

In certain districts the low-lying areas along the banks of the

big rivers become flooded annually during the rains, only small

islands of high ground being left above the surface of the water.

Wild animals, mainly sambhur and hog-deer inhabiting such areas,

do not seem to have the sense to leave them before the floods come

and become, therefore, marooned on these small pieces of dry land.

The neighbouring villagers are quick to take advantage of this fact

and sally forth in boats with dahs, spears and dogs, and generally

make short work of any animals they find. Many animals are

killed in this way every year.

In addition to the illicit methods of killing already mentioned

a certain amount of trapping and snaring is always going on, gener-

ally practised by jungle villagers with the aid of various primitive

and at times most ingenious devices. The amount of damage done

in this way is not serious and is in fact negligible when compared

with the devastating effects of illicit shooting.

III. Sanctuaries and National Parks.

Most civilised countries have now recognised that no policy of

Wild Life Protection can hope to be a permanent success unless

it is built on a foundation of secure sanctuaries. Inviolable sanctu-

aries must be constituted to ensure that a limited number of repre-

sentatives of every species of an indigenous fauna are perpetuated

for all time.

In England there are a number of Game Sanctuaries and addi-

tional sanctuaries are continually being constituted. In South

Africa and Canada where their national value is perhaps more

fully appreciated than anywhere else, sanctuaries occupy thousands

of square miles and are visited by over a million people annually.

These vast sanctuaries which, besides assisting in the perpetuation

of wild life, afford recreation grounds for masses of the population

are termed ‘National Parks’. People from the cities and large

towns flock to them annually in increasing numbers and spend their

holidays observing and studying the wild creatures amidst magni-

ficent scenery thus benefiting enormously from the healthy ex*er-

cise and fresh air.

If only the youth of Burma could be persuaded to divert its

attention from the cinemas and less healthy places of amusement

in Bangoon and other towns and take a delight in improving its

general fitness in a like manner, how very much better it would be

for the province as a whole.

In Burma there are at present five areas notified as sanctuaries

covering a total area of approximately 400 square miles. This con-

sidering the total area of the province and the variety of its fauna

is quite inadequate and further areas will have to be notified in

the near future if all species are to receive the protection they

require.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

180

Burma’s existing sanctuaries are as follows: —

Name of Area in

sanctuary Sq. miles

Forest Div

in which

situated

Species for which the sanctuary

is primarily constituted

Pidaung ... 260 Myitkyina

Elephant, Bison, Saing, Sambhur,

Hog- Deer, Gyi, Pig, Tiger, Leo-

pard, Bear.

Shwe-U-

Daung

81 Mogok

Rhinoceros sumatrensis , Elephant,

Bison, Saing, Sambhur, Serow,

Gyi, Pig, Tiger, Leopard, Bear.

Maymyo ...

49 Maymyo

19 Tavoy

Gyi, Birds.

Moscos

Island.

Sambhur, Gyi, Pig.

Kahilu

62 Salween and Rhinoceros sondaicus.

Thaton

The above statement shows that of the larger fauna thamin and

tapir are totally unprovided for and any one at all familiar with

local conditions will admit the inadequacy of the provision made

for rhinoceros, saing and hog-deer.

Of the existing sanctuaries, Pidaung and Shwe-U-Daung should

be raised to the status of National Parks; Maymyo can never be

much more than a Wild Bird Refuge and the Moscos Islands sanc-

tuary is of very little value.

The Kahilu sanctuary deserves special attention. Constituted

in 1928 primarily for the perpetuation of a family of Rhinoceros

sondaicus, it is supervised by two Karen keepers on monthly salaries

of Rs. 50 and Rs. 30 respectively. Rhinoceros sondaicus is now

the rarest large mammal in the world and this sanctuary probably

contains the only known living specimens. The local market value

of the animals is certainly not less than Rs. 2,000 each, whilst

their scientific value is inestimable.

Recently, as a measure of economy, Government dispensed

with the services of one of the keepers and seriously contemplated

dispensing with the services of the other. Instead of considering

relaxation of protective measures Government would be well

advised to maintain stricter control over the sanctuary with a

view to ensuring effective protection in future.

The preservation of these few surviving specimens of Rhino-

ceros sondaicus is one of more than provincial interest and the

question of the future maintenance of the Kahilu sanctuary is one

which might well be referred to the Society for the Preservation

of the Fauna of the Empire.

Two more sanctuaries are urgently required in Central Burma

for thamin and these should, if possible, be so selected as to in-

clude saing and hog-deer as well. One of the areas chosen might

be on the Katha-Shwebo District boundary and the other on the

181 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

borders of Minbu and Thayetmyo. Both these sanctuaries should

be constituted with a view to their being raised eventually to the

status of National Parks.

In Lower Burma an area should be taken primarily for tapir

and it should also provide for rhinoceros, elephant, bison, sambhur

and mouse deer. One of the former habitats of Rhmoceros son-

claicus near the coast in the Mergui District would probably be

most suitable for this purpose.

The adoption of the above proposals would result in Burma

possessing six effective sanctuaries, four of which could be raised

eventually to the status of National Parks; every species of the

indigenous larger fauna would be well provided for and the pro-

tection of wild life in the province would be placed on a thoroughly

sound foundation.

Sanctuaries, if they are to be effective, must: —

(1) be sufficiently large to allow the animals to live in them

the whole year round without having to wander out-

side;

(2) comprise natural game country possessing abundant food,

water and cover;

(3) be undisturbed by timber extraction and other forest

works ;

(4) be sufficiently accessible to permit of frequent inspection

by responsible officers and sportsmen;

(5) be sufficiently inaccessible to prevent the animals from

being molested and harassed by villagers and others

encroaching upon their boundaries;

(6) be free from grazing rights since domestic cattle in a

sanctuary spread disease besides reducing the food

supply and disturbing the forest; and

(7) possess security of tenure and not be liable to sudden

changes of constitution or control. The present sys-

tem under which sanctuaries are controlled by officials

who are continually being transferred and whose per-

sonal idiosyncrasies are often unleavened by any per-

manent and personal interest in the country is most

unsatisfactory.

Those sanctuaries which are suitable for constitution as National

Parks should be dedicated to the people of Burma for their benefit,

education and enjoyment subject to regulations which would en-

sure that such Parks were maintained and made use of so as to

leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.

In South Africa the Kruger National Park is controlled by a

National Parks Board of Trustees who are not remunerated for

their work which is honorary. The possibility of placing all sanc-

tuaries in Burma under the control of a National Trust composed

of gentlemen indigenous to the country should be seriously con-

sidered. There are probably many educated Burmese gentlemen

and many domiciled Europeans and Anglo-Indians who will res-

pond to this suggestion and willingly accept the trust if the situ-

ation is brought to their notice. Equally there are certain men

from overseas who would abandon every vestige of racial feeling

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

182 .

in a common sporting instinct and would assist tlie Trust. That

the Burmese people would react favourably is certain.

For effectual control a National Trust would require a field

officer to inspect the sanctuaries and advise the Trust. The trans-

fer of sanctuaries to the control of a National Trust would natu-

rally be gradual and, at inception, should be subsidised by Govern-

ment and the services of an officer or officers lent to the Trust.

In course of time those sanctuaries which are raised to the status

of National Parks should be self-supporting and in the meantime

the expenditure upon all sanctuaries should be met from an allot-

ment made by Government from the revenues derived annually

from the means to destroy wild life.

For the proper protection of all sanctuaries and the develop-

ment of those selected as National Parks the whole-time services

of a suitable officer, responsible to the Trust alone, would ulti-

mately be required. Bearing in mind that the personnel of the Trust

would be indigenous to the Province its field representative should,

if possible, be a Burman. It should not be difficult to obtain the

services of a Burmese gentleman for this post. There must be

some who are keen sportsmen and naturalists and the existing

records of the work already done in connection with sanctuaries

would be of the greatest assistance to him. The Provincial

Honorary Game Warden and a few other keen wild life conserva-

tionists would probably be only too glad to act at first in an

advisory capacity.

The wisdom of handing over such an interest as wild life pro-

tection in sanctuaries and parks to the control of an unofficial and

indigenous Trust will be doubted by many; but there appears to

be no other reasonable alternative. It must be remembered

that the formation of such sanctuaries as there are and practi-

cally all that has been done for the credit of Wild Life Protection

in Burma has been the work of only a very few enthusiasts

whose efforts are now in danger of being nullified by the opposition

or indifference of officials who have very little permanent interest

in the country. The recent history of Wild Life Protection and

the forecast suggests that wholly official control on past lines is

likely to lead to a worse condition than is the case at present. The

introduction of unofficial and national interest may save the situ-

ation; at the worst it can hardly lead to worse conditions than

those obtaining. It is worth remembering also that an indigenous

Trust could sway public opinion and enlist the support of the ubi-

quitous and often very influential Burmese priests in a manner

outside the scope of the overseas official.

IV. Sport.

From the sportsman’s point of view Burma possesses many at-

tractions. There are few Forest Divisions in which fair sport with

‘big’ and ‘small’ game cannot be enjoyed whilst in certain selected

places the possibilities are excellent.

As the development of the country proceeds and the tenure

of all waste land becomes settled the larger fauna must inevitably

183 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

be forced to take refuge in reserved forests. These State forests

are extensive and provided that adequate sanctuaries are constituted

on the lines already proposed there is no reason why ‘big game’

should not be perpetuated to accommodate an almost unlimited

number of local and visiting sportsmen without any fear of the

stock being seriously depleted.

Since the success of Wild Life Protection in the future will

depend very largely upon the education of the jungle Burman it

is desirable that sportsmen of the right type should visit the

more remote forests periodically and endeavour by precept and

example to teach the villager to take more interest in the local

fauna and its protection. Nowadays, local officials, however keen

they may be on sport and natural history, can seldom spare the

time to discuss these matters in the villages and jungle in the

way that sportsmen on holiday can afford to do.

Statistics show that the head of ‘big game’ killed annually

under sporting licenses is negligible and hitherto there has been

a tendency to discourage outside sportsmen from visiting the

Province. Propaganda and advertisement of the country’s

resources have been neglected until the publication of Mr.

Peacock’s1 book there was hardly a modern publication of any real

assistance to visiting sportsmen.

The cost to a visitor of one elephant shooting license plus an

ordinary Game license is Rs. 450. The fact that a flow of outside

sportsmen shooting under a proper system of shooting blocks would

not only benefit Wild Life Protection by embarrassing poachers

but yield large direct revenues does not seem to have been appre-

ciated. Obviously there would be other attending benefits, not the

least being that healthy outside criticism and advice with regard

to local protective methods would be forthcoming.

During the period 1927 to 1931 when a Game Warden was in

office conditions improved. Visiting sportsmen and naturalists

were assisted with advice and information and several expe-

ditions were personally conducted. With the suspension of the

post of Game Warden decentralisation in these matters was inevi-

table. An Honorary Game Warden with no special clerical

establishment and heavy Forest Divisional work to attend to can-

not devote much time to the assistance of sportsmen and so all

progress in this direction has unfortunately been stopped.

V. Kheddah Operations.

The capture and training of Wild Elephants is controlled by a

‘Plan of Kheddah Operations for Burma’ which has been drawn up

for the period 1931-32 to 1939-40. Under this plan certain areas

have been closed to operations as elephant sanctuaries, others have

been classified as areas in which the extermination of elephants is

desirable in the interests of the country’s development; the greater

1 ‘A Game Book for Burma and Adjoining Territories’ by E. H. Peacock,

Deputy Conservator of Forests and Game Warden, Burma (retired). H. F. &

G. Witherby, 326, High Holborn, London, W. C. Price 12s. 6d. net.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

184

part of the province in which wild elephants occur has been divided

into a number of kheddah blocks to be worked over in rotation by

kheddah licensees.

Prior to the compilation of this plan the control of kheddah

operations was decentralised in local district officials, many of whom

had but a superficial knowledge of the work and often no time

in which to supervise it. This resulted in irregularities, unsyste-

matic work and excessive mortality among the captured elephants.

Experience showed that centralisation of control was essential for

efficiency and the Plan of Kheddah Operations was drawn up on

the assumption that control would be centralised in a Game Warden.

During the short time in which a whole-time Game Warden

exercised control, much headway was made. Kheddahs were visit-

ed periodically and running records were kept of the work of all

licensees. By comparison and a study of the work in different

Forest Divisions the Game Warden was able to sum up the re-

sources and capabilities of each licensee. The best men were en-

couraged and those whose work was consistently unsatisfactory

were eliminated in order to make room for new men deserving a

trial. The general standard of work was raised and the mortality

percentage reduced.

With the suspension of the post of Game Warden progress

ceased and control is now once more becoming decentralised in

local officers. The Plonorary Game Warden cannot supervise

Kheddah work in Forest Divisions other than his own; the most

he can do is to issue licenses and maintain the records from reports

sent to him by Divisional Forest Officers. This arrangement is

most unsatisfactory and particularly disheartening to those who

have laboured to set kheddah work in Burma upon a sound found-

ation. Government’s accepted policy is to raise the standard of

work and to build up a reliable and humane agency for the capture

and training of wild elephants. These objects can never be achieved

with decentralised control.

VI. Elephant Control.

So long as a stock of wild elephants is maintained in Burma

periodic damage to cultivation by herds is bound to occur and

individual rogue elephants will, from time to time, cause trouble.

Kheddah operations may do good indirectly by reducing the

number of elephants available for doing damage, but they also

aggravate the trouble by driving elephants towards cultivation from

the more remote forests in which the stockades, to be of any use,

must be situated. They also tend to break up herds and scatter

individuals and small parties over a wide area.

The present arrangement under which anyone may kill by any

means, elephants which are actually damaging crops is open to

grave objection. It entails shooting at elephants by night with

shot guns and light rifles and wounding elephants in traps. This

has the effect of turning otherwise normal animals into rogues

which become a menace to human life and are often most, difficult

to destroy. Similarly the system under which individual rogue

185 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

elephants may be proclaimed by a Deputy Commissioner is unsatis-

factory since it authorises any person to bunt an elephant with any

kind of weapon. Great harm results from inexpert and indiscri-

minate shooting, which is entirely foolish and utterly wrong; never-

theless it must continue until Government removes its excuse by

undertaking a properly co-ordinated system of elephant control.

As soon as a satisfactory system of control is in force it will

be possible to review the present general exemption given to per-

sons to kill elephants in alleged defence of life and property. It

is an established fact that a large percentage of guns which are

licensed for crop protection are used for poaching. Many of these

guns could be withdrawn provided an efficient system of elephant

control was introduced.

Without further delay at least six men should be recruited,

trained and kept in readiness to deal with crop raiding and rogue

elephants in any part of Burma. These men armed with Govern-

ment Rifles and working under a set of comprehensive rules should

be sent to districts as required. In addition to ordinary crop pro-

tective work in the permanent kheddah blocks, these experts would

complete the extermination of elephants in those blocks in which

extermination is desirable and in which the elephant stock has been

reduced to a level at which kheddah operatives can no longer be

induced to work. The men should be recruited, trained, paid and

controlled by a Provincial Game Warden.

VII. A Wild Life Protection Society.

Attention has been invited to the critical conditions which are

affecting the fauna of Burma, the urgent necessity for remedial

measures and the ways in which the situation may be improved.

Most of the proposals put forward invite action on the part of the

local Government, and Government is disinclined to act in

matters of this nature in the absence of public opinion. In Burma

public opinion in favour of Wild Life Protection is non-existent

and until it is created little progress is likely to be made.

Periodically for the last ten years the formation of an Associ-

ation or Society as an unofficial centre for fostering public opinion

in favour of the conservation of the local fauna has been consider-

ed. So far nothing has materialised and since the need for such a

Society is now greater than ever the sooner the matter is taken up

seriously the better.

Ignorance is perhaps the greatest enemy of Wild Life Protec-

tion. Ignorance regarding wild animals and birds, their identity,

habits, food and utility is general; and people do not care to protect

that of which they know nothing.

A provincial Wild Life Protection Society inaugurated by influ-

ential nature-lovers and sportsmen, and supported by educated

members of all communities, could do an immense amount of good.

Such a Society working in collaboration with the Society for the

Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire, the Bombay Natural

History Society and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

could, by widening knowledge, evoking sympathy and promoting

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

186

interest in the local fauna, create and foster a healthy form of

public opinion.

The Society should aim at the creation of a public opinion

that will demand and support amended legislation for the better

protection of the fauna. It should endeavour to gain widespread

support from Buddhist priests, teachers, magistrates, property-

owners and agriculturists. It should organise educational efforts

on the lines of lectures, publications, leaflets and answers to cor-

respondents on questions of food, status, habits, legal protection

etc., of wild animals and birds.

A Wild Life Protection Society organised and run as outlined

above would give a great impetus to Wild Life Protection and the

Province as a whole would benefit enormously from its achieve-

ments.

VIII. The Appointment of a Game Warden,

The recent abolition of the post of Game Warden has led to

a situation that deserves serious consideration. Financial strin-

gency was no doubt the main reason but failure to appreciate

the consequences of that retrograde step was probably the chief

cause of the calamity. The urgent necessity for the re-appoint-

ment of a whole-time Game Warden has already been stressed

and unless action is taken at the earliest opportunity the progress

made during the past six years will not be maintained and no

further headway will be made with Wild Life Protection in Burma.

The protection and exploitation of the fauna is not the kind of

work that can be safely decentralised unless the average executive

officer realises that such work is not an optional but a compulsory

duty which he must study. Centralisation of the work in a Pro-

vincial Game Warden is essential both in the interests of organisa-

tion and the education of the executive.

In 1926, in view of the increasing number of firearms and the

development of the country the position with regard to Wild Life

Protection became serious. A conference was held and it was

decided that the appointment of a whole-time Game Warden was

essential for the proper protection of the wild fauna.

In 1927 the post of Game Warden was constituted and it was

held by a European Forest Officer for three years. At the end of

1931 the post was suspended but the records were maintained by

a Forest Officer who was appointed Honorary Game Warden in

addition to his normal duties in a Forest Division.

During the period 1926 to 1931 all matters pertaining to the

protection and exploitation of the wild fauna, were centralised in

the Game Warden. All protective legislation was thoroughly re-

vised, the capture and control of wild elephants were systematised.

New sanctuaries were constituted; the reservation of uncultivable

land in the interests of the fauna was pushed forward. The ques-

tion of developing certain sanctuaries in the direction of National

Parks was considered, and a growing tendency to treat Wild Life

Protection with indifference was corrected. Details of the work

done are summarised in the Game Warden’s Annual Reports for

the years 1929, 1930, 1931 and 1932.

20

187 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII

At present, a Forest Officer is appointed Honorary Game

Warden in addition to his primary duties as officer in charge of a

Forest Division. This is of little use. The honorary appoint-

ment carries with it small power to mitigate any but the most

flagrant deviations from commonsense practice and the Honorary

Game Warden’s forest duties leave him with little time in which

to deal with protection in divisions other than his own.

IX. Revenue and Expenditure.

It is estimated that the wild fauna, excluding fish, directly or

Indirectly, produces revenue to the extent of at least, Rs. 1,30,000

per annum.

The sources from which this revenue is derived together with

very conservative estimates of the amounts obtainable annually

are given below: —

(1) License fees for firearms licenses for sport and

for protection against wild animals

(2) Import duties on sporting weapons and ammuni-

tion

(3) Game and kheddah license fees

(4) Royalty on elephants captured

(5) Sale of products of wild animals

(6) Compensation and fines on account of offences

against the Game Laws

Rs.

50,000

50.000

8,000

9.000

10.000

3.000

Total ... 1,30,000

Trade depression and the general shortage of money may cause

a considerable decrease in the revenue obtained from game and

kheddah licenses and from the royalty on captured elephants, but,

it is doubtful whether the revenues derived from license fees and

import duties on account of sporting weapons and cartridges are

similarly affected. At present there are probably not less than

20,000 sporting guns and rifles in Burma. All these weapons pro-

duce revenue directly or indirectly but although a great deal of

money is being obtained from this means of destroying wild life

very little is being spent on protection.

Since the Forest Department is responsible for the issue and

control of game and kheddah licenses and for the enforcement of

protective legislation, a fraction of the establishment charges of

that department must be debited to Wild Life Protection. Be-

yond that, however, all the country is spending annually upon

the conservation of a valuable national resource — at present a

rapidly disappearing possession — is the sum of approximately

Rs. 4,000 which represents the pay of the staffs in the Pidaung

and Kahilu Game Sanctuaries.

The constructive proposals now put forward for placing Wild

Life Protection in Burma upon a sound foundation entail an

WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN BURMA

188

annual expenditure of approximately Rs. 50,000 allotted as

follows : —

Rs.

Pay and allowances of a Game Warden ... 20,000

Pay and allowances of a Game Warden’s establishment 5,000

Constitution and maintenance of six sanctuaries ... 20,000

Elephant control ... ... ... 5,000

Total ... 50,000

This is considered to be the minimum sum with which any

substantial progress with Wild Life Protection can be effected.

X. Conclusion.

Wild Life Protection in Burma is now in a critical state. Fac-

tors responsible for the present situation have been discussed and

remedial measures have been proposed. Conditions were serious

in 1925 but they improved between 1926 and 1931 when a Pro-

vincial Game Warden was in office. Now, things are reverting to

the state they were in six years ago and prompt action is necessary

to prevent irreparable damage from being done.

The lines on which action should be taken have been indicated

and the chief constructive acts proposed are tabulated below: —

(1) The re-appointment of a Game Warden with the neces-

sary establishment.

(2) The establishment of a properly co-ordinated system of

Elephant Control centralised in a Game Warden.

(3) The centralisation of control of Kheddah Operations in a

Game Warden.

(4) The revision of existing legislation and the replacement

of the Burma Game Rules, 1927, and the Wild Birds

and Animals Protection Act, 1912, by a new Wild

Life Protection Act for Burma.

(5) The formation of a Wild Life Protection Society to

create a Public Opinion that will demand, and support

amended legislation.

(6) The constitution of three new Sanctuaries, two primarily

for ihamin and one for tapir.

(7) The transference of control of all Sanctuaries to a Natio-

nal Trust which will develop those suitable for raising

to the status of National Parks.

(8) The annual allotment of Rs. 50,000 for expenditure upon

Wild Life Protection; the money to be taken from

revenue derived from Wild Life Destruction.

‘Wild Life Protection’ does not mean the ‘Artificial Protection’

of ‘Wild Life’. It means a fight against ‘Artificial Destruction’- —

destruction, that is to say, which is not of Nature’s ordering but

brought about by ignorance, selfishness, callousness and greed.

These are the factors which are destroying the Wild Life Resources

of the Province, and which will, if not eliminated, cause the loss

of one of Burma’s most priceless possessions.

January 10, 1934.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS — 1935. C2559.

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