Bie sates

he aA . . 14 | tases AMeaaine hae ,

sant t randy ahah WP dae : , tye ata tate Natives piel egalls beta aise: be Kashani ati att

Pecreareyy th) "es ' ‘ mana sad lah +h atl Hie Ee ang gvaie ergnniee bo tdanaseitiete +4 Had td ad ey

{ tate a thaigtee gH gins Hal Ba rye Madras 4 yleseemibaleg thurseaett vrnaiietd en

4 eT dean adit Ten seaad ai antadesal yiiie ahensie idan sasherhe

Ibpage Mi Bl Saluhaietie ieee Tienentr gad he aie (ean

14 i i yin haat J andes ey) yathit setmiuatt %

' Te eg pohce teh H se toh ae bot sha Msebe dann cee ite oahelt’

ie peligag' eres a TALEL OLN hte pea rege ty fag Vite eihahel

a $ H i thet shee wi) akg Tat eer eee? tet een eur et ri]

aby) 4'tah dele : “tit ir iain erity tn? FEL Ve Fe beets Se batigthe te berets es ted dai vrntawatie ete

: yy eit athotetid Loti oy Sie eemed ele i pied bay ‘ patience cette the ibe seat

‘ ve 4 : hehe MMA tlotethelty al AGHA Tete tee ‘ negra Cy ati

sietgaw * . Venabdl ldedsne aie t 444 Sahat ad tee

’ Pry LOL setiprentd Langit ity ehiase

\ “ Sountgitatat at cdte Lianatpry amen seeiieibait ig! st Taher tate

abst 1 Keil sh peageestet i otietlede! bens tek Vedat es pptee aint ati

— H sahil itty NY ohn heh aa gn ee F Heranetien ar ddeiee Ahaihd alee adn enanelanag tig wget

etaite t bid piimtigntre Laceweemaiett allt Pm M giw nn | atbate batt ub : Detiqiitena e ethe lpn athe dita. agai Age Sees

aon erie titty neha ee gcd tian ats data ONC beibe tbl aid hay oh dda itghi an atg Sete ae faite

; ye Shien de Lesa iterg round Wired ehanioady vane Mahone

tha hdeiesie tly aig hae atareedatte ra! a aty ep diese if

: bbe baplaah e@intte orn fea hend : ' panedspaligt lee iilges the Sete nites da Fe el acanes

js nae satiad it ahs rll g dasha aero tad Chabeetuiiilaheta © aiid sane pauaadigiieigyy i@hanettanen Kanietes

; “1 (he ia att eke at taeda iaetytahene ae nadieatat ‘ ; ai gt gtuiled din’ vets vatalg neds! -

My Sabon tug palate bo digiane’ ene tfisiea ayeqriamiarial! lay Ga 4g

: ¢ (hg ba ar boeha tied ite euceal setinyeth ad

seattamyen cit id aan aig age cheque : Tr Ete Seas ie oe ‘ faily! ”

all dot athyaghn Het ivan latent 194 nent O98 Laity wih eflantia lathe la tty Gory g) eee eas

cra HB Peri Oe he Ee dial aN met Ny eh ges ehgnr i oa A

Oe a abet tt NR aNae tte ua Me rdariiete tt iy bea ete gtd

ue t ished i die tat Aah shy aanadia ve Mat 4H ‘ } kia aide) iy sd

t eetetinr a) \ ‘ - mharartg he "

viiauda ni maresiciela tease Sen arases nate al

> o0 aie treaties

NN ‘ Apacalete * jae maliedane wiehe ied

‘ me ‘ anes e ” ried Ver alb! eb He eS atee gn bet aflali at

, sie eadaiie ; ’ tilete’ whe ad tte satarate lel ce

Lie ate vai h aiiela ri sien ty Jada ahs *

h : beet ste “ue v) */ aiacaane} categ tent

) ete leit aha a ie yen oa

7 saline al aya aise dant} ert ln enbad rtf) en eset) potaiatal a! elt ana lenedare: sehageted

edad’ gl aasatana AO adnate nla eee ae al gly noth) aan

. yloteltana tedtiadete He TaGyebg ede ed ee

mantis hare inet cathe aed}

i” hy eure , mPrvnmryrruyt | Leben e lev tangad

a aeeieata aiaiatheie éiladke! Hf Sdiitiate isabel iinet Ae in Clqhulalainia goditoue tase

; } fel a avete lahat ots 'lepatrad roe OP wariatial i Me waht La neh deh derda

Mae thy TEOMRUP ere Rete Ch Oe i ah ah a a tae Haig odtitldiniea ania anaes

4 mele} barn tea lathadal) TWeahoh cls'ter a wae mbt ba ds ves

‘ dey bade athe te Yar siaietine

i a] oa@iie At tifa catia reitae tt tral yee tare

} tedadaaeehe ratralia aie Aaa goa

; Sih glhadtgeyeeeltmel teed @ Oa

. aS 4 at

Poetbetia eg atid HY 4

: iyi bhi ta ba ive te ] ‘aigaae

Awet a f if

era ane lade? 1 bibs ab

he : see initaas "7 Pia or f fruaiisesi} gia 4 ? vielatal cinta

mee oy TT iat (aa adios pai #

" Jhitvad, J AM aH Ptallotel ay b +t Aisiiars . et

4 ed sds ‘rieinieag abet cine « ibaa’ ci «

we yee afdtatieratlvil 4 igedatalecalt ruin ote Stita tala

anata? t Ss iy dim det tte ts 2 ises Laneat |B relia tamaita liana! th eed tah SHEE

aries ; TCC ba see able ete the ey Hansa

4 " Fg aunt Sorin Miran ot et dal els saith

dabally) tee de qlbanad ligaa teh ial Ttliet Maal

ay a mada lade anda fl

t phy ‘ yee f

: a ateaite fer badd bebe anata ts fatal

4 \ ; Tell tte anqiaid ‘4 te!

i aioe ey

i ae Nlael que bale oe nat at

{ 13 tiga Wea iec ta Tay

olaieiby & 1 Augie tats Nite

‘ Va aha ec auaia es

‘ ‘ e' fe . ay " oq tel

J ‘Yat suet

had of te a eve lw

ais ei

saa get 4 A

ram elatadgted tie

Me th lea Sait

yet .

av ‘ it 4 (ais

\ ie \ H vse sia

ane Me if}

i ait Vilua Heaiad HE eg sealed

‘ y t 4c agit ay 4 A aN ARLE APRA

{ \ aa Te ik § aT sis. :

J : eke! sie pee wa ia '

" ‘4 rf it i % rs

i 1

' “

ty "| haut it

| a) Ayn! | ; ! vial

| ( i Wei ‘ ‘n WANE ?

« aay boabtig :

' " iii

ryilsiit ‘ ’

eas ]

i nt j aii ty

‘ 4 \ , rh si) i Feet

4 4 FN te haidaiane tg Hale

~ i yF tad ; silt

‘ italy

: i ‘ te ’ cafiatiiat)

‘ i ni

(6 : 1 i Sy seat

eds 3G : megie (iyequteg

Lia i! Oy 4 (@iianalial 5805 i

Cente Aa F aH Al} ait

rot i “ wits " igaes ‘ “y

.: 5 Bs eels MGR BUltVa, 86

! ahd RET " q ata

i Amit . te 4

il ei bra sae \ \ tha ti bh. aw rin “ reat 4

, i ADS ub yen ‘ ready anle ye (asa alti

ni en 4 » Pa eas wae aa p

his rit 53 eins ANE eT ge RD AY EE

yt 1 git ata " ie ILS Wain PHERED crete | ECC GSH, 4}! it,

\ ee bisa Sad tos eaeeh Attn totaal ait Aa La bale ta) Mila «i Ayana :

reiis ; halsetet oar " Vn 4 Eitan eri Hat U8 Cab oe hy \ i ae

atin Kes a ‘ Vath Atal , Ret aay j i) sine Pa v} 4 1H | ja eola Aas ‘ily at iH enya Roney aa a ae

leas} ‘ ike ig “¢ REECE ate eee sie ass ey Vea ta EMA GU AAMC ate haat gd Rea Hd CE yt

. barr. : hati) rh iy * ate: BY 49 (ei site : Pia ey 195 Hi) AEA Fh) Pan ‘aifa 7 5a 8 ek

Beas be 4 pave Caan’ WRG RS Te pay Peltier ee be bib be RAL ah

Hed Gane be aeadie A 4 My) fle. With

anil ere Poe thas

sig ee VL eke BAL

sega shi * oe nd ny asbaasiand ytd

wre 4:8 HAG eit ae 109 ie esi siey 40} eueun OES &

IM eG Shuai! Nae PDaleenilt D LAE gu hlt ‘at

f TRUIOEOt RE ME Dente PonVit LC UC ns Ie A ( { Lyne tn Bey

5 44 Sa eles i 598 SRE * ULC LDRRIIRS

mite re ; 2.0 suki eit (ett { abet bu stbits

4 WARS dda eile wa 44 nt ate as jeer eit i ise quaaal

Ja tte Me gtdan A LOW . 5

Poe IAAL ANS HAMEL wR

: ERS ie te Ali ie Pie re ues vA oop egy

: at gays 4 ve RPO REVENUE ie! 4 SOO Cee a ROR ides

haunt : tis sy Aicais paypal a. ae: GUMS H hse hy FH Fa

| Hind allay edge

‘ fae sree «

Oat a Hid a

qa agn'y Vee bate

weet

oh itt

ah eg \) ee

: 4 ANN Wig tlguy white

Ney ah duh ee LAURIE Le tH se EE te,

iy } rhs

} Witaneut WatvGaleitenae

CIE CreeeUain neg Sunt e Oi Meena ae Ra

Perarumerts we (te, Ae tdy Bde es

eben BaD

Pree Rt Be Nh aan e eaty ni) eats a

GA Qe nh Sct eed ees Aaa silane daly

eb bey Mui eat ay MG

aye AH asi “an

eirieeene|

vane

Siyeae

i par tiirret a

rite wort

“ s

‘ due aidan

siisae ead) Chad

oe #

HO Lig ty Teta dae ied ie

i Bed | 44 Aire Ay de ot ved tay A Cadig mA *19),4

Oe Mr eh es eee eee HAG Oe hatte ssa idqaday jeu

6 VS PERE AEE ABMS. Howe LT St aa aS e ge a Edvreidetutoial tad iaute

qa ye aete Ge try shone io gta Ue aptly aes

ELSUS DR RURD ECOL CUE Lb

PRRrelercuRutite -htheoaney

“ WAAL ay ERE A tp fe Y a

Ua aiateunt weyee ety 4 cern

ROPE Uh Wis aGs

HH peta mY eating ny

56, Hy Nip Aan eat HH

ay wave iia

Oy ide iw

LOstiuere nn

Aysigtite

«yi Mad

sete

Ws to) rey hey tate i tainey

ns ay

ani

akan

eM Sus iduy ee a4

Bee

AS i gas x

mie cats

uta ry

Cree in

V9)

een

vevke bat

both Noda. ol

nob v haeit

REET Ces

“i

aa itnndo rye GH LEAL Le Atk dot

J RIC LL a (aves) @ ilar

{in Hepes FM akmcder) amma AALE LAS Sd Se Grae

4% decbed, Haase 4 Asti

Y By Ai ate

tanta bast lo bie sei Niaaly

KaMdieatia bt eas PUUSS PEMD Rat |

Figg hy 4 Hyg ete rt

COAG g vad Lb yea) at

ROR EA aw peachy ban

wetaviau tity We

ne SR

wane we

i Witiete

radtet i

Lair bit *

tadytie ARH qey

eat aes aco

Ehahbevabaon a WEL in SR a3

WT Sa ee sey Ny, sane Siig, Mh sigt 108

ahead i 9th OPN SK Fone aa

ab esept ete dep ohs

Meat “$n iy

stat

eon rei

sea aM

Pee uh) ST peu gai ay

Pr ME ROR LC LL

Deis

eats

4) nit

Pdained yt

(se esis te delete wv Matin

UWE ke qe riya

(si 1"

Hy Wh

VN ote

dyads aNd avert

Pemertc ethics belli ie

Arvind A414

ig os gears

Pre tT Ee UMELe hau MU Ctey CRUE La

et yd HMA eye gure ces

etiam tips rine e

Tree LAV LEG bth ob) via bide as

PEE et oR aH StF Ayala set

DO Se bee etd bbe hy

heh ne alcatel athe

ete ee

Hee mar HEE HY

ai Tee

Shs aut

ee een

af asiaei Peete i adsl ay Het

ae an Pienr

id nom eid dtl

a Wea een font aiah

sia hen

wausnarynt \

Minar aie tele)

mene iyeeedge HN Att yap LY sgianaiaaandne diva VeKarii i min ant g ea ‘ ‘a rt a rated

40 Vb A siiasiad ye aiye Havad tit

M z \ Helisiin a

Hie MEAS Ta Te He

fois ceesdalhenys

Aga evege saleietar .

Reece tibet

phe thee ab gf Bhercays AY

Sug ais M

eM MEME

as Visa pea

4 vba aerate Wages Meee sy

ps OR ewe ig abeeecatsnaae

+ eysAt

“Onin

saya bererenerr rt \

Pen |

bhenthind A

aig any

Glee

ate

CEU buns

Kayne alge

Doe mec ent fev

‘ or H

. iin at boty af ey

rece nen

2 ek skits tease

Uae ite ti} i

iL oe step eas aH tH Eo

seid {sites

Gate hich alt

eee LCR SUEDE 4

Li te wan! wey

tebe Seen

H tie

be tphrhawelads «

Hoban

Rally ay avian dans

oe) vs

ayes omit

. eae

aoyeneds Ve 5g

* a tip ‘ feet

nes wighen hate eadsinaa

aia reat ee yt

bat Gusinevied ay

eo)

a Qc CCC ar

CQ COE E

os « c « — Gat ak “a a

¢ a CCQU GC gy

| Can

Raca€

CE € Ce

C.@€ CG

CCC

C aCe KC

AAR

ex <

ae COE

CCC ES

AAARRARAARAAA

AARAAAA

AY OY \@lAAAT A

gi PN

ie ANS \

_«

~_ @

Ca (QCEG

C cea

CCE Ca <

KC COCKE

CCC CC

Ge CE

CEE

CCC

ryY Y} Aba

CC «

(

A AA

( s

. . ‘

rt 1T, —

AINA!

‘| (a Ni

y \W a\

ARENA

A} ¥ f y

7 | | ] ] / » - \i/ We i T

> sa | iam). | Wh

| | f

A , PR, a aal.Y.¥

Vy ‘ | | | 7

=~ i's | / } -

Nf ~\\ | | } | { i / yo oY

} Ns Vaart fe\\ \ a ' i [ —_~

\ Vom! NY A 1) : ' ; j |

} ! ; \ \| ain \ = NS } y j

Ba Lait, \ | Y y an\ \/ \ W i aN ANZ ESN A VW \ YI \} }

‘a v Yan \ iT \ENPNS \ | wee" { NAM NANANANEN ENA jim, \\/- \ 1

i 7 \ | | f W ' yy f I st / f Vy if f \\i ™\t- fo e laa

| f ' y a y Yl if 1 ! o | } AAAs

/ | j | } . i A AN;

t hy | } Y ee Fy | | lf f at / ¥ / I \ f 1 Y F

} \ | | <> if Lea I i | ay NY

} | i or (oe . au ! (A f \F/

= Ail an aA

Y |

AAA

AAANARA

CCC

i] v

i : \ \ f an sis aes VF" | v 's

lIMNAAAALA ala\anraA Aim aaa \

\ ’ \ “ | | ] \ \ 7 :

| WW p | an { 1/ } iW q | a -

WNP NPN } (MW V H | .} ~)

1 - \I/ Tame \\ ' W/ (Z WY WE \ EN \y i

VN \ Ga WANi/ \/ 1 i] y ARAAA A y\

i i y \/ | ‘ f f V \ a\!, if ‘i 1 i ' f \ A i

] / / ] | a! | Y \ | ’ ' AWA

x «

Cc €

x <

€

(

“|

(“e

(

— c

@ <

( «

( &

@ «

“¢

EAD

met

5774

ae .

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XL

NOS. 3&4

Price cae Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1939

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page te

Contents of Nos. 3 and 4 of Vol. XL

List of Contributors oe be, ,

_ Te follow frontis-

List of Plates... vee piece in this order.

Index to Illustrations

Errata

Index to Species

List of Office Bearers, Life Members, } lo go at the end of

Members, etc. re : two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL os

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

H. M. MCGUSTY, REV. Fr. J. F. CAIUS, s.j.,F.L.s., S. H. PRATER, c.M.z.s.

VOL. XL

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 3 Coloured Plates, 44 Black and White Plates,

18 Text-figures, and 4 Diagrams.

Dates of Publication

Part Ill. (Pages 355 to 582) ... December 1938.

one |) aes cure 583 to 777) ee May 1939,

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)

212, Shaftesbury Avenue,

London, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1939

CONTENTS OF VOLOME XL

No. 3

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Fart V. By Dr. S. L Hora,

D.SC., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FAN. (With one coloured

plate of the Pungas Catfish Pangastus pangasius,

(Hamilton) anxd four text-figures)...

THE Birps OF BOMBAY AND RSET. ape ve oe Gélim

A. Ali, and Humayun Abdulali. We one black and

white plate)... BeER ene ee Men wae

THE BIRDS OF THE One aE Serene an F. N. Betts.

(With one black and white plate)... ie wid tivee see

THE TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF ee ee

Bout. By Beni Charan Mahendra, F.z.s. is one

black and white plate)... eds accent

THE EARLY STAGES OF re Peon By D. G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. he eiisn neiec thee ccomo ney, aoe ices cet eee

NOTES ON SOME ene Oo “Be EK. H. N. Lowther,

IEDs OWE ek. Z, Seen VY LEGS EA. 1 QUOD ) tee tince «<n as. ounesce oes

THE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA OF CUTCH STATE. By C.

VIC C aininyers Go ea HY 2070 200 8 DIQTES Neen scant ger eo ene acnene

THE Foop oF Brown Trout (Salmo fario). By Dr. Hamid

aera PD EL EG, PUTO va Arn cieme vase aes enuan ty te ack ao

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA. By C. B.

Williams, sc.D. (With one coloured plate and four

diagrams)...

WHERE DID THE “Vi Gera) caer Tas (Gun a nae )

EvoLvE? By C. E. Fischer.. prea

BIRDS OBSERVED IN AND NEAR aoe Sora c oan

DisTRICT, SouTH INDIA. -By Alice M. Barnes..............

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN SPIDERS. By

T. V. Subrahmanyan. aes one photo and three texi-

IZQUTCS) a acca oie ate Satna torente

THE INDIAN Choe “he Wea ee. Part V. By

Martin I. Mosely, F.R.S.E., F.Z.8. (With twelve plates).,,,

AN ADDITIONAL List OF BIRDS FROM HYDERABAD STATE.

By Salim A. Ali.: iol anree cane

SUPPLEMENTARY Oreos ON THE ene (Sian

OF THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRAVANCORE AND

Coesin: By: Je-Be Primrose... icciccccccccecsee covdncveasccetns

MAR 1 1940

PAGE

428

439

458

500

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

PAGE

PROPOSAL TO ADVANCE THE TEACHING AND RESEARCH IN

ENTOMOLOGY IN INDIA. By M. Sharif, D.sc., Ph.p.,

Pasi eer - fi Mee ct. 508

MEIC AND Dereonoe ne OF wore ieee

LILIES, POPPYWORTS, FuMITORIES. By Rev. J. F. Caius,

PLANTS OF KuwaAIT, NortH EAst ARABIA. By Mrs.

V. Dickson.. ae 528

A NOTE ON THE Bunevordera OF THE BGRCuNE: Now panes

hypogaca L.). By I. Bannerji. (With two text-figures)... 539

EARTH-EKATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA. ANALYSES.

XL—XLVII. By Rev. J. F. Caius s.5., F.L.s., and Miss

Kr Radhay WesSCie 20s os as oe ai ee oe ee ee ee 544

REVIEWS :—

I. The Fight to Live. By Raymond L. Ditmars..... 549

II. The Valley of Flowers. By Frank S. Smythe... 549

Ill. Lac Cultivation-iniindia.’ “By P? MaGlover..422: 550

IV. Supplement to the Flowering Plants of Madras

City and its Immediate Neighbourhood. By

E. Barnes.. eta a: Sela can’h'n Pe ostcs ch deme)

V. Hints on Nceunn Education ® By J: C Basak] 5a

VI. More Difficulties of the Evolution Theory. By

Douglas Dewars. eS incleeeee nee OO

Aw ASSURANCE yes five citeniwsoeos Sucra notnontandutocdnn tere euaeee Snes ee ema

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

‘I. Occurrence of Tiger in Northern Sikim, 8,800 ft.

By Lt.-Colgh. H. Listers aoe Paresh)

II. Measurements of Tiger ee in ie ae

1925-37. By. Major E. G. Phythian-Adams,... 553

III. Measurements of Panthers. By Major E. G.

Phythian- Adams, ..)soc24.tecs oss os ereaeee een een eee OO

IV. Measurements of Tiger, Panther, Bison and

Sambhur. By. Re. Mortis... : 555

V. Method adopted by Leopards in noes Moston:

| By Iftikhar Alikhan.. ds 555

VI. Otters and Crocodiles. Be Te coy Cc ioncors 557

VII. A Baby Elephant. By J. Ibbotson..... ...... 558

VIII. Curious Behaviour of Picenene a iy Maton

_F. W. Haswell, 1. A.. foods qaderce ep sass; heb ese OU

Pat eae

XIV.

XVI.

XVIII.

XIX.

DOG

Pode

XXII.

XXIII.

EXT.

DOVES

XXVI.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME .XL

‘Stamping Grounds’ and ‘ sore neck’ in Sambar.

By R. C. Motris..

Occurrence of the White- Renee eeeae (Mota-

cilla flava leucocephala) in the Attock District

of the Punjab. By. H. W. Waite, M.B.0.U.......

Egg stealing of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuczlzs

canorus bakert Hart.)... a

Call Notes of the Raemeee eee ieee

(Cacomantis merulinus aire? By LOR,

Livesey... ar Nee ee ereecae.

The Shan ee Woot Onl ce indvan ee

‘Hasreitsiss Baker). seby; Links Tivescy as. 2202-0)

Nesting of the Booted Eagle [Hveraétus pennatus

(Gmel.)] in the Simla Hills. By EH. A. Jones...

The Nidification of the Burmese Barred-backed

Pheasant ees humtiae eae By

T. R. Livesey... :

An Extension ae ine Cries ‘of ries eee

Horned Pheasant [7vagopan melanocephalus

(Gray)]... <!

Game Birds i in aah i Gennes ‘Hills ng Whe South

Coimbatore District By a,

Williams... :

Breeding of pine Snipe () 3 in 1 Belgaum District.

yp OPTS ES CLO 1xe ins ievcsats ene case nse ts deseet

Bird Notes from the Dry Zone of Upper Burma.

A correction.

BPO nIGs, DEAT TOUG Haan cebror peewee con bre Sew aeb re

Swifts in Swallows’ Nests. By Colonel Kenneth

Comyn... ; Berks Sie beacause

On Conk in eons ne eee District,

Bengal. F. A. C. Munns..

A eae on ee name ‘ mloadicher eaied

to [Calotes versicolor Daud.]. By B. Basu ......

Extension of the range of the moth (Vorraca longt-

pennts Moore) (Notodontidae). By A.C. Harman

Description of the Larva of Fterusia (Soritia)

leptalina Koll. (Zygacnidae). By A. EB. Jones.

(With a plate)...

Distribution of ee nitidicollis C. inal G.

(Buprestidae). By H. G. Acharya, F.z.s..

The Distribution of Butheolus melanurus Kessler.

ye erlt AC ANG dp nieh pane oa leg? vosnlecec meio: veswter

PAGE

560

569

579

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

XXVIII. Glyrictdia maculata as a shade-tree for Tea. _ By

J. Williams.. sae

XXVIII. General Piowéring es: Si abil thes in Sean. Tadia.

By J. Williams.. siurdicls Sead Seo an es toe And cctoe

XXIX. A Fasciated Inilorseecnas: in a. Banana. By

K. Co dacob, 1 Ag., F.L:S. “(Wea pho

XXX. A Natural History Tale.. By R. C. Morris).......

Proceedings—Bombay Natural History Society...

No. 4

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part VI. By Dr. S. L. Hora,

DiSC.; F.R:S.E., (F.Z.S) FeR:AsseBe, EN ae (17722 one

coloured plate ot the Goonch Bagarius bagarius

(Hamilton) aud wo tex 1-17.07 05) we, eee ee

THE Two-HorNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS (Dicerorhinius

sumatrensis). By Theodore Hubback. (W7th eight plates).

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ASIATIC Two-HorRNED RHINO-

CEROS: .. BY *S. Hs rater CoMezicc. st RPM te ane

THE BiRDS OF BOMBAY AND Saree part VI. hse Salim

Ali and Humayun Abdulali........... HER eR Bhi int an

NOTES ON THE DISEASES OF TROUT AT THE MAHBILI

HatTcHERY—Koutv (Punjab). By Dr. Hamid Khan, m.sc.,

LUB., Ph.D, “(Wath ablated, Ge ee ee ee

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF THE SHAN STATES, Boe By

Capt. W...C; Carrot.” i Aiwecs cane ces ee ean epee ;

BirD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA. By Major R.S. P. Bates,

M.B.O.U.. CHV 21ST DIG1ES oe is eaeronces ese came eee eee

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part 41 By

DG. Sevastopulo, RoE Sic.etn cece eee

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA. By

Revs. -2. Caiuses.o..°8-b-o

BoMBAY'S FISHING INDUSTRY. By Dr. g: i ‘Setna,, M.SC.,

BRIM. Ss9 PED ig ds cote th ee cena ee EE eee tte

THE HABITS OF THE COMMON EARWIG OF ANNAMALAINAGAR,

Euborellia stali(Dohrn.). By K. B. Thiagarajan, B.sc.....

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA. By Rev. J. F.

Caitis.S,J:, F.L:S; and: Miss Ke S.Radhat iieS Cees. eens

REVIEWS :—

I. Pageant of Wings. By Douglas Gordon............

IT. «Drees and Men. ay th weiviehes-G ibis eee ce

PAGE

She)

580

581

582

583

594

618

628

653

657

666

681

693

vals

724

Tai

727

ITI.

IV.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

Le petit peuple des ruisseaux. Par Marcel

AP DOMMICK et ae sete oes ch set nahaun cites sence vers eres

The Annual Report and Balance Sheet of the

Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society

fer the: Season 1937-38. 00. ..5s.c0.csseccces senses ces

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

Sek

WATT.

XIIT-

XIV.

XV...

XVII.

XVIII.

The Mating of Elephants.

Why Elephants visit Salt-Licks. By T. Hubback.

by J.-Gonzalez..-....-:

Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison (200s

waurus). “By B.-3, NMS) TR IS.2 esse ieee «2s

. Derivation of the name Seladang. By C. Gimson

Sore Neck in Sambar. By W.S. Thom..

The Record Thakin Head. oe F. Tyoolee Sinith

(With a photo)...

A Tree-Mouse es 1a ae fae in piel fee

ofa spider, By H. G. Acharya, F.Z.S...2.... ...

Number of Young of Long-tailed Tree-Mouse

(Vandeluria oleracea). By H. G. Acharya,

O.F.Z.S.. eee e

Leopards oon conte ‘of NER Hills. ibs Geis

Marshall...

Nese of Mieere: ae in cone Naga Hills

(Avcorrection). By G. A... Marshall. 2.2.0.3

Migration and Methods of Bird Snaring in North

East Arabia. By Mrs. H. R. P. Dickson.

(UH TEVCICR ET VUES) faa eei hse ene tetas

Birds observed in and near Tambaram, South

India. “By Mrs. Al Me Barnes, o)s.2c..scee-1105. 00

The Distribution and Nidification of the cen

(Punjab) Raven (Corvus corax laurencet Hume)

in Sind. By K. R. Eates, F.z.S., M.B.O.U.......

A Note on the Resident Owls of Sind. By K.R.

BALES WESZ Sy NinB-O; Wes. sc simswes osceiee seen scsalsnnentt

Vultures feeding at night. By T. R. Livesey.....

The Status and Nidification of the Persian Bee-

eater (Merops persicus perstcus Pall.) in Sind.

By K. R. Eates, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.. ;

Haunt and Habitat of Pitta c. ie Hone in

W. Bengal. By S.C. Law. (Witha plate)...

On the occurrence of the Indian Purple Moorhen

(Porphyrio p. poliocephalus) in Chitral. By

Ele Sie SEANSHC ICE ain nt Weclocossce vacteas 82 sass saaneec ee

740

744

747

762

Vill

xX.

OLE

XXI.

XXII.

DO SURI

XXIV.

XX.

DOANE

OS VAVE

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

On the occurrence of the Banded Crake (Rallus e.

amuroptera) and the Malabar Woodpecker

(Macropicus 7. hodgsoni) in the Billigirirangan

Hills,S. Andia, .. By -R: Cz. Moris. 48-7.s.,

F.R.G.S.:

ihe prceiae af He icin nae ew Signe

fuscata infuscata) in the Laccadive Islands. By

FAN. Betis.. wip gadis vite aigietaep te eens eee

Migration ee ‘of Gece “By Ra: “Parsons.

Cotton Teal (Vetlopus coromandelianus) at Nasik.

BysGy J RAC. sts .cc carves tome eeene es Eee

‘Fish of Great Age’. By Peter Michael............

On the nesting Habits of the Gourami (Osphrone-

mus-goramy |Lacépede]. By ®.Jones,....-..

Fresh Water Fishes of North Gujrat. By H. G.

AICRATYas F.Z:S..

A case of poisoning Bo aes ine ae he a Ronee

By R. E. Parsons.. :

On the occurrence of ae aceinics @ at Bae

By ‘C). Js Rais asce.eyacruisen Sen eaten ae eae

An improved Cellophane wing mount.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. i

The Original Home of the (Sasa (A coretion)

By P. V. Mayuranathan... ;

Occurrence of two plants new ao enna bie

PeNe ROM Dias etre tes sees Cee ee ee

PAGE

763

764

765

766

Cals

Lis

775

776

777

MILPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XL

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE PAGE

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN 3 see ALI Betts, F. N.; The Birds of the

SALIM. Laccadive Islands (With a

Acuarva, H. G., F.z.S. ; Dis- plate) ; a2, Sexe GOL.

tribution of Sternocera nitidt- i ; Che Breeding of

collis, C.T..G. «:: aie the Indian Sooty Tern (Sterna

Beitkometo2 oes fuscata infuscata) in the

Tree-Mouse (Vandeluria ole- Laccadive Islands vane 108

yacea) in the nest of a Spider. 737 | CAtus, J. F., Ss J., F.L.s. ; Medi-

cinal and Poisonous Plants of

Number of young of Long- India: Waterlillies, Poppy-

tailed Tree-Mouse (Vandelu- worts, Fumitores Sr

ria oleracea) 739 = jy tHe

‘Sopp Lee i 2 Me Distribution of Auxutheolus

Fresh Water Fishes of Nort melanurus Kessler 579

Gujrat an re Ste MAC ee Seen a ee

ALIKHAN, IFTIKHAR ; Method Medicinal and Poisonous Cru-

adopted by Leopards in hunt- cifers of India ... 693

ing Monkeys : 555 (-—-_ => and RADHA, Miss

Aut, SAtim; An Additions Tee K.S. ; Earth-Eating and Salt-

of Birds from Hyderabad cune in India 544, 724

State ro & .. 497 | CarrRott, Capt. W.C.; Notes

and ABDULALI, on Butterflies of the Shan

Humayun: The Birds of States, Burma ... Sat fee) eROS7,

Bombay and Salsette, Part V. COBB, MAToR EH. H.:°-An

(With one plate) » 367 extension of the Range of the

ten sees Western Horned Pheasant

Part VI «.. meh ... 628 [ Zragopan melanocephalus

BANERJI, I.; A note on the (Gray) ] 569

Embryology of the Ground CoMYN, COLONEL Kunin

Nut, Avachis hypogaea, L. ... 539 Swifts in Swallows’ Nests 575

BARNES, Mrs. A. M.; Birds DE St. Crorx, C. H.; Breeding

observed in and near Tam- of Pintail Snipe (?) in Bel-

baram, Chingleput District, gaum District . 570

South India 467, 744 | Dickson, MRs. Hh Se P. > Mig-

Basu, B. ; A Comment on the ration and methods of Bird

name ‘ Blood-sucker ’ applied Snaring in North East

to Calotes versicolor (Daud.). 577 Arabia. (With five text-fi-

BATES, MAJOR, °:-R. Ss B. gures) 740

M.B.0.U. ; Bird Photography DICKSON, MRS. Vv. Plaats of

inIndia. (With six plates). 666 Kuwait, North Bae Arabia. 528

4 WAR

MAK

HADES, K R., ch.Z.S.,.M Boru.

The Distribution and Nidifi-

cation of the Indian (Punjab)

Raven (Corvus corax lau-

vencet Hume) in Sind

————-——; A Note on the

Resident Owls of Sind

; The Status and

Nidification of the Persian

Bee-eater (Merops persicus

persicus Pall.) in Sind

EpItors; Association of Deer

and Monkeys ;

———— ; On the range Oe fe

ie Horned Pheasant

(Tragopan melanocephalus)...

—-— ;Extension of range

of the moth WNorraca longt-

pennis Moore

; Note

leptalina Koll.

————. ; The ree head be a

Mishin Thakin

———— ; Banded Crake ae

Mala - ar Woodpecker in

Southern India ae

-———— ; Letter from Mr.

Stuart Baker on identification

of eggs of Sterna fuscata

infuscata from Laccadive

Islands

on Fterusia

(@onar :

— = } Pemaonine from pie

ofa eaices (Tarantula) e

FISCHER, C. E. C.; Where did

the Sandalwood Tree (Santal-

um album, Linn.) Evolve? ..,

Grimson, C.; Derivation of the

name Seladang e

GonzALEZ, J.; The Mating of

Elephants .

HarMan,A. C. Prete neon of

the range of 7G moth Worraca

longipennis Moore. ({Noto-

dontide ) a ee sc.

HASWELL, Mayor: F.. W.;

Curious Behaviour of Ele-

phants a are

Hora, SUNDER LAL, D.Sc

F.Z.S., FiRiA.S.B. 4

F.R.S.E.,

PAGE

747

750

569

763 |

763

77\

578

560

LIST OF CONTRIBOCTORS

The Game Fishes of India,

Part. V..°CWith one wilate

and four text-figures)

Hora, SUNDER LAL, D.Sc.

FUR .S3h., GELZ5S., | Or ReauseB.

The Game Fishes of India

Part VI. (With one plate and

two teat-figures) cos

Howson, Lrt.-Cor. C.; Otters

and Crocodiles ae ae

HuBBACK, T.; The Two- EIGEne

ed Asiatic Rhinocaee (Dice-

rorhinus sumatrensis). (With

eight plates) Be AA

- ; Why Elephants

“visit .‘ Salt- RoKe

Inppotson, J.; A baby Ele-

phant (With a plate)

JACOB; KtCy, © 1. (AeG {iF Se

A Fasciated inflorescence in a

Banana (With a plate)

Jonres, A. E.; Nesting of the

Booted Eagle (AHzeraétus

pennatus Gm.) in the Simla

Hills sn ae

— Weseripion of

the >. larva: ) of... 2ierusia

(Soritia) Jleptalina Koll,

(Zygenide) (With a plate)..

JONES, 0S. ;> On’ the “nesting

Habits of the Gourami Osph-

ronemus goramy. [Lacépéde].

KHAN, DR. HAMID, M.SC.,

LL:B., Pipi ; Phe Food?.of

Brown Trout (With a plate).

—_-—__ — ; Notes

on the Diseases of Trout

at the Mahili Hatchery—

Kulu (Punjab) (Witha plate)

KOHL; PouN. ; "Occurrence ¥ot

two plants new to Kashmir...

Law, S.C. ; Haunt and Habitat

of Pitta c. cucullata Hartl. in

West Bengal (W7th a plate)..

LISTER, Li.-CoL.-F. H.+'Oc-

currence Yof the ‘Tiger in

Northern Sikhim at 8,800 ft.

LivESEY, T.R.; Egg stealing

by Khasia Hills Cuckoo

(Cuculus canorus bakert),

Hart, uae a set

PAGE

583

594

730

558

581

568

578

766

428

553

26]

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi

LIvESEY, T.R.; Call-notes of

the Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo

(Cacomantis merulinus que-

vulus) a ae

-——_—— ; The Shan

Brown Wood-OwL Strix

indranee shanensts Baker

—___—__--—_-__-; The Nidifica-

tion of the Burmese Barred-

back Pheasant (Syrmaticus

humie CECT CHS)

—__-——-—-—— ; Vultures feed

ing at night nee aA

LowTHER, E. H.N., M.B.O.U.,

F.z.S. ; Notes on some Indian

Birds—iii. Birds in my garden

(With six plates) i

MAHENDRA, BENI CHARAN,

F.Z.S.; The Taxonomic Des-

cription of Ahinophis travan-

coricus, Boul. (With a plate).

MARSHALL, G. H. L.; Leopards

from vicinity of Naga Hills ...

> Mea-

surements of. Tigers.shot in

Naga Hills (A correction)

MAVYURANATHAN, P. V.; The

original Home of the Coconut

(A correction) i

McCann, CHARLES, F.L.S.;

The Reptiles and Amphibia

of Cutch State. (With two

plates) es —

MICHAEL, PETER; ‘Fish of

Great Age’ (Reprinted from

the ‘ Field’) ar

MorRIs, R. C. ; F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.

Measurements of Tiger, Pan-

ther, Bison and Sambhur

——— Pee) (e¢ehe acy obj ales

Grounds’ and _ ‘ sore-neck

in Sambar ’ a Ss

-; A. Natural

History Tale

—— --—— ——; On the occur-

rence of the Banded Crake

(Rallus e. amuroptera) and

the Malabar Woodpecker

(Macropicus 7. hodgsont) in

the Billigirirangan Hills,

S. India

PAGE

564

567

568

755

409

388

739

740

776

425

765

599

560

581

763

PAGE

MOSELEY, Martin, E.; The

Indian Caddis Flies (Zvrichop-

tera). Part V (With twelve

pl ites) aes ie w. 486

Munns, F. A. C.; Cuckoos in

Sugaon, Champaran District,

Bengal ae mee ao) 070

MustTILL, F. J., 1.F.S.; Behavi-

our of Gaur or Indian Bison

(L160s gaurus) ee ote ll

Parsons, R. E.; Migration

routes of Geese Ba ae fF

——_——_-——_--—_ ; A case of

poisoning from the bite of a

spider See 2: sh LTS

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, MAJOR

E. G.; Measurements -— of

Tigers shot in the Nilgiris—

1975—-37> sas en JOS

; Measure-

ments of Panthers ... ee oe

PRATER, S. H., C.M.z.S. ; Addi-

tional Notes on the: Asiatic

Two-Horned Rhinoceros... 618

PRIMROSE, J. B. ; Supplemen-

tary Observations on _ the

Munnar Section of the Orni-

thological Survey of Travan-

core and Cochin ... eee 2s OUU

RapHa, Miss K.S., m.sc. ; See

GCATUS; Jib.3°S.J.,.F As Ss

Rag, C. J.; Cotton Teal (WVetto-

pus coromandelianus) at Nasik. 765

—--——-; On the occurrence

of certain Butterflies at Nasik, 775

REVIEWS :—

The Fight to Live ... ww. 049

The Valley of Flowers vw. 949

Lac Cultivationin India... 550

Supplement to the Flowering

Plants of Madras City and

its immediate neighbour-

hood ice 550

Hints on Museum nddeation: 550

More difficulties of the Evolu-

tion Theory ses ee JO

Pageant of Wings ... ste 424

Trees and Men oat so fee

Le petit peuple des ruisseaux. 728

The Annual Report and

Balance Sheet of the Ceylon

xii LIST OF CONTRIBO TORS

PAGE

Game and Fauna Protection

Society for the Season 1937-

1938 ve oF ame L403

SETNA; DrR.::S. B.;° M.Sc.,

BR .M<S., oPlaeD) 3 ee

Fishing Trane: se Hebe A)

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F:R.E.S.

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera ae oa ao

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera, Part 2 . ce eetOoi:

An improved Cellophane

wing mount ee coat e GLO

SHARTE, Jf.5) Disc.) “Phin!

F.L S.; A proposal to advance

the Teaching and Research

in Entomology in India so. 2008

SMITH, F. WOOLEY; The Re-

cord Thakin Head (With a

photo) uae 736

STANFORD, J. K. . Bird Notes

from the Dry Gene of eur

Burma an 971

STANSFELD, H. S. SOA the oc-

currence of the facia Purple

Moorhen (forphryrio 6.

poliocephalus) in Chitral .... 762

SUBRAHMANYAM, T. V.; Pro-

tective Adaptation among

some Indian Spiders :

THIAGARAJAN, -K. B.,- B.Sc.;

The Habits of the Common

EKarwig of Annamalainagar,

Euborellia stalit (Dohrn.)

THom, W.S.; Sore Neck in

Sambar

WAITE, H. W. iO dounrenee of

the White- headend Wagtail

(Motacilla flava leucoce-

phala, Przew.) in the Attock

District of the Punjab :

WILLIAMS, C. B., Sc.p.; The

Migration of Butterflies in

India (With one coloured

plate and four diagrams)

WILLIAMS, J.; Game Birds in

the Anaimalai Hills and the

South Coimbatore District —

A correction : aes

-——--——-——; Glyricidia

maculata as a shade tree for

Tea fee wae pets

—_—_——--—— ; General Flower-

ing of Strobtlanthes in South

India

PAGE

477

56]

439

570

979

LI SOMOL BLATT ES

VOLUME XL

Nos. 3 and 4

Game Fishes of India

Plate

The Pungas Cat Fish (Pangastus pangasius)

Birds of Bombay and Salsette

Plate

The Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvius)

Birds of the Laccadive Islands

Plate

I. (A) Coral Reef at Kadmat.

(B) Banyan grove at Kiltan

Rhinophis travancoricus, Boul,

Notes on some Indian Birds

Plate

- Plate

I, Common Wood-Strike feeding its young

II. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch

III. Green Barbet looks out from its rest-hole

IV. Little Brown Dove

V. Ashy Wren-Warbler

VI. Brown-backed Robin

Reptiles and Amphibia of Cutch State

Plate

I. (A) Low Hills on the border of the Great Rann at

Nir Wand, Pachum Island, Cutch

(B) The condition of the Great Rann, 15 miles north

of Nir Wand, in September 1935 “a

II. (A) Saw-scaled Viper or Phoorsa (Echis carinata)

basking in a bush of Capparts aphylla in the

Bunny, Cutch.

(B) Leith’s Sand-snake (Psamophis letthit) at Nir

Wand, Pachum Isiand

Food of Brown Trout (Salmo fario)

Plate

Contents of stomach of a trout caught on the 11th Aprit

1937

Migration of Butterflies in India

Plate

Indian Migrant Butterflies

(A) Colzas fieldi, (B) Catopsilia crocale. (C) Vanessa cardut.

(D) Catopsilia pyranthe. (E) Lampides beticus.

(F) Pieris brassice. (G) Danaus hamata septentrionis.

(H) Danaus genutie. (1) Euplea core

Indian Caddis Flies ( 7vichoptera)

Plate

I. Notidobta nigra

II. Goéra atra ae

III. Goéra kursea, Goéra kalimpa

IV. Goéra minor

V. Goéra mandana

VI. Goéra mishmia

VII, Goérarumabia

PAGE

Bho)

369

382

388

410

412

414

416

420

422

425

427

430

440

487

488

490

xiv LIST OF PLATES

Plate VIII. Goéra tridens

Plate IX. Goéravulpina ... :

Plate X. Byrachycentrus kozlovt

Plate XI. Micrasema baitina

Plate XII. Muicrasema punjaubi

A Baby Elephant

Plate Raj Piari with her mother :

Plate Eterusia (Soritia) leptalina, (Koll)

Plate Fasciated Inflorescence in a Banana

Game Fishes of India

Plate The Goonch [Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton) ]

The Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)

Plate I.-- Mounted heads

Plate II. Shot in steep coun in Ulu Beane Panane

Plate III. Passing through a ‘ salt-lick’ in Ulu, Pahang

Plate IV. Side view of animal shown in Pl. III

Plate V. Awallow near a‘ salt-lick’

Plate VI. A disused wallow

Plate VII. The same animal shown in Ke III and Iv

Plate VIII. The same animal shown in Pls. II and 1V

Notes on the Diseases of Trout at the Mahili Hatchery-Kulu (Punjab)

Plate. Fig.1. Rainbow Trout showing Fin-rot.

Fig. 2. Rainbow Trout with Carcinoma of Thyroid.

Fig. 3. Brown Trout with Carcinoma of Thyroid

Bird Photography in India

Plate Pion Rheshide

Plate il. -Openbills in the Wedan ene Heronry

Plate III, Brown Hill-Warbler about to enter nest..

Plate IV. ‘The Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Plate V. Yellow-billed Blue Magpie

Plate VI. Himalayan Ruby throat

Haunt and Habitat of Pitta c. cuculluta Hartl.in West eave

Plate. Fig. 1. Swamp and march fed by overflow from river

Banka

Fig. 2. Aspect of ‘ transition belt’ along the course of the

Banka

PAGE

492

495

496

558

978

981

583

594

997

601

603

604

607

610

614

654

665

669

673

674

676

678

VV S PO TELUST RATIONS

VOLUME XL

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE | PAGE

Arachis hypogaea, note on the | Catopsilia pyranthe, Pl. fig. D. 440

Embryology of the Ground | Colias fiéldii, Pl. fig. A. 440

Nut ~~ | Danaus genutte, Pl. fig. H,... 440

_ Figs. 1-8 540 hamata septentrionis

Figs. 9-16 pA Pl. fig. G. 440

Asiatic Two-Horned Roce: Elephant (a Baby)

ros, (Dicerorhinus sumatren- Raj Piari with her mother Pl. 558

$75) Eterusia leptalina

Pl. i. Heads. US SGT those ule wi, eee ak 578

Pl. ii. Specimen shot in aie a ploca core Pl. fig. 1, 440

Benus, Pahang SY” | Rood of Brown ‘Trout (Salmo

Pl. iii Passing through a fario)

‘salt-lick” in Ulu, Contents of the stomach of a

Pahang ee Ud Trout caught on the 11th April,

Pl. iv. Side view of animal 1937 ees nr 480

shown in PI. iii. 603 Conan

Pl. v. A wallow near a ‘salt: Pl. ii. figs. land 2 488

lick ’. 604 kalimpa

Pl. vi. A disused wallow 607 Pl. ii. figs. 3 and 4 488

Pl. vii. Side view of animal Pay sen

shown in Pl. iii Pl, iii. figs. land2 ... 488

and iv on mandana

Pl. viii. Do. aie OF Plav Aes, 16 490

Bagarius bagarius, Pl. 584 minor

Fig. 1. Variation in form and Pl. iv. figs. 1-5 488

colouration 583 mishmia

Fig. 2:‘’Teeth and ener Pl, vi. figs. 1 and 2 490

canal _ 590 rumabia

Bird Photography in Tadia Pl. vii figs. 1-4 490

Pl. i. The Hide 655 tridens — od

Pl. ii. Openbills in the Vecen Pl. viii. figs. 1-4 492

Thangan Heronry . Og one vulpina

Pl. iii. Brown Pecan Pl. ix. figs. 1-7... 492

about to enter nest . 673 Gy ps Pils Pl.

Pl. iv. The’ Pheasant- tated Nesting on the cliffs —at

Jacana. 674 Mumbra, Thana District,

Pl, v. Yellow-billed B lue Bombay. (From a Group in

Magpie 676 | the Prince of Wales

Pl. vi. Himalayan Ruby- ‘threat 678 Museum vo 368

Brachycentrus kozlovi Hersiliid spider on tree- bane an 482

Riexispes.) 1-3 a 495 Indian Caddis Flies (Zvichop-

Catopsilia crocale, Pl. fig. B. 440 tera), Twelve plates 487-496

se &

Xvi INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Laccadive Islands

Pl. (a) Coral Reef at Kadmat

(b) Banyan Grove at

Kiltan 2) 3382

Lampides boeticus Pl. fig. E. 440

Micrasema baitina

Ploxi, figs; 1-4... as w. «= 496

— punjabt

Pl. xii fies. and) 2... sent c406

Migration and Bird Snaring in

N.E. Arabia.

Bio, 1 alhree Sulaba ats 741

Fig. 2.. A‘decoy’ Kestrel. 742

Fig. 3, Fakhtrap ... een eae

Fig, 4. Sulaba trap se ed

Hig. 5. Salia trap’ «.. 744

Migration of Butterflies in a

Pl. Indian Migrant Butterflies. 440

Musa paradisiaca

Fasciated inflorescence in a

Banana Pl. ... ae ae OO

Notidobia nigra

Pl. 1. figs. 1-6 be 2) Sse 37

Pangasius hypophthalmus

Fig. air-bladder ok Sac), ee OO

— larnaudit

Fig. dentition and air-bladder. 358

—— micronena

Fig. dentition and air-bladder 358

—-—— ——pangasius P}. che OOO

Fig. 2. Lateral view of the

large-eyed form... 365

Fig. 1. Upper dentition a

air-bladder of 3specimens... 357

Fig.4. Alimentary canal ... 365

—— siamensts

Fig. dentition and air-bladder 358

Pieris brassice

Plaic. F. Se eas w. 440

Pitta c. cucullata

Pl. fig. 1. Swamp and marsh

River Banka

fie. 2. ‘ Transition belt’

River Banka ee ED

Prinia soctalts

Pl. a a me ace. , 420

Psechrid Spider on _ grass

fig. a af aes we 482

Rhinophis travancoricus

Pl. Arecord example

Sitta castaneiventris

124 5H aay

Stegodyphus sp. fig.

Streplopelia cambayensis

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

Thakin, a Record Head fig.

Thamnobia cambayensis

Jeale

Thereiceryx zeylanicus

led re

The Reptiles and Amphibia of

Cutch State :—

Pl.i. (a) Low Hills on the

border of Great

Roam n sate Nir

Wand, Pachum

Island

(6) The condition of

the Great Raan,

15 miles North of

Nir Wand

Pl. ii. (a) The Saw-scaled

Viper or Phoorsa

(Achis carinata)

basking ina

bush of Capfa-

vis aphylla in the

Bunny, Cutch

(6) Leith’s "Snake

Psamophis leithii

at Nir Wand,

Pachum Island...

Thomisid spider in a Bauhinia

flower fig.

Trout, Diseases of

Pl. fig. 1, .Rainbow» 71,710 ant

showing Fin-rot.

fig. 2. Rainbow Trout

with Carcinoma

of Thyroid.

fig. 3. Brown Trout with

Carcinoma of

_ Thyroid

Vanessa cavdut, Pl. fig. C.

PAGE

388

412

479

416

410

736

422

414

425

427

483

654

440

ERRATA

Vol. XL, No. 3

Page 501, line 14, from top, for‘ XXVJ/’ read‘ XXXVI’.

» 902, line 6, from bottom, for ‘Wot recorded. S.A. read ‘ S.A. and

Vibes

, 906, line 15, from top, for ‘/eschenauilt’ read ‘ leschenault2’.

OE ity SG ad ,, for ‘Noe seen’ read ' Nol recerded’.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Aaronsohnia factorovskyi ool

Ablepharus grayanus 426

Acacia seyal 530

- sp. oe 535

Acanthodactylus cantoris Se 426

Acantholepis orientalis ... 531

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis 746

——-—— virgatus besra 376

Achlaris bifasciatus casyapa ... ww. = 442

Acridotheres tristis tristis 412, 471

Acrocephalus dumetorum 503

- stentoreus 571

Aemona lena 664

_ —— haynei 664

Aerua javanica a 536

4Egithina tiphia marae 468

A¥salon chicquera chicquera ... 371

A®thiopsar fuscus mahrattensis 503

Aganais ficus 401

Agathia laetata # ey eos",

Aglais cashmirensis 398, 443, 450

Agrotis ypsilon 439

Aizoon canariense aes ae ool

——-- hispanicum ool

Alauda gulgula australis .. 904

Albizzia lebbeck ae wits we S90

Alcedo atthis 474

Alfalfa sp. 539

Alhagi maurorum 530

Alliaria officinalis 695

Allium desertorum 535

—-- laceratum a ee)

- spheerocephalum var. arvense. 535

Alseonax latirostris 469

Alseonax muttui : 502

Alyssum maritimum ... is) oe

Amaranthus flitum : 536

Amathusia phidippus dere 665

Amathuxidia amythaon 665

Amaurornis fuscus fuscus 628

-—— phecenicurus chinensis 629

——_——- - phoenicurus. 385

Ambassis ranga Foi

Amblypharyngcdon oth 773

MAR 1 1040

TT Oi—i—BI 00 III III II III

Ammi majus fea

Ammochloa palaestina ...

Ammomanes phoenicura

Anabasis articulata

-— setifera

Anadebis diademoides ...

- himachala

Anagallis arvensis var. carnea

———- femina

——_——-- latifolia

Anas platyrhyncha

——- peecilorhyncha

PAGE

—- —__—___...- poleilornynsiias.,

Anastomus oscitans

Anchusa aggregata

Andrachne telephioides

Anhinga melanogaster ..

Anisociadium lanatum ..

orientale ...

Anisolabis colossea

Ankyropetalum copii de

Annua (Ophiusa) coronata

Anous stolidus pileatus...

Anthemis deserti

Anthropoides virgo

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni

- richardi richardi

—-——- rufulus malayensis

Antigone antigone antigone

Antirrhinum orontium ...

Anvillea garcini

———- -- garcine

Apor.a agathon aeaeionn

Appias albina 444,

-———-- darada oh

———- lalage lalage 442, 445,

- lalassis

- libythea olferna..

- lyncida Hipnoides

- nero galba

-- paulina adamsoni

Aquila nipalensis nipalensis

Arabidopsis thaliana

Arachis hypogaea

373;

446,

450,

O31

935

472

933

533

664

Bey

932

532

650

974

650

645

Soy

534

644

DoW

Tall

929

689

385

931

632

504

497

504

632

5215)

Ser

536

660

450

661

372

696

939

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE | PAGE

Arachnothera longirostra longirostra. 505 | Athene brama 474

Ardea cinerea DIS) = - indica 368, 754

- cinerea ... 645 Atractylis cancellata oo2

— -- rectirostris 387 | ——-——- flava 532

purpurea of 37> Atriplex Amorpnenicen ia 53a

——— meenene S ate 16455) —--- leucoladum ee eS

Ardeola grayii 387, 476, 507, 647 —- parviflora SRI), SS

Arenaria interpres interpres 385, 636 Aulocera saraswata 455

Argemone mexicana 518 | Avena barbata : 535

Argilops triunciatis 535. Bagarius bagarius : 584, “585, 586, 587,

Argina argus 403, 588

Argya caudata 7 S763) == -— buchanam: 584. 585

~caudata ... 468 —— nieuwenhuisii, 584, 586, 588

gularis 971 | *Bagrus yarrellii’ :.. 584, 585, 586

Argynnis hyperbuis 454 Baluchitherium 621

— - lathonia issaea 456 Barbarea vulgaris 696

Arhopalas dodonsea 456 Barbus arulius 773

——— ganesa 456 | - sarana 773

——___-—— rama 456 | -- sophore 773

a SPP: AAD Le she 773

Aristida ciliata 535 ~ ticto 773

~- obtusa 535 Barilius bendelisis 73

—- plumosa 535 | Bassia eriopora 534

Arnebia cornuta one .- 332) Bellevalia flexuosa 535

-- decumbens a 532, 538 | 535

———-- hispidissima an 532 Beta maritima 534

-- tinctoria 532 | Bibos frontalis 733

Artamus fuscus .. 470 | ——- gaurus 73h

Artemisia monosperma 532, 536 | Blepharis edulis ... : 536

Arthrocnemum glaucum 533 | Botaurus stellaris aOliewals 649

Asio flammeus flammeus 367 | Brachmia xerophaga 737

Asota caricee alciphron .. 402 | Brachycentrus kozlovi ... . 49S

Asphodelus tennifolius 5G0,62 008 subnubilus 494, 495

Astragalus annularis 530 ten benghalensis 473

—-- baeticus 530 Brachypteryx major al!biventris 502

———_——. bombycinus 530 | Brasen‘a schreberi 513

——--—----- brachyceras 530 | Brassica campestris 698.

——_--—__—— corrugatts 530 —-—— cernua ... 699

—-———— cruciatus 530 | ——-—— integrifolla 699

———— dactylocarpus 030 napus 697

—— ——— forskahlei 530 nigra 699

—--——— gyzensis © 530 ————- oleracea 697

——--—— peregrinus 530 | -——-——- tournefortii 528

—_———— schimperi 530 | —+—-— var. chinensis .. €98

—_-———— striatellus 530 5 —— rapa 698.

—-———— tenuirugis 530 Bromus tectorum a: 535

—— tribuloides ... 530 | Bubo bubo bengalensis és. 308, 474, 7.58

Astur badius es 746 | ——-- coromandus coromandus 752

BR ere aceon 875 | Bubuleus ibis ... 574

Aitella ariachne 444) ——-———- —- coremantie: 646

——-- phalanta nade, 445, 447°} Bufo endersonii ... m. 427.

Bain. Stal

INDEX: OF SPECIES

PAGE |

Bungarus ceeruleus eee AQT |

Bupleurum semicompositum 931 |

Burhinus cedicnemus ... mie Sik eee TS |

——_—_-- ———- SSP. G32)

Butastur teesa 3/2, S/2

Butheolus melanurus ; 579 |

Butorides striatus javanicus .. 387, 647 |

Buzura (Biston) suppressaria ... ESD

Byasa aidoneus 658 |

aristolochiae O92

—— ——__ ---—_ eonnOnelae 658 |

Crassipes <.. a 658 |

philoxenus polyeuctes ... 658

zaleucus 658 |

Cacomantis merulinus nlerdlas 564 |

Caerostris sp. 478.

Caladium 682 |

Calamus easaneds 603

Calendula aegyptica Doe |

——--——_ persica 932

Calidris tenuirostris 386 |

Callerebia hyagriva 454 |

454 —

Calligonum comosum 534

-Calotes versicolor 426, 577

Calotrophis procera 534, 538

Capella gallinago gallinago er 1043

- nemoricola 507, 643

- - stenura 507, 643

Capparis galeata S30u)

-——-—— spinosa ; 536

Caprimulgus asiaticus ened 474

Capsella Bursa-pastoris 701

Cardamine impatiens val

——-— pratensis 70]

Carduus pycmocephalus war. ite 932

‘Caretta caretta 425

Carpodacus erythrinus fosentak 504

Carrichtera annua z8 928

Carthamus oxyacantha... a viet OBZ

—— HMICTONIUS ss. at ie aoe

Casarca ferruginea 650

Cassia obovata 535

tomentosa a .. 040

Catopsilia catilla 444,445, 446,

447

-———- crocale 394, 442, 443, 444, 445,

447, 450, 661

———- florella 444, 447, 450

—_—_ — - gnoma fa. O01

——-—— pomona 450, 661

Ex!

PAGE

Catopsilia pyranthe ... 442, 443, 444, 445,

446, 449, 450

—e —~ ——-—— minna ve 661

Celastrina (Cyaniris) huegelii... 456

—-- puspa ... ».442, 454, 455

Cenchrus ciliaris... ore ae ue O00

Centaurea mesopotamica ee, fOoe

——--—~— phyllocephala Bee Nee Co

-- - solstitialis ... see Ay lok

Centaurium . (Erythraea) ramosissi-

mum... 534

Centropus bengalensis ... 419

—— ---——-- sinensis parroti 473, 505

Cephalaria syriaca Spe it

Ceratorhinus blythit 618

- niger 618

Cerchneis tinnunculus tinnunculus ... 384

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura 474

Cheetornis locustelloides AQ7

Cheetura giganteus indicus 506

Chalcophaps. indica indica 377, 506

Chaptia znea malayensis 503

Chara vulgaris 534

Charadrius dubius 476

curonicus .. 636

——— -— leschenaulti 637

——-—— mongolus atrifrons 637

Chaulelasmus streperus 650

Cheirianthus cheiri 702

Chela clupeoides (ie

Cheliobrachys sp. 774

Chenopodium album 534

- murale 534

Chettusia gregaria 638

Chilasa agestor agestor... tee OO

—clytia clytia pdos008

——--- —--- onpape ... 658

-slateri marginata 658

Chlidonias hybrida indica 634

Chloridea obsoleta 688

Chrysocolaptes festivus... 498

——--—— guttacristatus cherso-

nensis... 505

Ciconia ciconia ciconia 645

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 471

-———— lotenia ... 471

——_—— minima 504

471

Circaétus ferox ane 372

Circus ceruginosus zruginosus 375, 475

374, 385, 475, 746

macrceurus

xxi

PACE

Circus melanoleucus ..d/79, 475, 498

——— pygareus... 375, 385

Cirrepedesmus leschenaulti 386

-—- ——-- mongolus artifrons 386

Cirrhina reba LS

Cirrhino cirrhosa 113

Cistanche tubulosa 533

Citrullus colocynthis Jol. 536

Clamator jacobinus jacobinus 473, 576

Clupea chapra 992

Cochlearia flava 703

Colias 662

- fieldi 442, 443,

450

—-—— edusina 442, 457

Colisa fasciata (Colisa vulgar is) 767 |

labiosus : 771

Collocalia fuciphaga colon 506

Colotis amata 450

Coluber helena ... 427

Columba livia ae 506

— — mermedia VAT)

Convolvulus lineatus a2

-——— oxyphyllus Doe

oe pilosellaefolius J3o

——— scriceus 533

Copychus saularis saularis 469

Coracias benghalensis indica ... 473

Corchorus triocularis 536

Cornulaca monacantha 534

Corvus corax laurencei 747

- macrorhynchos culminatus. 467, 501

~——- splendens x4 sit 418, 467

——__- ——_--——- protegatus ... 501

- ——--—-- splendens 384

Corydalis govaniana 525

——-——— ramosa ae an =e 2026

Cosmolyce boeticus ae 443, 451

——-——- (Lampides) evita 399

Cosmophila. erosa 690

Coturnix coromandelica 380, 572

——— -- coturnix coturnix 379

Crambe cordifolia 703

Crepis parviflora 532

Cressa cretica 533

Crocethia alba 386

Crocodilus palustris 425

Crocopus phcenicopterus chlorogaster 376

Crozophora obliqua 534

— —- oblongifolia 534

Crucianella membranacea nee on DOL

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Cryophyton (Mesembryanthemum)

nodiflorum 531

Cryptoplectron coyemrennncnaes 507

Cuculus canorus bakeri aes sax 1-00

-- micropterus : 576

Culicicapa ceylonensis eorioncners eee O02

Cuminumcryminum ... ah ee SS

Cursorius coromandelicus 633

Cuscata planifora 033

Cutandia memphitica ... 935

Cynodon dactylon 935

Cynomorum coccineum 534

Cyornis rubeculoides rubeculoides 469

Cyperus arenarius sat : 539

-- conglomeratus var. arenarius 535

-- rotundus 535

Cypsiurus parvus 474

Daemia cordata .. 536

Dafila acuta 650

Danais aglea dit

——- aglea Piclanoides) 5 OOZ

- - chrysippus 396, 662

- gautama gautama 662

——- limniace... 444, 445

——- mutina 396, 662

——- melaneus plateniston ... 662

—-——- melissa septentrionis 662

- plexippus .. 444, 445, 662

- septentrionalis 444

- tytia tytia 662

Danaus aglea 450

- ~ chrysippus x62 442, 443, 450

— genutia 442,443, 449,450,453, 454,455

— hamata septentrionis 449, 450, 453

—-—-—-— limniace 450

——- plexippus - 439

———- tytia 443, 450, 454, 455

Dasychira mendosa 404

Deilephila nerii ... 407

Delias aglaia se 661

belladonna burmana ... 7) BOON

descombesi leucacantha see OO

——— eucharis ... ss 661

——— hyparete hierte ... aie 2 J06H

————. sanaca . 442, 443, 450, 456

——— singhapura agostina .. 661

- thysbe pyramus... 661

Delichon urbica urbica... wei Oe

Demiegretta asha | aoe 387, 647

Dendrocalamus giganteus 602

Dendrocygna fulva as wt 574

INDEX OF SPECIES. Xxili

PAGE PAGE

Dendrocygna javanica ... ‘ .. 649 | Erysimum repandum ... ee ma) 0S

Dendrophasa pompadora aan i 370! Leenyx Jone ee ane ti ne 426

Dercas verhuelli doubledayi ... ... 661 | Esacus recurvirostris ... one (pee 00e

Descurainia sofia in oe res 703 Eterusia (Soritia) leptalina ... ee 70

Diczeum concolor concolor _... 46 505 | Buborelliastah ... — bs weet geal

Dicerorhinus sumatrersis ne 594 Euchloe lucilla ... sae ...442, 443, 450

macrocercus peninsularis 470, 745 | Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus 384, 746

Digera arvensis ... ae a =. 36 | EBugenia sp. ae ae na ss O08

Dipceadi erythraeum ... ne 535, 536: | Eumeces teeniolatus ... ce ww. 426

Diplotaxis acris ... a ne .. 528 | Eumyias albicaudata ... i Be Ue

——-—— harra ... ape oa .. 528 | Euphorbia cornuta wee or ee ok

Dipsas trigonata .. ie Be auetey, —_——— -- hieroglyphica ee a 534

Discophora contcntats eoaginenans: 665 | Euplaoe alcathce doubledayi .. » 662

-————-—- tullia zal... aes sss 605 2 -— oesatia ae ... 662

Dissoura episcopa episcopa ... pre O45) ea SCA a. es ne Pe, aS

oi ee ee episcopus — ae 573 == COLE eae 444, 445, 449, 450, 453

Draba muralis .., ie ay Pe O48 eee —— core vee ve - 397

Dromas ardeola ... ae ee 2804000 4b oa =a- 7 COLCta) Ge. is Cte wwe «= 453

Ducula badia cuprea ... nee 2 +906 -- deione deione ... ; a GOS

~Dyera spd. ee ae .. 607 | -——-- diocletiana digcieans or 002

Echinopsilon tauiricatand ae .. 534 | ———-- godarte ... ate ua sa, 003

Echis carinata ... aie ee .. 427 | —-—-- harrisi hopei .... ae ie 608

Egretta alba subsp. ss iss .. 646 | -——-- klugicrassa... Ace 1e) 008

- garzetta garzetta a 574, 646 | ——----——-macclellandi ... ore. Ob2

— ———-- intermedia ... fet O46 --midamus brahma ... . 663

Elanus coeruleus aN re .« 475 | Euryale ferox fs a ws o14

ha VOCKEIUS 9 tr. 3/3, 560, 499 , Buthalia caruda .. aes ne we "692

Elaunan bipartitus ae . 722: | ———-——- —-—_ - eecanocana ne ; 398

Elymnias hypermnestra enduiar “397, 664 | Everes argiades ... .. 442, 443, 451, 454

— —nesoea timandra .... .. 664 | Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis ... 498

Emberiza melanocephala sah .. 498 | Fagonia bruguieri ve oe ee (aoU

—- striolata striolata ... w. 497 | - -- glutinosa 0 be ae OOO)

Emex spinosus ... aa ae 534, 537 | Falco jugger aa ae ve 371, 499

Enispe enthymius ie si .. 665 | -——- peregrinus... es on ww. 384

Epeira diadema ... ins wh 478,485 | ——- ——-—-—— peregrinator eee.

Eremopterix grisea grisea i we 471 | —- —— peregrinus ... Se Ouel

Ergolis ariadne ... re e .. 450 | —-—-subbuteo subbuteo BAe toe OL

Erites an ne “ a .. 664 | ——- tinnunculus ee oe mer | 05

Erodium ciconium i: a se) 00 | == = —-— objurgatus ... a. O06

——— cicutarium ... ae .. o30 | ——- —— -—— tinnurculus ee oor

——— eglaucophyllum Se .. 9530 | Farsetia aegyptia fe tes Say 4!,

—-——luciniatum ... ae: Jie OU — aegyptiaca ... ae w. 706

——-——triangulare ... 530 | ———— hamiltonii oe me var. 206

— —-~var. nalvenulentan 530 | ———— jacquemontil ... see ome, 2a

Erolia alpina alpina... a ... 642 | Faunis arcesilaus see Sh ww. 665

—-- minuta minuta ... oan .. 642 | Felis tigris ie ne ae i. JOG

—-- temminckii tee ad ss. ©«=6.: 6 42 Fibigia longisiliqua mS oe, 2029

——--testacea ... tee “pe hae 642 Filago spathulata var. Pst ee Oe

Erophila vulgaris Ae ne .. 704 | Forficula auricularia ... ass sr paige

Eruca sativa var. eriocarpa ... Ha) 528 Francolinus pictus pictus ne « 300

Erucaria allepica oo: ae see O80 --——- pondicerianus ... «as 476

XXIV

Frankenia pulverulenta

Fumaria indica ..

--- parviflora

Gagea reticulata var. rigida ...

Galium decaisnei

- sinaicum

Gallicrex cinerea

Gallinula chloropus

-— indicus

Galloperdix spadicea spadicea

—— stewarti

Gallus gallus murghi

sonneratii

Gandaca harina burmana

Garcinia spp.

Gastercantha sp. ; Roe

Gastrocotyle hispidia vay. songarica..

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica

Geocichla citrina citrina

Gladiolus segetum

Glareola maldivarum

————

Glaucidium radiatum radiatum

Glossogobius giuris

Glottis nebularia

Glycestha aurota

Glyricidia maculata

Glytothorax

Goéra atra

——-- kalimpa

~—-—-- kursea

——--- mandana ..

——-- minor

——-- mishmia

Gomalia elma NIbCRS at

Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis

Gracula religiosa indica

Gymnarchus niloticus

Gymnodactylus kachensis Eacuenere vite

Gymnorhis xanthocollis

Gyps fulvus fulvescens ...

——- indicus

Gypsophila porrigens

Haematopus ostralegus fone ine:

Heetornis cheela melanotis

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca

-—— smyrnensis

Haliaétus leucogaster ...

Haliastur indus ...

—-— ——- indus

Haloxylon salicornicum ear

--— ——— ~——_--- maldivaruin ..

PAGE

929

526

526, 534

300

“3

972, 629

972

629

379

507

379

379, 507

661

608

478

932

635

746

539 |

573

633

369

713

641

450

aA)

585

489

490

779

661

503

768

426

471

369

370

529

636

506

505

474

543, 1980

373

386,

443,

475, 506

534, 538 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

Haloxylon schweinfurthii |

Haplophyllum tuberculatum ...

Hebomoia glaucippe

=———

Helianthemum ellipticum

— kahiricum

——— ——— ledifclium

——_—__————— lippii

—--—— salicifolium

Heliotropium undulatum

Hemidactylus flaviviridis

Hemipus picatus picatus

erinaria cinerea

———- hemistemon ...

Hestia lynceus hadeni ...

Heterotis niloticus

Hibiscus rosa sinensis ...

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ...

—-- pennatus

Hierococcyx varius

Himantopus himantopus himantopus

Hippasa pantherina

Hippocrephis bicontorta

——--- unisiliquosa

Hirundo daurica ..

— aie domicola

Huphina lea ee

——— --- nerissa dapha ...

evagete

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hyd -ophis spiralis

Hymenocarpos mummularius

Hyoscyanus pusillus

Hypecoum pendulum

—— procumbens

Hypolimnas bolina

-——-misippus ...

Hypotaenidia striata striata ...

Hystrix leucura ...

Ibis leucocephala ieveare onan

—— leucocepnalus

Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus

Ictinaetus malayensis perniger

Ifloga spicata

Impatiens sp.

Iris milesii

—- sisyrinchium

Isatis tinctoria ;

Ixias pyrene NE eine:

Ixiolirion montanum

— glaucippe

= envio oyerel

PAGE

see NOOO

530, 537

444, 450

662

529

532, 536

we ~ 426:

503

533

662

sae 708

721

498, 506

372, 568

575

639

480

530

575

472

504

661

394

2/2;/631

427

531

533

521, 528

521

445, 450

444, 450

628

625

645

573

497

372

532

682

777

535

706

652

535

Sse

INDEX OF SPECTES XXV

PAGE PAGE

{xobrychus cinnamomeus as 574, 648 | Lethe bhadra cin us a soe | OG4

=... sinensis sinensis ... .. 648 | ——-- chandica Aamo He « 663

Juncus acutus... Hh ca .. 535 | ——-- distans eee IM: whe rae | 003

Mononia hierta ..0°' +e. NOYES 445, 447 | ——-- europa niladana ake tes) 6038

Am -- lemonias aa ba 444, 445 | -———-- kansa a =e Ae dea O03

——— -- orythya ... an ey. 444,445 | -——--latiaris ... i = «» 663

Kallima inachus ... ae te 443, 455 | ——--- mekara zuchara ... on wea oe OOS

_ aa — heugelii oo 442,450 | -——-- muirheadi bhima ee at 663

-- philarchus horsfieldii .. 7795 | ——-- pulaha pulahoides ae oe 4609

Ketupa ceylonensis leschenaulti .. 906 | —-- rohria rohria re a i «+003

___—-~ zeylonensis on .. 368 | ——-- sidonis a eo ee ties

ar eo cneui .. 498 | ——-- ——— sidonis a sa eee O63

pe ——— semenowi ... = 6 JO | Vesa etetah ey wee i we 450

Koeleria phleoides are sot fos 539 ——-- sinorix Bd = ie Sc ate 663

Koelpinia linearis = om eg Oe) aa Sta me eis ss | 604

Labeo bogeut ... ce on .. 7/2 | ——--vaivarta ... or a6 442, 544

calbasu... sa sis = @/2\ ———--Vetmastenopa <.. ne or) an fO0S

-_——. dussumieri -. sn ep a -- vindhya ... ue os .. 663

fimbriatus ae nt .. ¢72 | Leucage sp. ae a we ae 478

: potail i ae fi ... //2; Leucocirca aureola oP pe .. 469

Sp), pA Bes ae .. 773 | Leucopolius alexandrinus ae .. 386

Labidura riparia on se .. 721] Lilium giganteum van re ei

Bi var. inermis .. 721 | Limicola falcinellus BUDS per ies i er 2 643

Lagerstraemia indica ... oe ... 685 | Limosa lapponica lapponica ces O10

Lalage sykesii ... Le on ae 70 ~limosa ssp. a, ea .. 640

Lampides boeticus fs v 442, 443 | Linaria chalepensis ies Seg OOS

Lanius cristatus cristatus a 384, 503 | - micrantha — Se hee roao

- schach caniceps 470, 503, 745 — simplex var. flaviflora .. 533

-vittatus ... a, os .. 470 | Linum usitatissimum ... = Ree sites

Lappula spinocarpos ... ee .. 9532 | Lissemys punctata granosa ... we 425

Larus argentatus cachinnans . 634) Lithospermum callosum var. asper-

——--brunnicephalus ... ie . 634 TATU ee ee OP SO2

——-- fuscus taimyrensis bes Le MOSS — incrassatuin ... Site a

——-- hemprichii es ae .. 634 | Lobipluvia malabarica re 476, 638

——-- ichthyaétus tes sis .. 633 | Lobivanellus indicus ... tbe ce)

——-- ridibundus — oe oe 108%5) ---—— indicus ... yee elote:

Launaea arabica noe Bet ... 932 | Loboda bifasciatus fe 36 we = 443

mucronata Me ies . O32 | ——--- ——-——-—- casyapa ... yet

—-—— nudicaulis ee 5932 | Locustella naevia stramenea ... Ae, o AOL

Leontodon hispidulum var. eemuitopan 932 | Loeflingia hispanica _... fee a oWO2O

Lepidium aucheri se sa ye O20 4 Lolitim: rigidum. sn sis ia 20350

——-— crassifolium ... fee ie. 707 | Lotus pusillus: ... Rs bag Jie OO

——-—— draba ... — ‘i .. 707 | Lybythea myrrha ash si oe 4500

—-—latifolium ... ats ... 708 | Lycaenopsis huegelii ... nad 443, 451

——-——— perfoliatum ... ig eue 709 ——- puspa ar eas 443, 451

——-—— ruderale me in 529, 708 | Lycosa annandalei any is 480, 485

——-—— sativum ae ae 529, 706 | Lycium arabicum sen Pe Saal coo

Leptaleum filiforme se oO cane eras) - barbarum a + Joowo50

Leptocircus curius as .. 660 | Lycodon striatus ee a sia gh A 27

-———. meges gamers .. 660] Lygia passerina ba 2 534)° 537

Leptosia nina nina ab ee .» 660 | ——-- pubescens sre ee sy eeO4

XXVI

PaGE

Lymnocryptes minima 644 |

Mabuya macularia fx -- 426

Machlolophus xanthogenys Bar ane or

ensis aces PPO UNE

Macropicus j. hodgsoni 763

Macroplectra nararia 2085

Macropodus chinensis (M. anetenlan) 767

= — —— cupanus 767

———- -——. opercularis 770

--—— viridiauratus 770

Malcolmia africana 929

—— assyriaca , 029

—_———— pulchella var. pygmaea 929

-—_——_—— torulosa var. leiscarpa 529

Malva parviflora 530, 537 |

Mangifera indica 685

—-— Sp. 607

Mareca penelope ... ims 050

Mastacembelus armatus SOL ce

= pancalus 772

Matthiola bicornis 529

—- incana 708

—- troida = = 529

Matricaria (Chamomilla) aurea 932

Meandrusa gyas aribbas 660

--— payeni amphis 660

Meconopsis aculeata 521

—— -—-——_ napaulensis sya

Medicago ascher soniana 531

— laciniata 531

Melanitis leda ismene 664

-— zitenius zitenius 664

Melitotus indica ol

-—- parviflora : 531

Mergus merganser merganser 651

Merogs oriental:s orientalis 473

——-- persicus persicus mae 090

- superciliosus javanicus 473, 499

Metanastria hyrtaca 406

Metopidius indicus 630

Micrasema baitina 496

— -—— punjaubi 496

- —— tristellum tis sos -, 405

Micropus affnis 474, 576, 746

-— melba bakeri 498

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa 7 0)

Milvus migrans govinda 373, 385, 475, 506

~ -- lineatus 373

Mirafra assamica Se 9/2

Molpastes cafer cafer 468, 501, 744

—-- haemorrhous..,. Pore call’)

INDEX OF SPECIES

Monsonia nivea

Monticola solitaria Penden

Morcandia arversis

tortuosa

Mormonia vulpina

Motacilla cinerea caspica

—- flava leucocephala

——_—— - —— simillima

——--—— maderaspatensis

Musa paradisiaca

Muscadivera cenea pusilla

Muscari comosum Fe

Muscicapula tickellize pevene:

Mycalesis francisca

gotama charaka

——-—- mamerta mamerta

———- mineus mineus

-——-—-——. nicotia

——-— perseus blaseus

——-— suavolens

——— -— visala neovisala

Myiophoneus horsfieldii

Myristica spp... cee

Myrmarachne sp.

Mystus cavasius

Naia trupidans

Nasturtium fontanum

-—— indicum

——_ —_—-- MOntanwum

- —— palustre

Natada suffusa

Nelumbium speciosum

Nelumbo nucifera

Neophron percnopterus

——-

Neorina westwoodi

Nephila maculata

Neptis hylas

- astola

Neptunia oleacea eee

Nerium odorum :

Nettapus Cotamercenanne

Nettion crecca crecca

Neurada procumbens

Nitraria tridentata

Norraca longipennis

Notidobia ciliaris

- nigra

Notoceras bicorna |

Notopterus notopterus

Numenius arquata lineatus

PAGE

471,

ee eeg

315,

370,

ginginianus ...

“442, 443,

A454, 455)

"574, 649,

387,

531

eee

530

502

536

709

493

504

561

504

581

376

535

502

663

502

608

481

773

427

709

710

709

685

514

497

475

6€4

478

450

456

040

691

765

650

OSs

530

578

487

529

772

633

INDEX OF SPECIES

Numenius arquata orientalis

- phaeopus vo

—_--—— ——-— phaeopus...

Nuphar lutium -

Nycticorax nycticorax tone

Nympheza alba

————-~ pubescens

——_——- rubra

——--—— stellata

Nyroca ferina ferina

———- iuligula fuligula

- marila marila

- rufa rufa

Ochradenus baccatus

Ochromela nigrorufa

Ocinara varians

Odontospermum Py emenien

CEnopopelia tranquebarica

barica

Oligomeris subulata

Olios tiner ok

Onobrychis ptolemaica

Ononis reclinata

: serrata :

Ophicephalus penerearie:

Ophioglossum vulgatum

Ophiomorus tridactylus

Ophiops ierdoni

— microlepis

Orgyia postica

Orinoma damaris

Oriolus oriolus kundoo

Orobanche egyptiaca

cernua var. acco riontinn

Orsotrioena medus medus

Orthotomus sutorius

-—— sutorius guzurata

Osphronemus goramy

Osphromenus gouramy

Otocompsa emeria

—— jocosa emeria

fuscicaudata

Otus bakkamoena deserticolor

—— brucei

scops pulchellus

Oxalis corniculata

Pachypterus

——-- luridus

Palaquium spp. ...

Palystes flavidus ...

Pandion haliaétus

———

——s

368, 754

584,

PAGE

386

640

sls

648

516

517

516

O17

651

476, 652

Pe O02

498, 651

529

502

407

532

tranque-

378

529

484

931

Sol

773

535 |

426

426 |

426

405

664.

471

533

rohe

664

420

470

766

769

419

468, 744

501

753

368

536

584

585

608

484

369, 499

XRVil

PAGE

Pandion haliaetus haliaétus .. «=— 84

Pangasius buchanani 390, 309, 362

-—- djambal G00; 302

——- ——- hypophthamus 307

-—— -——-- juaro ... 358

——_ -——-- larnaudii 307

-——-—- macronema ... 358

———-—- pangasius 3509002

-—-siamensis 358

Panicum turgidum a30

Papaver argemone 523

-— dubium... O25

———---— hybridum 523

—~—-----— nudicaule JZo

-— orientale D205

= -- rhoeas ... 522, 528

——_ -- ——- var. Sapincetur 528

-— somniferum 524, 528

—-— -- —— -— -— - var. encase:

lam. “528

Papilio agestor ae 442, 443, 450

- =—_—-- govindra 456

-arcturus arcturus 659

- aristolochize 450

- bianor gladiator 659

- - castor castor 659

- chaon chaon 659

- demoleus 444, 445, 450

—— ——-——_ demoleus 659

- erithonius 452

- hector * 444, 445, 450

- helenus elem 659

- machaon 443, 450, 455

—- -— verityi 659

——-- mahadeva 659

———- memnon agenor 658

- noblei 659

-—-——- pammon 452

- paris paris 659

- polyctor ganesa i 659

- polytes ; 442, 443, 445, 450,

452, 454, 455

——-- —— romulus.. 659

——-——- protenor euprotenor 658

- rhetenor 658

- xuthus ane ; 659

ee macareus Sade 660

————- megarus similis... 660

-———-———-- xenocles kephisos 660

Parasa lepida i‘ 684

Parathyma opalina

442, 443, 450, 456

XXviii

PAGE |

Pareronia avatar avatar Jie) HOOZ

-——— valeria hippia 395, 662 |

Parnara mathias 446

Parnasa mathias 444

Paronychia arabica 33

——- argentea 529

Parralelia (Ophiusa) algira 689

Passer doinesticus indicus 471

Pathysa agetes agetes 659

-- antiphates pompilius 659

-- aristeus hermocrates 659

-- glycerion 659

--- nomius swinhoei 653 |

Pavo cristatus 378.

Payena spp. 608

Peganum harmala 50,1080 +

Pelecanus crispus me gore

Pelopidas mathias 445, 451

Percnia ductaria 691

Perdicula argoondah 380

—_—- asiatica asiatica 380

Pericrocotus flammeus ... 503

peregrinus 470

Perina nuda - 405 |

Pernis ptilorhynchus aipcon S 376

Peucitia elegans 482

-- virdiana 48?

Phzethon indicus 386

Phalacrocorax niger as wr 004

Phalanta phalanta 443, 450, 455

Phaseolus vulgaris 539

Philomachus pugnax 642

Phoeniconaias minor ... sie 649

Phcenicopterus ruber BAnemogin 649

Phoenicurus ochrurus 469, 745

Photoscotosia miniosata 691

Phragmites communis Role)

Phylloscopus griseolus 499

—_——-—— _ nitidus 503

——- viridanus ... 503

Phytometra jessica ‘ 689

Picridium tingitanum var. sanenteomn 330

Picus xanthopygceus oe te ou

Pieris brassicze 442, 443, 447, 450

660

——- canidia indica 660

——-napi montana 660 |

- saharee 532

Pimelodus bagarius 985

--—-— pangasius 361, 362

Pimpinella puberula seul

INDEX OF SPECIES

Pithecolobium sf. wae

Pitta brachyurs |

Pitta brachyura

—- c. cucullata

Plantago albicans ee

———— amplexicaulis ...

——— ciliata

coronopus

———— cylindrica

lagopus

ovata

— psyllium

Platalea leucorodia major

Ploceus philippinus

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus

Podiceps ruficolls

—._— + - ——--- capensis

Polycarpaea repens

Polycarpon tetraphyllum

Polycnemon sf.

Polygonum bellardi

Polyommatus boeticus

———= —_—_—_—

—=- ——___..

Polytela gloriosae

Pomatorhinus horsefieldi travancorensis.

Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus.

972,630; 762

385,

6, 574

442, 444, 445, 446,

455

686

501

499,

Porthesia (Euproctis) scintillans 406

Porzana parva 628

—-——-— porzana 628

—— — pusilla pusilla 628

Pratapa deva lila 399

Precis hierta 449, 450

——-- iphita 442, 443, 450, 454, 455

——-- lemonias 450

——-- orithya i 445, 450

Prinia flaviventris devieners Sie

inornata sce, Fe

socialis 420, 471

sylvatica 471

Prioneris clemanthe 661

—- thestylis 661

Prodenia littoralis 686

Prosopis stephaniana “eel

Psamophis condanarus 427

—— leithii 427

Pseudecheneis eat + 00

Pseudcgyps bengalensis 370, 475

Psittacula columboides 505

——-——- krameri manillensis 473

422

—-—— torquata

INDEX OF SPECIES ici

PAGE PAGE

Pteranthus dichotomus a .. 533| Sapium baccatum a oe ... 608

Pterocles exustus ellioti Are J) 378 |) saponatia vaccaria ee Ae [Goce

Ptyonopro gne rupestris ie pee 497 | Saprolesnia an APs et a OSS

Puffinus pacificus hamiltoni ... ... 386 | Sarcogyps calvus ae si 369, 474

———— persicus ae ie 386, 644 | Sarkidiornis melanotus ... ie as 649

Pulicaria crispa a he .. 36! Savignya oblonga a: se oe. ong

Punica granatum ab ea ee fe.) -—— parviflora... ee ve O20

Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus 468, 744, 760 | Saxicola caprata Ss a i 469

Pyctorhis sinensis sinenis me we = 468 | ————-—— atrata... a a> O02

Querquedula querquedula tae w. 651 | ———-—— burmanica ... > O01

Rallus e. amuroptera ... Exe hae foo |) saxicoloides fulicata. ... ne we ~— 469

Rana cyanophlyctis uae ae ... 427 | Scabiosa olivieri ae a san oot

—-tigrina bed iat i: 27) -—— palaestina ... es ce DOE

Raphanus sativus ee oe or ro ~- var. calocephala. 531

Rathinda amor ... “e ... 399 | Schimpera arabica Res - ed

Recurvirostra avocetta eect = 669 —— persica = oe ae) OO

Reichardia tingitanta ... ees a. doe |) scolopax rusticola rusticola ... 507, 643

’ Reseda arabica ... ae sae ... 929 \) SCOrpilirus muricatus ~... ae oe COON

decursiva wae oss im 91029 |) SCOLZOnEeraA papposa | .., ¥ we Sy!

- muricata a ae .. 029 | Scrophularia deserti ... on A ammests)s:

Rhanterium epapposum 36% War oo2 |) Secizenia. orientalis ss Ar ee O00

Rhazya stricta... af Ge i, 936 |) Senecio coronopifolius ... ee ee Oe

Rhinoceros an: oe ais tn O02 | silene conica ie a oe Pare loee

-—— crossi aes 618 | ————conoidea ... ae va ia - O29

——- lasiotis “a 618, 619, 620 | ~-——— leyseroides ae ie ee

——-——-- sondaicus ... 594, 596, 616, | villosa... Stray ae 2529

619, 621 | Sinapis (Brassica) arvensis ... eee eu

——_——-——. sumatranus ie .. 618, Siphia parva albicilla ... ae ra OUe

eee UnICOMMs 2, us .. 619 | Sisymbrium altissium ... oe cm cet Puen

Rhinophis travancoricus ae ...- 388 | ——-——— erucastroides a sen ed

Rhopodytes viridirostris See eS -—— irio i ao ree:

Rhyncholaba acteus_... Ei .. 682 | —-—~-—— loeselii a as snot v7 ae

Rhynchops albicollis ... ee .. 636 | ——- sophia te ‘is wee fe

Riparia concolor SF ee .. 504 Sitana ponticeriana ... oie wee £26

Robbairea prostrata ... ee ie 029 |, Sitta castaneiventris., ..: re a. 410

Roemaria hybrida Aa bie .. 028 | ——-c. castanea ... We ee ae ATE

Roselia fola es : 55 .. 401 | —— frontalis trontalis ... x ioe Uk

Rostratula pene nnlencis sist . 973 | Solanum nigrium eae i it. 000

—--—- — perc iniene 631 | Spatula clypeata os th ja» (Goll

Ruimex pictus... set ia: .« 3/7 | Sphenopus divaricatus ... on io) oo

-— var. bipinnatus ‘er Jo2| sophetta apicalis.., a a fet OS

- vesicarius ae oes Moet oOd | Spilarctia obliqua oo: ae ot ADZ

Rusa unicolor equinus | ide aise ee 785 | Spilornis cheela... im, A tesa me aie

Salmo fario a “ie wee Sve ec AZO nipalicus ww. 442, 443, 451, 456

Salsola hispidula eae a ». 034 | —— zaffira ... re os se dO

= - kali eat ast Pa ... 034 Spodoptera mauritia ... st | (OBZ

- longifolia ae Pee .. 934} Squatarola squatarola ceantcnors 12 6» G36

- verrucosa bee us tule O94 |; Statice spicata .... Ive ae ea. 082

Salvia egyptiaca she aa Sei oas suffruticosa eo si no Oe

—-—— spinosa ... i bee Age 088 thouini ... ee ae fis, COGE

Santalum album site aps ». 458 | Stegodyphus ae ax oe poe Bers

PAGE

Stegodyphus sarasinorum 131 138

Sterna albifrons ... oe 385

———_- — albifrons 635

———- ——-——_ sinensis 574

- anaetheta antarctica ... 385

—— -——fuligula het enOoD

- fuscata infuscata 15. 309, 030, 763

——-—- - repressa... ” 385

Sternocera nitidicolus ... 579

Stictopthalma louisa louisa 665

~ - —--— tytleri 665

Stipa tortilis ie O30

Streptopelia cambayensis 416

—-— — decaocto er SuZ

-———.- ——- -- decacctor yee 7i3:

— — chinensis suratensis 377, 4755

907, 746

——_-——- orientalis meena ... PETE

~—_—— -——- senegalensis cambayensis 377,

475

Strix indranee indranee 384

——- — shanensis 567

Strobilanthes 580 |

Sturnopastor contra contra 412

Suaeda baccata ... 534

- verniculata 534

Suastus gemius gemius... 400

Sula dactylatra melanops 644 |

—— fiber ... ane ee ue bs e386)

—— sula rubripes 386

Sylepta derogata... fel OS

Syntaruches plinius 442, 454

—+— telecanus nA 443

“+ -—-——-—- plinius... 451

Sypheotides indica Ae 632

Syrmaticus humix burmanicus 568

Tadorna tadorna 649

Tamarindus indicus 540

Tamarix articulata 530

——_—~_ Macrocarpa 530

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea 502

Tchitrea paradisi .. 469, 503, 745

Teinopalpus imperialis imperatrix 660

Temenuchus pagodarum 471

p. pagodarum 745

Tephrodornis pondicerianus ... 410, 470

Teracolus amatus 449

Terias blanda silhetana 395, 662

hecabe 395, 442, 443, 449, 450, 454,

455,662

laeta .. 442, 443, 450, 454, 455, 662

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Terias libythea 442, 443, 450, 452, 455, 662

Terpsiphone viridis 576

Tetragnatha sp. 478

Teucrium oliverianum 30

- polium i Dor

ar. lanuginosum 533

Thalasseus bengalensis bengalensis 385, 635

—— —— — bergii edwardsi 385

Thamnobia cambayensis 422

Thaumantis dicres 665

Thauria aliris pseudaliris 665

———-- lathyi amplifascia 665

Thereiceryx viridis 905

——- zeylanicus... 414

Theretra oldenlandiae 681

Thlaspi arvense ... 72

Thyatira batis 684

Tordylium persicum 531

Torularia torulosa 529

Tragopan melanocephalus 569

Trapa bispinosa ... se 630

Tribulus terrestris oa ae ee OOO

Trichogaster labiosus TiAl.

trichopterus 771

Trigonella anguina o3k

oa hamosa 531

— maritima Sa aon

———Stellata SER Sts)

Tringa erythropus 974

glareola aes el ep OLd

— — hypoleucos 386, 476, 507, 641

—— ochropus ... 507, 640

stagnatilis 641

- totanus eurhinus 641

Trisetum pumilum 936

Trochalopteron jerdoni havea 501

Troides aeacus ote 658

— helena serena 658

Trypanophora semihyalina ~ 400

Turdoides striatus polioplocamus 468

Turdus bourdilloni bg 902

- simillimus aARrAteneIn 502

Turnix maculatus tanki 498

- suscitator taijoor .. 381

- sylvatica dussumieri 381

' Tyto alba javanica 367

——.- --— stertens 750

Udaspes folus .. 400

Upupa epops oe 474, 745

- — ceylonensis 505

Uroloncha malabarica ... ae 471, 745

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Uromastrix hardwickii ... 426

Urophyllum 608

Urospermum picroides ... 532

Utetheisa pulchella 402, 692

Valerianella leiocarpa ... 534 |

Vandeluria oleracea 7: Die aw) ||

| Vanessa canace ... 442, 443, 450, 455

-- cardui ...439, 442, 443, 445 447, 450 |

-- cashmirensis 442

Vararus molitoris 426 |

Varmina indica ... 404 |

| Vicia peregrina 531 |

Wallago attu st OUI8i|

Xantholeema eae e pre 414, 745 |

- ——-- indica 472

_ Xenentodon cancila 773

_ Xenorhynchus asiaticus 973

| Xenus cinereus cinereus 640

Ypthima baldus baldus ... 664 |

———— hubneri hubneri 664

Ypthima sakra. austeni...

--—--——. savara

Zamenis diadema

---———— ventrimaculatus

Zetides agamemnon

bathycles chiron

cloanthus

doson axion oe

eurypylus cheronus .

— sarpedon sarpedon

Zeuxidia amethytus masoni

Zizyphus mummularia

——-- spina-christi

—_—_—_—-- ——--—— —- var. inermis

Zosterops palpeb rosa bs

- egregia ..

- nilghiriensis

Zygophyllum coccineum

Zypoetis scylax

- againmemnon agammemnon..

XXX1

PAGE

530,

664

427

alee.

660

659

665

536

538

530

422

384

504

530

664

- i

Lie

‘

Ye es. nia

Pye = 30

eae

as : 190

sis OE

o> 292 :

4 so ef

‘ ‘

22%

Nee

3: 3

canny

}

sie §

e Pay

P she

z sae

a alae

va, Sag Birk

lee. Pate

coe eo nee oat

Be icin ieee

BOMBAY NATURAL HiSTORY SOCIETY

OFFICE BEARERS, 1939

Patron

H. E. The Viceroy of India, G.M.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.M.I.E., G.B.E.

Vice-Patrons

H. The Nizam of Hyderabad, G.c.S.1., G.B.E.

. The Maharaja of Baroda.

. The Maharaja of Travancore, G.C.1.E.

. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.I. G.C.1.E.

. The Maharaja of Jodhpur, G.C.1.E., K.C.S.1., KeC.V.0.

.. The Maharajadhiraj of Patiala.

. The Maharaja of Rewa, K.C.S.1.

. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar, K.C.S.I.

. The Nawab of Junagadh, G.C.1LE., K.C.s.I.

Sir David Ezra, Ké., F.Z.S.

F. V. Evans, Esq.

A.S. Vernay, Esq.

Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.M.s. (Retd.).

W.S. Millard, Esq., F.z.S.

yn Eh a

Benefactor

Mr. C. O. O’Donnell, U. S. A.

President

H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c.1.u., D.L.

Vice-Presidents

H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.1., G.C.1.E.

Revd. Father J. F. Caius, s.J.

Rt. Revd. R. D. Acland, M.a.

Executive Committee

Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha re oe .«« Bombay.

Mr. A. Forrington aon ie sate -

Mr. J. B. Greaves, M.L.A. aa eat ae i

Mr. M. J. Hackney a. me, ae 7

Mr. R. E. Hawkins ie re eee ee

MerDinG. Ell F.RIG.S.5,J.Py .s: iy ve +

Lt.-Col. W. C. Spackman, I.M.S. ve ‘ae a4

Mr. F. Wadia ae se ae os .

Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, 1.M.s. ree ‘ip

Mr. H. M. McGusty (Honorary Tene ke -

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Scereiar yy; -

XXXIV OFFICE BEARERS

Advisory Committee

Dr. -C. F.C, Beeson; D:S¢., M:Az,a1-HiSs, eee .. Dehra Dun:

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.) an ae) Coonoor:

Mrac. f..Donaldr7.s. one sen ... Dharmsala.

Dr. FE. H. Gravely, D7Sc. ee see i. Madras.

Mr. C. M. Inol’s, .820.U.,; .F.Z:Se ae .... Warjeeline:

Mr. R. C, Morris, F.2:S. °F RiG:s. ce ... Coimbatore:

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, F.Z.S. oe Boe aNpilkeaneis,

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc. are Pa yee eCalcucta.

Mr... C..Smith Rangoon, Burma.

Lt.-Col, C..G.. Toovood, CAE, D,S.0. ate ceo. Delhi:

Mr. James LH. Wiliams <<. ee we, WNILSTrIS,

LIST OF MEMBERS

LIFE MEMBERS

Aga Khan, H. H. Aga Sir Sultan Mahomed Shaha

(G.C-Sis,.G.C.1.E:) ie mee ... Hurope.

Aitken, C. E. a fe ne <. Poona,

Ali, Hamid A.:(1.C.8;) eet a, ... Baroda.

Armitage, Capt. A, H..(R.E.) <6. .. Bangalore.

Armstrong, Dr. J. Scaife (M.B., Ch. B., D.T.M. & H. ).. New Zealand.

Aylesford, The Right Hon’ble The Par of .. England.

Bahawalpur, H. H. The Nawab Capt., Sir Sadiq

Mohammad Khan Abassi (K.C.V.0., G.C.I.E.) .. Bahawalpur.

Baini Prashad, Dr. (D.sc.) ue ae CHICA,

Baker WeG.ovlatt (E.Z.8.)) ans he ... England.

Balkrisha Vinayek Wassoodeo Bombay.

Bansda, H. H. Maharaul Shri Indra Seni Path

Singhji. Raja Saheb of 6 Bansda.

Baria, Shriiant Maharaj Kumar Shree SHnekeintiy

Sahib of Baria Devegad.

baroda,. H,, Ei The Msharaja ‘Bratapsinn Gacy te

( Vice- Patron) ei ». Baroda,

Bates, Major Kio. P. (1.A., M.B.O.0-) at England.

Bhavnagar, H. H.. The Moneta an Shri Sir aun:

Kumar Singhji (k.¢c.S.1.,) (Vice-Patron) ... Bhavnagar.

Bhavnagar, Kumar Shri Dharmakumar Sinhji

Bhopal, H. H. Col. Sir Mahommad Hamidullah Khan

»)

Bahadur (G.-C S:l.> C.S.1,,C-V.0.) — .. -bhopal.

Bikaner, Lt.-General H. H. The Maharaja Shri

sir Gunga Singhji Bahadur (G.C.S.1.. G.C.I.E.,

G.C.V,00, C;5,E.,/K,.C.8.,; AvD.C Any) Bikaner.

Bikaner, Capt. H. H, MelHara; Keunier Shri Sade

Singhji Bahadur (C.v.o.)

bilaspur, H. H. Raja Anandchand ans ... Bilaspur.

Bodenham, Count K Lubiensk. on we Ondon,

Bradshaw, J. P. aN ae .. England.

Bridgeman, Lt.-Col. Hon’ble H. G. O74 D510.) :;

Ibrook, Carlton Py... see 6

Burton, Brig.-Gen. R. G. — a oe .

Burton, Lt.-Col. Richard W. (1.4. Ree «.« ' Coonoor.

Bute, The Most Hon’ble The Marquis of ... i. London.

@accia;, Major A. Mi (LF.s;) ... England.

Cambay, H. H. Nawab Hussain Nayarihad Jafar Ali-

khan Saheb Bahadur ose : «. Cambay.

Carter, Lt.-Col. H. St. M: (D.s.o., M. aanl ... London

Cassamali Jairajbhoy Peerbhoy ; se: -bombay.

Chhota-Udepur, Maharawal Natwar Sinhii FB, ... Chhota-Udepur.

Christopher, Sydney A. (Bar-at-Law) ... .... Kangoon.

XXXVI LIST OF MEMBERS

Clarke, L.. O2(C 1.8. 1:C.S3)

Clutterbuck, Major J. E. (R.E.)

Clutterbuck, Sir Peter

Cooch Behar, H. H. The Manareis Jagaddiper a

Narayan Bhup Bahadur 2

Coode, John M. ,

Corkill, Dr. Norman L. (M.B. = oie B.)

Craw, H.H (1-C.8.)

Crawford, W. M. (8.E.s., I.C. S. ) (Retd. 1

Cron, Herman

Culbertson, J. M.S. a MaIACuEs .

Cutch, H. H. The Maharao Sir Shri Reneunl ral

Bahadur (G.C.S.1., G.C.1.E.,) (Vz¢e-Patron and

Vice-President)

Cutch, Kumar Shri Godji

Cutting, C. Suydam

Dalal, Miss Meherbai P. M.

Dalal, Miss Perin P. M.

Dalal, R. D.

PD’ Almeida, J. i. R: aca See

Dharampur, H. H. The Metiaeane shinee: cyiiaweden

Rana, Maharaja Saheb of

Dhrangadhra, H. H. Maharana Sri Sir Chansnuaes

mimhji CK. C250. )..<. :

Drake-Brockman, Lt.-Col. H. E. (B:Z3S.., Pes

Dungarpur, H. H. Rai Rayan Maharajadhiraj Mahara-

wa! Shri Sir Lakshman Singhji Bahadur (K.C.S.1.)

Duxbury, Brigadier C. D.

Elgee, Colonel J. W. L.

Ellison, Bernard C. (C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S.)

English, E. E.

Erb, E. nee

Evans, F. V. (Vice-Patron)

Ezra, Altred’(0.8.E., 2-Z.S.). 9.

Ezra, Sir David, At. (Vice-Putron)

Frey, Max

Gauripur, Raja Prapnacnaddra Barua

Gharpurey, Lt.-Col. K. G. (1.mM.s.) (lice- Patron)

Gonsalves, A. F et aie as

Gregory Smith, Cap. H. G.

Harris, Jr., William P.

Hill; Major k. D2 0.

Holkar, H. H. The Maharaja Sin Tukoji Rae

Hopwood, 8. F. (1.F.s.)

Hotson, Sir Ernest (K.C.S.1., O.B.E., LLCS.)

Hoyas, Count E. ; sae ee si

Hwisbands, Major H. W. .S. (M.C., A.MA.C.&,,

S.M.R.E.)

Hyderabad, H. E. H, “The Nizam Sir Wane Aliichan

Bahadur (G.C.S.1., G.B.E.) (Vice- Patron) ae

Ichhalkaranji, The marae Meberban Narayanrao

Govind alias Babasahab Ghourpade

London.

Bombay.

Srinagar,

Cooch Behar.

England.

Khartoum.

Rangoon.

Ireland.

New York.

Englaxd.

Bhuj-Cutch.

Cutch.

New York.

Bombay.

England.

Bandra.

Dharamptr.

Dhrangadhra.

England.

Dungarpur.

England.

London.

England.

Bombay.

Liverpool. :

London.

Calcutta.

Switzerland.

Gauripur.

Pcona.

Bandra.

Nairobi.

U.S.A.

London.

Indore.

London.

England.

Austria.

London.

Hyderabod, Dn.

Ichhalkaranji.

Idar, H. H. Maharaja Shri Himmat Singhji Saheb

Bahadur

Indore, H H

Holkar (G.C.1.E.)

Inglis, Chas. M. ee B.E. MeHIOLU.)

Ivens, J...

Jaipur State, H. H.

singhji, (G.C.1.E.)

Jamkhandi,

alias Appasaheb Patwardhan at

Janjira State, H. H. Nawab Sidi Manammannian

Nawabsaheb eo

Maharaja Sir RAED Singh (KsCiS.1s,

Jind, H. H.

G.C.I.E.)

Jodhpur, Lt.-Col.

Sing Bahadur

Patron)

Junagadh, His Haonness RES of (K.C.S.1.

(Vice- Patron)

Kaiser Shumsher Jung Banaaue Rana, S, M., com

manding-Gen. ost se ws

Kerr, Dr. A. F: G.

Khetri, Raja Sirdar Singh anacen

Khilchipur, H. H. Durjansal Singh

Kirk-Greene, Mrs. Leslie.

Kolhapur, H. H. The Maharaja Lt.-Col. Sh Rejavatn

Chhatrapati (G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.) aS

Kotah, H. H. The Maharajadhiraj Lt. Out Sir Umed

Scie Saheb Bahadur (G.C.1.E., G.C.S.1.,

Laurie, M. V. (1.F.S.) Ses bee

Lewis, J. Spedan

Lloyd-Smith, Wilton

Long, G. R.

Lorimer, Lt.-Col. D. i, R, (en 1.E.,

Lowndes, Major Donald, G. a

Ludlow, F. (M.A., M.B.0O.U., I.E.S., Sane)

Lynes, Rear Admiral Morbert (ae C.M.G.)

Mackenzie, J. M. D. aa

Mahmudabad, Raja Mohammad Amir Amneakien oe

Mandlik, Sir Narayan V. ia

Manerol: The Shaikh Saheb

Mayurbhanj, H. H.

Bhanj Deo

McConaghy, Lt.-Col. C. B. (1.M. ae é

Mess Secretary, 3/17th Dogra Regiment ...

Mess Secretary, 1/10th Gurkha Rifles

Millard, A. W. P.

Millard, W.S. (F.Z.S.) (accep atom z

Miraj, Shrimant Sir Gangadhar Rao Garesh Bee

Babasaheb Patwardhan (K.C.1I.E.)

Montagnon, D. J. ...

Monteath G, (I.C.S.) (Retd.)

LIST OF WEMBERS

The Maharaja Sir Yeshawantrao

The Maharaja Sir Sawai Man-

Shankarrao Parashuramrao

ie H. The Maher Sir wea

The pare Pracapenendys

Himatnagar.

Indore.

Darjeeling,

England.

Jaipur.

Jamkhandi.

Janjira-Murud.

Jind.

Jodhpur.

Junagadh.

Nepal.

Eng-and.

Khetri.

Khilchipur,

London.

Kolhapur,

Kotah.

Dehra Dun.

London.

New York.

England.

London.

Lansdowne.

Srinagar.

London.

scotland.

Mahmudabad.

Bombay.

Mangrol.

Baripada.

England.

Lahore,

Quetta.

England.

Miraj.

Dibrugarh.

England.

XXXVil

XXXViil LIST .OF MEMBERS

Morvi, H. H. The Maharajah Sir cid acta eee)

(G.B.E.,; K.C.S8.1,)

Mosse, Lt. Gol, yea cs be (en

Murland, Lt.-Col. H. F. ass

Mysore, H.W. The Maharaja Sir rennin Wiosdaurar

Bahadur (G.C:sa., 68.8).

Namjoshi, V. K,

Naraenji Dwarkadas

Narayanlal Bansilal, Raja se

Narsingarh, H. H. Raja Vikram Sena Sahib

Bahadur : oe aus fe

Nawanagar, H. H.. The Maharaja Jamsaheb

Sit Disvijiaysinhyji (C.6.S.1.,-K.Cal.B.) AED

Nepal, Lt. General Shankar Shumshers Jung

Bahadur Rara a eee

Nepal, Supradipta Manyaber Gene "Sit Mohun

Shumshere Jung Bahadur Rana (K.C.1.E.)

Newman, T. H. (F.z.S., M.B.O.U.)

Noyce, Sir Prank (IUC;S.5K7C.S.1., 0. B.H.)

Oberholser, Harry C. .

O’Donnell, C. O. (Benefactor) ..

Ogilvie, G. H. (1.F.s.)

Pace sacs. (nC oy

Palitana, H. H. The Paton Benen shri a Bavarie

Sinhji (K.C,S.1.,.K.C-1.B.)

Parlakimedi, Shri Shri Shri raicnnaenende Garena

Neen Deo, Maharajah of

Parlett, 7 Mo CS )-Cretd.)..,

Patiala, H. H. Shri 108 Naneeenacnirey onendin

Bahadur (Vice-Patron) F

Pat.ala, Capt. Rao Raja Birindra Singhji...

Paiiala, Maharaj. Kumar Capt. Brijindra Singhiji

Paincke Ps S741.C.S.) (Retd) ay,

Peacock, E.. H.-(Be.s.) (Retd.)

Pestonji Jivanji (N.G.S.)

Petit, Dhunjibhoy Bomanji

Petit, Jehangir Bomanji F

Porpundar, a. HH. he Manenaga Shri Natran Sinan

Bhavsinghji :

Rae, Lt.-Col. M. E. (1.4.) (Retd.) ie

Rajpipla, H. H. Maharaja Shri Sir Vijaysinhji

(K.C.S.1,)

Rewa, H. H. The Manarete Sir Gilapaings Baneean

(KC.S.1., G:Ci1.E.).(V2ce-1-arvon) ee

Roosevelt, Kermit

Roosevelt, Col. Theodore

Ross, Major Tyrell .. : ee

Roumania, H. M. The King Ae ate

Sanders, Col. C. W.

Sanderson, Henry... oe

Sangli, Meherban Sir Ssh’ chiatemenneo eee

saheb Patwardhan (K.C.S.1.) eee

Morvi.

England.

Coorg.

Mysore.

Bombay.

Narsingarh.

Jamnagar.

Nepal.

London.

Washington, D.C.

U.S. A.

Rangoon.

London.

Palitana.

Parlakimedi.

England.

Patiala.

England.

AITiCa;

Hyderabad, Dn.

Bombay.

9’)

Porbundar.

Edinburgh.

Rajpipla

Rewa.

USA:

England.

Roumania.

Delhi.

Uss: A;

Sangli.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Savile, Sir Leopold (K.c.B., M.1.C.E.)

Schmid, W.

Scott, R. L.

Sewal, Dr. Ram Narain (M.B., eee M.R.C.P.E.,

Gich)

Seymour-Sewell, Lt. Col. Re B. ‘(LM.8.) wa

Sirmoor, H. H. Maharaja Rajendra Prakash Banaue

Smith, Major G. De Heriez

Smith, H. C.

Spence, Dr. heinar (M.B., Ch.B.) ame

Spence, Sir Reginald (Az., F.z.S.) ;

Standen, siti. (K.C.1.Hy.1.C,5,) (Retd.)

Stanton, W. C.

ptewart, ©. G. (1.P.S., M.A., Oe)

Studd, E.

muket State, H. H. Rae Daesnenan Sen

Surguia, Maharaja Ramanuj

(C.B.E:)

Swaine, J. K. a

Swithinbank, Mrs. B. W.

Tehri-Garhwal, H. H. Maharaja Sir Neqendne Shah

Saheb Bahadur (K.C.S.1.,

Thomson-Glover, Lt.-Col. J. W.

Saran

Ie.D:)

(C.B.E.)

Travancore, The Game Warden

Udaipur,

(6:G.S.1..)e

Vaughan, Capt. wae (eS: :.) :

Venning, Brigadier F. E. W. (C.B.E., D.S.O. oy

Vernay, A. 8S. (Vice-Patron) oh

Vesugar, Jamshed (P.W.D.)

Waite, H. W.

Walker, Roland

Wankaner,

singhi

Wauchope, Major. ‘Ss (Ge eee

Whistler, Hugh (M.B.0.U., a

Windsor, H. R. H. The Duke of

Williamson, Sir W. J. F. (C.M.G., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U.) ..

Wilson, oi Arnold. (C:S.1., ©, M.G., D.S:0,,.K.C.1.E.) ...

NVyvudham, B(C.B.E.,1:C.5.) 4c. oor

Abdulali, Humayun N.

Abel, John -

Acharya, H.N. cae

MEMBERS

B,Ag)

Acland; Rt. Rev. KR. WD. (Bishop of Robey

Adam, A. de. B.

Aitken, J. E.

Akkalkot, Shrimant Viiay Penis Fatehsi BREAD Rave

Bhosle

Piinrey,.J< 1.

Singh Deo

H. H. The Maharana Sahib Bone

Maharaj Kumar Cae @handrapneite

XXXixX

England.

Switzerland.

Scotland.

Muttra.

London.

Nahan.

Ootacamund.

Burma.

England.

London,

England.

Rangoon.

England,

Suket.

Surguja.

London.

England.

Tehri.

England.

Travancore.

Udaipur.

Canada.

England

England and U.S.A.

Simla.

Rawalpindi.

London,

Wankaner,

England.

Africa.

Andheri.

Peshawar.

Ahmedabad.

Bombay.

Peshawar.

Ajmer.

Akkalkot.

Bombay,

x! LIST OF MEMBERS

Ali, Salim A. (M.B.O.U.) oe EE ie .. Dehra Dun.

Ali, Sayed Mohammad (M.N.S.T., U.S.A.)... ... Cawnpore.

Alington, Major N.S. (M.c.) ... aes -0 Lmdore,

Ali Rajpur, Maharaj Kumar Capt. Fattehsinghji ... Ali Rajpur.

Alleyne, Lt. H. Massy a a .. Hngland.

Allsop; 4Eie(2-F S38 ese aA 3 =. Rangoon. |

Ambalal Sarabhai... Ahmedabad.

American Museum of Natural History, The apres

rian... bits we. New York; U.S. A:

Amir Sheikh Manone Khan (on I. E.) Shs oe Ajatraie |

Anderson, John 8. se .. Bombay. |

Ardermonelorsnent scant R. y. or: ... England. |

Andrews, E. A. eRe Loe ohn a. ondon. |

Arathoon, J.) da. a Rae ‘a, alndore: |

Ash, H. D. ae S; ... England. |

Ashby, Capt. R. T. ie A.) ae st3 a... Peshawar. |

Atkinson, D. J. (1.F.S.) ace gah, ~. Rangoon. |

Atkinson, T. G. (AMI. Mon.) <.. Bombay.

Aundh, Shrimant B. S. Pantsaheb Bratntahi Chief %E Aundh.

Australian Museum, The canine a n Yoyaney.

Badhwar, F. C. ees : ai ... Mussorie.

Bahadurii, D. N. (Bar-at- eae ay .-: bombay.

Bailey, Lt.-Col. F. M. (c.1.£.) wee ... London.

Bailey, R. A. ee er Hee x. Mardan.

Baker, Miss Wola =.: eer sas 25 Lahore,

Baksi, G. B. (i-E-s.) aoe PR AIpiT,

Bale Sons and Curnow Ltd., Meer rene 2. London.

Ballyo..k. als ie -

Balrampur, Maharaja Patan: ari hapraead Sch ..) Dalrampur,.

Bamjee, Sorab D. ... - Calcutta.

Baria, i. Ely dhe Manan Sir Rangit ren:

CORRS) ~ wes ‘i sa watia

Barne, N. H. te nae ahs ec pC alleuttas

Baron, C. G. ace 5 ae <-. -wHillone:

Barrett, A. B. coe oe mst we) wylhet.

Barrelt,<H:.-B. (Es) ae mi .. Myitkyina.

Barry, Miss Agnes T. Nes aa =. eiumedapad:

Basu, B. ee AS ... Bombay.

Batra, Rai Saheb R. ‘L. (B.A. LLB) en 3.) -pharatpur:

Battye, Capt. R..K. Me GCA) a. en a eiGiloit:

Baudh State, Raja Narayan Prasad Deo. ... Baudh-Raj.

Baxter, N. B. ies Sse wis ... Bombay.

Bazett, Hl. Mi. nee ase ae os LNVATIC OOM,

Beadnell, C. B. (D.S.0.) a oo ia. Kotagirt.

Bedi, Capt.Kanwar Dayasingh ne ze OeCtia.

Beeson, Dr. C. F. C. (M.A., D.Sc., F.E.S.) ... Wehra Dun,

Beg, Nawab Nazir Jung Bahade: Mirza Nazir ... Hyderabad, Dn.

Begbie, Lt.-Col. A. S. eae ae 1.25 J2Ondon.

Behar, H. E. The Governor ... aii ) 24 bihar,

Behar, The Conservator of Forests aoe Hinoo.

Belgium, Le Directeur, Musee Royal d’ Histoire

Naturelle de Belgique eee shee .- Brussells.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Bell, Sir Robert (K.C.S.1.,

Bele R.(C.1.5.)

Bell, W. E. Bae

Benson, Capt. C. E. :

Benson, Major R. L. (D.S.0., M.C.)

Benthall, Sir Edward

Bere, Dr. H.iCo(M-R.C.S., ©. ReC.Ps. ee

Bernard, J. L.

Betisy bso N: ,

Bhagvat, Prof. L. N. (ie Sc.)

Bharucha, Farrokh E.

Bharucha, Dr..F oR.

Bhatia, Lt.-Col. S. L.(1.M:s. ne

Bhinga Raj, Raja Birendra Rant Singh eaneD

Bhosle, Miss Lilabai

Biddulph, C. H.

Billimor’a, N. M.

Bingham, G. H.

Birch, Cy Vv. ins

Blair, Dr. D. Ps (R.A.M.C.)

Block, Major A. Po... abs

Bicmfheld,.. B. (F.R.1.B.A., F.S'1 )

Blundell, Mrs. Kathleen I. ;

Bove, G. Us(CS.1y Cie. 1C3s,)

Bobbili, The Raja of, (K.C.1.E.)

Bolitho, Capt. E. H. W. (R.F.A.)

Bombay, H. E. The Governor of

Ole: Ni a (TS)

Borradaile, Major, J. W.

Bott, Jo Re E. eg ae

Boyd, Lt.-Col. J. E. M. (R. ALM C,)

Boyle, Major C. Li. ...

Braurd, H. E. W.

Bridge, M. F. (1.F.s.)

Briderel], C. K. oF is

Broughton, Col. 1. D. (RES C.R.E.)

Browne, Lt.-Col. C. H. =

Buckland, Capt. F. E. (R.A.M.C.)

Burder, John HH.

Burder, P. G.

Burma, H. E. The Governor ae

Burnett, Major R. R. (O.Bia.) ...

Caius, Rev. John F. (s.z.)

Calcutta ee aes Gardens.

tary .

Caldecott, C. D’a Ge F.S,)

Caldwell, John M.

Cambridge,

Superintendent ..

Cameron, Thos. H. (F.zZ.S.)

Campbell, A. A. H.

Campbell, S.

Crh, Waal Cron)io.

The Honorary Secre-

University Nedeeuni of Zocloey: The

xli

London.

Karwar.

Rangoon.

London.

Calcutta.

Selang Hat.

Calcutta.

England.

Bombay.

Bhinga.

Kolhapur.

Erode.

Karachi.

Travancore.

New Zealand.

Liverpool.

Allahabad.

Delhi.

Bombay.

Madras.

Bobbili.

Bombay.

Dehra Dun.

Malta.

Sunthaik.

England.

Palestine.

Rangoon.

England.

Rajmai.

England.

N. Ireland.

Lahore.

Calcutta.

Jubbulpore.

Burma.

Simla.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Mandla.

Panighatta.

Cambridge.

Devicolam.

Cochin.

Bara Jamda.

xlii LIST OF MEMBERS

Capitos'C. Erik (0; Bin. sotaINST.1C,m.) ©0815. .. England.

Captain, Mrs. Alice H.C. 2 ee: .. Bandra.

Cardew, Major C.G. (R.E.) ... oP ee Boona:

Carnegie Museum, The Director ak rar Wikiey au

Cassell, R. H. ae ‘es oe: .... Moniarah.

Castens, H. E. (1.F.S.) HAR uae ... Rangoon.

Cave, Capt.:F. 0... «.: 2 noland:

Central Provinces & Berar, H. BE. The Gocco: Ofte iC) des

Chamberlain, E Burnham ont ee .. Carolina, Us57A;

Chamier, Lt.-Col R. O..(C.1-2.) ae .. New Delhi.

Champion, F. W.(1.F.S.) bee a .. Lansdowne.

Champion, H. G. (1.F.s.) tee oa -« Naini Dal:

Champion, Rev. M. G. ats ae so ROOT Kee:

Champion-Jones, R. N, as ae jo eV alparat,

Chance, PB. V.(B-Az, 1.C. Da) See. ae Bere, Ix uh olbhe,

Chandler, C. Ha E. «.. fa) Assan:

Channer, Lt.-Col. G. O. De R. (ol BH) MC. e) ... Peshawar.

Chaudhri, C. M. (1.F.S.) dais a ao wancht

Chevenix-Trench, C. G. (1.C.8.) _ .. Envegland.

Chisholm, D; PoE. a. seis ae ... Moradabad.

Chopra, Dr. B. N. (D.sc.) oe oy awe Calcutta:

Christie, Ss. T- se alee -. bombay.

Christison, Bric. A. F. Po UNEC. ) Ast .. Quetta.

Clayton, Dr. R. V. (v.D., M.B.B.S., D.P.H., D.M.R-#. .) Bombay.

Gléee~C, BBG... L.C.S.) oe wat Karachi:

Clement, Mrs. W. L. Bas a ... Bombay

Clough, R. J. nee aes ee uere Calcutta,

Cry Es —

Belgaum Club, The Honorary Secretary | 2 beloatum,

Bombay Club, Tne Honorary Secretary ae bombay.

Bombay Gymkhara Ltd., The Secretary si e

Byculla Club, The Honorary Secretary nae Ee

Cachar Club Co. Ltd. ise ne «<« Cachar,

Centra! Provinces Club, Ltd. we INAS OUT,

Club of Western India, The Honorary Shorea iso (Poona.

Darjeeling Club, Ltd. oan eu «0, Darjeeling:

I. D. Gymkhana Club sae er ... New Delhi.

Madras Club, The Secretary wa .« . Madras.

Mawlaik Gymkhana Club, The Honorary

Secretary .. Mawlaik.

Muktesar Club, The rene ere en ... Muktesar.

Naini Tal Club, Ltd., The Secretary ... «2 Naini Wale

Poona Club, Ltd., The Seeretary ‘aie jo ee oona:.

Ranikhet Club, The Honorary Secretary ... Ranikhet.

Royal Bombay Yacht Club, The Secretary ... Bombay.

Sind Club, The Honorary Secretary... ee Karachi.

Srinagar Club, The Secretary a. worinagar.

Trivandrum Club, The Honorary See at io. Lrivandrum

United Service Club, Ltd. oe «ce wolmla,

Wellington Gymkhana Club, The Secretary ... Wellington.

Willingdon Sports Club, The Secretary .. ... Bombay.

Cole, Lt.-Col. B.L. ae bet ... Jaipur.

LIST OF MEMBERS

COLLEGES AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS—

Agriculture Library, The Officer-in-Charge

Agricultural College and Research Institute, The

Librarian es ee

All Saints’ Diocesan College

American College, The Bursar

Assumption College, The Principal

Barnes High School, The Head Master ...

Baroda College, The Principal

Burma Forest School, The Director

Calcutta, The Presidency College

Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine nd ieee!

The Director

Carmichael! Medical College. ‘The Leebe Epa

Central Research Institute, The Director

China, The Science Society of China Library

Chulalongkorn University Library

Daly College, The Principal ...

Dartmouth College, The Librarian

Dayaram Jetharam Sind College

Forest Research Institute, The Forest Botar ist

Forest Research Institute and ee The Presi-

dent

Gujarat College, The Praca

Gwalior, Victoria College, The Principal

Haffkine-Institute, The Director

Indian Lac Research Institute

Institute of Plant Industry, The Decor

Intermediate College Association

Islamia College

Karnatak College, The Princival

King Institute, The Director

La Martiniere College, The Principal

Lingnan University Library

Ludhiana, Government Ccllege, The Prince

Madras Christian College, The Librarian

Madras Forest College, The Principal ..

Maharaja’s College, The Principal

Medical College

Mrs. A, V. N..College, The Benegal

Nowrosjee Wadia College, The Principal

Oakgroove School, The Principal

Osmania University College

Osmania University, Head of Botany

Pittapur Rajah’s College

Presidency College. The Principal

Queen Mary’s High School ...

Rajaram College, The Principal

Ravenshaw College

Royal College of Medicine, The Pintcnton

Royal Institute of Science, The Principal

Samaldas College

xliii

Cawnpore.

Coimbatore.

Naini Tal.

Madura.

Bangkok.

Deolali.

Baroda.

Pyinmana.,

Calcutta.

Kasauli

Nanking.

Bangkok,

Indore.

Hanover, U.S.A.

Karachi.

Dehra Dun.

Ahmedabad.

Gwalior.

Bombay.

Namkum.

Indore.

Bangalore.

Peshawar

Dharwar.

Guindy.

Lucknow.

Canton.

Ludhiana.

Tambaram.

Coimbatore.

Ernakulam.

Vizagapatam.

Poona.

Mussoorie.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Cocanada.

Madras.

Bombay.

Kolhapur.

Cuttack.

Baghdad.

Bombay.

Bhavnagar.

xliv LIST OF MEMBERS

COLLEGES AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS—continued.

Secondary Training College ... ye .. Bombay.

St. Berchman’s College ae alee .. Changanacherry

St. Mary’s High School see .... Bombay.

Trivandrum, H. H. Maharaja’s Gollene for Women. Trivandrum.

University College, The Principal ae ... Rangoon.

University College, The Principal ae -@ 1) Colombo:

Victoria Technical Institute, The Curator - Nagpur.

Wilson College, The Principal et ... Bombay.

Women’s Christian College ... nae / Madras:

Colombo Museum, The Librarian nee ... Colombo.

Colvin. Ut.-Col. #3. D. (rAvsCrE:) ae 1. Baroda;

Comyn, Col. Kenneth, (R.A.M.Cc.) ae ef eeondon,

Congreve C.K 1. as x.) Nileiris,,

Connor, Maj. tCoaeen sir Searle CAT, DIS.0.4.F-R.C:S >

To Se) es aie .. England.

Coneersator of ees Bhopal Grae ae ... Bhopal.

Conservator of Forests, Cochin Government ne) Pomalalkadi.

Conservator of Forests, Working Plan Circle =.) | Maymyo.

Conservator of Forests, The Chief 2a ¢ | bombay.

Conservator of Forests, The Chief ae a erinacar.

Cooper, Sir D. B. (Az., M.L.A.) ae Sy palahas

Corbett, J. N. Je ae ep se Dikoya.

Cotton, Major J. C. Ae wo , urna.

Cowasji Jehangir, Sir, (Bart. K.C.1.E., 0.B.E.) ... Bombay.

Cowper, G. St. John ae a ae RA

Cox, C. E. C. (€.1.E., 1.F.S., F:Z-S.) ae .. Nagpur.

Coyajee, Miss Ratanbai H. e on «| Bombay.

Craker, P.-W: A ‘ ths i. ‘London,

Crawford, William G. a E.S. 1, ae .. England.

Critchley, G. vee ois -. - Bombay.

Crofton, Ro Me. (L.C.S.) ae ee in, ‘ilyderabad, Dn,

Croix,.O. H. deti:.: Br ane .. Belgaum.

Crombie, A. D. (I.C.S.) wee ae t..4 Wadras.

Currie, A. J. ... ‘London,

Currie, The Hon'ble Mer. qaetees M.M.L. (I. CS gece B

Dabholkar, Lt.-Col. A. Y. (1.M.S.) ae -« Joona:

Dalal, M. P.M. ee ae any io Bombay.

Danson, J..W. W. ..: England.

Danta State, H. H. The EN RAWor aT Sys Banadar

(eGsS.1)) ies ie ... Danta-Bhavangadh.

Darby, A. W. (0.B.E.) a .. | Chandta,

Darjeeling, The Cruator, Nat. Hist Mus. «5 | -Darjecling.

Daultara, Khan Bahadur Mian Ahmadyar (M.L.C.) .... Multan.

Daver, Framroze, A. .... Bombay.

Daver, The Hon’ble Mr. J. D. (paren Law :

Davies, 1. G. B: (A: R.S.M.,.ST.M.1,P.7.) . .. England.

Davies, Major V. K.N. Gay oe ar ... Bombay.

Davis, D. (1.F.S.) “— bat sc a

Davis, G.(L.C25.) sos sa 1 Bneland,

Davis, P. W. (1.F.S.) a J ... Coimbatore.

Davis, Dr. W. St. J. ied ae ,. Cachar:

LIST OF MEMBERS

Dean-Drummond, Lt.-Col. J.D.

Dee, Lionel

De Haas, C.P.J.

Delacour, Mons. Jean

de Mello, Prof. Col. I. F.

Deo, Raja Sri Balavadra Narayan Baan

DeRhe Philipe, G. W. V. (F.E.S.)

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft,

affungsamt

Deutsches Entomologisches

Wilhelm

Dewas Sr., H. H. Maharaja Vikram Sens

Dewas Junior, H. H. the Maharaja Saheb of

The

Institut der

Besch-

Kaiser

Dewas Junior, Shreemant Capt. Y.B. Pawar, vaieare::

Dewas Junior Branch

Dickins, M. J. oie

Dickson, Lt.-Col.-H.R. P. (ona

Din, The Hon’ble Lt.-Ccl. Sir S. ereeedns Wd ae ne,

CT.E.) ats

Dinajpur, Maharaja feed ish Nath Ray

Dinshaw, Kaikobad Cowasjee (C.1.E., J.P.)

D'rector of Museums, 8. S. & F. M. States

D:xie, Major W. J. ee ee

Dods, W. K. ioe rs ie

Donald, ©; EH. (F:Z.8.)

Donald, Capt. J.O. 8S.

Donovan, Lt.-Col. C. (I.M.s.) .

Drake-Brockman, Major R. F. is (R. hae

Dubash, J. K.

Duke, A. H. ee

Duke, Lt.-Col. C. L. ‘'B. (M.C., R.E.)

Dunbar-Brander, A. A. (0.B.0. I.F.S.)

Dunbar, U. B. H.

Duncan, Major D. L.

Duncan, John E. (P.w.D.)

Duncan, P:R. (1-F.S:) é

Duncan, Brigadier W. E. (D.S.0., M.C., R.A.)

Duasdon, A. C.

Durand, C. H. S..

Dyson, R. A. -

Hates, Kk. R..(1.P., F.Z.S., mano) oe)

Edwards, M. Vincent (I.F.s.)

Eliot, John N.

Eliot-Lockhart, Capt. Wm.

Ellis, Ralph

Emerson, C. A. se

Emerson, Gerald H. (1.C.8.)

Emerson, Capt. J.

Etaiyapuram, The Rajah of

Evans, E. J. 3

Evans, Col..G. H. (¢.1.z., F.L.S.) hs

Evans, Brigadier W. H. (C.S.1., C.1.E., D.S.O. )

xlv

Nilgiris.

Coimbatore.

Java.

France.

Nova Goa.

Keonjhargarh.

London.

Berlin.

>”)

Dewas Sr.

Dewas Ir.

Bombay.

Persia.

Peshawar.

Dinajpur.

Bombay.

Kuala Lumpur.

Karachi.

Calcutta.

Dharmsala.

Hangu.

England.

Pyzabad.

Bombay.

Bangkok.

Roorkee.

Scotland.

England.

Wana.

Rangoon.

Chakrata.

London.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

London.

Karachi.

Rangoon.

Singapore.

London.

California.

Bombay.

England.

Bombay,

Etaiyapuram.

Calcutta.

London.

England.

xlvi

Ezra, Sir Alwyn (F.R.G.S.,

Pawcus,.b.- RG. Csss

Featherstone, Gordon B.

Ferrar, Lt--Col. M2L.\(iA., 6.8.0.)

Pield, Major:l. D: S242) (0:82 ar)

Finnis, N50;

Fischer, C. E., (8.5.

Fletcher, Thos. Sate (yREETS 3). Robes. >

Florence, James

lynn, Ae A. (CMS)

Fooks, H. A. a

Foot, A. E.

Forrington, Arthur... Ae

Fountaine, Miss Margaret (F.E.S.)

Fraser, A. Ga (1.M.D.)

Fraser, Duncan

Fraser, K. H.

Praset, dc J.D;

French Indo-China, His Majesty

Emperor of Atnam

rend, Ge Vax.

Gardiner, J. E.

Gartbwaites i. (less)

Garbett. 'C: C. 1C,Sii.,

Geddis, A.

Gee, E. P. ma

Ghosh, S. K. (1.C.S.)

Gemmell, G. W.

George, Hugh S. (1.F.S.)

HeZ:S:)

CAE. Giy Griane,

F.R.G.S.,

Gherardesca, Conte Georgeo, U. della

Herbert..

M. BL

Gibbon,

Gibbons, J.

Gibson, Hon, Mr EC. (ci., LCS.)

Gill Ee Nazis.)

Gil, HA: ©. (1.C.S:)

Gimson, C. (1/C.S.)

Gladstone, Capt. H. 5.

Goodwin, F. W.

Gordon, Major J. W.

Gore, C.

Gough, Lt.-Col. W.

Gould; B. J. (C.1.E4,

Gouldsbury, C. P.

Gove, Capt R. V. oe

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—

Director of Agriculture, Bombay

Director, Bureau of Science ..

Director of Agricuiture, Bhar

Director of Agriculture, Punjab

EC. S26¢.M.G 5)

Director of Agriculture, Baghdad

Gow, Cedric J.

(F.Z:5. FURS.B.

Glennie, Lt.-Col. 1). A: (0-S:0.,R. 8.)

LIST OF MEMBERS

Bao-Dai,

Cis)

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Assam.

England.

Aurangabad Dn.

Quetta.

Fatehgarh.

England.

Coonoor.

England.

Calcutta.

Dehra Dun.

Bombay.

London.

Nilgiris.

London.

Tellicherry.

Peshawar.

FB esChina:

Kadur.

Nasirabad.

Maymyo.

Lahore.

Bombay.

Badlipar.

Shillong.

Calcutta.

Nagpur.

Italy.

Vandiperiyar

Bombay.

Rajkot,

Sitapur.

Delhi.

Imphal.

Scotland.

Dehra Dun.

Simla,

Jodhpur.

Assam.

Dehra Dun.

Gangtok,

Mattupatti.

Bombay.

Poona.

Manila.

Patna.

Lahore.

Iraq.

Kuala Lumpur.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Graham, Capt. G. K.

Grant, F. A.

Gravely, Dr. F. H. (. Sc’)

Gray, James a

Greaves, Mrs. D. I.

Greaves, Ji. B. (M.L.A.)

Green, E. Ernest (F.E.S.)

Greenwood, J. A. C.

Gresson, 1. S:;

Griery J. A.B.

Griffith, R. G.

Gwalior, The Director of State Gardens

Hackney, M. J.

Hall, J. E.

Hambly, R. L.

Hamidkhan Bhatti, Dr. M. Gee SC pila. a

Hamilton, Major C.S.P. (pD.S.0., M.R.C.S.)

Hanee. lat-Col:' JB. (O.B. Bs, Ba

Hancock, Major C. P.

Hanhart, S.

Harman, A. C. ;

Harper, Lt.-Col. A. Retest

Harper, William

Hartnoll, E.S. (1.F.Ss.)

Harvey, Major C. W. L. (M.c.)

Hasted, Capt. J. S. Holy

Haswell, Capt. F. W. (1.4.)

Hate, Prof. Vinayakrao N. (B.Sc.)

Hawes, C. G.! (C.L.2.)

Hawkins, R. E. vet

Hay, Lt.-Col. R. (1.M.S.)

Headly, Derek, a

Heaney, Major G. F. (R.£.)

mearsey, Capt. U.D. W. (M.C.; V.D:)

Henderson, L. 8. an

Henny, cA. oe

Hewetson, C. E. (1.F.S.)

Hewitt, Walter A.

Heysham, R. K.

fuieckie;bt.-Col, B.C. (R.A. aren

Hickin, S. B. we

Higginbottom, Dr. Sam

muiccins, J. Ci (c.1.H.,; 1.C.S.)

Miley, A.C. (C.1:E., I.F-.s.)

ie DiGi (FRG .Ss,3.P.)

Huliver, R:, A. IN. f ee

Hingston, Major R. W. G. (1.M.s.)

FislopyLte-Col. Ji iH. (MC. 1.M.S.)

Hodson, G. A. (B.F.S.)

Holmes, H. R. F as

Hopkinson, A.J: (C.1.E., 1.C.8.)

Hora, Dr. Sunder Lal (D.Sc.)

xlvii

Peshawar.

London.

Madras.

Devicolam.

Bombay.

England.

Madras.

Bombay.

Sholapur.

Calcutta.

Gwalior.

Bombay.

Gaya.

Calcutta

Lyallpur.

Sylhet.

Bangalore.

Delhi.

Bombay.

Bettiah.

London,

Lahore.

Maymyo.

Alwar.

England.

Falam.

Bombay.

Karachi.

Bombay.

England.

Palestine.

Calcutta.

Kheri.

Burma.

Karachi,

Chanda.

Gorakhpur.

Bombay.

England.

Allahabad.

Shillong.

Poona.

Bombay.

Philadelphia.

London.

Jullundur.

Toungoo,

England.

)

Calcutta.

xlviii LIST OF MEMBERS

Hoshang, N. E. Dinshaw a Apr a. Karachi.

Hotz, Edwin oak ie20 Welling

Howard-Bradshaw, Gamat. C. T. Gao bo .. England.

Howell, Sir Evelyn (K-C.1.E.; C.1.E., I:C.S.) “. . London,

Howey, 22s be Est Ss She .. England

Hubback, Theodore R. 5 aa o64) Pahenie:

Pushes Ak sie ee 26 ... Colombo.

Humphrey, J. eae re ae Bombay.

Hyderabad Dn., Economic Botanist to Government,

C. A. Library bt .. Himayatsagar, Dn.

Hyderabad Dn., Inspector- [Cetera of Forests ... Hyderabad, Dn.

Imperial Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi.

Inder, R. W. (1.F.S.) Baroda.

Tron, © d: ae Coorg.

Inwinget.<bt: RoE ee) nies Delhi.

Isaacs Miss Mozelle (M.A., M.SC., B.T.) Dombivli.

Ishwardas Lakhmidas (Sir, AZ.) .. Bombay.

Jackman, R.C.

Jacob, M. C. (1.F.s.) Gauhati.

Jacobson, Ei...) “Ets Caleutta:

James, E. R. Sherman Assam.

James, J. N. A. : a London.

Jamsetji M. Doctor (#.Z.S., C.M.Z.S.) e. Bombay.

Jaora, 1. HerCol. = Itikhor Alikhan,

Nawab of is Jaora.

Jaunpur, Raja Sri ached Dutt [be Jaunpur,

Jawhar State, H. H. the Raja of Jawhar Jawhar.

Jenkin, R. Trevor sg England.

Jenning, E. ‘Thaton,

Jephson, Lt.-Col. M. D. Bombay.

Jhalawar, H. H. The Maharaj Rena Rasenare Singh

Bahadur y oes os «. Brijnagar.

Johnson, Kay Moran.

Joly, Dr. B. MM. London.

Jones, A. E. Simla.

Jourdain, Rev. F.C. R. England.

Jubbal, Rajkumar Tea enenanat Met AGparent of Jubbal.

Junagadh, The Dewan of ce cm Junagadh.

Kanga, Miss P. M. (M.Sc.) Bombay.

Karve, Prof. Janarden Nilkanth an Sc.) Poona.

Katrak, M. N. Bandra.

Keatinge, H. A. : Rajshahi.

Keays, Lt.-Col. R. W. C, (1.A.) Madras.

Kefford, H. Kingsley Raipur.

Kemp, W. N. R. Champaran.

Kempe, Hon’ble Mr. J. E. England.

Kermode, C. W. D. (1.F.S.) London.

Kerr, F. 5. Bombay.

Khan, Sahebzada Candas Mahon d UR se) Junagadh.

Khareghat, M. P. (1.C.8.) Bombay.

Kiernander, Major O. G. England.

Kirwan, Noel G. B. Mangalor.

Fort-Sandeman.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Koechlin, E. L. . en ee we) INiloinis:

Kohli, P. N. Eo wt re we Jashimir,

othavala, ©. I. ... oF Pee otk koe,

Krishnalal, Rai Bahadur Capt. ic RCs, Mik, O65,

NOH RSAC S) a ies x6 ... Indore.

Kuroda, Dr. Nagamichi : se ae LOkyo.

Kutch, M. K. Shree Ba nai ce of ae Per eis Glee) a

eva © Ute (E-F.S.)' si aie a .. burma,

Laborda, Dr. F.E.R. ve a ee epecalcutta,,

Baidlay, J.C, as aol So fae OCOUlaNC.

Walkeka, Mrs. Mehra K.A., ... we 2 bombay.

Lamb, Thos. ae ae tee mo Calcutta,

wampreil, Dr B.A... ae ues Bee Assault,

Landells, W. J. me ses ae ... Monywa.

Langdale, A. H. zo 208 ad mae, Bombay,

ieasiic; DD, A..deé er tek on wet Purina,

Latif, Sarhan C. a ee a He Saracht,

Launey, Paul de ae is man .. Comilla.

Wawener, B.C, A. (C.L.E.) bes ve .. England.

Leach, Hon’ble Justice Sir Lionel eon fe NLS:

Bees, b. M. (1-C:8.) «.. soe Sie .. Burma.

Leland, A. J. = ae ae ae. Lneland,

LeMarchand, A. E. M. as Sag a i

LeMarchand, W. M. ee as Pee Dibsee rie

Leonard, D. G. oe ae ae ye “Cochin.

Leonard, G. R. ei sat re «a, Pahang.

Lewis, E. 5S. oe a re we Delhi:

LIBRARIES—

Annamalai University Library ee .. Annamalainagar.

Hyderabad, The State Library Pe ... Hyderabad, Dn.

Imperial Library, The a pie .. Calcutta,

Imperial Secretariat Library .. heeNew Wehr.

Lahore, University of Punjab, “The Li oe arian joa) saOre,

Lytton Library, Muslim University b63 Aligarh.

Madras, Connemara Public Library, The eericieal

Librarian ee Madras.

Public Library, Museums aud Nocona Gallery of

Victoria, The Chief Librarian an Meibourne.

Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, haeiaae: S. Australia.

United Service Library, The Honorary Secretary .... Poona.

iiehtfoot, Capt.G.S. (1.P.) .:. iva we Datrans.

Lightfoot, S. St. C. ... see sie aoe Jatinoeyie

Lindsay, H. R. 255 oe oe ee Punalur,

Lindsay-Smith, Capt. J. ao es =.) wxssam,

Lockhart, J. ee ee es ... Bombay.

Lodge, G. E. fs ae an .. England.

Logan-Home, Lt. “Colt We. Me ux: tes ve »

Love, Capt. S. W.A., or ies ... Burma,

Lowe, Major J. H. B. 7 ae .. Wana,

' Lowman, Capt. Stephen (R.1.A.S.C.) oes ... Landikotal,

Lowndes, R. C. i ; ae .... Bombay.

Bowther, De His N: (.z.S., M.B.0.U.) as ... Moradabad.

Lucknow, Provincial Museum, The Curator

LIST OF MEMBERS

Lunawada, H. H. Maharana Shri Virbhadrasinhji

Lushington, Mrs.

Lutyens, F. M. B.

MacColl, El. i:

Macdonell, J. F.

Mackenzie, J. M.

Mackenzie, Wm.

Macluachlan,

MacMichael, N.

Macnaught, W. E.

Madan, F. R.

MacLachlan, D. (1.C

Ri) (ie E.)

MacLeod, Capt. A.J.W.

(dc Sales

CoG.

.E.S.)

(1.8.5S.)

i Cys])

Macnaghten, Sir Henry (Az.) ...

Madras H. E. The Governor of

Mahendra, B. C. (M.Sc )...

Maitta,, O0.F

Maltby, Lt.-Col. C, M. (I,

Raja feria oe Eiatap Singh

Saheb (M.L.C.) oe

Mankapur Raj,

rec

Mar:ne Biological] Laboratory

Marshall,

Marshall, George H. L.

Martin, Carr A.

Matthews, W. H.

Maxwell H. A. (1.F.8.)

Maj.-Genl.P. J.(CoB., CMG, psa)

Maxwell, Hon’ble Sir Reginald (L. C:5,,K.CiSa.)

McGregor, Capt. K. S. : a

McGusty, H. M.

McLeod, Major-Genl. D, K.

McPherson, James ... ais

McSwenrey, Capt. P. M. (1.M.s.)

Mehta, Sir Hormasji, Az.

Mehta, Jamshed N: R.

Mehta, K. M.

Meinertzhagen, Lt. bean Ke

Menesse, N.H. (f.

Meston, D. C.

Milbank, Capt. M.

Milburne, W.

Miller, G. D. L.

S.E.)

Mills, J. P(1.C.3 5

Mirchandani, U.M. (1.C.S.)

Mistri, Or...

Mitchell, Leonard

Mohr, Dr. V. der Meer

Monteath, J. (c.1.z., 1.C.8

Montmorency, Sir Geoffrey de (K.c.vo.,

C.B.E., 1.8.)

Mooney, H. F. (1.F.S.)

Moore, Major A.C (1.4

‘)

)

Kick.

Lucktow.

Lunawada.

Ceylon.

Calcutta

Burma.

Bombay.

Caleutta.

Talliar.

Belgaum.

Ireland.

London.

scotlard.

Burma.

Perak.

Salem.

Madras.

Agra.

Calcutta.

Quetta.

Mankapur.

Mass, U.S.A.

Scotland.

Assam.

Rangoon.

Rungli-Runegliot.

Bhamo.

Delhi.

Bombay.

Burma.

Engiand.

Poona.

Bombay.

Karachi.

Bhavnagar.

London.

Hyderabad, Sind.

Assam.

England.

Barjuli.

Assan.

Sukkur.

Bombay.

England.

Medan, Sumatra.

Junagadh.

England.

Ranchi.

Burma.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Moore, John Fe

Moore, R. J. Arthur

Mordern, William J.

Morehead, F.. T. (0.B.E., B.SC.,

Morgan, Vernon

Morrison, Lt.-Col. John (1.M.S.

Morris, Ralph. C. (F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.)

Morton, Geo. B.

Moses, Dr. S. T.

Mott, John L.

Mullen, G. R.

Mulroney, J. T.

Murphy, P. J.

Mustill, F. J.

I.F.S)

Mysore, Government Museum, The Supenarendedt bee

Mysore, Chief Conservator of Forests

Nagpur, Central Museum, ‘The Curator

Naik, Dr. R.N. (G.8.v.C.)

Needham, F. M.

Nevill, Capt. T. N.C.

Newcome, Lionel

Nichols, Rev. Edward G

Nicholson, Lt.-Col. M.A. (I.M.S.)

Nicolaus, G. R. (F-R.G.S., F.Z.S. )

Nilgiri Game Association

Nilgiri, H. H. The Rajah Sane of

Nimaj, The Chief Saheb of

N. W. F. Province, His Excellency The Govemor of

Ogilvie, C. 5.

Oliver, A. W. L.

Orchha State, H. H. The Sawai ‘Waleadia Ranarasn

Bahadur :

Orissa, H. EH. The GoneAG: Se

Ortcheson, J. (i.C.8.)

Osborn, Mrs. Gladys

Osborne, i. I: oe

Osborne Jones, M. T.

Osmaston, 56,8) (C.uE., 1.F:S.)

Osmaston, F. C. (1.F.S.) sts eis

Oxiey siet..Col. Ly C:.S. (1.-S.)

Palacios de Borao, Rev: G. (S.J.)

Palanpur, H. H. Sir Nawab Saheb detey intane meds

Khan Bahadur (K.C.1.E., K.C.V.0.) of

Palmer, R.W.V.

Palmes, W.T. (1.C.8.)

Panday, Mrs. J. L. a

Parker, Mrs. M. as Ses

Parr C, 1,

wearsous, R. 12 (1. P.)

Partabgarh, H. H. Maharawat Sir Remain ponae

diag Ge. 5S 52)

Paterson, E. A.

London.

Travancore.

US. AG

Rangoon.

Agra.

Lordon.

Attikan.

Calcutta.

Baroda.

New York City.

Bombay.

Kurseong.

Ramna, Dacca,

Maymyo.

Bangalore.

Nagpur.

Bombay.

Assam.

London.

Somwarpet.

Madura.

Indore.

London.

Ootacamund.

Raj-Nilgirt.

Nimaj.

Peshawar.

Pahang.

Singapore.

Tikamgarah,

Orissa.

Gujrat.

Bombay.

Pocna.

Trichinopoly.

England.

Chaibassa.

Srinagar.

Bombay.

Palanpur.

Rangoon,

Kenya.

Bombay.

Sarnastipur.

Nowgong.

Partabgarh.

Calcutta,

lii ITAST OF MEVIBERS

Paterson, J. J.

Patna State, Maharaja Reverarn Nawaven linen Dee)

Patten, Huse J.

Patterson, A. ye

Pavrt, Dr. Pog CeP:S., ne

Pazze, Peter P.

Peart, Major J .7—.

Peppe,’F. H. :

Percival, Capt. A.P. @ LIBSY®)

Perfect, E:

Petit Institute, J --N: Honorary. apes

Beit... CG.

Petit, se),

Petrie, W. M.

Philips, Charles A.

Phillips, W. W. A.

Phythian-Adams, Major E. G. (1 Ay Salon)

Picton Major, B.C. (R-A.)

TPAvey civ Nie

Popple, W. G.

Porteous, A. B.

Preeston, R. A.

Pudukottai, State Museum, The Cone

Pullan, A. U. ae

Purkis, fC. (UB rs.)

Ouicke, H. J.B. 3B.

Rahman, Q. F. (1 S.E£.)

Raitt, W. Chas. ae

Ralston, Lt.-Col. a EP A(DES One fA)

Ramadhyani, R. K. (I.C.S.)

Ranpur, The ae Chief of the Rend tor State

Readymoney, N. J. ...

Redway, C. B.

REGIMENTAL OFFICERS’ Mnssrs—

Burma Rifles

Royal Deccan Horse

10/7 Rajput Regiment

Small Arms School

Royal Indian Navy ...

Reuben, D. E. (1.C.8S.) , ae

Reynolds, Dr. F. H. [ m.B., ch.B (Bdin-) ]

Reynolds, K. P. oe

Richardson, H. E. (1.C.8.)

Richmond, sit R.Da(4A7.,C..E., T8S.)

Ridland, J. G. eas -

Rishworth, Dr. H. R. Be M.S. yy

Ritchie, Lt.-Col. -W...1). (1.M:s.)

Roberts, Capt. F..L. se

Robertson, Lawrence (Cc.S.1., I. C. S.)

Robey, H.R.p.:

Robinson, Mrs. R. B.

Rondano, Rev. A. (S.3-)

Hongkong.

Balangir.

Edinburgh.

Lordon.

Bombay.

Manzai.

Dehra Dun.

England.

Madras.

Bombay.

Ue)

England.

Gammaduwa.

Nilgiris.

Dehra Dun.

Assam.

Bombay.

Bhilad.

England.

Pudukottai.

Hathipotha.

Kenya.

Bombay.

Moradabad.

Coorg.

London.

Bhandara.

Ranpur.

Bombay.

Penang.

Burma.

Ouetta.

Fatehgarh.

Saugor.

Bombay.

Patna.

Yamethin.

Ireland.

Gyantse.

Madras.

U.S.A.

Bombay.

Borjuli.

Loralai.

England.

Calcutta.

England.

Mangalore.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Rosenthal, V.

Ross orice bd. (O.B.E., M.C. )

Rossel, Major H. G. (1.4.)

Row, Dr. R. (M.D.)

Rowland, J. W. (1.P.)

Rowntree, John B. (1.F.S.)

Ruddell, Rev. J. F. W.

Rustomjee, Miss Sherene B.

Sanders, D. F.

Sandeman, Lieut. A. G.

Sanderson, P. M. D. (F.z.s.)

Sandur State, Raja Shrimant VecnvantTte enorpace:

Sant, Maharana Shri Jarwar Singji, Raja Saheb of ...

Sarangarh, Raja Bahadur Jawahir Singh (C.1.£.)

Sarawak Museum. The Curator

Sarma, M. R. Venkatarama

Sassoon, Ralph

satya Churn Law, Dr., (M.a.,

M.B.O.U.)

Saunders, H. F. :

Schering (India) Ltd.

Schomberg, Lt.-Col. R. C. F. (D.s.0.)

eo, ©. W., (I-F:S.)

Scott, Lt.-Col. F. B. ee

Scott, James E.

Seagrim, Lieut. G. N.

Secretary for Agriculture,S.S. & F. M.S.

Seervai, Dr. Rustom F.

Sevastopulo, D. G. (F.E.S.)

Shah, Lt.-Col. B. L. (1.M.8s.)

Shebbeare, E. O.

Sherred, P.R.

Sherriff, Capt. George (R.A.)

Sherston-Baker, J. D.

Sheth, Chinubhai Chimanla! (B A.)

Shirley, G S. (1.F.S.)

Shoveller, H. L. (A.c.A.)

Simmonds, A.

Simmons, R. M. tee

Simonds, Major M. H.

Sind, H. E. The Governor of

Singh, Kumar Amar

Singh, Ravendra Ramanuj

Singh, Lt.-Col. Thakur Sajjan...

Sinhajwe. IN (BA. LL.B.)

Sirohi, H. H. The Maharaja of

Skrine, Major P. R. H.

Sladen, D. A. Me

pladen.J. M. (1.C.S.)

Slocum; Dr. He J.

Smith, EF, W. (D-F:C.)

Smith, Dr. Malcolm

Bile, -PD-Diy 2S;

liti

Bombay.

Quetta.

Meerut.

Bombay.

Assam.

Bombay.

England.

Delhi.

Bombay.

Sandur

Sant-Rampur.

Sarangarh.

Kuching.

Aduturai.

Calcutta.

De)

Madras.

Bombay.

England.

Rangoon.

England.

London.

Almora.

Kuala Lumpur.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

Kuala Lumpur.

Ramegarh.

England.

Bombay,

Ahmedabad.

Rangoon.

London.

Assam,

London,

Eneland.

Karachi.

Gaya.

Dehra Dun.

Orcbha.

Delhi.

Sirohi.

Bombay.

Tinnevelly.

Bombay.

U.s7Ay

Assam,

England,

liv LIST OF MEMBERS

Sly tia, ae

Smythies. B. E.

SOCIETIES—

Royal Society of Edinburgh ...

New York Zoological Society

Sokhey, Lt.-Col. 5. S. (1.M.s.)

Spackman, Lt.-Col. W. C. hee

Sparrow, Col. R.

Spong, Dr. William A. (R.A.M.c. :

Spreadbury, Mrs. P. M. (m.A.)

orinivasarao, Dr, Ho (M.A<,.DiSc.)

Stable, Major R. H. (D.S.o.)

Stables, Major Alex. (R.A.M.C)

Stanford, J. 1? (i.c., M.A.) M1B:0' U. 7 C. S. )

Sfapylton, J. Males (L-€.5.)

Steele-Perkins, Lt.-Col. C. 5

Steer-Webster, wCapt. V. C.0( Ms ENG). F.a.G.c.

HRGH «93,98 2225-5 FaR. Sates)

Stevens, Herbert (F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.)

Stewart, D. (1.F.S.) ...

Stewart, Prof. R. R. (Ph.D.)

Stileman, F.

Stirling, J. ib.

Stoney, R. F.

Storrs-Fox, Rev. E. A

Storrs... a. ee

Sudan Government Museum, The Cavatae

Suter, Dr. M. F. (D.Sc.) :

Swat State, Shahzada Taneneee Walli- erly

Sykes, The Right Hon’ble Sir Frederick

G.C:1.E., ete.) ae ; ne

Symes, A. W. J. Sd oa

Symus, J. A. M. he as a

Tait, dit.-Col, H.:O./(EM.s.)

Taleyarkhan, K. M. (Bar.-at-Law)

Tasker, Sir Theodore (A47., C.1.E., 0.B.8., 1.C.5.)

Tata, Jal N. D. ee

Taylor, Col. J. (D:S.0., 1-M.S.)

Thackeray, John

Thatcher, 1. C.

Thom, W. 5S.

Thompson, A. K.

Thomson, E.:S. (1:2. } ag

Thorne,.J. A. (Gibb: 1.C.5.) ax

Thursfield, R. M..C. as x

Ticehurst, Dr. C,2.-(M.A., M.B.0.U., R.A. MIC,)

Tilden, H. B. (#.¢.8.)

Tilley; J.ca5.

dodd, A: scat ae

Toogood, Lt.-Col. C. G. (¢.1.E., D.S.0.)

Transvaal Museum, The Director “i

Travancore, The Conservator of Forests ...

Calcutta.

Rangoon.

Edinburgh.

New York.

Bombay.

England.

Burma.

Calcutta.

London.

Scotland.

England.

London.

Calcutta.

England.

Naini Tal.

Rawalpindi.

Bombay.

England.

Ootacamund.

Murree.

Jalpaiguri.

Khartoum.

Poona.

Swat.

London.

Baroda.

Karachi.

Burma.

Bombay.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Bombay.

Kasauli.

Calenutta,

Dehra Dun.

Kalaw.

Burma.

Fatehgarh.

Delhi.

Rangoon.

England.

London.

Bombay.

”»

Delhi.

Pretoria.

Trivandrum.

Travers, F. G.

Treuthardt, M.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Trichur, State Museum and Zoo

Gripura, HH. H.The Maharaja Mehikys Bonsdas

(eC. S-.)

Trivandrum, The Roee: Mus. a Public nae

Superintendent

muck. Capt..P oJ oH .(R.A.)

Rarknud, Dr..19. A; (M-B., C.M.; etc.)

Turnbull, G. EB. (B.F.S.)

Tutein-Nolthenius, A.C. (F.Z.s: By

Tyabjee, Mrs. Camar

Tyson, John D.-(1,C.8.)

University of Bombay, The Registrar

University College of Science, The Librarian

University of Harvard

University of Madras, The Registrar

University of Michigan

University of Patna

U. P., Chief Conservator of eee

Wars Ey EL. The Governor of <

U, S. Department of eco uentes The Tiberian

Wahid: -S. A. (L.F.S8.4

Van Allen, Mrs. C. M.

Van Ingen, J. De Wet

Viceroy and Governor-General Si India

Victoria Memorial Park,

tary sad

Wallar, A. R. (1.F.S.)

Vincent, A. D.

Vincent, J. R. ae

Vine, Capt. Roland S$.

Volkart, L.

Wade, C. P. G.

Wadia, Framji Dossabhoy

Wah, L. H. (1.F.s.)

Wait, W.E.

Wakely, L. J. D. (1.C.S.)

Walden, G. P.

Walker, Capt. H. W. P.

Wapeshare, J. H.

Ward, W. R. (0.B.E

Waterfield, T. E.

Waters, Capt. Et. P. E,

(1.C.S.)

The Honorary Secre-

Watson, Sir H.W. A. (£:F.S..)'..

Weatherbe, D’Arcy

Webster, Lt.-Col. W. J. (M.c.,

EMS)

Weinberg, Dr. M. H. (m.D.)

West; Co. J.

West, Major J. R.

Weston, A. T.

Whitehead, Major W. A.

fly ae

Bombay.

Switzerland.

Trichur:

Agartala.

Trivandrum.

London.

Kodaikanal.

Rangoon.

Ohyia, Ceylon.

Bombay.

Calcuita.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

Cambridge.

Madras.

Michigan, U.S. A.

Patna.

Naini Tal.

Wee.

Washington, D. C.

Khandwa.

Bombay.

Mysore.

India.

Rangoon,

Mundakayam.

Thekaday,.

Jhansi.

Zurich.

Bombay.

Poona.

Rangoon.

England.

Delhi.

Katha.

Egypt.

Nilgiris;

London.

Bombay.

Quetta.

London.

Kasauli.

Bombay.

”

London.

Jhelum.

lvi LIST OF MEMBERS

Wickham; Py P a(con.) 2 bes ... England.

Wight, W. a te mo 2. GASSamay

Wilkes, J. S. ae ae ae ... Coimbatore:

Wilkins, P. 7B. (M.cy, Dik .Ce) tan. pa w. Poona,

Williams, Lt.-Col. C. E. (1.M.s.) es = Wwondon,.

Williams 1D. Ni ae: fe phe .. wscotland.

Williams, Major G. B. sie ne ... Bhopal.

Williams, James L. H. se ash eee Nios

Williamson, A. (I.C.S.) : ae 22 pLondons

Wilson, The Rt: Hon’ble Et. foal sir) leshe. (Pic,

G:CuB CO. MsG. 5 -DiSiO4)). Ta oan ... Queensland.

Wilson, 3@ 22 eb ia 5G ae =. Rangoon,

Wilson, F. W. we ae Se as | neland.

Winckworth, Col. H.C. (R.A.M.c.) a 2 Calcuttas

Withers, D. 8. 2 a we) Mariaind,

Wordsworth, Major R. G. (R.A. o ie a. Hneland.

Workman, W. H. (f.Z.S., M.B.O.U.) oe =. sireland:

Wrangham-Hardy, G. bai as 5. Darjecling:

Wrenick, C.73, I. - .25 : see tes Pr

Wynter-Blyth, Mark A. (M.A. ) ate 2. ooimla.

Yandle, A. J. ae ee £N A. Banarhat.

Yates; 2. sina skh nae .. England.

Yin, Maung Tun (B.a.) ‘ss is o. Rangoon,

Zerny, Dr. Hahs ... ke se eStats

Zhob Militia, The Commeancane ea ~. Et. Sandeman,

Zinkin, Maurice (I.C.S.) sas ae i “Sholapur:

Zoologisches Museum, The Universitat ... 2. berlin,

Zurmuhle, E. ue ve ee «. Switzerland.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1939. C9295

sie su 5 : =i

‘ 7 7 ip Be, 4S eres

: wwe nae ae. : . No =

‘7 rene fas da ity ‘

Pr F - i 44 ae h ‘

¥ f ’ Te diese

x 5 i! Wh Le FF 5 :

i a i? be cd of

‘s ‘ : 14 Se ,

: i ee

’

”

LR RT ce eg

ATURAL

EDITED ae

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY‘SOGIETY,

‘6, Apollo Serer Bombay.

Lonpon AGENTS :

‘DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)

(212, SHAFTESBURYJAVENUE,

ee Ww: Cc. 2.

Game Birds of India, Vol. Ill. Pheasants, aaiE aigon. 20 Re. 28.

‘Set oF Game Bird Plates (19), Vol. Hl. Rs. 13- 8.

Bird-Life in Fadia: by Capt. R. S..P. Bares, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Re. 6.

Indian Pigeons and Doves ike coloured iisiraes, by EK -C. STUART BAKER,

Identification of Poisonous Snakes —

= Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. H. PRateR, C.M.Z.S. Re. 1.

Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring Districts. By -

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or jockal ©

_A List of Indian Butterflies, by Cor. W. H. Evans. ake Rs. 2

‘Rs. 350.

~ covers the period from the date of ee election up till the end of the a

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the

_ Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum __

sand hein Ali

Ist Edition.

(Price: to Members Rs. 30).

Mee to Members Rs. ve

(Price to Members Rs. 10).

(Price to Members Rs. 3).

Cotnuon Indian Birds, iiuchetions in core of 196 Common Birds of Indian

Plains, an album. poe ; Rs. 40.

: ; (Price to Members Rs. 32).

©.B.E: MGB: Oru, eee Be OE

(Price to Members Rs. 30).

Snakes,

Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x 40”. Sikes : i. : Re bye

Folding Pocket Chart. 3 Rs. 1-12.

Miscellaneous. De eh eee =

Some Beautiful Indian Tress. Ilustrated with coloured and black and white :

plates. J | as 1.

(Price to Members RS 10). :

Sir REGINALD SPENCE, Kt., F.Z.S., and S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S. With

colour and black and white illustrations, Rs. 2 oe a

(Price to Members Rs. 1- -8).

identification of Indian Butterfii ies, by BRIGADIER W. H.. Evans, C. S. i

C.I.E., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated. Rs. 15.

(Price to Hensbers Rs. 10).

etc. . Rs. 2-8.

Wood:-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay | Erengeoey, by JosueH a

-ASSMUTH, S.J. Reis 4

Back Numbers of the Journal, Gas tes

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. ae.

mil

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life ee fee of

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual

subscription of Rs. 25.

The subscription of members sleckoa in October, November and December —

following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such mec

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0—to the Society in

of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s Londen: ‘Batkere Te Nee

National Bank of tadia, Poe Street, pee B.C.

GONTENTS- OF VOLUME XL, No. 3.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA, Part V. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D.sce.,

F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FN.I. (With one coloured plate and 4

GENO LOS) MON ae re das Ed hat ey fast ta. 6y Ola hbaie osc bv ily vebensd bouay ees

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE, Part V. By Salim A. Ali, and

Humayun Abdulali. (With one black CNUs ULE DIOL) ee recc nese ca. 2tsee

THE BIRDS OF THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS. By F.N. Betts. (With one

OL OPMOIE RTO ULEAD ULE Wester cere oi sti Soievie': siaiespisicsiensecincsals tsb ewiasstaeseesbssenees ves

THE TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF ARhinophis travancoricus BOUL.

By Beni Charan Mahendra, F.z.S. (With one black and white plate).

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. By D. G. Sevastopulo,

TE PRIRUAEC RSS OMNES ald Sis $2 2 Heed dows ore aisle tn cavessaleeaiais:e Sais pete da ah ob'a.cc-alsiialenielsinee sees dan’

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS. By E. H. N. Lowther, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

UE 7Uh 0 PLALES) .e.05 Beene se ce emactad sala ie nefen sete coaisind tes cule ture nanene nas Pete

THE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA OF CUTCH Spann By C. McCann, 1.1..S.

WOT ELCU Om DLOILE Sok Sanco ces oattens vac sanldcusscesrcutiet vases seh de aeasbideiaaedecdesess

THE Foop oF Brown ‘TRouT (Salmo fario L.). By Dr. Hamid Khan,

LIB AZU IE POR DU LO) Ri cist deisisish.at vo stwonaicdepatiepinendee sss tigsdesovsevesnsevede esos

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA. By C. B. WILLIAMS, Sc.D.

UAUYLONEG GOLGUT ER PIGLE ANA F ALALTAIMS) ....ciccccuctarss soasstesacncsdeossn’s

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE (Santalum album Linn.) EVOLVE?

Heyy MMA cE SCE to ccnatc.ceciek. cot sae venseausensuiite tasks Wlaedeviadesedpaeetakaeeens

BIRDS OBSERVED IN AND NEAR TAMBARAM, CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT,

SOU MHSIN DIA Vy, A lice: Nis BAaIneS. 12. cseesse: s.cs0c sees eSssaveesa sseaceeeeavces

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V.

Subrahmanyam. (With one photo and three text-figureS)...........0000

THE INDIAN CappIS FLIES (7yrichoptera). Part V. By Martin E.

IMOSCIN ES HRM. Sek ZeSe- (CW/20/0 12 PLALCS) vse cot ceavaeoseesinnscvtevectseedvemee

AN ADDITIONAL ee OF BIRDS FROM HYDERABAD STATE. By Salim

J\,,. ANGUS aie Seen ee ee Ba eee asec eee Ha arewatcie Semin te sidieron PaOe en ONSET GC BE

SUPPLEMENTARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUNNAR SECTION OF THE

ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. By J.B,

PIT TOSE®,.,.004 00000 BO eRe ni ema ee tie wc he's Vda 6 Ft hae Poor hoon ecu

A PROPOSAL TO ADVANCE THE TEACHING AND RESEARCH IN ENTO-

MOLOGY IN INDIA, By M. Sharif, D.SC.,. PR.D.,, BL. Sesssscesecceccescesass

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA: WATERLILIES, Poppy-

mwORTS, EUMITORIES. By Rev. J. F: Caius, S:J., F.1.S....3..5 0006

PLANTS OF KuwalT, Norta EAST ARABIA. By Mts. V. Dickson..........

A NOTE ON THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE GROUND Nut (Arachis hypo-

wacalinye By E. Banerji, €W 2th 10 L62t-L1 CUS). cccssorecsccvs vassess

KARTH-EATING AND SALt-LICKING IN INpDIA. Analyses XL-XLVII.

ExeReV. J... Caius. S.J.,.¥L.S., and Miss K., S.: Radha, B.Sc..2....006

REVIEWS :—

I.—The Fight to Live. By Raymond L. Ditmars.................00

Li the Valley of Flowers. By Frank S. Smythe............... eee

tik hac Cultivationin India, BY “D.. M. Glover. .icaecs.ccecssecconseas

IV .—Supplement to the Flowering Plants of Madras City and its

Immediate Neighbourhood. By E. Barnes......cce.cscsecss se

V.—Hints on Museum Education... By J. C. Basak............c0+s008

VI.—More Difficulties of the Evolution Theory. By eee

ID Ae es ast tet india seaedytst odsfacieisictade’s sthanwasedeniseelassesedienage 61 €Se sees seis

il CONTENDERS “OF V0lae\ Noes,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Occurrence of Tiger in Northern Sikkim 8,800 ft. By

Inte-Colenels ie iste. couch te sensations eee reet tae eee

Ii.— Measurements of Tigers shot in the Nilgiris—1925-37. By

Major E.G. Phythian- Adams: cee aio. csc tenors eee eee

IlI.— Measurements of Panthers. By Major E. G. Phythian-Adams.

1V.—Measuremer.ts of Tiger, Panther, Bison and Sambhur. By

Ree Gy MOTris.cte rea siee sdsenccnicss ouch vee caaunaie tee son amet oie aan

V.—Method Acopted by Leopards in Hunting Monkeys. By

Tite niar AW eatsasnccree. weanuded besa dslove sat sisoeea else Naueer eee neoe ree

V1.— Otters and Creecdiles. By Lt.-Col, C, Howson........:.....2.<

VIL—A Baby Ee ppantca By J clbbotsonyecetc.we secon aerate

VIlIl.—Curicus Behaviour of Elephants. By Major F. W. Haswell,

TiA cau ledtae es che teiks Sr vebieteequadsees fo sade tame cemncnce ves Aero nam oneeree

X.—‘ Stampir g Grounds’ and ‘ Sore Neck’ in Sambar. ee C.

MOTVISS cacsarhaviietedestectae eerste yeehe al ccs ternaen ian ome sean ee ea

X.—Occurrence of the White-headed Wagtail [Motacilla flava

leucccephala (Przewalski)] in the Attock District of the

1B.

Furjab. (By BW. Wate Mi BtO.U se.tea nee ee coerce

XI.—Ege Stealing by Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus

baker Geliartent\c. (By ike SLAVesey wansea sso meres ee ee

XII.—Call Notes of the Burmese Pla’ntive Cuckoo (Cacomantis

GREVULINUS QUETULUS) « oy li. IR, TINCSCV.2 3 a) ans tees:

XI11.—The Shan Brown Wood Owl (Strix itndranee shanensis

Baker), (By 0. Re Shivesey, .vic ca venie teshaonas eet geteteronesers

XIV.—Nestirg of the Booted Eagle ( Hzeraétus pennatus [Gmelin] )

in-the Simla Hills, By vA ey JOMCS ct cset.ccescncsseoeyentnee ss

XV.—The Nidification of the Burmese Barred-back Pheasant

(Syvmaticus humic burmanicus). By T.R. Livesey.......

XVI.—An Extension of the Range of the Western Horned Pheasant

(Zragopan melanocethalus [Gray]). By Major E. H.

CODD eas sinn igaanenrsivene tee ceutnne Matticce avetaieeteuun ite tasmrinesga etna.

XVII.—Game Birds in the Anaimalai Hills and the South Coimba-

tore District—A correction. By J. Williams...................

XVIII.— Breeding of Pintail Snipe (?) ia Belgaum District. By O. H.

De St. “Crolie rir esessaeenatsiee «ey tdtsssiansciatssie teats ots al acta taneectareete tse

X1X.—Bird Notes.from the Dry Zone of Upper Butma. By J. K.

DSLAMIOTG ack. cress cncceap neces stten ceases snnmarceastne senate sci cacee

XX.--Swifts in Swallows’ Nests. By Colonel Kenneth Comyn.......

XXI.—On Cuckoos in Sugaon, Champaran Dis‘rict, Bengal. By

FocA. Co Mis. uz aepesttesetndt sate cnet watyeae es one eete dieemeeiives

XXII.—A Comment on the name ‘ Bloodsucker’ Applied to [Cal-

otes versicolor (Daud.) |. “By B. Bast, cjasicsescece'snsss-ssesenss

XXII.—Extersion of the Range of the Moth Norraca longipennis

Moore (Votodonitde). By AvC. Warimannns.cseccctes.-205,

XXIV.—Descr’ption of the Larva of Lierusia (Soritia) leptalina

Koll. (Zygaenidae). By A. E. Jones (With a plate).......

XXV.—Distribution of St2rnocera nitidicollis C. and G. (Bupre-

SHddo)® “BY Ei G: AChanya MHZ .Siijeeccduranscecscstestestecae

XXVI1.—The Distribution of Butheolus melanurus Kessler. By J. F.

CATS eric eo hld ised nen one tou oes Ant ade Pos ae Gh cooe dees save teulantseeaneo!

XXVIL.—Glyricidia maculata as a Shade Tree for Tea. By

Jie WHATS io Meisensct a chdcd te siisd credecsdenaaid cusele sage etic ease teins estes

XXVIIIl.—General Flowering of Strobilanthes in South India. By

Jr, WH PRAT Sotecdecsd sinc cadeaedactocsestduicstses.eceteedvesescigdae ase seer

XXIX.—A Fasciated Inflorescence in a Banana. By K. C. Jacob,

TySAGe, BP leSe (OW APOC) iirc. sateswasvecetae: talepeesdnseerveseee

XXX:—A Natural-Histony Tale. By R. C. Morris..0.6..060,: ssdsececaseees

PROCEEDINGS— BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY... .ccsees

PAGE

5953

Sis8:

554

555

HSISLVD SVONAd FHL

‘00S ‘ISIH ‘LVN Avawog ‘nNunof

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1938. Vout. XL. ING? 2:

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.?

SUNDER Lat Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plate and four text-figures).

Continued from page 147 of Vol. xl.

V.—THE PuNncas CATFISH.

PANGASIUS PANGASIUS (Hamilton).

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ad eis a ir ue “309

Nomenclature and Systematic Position oe oe .- ~ 396

Synonymy and Description me ave es e002

Bionomics and Fishing Notes ie ae ee: ee. 309

Acknowledgments ee i a ve --. - 366

List of References ae an Bet sits ... 366

Explanation of Plate = er ahs ee i oOG

INTRODUCTION.

In the preceding article (8)? attention was directed to certain

large Catfishes which are popularly known as ‘Freshwater Sharks’.

Of these Pangasius pangasius (Ham.) is perhaps the least destruc-

tive to fisheries; it is a foul feeder and consumes considerable

quantities of mud and decaying animal and vegetable matter from

1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol, XE

the bottom of estuaries and lower portions of large rivers where it

lives. On account of its foul habits and estuarine habitat it is not

a favoured species with the anglers, and has received very little

attention from the writers of books on angling in India. ‘Thomas

(12), however, makes a passing reference to it in Rod in India.

It is a valuable food fish and grows to a size of about 4 feet or

more. During dry months large quantities of this fish are imported

into Calcutta from the neighbouring estuarine creeks, especially the

Matlah at Port Canning, and command a réady sale. Very little

is known about the bionomics of the. species and much less about

suitable tackle and appliances for catching the fish with rod and

line. In the present article, therefore, I shall mainly confine myself

to the scientific treatment of the species and the allied forms.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION.

Hamilton (3) described the Pungas Catfish in his composite genus

Pimelodus and characterised it as

‘A Pimelodus with four tendrils; with the tail fin bifid; and with the

prickles of the back fin and pectorals very little longer than the membrane.’

Cuvier and Valenciennes (3) found considerable difference between

Hamilton’s species and those referred to the American genus

Pimelodus. Consequently they proposed a new genus Pangasius

for its reception and: observed that :—

‘Le Bengale a aussi des siluroides a casque peu chagriné, et a quatre

barbillons; mais leurs barbillons sont beaucoup plus courts qu’ a ceux d’

Amérique. Les rayons de leurs nageoires ne se prolongent pas, et, ce qui est

plus important, ils ont dix rayons aux ouiles. Cette considération me force

a les séparer des précédens, et montre 1’ affinité que ces espéces ont avec

les platystomes.’

Cuvier and Valenciennes re-christened the species Pangasius

buchanani, but, in accordance with the International Rules of

Zoological Nomenclature, the specific name cannot be changed

except under very special circumstances. The correct scientific

designation of the species should, therefore, be Pangasius pangasius

(Hamilton). .

‘Though in India proper the genus Pangasius is represented by

a single species, P. pangasius (Ham.), several species have been

described from the Malay Archipelago, Siam and Indo-China. The

genus is thus essentially a Far Eastern genus and India forms the

western limit of its distribution. Some of the Malayan species,

now included in Pangasius, were assigned to different genera,

Pseudopangasius 1862, and Neopangasius 1904, by Bleeker (1) and

Popta (10) respectively. Both the genera were erected on differences

in the nature of the vomerine and palatine bands of teeth, but as

these structures vary considerably, even in the individuals of the

same species, both Pseudopangasius and Neopangasius are now

regarded as synonyms of Pangasius.

In separating the Indo-Australian species of Pangasius Weber

and de Beaufort (13) have attached great importance to the bands

of teeth on the palate. I have found that in young specimens of

P, pangasius (text-fig. 1a), about 78 mm. in standard length, the

ise)

“I

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

vomerine and the palatine bands are quite distinct, and, as a rule,

the former are separated from each other by a considerable distance.

2, :

CL:

Text-fig. 1.—Upper dentition and air-bladder of 3 specimens of Pangasius

pangasius (Hamilton), showing variation in form with growth.

a.,a!. From a specimen 78 mm. in length without caudal; dentition X34,

air-bladder Nat. size; b.,b/.. From a specimen 187 mm. in length without

caudal: dentition x14, air-bladder x34; c.,c/. From a specimen 207 mm.

in length without caudal: dentition x14, air-bladder x 3.

In some examples (text-fig. 1b), up to about 187 mm. in length,

the tooth-bands are still distinct, but in older specimens the bands

become united. In some cases the bands are indistinguishably

mixed up, whereas in other cases the boundaries of the various

bands can still be discerned. P. pangasius is a very specialised

member of the genus, and in its development probably passes

through some of the primitive stages of growth of dentition in

Pangasius. In this connection I have studied the dentition of

certain Siamese species represented in the collection of the Zoological

Survey of India.

In P. hypophthalmus (Sauvage), the maxillary teeth are poorly

developed or totally absent and those usually present on the palate

are always absent. This type of dentition is generally associated

with the fishes of the genus Helicophagus. In P. larnaudit Bocourt

(text-fig. 2a) the vomerine and the palatine teeth of each side are

united, but the two bands thus formed are separated in the middle.

In P. micronema Bleeker (text-fig. 2c) the four patches of teeth on

the palate are quite distinct; while in P. siamensis Steindachner

(text-fig. 2d), the tooth-bands, though distinct, are greatly

approximated.

The simplicity in the form and structure of the air-bladder in

Pangasius seems to be correlated with the simplicity of dentition.

In P. hypophthalmus (text-fig. 2b'), the air-bladder consists of a

bag-like structure which tapers considerably towards the posterior

end. In P. larnaudii (text-fig. 2a’), the bladder is divided into an

anterior and a posterior chamber; the former being much the larger

358 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

of the two. In P. micronema (text-fig. 2c’), the anterior chamber

is considerably reduced, while the posterior chamber is elongated,

narrow, and subdivided into several chambers. In P.. siamensis

ies ve

Text-fig. 2.—Upper dentition and air-bladder of certain species of Pangasius

Cuv. and Val. from Siam.

a.ja!, Pangasius larnaudit Bocourt, length of specimen without caudal 150

mm.: dentition X13, air-bladder x3; b/. Pangasius hypophthalmus

(Sauvage), length of specimen without caudal 143 mm.: dentition absent,

air-bladder xX}; c.,c’. Pangasius micronema Bleeker, length of specimen

without caudal 154 mm.: dentition X3, air-bladder x3; d.,d/. Pangasius

siamensis Steindachner, length of specimen without caudal 126 mm.;

dentition X3, air-bladder x3.

(text-fig. 2d’), the condition of the bladder is similar to that in

P. micronema, but is accentuated still further. In the development

of P. pangasius we find that the air-bladder is of a primitive type

in young specimens (text-fig. 1a’), but with growth the anterior

chamber becomes considerably reduced while the posterior chamber

becomes narrow and elongated (text-figs. 1b’ and 1 c’). I have

explained elsewhere (7) the causes that are probably responsible

for a change in the form and structure of the air-bladder; but it

may sufhce to mention here that with the compression of body and

an increase in the area of the tail region the internal organs are

greatly squeezed for want of space. Of the visceral organs, perhaps

the air-bladder is the least important in the economy of nature and

for this reason it is gradually squeezed out of the body cavity as

the demand for space by organs like the liver and the kidney

increases.

The air-bladder of P. pangasius has received considerable

attention; it was described for the first time by Taylor (II) as

follows: —

‘The P. pangasius has its air-bladder composed of four or. more portions,

extending in a line from opposite the pectoral fins, to near the end of the

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 309

tail. The first is generally oval, the second pyramidal, and the two last, which

run between the caudal portions of the lateral muscles, approach to a cylindrical

shape. The numerous septa on its internal surface descend from above down-

wards in the first portion; in the second, they run in a transverse direction ;

and in the posterior ones, form a number of irregular cells.’

As will be clear from the above this type of bladder is

characteristic of large specimens over a foot in length. After

Taylor, Day (4) described the air-bladder of the species as follows :—

‘Air-vessel large, extensive, and divided into three portions. The anterior

is somewhat heart-shaped, considerably the largest, and extends from the

commencement of the vertebral column to nearly opposite the posterior extremity

of the pectoral fin. Its remaining portions are narrow, compressed, and

continued to opposite the middle of the anal fin, amongst the muscles covering

the haemal spines. It then becomes narrow and reduplicated on itself for a

short distance. On removing the front wall of its first and largest portion,

its interior is seen to consist of two pear-shaped cavities, the bases of which

are inferior and lateral, whilst they coalesce anteriorly; the whole of the

posterior half of this portion is cellular; and so is the small intermediate

space between the two uncelled pyriform portions. The two’ posterior divisions

of the air-vessel have valvular shaped folds, partially subdividing its anterior.’

Day’s description is somewhat different from that of Taylor

and it seems that his account is based on a smaller specimen than

that examined by Taylor. Bridge and Haddon (2) also gave an

account of the air-bladder of P. pangasius, but they were certainly

dealing with a much smaller specimen than the ones examined

either by Taylor or Day. They described the air-bladder as

follows :—

‘The air-bladder consists of an anterior portion, which is broad in front

and oval behind, and corresponds to the whole of the normal bladder, and

also of a contracted tubular part extending backwards in the substance of the

kidney to within about half-an-inch of the anus. The anterior portion is divided

internally into a short but broad anterior chamber, and two relatively large

lateral compartments by the usual primary transverse and longitudinal septa.

The posterior section of the bladder is a simple tubular caecum, communicating

anteriorly with both the lateral chambers but terminating blindly behind.’

Bridge and Haddon also referred to the discrepancies in the

accounts of Taylor and Day, and remarked:

‘As regards the subdivision of the bladder, the two accounts are neither

reconcilable with each other, nor with the description given above by us, and

assuming that the specimens examined by Day and Taylor were really examples of

P. buchanani, we can suggest no explanation of the discrepancy. Our own

specimen was one from Dr. Day’s collection of East Indian Siluroids and had

been named by him P. buchanani, and we may also add that its characters

agreed in almost every detail with the description of this species in the

British Museum Catalogue of Fishes (vol. v, p. 62). It will be noticed, however,

that both Taylor and Day agree as to the extension of the air-bladder into the

caudal muscles, which was certainly not the case in the specimen examined

by us.’

The form and structure of the air-bladder in specimens of

different sizes (vide supra, p. 357) clearly indicated to me that Taylor,

Day, and Bridge and Haddon were dealing with the same species,

and that the discrepancies in their accounts were presumably due

to the specimens examined by them respectively being of different

sizes. With a view to elucidate the problem I requested Mr.

K. K. Nair (9) to make a detailed study of the changes in the

internal structure of the air-bladder of P. pangasius during growth.

360, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MHISd?, (SO CiiMay-= (iol ke

His results fully bear out the conclusions I had arrived at on a

superficial examination of the air-bladder in this species.

Besides Pangasius pangasius (=P. buchanani) Bridge and Had-

don have described the structure of the air-bladder in P. djambal,

P. macronema, P, micronema and P. juaro, The variations noted

by them are as follows :— :

‘The air-bladder of P. djambal consists of an anterior portion subdivided

in the usual way into an anterior and two lateral compartments, and also

of a posterior czcal appendage. The latter is not tubular, as in P. buchanani,

but has the shape of an elongated, flattened, oval structure, and extends nearly

to the hinder extremity of the abdominal cavity, being separated from the

rest of the bladder anteriorly by a deep constriction; from its posterior end

a small cecal protuberance is given off, which is less than half an inch in

length, and gradually tapers to a point near the anus.’

P. djambal is now considered as a synonym of P. pangasius, and

it is significant to note that the above description of its air-bladder

corresponds with the structure of the same organ in a specimen of

P. pangasius, 207 mm. in length without the caudal (text-fig. tc’).

Day’s description of the bladder of P. pangasius more or less agrees

with Bridge and Haddon’s description of the bladder of P. djambal.

Another point worth noticing is that Bridge and Haddon found the

walls of the air-bladder of P. djambal much thicker than in the case

of any other species of Pangasius examined by them.

The air-bladder of P. macronema ‘has thin walls, and consists of an anterior

and somewhat rounded portion, which includes the anterior and two lateral

compartments, and in addition also, a posterior much flattened, leaf-like caecum

connected with the foregoing by a short tubular stalk.’

In P. micronema ‘The air-bladder is broadly ovate in shape but rendered

slightly bilobed in front through the existence of a deep median notch in its

anterior wall. Relatively to the lateral compartments the anterior chamber is

very small, and there is no posterior caecal appendage. The walls of the bladder

are extremely thin.”

Bridge and Haddon noted that this species is remarkable in

being ‘without a trace of the oval plate so characteristic of other

species of Pangasius.’ Thus it is not provided with the so-called

‘elastic-spring mechanism’, and the transverse process of the 4th

vertebra, both in shape and in the support which it affords to the

post-temporal and pectoral girdle, conforms to the normal condition

in the great majority of the Siluroid fishes.

It is abundantly clear from the above that the air-bladder of

Pangasius is a very variable structure and that in young individuals

and less specialised forms the so-called ‘elastic-spring mechanism’

may be absent altogether. The last structure has been regarded by

some authorities as of sufficient importance to separate Pangasius

from the rest of the Schilbeidae into a separate family, but this is

not justified on morphological grounds.

The genus Pangasius may now be defined as follows :—

The body is elongated and compressed. The head and body are

generally covered with soft skin; the head exceptionally granulated.

The head is of moderate size; the snout is more or less prominent,

rounded or bluntly pointed. The mouth is sub-terminal, horizontal

or slightly ascending. The lips are thickened near the angles and

are continuous; the post-labial groove is widely interrupted. The

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 361

nostrils are wide apart; the anterior ones are wide, look forwards

and are situated along the front border of the snout; the posterior

nostrils are provided with a lip anteriorly and are situated at some

distance behind the anterior nostrils. The eyes have free orbital

margins, are situated behind the corner of the mouth and generally

a part of the eye is below a horizontal through the corner of the

mouth. There are four short barbels; one pair maxillary and one

pair mandibular. The maxillary barbels originate from the anterior

ends of slits which commence above or behind the angle of the

mouth and are continued below the eyes. The mandibular barbels

originate considerably behind the tip of the lower jaw. The teeth

are villiform; those in the jaws form curved bands. The vomerine

and palatine teeth are in four patches which may be separate or

variously united. In certain species the dentition is poorly developed

(vide supra, p. 357). The dorsal fin is well developed; it. is

provided with a strong denticulated spine, which is preceded by

another short and broad spine, and 6 to 7 rays; the anterior soft

rays may be filiform. The adipose fin is small. The anal fin is

elongate and provided with 28 to 4o rays. There is a considerable

space between the anal and the caudal fins. The pelvics are 6-

rayed. The pectorals possess strong, denticulated spines. The

caudal fin is deeply forked. The gill-openings are wide; the gill-

membranes are deeply notched, united, and free from isthmus. The

branchiostegal rays vary from 7 to 11. The air-bladder is large and

lies free in the abdominal cavity; it consists of two parts, a large

anterior portion, which is broad in front and oval behind, and a

small tubular part which extends backwards into the kidneys (for

variations in the form and structure of the air-bladder, see supra,

PP- 357-360).

Genotype :—Pangasius buchanani Cuv. & Val. 1840 (= Pimelodus

pangasius Hamilton 1822).

Distribution :—Indo-China, Siam, Malay Peninsula and Archi-

pelago, Burma, and India.

Relationships :—Pangasius formed the type of Bleeker’s (1)

group Pangasii, but with regard to its present-day systematic

position there are two current views among the leading ichthyologists.

Weber and de Beaufort (13) follow Bleeker and assign Pangasius,

Helicophagus, ‘Lais and Pseudeutropius to the family Pangasiidae

which they characterise by the possession of a pungent dorsal spine,

forked caudal fin, long anal with 28-q4o rays, small mouth, free

orbital margin, and a small adipose fin. Thus restricted, the

family cannot include forms like Ailia, Eutropuchthys, etc. Regan

(Ann. Mag, Nat. Hist., (8) viii, p. 567, 1911) and Jordan (Classi-

fication of Fishes, p. 149, 1923) have included a large number of

genera in the Schilbeidae but have excluded Pangasius from it for

which they propose a separate monotypic family Pangasiidae.

According to Regan the following are the salient features of the

family :

‘The Indian genus Pangasius differs from the Bagridae externally in the

long anal fin, with 28 to 40 rays; maxillary and one pair of mandibulary

barbels are present, but no nasal barbels. The skeleton is very similar to

that of generalized Bagridae, differing only in the development of an_ elastic

362° JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST, SOCEELY.- Vol xk

spring mechanism, the anterior rami of the parapophyses of the fourth vertebra

being expanded distally to form a pair of oval plates inserted in the anterior

wall of the air-bladder, but free from the supra-cleithrum. The air-bladder

consists of an anterior division, corresponding to a normal bladder, and_ of

posterior tubular cecum. Vertebrae 15+29.’

From Bridge and Haddon’s account of the air-bladder and

associated skeletal elements of certain species of Pangasius (vide

supra, p. 360) it is clear that the so-called ‘elastic-spring mechanism’

is liable to considerable variation and that in some species of the

genus it may be absent altogether. My work bears this out very

fully and I see no justification for separating Pangasius from the

remaining Schilbeid genera.

In another place I (6) briefly discussed the relationships of

Pangasius to the other genera of the Schilbeidae and indicated

that it probably evolved from Pangasianodon-like ancestors and in

its turn gave rise to Platytropius Hora in Siam and to Proeutropii-

chthys Hora in India and Burma.

SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION.

Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton).

1822. Pimelodus pangasius, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 163, 376, pl. xxxiil,

1830. Pimelodus pangasius, Taylor, Gleanings in Science, p. 171 (Air-bladder).

1840. Pangasius buchanani, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., xv,

p: 45, ‘pl. cccexxv.

1846. Pangasius djambal, Bleeker, Nat. Geneesk. Arch. Ned. Ind. (2), iii,

1853. Pangasius buchananit, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 118.

1858. Pangastus buchanani, Blyth, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, p. 286.

1862. Pangasius djambal, Bleeker, Atl. Ichth., ii, p. 73, pl. vii.

1863. Pangasius buchanani, Bleeker, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., i, p. 107.

1864. Pangasius buchanani, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 62.

1864. Pangastus djambal, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 62.

1871. Pangasius buchanani, Day, Prov. Zool. Soc. London, p. 709.

1873. Pangasius buchanani, Day, Freshw. Fish Fisheries India and Burma,

1877. Pangasius buchanan, Day, Fish. India, p. 470, pl. eviil, fig. 5.

1877. Pangasius buchanani, Beavan, Freshw. Fish. India, p. 135.

1889. Pangasius buchanani, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., i, p. 142, fig. 61.

1890. Pangasius buchanani, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova ,

(2) 1x p, 210.

1893. Pangasius buchanani, Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

London (B), clxxxiv, pp. 214-219 (Air-bladder).

1907. Pangasius buchanani, Lloyd, Rec. Ind. Mus., i, p. 222.

1913. Pangasius pangasius, Weber and de Beaufort, Fish. Indo-Austral.

Archipel., ii, p. 256.

1937. Pangasius pangasius, Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxix, pp. 117-124 (Air-

bladder).

Vernacular names:—Pangas (Goalpara): Pangsa (Nathpur) ;

Pungas or Pungwas (Bengal); Jellum (Orissa); Coola Kellette

(Tamil); Nga dam (Burma); Nga tan (Akyab).

B,o-10; D.2/6-7; A.30-34; P.1/12-5133V.0 3 @.10.

1 In his list of the fishes of the Purnea (Purniah) District, Buchanan remarks

about the Pangsa of the Kusi that ‘the only specimen that I was able to procure

had no abdominal fins.” The absence of one or both the pelvic fins among °

fishes is not an unusual occurrence, ;

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 363

In general appearance, Pangasius pangdasius is not unlike Silonia

silondia, but can be readily distinguished by the absence of the

caniniform teeth in the jaws, and by the presence of two pairs of

fairly well-marked barbels. The length of the head is contained

from 3.5 to 4.8 times and the depth of the body from 4 to 5

times in the standard length. The head is more or less granulated

on the dorsal surface. The snout is slightly prominent and

obtusely rounded. The head is provided with a long, narrow,

median fontanel. The occipital process is more than twice as long

as broad at the base, and reaches to the base of the anterior, short

dorsal spine. The eyes are situated partly on the lower surface of

the head and almost in the anterior half of the head. The interorbital

space is flat, and is slightly less than the length of the head ex-

cluding snout. The diameter of the eye is contained from 3 to 5

times in the length of the head, from 1 to 2 times in the length of

the snout and from 1.4 to 3 times in the interorbital width. The

mouth is inferior, lunate, and almost as wide as the length of the

postorbital part of the head. The upper jaw is partly exposed.

Generally the maxillary barbels reach to the base of the pecteral

spine, and the mandibular barbels are equal to about haif the length

of the head. The teeth are small and villiform; those on the palate

form a lunate or semicircular band composed of 4 patches which may

be variously joined together. In fully grown specimens vomerine

teeth form an oblong, quadrangular patch more than twice as broad

as long. The dorsal spine is moderately strong; it is almost as long

as the head behind the angle of the mouth, is strongly serrated

along the posterior border, and finely serrated anteriorly. The

pectoral spine is stronger than that of the dorsal fin, and is strongly

denticulated internally. The caudal fin is deeply forked.

According to Hamilton, ‘The colour above is dusky green, and

below white, with a purple gloss on the sides. The fins are

whitish.’ In specimens freshly taken out of water, the baek 1s

yellowish green which fades into bluish mauve above and light

mauve on the sides. The lower half of the body is silvery white

with a reddish tinge anteriorly. The sides of the head are golden

yellow, while the fins are light reddish yellow.

Distribution and variation:—Pangasius pangasius grows to

upwards of 4 feet in length and inhabits large rivers and estuaries.

Hamilton probably became familiar with this species while stationed

at Puttahaut and Baruipur in Bengal. For this reason he gives its

habitat -as ‘estuaries of Bengal’. The species is now known from

India, Burma, Siam, Malay Peninsula, and Java.

The eye is more rounded in the Burmese specimens, which also

possess proportionately longer barbels. The barbels are generally

longer in young individuals. In a specimen from Bangkok, the first

rays of the pectoral and anal fins are filamentous. Body proportions

show considerable variation with the growth of the fish.

In the collection of the Madras Museum there are two specimens

from the Bhavani river in which the eyes are proportionately much

larger, and correspondingly the snout and the interorbital space are

shorter. The barbels are also shorter. The precise locality of these

specimens is not known, but from the characters enumerated above

Vol.

SOCIETY,

Sa,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUR.

364.

0-ZT 0-FI 0-€1 0-c1 0-ZE peseulep 0-2¢ 0-22 0-22 0-12 O-2ZT |'jeqreq 1¥[nqipueur jo y1sae7q

0:62 0-02 0-61 0-8T 0:9P 4 | 0-9F 0-62 0-92 0-72 0-12 |" [eqreq Arel[ixeu jo yysuer]

0-S¢ 0-2 0-12 0-91 0-6€ 0-cP 0-L2 $-8E 0-S¢ 0-€2 08ST |" ouids [eSIop Jo yySsue]

0-TE 0-82 0-22 0-91 | 0-0F 0.€f 0-¢8 0-0F 0-82 0-£2 0-81 |" autds [e1ojoed jo yySue7]

0-61 02ST: |: +$-0¢ 0-é1 | 0-c€ 0-86 0-09 0-0€ 0-21 0-ST O-TIGel 5 “UPI [BIq1o19} Uy

0-41 0-0T 0-PI 0-01 0-22 0-61 C-0OP 0-61 0-€T (Oe 0-6 at — | 3hous Jorn cuer,

0-¢e1 0-IT 0-6 0-2 0-11 0-11 0-02 0-€T 0-6 0-2 0-9 * “949 Jo 19jatreIq

0-6€ 0-TE 0-0€ 0-F2 0-0S 0-0S 0-81 0-FP 0-€€ | 0-S2 0-6T |" ao Apoq jo }YSreYy

0-P2 0-0¢ | 0-2 0-ST 0-9€ 0-62 0-19 0-92 0-62 | 0-21 SC i Apoq Jo [PIM

0-0€ 0-F¢ 0-82 ¢-8T 0-€7 0-9¢ | 0-22 0:07 0:-8¢ | C26 OSE. 4° ue peey JO TIPiM

0.25 0-€€ 0-S¢ 0-S¢ 0-TS 0-67 0-001 0-€¢ 0-FE 0-26 Oe) = a peoy jo yysuerT

Q0-79T 0-2ST | 0-21 0-56 0-0F2 0-0¢¢ 0-STS 0-€€¢ 0-CST 0-911 0-66 |" ae Tepneo

| SUIPH[OX®9 YLSUST [eloy,

IoATY 1luBAeyg yoysuvg UOOSUvY qeAyy eynoleg spunqiepuns

OO ee

SAAJIWMIT IM UL SJUIMAANSDILY

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 363

~they seem to have been obtained from clear waters, where larger

eyes are probably of advantage. Owing to the paucity of the

Text-fig. 3.—Lateral view of the large-eyed form of Pangasius pangasius

(Hamilton) from the Bhavani river. xX

ante

material from the Bhavani river it is not possible to elucidate the

problem any further. The occurrence of the species so far inland

is, however, of special interest.

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

By all authorities Pangasius pangasius is regarded as a foul

feeder. Hamilton (5) noted that ‘It is eaten by all ranks of natives

that use fish, but is not considered as of the best quality.’ The

alimentary canal is fairly long; the stomach is a large bag-shaped

structure and the last portion of the canal

is also wide and scale-like. It is probably

one of the fishes that feed at night, and,

being a bottom-feeder, can best be taken

by paste baiting. Thomas (12) records

having taken a Pangwas of 14 Ibs. in this

way.

Young specimens, about 70 mm. to

80 mm. in length, are brought to the

Calcutta Markets in November-December for

sale from the Matlah river. In the collec-

tion of the Indian Museum there are young

specimens of P. pangasius collected from the

Matlah river in December, 1916. No

specimens of the species were found in the

Calcutta Water-works at Pulta or in the

river Hooghli above Calcutta in April, 1936. :

Examination of the catches of fish at

Nawabgunge also showed that this species Text-fig.

4.—Alimentary

does not come up the river in fresh waters. canal of a small speci-

From the evidence so far available it seems men, 85 mm. in length

that P. pangasius is mainly an estuarine fish OREN ISLE he

é : ; gasius pangasius (Ha-

that breeds in the rainy season in the lower milton). P a (

portions of the estuaries. Strictly freshwater

specimens that I have examined are those collected in the Bhavani

river and now preserved in the collectioon of the Madras Museum,

366.. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly ‘made a grant

towards the cost of the illustrations, and for this I offer my sincere

thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. S. Misra has

helped me with the preparation of the table of measurements, and

for this I am indebted to him. The illustrations were prepared by

Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Bleeker, P.—Notice sur les genres Parasilurus, Eutroptichthys, Pseudeu-

tropius et Pseudopangasius. Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, vol. xiv, p. 399 (1862).

2. Bridge, T. W. and Haddon, A. C.—‘Contributions to the Anatomy of

Iishes, II. The Air-bladder and Weberian Ossicles in the Silurgid Fishes’.

Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. clxxxiv, pp. 214-219 (1893).

3. Cuvier, M. and Valenciennes, M. A.—Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,

vol) XV, p:. 45, ‘pl. ccccexxv (1840):

4. Day, F.—On the Freshwater Siluroids of India and Burmah. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, p. 709 (1871).

5- Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges

and its Branches, p. 163, pl. xxxiii, fig. 52 (Edinburgh, 1822). °

6. Hora, S. L.— Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes

and its bearing on the probable land connections between India and the adjacent

countries’, Curry. Sci. Vol. wp. 352" (19087):

7. Hora, S. L.—-‘Correlation between the disposition of the liver and kidney

and the form of the air-bladder in certain Siluroid fishes of India’. Proc. Nat.

Ins. Sct. India, -yol< ii, 7p 33" (1037).

8. Hora, S. L.—‘The Game Fishes of India, iv. The Silond Catfish’. Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xl, pp. 137-147 (1938).

g. Nair, K. K.—Changes in the internal structure of the Air-bladder of

Pangasius pangasius (Ham.) during growth’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxix, pp.

117-124 (1937):

10. Popta, C. M. L.—‘Descriptions préliminaires des nouvelles espéces de

Poissons recueillies au Bornéo central par M. le Dr. A. W. Nieuwenhuis en

1898 et en 1900’. Notes Léiden Mus., vol. xxiv, p. 180 (1904).

11. Taylor, J..—‘On the Respiratory Organs and Air-bladder of certain fishes

of the Ganges’. Gleanings in Science, p. 171 (1830).

12, Thomas, Hi. S:—Rod in India, 3rd edop. 1433 ondon,, 18907).

13. Weber, M. and de Beaufort, L. F. The Fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago, vol. ii, p. 255 (Leiden, 1913).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Colour sketch of the lateral view of a specimen, 550 mm. in length without the

caudal, of Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton) from the Calcutta Market.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

BY .

Satim ALt AND Humayun ABDULALI.

PART AV.

(With one plate).

(Continued from p. 173 of this volume),

The Indian Barn Owl : Tyto alba javanica (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size about that of the Jungle Crow. Upper plumage

pale ashy-brown, finely stippled with black and white. There is a great deal

of yellowish-brown about the shoulders and on. the wings. Lower parts white,

sometimes tinged with buff and usually spotted with dark brown. The white

facial disc with the large forwardly directed eyes and the hooked nose-like

tip of the bill set in the large round head give it a ludicrously human appearance.

Singly, on cornices and under gables etc. of buildings, both ruined and inhabited

—commonly in the heart of the city and in the suburbs. Flying about, ghost-

like, from one building to another above the glare of the street lamps.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 2-4-08 Bandra; ¢ 10-6-12 Bandra (Mr. Windgate) ;

@ 15-4-09 Bombay Mint (T. P..Guidera); St. Xavier’s College: 143 ¢ 1-3-34

Bombay City.

Noted: City: Khétwadi, Girgaum, Chowpati, Malabar Hill, Fort, Colaba,

Crawford Market, Byculla, Pydhowni, Parél etc. Salsette: Trombay Church,

Godhbunder, Andhéri.

Resident. Not uncommon. The Barn or Screech Owl is purely nocturnal

in its habits. It is greatly inconvenienced by sunlight and retires into dark

corners and hollows during the day, seldom stirring abroad till after dusk.

If disturbed during daylight it blinks distractedly and is invariably set upon and

mercilessly mobbed by crows. The narrow slits under the steel water tanks

placed on buildings in the city offer admirable daytime retreats and nesting

sites to the urban Screech Owl population. They share these with the local

pigeons: and live seemingly at peace with them.

The food of the Barn Owl consists mainly—almost exclusively—of rats and

mice and it is thus a highly beneficial species to have about human habitations.

Some years ago we found the ground below a niche—the nesting site of a pair

of these owls—in the ruined Portuguese church on the hill at Trombay to be

littered with innumerable skulls, jaw- and leg-bones of rats and mice. In

its haunts in the City it is not improbable that it also takes a surreptitious

toll of its next-door neighbours, the pigeon squabs, which it can procure with

such ease.

Breeding: We have taken no nests in Bombay or Salsette, but a pair had

their family under a water tank on a building at Chowpati (behind Wilson

College) during December 1925, whence emanated a ceaseless screeching and

hissing of the most raucous and eerie sort all night. It is said to breed

throughout the year except in the rainiest months—July and August—laying

4 to 7 roundish-oval white eggs.

The Short-eared Owl : Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontop.).

Field identification: Size the same as the last. Brown above with pale edges

to the feathers making a sort of game bird pattern. White underneath streaked

blackish, especially on throat and breast. Facial disc buffy-white finely streaked

‘with black and surrounded by a ruff of dark brown feathers. The two short

blunt dark coloured ear-like tufts above the bright lemon-yellow eyes make

its identity unmistakable. In flight rufous in wings conspicuous. Singly, in

scrub and grass country such as the dry mud-flats along our creeks.

368 jJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Specimens: B.N.H,S.: 9 7-2-24 Andheri (S. Hi. Prater). 0? “November

1890 Kurla (J. M. Mason); St. X. C.: 164 @ 10-11-33 Juhu (H.A.).

Noted: Godhbunder, Bassein.

A somewhat sparse though probably regular winter visitor. Latest date 18

April (1934). Usually seen perched on the ground at the base of some cactus or

other bush. It does not appear to be inconvenienced by daylight and when

flushed, flies well and often for long distances.

[The Brown Fish Owl : Ketupa zeylonensis ssp. ?

Field identification: Size and appearance not unlike the next species, but

with the legs unfeathered and covered with small rough scales instead.

H.A. has observed occasional examples about the mudflats and creeks near

Andhéri which he thinks may be this species. ]

The Indian Great Horned Owl: Bubo bubo bengalensis (Frankl.).

Field identification: Size that of the Pariah Kite. A dark brown owl,

streaked and mottled with buff and black, with two conspicuous black aigrettes

or ‘horns’ above the head. Not unlike the Fish Owl in general effect, but

with the legs fully covered with fulvous feathers. Singly or pairs in ancient

trees about villages and cultivation.

[Specimen St. A. C.. 128.9 (16-10-33 asim: KA)

Not noted in Salsette, but it undoubtedly occurs and presumably is resident.

The specimen was procured just across the Harbour. Its stomach contained

insect remains only.

This owl has a deep hollow resounding call Bu—bo usually audible after

sunset.

The Eastern Scops Owl: Otus scops pulchellus (Pall.).

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? September 1891 Bombay; Q 26-10-25 Colaba,

Bombay (S. H. Prater. Found perched on a hat-peg inside living room!).

The Striated Scops Owl: Otus brucei (Hume).

Specimen: St, X. C.: 201 o? xi-11-34 Andheri. (HA. * Caught in -a house

during daytime. When annoyed, it made a sharp noise by clicking its mandibles

together.)

Status? Uncommon.

The Southern Spotted Owlet: Athene brama indica (Frankl.).

Mahratti: Pingla.

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna but plumper, squatter -and

with a large round head seemingly fixed on without a neck. Greyish earthy-

brown above with white spots and markings. Lower plumage whitish, more: or

less barred with brown. Typical large, round, forwardly directed eyes. Pairs, in

large mango or tamarind trees near villages.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 16-1-08 Bombay (N. B. Kinnear); 0? 16-3-25 Pali

Hill, Bandra (S.A.); 0? 10-11-25 Bombay (Sir H. McNaughten). The above

specimens seem to be somewhat intermediate between the races brama and

indica, but on the whole are perhaps nearer the latter.

Noted: City: Government House Grounds, Walkéshwar; Victoria Gardens,

Byculla; Parel. Salsette: Powai Lake, Andhéri, Chembur etc.

Resident. The Spotted Owlet is a familiar species in Salsette and a pair

or so may commonly be found in occupation of holes and hollows in large

mango, tamarind and similar trees growing in such large rambling compounds

in the City as still exist, as well as about villages and homesteads in suburban

areas. It is largely of crepuscular habits, not so much because daylight in-

conveniences it—since it is often abroad and even hunting in bright sunlight

—but because of the persecution and swearing it is invariably subjected to by

other birds as soon as it shows itself during the day. Pairs may be seen

sitting huddled together on some shady branch. A tap on the trunk, or any

noise underneath the tree, will immediately produce an enquiring little head

at the entrance of a hollow. Often the bird will fly out and into a neighbouring

branch, thence to bob and stare at the intruder in clownish fashion. At dusk

these owlets may be seen perched upon fence posts, telegraph wires and the

like, pouncing from time to time on some unwary mouse or cricket on the

ground. They may sometimes be seen making ungainly sallies after winged

ants and capturing them in their claws.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc,

THE GRIFFON VULTURE [Gybps fulvus (Habligl.)] Nesting on the Cliffs at Mumbra, Thana

Dist., Bombay. From a Group in the Natural History Section, Prince of Wales’ Museum.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 369

They are noisy birds and have a variety of harsh chattering and chuckles,

two birds usually joining in a duet.

Breeding : We have seen eggs and young in Salsette during February, March

and April. The eggs number 2 to 4 and are roundish-oval, white in colour.

The nest—a pad of coir or similar fibres—is placed in holes in walls and

natural hollows in tree trunks, etc. By the time the young have left it emits

a ghastly stench!

The Jungle Owlet : Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell).

Field identification: Size and general effect as last, but dark brown above

and conspicuously barred (not spotted) with pale rufous. Lower parts rufous

and white, closely barred with blackish-brown. Singly, or pairs, in trees in

wooded tracts.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 26-1-30 Vihar Lake environs (E. Lieberherr) ;

Si, Xa C. 361 9. 3-9-33, Jogeshwari-Caves. (I1.A.):

Noted: Borivli, Powai Lake environs.

Resident (presumably). Not uncommon in the jungly parts of Salsette.

H.A. deseribes the call, which is not unpleasant, as ‘a screech of 4 or 5

syllables ending with a sharp whau-whap’. When disturbed in daytime the

bird utters an angry qaoo. ‘This same note also usually precedes the call which

may be uttered throughout the day, the bird not seeming to be particularly

incommoded by sunlight.

Breeding: We can trace no records of nests or eggs from the immediate

neighbourhood of Bombay and_ Salsette.

The Osprey: Pandion haliaétus (Linn.).

Field identification: A typical bird of prey, slightly larger than the Pariah

Kite. Dark brown above, white below streaked with dark brown. Head and

neck white. A broad brown ‘necklace’ on upper breast Conspicuous and a

distinguishing feature. Usually singly, near the creeks and sea coast or our

lakes, perched on fishing stakes or flying over the water with a peculiar rapid

beat of its wing-tips, hovering with the poise of the Pied Kingfisher and

hurling itself upon a fish near the surface with great spectacular effect.

Noted: Back Bay Reclamation, near Church Gate; Vihar and Powai Lakes.

Also down the coast at Kihim, Alibag, Rewdanda, Salao etc.

Winter visitor. Latest date—exceptional—17 June. EHA (C.B.B. 28) saw

one even as late as August and suspected that a few pairs may remain behind

and rear their young ‘on our coast. We have no evidence of the Osprey

breeding in this latitude, however, but it is not unlikely that some young

non-breeding individuals may stay with us all the year as is the case, for

instance, with the Common Sandpiper.

The Black, or Pondicherry Vulture : Sarcogyps calvus (Scop.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Peacock without the train.

Black, with the naked head and neck, 2 bare patches on either side of the

crop, and legs deep red. There are also 2 patches of downy white feathers on

the thighs which, coupled with the above characters, render its identification

on the wing easy. Singly, or twos and threes, in every vulture assemblage

at animal carcases.

Resident. Somewhat rare and in small numbers. In our experience it is

usually a cowardly bird and by no means the King described. We have never

seen any deference shown it by the other vulture species, but on the other

hand it may usually be seen on the outskirts of the actual press of jostling

feasters at a carcase biding patiently for a favourable opportunity to slink in

and snatch a morsel.

We have as yet found no nests of this vulture in Salsette. It builds large

stick platforms in trees.

The Indian Griffon Vulture : Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume.

Field identification: Size as the last, with a longer naked blackish head and

neck more or less covered with straggly down. General colouration varying

shades of cinnamon brown, the pale edges to the feathers of upper parts

producing a sort of game bird pattern. Short square tail and rectangular

wings with the primaries spread out like fingers at the tips, are characteristi¢

features of a vulture in flight.

370 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XE

Specimens: Adult (1-2-36) and juvenile (16-2-36) from Mumbra and Funnel

Hill, Karnala, exhibited in the Bird Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay.

Resident. Common. In the City this Vulture may be seen in small numbers

about the Parsi Tower of Silence, Malabar Hill. It is common in the suburbs

and Salsette at every animal carcase on the countryside.

Breeding: There are no cliffs suitable for the nesting of the Griffon Vulture

in Salsette, but at Mumbra and Karnala Fort, on the adjoining mainland,

they breed in some numbers occupying ledges on the steep rock faces of Funnel

Hill and similar places. The nest is a large untidy structure of twigs and

straw. A_ single egg is laid, white in colour sometimes sparsely and_ faintly

blotched with reddish brown. Usually not much is left of the nest by the

time the young, is fairly grown, possibly due to the restricted space on the

ledge and the displacement caused by the constant shuffling about of the

occupant. Between 1 and 16 February (36) all the nests in the colonies at

Mumbra and Karnala contained young.

The Long-billed Vulture: Gyps indicus ssp.

Field identification: Size as the last. When overhead, it is distinguishable

from the’ commoner White-backed Vulture by the uniform—not contrasting—

colouration of the underside of its wings and body. As compared with the

Griffon, its general colour is a dirty earth-brown.

Resident. Fairly common. To be seen among every gathering of vultures

at a Carcase.

Breeding: On 4 November (1933—Kaneri) a bird was observed carrying

a stick for its nest. On 1-2-36 H.A. discovered a few pairs with fairly bulky

stick nests on inaccessible ledges of cliffs at Mumbra (near Thana). Griffon

Vultures were also nesting on these: cliffs, but it was noted that the two species

occupied different portions of the hill.

The Indian White-backed, or Bengal Vulture : Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size as the last. Dirty blackish-brown, with practically

naked head and neck. The lower back is white and a distinguishing feature.

In overhead flight, a conspicuous whitish band stretches along the underside

of the open wings broken in the middle by the brown body of the bird.

Resident. Our commonest vulture. Numbers always present about the Parsi

Tower of Silence on Malabar Hill, the slaughter-house at Bandra and quartering

the heavens everywhere. As scavengers, vultures are of the greatest utility

to man. The speed and thoroughness with which a company will dispose of

the carcase of a ‘bullock or other large animal left in the precincts of a

village to befoul the air and breed pestilence, is remarkable.

Breeding : This vulture always builds its nests in large trees—Peepal, Banyan,

Tamarind or on Palmyra or Cocoanut palms—z25 to 4o feet up. The nests

may commonly be seen about Borivli, Godhbunder, Chembur and_ elsewhere

in Salsette, often situated in or near a village. Frequently several nests may

be in the same tree. They are large untidy platforms of sticks lined with

green leaves. There is apparently no well-defined season though from October

to March the nesting is most general. We have observed a bird pulling off

green Casuarina twigs from a tree for its mest in May, and a pair mating

on the 7th of that month. At that time some full-fledged young were also

about with their parents. Only a single egg is laid, white in colour sometimes

blotched with reddish-brown.

The Smaller White Scavenger Vulture or Pharaoh’s Chicken : Neophron percno-

pterus ginginianus (Lath.).

Field identification: Size that of the Pariah Kite. Young birds are brown

and not unlike the Kite in colouration. Adults are dirty white with black

wing quills, and a naked yellow head and bill. In flight the wedge-shaped

tail distinguishes it from Kites, Eagles and Vultures. Usually seen singly or

in twos and threes, on the outskirts of villages, stalking along the ground

with a high-stepping, waddling gait. EHA says ‘It carries its body like a

duck and steps like a recruit’—a very apt description.

Resident. Rather uncommon except about the mudflats near Kurla and

Dharavi. At Bhamanvadi H.A. once observed over 50 of these birds circling

up in the air at the same time.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 371

It is a useful scavenger and will eat any refuse or offal it can come by,

snot excluding human ordure.

Breeding: We have not come across any nests in Salsette, but Brother

Navarro of St. Xavier’s College found one with eggs on an inaccessible ledge

of- rock on Mumbra Hill near Thana—2g9 January (1936). Normally it breeds

chiefly in March and April. The nest is a shabby accumulation of sticks,

rags and rubbish of every description placed on ledges of cliffs, ruined buildings

or in the main fork of large trees. The eggs, usually two, vary from white

to pale brick-red in colour and are blotched with reddish-brown or blackish,

rather thickly round the broad end.

[The Shahin Falcon: Falco peregrinus peregrinus Sund.

Field identification: Size about that of the Jungle Crow. Dark slaty and

ashy-grey, above, white below with a pale ashy tinge, and barred from lower

breast downwards with blackish. Conspicuous blackish cheels-stripes. Swift

powerful flight on rapidly beating pointed wings. Singly, in more or less open

country.

Specimen: St. X. C.: ¢ 25-10-33 Kihim (Alibag Taluka, Kolaba Dist. H.A.).

Winter visitor. It is not uncommon along the coast, across the Harbour,

during the cold weather when it must visit Salsette also. The stomach of

the specimen contained remains of a Pied Crested Cuckoo. Another example

shot at Alibag in March contained fragments of a downy duckling, presumably

lifted from the village.

We have no specimens of Falco p. peregrinator, the resident Indian form

which probably also occurs in Salsette. This race is said to nest on ledges

of steep cliffs from the Himalayas to Travancore, and a pair of large falcons

observed by H.A. nesting near the top of the Funnel at Karnala (2§-2-34)

were possibly these birds. ]

The Laggar Falcon: Falco jugger J. E. Gray.

Field identification: Size slightly larger than the Pigeon. Getieral effect

similar to the Shahin but smaller size and brownish (not slaty) upper parts

diagnostic. Usually singly or pairs about open country and thin jungle.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 8-2-06 Bombay (W. S. Millard); 0? 1899 Colaba,

Bombay (Capt. Piele).

Resident? Not common. EHA (C.B.B., p. 24) mentions that tmany years

ago a pair of these falcons had their headquarters, and perhaps their nest,

at the University Tower. S.A. observed a pair about this same tower for

several months early in 1925. According to EHA they feed largely on the

pigeons that inhabit the city.

We have no record of their nesting in Salsette, though it is quite probable

that they do so.

The Hobby : Falco subbuteo (subbuteo Linn. ?).

Field identification: Size that of the Pigeon. In colouration and general

effect a small replica of the Peregrine Falcon but with more rufous in the

lower plumage.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 5-12-04 Bombay (J. D. Inverarity); Q 27-10-20

Kennery Islands (V. S. LaPersonne); Si. X. C.: 0? imm. ‘24-12-34 Andhéri

(Ex.

Winter visitor. Uncommon.

[The Red-headed Merlin: salon chiquera chiquera (Dauden).

Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon. The colour scheme of

its upper parts is a reversal of that of the Kestrel. Crown, nape, sides of

head and cheek stripes chestnut, back and rest of upper parts bluish-ashy.

Lower parts white, barred posteriorly with blackish. Usually singly or pairs

in open scrub country.

Specimen: St. X.. C-:'146 9 24-10-33 Kihim, Kolaba Dist. (7.A.).

Status? Rare. We have not come across the Merlin in Salsette. ]

The European Kestrel: Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linn.

Field ‘identification: Size about that of the Pigeon, with longer tail. Back

and wings brick-red, with black wing-quills and grey head and tail. Underparts

372 JOURNAL) ;BOMBAV' NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY = Volt Xk

light buff spotted with brown. Singly, on grass and fallow land about cultivation.

Often seen stationary in the air on hovering wings.

. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-12-25, 0?” 11-11-28 Kurla (D. A. Baretto) ;

St. X. C.: [127 Q 16-10-33 Chondi, Alibag- Taluka, Kolaba Dist. (H.A.)]

Noted: Colaba Reclamation, Hindu Gymkhana Grounds, Matinga, Danda,

Andhéri, Chembtr,.-Godhbunder. ;

‘Winter visitor, -The Kestrel is not abundant, but single birds are com-

monly met with during the cold weather. It frequents open grass country

with light scrub and small bushes here and there, and fallow land on the

outskirts of cultivation. It usually perches on a stone or small bush, or

hovers in mid-air to spy out insects, lizards and mice on the ground. This

hovering is the most characteristic habit of the species.

The more brightly coloured race, the Indian Kestrel (F. t. objurgatus)

probably also occurs in our area, but it is difficult to differentiate it with

certainty from the European bird in the field. We have observed it about

the Lingmala Falls near Panchgani (W. Ghats, 4,400 ft.) on 11 June. A

pair about some cliffs at Mahabléshwar (Chinaman’s Falls), at the end of

May 1931, certainly looked as if they had their nest on a ledge.

The Eastern Steppe-Eagle : Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgs.).

Specimens: P.W. Museum, Bombay: ¢ @ 18-12-23 Andheri (S. H. Prater).

Winter visitor or straggler? Rare. The specimens provide the only instance

of their occurring in our neighbourhood.

The Booted Eagle: Hieraétus pennatus (Gmelin).

In the B.N.H.S. Collection there are two specimens, both female, obtained

by. Mr. N. B.. Kinnear at Andhéri on 15-12-08 and 15-2-09 respectively. We

have not knowledgably come across this eagle in Salsette.

The Indian Black Eagle: Ictinaétus malayensis perniger Hodgs.

We have doubtfully observed this eagle om a few occasions soaring over

forest at Jogéshwari, Godhbunder and Talsi Lake in Salsette, and on Kankéshwar

Hill across the Harbour--in Kolaba Dist.—all between -October and March.

Mr. C. McCann described to--H.A.--an eagle which attacked his poultry at

Andhéri (2-2-36) that could hardly have been any but this species. Confirma-

tion, however, is necessary. a

-The Short-toed Eagle : Circaétus ferox (Gmelin). ~~~

‘Field identification: Larger than the Pariah Kite. Large greyish-brown

head. General plumage earthy-brown. Lower parts from breast downwards

white barred with pale brown. Bare reticulated tarsi.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: [Q 12-2-00 Kalyan (J. Brand)]; 0? 1g20 Thana

(W. R. Clarke); of? 30-11-25 Kurla (D. A. Baretto),. St: X. C.: 07—-Trombay.

Status? Uncommon. Its food consists largely of snakes.

The Crested Serpent Eagle: Spilornis cheela subsp.? |

Field identification: Rather larger than the Pariah Kite. A dark brown

eagle. with full round black crest and brownish lower parts that are spotted

or finely barred with black and white. Usually singly about forest.

Status? Pairs of these eagles may sometimes be seen in the forested

portions of north Salsette and in the neighbourhood of the lakes, soaring

in circles high above and uttering their penetrating high-pitched call of 3

notes Kek-kek-kee, the final kee much prolonged.

_ The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle: Butastur teesa (Frankl.).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the Pariah Kite, greyish-brown

in colour with white throat, brown and white underparts, 2 cheek-stripes and

orange-yellow cere. Eye white or pale yellow, conspicuous at short range.

Whitish-grey patches on shoulder of wing prominent. Singly, in open deciduous

jungle and by cultivation and grassland. -

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 29-12-23 (S. H. Prater); 92 11-109 Andhéri (N. B.

Kinnear); 0? 13-11-25 Kurla (D. A. Baretto); 0? 1I-3-11 Bombay.

- Uncommon. Resident, presumably, though strangely enough we have no

record between about April and November. Its food consists principally of

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 373

lizards, mice, and large insects such as locusts and grasshoppers. It keeps a

lookout for its prey from posts or dry trees and pounces upon it.

We are not aware of its nesting in Salsette or the immediate neighbourhood.

The White-bellied Sea-Eagle ; Haliaétus leucogaster (Gmel.).

Field identification: A large bird of prey somewhat smaller than the Vulture,

slaty-grey above white below. Broad blackish edging of wings and broad white

tip of darkish tail diagnostic in overhead flight. The head is also white. In

sailing flight, the wings are held raised above the body in an open V. Usually

pairs, along the sea-coast.

Resident. In Salsette, the White-bellied Sea-Eagle has only been observed

by us at the Godhbunder Creek and Tulsi Lake, but across the Harbour—

Alibag etc.—and down the Konkan Coast it is fairly common. Its call is

a loud duck-like Kak-Kak-Kak uttered in flight as well as from a_ perch.

From this call, as EHA has pointed out, the bird gets its local name of

Kakan. Its food consists of fish and sea-snakes captured near the surface of

the water. _

Breeding: The nest is an enormous platform of sticks usually built in

tall trees such as Casuarinas near the sea-shore. Old nests are repaired,

added to and used year after year. We know one at Kihim that has been

used. successively for over 25 years to our personal knowledge and for at least

20 more according to reliable local testimony. It is said to have already been

in existence long before our informant came to live in the neighbourhood.

The birds remain in the vicinity of the nest throughout the year, even in

the non-breeding season, and may frequently be seen carrying a freshly caught

fish to the empty nest to be eaten there. It would be interesting to discover

~—only possible by the ringing ‘method—whether and for how long the same

owners use a nest, how possession of the nest is transferred and what becomes

of the young when they grow up, since the number of these eagles in any

given locality appears to remain fairly constant.

The eggs, usually two, are laid in October or November.

The Brahminy Kite: Haliastur indus (Bodd.).

Field identification: Size that of the Pariah Kite. Tail rounded, not forked.

Head, neck and underparts white, upper parts chestnut-red. Young birds

brown like the Pariah Kite but the shape of the tail is always a dependable

distinguishing feature. Usually near water—Harbour, creeks and water-logged

areas.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 22-7-25, 27-7-25 Colaba, Bombay (C. McCann) ;

Sie C27 42 4. 19-7-33 Andheri (H.A.). _- ;

Noted: Mahaluxmi, Pherozeshah Mehta Gardens (Malabar Hill), Pali Hill,

Khar, Bandra, Kurla, Sion, Andhéri etc. :

Resident. Not uncommon. Local movements are. particularly in evidence

during the monsoon when these kites move inland owing to the prospect of

food offered by the water-logging of low-lying areas. Their diet consists of

any offal or garbage that can be come by, but they prefer to pick this off

the surface of water. Accordingly, the Bombay docks are admirably suited to

their requirements and here they get a constant supply of food floating about

in the form of rubbish of every description thrown overboard from the ships.

During the monsoon, land crabs in inundated country supply a welcome change

of fare and are much sought after. Lizards and frogs are also eaten.

Its call is a rather harsh wheezy squeal—like that of a Pariah Kite

suffering from acute hoarse throat!

- Breeding: We have observed a nest nearing completion in a Casuarina

tree—ca 7o feet up—on the sea-shore at Kihim on 1 April (1926), both

owners working. Another nest in the same neighbourhood contained a single

fledgling on 25 May (1936). A nest in a large Peepal at Chembir had 2 downy

young in it at the end of May. ,Lt. H. E. Barnes’ (J.B.N.H.S., iii; 217)

found a nest in Bombay on 2 February.

The nest is the usual largish platform of twigs. Normally 2 eggs are

“

laid, greyish-white in colour feebly spotted with pale dingy reddish-brown.

The Common Pariah Kite: Miluus migrans govinda Sykes.

Hindustani name: Cheel: Mahratti: Ghar.

Field identification: A large brown bird of prey, smaller than the Vulture,

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XL

familiar to all. On the wing the forked tail distinguishes it from all similar

birds. Singly or gregariously in the City and suburbs, especially about meat

and fish markets and refuse dumps.

Specimen: St. X. C.: G—1932 Bombay (H.A.).

Resident. Common. EHA (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 269) believed that the majority

of Bombay kites retired to some drier region during the monsoon. This may

be true of a few, but the greater number are certainly with us throughout the

year. Living in the City is far too easy and plentiful for the birds to

forsake it. The Pariah Kite is one of our most useful scavengers. Large

numbers may always be seen about the fish and meat section of Crawford,

and our other Municipal markets. Refuse dumps, where low lying areas are

being reclaimed—such as at Mahaluxmi—never fail to attract them. The ease

and grace with which a kite will swoop down on and carry off a dead rat

or some similar tit-bit from a narrow, thickly congested lane with all its din

and traffic, twisting and turning masterfully to avoid the overhead telephone

and electric wires is entertaining to watch. Some of their favourite perches

in the City are the ridges of roofs, flag-staffs or radio aerial poles, and

above all the round wire cages surmounting the sewage-gas pipes which are such

an eyesore on most Bombay buildings. Numbers may often be seen waddling

about on our maidans and playgrounds, especially after the turf has been

watered, picking out earthworms. On monsoon evenings when winged termites

emerge from the ground, kites foregather in large numbers to feast on them

in company with crows and other birds and the chase often continues well

into the dusk. Whereas the crows snap up the insects in mid-air in their

bills, the Ixites scoop them up in their claws. The victims are subsequently

transferred to the bill in mid-air. Some of the birds post themselves on the

ground near the ant-hole and ‘tick off’ the insects as they emerge. The

Pariah Kite is an inveterate chicken thief and becomes a serious nuisance to

poultry-keeping especially when it has nest-young to feed.

Breeding : We have observed a pair building as early as 22 September. The

usual time for eggs is from late October to about February, but some may

be found till the end of March. The nest is a large untidy platform of sticks

with filthy rags, grass, bits of hairy goat-skin and other rubbish thrown in.

It is placed in the fork of some large tree or cocoanut-palm in Bombay City

and the suburbs, or in the vicinity of villages in Salsette. A favourite site

in the City likewise is the metal ‘basket’ under the vane of many build-

ings such as the Secretariat and the High Court. The normal clutch consists

of 2 or 3 eggs. These are greyish-white in colour, streaked, speckled and

blotched in varying degree with reddish-brown.

[The Black-eared or Large Indian Kite: Miluus imigrans lineatus (Gray).

According to H. E. Barnes (Birds of the Bombay Presidency, p. 57) Hume

obtained a specimen of this kite in Bombay Harbour. On 12-3-30 S.A. observed

a kite at Dharamtar (Kolaba Dist.) which was probably this species. The

white in the lower wing coverts which distinguishes it from the Pariah Kite

Was conspicuous as patches in overhead flight. This would be a winter visitor

to our area. ]

The Black-winged Kite: Klanus caruleus vociferus (Lath.).

Field identification : Size about that of the Jungle Crow, but somewhat lighter

in build. Ashy-grey above, white below with black line over eye and black

patch on closed wings—at shoulder. Singly, perched on poles, dead trees etc.

in open scrub country and grassland. Flies with slow deliberate wing-beats

like the Roller, and often hovers in ungainly fashion.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 9-2-24 Andhéri (S. H. Prater); ¢ 28-11-99 Hog

Island, Bombay Harbour (E. Comber); ¢ 26-3-99 Trombay Island (Major

H. J. Walton).

Status? Rare. It feeds principally upon lizards, grasshoppers and_ other

insects, and mice. It hovers rather cumbrously—as compared with the Kestrel

—to spy out the ground below, parachutes down with open wings—only the

tips quivering—resumes hovering, then parachutes still lower to get a_ better

view of the suspect and finally pounces upon its prey. When perched, it has

a habit of cocking its tail from time to time and jerking it up and down

between drooping wings. It will keep to the same locality for days together

and may be seen perched on the same pole or tree day after day.

We have no record of its breeding in our area or the immediate neighbourhood.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 375

The Pale Harrier ; Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).

Field identification: Size somewhat smaller than the Pariah Kite and much

more slender-bodied. A lightly built ashy-grey hawk usually seen skimming

gracefully over standing crops and grassland on long motionless black-tipped

wings. The female is umber-brown with reddish markings above, paler below.

specimens: B.N..S.: dG .29-2-08 Andhéri (N. _B. Kinnear?); St. X..C.;

229 O? 12-3-35 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: G6ddhbunder, Thana, Chembur, Khar, Borivli ete.

Winter visitor. Not common, but frequent. Easily confused with the next

species—Montagu’s Harrier. Every now and again as the bird ‘skims along

the grass and skirts the bush, dips to the hollow and rises to the mound’ as

EHA so aptly describes its progress, it pounces upon some unwary lizard,

mouse, grasshopper, or young lark and settles down to dispose of it before

resuming its beat. It perches on the bare’ ground or on clods of earth in

preference to,..a. bush or tree.

Montagu’s Harrier : Circus pygargus (Linn.).

Field identification: Differs in detail from the foregoing and difficult to

tell from it with certainty except with practice. On the whole it is a somewhat

darker grey with the black in the wing-tips more extensive. The female is

also similar to but somewhat darker than that of the Pale Harrier. Habits

etc. similar to the above.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: ¢G Feb. 1913 Andheri (N. B. Kinnear).

Winter visitor.

The Pied Harrier : Circus melanoleucus (Forst.).

Field identification: A typical harrier in build and habits, of conspicuous

black and white plumage. The female is brown as in the two foregoing species,

some white and greyish in the wings. Singly, in open grass country.

Winter visitor. Rare. We have only observed a_ solitary example about

the mud-flats at Sion Causeway on 8 April (1924) presumably on_ passage.

It was excessively shy.

The Marsh Harrier : Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linn.).

Field identification: A dark umber brown hawk rather like the Pariah Kite

but slimmer, with rounded tail, and usually with a creamy-buff cap. Aduli

males have silvery grey wings and tail. Usually seen singly about marshes

and jheels beating back and forth above the reed beds etc. and pouncing

on frogs, disabled birds and the like.

(Specimen: St. X. C.: 119 G 13-10-33 Bassein, Thana Dist. (H.A.).]

Noted at snipe marsh near Godhbunder Creek, Mahim, Bandra.

Winter visitor. Rare. EHA says ‘. . . in times now almost ancient when

the Flats were inundated every monsoon and did not dry for months after, it

was very fond of Bombay’.

The Indian Shikra: Astur badius dussumieri (Temm.).

Mahratti name: Cheepak.

Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon. Ashy-grey above white

below cross-barred with rusty-brown. Young birds brown and rufous above

with broad brown streaks on the lower plumage. Tail in adults as well as

young with broad blackish bands. Singly or pairs, in wooded country around

villages and about mango topes etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 1-2-24, 6 19-1-24, 0? -2-25 Andheri (S. H. Prater);

3 12-1-13 Santa Cruz; Q 9-10-06 Bombay City (Mr. Keyes); 92 9-1-19 Malabar

Hill, Bombay (W. S. Millard); St. X. C.: [147 0? 25-10-33 Kihim], 175 9

20-2-34 Andhéri (H.A.).

Resident. Fairly common. Its food consists of small birds, rats, squirrels,

lizards, and also locusts and large grasshoppers. It is very destructive to

young chickens and on this score is a nuisance about villages, particularly

when it has nest-young to feed. The tactics usually employed by the Shikra

in capturing its prey is surprise. From its perch in the concealment of some

leafy tree, whence it keeps a sharp lookout, it swoops upon and bears away

its victim before the latter has time to scent danger.

Breeding: We have not actually taken any nests in our area, but the

Shikra must undoubtedly breed here, From the excitement of a pair noted

316 JOURNAL, - BOMBAY "NATURAL. BIST. “SOCIETY, {Vole XE

near Mulund at the end of March, it was obvious that they had a_ nest

nearby.

The Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawk : Accipiter virgatus (besra Jerdon?).

Field identification: Difficult. Size about that of the Shikra and rather

similar to it in colour and markings. In the hand the conspicuously greater

length of the middle toe most readily serves to differentiate the two.

Status? Rare. We have not come across the Sparrow-Hawk in Salsette,

but in the B.N.H.S. Collection there is a specimen (¢ imm.) obtained by

Mr. N. B. Kinnear at Tulsi Lake, 16-12-12.

The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard: Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis Lesson.

Field identification : Somewhat larger than the Pariah Kite. Usually greyish-

brown above, pale brown below narrowly cross-barred with white. A blackish

crest at back of head. In overhead flight the rounded tail—cross-barred black

and white—and the more finely barred undersurface of wings conspicuous.

Singly, in wooded country, often soaring in circles above the forest. The

forehead, sides of head and chin covered with small scale-like feathers is a

diagnostic feature of the bird in the hand.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 29-1-25 Andhéri (R. Hearn).

Resident. Not uncommon in the hilly and forested parts of Salsette. It

derives its name from its habit of feeding on the honey and larvae of wild

bees. The call is a high-pitched screaming whistle whee-ee-ew.

Breeding: Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., iii, 219) writes that Davidson had eggs of

the Honey-Buzzard sent to him from Thana, taken about March. On 24 April

(1935) H.A. found a stick nest about 60 feet up in a Casuarina tree 50 yards

from the sea-shore at Kihim (Kolaba Dist.). On 6 May it contained two

downy chicks one of which was considerably larger than the other. This

suggests that the interval between the laying of the first and second egg—for

normally only 2 are laid—is a long one, and that incubation commences

immediately the first egg is laid. He took the larger chick (¢@) and found its

stomach to contain the remains of a Green Whip Snake (Dryophis mycterizans)

and numerous larvae of hymenopterous insects. There was a large colony of

several bee-hives within half a mile of the nest whence the latter presumably

came. The owners made no attempt to defend the nest when climbed up to.

On 25 May of the following year H.A. found the same nest again occupied,

with young in it.

The Southern Green Pigeon: Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth).

Field identification: Size that of the Pigeon. General colour greyish and

yellowish olive-green. Head and neck ashy-grey, breast and abdomen yellow.

Flocks in wooded country feeding on ripe fruits of Banyan and Peepal.

Specimen: St. X. C.: 251 0?—Gddhbunder (H.A.).

Status? Not common. We have only come across occasional small parties

of 3 or 4 birds about Gédhbunder and Shendtr in north Salsette. The call

is a pleasing mellow whistle of several notes. .

We know of no breeding records in our area or the immediate neighbourhood.

(The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon: Dendrophasa pompadora affinis (Jerdon).

Field identification: Smaller than the foregoing; about the size of the

Ring-Dove. General colouration as above, but with the back and wing-

shoulders maroon-chestnut, and breast pinkish-orange.

H.A. obtained a specimen of this Green Pigeon at Karnala Fort (Funnel

Hill) in the Panvél Taluka of Kolaba Dist. on 25 February (1934) and observed

several birds in heavy forest at about 1,000 ft. elevation there. He also came

across it at Ttngar, Bassein, ca. 1,300 ft. on 20 April (1934).

W. FE. Sinclair (/.B.N.H-S.,. xii, 185) recordsa specimen shot in the Police

Lines at Alibag out of a flock on 20 July (18g0).. Ns

We have not come across it in Salsette, but it no doubt occurs here

from time to time in small numbers. |

[The Imperial Green Pigeon : Muscadivora aenea pusilla Blyth.

Field identification: Size between the Blue Rock Pigeon and the Jungle

Crow. Head, neck and lower plumage pinkish-grey, upper plumage metallic

bronze green. .

THE BIRDS. OF BOMBAY AND’ SALSETTE 377

Not observed in Salsette, but there is a specimen in the Society’s Collection

shot on Tungar Hill near Bassein Rd. Station (B.B. & C.I. Railway) 34

miles north of Bombay, on 19-1-19 by a Mr. Frei. This specimen has been

recorded as C. ae. aenea by Mr. Kinnear (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 846) but according

to the boundary between the races recently fixed by Whistler (J.B.N.H.S.,

XxXxViii, 675) it should be pusilla.

H.A. has verified another example shot in the same locality on 26-5-1935. |

The [ndian Emerald Dove: Chalcophaps indica indica (Linn.).

Field identification: Size that of the Myna or of the Little Brown Dove.

Colour scheme resembling that of the Imperial Green Pigeon. Metallic bronze-

green above; head, neck and underparts vinous red and pinkish-grey. Usually

singly or pairs, feeding on roadsides in the wooded parts of north Salsette

such as along the Gddhbunder-Thana road or flying across them at great

speed, the metallic bronze flashing in the sun.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: & 25-3-29 Tilsi Lake environs (S.A.).

Noted: Powai and Vihar Lakes, Goddhbunder, Borivli,, Trombay, Chembur.

Resident (presumably). Not abundant but frequent in suitable country. Feeds

on the ground on seeds and vegetable matter and there is usually a quantity

of grit in the stomach.

Breeding: We have not come across any nests of the Bronze-winged Dove

in Salsette but from the enlarged condition of the gonads of the specimen

(measuring ad mm.) it was evidently preparing to breed.

The Indian Blue Rock Pigeon ; Columba livia intermedia Strick.

Hindtistani name: Kabiatar, Mahratti: Parwa.

Too well-known to need description.

One of the commonest birds in the City where large gatherings are fed

regularly at recognised places by benevolent. Hindu gentlemen. There is much

admixture of domestic strains in the pigeons inhabiting our area and the race

is- perhaps about as pure as the Aryan of Nazidom!

Breeding: Pigeons breed freely throughout the year everywhere in buildings

in the noisiest and most congested parts of the town, making flimsy twig

nests on rafters and cornices, under eaves, in ceilings, under the iron water

reservoirs on buildings and in holes in masonary wells. The usual 2 white

eggs are laid. In a small disused loft, between ceiling and roof, in St.

Xavier’s High School at Dhobi Talao, H.A. counted 35 nests all containing

either eggs or downy chicks on 8 February (1936).

The Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove: Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes).

Field identification: Slightly smaller than the Pigeon. Head greyish-brown.

Upper plumage with scale-like rufous markings ; lower plumage pale pinkish-

rufous. A black patch on either side of hindneck, speckled silver-grey. White

tips of tail feathers conspicuous as a band when the bird is alighting. Usually

singly, in wooded country about cultivation.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 26-1-24 Andhéri (S. H. Prater).

Winter visitor. Rare. H.A. has seen two specimens shot near Powai Lake

in March. We have no other records.

The Indian Spotted Dove: Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmel.).

Mahratti name: Kaura.

Field identification: Size between the Myna and the Pigeon. Similar in

colour to the foregoing species, but spotted with white on upper parts. A

distinctive black patch with white spots on hindneck—‘chessboard’. Singly,

in pairs or parties, in lightly wooded country gleaning in stubble-fields, on

cross-country cart tracks, etc.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 6-4-13 Santa Cruz (N. B. Kinnear).

Resident. Fairly common. We have not observed it in City limits, but

it is the commonest dove in Salsette. Its call is a pleasant though rather

mournful Kroo-kruk-kruk-kroo—kroo-kroo-kroo. The number of kroos varies,

but is never more than 6 times.

Breeding: We have records -of nests in Salsette, in course of building or

with eggs and young, in March, August, October and November and_ they

probably breed more or less throughout the year. A flimsy twig nest is built

878 JOURNAL, .BOMBAY ._NATURAL,HIST.: SOCIETY,” Vol. XL

in a bush or tree usually low down or at moderate heights from the ground.

2 white eggs invariably comprise the full clutch.

The Little Brown Dove: Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. Earthy brown above with

greyish on wings. Head, neck and breast pinkish-brown paling to whitish on

abdomen. On each side of neck there is what EHA calls ‘a miniature chess-

board in red and black’.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 12-9-12 Cumballa Hill, Bombay (N. B. Kinnear).

Straggler? Rare. We have never come across this dove in Bombay and

curiously enough even in Salsette have noted it only once at Godhbunder (1924),

once near Ghatk6par (1926), and a solitary example at Andhéri (1934). EHA

(C.B.B., p. 152) wrote in the eighties that all the doves he had seen about

Cumballa and Malabar Hills belonged to this species. If this is true then

their absence now must certainly be attributed to the transformation these

localities have undergone since EHA’s day, and is a good example of the

effect of changing environment upon bird distribution. The Little Brown Dove

loves dry stony country with prickly pear and other cactus thickets which

have long since disappeared from Bombay, Cumballa and Malabar Hills,

before they were built up and out of all recognition, doubtless fulfilled its

ecological requirements.

In /.B.N.H.S., xxiii,-p/ 158 (April 1914) Mr. Kinnear’ wrote. that * this

species, along with the Spotted and the Ring-Doves, was ‘very common’ on

the southern end of Salsette. This is definitely not the case at present as

our meagre records will show. Across the Harbour—Kolaba Dist.—however,

it is fairly common. A nest with 2 chicks—about 2 days old, in clotted

yellowish down—was seen near Kihim on 19-2-31. It was the typical flimsy

pad of small twigs 3 ft. up in an Euphorbia bush close to the village.

The indian Ring-Dove: Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the Pigeon. More or less

uniform pale brownish lilac-grey with a black collar on hindneck. In Babul

jungle and about cultivation.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: (destroyed) Q 30-1-21 Santa Cruz (B. C. Ellison); 0?

1-12-25 Kurla, Bombay Suburban Dist. (D. A. Baretto).

Noted: Gédhbunder (December 1925).

Mainly a local winter visitor. In December we have observed flocks flying

high up in the air, once near Kurla and on another occasion at Godhbunder

(several successive flocks), distinctly suggestive of migratory movement. Kinnear

(J.B.N.H.S., xxiii, 158) appears to have found it common on the southern end

of Salsette. No season is specified. Its call is a pleasant deep Kuk-koo-kook,

kuk-koo-kook etc.

The Indian Red Turtle-Dove : CGinopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Herm.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. A jpinkish brick-red dove

with ashy-grey head and black collar on hindneck. The female is pale brownish-

grey, rather like a small replica of the Ring-Dove. Singly or pairs, gleaning

in stubble-fields often in company with other doves.

Specimens: B.N-H.S. 0? “t0-2-04- Pali sHall*(S.4))5) aC 7 27-12-23, neler

(S. H. Prater); & 5-12-25 Kurla (D. A. Baretto).

Local winter visitor. Uncommon. The call is a somewhat harsh rolling

Groo-gurr-goo, groo-gurr-goo etc.

[The Common Indian Sand-Grouse: Pterocles exustus elliot? Bogdanow.

There is a specimen of this sand-grouse in the B. N. H. S. Collection from

Bassein, Thana Dist. (without date) collected by P. Lyons. We have not come

across it in Salsette.]

The Common Peafowl: Pavo cristatus UCinn.

This gorgeous bird was evidently fairly plentiful in Salsette in olden days,

but at the present time it has all but disappeared. John Fryer, in an account

of his travels in India in the year 1673, writes that outside ‘Bandora’ he used

his fowling-piece ‘being presented with rich game as peacocks, doves and

pigeons.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 379

Up till about the year 1910 or thereabouts S. A. remembers that small

parties of peafowl were occasionally to be met with on the eastern wooded

slopes of Trombay Hill, but we have not seen or heard of them there within

recent years. A local shikari informed H. A. in 1936 that a few may still be

occasionally driven out in beats in north Salsette. According to this informant

it was met wih there oftener than the Junglefowl.

H. A. picked up a peacock feather on Karnala Fort Hill (Panvél, Kolaba

Dist.) in February 1934.

The Grey Jungle-Fowl : Gallus sonneratii Temm.

Field identification ; Very like the domestic fowl in appearance. General effect

streaked grey with a black sickle-shaped tail. Hen brown above white below

with black streaks. In hilly forest country with scrub undergrowth.

We have seen a specimen shot by a Mr. C. King in the hills round Powai

Lake in 1924. H. A. observed a single bird at G6dhbunder in April 1934.

The Grey Jungle Fowl is now rare in Salsette and becoming increasingly so

under ceaseless persecution from bands of local shikaries. It is not uncommon

in parts of Kolaba District. We have shot several at Pardl Para in Alibag

Taluka (1931). An adult cock in good condition and quite uninjured, when

suddenly come upon by the beaters, was so terrified that he could not. take

to wing. He hopped and fluttered a few yards and began running through the

bushes till overtaken by the men and done to death with sticks! The stomachs

of specimens contained the green fruits and seeds of Streblus asper

predominatingly. A bird shot in January was a cockerel about three months old

indicating the breeding season to be somewhere about September-October.

The Common Red Jungle-Fowl : Gallus gallus murghi Robinson and Kloss.

Mr. C. McCann of the Bombay Natural History Society, a keen and

reliable observer, informs us that on 24 February 1929 when accompanied by

Rev. Fr. Palacios S. J., they saw a Red Jungle cock on the hills behind

Kaneri Caves, Borivli, at about 1300 ft. elevation. It was within shooting

distance and stood for a few seconds before scuttling away, giving them a

perfect view. This record has not been confirmed by a specimen or another

sight record since. Salsette and the neighbouring country is far out of the

known range of the Red Jungle-Fowl.

The Red Spur-Fowl : Galloperdix spadicea spadicea (Gmelin).

Mahratti name: Chikokri.

Field identification: Size and general effect that of a three-quarter grown

domestic hen, the cock mainly chestnut brown, the hen paler brown with black

streaks and markings. Usually in pairs, but seasonally in family parties,

in stony, broken country—nullahs, ete. overgrown with thickets and brushwood.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 16-3-24 Vihar Lake (S.A.); Q 8-12-18 Thana (Major

Mey aMercar)s Si. X. -C.: 243 6 24-11-35 Borivli (H1.A.).

Noted: Kandivli, Godhbunder, Powai and Tulsi Lake environs. Also Karnala

and Par6él Para on the mainland.

Resident. Not uncommon in northern Salsette and on the adjoining mainland.

The birds are usually shy and great skulkers, scuttling away through the

undergrowth on the least suspicion and flying for short distances only when

hard pressed, often seeking concealment in the branches of a tree. Their food

consists of seeds and insects which are rummaged for among the fallen leaves.

They have a habit of running uphill when alarmed.

Breeding : H.A. has seen a clutch of 3 eggs taken from a scrape in the ground

near Tulsi Lake on 15-4-36. He was informed that young had been captured in

this locality at the same time. On 31-5-36 (Vihar) he observed 4 newly hatched

chicks. The Red Spur-Fowl is said (Fauna, v, 360) to breed throughout the

year except perhaps in the three months October to December.

The Common or Grey Quail : Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linn.).

Field identification: Size about that of a ten-day old domestic chicken.

Squat, plump appearance. A _ seemingly tailless, buff-coloured game bird with

black streaks and markings. Usually singly or pairs, flushed in cultivation

and grassland with a whirr of wings.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: o -1-96 ‘Bombay’ (J. M. Mason); 9 18-1-07, ¢

19-1-07, O66 QQ 7-12-07, 918-1-08 Thana (W S. Millard and N. B. Kinnear) ;

St. X. C.: 240 0?, 241 0? (Salsette) November-December: 1935 (Nunes).

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Viol’ Xue

Winter visitor. Found in small numbers in grassland and about harvested

paddy fields. By December or January they are well in; by about the beginning

or middle of March most birds have departed.

The Black-breasted or Rain Quail: Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the Grey . Quail. Like it in

general effect and habits, except that in this the male has a jet black breast.

Singly or pairs in grassland.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 18-1-07,, ¢ 8-1-10 Thana (N. B. Kinnear);

2-12-08 Thana (W. S. Millard). hin

Not common. We are not aware if the Black-breasted Quail is at all resident

in our area or moves in locally during the cold weather only, as the majority

certainly appear to do. We have no record for Salsette at any other season

of the year.

The Jungle Bush Quail: Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Lath.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Common Quail. Male above

fulvous-brown with blackish and buff streaks, below white cross-barred with

black. The female has the lower parts -pinkish-rufous. In coveys of 5 to

15 birds, in scrub jungle.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ Q 24-11-12 Borivli (N. B. Kinnear); 4 juv. 7-2-08,

o? juv. 24-2-08 Andhéri (N. B. Kinnear); 0? downy chick -12-23 Andhéri

(S. H. Prater).

Resident. Common in scrub jungle in Salsette. Bush Quails have a habit

of forming themselves into ‘squares’—crouching huddled together under a bush,

or even in the open, all facing outwards—and of suddenly ‘exploding’ or

rising with a whirr and dispersing in all directions often when almost trod

upon. The covey soon reunites by means of soft whistling calls uttered by

the members. They roost at night in the same manner and are easily captured

by throwing a net over the bush into which a covey has been observed to

retire. Rival males occasionally challenge rivals by harsh grating calls as of

the Black Drongos ‘arguing’ at the onset of their breeding season. What

emotion. these calls really signify is not certain, but they are clearly associated

with breeding. aie

Breeding : There seems to be no well-defined nesting season, but in our area

the majority seem to lay from about October to March or April... We have

seen a c/q4 (hard-set) taken at Jogéshwari on 30 January, and chicks in down

in December, February and April. EHA (C.B.B., p. 159) says it lays about

the end of the rains. The nest is a slight depression in the ground lined with

grass, under shelter of a bush or. grass-tussock in scrub country. 4 to 8 eggs

of a creamy-white colour are laid. The chicks, as with all game birds, are

able to run about as soon as hatched, and to fly when incredibly tiny. Their

colour and pattern render them completely invisible in their surroundings of

dry grass and leaves.

The Rock Bush-Quail : Perdicula argoondah ssp.

Specimen : B.N.H.S.: dG juv. 24-2-08 -Andhéri (N. B. Kinnear).

We have not knowledgably come across this species in Salsette. Its differ-

entiation in the field from the Jungle Bush Quail is almost impossible.

The Southern Painted Partridge : Francolinus pictus pictus (Jard. and Selby).

Field identification: A plump, stub-tailed game bird, larger than the Quail,

about the size of a half-grown pullet of the domestic fowl. Black, profusely

spotted and barred with white and with some rufous-red in the wings.

Singly, about cultivation and grassland, usually not far from water.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 3 24-2-08 Andhéri, (N. B. Kinnear).

Noted: Kandivli, Mulund, Thana. One shot at Chembtr (Trombay Hill)

on 27 May 1914, but none met with there since.

Resident? Not ‘common and becoming scarcer day by day. There is

evidently an influx of local visitors during the rainy season and more birds

may ‘be heard calling from about August to October in, Salsette (as well as

across the Harbour e.g. in Alibag Taluka) than at any other time of year. This |

may, however, be partly accountable by the fact that the birds are breeding

then. In the rains they keep to the vicinity of paddy-fields and have a_ habit

of mounting stones, etc. on grassy bunds separating the fields—or an isolated

CHE BIRDS. OF BOMBAY AND! SALSETELR 381

tree standing in the midst of cultivation whence a good view of the surrounding

country can be obtained—and uttering their familiar call Chik . . . cheek-cheek-

keray. They call mostly in the mornings upto about 14 o’clock and then from

3 p.m. onwards.

Mr. N. S. Symons addressing a meeting of our Society on 14 January

1891 on the subject of a proposal for the protection and introduction of game

into the Bombay neighbourhood (Jour., vi, 120) mentioned that he had heard

of as many as ten brace of Painted Partridge having been killed by one gun

within 18 miles of Bombay that season in a short day’s sport. He complained

that for want of protection the birds were already then dwindling considerably

in numbers.

Breeding: The Painted Partridge undoubtedly breeds in parts of Salsette

and on the adjoining mainland during the monsoon—July to September—but

we have no specific records of eggs or young having been taken here. A

favourite site for nests is on the grassy bunds that separate fields. The normal

clutch comprises of 4 to 8 eggs, pale olive grey in colour.

The Common Bustard Quail: Turnix suscitator taijoor (Sykes).

Field identification: Size somewhat smaller than the Rain Quail. General

effect reddish brown above with a greyish tinge, rusty-buff below with black

cross-bars on breast. The female has the chin, throat and breast black. In

flight the pale buff shoulder patches are conspicuous on upper surface of

wings. Distinguished in the hand from true quails by absence of hind-toe.

Pairs or small parties of 3 or 4 in scrub undergrowth about grassland and

cultivation.

Specimens: B:N.H.S.: 0? g-2-07, 0? 7-12-07 Thana (W. S. Millard).

Noted: Salsette : Chembur, Andhéri, Powai Lake environs; Mainland: Kihim,

Alibag, Roha.

Resident. Not uncommon, in small numbers. Contrary to the normal con-

dition in birds, the female of the Bustard Quail is more brightly coloured

than the male. This is because the usual role of the sexes is reversed in this

species. The hen does all the courting and fighting with rival hens; the cock

incubates the eggs and rears the young while she is busy making fresh conquests.

The call uttered by the hen is a loud drumming Drr-r-r-r-r-r etc. often

continued for 10 to 15 seconds at a stretch. We have also heard a more

subdued Hoon-hoon-hoon-hoon for over 5 seconds at a time, probably uttered

by the cock. They are birds of sedentary habits and a pair or party may

be found frequenting the same spot day after day.

Breeding: We have found eggs and chicks from March to September. It

lays on the ground in a grassy patch, bending over the grasses neatly into a

sort of dome. The normal clutch is of 3 or 4 eggs, usually greyish-buff with

reddish-brown spots and_ speckles.

The Little Button Quail: Turnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm.).

Field identification : Considerably smaller than the Quail. In general appear-

ance like the Bustard Quail but differentiated chiefly by not having the breast

barred, by its white or greyish legs (as compared with leaden grey or slate

in that bird) and by its stub-tail being pointed. Singly or pairs, in grassy

country.

No specimens, but H.A. has observed the Button Quail at Borivli (Salsette)

and across the Harbour at Kihim (Kolaba Dist.).

Resident, presumably, but uncommon.

(To be continued).

THE BIRDS OF, HE VPACCADIVE JSiZAN@ s:

F. N.: Betts.

(With a plate).

Although the Laccadive Archipelago lies but 150 miles or so

off the West coast of India, the islands are seldom visited by

strangers except for the biennial Government inspection, and the

only account of their avifauna in any way complete is that of

Hume who made a fortnight’s tour of the group in February 1875,

in the survey ship Clyde, and published his results in Stray

Feathers. In his Short Account of the Laccadive Islands, R. C.

Ellis, I.C.S., who made four official inspection tours thither, gives

a list of birds; but I am unable to say from what source this was

obtained and several of the records seem open to doubt.

With the hope of being able to add to this scanty store of

knowledge, I spent a fortnight among the Northern islands of the

group in February of this year. The only means of getting there

was to travel in one of the small island sailing craft which trade

with Mangalore, and, as the various islands lie at distances of

twenty to forty miles apart and communication is entirely dependent

on favourable wind and weather, I was only able in the time at my

disposal to explore four of the inhabited islands, and failed to reach

the outlying reefs which would have yielded the most results

ornithologically. My visit cannot be said to have been fruitful as

I only encountered two hitherto unrecorded species both of which

are regular winter migrants on the mainland.

Changes are few and slow in action in this out-of-the-way corner,

and every word of Hume’s interesting and entertaining account,

although written over sixty years ago, applies today. As however

Stray Feathers is long out of print and no longer accessible to

evervone, it mav not, I hope, be considered out of place to collate

the available information on the scanty Avifauna of the Laccadives

with such little original observations as I was able to make myself.

The Laccadives lie between the parallels of 14 and 10 North,

and consist of a number of coral atolls and reefs, some submerged

and others appearing as isolated islands or sandbanks. There are

nine main inhabited islands and several small islets which, though

covered with vegetation, are unoccupied owing to lack of fresh

water. Most of the islands lie well out of sight of each other

with the exception of Amini and Kadmat which are only six miles

apart. They are all very similar, low and sandy, nowhere rising

more than ten feet above sea level, lying on the Eastern edge of a

circular coral reef exposed at low tide, whose’ Western portion

encloses a shallow lagoon of varying size. They range in area from

10 acres to 1,000 and those that are inhabited are mostly thickly

populated. These latter are densely planted from end to end with

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

BIRDS OF THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS.

Coral Reef at Kadmat.

Banvan grove at Kiltan.

THE BERDS OF THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS 383

coconuts, and there is very little other vegetation. A few breadfruit,

drumstick trees and limes are grown, and on one or two of the islands

one sees small patches of yams and other vegetables, while every-

where a sparse growth of grass springs up in the monsoon though

there was little left, except on Kiltan, at the time of my visit.

Apart from this cultivated flora, a certain amount of scrub grows

above the tide line and in the more infertile areas, chiefly a laurel-

shrub (Scaevola koenigit), wild heliotrope (Tournefolia argentea), and

a bushy shrub (Pemphis acidula), which is used for firewood. The

uninhabited islands are covered with a dense jungle of screwpine

(Pandanus sp.). One or two tamarinds and banyans occur, parti-

cularly on Kiltan where there is quite a grove at the Southern end

of the island. The shores along the highwater mark carry a

growth of Spinifex and creeping purple convolvulus (Ipomoea

biloba).

Invertebrate life is very scarce, grasshoppers occur in small

numbers, sandflies on one or two of the islands, and ants, mostly

of house-haunting varieties, but there appear to be no spiders or

termites, and the few butterflies one sees are doubtless windblown

from the mainland. There is little therefore to support land birds,

and there are only two resident species, the House Crow, no doubt

introduced by human agency and almost entirely parasitic on

mankind, and the White-Eye, which seems to live very largely on

honey from the flowers of the coconut trees.

I noticed a remarkable absence of seafowl in the neighbourhood

of the main islands. It was not until one got well off shore that

one came on flocks of Terns pursuing the shoals of small fish which

were chased to the surface by porpoises or sharks. This is the

more remarkable as the sandbanks of Cherbaniani and Pitti are the

breeding grounds of myriads of various pelagic Terns. I imagined

this scarcity might be due to the fact that the birds were away at

their nesting stations but was told that it was always the case.

Until about 1830 the seafowl used to breed in enormous numbers

at Bitra, the most northerly of the islands on which vegetation grows,

but for some reason this was suddenly deserted and they are now

found only on the outlying sandbanks. Hume found Anous stolidus

and Sterna fuliginosa breeding at Cherbaniani in February whilst

Sterna bergii and Sterna anetheta were still in winter plumage.

These probably go to Pitti where I was informed there was an

enormous colony of seafowl which lay in May, and the islanders

make trips there regularly to collect eggs. Strange to say, Major

Alcock in his Naturalist in the Indian Seas writes that when he went

to Pitti at the end of November in the R.I.M.S. Investigator in

1891 he found the whole sandbank literally covered with the young

of two species of Terns which he failed to identify, so that it looks

as if there must be two breeding seasons.

If the avifauna of the islands is poor in numbers, the sea between

them and the mainland is a desert. During the passage which took

30 hours outward bound and three days on the return journey the

only birds we saw were two Tropic Birds, a few Shearwaters and

one flock of Sooty Terns chasing a shoal of fish. Three or four

miles off the South Canara coast we passed three Great Black-headed

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. ‘Vol. XL

Gulls, Lurus ichthyaétus, resting on the water. Approaching Manga-

lore at midday, soon after the daily sea breeze had settled down

to blow, very large numbers of Sterna bergii, all in winter plumage,

began to cross our bows in small flocks heading straight out to sea.

The tide was just on the flood at the time, and presumably the

fish were beginning to move and the birds which had been resting

o:1 the shore were going out to feed.

1. The House Crow. Corvus splendens splendens Vieill.

Only occurs on Androth, Kalpeni, and Amini. They were numerous on the

latter island and fed chiefly on garbage. I saw one on February 22nd collecting

dead twigs under a casuarina tree near the Kachcheri and carrying them to a nest

in a neighbouring coconut palm. Strangely enough though Kadmat is only six

miles. away and plainly visible, they have not penetrated there. I was told

that one was taken over on one occasion by an islander a few years ago and

lived there for some time till it took to attacking the kids of the milch goats,

after which the inhabitants persuaded the Monegar to shoot it.

2. Brown Shrike. Lanius cristatus cristatus Linn.

I saw a solitary specimen in the serub at the uninhabited Southern end of

Kiltan. This, I believe, is the first record from the group.

3. House Martin. Delichon urbica urbica Linn.

This species is recorded by Ellis, but I should think it is extremely doubtful

whether it has occurred.

4. Small Ceylon White-Eye. Zosterops palpebrosa egregia Madarasz.

The Fauna records this subspecies as occurring in the Laccadives. I un-

fortunately did not obtain specimens in confirmation. Hume found them on all

the islands visited. I found them numerous at Kadmat and Kiltan, rare on the

barren Chetlat, and strangely enough did not see one at Amini. Perhaps the

Crows have something to do with that. The birds seemed to be paired but I

did not find any nest.

5. TheKoel. Ludynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus Linn.

Obtained by Hume on all the islands he visited. Ellis says that it breeds

on Kavarathi, but since there are no crows there this seems on the face of it

impossible. I saw none though I was told that cuckoos of sorts were common

at times, particularly among the banyans and scrub at the southern end of

Kiltan. I searched this area and failed to find any but thought I heard one.

6. The Brown Wood Owl. Strix indranee indranee Sykes.

In Hume’s day a pair of these existed on Bitra, the survivors of several

which the Government had sent over to control the rat plague. They were not

popular with the Islanders, and none remain as far as I know.

7. The Osprey. Pandion haliaétus haliaétus Linn.

I saw one at Kadmat sitting on a rock on the reef, and another at Kiltan

eating a fish on top of a post on the shore which used at one time to carry

a light. Hume and Ellis do not record it. It is no doubt a casual migrant.

S. The Peregrine. Falco eee as subsp.

Hume records this bird as a_ fairly regular sia appearing at all times

of the year but not breeding. He saw it at Amini, Bangaram and Kavarathi

and heard of it at Kiltan. I did not see it.

9. The Kestrel. Cerchneis tinnunculus tinnunculus.

Hume found it on all the islands visited. I saw a party of three at Amini

and a solitary bird on Kadmat but did not shoot any. Those Hume obtained

he assigned to this subspecies.

THE BIRDS OF THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS 385

10. White-headed Sea-Eagle. Haliactus leucogaster Gmelin.

Hume saw one soaring over Amini. I did not come across it.

11. Pariah Kite, Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.

Hume did not actually see this bird but reports it on hearsay. I also did

not meet any but was told that Kites turn up no infrequently and steal chickens.

wz. Black-winged Kite. Elanus caeruleus vociferus Lath.

Hume obtained this species at Amini and Kadmat. IT did not see it, nor

does Ellis record. it.

13. Pale Harrier, 9 Circus macrourus Gmel.

Recorded by Ellis. I saw two at Kiltan myself. Presumably these and

the. other birds of prey must subsist largely on rats and domestic chickens

when they can be got as there is very little else for them to prey on.

14. Montague’s Harrier. Circus pygargus Linn.

Reported by Ellis.

15. White-breasted Waterhen. Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus Penn.

Ellis recorded this bird as a resident. I did not see it nor does Hume record

it, and it seems unlikely that a bird of such weak wing-power should have

wandered so far unless assisted.

16. Crab Plover. Dromas ardeola Payk.

Hume saw a flock on Peremal Par. Ellis records it as resident. I did

not see it.

17. White-cheeked Tern. Sterna rvepressa Hartert.

Hume obtained two immature specimens at Cherbaniani.

18. Little Tern. Sterna albifrons subsp.

Hume obtained several at Cherbaniani.

ig. Large Crested Tern. Thalasseus bergii edwardst Mathews.

Hume saw a large flock at Peremal Par and a few at Cherbaniani and

one at Bangaram. I saw none among the islands though they were numerous

on the mainland coast.

20. Lesser Crested Tern. Thaliusseus bengalensis bengalensis Lesson.

Hume saw a large flock at Peremal Par, as well as some at Cherbaniani

and thinks they breed there.

21. Panayan Tern. Sterna anaetheta antarctica Lesson.

Hume found them in enormous numbers at Cherbaniani in February in

winter plumage.

22. Sooty Tern. Sterna fuscata infuscata Licht.

Hume found it breeding in vast numbers at Cherbaniani in February. I

saw flocks well out to sea between the islands feeding on shoals of fish driven

to the surface by sharks and porpoises but never within seven or eight miles

of land.. We passed quite close to one resting on the back of a sleeping turtle.

23. Philippine Noddy. Anous stolidus pileatus Scopoli.

Hume found this species beginning to breed at Cherbaniani in the second

week of February.

24. Turnstone. Arenaria interpres interpres Linn.

Hume calls this the commonest bird on the Laccadives. This is strange

as Ellis does not mention it, and I failed to come across a single one on any

of the islands I visited.

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. Xt.

25. Kentish Plover. Leucopolius alexandvinus subsp.

Hume saw one at Kadmat and one at Bangaram. I did not encounter

any and Ellis does not record it.

26. Central Asian Small Sandplover. = Cirrepidesmus mongolus artifrons.

Hume obtained three at Kadmat. I shot one out of a flock of half a

dozen at Kiltan, the only ones I saw.

27. Large Sandplover. Cirrepidesmus leschenaultiit Lesson.

Hume obtained specimens at Kadmat and Kiltan. I did not see any.

28. Eastern Golden Plover, Pluvialis dominicus fulvus Gmelin.

Recorded by Hume and Ellis though I did not find it. Hume saw it on all

the islands and says it was particularly numerous at Amini where there were at

least fifty feeding on the shore or resting among the Spinifex above the beach.

29. Curlew. Numenius arquata orientalis Brehm.

Hume obtained two, one at Kadmat and one at Agathi, the only records.

30. Whimbrel. Nuimenius phaeopus Linn.

Hume found it at Amini, Kiltan and Bitra and it is recorded by Ellis. I

met it on each island visited singly or in small flocks of three or four. They

were very shy and would not allow approach within shot.

31. Common Sandpiper. Jvinga hypoleucos Linn.

Hume recerds it as fairly common and Ellis includes it in his list. I

found it the most numerous of any shore bird on all islands, particularly on

IKiltan where they found the piled rocks of the storm beach on the Eastern

shore particularly to their liking.

32. Greenshank. Glottis nebularia Gunnerus.

Hume shot one at Kadmat, the only record.

33. Sanderling. Crocethia alba Vroeg.

Hume shot a pair at Bitra. Ellis does not record it nor did I s¢e one.

34... Knot. Calidris tenuirostris.

Hume saw a pair at Bitra, the only record.

35. Australian Red-legged Gannet. Sula sula rubripes Gould.

Hume identified a flock of Gannets seen near Peremal Par as this species.

I saw none.

36. Booby. Sula fiber.

Hume saw single specimen of this Booby at Cherbaniani and Peremal Par.

I am unable to trace the current correct name for this bird as it does not

appear in the Synonymy of the Fauna. From the descriptions of the Islanders

it seems highly likely that Boobies of some kind breed at Pitti in May.

37. Short-tailed Tropic Bird. Phaethon indicus Hume.

Hume obtained one not far from the Cherbaniani Reef. I saw two solitary

specimens during the passage from the mainland both at least 50 miles from

the nearest shore.

38. Persian Shearwater. Puffinus persicus Hume.

Ellis records this as resident, but neither Hume nor I ever noticed any

Shearwaters anywhere near the Islands.

39. Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Puffinus pacificus hamiltoni Mathews?

During the passage from the Malabar coast I encountered several Shearwaters,

all solitary and a great distance from land. All these had dark underparts

and so could not have been P. persicus.

(iheBIR DS OF bie LACCADIVE ISLANDS 387

4o. Common Heron, Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould.

Hume saw several at Bangaram and says he saw stick nests in the trees

which probably belonged to them though they were. not breeding at the time

of his visit. Ellis says there is a breeding colony on Viringilli, a small islet

in the Minicoy lagoon. I saw two on the reef at Kadmat and one at Siltan.

41. Indian Reef Heron. Demiegretta asha Sykes.

Hume saw one at Bitra, the only record.

42. Little Greem Heron. Butorides striatus javanicus.

Hume shot one at Kadmat. I saw one on the reef at Amini.

43. Common Teal. Nettion crecca crecca Linn.

Hume does not mention this but it is recorded by Ellis. I picked up a dried

head on the beach at Amini and was told that they were regular winter

visitors though in varying numbers, coming in very tired and tame and resting

in the Mosque tanks and on the lagoons.

44. Indian Pond Heron. Ardeola grayit.

Hume saw one or two on Amini and Kadmat. The only one I saw I

flushed out of the Mosque tank at Amini.

THE TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF RHINOPHIS

TRAV ANCORICUS BOUL.

BENI CHARAN MAHENDRA, F.Z.S.,

St. John’s College, Agra.

(With 1 plate).

A recent examination of four specimens of the rare Uropeltid

snake Rhinophis travancoricus Boul. makes it necessary to institute

certain changes in its taxonomic description. Two of these

specimens, which constitute the entire collection of this species in

the Indian Museum, were borrowed by me from Dr, Baini Prashad ;

one came as a present from Prof. Padmanabha Aiyar, Maharajah’s

College of Science, Trivandrum; and the fourth from Prof. C. John,

St. Berchmann’s College, Chenganacherry.

The species Rhinophis travancoricus was castited by Boulenger?

in 1892 on the basis of a single specimen obtained by Mr. H. S.

Ferguson’? ‘near Trivandrum, at the 6th mile-stone towards

Vambayam, in June, 1892’, and its first description, published in

the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (January 1893),°

was almost at the same time adopted, with slhght modifications, in

the Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum.* Sarasin®

(1910) listed this species as endemic to South India, and Wall

(1923),°’’ made observations on its lepidosis. Quite recently, Smith®

has revised Boulenger’s description for his forthcoming volume on

Indian Serpentes, and I am grateful to him for the following copy

of his manuscript:

Rhinophis travancoricus Boul.

‘Rostral not ridged above, separating the prefrontals for half

their length, or a little more or less, the portion visible as long as

' Boulenger, G. A., ‘Description of a new earth-snake from Travancore.’

jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1892-93, vol. vu, p. 313.

* Ferguson, H. S., ‘List of Snakes taken in Travancore from 1888 to 1895.’

jour. Bomb, Nat. atst. Soc., “1805, Vol... &, ap. 70;

* Vide footnote 1 above.

* Boulenger, “G.. A., Cat. Sn." Brit. Mus.,. London, vol, 4, 1893.7 p.41a3-

° Sarasin, Fritz, ‘Uber die Geschichte der Tierwelt von Ceylon’, Zool. Jahrb.,

TO10, | Suppl, 912, p. 137.

° Wall, I., ‘A Hand-list of the Snakes of the Indian Empire,’ Jour. Bomb.

Nat. 1tst. SOG" 1023, VOb. XKIK, NO. 2) Pp. 3

Ce Wialle GLOW. a LO Identify the Saakcss of India (including Burma and

Ceylon’; £19235. p. “17:

* Smith, Malcolm A., ‘The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia, vol. iii, Serpentes.’ (In course of preparation.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Pee KER SERER ESE

5 ge KEKE EERE Hy KR

ube

PER ERR RK ew

5 gS % & ee id

Boul

coricus

s travan

inoph

Photograph of a record example presented to the author by Prof. C. John:

TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF RHINOPHIS TRAVANCORICUS 389

the distance between it and the hinder part of the frontal; frontal

as long as the parietals; eye one-third the length of the ocular

shield; scales in 17 rows; V. 132-146, one and a half times as broad

as the adjacent scales; C. 5-7; caudal disc as long as the shielded

part of the head; almost flat, covered with spicules.

‘Dark purplish brown, the scales on the sides and belly edged

with whitish; on the throat and fore part of the belly almost com-

pletely whitish; anal region black; lower surface of tail yellow.

‘Total length eee diameter 7 mms.

‘Range. Travancore (Trivandrum, Pirmed, Ernakulum). Found

at sea-level and in the hills to about 4,o00 ft.’

With regard to the rostral, Smith (unpublished MS.) says, ‘the

portion visible as long as the distance between it and the hinder

part of the frontal.’ In all the four specimens examined by me,

the portion visible is distinctly less than this distance, being nearly

two-thirds of the latter. The diameter of the eye varies from one-

third to two-fifths the length of the ocular shield. The number of

ventrals in one specimen (viz., Prof. John’s) is 151, and that exceeds

the limit mentioned by previous authors by 5. Scale rows behind

the head are 17, not 19 as recorded by Boulenger (1893).

The type specimen described by Boulenger measured 170 mm.

Smith (unpubl. MS.) gives 180 mm. as the total length, and 7 mm.

as the diameter of the body. Of the specimens examined by me,

two, viz., no. 16482 of Ind. Mus., and Prof. Aiyar’s specimen,

measure 220 mm. in length, and that considerably exceeds the

previous record. However, Prof. John’s specimen is a_ veritable

@iant in this respect, being 320 mm. long. That beats the. old

records by 140 mm. !

Boulenger (1893), in the synopsis of the genus Rhinophis given

by him, lays stress on the ratio between the diameter of the body

and the total length, and says in connection with I. travancoricus,

‘the diameter of body 34 times in the total length.’ The present

examination does not bear him out in this respect, as the following

measurements show:

Specimen Total Length Diameter Ratio

16481 (Ind, Mus.) ay 160 mm. 63 mm. 24

_ Aiyar’s Ses 220° ,, (= yy 295

16482 (Ind. Mus. i ae 220) 5; fi if 313

John’s ee 340) ae 9 an 358

Prof. Aiyar’s specimen differs in colouration both from the other

specimens and from the published description. It is markedly

melanistic, being dark slate-coloured. The throat and the anterior

part of the belly are also dark, and the white edgings on the scales

on the sides and the belly are inconspicuous. The anal region is

black, but as the region of the belly anterior to it (as a matter of

ele the whole sonnel region) is darkish, it does not stand out as

a definite patch as in other specimens. The lower surface of the

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL” HIST, SOCIETY, Volr Xi

tail is pinkish, and there is a dark patch just behind the subcaudal

scute.

As a result of the present study, the following description for

the species may be proposed :

Snout acutely pointed; rostral smooth above, not keeled, about

x the length of the shielded part of the head, separating the pre-

frontals for half their length, the portion visible less than the

distance between it and the hinder part of the frontal; frontal longer

than broad, as long as the parietals; diameter of the eye 4 to ? the

length of the ocular shield; scales in 17 rows; ventvals 132-151,

about 14 times as broad as the adjacent scales; caudals 5-7; caudal

disc as long as the shielded part of the head, almost flat, covered

with spicules.

Yellowish-brown to shining dark slate-coloured, the scales on

the sides and belly edged with whitish (edgings less conspicuous

in melanistic specimens); on the throat and fore part of the belly

almost completely whitish (even this region dark in melanistic

specimens); anal region marked out by a dark patch in specimens

in which the ground colour is not dark slate; lower surfaces of the

tail yellow or pinkish.

Maximum length 320 mm., diameter varying from 6$ to 9 mm.

Range. Travancore (Trivandrum, Mahendragiri, Pirmed,

Ernakulum, Chenganacherry). Found at sea-level and in the hills

to about 4,000 ft.

In the end, it is my pleasant duty to thank Dr. Baini Prashad,

Prof. Padmanabha Atiyar and Prof. C. John for the specimens

examined; Dr. Baini Prashad for the loan of two volumes from the

Indian Museum library; and Dr. Malcolm Smith not only for

sending me his unpublished description of the species, but also for

many acts of friendship and kindness during the past years.

Me weARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

SUPPLEMENTARY INTRODUCTION.

These descriptions were originally prepared for the Entomolo-

gist’s Record, but lack of space entailed considerable delays in

publication, and it was eventually decided that the series could be

handled more advantageously in India. The following had, how-

ever, already appeared :—

Introduction—1933, xlv, p. 136.

Byasa aristolochiae F., aristolochiae—1933, xlv, p. 137.

Chilasa clytia L., clytia—1933, xlv, p. 137.

Huphina nerissa F., evagete Cr.—1933, xlv, p. 138.

Catopsilia crocale Cr.—1933, xlv, p. 148.

Terias hecabe L., hecabe—1933, xlv, p. 148. ~*~

Pareronia valeria Cr., hippia F.—1933, xlv, p. 1409.

Danais chrysippus L.—1933, xlv, p. 140.

Euploea core Cr., core—1935, xlvii, p. 18.

Elymnias hypermnestra L., undularis Drury—1935, xlvii, p. 18.

Euthalia garuda Moore, suddhodana Fruhs.—1935, xlvii, p. 40.

Rathinda amor F.—1935, xlvui, p. 49.

Suastus gremius F., gremius—1936, Sivitige ea:

Udaspes folus Ch 1006, KAVA ae Le.

Dasychira mendosa Hbn.—1936, xlviil, p. 58.

Orgyia postica Wlik.—1936, xlviii, p. 59.

Porthesia (Euproctis) scintillans Wik. —1936, xlvill, p. 90.

Rhyncholaba acteus Cr.—1937, xlix, p. 80.

Natada suffusa Moore—1937, ites Parco le

Polytela gloriosae F.—1937, xlix, p. 124.

Ophiusa coronata F.—1937, xlix, p. 125.

Buzura suppressaria Guen.—1938, 1, p. 76.

Agathia laetata F.—1938, 1, p. 77.

Sylepta derogata F.—1938, 1, p. 77.

and I am much obliged to the Editors of the Entomologist’s Record

for permission to republish them here.

In some of these I have added further references and also

names of food-plants; such additions are enclosed in brackets.

Since writing the original introduction, a considerable advance in

our knowledge of the early stages has been made by the publication

of Vol. v in the Fauna of British India, Moths—Sphingidae by Bell

and Scott; this contains descriptions and, in many cases coloured

figures or photographs, of all the then known Indian Sphingid

larvae. »

Calcutta, 4-vii-38.

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. xe

INTRODUCTION.

The more easily obtained books, on Indian Lepidoptera are, I

have found, of very little help in the identification of the early

stages; a large number of the few descriptions appearing in Sir

George Hampson’s Moths in the Fauna of British India and in the

Indo-Australian section of Seitz’s Macrolepidoptera of the World

are vague, incomplete and even inaccurate, whilst Evans, in his

Identification of Indian Butterflies, ignores the early stages

altogether.

I have, therefore, made a point of recording brief descriptions

of the various larvae that have passed through my hands in the

hope that they may prove of use to other entomologists working

in India. |

When numbering the somites I have in all cases ignored the

head, the 1st somite 1s, therefore, the one immediately behind the

head, i.e. the first thoracic somite. Further, in spite of the fact

that most of the descriptions are noted as being made from single

larvae, they have all been checked with other examples so that

there is no danger of an aberration masquerading as the usual form.

There is, however, always the possibility of some of these descrip-

tions applying to local forms only.

In cases where the description given in the four volumes of

Moths by Sir George Hampson in the Fauna of British India or

in the English Edition of the Indo-Australian section of Seitz’s

Macrolepidoptera of the World is particularly incomplete or mis-

leading, I have added it to mine with the reference ‘Hampson’ or

‘Seitz’ as the case may be.

London, 7-vil-33.

RHOPALOCERA.

PAPILIONIDA.

Byasa aristolochiae F., aristolochiae.

Moore, Lep. Ind., v, 178, pl. 442, figs. 1, 1a-Ic., 1901-02:

(Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 151, pl. 57, figs. 2a, 2b: 1880-3%,)

Head and legs black. Body velvety black, the 6th somite with

a white transverse band. The skin between the somites dark

purplish crimson. 1st to 3rd somites each with eight coral red

fleshy tubercles, the dorsal four on the 1st somite being very much

smaller than the others. 4th te roth somites each bearing six of

these tubercles, those on the 6th being white, except the lowest

one which is red. i1th and 12th somites with four tubercles.

Osmeterium yellow.

Pupa fawn, very like a curled dead leaf. Thorax keeled with

five white lines anteriorly and two posteriorly diverging from the

keel. Wing cases darker brown and. developing into a lobe

anteriorly. The first three abdominal somites each with a white

lateral U-shaped line. 4th to 7th abdominal somites each bearing a

pair of conspicuous rounded lobes. Suspended by a girdle and tail

pad of dark brown silk. e

Food-plant—Aristolochia sp.

Wins HAREY “STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 393

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 8-x-31,

pupated 12-x-31 and a female emerged 26-x-31.

Seitz does not mention the number of the tubercles nor the

intersegmental colour of the larva and omits the colour of the pupa.

Chilasa:clytia L., clytia.

(Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i,.153, pl. 57, ig. 1b. 1880-81.)

(Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 154, pl. 56, fig. 2b. 1880-81.)

(Moore, Lep. Ind., vi, 84, pl. 502, figs. 1, 1a-1b. 1903.)

Moore, Lep. Ind., vi, 89, pl. 506, figs. 1, 1a-1d. 1903.

Head and legs black. Ground colour black. A wide cream

dorsal stripe from the 1st to the gth somite, a cream lateral stripe

from the rst somite joining the dorsal stripe on the 7th and forming

a trident, and a cream lateral stripe extending backwards from

the roth somite. A subdorsal series of fleshy black tubercles with

a rose pink spot at the base of each. A double lateral series of

rose pink spots, the upper complete and the lower with spots on

the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th and oth somites only. The osmeterium

blue.

Pupa like a broken piece of stick, mottled with various shades

of brown. Cylindrical, the last four abdominal somites hollowed

out below. Thorax not keeled but projecting forward over the

head which is truncate. Supported by a girdle and tail pad of

dark brown silk.

There is no difference between the type and v. dissimilis in

the early stages.

(Food-plant—Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees (Laurineae).)

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 20-iv-31,

pupated 23-iv-31 and a female emerged 4-v-31.

Seitz does not mention the cream-coloured markings and states

that the ‘fork on the neck’ (osmeterium?) is pale-coloured.

(In my original description I omitted to mention that the first

three tubercles of the subdorsal series are double, the additional ones

being slightly smaller.)

Zetides agamemnon L., agamemnon.

Moore, Cat. Leb. Mus. E.I.C.,1,:114, pl. 3, figs: 9,.9a. 1857.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 145, pl. 63, fig. 2a. 1880-81.

Davidson and Aitken, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 363. 1890.

Moone, ep. Ind. vi, 7, pl. 470, figs. 1, Ta-1c. 1903.

Jordan Seitz, Indo-Austr. Rhop., tot.

Head green. Body green with darker indistinct oblique stripes.

Spiracles black. Shape thickened from head to 3rd somite then

tapering. The 1st and 2nd somites each with a small black sub-

dorsal spine, the 3rd with a similar but slightly larger spine with

an orange ring round the base. Anal plate with a pair of spines.

Osmeterium pale green and, when once protruded, not withdrawn

for some time. It is directed forward in a horizontal plane rather

than above the head as in most Papilionid larvae. When at rest

the larva bears a strong resemblance to a large green Pentatomid

bug and this is increased when it is alarmed as the protruded

osmeterium then mimics the bug’s antennae. |

394 ' JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST. “SOCIETY, Wolsexk

Pupa pale green. Thorax with a white dorsal line, which

divides on the first abdominal somite and joins again at the base

of the cremaster. Thorax produced in front into a blunt hom

tipped with brown and this colour continues as a margin along the

outer edge of the wing cases. Head obtuse.

Moore, in Lep. Ceyl., gives Magnoliaceae and Anonaceae as

food-plants.

Described from a full fed Jarva found at Peshoke (2,500)i@

Darjeeling District) 30-xii-36, pupated 4-1-37 and a male emerged

2-11-37.

Bingham, quoting Davidson and Aitken, describes the larva as

having four pairs of spines. This is a little misleading as the

spines on the anal somite:are green and quite different to the black

spines on the thoracic somites.

PIERIDZA.

Huphina nerissa F., evagete Cr.

Moore, Lep, Ceyl.,.1, 136;-pl. 53, fie: 1b: 1386-Sa-

Bell, Journ. Bomb.) Nat’ Hist. Soc. x.0574... 1897.

Typical Pierid larva of a dark velvety green. Very like Pieris

rapae.

Pupa very like that of Pieris rapae in shape. Two colour forms,

one green with head, thoracic keel and a triangular patch on each

side of the metathorax pale brown. The other with the ground

colour darker and similar markings in paler brown.

Food-plant—Capparis sp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 22-x1-30,

pupated 24-xi-30 and a male emerged 5-xi1-30.

Catopsilia crocale Cr.

Moore, “Lep. Ceyl. 1, 122, pl. 48, fie. 1b... “1éS0-Sa.

Bell, fourn. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x, 570. 1807.

(De Nicéville and Kuhn, J.A.S.B., p. 271, pl. 1, figs. 5a, 5b.

1808. )

Typical Pierid larva. Head green with minute black dots.

Skin of the body very rough, green with minute black dots. A

white spiracular line above which is a black dotted one and below

an olive green stripe. Ventral surface whitish green.

Pupa boat-shaped with the thorax slightly keeled and the head

produced to a point. Two colour forms. The one apple green

with a yellow line on the thoracic keel and another lateral one

running from the head along the dorsal edge of the wing case

to the tail. The other form grey green, a dark brown dorsal line

and a pale lateral line. The wing cases and the sides of the

abdomen suffused with dark brown striae. Suspended by a girdle

and tail pad.

Food-plant—Cassia_ sp. |

Described from two full fed larvae found in Calcutta 7-1x-31,

pupated o9-ix-31 and two females emerged 14-1x-31.

Seitz describes the pupa as having black tubercles,

hie. BARELY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 395

Terias hecabe L., hecabe.

Mieonre. ep. Ceyl., 1, 518, pl. 45,.fig..1c. 1880-8r.

Belin ejourn. Bomb. Nat, Mist. Soc., x, 570, pl. 6, figs. 5, 5a.

1897.

Typical Pierid larva, green with a white spiracular line. The

skin rough. |

Pupa with thorax slightly keeled. Very variable in colour.

Some grass green with a dark dorsal line and a black spot at the

base of the wing cases, others have in addition a square black

subdorsal spot on the 2nd abdominal somite and others again have

the wing cases more or less suffused with black and black lateral

suffusion.

Food-plant—Cassia_ spp.

Described from a batch of nine full fed larvae found in Calcutta

17-x-31, pupated 19-x-31 and five males and four females emerged

24-x-31.

Seitz states that the larva has a large black head, this .was not

the case with my specimens.

Terias blanda Bsd., silhetana Wall.

ipellk lotr. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., x; 571, pl. 6, figs. 6, 6a:

1897.

Fruhstorfer Seitz, Indo-Austr. Rhop., ix, 169.

Head large and black. Body yellow green, the anterior portion

usually rather darker owing to the contents of the crop. A barely

distinguishable pale lateral stripe. The appearance is very different

to that of IT. hecabe, whose larva is of a far. bluer green with a

distinct white lateral line and a green head. Gregarious.

Pupa with the thorax compressed and the wing cases forming

a deep keel. Ground colour yellowish, almost obscured by black

suffusion, and a black dorsal line. Suspended by the tail and a

longish girdle. A point of interest is that while all my T. hecabe

larvae have suspended themselves for pupation from the lid of their

tin, the great majority of the blanda larvae pupated on the stems

of their food-plant.

Food-plant—Cassia spp.

Described from a batch of full fed larvae found at Peshoke

(2,500 ft. Darjeeling District) 1-i-37, one of which pupated 13-i-37

and a female emerged 26-1-37.

Pareronia valeria Cr., hippia F.

Belle jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x; 573.° 1897. .

Typical Pierid larva, bright green with a pale dorsal line. Legs

pinkish. A lateral fawn coloured blotch of granular appearance on

the 4th and 1rth somites. A series of oblique dark lateral lines

from the 5th to the roth somite. Anal plate projecting and slightly

forked.

Pupa compressed laterally. Wing cases very large. The head

produced into a beak forming an almost unbroken curve with the

dorsum. Colour whitish green with a dark dorsal and a pale lateral

line. 2nd abdominal somite with a pair of small bleck dots. Wing

cases with a red central and a series of white submarginal spots.

396 f[OURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURALOHISE.SOCIEEY; Vol, Xi

Food-plant—Capparis sp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 1o-i-31,

pupated 12-1-31 and a female emerged 22-1-31.

Seitz describes the larva as being green but mentions no mark-

ings. He compares the shape of the dorsal distal margin of the

pupa to that of an enormous sun helmet.

DANAID 2.

Danais limniace Cr., mutina Fruh.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 1, 4. 1880-81.

Moore, Leps dnd, a, 930, (pl. 76, fia Ai 300-02:

Head very pale green with two black rings. Ground colour

very pale green, each somite with four transverse black lines, the

second being considerably broader than the others and dividing

into two laterally. A yellow sublateral band edged above with

black. A pair of long fleshy filaments on the 2nd and a pair of

short on the r2th somite, coloured pale green with black tips and

with a black line along the anterior and posterior edges. Legs and

prolegs pale green ringed with black. Ventral surface with

indistinct transverse black lines.

Pupa green with the following brillant golden markings. A

beaded dorsal band along the posterior edge of the 4th abdominal

somite. A dorsal and a lateral spot on the 3rd and a dorsal spot

on the 2nd abdominal somite. A subdorsal and a lateral spot on

the metathorax and a dorsal and lateral spot on the mesothorax.

A double spot on the eye. A spot at the base of the wing case,

a subbasal spot and a post median series of two to four spots

placed in a curve. A spot on the edge of the wing case in con-

tinuation of the dorsal band. A very short line at each end of the

transverse dorsal stripe, the cremaster and a U-shaped mark on

the ventrum black. Suspended by the cremaster under a leaf.

Bingham gives Asclepias and Calotropis as food-plants.

Described from a full fed larva and pupa found in Calcutta

25-vill-35, from which a male emerged 26-viii-35.

Danais chrysippus L.

(Moore, Lep. “Ceyl., 1,7, spl. 35she. 1b... 1860-81)

Moore, ep. Ind., 1, 36, pl. 8, tie, a= aSq0-92:

(Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 11. 1905.)

Head grey with two black rings. Ground colour grey, 1st to

t1th somites each with a black transverse central stripe and a

black line on each side. The 2nd to 11th somites each with a

pair of subdorsal elongate yellow spots. 12th somite with a

transverse yellow stripe edged with black. end, 5th and 11th

somites with a pair of subdorsal black filaments, those on the 2nd

longest and pointing forward, the base of the pair on the sth

somite reddish. A yellow lateral stripe. Legs black. Claspers

black banded with grey. Anal plate black.; Ventral surface

blackish with a few grey dots.

Two pupal forms, the one blue green, the other pinkish buff.

Both with a golden spot on the eye, one in the middle of the wing

(ites BAKEY STAGES. OF INDIAN - LEPIDOPTERA 397

case, one at its origin and two near the lateral edge of the meta-

thorax. The abdomen with a dentate ridge on the 4th somite,

black anteriorly and gold posteriorly. Cremaster black. Suspended

by the tail from any suitable support. The green form is usually

found among leaves, the buff form in other situations.

Food-plant—‘Ak’ (Calotropis procera R. Br.).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 27-x-31,

pupated 29-x-3r and a male emerged 6-x1-31.

Seitz mentions a wax yellow pupal form but I have never seen

it.

Muploew cove Cr., core.

(Moone, dhep. aIind.1, 81, pl. 23, fies. 1, Ta. 1890-92.)

Head shining black edged with white, a white mark above the

jaws and a white line running from the side of the mandibles to

the median suture forming a triangle. Body chocolate brown ringed

with white, a brick red line edged below with white along the

spiracles, which are black. Paired black subdorsal fleshy filaments

em the 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 11th somites, those on the 2nd being

longest. A transverse black line on the 2nd and 3rd somites joining

the bases of the filaments. Ventral surface dark brown. Anal plate

black. There is another form of the larva in which the chocolate

and white markings are replaced by a dark and light shade of

purplish grey.

Pupa brilliantly gilded with fawn coloured markings. Cremaster

and last abdominal somite black. Suspended from the underside of

a leaf and somewhat resembling a drop of water shining in the

sun. The fawn markings are more pronounced in those pupae

that develop in shady places.

Food-plant—Oleander and Peepul (Ficus religiosa Linn.), vide

Entomologist, Ixvi, p. 118.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 30-ix-30,

pupated 5-x-30 and a male emerged 12-x-30.

Seitz mentions an emerald green Poca of pupa with a brilliant

metallic gloss on the head, but I have never come across it.

SATYRIDA.

Elymnias hypermnestra L., undularis Drury.

(Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 171. 1905.)

Head square, pinkish brown outlined with yellow, and divided

above into a pair of horns. Skin rough and pubescent. Body

bright apple green with a fine double yellow dorsal line, a subdorsal

yellow line bearing a red spot on the 8th, 9th and 1toth somites and

a blue dot on the 8th and oth. A thin yellow line running along

just above the spiracles with another below it. The last somite

produced into a pair of processes about + inch long, yellow at

the base and shading into reddish at the apex. In some examples

the red dorsal spots are obsolete.

Pupa apple green. The head divided into two short horns

marked at the base with pink. The upper edge of the wing cases

marked with pink and with a pink spot in the cell. Thorax keeled,

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIERVS Vol. wel

the keel yellow outlined in pink, with two subdorsal pink spots.

The abdomen with a subdorsal line broken up into yellow and pink

spots. Trace of a similar lateral line. The last abdominal somites

strongly curved so that the pupa, instead of hanging, lies parallel

to the leaf to which it is attached. Fixed to the underside of a

leaf of the food-plant by the cremaster.

Food-plant—Palms of various species.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 14-x-30,

pupated 18-x-30 and a female emerged 26-x-30.

Seitz does not mention the long anal processes.

NYMPHALIDZ.

Euthalia garuda Moore, suddhodana Fruhs.

(Moore, Cai. Lep. Mus. E.I.C., 1, 186, pl. "6, figs. 2, 2a, 1857)

(Moore, Lep. Ind., iii, 115, pl. 234, figs. 1, 1a-1d. 1896-99.)

Head green, body green with a pale dorsal stripe and a pale

mauve transverse line on each somite. <A series of eleven feathery

scoli, about 2ths of an inch long, arising subdorsally, the first pair

pointing forwards, the 2nd to 1oth pairs sideways and the 11th

pair backwards.

Pupa green. The head lobed with a brown spot on each

projection. A lateral and a dorsal brown spot on the thorax, a

gilt and brown line between the 3rd and 4th abdominal somites

dorsally. Shape, ventral surface flattish; thorax and first three

abdominal somites flat with a median keel and rising to a point,

the posterior somites with a slight median keel.

Food-plant—Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 16-i-32, pupated

T9-1-32 and a female emerged ?-11-32.

Seitz describes a form of the larva in which the transverse lines

are yellow.

Aglais cashmirensis Koll., aesis Fruhs.

Head black with rufous bristly pubescence. Ground colour

black sprinkled with yellow specks, which are thickest on each side

of the dorsal line. sist somite spineless, 2nd and 3rd each with

four (subdorsal and lateral) and 4th to 11th somite each with seven

(sublateral, lateral, subdorsal and dorsal) branched spines. 12th

and 13th somites with the subdorsal spines only. Legs -black.

Prolegs tinged with green. When young lives gregariously in a

web.

Pupa with head bilobed, thorax rising to a point and with six

short subdorsal paired spines along the abdomen. Colour pinkish

stone colour, some being darker and greyer. Slight gilding on

the posterior portion of the thorax and on the first pair of abdominal

spines. In some specimens the gilding extends over the whole

body.

All stages are very like the European A. urticae L.

Food-plant—Nettle.

Described from one of a batch of full fed larvae found in

Darjeeling 1o0-v-35, pupated 12-v-35 and a male emerged 28-v-35.

tHE EARLY STAGES: OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 399

LYCAENIDZ.

Cosmolyce (Lampides) boeticus L.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind.,. Butterflies, 11, 432. 1907.

Head retractile, brown. About half an inch long of typical

Lycaenid woodlouse shape. Varies in colour from pale to dark

green, some specimens being suffused with purplish. A dark

dorsal and a pale lateral line. Each somite with a dark subdorsal

oblique line directed backwards. The divisions between the somites

shallow. The gland and tubercles not very noticeable.

-Pupa bone colour, the head and thorax slightly darker and shaded

with black. A dark dorsal line. Each abdominal somite with four

subdorsal black spots, a pair on each side of the dorsal line. Anal

end rounded. Supported by a girdle of silk in a spun together

leaf. |

Food-plant—Lupins and Peas, preferring the flowers and seeds.

De Nicéville records it feeding on the flowers and pods of Crotalaria

striata DC. and there are probably few leguminous plants on whose

flowers and seeds it would not feed. ,

Has the common Lycaenid habit of devouring its pupating

fellow larvae. Imagines emerge about 9 a.m.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta

I-11-35, one of which pupated 8-11-35 and a female emerged 17-11-35.

Bingham, quoting De Nicéville, describes the larva as being

pale, dull green without markings except for the dark dorsal line.

He also describes the pupa as being pale yellowish green.

Pratapa deva Moore, lila Moore.

Seitz ocitz, Indo-Ausiy. Rhop., 1x, 971.

Pupa darker or paler olive brown. The following chalky white

marks, a short streak on each side of the head, a trident-shaped

mark on the metathorax with the handle pointing forwards, the

whole of the abdomen with the exception of the dorsum of the rst

somite and a lateral stripe. Resembles a bird dropping. Suspended

by the tail without any girdle.

Described from a number of pupae found on the trunk of an

orange tree at Peshoke (2,500 ft. Darjeeling District) 30-x1i-36,

from one of which a male emerged 13-i-37.

A pupating larva found at the same time was pale pinkish ivory

in colour with the thoracic somites humped. It is said to feed

on Loranthus.

Rathinda amor F.

Head retractile. Ground colour bright green, olive green or dull

purple. The green forms with a brown transverse band on the 4th

and a brown dorsal patch on the 6th to 8th somites, the purple

forms with the same markings a little darker than the ground

colour. A white lateral line from the 5th to 1oth somite. The

2nd and 3rd somites with a pair of subdorsal horn-like projections,

the pair on the third somite being the longer. <A single dorsal

projection on the 4th somite. The 5th somite bearing a long dorsal

and a long lateral projection. The 6th to 9th somites each bearing

400;° JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST~ SOCIEDT YAS Vol, we

a dorsal projection, that on the 6th very short, the 7th and 8th

slightly longer and that on the oth long. The 1oth somite with a

short dorsal projection and a long lateral one.

Pupa shaped like that of a Syrphid, green with a brown dorsal

patch.

Food-plant—A cultivated garden shrub with bright scarlet flowers

(Ixora sp.). The larvae prefer the flowers and the young berries

to the leaves.

Described from full fed larvae found in Calcutta 10-vii-32,

pupated 12-vil-32 and males and females emerged 20-vii-32.

Seitz described the larva as being ‘Green with purplish red

cones of ‘different; lengths =

GRY POGERA.

Suastus gremius F. gremius.

Kershaw, -Buit. Hone Kone e125, ple 14.

De Nice., Inds Mus. Notes, 170.

Head brown with pale central and lateral stripes. Body glaucous

green with a dark dorsal line. Spiracles black. Anal plate large

and broad, the body flattened posteriorly.

Food-plant—Palms of various species on which the larva lives

in a turned over leaf.

Pupa very moth-like, enclosed in a cell made from a spun

together leaf and covered with a waxy powder. Yellow green with

the last somite and cremaster reddish brown. Thorax darker green

with a lateral reddish spot anteriorly.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 11-x1i-31,

pupated 16-x11-31 and a male emerged 10-11-32.

Udaspes folus Cr.

Kershaw, (Butt, ono. Kone 126-27) pla.

Larva slug-like. Head dull black, heart-shaped and small for

the size of the larva. Thoracic somites very slender giving the

appearance of a neck. Colour bluish green due to the contents of

the intestines and the blood, the skin itself being unpigmented.

Anal plate very broad and flat. A white mealy blotch ventrally

between each pair of claspers.

The larva lives in a turned over leaf on various sorts of

Monocotyledons.

Pupa very pale green, torpedo-shaped with the head produced

to a long snout. Attached by a girdle and the cremaster in a

waxy cell. During the pigmentation of the developing imago, the

eyes become red but later darken to black.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 17-x-30,

pupated 20-x-30 and a male emerged r1-1i-31.

HETEROCERA.

ZYGAENIDZ.

Trypanophora senuhyalina Koll.

Moore, 2ep. Mus, TC. nl, plexi nie so,

ie BARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 401

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 249. 1892.

Jordan Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 14.

Head brown and retractile. Ground colour dark brown, a lateral

yellow patch extending back from the 9th somite. A series of

small subdorsal tubercles, those on the 2nd somite red and double,

on the 3rd black and double, on the 4th to 9th black and single

and on the roth yellow. <A sublateral series of tubercles, those on

the 2nd and 3rd somites red and double, on the 4th to 6th red

and single, on the 7th and 8th black and on the oth to rith

yellow. Spiracles black. Ventral surface and claspers orange red.

Pupa yellow with the thorax a little darker. Enclosed in a

thin cocoon of papery white silk.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn. and L. Flos-reginae

Netz.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 26-x-31, pupated

29-x-31 and a female emerged 12-xi-31.

ARCTIIDZ.

Roeselia fola Swinh.

Head yellowish. The body thickly clothed with dark hair. A

remarkable feature is that the head capsules are not got rid of at

each ecdysis but adhere one to the other, a full grown larva often

carrying a chain of five or six. Before fully mature the larva is

covered with pale pink fluff, this is shed during the last instar

revealing the dark hair.

Pupa reddish brown, rather long. Enclosed in a cocoon spun

along a twig and composed of silk, hair and woody fragments.

Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 23-x-31,

pupated 27-x-31 and a female emerged 3-x1-31.

Agandis ficus F.

Hamps., fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 504. 1892.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 225.

Penultimate instar. Head and legs brownish black. Ist somite

orange with a black median patch. The rest of the body with a

black median line, a white dorsal stripe, a black subdorsal stripe

with transverse white lines and an orange lateral stripe. A pair

of dorsal black spots on each somite. The oth somite entirely

black. Ventral surface orange red.

Final instar. Head and legs brownish black. Ground colour

blackish, the ventral surface and claspers orange red. A_ lateral

yellow patch on the 5th and oth somites. rst to 3rd somites each

with eight red papillae bearing white hairs. 4th to 11th somites

each with ten similar papillae. Some specimens have fine white

transverse lines on the dorsum and a broken pale yellow spiracular

line.

Pupa reddish brown, very noctuid in shape and enclosed in an

earthen cocoon on the surface of the ground.

Food-plant—Peepul (Ficus religiosa Linn.).

Described from a batch of larvae found in Calcutta 6-v-32,

pupated 13-v-32 and males and females emerged 24-v-32.

402° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIBEY © Vol. (xk:

Asota cdricae Bsd. (alciphron Cr.).

Moore, ep. Ceyla-11,- 52; pl w1o2, ic eerie ee oe-eR.

Hamps., fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 502. 1892.

Seitz: Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 227.

Head black marked behind with red. 1st somite with a red

transverse band and a black median patch. A black median line,

a white subdorsal stripe with a black dot on each somite, a black

lateral stripe and an interrupted white spiracular line. Last somite

reddish. Ventral surface dark brown. Claspers pinkish. Clad

with sparse white hairs. The larvae are gregarious and very

active falling to the ground at the slightest touch.

Pupa reddish brown, very noctuid in appearance. Enclosed in

an earthen cocoon on the surface of the ground.

Food-plant—Ficus hispida Linn.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 16-i-32, pupated

1g-1-32 and a male emerged 5-11-32.

Hampson describes the larva as-being ‘black above, brown

below; two dorsal white bands, a subdorsal black speck on each

somite; a series of lateral black specks; sparse black hairs; the

head red’.

Spilarctia obliqua Wk.

Roths. Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 243 (ab. dahlbergiae

Moore).

Ova spherical, pale green. Laid in large batches.

Young larva with the head black. Ground colour yellowish,

the first three and last three somites marked with black. A sub-

dorsal blackish stripe. Hair pale on the pale somites and mixed

with black on the black ones. Legs and claspers black. After the

grd moult there is a series of indistinct pale oblique lateral stripes

and the posterior portion of the pale somites is dark grey.

Full grown larva with the head black. Ground colour dark

grey, the 1st to 3rd and 11th to 13th somites black with the inter-

segmental areas whitish. 4th to roth somites with anterior half

rufous orange. A pale dorsal stripe. A sublateral series of pale

oblique stripes. The hair pale except on the 1st to 3rd-andariun

to 13th somites, where it is mixed with black. Legs and claspers

black.

Pupa of the usual Arctiid shape and dark red in colour, in

a cocoon of brownish silk mixed with larval hair.

Food-plant—Sunflower, Antirrhinum and probably many other

low plants.

Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta,

one of which pupated 26-i1i-38 and a male emerged 2-iv-38.

Seitz describes the larva of ab. dahlbergiae, Moore as ‘black,

very long haired’. My larvae gave both ab. dahlbergiae and

typical imagines and there was no apparent difference in the larvae.

Utetheisa pulchella L. |

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, uu, 55. 1894.

Ova pale yellow, spherical with the base flattened slightly. Laid

in lines with a space between each ovum. Hatch on the fourth day.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 403

Larva—Head rufous. Body blackish with a white dorsal stripe

interrupted in the middle of each somite by a transverse black

edged reddish bar. A pale lateral stripe and a white sublateral

line, each with a series of black centred orange tubercles giving

rise to a white hair. Each somite with two black tubercles on

each side of the dorsal stripe, the anterior pair being rather closer

together, these each give rise to a black hair except those on the

ist to 3rd and roth to 12th somites, which have a white and

somewhat longer hair. Ventral surface greenish with a blackish

lateral stripe. Legs and prolegs marked with blackish. The ground

colour fades to a greyish tint prior to each moult and the markings

are then more noticeable.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of white silk. Chestnut brown, the

thorax blackish except for a central stripe, a blackish transverse

stripe on each of the abdominal somites. Wing cases striped with

black along the veins. Leg and antenna sheaths black striped.

In some pupae the black markings on the thorax and wing cases

are less pronounced.

Food-plant—Dahlia, but this may not be a natural one. South

in Moths of the British Isles gives Myosotis and records that the

larva is said not to feed in the absence of sunshine. Mine did not

do this.

Described from a full fed larva from a number bred from ova

in Calcutta, pupated 30-11-38 and a female emerged 5-iv-38.

Hampson gives the following rather incomplete description :—

‘Larva dark grey, with a dorsal white band and subdorsal series

of red spots; head yellow.’

Argina argus Koll.

Moore, ep. Ceyl., i, 69, pi. 105, fies. tb, 1c: 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit.. Ind. Moths, ti; 51.. 1894.

Seize. al. Bombyces, iW. 7A. .

Head reddish brown, black at the sides. Body blackish with a

broad white dorsal stripe. An interrupted red sublateral line from

the 4th to the roth somite. <A few hairs.

Pupa in a slight web. Yellowish brown with the following

black markings. On the abdomen a large dorsal and subdorsal

spot on each somite and a double median and broad lateral stripe

ventrally. On the thorax a U-shaped mark. On the wing cases

a costal stripe, a broad median streak dividing at the outer margin

into four and a broad stripe along the inner margin. Leg sheaths

streaked with black.

Food-plant—A leguminous plant with large yellow flowers. The

larva bores into the pods, which are pubescent, thick and about an

inch and a half long, eating the unripe seeds and leaving a

conspicuous hole.

Described from a number of larvae found at Peshoke (2 ,500 ft.

Darjeeling District) 26-xii-36, one of which pupated 10-i-37 and a

male emerged 29-i-37.

Hampson’s description is ‘Larva purple black, with a few dorsal

hairs; head-and a lateral line from gth to roth somites reddish ;

a dorsal series of transverse white streaks.’

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

LYMANTRIIDZ.

Dasychira mendosa Hbn.

Moore, Lep. Cel. mi, (96, plas, tie. 4b. 1882-80.

(Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 452. 1892.)

(Strand Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 292.)

Head, legs and claspers crimson. Ist somite white with four

longitudinal crimson stripes and bearing subdorsal pencils of dark

grey hair pointing forward. 4th to 7th somites with short dorsal

tufts of greyish white hair, the skin between these somites velvety

black. A lateral tuft of white hair on the 4th and another of

plumose black and white hair on the 5th somite. A dorsal pencil

of dark grey hair pointing backward on the 11th somite. Ground

colour grey, a lateral series of crimson spots on a white line. 4th

to 11th somites with a subdorsal series, the 8th to roth bearing

in addition a dorsal pair, of red spots. An interrupted white

median line bearing a red spot on the 8th and 9th somites.

Pupa dark brown dorsally, the first three abdominal somites

with patches of golden brown pubescence. Wing cases and ventral

surface greenish. Enclosed in a cocoon of white silk mixed with

larval hairs.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn. (Crape Myrtle).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 9-xu-31,

pupated 15-x1i-31 and a female emerged 23-x11-31.

Hampson describes another form of the larva with the ground

colour blackish and the dorsal tufts bright yellow. All my

specimens, however, have been of the grey form with greyish white

tufts.

Varmina indica WIk.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 435. 1892.

Head and legs brown. Ground colour rufous with a paler dorsal

line and a black subdorsal and lateral stripe. The skin on the

dorsum between the 1st, 2nd and 3rd somites also black. 15st

somite with a dorsal fringe of pale hair projecting forward over

the head and a pencil of long grey hair arising subdorsally. 2nd

to roth somites each with a subdorsal tuft of pale yellowish hair

and a slighter lateral tuft springing from a reddish tubercle. Each

tuft with one or two hairs very much longer than the others. 11th

somite with a dorsal pencil of dark grey hair, 12th somite with

a few scattered long grey hairs. Spiracles white ringed with black.

A black stripe running from each spiracle to the anterior edge of

the somite, where it joins the lateral stripe. Ventrum with an

interrupted black stripe.

Another larva was completely black with white spiracles.

Pupa dark reddish brown in a cocoon of thin yellowish silk

mixed with larval hairs.

Food-plant—A shrub rather like the English Dogwood.

_ Described from a full fed larva found in Darjeeling 15-v-35,

pupated 21-v-35 and a female emerged 7-vi-35.

‘Hampson describes the larva as ‘black, speckled with white

and with dorsal and lateral tufts of hair arising from fulvous

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA —. 405

tubercles; the thoracic and anal somites with reddish tufts, the

medial with grey, 4th and 11th somites with long dorsal black

tufts.’

Orgyia postica Wk.

Moore, ep. Ceyl., ii, 78, pl- too, fig. rb. - 1882-83.

(Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 436. 1892.)

(Strand Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 301.)

Head reddish brown. 1st somite with subdorsal pencils of long

dark plumose hair projecting forward. Short dorsal tufts of yellow

hair from the 4th to 7th somite. Lateral tufts of white hair on

the 4th and 5th somites. <A dorsal pencil of long brown hair on

the 11th somite directed backwards. Ground colour blackish with

a pale subdorsal line. A series of small lateral pinkish spots tufted

with hair.

Pupa whitish, the thorax and first four abdominal somites dark

brown. Enclosed in a cocoon of whitish silk mixed with larval

hair.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn. (Crape Myrtle).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 15-i-32, pupated

18-1-32 and a male emerged 24-1-32.

Hampson describes the larva as ‘yellowish, sparsely clothed

with brown hair; one dorsal and two lateral brown bands; paired

tufts of long brown hair on the 1st and 11th somites projecting

forward and backward; lateral tufts of grev hair from 4th and 5th

somites; dorsal tufts of yellow hair on 4th to 7th somites; the

head red,’ and this description is copied almost word for word by

Seitz.

Perina nuda F,

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 94, pl. 114, fig. rb. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 486. 1892.

Head grey and pubescent. Ground colour pinkish grey. 1st

somite with a red lateral tubercle tufted with grey hair and a

dorsal pair of black or red spots. 2nd and 3rd somites with an

olive green lateral band, bearing two pink spots on each somite.

4th and 5th somites each with a dorsal hump covered with short

hair. A broad olive green dorsal band from the 4th somite

backward. 4th to 11th somites each with a subdorsal blue spot

ringed with black and bearing a few black bristles. A white

dorsal papilla on the gth and a red on the 1oth somite. A series

of lateral tubercles tufted with grey hair. Legs, prolegs and

ventral surface whitish.

Pupa under a very slight web spun over the fold of a leaf.

Head, wing cases and ventral surface whitish. Thorax yellow

green with a chestnut coloured transverse band anteriorly, a dorsa\

chestnut stripe and a lateral series of five black spots. Abdominal

somites bright green, all but the 3rd and 4th with a chestnut dorsal

patch, which is edged laterally on the posterior somites with black.

Tufted with golden yellow hair.

Food-plant—Ficus of various species. Moore gives Acanthads,

but this seems unlikely. |

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-vill-35

pupated 27-vill-35 and a female emerged 31-vill-35.

Porthesia (Euproctis) scintillans Wk.

(Moore; -Lep. Ceyl., 15 86, 87, pl. 101, es: tb, eae s2-oRs

(Biles, di bet vile 123, (plee136, (nen 10 16509)

(Hamips., Jil sklet. ix, 177) <plaet 7255 i) bee eetooge)

Hamps.; Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1,°433.) .1s92:

Strand Seitz, Indo-Austr, Bombyces, x, 333.

Head yellow brown. Ground colour blackish. <A pair of red

tubercles tufted with hair on the rst somite. A pale corsal stripe

from the rst to the 3rd somite, the portion on the 3rd being yellow

with a red central line. A black dorsal swelling on the 4th and

another on the 5th somite, that on the 4th edged anteriorly and

laterally and that on the 5th posteriorly with yellow. A_ yellow

dorsal stripe from the 6th to the 1oth somite with a red central

line. A black dorsal swelling on the 11th somite. 4th to roth

somites with raised black lateral patches dotted with white.

Pupa. Yellowish brown, thorax and wing cases. greenish.

Abdominal somites with a subdorsal and lateral dark line. Enclosed

in a thin cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hairs.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn. (Crape Myrtle).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 18-x-31,

pupated 22-x-31 and a male emerged 31-x-31.

Hampson describes three other forms of larva, but omits this,

the only form I have seen. Seitz’s description is as follows :—

‘Head and legs brown, head with two hair tufts on red tubercles.

Dorsum white with a red streak, the third joint with a red tubercle,

4th and 5th joints with black hair tufts, penultimate joint with

a black torus, last joint brown. On the sides greyish brown and

red longitudinal stripes.’ He does not give the’ food-plant.

LASIOCAMPIDZ.

Metanastria hyrtaca Cr.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11,4148, pl 141; ie; baw 1882-82.

Porsayeth, (vans. Ent. Soc. pl. xv, eS. 13,5 3a, Dea loowe

Hamps., Fauna Brit: Ind., Moths, i, 410. 1892.

Head purplish grey brown, minutely speckled with darker. A

‘dark brown median stripe divided into two above the mouthparts.

Body purplish grey brown streaked. and speckled with darker. — ist

and 2nd somites with a dark brown dorsal stripe, narrow anteriorly

and broadening posteriorly. 3rd to 11th somites each with a

dorsal hexagonal dark brown blotch, the whole forming a chain,

the blotch on the 8th somite rather paler in colour. <A short lateral

oblique dark streak on each somite. Except the 1st, each somite

with four blue warts with dark hairs. The 2nd somite with a dorsal

tuft, the anterior portion of short buff spatulate hairs, the posterior

portion with longer black simple hairs, the skin between black.

3rd somite with a transverse fold, the sia of which is deep scarlet

but which only shews when. the larva-is alarmed. Each somite with

a lateral tubercle with a fan-shaped tuft of pale hair, immediately

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 407

above which is a smaller tuft of buff coloured spatulate hair.

Ventral surface black with yellow streaks and specks, which are

more pronounced laterally. Prolegs marked with orange. True

legs blackish ringed with paler. Some larvae are without the dark

dorsal blotches, which are replaced by a zig-zag subdorsal line.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hairs and

spun in a leaf. Colour purplish brown. Thorax thickly covered

with short pale hair, parted centrally and directed sideways. The

abdominal somites ringed with dark rufous hair. Head, wing, leg

and antenna cases smooth.

Food-plant—Mimusops Elengi Linn. (Sapotaceae). The larvae

feed at night and rest gregariously on the trunk during the daytime.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 20-1v-38,

pupated 1-v-38 and a male emerged 15-v-38.

There seems to have been some confusion over the situation of

the scarlet transverse fold. Hampson places it on the 2nd somite

and Moore between the 4th and 5th.

BOMBYCID2.

Ocinara varians Wk.

Moore, ep. Ceyl., 11, 136, pl, 133, fie. tb. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 35. 1892.

Ova flattened discs. Yellow with a slightly varnished appear-

ance. Laid in rows of eight to twelve. They become dark leaden

grey the day before hatching. Hatch on the fourth day.

Young larva with the head greyish. Body with 2nd somite

somewhat swollen. Dorsum whitish grey, a darker grey lateral

stripe with a tooth projecting onto the dorsum on the 5th and 8th

somites. A short fleshy grey horn on the 11th somite.

Full grown larva. Head brownish with a darker inverted V.

Dorsum brownish, a dark greyish lateral stripe marked with orange

brown on the 5th to roth somites. Horn brown tipped with white,

fleshy, not chitinised as in the Sphingidae. The larva is very

variable, the dorsum may be any shade of yellow brown, grey

brown or red brown, sometimes mottled and speckled with blackish,

and the lateral stripe may be greyish or the same colour as the

dorsum. Ventral surface greenish grey. Legs pale brown.

Pupa yellowish white, very slightly chitinised. In a boat-shaped

cocoon of pale yellow silk, very closely woven and hard. Usually

spun in a slight depression in a leaf.

~ Food-plant—Peepul (Ficus religiosa Linn.).

Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta,

one of which pupated 23-vi-38 and a male emerged 27-vi-38.

Both Moore and Hampson describe the horn as being on the

anal somite.

SPHINGIDE.

Deilephila nerit L.

Moore, ep. Ceyi., 11, 24, pil. 82, fig. 1a. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 94. 18a2.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Bell and Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 268, pl. 3, figs. ro,

TI 1937.

Ovum—Usual Sphingid type but rather small for the size of

the insect. Deposited night 23-vii-36. Hatched morning 30-vii-36.

1st instar—Head round, pale green. Body yellowish green.

Horn black. Moulted 1-viii-36. |

2nd instar—Head round, pale green. Body pale green, at first

without markings but later two blue ringed white spots appear on

the subdorsal part of the 3rd somite and a bluish lateral line dotted

with white along the abdomen. Horn black, the base yellow.

Moulted 3-viii-36.

3rd instar-—Very similar to the previous one. The bluish lateral

stripe edged above with yellow. A transverse line of white dots

along the anterior edge of the 5th, 6th and 7th somites with the

beginnings of a second line at the sides. 8th somite with similar

spotting but the line broken on the dorsum. Moulted 5-viii-36.

4th instar—Similar to the preceding. The legs pink. The spots

on the 3rd somite joined together into a kidney-shaped blotch only

visible when the thoracic somites are extended. Spiracles black.

Horn with the basal half stout and yellow green, the apical half

very thin and hyaline, the two parts divided by a black ring.

Moulted 7-vili-36.

Final instar—Similar to the preceding. Legs purplish. The

spot on the 3rd somite with a dark indigo ring shading into the

white centre. The lateral stripe almost obsolete on the 4th somite

and the white lateral dots not present on the anterior part of the

4th, the posterior part of the 9th nor on the roth somite. Horn

yellow, very short and thick and curved downwards. Before pupation

the ground colour changes; the head, the dorsal portion of the

1st somite and the area from the base of the horn to the 4th

somite above the lateral line turning brown, this colour extending

as a wedge along the dorsum of the 3rd somite. The rest of the

body pinkish orange. Ceased feeding to-vili-36. Pupated 12-viii-36.

Pupa—In a loose cocoon among litter on the surface of the soil.

Pinkish tinged with orange, the abdominal somites sprinkled with

black specks. Spiracles broadly ringed with black. A black median

line on the thorax and ventrally from the head to the end of the

wing cases. A male emerged 23-vill-36.

Food-plant—Oleander (Nerium odorum Soland).

Described from one of a number of larvae bred from ova in

Calcutta.

Hampson describes the larva as ‘Green, with a bluish lateral

band from 4th somite to horn, with white oval spots on it, and

others above and below it; 3rd somite with a blue ocellus; horn

yellow.’

(To be continued).

—————

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS.

E. H. N. LOWTHER, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

(With 6 plates).

III].—Birps In My GARDEN.

(Continued from page 560 of Volume xxxix).

By ‘my garden’ I mean the gardens of the different bungalows

I have occupied during a service of over a quarter of a century

spent with the East Indian Railway, in the exigencies of which

I have from time to time been posted in different parts of Bengal,

Bihar and the United Provinces. |

Looking through my notes I find myself confronted with such

an embarras de vichesse that I hardly know where to start. I see

that I have come across the nests of forty-five different species in

the gardens of bungalows in which I have lived. Twenty-two of

the number were found in one garden alone, in the Agra district.

Over and above this, I have discovered the nests of nine additional

species in my friends’ gardens, including that of a Grey Hornbill,

which found a nesting tree in Hume’s old compound at Etawah.

SUNBIRDS.

Much has been written lately concerning the manner in which

the Purple Sunbird builds its nest—I ought perhaps to have said

her nest because the male takes no part in this task. Nevertheless

what I have observed may not be without interest. On 5 April

1922, while seated in a ‘long-sleever’ enjoying my palan que char,

I noticed a female Sunbird flying from one bush to another,

obviously prospecting for a nesting site. The choice eventually

fell upon a slender twig of a small lime tree. As soon as this

important question had been decided, the little bird busied herself

with fetching materials for the home that was to hold her eggs.

She had not far to go. Cobwebs, small pieces of bark or decayed

wood, carpenters’ shavings, bits of torn-up paper, cotton, cocoons,

miscellaneous rubbish—are they not all to be found somewhere in

every compound? However, even allowing for the fact that the

materials were close at hand, I was surprised, the following

morning, when I timed her in her building operations. Forty visits

in forty and a half minutes, and fifty in sixty and a half minutes!

Consider what this means—searching for the material, flying with

it to the nest, incorporating it in the structure and then flying

away to bring more, and it will be realised she allowed herself no

respite. At 8-15, the Sunbird showed signs of feeling the effects

of her labours and the visits to the nest then slowed down

419 .JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCEHIMY sViolomeae

appreciably. Possibly this was due to a shortage of materials;

more probably it was because of the heat; at all events, from

mid-day till 2-30 she did not go near the nest. I imagine,

like every other sensible person, up-country, she felt she needed

a rest in the afternoon. Nevertheless, when I returned from office

that evening, the pendent home was roughly fashioned, even down

to the entrance hole. This nest held the first.ego on 117 Apmliace

that only six days were spent in its construction. Altogether three

eges were laid—a somewhat unusual clutch, two being the normal

number. The eggs are a dirty-white in ground colour, with

greyish-brown spots. A peculiarity about this species is that it

frequently rears two broods in the same nest. I have a note also

of it laying three lots of eggs in a nest I had under observation

in my garden at Allahabad. Each clutch was.destroyed, possibly

by a Crow-Pheasant or blood-sucker lizard, though the nest was

not damaged in any way until the third clutch was ravished.

Only once did I see the husband of the busy female, whose

industry I have just related,—at least I presume he was her lawfully

wedded spouse—go anywhere near the nest while it was being

built. He perched on a neighbouring lime tree, rattled off a few

canary-like notes, gave his wife the ‘once over’ and then, when

she flew off to fetch more materials, pursued another of the opposite

sex! Not only does the male Purple Sunbird not assist in building

the nest but I have never seen him incubate. When, however,

the eggs have hatched, he takes a more active interest in family

affairs and is to be seen frequently feeding the young although

even in this respect he is never so assiduous as the female.

Woop-SHRIKES.

I have never been able to understand how it was that Hume

succeeded only once in finding the nest of the Common Indian Wood-

Shrike. In those parts of the United Provinces with which I am

familiar, which were its happy huting grounds too, it is a common

species, frequenting mango and seesum groves as well as orchards

and gardens. Perhaps it is because of its dull grey plumage that

the bird so commonly escapes notice; nevertheless its note is a

peculiar whistle which never fails to attract attention. The nest,

if searched for in the ordinary way, is difficult to locate, though

the reverse is the case if, in March and April, the birds are patiently

watched. Like the White-browed Fantail Flycatcher and the Small

Minivet, they are indefatigable workers, and during these months

it is a simple matter with a good pair of field-glasses to watch either

sex carrying materials to the nest under construction. Moreover

the species is intolerant of the presence of other birds or small

animals too close to its home. It was due to this little failing

that I found my first Wood-Shrike’s nest, built high up in a seesum

tree. Since then I have on several occasions found the nest of

this species in my garden, usually wedged into the horizontal fork

of a nim tree, only, however, in the western districts of the

United Provinces.

I know of no prettier sight than a Wood-Shrike building its

nest. Both sexes engage in the task, and frequently, while one

RN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A COMMON WOOD SHRIKE FEEDING ITS YOUNG.

-— ~

7 - a

- a ®)

' 7 -

Rrs be a :

7 os

= . :

. L

. )

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 411

bird is at the nest the other arrives with more material. The

latter will not, however, ‘do anything about it’ until the first arrival

has taken its departure. About the third or fourth day, the future

nursery assumes something approaching its final shape. Then it

is that the Wood-Shrike is frequently seen in the nest, applying

cobwebs to the exterior, smoothing things down with its beak, which

is used like a trowel, first working to the right and then to the

left, and finally giving strength to the whole structure by

pressing the sides inwards with its chin, all the while turning

round and round in the nest. Ordinarily, three eggs are laid.

Out of about 4o nests that I have examined, only once have

I known this number exceeded, and then the nest contained

a newly-hatched chick and three eggs. In the case of a nest built

in my garden, incubation lasted fourteen days from the laying of

the last egg. Both sexes take part in this task and sit closely.

When the eggs are hatching, Wood-Shrikes seem to have no thought

for matters mundane; their whole attention is concentrated on the

little bodies that are coming into the world. On such an occasion,

I once photographed at close range, and without using the hiding

tent, a pair of these birds at their nest. So extraordinarily

confiding was the female that, incredible though it may sound, she

not only twice allowed me to lift her off her nest and put her back

again, but even permitted me to place a finger between her open

mandibles. While all this took place the male remained perched

on the nest-bough only a few inches beyond the nest.

NUTHATCHES.

The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch is a common visitor to those

gardens where old mango and siris trees occur, and the sight of

the bird, as it runs up or down or even sideways along the trunk

of some gnarled giant, almost invariably leads the novice to believe

he has spotted a really uncommon species. Wauith the Tree Creeper

he is usually familiar, but the slaty-blue upper plumage of the

Nuthatch is to him an unknown quantity and therefore the bird is

at once put down as ‘rare’. Although it is so generally distributed,

I confess to having found a Nuthatch’s nest only once in a friend’s

garden and to having seen but three nests of Sitta c. castanea

during twenty-seven years. I attribute my failure to the fact that the

bird is a very early nester—nesting operations commence in February

or the beginning of March at the latest—and my attention at this

time of the year is usually directed to the different birds of prey.

The nest may be low down, or high up, in a tree. A natural hole

serves for the nursery but the hole is plastered up with mud and

clay till the entrance is only about 14 inches in diameter—just large

enough to admit the owners. The ease with which a Nuthatch

enters and leaves the nest-hole is amazing. To me the bird always

appears to be unusually broad-shouldered but it literally ‘packs’

itself up, and lo! we have multum in parvo !

The 30th of March 1938 opened in a most disappointing manner

for me. I had gone to Etawah hoping to photograph a Common

Quail on its nest. On arrival there, I found that my zamindar

friend had been wrong in his identification. The bird whose nest

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

he had found was the Jungle Bush-Quail, which I had _ preyiously

photographed, and with the cutting of the arhar crop (in which

the nest was situated) the eggs had been deserted. It was while

breakfasting in my saloon, musing over my bad luck-that I noticed

a Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch working a nim tree and even descending

to the ground in search of food. When the bird flew away and

shortly returned, my curiosity was really roused. Following the

Nuthatch on its departure again, with the glasses, I quickly found

the nest-hole, which unfortunately, though quite invisible from

the ground, was high up in a nim é@nd overlooked the local gaol.

However, thanks to the influence of friends, the municipal authorities

allowed a machan to be erected in the road and on 7th April I

was able to photograph the Nuthatch at home. The male is by

far the handsomer of the two, and in addition was much bolder in

facing the camera—in fact it did not worry him at all, even though

not concealed in any way, a remark which also applies to myself,

seated comfortably just behind the tripod. In spite, however, of

being so fearless of camera and man, the obtaining of a successful

photograph of the Nuthatch is no easy matter owing to its very

rapid movements. Its industry is such as to give one the

impression that the bird has awakened an hour late and is now

doing its utmost to make up the time lost.

When first I found it, a pair of Common Mynahs paid repeated

visits to the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch’s nest, frequently dropping

a nim leaf into the hole, and on 7th April, when I was on the

machan, the nest was from time to time visited by a Yellow-throated

Sparrow, whose portrait I also secured. Such visits by other

species to nests in holes of trees are not uncommon; the visitors

often subsequently take possession of the hole for their own

nesting’ purposes.

Mynaus,

Three species of Mynah have honoured me by nesting in my

garden, two of them, the Common and Pied Mynahs, frequently,

and the third, the Brahminy Mynah, occasionally. In Northern

India the last named nests only in holes in trees. The Common

Mynah nests as often in a hole in a tree as in one in a building.

More than once, however, I have come across a nest resting on

the top of a pillar in the verandah. The nest of the Pied Mynah

is constructed quite differently. It is a large, domed, irregular mass

of long straws, roots, rags and twigs placed in the outer branches

of some tree,—pieces of straw and grass frequently hanging down

in the most untidy manner. Sometimes, several such nests may

be found in the same tree. The interior is heavily lined with

feathers, but the entrance to the egg cavity is by no means

easy to find. Both Common and Pied Mynahs’ nests seem to be

particularly susceptible to raids by snakes. I well remember

watching a cobra try to climb a simal tree in a hole of which a

pair of Common Mynahs had a nest containing young ones. I

think the snake would have succeeded in attaining its object had

not the parent birds, and others of their kind, flung themselves

repeatedly at the cobra as it tried again and again to negotiate

4 LANE

| The

Yellow

-throated Sparrow.

ne Nuthatch’s nest was =

\visited from time to time by a

THE CHESTNUT-BELLIED

NU THATCH.

A natural hole in a tree served

for her nursery. The bird

plasters the entrance with mud

and clay leaving a= narrow

opening.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 413

the simal’s ample girth. On another occasion, my lunch was

interrupted by the chattering calls of innumerable Pied and Common

Mynahs; a number of House Crows were also making use of

unpleasant language: again it was a cobra; but this time it had

disposed of two baby Pied Mynahs, and as it rested by the nest,

it was in turn disposed of by me.

I am reminded of three incidents as I write of the Brahminy

Mynah. The first two relate to a time when I was photographing

this species at the same nest. The nest in question was built in a

hole of a seesum tree growing on the bank of a canal close to

the railway line. Running parallel with and immediately adjacent

to the track was a path much used by the local residents. A goods

train passed, and as it did so, I noticed the second fireman take a

large piece of coal and throw it deliberately at a woman who was

walking along the path with an infant in her arms, missing her

narrowly. Even now, twenty years later, my blood boils as I think

of the dastardly act and of the approving smiles this beast won

as he turned to his mates on the footplate. Fortunately I had seen

everything clearly and noted the time, so that in due course the

Locomotive Superintendent was able to deal faithfully with the entire

engine crew who, it is almost unnecessary to add, resolutely denied

the charge brought against them.

The other incident relating to the nest mentioned in_ the

preceding paragraph was as amusing as the last was disgusting.

I was not using a hiding tent, but had positioned the camera near

the nest and decided I would conceal myself behind a bush and

operate the shutter with a piece of string attached to it. I

therefore passed the string through a hole bored in a stake placed

immediately under the shutter, and led it along to the spot from

where I was going to pull it when the occasion arose. The top of the

stake was only two inches above the ground and, while not in use,

the string lay loose. A squirrel noticed this string and thinking it

would make her nest cosy started collecting it in its mouth,

invariably pulling the loose end in until I gave this a jerk and

frightened it away. On one occasion, however, she reversed the

usual order of things before I realised what was happening and so

released the shutter, thereby obtaining what I imagine must be

the first photograph taken by an animal of a bird’s nesting site.

The third incident led me to think seriously of how young birds

first leave their nests when these are built in holes in trees, etc.

At the back of my mind existed an impression that the parents

drove them from the nest. Where I got this idea from I cannot

think. At the particular nest I am thinking of, the young were well

feathered and it was clearly a question of hours only before they

made their first public appearance. I had not long to wait. After

I had photographed one of the adults at the nest neither parent

would venture to feed the young again; instead, they remained on

the branch of an opposite nim tree, with food in their beaks,

uttering different notes and obviously cajoling the young to make

the initial flight. When this had continued for half an hour or

more, one young one, more venturesome than the rest—possibly

It was the eldest too—appeared at the entrance of the hole and

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

then popped back into the nest. After repeating this performance

three or four times, it eventually decided to take the plunge and

succeeded in reaching its parents although not without effort and

not without anxiety on the latter’s part, as was clear from the manner

in which by their excited calls they encouraged the bold spirit to

do its utmost. The young bird was then given double rations and

was subsequently led away to a more leafy part of the tree with

a view probably to escaping the notice of such enemies as the

Shikra. I have since come to the conclusion that birds that lay

their eggs in holes of trees regularly resort to such an expedient

when the time has come for the young to leave the home. I

have watched the same thing happen with a Northern Grey Hornbill

and Crested Black Tits.

BARBETS AND WOODPECKERS.

Barbets and Woodpeckers are closely related; it will, therefore,

not be inopportune to class them together for our present purpose.

In many parts of the United Provinces one may _ confidently

expect to come across the nests of the Green Barbet and the smaller

Crimson-breasted Barbet in the same garden especially if mango,

gold mohur, or cork trees are to be found therein. The prevailing

colour in both species is green. The Crimson-breasted Barbet has

some yellow, red and black about the head, near the eyes, about

the chin and breast, yet so closely do these birds assimilate with

the foliage of the trees in which they spend their lives that it

is most difficult to see them, even though, from the direction of

the calls, one obtains a fairly good idea of their whereabouts. I

say fairly good advisedly, because their notes are somewhat ventri-

loquial in character owing to the manner in which these birds turn

from side to side when calling. Their notes are amongst the best

known bird sounds in India. ‘Tonk-tonk-tonk’, says the Crimson-

breasted Barbet, while the Green Barbet cries ‘Kurr-r-r-r, ‘kooturuck-

kooturuck-kooturuck’, till one is tired of hearing their notes.

As one would expect from their close relationship to the

Woodpeckers, Barbets cut out a hole in a tree, either in the trunk,

or more usually in one of the branches, wherein to deposit their

eggs, the Crimson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith frequently on

the under-side of a more or less horizontal bough. Like wood-

peckers’ eggs, those of barbets are pure white in colour, but

are very fragile and easily damaged, if one attempts to cut out a

hole to obtain them. Barbets live principally on different fruits and

are specially partial to the small -berries .of the pipal itree

They vary the diet somewhat when feeding the young. I have

observed both species take the white- and black-winged flying ants

into the nest-hole; and although one would never suspect the Green

Barbet of being particularly active I have watched one catch a

small dragon fly.

Very little has, I think, been recorded of the manner in which

such birds as barbets and woodpeckers retire for the night. A

pair of Coppersmiths I had under observation for some time in

Cawnpore interested me greatly. Both parents fed the young until

it was almost too dark to see, and then one of the birds always

Jcxx. Bompay Nat. Hist.

A GREEN BARBET LOOKS OUT FROM ITS NEST HOLE.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 415

retired to the nest-hole, while the other found shelter for the night

in a neighbouring tree, in an old digging. Although [ have not

watched a Green Barbet retire for the night, it would seem that this

species follows a somewhat similar procedure. I have noticed one

come out of a hole before feeding operations could possibly have

commenced for the day.

The only woodpecker, which I am certain had gone to rest for

the night, clung to the under surface of a branch standing about

4o° out of the horizontal. I watched this particular bird—a Golden-

backed Woodpecker—take up this position on a nim tree just as it

was growing dark, and it was still in this position when I investigated

matters again shortly before 11 p.m. Another Golden-backed

Woodpecker, which I thought had retired for the night, rested on

the perpendicular surface of a palm tree. The bird remained in

this position for about fifteen minutes, and it was then almost

impossible to see, but something alarmed it and away it flew.

Two or three writers have stated that the food which wood-

peckers take to their young is not visible in their beaks. This is

contrary to my experience. I have photographed three different

species of woodpeckers in India, the Kashmir Pied Woodpecker,

the Mahratta Pied Woodpecker—at two nests—and the Black-backed

Woodpecker, and in each instance the food for the young was often

plainly visible as the parents arrived at the tree. Several of my

photographs show this, though few are worthy of publication as

owing to their rapid, jerky movements the genus has almost

invariably defeated the shutter for speed.

KITES.

As a child I bore the Common Kite bitter hatred. I still have

vivid recollections of how more than once, while. seated out in

the open in the early morning, breakfasting on buttered toast,

one of these birds bore down on me from behind and snatched from

my fingers the morsel I was on the point of eating. Occasionally

I received scratches sufficient to draw blood; then it was that I

retired, worsted, to receive poor consolation when I arrived indoors,

my parents telling me I deserved all that had come my way. That,

however, was more than forty years ago. Today I do not object to

the Kite taking up its abode on my premises, the small chickens

that it carries off being not mine but the cook’s property. Often

has that worthy asked me to shoot the shaitans, but I decline to

interfere as it always gives me pleasure to see the birds about.

Besides, if I did shoot the Kites, the price I would be charged

for the chickens would be no less than I am asked today, so cui

bono?

Like every other onlooker, I cannot help smiling when I see a

Kite swoop down on some vendor’s tray at a railway station, or

snatch from some fat hand the tasty-looking sweets, freshly

purchased, which are being conveyed back to a compartment in

the open palm held on a level with the shoulders, that all may

know how well-to-do is the purchaser. Which indicates (I am told)

that I have a distorted sense of humour, while I argue—‘from him

that hath it shall be taken away.’

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Almost invariably the Kite builds its nest near Man’s habitation.

It has a foundation of substantial twigs placed in the fork of

some tree; wool, dirty old rags, cotton waste and similar material

being used as a lining. I have seen stones and pieces of kanker

worked in between the twigs and once came across a child’s bow

and arrow incorporated in a nest. On another occasion the three

eggs in a nest in my compound rested on a hare’s skin which the

cook had carelessly thrown out near the kitchen. Usually two eggs

are laid although three are not uncommon. These are greyish white

in ground colour, sparingly blotched with brown and red. The long- —

drawn-out call of the Kite, chee-eel, from which the bird derives

its common Indian name, is one of the familiar if unpleasant sounds —

of bazaar or cantonment.

DOVES.

It seems strange at first sight that the behaviour of the same

species should vary greatly in different parts of the country.

Throughout the United Provinces, and elsewhere as well, I have

found the Little Brown Dove and the Indian Ring Dove very

tame, so much so that I neglected to photograph them when the

opportunities were legion. In the Manbhum district in Bihar,

however, both species are extremely shy. There is a good reason

for this, everybody, both young and old, being bent on their

destruction. Many a time in this and the neighbouring districts

have I come across the most ingeniously constructed snares at the

nest, added to which numbers are killed by means of bows and

arrows. Elsewhere both species nest in gardens—the Little Brown

Dove either in some bush, or on some ledge in the verandah itself.

On one occasion I came across a nest of this species containing the

usual two eggs at the foot of a bush, on the ground, on a high

railway embankment. I do not remember having seen a Ring Dove’s

nest within the precincts of a bungalow. The bird instead builds

its sketchy home regularly in some bush. I have found the nest

of only one other species of dove in a garden: this belonged to a

pair of Spotted Doves and was built on a verandah ledge.

The Little Brown Dove, whose photograph is shown herewith,

had its nest in a thick prickly bush on a hill side covered with

scrub-jungle. The nest was situated about three feet from the

ground and, when I first attempted photography, contained two

young ones about ten days old. The hide had been in position for two

days and, although the parent birds were reported to be accustomed

to it, hours passed before they returned to the platform of twigs.

In the meanwhile much of interest was taking place at the nest

itself and in the hide, to keep me occupied and even amused. At

first both young ones indulged in a great deal of ‘shut-eye’; after

half an hour the younger squab preened itself, following this up by

stretching first one wing and then the other. The elder youngster

followed suit and finally both indulged themselves in this manner

at the same time. They—especially the elder—also shifted their

positions now and again. It was after I had been in the hide about

an hour that a good deal of rustling began to take place amongst

the dead leaves outside the tent.. Thoughts of a snake or scorpion

}

Jorn. Bompay Nat. HIst

THE LITTLE BROWN DOVE

Both young indulged in much wing flapping, one trying to oust the other to be fed first.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 417

flashed through my mind, and great was my relief when a tiny

muskshrew appeared on the scene instead and commenced to turn

over the leaves between my legs, quite unconscious of the presence

of Man. Two or three times I moved purposely, to frighten the

little creature, when it disappeared at once only to re-appear soon

afterwards.

When I had been in the hide about an hour and a half, both

doves flew towards the nest, but settled on separate bushes a

little below me. After some minutes the male flew away,

followed a few minutes later by the female. After an hour both

returned but again flew away, this time together, having in the

meanwhile gone all round the tent. Shortly, the male returned to

settle on a boulder, calling croo sharply, and later cru-coo-coo-coo.

This brought the female and eventually both parents went to

the nest together; the squabs in the meanwhile were most excited.

The photo taken of the female at this session feeding the larger

young one was spoilt by movement. Thereafter a gale sprang up

shaking the hiding tent in an alarming manner so that I was not

surprised when one of the parents alighted on a bush behind me

and would not visit the nest.

The second photograph I took some two hours later was also

not a success. I therefore moved the hide back a couple of feet,

changed the direction slightly and leaving everything in position,

with a man to keep watch, tried my luck again two days later, on

3 December. The young had grown greatly during the forty-eight

hours and now appeared to be almost ready to leave the nest.

On this occasion again, I succeeded in taking only two photo-

graphs, both of which, however, were successful as the shutter

was working at a higher speed. The small shrew, which during my

first vigil had alarmed and then afforded me such amusement, now

frightened the Little Brown Dove considerably as, out of sight, it

rummaged about amongst the leaves at the foot of the bush holding

the nest. When re-assured as to the author of the rustling noises,

the male uttered his usual call but in a low key. Thereafter the

note employed was a ker-r, this being used three times and

approaching very near to a hiss.

Feeding the young is a most vigorous proceeding, the parent

pushing its head down into the favoured squab’s beak and then

retreating, only to repeat the performance with its other child, both

young indulging in much wing-flapping, one trying to oust the other

with a view to being fed first, last and all the time. Photography

under such cenditions, with the principal actors in the drama in

the heart of a bush, is by no means easy.

By way of contrast to the difficulties experienced in photographing

the Little Brown Dove at home in a district where the genus is much

persecuted, let me tell briefly of my only camera experiences with

the Ring Dove, in the Sholapur district in the Bombay Presidency.

There the cultivator and herd boy leave the birds alone so that all

I had to do was to stick up the camera near a nest, cut away some

offending twigs and proceed to take all the photos I could without

even using the hiding tent. While I stood from four to five feet

distant from the nest the incubating bird actually fell asleep but

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

awakened at once if the shadow of a kite or crow passed over.

On one occasion another Ring Dove cooed in the middle distance

whereupon my particular bird stood up, and then bowing with the

break right down in the nest, called in return.

HousE Crows.

No chapter dealing with garden-nesting birds would be complete

without reference to the House Crow because, as soon as the

monsoon breaks in Northern India, every tree in every compound

seems to have one or more pairs nesting on it. It is remarkable

how very few people are aware that this species is victimized in

its nesting arrangements by the Koel, a member of -the Cuckoo

family. Although the Koel’s egg is not unlike the Crow’s in

general colouring, the former is noticeably the smaller. In spite

of this, and inspite also of Corvus splendens being the wariest and

cutest of birds, no difference does it notice between its own eggs

and those of the Koel. I say those not without good reason,

because I once found a House Crow incubating one of its own

eggs along with three laid by a [soel, and at another time found

a Crow’s nest containing three young Koels and one young

Crow. I have seen it asserted, more than once, that the young

Koel, like the young Cuckoo at Home and the Pied Crested Cuckoo

out here, throws out the rightful progeny or eggs from the nest.

Such, however, has not been my experience. I would not go so

far as to state that this does not sometimes happen, but the fact

remains, that I have again and again seen young Koels and baby

House Crows grow up together.

As every resident in India well knows, the House Crow knows

‘who’s who and what’s what’. Let me illustrate this. ‘The experience

I tell of deals with one of the earliest and most vivid recollections

of my childhood. I had visited a House Crow’s nest and purloined

one of the young it contained. The parent birds had flown round

and at me, saying terrible things while I was at the nest; but

having reached the ground I imagined all was now well. Alas!

As I made my way to the house, bare-footed and bare-headed,

I was attacked in the most insolent manner from behind. First

a terrifying peck on.the head and, as I ran up the verandah

steps frightened out of my life, an even more vicious one above

the left heel, the wound inflicted still giving trouble some months

later when I was in England. Not satisfied with the way in which

they had already harassed me, that particular pair of crows saw

to it that I did not venture out into the compound—at least I was

not able to go out alone; which was very hard lines really. It

was the height of the mango season, and as the succulent fruit

fell to the ground it had been my wont to rush out and recover it,

a form of amusement I was no longer in a position to pursue, my

brother and our host’s two daughters having to do the needful

instead, the crows making no attempt to demonstrate against or

attack them. |

I recall a derelict young House Crow which had either

fallen out of the nest by accident. or had attempted a_pre-

mature flight. My attentton to it was drawn by the terrific noise

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 419

that apparently all the crows in Hindustan were making at the

back of the house. As I perched the youngster on a fencing stake,

commotion became even more rife till I was reduced to wondering

what I would have done in a similar predicament; it seemed clear

that some were telling junior what he ought to do and others what

he should not do so that in exasperation he seemed to cry out

‘what am I to do?’

Crow PHEASANTS.

Mention of the Koel reminds me of the Crow-Pheasant, another

member of the Cuckoo family which is seen commonly in the

garden and not infrequently elects to nest therein—either in a thick

clump of bamboos, a dense creeper or on some pollarded tree. The

nest is a large, globular, domed structure of twigs with the

entrance at one side and the egg cavity lined with green leaves.

The internal dimensions must sometimes be insufficient to permit

of the owners turning round, as I have occasionally noticed the bird

incubating with the tail sticking out. This fact -probably accounts

for the species being so loth to leave the nest. Usually three eggs

are laid,.pure white in colour. The Crow-Pheasant is black, shot

with green and dark blue, and has chestnut coloured wings. It

trails a long tail which, as it struts along the ground, gives

the novice the impression that he is gazing on a pheasant of sorts.

The call is a deep, booming whoop-whoop-whoop, pleasant to listen

to, and sometimes mistaken for the cry of the black-faced langur

monkey. This is by no means the only member of the Cuckoo family

found in India which builds its own nest, other not uncommon

representatives being the Sirkeer and (locally) the two Malkohas.

Of these I shall have more to say elsewhere. The Crow-Pheasant

feeds on caterpillars, grasshoppers, small lizards et hoc genus omne,

and is also, I fear, given to ravishing the contents of the nests of

the smaller birds which make their homes in bushes and creepers.

A bird I photographed had its nest, which was made of rushes

only, in a clump of rushes. It will be long years before I forget

the tortures I suffered from the massed attacks of a particularly

objectionable variety of ant, half black, half red, as I sat inside

the tent on a layer of rushes, waiting for the Crow-Pheasant to

return to its nest.

BULBULS-

The Red-vented Bulbul is to be met with everywhere; the same,

however, cannot be said of the Red-whiskered species, a far more

showy bird. It is extraordinary how capricious the latter is in its

choice of habitat. Though common in both Cawnpore and Lucknow,

commoner perhaps even than the Red-vented species, it is not to

be seen in or around Allahabad, near Agra or many other districts

of the United Provinces. Talking of the Red-whiskered Bulbul

reminds me of when I was showing Major R. S. P. Bates, the

well known contributor to the pages of the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Journal and author of Bird Life in India, round the

Topchanchi reservoir in the Manbhum district. On his enquiring

of me whether this species occurred in those parts I had to reply

ia al

420. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

in the negative. However, I spoke too soon, for less than five

minutes later we saw three or four in different places! They were

to be met with commonly during the next two months, but I never

saw the species again in the district during the winters of 1934-35

and 1935-360, neither did I come across the Red-whiskered Bulbul

in the Manbhum district nor elsewhere in the Chota Nagpur division

during the hot weather or monsoon months. Both are cheerful and —

vivacious souls, with calls which are very similar, and are populaf? —

bazaar pets. They feed, I think, entirely on caterpillars and fruit,’

and seldom settle on the ground. I once took a photograph of

a Red-whiskered Bulbul under somewhat unnatural conditions.

The bird in question had its nest in an Antigonon creeper;

here a successful portrait was out of the question. I therefore

removed the three young ones which the nest contained and placed

them in a cage on my lawn with a twig hard by, cn which I hoped.

_ the parents would alight. This they very obligingly did.

W ARBLERS.,

This is the correct place to write of two representatives of

the family Sylviidae, the Tailor Bird and the Ashy-Wren-Warbler.

Both are about five inches in length; both are ‘loud squeakers’

and both build their nests by stitching leaves together. In this

respect the Ashy-Wren-Warbler is really the more skilled architect,

as it can also build two other types of nest. Although so familiar

by name it is remarkable how few people knew the Tailor Bird by

sight. Above it is buff-green-brown in colour and below a dirty

white. The forehead is rufous, the tail long and tapered and carried

a great deal over the back, and the legs reddish. The Ashy-Wren-

Warbler on the other hand is ashy-blue above with reddish-brown

wings and the under parts a yellowy-buff, and the tail is what is

termed cross-rayed. Both species have long and somewhat curved

beaks; both call until one wonders when they are going to

stop to take breath, the Tailor Bird shouting towee-towee-towee,

and the Ashy-Wren-Warbler jimmy-jimmy-jimmy, rather faster than

the “former.

The Tailor Bird may construct its nest by puncturing a number

of holes on either edge of a single large leaf, as for example, a

dhak sapling or a canna plant, and make the two sides meet below

by stitching them together; or may enclose the nest in a number of

leaves sewn together. Usually the nest is situated only two or

three feet from the ground, but I have found it about fifteen feet

up in a mango tree and knew of another in a guava tree. Normally,

four eggs are laid, pinky-white in ground colour, with red or

reddish-brown spots and_ speckles, mostly round the _ broad

end. Very occasionally, the ground-colour is bluish-green. A

pair which built their nest in my garden at Allahabad during three

consecutive years laid such coloured eggs each season, sufficient

indication, I think, that the Tailor Bird is either a very stationary

resident, or returns regularly to a favourite spot for nesting

purposes. I incline to the former theory, as a pair were to be seen

every day throughout the year in the precincts of the compound.

RN -

THE ASHY WREN-WARBLER,

a skilled architect, builds three types of nests

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 4B

There is one matter I must not forget; | know of no species,

with the possible exceptions of the Jungle Wren-Warbler and

Crimson-breasted Barbet, which deserts its nest more readily than

does the Tailor Bird. One has not even to touch the nest: it will

quite likely forsake it if it thinks this has been seen.

The other two types of nest which the Ashy-Wren-Warbler

constructs are a substantial oval-domed affair with the entrance on

one side, the type most commonly found prior to the rains

breaking, and ‘a rudely built and flimsy ball of grass, supported

by grass and weeds, sometimes fairly well attached to the supports,

sometimes hardly fastened to them at all’, a departure from the

normal which I have never come across personally." Uusually four

eggs are laid, rather globular in shape and a rich bick-red in

colour.

THE MAGPIE ROBIN AND SOME OTHERS.

The Magpie-Robin is a great lover of shade and for that reason

is often a regular resident in large compounds well stocked with

old trees. As everyone probably knows, the male when in full song

is a really beautiful songster, being at his best in the early morning

and again in the evening. How miserable though does his piping

squeak sound in January, when first he begins to practise his

notes! Most nests are built in holes in trees although I have

occasionally come across one in a hole in a wall or building. It

is my belief that only the female constructs the nest or incubates

the eggs. This was certainly the case with a pair which had their

nest in my garden and it was amusing to watch the manner in which

the male pursued his wife with a view to driving her back to the

nest if she left this for more than a minute or so.” Five eggs

are usually laid, of a greenish ground colour with brownish-red

spots and blotches scattered liberally all over the surface.

I remember finding a nest of this species on 15 June one year

and removing one of the eggs for a friend who had _ started

collecting. Carelessly leaving this on the ink-stand in my office

with a view to blowing it one evening, judge of my surprise when

on my return to lunch on the 22nd I found it had hatched !

Other beautiful and not unusual garden-nesting species are the

Blue Jay, Hoopoe, Golden Oriole and the diminutive White Eye.

The first two lay their eggs in a hole of either a tree or building,

while the Oriole and White Eye construct hammock-like nests

suspended between two horizontal twigs. In the case of the White

Eye the nest is often attached to the stems of two adjoining leaves.

Up country, the Hoopoe is familiar to everybody owing both to its

note, ook-ook-ook, repeated quickly, and because of the way in

which the bird works every lawn thoroughly in the search for

ants. Not many may, however, have noticed that the Hoopoe is

seldom, if ever, accompanied by more than one young one; which

iS surprising as it commonly lays seven or eight eggs. The

* The New Fauna, vol. ii, p. $30.

* The same was observed to be the case at Asansol in 1937.

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

inference is that mortality among the young birds is heavy although

what this is attributable to is not so apparent..

It is a matter for congratulation that two such lovely birds as

the Golden Oriole and the Blue Jay (in flight) should be so common.

If only the latter could also be congratulated on its call! Alas!

the Blue Jay croaks harshly and screams gratingly. Much can,

however, be forgiven it for the wonderful aerial acrobatics which —

the bird performs as soon as the weather begins to warm up and!

its thoughts turn lightly to love making. Fortunately the Golden

Oriole utters a liquid whistle, pee-ooh, rich in melody. It is sur-

prising how few people know that the female of this species is a

differently coloured from the male, there being much green in —

her plumage. =

The White Eye deserves a paragraph to itself. About four

inches in length, the upper plumage is greenish-yellow; the chin,

throat and vent are a bright yellow and the remainder of the lower

plumage a light ashy shade. Round the eye is a conspicuous white |

ring. In the breeding season, which lasts right through the hot

weather and extends well into the rains, the winter family parties —

break up. Then it is that the male sings his beautiful little song,

so low that the average mortal does not hear it even though this —

soon becomes louder. As befits so tiny a species, the nest is —

small. Normally only two eggs are laid, I have found three, ¥

and as many as four have been reported. These aré a pale@

greenish-blue in colour without any markings. Because of its size, —

necessitating the camera being very close indeed to the nest, ‘the —

White Eye is'a most difficult species to photograph successfully. —

What it lacks in inches the bird makes up for in pluck. I have ~

known a pair not only hold their own with a pair of Little Minivets, —

but so out-manceuvre them that, disgusted by thé mariner in which 4 |

they were harassed, the latter deserted the nest they were building

so that the White Eyes were saved much trouble in searching for ~

materials for the home which they also were constructing.

I have omitted all mention of such a common species as the

Brown-backed Robin. Here again the sexes are differently coloured.

One would like to write of the strange places this bird sometimes ~

chooses for a nesting site, and how not uncommonly a piece of

snake’s slough is incorporated in its nest; or of the King Crow

with the conspicuously forked tail, that delights in chasing crows

and kites; and of Jungle Babblers, more commonly known as

the Seven Sisters but which an American acquaintance equally

aptly termed ‘Hop-along’, from the manner in which this species

progresses by hopping; or of how I once watched. six different

adult Jungle Babblers feed the three young ones in a nest. The

truth is I feel that this article has assumed such lengths I

must now deal only with the Rose-ringed or Green Parrakeet,

the common ‘parrot’ of India. My compound at Tundla, in

the Agra district, where I was stationed for three years, was

notorious for miles around for the myriads of these birds, along

with numbers of Common Mynahs, that used to flight hers every

evening to take up their night’s lodging. They came from all

points of the compass, either in twos or threes, or as frequently,

“OHS Bulysou & jO a31OYoD aud UL OJIVESIOA st

NEGOU CHMOVETNMOUA ARLL

, e

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 423

by the dozen, high up, flying straight, like arrows shot from bows,

uttering their harsh calls and never seeming to deviate in their’

course. Only when almost on top of the nim, or cork trees on

which they intended to roost did they wheel prior to alighting.

Often they did not consider even this necessary but dived down at

break-neck speed, invariably coming to a safe anchorage in the

branches, from which they promptly proceeded to strip the foliage,

the while uttering incessant squeals and squeaks. How they escaped

disaster as they settled thus will always remain a mystery to me.

Only very occasionally did one come to grief, not by alighting

awkwardly, but by striking the telephone wires. Even so_ they

escaped unharmed as a rule, only the wires vibrating for some

seconds as a result of the impact.

For an hour before it was too dark to see my compound seemed

to be the rendezvous of all the Green Parrakeets in_ India.

They assembled literally in thousands; nor do I exaggerate when

I say that as darkness was_ stealing o’er the land it was

impossible to tell at a range of only ten yards what tune a

gramophone outside was playing, so overwhelming was the noise

the parrots and mynahs made. Then, as the light failed, the birds

would quieten down until the silence could almost be heard.

Evensong was over.

At intervals throughout the night there would be a regular

fluttering, this beginning at one tree, going to the next, and so

on in sequence right through the compound, very much like the

totem scene in Rose Marie. Always this was followed by the

patter of the birds droppings striking the ground below. I could

never make out what caused the parrots to flutter in this manner.

Sometimes it seemed that a human being passing by was the reason ;

at others a gentle breeze springing up appeared to have something

to do with this ‘shivering’ movement.

Ordinarily the parrots lot was a happy one, but at times life

was made miserable for them. In the gathering dusk, when the

trees were full of birds, a Laggar Falcon would dive straight in

amongst them—never amongst the mynahs—and carry off a

screaming victim. Sometimes the stoop was unsuccessful. When

such was the case, the falcon, after circling round once or twice

at no great distance, returned to the fray a second and even third

time. Always it left finally with a parrot held firmly in both feet,

protesting vigorously but to no purpose. Then pandemonium

reigned supreme amongst the birds resting in the tree; in a

body they would fly away shrieking, only to alight again in some

other tree hard by, there to continue awhile their grotesque

movements and the stripping of more foliage.

Wonderfully provided though a falcon is for capturing and

killing its prey, it seems incredible that any small raptorial should

attack, much less kill, such a formidably armed bird as the Green

Parrakeet, possessed, as it is, of a beak that can inflict severe injury.

Nevertheless, I witnessed such an assault on at least half a dozen

occasions, and once, with the aid of the field-glasses, saw how the

falcon carried off its victim: one foot seized the parrot above the

neck, close to the head, and the other was fixed firmly into the

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GUIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

middle of the back, so that the bird could use neither its beak nor

‘claws. The Lugger was not the parrots only avian enemy. A

pair of Rock-Horned Owls that lived in the ravines near by also

took constant toll of them. One bright moonlight night I saw one

of these fine birds make its way into a tree, from which the parrots

at once flew helter-skelter, shrieking at the top of their voices.

Presently the great owl ré-appeared and settling on the tennis court

within a few yards of where I was seated proceeded to tear to

pieces, and then to eat, the parrot it had caught.

Poor parrots! the sahib and the ryot have no love for you owing

to the damage you do in the garden and to the crops in the fields.

And yet, in spite of the awful noise you made every evening, and

every morning long before it was dawn—except in your nesting

season when you scarcely visited me; in spite too of the havoc

you wrought amongst my fruit trees, I have a very tender spot in

my heart for you and wish you a long and happy innings in the

dear old compound. I was always delighted when towards the

end of February or early in March I found you had appreciated my

hospitality and that you and your wife had decided to bring up

your family in a hole of one of my trees.’ Nowhere were your

three or four white eggs, or your young, safer. Our sex has

often been accused of paying too little attention to the nursery,

but you were ever a model husband, taking turns with your Better ~

Half in incubating the eggs, and later working like a slave to

feed vour young. Farewell, and Good Luck to vou!

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATES

Low Hills on the border of the Great Rann at Nir Wand, Pachum Island, Cutch.

The condition of the Great Rann, 15 miles north of Nir Wand, in September 1935.

Photos by Author.

fap REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA OF CUTCH: STATE.

CHaRLEs McCann, F.L.S.

(With two plates).

Cutch State is at certain times of the year isolated from the

mainland. The periodical isolation takes place in the years of good

rains, when the Great Rann and the Littl Rann are flooded.

During the dry season the Ranns are dry and perfectly hard, but

quite uninhabitable as not a blade of grass is to be found in any

part of them. The ground, in fact, is in many places covered

with thick incrustations of salt. The fauna of the State is chiefly

composed of desert and semi-desert species met with on the

neighbouring mainland.

The records and specimens at my disposal indicate that little

is known of the amphibian and reptilian faunas of Cutch State.

This paper is an attempt at putting together such data as are

available. The records are drawn from the collections of the

Bombay Natural History Society, the Fauna of British India

(Reptilia, 2nd Ed), and from specimens and observations made by

the author during a three-weeks’ tour to the Great Rann during

the latter portion of September and the early part of October 1935.

Most of the material in the Society’s collection is from Mr. C..A.

Crump, who surveyed the mammals of the State on behalf of the

Society in 1912.

ORDER: LORICATA: Alligators and Crocodiles.

FAMILY: CROCODILIDH: Crocodiles.

Crocodilus palustris Lesson. The Mugger, Marsh Crocodile or Broad-snouted

Crocodile.

This crocodile is found in some of the inland lakes. I have seen specimens

in the artificial lake at Chawa. The Benas River enters the Eastern or Little

Rann and, as crocodiles are fairly numerous in this river, their presence in

the lakes is easily understood. They also. occur in Kathiawar.

ORDER: TESTUDINES: Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins.

FaMILy: CHELONID4: Marine. Turtles.

Caretta caretta. The Logger-head Turtle.

According to Captain V. C. Steer-Webster this species comes: ashore at

Mandvi to breed.

FaMILy: TRIONYCHID®: Freshwater Turtles.

Lissemys punctata granosa (Schoepff.) Soft-shelled Turtle.

‘The Bombay Presidency, including Cutch’ (F.B.I., 2nd Ed.).

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

ORDER: SQUAMATA: Lizards and Snakes,

SUB-ORDER : SaAuRIA: Lizards.

FAMILY : GECKONIDA: Geckoes.

Gymnodactylus kachhensis kachhensis Stoliczka.

‘Common throughout Cutch, mostly in crevices of rocks, and very rarely

seen in houses (Stoliczka).’ F.BI.

Hemidactylus flaviviridis Riippel. Common House Gecko.

Locality: Bhuj (McC. !), common in houses in Cutch.

FamMILy: AGAMIDA.

Sitana ponticeriana Cuv.

The F.B.I., 1st. Ed. mentions this species as occurring in Cutch but the

2nd Ed. does not.

Calotes versicolor (Daudin). The Bloodsucker.

This species is quite common throughout Cutch. I have seen them at Nir

Wand, Pachum Island, on the very edge of the Great Rann.

Uromastrix hardwickii Gray. The Spiny-tailed Lizard.

Common in many parts of Cutch, Kawra, Pachum Islands (McC. !).

Note.—A few of these lizards were dug out of their burrows and one was

swamped out by filling the burrow with water. The burrow goes down almost

vertically for a foot or so and then down at an angle of about 45°. At the

end of the burrow, which is about six to eight feet long, there is a chamber

sufficiently large to allow the animal to turn round. The mouth of the chamber

is usually closed by the spiny tail.

FAMILY: SCINCIDA.

Mabuya macularia (Blyth).

Locality: Cutch (F.B.I., 1st. Ed.). In the second edition this species is

omitted.

Ablepharus grayanus (Stoliczka).

Locality + Cutch (F.B.1., 2nd d£d.).

Eumeces tanioiatus (Blyth).

Locality + “Cutch (#.B31., 2nd “Ed:).

Ophiomorus tridactylus (Blyth).

ocalitys “Cutch (i.Bl.,e2nd td:):

FAMILY: LACERTIDA,

Acanthodactylus cantoris cantoris Gunther.

Locality: Bhuj (B.N.H.S. collection !).

Ophiops jerdoni Blyth.

locality: *Gutche (eb. ond. wicd:),

Ophiops microlepis Blanford.

Localitys: “Cutch ih 1B. “ond 2a@,).

FAMILY: VARANIDA.

Varanus monitor (Linn.). The Common Monitor.

Locality :. Bhuj, among old tombs (McC. !).

SUB-ORDER: OPuHipia: Snakes,

FamILy: Boipa.

Eryx johnii (Russ.). Sand Boa.

Locality: Cutch (F.B.I., 1st Ed.); Nir Wand to Kakra (McC. !).

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE ie

The Saw-scaled Viper or ‘ Phoorsa’ [ Echis carinata (Schneider) ] basking in a bush of

Capfaris aphylla Roth in the Bunny, Cutch.

Leith’s Sand Snake (Psamophis leithii Gunth), at Nir Wand, Pachum Island.

Photos by Author.

fHE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA OF CUTCH STATE 427

FAMILY: COLUBRID.

Lycodon striatus Gtinth.

Locality: Bluj (Crump. Nov. 1912 !).

Zamenis ventrimaculatus (Gunther.

focabty: Cutch (F.B.I,, ist Ed.).

Zamenis diadema Giinth. The Royal Rat Snake.

Locality: Nir Wand, Pachum Island (McC. !).

Coluber helena Daud. The Trinket Snake.

Locality: Cutch (F.B.J., 1st Ed.).

Dipsas trigonata Boie. The Brown Tree Snake.

Locality: Bhuj (S. D. Smith, 28-10-13 !).

Psammophis leithii (Giinth.

Locality: Cutch (F.B.I., 1st Ed.); Nir Wand, Pachum Island (McC. !).

Note.—A very active snake frequently lying in wait among branches for

its prey even during the hottest time of the day.

Psammophis condanarus Blyth.

leaeality: Cutch (F.B.f., 1st Ed.).

Bungarus ceruleus Daud. The Common Krait.

Locality: Bhuj (Crump, 2 specimens 1912 !).

Naia tripudians Merr. The Cobra.

Locality: Bhuj (Crump, 4 specimens 1913!). Both the black and the pale

variety occur.

Hydrophis spiralis Gray.

ee Locality: Cutch Coast (F.B.J., 1st Ed.).

FAMILY: VIPERIDA.

Echis carinata Merr. The Saw-scaled Viper.

‘Locality: Cutch (F.B.7., 1st Ed.); Nir Wand, Pachum Island (MeC.); The

Bunny (McC. !).

Note.—A large specimen taken in the Bunny was amid the branches of

Capparis aphylla quite four feet from the ground. This is the first instance I

know of this species climbing trees (see photo). This snake is very common

in Cutch.

ORDER: BATRACHIA.

FAMILY: RANIDA.

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneid.

Locality: Bhuj, in tanks (McC. !).

Ranatigrina Daud.

Locality: Bhuj, Farm Bagh (McC. !).

FaMILY : BUFONID.

Bufo andersonii Bouleng.

Locality : Bhuj (McC. !); Kawra, Pachum Island (McC. !);-Nir Wand, Pachum

Island (McC. !).

Note.—This toad came out at night in fair numbers at Nir Wand and most

of them would collect in a small patch of freshwater where they would sit for

a considerable time. During the day they retreated into old rat holes,

THE FOOD OF BROWN TROUT (SALMO FARIO L.).

Dr. Hamip Kuan, Ph.D. (Cantab.),

Irisheries Research Officer, Punjab, Lyallpur.

(With a plate).

It is almost thirty years ago when brown trout was_ first

introduced into the streams of the Kulu Valley in the Punjab, and

since then it has been the main attraction for visitors to the Valley.

It has provided good sport and good food. Yet, strange as it

May appear, no attention has so far been paid to the problems

the solution of which is necessary for the proper foundation of

trout fisheries. Tor example, no precise information is available

concerning the food and the feeding habits of brown trout during

the various months of the year. It is evident that this subject is

of paramount importance not only to the anglers for the immediate

purpose of discovering the fly upon which the fish would come, but

more so to those charged with the care and maintenance of trout

waters. There is a general cry that trout fishing is degenerating.

Is it so? If the answer is in affirmative, then we have to ask

why?

Again, trout—an exotic species—has been introduced into

Himalayan waters with consequent reaction on indigenous fauna and

disturbance of balance of nature. What has been the influence of

this on the composition of trout food and the cycle of events in

the streams?

According to Southern (1935), for any intelligent conservation

and improvement of trout fisheries it is necessary io know for each

river and lake the following :

the age and rate of growth of the stock ;

the kind and amount of food consumed;

the kind and amount of food available;

the effects on the food supply and on the number and rate

of growth of the trout under various environmental conditions ;

5. the extent of the natural spawning facilities and_ their

relation to normal stock; .

6. the capacity of the river to nourish fry of trout and to

bring them to maturity.

A proper study of these problems will mean years of hard

intelligent research and it is undoubtedly essential. Of the problems

set out above, the present paper is concerned with the kind and

amount of food consumed by brown trout in the Beas River in the

Kulu Valley in the Punjab, as studied by the examination of its

stomach contents.

bo hk &

tite nOOD OF - BROWN TROUT (SALMO FARIO. L.) 429

The study of the food of trout has received much attention in

Europe, America, Australia and New Zealand. The diet of trout

has been found to consist of ‘shrimps, water snails, insects, worms,

etc., and small fish such as minnows and young of their own species.’

(Regan r911, Mottram 1928, 1931, Rushton 1931). Pentelow, (1932)

in England, Metzellar (1929) in Michigan, Phillips (1929) in New

Zealand and McKeown (1934 a, b) in Australia, investigated the

food and feeding habits of trout by the examination of stomach

contents and classified the contents as land insects, water insects,

fish, crustacea, molluscs and such trash as gravel, wood and other

debris.

MATERIAL AND METHODS.

The material, consisting of 102 stomachs of brown trout, was

obtained mostly from anglers during the fishing season which lasts

from the 1st March to the 30th October. No data on the food

during winter months are available yet. The maximum weight of

the fish examined was 3 lbs. 4 oz., and the minimum 3 oz. The

lengths of these fish, up to the tip of the caudal fin, measured

Tg0 mm. to 500 mm. Most of the fish were caught on’ wet fly,

i.e. artificial fly submerged just below the surface of water and

imitating the nymphal stages of May flies and caddis flies.

Some fish were caught on grasshoppers and worms. The bait

in such cases was weighted and thus hooked mostly the bottom

feeders.

The stomach contents consisted almost entirely of animal matter.

The food in the front limb of the U-shaped stomach was, in most

cases, almost undigested and was, comparatively speaking’, easier

to identify than that in the find limb where its digestion had

advanced. In the intestine, identification of the semi-diyested food

was impracticable.

In a preliminary study as this, no attempt has been made to

make specific identification. Surveys of most of the aquatic insects

and their immature stages in the Kulu Valley have not yet been

carried out, and in the absence of such knowledge it was difficult

to refer the collected material to species. The insect contents have,

therefore, been classified into larger groups.

Results have been tabulated to show the distribution of various

types of food taken by the fish for each month of the season.

Under ‘Unidentified’ Coleoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera, are

included parts of insects and their larvae, and under ‘Miscellaneous

Insects’ are shown such larvae and insects as were in a semi-

digested condition and as such unidentifiable.

I am grateful to those anglers who supplied the stomachs of

their catches, and [ also owe my thanks to the Sub-Inspector of

* Fishing with a ‘dry fly’, i.e. by an artificial fly floating on the surface

ci water and imitating the winged insects, is only possible on slow running

streams and has never been, and cannot be, practised on Himalayan streams.

430° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HUST, SOCTETY, Vole Aue

Fisheries, Kulu, for assisting me in the collection work. I am

grateful to my colleagues in the Entomological Section of the Punjab

Agricultural College, Lyallpur, for the assistance which they gave

in the identification of various insects.

RESULTS OF STOMACH EXAMINATION.

The trout is entirely carnivorous. The only indications of

vegetable matter were small sticks found inside the stomachs in

five cases. These had been swallowed along with caddis cases.

In one specimen collected on the 20th May, 1937, 36 sticks were

picked out. In two others, small grass seeds were found. No

remains of water plants were found inside any stomach. The

stomachs and intestines invariably contained sand and gravel-

remnants of the caddis cases.

The contents of stomachs arranged in order of importance as

food of trout, consisted of the following :—

(1) INsEcTs : Caddis flies (Trichoptera), May flies (Ephemero-

ptera), Beetles (Coleoptera), True flies (Diptera), Ants and Wasps

(Hymenoptera), Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera), Grasshoppers

(Orthoptera), Dragon flies (Odonata), Earwigs (Dermaptera), Bugs

(Hemiptera), Alder flies and Ant Lions (Neuroptera), and Stone

flies (Plecoptera). (2) Pisces. (3) ARAcHNIDA. (4) MyrRtapopa. (5)

Mo.iusca. (6) CRUSTACEA. (7) OLIGOCHAETA and (8) AMPHIBIA.

Adult caddis flies were not found, and the larvae (Fig. 1-6),

belonged to Sub-families Sericostomatidae, Hydropsychidae and

Rhyacophilidae. No adult May flies were recorded and the larvae

found (Figs. 9-10) belonged to Baetis, Ecdyurus, Ephemerella and

Tron. Of the Coleoptera, adult forms of both the terrestrial and

aquatic beetles were present, the former represented by. Chryso-

melidae, Carabidae and Scarabaeidae, had in all likelihood fallen

from overhanging trees, or had been washed down by the floods

and swallowed by the fish. Larvae of Curculionidae were fairly

well represented in the stomachs of fish caught during September

and October. Of the aquatic forms one adult Gyrinid was the

only representative. The Diptera included the larvae of Simuliidae

and Blepharoceridae (Figs. 7, 8), Cyclorrhapha and Syrphidae.

Hymenoptera consisted of adult ants (Formicidae), Bees (Apidae),

and wasps (Vespidae and Scolidae). The Lepidoptera consisted of

caterpillars which could not be specifically identified. The

Orthoptera included grasshoppers, which in two _ stomachs,

collected in June, formed natural constituents of trout’s diet, and

in other cases were used as bait. The Odonata consisted of

three Dragon fly larvae, and the Dermaptera, of three Earwig

nymphs. Of the Neuroptera, two larvae (Sialioidea) were found in

one stomach. Of the Plecoptera, only one larva was present in

one specimen.

Out of the thirteen fish (Pisces) found in thirteen stomachs,

one was definitely trout fingerling. It was found in the stomach

of a fish, weighing 11 0oz., collected on the 6th August, and

measured g0 mm. in length. It filled the whole of the stomach,

which had no other organism in it. In three cases, the stomaehs

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Contents from the stomach of a trout caught on the 11th April, 1937.

(Photograph from actual specimens).

Figs. 1-6. Caddis larvae (TRICHOPTERA).

Fig. 7. Simuliidae larva.

Fig. 8. Bleppharoceridae larva.

Figs. g-10. May fly larvae (EPHEMEROPTERA).

THE FOOD OF BROWN TROUT (SALMO FARIO L.) 4381

contained barbel fry (Oreinus sinuatus), and in the remaining eight

stomachs the fish fry was unidentifiable on account of its semi-

digested condition.

The Arachnida consisted of two spiders, and the Myriapoda of

one immature and one adult Scolopendra.

The Mollusca included one slug; and Crustacea were represented

by one terrestrial Isopod; the Earthworms (Oligochaeta) had

been used as. bait. The Amphibia consisted of one tadpole found

in a stomach collected in June.

DISCUSSION.

Trout’s diet: Practically any organism that is found in the water

or on its surface is a possible food for the trout (Table I). The

number of organisms found in a stomach: varies according to the

size of the organism swallowed. If the organisms are large in

size, such as fish, frog or slug, their number ts naturally small.

But where small animals, such as caddis or May fly larvae are

eaten, their number may be large. The largest number of caddis

larvae taken from one specimen was 153 and there was nothing

else inside the stomach. The stomach contents of a trout (Figs.

I-10), caught on the 11th April, 1937, consisted of 24 caddis larvae,

9 May fly larvae, one Blepharocerid larva, one Simuliium larva

and two unidentifiable larvae. The various components of fish diet

ennumerated above illustrate the variety and nature of trout’s

dict. | |

The influence of floods on the food of trout; In Tables II and II,

stomach contents of fish, caught during the months of May and

August, are given for comparing the food consumed by fish before

and after the rains. In May, Trichoptera were found to the extent

of about 60 per fish, while in August, the number had diminished

to about 10. In May, one stomach out of 24, and in August 7

out of 14, contained fish fry. Out of ro2 stomachs examined, 56

were collected after the rains, and out of these (Table IV), two

in July, two in August, four in September and one in October,

were found to be empty. That is to say, 16 per cent of the

stomachs collected after the rains had practically no food in them.

No empty stomach was found before the rains. Moreover the

stomachs collected after the rains contained less food than those

collected in the beginning of the season. The rains which com-

mence in July, flood the river heavily and evidently cause great

disturbance in the supply of available insect food.

Cannibalism : Out of 102 stomachs examined, only one case of

cannibalism was recorded. It cannot, therefore, be said with any

certainty that brown trout is cannibalistic in its habits. Mitchell

(1914), working in Kashmir, also pointed out that in brown trout

‘cannibalism is not natural and is only resorted to in special cases

where other food is not available.’ The question of cannibalism

in trout requires thorough investigation, because if at any time

food becomes scarce the life of little trout fry, with which the

River Beas in the Kulu Valley is stocked annually, will be

endangered.

432 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Surface and submerged food: According to Pentelow (1932) a

broad classification of the food can be made ‘according to its origin,

whether it is found on the surface of water or whether it is found

in the water’.. The former he calls ‘surface’ and the latter ‘sub-

surface’ food. The greater part of the surface food, he remark

‘consists of aquatic Diptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera and

Plecoptera. These insects after leaving the water have to return

to it to lay their eggs and it is, therefore, natural they will make,

up the greater part of the surface food.’ Sub-surface food is not

defined by Pentelow (1932), but the term is meant to include all

kinds of submerged food, whether free in the water or at the

bottom of the stream.

Seasonal occurrence of surface and submerged food in the

stomach of brown trout, (Table IV), indicates that the fish seem

to feed on surface as well as submerged food during the whole of

the season.

The abundance of submerged food and scarcity of adult flies in

trout stomachs seem to show that the trout in the River Beas in

the Kulu Valley is mostly a bottom feeder. For instance, while

the larvae of caddis flies, commonly known to the anglers as

Grannom, Welshman’s Button, Red Sedge, Cinnamon, and of May

flies. called March Brown, Olive Dun, etc., form the principal

constituents of trout food, adults of these insects are absent from

stomach contents.*

Comparative study of trout’s diet in various ceuntries: A com-

parative statement of the average food per fish in the Kulu Valley,

New Zealand (Phillips 1929) and New South Wales, Australia

(McKeown 1934) is given in Table V. Comparison cannot be

taken too far as the fish in the Kulu Valley, New Zealand and

Australia live under entirely different environmental conditions, and

the quantity of food varies not only according to the size of the

fish but also according to the nature and density of the local fauna.

Size of trout under study in the Kulu Valley varied from 3 oz. to

3 Ibs. 3 oz. and of trout in. Australia from ‘1 lb. to 4 lbs. Average

weight of Kulu fish was, therefore, less than that of the Australian

trout. Trout in the Kulu Valley, however, has practically the same

variety of food as it has in other countries. A noticeable feature,

however, is the negligible number of Crustacea and Mollusca in

the stomachs of the Kulu trout.

It may be of interest to quote in this connection Mosely (1926),

who commenting on Tillyard’s Report (1921) on the effect of

introduction of trout on the native insect fauna in New Zealand,

adds that ‘Nowadays trout are being introduced everywhere and

perhaps we are deluded by the immediate success of our efforts.

The history of New Zealand waters warns us that we must look

beyond the immediate future and that stocking should be carried

out on-a very moderate scale, while sanctuaries for trout insect

1 On most parts of the River Beas it may, therefore, be said, that, as has

also been pointed out by Howell (1914), ‘the spoon and phantom. and creeper

will kill fish more readily than fly.’

THE FOOD OF BROWN TROUT (SALMO FARIO L.y 433

food should be established in all areas where trout is being

introduced. Crustaceans and Molluscs should be imported if not

already present, to offer an alternative diet to the fish. Otherwise,

the trout may thrive lustily in the virgin waters, increase abundantly,

and by reason of their well doing, doom themselves to inevitable

destruction.’ |

The effect of introduction of trout on the native insect fauna

of the Kulu Valley is not known... The present investigations,

however, indicate that though there is no immediate danger to the

depletion of aquatic fauna, yet the food of trout in the Kulu Valley

requires immediate attention. The present investigations, it is

believed, will give sufficient impetus to further research on the

subject and steps will be taken to improve the food of trout

by establishing sanctuaries for insects, as advised by Mosely

(1926), in side streams where trout should not be allowed to

penetrate and also efforts will be made to introduce some

suitable Crustacea and Mollusca to offer an alternative diet to

the fish.

SUMMARY.

1. The food of the brown trout (Salmo fario L.) living in the

Beas River in the Kulu Valley in the Punjab has been investigated by

the examination of stomach contents of 1o2 fish.

2. The food consists of aquatic and terrestrial insects and their

larvae such as Caddis flies (T'richoptera), May flies (Ephemeroptera),

Beetles (Coleoptera), True flies (Diptera), Ants, Bees and Wasps

(Hymenoptera), Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera), Grasshoppers

(Orthoptera), Bugs (Hemiptera), Alder flies and Ant Lions (Neuro-

ptera) and Stone flies (Plecoptera). Besides insects, the trout

feeds also on young fish (Pisces), Spiders (Arachnida), Scolopendra

(Myriapoda), Snails and Slugs (Mollusca), Crustacea, Worms

(Oligochaeta), Frogs and Tadpoles (Amphibia). Crustacea and

Mollusca are present in negligible quantities in the stomachs, and

the worms present were in all cases used as bait.

3. The stomachs collected after the rains contain smaller

quantities of food than those collected early in the season. No

empty stomach was found before the rains, but 16 per cent of the

stomachs collected after the rains, were empty. The rains cause

heavy floods: and disturb the supply of available food in the

river,

4. Disturbance in the supply of available food after the floods

probably drives the trout to feed on fish fry.

5. The abundance of submerged food and scarcity of winged

flles in the stomachs seem to indicate that the trout in the Beas

River is mostly a bottom feeder.

6. The trout in its Indian habitats is consuming practically the

Same variety of food as in England, New Zealand, Australia and

America.

434

TABLE I.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi.

Monthly comparison of stomach contents of Brown ‘Trout (Salmo fario L.)

from the River Beas

the Kulu Valley.

Number of stomachs

examined

TTRICHOPTERA

EPHEMEROPTERA

COLEOPTERA

Gyrinide

Curculionide

Chrysomelidee

Carabidee

Scarabeeidee

Unidentified

DIPTERA

Blepharoceridez

Simuliide

Cyclorrhapha

Syrphidee

Unidentified

HYMENOPTERA

Formicide

Apidze

Vespidz

Scoliide

Unidentified

LEPIDOPTERA

ORTHOPTERA

Acridiidee

Mantidee

ODONATA

DERMAPTERA

HEMIPTERA

Capsidee

Jassidz

NEUROPTERA

Sialioidea

PLECOPTERA

MISCELLANEOUS

INSECTS

PISCES

ARACHNIDA

MvyRIAPODA

MOLLUSCA

CRUSTACEA

Isopoda

OLIGOCHAETA

AMPHIBIA

MISCELLANEOUS

Sand-gravel

I'wigs-seeds

t~ tm ™

es ix es iy a 6o i

= fe Se ee

fat > o eS on ~ ° 3

a, iS Bl oS O° 53) °

x | = = Sul ae a | oO lee

13 24 Ga Sat 14g Boy 4| 102

397 | 1439) 67 | 135 | I38in168 10 | 2289

43 38 2 2 780 4 | 126

tf hs Lilt, ovale 1

: oe ao i ~ 39 10| 49

se, 2 a e : 2 Bis 4

1 2 ie Oe: * Jalan 6

ee 3 ae os 4 or 7

8 264°" 2 2 7 1)| 36

2 2 it | 4 5 | ae

1 1 | 2 Delian 4

, 38 | S 38

i a | at 1 1 2

1 A as 1 2 | eal

174), 23, SS eames 66

ae il mn 2 ey 3

ae - Tae 1

i . ' - a 1

ise ee La\are. 3

4 7 ie 1 1 13

Be 1 1Oni pee I 4 17

4 . — i ] 1

1 1 eral 3

a 3 3

ae | i if

1 1

; 2 2

1 1

5 19 8 1 4 Oey ee 39

3 1 7 ee 7 i 13

i aon * it ey 2

ee 1 e ak 2

: 1 1

¥ 1 1

- 2 2

i i

O O O

O G O O

| | ee on ee

435

Lemma dma 149) mort Or

Mm ot rt <H

(9p)

‘0UasaId So}voTpUT oO “OIVIN = W

SUIBIUOI po}sasIq

SPdds-SSIM J

[PABIS-puBS

SAOUNVITHOSTIY

SAOSIG

SLOASN] ‘OSI

VuaaLdoos Tg

xpisser

VualdINaAY

VuUdLdVNaaAG

VLIVNOdO

BPliploy

VUELIOHLYGO

VUaLdOdIdy]

peyuapiuy

PHOS

plolaLioy

VaAHLTTONAWAH

TROUT (SALMO FARIO L.)

—N

eee coe eee 20° hod peytyuepiuyy

. ree fs eydeyt1ojoAg

epiT{NaTs

BROWN

FOOD OF

THE

ose weplrec01eydetq

VaaLdiq

peygiywepiu()

VpIquivg

eprjeuroskryyg

VuALdOAIO)

[ Peele sonnel Ah 8 ig ab acaiae (me take * )6- VHHLdIOURNAHAY

GLilGe wiCL aléb LOI IZeIGLE IGS JSS Ch PZ lace iSzl VUaLdOHIa TL,

eee see see eee A pee cee see see coe ooo cece cece eee

€ OT (2 [

£6 |92 |6P

ge IL [ PA ie

GEFTIES (6h |90OT |LOT JEST |sZ

Toul

{I~ n

Wit | TAIN AlA | A | aA | WIT W]e WI WI A TIT WI] AIT WI WIT WI WI olla a SS

Oise Ol EL Zn OL t- i4 1% jot lor. MT. 16 = 4Z L 9 |£* (8 |0T |9t (6 oO no

“SyoeUrojs

jo JOqtuNU [vIIIG

VGC Ge GGn alc: )\ 068) 6) WeSh\ Zit OF Sh pl laSk | Gl | il 0Ls! 6 Le |.9 S P ol Gen leak

“LE6T ABI JO YJUOW; oy} Sulsmnp

AZTBA DINY OY Ul svag JOATY sy} Wors YSN (“7] O14M] OuLqHS) Jory, UMOI_ Ye Jo $]U9}U09 YoeUIO}s Jo KrvUMIUINS

neous aia hoch e

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

TABLE III.

Summary of stomach contents of each Brown Trout (Salmo fario L.),

caught from the River Beas in the Kulu Valley during

the Month of August, 1937.

Serial number of

stomachs etl a2 123 61 AA SG ale7eloeeG

Length in mm. ...|325/312/287/300/225/325/250 250/360

Weightin oz, ...| 13/123) 11) 11

T2|, 8) 78) 10

Sex Bry fe) el alt Ns Conf Sf) Wiel She Fava Ol 14 8)

TRICHOPTERA

EPHEMEROPTERA.

COLEOPTERA

Gyrinidee ai | wae es

Unidentified “4..|4..\) 2

DIPTERA

Cyclorrhapha ...

Syrphidee

HYMENOPTERA

Formicide

ORTHOPTERA

Acridiide ane

MISC. INSECTS) 2.7) 0-2) Sa.

PISCES cents diese

ARACHNIDA

MISCELLANEOUS.

Sand-gravel

Twigs-seeds

Dives Led

remains

F = Female.

April

Number of stomachs)

examined Pe he

a |

Empty stomachs |

Stomachs with surface |

food 2

Stomachs with mixed |

surface and sub- |

merged food peal pea

Stomachs with sub.)

merged food ier eee at

28) 871 S| S| Gc

Opal, Sl

TABLE IV.

Seasonal occurrence of surface and submerged food in the stomachs of

Brown Trout (Salmo fario L.) in the River Beas

in the Kulu Valley.

3123

a | & |. &

BS fess

| |

Sd) Teale

| 2 2

5 4 2

4 5 | 10

Bee)

| Septem be:

M=Male. o indicates presence.

| October

Total

| ‘Total

THE FOOD OF BROWN TROUT (SALMO -FARIO L.) 437

TABLE V.

Study of the average per fish for each kird of food for trout (Samo

fario L.) in the Kulu Valley, New Zealand ard Australia,

a, TL ee EE a EE ae ELE SE TT I a EE TE EI IES

| | | New South Wales

Kulu (India) | New Zealard | ard

| 1936-37 1927-28 1928--29 Australia

| | | 1933-24

Number of stomachs on

which averages are

based St 102 48 , 42 27

‘TRICHOPTERA on 22°40 129°72 | 163°02 29°70

EPHEMEROPTERA ae 1:23 ior ae 219883 “oT

COLEOPTERA _ 1:09 Ma a 54 5°06

DIPTFRA ae “67 131 | 2°64 ‘SO

HYMENOPTERA Ser. ‘70 “03: | ‘07 4°00

LFPIDOPTERA ss wp He "02 ene "45

ORTHOPTERA Sak TLS 047 | fe °85

ODONATA ree °029 | 4°30

DERMAPTERA e "029 ae “as 7

HEMIPTERA ee "019 33 *26 Inv

NEUROPTERA an "019 1:20 1°64

PLECOPTERA aie ‘009 *43 64

Misc. INSECTS ae °38

PISCES °127 ue A me

ARACHNIDA Po °019 “02 3] “16 *30

MYRIAPODA a ‘019 ae ope ae

MOLLUSCA ae "009 15°41 21°94 “he

CRUSTACEA ee ‘009 083 102 "42

OLIGOCHAETA ee °019 O04 is)

AMPHIBIA a ‘009 ;

CP I SS PS EA IS

The figures denote the averages of the various orders cf animals eaten

per fish.

LITERATURE.

Howell, G. C. L.—The Making of a Himalayan Trout Water.’ jour. Boni,

Wat. tHist. Soc., xxiv (1916).

McKeown, K. C.—‘Notes on the Food of Trout and Macquire Perch in

Australia.” Rec. Aust. Mus. Sydney, xix, 2 (19342).

McKeown, K. C.—‘The Food of Trout in New South Wales.’ Rec. Aust.

Mus. Sydney, xix, 3 (1934b).

Mitchell, F. J.—'The Food of Trout (Salmo fario) in) Kashmir.’ fourt.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii (1914)

Metzellar, J.—‘The Food of Trout in Michigan.’ Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.,

59 (1929).

Mosely, M. E.—‘Insect Life and the Management of a Trout Fishery.’

London (1926). . ;

ies J. C.—‘Trout Fisheries, their Care and Preservation.’ London

- (1920).

Mottram, J. C.—'The Food of Wild Trout Fry.’ Salmon and Trout Mag.,

64 (1931).

Pentelow, F. T. K.—The Food of the Brown Trout (Salmo trutta L.).’

Jv. Anim. Eco., i. Cambridge (1932).

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Phillips, J. S.—'A Report on the Food of Trout.’ New Zealand Marine

Dept. Fish Bull., ii (1929). or

Regan, C. T.>*The Fresh Water Fishes of British Isles.” London (19m):

Rushton, W.—‘Biological Notes.’ Salmon -and Trout .Mag.,; 63 (1931).

Southern, R.—‘The Food and Growth of Brown Trout from Lough Derg

and the River Shannon.” Proc. Roy.-Insh Acad-, -xlii, B. 6- (1935):

Tillyard, R. J.—Neuropteroid Insects of the Hot Springs Region, New

Zealand, in relation to the’ problem of Trout Food.”’ “Nv Z. Journ. Science

Technol, 11,75. 36 (102)

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA.

C. B. WILLIAMS, SC.D.,

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station,

Harpenden, England.

(IVith one coloured plate and 4 diagrams).

INTRODUCTORY.

The migrations of birds and mammals have been known _ for

many centuries, and similar movements of fishes are now being

studied with results of great practical importance. Among the

insects great swarms of locusts have always attracted attention,

but the fact that extensive movements take place in other groups

is still but little known to the general public, and even in some

cases to the naturalist himself.

It is now however a well established fact that many species of

butterflles and moths make regular movements in the adult stage,

over distances which frequently exceed a thousand miles. Thus

in North America, the Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) flies

in great numbers each Autumn from Southern Canada to Florida,

the Gulf States or Mexico, and then returns to repopulate the

northern area in the Spring. |

In Western Europe and North Africa the Painted Lady (Vanessa

cardut) flies regularly in large numbers from the borders of the

North African desert, across the Mediterranean, northwards through

Europe, and may in extreme cases reach Iceland and almost to

the Arctic Circle in Russia. a

That the phenomenon is not a rare and unusual occurrence

may be seen from the fact that of the sixty-eight species of

butterflies known to occur in the British Isles, fourteen are partially

or completely dependent on immigration from the Continent for their

continued existence in Britain.

The known movements of the migrant butterflies have been

slowly established by the collection of individual records of

directional flights, and also by discovery (often very difhcult to

verify) that certain insects are only to be found over large areas

at one, particular time of the year.

MIGRATIONS IN INDIA.

In India the latter form of evidence is not generally available,

owing to insufficient study, but it has been used in support of the

supposed migrations of the moth Agrotis ypsilon from the ‘tal’

lands of Mokamek in Bihar.

Directional flights of butterflies have however been known to

occur here for many years.

The first record that I have been able to trace is in an English

newspaper The Liverpool Mercury and Lancashire General

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST.“ SOCIRIN: 3) ole

Advertiser of just a hundred years ago. In the issue for 21st

December 1838 there is a paragraph which states ‘Mr. Moore records ©

a flight in India of butterflies which extended 500 miles, and Mr.

Barrie describes one in Africa which occupied an area of 2,000

miles’. Ina later issue of the same newspaper (4th January 1839) the

Editor comments that stories about locusts can apparently be

believed, but he considers stories of great flights of butterflies as

merely ‘flights of fancy’!

Several records and discussions of butterfly flights in Ceylon

appeared about the middle of last century, but interest in India

did not seem to be aroused till about the end of the century,

when several short papers and notes appeared in the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society and elsewhere.

Since then observers of strikingly large flights have occasionally

sent in their records for publication, but no one has made any

continuous study of the subject except Mr. J. Evershed, F.R.S. who

was for many years Director of the Observatory at Kodaikanal, in

the Pulni Hills, South India at an altitude of about 7,700 feet.

Mr. Evershed observed directional moveme:uts of butterflies at

Kodaikanal on numerous occasions between 1907 and 1914, and

also in 1921. In 1926 he kindly placed the whole of his notes

at my disposal anda full report on them has already been published

(Williams 1927). Summaries of his observations will be given

below.

Directional flights of butterflies are also known to occur in

most of the countries bordering on India. In Ceylon they are

particularly frequent and the available evidence was summarised

by the present ywriterimage27.

In Burma and Malaya movements seem to have been less

frequently observed, but they are not uncommon in Siam and the

East Indies, and probably only need a close watch to be found

almost everywhere.

For the area to the North of India no information is forthcoming.

INFORMATION AT PRESENT AVAILABLE IN INDIA.

In 1930 (Williams 1930) I made a general survey of the problem

of migration of butterflies throughout the world, and included in

it notes on the Indian butterflies that had been known to

migrate. It appeared from the evidence then available that the

species concerned in the migrations in the foothills of the Himalayas

were very different from those of Central and South India. In

this present review therefore the records along the mountains in ——

the north will be kept distinct from those of the rest of India.

In order to summarise as briefly as possible the records that .

I have so far traced, thev are condensed into three tables. Table I

shows the records for North India and the Himalayas; Table II

Evershed’s records for Kodaikanal; and Table III shows the records

for the rest of the country. Finally Table IV gives a list of all

the species which have been recorded as migrating anywhere in

India with the names of the observers of their movements.

All the flights in Tables I-III are shown in diagrammatic form

im Wie. 2,

2 WeId ‘a109 vajdnz "Ty 2 “UUTT ‘aoissp4ig Stuaig “J

Pf Weid ‘w#ynuas snvouvgq “YY 2 “uUI'T ‘snoyag sapidwyeT “Fy

6 “[aNg ‘stuorjuajdas Dippy snvUuvq. *5) £ ‘uur ‘ayzuvidd vipisdowoy “Gq

Salina Lio “INVaDIn NVIGNi

“UOPUOT py] ‘MOUND *Y SUOS Beg uYyor

£ ‘UUI'T *INpAVI Vssauvy “OD

& “WIRID ‘2/09049 DyisdoJoy Gg

P “TVUITAL ‘“Ipjay svyog “VY

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 441

JAN. | FEB. | MAR. | APR. | MAY |JUNE | JULY | AUG. | SEPT.| OCT. bg e| ec

| wal YV|vt

Neti aoe VV] dV YW YAdy

|KODAIKANAL et tay.

% <4] %

[REST OF INDIA <aeoes oon rr

| utd :

| Vv¢ tl v 4

| 4 RTA Ce

[CEYLON ae ae oe

} qR f

f a :

Fig. eS ram showing the date and direction of recorded flights in

different parts of India and Ceylon, and also the recorded flights of C. boeticus

and EF. core in India.

An examination of Table I and the corresponding portion of

|. Fig. 1 shows that the flights in the foothills of the Himalayas are

chiefly in two seasons; the first in March, April and May; the

second mid-August to early November; corresponding more or less

to the Spring and Autumn. The flights in the Spring season are

most frequently to the N.-W. and in the Autumn to the South,

as shown in Fig. 2.

[ WN. N.

| SPRING, AUTUMA,

Fig. 2.—Diagram showing the directions of the recorded flights of butterflies

wm the Himalaya region of India separated into Spring and Autumn seasons.

DOE,

Vol.

NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY,

BOMBAY

JOURNAL,

4.42

jSOM O01 SOW

‘(Q68T O1TAe0IN op) ToUNOV A, |

‘(Q6ST SI[TFAS0IN ep) Suey |" YON OF,

HAONHUMAAAY AGNV UHAAUSAO NOILOY AIC,

ee ee eet

‘(GOS6T SMETTITM) Boysnorg |"

*(GOE6L SMIBITIIM) FoVquel[o

(SEGL SUIEITITM ) PUP ZZ6L SUCAT

‘Q76T UOISSUTH

‘(QOS6T STITT) W9VqueTIO

(a) te

ce ce

‘[xipueddy seg] eTled

"(SE6T STHETITEM) SUBAY

‘(SZ6L SUIBITIEM) SHeqoy

‘[xtpueddy sag] a[led

"(SZ6T SUIPTIIEM) e1i9d

“(SEBI SWETTITAA ) STOMIOIO

‘[xtpueddy 99g] efiadg

"(SEB SWIRIT[IM) SUVAG

‘(ZO6T) Uoospng

‘(ZO6L) edtpyd-2uy 9p

‘(Z06L) woospnqd

‘(QOE6T SMETTEM) ToVquey[O

* 4S9M-WIION OF,

ee yynog OL

go ISOM OL

"* 4SOM-UVION OL,

Nog OF,

INOS OL

“elnu oy} uamoqd,

189 M-U}ION OL

jseq-Yjnog OL

jseq OL

Yen ey} umoq,

1S9M-TWION OF

(ION OT,

yMog OF,

\seq-YINOg OL,

ISAM OL

1S9M-U}ION OL

SvY OL

jse7y 0} SOTUTJSUIOS

jATaA ynq jUeAe Tenuur)

SADUD(T

“52219209 * ag

iis SD1JOZ MO} B pu ‘snI717209 “JT

ae Usa ereny SNYIDUL 1117]0

are S$2I1490Q °T

3 a $21] 90Q

SNIVIUMOAJOY Pus SISUAAIMMYSVI

"A ‘Sndggishsy? “GQ M2} e@ pue

1pjaly SvIgOD UYYM ‘avorIssvprg Sisal

DEVAS DI SHJVIISVJ1Q SNAVIYIPE

“SIoYJO PUB 29DUDI DSSaUuDA ‘SapDv

“184D SaAa2T ‘Sniuarg SayINADJUAS

vgsng DvutAsoja) ‘aqvoay "T

payjAgi *[, ‘v72] Svisaz ‘sagdjzog

OUlgDg ‘vjavaIwaz aYyjaT ‘svzhY

S29AN ‘p1ygl SIIAAd ‘wignuad “*G

‘ "“" SIay1O PUuw VIVUDS SVvi7aT

= ‘dds snqpdoyspy

een VDIUAYJVAVDGY ‘svzty $22

-G2N ‘wopUDS sv1jaq ‘A038a8v 9141Gd0q

" paptIN} AOTYINA

I9DID] SvIdg PY

= SNILOY IU SISDPULgS |

Bon ay nae sna1ya0g "7

D1]1S GOD)

umouyuy

VUuUISHPs Ip]al{ SV1]OD

. DI1LY Gl SIIIAY

INPAVI VSSAUD A

sie DYNUIS

pa DULUASAUL "By

SNI1J209 °T

MO} ®

IY JUDAAG °F MJ CV PUL 97VIOAI *|D

"** DYJUDANG “JD PUC IJVIOAD V171SGOIV

‘dO TRL tureNn

‘dQ ‘and eyed

o tpuidjeme y

““Risuvy ‘elBstlIeyqd

IIIOOSSN IV

‘d'Q ‘olioossnyyy

(a9

IIOOSSN I,

SsBg JaqAyy

Sarl req ‘suojid Oey

eco 66¢

dTLOOSSN]

ae auood jo Agta

a IIIOOSSNI,

‘dO ‘TRL Tren

*‘[eIligqg ‘sseg inpueys

eisuey ‘induvyeg |**

rete ay SSSICh MOUYON'T

=" VIOue sy INGuLeted |

‘aa ‘und viyaq

“dt “Unc eiueq |

“Gc-LZT USIP 8Z6L

""* JOQUISAON PZT

2 Skeid Odes

ABN

OA IN PE OTOE

Jaq uiaydag

JO FTeU DUG! SESE

Jaquie}d9g gI6T

ABW Puy 9161

ABW SI6L

YoIvW 9I6I

oq UoA0 NT SI6L

ABW SI6T

ree O€ Id €T6L

“* Qg ysnsny ZI6I

ae 19q0}90 606T

"OT [dy 606T

"1940190 PIN 8061

“ee JSHSNY OO6T

Z dy 1061

Sada penuuryy pue

‘Tidy ‘Wore TO6I

* @L “ONV OOBT

72 We AlN 0d 03

oun cf pug Ayjenuuy

“SVAWIVAWIH

73 ‘Op sTIOOSSNY | sutids

oe SUI1j909 SaPIgGuULvT ‘DO TRL wren |~ padw

ALITVIO'T aALVd

GANUYAINOSD SHINAdS

Neel aay. L

CNV VICNI

list.

THE MIGRATION

BUTTERELIES IN INDIA

443

The species concerned in these flights are given in the following

PAPILIONIDA.

Papilio agestor.

Papilio polytes. C,

Papilio machaon.,

PIERIDA.

Euchloe lucilla.

Pieris brassicae.

Delias sanaca.

India. “and. a =G;

NYMPHALIDA.

Lethe sidonis.

Parathyma_ opalina.

Neptis hylas.

Kallima inachus.

Precis iphita.

Vanessa cardui.

Vanessa canace.

Aglais cashmirensis.

An I. after the name denotes that it has also been recorded

migrating in other

name denotes that it has also been recorded as migrating in

Ceylon.

after the

| we

> s

Miyeesia- auvota. 1-C. Phalanta phalantha. 1.C.

Appias lalage.

Catopsilia crocale. I.C.

Catopsilia pyranthe. I.C.

Terias libythea.,

Terias laeta.

Terias hecabe. I.C.

Colias fieldt.

LYCAENIDA.

Syntaruchus telecanus,

Everes argiades.

Lycaenopsis puspa. C.

Lycaenopsis huegelit,

Cosmolyce boeticus. I.C.

Spindasts nipalicus.

DANAIDE.

: HESPERIDZ.

Danaus tytia.

Danaus genutia. I.C,

Danaus chrysippus.

Lobocla bifasciatus.

It will be seen that of the thirty-three species recorded, only ten

have been seen migrating further south in India or Ceylon.

The most regular migrant of all in this area is undoubtedly

iE boeltcus, the long-tailed Blue (Plate, Big. E) which has

been recorded as migrating by no fewer than nine different

observers in India, and by Ormiston in Ceylon (Williams 1927,

p. 24). The same species is also known as a migrant in Europe

and North Africa and is found in many of the oceanic Islands of

the Pacific. The records in the Himalayas are all to the North or

N.-W. in February, March and April. At Kodaikanal, Evershed

observed four flights in January, February and March, but all to

the south or south-east. In Ceylon no exact dates are available.

Another most interesting migrant is Pieris brassicae, the Large

Cabbage White Butterfly (Plate, Fig. F), which migrates not

only in India, but also on a large scale in Europe (see Williams

1930, pp. 112-21). Lefroy (1909) says that in India this butterfly

migrates from the hills in the cold weather and early hot weather.

It spends this period in the submontane districts of the Himalayas,

breeding on cultivated Crucifers, and returns to the hills for the

summer. Fletcher (1925) says that it first appears at Pusa about

the first week in February, and two or three generations are passed

threugh rapidly before the end of April. At the beginning of May

all disappear, and do not reappear till the following February. The

only observed case of actual migration is that of Hingston (1928)

feterred to in Table I,

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

APR. May \JUNE

Oo i

Mar.

OPECiES AN. | FEB

f PAPILIONIDA

Fapilo derroleus

ee reo

PIERIDA.

—

—:

Catopsilia pylantrre|

| ) crocale

[catia _|

eo Prreta

Applas (Usual alb/ ra y)

=e Ded

“a

Hebormora (glau c/ppe)

| DANAIDA.

| Danas aghae

t ~~

Pes

wee ee et aa

<_— DRS —_—

— = wH ~~, ~

— oe <_

plexippus

, //II1AC CC

: > septentriorals

rie aa

| = Hypolimnas bolina

is I721S DUS

| Junonia wrerta }

RRAESRERE Seer

—

_—

— — i

“a

)

_—

Dos

—

lemon/as

i SP

Ate//a phalanta

— ~ Se

+-_— +

val

| ariaane _| ed

ener a ae ES Bans

Ee are We wa

[ fwnmaturecine [|X [1 ae:

| HESPERIDAL ee ie eee poem

, Parnasa mathias Le Ce ee Ben

[omscon Fuss | | 11 ee

Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the directions and months of all flights of

butterflies recorded at Kodaikanal, S. India by Mr. J. Evershed, F.R.s.

(Reproduced from the Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1927, p.8 by kind

permission of the Society.)

DHE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 445

Wanessa: cavdut, the Painted Lady (Plate, Fig. C), 1s one of

the most widespread of all butterflies and is a regular migrant

in both Europe and North America. It occurs throughout India

and Ceylon and has been found far out at sea in the Indian Ocean.

In Ceylon, Ormiston (1924) says that on occasions it appears

suddenly in great numbers but he has no other evidence of

migration. Aitken (1897) states that ‘At different times of the year,

but most often I think in June, large numbers of this species

appear about the rocks on the seashore and in other barren

situations and I am inclined to think that they are new arrivals

from some other country. ... A certain number remain _per-

manently with us and breed on a common species of Blumea.’

The only record of an actual flight is the one recorded by Evans in

the Shandur Pass, Chitral. (See Table I.)

At Kodaikanal (Table II and Fig. 3) Mr. Evershed observed

numerous migrations between 1907 and 1914, and one flight in 1921.

About twenty-three species were noted, and the flight seasons fell

definitely into three periods. The main flights were towards the

south in October and November and included nearly all the observed

species (but not P. boeticus). In February and March a return

flight to the north occurred, but consisted only of Catopsilia spp.

and Appias spp. Then after a blank period in April there was

renewed activity in May and June in the same two genera, with

some Papilio polytes, but the direction of flight was less definite.

Of about 22 species observed by Evershed only 5 have been recorded

as migrating in the Himalayan area; but all but two species

(Precis ovithya and Pelopidas mathias) are known migrants in

Ceylon.

TABEE. El

Obeservations made by J. Evershed at Kodaikanal, S. India.

DATE SPECIES DIRECTION

— Rae se Pe nan ee ee a De eS

1907 | |

February—March _... Catopsilia pyranthe to ENOTeh:

1908 |

May 16 to begin. pal \Catopsilia crocale ... .| North and N. by E.

October 7-21 .. Dragonflies, Papzlio demoleus |

(enormous rumbers), /7

bolina, P. hector, Catopsilia

crocale, C.? catilla, D. plex-

ippus, limniace and septen- '

trionis, Junonia hierta, J

orithya, J. lemonias, Atella

_ phalantha ae He POULIN

1909 |

March 28 ...|\Auploea core, C. crocale, C.|

pyranthe |'To South-East.

June 13-15 wwiG.erocale,.C. pyranthe, ie demo-

Jeus and others... .| East, East by South

and North-East.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST,

Observations made by J. Evershed at Kodaikanal,

SOCIETY,

Violwe 2G

S, India—(Contd.)

| SPECIES

..|P. demoleus, E. ariadne, A.

phalantha, J. orithya,J/. hierta,

J. lemonias, H. bolina, C.

| pyranthe, afew P. hector and

October 3-25

Parnara mathias (great

| many) ss

1910 ... | No records

Tou |

Jane4—26 and Feb. 19:..

January 28-30

February i2 and 19

March 12

March 19

Polyommatus boeticus

... | Apptas albina

... | Catopsilias

.. | Appias sp. 2:

... | P. doeticus (many)

| Appias, males (several)

_Catopsilias (a few)

1912

Mar. 23, 24, 25, and 28. | Catopsilia pyranthe only, in

| numbers be

May 19 (about) vo | Catopsilia catilla

| Appias anda few Catopsilias -

Catopsilia catilla (pale form) ;

May 20-29

on 28th all crocale

July 31 Large Catopsilias

September 11 C. pyranthe eVeTeD: P. hector

(only one) a

wD. limntace (5 or 6)

...| Hf. bolina (several each day) .

September 21

September 15-29

October 6 - | AZ. bolina (large numbers of

both sexes)

October 9 _C. pyranthe (large numbers)

October 13 oe Do do.

.. | C. pyranthe (snow-storm)

P. demoleus (large numbers), 4.

phalantha, H. missipus (con- |

siderable number of females,

a few males), A’. dolina, D

October 16

ie)

plexippus (1), D. limniace

Q), J. Mmeria (a few), J.)

lemonias (1), C. florella? (a)

few)

| P. demoleus (large numbers), Gi

pyranthe (snow-storm),

bolina (afew).

| C. py canthe, P. demoleus, Atella

(great many of all)

... C. pyranthe (small number)

... C, catilla (considerable num-

| bers) sts see

P. demoleus (a few), AH. bolina

(a few), Junonia sp. (several)

|'Hebomoias (many), aaa

(catilla chiefly) es

P. demoleus and Catopsilias .,.

October 30

October 31

November 3-4

November 5-6

November 10

November 14-22

ee SSS

DIRECTION

South, South by W.,

5.S.-W and S.W.

..; south-East.

South-East by South.

West and N.-West.

North-East.

i To South-East.

North-East.

North.

North by East.

., E.S.E. and S.-E.

N.and N. by E.

Mostly E.. to S.-E

also some North to

North-East.

..| Various, but mostly

North to East,

South,

South or South by E.

Towards S.-W. 7 to

S.-East.

...| South and S.S-W.

..| South and S.-W.

More or less S.

S. (more or less),

S. (more or less).

| North-East.

S.-W. and W.S.-W.

S.-W. (more or less).

South.

Rap MiTGRALTON--OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 447

Observations made by J. Evershed at Kodaikanal, S, India—(Contd.)

‘DATE SPECIES DIRECTION

1913

March 2-9 ..., Catopsilias and pees (a few

| only) ee IOTule

May 18-31 and June 1. | Catopsilia ci ocale, catilla or

florella (not pyranthe) ..|N.-E. and E.N.-E.

1914 |

November 11 ... Catopsilia catilla (considerable

rumbers), also &. ariadne,

| Junonias, Atella ee West ard W. bys.

1915-20 | No records he

1921 |

August 21] [| C. pyvanihe (many), also C.

| erocale, P. demoltleus (many),

vale phalantha (many), D.

aglea (a few), /. hierta (a

few ) whe De | Sionb gel aly

The October-November season at Kodaikanal corresponds to the

change of the S.-W. to the N.-E. monsoon and is the period of

maximum rainfall. ere

ling the remainder of India (Vable III, p. 449) there are:-only

nineteen recorded flights, of which at least 12 refer to butterflies of

the family Danaidae, and chiefly to Euploea core. The flights of this

“species Seem to occur fairly regularly in the Bombay area in June and

July and are chiefly towards the north. It has never been recorded

in the Himalayan area, and only once at Kodaikanal, but it regularly

joins in the flights in Ceylon in November and December, and_

again to a smaller extent in March and April.

All the localities at which butterfly migrations have been recorded

in India are shown in Fig. 4 together with the direction of flight.

They are well scattered over the country, but there are still very

large areas from which no information is available.

A general survey of the evidence available for India thus shows

that we have about eighty records of unidirectional flights over

the whole country, of which about half are due to Mr. Evershed

at MKodaikanal.

These records include 52 species (see table IV, p. 450) of which

27 are also known to migrate in Ceylon.

When it is realised fea 1om the Cabbage White Butterfly, Pieris

brassicae, we have a hundred records of flights for E ayes tre alone,

and another hundred for the Continent of Europe, and ‘th at for the

Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui) we have about 400 records in

different parts of its range, it will be seen that the problem in

India is in a very early stage of investigation.

cat

448 jfOURNAL,' BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. “SOCIETY, Volo XE |

Sy SHAN OUR lee Pao.

ee ee

KRYBER PASS.

€ Rawat wiNDI

R.DHARMSALA | >

Kancra ©

2 f

V Mussoorie

pac MARI

| | Y Kour

BANCALORE <<

= NILGIRIS

Koirar

, RY KODAI KAM},

eS Tt & Uae TT aie on tn ga an

C ee

DHARNS Me

Fig. 4.—Map of India showing localities and directions of the recorded

flights of butterflies. |

449

IN INDIA

BUTE RE ET

MIGRATION OI

)

‘[xipusddy seg] ssoyy |"

"8 3409 vaojdny

; Y10 NT OT,

“(Gg6I SurerTIM ) Asyoutzy |’ 1seqq- TINO 0 Mean ‘a Solpseyng yLecy |**" Tpoysiureyq '"""

es wis oa: 310

| ‘agv22y a) “AU uDind "J ‘ajDI0AP *7D \*AOIg *yueg ‘weUMyoeg

“\G0E6L SUIRTTTIM) Yoon, | ‘op oe a4oo “P= Nequiog ‘ITejoaq

"1Z6{ TUM |" ISVY OT, |"* Sapvuw ‘snzOIDAIL, ‘PLYIOJOJSLAD ‘|

iol ‘suggisiut Fy ‘Djtaly SIDIAY

| ‘wiynuas °C ‘aso i ‘snajomap ‘|

IQVIIY BIAIT, ‘DULjuasIu ‘PF \*° Ind vypeyy

| yo soy SAY BIS 17

‘[xtpueddy a9c] y0]1eq |" ySBVq-YINOS oO], ine ae SULBUEC, |°°* STITS[IN Tel oF

“(SZ6T SWIBITIIM) satydopy |* ‘op ; “ sulvued pues serisdojyeg |

“(Q/Z6L SMIBITIIM ) Woe, |*** UWION OL : seitisdoyeg Alsop 7°

“(SE6T SMIBITIIM) WJOUUNY |" ‘op ie ca SiUOIAJUIIGIS suDUDT *** SBIDE

“OL6L S9Meupuy (°° SOMA OF, oe a svoooidny °° SLITSTIN |""

“CO6I OSINNT (°° ISOAA-UIION OF, ZUgMEE Ag v1718¢0qw 7 ee Avqtuog ‘essaq

“0061 WexITy |" YON OL “op = “

"So8L UayITY |" (uoT}

-dd1Ip St} UI Ud_aS

out} Ajuo) g of; |" ‘op Aequiog

“S68T I1eld a FS me ‘op keqmog * wl edges | Apo

“L681 Beaty |- “Op i aa ae “op “ Avquiog ‘Titseu}ey

*Q68T UsyITY [°° YWON oO, | is ""* 2409 va0jgny Aequiog

‘[xtpusddy 909] se1]umoy |°*° IS0M Oy, |°@ ea es SUIBUB@ |*** d1OSATA

| | ) SPIShA POD = 1BjO

‘(Q6Z61 SWIM) UeUuULy 1uyNy | HINO OF," selpisdojeg ‘secojdng ‘sureurq | e10] eeu

S681 l1eld oh lee ie mae sulvue”g |‘eivuey *N ‘indeppts

HONDUAATY AGNV AHAUASAO NOILOAUIG SHIOadS | ALIIVIOT

Aequiog '""*

eT eunf /E6T

OF £2°40}90O ZE6L

Iaqutaidas ZZ61

AIDE 226i

7° 8% 49q039Q LZ6L

“"* ounL In0ge OZEL

SI6L

“Ee 19Q UISAO AY CI6L

yz AINE 6OGL

ST 4940190 g06I

"* 12-GZ “ONY IO6L

ia ze AINE O06

loce

42-96 AINL S68T

“" 1é 4990390 L681

Oe L68T

** OUR SULUISOq

jnoqe ‘sivod Aueyt

t¢

eer

SIBOA [BIBARS

‘VIGNI AO LSHY— WI WIGVL

450 jOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XL

TABLE IV.—INDIAN BUTTERFLIES RECORDED AS MIGRANTS.

PAPILIONID&.

“Papilio hector L. :—lvershed.

“Papilio aristolochie abr. :—Wall.

Papilio agestor Gray :—Peile.

*Papilio polytes Linn. :—Peile.

*Papilio demoleus Linn. :—Wall, Evershed.

Papilio machaon Linn. :—Peile.

PIERIDA.

Euchloe lucilla Butler :—Evans.

Pieris brassice:-Linn. :—Hingston, Lefroy, Fletcher (Plate, fig: F).

Delias sanaca Moore :—Peile.

*Glycestha aurota Fab. (mesentina Cr.) :—Dudgeon, Wall.

Appias lalage Dbdy. :—Roberts.

*Appias albina Bdv. :—Evershed.

“Catopsilia crocale Cr.:—Dudgeon, Ollenbach, Evershed (Plate, fig. B).

*Catopsilia pomona ft. catilla Cr. :—IEvershed.

*Catopsilia pyranthe Linn. :—Dudgeon, Ollenbach, Nurse, Evershed. (Plate,

fig. D).

*Catopsilia florella Fabr. :—Evershed.

Terias libythea Fab. :—Peile. ~

Terias leta Bdv. :—Peile.

*Terias hecabe Linn. :—Peile, Wall.

Colias fieldi Men.:—Hingston; Broughton, Peile (Plate, fig. <A).

Colotis amata Fabr. :—Wall.

Hebomoia glaucippe Linn. :—lvershed.

DanalDZ.

“Danaus aglea Cram. :—Evershed.

Danaus tytia Gray. :—Peile.

*Danaus limniace Cram. :—Evershed.

*Danaus hamata septentrionis But. :—Punnett, Evershed (Plate, fig. G).

Danaus genutia Cram. :—Dudgeon, Peile, Wall, Evershed. (Plate, fig. H).

Danaus chrysippus Linn. :—Hingston.

*Euplea core Cram. :—-Aitken, Prall, Wall, Tulloch, Ghose, Evershed:

(Piste... iy.

NYMPHALIDJS.

SATYRIN A.

Lethe sidonis vaivarta Doherty :—Peile.

NYMPHALINZ.

Parathynia opalina Woll. :—Peile.

Neptis hylas. Linn. :—Peile.

*Hypolimnas misippus Linn. :—Wall. Evershed.

*Hypolimnas bolina Linn. :—Evershed.

Kallima inachus Bdvy. :—Ollenbach.

*Precis hierta Fabr. :~-Wall, Evershed.

Precis orithya Linn. :—Evershed.

*Precis lemonias Linn. :—Evershed.

“Precis iphita Cram. :—Peile.

*Vanessa cardui Linn. :—Evans. (Plate, fig. C).

Vanessa canace Johann. :—Peile.

Aglais cashmirensis Wollar. :—Hingston.

*Phalanta phalantha Drury. :—Peile, Evershed.

*“Ergolis ariadne Moore. :—Evershed.

* Also recorded as migrating in Ceylon.

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 451

LyCAENIDA.

Syntaruchus telecanus plinius Fabr. :—Peile.

Everes argiades Ever. :—Peile.

Lycenopsis huegelit Moore. :—Peile.

*Lycenopsis puspa Hors. :—Peile.

*Cosmolyce beeticus Linn. :—Lang, McKinnon, Hingston, Peile, Evans.

de Rhe-Philipe, Broughton, Ollenbach, Evershed. (Plate, fig. IE).

Spindasis nipalicus Moore. :—Peile.

HESPERIDAS.

Lobocla bifasciatus casyapa Moore. :—Ollenbach.

Pelopidas mathias Fabr. :—Evershed.

OBSERVATIONS REQUIRED.

What is needed at the moment is a very great increase in the

number of observers who will watch out carefully for any directional

fights of butterflies, whether in large or small numbers; and who

will send in their observations and specimens to the writer of this

article or to the Curator of the Bombay Natural History Society.

The information required is first of all the locality, date and

direction of flight, and secondly a number of specimens of the

insects concerned, taken actually from the flight. Such specimens

add very greatly to the value of the record, as from them identi-

fications of species and variety can be obtained and dissections

made to see the state of development of the eggs or ovaries. One

or two specimens are much better than none; and, if opportunity

occurs to catch them, up to fifty is not too many. The condition

of the specimens is not of major importance, and for our immediate

purpose a single broken specimen, or even a wing, enclosed in a

letter is better than a perfect one which has escaped.

The best way to kill such specimens is to give the insect a

sharp pinch at that part of the body where the wings and legs

join it (technically the thorax). The wings can then be folded back

and the butterfly placed in a small paper envelope, or between two

sheets of paper in a flat cigarette tin.

If it is not possible to obtain specimens,—if for example the

flight is seen from a railway train—, then as full as possible a

description of the butterfly should be sent, giving approximate size

and colour, whether with or without tails on the wings, ete.

Records without specimens are always of interest, as are records

of flights seen in the past if locality or date can be fairly well

recollected.

Over and above the records of place, direction and date, the

observer may send in almost any other details that occur to him.

It is not desirable to have information too stereotyped and confined

to certain channels, but it is always interesting to know such facts

as the direction of the wind; the height of the insects above the

ground; the approximate speed of flight; the time of the day; the

weather conditions preceding and during the flight; how long the

flight lasts and how many insects are estimated to be passing

(e.g. dozens, hundreds, thousands, millions). Special watch should

* Also recorded as migrating in Ceylon.

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

also be made to see if more than one species is present and, if

this is so, specimens of all species should be captured, if possible,

with an estimate of their relative abundance. |

Flights occur also in other groups of insects as well as butterflies.

Fraser in 1916 described a large flight of Hawk moths (Sphingidae) ;

and the serious pest Agotis ypsilon has already been mentioned as

a migrant. The latter species is more fully discussed in my previous

review (Williams 1930 b).

Dragonflies are also known to migrate in large numbers in many

parts of the world but I have no record at present of any migration

in India except the record by Evershed in October 1908 (Table II).

Since the above was written I have found another old record of

butterfly migration in India. E. L. Arnold (1893) describes a flight

of butterflies passing ‘on a soft N.-E. breeze’ in the Anamalai

Hills, south of Palgat, Madras. The flight was apparently about

mid-November but the year is not stated. The butterflies concerned

were said to include Papilio erithonius, Papilio pammon (a male

from Papilio polytes) and many Pieridae.

REFERENCES.

Aitken, EK. H.—The Migrations of Butterflies’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

SOC. Xi, Pe 330 (1807).

Aitken, E. H.—‘Migration of Euploea core’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

NOC., Kil, p. 229-230 (1S03a).

Aitken, E. H.—The Tribes on my Frontier. London, p. 113 (1898b).

Aitken, E. H.—‘Butterflies as weather prophets’. Journ. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., xiii, p. 540 (1900).

Andrews, H. L.—‘Migrations of Butterflies’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist., Soc.,

XiKG p. 2712 (1910).

Arnold, E. L.—QOn the Indian Hills. London, pp. 192-193 (1893).

Dudgeon, G. C.—'The Migration of Butterflies in the Kangra Valley’.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc., xiv, p. 147-148 (1902).

Evans, W. H.—‘Identification of Indian Butterflies’. Journ. Bombay Nat.

Hist; SOC p.6 (1027):

Evershed, J.—‘A-note on migration’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xx,

P- 390-391 (1910).

Evershed, J.—‘Butterfly migration in relation to Mimicry’. Nature, 89,

p- 659 (1912).

Fletcher, IT. B.—'Migration as a factor in pest outbreaks’. Bull. Ent. Res.,

6° (2); ps "177-181 (1925).

Fraser, F. C.—‘Note on a flight of Sphingidae’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxv (1), p. 155-156. (1917).

Set R. W. G.—Problems of Instinct and Intelligence. London, p.

23 (1928).

Lefroy, H. M.—Indian Insect Life, p. 417 (1900).

Niceville, Butterflies of India, p. 206 (1890).

Nurse, G. C.—‘The Migrations of Butterflies’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc.; xiv, p, 179 (1902):

Ormiston, W.—The Butterflies of Ceylon. Colombo (1924).

de Rhé-Philipe, G. W. V.—'The Butterflies of the Lucknow District’. Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xiv, p. 481 (1902).

Peile, H. D.—A Guide to collecting Butterflies of India. London (1937).

Prali, 7s. E igration of Butterflies’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Xi, P+ 533 (1898).

Wall, F.—‘Buterflies at Sea’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiii, p.

293 (1921).

Williz ation in South India and Ceylon’.

Frans, Ent, Soc. ender. 75 (ay, Pp. 1-33 nee

~ Williams, C. B.—‘Collected Records “relating to Insect Migration’. Trans.

Ent. Soc, London. Ago a),: ap. .79 1925).

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 453

Williams, C. B.—‘Evidence for the Migration of Butterflies’. Bull. Soc.

R. Ent., Egypt (1929) (4) p- 193 (1929).

Williams, C. B.—‘Collected Records See to Insect Migration’. Second

series. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 78 (1), p. 139 (19304).

Williams, C. B.—The Migration of Butterflies. Edinburgh (1930b).

Williams, C. B.—‘Further Collected Records relating to insect migration’.

vans. I. Ent. Soc. London 81 (1), p. 103 (1933).

Williams, C. B.—'Further evidence for the Migration of Butterflies’. Bull.

Soa. hk. Ent. Egypt, p. 250 (1935).

Williams, C. B.—‘Collected Records relating to insect migration’. Third

series. Proc. R. Ent. Soc. London (A), 11 (1-2), p. 6 (1936).

Williams, C. B.—‘Butterfly Travellers’. National Geographic Magazine, 71

(5), P- 568-585 (19374). ae a: 7

illiams, C. B.—‘Butterfly Migrations in the Tropics’. British Museum

(Natural History) Pamphlet Set E. 58, pp. 1-8 (1937b).

APPENDIX

SOME UNPUBLISHED RECORDS OF BUTTERFLY. MIGRATION

IN INDIA.

(1) DANAIN BUTTERFLIES IN East Mysore.

Dr. W. B. Rowntree writes to me that large migrations of

butterflies occur regularly in the district of Champion Reef, Kolar

Gold Fields, East Mysore, all flying to the West. Writing on the

goth September 1936 he says that the flights are expected ‘in about

two months time’. He also adds that he is told that they cross

the Western Ghats and may be seen in clouds flying out to sea.

The species were said to resemble illustrations of Danaus

septentrionis and D. genutia, but no specimens were sent from an

actual flight.

(2) DANAIN BUTTERFLIES AT KOLLAR, SouTH INDIA,

Mr. L. M. Parlett informs me that in 1920 about June he saw

a large flight of Danain butterflies at Kollar in the Nilgiri Hills,

South India, flying to the south-east. The flight appeared to consist

almost entirely of Euploea core and Euploea coreta, and was so

thick that the sky looked as if full of drifting brown leaves.

Kollar is said to be about 1,200 feet altitude at the foot of the

Nilgiri Hills and about 4 miles from Mettupalayam.

(3) EUPLOEA ASELA AT Bompay,

Miss A. Ghose informs me that on 13th June 1937 a great swarm

of butterflies passed over ‘Black Bay’ Reclamation, Bombay, flying

towards the north. The flight lasted from 10 a.m. to noon and

the number of insects was estimated at 30,000. Their speed was

about 4 miles per hour and they flew at a height of from 4-60

feet above the ground. The wind was from the S.W. (Monsoon)

and the sky fairly clear with bright sunshine.

Miss Ghose sent me two specimens, both of which were Euploea

asela.

(4) VARIOUS BUTTERFLIES AT MUSSOORIE IN SEPTEMBER IQ16.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile kindly sends me the following information.

On the 2oth September 1916 at Mussoorie—United Provinces,

India, on the southern slopes of the Himalayas at a height of

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

about 7,000 feet. Misty, with sunny intervals during which the’

following species were seen migrating from north to south against

the wind.

DANAIDZ.

Danaus genutia, common.

NYMPHALINZ.

Precis iphita, very common.

Neptis hylas astola, wet season form. Eight taken evidently

recently emerged, all the usual rather small size.

SATYRINZE.

Lethe vaivarta, several.

*Callerebia scanda, female captured, other worn ones seen.

*Callerebia hyagriva, very worn female.

PAPILIONIDZA.

Papilio polytes, seen.

PIERIDA.

Terias laeta, several.

Terias libythea, several.

Terias hecabe,

LYCAENID#,

Celeastrina puspa, two females taken.

Syntarucus plinius, female.

Everes ‘argiades’ females. (May have included E. dipora and

E. diporides).

On 21st September at same spot. Sunny with occasionally mist.

Migration as yesterday including the following.

DANAIDZ.

Danaus tytia, one seen near thistles.

Danaus genutia, two.

NYMPHALIDZ.

Argynnis hyperbuis, female.

Neptis astola, nine of wet season form.

Precis iphita, very common.

SATYRINA,

‘Lethe vaivarta, three.

*Callerebia scanda, two.

PIERIDZA.

Terias hecabe, several.

Ternias libythea, three.

Terias laeta, thirteen.

THE MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 455

PAPILIONID2.

Papilio polytes, 2 form cyrus 1. & form polytes 1.

Papilio machaon, several.

LYCAENIDA.

Celestrina puspa, two females.

Heavy rain followed on 24th, 25th and 26th September.

On October the 6th and 7th, 1916, at Fox’s Hill, about 3 miles

west of the previous locality, the stream of migration from north

to south was continuing and included the following species.

DANAIDZ.

Danaus tytia, one seen.

Danaus genutia, taken.

NYMPHALIN2.

Phalanta phalantha, two.

Neptis astola, wet season form very common, several passing

every few seconds.

Kallima inachus, one of the dry season form,

Vanessa canace, very common.

SATYRINA.

*Aulocera saraswata,

LIBYTHEINZ.

Libythea myrrha,

PIERID.

Terias libythea, both wet and dry season form.

Terias laeta, abundant.

Terias hecabe, common, many small.

On October goth the migration continued as before including

Neptis hylas astola and Terias spp.

With regard to the species marked with an asterisk, Lt.-Col.

Peile states that these Satyrids have probably merely got mingled

locally with the crowd of migrants.

(5) Precis rpHira Naini Tat, U.P. IN 1908.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile informs me that at Naini Tal, in mid-

October 1908 Precis iphita was very common migrating from north

to south over the crest of the mountain at about 8,000 feet.

(6) PoLYOMMATUS BOETICUS AT MUSSOORIE IN APRIL 1013.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile informs me that large numbers of P.

boeticus were passing from south-east to north-west at Mussoorie,

on 30th April 1913 on the ridge about 5,500 to 6,000 feet above

sea level,

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

(7) VARIOUS BUTTERFLIES AT Mussoorig, IN May 10916.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile kindly gives me the following notes :—

Mussoorie, North-West Himalayas, 3rd May 1916.

In Pumping Station Nullah, above the Pumping Station i.e.

above 5,000 feet. Sunny day. Stream of butterflies passing down

the nullah, i.e. towards the north-west. The following species were

noted.

LYCAENIDZ.

Arhopalas (A. dodonsea, A. rama and A. ganesa) in worn

condition. Celastrina (Cyaniris) huegelii, both sexes common

though males more so than females.

NYMPHALID.

Parathyma opalina, both sexes very common.

Neptis hylas astola, sporting with the above. Wet season form

common; the dry season form with yellow underside less so.

Argynnis lathonia issaea, one unexpectedly taken as it flew

down the nullah.

PAPILIONID.

Papilia gestor ssp. govindra, two seen.

PIERIDZ.

Delias sanaca (one captured).

Lt.-Col. Peile adds ‘I was catching specimens so often and

others going past so numerously that I could not even pin them

in a box, but had to drop them on a rock.’

(8) SPINDASIS NIPALICUS (LYCAENIDAE) AT MuSSOORIE IN May 1013.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile informs me that Spindasis nipalicus

(=saffra) was very numerous at the Pumping Station nullah at an

altitude of 5,500 feet, at Mussoorie, N.-W. Himalayas, in May

1913. On 24th May, a clear sunny day, over 30 were captured

by three collectors and many more seen; on 25th May 25 captured

by Lt.-Col. Peile alone. These were among a stream of butterflies

moving down the nullah and presumably migrating. They were

usually not plentiful in this district and Seitz says ‘I do not recall

any excursion on which I have obtained more than one specimen’.

- (9) DELIAs sANAcA (PIERIDAE) AND OTHER SPECIES AT MUSSOORIE

IN May 10916.

Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile informs me that there was a. definite

movement of various species of butterflies at Mussoorie at the end

of May 1916, at the Pumping Station nullah.

On the 23rd May. Hot sunny day. ‘A wonderful stream of

butterflies from about 9-45 a.m. (or earlier), slackening about

II-30 a.m.’

24th May. Bright hot day. Less variety about. than yesterday.

29th May. Same locality, violent wind and dust storms all night.

Wind and some cloud and rain threatening today. Fair number

PHE (MIGRATION OF. BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA 457

of butterflies, but the wind sometimes drove them up the nullah

and out of reach of the net.

These hot days preceded the break of the rains. Included in

the flight were a number of Delias sanaca which came steadily

down the nullah in ones and twos in a leisurely way.

1o. Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile informs me that on 16th April 1909

at Mussoorie, Colias fieldi edusina was abundant and apparently

migrating from north to south.

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE (SANTALUM

ALBUM LINN.) EVOLVE?

C. EY ©. FiIscuHer.

As far back as written records go, sandalwood has been known

and used in India and China. The heartwood of the sandal tree

contains a highly scented oil with medicinal properties which is

extracted by distillation. Both the wood itself and the extracted

oil have been used for many purposes. Thus:

The Chinese use the wood for making the ‘joss sticks’ that give

forth an aromatic incense and are burnt in temples. In some

Polynesian islands the oil (from other species of Santalum) is mixed

with coconut oil to render it more pleasing. .The Malays mix it

with other substances to scent their steam baths. They also use

it in ceremonial fumigation before prayers and in the ceremonial

purification of a corpse. Mixed with Agquilaria, the extract is

poured out as a libation at the grave-side. In Burma the oil is

in demand for use in cosmetics. Hindus make use of a_ paste

made from the wood in making ‘caste marks’, and the oil in

perfumery. The wood is burnt in funeral pyres; every such pyre

should include at least one stick of sandalwood, whereas a wealthy

family may make the whole pyre of nothing but this wood. Devout

Parsis daily add chips or billets of the wood, according to their

means, to the everlasting ceremonial fire. The oil has been

employed for embalming and in Europe its chief importance is for

perfumery and in the manufacture of scented soaps.

Medicinally, sandalwood and its oil have a wide application, and

in the East have been considered as a universal panacea. The oil

is reputed to have bitter, cooling, astringent, cardiac and_ tonic

properties. It is said to be useful against biliousness, vomiting,

fever, thirst and heat of the body. An emulsion made of the wood

is applied to the skin as a cooling agent in erysipelas, prurigo

and sudamina. The wood ground up with water into a paste is

applied to local inflammation and to the temples for the cure of

headaches and fever, to skin diseases and to allay heat and pruritus.

It is also a diaphoretic, alexipharmic and aphrodisiac and is used in

cases of gonorrhcea.

The wood is used for carving, for idols and for boxes prized

for their scent.

As far as I am aware, the first published suggestion (with the

exception of an inferential one to be mentioned later) that

Santalum album Linn. may be an exotic in India was that made

by myself in the Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information for

1927 (page 200). It has always been taken for granted that this

tree is truly indigenous in South India. Bias in favour of the

universally accepted is natural; therefore, I appeal to all who wish

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE EVOLVE? 459

to consider the subject scientifically to set aside prejudice and

-endeavour to form an opinion in the light of the arguments set

out below.

I may, perhaps, be allowed a few words of personal explanation.

A few months after being placed in charge of the North Coimbatore

Forest Division of the Madras Presidency in 1905, when for the

first time I came into contact with the Sandal tree as a component

of the forest, the conclusion that it was not an indigenous tree

forced itself upon me; an idea based on local observation. I had

then, however, no facilities for proving or disproving the theory.

It was not till 1927 that the opportunity came. By then I had

joined the botanical staff at the Herbarium at Kew and my

colleagues Messrs. T. A. Sprague and V. Summerhayes, who were

preparing a note on the habitat of certain genera cf the Santalaceae,

pointed out to me the irregular distribution of S. album. I then

wrote a brief appendix to their paper (quoted above) setting out

my conviction and giving a few points in support, but time did

not permit of a full enquiry. At the instance of Mr. W. S. Millard,

I took the matter up again and during the past year or so I have

examined every source that promised information and have also

consulted by correspondence a number of workers in various fields

with gratifying results.

To clear the ground, it will be as well to enumerate the localities

in which Sandal grows at the present time, excluding those where

it is obviously cultivated. In India we can accept Mysore as the

focus with the adjacent parts of the Madras and Bombay

Presidencies and of Coorg. In the Malay Archipelago it occurs in

the central and eastern parts of Java and in the islands of Madura,

Bali, Sumba, Sau, Watar, Rota, Kisar, Timor and some of the

small islands adjoining these, and also at one place in West

Central Celebes.

In some of these places it is fairly certain that it has been

introduced, especially around ancient Hindu temples, but it is

undoubtedly indigenous in Timor and Sumba, whence it was

reported by the very earliest botanists in these regions.

EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF AN INDIAN ORIGIN.

In the first place, it must be observed that any reference of a

later date than about 1750 is of little value, since there is no

dispute about the existence of sandal in quantity subsequent to

this period and we know through Buchanan and cthers that it was

well established in Mysore before the beginning of the roth

Century.

Chandana—the Sanskrit name ascribed to Santalum album Linn.

—was known and used in India from the earliest historic times; it

is frequently mentioned in the ancient Sanskritic writings. Some

of these writings date probably from before the Christian era and

from them it appears that the wood was the product of the Malaya

Mountains of Southern India. To quote all the apposite extracts

that I have obtained would swell this essay to undue proportions,

but it will be useful to cite some of them.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIERY, Vol. HX

The Ramayana, referring to the river Tambrapani (Tamraparni)

says: ‘That river with its islands covered with fair forests of

sandal goes down to the sea as a beloved maid to her lover.’

In his epic poem, Chilappatikaram, Uanko-Atikal, the Tamil poet

who wrote sometime between the 2nd and 5th Centuries of our

era, speaks of ‘Sandal born in the Southern Mountain’ (Malaya

Lenmalai piranta chantanam).

Kalidasa, not later than the 5th Century a.p., refers in several

passages to sandal being derived from South India, notably in his

epic poem Raghuvamsa, where he states: ‘The neck-halter of

elephants that break their foot-chains did not slip, being fixed in

the marks made by the coiling serpents round the sandal trees’

(iv, 48) ‘. . . the two mountains Malaya and Dardura which

have sandal forests on their peaks... (tv, 751); “8. eadally seven

on the uplands of Malaya, strewn with Tamala leaves, where the

sandal-trees: have cardamon-creepers clinging to them and the betel-

trees (Ptuga) are girt about with Betel-creeper (Tambila).

In the Panchatantra (not later than the 5th Century a.p.) we

find: ‘. . . the sandal does not flourish anywhere else except on

Malaya.’ (i, 42.)

Rajasékhara (880-920 a.b.) in his Kdvya-mimaimsd, speaking of

the Malaya Mountain, says: ‘It is the home-land of the delightful

true sandal . . . sandal trees encircled as far as the root-system

by hooded snakes, Jati-trees (Ficus?), together with kakkolaka

(nutmeg) and cardamoms and pepper-trees.’

Monier-Williams cites Hitopadesa II verse 163 in reference to

the sandal-tree: ‘The root is infested by serpents; the blossoms by

bees; the branches by monkeys; the summit by bears. In short

there is no part of the sandal-tree which is not occupied by the

vilest impurities.’

In the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the 2nd Century,

we read that ‘. . . sandalwood, teak, ebony and blackwood were

imported from Baragaza (Broach) in Western India to Apologus,

an important harbour at the mouth of the Euphrates.’

Chapter XI of Kautilya’s Artha-sdstra (attributed variously to

dates between 320 B.c. and 300 A.D.) includes sandal among the

‘objects that are entered into the treasury’.

Sandal is mentioned as an article of toilet in the Buddhist Jatake

stories of the 7th Century B.c.

Finally, we know that sandalwood was one of the articles of

commerce brought from India to the Roman Empire.

I have, however, found no reference of a clear and unmistakable

nature to sandal growing in India, except as an admittedly planted

tree, up to about the year 1780 when Francis Buchanan (later

Buchanan-Hamilton) visited the State of Mysore and the adjoining

territories in about 1800 and wrote an account of his travels (A

journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and

Malabar by Dr. Francis Buchanan published in 1807). He made

numerous references to the sandal tree, which at that time was to

be found in quantities in many places visited by him. It is clear

that sandal had been abundant there for some years before, since he

states (vol. ii, 536) that: ‘The quantity [of sandalwood] brought

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE EVOLVE ? 461

from Coorg during the years 1792 to 1798 amounted to about

12,000 candies.’

Such is the evidence for the existence of the living sandal tree

in India; and now what is its value?

In the first place it is to be noted that there is no certainty

that what is now termed Chandana is the same plant or material

that was recognised by the same name a thousand years ago.

Everyone wio was had to deal with vernacular plant-names is well

aware of the vagueness of their application: often the same name

is used for different plants in different, though adjacent, localities ;

or more than one name may be attached to the same plant. Even

at the present time there is confusion in the commercial names of

timbers. Thus, according to Meyer (Buch der Holznamen), the

woods of the following four species are termed ‘sandalwood’ :

Santalum album Linn.; Lepidaglaia Bailloni Pierre; Mansonia Gage

J. R. Drumm.; Adenanthera pavonina Linn.—besides that of other

species of Santalum and of allied genera. The woods of Pterocarpus

santalinus Linn.f., Caesalpinia Sappan Linn. and Nimenia americana

Linn. are known as ‘False sandal’. Substitutes for and adulterants

of sandalwood are frequently used. These include: Erythroxylon

monogynum Roxb., Aquilaria Agallocha Roxb. (the Eagle- or Aloe-

wood which has been an article of trade in and with India from

a very early historical date), Excaecaria Agallocha Linn., Euphorbia

antiquorum Linn., Cordia fragrantissima Kurz (vernacular Sandawa)

and Mansonia Gagei J. R. Drumm. (see Kew Bulletin 1933,

page 3).

At. an early period a number of differing kinds of Chandana were

recognised besides the ‘yellow’ and ‘white’ (Santalum album) and

the ‘red’ (Pterocarpus santalinus). In some cases the different

names were an indication of localities from which they came, e.g. :

Malayaja or born in the Malaya Mountain; Srikhanda; Ghandaraja;

Ghandasara; Vavara; Tailaparna; Gosirsa; Batal and Sukhad.

But often the names evidently referred to differing qualities. Thus

Kautilya in Artha-sdstra chapter xi, which is concerned with the

objects that are to be entered in the treasury, gives the following

interesting passage: ‘(as to) Chandana (sandal) :

Santana is red and smells like rain-moistened earth; G6sirshaka

is dark-red and smells like fish; Harichandana is ef the colour of

the feathers of a parrot and smells like tamarind or mango fruit;

likewise Tarnapasa; Grameruka is red or dark-red and smells like

the urine of a goat; Daivasabheya is red and smells like a lotus

flower; likewise Aupaka (Japaka); Jongaka and Taurupa (these are

the products of the country of Kamariipa, Assam) are red or dark-

red and soft; Maleyaka is reddish-white; Kuchandana is as black

as Agaru (resin of the aloe) or red or dark-red and very rough;

Kalaparvataka is of pleasant appearance; Kosakaraparvataka (that

which is the product of that mountain which is the shape of a bud)

is black or variegated black; Sitddakiya is black and _ soft,

and smells like a lotus flower; Nagaparvataka (that which is

the product of Naga Mountain) is rough and is possessed of the

colour of Saivala (Vallisneria); and Sakala is brown.’

Now it can hardly be contended that all these articles are one

462, JOURNAL, “(BOMBAY "NATURAL HUST. SOCTE IN, Vol exe

and the same and are all referable to Santalum album Linn. Nor

is it in the least likely that this latter tree will be found in

association with the Areca palm, cardamoms and pepper, nor has

it ever been known in Assam.

Reference must also be made at this point to the work of

Garcia da Orta (Colloquies on the simples and drugs of India,

published in 1562; Markham’s translation, page 399) states: ‘The

Malayalims also say that they have a scented wood which is like

white sandal, and they anoint themselves with it for fevers. They

call it Sambarane.’

Then Christoval Acosta (Tractao de las drogas y medicinas de

las Indias Orientales, 1578), who copied: much from Garcia da Orta,

but added some matter of his own, wrote (page 170): ‘Another

scented wood which much resembles the white sandal, is to be

found in certain parts of the coast of Melinde and the island of

S. Llorante and in some parts of Malabar: with this the blacks

anoint themselves against fevers, but none of these is sandal nor

has it its qualities. I saw this scented wood in Malabar (which is

called among other names Sambarane), at Tanor and at Cranganor,

but it is not sandal nor do the doctors of these lands hold it for

such.’ :

Unfortunately I have so far failed to trace what this Sambarane?

may be.

The fact that the true sandal was exported from Indian ports

westwards during the period of the Roman Empire and later ts

not conclusive, for we know that these ports, and Calicut in

particular, served as clearing houses for the products brought from

further East. For example; Gibbon (Decline and Fall of the

Roman Empire. Everyman Edition, vol. i, page 55), writing on

the trade with: the East from a port in the Red Sea, says: “The

Coast of Malabar, er the Island of Ceylon, was the usual term of

their navigation, and it was at these markets that the merchants

from the more remote countries of Asia expected their arrival.’

Moreland and Chatterjee (A Short History of India by W. M.

Moreland, C.S.I., C.I.E. and Sir Atul;Chandra ‘Chaterjee, G.C.1-Es

K.C.S.I.) give similar evidence. Garcia da Orta (l.c. pages 307

and 398) has the following illuminating passages: ‘The City of

Calicut, where all kinds of merchandise were brought and sold,

was celebrated in these parts. Thither goods were brought from

elsewhere, and the Chinese came with their trade, including sandal

which they sold there, whence it was taken to the West. I have

told you that the Chinese factory, called Chinacota, in which the

Chinese reside, is today still established there. . . . This is the

reason why Antonio Musa said that sandal grew in the plain of

Calicut. There is no plain in Calicut, but palm groves along the

beech, and hills inland.’

* *“Sambarane’ is evidently sambrani, the Dravidian name for gum-benzoin

and the tree that produces it, Stvrax Benzoin (Canarese, Malayalam, Tamil,

Telugu). By extension the name is given to such balsamiferous trees as

Boswellia serrata (Canarese, Tamil) and Canarium commune (Canarese), and

to their products [J. F, Carus].

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE EVOLVE ? 463

It is true that modern authors refer to Santalum album as a

native of India and even correct the older authors in some cases

as to the derivation of sandalwood, but this is simply because

they know that it now grows freely in some parts of Peninsular

India and no one had suggested that it had not grown there from

all time.

EVIDENCE OPPOSED TO AN INDIAN ORIGIN.

In “Abul Fazl’s (1551-1602 a.p.) Ain-i-Akbarn, vol. i, Ain 30,

page 81, we read: ‘9. Sandalwood called in Hind Chandan. The

tree grows in China. During the present reign, it has been

successfully planted in India.’ Too much stress must not be placed

on the word China, for in those days of comparative geographic

ignorance it was a generalised term comprehending all lands east

of Sumatra. In any event, it is obvious that the author was in

no doubt that the tree referred to did not grow naturally in India.

By virtue of his position as Akbar’s Minister of State and his

training Abul Fazl was, above ail men of that time, specially

fitted to obtain correct information; moreover he is reputed to have

been particularly trustworthy.

Garcia da Orta (l.c. page 399) also refers to the introduction

of the sandal tree, he wrote: ‘I would have you also to know

that the sandal tree is found in other parts: I saw it in Amdanaga

[Ahmednagar] where it was brought to be sown. . . I saw there

at a pleasure house . . . trees of sandalwood.’

It is unnecessary to make room here for all the references I

have found testifying to the occurrence of Santalum album in the

Malay Archipelago and to its import into India, and I will confine

myself to a few, citing others in an appendix.

Cosmas (Indicopleustes ; written about 545 A.D. Hakluyt Society

vol. 98, page 363), concerning Taprobane [the ancient name of

Sumatra] states: ‘. . . is much frequented by ships from all parts

of India and Persia and Ethiopia, and it likewise sends out many

of its own, and from the remotest countries, (the countries inside

Cape Comorin, that is, east of it), I mean Tzinista and other

trading places it receives silk, aloes, cloves, sandalwood and other

products and these are passed on to marts on this side, such as

Male [the Malabar littoral] and to Calliana | Kalyan near Bombay |

me. tO Sindu ... . and to Persia.’

Ebn Baithar, somewhen about 1250 A.D., in his account of

eastern medicinal plants (Grésse Zusammenstellung tiber die Ixrafte

der bekannten einfachen Heil—and Narungsmittel von Abu Mohamed

Abdulla ben Ahmed aus Malaga, bekannt unter den namen Ebn

Baithar, . . . ttbersetzt von Dr. Joseph v. Sontheimer, 1842, page

138) records of sandal: ‘. . . this name betokens a wood which is

brought from China.’

Barbosa (The Cousts of East Africa and Malabar. Hakluyt

Soc., vol. 35), writing in or about 1500 A.p., mentions the uses of

sandalwood in India. He asserts its occurrence in Timor but in no

other locality, nor does he include it in the products exported from

Cochin or Calicut. His evidence is of special value for (as pointed

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL“ BIST SOCIETY, Vol XE

out to me by Mr. W. H. Moreland) he served chiefly on the Malabar

Coast, was employed in commerce and, moreover, his experience

was gained before the Portuguese upset the previously existing

conditions of Asiatic trade.

Magellan (first Voyage Round the World by Magellan.

Hakluyt Soc., vol. 35 page 153) tells us in reference ta Timor

. for white sandalwood only grows in this country.’

Finally I must direct attention to the officially published records

of the East India Company. (The English Factories in India.

14 volumes covering the period 1618 to 1677.) In 1618, we find

the agents writing to the East India Company (vol. for 1618-1621

page 53): ‘They know not whether sandalwood grows in the

Island of St. Lawrence |Madagascar], but it is in good request

in Surat and the Dutch have sold some... . “Kerridge and iis

colleagues have accordingly written to the Bantam factory for a

supply.’ In subsequent volumes, up to that for 1665-1677, there

are frequent references to sandalw ood, but only in connection with

vessels captured on the high seas or as being procured from

Bantam for sale; this shows that there was a considerable trade

in the wood at that period. Never, however, is there any record

ef the wood being obtained in India though there is much concern-

ing traffic along the West Coast of India and also mention of

trade with Seringapatam in the later years.

DISCUSSION.

We have seen that the occurrence of Santalum album as a

naturally growing tree in India is supported by very dubious

evidence. While Barbosa does not mention it as growing in India,

Garcia da Orta positively stated that it did not. It is not

mentioned in Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus (1678-1703). It was not

exported from India by the East India Company from 1618 to 1677,

though it was much in use in India at the time and imported by

them.

There is no possible doubt as to its being indigenous in Timor

and in one or two of the neighbouring islands, whence it was

exported from the earliest times. It was introduced from these

islands into others in the same region, especially in the vicinity

of old Indian temples. We have seen that it was also introduced,

possibly on a very small scale, into India at the period of Akbar

and that planted trees of sandal were seen by Garcia da Orta

about the year 1550.

Those who maintain an Indian origin are faced with the

extraordinary distribution of the species: in Timor and some of

the neighbouring islands and in South India with none between,

a gap of nearly 3,o00 miles and still further between the latter

locality and the habitat of any other species of the genus (see

Kew Bulletin, 1937, page 193). It may be put forward that

Santalum album did once occur in between the present habitats

or, on the other hand, that the artificial introduction was actually

in the reverse direction, but there is no evidence in support of

either theory.

WHERE DID THE SANDALWOOD TREE EVOLVE? 46

Further, if this tree has been growing in South India since

its evolution, why was it confined, until the second half of the

19th Century, to so small an area and then spread so much wider

during the present Century? Rao Sahib S. Rangaswami (Indian

Forester, 1937, page 527) writes that in 1869 Col. Campbell

Walker, Conservator of Forests, estimated the area occupied by

sandal in the North Salem District at 8540 acres, whereas in

1937 it had spread to over 93,000 acres in the same District. Of

recent years there have been many more or less successful efforts

towards the same end by artificial means and there has also been

much expansion by natural means, that is through the agency cf

birds. I may cite the case of the Palmaner Plateau. In about

Ig00, according to the inspection notes of a very capable and

experienced Forest Officer (the late Mr. C. E. Brasier), sandal

was confined to a few small plantations started in 1876; by 1921

the tree was abundant in the forests around (see Kew Bulletin,

1927, page 200).

I, therefore, put forward the theory that at a very early period

a scented wood (or woods) was produced by a tree growing in

India, probably mainly in the South. This wood was used for

various purposes and went by the name of Chandan. Later on

the wood of Santalum album began to be imported and as it

became more and more available gradually replaced the indigenous

wood. At first it may have shared the same name and in due

course supplanted the original even in that respect. Eventually

some enlightened person thought of introducing the plant itself,

but the spread, except where enforced, would be slow. ‘The fact

that the tree where it grows at present appears to be indigenous

need not impress one greatly when one considers the estabslish-

ment of other non-indigenous plants in India. Who seeing lantana

or prickly-pear-infested localities would imagine that they are aliens

were the history of their introduction not known? I must now

leave the decision to my readers.

In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to the following

helpers: Mr. W. S. Millard, who obtained the kind offices of

Mr. F. E. Bharucha to whom I am indebted for certain useful

items and for extracts from Sanskrit literature furnished by Sir

C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, the Dewan of Travancore; Mr. I. H.

Burkill for advice and suggestions; Dr. D. Hooper, who referred

me to the Ain-1-Akbari, which he had himself quoted a good many

years ago in a paper on the ‘Perfumes of the Moghuls’; Mr.

K. Jacob for valuable information; Mr. G. P. Mazumdar for

information through Dr. K. P. Biswas; Dr. R. Mookerji of the

University of Lucknow; Mr. W. H. Moreland, who also referred

me to the Ain-i-Akbari and gave me further most useful information ;

Dr. H. N. Randle at the India Office Library, who, besides kindly

translating passages from Sanskrit works, afforded me_ other

valuable citations; Dr. van Steenis of the Buitenzorg Herbarium

who has taken great pains to obtain for me much information

connected with the Dutch East. Indies; and to Dr. E. H. Warm-

ington, author of ‘The Commerce between the Roman Empire and

India.’

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

WORKS NOT QUOTED IN THE TEXT GIVING INFORMATION ON THE

HABITAT OF ‘SANTALUM ALBUM’ AND THE TRADE IN ITS WOOD.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Marignolli’s recollections of Eastern ‘Travel. Hakluyt Society. Series II,

vol. 37, page 194. About 1400 A.D.

Travels of Ludovico di Varthema. Hakluyt Society. Vol. 32, pages Ixxxix

and 222 (1503-1508).

Histoire de la navigation de Hughes Linscot [Linschoten]. Edition of -

B. Paludanus, page 177 (1579-1583). :

Travels of Pedro Texeira. Hakluyt Society. Series II, vol. 9, page 215.

About 1586.

Sir Thomas Roe’s Embassy to India. Hakluyt Society. Series II, vol. 2,

page 459 (1617).

The English Factories in India. Pp. 55, 67 (1618-1621); pp. 3, 6, an5cum

174 (1622-1623); pp. 31, 97, 118, 144, 181, 291, 315 (1624-29), pp. 330, 351,

357 (1629). pp. 33,- 92, . 111,. 183 .(1630-33)'} p. 206. (1634-36); pp. 21cheze2

(1637-41); p. 218 (1642-45), pp. 04, 110, 111, “234 (1646-50).

Exoticarum aliquorum, etc. by Jacob Breyne (1678).

A Voyage to Madagascar and the East Indies by Abbé Rochon. Translated

by J. Trapp, p. 394. About 1670.

Herbarium Amboinense by G. E. Rumph 1750.

Flora Cochinchinense by Loureiro, p. 87 (1790).

The Malay Archipelago by A. R. Wallace (1869).

Hobson Jobson, p. 577 (1886).

BIRDS OBSERVED IN AND NEAR TAMBARAM,

CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT, SOUTH: INDIA.

(December 1932 to April 1938).

ALICE M. BARNES.

Tambaram lies 16 miles south-west of Madras city, about 9

miles inland, at an average elevation of too ft. The surrounding

country is very largely uncultivated scrub jungle with several

groups of low rocky hills, the highest of which rise only to 600

ft. Round the foot of the hills the scrub becomes much thicker

and forms dense thickets of small trees and thorny shrubs, wothia,

dalbergia, albizzia and neem being some of the commonest trees.

These hills and the elevated land round them form the catchment

areas for several large tanks, from which rice fields are irrigated.

There is very little other cultivation.

Four hundred acres of this scrub jungle were acquired and

enclosed in 1930 for the new site of the Madras Christian College,

and since October 1932 we—my husband and I—have lived on

this estate, with the exception of April to December 1936 when

we were on leave. The following notes are based on observations

made. during the periods October 1932 to April 1936, and January

1937 to April 1938; they refer to birds seen either on the college

compound or in the immediate neighbourhood. The records are

necessarily incomplete as we do not shoot, and are therefore unable

to identify some birds, or to determine the races of others with

any certainty.

During the years 1931 to 1938 several acres of the college estate

have been cleared of scrub for buildings and playing fields, and a

very large number of trees have been planted, but considerably

more than half the area is still untouched jungle. The whole estate

has been declared a sanctuary for wild life, so that it still affords

ample opportunity for careful bird observation, in spite of its greatly

increased human population. As the trees grow, birds which haunt

large trees are beginning to make their appearance, though at

present only occasionally.

The scientific names given in the list are taken from Birds of

Southern India by Baker and Inglis and the notes en the Vernay

Ornithological Survey of the Eastern Ghats published in the Bombay

Natural History Society’s Journal.

List OF BIRDS.

1. The Jungle Crow: Corvus macrorynchos culminatus Sykes.

Observed throughout the year; in jungle and garden; common, but not so

numerous as the House Crow.

2. The Common Indian House Crow: Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot.

Observed throughout the year; in jungle and garden. In the earlier part

of the period of observation, there were few houses and therefore few crows

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XL

in this neighbourhood; the crows have increased with the human_ population,

and are now WASBINY common.

3. The White-headed Babbler: Turdoides striatus polioplocamus Ober.

Observed throughout the year; very common, in jungle and garden. The

heads of many are conspicuously white.

A nest with 3 eggs was found in a casuarina hedge in the garden in July

1934; two chicks were hatched, but stolen before they were fully fledged.

Two very young fledglings were observed in a bush, being fed by their

parents, on September 3rd, 1937.

4. The Common Babbler: Argya caudata caudata Dumont.

Observed throughout the year; very common. Flocks are mainly seen in

the scrub jungle,. and very seldom come into the garden, though their pretty

‘tinkling song is frequently heard in the bushes just beyond the garden limits.

5. The Indian Yellow-eyed Babbler: Pyctorhis sinensis sinensis Gmel.

Throughout the year; very common; in garden and jungle; nearly always

seen. in pairs.

6. The Common fora: dAegithina tiphia humet Stuart Baker.

Throughout the year; very common; in garden and jungle.

~The Red-vented Bulbul: \/olpastes cafer cafer Linn.

Throughout the year; one of the commonest birds in this neighbourhood,

large numbers always about in jungle and_= garden.

Nests and egys have been found as follows :—

January 1933—nest finished but not used.

February 1938—3. eggs.

August 1934—L | egg.

November 1937—3 eggs.

December 1932—three nests: (a) 3 eggs, (b) 2 eggs, (c) 3 eggs.

These. nests have. all been identified by the presence of the parent birds; a

good many other bulbul nests have been found but as they were not in use,

have not been recorded.

In some cases the time of incubation could be observed, e.g. (a) November

11th, 1937—-I egg in nest, 12th—2 eggs, 13th— 3 eggs; November 25th—2 newly

hatched: chicks and 1 egg in this nest. -(b) February 13th, 1938—1 egg in nest,

14th—2 eggs, 15th—z2 eggs at 7-30 a:m., but 3 eggs at 5 p.m. February 25th—

three newly hatched chicks in this nest.

These observations were made about séven o'clock each morning.

The November 1937, nest was built, and the family reared, during the N.-E.

monsoon rains. Three of the above nests were built about 6 ft. from the

ground in forks near the ends of branches. in a bauhinia tree close to our

house; others have been at about the same. height in young wothia trees in

the garden or jungle, and one in a casuarina hedge. The foundations of all

the nests seem to have been of cobwebs. :

8. The Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul : Otocompsa jocosa emeria J.inn.

Throughout the year. This is as common as the Red-vented Bulbul, and

seems. to be one of the most numerous birds in this neighbourhood. It is

always about both garden and scrub jungle, and also in the thicker jungle near

and on the neighbouring hills.

There is no doubt about its race, as it conforms exactly to the description

of emerta given by Whistler; the tail is tipped with white.

Nests have been found as follows :—

August 2, eggs. Nest in a. bush in the garden. These eggs were

both stolen and sucked, presumably by a rat.

March 1938--this nest was placed too .high for its contents to be- seen;

it was at Jeast 12 ft. up in a bauhinia: tree in the gatden. Parents were

observed bringing food to the nest.

9. White-browed Bulbul: Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus Linn.

-Throughout. the. year, - It. is- very: common .in both: jungle and garden, . but

less frequently seen, and perhaps less numerous, than the two preceding bulbuls,

BIRDS IN- OR’ NEAR TAMBARAM, S. INDIA 469

10. The Pied Brsh-Chat: Saxicola caprata.

Observed throughout the year. Not very numerous, but as each pair seems

to have definite ‘territory’, they can almost always be found in certain spots

of garden and jungle.

11. The Black ;Redstart: Phoenicurus ochrurus.

Cbserved at Tambaram only in January and February 1936, when _ it

frequented uninhabited buildings on the college compound and could be seen

almost any day for nearly two months.

A. Redstart was observed at Tada, about 4o miles due north of Madras on

January 29th, 1938.

12. The Black-backed Indian Rebin . Saxicoloides fulicata Linn.

Throughout the year; one of our commonest birds in jungle and garden.

Nests have been found as follows :—

April 1933, a nest being built in a rain gutter; eggs not seen.

August 1933, a nest being built in more or less the same spot in the

rain gutter.

June 1934, another nest in the gutter.

June 1935, a nest being built in another gutter.

August 1935, a nest being built in an empty, broken flower-pot in the

garden; this was disturbed by the gardener just as the nest was finished, and

it was therefore deserted.

March 1937; on the 21st we first noticed the nest being built; both birds

help with the work. On the 31st we found two eggs in the nest. The nest

was abandoned before the eggs were hatched, probably because it had been

disturbed by a gardener.

April 1937; a hen robin was discovered sitting on a nest in a dwarf date

palm in the jungle; number of eggs not seen.

13. The indian Magpie RobIn : Copsychus saularis saular’s Linn.

Has been observed in January, March, August and November, and is almost

certainly resident in this neighbourhood, but as there are still no really large trees

in the gardens or scrub jungle of the College compound, it only rarely visits

us; more frequently it is seen in the forest and in big trees near villages a

mile or two away.

14. The Indian Brown Flycatcher: Alseonix lativostris.

Observed once only, October 5th 1935, in bushes near the garden.

15. The Blue-throated Flycatcher : Cyornis rubeculoides rubeculoides Vigors.

Seen once only, on November 8th 1937, when a male spent a whole afternoon

in a Persian Lilac tree just outside my window and in bushes close to the

house, giving excellent opportunities for observation and_ identification.

16. The Indian Paradise Flycatcher : = Uchitrea paradisi Linn.

Seen only on the following dates :—

December 23rd 1934, male in full white plumage and long white tail, in

the Vandalur forest, about 2 miles S.-W. of the college estate at the foot of

Vandalur hills.

July 6th 1935, female or immature male, in chestnut plumage, short tail,

in Vandalur forest. :

August 22nd 1935, female or immature male, in Vandalur forest.

January 14th 1936, chestnut bird, with long chestnut tail streaming behind

as it flew, in Vandalur forest.

_| October 1937; a female-or immature male spent about a week in’ and ‘near

this garden; the only time a Paradise Flycatcher has been seen on_this estate.

March 23rd 1938, female or immature male in Vandalur forest.

: April 1gth 1938, female or immature male in another part of Vandalur

orest.

17. White-browed Fantail Flycatcher: = Leucocirca aureola.

Seen only in January 1938, when two spent about a fortnight in and near

this garden. During this period they appeared punctually in the garden at

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XE

seven o’clock each morning; their song could be heard approaching for five

or ten minutes before they reached the trees near the house. They spent

about half an hour in the garden and then moved on, and we did not see

or hear them again till the next morning.

A White-browed Fantail Flycatcher was also seen on March 6th, 1936 in a

mango orchard near St. Thomas’ Mount, eight miles N.-E. of Tambaram.

18. The Bay-backed Shrike: Lanius vittatus Val.

Seen throughout the year, but is rare both in jungle and garden from April

to August, and very common from September to the end of March. These

birds seem to have hunting territory over which they assert a monopoly for

weeks at a time, and no other shrike is allowed within the limits. They are

tame little birds, and will let one approach quite near their perch before

flying off to a little distance.

19. The Rufous-backed Shrike: Lanius schach caniceps Blyth.

Observed throughout the year, in jungle and garden. Very common. Like

the Bay-backed shrike, this bird also seems to monopolise definite hunting grounds

and to stay in that territory for weeks together. One which thus haunts the

rather jungly garden behind our house is frequently seen singing a not un-

melodious twittering song, very different from its usual raucous screech.

20. The Indian Common Weod-shrike : Tephrodornis pondicerianus Gmel.

Observed in the months of January, February, March, April, September and

November ; occasional visitor to the garden trees. Also seen in Vandalur forest,

but not observed in the scrub-jungle of the college compound.

21. The Little Minivet: Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linn.).

Never seen in the garden or scrub jungle, but small flocks observed in

fig and other big trees in Vandalur forest in March 1934, December 1935.

November 1937, and one pair seen at Chembarambakkam Lake about six miles

N.-W. of Tambaram on March 17th, 1938.

22. The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike: Lalage sykesi Strickland.

Seen only on the following dates :—

October 15th, 1934—a female, on a tree in the garden close to the house.

March 15th, 1936—male in Vandalur forest.

March 17th, 1938—male and female in big trees on the bund of Chembaram-

bakkam Lake, about six miles N.-W. of Tambaram.

23. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike: Artamus fuscus Vieil.

Small flocks seen on the following dates :—

September 1oth, 1933; August 24th, 1934; January 12th, 1936; September

5th, 1937. Those observed on August 24th, 1934 were sitting on the branch

of a tall dead tree in Vandalur forest; all the others were on the leaf stalks

of palmyra trees, or flying about in the vicinity of palmyras, on tank bunds

a mile or two south of the college estate.

24. The Black Droago: Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Yicehurst.

Seen throughout the year, very common, in garden and jungle.

25. The Indian Tailor-bird : Orthotomus sutorius guzurata Latham.

Throughout the year; very common in garden and nursery; not observed in

the scrub jungle. :

Nests seen as follows :—

July 1933—made of leaves of a Saraca seedling in the nursery—two chicks

in nest, very young.

August 1934—made of one large Bauhinia leaf folded, in garden—three eggs.

November 1933—made of two Bauhinia leaves, in garden, two chicks, very

young.

June 1935—nest made but deserted before use.

BIRDS IN.OR NEAR TAMBARAM, S. INDIA 471

26. The Ashy Wren-Warbler : Prinia socialis Sykes,

I have not yet learnt to distinguish this species from the next satisfactorily,

but either this, or the Indian Wren-Warbler, or both, are constantly about both

garden and jungle.

27. The ladian Wren-Warbler : Prinia inornata Sykes.

A nest and four eggs which corresponded exactly to the description of the

nest and eggs of this bird given in Birds of Southern India, were found in a

big clump of tall grass in the scrub jungle on September 27th, 1934. On

September 30th the nest was deserted and empty. The bird itself was not seen.

28. Warbler? Prinia sylvatica Jerdon?

A largish bird of warbler build is a permanent resident of the scrub jungle ;

it is brownish above and ashy to white below; its distinctive habit is. sitting

on the topmost twig of high bushes in the scrub and shouting lustily.

29. The Indian Oriole: Ovtolus oriolus kundoo Sykes.

Seen once only in Vandalur forest, October 1933. In Madras city it is

common, but is very rarely seen or heard in this neighbourhood.

30. The Brahminy or Black-headed Myna: Temenuchus pagodarum Gmel.

From September to early April this bird is very common in this neighbour-

hood, larger or small flocks being constantly about garden and jungle, but

by the middle of April the flocks have disappeared, though an occasional bird

may be seen for another week or two. They generally begin to return in

August; dates on which birds have been noticed are as follows :—

August 12th, 1933—one bird; August 21st, 1934—one bird, August 1oth,

1935—two birds; July 3oth, 1937—two birds. Their return is always by ones

and twos; the earliest flock seen was on August 26th 1933, -but generally no

flock is observed until well into September. From September till the end of

March these birds roost every night in large bushes or small trees in the scrub

jungle, the same bush or tree being occupied quite regularly. The birds

settle down early—about 6 o’clock—but are very easily disturbed; we have

frequently seen hundreds fly from one bush when we approached too near.

31. The Common Myna: Acridotheres tristis tristis Linn.

Throughout the year, in garden and jungle. It seems to have increased

in numbers with the increase of population on this estate. Nests and young

were observed in August 1937 in crevices in the roofs of a College hostel and

the cricket pavilion.

32. Baya or Weaver Bird: Ploceus philippinus (Linn.).

A colony of nests was seen in trees near rice fields at Futtur, about 3 miles

east of Tambaram, but no birds were observed.

33- The White-throated Munia: Uvroloncha malabarica Linn.

Observed frequently in small flocks in jungle and garden in July, August,

September, October and November 1933 and 1934, but not noticed here since

then. On August 5th 1933 and August 30th 1934 munias were observed

collecting fine dry grass, presumably for nesting, but the nests could not be

located in the thick and thorny scrub.

34. The Yellow-throated Sparrow: Gymnorhis xanthocollis Burton.

_ Appears to be a winter visitor to this neighbourhood; has been observed

frequently in the garden in February and March 1934, March 1935 and January

and February 1938; there seemed to be only one pair at a time.

35. TheIndian House Sparrow: Passer domesticus indicus Jardine and Selby.

Throughout the year; very common, and increasing in numbers as the number

of houses on the college compound increases,

472. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. XL

30. The Red-rumped Swallow: Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes.

Throughout the year; first observed and identified in November 1935;

plentiful in jungle and about the houses on this estate. Nests observed as

follows :—

August 25th, 1935; a partially constructed nest found under a small concrete

bridge ; on August 29th the nest was complete, the long entrance tunnel having

been added, but heavy rains on September 3rd flooded the water course below

the bridge, and destroyed the nest.

December 1936—a nest under the bridge in the same spot as the 1935 nest.

Swallows flew out ayines we approached.

June (1937 made a nest on the verandah of one of the staff

houses; the nest was ats by the occupant of the house, but the swallows

built it again immediately and were allowed to remain. They are said to have

reared two babies in this nest during July and August.

July 1937—another nest in the same site under the bridge; on September

5th we found a nestling on the ground below the nest; it could not fly; we

put it in the entrance tunnel and it crawled at once into the nest.

October 1937—-a nest under construction in another. arch of the bridge.

Rains in early November washed away both the nests under the bridge.

January 1938—a newly constructed nest on the old site under the bridge ;

swallows flew out of it, but no young were observed. :

37. The Large Pied Wagtail: Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmel.

Throughout the year; very common in jungle and about the buildings. This

wagtail frequently collects in large flocks and perches on roofs, twittering and

singing.

38. Bush Lark? Almmomanes pheenicura (Franklin).

Throughout the year, very common, in large flocks in open grassy patches

in the scrub jungle and along the unfrequented roads of the college estate.

There is also a lark which appears to be a solitary bird, and spends much

of its time in the garden flying up about 20 ft. and then parachuting down

with a shrill whistling cry.

I find it very difficult to identify these larks with any certainty. [?Mirafra

affinis cf. Jerdon B. of I., ii, 418. ‘It frequently perches on shrubs and even

trees and takes short flights in the air, descending again with outspread wings

it has a pleasant little song which it utters during its short flights.’—Ep. |

39. The Ashy-crowned Finch-lark : Evemopterix grisea grisea Scopoli.

Throughout the year; very plentiful in the jungle, and on the grassy tank

beds just beyond the college land. These little birds seem to spend the day on

the tank beds and other open spaces but very large numbers come every evening

to roost in little saucer-like depressions which they make in the unfrequented

sandy or gravelly roads of the college estate.

40. Loten’s Sunbird: Cynnyris lotenia Linn.

Observed in thick scrub jungle on a hillside about 5 miles south of Tambaram

in December 1932. A pair frequented our garden for .a fortnight or more in

October 1937, but this is the only time that this sunbird has been noticed

in this neighbourhood.

41. The Indian Purple Sunbird : Cynnyris asiatica asiatica Latham.

Observed in almost every month of the year, in the garden and jungle. There

is generally at least one pair frequenting the hibiscus and other flowe ring bushes,

but. occasionally they disappear for a time.

42. The Purple-rumped Sunbird : Cynnyris zeylonica Linn.

Throughout the year; always about the garden and jungle. In the jungle

they seem to have special affection for Helicteres isora and Rivea hypocrateri-

formis.

Sunbirds’ nests have been found as follows :—

March 1934—a hen was observed taking food to the nest.

This was believed to be a purple sunbird, but as the male was not seen it

is not possible to be certain,

BIRDS IN OR ‘(NEAR TAMBARAM, S. INDIA » 473

February 1938—believed to be a purple-rumped sunbird’s nest, but only the

female was seen. One egg.

March 1938—a nest too high to be examined; it was a new nest, and

the outside had been more or less covered with the papery winged fruits of

Tecoma.

43. The Pitta: Pitta brachyura Linn.

Observed in garden and adjacent scrub jungle in February, March and April

1937, but not again till October 1937. Since October pittas have been’ resident

in the bushes near our garden. Their regular habits are interesting ;~ for

example, for nearly two months—January and February—one appeared on the

grass behind our house every morning about 6-30, coming always from the same

direction, staying about five minutes and then going off in the opposite

direction. Twice we saw it take a bath in the small sunken bird bath en route.

Pittas still about in garden and jungle in April 1938, but not so vocal as in

the colder weather, nor so frequently seen in the early mornings and _ late

evenings as_ before.

44. The Southern Golden-backed Weodpecker : Brachyplernus benghalensis.

As there were no big trees on this estate, no woodpeckers came here until

June 1937, by which time a few trees had grown to a fair size. One woodpecker

was observed in the garden three times in June, July and August 10937, but

has not been seen here again since then. They are occasionally observed or

heard in Vandalur forest.

45. The Coppersmith or Crimson-breasted Barbet: Nantholaema haemo-

cephala indica Latham.

Owing to the absence of really big trees the Coppersmith is not resident on

the College estate, but occasional birds have been seen and heard here lately

—i.e. in February 1937, July 1937, October and November 1937. ‘They have,

however, been observed throughout the year in the big trees of the trunk

road which runs through Tambaram, and in Vandalur forest.

46. The Pied Crested Cuckoo: Clamator jacobinus jacobinus Bodd.

Throughout the year; quite common in the scrub jungle and_ occasionally

seen in the garden.

47. The Small Green-billed Malkoha : Rhopodytes viridirostris Jerdon.

Has been, noted in January, February, March, April and July to December,

but is probably a permanent resident of the scrub jungle. Appears occasionally

in the garden; by no means uncommon; also frequently observed in Vandalur

forest.

48. The Southern Crow-Pheasant : Centropus sinensis parroti Streseman.

Not in the scrub jungle or garden, but seen occasionally and heard more

frequently, in Vandalur forest, at all times of the year.

49. The Rose-ringed Paroquet : Psittacula krameri manillensis Bechst.

Occasionally flies over garden and jungle, but has not yet been observed

My 8 juns :

to settle in any of our trees.

50. The Southern Indian Roller: Coracias benghalensis indica Linn.

Throughout the year; very common in garden: and jungle, and_ particularly

fond of the chimney and roofs of the College Science Block.

51. The Common Indian Bee-eater: AMevops orientalis crientalis Lath.

Throughout the year; very common, but somewhat erratic. At times there

are dozens constantly about the garden for weeks, and then they seem to

move on. This does not seem a seasonal and local migration: at any rate no

definite rhythm or routine has yet been noted.

52. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater: Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsf.

Has been observed about here in all months between July and April. The

note about the erratic appearances of the little green Bee-eater applies equally

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

to this one also. At times, for two or three weeks a large flock will be

constantly about the garden and adjoining scrub jungle, and then for a while

no bee-eaters will be seen.

Two very young birds were about the garden in July and early August 1933.

53- The Indian Pied Kingfisher: Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reich.

Two of these birds haunted a big well in the garden for about a month,

December 1932 to January 1933. Pied kingfishers were often observed about

the garden in 1933 and 1934; since then none have been noted here, but they

are frequently seen near irrigation tanks in the neighbourhood in all months.

54- The Common Ceylon Kingfisher: Alcedo atthis subsp.?

Throughout the year; less common on the estate than in 1933 and _ 1934,

but frequently observed on the irrigation tanks in the neighbourhood.

55. The White-breasted Kingfisher : Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis Linn.

Throughout the year; very common in the garden. Nesting in the earthen

walls of a big unused well in the garden in March 1938; two young pnes were

flying about the garden with their parents in April 1938.

56. The Hoopoe. Upupa epops Linn.

Probably resident in the neighbourhood, but only an occasional visitor to

the college compound; observed here only in November 1933, July, August,

October 1935, January 1936, March and August 1937 and February 1938. Seen

more frequently in Vandalur forest and on roofs in Tambaram village.

57. The Benga! Palm-Swift : Cypsiurus parvus subsp.?

Throughout the year; very common about the scattered palmyra trees on

the estate, and wherever there are palmyras in the neighbourhood—e.g. on

the outskirts of Vandalur forest.

58. The Common Indian Swift: \Wicropus affinis (Gray).

Observed only once, on August 8th 1937, about some rocky hills 2 miles

north of Tambaram. When the hills were revisited in February 1938 the swifts

had disappeared.

59. The Little Indian Nightjar: Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham.

Throughout the year; very common in garden and jungle.

July r1th, 1937 a nightjar discovered sitting; one egg; on stony ground on

a hillside in the jungle. August 1st nestling nearly fully fledged; August 5th,

young bird flying.

6o. The Indian Great Horned Owl: Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin).

What we believe to be this bird was sitting on the ridge of our house roof,

hooting, late in the evenings of November 17th and 1gth, 1934. It was clearly

seen in the bright moonlight.

January 27th, 1935, a horned owl was disturbed by us from the nest, on

the top of a low rocky hill about 4 miles east of Tambaram; two eggs in

the nest. The nest was a mere depression in the ground.

61. The Southern Spotted Owiet : Athene brama (Temminck).

Probably common in this neighbourhood, but still appears only occasionally

on the college estate. Observed once in November 1934, for several evenings

in succession in August 1935, and similarly in January 1936. Not observed

near the house again till April 1938.

62. The Black or Pondicherry Vulture: Sarcogyps calvus Scopoli.

Throughout the year; for the five years during which observations have

been made, several of these vultures have frequented a group of palmyras at

the uninhabited end of the college estate. They are also frequently seen over

the Vandalur forest,

BIRDS IN OR NEAR TAMBARAM, S. INDIA 475

63. The White-backed Vulture: Pseudogyps bengalensis Gmel.

Frobably permanently resident in the neighbourhood, but has only been noticed

within the last year. On February oth, eight of these vultures were

found roosting on one palmyra tree and six on a neighbouring one in jungle

about two miles north of Tambaram.

64. The Smaller White Scavenger Vulture: Neophron percnopterus gingin-

ianus Latham.

Throughout the year, but not common in the immediate neighbourhood,

probably owing to the attraction of large tanneries about five miles north of

Tambaram, where they congregate in large numbers.

65. The Kestrel: Falco tinnunculus.

Observed twice only, March 17th, 1934 and March toth, 1938. Each

time the bird was seen on the grassy maidan of an irrigation tank, and

allowed us to approach quite near and observe it for a considerable time with

the field-glasses. Wren disturbed it flew a short distance and_= settled again

on the ground or on a low rock. Both birds were definitely kestrels, but the

race could not be determined.

66. The Common Pariah Kite: Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.

Throughout the year; very common over garden and jungle.

67. The Brahminy Kite: Haliastur indus indus Bodd.

Throughout the year; very common over garden and jungle.

68. The Black-winged Kite: Elanus caeruleus.

Observed once only, on October 27th, 1935. This bird, answering exactly

to the description given in Birds of Southern India, was sitting on top of an

electric installation pole in the compound; we watched each other for a

considerable time.

69. The Pale Harrier: Circus macrourus Gmel.

Observed frequently over jungle and garden in all months October to March

inclusive, every year since 1932.

First and last dates on which it has been seen each season are as follows :-—

1933-34. First seen on October 23—Last seen on March 17th.

1934-35. First seen on November 2nd—Last seen on March roth.

1935-36. First seen on October 19th—Last seen on March 26th.

1937-38. First seen on November 6th—Last seen on March 3oth.

These dates apply only to the male bird, as I have not yet learnt to

distinguish the female Pale Harrier from the females of other species of harriers ;

females have been noted earlier and later than males each year.

70. The Pied Harrier: Circus melanoleucas Pennant.

Observed in January, February and March of the years 1934, 1935, 1936,

1937, over stubble fields south of the college; never observed over the scrub

jungle of the college estate. This note refers to the male.

71. The Marsh Harrier: Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus Linn.

Observed over wet rice fields in this neighbourhood in February 1936 and

January 1938; never seen over the jungle.

72. Thelndian Spotted Dove: Streptopelia chinensis suratensis Gmel.

Throughout the year. Numerous in garden and jungle.

73. The Little Brown Dove: Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis Gmel.

Throughout the year; very numerous in garden and_ jungle.

Two nests were found in thorny bushes in the scrub jungle in April 1938;

both contained one white egg. They are believed to be nests of the spotted

Dove, but the sitting bird flew off so quickly among the bushes, that it was

difficult to be quite definite as to which species it was.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY) Volume

74. TheGrey Partridge: Francolinus pondicerianus Gmel.

Throughout the year; very numerous and very noisy in garden and jungle.

75. The Little Ringed Plover: Charadrius dubius Scop.

Observed on the moist shores of irrigation tanks in January and Ave wy

and March each year; fairly common.

76. The Yellow-wattled Lapwing : Lobipluvia malabarica Bodd.

Observed each year in January, February, ‘March, April, August, September

and October; probably here all the year round. Very frequently seen on the

college playing fields in the early mornings and late evenings; very noisy on

these fields on moonlight nights in February, March and April 1938.

77. The Common Sandpiper: Tringa hypoleucos Linn.

Observed in January, February and March each year on the edges of

irrigation tanks in the neighbourhood. Very common.

78. The Pond Heron or Paddy Bird : Ardeola grayiit Sykes.

Observed on the marshes and wet paddy fields two miles east of Tambaram

in December, January, February, March and April. Very common.

79. The Tufted Pochard: Nyroca fuligula fuligula Linn.

Seen once. A large flock was riding the water of Chembarambakkam Lake,

about six’ miles N.-W. of Tambaram, on February 28th, 1938. When the Lake

was again visited on March 17th, these birds had entirely disappeared.

80. The Grebe or Dabchick: Podiceps ruficollis (Vroeg).

Seen in January and February 1938 on an unfrequented pond at Puttur, about

two miles east of Tambaram.

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME

INDIAN: SPIDERS:

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM.

(With one photo and 3 text-figures).

Nature, a mother kind alike to all, has bestowed on every living

being a special virtue by which it is enabled to thrive, to obtain

its sustenance and to protect itself from its enemies. In some

animals defence takes the form of extreme swiftness of movement,

some have warning colours, some the power of mimicry, and others

resort to one or the other of the hundreds of different devices and

modifications. Innumerable examples of such adaptations are found

in the insect world. Among spiders, which form the subject of

this article, many interesting examples of protective adaptation are

found. But as these creatures are generally looked upon with horror

and repellance, few care to observe the instinct displayed by them.

A study of the varied habits of spiders does in itself provide to the

Naturalist an ample field which has been explored only imperfectly

so far.

Though most of the familiar orders of spiders are represented

abundantly in India, many Indian species still remain unidentified

and even some of the orders are omitted altogether. To a certain

extent this incomplete taxonomical study eacn i dimen tor ihe

field naturalist to describe comprehensively the habits of all the

spiders that he comes across during his collection work. However

enthusiastic a collector may be, unless he familiarizes himself at

least with the generic names of the specimens he secures, he cannot

write a comprehensive and detailed account of their habits although

he may know for himself that ‘X’ specimen behaves this way and

‘Y’ specimen in that. With regard to such Indian spiders as the

Hersiliids, Attids, Thomisids and Theridiids the above difficulty is

felt much as the literature concerning them is scarce.

Apart from the scientific classification, based on their habits

Spiders can be grouped under the following heads :—

I.—SEDENTARY SPIDERS.

(Including Argyopids, Theridiids, Pholcids and FEresids).

[i —=—ROvVING SPIDERS.

) Hunting Spiders or Wolf Spiders (Lycosids).

(b) Jumping Spiders (Attids).

(d)

(¢)

4/8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCGIELE Y= Vols

I.—SEDENTARY SPIDERS.

Sedentary spiders construct webs of their own and reside within.

Among the snare builders Argyopids are the most common and

abundant in our gardens. They construct beautiful circular snares

with geometrical precision. <A careful study of an Argyopidean web

reveals that almost always its foundation lines have direct connection

with the leaves of the plant or tree by whose side the web is located.

The slightest disturbance on any part of the web is telegraphically

conducted by the radi to the central hub where the spider usually

sits. If the source of disturbance 1s an enemy, the spider with

electric speed rushes to the contiguous leaf and hides on the under-

side, failing which, it abruptly drops to the ground and disappears.

On the other hand, if the shaking of the web is caused by the struggle

of a captive insect, which has accidentally fallen on it, the spider

at once approaches the prey along one of the radu, binds its legs

and wings with a profuse flow of silk from the spinnerets and drags

it to the centre. Sometimes at the sight of an enemy, the Argyopid

purposely vibrates its web with such an astonishing speed that

both spider and web are rendered invisible. In a way this swinging

action enables the spider to secure its prey, for, if the glutinous

threads happen to touch the insects flying near the web, they are

instantaneously caught.

These methods of capturing their prey and concealing themselves

from enemies are the characteristics of Argyopids in general.

Besides these, special adaptations of both protective and aggressive

significance are also. found in some of the Argyopidean genera.

Its huge black body with deep yellow bands and _ its

scarlet mandibles, make Nephila maculata such a_ formidable

and grotesque creature that it is rightly called the Giant Wood

Spider. If at all the common enemies: of Araneids, like .the

birds and lizards, prey upon this series they would do- so

only with shuddering qualms. The orange bands on the body

of the common Argyope and the white drawings on that of Epezra

diadema must have also a protective significance. Another common

species met with in our gardens, especially during the rainy season,

is the Tetragnatha, Its small cylindrical body assists it to a great

extent in concealing itself from its enemies. Approached by an

enemy, it at once runs to hide itself on the underside of the nearest

leaf by assuming a peculiar linear position (see figure). Some

species of Tetragnatha are dull green in colour which serves as an

additional protective advantage. Leucauge, a genus closely allied

to Tetragnatha, behaves in a_ similar way. Some _ species of

Leucauge found in India are light green in colour and successfully

harmonize with the surrounding verdure. The common Gastercantha

with its small dark rhomboid body and minute legs resembles a

chip of wooden bark suspended in air. Epeirans often sit motionless

in the axils of leaves folding their legs in such an artistic fashion

that they appear at first sight to be lifeless objects. Some of them

rest on branches of trees imitating patches of lichen growth, while

other members (Caerostris) living on the bark of trees are easily

mistaken for woody knots,

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN SPIDERS 479

Theridiids agree to some extent in their general habits with the

Argyopids. They also are good web builders; but their webs are

made of irregular threads without any geometrical plan. They

are common both in gardens and in corners of houses. They are

mostly of small size and more secretive in habit than the Argyopids.

When chased they instantaneously sham death, a device which to

some extent enables them to escape attack.

Pholcids are represented abundantly in India. They are a tribe

of harmless spiders, shy by nature, occupying safe and unfrequented

localities such as the roofs and rafters of old houses, and never

venturing to stir out of their irregular webs. Perhaps their long

legs prevent them from falling a prey to their enemies. A

pholcid caught by the legs generally escapes by shedding the limb

or limbs.

Nest of Eresidian spider.

The common Indian Eresids, belonging to the genus Stegodyphus,

are also sedentary spiders constructing a very complicated type of

nest. A peculiarity with these creatures is that they are very social,

a number of them forming a colony and living in a single nest.

Such a social life is found nowhere else in the Araneid world.

The architecture of the Eresidian web is entirely different from that

480 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIBTY, Vol, “XE

of other spiders. it 1s saccular in appearance and consists of

numerous chambers perceptible from outside in the form of small

round apertures. ihe nests are usually -found fixed to the

extremities of tne branches of trees and bushes or along fences

(vide photograph). Sometimes, attached to the main nest is

an extensive net whose threads are arranged irregularly in a

vertical and horizontal fashion, not concentrically, as with

Argyopids. Insects that fall into this net seldom escape from its

highly viscid threads. The grey colour of the Eresidian web

agrees with the colour of the spiders and it is only with some

difficulty that they can be-..detected-: within their webs. At the

sight of an enemy they retreat deep initio the concavity of their

nest which, due to its complicated structure, is impervious to

the attack of birds and dragon flies. Again, the fibres of

the nest being highly sticky, birds generally do not tamper

with it.

Ti:—=ROVING -SRIDERS.

The Roving Spiders are not sedentary but hunt in search of prey.

Though generally not web builders like the sedentary tribes, some

weave small patches of web during certain stages of their life.

The females weave such webs for the protection of their cocoons

during the breeding season. Again, during the moulting period

they construct webs and remain sedentary till the critical phase is

safely passed. Even during other periods many possess permanent

abodes for retirement.

Of all the roving spiders perhaps the most cunning and powerful

are the Lycosids. From their voracious habits and perseverance

in making expeditions in search of prey they are called Wolf Spiders

or Hunting Spiders. Examples of various modes of life are found

within this group. Many of them build no snares, yet are vigorous

hunters running zig-zag along the ground. Some lke Lycosa

annandalei are amphibious in habit. Hippasa pantherina is a

species which constructs intricate webs and is mostly of sedentary

habits.

Hippasa generally builds its abode in burrows in the ground, in

natural crevices by the buttress roots of trees, or among the whorls

of the suckers of the Pandanus. The webs are cylindrical and are

often an inch in diameter. The tube runs into the ground vertically

to a depth of about 9 inches and bends at an obtuse angle. The

spider sits at the mouth of its web, a vigilant sentry, but at the sight

of man cr an enemy it immediately recedes to the bent portion of the

tube. -Pursuéd. further,- ‘it rushds’.to thé deepest recess and

is completely out of sight.

One peculiarity with regard to the Lycosids in general is that

when hunting they never move straight but go zig-zagging,

stopping here and there in the manner of a fly. This deceptive

resemblance to the movements of a fly is supposed to be both:

aggressive and protective.

Some Lycosids are capable of staying below water for more

than .20 minutes. They live in. small..holes: near water

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN. SPIDERS 481

and evade their enemies by diving in. They creep down the stems

of aquatic weeds and plants to hide, if chased further,

they sham death, fold their limbs, drop into the water and float

on the surface. They feed on aquatic flies, and some are

said even to hunt small fishes.

Jumping Spiders come under the Order Attideae. <Attids are

ubiquitous and are found commonly on walls and in corners of

houses, among plants, on tree trunks—everywhere. All of them

are of moderate or small size, but they differ much in colour

and habits. Mimicry of the most wonderful type is present

in this group. They perform surprising acrobatic jumps to escape

from their enemies.

Once, while passing along a foot-path near a fence, I was

attracted by the infloresence of a plant. It appeared at first sight

to consist of white and black flowers. On examnation, how-

ever, what appeared to be black flowers proved to be dead bees.

The problem of how these dead bees came to be there puzzled

me. I scrutinized every part of the plant and at last was able to

find out. Hidden under the small flowers were three small Attid

spiders, beautifully coloured with metallic blue and white stripes

which, with their minute legs, resembled floral stamens. One’ of

them was actually sucking a bee at the time. Hence there could

be no doubt that the dead bees were the remains of the meals of

these spiders. This illustrates how, not only Thomisids, but also

Attids practise the same method of capturing prey, by hiding inside

flowers. This kind of protective adaptation has a dual advantage:

the spiders avoid the notice of their enemies and at the same time

get their food ready at the door.

In the case of Myrmarachne, which is an Indian ant-mimic

spider, ‘the mimicry is so perfect that quite often it requires the

second glance of even an experienced collector to distinguish one

of these spiders from the ants amongst whom they are often seen

moving about’. There is some controversy with regard to this

ant-mimicry. Is it protective or aggressive? No doubt, ant-

mimicry has its protective value, but does it necessarily follow that

it has no aggressive value because the mimics do not feed on the

models? In the false garb of an ant, the spider may feed on other

minute insects which are not attacked by ants. By their shy nature

and quick movements coupled with their mimicry, the ant-mimics

successfully evade their enemies.

Attids, though termed vagabonds, and _ typical roving spiders,

more often than not weave a small patch of membraneous canopy

for retirement. During breeding time this patch is made thicker

and more elaborate to protect the cocoons. Just like the Sparassids,

some Attids bind the margins of one or two contiguous leaves

and live within. Others hunt in the grass and imitate the life

of an Oxyopid. On more than one occasion, I have seen Attids

living within the cast-away shells of garden snails. Once on

breaking open an old pupa of a butterfly I was surprised to find an

Attid residing comfortably within, with its cocoon. <A life similar

to that of a Hermit-Crab. Was it after feeding upon the original

inmate that the spider used this covering as its house, or was it after

483 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol Xe

Fig 1.—A Hersiliid spider on tree bark.

Hersiliids also are vigorous

hunting spiders. As a rule they

inhabit small holes and crevices

in the bark of trees. They are

also found in plenty on old walls.

The species that hunt on old,

white, mortar walls are generally

pale white, quite in uniformity

with the colour of the wall; while

the more common species that

occupy the tree trunks are brown-

ish black, harmonizing with the

colour of the bark. Add to. this

colour adaptation their peculiar

posture: with a_ flat . body and

long-spread-out legs they adhere

so closely to the surface that it 1s

not easy to detect their presence

at first sight (vide fig. 1). When

pursued, they crawl sideways and

up the tree trunk in an ascending

spiral, leaving the pursuer dis-

appointed alike.

Oxyopids are small or mode-

rate sized spiders found abun-

dantly among grass and small

vegetable growths. They are

better jumpers than runners and

their sharp spined legs may be

of some protective value. The

more common species found in

India are either Peucitia virdiana

or Peucitia elegans. The light

green or dull yellow colour of the

body and the black spines on

their legs agree so harmoniously

the emergence “of “thie

chrysalis that the spider

met with the cast-away

shell and converted it

into a residence? If the

former, it necessarily fol-

lows that the Attids also

contribute to the destruc-

tion of Lepidopteran

pupae. However so

much is certain: among

all the roving spiders,

Attids seem to show the

least discrimination in

the selection of their

residential quarters.

Fig. 2.—A Psechrid spider on grass.

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN SPIDERS 483

with the surrounding ears and corns of the grass, that they are

very safely hidden and difficult to detect. Remaining undetected

by small insects the Oxyopid darts at and preys upon them. They

have no webs of their own excepting in the breeding season when

the female spins a small patch of silky web on the plant leaf to

protect its cocoon. Oxyopids are common in rainy months when

all sorts of vegetative growths spring up.

The Psechrideae, another Order easily distinguished by the pro-

minence of the first two pairs of legs, spend their lives amongst

grass blades, just like the Oxyopids (Fig. 2).

Next come the Thomisids. Their general shape and architecture

resemble those of a miniature crab. Like crabs they move side-

ways and are hence called Crab Spiders. Thomisids are generally

small in size and are mostly preyed upon by other spiders. Perhaps

Fig.—3. A Thomisid spider in a Bauhinia flower.

their lateral movements help them to escape from their enemies.

I have seen an Attid spider pouncing on a Thomisid, but the former

missed its prey as the latter escaped by a sideways somersault.

Thomisids are often found resting inside flowers where their upward

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL...

thrust legs are easily mistaken for floral stamens (fig. 3). Flower

visiting insects, like bees, become their easy prey. Thomisids

inculde only a few species, compared with other groups, and even

these few are but poorly worked out.

Clubionids are another group of hunting spiders. So also are

the Sparassids. Both are found commonly in our gardens. Olios

tener, a Clubionid rolls up leaves into a cylinder and_ resides

within. By so doing it protects itself both from its enemies and

from. the sun and rain. Palystes flavidus is a Sparassid. It is

green in colour and usually lives on the underside of leaves. Its

colour. is ‘so near in tone to that-:of the leaf, that: it is difficult

to discover. |

It will be observed from the foregoing that the colour scheme,

mimcry and other adaptations—all have an important bearing

upon the lives of spiders, since they enable them either to escape

from their enemies or to secure their prey with less effort.

Who then are the enemies of spiders and what is their prey?

Of all the enemies of spiders, perhaps the most powerful are

birds. Birds have a very keen vision and that peculiar habit of

pecking at every small creature that comes within reach. Only

after thorough experimental tasting do birds discriminate as

to which spiders or insects are edible and which are not. Most

spiders that are not protected either by warning colours or spiny

coverings fall an easy prey to birds. Certain birds make judicious

employment of spiders’ silk in lining their nests. |

House lizards like Geckos, often prey upon Pholcids and

Theridiids, while Bloodsuckers (Calotes), skinks (Mabuia), and

insectivorous mammals like shrews make a good meal of spiders

inhabiting gardens.

Solitary and social wasps are the most vehement enemies of

spiders. They persistently hunt them and store them up in their

nests for the sustenance of their offspring.

Ants are also enemies of spiders; though the ant-mimic spiders

are on friendly terms with them. The common red ants feed on the

Tetragnatha and Palystes. The eggs of the Epeirans and other

garden spiders are also sumptuously feasted upon by ants.

Spiders also should be regarded as the enemies of spiders.

Cannibalism is a characteristic of this group.

I also know of a solitary instance of a Dragon-fly catching an

Attid spider most probably for food.

As to food, spiders prey on almost all sorts of insects and other

minute creatures. Web weaving spiders first bind their prey with |

silk, making it inert and powerless and then sucking out its juices.

But vagabond and other webless spiders like Oxyopids, Lycosids, etc.

seize their prey and feed on them direct. Aquatic flies and dragon

flies and even small fishes constitute the food of water spiders.

There are numerous books on spiders written by ancient authors

and although many of them are interesting, when dealing with the

habits of spiders they display more of literary beauty than scientific

fact. - fr

| McCook, in one of his works American Spiders and their Spinning

IVork (Philadelphia 1893), gives a splendid account of the habits

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION AMONG SOME INDIAN SPIDERS 485

of spiders. The habits of Lycosa and Epeira have been dealt with

ima very exhaustive way in J. H. Fabre’s Life of Spiders. The

researches of two American Arachnologists, George and Elizabeth

Peckham are published under the title of ‘On Mental Powers of

Spiders’ in the Journal of Morphology (Boston, U.S.A.) 1887, p. 403.

Spiders are included also in works of general nature like Intelligence

of Animals and Protective Colours of Animals written by authors

like Houssary, Poulton, and a host of others. So far as the

Indian Spiders are concerned a comprehensive and comparative

work on the habits of Spiders is still wanting.

In writing this article I have only taken into consideration the

more common genera of the Indian Archnomorphic Spiders.

There must be equally interesting instances among the Mygalomor-

phic Spiders as well. Closer study of the habits of spiders will

disclose yet more interesting examples of protective adaptation.

‘Believing firmly from the evidence afforded by the causes that ail

animals are coloured in such a way as to best secure their safety

and other interests, and not so as to expose them to danger, I am

sure that as we progress we have found in every instance part of

the great Creator’s wonderful plan to ensure the welfare of His

creatures and at the same time add brightness and beauty to the

world.’—(T. Carreras.)

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLTES (7TRICHOPTERA),

Martin E. MOSELy, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.

(With twelve plates).

ParRT V.

(Continued from page 478 of Volume xxxviil, 1936).

SERICOSTOMATIDAE McLacutan.

McLach., Rev..&. Syn. Trich.,~ pps221-2288

Sericostomatidae.

18706.

CHARACTERS OF THE FAMILY.

Antennae as long as the wings or slightly shorter; moderately

stout, basal joint often much longer than the head; generally

thickly clothed with hair; sometimes furnished with’ processes

or spines; ocelli generally absent; present in the genus

Eothremma. Maxillary palpi of the ¢ always different in form

to those of the &, frequently membranous and clothed with

specialised hairs or scales; they may be pressed against the

face, or merely carried upturned; they are frequently, in this sex,

associated with scent-diffusing apparatus; the number of joints

varies from one to four but in the 2, there are always the usual

five; labial palpi alike in both sexes, the basal joint small, the

second considerably larger, about the same length as the third:

wings usually densely pubescent, often with scales or specialized

hairs mingled with hairs of the ordinary form; frequently with

scale-lined grooves and sometimes with folds as well, or folds

without additional grooves; posterior wings generally without folds

but frequently with grooves; neuration varying greatly according to

genus, or even in the same genus, or between the sexes of the

same species; neuration generally more regular in the @ than in

fhe=c.

IKEY TO THE SUB-FAMILIES.

1. Ocelli present. THREMMINAE

—Ocelli absent. 2

2. Fork no. 4 in the posterior wing generally present.

HELICOPSYCHINAE

—Fork no. 4 in the posterior wing always absent. 8

3! ES Ursi2 y= eon: SERICOSTOMATINAE

—Spurs other than 2, 2, 4. 4

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

Fig. 2, basal joints of the antenna.

Notidobia nigva sp. n., 6.—Fig. 1, wings.

Fig. 3, palpi. Fig. 4, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 5, lateral. Fig. 6, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 487

we Sours 2. 2, 2 or 2 ; BRACHYCENTRINAE

4 ) » J)

ae)

—Spurs other than the above. 5

5. Fork nos. 1, 2, 3, 5 present in the posterior wing.

GOERINAE

—Fork nos. 1, 2, 3, 5 never all present in the posterior wing.

LEPIDOSTOMATINAE

Genera not placed in sub-families.

Ashmera spurs 2, 4, 3. Daiscoidal cell in the posterior wing

closed.

Noleca spurs 2, 2, 2, (maxillary palpi single-jointed).

Gastrocentrides spurs 1, 4, 4: forks nos. 1, 2, 3, 5 not all present

in the posterior wing.

It has not been found practicable to give keys to the species

in the Sericostomatid genera. The student must therefore have

direct recourse to the descriptions and figures.

SERICOSTOMATINAE Ulmer.

Sericostomatinae Ulm., Abh. Natur. Ver. Hamb., 18, p. 78,

1903.

Head differently formed in the sexes; basal joint of the

antenna shorter than the head; maxillary palpi pressed closely

against the face, two- or three-jointed; wings elongate, densely

pubescent, neuration alike in both sexes; apical forks nos. 1, 2,

3, and 5 present in the anterior wing, hos. 1, 2, and 5 in the

posterior; discoidal cell closed in both wings, the anterior open

or closed in the posterior wings. Spurs, 2, 2, 4.

Only one genus, Notidobia, has so far been found to occur in

India.

Notidobia Stephens.

Notidobia Steph., Ill. Ent., p. 185, 1836.

Spurs 2, 2,-4. .

Antennae stout with a stout, nearly rhomboidal basal joint;

maxillary palpi pressed against the face, two-jointed in the single,

known, Indian species; discoidal cell of the anterior wing oblong,

the first apical sector connected with the radius by a nervule at

or near the base; posterior wing, discoidal cell not connected to

the radius by a transverse nervule. Other characters as detailed

in the specific description.

Genotype: Notidobia ciliaris L.

Notidobia nigra sp. n. Pl. 1, Figs. 1-6.

Insect black. In the 6d, basal joint of the antenna stout,

somewhat rhomboidal; maxillary palpi two-jointed, basal joint

slightly curved and longer than the second; labial palpi with the

first and second joints approximately equal in length, third rather

longer ; wings black, neuration conforming generally with that of the

genotype, ciliaris, but differing in detail,

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XL

Genitalia d.—Apical margin of the ninth tergite strongly

produced at its centre to form a dorsal plate, apex excised; at the

base of the plate, on each side, is a small, rounded process as

seen from the side; penis large, covered by the pent sides of the

dorsal plate; inferior appendages with greatly dilated apices

slightly notched at the lower apical margin, a stout claw arising

at the upper angle of the notch, directed inwards; centre of the

margin of the ninth sternite produced in a small ventral plate

with an excised apical margin.

Length of the anterior wing d 9 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,800 ft., 9-iv-1934; 7,000 ft.,

10-1v-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢d in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratype

¢ in the British Museum collection.

GOERINAE Ulmer.

Goérinae Ulm., Abh. Natur. Ver. Hamb., 18, p. 81, 1903.

Ocelli absent; basal joint of the antennae about twice the length

of the head, very hairy; maxillary palpi of *the ¢ closely applied

to the face, hairy, often with thickened or clavate hairs; joints

varying in number, labial palpi long and stout; wings short and

broad, densely pubescent, often with grooves or folds, éspecially

in the posterior region in the ¢, that partly obliterate the neuration

which, otherwise, is the same in both sexes; in the anterior wings,

discoidal cell present, open in the posterior; apical forks nos. 1,

2, 3, and 5 in both wings; generally a ventral process to the

sixth or seventh ventral segments, sometimes both.

In the @, the ninth dorsal segment is rather small and from it

proceeds the tubular piece which is deeply divided, forming two

narrow, hairy valves; ninth ventral segment nearly obsolete, eighth

forming a polished plate, seventh regularly rounded; a tooth to

THEN sixth, we OPUS 2,71, AiOle Tae tk

Gotra Leach.

Goéra Leach, Edinb. Enc., p. 136, 1815;

Mclachlan, Rev.. and Syn. Trichs, p. 240) 1876,

55 Ulmer, “Gen. Insect. fasc, “60a; "p: 37,1007,

Spurs: 2, 4,4 or) 45,4:

Maxillary palpi, generally three-jointed, the two basal joints very

short, terminal joint sometimes capable of being inflated in a

membranous sac bearing specialized hairs or androconia; wings

generally short and broad, covered with dense pubescence, but there

are no intermingled scales; neither folds nor grooves in the male

wings; in the anterior wings in both sexes, the area below the

cellula thyridii is generally dilated at the end, forming a small,

irregular, circular space free from pubescence; external post-costal

cellule in the anterior wing, very long and narrow; a transvervse

nervure connecting the lower branch of the sector to the upper

branch of the medius in the posterior wing; spurs 1, 4, 4 or 2, 4, 4.

Genotype: Goéra pilosa F,

)

PLATE II

< Pe Tle)

Cort paces tk eek ing)

ee oer é

ees ee =

Fs mm wat 38

ween eee

= * =~.

. %

q a

£ . %

‘e Fe,

ae MC

: ie ed

& ‘o ae |e

ee, “4

SAE 2

Nice &

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 2, apex of the abdomen, ventral.

Goéva atra sp. n, 9.—Fig. 1, wings.

ry tt pa

% : one

r 7

- v

. if

y ,

‘ 7 ef -

A -

a A

‘

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE itt

Goéva kursea sp. n., 9.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, apex of the abdomen, ventral.

Goéva kalimpa sp.n.,9.—Fig.3, wings. lVig.4,apex of the abdomen, ventral.

A oe ;

3 . ae 7

7 : ey ust a Srey

, OM ; ae

ts : i Dete-.,

hg : Wert ect —

; ' fi 7

2 >

- -

' ' : : :

= ;

( -

‘

» .

: a

* :

: :

i] ' =

* ¢

7 A

3 =

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

he SKE

pear Stes

)

J Leg

Fo orks

Sans

< z 2

Goéva minor sp. n., g.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, portion of the posterior wing.

Fig. 3, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral. Fig. 5, ventral.

a 7 1

| ei 3

, - : : :

— PI -

> i : :

; |

Pad :

> .

bad

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 489

Goéra atra sp. n. Pl. 2. Figs. 1-2.

Insect blackish. Neuration conforming to the usual pattern in

the genus. The abdomen terminates in a pair of processes which

are rather shorter and blunter than is usual with species of Goéra;

structures connected with the vagina very strongly chitinized; a

short (? broken), wide process to the sixth sternite, flanked on

each side by one or two small teeth.or tubercles. Spurs, 2, 4, 4.

Length of the anterior wing & 9g mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 11-v-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. A &

paratype in the British Museum collection.

The unusual colour for a Goéra should render this species easily

recognizable. :

Goéra kursea sp. n. Pl. 3. Figs. 1-2.

Having regard to the similarity in neuration in both sexes in

this genus, there should be no difficulty in correctly associating

the males on this character, and 1 have therefore described this

species from a female type.

Both neuration and the structures connected with the vagina

serve to identify the species in the female sex.

The insect is brownish and in the anterior wing, fork no.. 1

extends about halfway across the upper margin of the discoidal

cell and is rather broad. The structures of the vagina are shown

in the accompanying figure. Spurs 2, 4, 4.

Length of the anterior wing 2° ro mm.

Sikkim: Kurseong, 7 to 20-vi-1922, Fletcher collection.

Type 2 in the collection of the British Museum.

Go¢ra kalimpa sp. n. Pl 3. Figs. 3-4.

Insect brown; in the anterior wing, fork no. 1 is long and

narrow, extending more than halfway along the upper margin of

the discoidal cell; structures of the eee differing from those of

kursea as shown in the figure. Spurs 2, 4, 4.

Length of the anterior wing 2 9 mm.

Sikkim: Kalimpong, Lindgren collection.

Type 2 in the collection of the British Museum.

Goéra minor sp. n. Pl. 4. Figs. 1-5.

Insect small and yellowish. The type was collected in fluid

and is considerably denuded as to the anterior wings; in the

posterior, the nervures are set with stout hairs directed outwards,

an unusual vestiture. Spurs 2, 4, 4.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth tergite cut away above; in the cavity is

a pair of slender superior appendages with dilated apices as seen

from above, from the side, slightly arched; between them is a

central process a little shorter than the appendages; beneath this

is a pair of long, rod-like processes, crossing at the truncate

apices which are armed with a few bristles; penis long and _ stout,

curving slightly downward; inferior appendages branched; there is

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

a long, spine-like upper branch, curving upwards and distally,

adjacent at its base to the margin of the ninth segment as seen

from the side also and, a lower branch, much stouter and elbowed

so that its apical half is curved and directed distally ; from beneath,

the base of the appendage is stout and the apex of the lower branch

is turned slightly outward; apical margin of the ninth sternite

strongly produced to form a triangle with a slender, produced apex;

a strong ventral process to the sixth sternite.

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 5 mm.

Burma: Washaung, 20k. east of Myitkyina, 16-vii-1934,

R. Malaise.

Type ¢3 in the collection of the Stockholm Museum.

Goéra mandana sp. n. Pl. 5. Figs. 1-6.

Insect light ochraceous; maxillary palpi ¢, two-jointed, basal

joint small, terminal joint capable of being extended so as _ to

form a membranous sac which is covered on the inner surface

with dark androconia towards the basal half, and with pale and-

roconia in the apical half; there is a small, membranous branch at

the base, carrying a tuft of black hair; labial palpi, basal joint

very short, second and third much longer, approximately equal;

wings, neuration of the typical Goéra pattern; fork no. 3 of the

anterior wing lone. Spurs, 2, 4, 4.

Genitalia ¢.—Dorsal margin of the ninth tergite widely and

deeply excised; in the cavity thus formed are three processes, the

two outer, short, one directed asymmetrically outwards, possibly

broken in the type; the central process rather longer, with a

truncate apex; beneath these is a pair of strongly chitinized,

asymmetric processes, the one in the form of a very fine spine,

the other stouter, with a flattened, blade-like apex; penis with a

membranous apical part, curled and terminating in a_ strongly

chitinized point; it is armed on its upper surface with a pair of

short and very strongly chitinized, acute spurs; there is also a

small, concave plate on the upper surface before the apex;

penis-sheaths stout, bent downward from about midway; inferior

appendages apparently with two joints fused together, three-

branched; basal (?) joint very broad; the lower branches more

strongly chitinized than the other two; from beneath, straight and

divergent; behind this are the upper branches which are semi-

transparent and plate-like, the inner wider than the outer, separated

from each other by a rounded excision; from the side, the upper

branches are the longest; ninth segment from beneath, produced

in a broad triangle; a large, comb-like structure to the sixth

ventral segment.

Length of anterior wing @ 8 mm.

Andamans: Mt. Harriet, 1,200 ft., 6-iv- 7-v-1927, Ferrar coll.

Type ¢ in the collection of the British Museum.

Goera mishmia sp. n. Pl. 6. Figs. 1-2.

Insect yellowish-brown, unusually small; wings clothed with

dense, yellowish pubescence; neuration conforming to the usual

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

Goéva mandana sp. n., §.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3, dorsal processes.

Fig. 4, penis, from above. Fig. 5, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 6, ventral.

nny, ni i

x a

a - io

1 2

‘

< .

PLATE VI

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

@e* ee ee

ven ea!

eta

Fig 2, apex of abdomen, ventral.

Goéva mishmia sp. n., 9 .—Fig. 1, wings.

i -

is ‘

bel ~

7 , 7 eo

4 <

: -

- -

PLATE VII

BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

JOURN.

Fig. 3, lateral.

Fig. 2, genitalia, dorsal.

Goéva rumabia sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings.

Fig. 4, ventral.

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 491

Goéra pattern; in the anterior wing, the eighth apical sector 1s

bent upwards nearly to meet the seventh towards its base; structure

of the vagina as shown in the figure. Spurs 2, 4, 4.

Length of the anterior wing 2 6 mm.

Assam: Mishmi Hills, Lohit River, vi-1935, M. Steele.

Type @ in the collection of the British Museum.

Goéra nigricornis Navas.

Goéra nigricornis Nav., Rev. Ac. Cienc. Fis. Nat. Zaragoza, 15,

P- 39, 1932.

Navas describes this species as follows :—

‘Caput fulvum, fulvo pilosum; oculis nigris; antennis nigris,

primo articulo fulvo, fulvo piloso, elongato, longiore spatio intero-

culari.

‘Thorax inferne fuscus, superne fulvo-ferrugineus, mesonoto ad

latera fuscescente; pilis fulvis.

‘Abdomen fulvo-flavum, primo segmento subfusco, appendicibus

fulvo-flavis.

‘Pedes fusco-nigri, tarsis ferrugineo-fulvis; calcaribus fusco-

nigris; tibiis posterioribus ferrugineis.

‘Ala anterior apice parabolico, pubescentia densa et reticulatione

ferrugineis; cellula.discali breviore suo pedunculo; furca apicale 1

longa, ad medium cellulae discalis penetrante; membrana _ fulvo

leviter tincta in speculo suborbiculari in apice areae cubitalis laevi,

hyalimo.

‘Ala posterior membrana levissime fulvo tincta; furca apicali 2

breviter, 3 longius pedunculata; reticulatione forti, conspicua, fusca,

itemque pilis fimbriisque fuscis.

‘Long. corp. ° g mm.

‘Long. al. ant. 10.6 mm.

‘Long. al. post. 8.2 mm.

‘Patria. Khandala (Bombay), 20-x-1929.’

Type @ in the Navas collection.

Gotra rumaba sp. n. Pl. 7. Figs. 1-4.

General appearance light fulvous; antennae fairly stout, basal

joint not so long as the greatest breadth of the head without the

eculi; maxillary palpi three-jointed, partly membranous, first joint

small, strongly chitinized and pigmented, second about three times

the length of the first, membranous, but with a strongly chitinized

and pigmented nodule at the base, third, membranous, slightly

longer than the second; labial palpi, basal joint short, second

and third equal, rather longer than the first; wings rather broad,

clothed mainly with ordinary hairs but there are some clavate hairs

in the post-costal region, no scales; no scales or clavate hairs on

the posterior wing; spurs 2, 4, 4.

Genitalia ¢.—The apical margin of the ninth tergite bears at

its centre three membranous processes, the central, rather the

- shorter; beneath them is a pair of long, strongly chitinized

spines crossing each other about the middle, apices truncate; there

are two, long, rod-like intermediate appendages with acute apices;

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

beneath these is a long, straight penis with an excised apex;

inferior appendages bifurcate; the upper forks from above, widely

divergent on each side of the penis, with wide bases, tapering to

truncate apices; the direction of the forks appears to vary in

individuals; lower forks long, rectangular, with truncate apices;

from the side, the upper and lower forks are separated by an

excision represented by three sides of a square; the ninth sternite

strongly produced, the centre of its margin still further produced

in a narrow, fringed process with a rounded apex; the sixth

sternite bearing a bifurcate process with a spine on each side of

its base; this process is variable in shape in individuals.

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 9 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 6,800 ft., 9g-iv-1934, R. Malaise.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

in the collection of the British Museum.

Goeéra tridens sp. n. Pl. 8. Figs.1-q.

Insect deep, yellowish brown, wings covered with dense pube-

scence of the same Shade. “Spurs 2, 45 4:

Genitalia d.—Ninth tergite cut away to leave a wide cavity in

which is a pair of slender superior appendages and between them,

a central process, similar in shape but slightly longer; immediately

beneath this process is a pair of very long, stout spines, crossing

at their apices; beneath these is the penis, furnished with a trough-

shaped lower penis-cover with excised apex; inferior appendages

branched at the apices; from the side, basal part bulbose, covered

with very stout hairs; lower branch, from above, slender, terminating

at its apex in a hook; from beneath, it tapers to an acute apex,

the upper branch being shorter, oval and with a rounded apex;

process to the sixth sternite formed of three prongs, the central

the longest.

Length of the anterior wing ¢ 8 mm.

India: Kharsis. (McLachlan collection.)

Type and paratypes ¢ in the collection of the British Museum.

Goéra vulpina Hagen. Pl. g. Figs.1-7.

Mormonia vulpina Hagen partim, Verh. zool.-bot. ges. Wien, —

ix, p. 208, 18509.

Goérodes vulpina Ulmer nec Hagen, Coll. Selys, fase. vi (i),

De40. iS. 64, 1907;

Goérodes vulpina Ulmer nec Hagen, Gen. Insect. fase. 60a,

Pp. 100, 1007. Deut. ent. Zeit’ 1915,°p. 75, 19005.

Description of the 3d. Insect light ochraceous generally; basal

joint of the antenna about as long as the width of the head without

the oculi; second joint short, about half the length of the third which

is twice as long as each of the remaining joints towards the base,

but these tend to become longer towards the apex; the third joint

bears an impressed line halfway round its circumference on the inner

side so that it is probably formed by the welding together of two

joints; maxillary palpi three-jointed, a fringe of dark hairs on the

under side; when cleared in KOH, it may be seen that the two basal

JOURN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII

Sea HYNES

Goéva tridens sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 3, lateral.

Fig. 4, ventral.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IX

Goéva vulpina Hagen, $.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, head and palpi. Fig. 3, dorsal

processes. Fig. 4, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 5, penis and intermediate (?)

appendages. Fig. 6, dorsal processes, upper penis-cover, inferior appendages

and ninth sternite. Fig. 7, ventral plate and inferior appendages, from

beneath.

THE. INDIAN. CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 493

joints are small and more strongly chitinized than the third which

forms a membranous sac, large, upturned in front of the face, the

extreme apex constricted and bent; the joint is clothed with a

few scattered and broadened hairs; labial palpi with a small basal

joint, second more than twice the length of the first and shorter

than the third; legs, anterior pair rather darker than the rest of

the insect; spurs 1, 4, 4; anterior leg with a single short, stout

spur and a heavily fringed tibia; wings thickly clothed with

yellowish pubescence; anterior, discoidal cell short and broad, fork

no. 2 with a minute foot-stalk; in the posterior wing, fork no. 2

with a long foot-stalk |

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth dorsal segment retracted within the eighth;

the centre of its margin is produced in three long, strongly chitinized

rods of which the central is the longest; the apices of the outer

(possibly superior appendages), slightly dilated; beneath them is a

pair of long, transparent spines, perhaps an upper penis-cover ;

penis straight with a membranous apex shaped like a foot with the

toes turned up as seen from the side; there is a small dorsal spur

at the base of the membranous apex; then there is a pair of

bifurcate processes, possibly intermediate appendages, the upper

forks long and fringed, appearing above the penis, the lower still

longer and slightly upcurved with sinuous apices but no fringes;

inferior appendages in the form of a pair of strongly chitinised

spines, about the same length as the penis, curving upward;

centre of the margin of the ninth ventral segment produced in a

ventral plate forming a stout spike; a strong and long down-

curving process to the sixth ventral segment.

Length of anterior wing d 7 mm.

Ceylon: Rambodde, (Nietner). .

The Hagen series of cotypes of his species Mormonia vulpina

is mixed, containing at least one insect either a Goéra, or verv

closely allied to species in this genus, and others belonging

to a genus in the Lepidostomatinae.

Hagen, whilst he refers’ to scales on the wings of the males

of all the other Mormonia species he describes, writes of vulpina

in the following terms, ‘alis anticis luteis, luteo hirtis (masc); there

is no mention of scales.

I describe vulpina from a ¢ example, bearing a label in Hagen’s

own handwriting, in the type series to which he referred and which

was received in exchange from the Harvard Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., where the Hagen collection is

lodged. This description conforms with that of Hagen.

Ulmer, in the Cat. Selys. Coll., figures the wings of one of

the two & cotypes in the Brussels Museum but does not actually

designate this 2 as the type of the species; his figure shows clearly

that the Brussels insect belongs to the sub-family of the Lepido-

stomatinae in which nearly all the known ¢ species in Ceylon bear

scales on the wings; moreover, the female wing of a Goéra species

or of a species with a neuration such as I have figured, would

not resemble Ulmer’s figure.

I am therefore of opinion that the Brussels females belong to a

different species, and I here designate the male cotype, mounted in

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

balsam and figured here, the type of vulpina. This type has been

returned to Mr. Banks, at the Harvard Museum.

BRACHYCENTRINAE Ulmer.

Brachycentrinae Ulm., Abh. Natur, Ver. Hamb., 18, p. 85,

1903

Basal joint of the antenna shorter than the width of the head

with the oculi. Maxillary palpi cylindrical, hairy, curved

upward, not applied against the face, three-jointed, basal joint shorter

than the others; labial palpi longer than the maxillary palpi, stout,

basal joint short, second and third approximately equal; wings vary-

ing in form, usually rather broad, posterior generally much shorter

than the anterior; no grooves or folds in either pair; pubescence

usually dense but never mixed with scales; neuration generally differ-

ing in the sexes; in the anterior wing, the discoidal cell is ordinarily

short and broad; apical forks nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 usually present in the

6 and often fork no. 4 in addition in the 2; in the posterior wing,

discoidal cell is usually open; ordinarily, forks nos. 1 and 5 in the

3, with frequently additional forks in the 2; a transverse nervure

connects the radial sector to the medius; spurs varying; often a

lobe. or tooth to the 7th ventral segment.

KEY TO THE BRACHYCENTRINAE.

Te (Oplrs. 2; 79.23. BRACHYCENTRUS

Spurs 2, 2; 2. MICRASEMA

Brachycentrus Curt.

Brachycentrus Curtis, Phil. Mag., 1834, p. 215.

Spurs 2, 3,3:

Antennae slender, about the length of the wings, basal joint

stout, maxillary palpi of the male upturned, three-jointed, middle

joint longer than the first or last; maxillary palpi of the female

long and slender, terminal joints thin, third joint the longest, second,

fourth and fifth nearly equal in length, basal joint short; anterior

wings moderately broad and elongate, without folds or scales in

the male; apical margin somewhat oblique, much more oblique

and produced in the female than in the male; in the anterior wing

male, forksnos. 1, 2, 3, and 5 are present, all extending to the

anastomosis; in the anterior wing female, forks nos. 1, 2, 3, 4

and 5 are present; no. 4 does not reach the anastomosis; discoidal

cell short and broad in both sexes, more particularly in the female; —

posterior wings much shorter than the anterior, broad and very

obtuse (slightly less so in the female); discoidal cell open; only

forks nos.“1 and 5 present in the male, but nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5m

the female; lower branch of the sector connected with the medius

by a nervule.

Genitalia male.—A large dorsal hood covers the various genital

appendages. The species are best separated by the form of the

inferior appendages.

Genotype: Brachycentrus subnubilus Curt,

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATTERS

Brachycentrus kozlovi Mart., §.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, genitalia, lateral Fig. 3,

from behind. a

THE INDIAN CADDIS FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 495

The species belonging to this genus are wont to appear in great

swarms, early in the season. The females are frequently seen

carrying an ovoid mass of bluish-geen eggs at the oviducts; if

the insect be examined when in this condition, it will be noticed

that the terminal segments are inturned to make a kind of cup in

which the eggs are carried.

bs Brachycentrus kozlovi Martynov. Pl 10. Figs, 1-3.

Brachycentrus kozlovi Mart., Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac. Sci.

Peters., xiv, pp. 291-4, figs. 6-9, 1g09.

Head and throax fuscous with light, honey-coloured hairs; oculi

black; antennae fuscous with pale annulations; palpi and legs

testaceous; spurs 2, 3, 3; wings greyish with light honey-coloured

_ pubescence.

Genitalia ¢.—Ninth dorsal segment produced in a. large hood

with a slightly excised apical margin; this hood obscures all the

genital parts from above; upper penis-cover deeply excised; penis

with a swollen and slightly cleft apex; lower penis-cover in the

form of a rectangular plate; inferior appendages rather complicated ;

in each, there is a lower, strongly chitinized, triangular basal fork

separated from the remainder of the appendage by a deep rounded

excision as seen from beneath; the apical portion of the appendage

consists of two leaves, the outer from behind, with a_ strongly

produced, inner, apical angle, from the side, very acute and curving

upwards, the outer apical angle shorter and rounded; the inner leaf

with the lower apical angle produced downward and the upper angle

rounded.

Length of anterior wing 6 9, mm., & 10-11 mm.

Kashmir: L. Vishensar, 12,000 ft., F. J. Mitchell; W. Tibet:

Basgo, 20-1x-1932; Chushol, 14,228 ft., to-vili-1932, G. E.

Hutchinson. :

The female insect is seen frequently with a ball of olive-green

eggs carried at the oviducts. The insect bears a close resemblance

to the European species, Brachycentrus subnubilus Curt., well-

known to anglers under the popular name, the Grannom.

Micrasema McLachlan.

Spurs 2, 2, 2, those of the anterior tibiae very short. Antennae

slender, about as long as the wings, those of the @ slightly shorter

than those of the ¢, basal joint stout. Maxillary palpi d greatly

curved and extending to or near the apex of the basal antennal

joint, not applied against the face. Anterior wings broad, oval,

unicolorous, generally black, neuration obscured by dense pube-

scence; fork no. 3 of the anterior sometimes with a footstalk,

generally sessile; discoidal cell present and short in the anterior

wing, absent in the posterior; in the former wing, forks Nos. 1,

pees and. 5 present in the d, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4-and 5 in the 9; in

the posterior wing, forks nos. 1 and 5 in both sexes; lower branch

of the medius sometimes present, sometimes obsolete or partly

obsolete.

Genotype: Micrasema tristellum McLach., here designated.

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Voi. XL

Micrasema baitina sp. n. Pl. 11. Figs. r-g.

Insect black; fork no. 3 in the anterior wing sessile. Lower

branch of the medius in the posterior wing entirely obsolete.

Genitalia ¢.—Dorsal plate forming a large triangle with a

slightly excised apex; beneath it may be seen the fringed and

rounded apices of the intermediate (?) appendages; penis broad

and spatulate, tapering to a slender apex from the side; inferior

appendages stout and two-branched, the short, sausage-shaped

second branch arising from a deep, nearly right-angular excision

on the inner surface towards the apex which is slightly excised.

Length of the anterior wing d 4.5 mm.

N.-E. Burma: Kambaiti, 2,000 m., 4-Iv-1934; 7,000 ft., 30-iv-

1934; 2,000 m., 12-v-1934.

Type ¢ in the collection of the Stockholm Museum. Paratypes

3 and 2 in the Stockholm and the British Museum collections.

Micrasema punjaubi sp. n. Pl. 12. Figs. 1-2.

The single example known of this species has been mounted in

balsam and I am unable to describe its general appearance. In

the anterior wing, fork no. 1 extends nearly to the middle of the

upper margin of the discoidal cell; posterior wing, the lower branch

of the medius is partly obsolete. |

Genitalia ¢.—From above, the dorsal plate is formed of a pair

of triangular plates fused together on the ventral side and tectiform

on the upper; intermediate appendages broad, with a row of short,

stout spines along the apical margin; penis short and _ straight;

inferior appendages two-jointed, basal joint large, terminal joint

very short.

Lenetlof the-anterior wine (0 5 mim. =

India: Punjab, R. Uhl, Chotah Bagahal, vi-1914, G. C..L.

Howell. .

Type ¢ in the author’s collection, now in the British Museum.

(To be continued).

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XI

Micrasema baitina sp. n., g.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, palpi. Fig. 3, genitalia,

dorsal. Fig. 4, lateral.

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XII

Micrasema punjaubi sp. n., ¢.—Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, genitalia, ventral.

AN ADDITIONAL LIST OF BIRDS FROM

HYDERABAD STATE.

<< FI

SALIM ALI.

The following species, not listed in my report of the Hyderabad

State Ornithological Survey (concluded on p. 454 of volume xxxvii),

were met with mainly during a visit to Muilag (Warangal District)

in company with Col. R. Meinertzhagen in February 1937. Other

species noted, or records brought to my notice since the Survey,

have also been included. Specimens of several species not collected

during the Survey have since been procured which has enabled a

determination of the races occurring in Hyderabad.

SPECIES NEW TO THE SURVEY LIST.

Locustella nevia straminea Seebhom. The Eastern Grasshopper-Warbler.

o? 22-2-37 Mulug 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection). Two others shot on

24 and 26 February, not preserved.

Fairly common in tall coarse grass on the margin of Ramappa Tank.

Flushed singly. Diving into the stems after a short flight, scuttling swiftly

through the rootstocks, and difficult to flush a second time.

Chetornis locustelloides (Blyth). The Bristled Grass-Warbler.

S$, 0?, 0? 24 and 25-2-37 Mulug 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Fairly common in the same facies as the foregoing. Flushed singly. Has

a habit of soaring a few feet above the grass every now and again, flying

indirectly—up and down and zig-zag—for a short distance, and then diving

into the stems. Similar behaviour to that of Scheenicola platyura. Difficult

to flush a second time. Like Locustella it works its way swiftly through the

rootstocks and rises several yards away from where one expects it to.

Emberiza striolata (striolata Licht.). The Striolated Bunting.

Noted: Daitilatabad Fort 29-2-36 and 3-12-37.

Males singing from ramparts, etc. Rich whee-chi-whee-wichee ending in an

extra, subdued, chi. On 29 February a pair was nest-building in a niche in

Chini Mahal. Both sexes were bringing grasses and turning in the unfinished

shallow cup.

Ptyonoprogne rupestris (Scop.). The Crag Martin.

0? 31-12-37 Daitlatabad Fort (not preserved). Wing 134 mm. Several seen

about the rock scarps. Obviously a winter visitor.

Anthus richardi richardi Vieill. Richard’s Pipit.

00 20-2-37 Miltg, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Shot near Ramappa Tank. Several seen.

Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus subspecies? The Grey-headed Fish-Eagle.

¢ imm. 21-2-37 Miuliig, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Colours of bare parts: Iris yellowish-brown; bill horny brown, greyish

plumbeous on lower mandible; legs and feet greyish creamy-white or ivory ;

claws brownish-black.

Shot at sunset off old nest—a huge collection of twigs, about 3 feet deep—

which on the same morning was being added to by a Neophron percnopterus !

The latter was shot by Col. Meinertzhagen as it came to the nest with a twig

in its bill. It is curious that both these species should be actively interested

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

in the same nest. The original owners—presumably the [ish-Eagles—apparently

roosted at night in or near the nest. When the specimen was _ shot no

Neophrons were about. The Eagles were observed at the nest in the morning

also, but no Neophrons were in the vicinity then.

The nest was- about 30 ft. up in the fork of a large. Albizzia tree, 2

furlongs from a tank among low, stony hillocks in deciduous forest.

The crop of the specimen contained portions of a fish.

Circus melanoleucus (Forst.). The Fied Harrier.

Colours of bare parts: Iris bright lemon yellow; cere greenish-yellow, upper

mandible and terminal half of lower mandible blackish-brown; base of lower

mandible plumbeous; gape greenish-yellow; legs and feet bright chrome yellow;

claws brownish-black.

Shot in open scrub country and rank grassland bordering Ramappa Tank.

S 24-2-37 Milag, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis (Linn.). The Blue-breasted Quail.

3 Q 24-2-37 Mulug, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Singly or pairs in tall grass by Ramappa Tank. Not abundant.

Turnix maculatus tanki Blyth. The Indian Button-Quail.

Q 22-2-37 Miultg, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Several singly or in pairs in grassland near Ramappa Tank.

Nyroca rufa rufa (Linn.). The White-eyed Pochard.

A pair shot by P. H. Allen at Nalgonda, lat. 17° 22’. (Vide Stuart Baker,

Indian Ducks and their Allies, p. 228.)

SPECIMENS OBTAINED SINCE THE SURVEY, ESTABLISHING

SUBSPECIES OR CONFIRMING SIGHT RECORDS.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. The Black-headed Bunting.

o? 17-2-37 Multg, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection). |

Noted also at Datlatabad between 18 November and 31 December as fairly

common.

Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert). The Black-backed Woodpecker.

00 18-2-37 Mulug, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Noted also at Ajanta (28-12-37) in deciduous forest on_ hillside.

Micropus melba bakeri. Hartert. The Indian Alpine Swift.

OQ 20-2-37 Mulug, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

d6 W=200 mm.; testes 16X6 mm. Q W=108 mm.; ovarian follicles ca. 1

mm. in diameter.

Several birds seen hawking the bugs (Agnoscelis nubila Fb.) at heights of

150-200 ft. in the vicinity of Ramappa Tank. Their gape and gullet were

packed with them. Probably breeding on. the crags nearby.

Noted also at Daitlatabad, 24-12-37. About roo birds flying low in overcast

weather.

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temm.). The Bengal Brown Fish-Owl.

SQ 21-2-37 Mulug, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

6: testes 10X5 mm. @: largest ovum 7 mm. diameter:

-Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieill.). Bonelli’s Eagle.

OQ. (W=ca. 630 mm.) 27-12-37 Daulatabad: ca ai.800-4t. es

Shot in the morning off large stick nest on ledge of rock-scarp. . When the

nest was visited again the same evening the male was on it. He sat tight

on the eggs until the climber reached the ledge and was within a few feet of

him. C/2 taken, measuring 70X53 and 68X53 mm. (St. Xavier’s College

Museum.) Nest sparsely lined with small dry leaves. The stomach of the

AN ADDITIONAL LIST OF BIRDS FROM HYDERABAD STATE 499

specimen contained pieces of skin and claws of a lizard (Varanus?) and some

green vegetable matter.

Elanus ceruleus vociferus (latham). The Black-winged Kite.

o 23-2-37 Multg, 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

One of a pair on tree in coarse grassland by Ramappa Tank. Largest

ovum 3 mm. in diameter. Stomach contained compact ball of rat tur and bones.

Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham). The Indian Purple Moorhen.

Q 19-2-37 Mualug 1,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen Collection).

Largest ovum g mm. diameter. Several specimens shot for Mallophaga on

a reedy, lotus-covered tank.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler.

In my note on this species (vol. xxxvi, p. 719) I said: ‘Met with singly in

tall trees in deciduous forests.’ Since then I find that it is much more addicted

to old fort walls and escarpments, often running up their faces like a tree- or

wall-creeper.

Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsf. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

A few seen in grass and scrub jungle near Ramappa Tank, Mulug, 17-2-37.

Pandion haliaétus (Linn.). The Osprey.

Noted at Ramappa Tank, Mulug, 17-2-37.

Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sund. The Shahin Falcon.

Noted on Datlatabad Fort 21-12-37. A single bird on ledge of rock-scarp

feeding on a pigeon squab within 10 yards of several adult pigeons! The

slaty-blue upper parts and rufous thighs and undertail were diagnostic.

Falco jugger. J. E. Gray. The Lagar Falcon.

‘A pair nesting on a small minaret at Bibi-ka-Makbara, Aurangabad, 29-12-37.

SUPPLEMENTARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE MIJNNAR

SECTION: OF THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SUR View

OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.

J. B. PRIMROSE,

Wilson College, Bombay.

_ These notes are the result of two visits to Munnar, one from April

29th to June ist, 1937, and one from April 9th to May gist, 1938.

My earlier arrival in 1938 enabled me to observe a larger number

of the winter visitors who apparently leave before the end of April.

As it happened, several birds observed by Mr. Salim Ali had already

departed before the gth of April. Before going on any further, I

must pay tribute to the excellence and accuracy of the observations

made by Mr. Salim Ah and his party during the survey of Travancore.

The eight parts of the Journal of the B.N.H.S. were always found

helpful and accurate too.

I should say that I shot no birds, and so I am ready to admit

that some of my observations may be liable to question. All I

can say is that as great care was taken as was possible, and that

several observations made have been omitted through inability to

give satisfactory confirmation. I also saw some birds which I could

not confidently identify, and I think that there are probably more

birds in Munnar than have yet been recorded.

In May 1937, the weather in Munnar was broken and showery,

and the Monsoon winds had not begun by the 1st of June. In 1938

the weather was broken till the end of April. Early in May the

S. W. winds began, accompanied by mist and long drizzles. On

May 14th the N. or N.E. wind re-asserted itself, and a spell of

fine weather followed which lasted till near the end of the month

when heavy rain began to fall. It was noticed that when the rain fell

in May, a general exodus of birds began from Munnar. During the

return of fine weather, a few returned, but the majority remained

away. Many of the birds that left Munnar may simply have moved

to other areas in the High Range, for one of the features of the

Kanan Devan Hills is the extraordinary variation in annual rainfall

within a limited area. At the western edge, on the Pettimudi Estate,

nearly 4oo inches of rain have been recorded. Lockhart and

Periakanal to the south record from too to go inches, and to the

east, at Top Station and Chittavurrai the average fall is from 60

to 50 inches. Munnar itself has an -average of 153 inches, and

Devicolam, 5 miles away has an average of 113 inches. Of the

Munnar average of 153 inches, about 107 inches fall in June, July,

and August. I have had some opportunity of seeing the bird-life

outside the immediate area of Munnar, and the impression I have

gained while visiting some of the estates east of Munnar during

TRAVANCORE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 501

the second half of May was that birds were still being seen there

which were no longer being seen in Munnar itself. I suggest that

there is a considerable amount of local migration within the limits

of the Kanan Devan Hills. |

I think also that birds on migration northwards fly over these

hills by a route from the Pullivassal Gap to Munnar town and then

up the Kanniamallai river to the Nyamakad Gap, and thence wu

Maraiur to the plains. Mr. H. A. Ragg whose estate lies on this

route seems to have more records than other observers, and I think

that very probably the reason is that the birds pass his estate on

their southern and northern journeys.

In my notes ‘S.A.’ refers to records specifically stated by Mr.

Salim Ali to have been made in Munnar. They are found in the

Journal of the B.N.H.S., vols. xxvii, 4; xxxvill, I-43 xxxix, 1-3.

My own notes are indicated by ‘J.B.P.’ |

CORVIDZ.

Corvus machrorhynchus culminatus. Noted as absent. S.A.

Seen in April and May, but not in large numbers. Also seen in Silent

Valley and at Madupatty (25th May), and reported from Kalaar to the west.

A few of these birds seem to ascend the hills in the hot weather. J.B.P.

Corvus splendens protegatus, Noted as absent. S.A. and J.B.P.

Machlolophus xanthogenys travancorensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

A few were seen as members of flocks.

Sitta frontalis frontalis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Fairly common in April but noted till the end of May.

TIMALIID 2.

Trochalopteron jerdoni fairbanki. S.A. and J.B.P.

Distribution wrongly given in Fauna, vol. i, p. 178, as S. Travancore. It

should be N. Travancore, and that of the following bird T. j. meridionale as

S. Travancore. Very common. Young birds seen early in May.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi travancorensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Very common and very vocal in April, but less heard in May. Seen both

in sholas and on Grevillea robusta shade trees amongst the tea. In May

commoner in the drier areas. Probably a local migrant.

PYCNONOTID.

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa. S.A. and J.B.P.

More commonly seen in April than in May, but still fairly common in Mav

up to about the 14th; then growing scarcer till, at the end of the month, it

was absent.

Molpastes cafer cafer, Noted as absent. S.A. So also J.B.P.

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata. S.A. and J.B.P.

Very common. Frequently observed feeding on Rubus ellipticus. Once a

bird hung to the fruit by its bill and vibrated its wings until the fruit was

detached from the stalk. Also observed taking nectar from garden bushes,

e.g. Japanese Lantern.

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAIS AEST SOGRET Vie Wola xa

‘TURDIDZ.

Brachypteryx major albiventris. 5.A.

Doubtful. Very difficult to distinguish betwecn this and EHumiuyas

albicaudata in the field. I found it easier to note its presence by the song

than by sights. “].5.P.

Tarsiger brunnea brunaea. Not observed. Probably had already migrated.

5. As- “and “J.B.P.

Saxicola caprata atrata. S.A. and J.B.P.

Very common. Young males were seen in late April and early May in

brown plumage with white patches appearing.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis, \ SA. and Jae:

T. bourdilloni.

Difficult to distinguish. Blackbirds were heard singing up to the end of

May. My impression is that Bourdillon’s blackbird was most common. Other

observers also agree. Towards the end of May the birds seemed to be found

more at the 6,o00 ft. level.

Monticola solitaria pandoo. S.A. and J.B.P.

One bird seen once, at end of April.

Myophonus horsfieldii S.A. and J.B.P.

Quite common, and sang well especially when the mists came up. This

bird has a high-pitched whistle repeated at intervals when feeding, less in

volume than, but similar to that of the Grackle and Scaly-bellied Green Wood-

pecker, and greater in volume than that of the White-eye.

MUSCICAPIDZ.

Siphia parva albicilla. Not recorded. S.A.

Twice doubtfully seen on the edge of a shola towards the end of April.

The red breast caught the eye. J.B.P.

Muscicapula ticketlie tickellig, Not seen. S.A. and J.B.P.

Eumivas albicaudata. S.A. and J.B.P.

Frequently heard and seen in April, but rarely in May near Munnar. It was

seen in the higher and drier areas later in May, but some of these records may

be confusions with Brachypteryx.

Alseonax muttui. Not recorded. S.A.

One pair was seen in the Parsonage compound, in which I was _ staying

right up to the end of May. I had almost daily opportunities of watching

them. The large brown-eye with the whitish ring round it was _ noticeable.

Mr. Salim Ali doubts whether this bird is resident. From the fact that I

saw it up till the end of May in Munnar and also at Arivikad on May 25th

ca. 5,500 ft. it seems as if the Fauna prediction had some evidence in support

of it. Cf. Fauna, vol. ii, p. 252. I watched carefully for signs of breeding

in®'-Munnar, but found none. The Munnar birds were quite tame. I often

watched them, perching on a wire fence, and on a poinsettia bush, and making

sallies to capture flies, descending occasionally to the ground. J.B.P.

Ochromela nigrorufa. Not recorded. S.A.

Very curiously I saw this bird frequently in 1937, but did not see it at all

in 1938 though I often was at its former haunts.

Culicapa cey!onensis ceylonensis. Not recorded. S.A. '

Frequently seen in Munnar and at Old Devicolam, 1,000 ft. higher up, and

elsewhere in the hills, singly and in pairs in April and in May. . JsB3R:

RAVAN CORE -ORNITITOLOGICAL SURVEY 503

Tchitrea paradisi. Not recorded. S.A.

One bird in the chestnut plumage was seen near the High Range Club

in the third week of April. Probably it had come up through the Pullivassal

Gap. Residents say that the Paradise Flycatcher is seen, but rarely, in all

plumages. Probably all are passage migrants. J.B.P.

LANIIDZ.

Lanius schach caniceps. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen quite frequently in April and in May near Munnar and in_ the

neighbourhood. One bird with a twig in its mouth was seen about the end of

April. Noted at 6,400 ft. on May 17th and at 6,000 ft. on May 2sth. J.B.P.

Lanius cristatus cristatus. S.A. and J.B.P.

Seen in much the same facies as caniceps, but not after the end of April.

In April, the numbers of this shrike and the previous were fairly equal.

Hemlpus picatus picatus, Not recorded. S.A.

Very commonly seen both in April and in May right up to the end.

Parties numbering from 3 to 5 frequented the high trees, and went round the

compound daily, several times in a regular route, sometimes with other small

birds and sometimes with Pericrocotus flammeus. Their sweet notes were easily

distinguishable whenever they appeared. J.B.P.

Pericrocotus flammeus. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen frequently in Munnar and in other parts of the district in April, and

lipeto the ‘end of May. J.B.P.

DICRURIDZ.

Chaptia aenea malayensis. Not recorded. S.A.

I thought I saw it once in the Parsonage compound, but it may have

been the common King Crow. It was dusk so I could not be certain. Others,

however, have recorded aenea in these hills. J.B.P.

SYLVIIDZA.

Acrocephalus dumetorum. Not seen. S.A. and J.B.P.

Phylloscopus nitidus. S.A. and J.B.P.

Either nitidus or viridanus, probably viridanus, was common in April and

disappeared early in May. It was associated with Cinnyris minima, Zosterops,

and sometimes with [/emipus in the daily tours of the garden trees. I watched

the birds carefully for considerable periods, and came to the conclusion that

viridanus was the subspecies, but they move so rapidly, and keep so well

hidden that accurate observation is not easy.

There are other warblers to be seen on the grasslands in the dry parts

of the district, but I could not achieve certainty in identification.

EULABETID 2.

Gracula religlosa indica. S.A. and J.B.P.

Several pairs were nesting when I arrived in Munnar in the second week

of April. One pair had its nest in a hole in an acacia tree in the Parsonage

compound about 25 ft. above ground. In another hole of the same tree, about

8 ft. above ground, a pair of Jungle Mynas were nesting at the same time.

The Grackles held their nest up till the end of May.

STURNIDZ.

AEthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Very common both in the High Range and in the Palnis as high as

Kodaikanal. This is one of the species whose range appears to be extending

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAIS BIST. SOCIETY Vol ae

with the increased areas of cultivation in the hills. A pair nested in the

Parsonage compound as noted above.

FRINGILLIDA.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Not seen. S.A. and J.B.P.

HIRUNDINIDA,

Riparia concolor. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen at about 5,500 ft. near Periyakanal. Three young were seen on a

rocky ledge in a cliff while the parent ‘birds fed them on the wing. The young

birds vibrated their wings and showed great excitement as the parents swooped

near, and dropped food into their bills. This was on April 23rd. J.B.P.

Hirundo javanica domicola. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen frequently in and around Munnar. Common also in Kodaikanal.

Young birds were been in a nest in the third week of April under the eaves of a

bungalow in Munnar. J.B.P.

MOTACILLIDZ.

Motacilla maderaspatensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Common in Munnar and beside the larger streams. One young bird with

ashy brown back was seen feeding near the Pullivassal Power House on

14th May.

Motacilla cinereas caSpica. S.A. and J.B.P.

Common in April, but wholly absent in May. The last was seen on April

29th.

Motacilla flava simillima. Not recorded. S.A.

One flock of over 30 birds was seen in the river bank in Munnar Golf

Course on April 12th. They were not seen again. Probably they had come

up through the Pullivassal Gap, and were resting preparatory to their flight

north. J.B...

Anthus hodgson! hodgsoni Not recorded. S.A.

Seen once or twice in April in the Parsonage compound. Probably on

migration. J.B.P.

Anthus rufulus malayensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Seen on the grasslands above Munnar.

ALAUDIDZ.

Alauda gulgula australis. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen often on the grasslands above Munnar. J.B.P.

ZOSTEROPID A.

Zosterops palpebrosa nilghiriensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Common in gardens and in sholas. Usually associated with the Small Sunbird

and the Greenish Willow Warbler in the daily rounds. In probing the flowers

of the Japanese Lantern, the bill is inserted, not into the cup, but from

outside between the calyx and the petals. The Red-whiskered Bulbul does this

also; why? The numbers in May diminished towards the end of the month

but some were always present.

NECTARINIDZ.

Cinnyris minima. Not recorded. S.A.

Common in Munnar and in the sholas up to over 6,000 ft. Seen both

in full plumage and in eclipse plumage. In May only eclipse plumage was seen.

J.B-P, ji

TRAVANCORE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 505

Arachnothera longirostra longirostra, Not recorded. S.A.

Not seen, but reported by other observers from Periyakanal (5,000 ft.)

im oeptember. J.B.P.

DICAEIDZ.

Dicaeum concolor concolor. Not recorded. S.A.

Not seen. This seems very surprising. The bird is very common_ in

Kodaikanal, 2,000 ft. higher than Munnar, and the trees and bushes on which

it feeds are found in Munnar. It is recorded from Santhanpara, about 18 miles

S.E. from Munnar, and 1500 ft. lower. I looked for it often, but never observed

tee)...

PITTIDZ.

Pitta brachyura, S.A.

Not seen, though I thought I heard one in a_ shola_ below Lockhart

Gap on April 23rd. Residents say that this bird is only occasionally seen on

some of the estates near Munnar in the cold. weather. J.B.P.

PICIDZ.

Picus xanthopygeus. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen at Munnar and up to 6,o00 ft. and over. It is not common. A

pair frequented the Parsonage compound in April and May. They feed on the

same trees as a pair of Malherbe’s Golden-hacked Woodpeckers but not at the

same times. J.B.P.

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus chersonesus. S.A. and J.B.P.

Fairly common in April and May in and around Munnar. Their loud strident

cry is often heard.

CAPITONID.

Thereiceryx viridis. Not recorded. S.A.

Fairly common in April and May, but heard and seen more often in

April. A local migrant. I have heard it in May in the drier areas of the Kanan

Devan Hills up to 6,000 ft. J.B.P.

CUCULIDZA.

C:ntropus sinensis parroti. S.A. and J.B.P.

Common in Munnar and up to at least 6,000 ft. Their deep hoots are a

feature of walks along the tea-estate roads. Met with both on grasslands and

in shola. a

PSITTACIDZ.,

Psittacula columboides. Not recorded. S.A.

Not seen in Munnar, but reported from Periyakanal (5,000 ft.). Many

flocks seen at the Neriyamangalam Bridge (200 ft.) on the Alwaye-Munnar road.

HEB:P.

ALCEDINID2.

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca. S.A. and J.B..P.

Common on all the streams in and near Munnar, and seen on Devicolam

Lake, ca. 6,000 ft. Said to nest in the banks of the lake.

UPUPID.

Upupa epops ceylonensis. S.A. and J.B.P.

Seen in April and May quite often. In Kodaikanal I have seen a nest in May.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XE

CHAETURINZ.

Chetura giganteus indicus. Not recorded. S.A.

This swift was seen several times in April and May in the Munnar

valley. I do not think that it was there every day. There did not seem to be

many of them, and I think that the few who were there ranged over a wide

area.

I saw one or two other swifts, but was unable to identify them properly.

One might have been a house swift, and another small and brownish, was

fairly common. If it was the undernoted, I did not see a colony. J.B.P.

Collocalia fuciphaga unicolor. See S.A. on this bird.

I heard of a colony being found in a small cleft of a rock in these

hills but did not see it myself. N.B., vol. xxxix, no. 1, p. 29,7 lines from

top, for ‘famous Pillar Rocks’ should be read ‘Travancore’.

BUBONIN2.

Ketupa ceylonensis leschenauilt. Not seen. S.A. and J.B.P.

Several owls were seen all apparently of the same _ species, and_ the

description agrees best with that of this owl. It has been reported from near

Madupatty, and one was seen by me on the Perriavurrai estate ca. 5,500 ft. as

well as lower down in and near Munnar. Residents say that this is the common

owl of the district, and M. H. A. Ragg once shot an owl of this kind which

was harrying the nest of a Malabar squirrel. J.B.P.

FALCONINZ.

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen in May over Munnar, and reported from near Madupatty. Common

also on the Palnis up to over 7,000 ft. J.B.P.

Hieraaetus fasciatus fasciatus. Not recorded. S.A.

One was seen on a tree in the Parsonage compound in April. For

two or three hours on end it sat on the lower branch of a pine and repeated its

shrill creaking call. After that day I did not certainly see it again. J.B.P.

Hematornis cheela melanotis. S.A. and J.B.P. a

Seen occasionally in April and May flying high over Munnar. Identified by

shrill triple whistle, though at times the whistle sounded only double.

Haliastur indus indus. Not recorded. S.A.

A pair was seen for some weeks over Munnar river. The birds departed

about the middle of May, and re-appeared again towards the end of the

month, J.B.P.

Milvus migrans govinda. S.A. and J.B.P.

One pair shared with the Brahminies the patrolling of the Munnar valley.

They remained throughout April and May.

COLUMBIN.£.

Ducula badia cuprea Not recorded. S.A.

Seen twice; one bird ca. 5,500 ft. below the Lockhart Gap, and one flock

of three on the Rajamally Ghat road about 6,000 ft. J.B.P.

Chalcophaps indica indica Not recorded. S.A.

Seen once feeding by the roadside at Devicolam, ca. 5,500 ft. J.B.P.

Though I did not see them, there appear to be other Green Pigeons in

the Kanan Devan Hills. Of these the Southern Green Pigeon was probably one.

Columba livia. Not recorded. S.A.

A small flock was seen several times flying down the Munnar valley in

the early morning, and returning in the evening. This was in April. Not

seen in May. J.B.P, ;

TRAVANCORE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY 507

Streptophilia chinensis suratensis, Noted as absent. S.A.

Very common in April and seen often in May up to the end of the

month in Munnar and other places. One fed regularly on the lawn of the

Parsonage garden. J.B.P.

PHASIANINA.

Gallus sonneratii, Not recorded. S.A.

Not seen, but reported by residents as being fairly common. J.B.P.

PERDICINA.

Galloperdix spadicea stewarti. Not recorded. S.A.

Not seen, but reported by residents as being occasionally seen. J.B.P.

Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum. Not recorded. S.A.

4 covey of about 6 birds was once seen. Residents say it is fairly common.

j.B.P.

TRINGINZ.

Tringa ochropus. Not seen. S.A. J.B.P.

Tringa hypoleucos. S.A. and J.B.P.

Seen, up to about the middle of May, on the Munnar river flowing through

the Golf Course.

SCOLOPACINA.

Scolopax rusticola rusticola. © Not recorded. S.A.

Mr. H. A. Ragg says that the Woodcock is still met with but very

infrequently. The same remark applies to the following bird. J.B.P.

Capella nemoricola. Not recorded. S.A. Not seen. J.B.P.

Capella stenura. Not seen. S.A. and Bak:

ARDEIDZ.

Ardeola grayii. Not recorded. S.A.

Seen often on the Munnar river and Golf Course in April, but not after

the middle of May. J.B.P.

A PROPOSAL TO ADVANCE THE TEACHING AND

RESEARCH IN ENTOMOLOGY IN INDIA.

M, SHarir, D.Sc. (Panjab); Ph.D: (Cantabs). aS.

Haffkine Institute, Bombay.

(Opening remarks in a discussion of the Sections of Zoology

and Entomology in the Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian

Science Congress Association, Calcutta, 1938.)

The importance of entomology to agriculture, medicine, veteri-

nary science and forestry is being felt more and more every day.

It is increasing in view of the fact that in India alone the insects

are responsible for an annual loss of about 200 crores of rupees.

On account of the economic factor much attention has been devoted to

this science during the last thirty years, and as a consequence it

has made very rapid progress in some advanced countries of the

world. It is, therefore, desirable that the teaching of entomology

in our universities should be separated from that of zoology

and be placed on a sound footing as in other countries like

the United States of America and England. If possible, every

university should be requested to have a separate department for

the teaching of entomology with a course extending over four

years. It should be given the same status as zoology and botany:

for the B.Sc. classes it may be taken along with botany

and zoology in those universities which teach three science

subjects, but in those universities where only two science subjects

are taken for the B.Sc. degree examination it may be combined

with zoology so as to constitute one of the two papers in this

subject.

The advantage of extending the course of entomology over four

years and of teaching it along with zoology in the B.Sc. classes,

is that a student will have a better grasp of the subject. After the

first two years the B.Sc. students in entomology will be required

to appear in two papers and a practical examination—the first paper

being on general insect morphology, development and metamor-

phosis, and the second paper on taxonomy, classification and biology

of insects. For the M.Sc. examination the entire subject can

easily be distributed into five papers of 100 marks each, and a

practical examination carrying 200 marks. The distribution of

question papers will be as follows :—

Paper I.—Detailed insect morphology, physiology, development

and metamorphosis.

Paper II.—Principles of taxonomy and bcaniea yan with a

detailed study of some representatives of each order,

TEACHING &¢ RESEARCH IN ENTOMOLOGY IN INDIA 509

Paper III.—Special aspects of insect biology, insect ecology

and its relation to biological control.

Paper IV.—Principles of economic entomology in relation to

agriculture, medicine, veterinary science and forestry; methods of

insect control (mechanical, chemical and physical).

Paper V.~-General principles of evolutionary biology (evolu-

tion, heredity, variation, cytology, distribution and paleontology)

with special reference to insects.

Paper VI.—Practical.

The advantage of such a course is that it would give a student

a thorough training in all aspects of entomology and zoology, and

imereoy equip him better for further research than the course

hitherto followed can do. If, however, the universities find it

impracticable to introduce entomology as one of the subjects for

the B.Sc. classes, it may be exclusively taught in the M.Sc. classes,

so that a student may have an opportunity of studying pure ento-

mology for two years. This will give an opportunity to those

students who pass the B.Sc. (Ag.) examination with entomology

as an optional subject from agricultural colleges, to take the

M.Sc. degree in entomology in the pure science faculty. It is,

however, essential that an advanced student in entomology

should have a good foundation in zoology, but if entomology is

not separated from zoology, then there is a danger of entomology

being ignored as is happening at present in the Indian

universities.

So far the teaching of entomology has been confined to some

agricultural colleges in our country, with a view to produce

agricultural entomologists. Their outlook of entomology is very

limited and they confine themselves to the knowledge of pests only.

It is unfortunate that the universities in India have neglected the

teaching of pure entomology, the importance of which has been

rightly emphasized in some of the more progressive countries. In

the United States of America, to quote Professor Faure (1933, p. 2)

‘Most of the leaders in university teaching seem to be convinced

that the best approach to entomology is through pure science rather

than applied agriculture. They recognize that an entomologist sent

out soon after graduation on extension work may find himself

handicapped in gaining the confidence of the farmer if he lacks a

knowledge of the farm practices obtaining in the locality, but they

maintain that it is comparatively easy for a university graduate

to acquire sufficient knowledge of agriculture for his purpose. On

the other hand, most graduates in entomology are employed in

research rather than in extension teaching, and it is essential for

the research worker to have a good foundation in the basic sciences.

In some universities the department of entomology forms part

of both the agriculture and pure science faculties, but the tendency

seems to be to emphasize the science side rather than the agri-

cultural side. An interesting feature of the work in several

universities, such as Minhecots and Iowa State College, is the

close association of zoology and entomology; in some cases

both subjects are handled by the same department, in others the

ol0 JOURNAL, BOMBAV NATURAL HIS? * SOCIETY. Von ur

two departments work together in intimate codperation to their

mutual advantage.’ |

It is now fully recognised that for the purpose of achieving any

success in applied work in entomology a mere knowledge of one

branch of entomology is not enough, but a comprehensive under-

standing of entomology and other allied sciences is necessary, as

nobody knows what particular line of attack on harmful insects will

bear fruitful results. To waste time and money on those lines of

attacks on insects, which in view of our previous knowledge of allied

sciences would have been futile, is not a wise policy. In the past

the training extending over a year or two given to students along

with other subjects, left them extremely ill-equipped. They may

be very good in one or two branches of entomology but their un-

familiarity with other allied branches has made them poor ento-

mologists and consequeniiy of little utilitarian value in solving the

pressing insect problems of the country. The Indian Plague Com-

missioners working for ,seven years (1905-1912) in India failed,

in spite of their efforts, to explain why certain large areas in India

are comparatively free from plague and others having similar

ecological conditions are not. The reason was found out by Hirst,

who submitted a collection of fleas from two plague-free cities of

Madras and Colombo to the late Hon’ble N. C. Rothschild. He

determined these fleas to be different from NXenopsylla cheopis,

which is thé most efficient vector of plague bacilli, and they

belonged to a new species Xenopsylla astia which later on was

experimentally proved to be an inefficient vector of plague bacilli.

Thus a pure systematic entomologist was able to solve a problem

of great economic importance, which the apphed entomologists with

enormous funds at their disposal could not do within a period of

seven years. Mis-identification of species have often hampered the

work of applied entomologists.

The teaching of entomology has been separated from that of

zoology in most of the important universities of England and

America. In the universities of Cambridge, Oxford and London

there are separate departments of entomology with separate teachers.

In America, to quote Faure once again, ‘In recent years there has

been great expansion of entomological activities in the United

States, with the result that the ‘‘old timer’’ who last visited the

country in 1913 finds himself almost bewildered by the large

departments and extensive developments encountered today. Univer-

sities that one had hardly heard about in entomological circles in

1913 now have four or five professors of entomology, and perhaps

twenty or twenty-five post-graduate students, all actively engaged

in research. And in general the growth in buildings and equipment

seems to have kept pace with the growth in staff and in student

numbers.’ The problem of unemployment amongst university

graduates in zoology in India can be solved to some extent by

introducing entomology as a separate subject for post-graduate

teaching in the universities. This will give an opportunity to

unemployed graduates to do research in different aspects of ento-

mology, which, if financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural,

Research and the Indian Research Fund Association, will go a long

TEACHING & RESEARCH IN ENTOMOLOGY IN INDIA Sli

way to improve agriculture and the health of the people in India,

and at the same time give opportunities for work io graduates

trained in entomology. Rather than spend their time in idleness,

the students will continue their studies in the hope that higher

qualifications will improve their chances of getting work.

Another reason for the separation of entomology from zoology

is that in some of the Indian universities the teachers of zoology

having never done entomology as a special subject themselves,

neglect entomology altogether, and hardiy any lectures are delivered

on entomology to the post-graduate students of zoology. Even

insect-types which are prescribed for the under-graduates are either

not taught or wrongly taught from old books on zoology in which

old and wrong terminology is used. Taking the instance of the

cockroach which is taught both in the Intermediate and B.Sc.

classes, the frons in the head is wrongly described as the clypeus

and the latter structure is described as the labrum in almost all

the text-books on zoology. The description of the mosquito given

in the text-books on zoology, which is also taught to the under-

graduate classes is hopelessly inadequate and wrong; though

excellent papers on the morphology of the mosquito were published

as early as 1901 and 1902 by Nuttall and Shipley, and in 1907 and

1908 by Imms. Such an indifferent attitude taken by univer sity

teachers in zoology towards entomology and the stepmotherly

treatment given to pure entomology by agricultural entomologists

in our country cannot, I am afraid, further the cause of pure

entomology; therefore we should adopt the same method of teaching

which has been found useful in the advanced countries of Europe

and America. .

Pure entomology is a very progressive science and our concept

of insect morphology and other branches of entomology has gone

far ahead of that of zoology during the past thirty years, and the

whole subject has become so vast that it demands an intensive

study of its generalised principles extended over a period of at

least two years. Without adequate fundamental knowledge of the

pure science of entomology no tangible progress is possible in applied

entomology.

The quality of research work, which usually suffers for lack of

thorough acquaintance with the subject and modern research methods

—and thorough acquaintance cannot be imparted in a year or so—

will undoubtedly improve when the course of teaching entomology

is extended over four years, or exclusively over two years, as

suggested above.

Entomologists trained on the above-mentioned lines in the Indian

universities, if given a chance to carry on their work for two years

in any one a ie institutions like the Imperial Agricultural Research

Institute, New Delhi, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute,

Muktesar, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, Haffkine Institute,

Parel, Bombay, or School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,

Calcutta, can take the PH.D. degree from their respective univer-

sities, and a certificate or diploma for advanced work.in applied

entomology from the institutes in which they would work. Such

trained entomologists would be an asset to the country and would

512 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALS HIS? SOCIETY mivol mete

contribute a good deal to protect us against our insect enemies in

our different walks of life.

REFERENCES

Faure, J. C.—‘Some Aspects of Entomological Work in the United States’

e,6)

pp. (Pretoriasy 1933).

Imms, A. D.—‘Journ. Hygiene’, vii, 291, (1907).

Imms, A. D.—‘Parasitology’, i, 103, (1908).

Nuttall, G. H. F. and Shipley, A. E.—' Journ. Hygiene’, i, 45, 269, 451, (1901).

Nuttall, G. H. F. and Shipley, A. E.—‘Journ. Hygiene’, ii, 58, (1902).

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA:

WATE RITETES, POPPYWORTS, FUMITORIES.

ipo Caius, Sai4e Fs.

I..

The NyMPHAEACEA are aquatic perennial herbs, with a submerged

rhizome. Several members of this family were venerated by the

ancients, not only for the magnificence of their flowers and leaves,

carpeting the surface of the tranquil waters, but also on account

of their utility. Their young rootstocks contain an abundance of

starchy, mucilaginous, and sugary matters, which render them

nutritive. The flowers, which have a peculiar scent like brandy,

are narcotic. The seeds, filled with a floury albumen, are edible.

The family consists of 8 genera and 50 species inhabiting the

temperate and tropical regions of the globe.

The medicinal waterlilies of the world belong to 5 genera:—

BRASENIA (cosmopolitan, except in Europe); EURYALE (south-eastern

Asia); NELumMBo (Pennsylvania to Colombia; Asia and Australia) ;

NupuHarR (northern temperate and cold regions); NYMPHAEA (tropical

and temperate regions). The genus NUPHAR is not represented in

India.

‘A. Sepals and petals g each. Carpels free. Ovules few... BRASENIA.

B. Sepals 4-6; petals and stamens indefinite. Carpels confluent

with one another or with the disk into one ovary; ovules

many.

1. .Sepals, petals and stamens half-superior, inserted on

the disk which is confluent with the carpels on NYMPHAEA.

2. Sepals, petals and stamens superior. Carpels sunk in

the torus

EURYALE.

C. Sepals 4-5; petals and stamens indefinite. Carpels irregul-

arly scattered, sunk in pits of the turbinate disk re NELUMBO.

Nupharine, an amorphous physiologically inactive alkaloid of

unknown constitution, has been isolated from the fresh rhizome of

Nuphar luteum Sibth. & Sm. The seeds of this same plant contain

nuphar-tannic acid. The amino-acid, l-asparagin, has been obtained

from Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

BRASENIA.

The only species, B. Schreberi J. F. Gmel., is cosmopolitan,

except in Europe. In India it is to be found in Bhutan at an

altitude of 6,000 feet, and in the Khasia Hills at 4,500 feet.

The leaves are astringent, and have been used in phthisis and

dysentery in North America.

bid JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

In Indo-China the stems and leaves are ground and applied to

boils and abscesses. The seeds, in decoction form, allay thirst,

neutralise the effects of certain poisons, strengthen the gums; they

are considered cooling, digestive, and anti-dysenteric.

China: Ch’un, Shui K’uei, Shun—; Indo-China: Chuyen—; Malaya: Sooi

kwai— ; North America: Frog-leaf, Water-leaf, Water-lily, Water-shield, Waier-

tarseli——.

EURYALE.,

The only species, E. ferox Salisb., extends from Kashmir to

Oudh and Eastern Bengal, and .thence to China.

The seeds are much used for their tonic, astringent, and Ge-

obstruent properties.

In China an infusion of the seeds is used for ear-ache, and an

infusion of the leaves is given after a painful delivery.

Bengal: Makhana—; China: Ch’ien Shih—; English: Foxnut—; Hinai:

Machana, Makhana—; Indo-China: Ke dau, Khiem—; Malaya: Siew saz—;

Persian: Mukareh, Mukhareh—; Punjab: Jewar—; Sanskrit: Makhanna,

Padma—; Telugu: Mellunipadmanu—; Urdu: Makhana—; Uriya: Kunia-

padma—.

NELUMBO.

The only Asiatic species, N. mucifera Gaertn. (=Nelumbium

speciosum Wialld.), extends from Persia eastwards to Australia, and

is to be found throughout the warmer parts of India.

The plant is used medicinally all over the East. Nearly every

part has a distinct name and economic use, and supplies one or

more drugs.

The powdered root is prescribed for piles as a demulcent; aiso

for dysentery and dyspepsia. It is used as a paste in ringworm

and other cutaneous affections.

In Ceylon an aqueous extract of the fresh rootstock of the

white-flowered variety is given internally in doses of 1 to 4 ounces

for the bites of snakes and tarantulas. It is said to be especiaily

useful in the bites of the cobra.

The flour of the root is used as an arrowroot by the Chinese.

It is given in diarrhcea and dysentery; and it is the base of a

diet for infants.

The long white rhizomes resemble a string of sausages, each

about a foot long and separated from the others by a constricting

fibre. These constricting fibres are used ‘medicinally in China and

are credited with the property of restoring to health persons

suffering from nervous exhaustion. Their special action is regarded

as haemostatic.

The large leaves are used as cool bedsheets in high fever with

heat and burning of the skin. The milky viscid juice of the ieaf

and flower stalks is given in diarrhea.

The flowers are used as an astringent in diarrhoea, also cholera,

in fever and diseases of the liver; and are also recommended as

a cardiac tonic. Koman found that a syrup of the dried flowers

in half ounce doses was efficacious in curing mild cases of dysentery.

HE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 515

In the Tamil country the flowers are considered diuretic and

cooling. Boiled in milk with an equal amount of flowers of

Eugenia Jambolana to a pasty consistence, and made into boluses

about the size of an areca nut, they are administered to women

for false pains in the early months of pregnancy.

The dried red petals are used by the Chinese as a cosmetic

application to the face to improve the complexion.

The stamens are considered astringent and cooling, useful in

burning sensation of the body, bleeding piles and menorrhagia. In

bleeding piles they are administered with honey and fresh butter,

or with sugar.

The carefully dried and yellow fragrant stamens are an

astringent and diuretic remedy in China, where they are also used

as a cosmetic. In Tongking they are employed for flavouring and

improving the appearance of tea.

The seeds are used to check vomiting, and are given to children

as a diuretic and refrigerant. They form a cooling medicine for

cutaneous diseases and leprosy, and are considered an antidote for

poisons.

In China the seeds, roasted and divested of their shells are a

favourite article for dessert. Boiled and ground into flour the

kernels form a valuable food and medicine, and are considered a

general tonic recommended in diarrhoea, spermatorrhcea and erotic

dreams.

The plumule, caulicle, or germinating embryo of the ripe seed

is given in China to reduce high fever, and is said to be useful in

the treatment of cholera, hasmoptysis and spermatorrhecea.

A sherbet of the plant is used as a refrigerant in small-pox,

and is said to stop eruption; it is also used in all eruptive

fevers,

Caius and Mhaskar have reported that no part of the plant is

an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom.

Annam: Lien hoa, Sen—; Arabic: Karambe-ul-ma, Nilufer, Uss-ul-nilufer— ;

Australia: Aquaie, Pink Water-lily, Sacred Lotus—; Bengal: Kombol, Komol,

Padama, Padma, Pudmapodu—; Bijnor: Besenda—; Bombay: Kamala, Kan-

kadi—; Burma: Padung ma—; Cambodia: Chhuk—; Canarese: Kamala,

Tavaribija, Tavarigadde—; China: Hoa Lien, Lien, Lien Jou, Lien Ou—;

Deccan: Kungvel—; English: Chinese Water-lily, Egyptian Bean, Indian Lotus,

Pythagorean Bean, Sacred Lotus—; French: Feve d’ Egypte, Lis rose du Nil,

Lotus sacré, Nénuphar de la Chine—; Gujerati: Suriyakamal—; Hasada:

Kombolba, Upalba—; Hindi: Ambuj, Bhe, Kamal, Kanval, Kanwal Kakri,

Kaul, Lalkamal, Padam, Padma—; Ilocano: Sucao—; Khandesh: Dudhamali-

dakand— ; Konkani: Salloc—; Malay: Seroja, Teratai—; Malayalam: Bemta-

mara, Tamar—; Marathi: WKamal—; Muzaffarnagar: Pabbin—; Persian:

Baklakoobtee, Beykhne-el-ufer, Nelofir; Nilufer, Nilufu—; Poona: Pandkanda

Pondicherry: Nénuphar—; Porebunder: Motunkamal—; Portuguese: Flor de

loto, Nenuphar—; Punjab: Bhen, Kanwalkakri, Pamposh, Pamposh kammal— ;

Sanskrit: Abja, Ambhoja, Ambhoruha, Ambuja, Ambujanma,

Amburoha, Amlana, Arvinda, Asyapatra, Bisalkusuma,

padma, Harivetra, Indiralaya, Jalajanma, Kamala, Kawar

Kutapa, Mahapadma, Mahotpala, Nala, Nalika, Nalina,

Pankeruha, Pathoja, Pundarika, Pushkara, Putaka,

Sarojanma, Saroruha, Sarsija, Sarsiruha, Sharada,

Ambupadma,

Bisaprasuna, Drisho-

Kunja, Kusheshaya,

Padma, Pankaja,

Rajiva, Sahsrapatra,

Sharapadma, Shatapatra,

‘Shri,- Shriparna, Shrivasa, Shuklapadma, Sitambuja, Sujala, Tumarasa, Vana-

shobhana, Varisoha—; Sind: Pabban—; Sinhalese: Nelumbo, Nelum—;

Tagalog : Baino, Bayno—; Tamil: Ambal, Sivapputamarai, Tamarai—; -Telugu ;

Kalung, Erratamara, Tamara—; Urdu:

; Unya: Padam—.

516 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XE

NYMPHAEA.

The genus consists of 4o tropical and temperate species.

Acrid, astringent, demulcent and diaphoretic properties are

attributed to this genus.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—N. alba

Linn.—}; in Egypt—N, caerulea Sav., N. Lotus Linn.—; in Nigeria,

Sierra Leone, Senegal—N. Lotus Linn.—; in Guinea—N. caerulea

Sav., N. stellata Willd.—; in Madagascar—N. stellata Willd.—;

in China—N. alba Linn.—; in Indo-China—N. alba Linn., N. stel-

lata Willd., N. tetragona Giorgi—; in North America—N. alba

Linn., N. polysepala (Engelm.) Greene, N. odorata Ait.-—.

Four species are used medicinally in India: alba, pubescens,

rubra, stellata.

A. Flowers white, about 5-11.2 cm. diam. bee Ses 1. N. alba.

B. Flowers red, pale rose or white, 7.5-20 cm. across sie 2. N. rubras

C. Like rubra but leaves more densely pubescent beneath.

Flowers smaller, 7.5-10 cm. across ... ie . 3. N. pubescens,

D. Flowers usually pale violet, less commonly blue or purple,

7.5-15 cm. diam. sie ee re .. 4. N. stellata

1. Nymphaea alba Linn. occurs in’ Kashmir, Siberia and

Europe.

The mucilaginous and somewhat acrid root and stock are

administered in some countries for dysentery. It is an astringent

and slightly narcotic medicine, which is reputed to have aphrodisiac

properties. In some parts of England the juice is made into an

ointment to stimulate the scalp so as to prevent falling out of

the hair.

The flowers are reputed to be anti-aphrodisiac, and to have

cooling and astringent properties. They are given in Persia for

fevers and chest troubles.

An infusion of the flower and fruit is administered in diarrhoea,

and as a diaphoretic.

Akwapim: Ntanowa—; Annam: Kien thiet—; Arabic: Nilufar—; Bombay:

Pandharenkamal— ; Catalan: Cadells, Escudet, Escut de riu, Ninifa, Platis-

giradors—; China: Hung Pai, Lien Hua—; Danish: Soeblomster—; Dutch:

Witte Zeebloem—; English: Flatter-dock, Lotus-lily, Nenuphar, Water-rose,

White Water-lily—; French: Baratte, Blanc d’eau, Burette, Crugeon, Herbe

aux plateaux, Lis d’eau, Lis d’étang, Lis des étangs, Lune d’eau, Lunette;

d’eau, Nénuphar blanc, Grand nénuphar, Nymphe, Plateau a fleurs blanches,

Pyrote, Volant d’eau, Volet, Volet blanc—; Ga: Tertermantrer—; German;

Wasser Lilie, Wasserrose, Weisse Seeblume, Weisse Seerose—; Greek:

Nymphaia, Sidi—; Hausa: Bado—; Hindi: Nilofar—; Indo-China: Baclu

lien tu, Hat sen trang—; /rish: Duilleoghuidhebhaitighe— ; Italian: Carfano,

Nenufaro bianco, Ninfea, Papeo—; Kashmir: Brimposh, IKamud, Nilofar—;

North America: White Pond Lily, White Water Lily—; Persian: Nilufar—;

Polish: Grzybienie, Wodna lilia—; Portuguese: Niniphea branca—j; Punjab:

Kammian—; Roumanian: Plumiera alba, Plumuna alba, Pluta, Nufar alb,

Titva de apa—j; Russian: Kubishka, Wodanoi lelei—; Spanish: Escudete de

rio, Higos de rio, Nenufar blanco, Ninfea blanca—; Swedish: Sjoebad—;

Teheran: Nilafar—.

2. Nymphaea rubra Roxb. is common throughout India in the

warmer parts. |

The powdered rootstock is given in dyspepsia, diarrhc: and

piles.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 517

A decoction of the flowers is prescribed in palpitation of the

heart.

The flower is much used by Ayurveda practitioners. They

prescribe it to allay thirst, cough, and vomting. They use it as

a cooling and antibilious medicine; as a blood purifier, a febrifuge,

and an aphrodisiac.

Arabic: Nulufar—; Bengal: Buroruktokumbal, Chotasundi, Nal, Rakta-

kambal, Saluk, Shaluk—; Burma: Kiyani, Kyahphyu—; Canarese: Bilitavarai,

Nyadalehuvu— ; Deccan: Alliphul—; Gujerat: Kanval, Nilophal—; Hasada:

Kombolba, Upalba—; Hindi: Chotakanval, Kanval, Raktachandana—; Malay-

alam: Ampala—; Marathi: Lalakamal, Raktakamal—; Orissa: Dhabalakain,

Rangkain—; Persian: Nilufar—; Sanskrit: Alagandha, Alipriya, Alohita,

Alpapatra, Aravinda, Arunakamala, Bhadra, Charunalaka, Hallaka, Indivara,

Kalharamu, Kamala, Kokanada, Krishnakanda, Kumuda, Kuvalaya, Nilotpala,

Raktakairava, Raktakalhara, Raktakamala, Raktakumuda, Raktambhoja,

Raktasandhyaka, Raktasaroruha, Raktavarija, Raktavarna, Raktotpala, Ravi-

priya, Rochana, Sandhyaka, Shonapadma, Somakhya—j; Sind: Kuni, Puni—,;

Sinhalese: Olu, Otu—; Tamil: Allitamarai, Ambal—; Telugu: Allitamara,

Errakaluva, Kalharamu, Koteka, Tellakalava—.

3. Nymphaea pubescens Willd. is found all over India in the

warmer parts.

The powdered root is prescribed for piles as a demulcent; also

for dysentery and dyspepsia.

The flowers are astringent and cardiotonic.

Bengal: Burro, Shaluk—; Bombay: Kummul—; Hindi: Bombhur, Kawal

zutto—; Madras: Alli—: Persian: Nelofir—; Sind: JXoonee—.

4. Nymphaea stellata Willd. inhabits the warmer parts of

India, and extends to tropical Asia and Africa.

In India the plant is used in the same ways and for the same

purposes as N. rubra. It is moreover much employed to stimulate

and promote the growth of the hair.

In Indo-China the seeds are considered a powerful stomachic and

restorative.

In Cambodia the maceration of the leaves is used as a lotion

in eruptive fevers. In Madagascar the leaves are applied topically

in erysipelas.

In Guinea the infusion of the roots and the stems is considered

emollient’ and diuretic; it is taken against blennorrhagia and

diseases of the urinary tract. A decoction of the flowers is con-

sidered narcotic and antiaphrodisiac.

Bengal: Chotashaluk, Nilpodma, Nilsaphala, Nilsapla, Sundhi—; Bijnor:

Bambher— ; Bombay: Upliakamal—; Burma: Kyanyu—; Cambodia: Pralit—;

Ceyon: Niltelolu, Katutelolu, Sudatelolu—; English: Blue Water-lily—;

Gujerati: Nilkamal—; Hindi: Bambher, Bhengt, Lilophal, Nilkamal, Nilophal,

Nilpadma—; Hova: Betsimihilana, Tantama, Tsiazonafo, Voahirana— ;

Imerina: Voalefoka—; Indo-China: Cu sung nho, Khiem tuc—; Jodhpur :

Be—; Madras: Karunaydel, Nilotpalam—j; Malay: Ati-ati payah, Kelipoh,

Teratai Kechil—; Malayalam: Sitambel—; Malinke: Kuludion, Kulukulu— ;

Marathi: Krishnakamal, Poyani—; Porebunder: Kalakamal, Kamal, Kumtan— ;

Sakalave: Tatamo—; Sanskrit: Asitotpala, Indiwar, Kandota, Kandotha,

Kuvalaya, Mridutpala, Nilakamala, Nilaliya, Nilambujanma, Niiapadma,

Nilapatra, Nilotpala, Nilpankaja, Nilpatraka, Saugandhika, Utpala, Utpalaka—;

Sinhalese: Manel, Monch, Nilupul—; South Africa: Water-lily—: Tagalog :

Lavas—; Telugu: Nitikulava—; Uriya: Subaikain—; Zulu: Izibo—.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

MM:

The PAPAVERACE# inhabit the temperate and subtropical regions

of the northern hemisphere; but few are met with in the tropics

or southern hemisphere. Some species are now dispersed over

cultivated ground throughout the world. The family consists of

28 genera and 600 species—annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs

or small trees.

The members of this Order have sedative, narcotic, stupefying,

at times caustic and rubefacient, properties. The seeds are olea-

ginous, some emetic and cathartic.

The following substances are among the products isolated :—(1)

alkaloids— & and§—allocryptopines, aporeidine, aporeine, berberine,

chelerythrine, chelidonine, homochelidonine, codamine, codeine,

cryptopine, dicentrine, glaucidine, glaucine, gnoscopine, lanthopine,

laudanidine, laudanine, laudanosine, meconidine, morphine, pseudo-

morphine, narceine, narcotine, neopine, oxynarcotine, papaveramine,

papaverine, protopapaverine, pseudopapaverine, protopine, rheadine,

sanguinarine, thebaine, isothebaine, tritopine—: (2) bitter substances

—chelidoxanthin, glaucopicrin, papaverosin—; (3) dacids—erratic,

fumaric, meconic, rhoeadinic, sulphuric thebolactic—; (4) fixed

oils; (5) dyes; (6) gums, resins, starch, mucilage; (7) neutta

principles—meconin, meconoisin, opionin—; (8) glucose sugar; (9)

cyanogenetic glucosides.

The medicinal and poisonous poppyworts of the world belong

to 10 genera:—ARGEMONE (tropical America); Bocconta (warm

America; West Indies); CHELIDONIUM (Europe; Asia Minor);

EscHSCHOLZIA (Pacific North America); GLAueruM (Europe; Asia);

Hypecoum (Mediterranean; Central Asia); MEconopsis (northern

temperate regions); PAPAVER (Europe, Asia, America, South Africa,

Australia); RomNneya (California); SANGUINARIA (Atlantic North

America).

The medicinal and poisonous poppies of India belong to four

genera: ARGEMONE, HypecoumM, MEconopsis, PAPAVER.

A. Capsule usually short, opening by short valves or pores

1. Stigmas 4 or more, radiating on a sessile disk ... PAPAVER.

2. Stigmas 4-6, radiating from the top of a depressed style .... ARGEMONE.

3. Stigmas 4-6, decurrent on the top of the style .... MECONOPSIS.

B. Capsule slender, transversely septate within, breaking up

into joints or longitudinally 2-valved ... sie ... HTYPECOUM.

ARGEMONE.

The genus includes 12 species, natives of Tropical America.

A. alba Lestib. is used medicinally in North America, and 4.

mexicana Linn. is so used in every country where it is found growing.

Argemone mexicana Linn., indigenous in tropical America, was |

introduced in India where it has become naturalized, «nd where tt

may be found throughcut up to an altitude of 5,000 feet.

Far from being treated as a foreigner the plant occupies a very

honourable place in the Materia Medica of both Hindus and

Mahommedans. Hakims and vaids are at one in their encomium

of this valuable medicinal herb.

PE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 519

The root is an alterative. The Hausas in Nigeria use an

infusion of it as a wash for drummers who have to sustain their

vigour through an all-night play. Among the Yorubas the root is

chiefly used as a children’s remedy, as a wash, or worn as a charm,

or by fumigation in holding the head over a steaming pot containing

this along with other medicines; also as an infusion taken internally

by a child who is fretful or frightened at night. Women too are

given an infusion to drink at the commencement of the pains of

parturition.

The use of the root is attended with benefit in some chronic

eases of skin diseases. In La Reunion it is given as a decoction

in blennorrhagia; and in French Guiana this same decoction is

prescribed for vesicular calculus. In French Guinea the decoction

is used as an eye-wash and lotion for inflammatory swellings; also

as a mouth-wash for tooth-ache, and taken internally for gleet.

In Gold Coast the pulverised root mixed with onions and applied

tu the guinea-worm sore is said to be effective in extracting the

worm.

In La Reunion and in French Guinea the stem is considered

diuretic; a decoction of it is prescribed for vesicular calculus in

French Guiana.

The Mandingos of the Gambia use an infusion of the leaves for

coughs.

In French Guiana the flowers are considered narcotic. The

honey made by bees which visit this flower is said by the Hausas

to make men mad.

The latex has slight corrosive properties, and is applied to

warts, chancres, etc.

The seeds are laxative, emetic, nauseant, expectorant and

demulcent, They are useful in cough and catarrhal affections of

the throat and pulmonary mucous membrane, and in pertussis and

asthma. Though they do not appear to possess any anti-spasmodic

property, they have a distinct control over asthma, apparently from

their combined actions of nauseant, emetic, expectorant and demul-

cent. As their use is often accompanied by more or less vomiting

and nausea, they are as a laxative medicine more suited to some

pulmonary affections than to other diseases.

In Mexico the seeds are considered an antidote to snake venom.

In French Guiana they are used as a cathartic and an emetic.

The smoke from the burning seeds is used in Delhi to relieve

tooth-ache; it is also said to be useful in caries of the teeth.

The seeds yield on expression a fixed oil, which has long been

in use amongst West India and West Africa practitioners as an

aperient. Applied to herpetic and other forms of skin disease, it

is reported to exercise a well-marked soothing influence. It is

serviceable in some cases in which jalap, rhubarb and castor-oil

are indicated, and also in some bronchial and catarrhal affections.

In Delhi and in Sind the oil is applied to indolent ulcers and

eruptions, also as an external application for headaches.

The yellow juice of this plant is used as a medicine for dropsy,

Jaundice, and cutaneous affections. It is also diuretic, relieves

blisters, and heals excoriations and indolent ulcers. It is held in

520 jJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIETY, —Voilmxce

much esteem as a local application to indolent and _ill-conditioned

ulcers. It is also used as an external application to the eyelid in

conjunctivitis. In the Konkan, the juice with milk is given in

leprosy.

In Jodhpur the yellow juice is used in eye affections and rubbed

on the body to relieve rheumatic pain. In the West Indies it is

reported to be used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.

The seeds are not an antidote to snake venom (Mhaskar and

Caius).

The alkaloids of A. mexicana have been correctly identified as

berberine and protopine (A. C. Santos and P. Adkilen; Journ. Am,

Chem: "Soc., July 1932).

Annam: Ca gai—; Arabic: Bagel—; Ashanti: Alkxusiribie, Kokosekiyatuduru

—; Bengal: Baroshialkanta, WKarikanta, Shialakontha, Shialkanta, Siakanta,

Siyalkanta— ; Brazil: Cardo santo—; Burma: Khyaa—; Canarese : Balurakkisa,

Datturi, Datturi-gidda, Mulludaturi, Parangidatturi— ; Cape Peninsula: Bathurst

Burweed, Steekbossie—; Chinese: Lao Chou Li—; Colombia: Cardosanto—;

Deccan: Bharamdandi, Daruri, Farangidhatura, Pila, Piladhatura—; English:

Gamboge Thistle, Jamaica Yellow Thistle, Mexican Poppy, Prickly Poppy, Yellow

Mexican Poppy—; Falor: Bidjor—; French: Chardon bénit des Antilles, Figuier

infernal, Pavot épineux, Pavot massue, Pavot du Mexique, Tache de l’oeil—;

French Guiana: Argémone—; Fulani: Nyie gilangeru—; German: Mexicanische

Argemone, Stachelmohn—; Gujerat: Darudi—; Hasada: Rangainijanum—;

Hausa: Hakorin kada, Ka ki ruwan Allah, Kamukamu, Kankama, Kankamarka

ta bi ka, Kaya geiva, Kurar fatake, Ya ki ruwan Allah—; Hindi: Bharbhand,

Biladhutura, Brahmadundi, Brahmi, Farangidhutura, Kutaila, Kutila, Satiya-

nashi, Shialkanta, Suchianas, Ujarkanta—; Ilocano: Cachumba, Chicalote,

Casubangaso, Casubhangaso—; Indo-China: Lao thu lac—; Jodhpur: Sattiya-

nasi—; Kano: Kwarko, Kwarkoro, Wagiri—; Kathiawar: Darudi—; Katsina:

Karanko, Kwarakko, Kwaranko—-; Kolami: Warikanta, Siyalkanta—; Konkani:

Firingidutro, Redonoxi—; La Reunion : Chardon—; Malayalam : Brahmadanti—;

Malinke: Ba, Guame-moni— ; Mandingo: Tombong suma—; Marathi: Daruri,

Firangidhotra, antedhotra, Kontedhotra, Pinvaladhotra—; Mexico: Cardo

santo, Chicalotl, Figo del inferno—; Mundari: Bakulajanum—; North America:

Jamaica Yellow Thistle, Mexican Poppy, Mexican Prickly Poppy, Thorn Poppy,

Yellow Poppy-thistlh—; North-West Africa: Devil’s Fig, Golden Thistle of

Peru, Mexican Poppy, Prickly Poppy—; North-Western Provinces: Bharbhurwa,

Kantela, Karwah—; Oudh: Karwah—; Portuguese: Figo do inferno—;

Punjab: Bhatkateya, Bhatmil, Bherband, Kandiari, Katsi, Satyanasa, Sial-

kanta—; Sanskrit: Brahmadandi, Bramhi, Hemadugdha, Hemashikha, Hema-

vati, Hemavha, Kanchanakehiri, Kanchani, Karhini, Katuparni, Kshirini,

Patuparni, Pitapushpa, Rukmini, Srigalakanta, Suvarna, Svarnadagdha, Svarna-

Kshiri, Svarnavha, Tiktadugdha, Yavuchincha—; Santali: Gokulapanum—;

Sinaloa: Cardo, Chicalote—; Sokoto: Boginahi—; Spanish: Adormidera

espinosa, Cardo santo, Fico del inferno, Figo del inferno—; Suto: Nthswant-

sane, Sehlohlo-se-seholo— ; Tagalog: Diluario, Duluario—; Tamil: Bramadandu,

Bramarayakash, Kurukkum—; Telugu : Brahmadandi— Twi: Anansemmenyan— $;

Urdu: Baramdandi—; Uriya: Dengbejari, Kantakusham, Sarpuni—; Wolof:

Homhom bu djiguen, Hompay bu djiguen—; Yoruba: Akawn-ekkun, Egun-

arigbo, Ekan-chun, Kada ka taba yaro—. |

HyPECOUM.

The genus includes 18 species of the Mediterrane: a region,

distributed to Western and Central Asia.

1. Exterior petals elliptico-rhomboid, entire. Lobes of

leaves linear-awl-shaped ie i | .. HH. pendulum,

2. Exterior petals trilobed. Lobes of leaves linear-lanceolate

or lanceolate, acute, mostly entire ... es ... HH. procumbens.

Rib MEDIGINAL AND POISONOUS iPLANTS OF INDIA 521

1. Hypecoum pendulum Linn. is found in Waziristan and

Baluchistan, and extends to the Mediterranean region and the south

of Europe.

An extract is used as a cooling drink by the Waziris.

Waziri: Margaypal, Zirgulaki—.

2. Hypecoum procumbens Linn. occurs in Peshawar, Multan,

the Salt Range, and Baluchistan. It spreads over Western Asia

as far as the Mediterranean region.

The juice has the same effect as opium. The leaves act as

diaphoretic. .

In Bavaria the plant is used as a tonic, aperient, and suborific.

English: Horned Cumin—; Italian: Cornacchina de grani, Cornacchina

verdemare—; Malta: Cornacchina, Karn il Moghza

MECONOPSIS.

The genus includes 30 species of the northern temperate region.

1. Radical leaves linear-oblong or lanceolate, remotely and

irregularly pinnatifid-lobed aa, sais .. I. M. aculeata.

2. Radical leaves pinnatipartite 34 fs ... 2. M. napaulensts.

I. Mecenopsis aculeata Royle occurs in Kashmir, Garhwal and

Kumaon ascending up to 11,000-15,000 feet.

The plant, especially the root, is considered narcotic and

poisonous.

Jhelum : Guddikum— ; Kumaon: Kanda—; Ravi: Gudi—; Simla: Kanta

Sutlej : Kanada—.

2. Meconopsis napaulensis DC. is found at 9,000-10,000 fect

in Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, whence it extends to Sze-chuan.

whe root is used as a narcotic.

PAPAVER.

The genus numbers 110 species scattered over Europe, Asia,

Australia, America, and South Africa. °

The flowers and flower heads are sedative; the milky juice is

narcotic, sometimes caustic. Every species of poppy yields opium

to a greater or less extent.

The following are used medicinally :—in Europe—P. alpinum

Linn., P. Argemone Linn., P. dubium Linn., P. hybridum Linn.,

P. somniferum Linn.—; in Indo China—P. somniferum Linn.

A. Leaves 5-10 cm., all radical, obovate or oblong, pin-

natifid. Flowers orange-yellow. Capsule obovoid, hispid. 7. P. nudicaule.

B. Leaves 2-3-pinnatifid. Flowers 2.5-5 cm. diam., scarlet

with a black disk. Capsule 13 mm. long, subglobose,

hispid. Stigma convex, rays 4-8 ... 2, wade Po hyoviaunr,

C. Leaves 1-2-pinnatifid. Flowers 7.5-10 cm. diam., scarlet ;

pairs of petals unequal. . Capsule stalked. Stigma

convex, rays 8-12 ies sets ds ee Doh wd tOeds.

D. Leaves 1-2-pinnatifid. Petals scarlet in unequal pairs.

Capsule obovoid, glabrous, sessile. Stigma 6-12-rayed ...

. P. dubtum

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCHETY, Valuer

EK. Leaves oblong, amplexicaul, lobed, 2-serrate. Flower

large, white, purple or scarlet. Capsule 2.5 cm. diam.,

stalked, globose, glabrous. Stigmatic rays 5-12 ..» 5. £. sommniperugis

F, Leaves bipinnatisect with acute lobes. Petals pale

scarlet. Capsule oblong-elliptical, sparingly beset with

weak straight bristles as ae wa 3. P. Avgencones

G. Leaves subcoriaceous, hispid on both sides, pinnatipartite.

‘lowers large, more than 10 cm. across. Petals 4-6,

all scarlet or at the base with a black violaceous spot.

Capsule glabrous, glaucous, subglobose, about 2-3 cm.

diam. Stigmatic rays 13-15 an on os 0.52. .ogeentales

1. Papaver Rhoeas Linn. is grown in gardens in Gujerat and

Northern India. It is common in Kashmir, Tibet, Western Asia,

Europe, and North Africa.

There is little to be found in Indian works about this poppy.

Ayurvedists credit it with the same properties as P. somniferum.

Yunanists use the leaves and seeds as tonics in low fevers, and

recommend the cooked roots for rheumatism.

Quoth Culpeper of English fame: ‘A syrup is made of the seed

and flowers, which is useful to give sleep and rest to invalids,

and to stay catarrhs and deflusions of rheums from the head into

the stomach and lungs, which causes a continual cough, the

forerunner of consumption; it helps hoarseness of the throat, and

loss of voice, which the oil of the seed does likewise. The black

seed boiled in wine, and drunk, stays the flux of the belly, and

women’s courses. The poppy-heads are usually boiled in water,

and given to procure rest and sleep; so do the leaves in the same

manner; if the head and temples be bathed with the warm decoction,

or with the oil, the green leaves or heads bruised, and applied

with a little vinegar, or made into a poultice with barley-water, or

hog’s-grease, cools and tempers all inflammations, and St. Anthony’s

fire. It is generally used in treacle and mithridate, and in all other

medicines that are made to procure sleep and rest, and to ease

pains in the head as well as in other parts. It cools inflammations,

and agues. It is put in hollow teeth, to ease the pain; it is also

good for the gout’.

Robert Turner says ‘how excellent is that flower in diseases

of the pleurisic with similar surfeits hath been — sufficiently

experienced’. But Gerard writes: ‘most men being led rather by

false experiments than reason, commend the flower against the

Pleurisic, giving to drink as soon as the pain comes, either the

distilled water, or syrrup made by often infusing the leaves. And

yet many times it happens, that the paine ceaseth by that meanes,

though hardly sometimes’.

The petals are, no doubt, sudorific; and they have mild sedative

properties.

The milk from the capsules has, in a weak form, the same

properties as opium; it is used in France as a sedative.

In England the bruised leaves, if applied to a part which has been

stung by a bee or a wasp, are said to give prompt relief.

A non-toxic alkaloid, rhoeadine, occurs in all parts of the plant.

Anglo-Saxon: Chebole, Chesebolle, Chybolle—; Arabic: Khashkhashulsuda,

Nabatulkhashkhash— ; Bengal : Lalposht— ; Bombay: Janglimudrika—; Burma ;

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 523

Bhainbinami, Bhinbinami—; Canarese: Kempugasgase, Kempukhasakhasi— ;

Catalan: Caputxins, Gallarets, Paparotes, Parama, Pipiripip, Quicaraguichs,

Quiquiriquic, Roellas, Rosella, Ruella—; Chinese: Li Ch’un Ts’ao—; Deccan:

Lalkhaskhas—; Dutch: Heul Klaproos, Kankerbloem, Kolbloem, Roode Kooren-

bloem, Wilde Heul Klaproos—; Egypt: Qarun, Zaghlil—; English: Bledewort,

Blind Eyes, Blindy Buff, Blindy-buffs, Canker, Canker Rose, Cheesebowl,

Cockrose, Cock ’s-comb, Collin-hood, Copper-rose, Cop Rose, Corn Flower, Corn

Poppy, Corn Rose, Cuprose, Cusk Darnel, Ear-aches, Fireflout, Head Ache,

Head Foppy, Head Wark, Joan Silverpin, Lightnings, Maws, Poison Poppy,

Pope, Red Weed, Ridweed, Scarlet Poppy, Soldiers, Thunder Bolts, Yedwark— ;

French: Babiot, Babiou, Babot, Babou, Cornrose, Confanon, Coprose, Coq,

Coq ponceau, Coquelicot, Coquelicot-pavot, Gravelotte, Gueringuingo, Mahon,

Moine, Onder, Pavot coq, Pavot-coquelicot, Pavot des champs, Pavot rouge

des champs, Pavot rouge sauvage, Ponceau, Rose de loup—; German: Ackers-

chnalle, Blatsblume, Blutmohn, Boschblume, Fallblume, Feldmangenblume,

Feldmohn, Feldrose, Feuerblume, Feuermohn, Flattermohn, Flitschrose, Gau-

blume, Glatschen, Glatzenblume, Glitsche, Grimmagblume, Haferkrautblaum,

Halsrose, Hirnschalblume, Hirnschnalz, Jammerblume, Juffer, Klapperrose,

Klatschmohn, Klatschrose, Kohlrose, Kokeschblume, Koklico, Koleblume, Korn-

mohn, Rote Kornrose, Maagsamen, Makutfken, Wilder Mohn, Paterblume,

Pflappenrose, Pugerlitze, Schnallen, Schnellerblume, Windmohn—; Greek:

Roias—; Gujerat: Lala, Lalkhaskhas—; Hindi: Lal, Lala, Lalpost, Post,

Postekebija— ; Hungarian: Mak—; Italian: Bambagella, Bubboline, Citole,

Papavero selvatico, Papavero serchione, Rosolaccio, Scitole—j; Languedoc :

Graousella, Graouselle, Roalo, Rouzello—; Malayalam : Chovannakashakasha— ;

Malta: “Corn Poppy, Poppy, Papavero, Rosolaccio, Pepprin—; Marathi:

Tambadakhasakhasa—; Persian: Gulelalakebija, Khashkhashsiyah, Woknares-

urkh—; Polish: Maczek—; Portuguese: Papoila, Papoila vermelha, Papoula— ;

Roumanian : Mac iepuresc, Mac rosiu, Paparoane, Paparuna—; Russian: Mak

samosyika—; Sanskrit: Raktapostavrikshaha—; Spanish: Ababol, Adormidera

silvestre, Amapola, Arabol—; Tamil: Siguppuppostaka, Sivappugashagasha— ;

Telugu: Erragassagassala, Errapostakaya—; Turkish: Gelincik—; Urdu:

Gulelalakenija, Khashkhashsiyah—; Wasziri: Kolejhdarai, Zirdgul—. :

2. Papaver dubium Linn. is found in the Western Himalaya

from Hazara to Kashmir and Garhwal. ![!t extends to Afghanistan,

Western Asia, Europe and North Africa.

The petals are sudorific.

Two alkaloids, aporeine and aporeidine, have been isolated from

this plant. The former is described as a tetanising poison similar

to thebaine.

English : Pale-red Poppy, Smooth long-headed Poppy—; Malta: Long-headed

Poppy—; Portuguese: Dormideira, Papoula—.

3. Papaver Argemone Linn. is indigenous in Europe in the

Mediterranean region. It is cultivated in Indian gardens.

In Spain an infusion or a syrup of the petals is much esteemed

as a sudorific.

English: Rough-headed Poppy, Rough long-headed Poppy—.

4. Papaver hybridum Linn. occurs in the Punjab in the Jhelum

Valley. It is distributed over Central and Western Asia, Europe,

and North Africa.

The petals are diaphoretic.

The species contains the non-toxic alkaloid rhoeadine and another

base.

Egypt: Abunnom, Aul el num—; English: Rough-headed Poppy, Rough

round-headed Poppy—; Malta: Rough Poppy, Pepprin—.

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) AIST. SOCIETEYV® \Vol- vege

5. Papaver somniferum Linn. is cultivated in the warm and

temperate regions of Asia, Europe and North Africa. It is doubtful

whether the plant has ever been found wild. In India it is grown

here and there throughout the country. In France a formic

specially grown on account of its oil-yielding seed.

Opium, the inspissated juice obtained by incision from the

immature capsule, is well known for its therapeutic and poisonous

properties, and is official in all Pharmacopoeias.

The seeds are used medicinally in Jodhpur, and the capsules are

soaked in water which, after being strained, is taken as an

intoxicant. ;

In Indo-China the roasted seeds are considered tonic.

Poppy heads are used in China for diarrhoea, dysentery, and all

kinds of fluxes. The seeds ground in cold water are given in

diarrhoea and dysentery.

A weak decoction of the dried capsule is good for those

complaints which require sedatives, and native practitioners in India

administer it as a restrainer in bowel troubles. In Europe, however,

the decoction is not given internally, but is employed as an external

application to allay pain and soothe.

In Europe syrup of poppy is still often employed to allay cough

and likewise as an opiate for children. This syrup is prepared from

the capsules. Another syrup, made of the leaves and flowers, is

also used in pleurisy and erisypelas.

The green leaves, the fresh flowers, the crushed capsules |

are all made into various ointments, or used as_ such for

poulticing.

Opium, in combination with other drugs, is recommended

for the treatment of snake bite and scropion sting. Caius and

Mhaskar have proved experimentally that the drug is not an

antidote to snake venom, and is useless in the treatment. of

scorpion sting.

Arabic: Abunom, Afiun, Bizrulkhashkhash, Khashkhashulbaiza, Khish khash,

Oishrulkhashkhash— ; Bengal: Pasto, Post—; Bombay: Aphim, Appo, Khaskhas,

Post—; Burma: Bhain, Bhainzi—; Canarese: Afim, Biligasgase, Gasagase,

Khasakhasi— ;_ Catalan: Cascall Pintacogues—; Chinese: Ying Tzu Su—;

Danish: Valmue—; Deccan: Afim, Khashkhash—; Dutch: Heul, Slaapruid—;

Egypt: Abun-nom, Shikh-shakh—,; English: Bale-wort, Carnation Poppy, Joan

Silverpin, Opium Poppy, Peony Poppy, White Garden-poppy, White Poppy—;

French: Pavot, Pavot blanc, Pavot des jardins, Pavot a opium, Pavot somni-

fere—; German: Mohn, Saatmohn, Schlafmohn—; Greek: Agria, Milkon

hymeros—; Gujerat: Aphina, Khuskhus, Posta—; Hamadan: Khash-khash—;

Hindi: Afin, Afyun, Kashkash, Pest, Post, Potekebija—; Indo-China: A phien,

A phu dung, Co tu tuc—; Italian: Papavero, Papavero domestico—; Kachhi:

Doda, Post—; Kumaon: Posht—; Malaya: Bungapion, Yin soo hock—;

Malayalam: Afiun, Kashakasha—; Malta: Opium Poppy, Poppy, Papavero,

Pianta da oppio, Papavru, Xahxieh—; Marathi: Aphu, Khuskhus, Posta—;

Nepal: Aphim—; Oudh: Posta—; Persian: Afiun, Khashkhash, Khashkhash-

sufaid, Koknar, Postekoknar, Tukhmekoknar—; Portuguese: Dormideira,

Papoula branca—; Punjab: Afim, Doda, Khashkhash, Khishkhash, Post—;

Roumanian: Mac, Mac somnisor, Somnisor—; Russia: Mak _ snotvornyi—;

Sanskrit: Ahifen, Chosa, Khasa, Khakasa, Ullasata—; Sinhalese : Abin, Albin-

atta—; Spanish: Adormidera, Dormidera—; Swedish: Vallmo—; Tamil: Abini,

Gashagasha, Kasakasa, Postaka—; Telugu: Abhini, Gasagasala, Gasalu, Kasa-

kasa—; Turkish: Hashash—; Urdu: Khashkhashsufaid—; Uruguay: Ador-

midera, Amapola—; Wazirt: Afin, Kolijhdarai—,

THE. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 525

6. Papaver orientale Linn. is cultivated in Indian gardens.

It.is common in North Persia, Armenia, and the Mediterranean

region.

The petals are sudorific.

A series of alkaloids have been isolated from the plant: the-

baine, isothebaine, glaucidine, two phenolic bases, and one non-

phenolic base.

7. Papaver nudicaule Linn. is found in the Northern Himalaya,

up to an altitude of 17,000 feet. It extends through Afghanistan

to Northern Asia and to Central and Northern Europe.

The flowers and capsules are mildly diaphoretic.

Waziri : Kakavai—.

LI.

The FuUMARIACE are often considered as a sub-family or a tribe

of the Papaveraceae. They are annual or perennial herbs broadly

distributed in temperate and warm regions, mainly in the temperate

zone of the northern hemisphere. The family includes 7 genera and

about 260 species.

Most fumitories contain in their herbaceous parts mucilage, saline

substances, and a peculiar acid or acrid juice, so combined that

they are classed among tonic and alterative medicines.

The following have been isolated from members of the Order :—

(1) alkaloids—bulbocapnine, corybulbine, isocorybulbine, corycava-

mine, corycavidine, corycavine, corydaline, dehydrocorydaline, cory-

dine, corypalmine, corytuberine, dicentrine, fumarine, protopine,

sanguinarine, d-tetrahydropalmatine—; (2) acids—fumaric.

The medicinal fumitories belong to three genera: CoRYDALIS

(Mediterranean region, Europe, Asia); Dicenrra (Asia, North

America); FuMarIA (Europe, Asia, Africa; chiefly Mediterranean).

No Indian DIcENTRA is credited with therapeutic properties.

1. One outer petal spurred; capsule many-seeded ... CORYDALIS:

One outer petal spurred; fruit indehiscent, nut 1-seeded. FUMaRia.

CORYDALIS.

The genus numbers about 140 species, natives of the Mediter-

ranean region, inhabiting Europe and Asia.

The genus is tonic, diuretic, and alterative. The roots are used

as emmenagogues and vermifuges.

The following species ‘are employed medicinally in E C:

bulbosa Pers., C. claviculata Pers., C. fabacea Pers., C. lutea DC.,

C. ochroleuca Koch.; in China—C. ambigua Cham. and Sch., C.

imeisa Pers.—; in Indo-China—C. bulbosa Pers.—.

Some twenty alkaloids have been isolated from various Corydalis

roots.

1. Stems erect. Flowers 2.5 cm. long ie .. I. C. Govaniana.

2. Stems procumbent. Flowers 12 mm. long ... a 2s Uae OMOSas

1, Corydalis Govaniana Wall. is found in Western Himalaya

from Kashmir to Kumaon at 8,000-12,000 feet.

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol; XL

The root is considered tonic, diuretic, alterative, and antiperiodic.

It is prescribed in syphilitic, scrofulous, and cutaneous affections.

Bengal: Bhutkesi, Bhutkis—; Hindi : Bhutkesi, Bhutkis— ; Punjab : Bhutkes,

Bhutkis—; Sanskrit: Bhutakesi—.

2. Corydalis ramosa Wall. inhabits the temperate portion of

the Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, at 12,000-15,000 feet. _

In the Kurram Valley the plant is, like all other plants with

yellow sap, employed in the treatment of eye diseases.

Kurram Valley: Mamiran—.

FUMARIA,

This genus includes 46 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region, and distributed over Central Europe, Asia, Africa; one

being almost cosmopolitan.

The genus is tonic, aperient, and resolvent.

The following are used medicinally in Europe: F. capreéolata

Linn., F. densiflora D.C., F. media Lois., F. officinahs Linn.

parviflora Lam., FF. Schleicheri Soyer-Willem., F. spicata Linn.,

F, Vaillantii Lois.x—; in Indo-China—F. officinalis Linn., F. parvi-

flora Lam.—.

1. Flowers pink with wings of upper petal reflexed upwards,

bracts about as long as the pedicel or longer. Flowers

purplish pink with wings of upper petal at most

obscurely purple. Fruit of moderate size, subtruncate,

rarely apiculate a andreas

2. Flowers white, sometimes flushed with pink, with erect

spreading, patent or reflexed wings to the broad upper

petal; sepals usually present; outer petals not emargi-

nate; the wings of the upper usually with a _ purple

blotch. Fruit often subacute, rugose sae ... 2. EB. parviflora.

1. Fumaria indica Pugsley is distributed over the greater part

of India up to 8,ooo feet on the Himalaya. It extends through

Baluchistan and Afghanistan to Persia, Turkestan, Songaria and

Mongolia, ;

The plant is diuretic, diaphoretic, and aperient.

An extract is drunk by the Waziris for the purpose of cooling

the body, and it is also applied externally for the same purpose.

Waziristan: Lavang, Levanai, Margyapal, Parparie, Sevae—.

2. Fumaria parviflora Lam. is found in Baluchistan, the Taurus,

and Persia.

The herb is highly esteemed by the Mahommedans in India;

it is said to purify the blood and act as a laxative and diuretic.

In Persia it is often mixed with chicory for medicinal purposes.

The dried plant is regarded as efficacious in low fever, and is

also used as an anthelmintic, diuretic, diaphoretic and aperient,

and to purify the blood in skin diseases.

Along with black pepper, it is used in the treatment of ague.

It is used in Europe as an alterative, aperient, and antifebrile

drug. It is given in-Spain in visceral obstructions, in scorbutic

affections, and in various eruptive diseases,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 527

Decoetions of the entire plant were given to cases of mild

pyrexia and the result was unsatisfactory (Koman).

The plant contains fumaric acid and the alkaloid fumarine.

Arabic: Baglat-ul-mulk, Bukslat-ul-mulik, Rizud-dejaj, Shahatraja, Shatra-

raj—; Baluchi; WKahurkah, Kankechk—; Bengal: Bansulpha, Shulpha—;

Bombay: Pitpatra—; Deccan: Pitpapara, Shatra—; Egypt: Shahtarag, Shat-

reyg—; English: Fine-leaved Fumitory, Small-flowered Fumitory—; Gujerat :

Khasudlio, Pitpapda, Pittapapado—; Hamadan: Shahtara—; Harboi Hills:

Kafutkawa— ; Hindi: Banshulpha, Pitpapada, Pitpapara, Pitpapra, Shahatra— ;

Indo-China: Tug sha tu chinh—; Kumaon: Khairuwa—; Marathi: Pitpapda—;

Persian: Shahatra, Shah-tarra, Shatra—; Punjabi: Pitpapra—; Pushtu: Papra,

Pitpapra, Shahtara—; Quetta-Pishin: Shatara—; Sanskrit: Araka, Charaka,

Kalapanga, Katupatra, Kavachanamaka, Krishnashakha, Ksheparpata,. Nakra,

Panshu, Panshuparyaya, Parpata, Parpataka, Pragandha, Pittari, Renu, Shita,

Shitavallabha, Sutikta, Tikta, Trishnari, Triyashti, Varatikta, Varmakantaka— ;

Sind: Shahatra, Shatra—; Tamil: Tusa—; Teheran: Shahtara—; Telugu:

Chatarasi— ; Urdu: Shahatra—; Wazint: Lavang—.

PLANTS OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA.

Mrs. V. Dickson.

The following is a list of wild flowers of Kuwait State, (N.E.

Arabia Dist. IV) including the islands of Failaka (pr. loc. Failicha)

and Masjan, together with a few notes on the edible and medicinally

used plants and shrubs.

I have collected specimens over a period of nine years, since 1929,

and all these have been identified by the late Mr. Horwood, and

determinations sent to me by Sir Arthur Hill of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, London.

This list will be found much more complete than the one in

Records of the Botanical Survey of India, vol. vi, no. 6; by

Humphrey G. Carter, M.B., Ch.B. with notes by Sir Percy Cox,

K.C.S.1., K.C.1LE. and Lt.-Col. S. G. Knox, ©.1.E., whichoas@as

far as I know the only publication (excluding Blatter?) on flowers

of Kuwait. Some plants mentioned by Carter such as Oleander

do not grow wild in Kuwait, and were possibly found growing in

gardens.

There is still one plant which has not yet been identified for

me by Kew: a Cruciferae which appears to be a new species, and

is probably referred to in the above publication as Erucaria

Boiss.

My husband, Lt.-Col. H. R. P. Dickson, C.I.E., has been

Political Agent in Kuwait from 1929-1936, and is now in the Kuwait

Oil Company, so I have had great opportunities to collect flowers,

as we have had a permanent camp each spring out with the

Badawin in the desert some 50 to 100 miles in the interior. We

were both of us also fortunate to visit His Majesty King Bin

Saud last November in his capital Riyadh. The names of the

flowers collected on this trip will be found at the end of this list.

The plants listed below were collected by me between the years

1933-1938.

PAPAVERACE.

Hypecoum pendulum L.

Papaver Rhoeas L.

Rhoeas L. var. subintegrum Willk.

somniferum L.

3 somniferum L. var. leplocanlolum Fedde.

Roemaria hybrida DC,

35)

CRUCIFERZ.

Brassica Tournefortu Gouan.

Carrichtera annua Asch.

Diplotaxis Harra (Forsk.) Boiss.

i acris (Boiss.)

Eruca sativa Lam. var. eriocarpa.

PEANTS OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA

Erucaria aleppica Gaertn.

Farsetia aegyptia Turra

Fibigia longisiliqua Dene.

Lepidium sativum L.

vuderale L.

ye Aucheri Boiss.

Leptaleum fuliforme DC.

Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br.

. assyriaca Hausskn. et Bornm.

pulchella Boiss. var. pygmaea R. Br.

ine torulosa (Desf.) Boiss, var. leiscarpa Boiss.

Matthiola bicornis DC.

is troida DC.

Notoceras bicorna Cav.

Savignya oblonga Boiss.

9 parviflora (Del.) DC.

Schimpera arabica Boiss.

ae persica Boiss.

Sinupis (Brassica) arvensis L.

Sisymbrium cf. erucastroides Stapf.

Torularia torulosa (Desf.), O. E. Schultz.

RESEDACE 2.

Ochradenus baccatus Del.

Oligomeris subulata (Del.) Boiss.

Reseda arabica Boiss.

* decursiva Forsk.

aa muricata Presl.

CISTACE.

Helianthemum ellipticum Pers.

ss kahiricum Del.

io ledifolium Mill.

a Lippu (L.) Pers.

nis salicifolium Mill.

IF RANKENIACES.

Frankenia pulverulenta L.

CARYOPHYLLACE&,

Ankyropetalum gypsophiloides Fenzl.

Gypsophila porrigens Boiss.

Loeflingia hispanica L.

Paronychia argentea L.

Polycarpaea repens (Forsk.) Asch. et Schwein.

Polycarpon tetraphyllum L.

Robbairea prostrata (Del.) Boiss.

Saponaria Vaccaria L.

Silene conoidea L.

weeecomca LL,

,, leyseroides Boiss. (calyx reticulate).

Pee wviulosa Morsk,

529

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

TAMARICACE,

Tamarix articulata Vahl

©. macrocarpa Bge.

MALVACEZ.

Malva parviflora L.

ZYGOPHYLLACE:

Fagonia Bruguiert DC.

Hr glutinosa Del.

Nitraria tridentata Desf.

Seetzenia orientalis Dene.

LOUIS “Lervestris ai,

Zygophyllum coccineum L,

GERANIACES.

Erodium ciconium Willd.

cicutarium L’ Herit.

»’)

ae glaucophyllum Ait.

ae laciniatum Cav.

- triangulare Musch.

: triangulare Musch. var. pulverulentum Boiss,

Monsonia nivea J. Gay,

RUTACEZ.

Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Korsk.) A. Juss.

Peganum Harmala L.

RHAMNACE.

Zisyphus Spina-Christi: Willd.

Spina-Christi Willd. var. inermis Boiss.

yy)

LEGUMINOS2.

Acacia Seyal Del.

Alhagi maurorum DC.

Astragalus annularis Forsk.

Ch. bachions 1.

dy)

- bombycinus Boiss.

5 brachyceras Led.

5 corrugaims Dene sex. CG:

me cruciatus DC.

cn dactylocarpus Boiss.

ae Forskahlei Boiss.

a gyzensis Del.

- peregrinus Vahl

‘ Schimperi Boiss.

striatellus Pall.

. tenuirugis Boiss.

. cf. tribuloides Del.

Hippocrephis cf. bicontorta.

Ri unisiliquosa L.

PLANTS OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA

Hymenocarpos nummularius Boiss.

Lotus pusillus Viv.

Medicago Aschersoniana Urb.

fe , laciniata Willd.

Melilotus parviflora Desf. (M. indica L.)

Onobrychis ptolemaica DC.

Ononis serrata Forsk.

7 reclinata L.

Prosopis Stephaniana (Willd.) Spreng.

Scorpiurus muricatus L.

Trigonella anguina L.

x hamosa L.

co stellata Forsk.

oe cf. maritima Del.

Vicia peregrina L,

ROSACEZ.

Neurdda procumbens L.

CUCURBITACE.

Citrullus Colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

IICOIDEA.

Aigoon canariense L,

ae hispanicum L.

Cryophyton (Mesembryanthemum) nodiflorum (L.) N.E. Br.

UMBELLIFER.

Ammi majus L.

Anisosciddium lanatum Boiss.

- orientale DC.

Bupleurum semicompositum L,

Cuminum cyminum L,

Pimpinella puberula Boiss.

Tordylium persicum Boiss. in Haussk.

RUBIACE.

Crucianella membranacea Boiss. (C. ciliata Lam.)

Galium Decaisnei Boiss.

4 sindicum Boiss.

DIPSACACE.

Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Schrad.

Scabiosa Olivieri Coult.

= palaestina L.

is palaestina L. var. calocephala Boiss.

COMPOSITA.

Aaronsohnia Factorovskyi Wart. et Eig.

Acantholepis onentalis Less.

Anthemis deserti Boiss.

531

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Anvillea Garcini DC.

Artemisia monosperma Del.

Atractylis cancellata L.

e fiava Desf.

Calendula aegyptica Desf.

- persica CrAe wi:

Carduus pycmocephalus Jacq. and var. arabicus (Jacq.) Boiss,

Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb.

y tinctorius L. (cultivated).

Centaurea mesopotamica Bornm.

phyllocephala Boiss.

o solstitialis L.

Crepis parviflora Desf.

Filago spathulata Presl. var. prostrata (Parl.) Boiss.

Ifloga spicata (Forsk). Sch. Bip.

Koelpinia linearis Pall.

Launaea arabica (Boiss.) Cass.

mucronata (Korsk.) Musch.

) nudicaulis (Less.) Hook. f.

Leontodon hispidulum Boiss. var. tenuilobum Boiss.

Matricaria (Chamomilla) aurea (L.) J. Gay.

Odontospermum pygmalum B. et H.

Picris saharae Batt.

Reichardia tingitana (Desf.) Roth.

Rhanterium epapposum Oliv.

Senecio coronopifolius Desf.

Urospermum. picroides L.

ded

PLUMBAGINACE.

Statice spicata (L,) Willd.

thouint Viv.

suffruticosa L.

)

S29

PRIMULACEZ:.

Anqgallis arvensis L. var. carnea Koch.

am femina Mill.

. latifolia L.

BORAGINACEZ.

Anchusa aggregata Lehm.

Arnebia decumbens Coss. et Kral. (A. cornuta Led.) F.

oy tinctoria Forsk.

ee hispidissima DC.

Gastrocotyle hispidia (Forsk.) Bge. and var. songarica.

Heliotropium undulatum Vahl

Lappula spinocarpos Aschers.

et M.

Lithospermum callosum Vahl and var. asperrimum Bornm.

- incrassatum Guss.

CONVOLVULACE.

Convolvulus aff. lineatus L.

7 oxyphyllus Boiss.

LABIATA,

Salvia aegyptiaca L.

mee spinosa. L.

Teucrium Polium L. var. lanuginosum Celak.

= Oliverianum Ging.

PLANTAGINACEA.

Plantago albicans L.

te amplexicaulis Cav.

x ciliata Desf.

5 coronopus L.

Pe cylindrica Forsk.

o Lagopus L.

mr ovata Forsk.

~ Psyllium L.

ILLECEBRACE.

Herinaria cinerea DC.

x hemistemon J. Gay.

Paronychia arabica DC.

Pteranthus dichotomus Forsk.

CHENOPODIACEZ.

Anabasis articulata Forsk.

setifera Moq. |

Arthrocnemum glaucum Ung.

Atriplex dimorphastegia Kar. et Ker.

n sp. aff. A. parviflora Lowe.

a leucocladum Boiss. |

PLANTS. OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA

Convolvulus pilosellaefolius Desf.

ae Sp. cloasencens Burm,

Gressa.cretica’ L:

Cuscuta planiflora Ten.

SOLANACE.

Hyoscyamus pusillus L.

Lycium arabicum Schweinf.

- barbarum L.

SCROPHULARIACE.

Antirrhinum Orontium L.

Linaria chalepensis (L.) Mill.

5, micrantha Cav.

,, simplex DC. var. flaviflora Boiss.

Scrophularia deserti Del.

OROBANCHACEZ:.

Cistanche tubulosa Schenk.

~Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.

a cernua Loefl. var. desertorum Beck.

533

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Bassia eriopora Schrad.

Beta maritima L.

Chenopodium album L.

on murale L.

Cornulaca monacantha Del.

Echinopsilon muricatum (Schrad.) Mog.

Haloxylon salicornicum Bege.

Polycnemon sp.

Salsola hispidula Bege.

Kali L.

longifolia Forsk.

cf verrucosa MB.

Suaeda baccata Forsk.

vermiculata Forsk.

)

”)

POLYGONACEZ.

Calligonum comosum L’Herit.

Emex spinosus Camped.

Polygonum Bellardi All. ,

Rumex pictus Forsk. var. bipinndalus (Lil.) Maire.

re vesicarius. L.

THYMELAEACEZ.

Lygia Passerina L.

5, pubescens (Guss.) Boiss.

BALANOPHORACE.E.

Cynomorum coccineum L.

EUPHORBIACE.

Andrachne telephioides L.

Crozophora oblongifolia A. Juss. (C. obliqua Vahl) A. Juss.

Euphorbia cornuta Pers.

sp. cf. E. hieroglyphica DR.

)

ASCLEPIADACE&.

Calotropis procera R, Br.

V ALERIANACE.

Valerianella leiocarpa Koch. (V. Dufresne: Bge.).

FUMARIACE.

Fumaria parviflora Lam.

CHARACEZ.

Chara vulgaris L.

GENTIANACEZ,

Centaurium (Erythraea) ramosissimum (Pers.) (sensu FI. Orient.)

PLANTS OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA 535

LINACEZ.

Linum usitatissimum L.

JUNCACEA:.

Juncus acutus ee

MONOCOTYLEDONS.

IRIDACEZ.

Tris Sisyrinchium L.

Gladiolus segetum Wer.—-Gawl.

LILIACE.

Allium desertorum Forsk.

- laceratum Boiss. et Noe

a sphaerocephalum L. and var. arvense Parl.

Asphodelus tennifolius Cav.

Bellevalia flexuosa Boiss.

f cf. longipes Post.

Dipcadi erythraeum Webb et Benth.

Gagea reticulata (Pall.) Schult. and var. rigida (Boiss. et Sprun.)

Pasch.

Muscari comosum (L.) Mill.

AMARYLLIDACE.

Ixiolivrion montanum Herb.

CYPERACE.

Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. var. arenarius Coss.

c rotundus L. (probably).

he arenarius Retz. (cf. Auch no. 5483).

GRAMINE.

Ammochloa palaestina Boiss.

Argilops triunciatis L.

Aristida ciliata Desf.

Be obtusa Del.

* plumosa L.

Avena barbata L.°

Bromus tectorum L.

Cenchrus ciliaris L.

Cutandia memphitica Batt. et Trab.

Cynodon Dactylon Pers.

Koeleria phleoides Pers.

Lolium rigidum Gaud.

Panicum turgidum Forsk.

Phragmites communis Trin.

Sphenopus divaricatus Reichb.

Stipa tortilis Desf.

FILICES.

Ophioglossum vulgatum L. var.

536. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY,” Vol wea

PEANYTS Ob RIYADH, SAUDIP-ARAB IAS

(Collected in October 1938.)

Acacia sp. (probably A. Seyal Del).

Aerua javanica (Burm.) Lam.

Amaranthus Blitum L.

Anvillea Garcine (Burm.) DC.

Artemisia monosperma Del.

Blepharis edulis (Forsk.) Pers.

Capparis galeata Fres.

F Sposa aL:

Cassia obovata Coll.

Corchorus trilocularis L.

Daemia cordata R. Br.

Digera arvensis Forsk.

Haloxylon Schweinfurthii Asch.

Lycium Barbarum L.

Morcandia arvensis DC.

Oxalis cormculata- L.

Peganum Harmala L.

Picridium tingitanum Desf. var. subintegrum Boiss.

Pulicaria crispa (Forsk) Benth. and Hook.

Punica Granatum L.

Rhazya stricta Dene.

Solanum nigrum L.

Trisetum pumilum Kunth. (grown from seed collected in Dahana).

Aizyphus nummularia Walk et Arn.

SOME NOTES ON THE EDIBLE PLANTS OF KUWAIT AND THOSE

USED MEDICINALLY.

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. *‘Burwug’.

This plant is used by the Badawin of Kuwait in making ‘ ’Igt’,

which is a form of dried milk; it 1s made especially for use during

the summer and is mixed with water and eaten with dates.

Citrullus Colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

This plant known to the Arabs as ‘Esherri’ is their main

purgative. The seeds are collected when the fruit is ripe and

seven seeds are taken at once as a_ strong purgative. Sheep

sometimes eat the fruit when it is green.

Dipcadi erythraeum Webb et Benth. ‘Busal Mow’.

The bulb of this plant is very juicy though rather tasteless;

it is dug up and eaten by all Badawin children.

Heliotropium undulatum Vahl *“Rum-Ram’.

This plant is used by Badawin as a cure for snake bite. The

plant is dried and pounded up, and made like tea with hot water.

This is then strained, and the patient is given the liquid to drink,

and the ‘leaves’ are bound on to the bite. Other methods, such

as branding and keeping the patient awake are also used, as the

‘Rum-Ram’ will not effect a cure by itself. The Badawins tell you

PEANTS OF KUWAIT, NORTH EAST ARABIA 537

that the Monitor lizard (‘Wurral’) when bitten by a snake, has

been seen to go to this plant and roll in it.

Lygia Passerina L. ‘Kharait’.

This is also used among the Badawin as a purgative, mainly in

spring when it is picked and eaten green. It may be dried also

and pounded up.

Malva parviflora L. ‘Khubaiz’.

Among the Persian community in Kuwait this plant is eaten a

great deal when it is young and green. It is cooked like spinach.

Neurada procumbens L. ‘Sa’adan’.

Badawin children are very fond of the young circular seeds of

this plant to eat.

Haplophyllum tuberculatum Juss. ‘Al Masaicha’.

This plant is used among the Badawin of N.-E. Arabia as a

cure for a scorpion sting. The plant is picked and quickly put

into a pocket and then in a dark bag to dry. Some of the leaves

are pounded up and mixed with a few drops of hot water and

bound on to the place where the person was stung. It is said to

be a quick cure and to relieve pain at once.

Rumex pictus Forsk. ‘Hambusis’ and Rumex vesicarius L.

(Haméth) are both eaten by townspeople and Badawin alike.

Emex spinosus Camped. ‘Al Hambizan’.

The white root of this plant is eaten by Badawin children.

Scorzonera papposa DC. ‘Rubahla’.

The brown carrot-like root of this plant when peeled is eaten

by Badawin and is very tasty.

Teucrium Polium L. ‘Al Jadah’.

This plant is used as a cure for Basrah fever and is sold dried

in the bazaars of Kuwait. The leaves are pounded up and brewed

with boiling water into a kind of tea. Some of this is drunk and

some of it poured over the person. Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwait

always used this cure when he had fever. A specimen was sent

by Dr. C. S. G. Mylrea of the American Mission Hospital in

Kuwait to the School of Tropical Medicine, who sent it on to

Messrs. Parke Davis & Co.

Following is a report from them by Mr. E. M.

Holmes dated

30-11-20.

Report on a woolly leaved herb. .

‘The specimen received from Messrs. Parke Davis & Co. has

been carefully examined by me, with the following result :—

“The minute flowers are evidently those of a Labiate plant

Possessing the character of the genus Teucrium of the species

Teucrium Polium. The plant was formerly used as a herb in

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole =e

Europe, and in Spain still retains the vernacular name of Poleo

montano. The plant is supposed to be the Polion of the Greeks

and is said by Arabian writers to be deobstruent, diuretic, and

anthelmintic and tonic. It is mentioned by Dioscorides, 111, 115,

Pliny, 21, 7, 120. In Bombay it is one of the drugs sold under

the name of ‘Jadah’ and comes from Bandar Abbas. It is described

by Dr. M. Dymock in Mat. Med. West India, 2nd ed. p. 616, and

As ee }

accords exactly with the specimen received’’.

The United States Dispensatory further says :—

‘Plant said to have been used advantageously in cholera in the

Levant, a specimen of which was sent to Paris proved to be

Teucrium Polium—which we have no doubt was identical with the

drug you sent to us.’

Trigonella stellata Forsk. ‘Nifl’.

The Badawin women of the great Shammar tribe of Northern

Arabia use this plant when dried to put on their hair after it has

been washed.

Arnebia decumbens Coss. et Kral. ‘Chahil’.

The root of this plant, which is crimson, is used by some

Badawin women and girls as a ‘rouge’. The freshly pulled up

root is rubbed lightly on the cheeks and it gives a perfect colour

to them.

Atriplex sp. aff. A. parviflora Lowe. ‘Hartabeel’.

This plant when young is eaten by the Persian population of

Kuwait as a kind of spinach.

SOME TREES AND BUSHES OF KUWAIT AND THEIR USES.

Calotropis procera R. Br. ‘Ashurr’.

This tree is used for making gunpowder. The bark is first made

into charcoal, and then pounded up very fine and used with saltpetre.

The tree has no doubt been brought up from Hassa where it is

very common, and grows here only in one village (Fantas) some

20 miles south of Kuwait town.

Zizyphus Spina-Christi Willd. ‘Sidr’.

The dried and pounded leaves of this tree are used by the town

women of Kuwait as a hair wash. It is also used for washing

the dead.

The Badawin makes his camel stick ‘Misha’ab’ from the

branches of these trees which grow in great quantities in the

Summan region of Saudi Arabia. The fruit is sold in the bazaars

and is much liked by the town people and Badawin alike.

Haloxylon salicornicum Bge. ‘Hamdh’ or ‘Rimdh’.

There are many bushes of the Chenopodiaceae which are classed

under the Arabic names given above. These are all valuable as

firewood in the desert and also for grazing for camels, owing to

their salt properties.

A NOTE ON THE EMBRYOLOGY OF

Mik GROUND NUT (ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L.)

I. BANERIJI.

(Department of Botany, Calcutta University),

(With two text-figures).

Arachis hypogaea is a crop plant of great economic importance. In India,

it is cultivated extensively in Bombay, Madras and the Central Provinces. In

Bengal, Mysore and in other parts of India attempts are now being made to grow

ground-nut on an extensive scale. The plant is grown as a rabi crop.

The literature on the embryology of Leguminosae is extensive. It has

recently been reviewed by Schnarf (9), Roy (6) and others. Excepting a few cases

which, however, require reinvestigation, the development of the female

gametophyte in ihe family was found to be of the normal type. Guignard (1),

Soueges (11), Samal (8) and others have studied the development of the embryo.

Considerable variation has been noted in the development of the pro-embryo

and the suspensor.

Reed (4) appears to be the only investigator who has worked on_ the

embryology of Arachis hypogaea. He has only described the fully developed

gametophyte and certain stages in the development of the embryo in connection

with his studies on the anatomy, ecology and embryology of the plant.

The material used in this investigation was obtained from plants grown

in the University College experimental ground and was studied according to the

customary methods.

As is characteristic of the family Leguminosae, the monocarpellary ovary

bears the ovules on the ventral suture. Generally tte ovules are two in number,

but sometimes three or only one have been noted. The ovule initials are at first

noted as small papillate processes on the placenta. Due to more active cell

division on one side of the ovule they gradually curve and take up an anatropous

position. At this time the outer wall of the ovule generally comes in contact

with the wall of the ovary, but the curvature of the ovule does not appear to be

due to the contact with the ovarian wall as has been suggested by Reeves

(5) working on Medicago. Both the ovules curve in the same direction and the

curvature is always towards the stylar end of the ovary. It is interesting to

note in this connection that Reeves (5) working on Alfalfa found the curvature

of the ovule towards the base of the ovary. In Albizeia Lebbeck and Phaseolus

vulgaris, Maheshwari (2) and Weinstein (12) found the ovules curving towards

the stylar end of the ovary.

The origin of the integuments becomes apparent along with the curvature

of the ovule. Both the integuments arise from the outer layer of cells of the

ovule and in the early stages of their development are composed of two layers

of cells. The inner integument is first noted, but very soon the outer integument

makes its appearance. At the time of differentiation of the integuments the

megaspore mother cell is generally in the early stages of heterotypic prophase.

The growth of the outer integument is more rapid than the inner and by the

time the megaspore mother cell is in synopsis, the outer integument reaches

the same level as the inner. From this stage onwards, the growth of the

outer integument is more rapid on the side of the ovule opposite to that of

the placenta, and as a result it very soon completely encases the ovule. Both

the integuments take part in the formation of the micropyle, at which region

they are comparatively thick.

A single archesporial cell usually differentiates in the third layer of the

nucellus and directly functions as the megaspore mother cell. The origin of

the archesporial cell or cells, in the third layer of the nucellus appears to

be a common feature in ie Papilionatae and has been noted previously by

540. fOURNAL,, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST. SOCTE LY Vola

Roy (6), Paul (3) and others. Two megaspore mother cells lying side by

side have been noted in some preparations (text-fig. 2). Reeves (5) records the

occurrence of two or more sporogenous cells side by side in Alfalfa, Singh and

Shivapuri (10) in Neptunia oleacea and Paul (8) in Tamarindus indicus. The

cell covering the megaspore mother cell usually divides before the reduction

division and as a result the megaspore mother cell is pushed inside the nucellus

(text-fig. 1 and 2). The megaspore mother cell passes through the usual

stages of meiosis. During the heterotypic metaphase a bipolar spindle is oriented

(text-fig. 3) and the movement of the chromosomes is regular. There is a

Text-figures 1-8. Arachis hypogaea L. Fig. 1. Megaspore mother cell X 500.

Fig. 2. Two megaspore mother cells lying side by side Xxgoo. Fig. 3.

Heterotypic metaphase xgoo. Fig. 4. Homotypic division xXgoo. Fig. 5.

Linear tetrad of megaspores xXgoo. Fig. 6. Binucleate stage of the embryo-

sac; note that the upper three megaspores have not degenerated X9g00.

Fig. 7. Eight-nucleate embryo-sac xgo0. Fig. 8. Mature female game-

tophyte; note presence of starch grains in the embryo-sac X goo.

well defined interphase and the daughter nuclei become well organised and

separated by .a cell wall. During the homotypic division both the cells usually

divide at about the same time (text-fig. 4). As previously noted by Maheshwari

(2) and Roy (6) the lower cell of the dyad is comparatively longer than the

upper. This inequality in the size of the dyads appears to be a characteristic

feature of the Papilionate. As a result of the homotypic division four macro-

spores are produced which are arranged in a linear row and separated by cell

walls (text-fig. 5). In no case was a T-shaped arrangement of tetrads observed.

The lower or the chalazal macrospore alone functions while the rest degenerate.

It appears from the results obtained by previous investigators that in most

Papilionaceous plants the chalazal megaspore is functional. Saxton (7), however,

found the third megaspore from the micropylar end to be functional in Cassia

tomentosa,

===

A-NOFTE ON THE. EMBRYOLOGY.OF GROUND NUT O41

The functioning megaspore is usually capped by dark staining masses—the

remnants of the other. degenerated macrospores. It is usually deeply embedded

in the nucellus due to the repeated division of the cover cells. The nucleus

of the functioning megaspore next divides and gives rise to the primary

micropylar and primary chalazal nuclei. It is interesting to note that sometimes

the binucleate stage is reached before the degeneration of the three upper

megaspores. Text-fig. 6 illustrates such a condition. By two-nuclear divisions

an eight-nucleate embryo-sac is produced and a big vacuole is noted in the

centre of the sac. From the two-nucleate stage onwards the parietal cells

surrounding the embryo-sac show signs of disintegration. At the eight-nucleate

stage the embryo-sac increases considerably in size and the chalazal end becomes

very narrow.

The mature embryo-sac is somewhat oval with the antipodal end tapering.

The three antipodals become separated from the main body of the embryo-sac

and appear to be surrounded by cytoplasmic membranes. They degenerate

very soon, as appears to be common in the sub-family Papilionate. The

synergids are pear-shaped in appearance with the nuclei disposed at the

micropylar end and the vacuole below. No filiform apparatus could be detected.

The egg cell is placed between the synergids and extends beyond them into

the embryo-sac. There is a large vacuole at the apical region of the egg

and the nucleus is placed in the denser cytoplasm at the base. The two polar

nuclei lie close together, near the central region of the sac, they fuse later.

The mature embryo-sac as previously noted by Reed (4), is full of starch

grains (text-fig. 8). The occurrence of starch grains in the embryo-sac of

higher plants seems to be of frequent occurrence.

Text-figures 9-16. Arachis hypogaea L. Stages in the development of the

embryo. Figs. 9-15 X4o00:. Fig. 16 xX 180.

As stated previously, Reed (4) has only described the mature gametophyte

of Arachis hypogaea, and has not worked out its development. His account

of the female gametophyte agrees with our observation, but his figures illustrating

the structure of the synergids, the egg and the polar fusion nucleus appear

to give an entirely wrong impression of the organisation of the mature

embryo-sac,

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY) \Volmexge

Fertilisation appears to be porogamous as remnants of pollen tubes were

seen in the micropylar end of the embryo-sac in a number of cases. Before

the first division of the endosperm nucleus the cells of the gynophore immediately

surrounding the ovules divide rapidly; as a result each of the ovules appears

to ibe encased by 4 to 6 layers of brick-shaped cells, one above the other in

tiers, and without any intercellular space. These present a_ characteristic :

appearance. These cells, however, disappear during the later stages of the

development of the fruit and are replaced by a few layers of ordinary paren-

chymatous cells beyond which are noted large cells with abundant starch grains.

The fertilised egg rests for some time before division. The first division is

transverse resulting in an apical and a basal cell (text-fig. 9). The apical cell

divides again by a transverse wall and a three-celled proembryo is produced

(text-fig. 10). Mostly, however, due to the division of the basal cell a 4-celled

proembryo is produced (text-fig. 11). This is followed by vertical division in

the terminal cell (text-fig. 12). The nature of the succeeding divisions could

not be determined. At an early stage the embryo-forming region is clearly

distinguished from the suspensor region by its smaller cells and denser cytoplasm

(text-figs. 13, 14 and 15). It is interesting to note that similar differentiation

of the embryo-forming region has been noted by Samal (8) working on Crotalaria

juncea. The cells of the embryo-forming region divide mostly by anticlinal

and periclinal walls, whereas the cells above divide mostly by oblique walls

and give rise to the massive suspensor which functions as a haustorium (text-fig.

16). The dermatogen is differentiated in the embryo comparatively late. At

this time the suspensor enlarges, its end becomes sagittate and is pushed inside

the groove of the micropyle. After the differentiation of the dermatogen, cell

division in the embryo-forming region continues and a pear-shaped embryo is

formed where tissue differentiation appears to be complete (text-fig. 16). The

cotyledonary primordia appear as two swellings on opposite sides of the

pear-shaped embryo and soon develop into diverging projections, between which

the plumule is located. The suspensor is massive, but comaratively short, its

cells as observed by Reed (4) are large and haustorial in nature. The embryo

is straight and the plumule consists of a terminal and two lateral buds developed

in the axils of the cotyledons.

Reed (4) has described certain stages in the development of the embryo.

He states that after the first division of the egg, the further divisions are in

three planes. Our investigation shows that division in three planes only

results after the proembryo consisting of four cells has been formed, and it

the last two cells of the proembryo give rise to the embryo-

appears that

in the development of the

forming region while the cell above takes part

suspensor.

SUMMARY.

The development of the female gametophyte in Arachis hypogaea was found

to be of the normal type. The chalazal megaspore always functioning. The

mature gametophyte is 8-nucleate and is filled up with starch grains. Fertilisation

is porogamous. A proembryo of four cells is formed. The last two cells of

the proembryo appear to give rise to the embryo. The upper cells of the

proembryo forin the suspensor which is composed of comparatively bigger cells

and functions as an haustorium.

LITERATURE CITED.

1. Guignard, L.—‘Recherches d’ embryogénie végétale comparée I. Légu-

mineuses’. Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot., 6-12, 5-166 (1881).

2. Maheshwari, P.—‘Contribution to the morphology of Albizzia Lebbeck’.

Journ. Imd> Bot. S06.. “x, 247 (1981).

3. Paul, A.—‘Development of Ovule and embryo-sac of Tamarindus indicus’.

Journ. Ind. Bot...Soc., “xvi, 151. (1937).

4. Reed, E. L.— Anatomy, embryology and ecology of Arachis hypogaea’.

Bot. Gaz., xvii, 239 (1924).

5. Reeves, R. G.—‘Development of ovule and embryo-sac in Alfalfa’. Amer.

Jour. “Bot. x9, 2394 (1930): ,

6. Roy, B.—‘Studies in the development of the female gametophyte of

some Leguminous crop plants of India’. Ind, Jour. Agri. Soc., iii, 1098 (1933):

MaevOnE ON. THE EMBRYOLOGY OF GROUND NUT 543

7. ©axton, W. T.— On the development of ovule and embryo-sac in Cassia

tomentosa’. Trans. South Afr. Phil. Soc., xviii, 1 (1907).

8. Samal, K. K.—‘The development of embryo-sac and embryo in Crotalaria

juncea’. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc., xv, 19 (1936).

g. Schnarf, K.-—'Vergleichende Embryologie der Angiospermen’. Berlin

(1931).

to. Singh, B..and Shivapuri, T. N.—'The gametophytes of Neptunia oleacea’.

toca ind, Acad. Sci. B.I., 423. (1935):

11. Souéges, R.—‘Recherches sur |’ embryogénie des Légumineuses’. Bull,

Soc, Bot.. France, 76, pp. 93-112, 338-346 and 527-540 (1929). _ ;

12. Weinstein, A. J.—‘Cytological studies on Phaseolus vulgaris’. Amer.

Wour, Bot., xiii, 248 (1926).

soft.

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA

BAY

Doe eR ATUS A Sah, ules epee

and

Miss K. S. RADHA, B.SC.

(St. Xavier’s College, Bombay)

ANALYSES XL—XLVII

XL Sot 1row.S alt Lack

Serial No. 25.

Locality—Madanpur Beat, Marcra Range, Jhansi Forest Division.

Collected and sent by—The Divisional Forest Officer, Jhansi.

Buff coloured clayey lumps crumbling fairly easily to powder. Powder

Minerals 4°25 per cent

Clay ‘i a oe Paros: .

sand fate ae ie pee OLDS a

Organic debris cP oe ee Oe Ab,

Moisture oe ie a ves O40

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ee ... 91773 per ‘cen

Insoluble in nitric acid ve i 45°O19 Re

Soda (Na,O) Be te Se eee 3%

Potash (K.,O) hat an wa 457 i

Magnesia (MgO) — ee .. 2°048 é

Lime (CaO) ua ss a =, 49650 a

Alumina (Al,O,) ae ose ee Oe ‘a

milica (SiO) soluble. 7... se seo) SOLUS, _

Carbon dioxide (CO,) ... ie f,0 8 23°88 e

Phosphorus (P,O,) a a ine Os dS ni

Manganese (Mn) ae oe ne 20°064 a

Herric oxide (He,0-) %... es ae 1 O2839 -

Moisture and organic matter fee ww. ~4°952 ¥

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of chlorine, 0°046 per cent. water-

soluble orgaric matter, and 0°043 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter.

2. The soil disintegrates when acted upon by nitric acid (sp. gr. 1°42)

jn the proportion of 1 part of acid to 15 parts of water.

3, Analysed by 8. K. Chhapgar, B.sc.

XLI. Common Earth

Serial No. 26.

Locality—Madanpur Beat, Marora Range, Jhansi Forest Division.

Collected and sent by—The Divisional Forest Officer, Jhansi.

Fine dark-fawn powder with grit, and debris—straw, twigs, rootlets, dead

leaves, etc.

Minerals a nae Ses atl!

9:94 per cenig

Clay aie me ic eae? &

Sand eV oe ae .. 68°47 Bs

Organic debris ae ee 3192 es

Humus 0°32 D

Moisture 7a 5

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ..

Remarks:

matter.

Insoluble in nitric acid ..

Soda (Na,O)

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Alumina (AlL,O,)

Silicas( S10, soluble

Phosphorus (h2O.)

Ferric oxide (Fe,0O.,)

Moisture and organic maiter

1. Theearth contains traces of manganese, 0'078 per cent

water-soluble inorganic matter and 0°132 per cent. of water-soluble organic

XLII. Common Earth

Serial No. 40.

Locality—Dudhai Zamindari Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi Division,

Collected and sent by—'The Forest Ranger, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi,

Friable cement-grey lumps with a few rootlets and other organic detritus

Powder soft.

Minerals

Clay

Sand

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Larth (20 mesh sieve)

Remarks :

Insoluble in nitric acid

Soda (Na,O)

Potash (KO)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Alumina (A1,O,)

Silica (SiO, ) soluble

Phosphorus (P,0O,)

Manganese (Mn)

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,)

Moisture and organic matter

1, The soil contains traces of carbon dioxide and chlorine,

INDIA

77°772 per cent

53°084

2. ‘The soil was collected in an area adjoining Salt-Lick No. 25,

3. Analysed by S. K. Chhapgar, B.Sc.

oOL

26°9

64°86

rs)

977

980

1°283

0°444.

0°987

3°040

10°930

1758

0:030

2°250

4°343

4°

alg

0°

64:

2°

per

0 per

”?

>”)

919.

”

se}

NOL

Cente.

13)

bi |

cent

+ ee |

oye)

yg)

b Ie |

b ee }

We)

ee}

>”)

0°115 per cent. of colloidal silica and other inorganic matter, and 0°118 per cent,

of water-soluble organic and inorganic matter,

2. The earth was collected from the neighbourhood of Salt-Lick No. 41,

XLUI, Soil from Salt-Lick

Serial No. 71.

Locality—Dudhai Zamindari Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi Division,

Collected and sent by—The Forest Ranger

Hard greyish and yellowish lunips.

Minerals

Clay

Sand

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi.

Powder soft.

(2p)

34°70

66°43

2°58

0:02

3°74

‘94 per cent.

de)

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AUST. SOCIETY, © Volo:

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) er ... 90°820 per cent

Insoluble in nitric acid ... Nee Vat O74 3o “a

Soda (Na,O) er ea .. 4804 be

Potash (K,O) : ce hoe AZGS -

Maenesia (MgO) a cae ee USS m3

Lime (CaO) oe ee ae Ae 363 i

Alumina (AI,O,) os a pneet | NO E272 ~~

Silica (SiO,) soluble ... gee ae 6l3°416 .

Phosphorus (P,O,) a os se plO ZZ si

Manganese (Mn) Fe ihe ct MONIZS E

Berric oxide (he, Oe) mer. 10 au Oso a

Moisture and organic matter ae Ae of se tice to") i

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of chlorine and carbon dioxide

0:016 per cent. colloidal silica, 0°587 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter

and 0°102 per cent. water-soluble organic matter.

2. ‘ The licks are visited by all animals alike, there is no distinction in

species. Only timings of visits differ. The pigs and blue bulls go early after

sunset to eight in the night, but sambhars are always late frequenters. It is

used after meals as well as before meals. There is restriction as regards

season, they begin licking from October and after, till March. They use it

mostly during the winter, especially after a spell of winter rain, when the

ground is wet.’ (M.A. Gani, Forest Ranger; 10-2-1929.)

XLIV. Common Earth

Serial No. 42.

Locality-—-Richa Mahoti Zemindari Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi

Division.

Collected and sent by—The Forest Ranger, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi.

Bufty friable lumps with rootlets. Powder soft.

Minerals - 3°26 per cent.

Clay ae me ee w. 14°43 Pe

Sand ay we ae eee O3745 .

Organic debris 17 ae cae saree 528 .;

Humus a 1:06 a

Moisture fe ae 1:30 ys

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) bre ... 96°230 per cent,

Insoluble in nitric acid ies OOS F

Soda (N,O) oe oss Yat sooo re

Potash i K,O) ae si oa 05766 &

Magnesia (MgO) ae Ree Fream MUP IIs) ae

Lime (CaO) ae a ne ROM =

Alumina (AJ,O,) a oc Lea) 2 OU NZL hi

Silica (SiO,) soluble _... ee ee OO 5s

Phosphorus (P,O,) ae a srs MONI -

Manganese (Mn) seo i erties Oa F IR) -

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) ./. a se Stns s

Moisture and organic matter ae se ectole) 4

Remarks : 1. The soil contains traces of sulphur, chlorine and carbon.

dioxide, 0°030 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter, and 0°033 per cent.

water-soluble organic matter.

2. The sample was collected in the neighbourhood of Salt-lick No. 43.

XLV. Soil from Salt-Lick

Serial No. 43.

Locality—Richa Mahoti Zemindari Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi

Division.

Collected and sent by—The Forest Ranger, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi,

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA

Buffy friable lumps. Powder soit.

Minerals =

Clay

Sand

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)

Remarks :

Insoluble in nitric acid ...

Soda (Na,O)

Potash (K ,O)

Alumina (A1,O,)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Silica (SiO, ) soluble

Phosphorus (P,O;)

Manganese (Mn)

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,)

Moisture and organic matter

92°210

65°217

3°635

0:888

0°348

0°288

0:091

13°330

0°077

0°021

0°402

ahaa

547

per cent.

ray,

de)

per cent.

rap}

”

””

be}

aby

”

3339)

)

1. The soil contairs traces of chlorine, sulphur and carbon

dioxide, 0°071 per cent. colloidal silica, 0°173 per cent. water-soluble inorganic

matter, and 0°067 per cent. water-soluble organic matter.

2. Same as for salt-lick No. 41.

3. When sending samples of salt-licks the Range Officer of the Lalitpore

Range (M. A. Gani) wrote to say that the droppings of animals which have

eaten the earth of the licks can be easily recognized: they are dusky earth-

coloured and heavier than ordinary droppings. .He also said that the soil seems

to be excreted separately, and further added that he had examined difterent

droppings and found that they carried very little vegetable matter and appeared

to be made almost wholly of the soil in colour and composition.

At our request we were supplied w.th samples of nilgai dung taken from

Richa Mahoti No. 42 Forests.

The ordinary dung (4) of animals that had not yet visited the lick consisted

of light dark checolate-brown balls or lumps.

They contained 8109 per cent.

moisture, and left on calcination 13°607 per cent. of a greyish white ash of

Specific gravity

27313'at.o07C,

The dung (4) of animals that had visited the licks consisted of dull grey

balls or lumps. They contained 3°058 per cent. moisture, and left on calcination

76°039 per cent. of a rusty brown ash of specific gravity 2°545 at 30°C.

On analysis (S. K. Chhapgar) the dungs were found to have the following

centesimal composition :

Moisture

Calcium (CaO)

Sulphur (SO, )

Phosphorus (P,,O,)

Chlorine (Cl)

‘Manganese (Mn)

Insoluble in nitric acid

| Scdium (Na,O)

Potassium (K,O)

Magnesium (MgeQ)

1491 ©

11°964

ESTES)

3°023

4:900

ae a ois 31°466

Aluminium (A1,0,) ee: ms oF 21o/

Iron (Fe,O,) , :

| Silica (SiO, ) soluble

Carbon dioxide (CO, )

11:464

13°456

Neher)

0°090

3°986

0°277

0°612

74°593

1-457

1°394

1S]

13955

7°590

4°206

6°046

“ELCES

0451

0-250

traces

343 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

XLVI. Soil from Salt-Lick

Serial No. #4.

Locality—Danwar Reserve Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi Division.

Collected aid sent by—The Forest Ranger, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi.

Yellowish-brown earth with clayish lumps either yellowish-brown or

cement-grey. Powder soft.

Minerals

Clay

Sand

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)

Insoluble in nitric acid

Soda (Na,O)

Potash (K,O)

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime (CaO)

Alumina (Al,O0,)

Silica (SiO, ) soluble

Phosphorus (P,O,)

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,)

Moisture and organic matter

4°10 per cent.

23°29

65°42

0°70

0°53

2°03

)

93°530 per cent.

76:367

2:476

0°387

0-138

0°336

0°349

13-000

0-019

2°375

4: 390

Remarks: 1. ‘The soil contains traces of carbon dioxide,

hlorine, and manganese, 0:013 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter, and

v-006 per-cent. water-soluble organic matter.

2, Same as for salt-lick No, 41.

XLVI. Common Earth

Sertal No. 45.

bm)

be)

)

”?

”

»”

”)

»)

sulphur,

Locality—Danwar Reserve Forest, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi Division,

Collected and sent byv—The Forest Ranger, Lalitpore Range, Jhansi.

Buffy earth and friable lumps. Powder soft.

Minerals

Clay

Sand

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)...

Insoluble in nitric acid ...

Magnesia (MgO)

Lime. (CaO)

Alumina (AI,O, )

Silica (SiO, ) soluble

Manganese (Mn)

Ferric oxide (FeO, )

Moisture and organic matters

toe

4°77 per cent.

23°74

Teast

0°43

2°81

1:93

”

”)

»)

93°930 per cent.

76°730

0° 239

0-279

4°108

10°470

0:022

(cal |

3°322

»)

”)

”

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of chlorine and carbon dioxide.

2. The sample was collected in the neighbourhood of salt-lick No. 44.

REVIEWS.

i.—THE FIGHT TO LIVE, by Raymond L. Ditmars. Lovat Dickson Ltd.,

8/6 net.

Raymond Ditmars is the Curator of Mammals and Reptiles in New York

Zoological Park and has to his account several readable books on Natural

History. His present theme is an attempt to sketch in broad outline the

struggle to which all living creatures are condemned if they are to survive and

have their being. The right to live implies a fight to live. To each creature

Nature has given the implements whereby it might earn its livelihood. To

the predator the weapons of attack, to the prey the means of defence. Mr.

Ditmars takes stock of this armoury; commencing with the teeth, claws, horns

and weapons of offence of the higher animals, he goes down the scale to

snakes with their deadly fangs and to lower creatures which slay with their

stings. More ingenious than these outright weapons of attack are the methods

of defence employed by the victims. A body covered with bristling spines is

one notable way to avoid being eaten. The device has been adopted by a. host

of unrelated creatures from the bristling porcupine to spiny fishes, crustaceans

and hairy caterpillars. The author describes the porcupine as defending himself

with vigorous jerks of his bristling tail. This is certainly not true of the

Indian Porcupine whose way is to rush backwards at the attacker and so to

impale him with his battery of sharp pointed quills. Armour plating has gone

out of fashion with animals, at present the Armadillos and Scaly Ant-eaters

are the only large animals which adopt this defence. From actual body armour

we come to yet more subtle means of defence—mimicry, camouflage, smoke

screens and poison gas. Mr. Ditmars writes interestingly about these various

devices and of the creatures which employ them. Man has copied and vastly

improved on the means of defence and attack employed by animals and uses

them now largely for the more rapid and wholesale destruction of his fellow

men. He is intelligent. Man, Nature’s insurgent son, defies her laws. His

intelligence enables him to prolong life, to sustain and multiply his unfit, to

adapt himself to any environment. A victor over Nature he becomes

a victim to his own ingenuity.

I1.—THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS, by Frank S. Smythe. Hodder and

Stoughton. 18 sh. net.

Al} Mr. Smythe’s books on mountaineering are good io read. This book

is the story of a Himalayan holiday; a rest after four strenuous expeditions.

It tells of four happy months of wandering in the Central Himalayas and

nowhere in their vast range are the Himalayas more impelling in grandeur.

From east’ to- west the towering peaks fill the northern sky. Within

that grand panorama rise Nanda Kot and Nanda Devi, goddess of the

Himalayas, the great massif of Hathi Parbat, Kamet climbed by the author

in 1931, the snows of sacred Badrinath and Nilkanta, which in its. isolated

splendour is perhaps the most beautiful mountain in all the Himalayas.

Mr. Smythe writes as a mountaineer freed from the thraldom of cities and

happy in his mountains. He has read and now interprets the message of

flower decked valleys and steep gorges, of serene vistas of alp, forest,

snow field and glacier hung peaks, swept with tempest and rain, veiled in

white mists, or gladdened with bursts of sunshine. This is the éssence of

his book. His valley of flowers is the Bhyundar Valley, where grow primulas

so blue that they seem to light the hill sides. Here are asters and gentiahs

and lush meadows carpeted with snow white drifts of anemones, goldén

lity-like Nomocharis, marigolds, delphiniums, violets and blue Corydalis, wild

roses, flowering shrubs and rhododendrons—flower filled pastures set against

a frieze of silver birches and shining snow peaks. Earth has fewer fairer

vistas to offer. Mr. Smythe writes in his book of the Abominable Snowmen

whose mysterious tracks he saw on the snows of Nilgiri Parbat. Th:

= {49

530 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

mysterious foot prints on the snows of the higher Himalayas, seen by . the

author and other explorers, have drawn various conjectures as to the identity

of the owners. Most appealing to the popular imagination is the theory that

the foot prints were made by a mysterious race of mountain men to whom

local legend ascribes the name ‘Abominable Snow Men’. This legend probably

has its origin in Hindu Mythology. Hindu Epic Literature abounds in stories

of warriors and sages who, relinquishing the world and its vanities, retired

to the Himalayan tastnesses, where by fasting and meditation they overcame

the forces of evil and acquired such spiritual power as made gods and men

tremble. It is a pity to strip the meat of romance from the dry bones of

fact. The most likely explanation is that the foot prints are those of bears—

either the Kashmir Brown Bear which inhabits the Western Himalayas or the

Tibetan Blue Bear which occurs in the eastern portion of the range. These bears

keep to the high levels in summer, living on the grassy slopes above the tree

line. The human-like impress of their broad feet in the snow might easily

be taken for giant human tracks. Mr. Smythe’s book is illustrated with many

colour photos of Himalayan scenery and contains appendices of the flowering

plants collected by him in the region, which botanists and horticulturists will

find useful.

IIts—LAC CULTIVATION IN INDIA, by P. M. Glover. Pp. 147 3286

lext-figures, 2 coloured plates, 14 black-and-white plates. Indian Lac Research

Institute, Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar; 1937. Price Rs. 2.

This is a second and revised edition of A Practical Manual of Lac Cultivation,

published by the author in June 1931. ‘During the past six years a great deal

of work has been done at the Indian’Lac Research Institute, and as a result

much information of practical value to the cultivator has been obtained, and

is incorporated in this book, the scope of which has been widened to include

matter likely to be of interest to the educated cultivator. The illustrations

with a few exceptions are entirely new.’

The value of this volume cannot be overstated. It will prove an aid in the

hands of every person interested in lac cultivation.

| aa ec)

IV.—_SUPPLEMENT TO THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF MADRAS

CIPY AND ITS IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD, by E. Barnes: Pp? ace

4 plates. Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum; 1938. Price Re. 1-10-0.

This brochure is a welcome addition to the Flora of Madras City, published

in 1929. It contains a description of 50 species and several varieties not

included -in the previous publication. The author first gives notes for

distinguishing the plants described in this supplement from those included in

the main volume of the Flora of Madras City, and then passes to the detailed

descriptions of families, genera and species. An excellent production.

j- Ee

V.—HINTS ON MUSEUM EDUCATION, by J. C. Basak. Pp. 1-282 (1938).

It is very difficult to review a work which deals with subjects quite |

alien to what one would expect from its title; such unfortunately is the case

with the work under review. From the title ‘Hints on Museum Education’ one

would expect a guide for museum authorities, such as museum curators and

others responsible for the management of museums, regarding the methods to

be adopted for making museums serve for the advancement of knowledge, but

this is exactly what is wanting. In an introductory chapter the author deals

with the importance of educational museums, but his method of treatment

is very subjective, and so many subjects are mixed up in the short compass

of 14 pages that the main issue becomes almost shrouded in details that have

little to. do. with museum education. In a second chapter under the heading

eee

REVIEWS

poo

‘Preliminary Remarks’ are discussed such diverse subjects as the Spread of

Museum Knowledge, Useful versus Ornamental Knowledge, Well-directed

Education, Memory not to be Taxed Improperly, Instances of Useful Knowledge,

Study of Arts and Sciences and Exhibits of the Three Kingdoms, General

Knowledge of Technical Subjects with sub-headings ‘Botany’ and ‘Zoology’,

Mental Hygiene and Child Psychology, Curious or Wrong Notions about

Educational Museums, Mass Education in the Indian States, Children’s Museums,

and Properties of Objects as Perceived by the Five Sense Organs. The variety

of subjects treated in this chapter makes one wonder what the author’s

conception of the functions of a museum is. No one denies the great. service

rendered to education by educational museums and_ exhibitions of industri:

objects in science museums, but the author devotes a page or so to museum

work and several pages to defective curricula of educational institutions,

instances of useful versus useless knowledge, the importance of the study of

arts and sciences, etc. In fact the work appears to be based on such an

imperfect acquaintance with the work of museums either in Europe and

America or even in India that it is very doubtful whether his analysis would

serve any useful purpose. The major part of the book (pp. 57-270) is devoted

to classification of exhibits under headings like Foods, Ordinary Drugs, Medical

Appliances, Houses and Architecture, Stamps and Coins, Mechanics and Machines,

Arts and Manufactures, Physics, Electricity, Some Mysterious Sciences, School

Exhibits, Pictures, Nativities, Horoscopes, Useful and Interesting Information,

Museum Library, Children’s Museums, etc., arranged in 34 chapters. These

accounts are useful compendia of a heterogeneous mass of information on

very varied subjects, but their utility for museum education is very doubtful.

As an instance may be noted the fact that whereas some 98 pages are

devoted to a description uf the properties of ordinary foods and drugs, less

than half a page deals with objects that should be exhibited in the [ood

section, and not a word about Drug exhibits. In a final chapter under the

heading ‘Suggestions for Reformation’ the author discusses certain recom-

mendations of the representatives of the Museums Association as laid down

in their report on the ‘Museums of India’ and offers suggestions for the

improvement of the Indian museums. One of these is to transform the National

museum of India, the Indian Museum, Calcutta, into what he considers to

be an urgent need of the country, viz., a science museum, a technical museum,

a public health museum, a children’s museum and everything else in museum

line all combined into one; such an octopus, the exact functions of which

the author has not set forth, has not been possible either in [Europe or

America, and one cannot understand how such an _ institution could ever he

established in India with the very meagre funds that are available’ for

museums in this country. Even if established, the incubus of such a gigantic

institution is sure to stultify the main purposes which it is expected to serve.

Bie P.

WiE—MORE DIFFICULTIES OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY, by

Douglas Dewar. Pp. 206. London: Thynne & Co.; 1938. Price 8s. 6d. net.

This volume is a seque! to the author’s Drfficulties of the Evolution Theory,

and a reply to Dr. Morley Davies’ Evolution and its Modern Critics. Its aim is

to question the validity of the theory of organic evolution and to set forth

a number of objections to the theory, so coupled with the arguments of its

supporters as to afford the student and the layman some sort of a basis on

which to found judgment as to the soundness or otherwise of the theory. The

_ objections are based solely on scientific ground, biological and palaeontological.

The book is well written and closely packed with information, excellent for

reference,

J. F. ¢,

AN ASSURANCE.

I very much regret if my criticism of Major Handiev’s book

Hunter’s Moon in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, dated 15th December 1934, caused him worry and pain,

and I wish to make it clear that my criticism was not intended

as a personal attack on Major Handley.

R. C. Morris.

[The criticism of Hunter’s Moon which appeared in No. 3,

Vol. xxxvit of the Society’s Journal was an unsolicited contribution

from Mr. R. C. Morris.—Ebs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I.—OCCURRENCE OF TIGER IN NORTHERN SIKKIM

AT 8,800 FT.

I am told you would be interested to hear of a tiger being

killed in the extreme north of Sikkim.

At Lachung {8,800 ft.) in the valley of that name (the eastern

confluent of the Tista R.), the Pipun (headman) showed me early

this month the skin of a large tiger drying on a wall which he

had just shot a little above the village after it had killed 6 ponies.

None had ever been heard of in that region before by natives.

HANFORD HOUSE,

BLANFORD, DORSET, Bie ol Si riRe

ENGLAND. Lt. Colonel.

April 19, 1938.

Il. MEASUREMENTS OF TIGERS SHOT IN THE

NILGIRIS—1925-37.

] wy

| | ee ciel

Sex Place | a ee eee Salis ay Remarks

wk? = 2 oa oF old v

(S) (404 ov o Tt fO 3a

aa H |e | io |O

Female | Mudumalai...| ... | ... | 874" | ...

Male Plateau a eikhe Rooee OAS Mage Ollie all aces,

Male _ Plateau en ae See |, Oo dl ee ede: | eves 1 oe YOUN SINE,

Male | Piateau SSMOLUCE GMO” WORD: Vessels Mase

Female | Plateau... .. | 878" |... |. |... | Recovered stiff.

Male | Plateau aot 073" | 3°57 | 928% 1538" 51”| 27”| Fofeatm 18%, a

| very heavy tiger.

Male Plateau ee) mec galle anton Sk Rak ete) ces

Female | Mudumalai.:./-5’5” -|3’.2” | 8277. |: ... |... | 24”

Female | Plateau Oe NBO (Seg SArs ear |e 2e

Female | Plateau sea oO LOG) SOA OED Ns 28) tae) oe Peasured round

| | | curves, as recover-

ed stiff and tucked

| up—pegs not less

| | | | than 8’9”.

Males | Mudumalai...| 6737712" 142”| 9°37 |...) .. | ©. | Curves 9B",

Male Anaikatti ...| 5710”| 27107 °8"6” | 38”| 47”| 31”| Forearm 20”,

Note.—All measurements taken between pegs except where otherwise stated.

WINCHCOMBE,

KayatTtTi P.O., E. G. P!IIYTHIAN-ADAMS,

NILGIRIS, S. INDIA. Majer.

August 24, 1938,

554 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, SVclimrwe

III.—MEASUREMENTS OF PANTHERS.

| Eons

£31 ° pow

Sex Place = 2 P00 ante sire a Remarks

oS = fe = Sheree

} 3 SOF Ora ene

2 BS Pa lo lS

Female | Poona oe Eh OFZ FOP amelie es

Male Raipur Cat | BL 7) 28298. laOrea min alles

Female | Poona £8 VOC ays Very long tail.

Male Chittoor Lola

Male Chittocr 7°44”

Male Secunderabad 6272

Male Secunderabad TEINS

Female | Mysore 6’10” Me

Male Mysore ji ee 20”| Very old male with

. short tail.

Female | Mysore Pe wx? | O757>| 227.) 187\-Old female:

Male Mysore ASO) A290 O40 ge ne 1G

Female | Bangalore BO 2 BOF 252244 13%

Female | Mysore Adal 200 NS OA ce eral cae

Female | Mysore 467) Gl 675% (2341726 4 166

Female | Mysore ATO BOP NO C5" Wy 2a 7 aloe

Male Mysore 56” | 32” | 774” | 29”\333”|203”| Very old male with

two old wounds.

Male Mysore OL 7 337 a7 02 20 Aaa

Male Mysore BO) B27 o 4 e247) aoe

Female | Mysore AS’ | 4307.) 1676" | 227) °267) 177

—— | Mysore 45” | 31% | -674” |223”| 24”) 15” Sex omitted aia

sumably a young

| male.

Female | Mysore Le OI? a) 3167167 1057) -237 | 287 18a"

Male Mysore PAGES ZOO OSs 237 | 2404) aS Le young males

Male Mysore A507 26%. 511 14-24") 224) ha shot R and L.

Male Mysore OA) BAY | 774% 11265 4337) 218

Male Nilgiris AGT S286 O21 220) 254 oe

Female | Nilgiris AP Sl” Nab S674 E23 4lazomi alo

Male Nilgiris AS” |). 34” | G 10712337) 2071647

Female | Mysore AS” | 287) (O17. |. 237) 27 Oe

Male Mysore BO” | Son 7742 2627395 ieee"

Female | Nilgiris A 200 OAL Me 2a Gl seo aineka

Female | Mysore AS) 29 6" On| 2426571 16

Female | Nilgiris A809 )= B07 G53 | 1284) 284 107

Male Mysore 44” | 30” | 672” | 21”|255”| 17”| Recovered stiff.

Male Nilgiris 49%5”"| 32” | 6’93”| 27”| 31”|203”| Recovered stiff—

curves! 7137.

Female | Nilgiris 4603) eS 6 G57 a 20) ee AiO

Female | Mysore 44% | 28” | 6’ 203337 16%

Male | Nilg’ris 945” 33” | 7°33”/28” (32371204”, Forearm 12”.

Female | N:lgiris 455”| 302”) 6’4” |22$7|25” |15” | Weight 78 lbs.

| |

Note.—All measurements taken between pegs.

Except the first seven on the

list all the above were shot between 1926 and 1937.

WINCHCOMBE,

KALHarr P.O...

NILGIRIS, S. INDI.

August 24, 1938.

fre

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

Major.

MISGELEANEOUS NOTES Dd5

IV.—MEASUREMENTS OF TIGER, PANTHER, BISON

AND SAMBHUR.

I give below further measurements and weights :—

Tiger—

Female — 8’ (Mysore)

Male —9’.1” (co.

Female — 8’ 3” (North Coimbatore)

Male —9’ (South Coimbatore) — — weight = 421 lbs.

Do. —8’ 8” (North Coimbatore)—- — 9’ 1” over curves — skull

Soi aca

Do. —9’ 5” (North Coimbatore) do do. — skull

aioe,

Do. —9 3” (Nilgiris) — 9’ 8” over curves—skull = 144” x 23” —

Circumference of head — 24”.

Do. —8’ 8” (Nilgiris) - Body = 70” ; Tail= 34” ; Height = 38”:

Circumference of head = 34”; Circumferer.ce of

neck. = 31: Circumperence of budy - 37 7 Circum-

ference of forearm = 20”.

Panther—

Male —/7’ 34”

Do. — 6’ 58”

Do. —6’ 4 ”

Do. —6’ 10” —— Weight - 115 lbs.

Do. —7’ 1” » North Coimbatore.

Female — 6’ 2”

Do. — 6’ 2”

Male —/7’ 23”

Do. —7’ — — Skull =9” x 6”

Lison—- .

Bull—Horn spread = 36” — weight = 2438 lbs.” Ae oe ;

Puli— i — 34” — weight = 1966 lbs. \ North Coimbatore.

Sambhur—

Stag—Horn length = 383”; weight = 776 lbs.* ; Height = 60”; Length =

7’ 4”, (North Coimbatore).

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN—Mysor™E P.O., RCo MORRIS.

Se INDIA:

Waly 23, 1938.

V.—METHOD ADOPTED BY LEOPARDS IN HUNTING

MONKEYS.

About 3 months ago, during the month of May 1938, I had the

Ranipur block in the Banda Forest division of the United Provinces

reserved for tiger shooting. Besides securing a magnificent tiger,

.” These bison and sambhur, were quite the most colossal specimens of

their species I have ever seen : especially the bull, which weighed no less than

472 lbs. more than the next largest weight I have recorded to date, nearly 200

lbs. over a ton, |

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

I again had the good fortune of witnessing a very interesting

incident, which does not often fall to the lot of a shikari.

I actually saw a couple of leopards hunting and killing a langoor,

the common black-faced monkey of our jungles. I suppose many

sportsmen before this have observed leopards killing langoors, but

as I have not seen this method described, I thought it would be

rather interesting to send in my observations to the Journal. The

incident took place as follows :—

The tiger mentioned above had killed the previous night at

a place called Bhainsdara, in my block, and a beat had been

arranged. The beaters had been sent about a mile away from my

machan, from whence they proposed beating up the tiger. Stops

had been duly placed and the utmost silence prevailed. Suddenly,

langoors began swearing some distance away. My machan, which

was on the top of a tree leafless at this time of the year, commanded

a wonderful view of the surrounding jungle. Suddenly, through

the clump of bamboos I saw a large leopard appear. The langoors

leapt from tree to tree, in awful panic. The next instant I

caught glimpse of another leopard bounding along below these

trees.

In pursuit the leopards showed neither stealth nor discretion,

theirs was the bold open plan of attack. One of them now jumped

on to an isolated tree and began climbing it with great agility.

One of the langoors observing this, instead of leaping to safety,

jumped down to the earth, and was instantly caught and _ killed

by the second leopard waiting below. Its death-cries were terrible

and very piteous indeed.

I refrained from shooting as I thought that this incident would

be unique of its kind, showing the tactics employed by leopards when

hunting monkeys. The langoor was dragged into the thick bamboos

and there much snarling and growling took place.

The hunt had ended and just as I began to make rough notes

in my pocket-book, the sound of the beat became audible, and my

attention was drawn to the business in hand. I heard a stop cough

and then the rattle of stones, and then before me there stood the

jungle king in all his magnificence, but panting from the terrible

heat. A shot from my rifle laid him low. A lovely tiger measuring

g ft. 8$ in. between pegs. The leopards momentarily came into

view but disappeared in a nullah.

After the beat was over we examined the remains of the langoor,

which had not been greatly eaten, owing to the approach of the

beat. It is very extraordinary that during the terrible heat of a

May day, leopards should be out hunting. I suppose they were

driven to this extreme by the pangs of hunger.

I would be very grateful if other sportsmen would send in their

observations of similar occurrences.

It would be very interesting to know as to whether this is the

normal method adopted by leopards in hunting monkeys. It is a

well-known fact that monkeys in forests live generally in company

with deer such as Chital, and on the slightest suspicion of

danger, specially at the approach of their deadly foe, the leopard,

the chital give the warning cry and the monkeys in their turn

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 557

take up the alarm and jump away from tree to tree to safer

quarters.

MALERKOTLA STATE, IP TIKHAR ALIKEAN, :

PUNJAB. Heir Apparent.

Aaeust 24, 1938.

{Deer frequently associate with monkeys. The explanation is the

advantage they derive from being able to eat the fallen fruit and

leaves which the monkeys drop in their careless and destructive

feeding. Incidentally it is possible that the association is mutually

beneficial, the persistent watchfulness of either being a safeguard

against attack. Blanford speaks of langoors giving out their

characteristic alarm call at the sight of bolting deer: which may

be taken as an instance of the effectiveness of the association between

these animals.—EDs. |

VI.—OTTERS AND CROCODILES.

Some weeks ago I went out to Pushkar Lake, which you probably

know of by reputation.

The tank is sacred and naturally all shooting is very strictly

prohibited. Crocodiles used to abound there living on fish and an

occasional stray cow or unwary pilgrim.

As there seemed to be fewer crocodiles than usual that day I

asked the care-taker of the lake side house where I was, why the

usual numbers were not visible. He told me that they were being

killed off by families of Jalmanus which had recently come to the

lake. Not knowing this name I asked for a description of the

animal. At that moment the heads of a family of otters showed

up in the middle of the lake and the man pointed them out as the

slayers of the crocodiles.

A few days later when I was retailing this tale to some College

boys I was interrupted by a boy from Bundi who told me that he

had actually seen an otter attacking a crocodile.

This is his story. He was out with His Highness of Bundi

and a party late one night shooting fish by the light of a strong

searchlight. These fish—variety unknown—but of some consider-

able size, are apparently attracted to the surface by the beam of

light. While out on the lake their attention was drawn to a noisy

commotion at some distance from their boat. The beam was

directed towards the noise and they saw a crocodile on the surface

mouth wide open making a sort of barking noise and on the back

of the crocodile scratching and biting at the back of his upper jaw

and eyes was a large otter. The boy who told me this story is

very keen on Nature study and knows quite a lot about animals

and birds. He was very definite about all the details he gave

me and said the fight or struggle showed up very clearly in the

beam of the searchlight. They watched the struggle for some time

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, Vola ue

and then the otter dropped off into the water and the crocodile

sank.

It has struck me that these details may be of interest to some

of the members of your society. They are hearsay but with regard

to the story from Bundi I can easily ask for evidence of other

members of the party who were out that night.

Are otters the natural enemies of crocodiles? The number of

crocodiles now to be seen at Pushkar is less than it used to be.

The lake is full of fish of the carp variety who are fed by pilgrims.

They come up in vast shoals to take parched gram and on two

occasions, in my presence, the commotion made by the fish

on the surface fighting for the gram has attracted the attention

of crocodiles.

The first time a crocodile cruising about some 75 yards from

the shoal turned and swam slowly in our direction, eyes just showing

above the water. Some 20 yards from the bank the crocodile

sank and a few seconds later came up with a rush and swirl, mouth

wide open, from under the centre of the shoal not more than five

feet from where I was standing feeding the fish. On the second

occasion the crocodile adopted similar tactics to begin with but

instead of submerging at about 20 yards carried on, on the

surface, and when some 4 or 5 yards from the shoal suddenly put

on a terrific spurt and sailed into the middle of the shoal mouth

wide open.

The tank in a normal winter is about 7oo yards long by 300 to

400 yards wide and is surrounded by temples and bathing ghats.

In flood the area is trebled.

According to the belief of the natives of the place each female

crocodile lays 108 eggs in the laying season—the number of beads

in the Hindu Rosary.

Mayo COLLEGE, C. HOWSON,

AJMER. Lt.-Cok

July 3, 1938.

VII.—A BABY ELEPHANT.

A baby elephant produced as a surprise by one of the Forest

Department elephants in the Naini Tal district, has been presented

to the Zoological Society of London.

Nine months old, after a happy life of adventure, beating in

line with nineteen other elephants for birds and big game ;—being

made a great pet of by the Viceroy’s household, when in his camp

at Kaladhungi where four tigers were shot;—she has now left

her native country, and experiences for the first time in her young

life travel by rail and sea.

She travelled down to Bombay with her Mahout in a horse box.

There, by the kind assistance of the Bombay Natural History Society,

she was put on board a B.I. boat, in charge of Mr. Weeks, one of

the officers, with full instructions as to feeding and care,

)

JourN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Raj PIARI WITH HER MOTHER.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559

Mr. Weeks and Raj Piari got on very well; he wrote

from Port Said to say ‘Everything has gone fine and our charge

is well behaved.

‘She has a walk every morning and follows me all around

the ship. We had a very cool and calm run so she was not

ill or off her food at all, but we certainly have a job oiling her

pads.’ ;

No film star can claim such ‘snapping’ and success, such petting

and publicity; or being such topical news as Raj Piari at the age

of from one to nine months.

Her pictures have appeared in many English papers heralding

her arrival. There is no doubt that she will be as great a success

in London.

On one occasion in a beat for big game a tiger charged right

up to her mother, who although untested for staunchness stood

her ground unconcernedly while her baby, after one look at the

tiger, thought ‘safety first’, and retired for shelter under her

mother’s belly.

Her mother Indra Kali was bought at the Sonpur Mela for

Rs. 1,500. She had not been in captivity long, and no one knew

about the possibility of a family.

She came up to the foot hills of the Himalayas and began work

m the forests.

There was great interest among the Mahouts when the un-

expected birth took place in Ramnagar.

Very seldom is an elephant born in captivity, although curiously

enough, thirty years ago in almost identical circumstances an

elephant was born in Ramnagar and sent to the London Zoo.

From the beginning this baby knew no fear. About the size of

a boar, she enjoyed chasing the Mahouts’ children, who tumbled

round her trying to get a ride.

She has never known constraint, going everywhere with her

mother. When her mother was chained at the Elephant Camp, Raj

Piari was left free. She never went very far from mamma, but at

night, to make sure and ease her maternal anxiety Indra Kali

used to fasten her trunk round a baby leg, as her beloved slept

by her side.

The weaning had to take place very gradually. Mother and

child trumpeted for each other. They were separated for a few

minutes at a time at first, and then for longer periods, until they

_ ceased to fret. Raj Piari was made a great fuss of and_ she

loved it. Indra Kali was given lots of company of other elephants,

and so they parted.

_ Acable and letter from the London Zoo stating she had arrived

in good condition and was eating well and how pleased they were

to have her, puts all anxiety aside,—she has evidently carried her

| 610 Ibs. safely and without any hitch to the Pets’ corner of the

| London Zoo.

_ ARDWELL, jp IBBOTSON.

Nainr Tat, U.P.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

VIII.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF ELEPHANTS.

In March this year I was after elephant in the Kale Valley

in Burma. Having unfortunately badly wounded one elephant I

was not entitled to shoot another on my license.

On leaving my camp to go down country, I ran into a herd

of elephants in kydaing grass on the edge of heavy jungle with

thick cane undergrowth.

Hurrying forward, I climbed into a small tree between the

elephants and the jungle they were making for; the man with

me, a pensioned Gurkha Jemadar, getting up only four feet off

the ground. My object was to have a good look over the herd.

More than fifty elephants passed within five or six paces of the tree

I was in. One elephant only showed signs of unease and let out

a minor squeal. At the last a party of eight elephants passed us,

but I think must have been suspicious as they turned round and

stood round the tree with all heads in; four of them were within one

foot of the Gurkha Jemadar, looking directly at him. He was

waving the barrel of my small rifle within six inches of the eyes

of one elephant, whilst I took aim at the head of another at one

foot-range in case of trouble.

The elephants stayed for perhaps five minutes before slowly

going off into thick jungle. There was a slight cross breeze at

the time.

I wonder why the elephant did not spot us as neither of us

kept still, and one elephant looked straight at me at six feet

without a sign of recognition of my presence. <Any of the elephants

could have pulled us off the tree. Perhaps when an elephant is

very close with its trunk on the ground, it is unable to get the

wind of a man three or four feet up. It is obvious that these

elephants made no use of sight or hearing.

BAKLOH, KF, W. HASWELL iA

PUNJAB. Major.

May 3, 1938.

IX.—'STAMPING GROUNDS’ AND ‘SORE NECK’

IN SAMBAR.

Mr. W. S. Thom refers in his note in- your issue of 15th April,

1937 (vol. xxxix, no. 2) to (a) what he calls- sambar ‘stamping

grounds’ and (b) the sore patch frequently seen on a stag’s neck.

In regard to the first there is no longer any doubt that these

cleared patches or ‘stamping grounds’, frequently to be found at

the base of a tree or in the open as well, are made by stags during

the breeding season.

I have on more than one occasion seen a sambar stag behaving

in the manner described by Mr. F-. W. F. Fletcher, and have also

seen this done by a muntjac (barking deer); and in each case the

hinds were close by. To my mind it is equivalent to the dance of

the peacock and other birds, in fact a display.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 561

The sore patch on the neck of a sambar stag is very common

in South India and the cause is probably glandular. As described,

it is generally to be found where normally exists a whorl of hair,

but in the case of a stag I shot some years ago the patch was

higher up the neck, in the ruff, and the sore was not circular, but

elongated. This may have been of course due to other causes.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN—Mysor_eE P.O., R. C. MORRIS.

S. INpIA.

August 25, 1938.

X.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-HEADED WAGTAIL

[MOTACILLA FLAVA LEUCOCEPHALA (PRZEWALSKI)|

Pe Poiiteo OCR DiS ERIC OR Wilt, Pan TAB:

On April 27th 1938 I shot a male White-headed Wagtail

(Motacilla flava leucocephala) from amongst a number of M. f.

beema on passage near Chhoi in the Attock District of the Punjab.

There is only one previous record of this bird from India, Whistler

having obtained a male at Jhelum on May 2nd 1913 (Ibis 1916,

p. 75). He informs me that my specimen agrees absolutely with

his.

RAWALPINDI, H. W. WAITE, M.B.0o.v.

PUNJAB. Indian Police.

jume 12, 1938.

AI.—EGG STEALING BY KHASIA HILLS CUCKOO

(CUCULUS CANORUS BAKERI HARTERT).

i have been the witness today, May 14, 1938, between the hours

of 3-45 p.m. and 4-45 p.m. of a series of interesting and exciting

incidents at a chat’s nest in my garden. The nest in question is

that of a Burmese Stone Chat (Saxicola caprata burmanica) and is

situated on a slope of grass land some sixty yards from my

verandah, where I command it perfectly with a_ x 30 telescope,

mounted on a tripod.

This nest had four eggs in it, which had been incubated for

about four days. Yesterday, May 13, I surprised a cuckoo on the

ground within three paces of the nest. This was a female bird

and obviously interested in the whereabouts of the chat’s nest, so

I kept a watch over most of the evening of that day in case she

would come to lay, A number of rain storms however came on

and I saw nothing more of the cuckoo.

This morning I went to verify the number of eggs in the nest

and found the same four eggs in it. I had another look into the

nest about 1 p.m. when there were still four eggs.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

As I was expecting the cuckoo to come and lay I kept the nest

under observation, and sure enough, at a quarter to four o’clock

in the afternoon the cuckoo came and settled on the grass slope

some three paces below the nest. I had marked the exact position

of the nest with a twig and of course with a telescope of x 30

magnification I could see every blade of grass at that distance and

the expression in the chats’ eyes as they dived and mobbed the

cuckoo.

Then a long and protracted fight took place between the chats

and the cuckoo lasting on and off for just over one hour !

As I could read the expression of the combatants, it was really

an exciting encounter to witness. I was particularly anxious to

see the cuckoo lay at this nest as it was an open nest, perfectly

accessible to the cuckoo to sit on, and I wanted to see whether

she would sit on it, as she has been seen to do in England, or

whether she would squirt her egg in and fly rapidly off as I have

seen this cuckoo do at an inaccessible nest here. In_ the

former case, sitting on the nest she would close her tail and take

some time to lay; and in the latter case she would spread her

tail and wings and squirt in and be off within three seconds or so.

The grass in the vicinity was quite short except for a few tufts

of longer grass in one of which the nest was situated. This being

so the cuckoo was always in full view when near the nest, and

through my telescope appeared to be but six feet distant.

The cuckoo was obviously searching for the nest, but the repeated

onslaughts of the two chats caused her continually to duck and

open her mouth, so that she could not concentrate on _ her

purpose. I could see her peering into the grass everywhere as

she hopped in her search some way below the nest. It was

apparent that she did not really know its exact situation. This

hopping about and mobbing of the intruder went on for a consider-

able time. It was quite obvious she had no egg in her throat

by the sudden twists of her head and the opening wide of her

mouth at the attackers.

The cock chat was doing most of the mobbing, and indeed

was doing some damage to the cuckoo. I noticed he knocked

a feather out of her back, and soon afterwards I saw the little

hen chat pick it up off the grass and fly off with it!

The hen chat would often go and sit on a twig just by her nest and

I could not make out why the cuckoo was so slow in finding: it.

The battle went on fast and furious, the cuckoo hopping about,

and often when she fell over she had to spread her wing's to regain

her balance. Eventually she flew up onto the wire railings three

or four paces beyond the nest. Another chat now joined in the

attack—a young bird of the year.

While the cuckoo was perched on the railings within such a.

short distance of the nest, the hen chat actually went back to her

nest and sat on it. I thought then that the cuckoo could not

fail to have exactly located it. I could see her peering at the

place. Now she came down and the battle was renewed, but she

Was unsuccessful again and was driven off. She returned and

gradually worked her way up to the nest, losing some feathers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

from the back of her head in the final assault. She got to the

nest this time and dived straight at it, thrusting her head in. and

was off in one second! She had not spread her tail, and it was

obvious that she had not laid. Her action was so rapid that I

could not see whether she had flown away with an egg or not. I

continued to wait, noting that the battle had sc far lasted -20

minutes.

As I thought she had flown off, I left my house and walked

slowly down the garden to inspect the nest. Half way down

however I saw the cuckoo sitting on top of a willow tree some

ten yards from the nest, so I returned quietly to continue my

watch through my telescope from the verandah.

As she now knew the position of the nest, I hoped she would

come and lay. At the same time I knew the chat’s eggs were not

quite fresh and so not suitable for that purpose.

The cuckoo waited some ten minutes on the willow tree and

then she flew down and settled in a small bush within five paces of the

nest and below it. The chats at once began the attack. Soon

after the cuckoo came to ground and began hopping up towards

the nest. She was savagely attacked and was not having it all

her own way. It took her a considerable time to reach the nest

under the continual mobbing, which became more and more severe

as she got nearer and nearer to the nest.

ven she did reach it this time, she dived in as before, - but

spread her tail to half extent, keeping it more or-less horizontal

and not pressed down as in the laying position. She was but a

second at the nest and then she flew off with an egg very clearly

seen in her bill, pursued by the angry chats... __

A pause of pebane five minutes followed. I could not see ihe

cuckoo and I did not know in which direction she had gone. _ She

returned after .a short time and the battle was renewed. She

eventually reached the nest again and dived in with half-spread

tail and was gone’ in two seconds! As again her tail had not been

depressed and her stay at the nest had been so short I considered

that she had not laid.

She flew off this time to a considerable distance without giving

out the bubbling notes that a cuckoo usually gives out after laying.

I decided the time had come to walk over to the nest and investigate

matters. On reaching the nest, I saw one chat’s egg in it!

So the cuckoo had taken three eggs. That she had not laid I

attribute to the fact that the chat’s eggs were some four days

incubated. Several of the cuckoo’s feathers were scattered about

near the nest.

The little hen chat had from time to time given away the

position of her nest, though I cannot think that it was done

deliberately, seeing how fiercely they had both attacked the cuckoo.

At one time she went back and sat on her nest when the cuckoo

was within four paces of it... When she was on her nest she was

just hidden from view in the grass. I was amused to see her

head suddenly appear on one occasion as she looked out anxiousi!y

at the cuckoo hopping up from below, then she ducked her head

and continued to brood her eggs.

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.{SOCIETY, Vol- ee

This account will show how a cuckoo will persist over a whole

hour at a nest, and how she will take the eggs if they are not

fresh ones suitable for her purpose by returning time after time to

steal them. Finally, it may be noted that no male cuckoo put in

an appearance to assist her the whole of the time these incidents

were under observation.

That cuckoos lay their eggs not in the early morning as most

birds do, but in the late afternoon or evening, is perhaps a part

in the adaptation that the cuckoo has perfected against its dupes, for

in the fading light the cuckoo’s egg stands a better chance. of

acceptance. ;

It has not yet been shown that cuckoos eat birds’ eggs

indiscriminately. I believe they only take away and cat the eggs

of those species of small birds they are habitually parasitic on, and

that there is very good reason for this, for by so doing they prevent

their intended fosterers from sitting and hatching off their young,

and cause them to ‘start nesting operations all over again and | SO

provide suitable fresh eggs for them to lay with.

It is hardly credible that a cuckoo would battle for a whole hour

with two angry chats merely in order to eat their small eggs—

the reward would not justify the trouble involved. We must look

for some more cogent reason, such as the one I have suggested.

Sixty yards beyond this chat’s nest and outside my compound

fencing I found a chat’s nest about a week ago.

The chat flew out at my feet, and on looking into her nest I

saw a young cuckoo in the nest and fallen outside two of the young

chats. They appeared to be about six days old and their pale

yellowish colour contrasted with the black skinned young cuckoo

in.-the nest.

It was a curious coincidence in finding the nest at the very

moment the young cuckoo had kicked the young chats out. The

young chats were upside down struggling and about 8 inches

apart. They had fallen down the sloping bank a foot or so.

Knowing what their fate was bound to be if I put them back |

in the nest I took them off and put them in another chat’s nest |

in my garden which had two hard set eggs in it. Even then however

they met an unkind fate for 2 days after they had mysteriously

disappeared.

TAUNGGYI, qT Ry LIVESEY

S. SHAN STATES, BURMA.

XII.—CALL NOTES OF THE BURMESE PLAINTIVE

CUCKOO (CACOMANTIS MERULINUS, QUERULUS}:

I have seen no account of the call notes of this bird and so I would

like to put on record what I have been able to make of them from

observations over several years. The notes are probably very

similar to the notes of the Indian race the notes of which appear to

me to be inadequately, and possibly wrongly, described in the

Fauna.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565

The characteristic, plaintive cadence-call—from which this cuckoo

has derived its name of ‘Plaintive Cuckoo’—is very well known, but

it has two. other distinctive calls that have not, I think, been

described. Then it remains to consider what the meaning of these

call notes are, and by what sex they are uttered.

The first, and best known, is the cadence-call which may be

syllabified as follows:

‘ Tee-tee-tee-tée-tita-tita-tita-tee ’

The first four notes are plaintive, and prolonged over a period ot

about two seconds each, with an interval of about three seconds

between each. The next three notes are double ones, twice as

fast, and with about one second between each—and the final ‘teé’

is rather prolonged and mournful—say over three seconds. The

whole ‘ song’ is a plaintive cadence down the scale.

This is the call of the cock bird telling the hen ee a

very fine fellow he is, and is usually emitted from a high perch.

It may be compared to the ‘cuckoo’ call of Cuculus. Like the

cuckoo too, the cock Plaintive Cuckoo seems to be on tour round

the country, flying from tree to tree—calling—and passing on. He

seems to have no regular beat which, as in Cuculus, suggests that

they too are indiscriminate in their mating.

This cadence-call is often uttered at night—and over long hours,

sufficiently so to annoy anyone trying to get to sleep. After each

call there is an aggravating pause, as with the Hawk Cuckoo, and

one waits for the beginning of the next call, which may come at

any time. It is difficult to ignore it. It is made on dark nights

as well as on moonlight nights, and that suggests that these birds

can see at night—at any rate well enough to dodge the owls.

Sometimes the first two notes only are uttered—and so the call

shortened, but only to be resumed in full later. At the beginning

of- the season, and at the very end, imperfect call notes -are

emitted as in Cuculus—before the bird gets into full voice, and

again when he is ‘sung out’ at the end of the season. This cadence-

call is only uttered in the breeding season.

The second type of cali note is in contrast to the cadence-note,

a call in the rising scale and quite different in every way. It is a

cheerful little call and is made by the same sex that calls the

cadence-call—that is to say the cock. It is uttered all through

the year.

It may be syllabified as follows :—

‘’Tweet-ta-twee . . tweet ta-tweet . . tweet-ta-tweeét ’.

The first note prolonged—over say, four or five seconds, then at

once follows the second part of the call, over one second and then

two seconds. The whole will be seen to consist of three calls and

the interval between each is not regular but is usually with an

interval of some five seconds. Sometimes only one call of ‘twéet-

ta-twéet’ is given. The whole three calls are in a rising scale and

somewhat piercing in character and may be heard a long way off.

A cock bird will emit the cadence-notes and then often switch

Onto this rising and cheerful call. They may alternate these calls-

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Whether the hen bird gives this call note, or not, I cannot Say,

as I am averse from shooting a calling bird to SAtisty my curiosity.

I have not however sheer ed a bird in the brown, barred plumage

make it, and it may be that this call is confined is the cock. bird.

Perhaps the meaning of this call is ‘Here I am—here I am—

here I'am’. That is how I am inclined to interpret it.

I have not heard it uttered at night.

The third note is in the nature of a harsh screech and is nearly

always emitted in the undergrowth or thick cover. It may be

described as:—

“Tchree—tchree—- < . tehree tchree:,

It is usually uttered three or four times, but is quite irregular. It

sounds rather like an alarm note but I do not think it is. Cuculus

does not appear to have an alarm note and these small cuckoos

seem to have very similar habits to Cuculus.

I have heard this screech call uttered by birds in the usual plain.

plumage, but I cannot say whether they were cock birds of hens.

It is the characteristic call however of the brown, barred-plumaged

bird. There is a good deal of mystery about these brown birds

that somewhat resemble the Bay Banded Cuckoo. (Their skins were

mixed up and confused in the British Museum.) It is sometimes

referred to as the ‘juvenile’ or ‘immature’ plumage of. the Plaintive |

Cuckoo, but the only two birds I have shot appeared to be old

birds, and both were females with clusters of eggs in them.

I should like to know if all these brown birds are females—or

not; and also what their age is. I am inclined to think that they

are females and represent the so-called ‘hepatic’ females ‘in

Cuculus. “a

Perhaps this screech call is the call of the hen bird ‘only and

corresponds to the ‘bubbling’ call note of the female Cuculus. “Any

further information on the subject will be very welcome by the

writer and others interested. I have never heard the brown bird

utter the cadence call note—nor the ‘Tweet-ta-tweet’ call. ~~

_ That,. briefly, describes the three types of call notes, but it ts

apparent that there is more to discover in connection with them.

Particular attention is drawn to the call notes of the parasitic

cuckoos since a knowledge of their calls is essential in the fascinating

study of the many problems they set us in their parasitism. It is

not known for instance how these tiny Plaintive Cuckoos get their

eggs into the nests of the small birds they victimise. It has been

suggested that they may hover over the nest and drop their eggs

in, but that would be quite impossible in the case of nests of

tailor birds and warblers (Franklinia)—the commonest fosterers in

this area. Such nests are invariably overhung by the green leaves

they are sewn into and they are moreover in thick undergrowth.

They probably squirt the egg in as I have proved to be the case

with Cuculus, when confronted with an inaccessible nest, but even

that would call for an acrobatic balancing that is almost incredibll

If they are eventually found to put their eggs in with the bill it will

come .as’.a very great surprise indeed—for such. a method has

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

never been known to have been made use of by any parasitic

cuckoo.

TAUNGGYI,

S. SHAN STATES, To RY LIVESEY,

BURMA.

June 1, 1938.

XIII.—THE SHAN BROWN WOOD OWL (STRIX

INDRANEE SHANENSIS BAKER),

This very fine owl was first obtained by me at Sintaung some

fifteen miles to the south of Taunggyi in 1933, at an elevation of

about 6,000 feet. A young one just able to fly was secured and

an old bird which unfortunately had her wing broken by a Taungyo

who struck her with a stick. as she came out of a rocky cave. I

kept these birds in captivity for some time and then Mr. Carrott

of Maymyo kept them.

Eventually the skins were sent to Mr. Stuart Baker who described

them in the Ibis. Bulletin, no. cccxc of Nov. 23, 1935 and named

them suitably ‘shanensis’. The cowl of this owl is darker and the

throat patch of white, more extensive than in the other two races.

Subsequently—last year—I had two more in captivity from the

neighbourhood of Taunggyi where these owls may be heard calling

sometimes up in the crags. After studying them for some months

I released them on the Taunggyi crags.

This year, on February 17, a Taungthu brought two eggs to

me that appeared to me to be the eggs of this owl and so next

day I rode out with him to the place where he had secured them.

As the nidification of this owl has not yet been described the

following account is of interest since it is almost certain that the

nest and eggs found were of this new subspecies.

I rode out about six miles from Taunggyi and at approximately

. an elevation of 4,700 feet we came to a secluded nala which was

well wooded and about half a mile under a limestone precipice. The

. Taungthu ascended the nala till he came to a large peepul tree and

then he pointed out to me the hole some twenty feet up from

which he had obtained the eggs on the previous day. Unfortunately

the parent birds were not at home. I sent him up to examine the

hole again. He reported that there were no pellets inside or

stray feathers, nor could I discover any at the foot of the tree.

We then worked our way further up the nala hoping to catch sight

of the owls. Some two hundred yards up the hill side one of the

owls came back over the nala but against the light, and in the

thick jungle I was not able to make certain of its identification. It

appeared to be a Brown Wood Owl.

The only other big owl I know of in this neighbourhood is the

Fish-owl but this particular locality was too dry for that species

and the Taungthu assured me the parent bird had dark eyes.

The two eggs are beautifully shaped and of even and close

fexture. There is a satin like gloss and‘no signs of excrescences

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

anywhere on them. There are however some faint longitudinal

undulations to be seen. The eggs measure—

5444 mm.

52x44 mm.

TAUNGGYI,

BURMA. T, ReOLIVESENS

May 10, 1938.

XIV.—NESTING OF THE BOOTED EAGLE (HIERAETUS

PENNATUS [GMELIN]) IN THE SIMLA HILLs.

As authentic records of this bird’s breeding in India are very

few I venture to send you an account of a nest I took this year.

My shikari while out looking for butterflies on the previous

day had found a nest which he assured me belonged to a hawk

of some kind which was unknown to him.

On the following day, t1oth May, I went with him to

investigate. The locality I] found was a quiet, secluded nullah in

an extensive Deodar forest facing N.-W. The nest was_ placed

on an horizontal branch 3 feet from the main trunk and 75 feet

from the ground of this very fine Deodar (Cedrus deodara). The

structure was composed entirely of Deodar and the prickly Berberis

sticks with a lining of fresh foliage of Deodar. Littered about

the edge of the nest were a few doves’ and pigeons’ feathers and

a head of each of these birds. Other feathers of the same were

lying on the ground in the vicinity of the nest. There were two

highly incubated eggs of a pale skim-milk, faintly and _ evenly

stippled and blotched with pale rusty red.

The elevation of the nesting site is 6,000 ft.

The bird made little demonstration. After leaving the nest

she flew to an adjacent tree whence she uttered a sharp scream

from time to time.

That this is a regular breeding species in these hills I have

long suspected, having sight records of it on various occasions

during the months April, May and June. To the ordinary observer

it would be passed over as a Kite (Milvus m. govinda), but I

think it is very rare as a nesting species in the Himalayas.

SIMLA. A, E. JONES

July 13, 1938.

XV.—THE NIDIFICATION OF THE BURMESE BARRED-

BACK PHEASANT (SYRMATICUS HUMIAE BURMANICUS).

The nidification of this lovely pheasant—the eastern race of

Hume’s Pheasant—has not yet been described, so it gave me

great pleasure to secure a full clutch of eggs this year from the

neighbourhood of Taunggyi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

On April 6th a Taungthu brought me seven eggs together with

the hen bird alive. I placed it in my aviary, but it had such injuries

to the top of its head from plunging about in the bamboo basket

in which he brought it that it survived but a few days.

For identification I have kept the tail and lower back which

is sufficient in view of the district in which it was secured.

The Taungthu described the nest as having been situated on

the top of a small bank by a hill stream in forest, and from the

locality pointed out to me, which is some six miles from Taunggyl,

the elevation would be about 5,000 feet. The eggs remind me

somewhat of francolin’s eggs in shape, and character and proved

to be very stout shelled. They are like the eggs of Hume’s

Pheasant so well described by Mr. Stuart Baker in his Nidification

of Birds of the Indian Empire. They are however smaller than

those of that bird.

They measure—

47x34 mm.; 45x34 mm.; 45x34 mm.; 45x33 mm. ;

46°3 x 34:5 mm.; 46°3x34mm.; 45x34 mm.

It was a full clutch apparently since they were slightly incubated.

These lovely birds were some years ago to be found on the

forested crags over Taunggyi but since the Forest Service destroy

by fire annually this wooded hill, birds of all kinds have become

scarce and I need hardly say water too. The systematic firing of

all jungle in this neighbourhood and the increase in the herds of

half starved cattle have reduced this lovely part of the Shan States

to a wilderness. Erosion of every kind is going on to such a

lamentable extent here that yearly agriculture becomes more and

more heart-breaking and wild life more and more scarce.

TAUNGGYI,

BURMA. Te ResBIV BSEY,

May 10, 1938.

XVI.—AN EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE

WESTERN HORNED PHEASANT (TRAGOPAN

MELANOCEPHALUS [GRAY]).

Reference your letter dated 27th July, 1938.

The Tragopans were found in the Duber Valley of the Indus

Kohistan (right bank) and brought to the Wali in the Spring of

1938. Three eggs were also brought to the Wali lately. The

Wali of Swat states that there are a few specimens west of the

Indus and that only two specimens have been found in the Swat

River Basin during living memory.

MALAKAND, FE. H. COBB, Major,

mUgust 3, 1938. Political Agent,

Dir, SWAT AND CHITRAL.

_. [Recently, we received three skins of the Western Horned

Pheasant (T. melanocephalus) for mounting from Swat State. As

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. (SOCIETY, Vol, XGe

we were interested to know the locality the birds had been obtained

from, we wrote to. Major E. H. Cobb,-the .Political Agent, for

further particulars. The above letter was the reply.. According

to the Fauna, 2nd Ed. the distribution of this species is given as

‘From the west bank of the Bhagirathi River in Garhwal to Kashmir

and Hazara’.—EpDs. |

XVII-—GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAT HILLS AND

THE SOUTH COIMBATORE DISTRICT—A CORRECTION.

(Published im vol. xxxix, p. 732):

I understand from friends who have connections in the Nilgiris

that the alleged abundance of Fantail snipe in this area has

caused comment and argument amongst a number of snipe shikaris

there.

I based my identification of the Fantail and the Pintail snipe

on the information given in Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India,

volume ii. It 1s possible the identification may be wrong. To settle

any doubt I will send you specimens for identification, but this will

have to wait until next season as I am unable to use a gun at

present and most of the snipe have left. Both of these snipe are

found up here and in the country at the foot of the hills. One

is common the other is uncommon.

As regards the statement that I had seen a mallard I am sorry

that I included this note in the article. The record is unsatisfactory

and lays itself open to the charge of mistaken identity. Mention

of several other ducks was left out for this very reason but thts

one crept in without being noticed. I am quite certain in my own

mind that the bird was a mallard and this led me into a reference

which I should have avoided. If and when a mallard is shot here

I will send vou the skin. |

Monica ESTATE, J. WILLIAMS:

VALPARAI P.O.,

S. INDIA.

April 22, 1938.

XVITI.—BREEDING OF PINTAIL SNIPE (?) IN BELGAUM

DISTRICT.

On May 5th I received information from a shikari that some

snipe had been seen at a certain place in the Belgaum district.

Being rather sceptical of the truth of the report I went out to

investigate and to my considerable surprise saw the birds myself.

From their behaviour they obviously intended to remain in the

locality and on enquiry with the local natives I was informed that

nests and eggs had been regularly found there in previous years,

chiefly in the month of July. Without actually shooting a specimen

it was impossible to tell the exact species.. But as they were found

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 571

on. dry, newly ploughed rice fields I should say they are pintail.

This is borne out by the fact that the first snipe to be obtained

in this district in the shooting season in early September are almost

invariably of this species.

In this case the nests are said to be made in the long grass on

the bunds of rice fields. As in the standard reference books

no mention is made of snipe remaining to breed in. this part of

India I am writing to enquire whether this is generally known to

be the case. There can be no. question of the birds being

incapacitated and unable to migrate since as many as a dozen

were seen in this particular neighbourhood, which incidentally is

an intensely cultivated and well populated one. Since there are

many other such suitable localities in the district there seems no

reason why they should not breed fairly widely in these parts.

BuNnGALOow No. 51, OO, H, DE ST. CROIX.

CANTONMENT BELGAUM.

May 6, 1938.

XIX.—BIRD NOTES FROM THE DRY ZONE OF UPPER

BURMA.

So little is on record of the birds of the dry zone of Upper Burma

since Macdonald wrote of Myingyan (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 1906 and

meads of the Chindwin (idem, xviii, 1907) that I venture to record

some notes made during two short trips through parts of the

Shwebo and Sagaing districts in December 1931 and June 1936.

I have not recorded a full list of the common birds seen. In

December 1931 I marched from Wetlet to Shwebangon and down

the newly canalised area to Thazin at the south end of the great

Halingyi Lake. In June 1936 I spent two days on Wetlet Lake

in Shwebo. On this occasion, the water was remarkably high.

The huge bulrush beds of the lake were being harvested, which must

-have greatly disturbed their commonest occupants, the Yellow

Bittern and the Purple Gallinule. I got the impression the ducks

had not yet commenced to nest. One note recorded below was

made at Maymyo (4,000 ft.) on the edge of the dry zone.

1. Argya gularis. White-throated Babbler.

It was interesting to note that, despite the flooding of large

new areas by the extension of the canal zone, both this species

and Mirafra assamica so typical of dry sandy country, still cling to

the thorn-bushes fringing the canal though cornland stretches for

miles on both sides. One would have expected both species to

have moved elsewhere.

2. [Acrocephalus stentoreus ? Great Reed Warbler?

I thought I saw two or three in the big reed-beds far out on

Wetlet in June but was never sure. I certainly never heard a

Reed-Warbler of any species singing. |

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY. aol.

3. Prinia flaviventris flaviventris. Yellow-bellied Wren-

Warbler.

Many were seen on Wetlet in June, some a long way from land.

Two specimens were obtained and identified by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst.

4. Mirafra assamica. Burmese Bush Lark.

See no. 1 above. Still common in the narrow fringe of thorns

along the canal.

5. Butastur teesa. White-eyed Buzzard Eagle.

Said in the f’auna to be found ‘throughout north and western

Burma’, it seems to be in Burma largely a dry zone bird, though

Armstrong and Davison recorded it from Thaton. The only

place in which I have found it was near Shwebangon (Shwebo) in

December 1931 when I saw several. The general appearance in

flight is very pale. When at rest, the head is very falcon-like

and the white patch on the nape is noticeable. It has a quick

lilting flight.

6. Streptopelia decaocto. Indian Ring Dove.

The Fauna gives its distribution as ‘all Burma’. This is probably

wrong as Oates never got any south of Thayetmyo. It is almost

certainly a dry zone bird. I saw a number in thorn-jungle on the

edge of the canal and near Shwebo. ‘The pale grey tail and yellow

skin round the eye are distinctive characters in the field.

>, Coturnix coromandelica, Black-breasted Quail.

Common and calling all night in. December in crops near

Shwebo.

8. Gallinula chloropus. Moorhen.

One or two pairs on Wetlet in June r921. I found a nest with

one egg in it. All the breeding records of this Moorhen seem to

be from central Burma and_ further observation is desirable on

this bird’s status in the province. In Myitkyina it appears to be

a winter migrant.

g. Gallicrex cinerea. Watercock.

One pair seen on Wetlet in June and others heard. It would

be interesting to know whether this curious and little-known bird

is resident or a rains-immigrant.

10. Porphyrio poliscephalus. Purple Moorhen.

Abundant in the bulrush beds. I found no nests and_ they

probably suffer much at this season from the bulrush harvesters.

11. Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Many on Wetlet on June 21-22, apparently not yet breeding.

They were in full plumage and usually sitting out on the open

water, with their long tails held up in a curve clear of the water.

I could find no trace of a nest. :

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 573

12. Rostratula benghalensis, Painted Snipe.

In June 1932, when the Maymyo lake was nearly dry, several

pairs of Painted Snipe undoubtedly bred there. On June 19 I saw

a male with three small young ones crossing a patch of mud, and

caught a brood a few days later, the male bird scrambling and

fluttering about close to me.

13. Burhinus oedicnemus. Stone Plover.

A large gathering seen on some fields near Wetlet on June 22nd.

14. Glareola maldivarum. Large Pratincole.

Several, apparently with young, on the cultivated land west of

Wvetlet Lake on June 21.

15. Lobivanellus indicus. Red-wattled Lapwing.

A party were seen on June 22nd flying high along the edge of

Wetlet from the north. It is so unusual to see these very sedentary

birds flying at any height above the ground that it seems possible

that they were migrating.

16. Anhinga melanogaster. Indian Darter.

The local name is ‘U-ban’. Only seen in December and not

apparently breeding. (I saw no signs of nesting cormorants and

only Phalacrocorax niger in June.)

17. Pelecanus crispus. Spotted-billed Pelican.

Several on Wetlet on June 21, some of which seemed to be

immature. It is remarkable that no one has discovered Pelicans

breeding in Burma in the last 4o years. Though such ungainly

looking birds, they can turn on their own axis with amazing speed

and rise off the water in three strokes.

18. Ibis leucocephalus. Painted Stork.

The Burma records of these conspicuous birds are remarkably

few. It is not, I think, any longer ‘very abundant in Southern

Pegu’ (Oates) and practically all the records are from the dry zone,

though it does not seem to be known where it breeds. I saw

seven or eight adults and one immature bird on Wetlet on June 22.

19. Dissoura e. episcopus. White-necked Stork.

20. Xenorhynchus asiaticus. Black-necked Stork.

I saw a few on both occasions but no signs of breeding. There

seems astonishingly little on record in Burma of the breeding of

both these large and easily-observed birds.

21. Ardea purpurea, Purple Heron.

A few on Wetlet in June but I could find no nest.

22. Ardea cinerea. Grey Heron.

Saw a very large gathering of 50 or 60 on Thazin in December,

and one pair on Wetlet in June. I can only find two breeding

of4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. Ge

records in Burma (Macdonald’s in Myingyan), and my own in

Henzada.

23. Sterna albifrons sinensis.

I shot an immature bird out of a small party on Wetlet on

June 22. No other Terns were seen and there were no signs sou

any Chlidonias nesting.

24. Tringa erythropus. Spotted Redshank.

A very large. flock on Thazin in December.

25. Bubulcus ibis. Cattle Egret.

Common, no nesting colony seen.

26. Egrettag. garzetta. Little Egret.

Common, no nesting colony seen.

27. Ixobrychus sinensis. Yellow Bittern.

The common bittern of the Wetlet jheel in June and apparently

breeding in the big bulrush swamps, though I failed to find a

nest. Numbers were seen flighting to and fro and many were

flushed from places where they clearly spent their time clambering

from rush to rush. Like the Chestnut Bittern, they are not shy

or crepuscular at this time of year.

28. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. Chestnut Bittern.

Two or three pairs breeding on Wetlet. Flushed one pair off

a very kutcha nest with one egg in bulrushes.

29. Nettapus coromandelianus. Cotton Teal.

In large parties on Wetlet on June 20, apparently of adults.

30. Dendrocygna fulva. Large Whistling Teal.

Several seen, nearly all in pairs, on June 22. The larger offthe

two Whistling teal seems to be mainly a bird of Central Burma.

I have never seen any in Myitkyina and few in Lower Burma, and

the records, what there are, suggest it is a dry zone bird.

31. Anas poecilorhyncha. Spotbill.

A good many seen in pairs and small parties which had probably

not vet commenced to breed (cf. Macdonald, Journal, xvii, 503).

32. Podiceps ruficollis. Little Grebe.

Local name: ‘On-salank’.

Very common: Saw several nests with clutches of two to five

eggs some very imperfectly covered up.

KINGSCLERE. ip K. STANFORD,

April 1938,

(Sh

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

SC SME TS IN=SWALLOWS’ NESTS

Every one is aware of the manner in which cuckoos, well-

known in Europe as in India, claim the services of foster

parents to rear their young, and of the extraordinary complacency

with which the foster parent submits to this form of parasitism.

It seems one of the most remarkable things in Nature that

although cuckoos are often mobbed and driven off by small

-birds such as pipits, yet there is no recorded case of a foster

parent turning out a cuckoo’s egg or refusing to feed the young

cuckoo after hatching. On the other hand, it is believed that in

many instances the cuckoo when planting her egg in the nest

removes one of the foster parent’s eggs. In India there are several

species of cuckoos and the same inexplicable complacency on the

part of the foster parent is observable in all.

There is also the robber, who steals other birds’ eggs from

their nest for eating purposes. I spent an amusing half-hour

recently watching a battle royal in a thorny acacia tree. A tree-pie

was sitting beside a dove’s nest containing two eggs. The

nefarious intention of the tree-pie was manifest, but there were

some. 30 or 40 smaller birds hopping, squealing, pecking round

robins, magpie robins, bay-backed shrikes, king crows, ubiquitous

mynahs_ and even a few sparrows. Curiously enough, neither dove

was anywhere to be seen. The dove is a coward compared with

most birds when it comes to protecting its eggs or young.

Eventually the tree-pie, not daring to take the eggs with so much

hostile demonstration, flew away. discomfited and after an interval

of time the timid dove reappeared and settled peacefully on her eggs.

Then there is the lazy type of bird which commandeers other

birds’ nests. It is comparatively common for certain species to use

the old nests of other birds.. . The kestrel frequently uses old crows’

nests, or in Europe, rooks’ nests. I once found a kestrel lying

dead on the edge of a rook’s nest with two of her eggs in the nest.

It was in a rookery situated on the artillery and machine gun

practice ranges on Salisbury plain and the kestrel had been killed

by a stray machine gun bullet. The common mynah is very partial

to building up an old crow’s nest. Even the peafowl is occasionally

not averse to making use of an old vulture’s nest and the various

species of falcons quite commonly use old nests. But these are

disused nests for which the original builders have no further use.

There are, however, some birds bold enough to thieve the

newly built nests of another species. I watched one day on a

sunny afternoon in England a most amusing contest between a

Starling and a green woodpecker for possession of the newly-

excavated nest hole of the latter. Once the starling was inside the

woodpecker was powerless to evict him.

Recently in India I have been watching the swallows and swifts

in the Siwalik hills 8 miles from Dehra Dun and I have discovered

what appears to be wholesale robbery on the part of the swifts.

There is a large number of bridges and culverts under the road

which runs through these hills and the majority of these serve as

breeding places for the Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica),

576 f{OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL _HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Early in July I had seen these swallows flying in and out through

the arches and had watched their characteristic retort-shaped nests

being constructed, with their rounded egg-chambers lined with

grass and feathers and the tubular entrance § or 6 inches long.

On looking again at these nests after 10 days or so, I found them

occupied in 80 or go per cent. of cases by the Common Indian House

Swift (Micropus affinis), with the white rump, white throat and

chin and square tail. At first I could not understand the meaning

of this. I had never heard of swifts building these retort-shaped:

nests of mud. Nor were these nests built in close apposition as

are usually the swifts’, in no case did I find more than two nests

in any one arch or culvert and then those two were widely separated

from each other. Yet in many instances I actually took the typical

adult swift from the nest by hand and examined it before letting it

fly. I also later examined several of the young birds. Although

I never actually saw the red-rumped swallows at the nests applying

mud, yet I frequently sat on the parapet and watched these birds

collecting mud from a nearby puddle and flying under the arch,

there being no swifts in sight near the locality, and then 1o days

or later found these nests occupied by swifts. There can be no

doubt that the swifts made a habit of purloining the red-rumped

swallows’ nests as soon as they were completed. It seems. that

now, at the end of July, the red-rumped swallows are coming into

their own, for a survey made on 30th and 31st July shows that

new retort-shaped nests are now occupied by their rightful owners,

both young and new-laid eggs being found, and the swifts appear

to have finished breeding in these situations and have mostly

departed probably for villages and cities where more flies can be

obtained. It seems remarkable that a species no bigger than the

swallow itself can oust it from its own nests in this wholesale

manner, yet after a month’s observation I have not the slightest doubt

of its reality. | 7 .

It would be interesting to know if any other ferms of robbery

or vandalism in bird life have been observed.

DeurRa Duy. KENNETH COMYN,

July 31, 1938. Colonel.

XXI.—ON CUCKOOS IN SUGAON, CHAMPARAN DISTRICT,

BENGAL.

It may interest you or your readers to hear that while birds’

nesting in a ‘garchie’ in village Sugaon on the 12 June I[ came

across 6 eggs in the nest of the Common Babbler (Argya caudata)—

4Babbler’s, 1 Hawk Cuckoo’s (Hierococcyx varius) and 1 Pied

Crested Cucukoo’s (Clamator jacobinus)—and 2 nests of the Paradise

Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) with 3 eggs in each—z2 their own

and one of the Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) in each.

The cuckoo’s egg was exactly the same colour as the Paradise

Flycatcher’s only at least twice as large and very much like some

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 577

of the eggs a King Crow (Dicrurus) lays. This is the first time

I have found this bird’s eggs.

This ‘garchie’ seemed a very popular one for I found no less

than 26 nests there—Babbler, Golden Oriole, Chestnut-bellied Nut-

hatch, Purple Sunbird, King Crow, 5 Paradise Flycatcher, 1 White-

browed Fantail Flycatcher, 7 White Eye, 1 Magpie Robin, 1

Tree-pic, 1 Little Minivet, 1 lora, 2 Red-vented Bulbuls, 1 Common

Mynah and 1 Spotted Dove.

By Hawk Cuckoo I mean the ‘Ive feel it’ or Brainfever bird,

by Pied Crested Cuckoo—what we call here the ‘Raimweather’

bird as it arrives just before the rains.

By Indian Cuckoo I mean ‘Who stole that book’

Pekoe’—‘Go Calcutta’.

I heard the European Cuckoo twelve times in my compound last

week—this only the 3rd time I have heard him in the plains in

B23 years!

TURKAULIA P.O.,

B.N.W.Ry., F. A. C. MUNNS.

CHAMPARAN.

June 14, 1938.

‘Want more

XXIL—A COMMENT ON THE NAME ‘BLOODSUCKER’

APPLIED TO [CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUD.)].

Mr. McCann in his notes on Calotes versicolor, published in the

issue of 15th December of the Journal of the Society has rightly

deplored the name ‘Bloodsucker’ applied to the Calotes lizard. This

misnomer might have originated through a popular superstition

prevalent in many parts of India. I have met with this superstition

in such distant parts of India as the Malabar district in Madras

and the Birbhum and Burdwan districts of western Bengal. Com-

mon people believe that the Calotes lizard has the power of

sucking a person’s blood by simply looking at him. It is also

believed that the Calotes changes into red colour due to the effect

of the blood it has absorbed by staring. This superstition is the

cause of very great persecution.

As to the name ‘Chameleon’, I know from personal experience

that the tendency to apply this name to many members of the

lizard family is common in other parts of the world too. South

American Iguana lizard skins are known as Chameleon skins all

over Europe and North America.

The habit of frequently ducking its head has brought further

misfortune to the Calotes. I had noticed that the ‘uneducated

Mahommedans in Bengal never fail to kill a Calotes, when met with.

When killing is impossible they throw at least one stone at it. On

my enquiring, the following explanation was offered. The Prophet

while flying from his enemies took shelter in an old well. His

pursuers on approaching the well saw a Calotes lizard at the edge

ducking its head. They interpreted it as an indication that some-

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL_HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

body was hiding there. I do not know whether this belief exists

among .the Mahommedans in other parts of India.

Kuyar. Bompay 21. | , BL BASE

April 24, 1938.

XXIIL.—EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE MOTH.

NORRACA LONGIPENNIS MOORE (NOTODONTIDAE).

I have lately taken a moth that appears to me to be a specimen

of Norraca longipennis, Moore—Hampson’s vol. 1, page 137.

The range of this species is given as Ceylon, Penang. Would

you kindly inform me if the range of this moth has been extended

since the publication of the work?

RAJGHAT CONCERN, A. C. HARMAN.

P.O. BETTIAH, | ey ee i

CHAMPARAN.

june 15; T9333.

| The specimen referred to by Mr. A. C. Harman was received

and on examination was found to be a-male-of N.- longipennis.

There are also a. male and female of this species in the Society’s

collection, collected by Mr. T. R. Bell at Belgaum, on the 2oth

October 1906 and 15 September 1910 respectively. —Eps. |.

- ~h¥ wet we Nl

XXIV.—DESCRIPTION OF THE LARVA OF ETERUSIA ~

(SORITIA) LEPTALINA KOLL. (ZYGAENIDAE}.

(With a plate),

I have sent photos of a female and larva of the Zygaenid moth

Eterusia leptalina. The moth (imago) is common here but I do not

think the caterpillar has been previously described. It is umber

brown in colour, covered evenly all over the upper surface with

hairs of 8 to 10 mm. in length.

Col. E. A. Glennie and~I found the larvae feeding, singly, a@

the foliage of the ‘Raspberry’ (Rubus macilentus), order Rosaceae.

The cocoon is of a peculiar flat surface; the silk ‘isabelline’ and

the whole structure has the appearance of a fungoid growth.

SIMLA. A. E. JONES

November -3, 1937.

{As far as we are aware nothing is known of the life-history

of this moth. It occurs in the Himalayas; Sylhet; Bernardmyo,

Burma. The life-history of an allied species was described in vol.

xvill, p. 430 of the Journal—Heterusia magnifica Butl._—Eps. |

‘(jou ) euryeidoy ersn1017q

‘ 90S “ISIH “IVN Avawog ‘Nuanof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 579

XXV.—DISTRIBUTION OF STERNOCERA. NITIDICOLLIS

C. AND G. (BUPRESTIDAE).

Maxwell Lefroy says (Indian Insect Life, page 330): ‘. . . they

(viz. Sternocera nitidicollis) are rarely found outside the hills and

forest areas, being occasionally captured...’ In this connection,

it may interest your readers to know that I have often come across

these beautiful beetles in many parts of North Gujarat which borders

on the Rann of Cutch. These beetles are very partial to the Ber

tree. Professors Asana and Sutaria have also obtained a fairly

large number of these beetles from the Ber trees in the vicinity

of the Gujarat College and adjoining fields. These beetles are

very hardy animals and have laid eggs in the laboratory.

VHMEDABAD, H. G, ACHARYA, ¥F-.z.-s,

NORTH GUJARAT.

June 29, 1938.

[There are three specimens of S. nitidicollis C. and G. in the

Society’s collection, all from Southern India; Anarapura,

Trimulgherry and Madras.

Perhaps the commonest species is S$. chrysis F. It occurs

almost throughout India. There are specimens in the Society’s

collection taken at places as far apart as Afghanistan, Nepal and

Madras. McCann has found it to be not uncommon in the hills

round Mt. Abu.—EDbs. |

XXVI.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF BUTHEOLUS

MELANURUS KESSLER.

On June 26, 1938, Dr. E. W. Hayward, Principal Medical

Officer, Jodhpur, sent for identification a specimen of Butheolus

melanurus Kessler. The known distribution of this scorpion within

the limits of the Indian Empire is at present: ,

Northern Baluchistan (Maynard and MacMahon); Waziristan :

Sewa (Caius); Punjab (Kraepelin); Rajputana: Jodhpur (Caius) ;

Ahmedabad: Shevgaon (Caius).

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, }. F. CAIUS.

BomBay.

July 6, 1938.

XXVIT.—GLYRICIDIA MACULATA AS A SHADE TREE

FOR. TEA.

I have just been reading Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Blatter

and Millard. I was very interested in the meaning of the word

Glyricidia—rat-destroying. I shall be grateful if you would let me

know if there is any further information available as to this alleged

property of the seed of this tree. I should be particularly interested

to know whether there is any information as to how this rat poison

IU)

580: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AISD. SOCIETY, Vol. XE

should be prepared. Do the seeds have to be cooked or ground

and mixed with some other bait, or will rats eat them raw.

Glyricidia maculata was introduced here some eight or ten years

ago and tried as a possible alternative to the Dadap, Erythrina

lithosperma, as shade and green manure combined, tor tea. The

original seed sent to me came-from. Java. -It has not proved.to

be a serious competitor of the dadap in usefulness as it is very

much slower growing and, in our climate, most plants drop their.

leaves in the dry season from February to April just when the

shade is most required for the tea. In addition it requires a great

deal more attention and does not give anything like the same

weight of loppings as the dadap. When planted from seed or

cuttings the plant has an irritating habit of sending up multiple

stems from the base each year as soon as the pre-monsoon rains

arrive, and these have to be pulled off if a single stem tree and

not a bush is required.

Apart from these drawbacks, the tree is hardy and easily struck

from cuttings. Like the dadap it will strike from large branch

cuttings of considerable length and size. It also stands up to

continual lopping without any trouble.

The young trees here started to flower and seed some five years

from planting both from seed and cuttings. The flowers generally

appear in the dry weather towards the end of February and March

about the same time as the trees begin. to drop all their leaves.

This estate is some 3,600 ft. high and the average rainfall is.

about 120 inches per year. The South-West monsoon is very heavy |

giving about 30 inches a month for June, July and August. More

or less light showery weather continues until the beginning of

December. There is little if any rain in January, February and

March and from the end of March until the monsoon breaks again

there are heavy north east thunder-storms.

Monica ESTATE,

VALPARAL P.O., J. WILLIAMS.

S. INpIA.

May 27, 1938.

| We have no information on the subject of the use ef the seeds

of this tree as a rat poison.—EDs. |

XAXVITI.—GENERAL FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES

IN SOUTH INDIA.

Meee (ee ies

As recorded. in my note no. 25 published in the Journal of

December 15, 1937 most.of the species of Strobilanthes in

this area flowered in 1936-37. The plants have died and disappeared

so that a stranger visiting for the first time would conclude that

very few Strobilanthes grew here.

Last month I found a single plant in flower in a swamp on the

edge of a jungle belt on this estate. All the other Strobilanthes

in “this swamp had flowered and died last year. Specimens were

sent to Mr. P. N. Mayuranathan, the Botanist of the Government

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Banana.

Ina

escence i

inflor

iated

ascla

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 581

Museum, Madras who has identified the species as Strobilanthes

lundus.

Monica ESTATE, ,

VaLpaRAI P.O., J. WILLIAMS.

S. Iyp1a. |

April 22, 1938.

XXIX.—A FASCIATED INFLORESCENCE IN A BANANA.

(With a photo).

A very interesting phenomenon was noticed for the first time

at Virarajendrapet, Coorg, in the banana variety I[Xali, locally

known as ‘Mara Bale’ (Musa paradisiaca, Linn., var., Kali,

K. C. Jacob’) the axis of which, after normal bunching, fasciated

and produced a dozen different ‘hearts’ (cone-like inflorescence) of

pistillate flowers developing into innumerable diminutive fruits while

the original staminate ‘heart’ remained as such. The specimen is

preserved in the Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, Kee. | ACOB,

COIMBATORE. Go AGosieelas:

April 7,1938

XXX.—A NATURAL HISTORY TALE.

Scene: Honnametti Estate, Billigirirangans.

Planter’s wife receives complaint from local Sub-Assistant

Surgeon.

S.A.S.—‘Madam, will you please report to Mr. M. that yesterday

evening my wife was struck by a wild boar’s tail while entering

the ladies’ retiring room near our Quarters’.

P.W. (surprised, bearing in mind the ridiculously small tail pig

carry)—‘Really, I should have thought that hardly possible’.

S.A.S. (slightly aggrieved)—‘Madam, I can assure you that my

wife was struck by the tail of a wild boar’.

: P.W.—'Very well, I will inform Mr. M.; I saw a sounder of

_ pig myself crossing the road near the dispensary a day or two

ago’.

S.A.S.—Pig, Madam?! My wife was struck by a wild boa

constrictor’.

HonnaMeTti ESTATE,

ATTIKAN—Mysor_E P.O., ke C.. MORRIS,

S. INDIA.

August 22, 1938.

s ihe Madras Agricultural Journal, vol. xxii, no... 2, p. 41.

PROCEEDINGS.

BomBay NaturaL History Socigty.

A meeting of members of the Bombay Natural History Society

and their friends was held at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on

Thursday the 28th July, 1938 at 6-15 p.m. Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius,

S.J. presided.

‘Lhe Honorary Secretary announced the election of the following

twenty-eight members since the last meeting held on the 24th

March, 1938:—

Mr. R. Ek. Hawkins, Bombay; Mr. R. T. Ashby, r.a., Peshawar; Mr. Mark —

A. Wynter-Blyth, M.a., Simla; The Officer-in-Charge, Central Agricultural Library,

Hyderabad, Deccan; Mr. S. F. Christie, Bombay; H. H. Phe Maharana of

Danta State; Mr. Paul de Launey, Bengal ; Mr. John Abel, Peshawar; Raja

Bahadur Jawahir Singh ot Sarangarh; Raja of Mahmudabad, Mahmudabad,

U.P.; Mr. N. H. Menesse,-1.s.£., Hyderabad, Sind; Mr. R. W. Aitken, Bombaye

The Hon’ble Lt.-Col. Sir 5. Hissam ud Din, Peshawar; Maharaja of -Patna

state; Mr. A. B. Barrett, Sylhet, Assam; Mr. Derek, Headly, Palestine:

Rev. J. W. Ruddell, Bombay; Mr. F. W. Goodwin, Simla; Conte Georgio

U. della Gherardesca, Italy; Mr. E. C. Ormond, Calcutta; Mr. G. W. Gemmell,

Calcutta; Mr. P. Burnside, B.r.s., Rangoon; Mr. S: YT. Mosés, Barodas

Mr. J. I. Alfrey, Bombay; Mr. Rk. W. YV.. Palmer, Rangoon; Mr. Oscar

Lindgren, Kalimpong; Mr. K. H. Fraser, Tellicherry; Mrs. Mehra K. A;

Lalkaka, Bombay.

SENSITIVITY IN PLANTS.

Dr. Bharucha, Professor of Botany, Royal Institue of Science,

Bombay, in the course of his lecture pointed out that though

plants seem immobile and inert and, therefore, unlike animals

with their reflex movements and pulsating organs, yet a_ plant

is as sensitive to its surroundings as an animal. By a series

of slides the lecturer showed how the plant is stimulated or

depressed on subjection to different stimulants or drugs. Even a

passing cloud records its impressions on the plant. Just as an

animal or man is fatigued with work so also does a plant show

the effect of work by finally ceasing to function. Not. only thig

but it even betrays the expiring struggles that an animal shows

before its death. In short, the lecturer showed, that a plant is

as sensitive to light, temperature, humidity, drugs, chemicals and

food as the animal is. As a matter of fact the various phenomena

exhibited by plants are due to this characteristic of the plant,

namely its high and animal-like sensitivity to changing environment.

The opening and closing of flowers is a phenomenon brought about

by the different degrees of sensitivity of flowers to light and

temperature. Certain plants like the ‘Four O’Clock plant’ opens

its flowers at four o’clock in the evening only, while others like —

the Water-lily open only about eight or nine in the morning. The

movements of the leaves which droop down on a hot summer’s —

day in the afternoon or which close down at night time, are again

due to the same reason namely high temperature. Dr. Bharucha

concluded by showing that the plant is just as apt to be stimulated

or depressed as an animal and that it experiences pain and pleasure

or fatigue and requires rest like any human being and that it is

capable of all the nervous reactions ‘felt by an animal.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18, CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS: P. M. D. SANDERSON, S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY

ea By. Half bound.

abe Il.

“About 320 4 pp. With 12, Coloured Plates and

numerous: Black and White Plates.

é Price te Members: who: have not purchased

x oN os. bk oe Ff 1-15. Re 23 ©

Members who have purchased one |

of the above Volumes Pet O- 0=Rs. 20

-~ Menibers” who have Seed :

both the above Volumes ... 4 1- 5- O=Rs. 17

Price to Non-members. See Two. Guineas= Rs. 28

Packing and postage extra.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR.

ALBUM.

= Coloured illustrations: of 196 Common ‘Indian Birds ©

ae oy bound in soft rexine as a Volume of reference.

- Size 1lx = inches.

Price to Members — Rs. 32 ) Postage

and

<< _ Non- members. ... Rs. 40

Packing extra,

ne Bombay) Natural Fitors Society, it

oe o @pello. Street, BOMBAY.

The late Rev. E. BLATTER, — F

and

W. S. MILLARD. “a

With 31 Coloured and 37 Black and Ww hite stration

Extract from Introduction _

| : S pals book consists of the description in pop

language of some of the Beautiful Indian Tree

which 31 coloured and 37 black on Soe illustrat n

are given.

constantly being made as to the correct names of t

trees sO conspicuous when in flower, and it is hop

: that it will prove of assistance to those who take

| interest in these beautiful trees and wish to know n

! It has been prompted by the many inquiries —

only their correct names, but also something abo

their history.

These trees are not all indigenous « as s the majority h

been introduced into India,

Price to Members Rs. 10 | me

| } Postage ex

Price to Non-members Rs. 15 ) .

| Apply to: a

| The Beet Natural iene Socie /

ee acon

aw tien

Pf a ¥

N oe: History SOCIETY.

poe ‘PUBLISHED BY a

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

es Apollo Street, Bombay.

= pee Lonpon AGENTS :

DAVID NUTT. (A. G. BERRY)

(212. SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

_ LONDON. Wc 2 eS

Game Birds of India, Vol. Il. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards and Sandarcueem

Rs. 850.

~overs the period from the date of their election up ay the end of t

THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICAT

Birds. 3 ee

(Price to Members Rs. 35).

ist Edition. - Rs 42. |

( Price to Members Rs. 30).

‘Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, Ist Edition, ~ Rs.

(Price to Members Rs. 17).

Set of Game Bird Plates (19), Vol. 11, ; Rs. 13

(Price to Mewbers ‘Ies. 10).

Bird- Life in India, by Capt. 1 eee thy ad BATES, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Rs.

(Price to Members Rs. 3).

Common Indian Birds, Illustrations in colour of 196 Common Birds of Indi

Plains, an album. Rs. 40

(Price to Members Rs.32),

indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by E. C. SruaRT BAKER,

(Price to Members Rs. oh:

: Snakes.

Identification of Poisonous Snakes— FREY : Sah

Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x 40”. aot Oe Ree

Folding Pocket Chart. . :

Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.

Miscellaneous. s =

Scme Beautiful Indian Trees. Illustrated with coloured and black and wh

plates. Rs.

(Price to Members fs. 10).

Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring isirictaes -

Sir REGINALD SPENCR, KT., F.Z,S., and S, H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S. Witin

* colour and black and white illustrations. Rs. ae

(Price to Members Rs. 1-8).

ddentification of Indian Butterflies, by BriGapizeR W. H. Evans, C.S.

C.1.1., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated, Rs. 1

: ( Price to Members Rs. 10). ie

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog rom Domestic Dog or Jackal,

etc. Rs. 2-8 ~

A List of indian Butterflies, by Cor. W. H. Evans. ~ Rs.

‘W ood-Destroying White Ants. of the Bombay Pyoddency:

ASSMUTH, S.J.

Back Numbers of the Journal.

‘Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. S

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee ol 3

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual

subseription of Rs. 25. : ae

he subscription of members elected in Geiger: November and December

following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. {.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such membe

shonld pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay t

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0—to the Society

Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the su

of £2-0-6- should be paid annually to*the Society’s London Bankers—

ave tal Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, Penge E.C. es

NOTICE

THE EDITORS MUCH REGRET THE DELAY

IN THE PUBLICATION OF THIS NUMBER OF THE

JOURNAL: THIS WAS UNAVOIDABLE OWING TO

LABOUR TROUBLE AT THE PRESS.

CONTENTS OF VOLOCME XL, No. 4:

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA, Part VI. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D.sSe.,

F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FeN.I. (With one coloured plate and 2

ERAT ILIOLL ICS) Pete ene ae all Haast oDeiee Csaaieeite GaSe aes Uiae ands VER REREAD Led bob eee eae

THE Two-HoRNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS (Dicerorhinus sumatrensts)

ibys dheodore Hubback. (W218 PlQLES) ccssccncansssvwovascesserssscnscccesore

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ASIaTIC TwoO-HORNED RHINOCEROS. By

SS ey ERUACT EDR OANDEZ CGE vgy as sSeatcen sanegan Seem adics. adi odvsinea cveenescseceslewes

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE, Part WAe By Salim Ali and

SENT ety ald TEN EO GLLTICUIN, s Qraetiaceiets dinrerts.cis a'gne4'e Bem use ine Paleo ted wone cerns tees ecteadieerats de

NOTES ON THE DISEASES OF TROUT AT THE MAHILI HATCHERY— See

(eUNIAB). By: Dr. Hamid Khan, M:Sc... LE.B., Ph.D. (With a

(ENCED) cideseeni NS AO, SS Sree an ae aA ny MDE wr heer ACY See ny One Pe EOE Te ah ane Pir

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF THE SHAN STATES, BuRMa. By Capt. W.C.

CO OULU aa tor ae AeemioMirpeann ese. Lara Mtl aearawane aunts nuaieusmnes Less cesas debetna.

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA. By Major R. S.P Bates, M.B.o.U.,

My QURORPUQUES) temtoritins silo east eis cece. Wawcatoas aetveh ates en See cage ie poakeeeyaasirs

THE EaARty StaGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part II. By D. G.

SSC VCC UO IDL Omaha RRS eats ancdee we red ae cat ys, o Puata test Uae ye eweu.cestoweawess

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA. By Rev. J. F.

CATS HES ode cole ToS nunca tude ot ine aa sis S o.es darsieen veg Gone suis Slocmomutoane viene as cave wadee

BOMBAY’S FISHING INDUSTRY. By Dr. S. B. Setna, M Sc., F.R M.S.,

THE HABIrsS OF THE Conte EARWIG OF ANNAMALAINAGAR,

Fuboreltia stali (Dohrn). By K. B. Thiagarajan, B.Sc..... ...........0.

HARTH-EATING AND SALt-LICKING IN INDIA. By Rev. J. F. Caius,

Sele .S.,. 0d Miss: Ke. 5.7 Radha) MSC hic sise..cecceessieeseoes bos ceteae deck

REVIEWS :—

1. Pageant of Wings. By Douglas Gordon ............ Ae ieee es

2. Treesand Men. By E. Hughes-Gibb ..... 0... cccccccccccessceeseee

3. Le petit peuple des ruisseaux. Par Marcel Piponnier.........

4, The Annual Report and Balance Sheet of the Ceylon Game

and Fauna Protection Society for the Season 1937-38.......

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Why Flephants visit Salt-licks. By T.. Hubback...............,

II —The Mating of Elephants. By J. Gonzalez ................. thie

HI.—Behaviour of Gaur or Indian B'son (Aibus gaurus). By

oN SUL dss ey ened we ge ath cile sy saaninmener een ser eae etna

IV.—Derivation of the name Seladang. By C. Gimson...............

We-- ore Neckin Sambar. By WIS. Domi ccescccsarcestoe sas

VI.—The Record Thakin Head. By F. Wooley Smith, (With a

LOOM E TA SSO OCT ot CT oR cee een een ee ee

VII.—A Tree won (Vandeluria oleracea) in the rest of a Spider.

Ve lbh erp NCHA AVomEe ZS tects adsecinss venta rove tod ivies sanscte a...

VIII.— Number of young of Long-tailed Tree- rouse (Vandeluria

OLEF ACEO. Wy TerG. ACWATV 8, F757 Soc. ..csscsebseeelestsersco.,

IX .—Leopards from _v-cinity of Naga Hills. By G. H. L.

AV Teese ess eM UN miesats a ec te roses dae sae Nerstis sate sae ede Mawes ee ne

X.—Measurements of Tigers shot in the Naga Hills. (A correct-

1OU)s sy Gl. ie. Marshall... c.cs0 septa eee sei coastline Cees nan een

JUL 13 1939

ii CONTENTS OF Vor XL, Nowe

XI.—Migration. and Methods of Bird Snaring in North East

Arabia. By Mrs. H. R. P. Dickson. (W7th 5 text figures)

XIIl.—Birds observed in and near ‘Tambaram, South India. By

Mrs. ACM Baraess..5...5 rotineuWMiset cece ls “oe Noee gteedwetan ec Wesmemtame

XIII.—The Distribution and Nidificaticn of the Indian (Puja

Raven (Corvus corax laurencet une) in Sird. By K.R.

ates "# Zi. MM BLO sU ee 5c. ee watt bod eae ode eee eae eee

XIV.—A Note on the Resident Owls of Sind. By K. R. Eates,

BIZSS. MCB. Gs U ciewen sine r eo evans ates amen nk aan ee eee

XV —Viiltttres feeding at night. ~By T..R>Livesey..: os 7 tue

XVI.—The Status and Nidification of the Persian Bee-eater

(Merops persicus persicus Pall.) in Sind. By K. R.

WAtes, FIZ Se. MD. BO LU esc oae eis ce sec tiove ceed cee nese aeeen eee eeeEe

XVII.—Haupt and Habitat of Pitta c. cucullata Hartl. in West

Bengal. “By S.C. Laws CWewa vie... ee

XVIII.— On the occurrence of the Indian Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio

p. poliocephalus) in Chitral. By H.S. Stansfeld.............

XIX.—On the occurrence of the Banded Crake (Aallus e. amurop-

tera) and the Malabar Wood-pecker ( A/ac opicus 7. hodg-

sont) in the Billigirirangan Hills, S. India By R Ct.

IM GTEISS R.Z5S PARC IS ois thes eRe. ole nae ec ee

XX.—The Breeding of the Indian Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata

infuscata\ in the Laccadive Islands. By F. N. Betts.......

XXI-—Migration routes of Geese. “By R.E: Parsomis.....................

XXI.—Cotton Teal (Vettopus coromandelianus) at Nas.:k. ByC. J.

FAG a. heccscacsceneas tt eeacsosnenen cosmats sacs cess scaaeannr mab ena cea

XXTIl — ‘Fish of Greatace = “By Peter Mrehinel. 2. pene eee

XXIV.—On the nesting Habits of the Gourami (Osphronemus

Poramy WGacepede).< By S. JOUCS. cicrctesq«srus tenets cocee esas

XXV.—Fresh Water Fishes of North Gujrat. By H. G Acharya,

FEZ 1S oka vi sn Beek octane tow eb tense Mae ete eee ene ee eee

XXVI.—A case of poisoning from the bite of a spider. By R. E.

PAYS CTS) usc ieeseb eGo aboat ocenetatiowonn Gar eee eesioweneck UScmme cee sass eee

XXVII.—On the occurrence of certain Butterflies at Nasik. By Cor

Ria@ isis ds tab eeagsethee deo ok hee on Cohac aah caeeaee oon oes edaone sel inaneeneen

XXVIII.—An improved Cellophane wiag mount. By D. G. Sevasto-

NuilO, "FRGHIS ia. .csl- =. cee hs sc eased sine ese hee yeaa ness teedeaeene ee

XXIX.—The Original Home of the Coconut. (A correction). ot)

PN: debbie aces” eSBs SUE PaaS Rae aro Nese eka cee Mone. nen See

Roope ei eee sb ba oe eal oles Mec NOU Rants Be aE ee

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE GOONCH

Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton ).

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Naturai History Society.

1939. Wore ely, No. -4:

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA!

SUNDER LAL Hora, D:Sc., F.R.S.E., ¥.Z.S., f*.R.A.5.B., F.N.I.;

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plute and two text-figures).

Continued from page 366 of Vol, xl.

VI.—THE GOoncuH.

BaGarius BAGARIUS (Hamilton).

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ies at ae oe ae i DOD

Nomenclature and Systematic Position 7" = tee .. O84

Synonymy and Description Aes ue oe Soe iels

Bionomics and Fishing Notes ty: ave pe ou)

Acknowledgments ae ae - ae ae ue

List of References os wey ae me a - OOY

Explanation of Plate ee fale ae Be en O00

INTRODUCTION.

The Goonch is well known, as an undesirable species, to anglers

who fish for Mahseer in the large rivers of India. It lives in

Mahseer waters, and must be cleared out of such areas as it is

otherwise likely to break the tackle. The Goonch is one of the

largest freshwater fish that has hitherto been caught in this country

on rod and line. The smaller specimens generally give fairly good

sport, but the monsters of the Ganges apparently give but little

play. The name ‘freshwater shark’ is more aptly applied to the

Goonch, not only on account of its great voracity but also owing

to its underhung mouth and general ugliness; it grows to a size

of six feet or more and to a weight of over 250 lbs.

* Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

WUL 13 1939

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Goonch, Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton), is remarkable

among the present-day Catfishes for its morphological features and

great antiquity. Though several other genera are usually grouped

with it in the family Bagaridae or Sisoridae, none approaches it in

size. Most of them are of small size and live in clear waters of

hill-streams adhering to rocks and stones. Bagarius is, however,

known to descend to the lower reaches of the larger rivers as

well. Fossil remains of the Goonch are known from the Tertiary

deposits of the highlands of Padang in Sumatra and the Siwalik

rocks of India. These records are not only helpful in indicating

the first appearance of Catfishes (Siluroidea) but also show that

the Goonch was as widely distributed in south-eastern Asia about

five million years ago as it is at the present day. Further, it

is remarkable that the Goonch has persisted throughout this long

period without any appreciable change in its general appearance,

and may thus be regarded as a nbs Fossil’.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC -POSITION.

Like the freshwater sharks dealt with in the two preceding

articles of this series, the Goonch was also described for the first

time by Hamilton (7)! in his composite genus Pimelodus and

characterised as

‘A Pimelodus with the tail fin divided into two very long-pointed unequal °

lobes; with eight tendrils not longer than the head; with a scabrous opaque

body, variegated with black irregular marks; with thirteen rays in the fin

behind the vent; and with eight in the foremost fin of the back.’

Swainson (11) included it in his genus Pachypterus along with

a number of divergent forms and re-christened it P. lundus;

Cuvier and Valenciennes (9), and in his earlier works Bleeker

(2, 3) also, subscribed to Hamilton’s views regarding the systematic

position of the Goonch, but in 1853 Bleeker (4) proposed the generic

name Bagurius for its reception and termed it ‘Bagarius Buchananw.

But as Sykes (12) had already described the Goonch from Poona

under the specific denomination ‘Bagrus Yarrelli’, the fish cam@

to be known in scientific literature as Bagarius yarrellu. However,

in accordance with the provisions of the International Rules “oy

Zoological Nomenclature it is not permissible to change the specific

name "OF the species except under very special circumstances. The

correct scientific designation of the species should, therefore, be

Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton), and it is under this title that the

fish is generally referred to in modern literature.

Thoush Popta (9) described another species of Bagarius—B.

nieuwenhuisii—trom Central Borneo, Weber and de Beaufort (14)

have shown it to be merely a colour variety of the Goonch. From.

the colour plate reproduced here and text- fig. 1 it will be seen that

the fish is very variable both as regards its colour and form, In

view of the above the genus Bagarius is monotypic so far.

‘ Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial number of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

THE GAME FISHES .OF INDIA 585

As indicated above the Goonch is included along with several

other hill-stream genera in the family Bagaridae or Sisoridae. In

these fishes the dorsal fin 1s short, with a pungent spine and 6 or

7 divided rays, and is situated considerably in advance of the ventral

fins. The adipose fin is present and is placed opposite to the anal

fin. The paired fins are horizontal; the pectorals are provided with

a serrated spine and the ventrals contain only 6 rays. The body is

usually flattened dorso-ventrally and the eyes are subcutaneous.

The two nostrils on each side are situated close together, being

separated by a membranous fold produced into a short nasal barbel.

The mouth is usually overhung by the snout and is either transverse

or crescentic. The jaws are provided with small teeth in bands;

these are sometimes mixed up with laryer teeth. The palate is

edentulous. There are eight barbels; one pair nasal, one pair

maxillary and two pairs mandibular. The maxillary barbles possess

broad and stiff bases. According to Regan (10), the genus

Bagarius is distinguished from the other members of the family by

a combination of the following characters :—

‘Anterior precaudal vertebrae with a_ series of processes on each side

directed upwards and outwards from the bases of the neural arches; head

depressed.

‘Lips normal; mesopterygoid large, extending forward below the palatine

and backwards to the hyomandibular ; complex centrum rigidly united, but not

ankylosed to cranium; parapophysis of fourth vertebra a half-cylinder, of fifth

a stout horizontal process ending just beneath the skin.

‘Ribs inserted on normal transverse processes; pelvics behind the dorsal ;

gill-membranes free or narrowly attached to isthmus.

‘Thorax without longitudinal plaits.’

The other two allied genera of the family are Glytothorax Blyth

and Pseudecheneis Blyth; the former possesses longitudinal and the

latter transverse adhesive plaits in the thoracic region. In its

general appearance the Goonch is so characteristic that it is

impossible to mistake it for any other fish.

The fishes of the family Bagaridae were probably evolved from

some generalised members of the large group of Bagrid fishes,

from which they differ in certain features of specialisation likely

to have been induced by life in rapid-running waters.

SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION.

Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton).

1822. Pimelodus bagarius, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 186, 378, pl. vii,

n630.- ‘Pachypterus luridus, ‘Swainson, Nat. -Hist. Fish., etc., 11, p. 306.

1840. Pimelodus bagarius, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., p.

iG, pl. ccCCxXXill.

Bistta “Bacvus Varrellt, Sykes, Ivans.. Zool. Soc. London, it, p..370.

1847. Pimelodus bagarius, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxi, I, p. Io.

1849.- Pimelodus yarrellii, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Litt. and Sct., xv, p. 141.

1850. Pimelodus bagarius, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxili, p. 10.

Ho5e.. bagarius Buchanan, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 421.

1858. Bagarius Buchanani, Bleeker, Ichth. Arch. Ind. Prodr., 1 Siluri,

teo2. Basarius Buchanant, Bleeker, Ail. Ichth., 11, p. 61.

mon, Bagarius yarrellu, Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 183:

fo7j7. Bagarius yayrellt, Day, Fish. India, p. 495, pl. cxv, fig. 3.

1877. Bagarius yarrellu, Beavan. Freshw. Fish. Ind., p. 146.

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

1889. Bagarius yarrellu, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Insh., 1, p- 194, mice ae

1890. Bagarius Yarrellu, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova,

(2), ciXgipe 243.

1904. Bagarius Niewwenhuisii, Popta, Notes Leyden Mus., xxiv, p. 190.

1906. Bagarius Nieuwenhuisii, Popta, Notes Leyden Mus., xxvii, p. 66.

1912. Bagarius bagarius, Weber and de Beaufort, in Maass ‘Durch Zentral-

Sumatra’, ii, Pische, p: 16.

1913. Bagarius bagarius, Weber and de Beaufort, Fish. Indo-Austral.

Aychipel., i, Pp. 270.10s.. 105,

1929. Bagarius bagarius, Prashad and Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxi,

Do_ 181.

1933- Bagarius vyarrellii, Spence and. Prater, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

BOG... XXXVI, Ue. 5902) Pia oxy.

1937. Bagarius bagarius, Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

[OxKI, 40s) 44, NS, 3643.

Vernacular names:—Bagh Ari (Dinajpur and Rungpur);

Vaghdir (Purniah); Boonch or Goonch (N. W. Provinces); Goreah

or Bagh Machh (Assam); Rahti jellah (Telugu); Sah-lun (Ooriah) ;

IKXheerd, Moolandah and Guwch (Poona and environs).

B. 123. Dy.196) 0g: Ad tears) Bs VW nO gy Cea

In Bagarius bagarius the head, the upper surface ef which is

naked, osseous and rugose in regular bands and lines, is greatly

depressed. In consequence, the head and the anterior part of the

body are flattened on the ventral surface. The skin on the body is

also somewhat scabrous. The length of the head is contained from

2.9 to 3.3 times in the standard length; in medium sized specimens

the height of head is contained from 1.6 to 2.0 times and its width

from 1.2 to 1.3 times in the length of the head; but in a young

specimen from Orissa the proportions are quite different as the

head is relatively less broad but at the same time considerably

depressed. In this young specimen the body is also greatly

depressed, its height being contained 7.9 times in the standard

length. Usually the height of the body is contained from 4.8 to

6.0 times in the length of the body. ‘the width of the body is

either equal to or greater than its height. The caudal peduncle

is narrow and whip-like; its least height is contained from 3.1 to

3.8 times in its length. The eyes are small, dorsally placed and

situated in the posterior half of the head. The mouth is situated

on the ventral surface considerably behind the tip of the snout;

the extent of its gape is equal to 4/7 of the length of the head. “Mite

teeth are sharp and of unequal size in the jaws. There is an outer

widely separated row of larger ones in the mandibles. There are

eight barbels; the nasal barbels are generally smaller than the

diameter of the eye; the maxillary barbels possess broad bases and_

are generally shorter than the head; the two mandibular pairs are

also very short.

The dorsal fin is considerably in advance of the ventrals; its

spine is smooth, with an elongated soft termination of varying

length; the osseous portion of the spine is almost as long as the

head without the snout. The pectoral spine is stronger, as long

as or slightly longer than the dorsal, serrated internally and pro-

vided with a soft prolongation. The caudal fin is deeply forked,

the upper lobe is longer and both the lobes are produced into soft

filamentous processes.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 587

Text-fig. 1.—Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton), showing variation in form and

colouration. (After Fowler, 6.)

The air-bladder is small and is divided into two lateral chambers,

which are situated one on each side in a deep groove formed in

the consolidated transverse processes of the compound vertebra,

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, \Volnane2

The Goonch is variable as regards its form and colouration,

and as it grows to a very large size the body proportions are

found to vary considerably with the size of the fish. The coloura-

tion of the species will also depend on the type of water inhabited

by a particular specimen. Hamilton (7) noted that ‘The colour is

greenish ash, very pale below; and not only on the body, but on

the fins, are scattered large irregularly shaped black marks. The

eyes are golden-coloured’. In the case of specimens from Poona

Sykes (12) found the ‘Colour of the fish deep olive-brown, towards

the belly yellowish brown, and marked with spots like a Dalmatian

dog.’ A nearly uniformly coloured variety of Bagarius bagarius

was described by Popta (9) as B. nieuwenhuisit.

In the colour plate accompanying this paper, figure 1 represents

the colouration of a Burmese specimen obtained by Mr. J. A. Burnes

from the Nam Lon Stream, near Takaw, in the Southern Shan

States on the 21st of July, 1934. Mr. Burnes sent a colour sketem

of the specimen along with a description of its colouration. His

description of the colouration is as follows :—

*Multicoloured fish, yellow black, brown and_ blue.

‘Two blue streaks on head between eyes. One blue streak on back in

front of anterior dorsal fin. Anterior dorsal fin: orange below and_ bluish

with black spots above. Posterior dorsal fin: blue with black spots.

Pectoral fins: reddish at roots with black spots throughout, tips yellow.

Ventral fins: orange ground with black spots. Caudal and = anal fins:

same as ventrals. Anterior half of body: brown ground with black and

yellow spots. Middle part of body: yellow ground with black spots. Part of

body about the posterior dorsal fin: grey ground with black spots. Part of

body behind the posterior dorsal fin: yellow ground with black spots.’

The outline of other figures on the colour plate are of a specimen

from North Assam, but the colouration in the three figures repre-

sents variations exhibited by specimens taken near Calcutta. Figure

2 shows the colouration of a specimen obtained from the Settling

Tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-works at Pulta. When

just taken out of water the head was greenish grey while the

dorsal surface was of a dark-greyish olive-green colour. The rayed

dorsal was brownish pink anteriorly and light grey with black spots

posteriorly. Behind the first dorsal and below the ‘second dorsal

there were two irregular, vertical black markings. The caudal

peduncle was pink above and slightly yellow with pale grey below.

The caudal was light yellowish grey. The anterior rays of the

paired fins were yellowish while their remaining portions

were light grey with black spots. The anal fin was light green

anteriorly and light grey, with black spots, posteriorly. The

ventral surface was light yellow with pale grey. An hour or so

after its removal from water the colour changed to whatiee

represented in figure 3. Figure 4 represents the colouration of@

a dead specimen caught in one of the canals in the neighbour-

hood of Calcutta and presented to the Zoological Survey of

India.

Distribution :—Bagarius bagarius is known from all over India,

Burma, Siam, Malay Archipelago and Tonkin,

589

FISHES OF = IN DEA

THE” GAME

0-FL ¢.Z S-6 OL Teer

0-25 0-9F 0-FE 0-LF O-1F

0-81 0-91 At 0-61 6-81

0-2 0-F2 002 $62 oa

0-82 002 | SSF 0.2 0-FS

0-€ Col | oe 0-9 0-£

posed 0-LF | peseuled | 0-¢$ | O-SF

0-2 C./f | paseusqd — 0.6 | 0-9F

0-SS Con al. O28 (AS © Glan Sts

0-6F c0F | O.S¢ | 0-28 Pens:

6.67 Gor | 0-81 $82 | SH

0.+F o-ze | ozs 0-87 Dna

oo .9 Gn ee 0s

¢-6F as ee itis CGF ¢-EF

S.0L 0-€6 ! 1p | See 0.t9

0-F8 Dearne iene S98 ¢-86 S.18

O-LL2 0-0s2 | 0-£02 | Teen S692

a 7 antsy BOW ender)

SUING TUessy

Oe | g.€ fee gjounped [epnvo jo jUSley \sBvoT

0-/P | CrCl apounped yepnvo jo yj}suer]

0.81 One Jeqivq IB[NqIpueU JAUUL Jo ySUNT

0-22 0.9 Jaqivg IB[NGIpuvul 19jno jo YsueT

0-8/ | 0-2 Joqiey AIBTIXeU jo yYsuET

0.9 | SIGISiA JON jaqieq [essu Jo 4VsuN'T

¢.2P | 0-TI oulds [esiop Jo usury]

0-F | 0-21 “+ gutds [vrojoed jo yjsuaq

g.9S ¢.8 Apoq JO YPM

6-09 ¢-8 Apoq }0 JyS1oH

G-8? 0-9 JIUBISIP [V]IQIOIO}UT

0.¢F 0-01 jnous jo Yj}s0usT]

0-8 | 0-¢ dA9 JO JOJOWUIVIC]

¢-FS 0-6 peay Jo JYStoy

STaSS, | 0-F1 peey Jo UIPIM

0-06 | o.€2 peoy Jo y}suey]

C.26 7 ¢.L9 YS Lo] PIVpueys

RU00g eSSLIO

| |e

“SAAFOUTI VU UL SiUIaWAAN (Ui iL a

590 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HUST. SOCIETY, Vol. xg

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

Reference has been made in the introduction to the voracity of

the Goonch. Its formidable teeth (text-fig. 2a), bag-like, thick-

walled stomach and only slightly convoluted alimentary canal

(text-fig. 2b) fully testify to this habit.

t a

rh 44

SAA

Text-fig. 2.—Teeth and alimentary canal of a specimen of Bagarius bagarius

(Hamilton) about 348 mm. in standard length. Nat. size.

A writer in the Asian of 27th February, 1883, thus described

the general habits of Bagarius bagarius :—

‘IT generally find the Goonch occupying the very head of a rapid; they

lie motionless with apparently no effort in the white water among the boulders

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 591

at the foot of a smooth incline down which the water rushes with immense

force through the open sluices of the weir. Some idea may be formed of the

strength of the stream from the fact that the river Jumna, which is at this

point about three-quarters of a mile wide, is artificially narrowed by a bund

to a width of about thirty yards, this being the length of the weir through

which nearly the whole volume of water has to pass when the sluices heading

the Agra Canal just above the weir are closed. The monster weighing 136

lbs. caught by Mr. Van Cortland was, I believe, caught in the white water

of the rapid, or just below it in the full strength of the stream, and I have

frequently seen a Goonch take my spoon or minnow here as soon as _ it

touched the water.

‘They lie very often with their backs just out of water and are easily shot

with a bullet.’

‘Doon’ in the Asian of 28th October, 1879, describes the spearing

of the Goonch in the Ganges between Bijnore and Meerut. It is

stated that

‘When the bridge is ‘“‘up’’, in the cold weather under the oldest boats, the

‘““sonch’’? may be seen clinging on by feelers to the bottom. It struck me they

could be speared, so a friend and myself sent down our canoes, armed our-

selves with barbed spears, made so that the heads should slip off the handles,

and drove down to the Ghat. The spear heads had about 20 yards of stout

cotton string attached, and to the end of the rope an inflated (bulleck’s) bladder.

When we saw the gonch, the spear was sent ‘‘home’’, and the shaft withdrawn.

The fish at once went off, and the bladder keeping on the surface showed

his course. We followed in canoes, and taking extra spears, gained the

bladder and pulled up our prey, finishing him as best as we could. One

morning my friend and myself killed three gonch thus, all but 80 lbs. If

this sport can be got at one bridge, I see no reason why not at every one

on the Ganges and Jumna, and other streams too, for gonch abounds down

country, but I must say I have never tried it anywhere else but at that

one bridge.’

In the cold season the Goonch probably hibernates as there are

few records of the fish being caught at this time ot the year. It

takes spoon and spinning bait, and also live bait when big. On

being hooked, it generally sulks, but the voung provide fairly good

sport.

For anglers a good account of the species is given by Thomas

(13) in his Rod in India from which a few extracts are given below.

Once Mr. Cyril Kirkpatrick and Mr. Aldwell wanted to clear

the Goonch out and for this purpose ‘they used the strongest tackle,

a male bamboo or ringol, on which they played them till they

sulked, and then they simply hauled them out, hand over hand,

on a cord as thick as a pencil.’

‘Mr. Cyril Kirkpatrick also prefers the shallow at the head of the white

water for these fish, where, letting the bait down the white water, the Goonch

takes it for some exhausted fish that has failed to get past the shutters and

is falling back. He also has a preference for a good stout cord that you

can haul on to, so as not to waste time or try tackle over their sulking.’

The tackle recommended is the same as dressed for Mahseer

on wire gimp No. 2/0. When it is intended to haul them out hand

over hand a stronger gimp should be used.

Beavan (1) quotes from an article in the Pioneer to the effect

that the best bait for the Goonch is the Spiny Eel or ‘Bahm’

(Mastacembelus armatus). ‘Like most Siluroids this fish will only

bite from dark till about two hours after dark, when if taken his

maw will invariably be found empty; and then again from dawn

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. SV olen

till 8 o’clock. It seems to feed on the young of a species of

herring,’ (probably Clupea chapra).

In 1920, while collecting the fauna of the Manipur Valley in

Assam, I was informed of a fish locally known as Nega-len, but I

could not obtain any specimen during the period of my visit in

February-March. The local name implies that the fish rarely

moves but mainly lies at the bottom. The following remarkable

account of the method of its capture was given to me (8).

‘The Mohammedan fishermen who alone capture and eat this fish dive

and search for it under water. On discovering a fish, they come out and

take a rope with them and dive again to the same place. They tie the

rope round the tail of the fish being always careful not to touch its belly

as this immediately disturbs it. The rope is now taken on shore and two

or three people drag the fish out. It is said to be the most powerful fish

in the valley.’

At the time I was unable to identify the fish from the above

account but from Thomas’s description of the habits of the Goonch

I am inclined to believe that the Nga-len of the Manipur Valley

is B. bagarius.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

As in the case of the previous articles in this series I have to

express my sincere thanks to the authorities of the Bombay Natural

History Society for making a grant towards the cost of the

‘lustrations. Mr. K. S. Misra helped me with the preparation

of the table of measurements, and for this I am indebted to him.

The illustrations were prepared by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual

skill and care under my supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Beavan, R.—Freshwater Fishes of India, p. 145 (1877).

2. Bleeker, P.—‘Nieuwe bijdrage tot de kennis der Siluroiden van Java.’

Verh. Bat. Gen., vol. xxi, Art, I, p. 10 (1897).

3. Bleeker, P.—‘Bijdrage tot de kennis der ichthyologische fauna van

Midden-en Oost-Java, met beschrijving van eenige nieuwe species.’ Verh. Bat.

Gen., vol. xxili, p. 10 (1850).

4. Bleeker, P.—‘Nalezingen op de ichthyologische fauna van Bengalen en

Hindostan.’ Verh. Bat. ‘Gen., vol> xxv, p.ar2t (1853).

5. Cuvier, M..and Valenciennes, M. A.—Histoire naturelle des Poissons,

vol.. XV, p. 14, ipl. cccexxxil (Paris, <1840):

6. Fowler, H. W.—‘Zoological Results of the Third DeSchauensee Siamese

Expedition. Part WVIII,—Fishes obtained in 1936.’ Proc. Acad. Nat. Set.

Philadelphia, vol. 1xxxix, p. 143 (1937).

+. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and

its branches, pp. 186, 387, pl. vii, fig. 62 (Edinburgh, 1822).

8. Hora, S. L.—‘Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some observations

on those of the Naga Hills’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol: xxii, p. 176 (1921).

9g. Popta, C. M. L.—‘Résultats ichthyologiques des voyages scientifiques de

Monsieur le Professeur Dr. A. W. Nieuwenhuis dans le centre de Bornéo (1898

et 1900).’ Notes Leyden Mus., vol. xxvii, pp. 66-70, fig. 14 (1906).

10. Regan, C. T.—‘The Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order

Ostariophysi.—2. Siluroidea.’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), vol. viii, pp. 563,

564 (1911). |

11. Swainson, W.—On the Natural History and Classification of Fishes,

Amphibians and Reptiles, vol. ii, p. 306 (London, 1809).

12. Sykes, W. H.—‘On the Fishes of the Dukhun.’ Trans. Zool, Soc,

London, vol. 31. ~p:1370, *pl.cixy, 28.01 (7547).

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 593

E13. Thomas, H. A.—Rod in India, 3rd ed. pp. 209—213, 408 (London, 1897).

14. Weber, M. and de Beaufort, L. F.—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago, vol. ii, pp. 269-271, fig. 105 (Leiden, 1913).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

~ .Colour sketches of Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton), showing variation in

colouration in different localities and after the removal of specimens from

water.

Fig. 1.—Colour sketch of a fresh specimen from Southern Shan States, Burma.

‘Fig. 2.—Colour sketch of a fresh specimen from Calcutta Corporation Water-

monks, at Pulta, near Calcutta.

Fig. 3.—Same as above, but after the specimen had been out of water for an

hour or so.

Fig. 4.—Colour sketch of a dead specimen brought to the Indian Museum and

stated to have been collected in a canal near Calcutta.

The outlines of the figs. 2—4 are of a specimén from North Assam.

maine a i at gS en ag a ee NY Yo

EL I a ENS SE AOE PE i aN NN

THE TWO-HORNED ASTATIC RHINOCEROS.

(DICERORHINUS SUMATRENSIS).

‘THEODORE HUBBACK.

(With 8 plates).

The Sumatran or Two-horned Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumat-

rensis), of Asia, now regarded as a distinct genus, Dicerorhinus,

the generic title Rhinoceros being reserved for the Indian and Java

species, was once widely distributed, but owing to continual

persecution for the sake of its horn and other parts of its anatomy

it has been brought to the verge of extinction.

It is on observations made on this mammal in British Malaya

that this monograph is based, but sumatrensis has been recorded

from India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Sumatra and Borneo. Except

in Sumatra, where its incidence has not been completely investigated,

it appears that in these countries this species of rhinoceros is

rapidly disappearing.

No doubt the habits of the Sumatran rhinoceros with local

adaptations to different environments, would be much the same in

all the above countries; still my ecological remarks must not be

taken as applying to other countries than Malaya.

HISTORICAL.

The Asiatic two-horned rhinoceros was, according to Blanford,

in his ‘Mammalia’ in the Fauna of British India, first named

Rhinoceros sumatrensis by Cuvier in 1817. (See Cuv. Régne An. 1,

page 240, 1817.) I have been unable to ascertain when the first

record was made establishing the fact that there was a two-horned

rhinoceros in Asia.

Greek writers described certain animals bearing a single horn

and designated one as the Indian Ass. The first Greek writer to

mention the rhinoceros was Strabo who wrote just before and

after the beginning of the Christian era.

Rhinoceroses were seen in Europe for the. first time in 61 B79

when Pompey the Great introduced them to the games of the

Roman circus. Pliny (23-79 a-p.), the Latin writer, mentions the

rhinoceros and describes its fights with elephants. But these were

probably African animals because those represented on the coins

and sculpture of the Romans are shown with two horns and there

is nothing to justify us in believing that these may have represented

the sumatrensis. Marco Polo (1298) appears to have seen rhino-

ceroses in Java, probably Rhinoceros sondaicus, and presently I

shall quote what he said about the rhinoceros which provides us

with a link between the unicorn and the rhinoceros.

‘ourN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Opyright] {(T, Hubhack

Mounted heads of the Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros-—Dicerorhinus sumatrensts (Cuv.)-~Pahang, Federated Malay States.

Above, old male: Below, old female.

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 595

It is well established that rhinoceroses have been known for

centuries. The incidents of the unicorn as the animal of fable

and the rhinoceros as the animal of fact may have some bearing on

the superstitions attached to the rhinoceros. At least one legend

associated with the unicorn has been passed on to the: rhinoceros.

The horn of the unicorn when made into and used as a drinking

cup, was supposed to be able to detect poison and we find that

even at the present time the same wonderful properties are

assigned to the horn of the rhinoceros.

The idea of an animal’s horn when used as a drinking cup

detecting poison in any liquid placed in the cup is as old as Ctesias,

who attributed this virtue to the horn of the Indian Ass, which,

{[ think, must have been some species of Asiatic rhinoceros.

In a note in the 1840 Edition, published by Blackie & Son,

Glasgow, of Oliver Goldsmith’s History of the Earth and Animated

Nature, which book, without the notes, was first published in 1774,

we find the following in relation to rhinoceroses’ horns.

‘Thurnberg says, “‘It is generally believed that goblets made of the horns

in a turner’s lathe, will discover any poisonous draught that is put into

them by making the liquor ferment until it runs quite out of the goblet.

Such goblets are frequently set in gold and_ silver, and are regarded as

suitable presents to kings, persons of distinction, or particular friends; or

else aed are sold at a high price, sometimes at the rate of fifty rix- dollars

a goblet. When I tried these horns, both wrought and unwrought,—both old

and young horns,—with several sorts of poison,—weak as well as strong,—I

observed not the least motion or effervescence; and when a_ solution § of

corrosive sublimate, or other similar substance, was poured into one of these

horns, there arose only a few bubbles, produced by the air which had _ been

enclosed in the pores of the horn, and which was now disengaged from it.’ ’

‘Besides the use of its horns for goblets and handles of swords and

daggers, there is scarcely any part of the animal which is not employed

medicinally in the countries it inhabits.’

Another legend which long persisted in relation to the unicorn

and was apparently also passed on to the rhinoceros was that this

normally fierce animal was wonderfully gentle in the mating season,

and from that evolved the idea that it became docile in the

presence of a maiden and was lulled to sleep with its head on

her breast. This fancy appears in the Physiologus which states :—

‘They send to it a pure virgin all robed. And the unicorn springs

into the lap of the maiden and she subdues him and he follows

ier,”

But Marco Polo would have none of this in relation to the

rhinoceros and when describing that animal wrote :—‘It is a hideous

beast to look at and in no way like what we think and say in our

countries, namely a beast that lets itself be taken in the lap of

virgin. Indeed I assure you that it is quite the opposite of what

Wwe say it is.’

These superstitions attached to the mythical unicorn and

bestowed on the substantial rhinoceros have been responsible for

conferring on the rhinoceroses’ horns and other parts magical

properties resulting in its continual persecution which has brought

all species of the Asiatic rhinoceros to the verge of extinction.

The two-horned variety has in no way escaped the “baleful influences

_of these illusions.

o96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. OCEEIGY = “Vol sacs

To come down to more modern times Prince Henri d’Orléans

in his book From Tonkin to India, being an account of a journey

made by him in 1895, records seeing the head of a two-horned

rhinoceros in a druggist’s shop at Mong-le, a small Chinese town

in Yunnan, .close to the Tonkin border, in, approximately, latitude

22.20N,4. and\lonettudemro2 t.. lune rh moceros was alieged to have

been killed about four miles away.

Again in the same book Prince Henri records that they found

nena of the spoor of rhinoceroses in the valley of the Nam-Tsai,

near Assam. The rhinoceroses’ trails must have been numerous

because Prince Henri writes, ‘We had to thank the latter

(rhinoceros) for many an enlarged path and flattened bank.’ He

also stated that their guide Poulanghing explained that these were

the tracks of the two-horned rhinoceros and that their flesh was

good. This was in the Singpo country, approximately latitude

27.30N., and longitude 97E

In view of what R. Lydekker wrote in his book The Game

Animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet, 1907 edition, regarding

an unidentified species of two-horned rhinoceros which he suggested

might be found in the Singpo country, this record is interesting.

These two notes by so accurate an observer as Prince Henri show

that the two-horned rhinoceros extended over a large area of

country directly south of the Chinese and Tibetan borders, and as we

know it is still to be found in Sumatra and Borneo no doubt in

days gone by its distribution was very wide. |

Henri Mouhot, the distinguished French Naturalist, in his book

Travels in Indo-China, published in 1864, refers in Volume II to

a rhinoceros hunt at which he was present in the Laos country,

somewhere east of Luang Prabang, approximately in latitude 21N.

and longitude 103E. There is an illustration accompanying this

account which was drawn by M. Janet Lange from a sketch by

M. Mouhot, but the animal depicted is obviously a Rhinoceros

sondaicus and not a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, the single horn and

the fold across the back of the neck being clearly depicted. This

is not very far from where Prince Henri d’Oriéans recorded having -

seen the head of a two-horned rhinoceros in a druggist shop, and

approximately six degrees of longitude east of the Singpo country.

This indicates that at the time of M. Mouhot’s journeys there were

probably two species of rhinoceroses to be found in Indo-China

and Northern Siam and this also may have a bearing on Lydekker’s

‘Singpo’ rhinoceros.

The Asiatic two-horned rhinoceros has from time to time been

divided into two or more species, sumatrensis and lasiotis being

amongst them. Blanford in his ‘Mammalia’ in the Fauna of

British India discusses these species and gives the reasons for their

designation. He inclines to believe, however, that there is only

one species but possibly more than one variety. This is supported

by modern nomenclature. In the latest edition of Rowland Ward’s

Records of Big Game it is suggested that there are two local races,

one lasiotis, embracing Assam to Borneo, and the other blythi, the

race found in ene ar ib Bears doubtful whether the latter race

would vary from that found in Malaya although the Malav.

ral

ibe

{ad

Journ. Bombay Nar. Hist. Soc.

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 597

Peninsula, if. Records -of Big- Game: is to. be: followed, ‘holds

lasiotis. 7

Lydekker, in his Game Animals of India, etc., 1907 edition,

refers to even more than two varieties and suggests that the

Malayan animal should be known as R. sumutrensis niger, but his

premises are, to my mind, incorrect so far as the colour of the

Malay animal is concerned. This I will refer to later on.

ineine=rield of the 23rd October t915, R. I. Pocock wrote a

note on the two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros after having seen two

recently mounted heads of this rhinoceros in Messrs. Rowland

Ward’s showrooms in London.

In this note Mr. Pecock remarks on the difference in the shape

of the skulls and states that it would be important to ascertain if

the difference is sexual as it was obviously not geographically racial

the two specimens having been obtained in the same district. It

was not sexual both the animals being mature males. In fact |

think it extremely unlikely that the female of the Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis would ever have such massive horns as are shown on

idese specimens. —

Mire Recock refers also to the absence of fringes on-the ears

of these animals. I do not think that any rhinoceros which reaches

maturity and lives in the dense thorny jungle of Malaya could hope

fe save the fringes on its ears, even if it ever. had them. ]

have seen, in Malaya, a specimen of a baby sumatrensis, and it

had much hair on its body and ears.

PHysicaL ATTRIBUTES.

The Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is not a very large animal. — |

think the maximum height for a male would be about 4 ft. 6% in.

at the shoulder this being the measurement of an old male 1

obtained in Ulu Benus, Pahang. -:This beast which was_ stocky

and bulky measured 96 in. in girth directly behind the shoulder

amd ro2.1m. in-length: from* the end of ‘his. nose to. the rump, ‘as

near as I could measure it.. These measurements were taken. on

a steep hill side so cannot be considered as very accurate. But |

have measured other rhinoceroses and the mature animal, whether

male or female, has invariably measured more than 4 ft. at the

shoulder. One very old female whose molars were worn right

down almost to the gum measured 4 ft. 3 in. in height at the

shoulder. The measurements of the horns of this animal are given

under No. 4 in the table below.

The colour of the sumatrensis which has been mentioned as

differing from the variety called lasiotis and which Lydekker thought

was blacker than the northern variety does not, in my opinion,

entitle -the subspecies, niger to be recognized. The colour of the

hide of the Malayan variety is a dark grey and the underside of

mie skin, on the belly,-under the forelegs, and: in* the groin,

distinctly shades towards pink. The blackest part of the rhinoceros

is the horn; even the head is not so dark as the horn. The tail

is bare and short, tufted’ with sparse chairs. The ears, which

have been taken as one of the parts which show a difference from

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. (SOCIETY. Vola

the more northern variety, have a very short. fringe and a’ few

hairs on the inside, but no mature rhinoceros living in the dense

jungles of Malaya, behaving in the way they do, could possibly

save long hairs on the edges of its ears. The young rhinoceros

is hairy but this hair disappears as the animal ages and only

very short hairs, almost bristles, are found on most of the exposed

parts of the mature body. A young rhino following its mother

passed on one occasion very close to some of my men as recounted

later, and it was noticed as being hairy. It was not a baby by

any means.

There are two very long horns in the British Museum which

are labelled as having been produced by sumatrensis. These

horns, according to Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game measure

324 in: and 274 in. in length, but the next horn recorded @enly

reaches’ a length of i5 in. That horn came from the Malay

Peninsula. The Datok Raja Kiah of Jelebu in Malaya, who is

mentioned later on, told me that he had once obtained a sumatrensis

whose front horn measured about 20 in. in length, but Yam

afraid I cannot attach much importance to the measurement although

it was probably an abnormally long horn. I think that any anterior

horn of a sumatrensis which measured over ro in., and any posterior

horn which measured over 5 in. should be considered as above the

average. The females have smaller and less rugged horns than

the males, and seldom show anything but a small development of

the posterior horn. In an old male the whole of the top of the

nose both around and in front of the horns becomes a mass of

horn and at times may develop small lumps which might almost

be called subsidiary horns. I have seen two heads with what

were almost third horns, and the illustration of the mounted head

of a male sumatrensis clearly shows a small horny protuberance

over the left eye. The horn is merely agglutinated hair anda

the sumatrensis is very fond of rubbing his horn against trees one

can quite imagine that rough surfaces may easily become enlarged

into embryo horns? The horn never appears to be used as a

weapon, the large incisors in the lower jaw being the weapon of

defence and offence.

The following are the measurements of the horns of "four

mounted heads of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis obtained in Malaya.

Numbers 1 and 4 are illustrated.

Length on outside curve of horn] Circumference of horn

Anterior Posterior Anterior | Posterior

No. 1 ve 104” 6” TO" 163”

No. 2 a OG? broken 228 | A

No. 5 74” 4iv 164” | 124”

No 4 83” 13” 15” 10”

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 599

Numbers 1, 2 and 3 are those of males, number 4 that of a very

old female with teeth worn right down to the gums.

These measurements can be taken, I think, as typical of the

class of horn that was obtainable in Malaya.

The sumatrensis, for his height, has a fairly large foot. The

greatest measurement of the track of a fore foot that | have recorded

was g4 in. across the widest part which would be to the outer

edges of the two lateral toe nails. Measurement of the centre

toe nail, in this case, was 34 in. wide. Another traek that I

measured of what was a slightly smaller beast was 84 in. across

with a centre toe nail measuring 23 in. These were all measure-

ments of fore feet. The hind feet are narrower and the toe nails

generally slightly longer. The older the rhinoceros the more he

digs his toes in when going up hill, which I believe he must do

every day of his life! Anyway he always did whenever I followed

him! The result is that his toe nails get shorter as he gets older,

The impression of a short but wide toe nail indicates old age.

This is in contradiction to the wild elephant which gets down on

his heels the older he gets so that his toe nails are inclined to

grow longer. The most extraordinary portion of the rhinoceros’s

external anatomy is his sheath and penis. The sheath points

backwards and the result is that when the male urinates he does

so behind. This is the only definite clue that can be obtained as

to what is the sex of the animal one is following.

The illustration Plate IV shows the sheath and although not

very clear it can be seen to hang down like a scrotum. If the

male urinates when he is walking or even running he appears

to throw his penis backwards and his urine shoots up into the

air between his legs. The result is that, when following a track,

splashes and drops of urine can be seen on leaves of the bush he

has passed through, even up to a height of six feet. One’s

attention is sometimes drawn to the fact that the animal has

urinated, because of the smell which is thus brought so close to one’s

face. In an article in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, volume xxxvili, No. 1 published in Aguust 1935, written

by Mr. W. S. Thom on Rhinoceros Shooting in Burma, he states

that this phenomenon of urinating on the bushes is done by the

female, but I do not think that this is so. I have followed

rhinoceroses for too many miles to be mistaken in what I have

written above. Several other peculiarities mentioned by Mr. Thom

in his article do not correspond with my experience, but I do not

wish to criticise further the writings of a very experienced shikari,

so I will merely record the deductions I have made from my own

observations.

HABITS AND TERRAIN.

In the Malay Peninsula the Dicerorhinus sumatrensis was to

be found in many parts of the mountainous country and sometimes

in the coast belts. The sumatrensis is now almost entirely a

mountain animal due, I think, to having been driven back from

the lower lands. It is, however, very occasionally found sonieway

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. XL

from the mountains in foot hills or dense low-lying jungle. It

lives in the thickest and roughest jungle terrain it can find and

that alone, up to this time, has saved it from extermination.

The two-horned rhinoceros seldom travels except alone, it being

most unusual to find two of them together.

The Datok Rajah Kiah of Jelebu, an old and _ experienced

rhinoceros hunter, who belonged to a type now passed from Malaya,

informed me many years ago that he thought when two rhinoceroses

were seen together that they were probably mother and calf except

on the rare occasions when two came together for propagation

purposes. I have on four occasions followed two rhinoceroses.

In one case they were mating but on the other occasions when |

came across two they may have been mother and calf, because

apparently the calf runs with the mother until nearly full grown.

The evidence that I have on the latter point is not very convincing,

but taken cumulatively 1t does seem to point to slow maturity and

long association with the parent.

The ’To Raja Kiah caught a baby male rhinoceros which he

carefully tended and kept for seven years. I did not see it when

it was very young but the "To Raja told me that it was still hairy

when he got.it. He shot the mother and found the baby near by.

At the end of seven years the rhino had grown to a little over three

feet in height: obviously not full grown. It was just showing

the anterior horn, but there was no sign of the posterior horn. It

foraged in the jungle during the day as it got older, had its own

wallows, and returned to the ’To Raja’s house in the evening for a

feed of rice. When the rice was ready one of the household would

call with a loud and shrill, Hoh! Hoh! Hoh! and the rhino would

answer from the jungle and come back at full speed for his

evening meal. He slept under the house.

I have frequently seen tracks of rhinoceros at least as big as this

one following a larger one and I think one may presume that they

were mother and calf and that the calf was no longer extremelm

voung. This tends to show that the rhinoceros is a_ long-lived

animal although there is insufficient evidence to be dogmatic about it.

The ’To Raja learnt two lessons in connexion with his rhinoceros.

He had an offer from another Malay for the rhinoceros but with

the usual financial jugglings of such people the ‘To Raja was

persuaded to part with the young rhino by promises of payment

so seon as the purchaser was able to get in touch with his principal

who lived some 50 miles away. Foolishly the old man allowed the

animal to be taken away. About a week afterwards the would-be

purchaser returned with the rhino to the ’To Raja and told him

that it was sick and could not proceed any further on the journey.

The poor little beast had been dragged along a jungle path, had

never been given a chance to wallow, and its skin was cracked

in dozens of places. It died shortly afterwards and the ’To Raja

had neither his rhino, to which he had been very much attached,

nor the money which he expected for it. The two lessons were:—

(1) avoid greed, (2) a rhino cannot exist unless allowed to wallow.

--As T have written above rhinoceroses have a poor development

of: the herd instinct and are extremely unsociable. I have followed

ait ee

. . 4

a G

= . :

td .

= x

WIT GALVWId ‘90S “ALSIP “LYN AVaIog *Nunof

THE FWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 601

rhinoceroses on foot through dense jungles for days and days but

have seldom come across more than one animal. Although at

times I have followed fresh tracks which crossed the fresh tracks of

another animal I have seldom known them to jcin up. On one

occasion when following the tracks of two big beasts another one

crossed their trail and followed them. So then there were three.

But the reason was obvious, because presently we came to a place

where two of them had had a tussle and the third had laid down

close by, no doubt wondering which of the two was to be her

future lord and master. I hoped I was going to see a rhino fight

and followed up the tracks but I was disappointed. I came upon

some more traces of struggles and then one of them went away

and left the two to continue their honeymoon. Perhaps it was the

lone male which had intruded into the party and which now

took up the running? I do not know, but I do know that the

solitary one which I went after, it being easier to deal with one

animal than two, was a very old male with his posterior horn

broken off. This animal is mentioned on page 598 and is No. 2

in the list.

Of all the difficult and exasperating animals to follow through

dense jungle the rhinoceros easily takes first place. They invariably

go through the thickest undergrowth they can find and deliberately

leave a game path to go through, or under, or over, some fallen

tree which appeals to their sense of humour, I suppose. They do

this normally as recreation when going about their lawful occasions,

but when once wise to the fact that they are being followed they

excel themselves in ingenuity. Nothing is too difficult for them.

I remember once tracking a rhinoceros up a steep hill side in very

rough country with many rocks about. We came up to him almost

on the top of the hill. He heard us, I suppose, and turned round

to face the direction we were coming from, but carefully put a

large fallen tree and a dense thicket of rattan between himself and

the line of our approach. We could see nothing, but were suddenly

brought up standing by a tremendous snort just in front of us.

Then a short rush away from us—cessation of all sound, and another

magnificent snort, more like an engine blowing off steam than

anything else. This was followed by a shrill squeal, denoting that

he had smelt us and away he went crashing through everything.

We saw nothing at all. He rushed down a dry gully and when

we followed painfully in his rear—by that time he was far away—

we found that, when tearing down this dry water course which

was full of granite boulders, he had come to a place where the

formation broke away to a sheer drop of twenty feet. This did

not bother him, he just took it in his stride, nor did the flat slab

of granite at the bottom on which he landed check him in any

way, he had continued his rush as if nothing out of the ordinary

had happened. The drop to this granite bed would have seriously

injured if not killed any other heavy animal, but a rhino is the

toughest animal on earth. His short leg bones enable him to do these

things without much inconvenience. We followed him up for some

miles before he stopped, apparently to amuse himself by rubbing

his horn against a tree, taking off rather more bark than

602. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL (HTST SOCIETY Vio MUL

usual, and kicking up a greater amount of earth at the footw

the tree than is customary. That was the only indication that he

remembered that granite bed rock. And so it is always with them.

They seem impervious to any physical feeling of discomfort. Their

walking powers in bad country are phenomenal. I have often

followed up a rhino which has laboriously climbed—I should say

we have laboriously climbed—a high mountain merely to go down

the other side. A rhino that has been scared may do this two or

three times during a day without stopping, except to take a quick

wallow if he comes across a mud’ hole, and, at the end of the day,

the unfortunate people following him will be perhaps far enough

behind him to take two or three days to catch him up. Whe

hunting of rhinoceros by tracking is a very difficult business and,

if that was the only way to get them, then the rhino would have

been in no danger of extinction. But unfortunately the rhinoceros

with all his highly developed senses will continually follow the

same game trails, especially near wallows or near salt licks, and

it is due to this habit that they have been so persecuted. Even to

this day, one finds rhinoceroses’ game paths passing alongside some

long disused and partially filled-up pit, showing their extraordinary

obsession for keeping to and following aimost the exact paths which

generations of rhinoceroses have used. This has resulted in pits

being dug on their accustomed trails by poachers anxious to obtain

their horns. I have described the procedure later on.

When travelling through the jungle on their ordinary rounds

rhinoceroses move slowly and steadily covering a great deal of

ground during the twenty-four hours. But occasionally finding some

particular patch of jungle that he likes, a rhinoceros may hang

about in the vicinity for some days. They particularly favour the

heads of narrow valleys, where they generally have well used

wallows, plenty of thick undergrowth and nice precipitous sides to

the valley to give them plenty of exercise. - An ideal place forga

rhinoceros to frequent is jungle so dense, that a man can see nothing

within five yards except a wall of forest, and so steep. that he

cannot walk without holding on to scmething, which something

wul almost certainly be thorny. Another delightful type of jungle

favoured by rhinos is one interspersed with the large bamboo known

to Malays as buloh semeliang (Dendrocalamus giganteus). This

bamboo grows quickly and to a great height. Not having much

rigidity, much of this bamboo leans towards the ground while still

alive and, on steep hill sides, thus presents an almost impenetrable

tangle. But the rhinoceros does not bother about this; he goes

under the bamboo letting the tangled mass pass over his back.

This bamboo fractures easily leaving an edge as sharp as a razor

which will cut to the bone with ease. To follow a rhinoceros along

a steep hill side where he has passed under buloh semeliang is a very

ticklish business and if your party gets through without casualties

you will have done well. I have seen an elephant’s trunk cut

very severely by one of these bamboos when he was rushing down

a hill after getting a taint of human scent. But they do not bother

the rhinoceros; in fact, nothing, except human seent, seems to

worry them. They go about their business without fuss or haste.

Roe

"AI ALY’ Id

“DOS ‘LSIF] “LVN AVAWOg “Nunof

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC. RHINOCEROS 603

To follow rhinoceroses with the hope of making observations

or watching their movements is extremely difficult and few

opportunities ever come one’s way.

athere was an old rhinoceros in a very remote part of -the

Malayan jungle of which I wanted to make an intensive study.

J tried to. I followed on his fresh tracks for an accumulative

period of forty days, spread over five separate expeditions after

iim. I heard him three times, was very close to him several times

but saw him never. Huis habits were fairly regular until he became

alarmed and then he was the cunningest thing in the jungle. The

country he frequented was not high but extremely steep and

covered with thorns of many sorts. The worst obstruction was

a palm called by Malays chuchor (Calamus castaneus). It grows

in dense clumps to a height of about ‘ten feet, and is very thorny.

This palm jungle was interspersed with rattans of several varieties

and most of the terrain followed by this rhino, when he was alarmed,

was along steep hill sides heavily wooded and covered with chuchor.

Directly he knew he was being followed he tried every trick known

ferninos to give us the slip. He never stayed for any time in

his wallows—to make up for that he wallowed frequently—aiid he

continually made huge circles coming back on tracks about once

in two days. One day he came close to a camp which had been

used by us two days previously. Some way off, he became aware

of the proximity of the old camp and stopped before he came to

the banks of the river which separated him from our camping place.

He then turned back and went in another direction. His habits

seemed to indicate that he was very old. He Had 4 track which

measured 94 in. across, exceptionally wide for a sumatrensis, with

Short toe nails. He also had little control: over his urine,

when alarmed he had an almost continual dribble for a mile or

two. But I have noticed, on other occasions, that rhinos when

alarmed and panicky would do the same thing, but they did not go

on for half an hour as this old fellow did. He never ran far but

he never seemed to stop. A fast walk which he could keep up for

miles deféated us. When we did get up to him and he got away

without our seeing him—that was always—we knew that it would

be two or three days before we wouid have a chance of getting

close to him again. We used to track him all day, camp on his

tracks at night, and off again early next morning; still he defeated

us.

His food consisted chiefly of twigs of the trees sought by

rhinoceroses, which indicated that his teeth were much worn.

Generally they chew up more of the trees they push down than

just the slender twigs. He found and demolished large quantities

of jungle fruits which were easy to swallow, which he did stones

and all, but his digestion was all right because they never seemed

to upset him. A favourite trick of his was to get into a river and

follow it for half a mile or more; he would then find a place well

concealed on the bank and leave the river by climbing over stones

or roots or something which would be difficult for us to spot a

day or two afterwards. I remember following a rhinoceros which

went down to a river and first walked about half a mile upstream,

604° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY. Vols

then about a mile down stream, then back again for about a

quarter of a mile upstream to the mouth of a small stream which

was full of large stones; he walked on these stones until he was

well away from the main river, climbed the bank and disappeared

into the jungle. This manceuvre delayed us the best part of a

day. The account of following the old rhinoceros has not been

an exception to the rule, it is merely a good instance of what the

rhinoceros can do when it really tries to get away from the nasty

smell of man.

All rhino are very fond of wallowing. As I have already written

it is essential for their very existence that they should be able to

wallow. Their hides are extremely thick but the epidermis is

thin and sensitive and the number of flies that follow them no doubt

irritate them and make their habit of wallowing a very natural one.

Normally the rhinoceros wallows once or twice in the twenty-four

hours, more in hot, dry weather. It is also fond of walking and

swimming in the rivers. I have never seen any evidence of them

lying down in the rivers although they invariably lie down in their

wallows. The wallows are generally situated under a bank, some-

times in a swamp. Wallows under banks are made in such a

position, I believe, because the rhinoceros likes to dig into the bank

with his horn. This is done, I presume, to make the mud in the

wallow of the right consistency, because after heavy rain the mud

would be very thin and would probably not stick sufficiently to his

hide; so he thickens it up a little by breaking down the bank with

his horn or with his fore feet, but more usually his horn. The banks

become hollowed out as the illustration shows (Plate V).

Before the. days of intensive rhinoceros destruction in Malaya

it was possible to find a regular battery of rhinoceroses’ wallows

in one place, as many as seven or eight would be found under a

bank and all in use. At one salt lick in Ulu Pahang, a salt liek

well patronized by rhinoceroses in their palmy days, I found no

Jess than five large wallows in a series, almost touching each other.

Near another lick were eight. They are'no longer used. To adapt

two lines of Tom Moore’s poetry one might well say :—

The pits are still there

But the rhino have gone.

I have known a_ rhinoceros which had been disturbed, to

wallow as many as six times during the day, remaining only a

few minutes in each wallow, rolling about to get himself thoroughly

covered with mud and then going on again. In one place,

he had obviously thrown himself into the wallow, probably hot and

bothered, because the mud was splashed everywhere in the vicinity.

On another occasion when following a rhinoceros in very rough

country, too rough even for him to find a wallow, he actually tried

to wallow in a little stony gully with about two inches of water

at the bottom. As a wallow it was not a success. I think that their

necessity to wallow must be very great otherwise alarmed animals

would not be so anxious to perform the rite. Possibly the

sensitiveness of their skin demands a coating of mud, although

that is scarcely consistent with their fondness of going through

all the thickest and thorniest jungle they can find, Flies certainlv

Pa O24 i La

uv ivau——CAn)) stsuasjoUns snury (04d IU — SO1290ULYY_PIUJOY-OMY SULISY 27 JO MOTEM

“20G “LSIP] “LVN Avawog “Nunof

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 605

bother them, especially a large unidentified kind of Tabanus, with

a blue abdomen. They are also attacked by a special type of tick

which is the only jungle tick that I have come across which will

with ease drive its mandible through thick shikar cloth. Of course

compared with rhino hide this feat must be nothing to it, but the

ticks which attach themselves to the wild cattle of the Malayan

jungles cannot do it. The ticks appear to fall off the rhino long

before they are gorged, in fact at times I have seen rhino ticks

on the trail followed by a rhino which had evidently not had a

meal at all, and yet I believe that they must have come from the

rhino’s body.

Most of the salt licks affected by rhinos are sulphur springs

which are generally situated amongst rocks. These rocks are

polished quite smoothly by the animals using these licks. For

many years I thought that these polishings were the result of the

licking of the rocks for some inherent benefit in the rock itself.

I subsequently found out that the rocks are licked to remove from

the lips or mouth of the animal a peculiar type of small leech,

akin to the horse leech, which lies in the slime of the sulphur

water. When an animal puts his muzzle down to drink the leech

secures its hold. I first noticed this fact whilst watching a tapir

in a sulphur lick and subsequently often saw sambhur deer do

the same trick. I have a cine film showing quite clearly a

sambhur stag rubbing his lips on the rocks after taking a long

drink at the sulphur water. The rocks are also polished by the

animals’ bodies, as well as in the process of removing leeches from

their mouths and lips. It is not surprising that centuries of

such contacts have smoothed over all the rocks in the vicinity of

a lick.

Rhinoceroses also visit mud-licks which show no exudation of

sulphur but probably contain some trace ef sulphur or possibly a

saline which attracts them. There is I think no doubt but that

wild animals visit salt licks for the purpose of cleansing their

stomachs and intestines of parasites. Wiauild cattle droppings will

be almost pure mud after a visit to a mud-lick, and I have often

come across the dung of elephants slimy and covered with mucus

after a visit to a salt lick.

SENSES.

The senses of hearing and smelling in Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

are extraordinarily acute. The enormous nasal cavities surely

enhance its power of scent. The habit that this rhinoceros has

of curling up its pointed upper lp when testing the wind is no

doubt an effort to utilize more of the inner surface of the nostrils

ime trying to. discover the direct line of -scent. A rhinoceros,

once he has decided that the wind is tainted, wastes no time in

getting away and, as I have described elsewhere, he voices his fear

in no uncertain manner. I have no doubt but that the rhinoceros

relies more on his nose than any other organ to give him warning

of danger. His hearing is also very acute, despite the fact that

he has small ears which do not look as if they would be capable

of catching much sound. The Datok Raja told me that, when

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vola

approaching a rhinoceros, on no account to break anything along

the side of the trail, except the smallest twig, if it was necessary to

mark the route, because a rhinoceros could hear so extraordinarily

well that he would be put on guard and would immediately start

to test the wind in every direction. This is sound advice although

a little difficult to follow along a steep hill side with a_ thorny

rattan holding one back by the lobe of one’s ear!

In the dense jungles favoured by rhinos there is little movement

in the air, except during a storm, and I have no doubt but that

the rhinoceros with his extraordinary powers of smell would detect

human scent from almost any direction if sufficiently close to him

even on the stillest day. Their sight is poor, in fact probably of

little use to them for detection purposes and can be ignored when

stalking them.

The rhinoceros has several distinct methods of expressing

pleasure, annoyance or alarm and uses both his throat and_ his

nose to give vent to his feelings. It is interesting to know that

a rhinoceros when alarmed has a very distinct way of showing his

fear as against an extremely truculent demonstration when only

suspicious. As I have written already, a suspicious rhinoceros

will face the direction where he thinks there 1s something out of

the normal and then give vent to a terrific blast from his nostrils.

He may then turn round and trot away a few yards and repeat

the performance. It is merely bluff. When he gets a taint of your

wind his attitude immediately changes into one of abject fear. Of

all animals I think the rhinoceros must hate the scent of man

most. Possibly it is due to his being so seldom confronted with

it, that to him it is the most horrible smell on earth! Occasionally

a rhinoceros when suspicious will turn round and run away without

any vocal display, stopping in a short distance to listen intently.

It is then very difficult to approach him because he will keep

absolutely still and one is lable to almost run into him. But when

he gets one’s wind the procedure is very different. The animal

immediately goes off at full speed in any direction—if facing you

he is lable to run straight in your direction—making a_ noise

something between the bark of a dog and the quack of a duck.

It is not exactly a squeal but a noise peculiar to a_ thoroughly

alarmed rhinoceros. The intensity of the quacking will generally

indicate the distance he will go before he slows up. When hunting

in the mountains, I used to despair when I heard a rhino rush away

making a series of long and plaintive quacks, knowing perfectly

well that it would be davs before we would be able to catch him

up. On the other hand, if alarmed, he snorts violently and then

rushes off; but he will nearly certainly pull up within a hundred

yards or so, probably wondering what had disturbed him.

When feeding and quite undisturbed a rhino will continually

squeak ‘and talk to himself making some of the noises through

his mouth and some with his nose. These noises can be heard

for some distance. I have never heard them after a rhino has

been disturbed, although followed all day. Apparently he only

makes these noises when he is completely at peace with everything.

There is a peculiar noise that a rhinoceros makes when in a wallow.

eS ‘

JOURN. BOMBA. Nat Hisr. Soc. | ae PLATE VI

A disused wallow of the Asiatic two-horned Rhinoceros—Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Cuv)

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 607

This is a quite distinctive sound and not at all like a rhinoceros.

The first. time I heard it I was with the old Datok Raja and we

could hear a rhino splashing about in a wallow but could see

nothing. Presently I heard a noise which I took to be made by

a monkey, probably a gibbon I thought. I whispered to the Datok

that there was a monkey evidently close to the wallow who had

spotted the rhino and that we must be careful that he did not

spot us too. The old man smiled and shook his head. ‘That is

the rhino; they make that noise when enjoying themselves in a

wallow.’

I often heard that noise on other occasions and was often hard

put.to it to believe that it really was the rhino and not a gibbon.

The sound was low and rather plaintive, something like the low

note of a white-handed gibbon, but also with a faint resemblance

to a bird. A noise impossible to describe accurately. Finally a

rhinoceros will squeal terribly when dying a violent death, not

unlike the screaming of the sambhur deer under similar circum-

stances, but an even more distressing sound.

In addition to noises which present some sort of endeavour

to express its feelings there is a complete series of snorts and

grunts and blowings which the rhinoceros sometimes gives vent to

when wallowing, probably due to trying to get the mud out of his

nose and eyes. But generally speaking, they do not make much

noise when settled down in a wallow for a good rest. When lying

down on the ground, and probably also in a wailow, they never,

I believe, lie on their sides, but fold themselves up with their legs

tucked under them.

Foop.

I do not think that Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ever graze ;

I have never seen any evidence of them doing anything of the

sort. They eat fallen fruit and sce far as that goes do take food

off the ground but do not appear to eat grass or roots of any

sort. Their principal food is the small branches of certain

trees, and bitter or astringent. fruits. I have once seen a

rhinoceros eating lichen, ~or possibly some fungus off a fallen tree,

but their main food supply is from young trees ee they break

down. Whereas the other species of large wild life in Malaya will

often find food in secondary jungle, the sumatrensis invariably feeds

only in virgin forest or very old regenerated jungle. They seem to

feed indiscriminately, that is to say they do not appear to have any

regular hours, although they do frequently sleep during the heat

of the day. They may however wallow .at any time.

Rhinoceros are particularly fond of trees of the SAPoTACE&

family, some of which are enumerated below. Other trees and

fruits which they eat are included in the following list. The native

name is given in brackets.

Trees and Fruit eaten by Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

ANACARDIACER. Mangifera sp. (Machange berlawin) fruit eaten.

APOCYNACE®. Dyera spp. (Jelutong). =

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIEDY. Vielaeas

EUPHORBIACEH. Sapium baccatum....(Memaya).

GUTTIFERR. Garcinia spp. (Kandis); Kayea Kunstleri (Gaha),

LEGUMINOS&. Pithecolobium sp. (Keredas); Saraca sp. (Ten-

gelan), flowers eaten.

MyrisTIcacE&. Myristica spp. (Penarah).

MyrtTacE&. Eugenia sp. (Kelat merah, kelat kuning, ete.

ete. )z

RuBIAcER. Uvophyllum spp. (Manai badak, manai pahit, manai

rumpah).

SapoTacE&. Palaquium and Payena spp. (Nyatoh, several

varieties); Payena costata (Mengelut or Salut), fruit eaten; Pala-

quium Gutta (Taban merah, etc.).

Of the many species of Eugenia, which are common in the virgin

forests of Malaya, young trees are often broken down and the smaller

branches and leaves eaten. Many trees containing gum or getah

are favoured by rhinoceroses. Jelutong seedlings they are fond of.

The gum from large jelutong trees is the principal ingeredientyo#

chewing gum. The several species of the shrub Manai which grow

in patches on hill sides are often eaten down by rhinoceroses which

are very fond of the bitter leaves.

The principal jungle fruits that they are fond of belong to the

genus Mangifera, as well as the fruit of a tree called Mengelut or

Salut which has a thick sticky creamy juice, no doubt palatable to

the rhinoceros.. Once when following a Rhinoceros sondaicus on the

coast of Tenasserim, Lower Burma, I found that the animal had

eaten large quantities of the bark of a tree, Ceriops Candolleana

which grows in mangrove swamps and in tidal water. It has a

bright orange inner bark and it is, I believe, used for tanning. The

urine of this rhinoceros was stained bright orange by the juices in

the bark and dried on the leaves like small discs of gelatine.

The rhinoceros obtains most of his food by breaking down small

trees, pushing against them with his forehead or chest until the

tree is sufficiently bent over to enable him to walk it down by

pressing the tree under his belly. Sometimes when the tree is

fairly large he puts his fore feet on it to bring more weight into

play. He> may even hold a tree down by standing on it with his

fore feet; I have often seen the marks of his toe nails on the

trees that have been broken down.

Having defeated the tree, the rhinoceros proceeds to eatmihe

twigs and small branches. He will move round and round the end

of the tree continually altering his position during the process of

demolishing the leaves and ends of the branches.

A favourite trick of the rhinoceros when feeding is to get a

sapling behind his front horn and twist it round and round until

it is thoroughly decorticated and covered with mud from his head.

I do not know exactly how this is done never having caught a

rhino flagrante delicto; but it is generally supposed that this is

only done by a rhinoceros which has sufficiently long horns to

enable it to twist the saplings between the two horns. I found

that this was not the case. In one instance I was following a

rhinoceros which had twisted a number of saplings but discovered

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 609

later that it had a very poor and stumpy posterior horn.

Also, I believed, for the same reason, that a female rhinoceros

could not twist saplings and, when following rhino’s spoor and

finding twisted saplings, I concluded that I was on the track of

a male which had a good horn. I disproved this by finding sapling's

twisted in approved style by a cow rhinoceros which was

accompanied by a calf. I do not now believe that the length of

the horns has anything to do with the thoroughness of the twistings

and such indications are no guide either to the sex of the animal

being followed or the size of the horns.

Another favourite trick of the rhinoceros is to rub his’ horn

against smallish trees and take the bark off. This is frequently

accompanied by pawing up of the earth at the foot of the tree

and the sprinkling of the surrounding shrubs with urine. In this

case there is generally some indication of the type of horn possessed

by the rhinoceros: an old rugged horn will knock large chunks of

bark off; a young horn will merely plane the bark off. Much

disturbance in this way to the tree and the ground around it will

almost certainly indicate a male rhinoceros. I think that the

pawing up of the ground may show that there is some sexual

connexion between the rubbing of the horn and the disturbed earth

which is spread about in all directions, no doubt some of it being

directed against his sheath. Female rhinos do rub their horns

against trees in a similar fashion but I have never neticed that it

has been accompanied by pawing.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Rhinoceros frequently defecate into water but also on land. I

have only once seen a place where a rhino had returned to a

particular spot to defecate. Their droppings consist of round balls

rather larger than a cricket ball in the case of a mature beast.

It is impossible to tell the female from the male faeces. The

faeces of an old animal will contain coarse and only partly digested

twigs, no doubt due to defective or much worn teeth. Often

during the fruit season their feeces are full of the stones of jungle

fruits, unbroken but clean of all fibre. Thus does the rhinoceros

spread trees, useful to himself and other animals, throughout the

jungle. I have often seen young Mangifera seedlings growing out

of an old accumulation of rhinoceros dung.

A rhinoceros will never defecate in a wallow or a salt lick; at

least I have never seen any signs of one having done so. An

elephant will defecate in a salt lick and foul the whole place for

any other animals, and even seladang (Bibos gaurus) are known to

occasionally offend in this way.

I am afraid I cannot write much about the young of rhinoceros.

I have sometimes come across their tracks but have only once been

very close to a rhinoceros calf. All my men saw it but I did

not.

We were looking for the tracks of the old rhinoceros mentioned

earlier and had been following along a game trail on the top of

a narrow ridge. The ridge dipped and then climbed again, I was

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY. Viola

ahead with one man, and some way behind were six Malay carriers

and behind them six Sakai, the aboriginals of the Malay Peninsula.

Presently we crossed a fresh track of what was obviously a large

rhino. The lateral toe nails were far apart and I mistook the track

for that of the old male. The wide spreading toe nails of thie

rhinoceros should have indicated to me that they were the tracks

of a big female and not those of the old male I was looking for.

I had noticed this trait before and think that it is due to the result

of an ageing body and flabby muscles of the foot, which may not

be so pronounced in the male. _I think the track of a large splayed

foot may be taken as an indication, but only an indication, when

following the spoor of a Dicerorhinus, that the animal is a female.

The tracks were very new and I sent my companion back along

the trail to stop the carriers, natives cannot restrain their chattering

and I did not want them to upset the whole business. While my

man was on his way back, I heard directly below me the breaking

of a tree and then the swishing of some branches. That was the

rhino. I started to move nearer the edge of the ridge but before

I had gone five yards the rhino became aware of my presence and

rushed off. I was well above it and the wind should not have

played me such a dirty trick. The animal made a low squeaking

noise and ran back towards where my men were. Soon I heard

weird noises. and then cries of alarm from the- Sakai. (iam

happened too quickly for any of the men to realize what was

happening. .I had not far to go to find them. The rhinoceros:

which was a female followed by a calf, had run right between

them. I heard stories of bravery which, knowing their characters,

astonished me!

Apparently the rhinoceros having got my scent rushed back

more or less on the level until it came out on the game path

just in front of my Malays who were plodding along the narrow

ridge. The rhino had nowhere else to go so just carried on. The

men who had stopped, having heard something coming towards

them through the jungle, scattered to each side of the ridge, no

doubt looking for suitable trees to climb, but before they could

do anything the rhino had passed. The same thing had happened

to the Sakai who had rather more time being a hundred yards in

the rear and some of them were up trees when the rhino passed

them.

What interested me was the calf. I questioned the Malays

and Sakai very closely regarding the position of the calf, and

those that cbserved anything more than the bole of a tree told

me that the calf was so close to its mother that its head was almost

entirely hidden between her hind legs. I extracted this information

when inquiring if they had seen whether the calf had any

signs of a horn.. One of the men said that he distinctly noticed

that the calf showed a good deal of hair on it and they all said

that the cow proceeded at a slow trot and was blowing hard. They

also said, which I confirmed afterwards: by examining the tracks,

that the calf was not a very small animal.

The route taken by the rhino was a perfectly natural one and

was more or less in the direction it was moving when I disturbed

de be ied |

‘TIA ULV Id

c were) AvaWog “Nuoof

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 611

it. But had this incident occurred when I was not there it would

have been described as a desperate charge and still another story

of the ferocity of the rhinoceros wouid have come into being. The

track of the rhino along the ridge showed that she had followed

more or less the centre of the path and, for all she cared, the

men might not have been there at all. Her main object was to

get away from my smell!

I examined the place where the rhinoceros with her calf had

been when I disturbed it. There was a wallow there which was very

nearly dry but they had been stamping about in the mud. Here

the cow had twisted up a small sapling in approved style. My

men had noticed merely a small anterior horn on the cow and no

signs of a second horn at all.

The tracks of the calf which were very faint on the ridge were

very visible in the drying mud of the wallow and were those of a

young, but not very young rhino. It is very difficult to spot the

feacks. of a calf, when with its mother, as generally it keeps

either just in front and so has its tracks covered by those of the

larger animals or follows close behind stepping into the depressions

made by the mother’s feet. The dung of a calf is hardly ever

seen; I saw some on this single occasion. It was near the wallow.

Datok Raja told me that the mother covers up the dung of the

calf with her own dung, and the only way to find the calf’s

droppings is by moving those of the cow very carefully to see if

there are any small-sized faces underneath. I give this for what

it is worth; native observations of this sort are not of much value.

The rhinoceros has three toes on each foot. The only other

animal in the Malayan jungle that has three toes on its hind

foot is the tapir. But the tapir has four toes on his fore foot,

so its tracks should not be confused with those of a rhinoceros,

but when tracking is difficult, and the fourth toe of a tapir

obliterated by the track of its hind feet, mistakes can be

ieagde except. by- experienced trackers. The tracks made by a

rhinoceros are not easy to follow. Its large spongy feet press

down leaves which spring back to their original level and only

faint indications may be left by the toe nails. An old track

of a day or two may easily be confused with a new track, especially

during dry weather. Heavy rain will almost completely obliterate

rhinoceres’s tracks at times, and it is often terribly disappointing

after a long day’s tracking to have a night of heavy rain and

know that a long, difficult and tiring day is ahead of one until

such time as the rhinoceros has reached some spot, probably miles

away, when the rain had ceased.

There is one great help to the tracker and that is the rhinoceros’s

Mabit of wallowing. His hide is always dirty. As I have

written, the only other animal whose tracks in any way resemble

a rhino’s is the tapir and an oldish track of a large tapir- which

had been perhaps partially washed out by rain might easily be

mistaken for that of a rhinoceros. Since the tapir never wallows

a careful examination of the saplings or trees that the animal has

rubbed against will soon show traces of mud or a mud smear if

the animal is a rhinoceros.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

POACHING.

If salt licks have been a benefit to the rhinoceros they have also

spelt his doom. Their habit of making periodical visits to salt

licks has enabled poachers to set traps for them along the many

game trails which lead to these licks. In Malaya, there is little

trapping of rhinoceroses done now for the simple reason that

rhinoceroses are very few and far between. But a few decades

ago there was a regular business done in pitting for rhinos and

hundreds must have been destroyed.

I have travelled a great deal through what was once rhinoceros

country and have found dozens and dozens of old disused pits.

Most of them were in the vicinity of salt licks, but some in places

where there were well defined trails.

At one lick I found no less than 18 of these pits and I certainly

did not find all the pits that had been dug. They were twenty to

thirty years old. So many pits indicate a large rhinoceros popula-

tion. There are none there now at all, although this is in an entirely

unopened part of the country. At another well known salt lick I

found eleven old pits, but on one side of the lick I did not make

a careful investigation. This lick is still very occasionally visited

by rhinoceroses, but every year their visits become less. In

this lick-I found, a few years ago, a shooting platform: recently

constructed, no doubt with the hope of getting a pot shot at

a rhinoceros. At another lick, in quite a different part ‘or Gime

country, about twenty years ago, I found that a fence had been made

covering each game trail into the lick and a spring bamboo spear

placed so as to command a small opening left in each piece of

fence. This was the work of Sakai, an aboriginal predatory tribe

who do much damage to wild life in some places.

These pits, of which I give an illustration (Plate VI), were made

with much care, every trace of the activity of man being removed.

There was no difficulty in finding where to make a pit, because

there were numerous game trails leading to these salt licks and,

in the old days, these trails were regularly used. Such a pit is

about seven feet deep, nine to ten feet long, and three to four feet

wide. It is so constructed that when a rhinoceros falls into it he

is wedged between the slightly sloping sides of the pit and thus

kept from reaching the bottom with its feet. A big animal would

thus be tightly held by its own weight and entirely helpless. The

chances of its getting out are very small, unless it fell so that it

could get its head into the sides of the pit, when it would probably

be able to dig itself out. In the north of the Malay Peninsula, I

understand, that the pits used were lined with round jungle rollers

of hardish timber so that there could be no question of an animal

being able to dig himself out, but I have never seen any signs

of any lining to any pit in Pahang where most of the pitting took

place. In selecting the locality for a pit- hard soil was searched

for, and generally the pit was made on the side of a hill along

which ran a game path. Every particle of earth removed from

the pit is carried away for some distance and no trace of it was

left near the spot. 1 think that this was more to remove the

THEE WOLORNED: ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 613

scent from the earth in which the poachers had been working

than to avoid the chance of the rhinoceros noticing a change in

the landscape, because the rhinoceros has very poor eyesight. A

fascine of jungle saplings would then be made and placed over

the pit, the entire place being covered up with earth and leaves

until it looked exactly like any other part of the game ttrail. |

do not think that the poachers visited the pits very often, the

extreme sensitiveness of the rhino’s nose making it imperative that

as few visits should be made as possible. But, so long as the

poacher was satisfied that his work had been good enough to

assure the capture of an animal falling into the pit, that was all

he cared about. What did he care for the sufferings of the

unfortunate animal? Ifrom what I have gathered these wretched

animals very often starved to death. Under such circumstances

only the horn would be taken and if the animal was an immature

one quite possibly there was nothing to take at all.

Although the pit was the commonest and the most deadly way

of obtaining rhinoceroses other methods were adopted. A platform

made in a salt lick was one, but this was, I believe, a not very

satisfactory business because in those days there were no electric

torches and a rhinoceros would seldom come into a lick during

the day time. The belantek, the ae bamboo or steel spear,

was sometimes used as I have already mentioned, but the device

was not so certain as the pit, although other animals,—a deer or

a seladang might be thus added to the bag.

The tracking of rhinoceroses was seldom undertaken by

poachers, although an experienced hunter, like the Datok Raja,

used no other method. In fact he told me that, when persons

started pitting in the Negri Sembilan where he lived, he gave up

hunting rhino in disgust. He complained bitterly that pits very

soon drove all the rhinos out of the district and described with

scorn the methods of people who were only capable of getting a

rhinoceros by digging a pit for it. |

The tragedy of the whole thing lies in the fact that the

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, one of the cleverest, cunningest, sturdiest

and most harmless of jungle animals should be driven from the

face of this earth by superstition and greed. For years, in Malaya,

this rare animal has been protected by laws which being ineffective

are merely marks on pieces of paper, with the result that nothing

practical has been done to try to save it from extermination.

COMMERCIALIZED SUPERSTITIONS.

There has been for many decades in Malaya a demand for

horns and other parts of the rhinoceros due to the fact that

Chinese shop-keepers and others have always been willing to pay

big prices for such articles. In fact, I have known of Chinese

who financed poachers, or at any rate would be willing to give

them credit for provisions for a horn not yet obtained.

This stimulated the business and it went on steadily for many

years until the Dicerorhinus has been brought to the verge of

extermination.

614. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

In Northern Pahang, the largest of the Federated Malay States,

and the least developed, a tremendous amount of destruction was

done to the rhinoceros population at the beginning of this century,

despite the fact that from 1896 there was a law in Pahang making

it a punishable offence for any person, who was not licensed so to

do, to capture, kill or wound any rhinoceros. Not that anyone

was either licensed or punished. These poachers were not hampered

in any way by an enforcement of the law and the inertness of

the Government must be considered as a contributory cause for

the disappearance of the rhinoceros.

Many years ago, I had the following conversation with an old

Malay on ene disap» ,earaace of rhinoceros from much of the country

where we were at the time. I had been for some weeks trying

to locate rhinoceroses but without success.

‘What,’ I said, ‘has become of all the rhinos?’

‘I do not know,’ he answered.

‘Do you remember if there were many here during your youth,

because there must have been many at some time or other according

to the number of game trails I have seen which were obviously

made by rhinoceroses?’

‘Yes, there were very many when I was a boy. I remember

a man, who devoted all his time catching rhinos in pits, coming

here with a sack full of rhino’s horns. I have not seen a rhino

horn now for years, nor do I know where all the animals can

have gone to.

I had my answer.

That the number of rhinoceroses must have been large, if the

old man’s story is to be believed, is confirmed to some extent by

the numerous trails made by them over the country we were talking

about. A rhinoceros game path is different from that of an elephant

——-sometimes of course they use the same paths—being narrower,

as the rhino’s footprints continually overlap. Thus they wear

a deep furrow down the middle of the path when the track is in

steep country. I have seen a trail leading down to a wallow which

was six to seven feet deep and much too narrow for an elephant

to pass along. But the most astonishing trail I ever came across

was in limestone. country, where the ‘sack full of rhino’s horns’

came from. Here there is a huge limestone massif, 2,000 feet

high, which was often circled by rhincceroses when travelling that

way. In this case a trail passed between two large limestone

boulders, both of which were well polished for a height of about

three feet. These boulders rested on bed rock,—limestone—and in

this bed rock the trail had been worn down a few inches! How

many thousands, nay! tens of thousands, of rhino’s feet must have

passed along that trail?

None pass now, because there.are none to pass.

As I have ‘shown in an earlier part of this article, parts of

the rhinoceros’s body have been used since ancient times for

magical rites or as medicine. This has been the main incentive to

the hunting and killing of these animals in Asia so as to bring

them to the point of extermination. Killing for profit, and large

a a

wrAA MIC F ~

[aysz4hdor

“FI FQYG FF ey

"00G “LSIF{ “LVN AVAWOg ‘Nunof

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 615

profits in the case of rhinoceroses, will always be fatal to rare

species.

In Malaya the rhinoceros’s horn is the chief attraction, Chinese

being willing to pay as much as £2 (U.S. $10) or even more per

ounce for the horn or part thereof. The dried blood is also a

marketable commodity, fetching 5sh. (U.S. $1) a pound. It is

collected and dried on paper, brown paper for preference—it weighs

more—then dried over a fire, the resulting blood-soaked paper

fetching the above price. But almost all parts of the body are con-

sidered valuable medicine of one sort or another, even the contents of

the small intestines before they have been evacuated have a value

to the medicine seller. The skin, roasted like pork cracknel, is

considered a great delicacy. The horn is purchased by Chinese

almost solely as an aphrodisiac. I cannot trace when this was

first discovered but it is undoubtedly considered now as an infallible

stimulant. Whether the effect of taking powdered rhinoceros horn

in your tea or other vehicle is psychological or physiological it is

difficult to determine, although it is quite possible that the powdered

horn has some irritant effect on the generative glands and so

produces a sense of virility which is normally not there. On the

other hand, substitutes have been used as the following incidents

show. Some years ago throughout Malaya imitation rhinoceros

horns were hawked around the country by Chinese vendors who

sold them to the Chinese medicine shops which are to be found

in every small village. These imitations were good efforts to

represent a rhinoceros’s horn to anyone who had never seen the

real thing, and went like hot cakes. The Chinese medicine shop-

keepers knew, of course, that they were not rhinoceros’s horns,

but the ignorant Chinese labourer who felt the want of something

to stimulate his desire, did not.

_ These imitations were made from buffalo horn and shaped like

a rhino’s horn.

There was one instance where one of these imitation horns

was found in a Chinese medicine shop and displayed alongside

a genuine rhinoceros’s toe nail; just to show that there was no

deception! These were seized by the Police who did not realize

the difference between a real and a genuine horn. I saw the

Chinese medicine man and asked him what he meant by having

in his possession a rhinoceros’s horn without a permit. The law

requires one to have a permit. He immediately said that it was

not a rhinoceros’s horn at all. I explained that such was no news

to me but he had apparently been selling shavings from this horn

as rhinoceros horn and what was he going to do about it? That

rather puzzled him. However I switched off on to the rhino’s toe

nail and he had a perfectly satisfactory explanation for that.

However I warned him that he might still be prosecuted for cheating

and the nail and horn would be held as exhibits.

Now, to finish this story I should have a string of satisfied

or dissatisfied witnesses who testified to the efficiency or otherwise

of the false horn. Unfortunately they were not forthcoming so

the conclusion is incomplete. But the fact remains that this faked

horn business was for some time quite a good line for the medicine

618 jOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XL

shop-keepers, so possibly the superstition may be founded and

supported on psychology only. :

Malays attach all sorts of qualities to the rhinoceroses’ horns

which are merely childish. One is that a deep seated thorn ean

be extracted by rubbing the sore part with a rhinoceros’s horn;

another is that a severe stomach ache or any other ache can be

relieved immediately by the application of a rhino’s horn to the

affected part, and so on. They are never willing to substantiate

their claims by a demonstration—the horn is never forthcoming.

Still, these legends persist and so long as they persist and so

iong as there is no serious attempt to tackle the problem of how

to preserve the rhinoceros for posterity, the Dicerorhinus sumat-

rensis 1s doomed.

In Malaya the Rhinoceros sondaicus is on the verge of complete

extinction due to these superstitions and the failure of poor efforts

to conserve it.

POSTERITY.

What will Posterity say of the present generation which is

allowing, in many parts of the world, the fatal progress of the

extermination of species, while professing an anxiety to save such

species for future generations?

Unfortunately in the present state of our civilization those who

have most to say are frequently those who know the least about

their subject... Wild Life Conservation is no exception to this

unfortunate state of affairs as all true conservationists will agree.

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is on the threshold of a_ position

that will inevitably cause it to disappear. I do not suggest that

the last of its race will necessarily die a violent death but, due to

disturbance and lack of proper facilities to enable them to exist

under congenial and natural conditions, they will not breed.

The sumatrensis is, I believe, a long-lived species, and as such

there will be for many years a solitary one or two left in remote

places, which the opponents of proper conservation, and there are

many of them, will point to as evidence of the adequateness of

the futile arangements, mostly on paper, that have been made for

their salvation.

In the new Wild Life Protection Act, 10936, | Burma, whteh

might be considered as the last word on Wild Life Protection, the

killing, taking, importation or exportation of rhinoceroses or any

part thereof, is prohibited, although there is a provision to enable

the Local Government to give special licences to do some of these

acts for scientific purposes.

This sounds as if the rhinoceros was very well protected but

unfortunately a proviso has been inserted in the Act which reads

as follows :—

‘Provided that it shall not be an offence for any physician or

druggist to possess or sell or for any person to possess for private

medical purposes rhinoceros blood or any preparation thereof: i

How anyone can become possessed of any part of a rhinoceros

when all killing and hunting of that animal is prohibited, when all

THE TWO-HORNED ASIATIC RHINOCEROS 617

import of the animal or any part thereof is prohibited, and still

keep within the law, seems problematic. Why therefore insert a

clause which seems to provide a very large loophole for illicit

dealings in rhinoceroses’ blood which means dead _ rhinoceroses?

Possibly the Local Government anticipates the giving of licences

to such persons as those mentioned above to possess ‘for scientific

purposes’, and if so the trade in these objects will not be stopped.

Possibly the difficulty will be overcome by substituting buftalo’s

blood for rhinoceroses’ blood and so placate Public Opinion which

appears to have been responsible for the loophole in this Act.

But it does not help the preservation of rhinoceroses which

are now far too rare to be dealt with in any other way than by

complete and adequate protection.

To save them from complete extinction, the only hope that remains

for the rhinoceros in Malaya, and I think I may add in Burma,

is to constitute inviolable sanctuaries in their own habitat where

a suitable environment is known to exist. These sanctuaries must

be properly guarded and freed from human interference and severe

penalties should be provided for any breaches of such laws as are

enacted to make these places real refuges for the rhinoceroses in

them.

There must be no loophole in the Act such as there is in the

Burma Act. Whatever superstitions there may be connected with

the rhinoceros, it must be recognized that these superstitions have

brought all species of the Asiatic rhinoceros to the verge of complete

disappearance, and, unless steps are taken to make it practically

impossible to continue to commercialize these superstitions, then we

must realize that we are impotent to save the Dicevrorhinus

sumatrensis from extinction.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ASIATIC TWO-HORNED

RHINOCEROS.

5) El PRATER Chez:

SPECIES AND RACES OF THE ASIATIC Two-HORNED RHINOCEROS.

The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros was first made known in

scientific literature by Bell (Phil. Trans... p:. 3, 4. 2, 1703) mune

described an animal killed in Sumatra under the name of the

Double-horned Rhinoceros of Sumatra. It was on Bell’s decrip-

tion that Cuvier (Régne An. 1, p. 240, 1817) founded the ‘ame

Rhinoceros sumatrensis. Three years later Raffles (Trans. Linn.

Soc., vol. xiii, p. 208, 1820) described the same animal under the

name Rhinoceros sumatranus. Raffles’ name is however antedated

by Cuvier’s. Later, as skulls, horns, skeletons and even live

examples of this rhinoceros became available in England and_ the

Continent, attempts were made by naturalists to distinguish various

species of Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros from the different areas

of its wide range.

Thus in addition to the species originally described by Bell,

four other species of Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros were distin-

guished. R.-crossit was established by Gray (P.Z.S.,p. 250, 1854)

on a single horn of unknown origin presented to the British Museum

by Mr. Cross in 1854. Ceratorhinus niger was the name given by

Gray (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xi, p. 359, 1873) toma

Malaccan Rhinoceros acquired by the Zoological Society of London

in 1872. Gray distinguished it from the typical Sumatran animal,

(as described by Bell), by its broader skull, wider lower jaw and

black colouring. C. blythii was established by Gray (Ann. Mag.

Nat, Hist., ser. 4, vol.. xi, 366, 1873) on three skulls of [iiwe-

horned Rhinoceroses from Tenasserim, figured by Blyth (Journ.

As. Soc.. Bengal, vol. xxxi, t. m1, figs. 1, 2, 3). teis duels

to discover from Gray’s description which of the skulls served as

his type, but he indicated that two skulls representing younger

animals revealed certain differences in structure of the lower jaw

sufficient for recognition as distinct species, to which he gave the

name blythi, to differentiate them from his Malaccan species niger.

Rhinoceros lasiotis was established by Sclater (P.Z.S., p. 493,

pl. xxii, 1872). His type was a young Two-horned Rhinoceros

which was captured in Chittagong in 1869, and purchased by the

Zoological Society of London in 1871. Anderson (P.Z.S., p. we

1872) saw the animal at Calcutta and wrote an account of it under

the name R. sumatranus. Sclater (loc. cit.) described and figured

the animal, and in a foot note to his account assigned to it the

name lasiotis, amplifying his reasons in a subsequent paper (P.Z. S.,

p. 790, 1872). He was led to his conclusions by a comparison of

the Chittagong animal with the Malaccan Rhinoceros, referred to

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS 619

above, which was acquired in the same year by the Society. He

differentiated the Chittagong rhinoceros by its larger size, pale

browner colouring, smoother skin, longer, finer and more rufescent

hair, shorter, more tufted tail, and by the ears having a drooping

fringe of hair, some 5 in. long, and above all by the much greater

breadth of the head as indicated by the great width of the skull

between the ears.

In the year 1876, Flower (P.Z.S., p. 443, 1876) on examination

of the considerable accretion of material by then available in the

British Museum and in the Museum of the Royal College of

Surgeons came to the conclusion that there were no more than

three distinct types of Asiatic Rhinoceros :—the Great One-horned

Rhinoceros (R. unicornis), the Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros. (R.

sondaicus), and the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis).

As to the existence of more than one species of Asiatic Two-horned

Rhinoceros he remarked that the distinctive characters indicated in

the skull of the Malaccan Rhinoceros, which provided the type of

Gray’s niger, were individual characters due to age. The animal

was an old female. He was unable to examine the skulls which

tormed. the type of Gray’s blyihu. These were in the Indian

Museum. As regards lasiotis of Sclater, he had the opportunity in

the following year of examining the skull of a rhinoceros killed

at Comillah in Tipperah, 1.e. from the province from which the

type of lasiotis originated. He could find in the skull no characters

which would justify its recognition as a senarate species (P.Z.S.,

p. 636, 1878). He showed that the skulls of Two-horned Rhinoceros

present considerable individual variation in general conformation:

proportionate breadth to length, the development of the nasal bones,

number and position of lachrymal foramina, and other details.

Blyth (J.A.S.B., vol. xxxi, p. 862, 1861) from an examination of

an extensive series of skulls, had previously indicated the considerable

individual variations exhibited in the skulls of all three species of

Asiatic Rhinoceros. He showed that skulls of unicornis, sondaicus

and sumatrensis all exhibited a short and broad type with a hich

occiput and considerable width between the orbits and a second

type which exhibited exactly the opposite characters, while other

skulls showed an intergradation between these extremes. A similar

variation is seen in the skulls of the Indian Wild Boar (Sus

cristatus). The variation occurs in both sexes, and is not confined

to particular areas of distribution. As regards the _ external

characters by which the various species were distinguished, these

again were shown to be individual in nature.

Subsequent authors have regarded the various so-called species

of the Two-horned Rhinoceros as forms of the typical race

sumatrensis. The famous Rhinoceros from Chittagong which

provided the type of Sclater’s lasiotis died in the Zoological Gardens

in 190i. Oldfield Thomas (P.Z.S., p: 154, 1901) who examined

the specimen indicated that none of the external characters relative

to colour, development of hair, etc., which were so distinctive in

the animal when it was young, remained at the time of its death.

They had disappeared with advancing age. Even the lengthy hair

fringes,’ which formed so distinctive an adornment to the ears of

620 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL (HIST... SOCIETY .” Vol= ae

the animal, were at the time of its death reduced to the short

bristles customary in adults. Anderson (loc. cit.) had commented

upon this particular character when he first saw the animal at

Calcutta, and attributed the great development of its ear fringes to

its age. He remarked that lengthy ear fringes were not in evidence

in adult male and female Two-horned Rhinoceroses which he had

seen in Burma. Nor did Thomas discover in the skull of Sclater’s

lasiotis any tangible character by which it could be distinguished

from the typical sumatrensis. None except size. Of the 12 skulls

examined by Thomas, the skull from Chittagong was easily the

largest. The skull measurements recorded by him are 23 5/8 in.

in a straight line from the occipital crest to the end of the nasal;

zygomatic breadth 12 7/8 in.; interorbital breadth 8 in. A _ skull

in the British Museum, presented by Sir Stanford Raffles, which is

-believed to have come from Sumatra, approached the Chittagong

skull in measurements. Thomas indicated that if the locality was

correct, the existence of an equally large form in Sumatra would

dispose of the last claim of lasiotis to distinction as a separate race.

He however doubted the correctness of the locality and therefore

provisionally retained lasiotis as a northern form or race of the

Two-horned Rhinoceros, distinguishable alone by its greater size.

The Two-horned Rhinoceros is probably now extinct in Bengal,

and whether animals from this province were in fact consistently

larger than those inhabiting Sumatra can probably no longer be

ascertained. Measurements of skulls available in the British

Museum, indicate that skulls from Sumatra, Borneo and Malacca

are smaller than the skulls from Bengal. While skulls from Pegu

and Arracan are intermediate. Size is then the only character by

which this supposed northern race is distinguishable.

Lydekker (Cat. Ung. Mam., B.M., vol. v; p. 50), in addition

to lasiotis from Bengal, recognises blythit as a distinct race

occurring in the Malay Peninsula and Tenasserim. He differentiates

blythit from. typical sumatrensis as a smaller, blacker, less hairy

form. There is no. evidence to indicate that the Two-horned

Rhinoceros inhabiting Tenasserim are smaller than those from

Malacca or Sumatra. The colour of the body and hairiness are,

as has been indicated, individual characters. Wrouchton in his

‘Summary. of the Results of the Mammal Survey’ (].B.N.H.S.,

vol. xxvil, p. 311, 1921) dismisses the race blythiit and recocnises

only the northern form lasiotis, limiting its distribution to Eastern

Bengal. He gives the distribution of the typical race sumatrensis

as Pegu, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo.

THe ASIATIC Two-HOoORNED RHINOCEROS AS A DISTINCT GENUS.

The question has also been raised as to whether the various

species of Rhinoceroses now included under the sinele Linnaean

genus Rhinoceros are not really separable into different genera.

Between the year 1728 when Linnaeus made the Great Indian One-

horned Rhinoceros the type of his genus Rhinoceros and the year

1904, when Palmer published his great work, Index Genera

Mammalium—no less than 42 generic names were proposed for the

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS 621

various kinds of Rhinoceros, many receiving generic names which

were synonyms of one another. The earliest attempt to distribute

the Rhinoceros into different genera was made by Gloger (Naturg,

p. 125, 1841) who among other genera established a separate genus

Dicerorhinus for the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros. He was

iollowed' by Gray (P.Z.S., p. 1003, 1867) who revised the

classification of the Rhinocerotidae, and assigned the Asiatic Two-

horned species to a separate genus Ceratorhinus, distinguishing it

from the genus Ihinoceros, by the presence of two horns, by the

well developed lumbar neck folds and by certain characters of

the skull.

Flower (P.Z.S., p. 44, 1876) supported Gray’s classification and

indicated certain distinctive characters in the skull of the Asiatic

Two-horned Rhinoceros. In this species the long downward

processes of the squamosal bone, called respectively the post glenoid

and the post tympanic, do not unite below the auditory meatus,

whereas fusion of these processes is exhibited both in the Great

Indian One-horned Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) and in the Lesser

One-horned Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus). Apart from distinctions in

the skeletal structure of the Two-horned Rhinoceros, studies of the

visceral anatomy of R. unicornis by Professor Owen (Trans. Zool.

Soc. London., vol. vi, p. 31), of sondaicus by Sir E. Horne (Phil.

Soc, Trans., 1821), of sumatrensis by Garrod (P.Z.S., p. 707, 1877),

also indicate considerable structural differences in the anatomy of

the small intestine. In R. unicornis the gut is provided with

numerous Jong cylindrical narrow outgrowths ‘like tags of worsted’,

in sondaicus these tags are present, but are flatter and broader;

while in the Two-horned Rhinoceros these tags: are absent.

Further, both unicornis and sondaicus have so called ‘foot glands’

embedded in the integument of the foot, in sumatrensis these

elands are absent.

Apart from distinctions in the anatomy of these animals,

palaeontological evidence of their distinctive origin and character

has been provided by Professor Fairfield Osborn in his paper on

the Phylogeny of the Rhinoceros of Europe (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

fasion axils 10220, TOO).

In his paper Osborn recognises 6 distinct groups or sub-families

of Rhinoceros, each forming distinct branches of the great Rhino-

ceros family. Discoveries subsequent to the publication of his paner

which include the Baluchitherium, a gigantic hornless extinct form

of Rhinoceros, whose fossil remains were first unearthed at Chur

Lando, Baluchistan, in the year 1911, have led Prof. Osborn to add

to the number of known groups. He now indicates 3 groups or

lines of descent. All the herbivorous quadrupeds tend to spread and

migrate into different habitats and climates and into new feeding

grounds to which they become adapted through a principle, which

Osborn calls adaptive radiation. According to Osborn, the 8 lines

of Rhinoceros separated from each other at a very ancient period

and, although externally similar in certain cases, they are very far

apart in their history and anatomy. The Great One-horned Indian

Rhinoceros (R. wnicornis) and its relative the Smaller One-horned

Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus) have an obscure geological history. No

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

representatives of this group of Rhinoceros have been found any-

where but in South Eastern Asia. Their remains are not found in

the more ancient Siwalik beds but they appear with relative

suddenness in the uppermost and more recent beds in the form of

two species—the Siwalik Rhinoceros (R. sivalensis) and the ancient

Rhinoceros of India (R. palaeindicus). The Two-horned Rhinoceros

had a much wider distribution. No fossil species allied to the

Sumatran Rhinoceros has ever been obtained from the Tertiary

deposits of India. In Tertiary times however a number of species

. allied to the Sumatran Rhinoceros inhabited the forests of Central

and Western Europe. Their rematns are abundant in the Miocene |

and Lower Pliocene deposits of France and Germany. From which

it is concluded that the Two-horned Rhinoceros is a comparatively

recent immigrant into Southern Asia, the type having probably

originated in Western Europe. The earliest representative of the

group in Southern Asia is the flat-nosed Rhinoceros platyrhinus of

the Lower Pleistocene beds of India. They were quite abundant

in the Siwalik Hills in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene times.

The Upper Pliocene is indicated as a geological period when these

animals, favoured by a genial climate lived in a broad forest belt

which extended from the East Coast of England and southwards

and eastwards across southern France and northern Italy into

India. Like their descendants of today, the primitive two-horned

forms probably lived in the deepest recesses of the forest. The

survival of the type through long epochs of time is traced to the

protected environment in which they habitually lived—an enviorn-

ment which, while it does not favour rapid evolution, tends on

the other hand to persistence of type.

From all this it will be seen that the various species of Rhinoceros

though externally similar are very far apart in their history and

anatomy. The question arises as to whether these distinctions

entitle them to be grouped in separate genera or whether they

merely represent natural divisions of the Linnaean genus Rhinoceros,

to which most naturalists have hitherto assigned them. Oldfield

Thomas (P.Z.S:, p.° 112, 1901) indicated that 1f there 1s: to) bemany

uniformity in the value of genera as recognised among Mammals,

it is impossible to include such essentially different animals in one

genus Rhinoceros. He considered that the generic groups-as pro-

posed by Osborn (loc. cit.) should be accepted. He however indi-

cated that the name Ceratorhinus Gray (P.Z.S., p. 1021, 1867) used

by Osborn for the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros was antedated

by Gloger’s name Dicerorhinus (Naturg., p. 125, 1841) which there-

fore by technical priority is the correct generic name.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE ASIATIC —TWo-HORNED RHINOCEROS.

Measurements.

Young. The measurements of a newly born R. sumatrensis

which was born on the Steamship Orchis in Victoria Docks, London,

on December 7th, 1872, have been recorded by Bartlett (P.Z.S.,

p. 104, 1873): length 3 ft., height at shoulder 2 ft., weight estimated

at about so Ibs. Bartlett remarks that with its long legs, long head

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ._TWO-HORNED, RHINOCEROS 623

and meagre body, and in its movements it was rather like a young

ass.

Adult. The young female Rhinoceros from Chittagong to which

menerence has been: made at the time of its arrival.in the Zoo

(is72)) measured’ 4 ft. 4 in. at the shoulder. The aged female

from Malacca which was a contemporary at the Zoo of the

Chittagong animal, was according to Bartlett 3 ft. 8 in. high at

mie Shoulder: Evans (Journ. B.N.H.S., vol. xvi, p. 161 and 455)

records the measurements of a male and a female from Burma:

Length Girth Height

Muzzle to root of tail behind shoulder at shoul:ter

E¢ So 2 fo. 2G 4’ 44” (measured between

g KG 9e G5" 500 A Ot uprights.)

Colour and Development of Hair.

Newiy- Born: Bartlett. (P.Z.S. -1872, p: 104) describes. the

colour of the newly born rhinoceros referred to above as_ being

nearly black, covered with short crisp black hairs; the ears very

hairy inside as well as outside. (His illustration shows the margins

of the ears heavily fringed with hair). Tail quite like a brush at

the tip. ;

Young. The rhinoceros captured at Chittagong in February

186g and subsequently acquired for the London Zoo, was

described by Anderson who saw it at Calcutta in 1870. He describes

it as a young female. It died in London in 1oo1, 32 years after its

capture. The general colour of the skin, according to Anderson

P.Z.S., p. 129, 1872), was ashy grey becoming light brown when

moist, the arm pits and under surface of the groin and the skin

within the creases formed by the folds of the body had a flesh

pink tint. The face, anterior to the eyes, was nude of hair except

for the pendulous lip which had strone bristles set wide apart.

The outer margins of the ears were heavily fringed with drooping

hairs nearly 5 in. lone and the insides were covered with short

bristles. The body was covered with bristles about 1 in. in length;

on the head and neck they were sherter and on the sides of the belly

and over the wrists and heels, the hairs were adpressed and

somewhat curly; the upper two-third of the tail was covered with

bristles. The hairs on the margins of the lower third of the tail,

increased in length towards the tip, the apical hairs being about

6 in- long.

The colour of the body hairs varied; on the head and neck the

bristles were almost white, on the upper half of the trunk, the

bristles anterior to the shoulder fold were dark brown, posterior

to the shoulder fold, they were almost white in some lights and

showed a rufous tint in others. On the lower half of the trunk

they were black. The rufescent tint of the body bristles is also

remarked upon by Sclater, who says that it gave the animal a

brownish appearance in certain lights. Anderson’s description of

the colour of the Chittagong rhinoceros coincides with Bell’s original

description of a male from Sumatra in which the general colour

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY™~ Volpi

is described by him as brownish ash; under the belly and between

the legs, and, within the folds of the skin—dirty flesh.

Old. The Rhinoceros from Malacca acquired by the London

Zoo, an aged female, is described as being black. Garrod who

described the anatomy of the animal, refers to the colour as dark

slaty. The hairs covering the body were shorter, coarser and

more bristly than in the young animal from Chittagong in which

the hair is described as being softer tending to lie flatter on the

skin. The body hairs were more sparse than in the young animal,

and were most in evidence in the- middle line of the back andion

the outer sides of the limb. The tail, though covered with black

straggling bristles, had no terminal tuft. The inside of the ears

had a covering of short black hairs and the outer margins were

similarly lined with short bristles. Anderson remarks that adult

animals of both sexes seen by him in Burma, had the ears fringed

with strong erect black hairs tipped with brown. He suggests

that the delicate terminals of the hairy ear fringes are worn off as

the animal increases in age, probably by the friction to which the

ears are subjected in the creatures wanderings through the dense

jungle. This explanation does not quite meet the case of the

Chittagong Rhinoceros, which spent the greater part of its life in

an open paddock, and nevertheless exhibited, when old, the same

loss of its drooping ear fringes, which at the time of its death

were reduced to short bristles.

Development of Horns.

The newly born rhinoceros described by Bartlett (loc. cit.)

had a front horn on its nose about # of an inch in length.

The posterior horn was not developed, but a smooth, spot

indicated its position. As regards the length of horns—the

horn presented to the British Museum in 1854 by Mr. Cross, on

which Gray established his species R. crossi, measured according

to -Gray. (P.Z.S., p. 250, 1854) 314 in. along the curve withea

girth of 174 in. at the base. Probably this is the horn mentioned

in Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game; though its present

measurements are given as length 321 in., circumference 173 in.

In his. Memoir on Asiatic Rhinoceros, Blyth (J.4.S.B., xxxi, p. 156,

1862) figures a splendid head then in the possession of Col. Fytche,

Commissioner of Martaban and Tenasserim. This was an animal

killed in Tavoy. The span of curvature from base to tip is 24 in.

Col. Fytche informed him that he had in his possession a_ head

with still finer horns, some 5 or 6 in. longer. In a letter to Blyth

he speaks of a Rhinoceros which he tracked up a mountain 4ooo ft.

high; near the summit he came suddenly upon the beast whose

anterior. horn was at least 10 or 12 in. larger than the one he had

got. Unfortunately, the gun bearer on seeing this giant fell down

on his face in fright and rolled down the hill. Blyth’s observations

indicate that even so far back as 1862, fine horns of R. sumatrensis

were extremely difficult to obtain and were bought up at high

price by Chinamen, who not only valued them as medicine but

carved them into wonderful ornaments. The comparatively poor

development of horns in these animals at the present time 1s

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS 625

probably due to the persistent persecution and the killing off of

better horned animals and the breeding of poorer stock. Similar

deterioration is seen in the horns of Sambar and other deer in

areas where they are subjected to constant harassment.

Development of Hoofs.

artlett (P.Z.S., p, 106, 1873) records the condition of the

hoofs in a newly born Rhinoceros. At birth the hoofs or nails

are long and pointed; the points are soft and turn inwards so

as to fold over and cover part of the sole of the foot. From the

manner of their turning under it is evident that the turned in

parts of the horny nails covering the sole are worn through by

continuous contact with the ground, and the frontal portion is all

that remains to provide the blunt nail.

Habits.

Mr. Hubback refers to the peculiar habits of the male

when urinating, the urine being shot upwards and_ backwards

between the legs for some distance so that leaves of the surrounding

trees and bushes are sprinkled. He expresses doubt as to whether

this habit is exhibited by the female also. Anderson who recorded

his observations on the habits of the female rhinoceros, captured

in Chittagong, writes: ‘She has a peculiar habit of squirting out

her urine to a great distance, sending it out behind her for nearly

20 feet, a habit by which the male is made aware of her presence

in the dense recesses of his native forests where smell is probably

the sole guide by which the sexes become aware of each other’s

presence’. It is evident from the above that both sexes share the

habit. Major G. H. Evans’ observation on the habits of R. suma-

ivensis in. Burma .(fourn. B.N.H.S., vol. xvi, p. 555) agrees with

Mr. Hubback’s that this rhinoceros does not repeatedly visit the

same spots for the deposition of its faeces. He writes : ‘Small heaps

or mounds, perhaps the droppings of a week may be found on the

hill sides where they lie up. But as a general rule I do not think

that they can be particular in this matter as one habitually finds

single droppings on the tracks on the sides of hill ridges and an

abundance of them scattered in the beds of streams.’ The Great

Indian One-horned Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) on the other hand

is known to revisit particular places for the evacuation of excreta

which accumulate in mounds. The habit facilitates the work of

the poacher who lies in wait for the Rhinoceros in the neighbour-

hood of these spots; his task is simplified by the animal’s habit

of approaching the place backwards. Other animals, besides the

great One-horned Rhinoceros, display this particular habit,

notably the Indian Porcupine (Hystrix leucura) and the Four-horned

Antelope. In the case of the porcupine enormous mounds. of

ordure, the product of one or more animals, are commonly found.

Food.

Further information regarding the plants and fruits eaten

by R. sumatrensis has been given by G. H. Evans (Journ.

626 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL BIST? SOCIEDY ~ Volvos

B.N.H.S.," vol. “xvi, p. 555) and. by Mr. W.° S. Them=|(fouma

B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvili, p. 137). In the matter of food, Evans does

not differentiate between R. swmatrensis and the Lesser One-horned

Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus). Both species appear to have the same

feeding habits; neither feeds much on grass. Both subsist mainly

on leaves, fruits and twigs. The conformity in feeding habits is

evidenced in the similarity in structure of the molar teeth of both

these animals. Their teeth differ materially in the form and in the.

pattern presented by wear from those of the Great Indian One-

horned Rhinoceros, a species which is by habit a grazer, feeding

almost exclusively on grass. The feeding habits of R. sumatrensis

and RR. sondaicus have profoundly influenced their distribution.

Finding their subsistence on a great variety of forest trees and

shrubs, these two species have extended their range through the

great forest tracts reaching from the confines of Assam and Bengal,

through Burma and the Malay Countries. The Great Indian One-

horned Rhinoceros on the other hand is limited by the nature of

its food to a range confined to the grass jungles of the North

Indian alluvial plains. Similar factors have limited the range of

the grass-eating White Rhinoceros, and facilitated the wider distri-

bution of the ‘browsing’ Black Rhinoceros on the African Continent.

Beliefs and Legends.

Many beliefs and legends attach to the Rhinoceros and

are generally applicable to all species. Writing of the Rhinoceros

in Nepal, General Sir Kaiser Shumshere Jung Bahadur says

‘The flesh and blood of the Rhinoceros are considered acceptable

to the Manes to whom high caste Hindus and most Gurkhas

offer libation of its blood after entering the disembowelled body’.

Rhinoceros blood is efficacious to the dying as it is believed

to ensure for the soul both a peaceful departure and a_ happy

release on the other side. It should be mentioned that the power

of ensuring peace for the departed soul is retained by the ‘Shell’

of the beast for years after its decease. Continuing, General Kaiser

says ‘The urine is considered antiseptic, and is hung in a vessel at

the principal door as a charm against ghosts, evil spirits and

diseases’. In the Calcutta Zoo there is always a brisk demand

for this product of the Rhinoceros. The above beliefs are in no

way confined to Nepal as the Chinese, Burmese, Siamese preserve

practically every part of the Rhinoceros. The horns, blood, urine

and hide and even the intestines are converted into medicine. The

belief in the virtues of Rhinoceros Horn, persisted in Europe even

to the end of the eighteenth century. So recently as 1763, it7was

asserted that a cup made of Rhinoceros horn would fall to pieces

if poison were poured into it. ‘When wine is poured into it’,

wrote Dr. Brookes, ‘it will rise and ferment, but when mixed with

poison it cleaves in two, which experiment has been seen by

thousands of people’. The belief is probably of eastern origin

where it was prevalent long before it grew current in the West.

Apollonius, whose travels to India in the first century have been

recorded by his biographer Philostratus, speaking of a cup of

HMO DITIONAL NOTES ON THE TWO-HORNED- RHINOCEROS 627

Rhinoceros horn said: ‘On the day they drink from the cup they

cannot fall sick; nor suffer if wounded, nor be injured though they

pass through fire; wherefore these cups belong to the king alone;

nor might any other hunt this animal’. Asked by his friend

Damidius whether he believed in this tale, the sage replied ‘I believe

it if I find the king of this country immortal. For if any one gave

to me, or to another, such a health bearing cup, is it not likely

that I should use it daily to drink it to the dregs? Nor could

any one blame me for getting drunk under such circumstances.’

It has been indicated how the Rhinoceros inherited many of the

vaunted virtues of the Unicorn. Among them, its weakness in the

presence of virgins, and the efficacy of its horn against poison.

fhe.origin of the belief in the Unicorn is lost in the mists of

antiquity. Various explanations have been given as to its origin

and various animals have been suggested as its counterpart; among

them the Oryx, the Wild Ass and the Rhinoceros. But a less usual

explanation traces the origin of the Unicorn not to a four-footed

beast, but to a reptile. None other than the Horned Viper,

Cerastes, which bears above each eye a projecting scale, shaped

somewhat like a horn. The origin of the belief in the Dragon

is traced to the Python, which poetic fervour and imagination

endowed with wings, lmbs, claws; and in a similar way this

common and dreaded horned viper, which figures prominently in

Assyrian and Hebrew Religion and Art, took unto itself in legend

and story the form of a powerful four-footed beast. If the horned

Cerastes gave origin to the Unicorn, it is. easy to understand the

attributes legend gives to this fabled animal. To the poisonous

nature of Cerastes is due the supposed efficacy of the horn of the

Unicorn as a protection against poison. For the belief that poison

counteracts poison goes back to the earliest times. fs there not

current even today in India the ancient belief that the ‘stones’ or

jewels supposed to be derived from the head of the cobra and

other snakes are efficacious against their venoms? And the belief

in the virgin’s power over the Unicorn is perhaps traceable to the

Woman’s domination over the Serpent, of which mention is made

in the Bible—these wondrous attributes passing subsequently

from the Serpent to the Unicorn and from the fabled Unicorn to

the Rhinoceros.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

SALIM ALI AND HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

Part VI.

(Continued from p. 381 of this Volume).

The Indian Bilue-breasted Banded Rail : Hypoiaenidia striata striata (Horsf.).

Field identification: Slightly smailer than the Partridge. A stub-tailed,

long-iegged marsh bird skuiking about singly among reeds, etc. on the edge of

tanks or water-logged paddy cultivation. Wark brown and olive-brown above,

with white markings, ashy-grey and brown below with the abdomen and

undertail barred wie. Chin and throat white; crown rufous. Twitches its

stub-tail up and down at every step. Ilushed with difficulty. Slow laboured

flight with legs trailing behind.

Noted and/or shot: Gorégaon and Fowai Lake. Also at Kihim (Kolaba

Dist.) across the Harbour, in a mangrove swamp.

Doubtless resident, though as yet we have no breeding records from our

area.

The Spotted Crake: = Porzana porzana (Linn.).

Field identification: Size between the Quail and the Partridge. Reddish

olive-brown above with black streaks; grey below. Speckled witn white on

breast, neck and upper back. Lower back, rump and upper tail coverts

streaked narrowly with white. Similar in general effect and habits to the

ioregoing species. Singly, in reed-beds, etc. on the margins of tanks. A

confirmed skulker.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 23-12-08 Malabar Hill, Bombay (J. C. G. Bowen) ;

[o? Ncvem. 1893 Panwel, Kolaba Dist. (W. S. Millard)].

Noted: Powai Lake.

Winter visitor. Latest date 12 April. We have come across it only rarely,

but Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 45—1887) says it is common round Bombay. It

may well have been commoner before the low-lying marshy areas on _ the

outskirts of the city and in the suburbs were reclaimed.

The Litile Crake: Porzana parva (Scopoli).

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? Malabar Hill, Bombay (A. H. A. Simcox).

We have not seen this specimen, but it is listed in the old Card Catalogue

of the Society’s Collection prepared by Mr. N. B. Kinnear. It may have

been an aberrant cold weather straggler. We have not come across it in

Salsette.

The Eastern Baillon’s Crake: Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pall.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Quail. General effect and

colouration as of the Spotted Crake but lacking the white speckles on neck,

breast and back. Breast grey, belly barred black and white. White edge to first

primary quill conspicuous and diagnostic. Singly, in marshy reed-beds. Same

skulking habits.

No specimens. Noted at Fowai, Tulsi and Vihar Lakes, Vilé Parleé.

Status? Common, at least in the cold weather. A great skulker, flushed

only when almost trod upon, flying quail-like for a few yards before dropping

into the reeds again.

So far we have no evidence of its breeding in our area.

The Ruddy Crake: Amaurornis fuscus fuscus (Linn.).

Field identification: Like the Waterhen in general effect but somewhat

smaller and predominantly chestnut and olive-brown with no white in face of

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 629

breast. The bright red legs are conspicuous even in flight. Singly, among

reeds and thickets of rank vegetation about marshy ground and paday-fields.

Specimen : st. A. Coy 266 21-11-36 Powai Lake (H. A.)

Resident (presumably). Rare. We cannot trace any records of its breeding

within our limits.

The White-breasted Waterhen: limaurornis phoenicurus chinensis (Boddaert).

Local name: Kuku-komrt.

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. Upper parts slaty-

grey with olive tinge. Face, neck and breast white. Abdomen and under

tail rusty red. Long yellowish-green legs with long toes. The stub tail is

held cocked up and is constantly flicked. Singly or pairs, in and about reeds

and thickets by marshes and water-logged fields. Often seen on roads near

tanks and_ lakes.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ July °24 Kurla; 3 downy chicks t1o-9-24 Kirla

(near Mohili River—D. A. Baretto).

Resident. Common. Silent except during the monsoon when it breeds and

is very noisy. The calls begin with loud raucous grunts, croaks and chuckles

suggestive of a much larger animal (EHA compares it to ‘a bear being roasted

over a slow fire’!), and settle down to a monotonous metallic ku-wak ku-wak

ku-wak, etc. somewhat like that of the Coppersmith but in a higher key and

repeated more quickly. This is often kept up for over 15 minutes at a stretch on

cloudy overcast days. The calling continues more or less throughcut the night.

The food consists of insects, molluscs, seeds and vetgetable matter.

Breeding: Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 39) found it breeding at Vihar Jake

in August. In Salsette we have observed nests at Sion, Kurla, Vilé Parlé,

Andhéri, Pali Hill (Bandra) and Trombay in August and September, though

it probably. begins laying in July. The nest is placed in the interior of a

hedge or small tree—up to about 15 ft. from the ground—on the margin of

a pond, tank or water-logged paddy field. Sometimes it is well hidden by

monsoon creepers, at other times fairly open and conspicuous. It is a shallow

cup-shaped structure something like a crow’s nest, composed of twigs, grass

and flags of reeds and bulrushes. In days gone by, EHA found a nest at

Girgaum built in the top of a date palm. There used to be some marshy land

there devoted to paddy cultivation. We have taken a grass-lined nest built on

the ground near water at Powai with c/6. The normal clutch consists of 4 or

5 eggs. They are some shade cf buff with longitudinal blotches of reddish-

brown and pale purplish-grey. The birds (both sexes?) are close sitters and

may sometimes be almost caught with the hand when brooding. The young

are able to run as soon as hatched and follow the mother about. They look

very like domestic chickens and are covered with uniform black down. Their

bill and legs are blackish.

The Indian Moorhen: Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth.

Mahratti name: Likeer.

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. General effect of a

waterhen on land, of a small duck on water. Slaty-grey and brown with white

border to wing and white undertail. Singly or gregariously, among partially

submerged rushes, etc. often swimming out into open water with floating

vegetation. It swims well with a characteristic jerky motion of the head and

stub tail.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 7-3-21 Thana (B. C. Ellison).

Noted: Vilé Parlé, Santa Cruz, Powai Lake.

Resident. Fairly common on Powai Lake and in smaller numbers at most

ponds and village tanks with floating or marginal vegetation. No breeding

record for our area.

The Kora or Water-cock: Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin).

Field identification: Rather larger than the Partridge. Male in breeding

plumage: Head, neck and lower parts chiefly black; above blackish-brown and

slaty-grey. Covering the forehead and sticking up as a sort of casque or

horn above the crown is a horny, red shield which is the most characteristic

feature of the male watercock at this season. At other seasons the male is

coloured like the female, brown and buff with wavy brown lines on the

underparts. Singly, skulking amongst reedy marshes,

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Specimens: B.N.wH.S.; o? June 1895 “Bombay’ (A. Francke); ‘Si. X@as

265 @ 21-11-36 Powai Lake Cla eA)

Noted by us in Salsette only at Powai Lake.

’ Resident. Not common. Shy. We have no records ot nests in our area;

but a male shot by H. A. at Powai Lake on 16 July (1933) was evidently

breeding. Its testes measured 21'%12- mm.

The Indian Purple Moorhen: Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Lath.),

Field identification: A leggy bird the size of our domestic hen with long

red legs, heavy red bill and a red horny shield covering the forehead. General

effect of plumage purplish-blue. In swampy reeds and rushes on tank margins,

etc., singly or gregariously.

Specimens: B.N.H.S:; 0? 12-4-26 Kurla (D. A. (Baretto); [9 “20-72m

Panwel, Kolaba Dist. (Mamlatdar, Penn.)].

Noted: Vihar and Powai Lakes. In about 1887 Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S.,

ii, 45) found large noumbers on Bhiwandi tank on the adjacent mainland

(beyond Thana).

Resident, in small numbers. Navarro has taken nests with eggs at Talegaon

in September along with Waterhens and birds of this kind, much persecuted

by local gunners who consider it good eating.

The Coot: fulica atra Linn.

Local name: Poonar; Kam.

Field identification: A slaty-black duck-like bird with ivory-white pointed

bill and a white horny shield covering forehead. Gregariously—loose flocks—on

tanks, swimming about like duck and pattering along the surface of the

water when alarmed and trying to take wing.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 16-11-25 Kurla (D. A. Baretto); [@ 2-12-12 Bassein

(R. dos Remedios)]; GQ 6-12-18 Kolaba Cove, Bombay Harbour (J. A. D.

MacBain).

Noted: Powai and Vihar Lakes. Mahaluxmi (1938). This is one of the

birds that is being shot out of the Bombay District by enthusiastic ‘sportsmen’.

It used to be not uncommon on every small village tank in Salsette about 25

years ago when S. A. shot it frequently at Santa Cruz, Vilé Parlé and

Andhéri, but is now rarely seen. Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 45—1887) always

found it on Vihar Lake and other tanks during the cold weather. EHA

(C.B.B., 176) also writes of it as very common everywhere in the neighbourhood

of Bombay. In some years it is not uncommon on Powai Lake even now.

Status? Mainly at least a winter visitor. We have only come across it

here during the cold weather months. Strangely enough this bird, which often

covers enormous distances on migration, can be caught by hand on a small

tank. The procedure is to surround it and keep it on the move with stones,

shouts, etc. After a while it usually sneaks into cover on land, whence it

is easily beaten out and captured. There is a common belief that a coot cannot

fly when its wings dry up!

Breeding: Not recorded in Salsette, but Major R. M. Betham (J.B.N.H.S.,

xiv, 176) found several nests near Poona between 14 July and 17 August 1go1.

The Bronze-winged Jacana: Metopidius indicus (Latham).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. A leggy bird with

shiny greenish-bronze wings, chestnut lower back, rump and _ stub-tail. Head

and lower plumage glistening black. A conspicuous white stripe from eye to

nape. Young birds are very different being chiefly whitish, rufous and brown.

The most characteristic feature of the Jacanas—this and the next species—is

their enormously elongated and slender toes which enable them to trip along

gingerly over lotus leaves and other floating vegetation. Singly or gregariously,

on ponds and tanks with waterlilies, Singara (Trapa bispinosa) and_ other

aquatic vegetation.

[do 7-12-09°-Daman Road, Bombay (R. L. Sinclair)]; St. X. C.: 90 ¢—Powéai

(EL Ps),

Noted: Powai and Tulsi Lakes.

Resident. Fairly common. |

Breeding: The nesting season is in the rains—July and August. The nests

are partly ‘submerged pads of rush-stems and weeds placed on floating vegetation

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 631

on tanks and ponds. The. normal clutch is of 4 eggs. In colour these are

buff or olive intricately pencilled with fine black lines. we have taken numerous

nests at Powai. H. buikiey tound two nests at Thana H. Wenden

(N. & E., iii, 357) found it breeding freely at Kaiyan, 32 miles from Bombay,

in August.

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana: Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. <A striking chocolate-

brown bird with white head, toreneck, throat and wiugs. Goiaen-yeilow hind-

neck. The long, pointed biackish sickle-shaped tail gives it its name. In

non-breeding piumage the colour is chiehy paie brown and white, a black line

runs througn the eye down the side of neck and expands into a necklace on

upper breast; the pheasant-tail is missing. In non-breeding season—gregarious,

orven in large flocks—on waterlily- and Singara-covered tanks. WH. A. has

observed one in bandra Creek, and Sincair (J.buV.H.S., i, 104) one on a rock

on the seashore in Konkan!

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 20-5-28 Malad (E. Henricks).

Noted: Bandra, Andhéri; Powai, ‘luisi and Vihar Lakes.

Resident. Common. It has a peculiar nasal mewing call tewn, tewn, etc.

commonly uttered in flight.

breeamg: fhe nest is a pad of rushes, etc. as of the Bronze-winged Jacana,

placed on ficating vegetation. We have seen eggs laid directly upon lotus

and Singara (lvapa) leaves in a seemingly precarious situation. The eggs are

peg-top shaped, usualiy olive-brown in colour, and match to perfection the

decaying sodden leaves on which they rest. Brother Navarro tound 2 nests

with c/3 and c/4 on the lotus-covered tank near bandra railway siation on

18 September 1937. One of the owners took alarm at the thermometer fixed to

deterinine the teiperature of the sodden nest and next morn.ng tne eggs were

found on another lotus leat 5 feet away. On the thermomeier being - shitied

to this site the eggs were found to have been removed to a newer position

about 2 feet away on the following day. How are the eggs moved?

The Painted Snipe: Mostvatula benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.).

Field identification: Slightly larger than the Quail. A leggy typical rail.

Above chiefly metallic olive-green with butf and blackish streaks and markings ;

lower plumage chiefly brown and white. A long slender snipe-like bil. ‘he

female is more showiiy coloured than the male. As with the bustard Quail, she

does all the courting and leaves the male to incubate the eggs and rear the

young. Flushed singly or in wisps in swampy reed-beds and salt marshes by

our creeks. Feeble, laboured flight, legs trailing behind.

specimens: BaN.dd.S.2 9 7-3-21 Thana (8. CC. Ellison), ¢g Decr. i893;

29-10-14. Thana (Counsel), juv. (in down) 15-10-24 Kurla (S. A.) 0? 8-12-25

Winembarie (S. A.)3 Si. X. C.: 101 9, 102 @ 3-10-33 Andheri (H. A.).

Noted: Powai and Tulsi Lakes, Godhbunder, Mullund.

Resident. Common. Stomachs of specimens examined by us contained

remains of snails and orthopterous insects, and paddy grains.

E. Henricks, the Society’s skinner, reported to us in June 1930 that he

had caught at Malad an adult specimen which was unable to fly well due to

some heavy weight attached to one of its feet. Examination showed a large

Ampullaria shell adnering firmly to the middle toe of one foot. The opercuium

had closed when accidentaliy trod upon by the bird.

Breeding: It is not unlikely that the Painted Snipe breeds in Salsetie

throughout the year. We have not actually found any nests here but have

taken ovarian eggs from a female shot on 12 April. The gonads of specimens

were in breeding condition from the end of September to early May and

we also found young in all stages during these months. Stray Feathers

(vii, 526) records that on 1 December 1878 J. D. Inverarity caught two half-

grown chicks, unable to fly, at Godhbunder. The nest is a pad of grass or

rushes with a slight depression in the centre in which normally 3 or 4 eggs

are laid. They are some shade of yellowish-stone colour, blotched and streaked

with brown. The nest is usually placed on the ground in grass on the edge

of a marsh, on bunds, etc.

632. JOURNAL, .BOMBAY. NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Indian Sarus Crane: Antigone antigone antigone (Linn.).

Field identification: MN large grey stork-like bird with long bare red legs

and naked red head and neck. Usually pairs, stalking about cultivation and

marsh land.

Aberrant straggler. Owing to the severe drought in Gujerat and the Deccan,

several of these birds were seen in and near Bombay during the cold weather

of 1900. H.. 5. Symons (].B.N..S., xix, 261) records seeing «a solitarnyaapigd

at Santa Cruz on g-12-08. A few days previous to this he had seen a dead

Sarus near Bandra railway station and conjectures that this may be the other

of the pair. He mentions that once before he had seen this species at

Panwel (Kolaba Dist.) in 1897 which was also a famine year upcountry. We

have no more recent records from Salsette. ;

The Sarus is common in Gujerat where it is clothed in sanctity and

protected by the inhabitants.

The Demoiselle Crane: Anthropoides virgo (Linn.).

Aberrant straggler. Following the severe drought in Gujerat and the Deccan,

several birds were seen in Bombay during the cold weather of 1900. Not

recorded since. ;

Tlie Lesser Florican or Likh: Sypheoltides indica (Miller).

Field) identification: Slightly larger than the Red-wattled Lapwing and

somewhat similar to it in general eftect---Male black and white with curious

black ear-plumes sticking out behind head-. Female brown above finely stippled

and pencilled with black ; buffy-white below: -In stretches of -tall -grassland.

Specimen: BAN.4-S; 2-¢@ > imm: coe (N. C. Macleod).

‘Rare -straggler?: Kinnear calls--it--‘an--uneommon cold weather. visitor’, but

‘as will-be* seen,-the -records are Sees to that season..- Single birds-have

~beerr-observed “from time to time, the records for-our area -and -the-- adjacent

“maimland~ being’ as’ follows: a iii adc At daa 2 en 7 Monae aces

Bombay and~Salsette : : a Bierce

Mahaluxmi, ca. 1889 (H. S. es ].B.N.H.S., RIX Ol.

Between Andhéri and Malad, December 1912 (M. E, Suter, 2bid.,. xxii, 163m)

g. Catholic Gymkhana Grounds, ome Sea ace +o" 18 WN. Marryat,

ibid., “xxvi, 674). 7 -

~.- Near: ‘Churchgate’ “Railway. station, 8-6. 13 (Times i se! ae 10-613).

Maintand :

~ Panweél- 17-1-09 (H.-S. Sirick 1 HUNIELS oemeoeea --

~-- O-~Between- Mandwa~-and ~Alibag, 16-r2-12--(C.-- D. - Baker,--ibid:,- xxii, 202).

-@: Karjat (foot: of Bhor- Ghat) 20-1-35- (J- Stokoe,- ibid., -xxxviii; -191).

Q Chinchavli near ‘Neral; Nov: -1908.-(M:- F.- Suter; bid.,--xxii, 63%)~-

Kalyan, December 1ro912 (H. A.-W. Brent, Times of India of. .11-6-13).

H.- A. --Saw- a Ae we le bird-near--Choéndi (Alibag Taiuka) .on---30-5-38.. — -- --

The Grant Stone Plover: -Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier).

_ Field identification : Size about that of the domestic hen with long bare

yellowish- -green legs. Pale greyish-sandy aboye, white below. Some black in

wings and a conspicuous black streak through eye. Largish head, thick, pointed

somewhat - upturned bill and rourid greenish- yellow goggle eyes. Singly or

pairs, near rivers and ELS eee aiteg Sees 7

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 22-11-21 Panwél, Kolaba Dist. (E. L: Barton).

Status? Rare. | We have only come across a ‘solitary’ example on_ the

mangrove marsh bordering Dharamtar Creek, near Rewas Pier (12-3-30). "J. Bi,

Inverarity » (J. B.N.H.S., ii, 45, 1887) shot a specimén at Paniweél,.this being the

only occasion on which he saw one. Not recorded in SEUSS

The Indian Stone Ployer : Burhinus oedicnemus ssp.

Field identification ; Size slightly larger than the Partridge,.and much more

leggy. Singly or in small flocks essentially in dry, open. scrub country.

Status? We have few definite. records. from Salsette. An enthusiastic

‘shikari’? once claimed to have shot some ‘wood-cock’ near Powai and_ his

description «fitted this species beautifully! Mr. McCann caught one of these

birds in Bombay City some years ago, and recently saw one at Marol (December).

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 633

Breeding: Brother Navarro toolk several nests at Khandala (W. Ghats

Gate 2,000 it.) in April and May.. The usual clutch is of 2 eggs, laid on the

bare stony ground.

The Indias Courser: 9 Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. General appearance

somewhat like the Red-wattled Lapwing. Long, bare china-wnite legs. Upper

plumage sandy brown with some black in the wings. Crown rich rufous. A

black pand through eye running down neck. A broad white stripe paratiel to

this band above the eye continuing down neck. These black and white bands

are a conspicuous feature. Chin and throat white, breast chestnut, abdomen

black. Singly, pairs or small parties, on open dry fallow land or ploughed

fields. Running along at speed, stopping abruptly and erect and then resuming

the run.

Specimens: Sin, An Ce 29 yy, 8 2 juva 3-6-33. Andheri (ii. (A.).

Resident? Not common. H. A. observed a flock ot some 4o birds about the

base of Gilbert Hill, Andheri (23-4-30). The next day there was only a single

pair at that spot. Whe birds may be seen occasionally at the ‘Kutcherpatti’ on

Trombay Island.

Breeding: Vhat they breed in Salsette, occasionally at least, is evidenced

by the juvenile specimens obtained on 3 June. The young birds are buff-

coloured, barred on the upper parts with black presenting a mottled appearance.

Iris dark grey. They had fed on small coleoptera and green caterpillars.

We have no other record for Salsette. Brother Navarro has taken nests at

Khandala and Lonavla in June.

The Large Indian Pratincole or Swallow=Piover: Glareola maidivarum maldi-

varum (lorster).

Sinclair (J.B.N.H.S., iii, 69) records shooting this species at Rewdadanda.

At Kihim (also in Kolaba Dist.) H. A. observed a flock of pratincoles,

presumably this species, flying South over the sea along the coast at sunset

(29-12-31). He’ noted the birds again on 30 December and 1 January (1932).

[The Crab Plover: Dromas ardeola Paykull.

Field identification: A lonely black and white bird, about the size of a

domestic hen, with heavy crow-like beak, on seashore or tidal mudflats.

H. A. shot an example on the seashore near the fishing village . of

Thal, Kolaba Dist., on 26-10-30. He observed another near Rewas Pier

(Dharamtar Creek) on the same date 5 years later. |

The Great Black-headed Gull; Larus ichthyaétus Pallas.

Field identification: A large sea bird, in size between a duck and a goose,

Pale grey above with black head and neck, white underparts and short orange-

yellow legs. The toes are webbed like a duck’s. In winter plumage which is

mostly while the birds are with us, the head and neck are white, much

streaked with black. Large size distinguishes it unmistakably from other gulls.

Usually singly, about the Harbour and sea-coast, flying majestically or perched

on the buoys.

~ Specimen: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 12-3-99 Trombay Island, Bombay Harbour (H. J.

Walton).

Noted: About the docks, and Pir Pao (Salsette); <Alibag, Janjira,

Rewadanda.

Winter visitor. Not common but frequent.

The Black-headed Gul!!:; Larus ridibundus Linn.

Field identification: Similar to above but smaller. Size somewhat less

than the domestic duck. The so-called -lack head is in fact chocolate-brown

deepening to blackish on hindneck and lower throat. While with us the birds

are mostly in winter plumage when the head is greyish-white. <A vertical

crescent-shaped black patch is conspicuous about the ear-coverts. Gregariously,

often large numbers in association with the next species, about the docks and

in the Harbour picking up floating refuse from ships. Also about fishing

villages or following fishing boats returning from the catch.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

Specimens: B.N.H.S.. 11 collected in Bombay Harbour between 28 December

and 12 March.

Noted: Mahim and Sion Creeks.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Latest date 4 April.

The Brown-headed Gull: Larus brunnicephalus jJerdon.

Field identification: Practically indistinguishable in size and colour from

the above, especiaily in winter plumage. Doubtless often confused with it.

In full summer dress the head is more greyish-brown than _ chocolate.

In vidibundus the first primary is white with black edges and tip: in this

species it is black with a white subterminal band. Habits, etc. as above.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: -G 10-3-25 Bombay Harbour: (C. McCann); a|g@

4-4-30 Alibag (S.A.)].

Winter visitor. Bearing in mind the everpresent possibility of confusion

it is our impression that this species is less common round Bombay than the

Black-headed Gull. On the South Konkan Coast, however, Vidal (S.F., ix,

94) considered it abundant and ridibundus very rare. Hume also definitely

asserts (S.F., iv, 414, 1875) that brunnicephalus is commoner in Bombay

Harbour than ridibundus.

The Sooty Gull: Larus hemprichii Bruch.

Aberrant straggler. The only record for Bombay we know of is the solitary

specimen seen by Hume on some rocks in ihe Harbour in January 1875

(Si2n. SIN. a4):

The Eastern Herring Gull: = Larus fuscus taimyrensis Buturlin.

Field identification: Rather larger than the three foregoing. In adult

plumage dark slaty-grey above, white below with black in the flight feathers.

In winter the head and neck are streaked brown; in summer they are white.

Immature birds are dark brown with white streaks above and the white lower

parts are mottled and streaked with pale brown. Gregariously, about docks

and in the Harbour, and around fishing villages.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: diQ 9-3-14, 9 2-2-17, 92 9 23-1-10, dd. 21-27

Bombay Harbour (S. H. Prater); ¢ 26-3-99 Bombay Harbour (Major H. J.

Walton).

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Large numbers are occasionally seen about

the fishing village of Danda—near Bandra.

The Yellow-legged Herring Gull. Larus argentatus cachinnans Pallas.

Field identification: Very similar in size and colouring to the last and

difficult to differentiate from it in the field. Somewhat paler grey above.

Habits, ete. same as with other gulls.

Specimen; B.N.H.S.: Q 21-2-17 Bombay Harbour (5S. HH. -Prater):

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Latest date 29 March.

The Indian Whiskered Tern: Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stevens).

Field identification: Size about that of the pigeon. A slender, graceful

bird with long, pointed wings and an_ exceptionally square tail. In

summer, plumage pale ashy grey above, white below gradually shading into

black on abdomen and under tail. A velvety black cap. In winter, i.e. mostly

while the birds are with us, the crown is white as are the entire lower

parts. Only the hindcrown and nape are black-streaked or wholly black.

Bill, legs and feet red. Gregariously, about tanks, marshes and creeks either

flying back and forth at moderate heights scanning the water below for

food or resting on some mudbank on their ridiculously short legs. They

hurl themselves down on a fish or tadpole swimming near the surface or

swoop gracefully on sand crabs, etc. and bear them away in their bills.

Specimens: B:NwH.S.: ¢G 22-90-24 Kurla (D. “B.~ Baretto); Si. UXsaG=

Noted: Powai Lake, Godhbunder and Sion Creeks.

Status? Mainly winter visitor. Fairly common. We have noted individuals

as early as 4 August and as late as 11 June. Do occasional birds or pairs

stay with us throughout the year? And breed? A large flock at Powai Lake

THE BIRDS OF *BOMBAY AND SAELSETTE 635

on 4 May was evidently on passage. A female shot from this showed no

gonadal development.

The Gull-billed Tern: Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin).

Field identification: Somewhat larger than the Whiskered Tern. Same

general effect and habits but can usually be distinguished at a distance from

other grey-and-white terns by its black bill, legs and_ feet.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 8-12-99 Bombay Harbour (E. Comber); 2 28-12-13

Bombay Harbour (N. B. Kinnear); ¢ 19-11-17 Kurla (S. H. Prater); ¢

1-9-18 Bhyandar (A. P. Kinloch).

Noted: Bandra, Vilé Parlé, Andhéri, Sion, Gddhbunder

mudflats.

Winter visitor. One of our commonest terns. By about the end of August

the birds are well in. Numbers may still be met with at the end of May,

while we have records of individual birds on 1:6 June, 23 and 24 July.

about creeks and

The Indian Lesser Crested Tern: Thalasseus bengalensts bengalensis (Lesson).

Field identification: Size and general effect that of the Gull-billed Tern.

Distinguishable by its yellow bill and black legs and feet. Usually met at

sea some distance from the shore, and also on the larger tidal creeks. The

call cher-ruk while fishing in the manner of a Pied Kingfisher is characteristic.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: SG 20-6-11 Bombay Harbour (S. H. Prater); 2 9

5-3-99 Bombay Harbour (Major H. J. Walton).

Winter visitor, principally. Not common. We have observed it when

crossing the Harbour by the ferry service, and the bird becomes quite common

as one goes further south.

The Little Tern or Terniet: Sterna albifrons albifrons Vroeg.

Field identification: Differentiated from all our other terns by its small

size Which is about that of the Ring-Dove though the long wings and forked

tail make it appear bigger in flight. Bill, legs and feet orange-yellow.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 3 @ and 1 6 25-5-37 (H. A. and McCann).

Resident or breeding visitor? It is surprising that no specimens of the

Little Tern had been taken, or the birds met with on our shores until the

remarkable discovery recently of a nesting colony by Brother Navarro of St.

Xavier’s College. On 25 May 1936 Br. Navarro was rowed out by fishermen

from Gorai, north of Manori Creek in Salsette, to a small rocky islet some

2-3 miles from the shore. This islet was crowded with Little Terns, the

ground being covered with their nests mostly containing 3 eggs each. The

fishermen collected close on 200 eggs. According to their testimony the birds

had been breeding on this islet for years.

On 28 May of the following year H. A. visited this island again with Mr.

McCann and Br. Navarro. The approach is extraordinarily difficult at this

season, as the coast is rocky and a third of the island, which is less than

200 yards square, was covered by the tide. We anchored a couple of hundred

yards off the rock, and waited for the tide to go down. Large flocks of these

terns could be seen flying over the rock, and occasionally, they would cover

some distance out to sea. No birds however came within gunshot, and we

decided to swim the last hundred yards. The shore is extremely rocky, but

there were two or three patches of level ground covered with a_ straggly

growth of grass. The birds were not wild, and sat on their eggs 2 to 3 feet

from one another. There must have been over a hundred nests. The eggs, 2

to 3 in number, were laid on the bare shingle, and one had to walk cautiously,

to avoid stepping on them. They were all fresh. We shot a few specimens,

and the birds became much wilder, and it was with some difficulty that we

secured photographs of the birds at their nests. We saw no other birds

except a Thalasseus bergit which just flew over the island.

On our return from the islet, a special watch for these Ternlets was

kept, but we saw only a few stragglers, beating up and down the shore at

evening. As there are no other records of this bird from our area it would

appear that the species is possibly a breeding visitor only.

The Red Sea Brown=winged Tern: Sterna anaetheta fuligula Licht.

Field identification: Size about that of the Whiskered Tern, but with

upper parts dark brown instead of grey. The black crown of the summer

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEDY: Wolk ele

plumage is brown in winter with white cdging to the feathers. The bill,

legs and feet are black as in the Gull-billed Tern.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 23-9-18 Colaba, Bombay (Lieut. Tebbut) ;

ot, Ae Coz 83° Gj 84 "2, 8k 0 -17-0-38 Bamedra.

Winter visitor. Nort common. The St. Xavier’s College specimens were

captured by hand during the monsoon. They apparently were stragglers blown

in by a gale. One was shot at Bandra on 15-11-38. The birds that Hume

found breeding on the Vengurla rocks belong to the southern race S. a.

antarctia.

[The Indian Sooty Tern: Sterna fuscata infuscata Licht.

Field identification: Size about that of the Gull-billed Tern. Upper parts

deep chocolate brown. The black crown of the summer plumage is streaked

with white in winter. Bill, legs and feet black.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0?—Alibag, Kolaba Dist. (W. F. Sinclair).

Straggler. No other records. ]

[The Indian Skimmer: Rhynchops albicollis Swains.

Field identification: A tern-like black, white and brown water bird chiefly

remarkable for its orange-red scissor-shaped bill with the lower mandible

compressed like a knife-blade and projecting much beyond the upper.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? March 1890 Alibag, Kolaba Dist. (E. L. Barton).

Straggler. The only record from our neighbourhood. ]

Hume records (S.F., iv, 414) meeting a single Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne

caspia) and the Crested Terns (Thalasseus bergii) evidently in some numbers,

near the Prongs Lighthouse and Colaba Point in January 1875. T. bergti

is common further south.

The Turnstone: <Arenaria interpres interpres (Linn.).

Hume .(S.F., iv, 414) found the Turnstone ‘pretty abundant’ all round

Bombay Island and other islands in the Harbour in January 1875. We have

no more recent records.

The Western Grey Plover: Squatarola squatarola squatarola (Uinn.).

Field identification: A little larger than the Golden Plover, and much paler.

In the hand, the presence of a tiny hind toe distinguishes it from that species.

Noted and/or shot: Malad (Salsette); Kihim (across Bombay Harbour).

Winter visitor. Not uncommon. Small parties-—never large fiocks—on sea-

shore or by mangrove-fringed creeks and tidal mudflats.

The Oyster-Catcher cr Sea-Pie: Huematopus ostralegus longipes Buturlin.

Field identification: Somewhat larger than the Partridge. A striking black

and white wading bird with longish bare red legs and long, straight, moderately

slender orange-red bill. Usually small flocks amongst rocks on the seashore

and tidal mudflats.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? -October 1893 Alibag, Kolaba. Dist: ; «Sit. xtGe

178 0? 22-10-33 Alibag (H. A.).

Winter visitor. Common. Usually extremely wary. We have observed the

birds here as early -as 28 September and -as late as 29 May. EHA (C:B:B.,

165) even saw a flock of about 15 not far from Bombay on 29 June. Hume

(S.F., iv, 414) noted several in Back Bay in fanuary 1875. Their call notes

resemble those of the Whistling Teal and in fading light when the birds are

flying towards or away from one the effect is very teal-like.

The European Little Ringed Plover : Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin.

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the Quail. A sandy-brown

shore bird with a white forehead, black forecrown, earcoverts, around eye

and a black collar round the white neck. Underparts white. Legs yellowish-

or greenish-grey. A typical plover with a thick head, large eyes and short

stout bill. Small flocks on the seashore and tidal mudflats.

Kurla (D. B. Baretto); 9 26-1-14 Colaba (S.0H. Prater); Sie. 3600 1-8-33,

105 9 8-10-33 Andhéri (H, A ).

THE -BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND.SALSETTE 637

Noted: Mahaluxmi, Worli, Mahim, Danda, Bhyandar, Trombay, Kihim,

etc. EKHA (C.B.B., 164) mentions flocks frequenting the Esplanade Maidan.

Winter visitor. Common. Earliest date 11 August; latest 6 April. Flocks

are commonly to be seen about the mudflats and salt pans in Salsette running

along swiftly, feeding in company with Stints and other. waders. In_ this

environment their colouration is remarkably obliterative and it is often quite

impossible to pick out a bird, even at close range until it moves.

We have no authentic record of the very similar Jerdon’s Little Ring

Plover (C. d. jerdoni) from our area. This race, as a rule, prefers the

shingly banks and beds of rivers, streams and tanks inland.

Navarro has several records of this bird breeding at Khandala in June.

The Pamirs Lesser Sand-Plover: Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler.

Field identification: Slightly larger than the foregoing. Ashy brown above

pale rufous and white below. Head markings more or less like the Ring-

Plover’s, but lacking the white collar on hindneck. In winter plumage, while

with us, the forehead, etc. are fulvous instead of black and the rufous of

breast and flanks lesser in extent. Legs and feet greenish-grey, bill black.

Flocks, running about feeding on sandy seashore especially between the tide

marks. Also frequents tidal mudflats by creeks, etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: oo 14-3-26 Bhyandar (S. A.); @ 25-10-24 Kurla

(D. B. Baretto); @ 28-9-13 Manori Creek (Dr. F. M. Suter); St. X.. C.:

79 9, 80 SB 20-9-33 Versova mudflats (H. A.).

Winter visitor. Common and abundant. - Earliest date 13 September; latest

14 March. Usually seen on the sea beach in mixed flocks with the Large

Sand-Plover and other shore birds. The two species are in the proportion

of something like 2 of mongolus to 1 of leschenaulti. They fly swiftly in

close orderly formation all turning and twisting on the wing together with

their white undersides glistening from time to time as the sun strikes them.

When the flocks first arrive from their breeding grounds the birds nave

evidently not quite got over their ‘territorial’ instinct. Much rivalry is apparent

and skirmishes are frequent. Their combats are as innocuous as amusing to

watch. Two birds will run parallel to each other, heads lowered. Of a

sudden one will turn on the other, rush at him with open wings and jump

clean over him. Sometimes they vary these tactics and = diverge as_ if

oblivious of their adversary’s proximity. Suddenly however they will, wheel

on each other and repeat the ‘clinch’.

The Large Sand-Plover: Charadrius leschenaulti Lesson.

Field identification: Appreciably bigger than the Pamirs Sand-Plover and

more rufous-sandy above, but otherwise the two are alike.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 23-9-18 Bhyandar (Lieut. Tebbut).

Noted: Near Godhbunder, Kihim, Alibag, Karanja, Rewas, Rewadanda,

Murad (Janjira), etc.

Winter visitor. Common. Habits same as of -the Lesser Sand-Plover.

In the stomach of a specimen several of the beetles Sphenoptera aenea (Fam.

Buprestidae) were found.

The Eastern Golden Plover: Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. A typical plover

with thick head, large eyes and short straight moderately stout bill. Motiled

white, brown and golden-yellow above; black below. In winter the black is

absent. Small parties or flocks on mudflats, etc. covered with short rank

grass—moist lark country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @@ 2-11-08 Bhyandar (N. B. Kinnear).

Noted: Andhéri, Malad, Godhbunder, Bassein, Rewas, Kihim, Alibag (Sakar

Creek), Dharamtar Creek. J. D. Inverarity observed it on the Mahdaluxmi

mudflats in October 1877 and shot a couple on the Race Course. In March

1883 he saw a flock of a dozen near the Race Course (].B.N.H.S.. ii, 44):

Winter visitor. Not uncommon. We have observed a flock of about’ 25

and a party of 4 (in summer plumage) on 24 August and 17 July respectivelv.

They are frequently seen in our neighbourhood as late as the first half of

May. The stomach of a specimen contained tiny snails and slugs,

6388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Seciable Lapwing: Chettusia gregaria (Pallas).

Field identification: Slightly larger than the Partridge. A greyish brown

plover with wings and tail partly white and partly black. Black crown, white

forehead, the white continuing in a broad stripe above eye down alinost to nape.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 7-12-99 Esplanade, Bombay (J. M. Mason).

Aberrant straggler. EHA (C.B.B., 164) writes that in December 1899

when the famine in Gujerat and the Deccan drove many strange birds to

Bombay for a living, a flock of 4o or 50 of these plovers appeared on the

Esplanade and remained for some weeks. They attracted much attention and

were productive of letters in the newspapers.

The Indian Red-wattied Lapwing: Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Bodd.).

Mahratti: Hoot-toot-it1; Hindistani: Titor1, Titwt.

Field identification: Slightly larger than the Partridge and with longer legs

and neck. Bronze-brown above, white below. Crown, throat and breast black.

Lower back and tail white, the latter with a broad black cross-band. A

crimson wattle or fleshy projection above and in front of each eye. Usually.

pairs or small parties, in open country near water. Familiar Did-he-do-it?

calls.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 8-9-19 Bhyandar (A. P. Kinloch); [@ 31-5-08

Vasind (S. H. Prater)].

Resident. Common.

Breeding: The earliest nest we have record of was on 29 March (Tulsi

Lake). The season is at its height between April and July. The nest is

merely a natural depression or scrape in the ground, unlined, sometimes

margined with pebbles or ‘kankar’. It is usually situated on waste or fallow

land more or less water-logged in the rains, and with deep imprints of cattle

hoofs. The drying-up beds of village tanks also offer suitable sites. The

normal clutch consists of 4 eggs, rather pointed at one end. In colour they

are some shade of stone or grey-brown, blotched with blackish and match

the ground to perfection. Indeed it is difficult to locate a nest even in a

circumscribed area except by patiently watching the behaviour and movements

of the owners. A successful method is to scan a likely patch from a distance

with binoculars when the white on the head of the brooding bird will show

up conspicuously. When suspicious the bird quietly slinks away from_ the

nest with head held low between the shoulders only straightening itself up or

flying off when some distance away. The colouration and markings of the

newly hatched downy chicks of this Lapwing provide a very good example of

Nature’s camouflage. They are quite invisible at a counle of feet’s distance

when squatting or lying ‘doggo’ with neck outstreched. They run about freely

picking up insects, etc.,. by themselves, to all appearances perfectly oblivious of

possible danger, but respond mechanically to the alarm notes of their parents,

squatting low beside a stone or clod and becoming completely invisible. When

danger is past and immediately upon the sional from the parents—-a_ series

of high-pitched clicks as they wheel frantically overhead—they are up again

and busv running about feeding with no semblance of caution on their own

part. The parent birds Jatnch fierce aerial attacks on crows, mynahs, king-

fishers and even dogs and jackals that intrude into the proximity of their nest

or young.

The Ye'low-wa'‘tled Lapwing: Lobipluvia malabarica (Bodd.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge, more leggy. Sandy

brown above, white below with a black cap and bright vellow lanpets above

and in front of the eyes. Chin and throat black. Neck and breast paler

than upper plumage. Tail white with a broad biack subterminal band cons-

picuous in flisht. Legs and feet bright yellow. Pairs or small parties, on

waste and fallow Jand—usually drier facies than the Red-Wattled Lapwing.

Specimens. B.N.H.S.: .@ 6-4-13 Santa Cruz ~(N. -B: | Kinneane

[24-12-00 Revdanda. Kolaba Dist. (E. Comber)].

Noted: Andbéri: Kihim (Kolaba Dist.).

Resident. Uncommon. Its call is very different from that of the Red-

wattled Lapwing. It is a plaintive Ti-ee, ti-ee, etc., punctuated by high-

pitched quick-repeated titters twrt-twit-twit, etc,

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 639

Breeding: We have no record from Salsette, but at Kihim (Kolaba Dist.)

.across the Harbour—S. A. found downy chicks about 3 days old, on

24-6-30 on the same stretch of hoof-pitted waste land as was being used

by the Red-wattled species. The chicks were stippled black and _ rufous

and harmonised with the soil so completely that after roughly marking down

the spot it took fully 10 minutes to locate one within 2 feet of his boot!

The chicks were lying ‘doggo’ on the bare uneven ground without stone or

clod as shelter. When a chick is once spotted, the bread white collar on its

hindneck is prominent thereafter.

The parent birds demonstrate in the same frantically vocal manner as the

foregoing species when their nest or young are approached, flying in circles

close overhead often making as if to strike the intruder.

Navarro has taken nests at Khandala in May.

The Bleck-winged Stilt: Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linn.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Partridge. A striking wading

bird of black and white plumage chiefly remarkable for the length of its

thin pink or red legs—about 10 inches—which enable it to wade into fairly

deep water and which trail behind conspicuously in flight. Its bill is black,

straight and slender. Singly, pairs or small parties on salt pans and mudflats

by tidal creeks.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? 29-9-24 Kural (D. B. Baretto).

Noted: Bhyandar, Bassein, Alibag (Sakar Creek), Naugaon and Nagotna

(Kolaba Dist.).

Local migrant? All our records are between 29 September and 6 Novem-

ber only. Not uncommon but patchy.

The Avocet: Recurvirostra avocetta avocetta Linn.

Field identification: Size of the Stilt. Black and white plumage,

long bare bluish legs and slender, black upcurved bill make its identity

unmistakable. Singly or pairs—occasionally parties—by creeks and on_ tidal

mudflats usually in company with ‘snippets’.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: G 12-11-25, @ 25-11-25 Kurla (D. B. Baretto);

Q 11-3-04 Bombay (John Wallace); GS 27-2-15 Uran (A. H. A. Simcox) ;

Q 6-12-18 Bombay Harbour (J. A. D. McBain); 4 23-9-18 Bhyandar (Lieut.

Tebbut).

Noted: Bassein Creek (Thana Dist.), Rewas mudflats, Sakar and Rewdenda

Creeks (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor. Sparingly but not uncommon. The feeding with the

curiously shaped bill is effected as follows: The biil is directed against the

ground obliquely so that the curved part skims the squelchy semi-liquid mud.

The bill is then moved with a back and fore rotatory motion taking in small

crustaceans, etc.

The Fastern Curlew: Numentus arquata lineatus Cuvier.

Field identification: Size about that of the domestic hen.. A darkish sandy-

brown bird streaked with black and fulvous to produce a game bird pattern,

with white lower back and rump. Its most characteristic feature, however,

is the curved slender bill 5 or 6 inches in length. The call, when once heard,

is also characteristic—a shrill coorlee usually uttered in flight. Singly or

parties on the seashore between tide marks. Also on mudflats and marshy

land by tidal creeks. Extremely wary.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 6-12-18 Colaba Cove, Bombay Harbour (J. A. D.

McBain); [@ 1-9-11 Panvél, Kolaba Dist., 0? 25-12-10 Rewdanda (P. M. D.

Sanderson) ].

Noted and/ or shot: G6régaon Creek; Bassein (Thana Dist.) Inverarity

(7.B.N.H.S., ji, 45) saw a Curlew on Mahaluxmi Race Course on 26 September

1886, and EHA (C.B.B., r7o) writes that ‘when the tide has. run far out

and bared the black rocks round Colaba and Breach Candy its wild and

plaintive scream often comes in on the breeze’. Conditions have altered

greatly, however, and we are aware of no recent record of the Curlew anywhere

within town limits.

Winter visitor. Earliest date 20 August. Not uncommon across . the

Harbour and down the coast. Do some remain with us throughout the

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTETW OV ol. Dale

year? Sinclair (J.B.N.H.S., i, 164) found them on the Konkan Coast. all

the year round.

[At Bedi Bunder in Kathiawar H. A. observed a Curlew on 12 June.

At Rozi Bunder he found both Curlew and Whimbrel common on 16 June

(BNGHLS., x1. 7122).j

The Whimbrel: Numenius phaeopus phacopus (Linn.).

Field identification: Rather smaller than the Curlew but very like it in

colouration, general effect and habits. ‘The call, uttered in flight, is a musical

tetti, tetti, tetti, tet with rapid intonation. The dark crown with- median

whitish streak are often visible with the naked eye and obvious through

glasses’ (Meinertzhagen).

Specimens: B.N.H.S. ¢@ 23-9-18 Bhyandar (Lt. Tebbut); [¢¢ 1-9-11

Panvél, Kolaba Dist.]; St. X. C.: 81 0 20-9-33 Versova Flats (H. A.).

Noted: Vasora (near Andhéri), Goddhbunder; Kihim, Alibag, Colaba Recla-

mation.

Winter visitor. Earliest date 20 July; latest 23 May. Commoner than the

Curlew and usually in bigger flocks. We have seen several of nearly 100

birds each. They are very fond of the stretches of mangrove marshes along

our tidal creeks, and may also be seen running about feeding on the seashore

by the water’s edge at low tide.

Both this species and the Curlew—as indeed are most of our migratory

waders provided they are large enough to be worth powder and shot—are

much persecuted by local shikaries.

The Black-tailed Godwit: = Limosa limosa ssp.

Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 45) shot one among the salt pans at Penn

(Kolaba Dist.) in February 1884.

H. A. obtained one from a party of 3 in tidal mud at Rewas (Kolaba Dist.)

On 22-11-32.

The Bar-tailed Godwit: 9 Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linn.).

Field identification: Size, colouration and general effect approximately that

of the Whimbrel but with a straight, not curved, bill. Occurring in the

same surroundings.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? 23-9-18 Bhyandar (Lieut. Tebbut).

Noted only near Rewas Pier—Dharamtar Creelk—12-3-30; a_ solitary

example probing the mud near the jetty. On page 319 of vol. iv. of the

Journal 2 Bar-tailed Godwits are recorded as received by the Society from

Mr. Sinclair, Alibag.

Straggler? As pointed out by S. A. in a note on the Bhyandar specimen

(].B.N.H.S., xxxiii, 716) Bombay is considerably south of its hitherto known

range in the Indian Empire.

The Terek or Avocet Sandpiper: Xenus cinereus cinereus (Gulden).

Field identification: Size about that of the Quail, brown above, white below

in winter plumage while with us. Its most diagnostic feature is the long

slender black bill noticeably upcurved like the Avocet’s. Legs and feet orange-

yellow which is unusual among Sandpipers. Parties or flocks on the seashore

and tidal mudflats about the estuaries, usually in association with other

small waders.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 23-90-18 Bhyandar (Lt.- Tebbut); St. X. Co+:—o02

Thana (Nunes).

Noted: Malad; Rewas, Kihim.

Winter visitor. Earliest date 15 September: latest 12 April.

The Green Sandpiper : Tvringa ochropus Linn.

Field identification: Size about that of the Snipe or the Quail, Head and

neck greyish-brown. Upper parts dark brown with a bronze-green gloss. Low-

er parts, rump and tail white. The white rump, especially, distinguishes it

in zig-zag flight from the somewhat similar looking but smaller and less dark

Wood Sandpiper. The bill is slender, straight and snipe-like, but shorter than

the Snipe’s. Its call notes twee-twee-twee uttered when flushed and as_ the

bird goes off are distinctive when once heard,

THE -BIRDS. OF BOMBAY AND» SALSETLE 641

Singly or couples at puddles and_ village tanks.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 2-1-11 Kheneri (Salsette): GQ 16-12-18 Kurla

(Si). Prater); St. X- C:: 77 Q 12-9-33 Andhéri, 52.9 6-8-33: Goregaon (His AS):

Winter visitor. Common. Earliest date 5 August; latest 9 May.

The Marsh Sandpiper: Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein).

Field identification: Rather smaller than ithe Green Sandpiper, but like

the Greenshank in general effect. Its brown upper parts are more greyish

than bronze-green. Lower back and rump white; tail brownish. Bill slightly

recurved, this feature being obvious only at short range and through binoculars.

Usually singly by tanks and flooded fields, standing in shallow water and

probing the mud often with head submerged.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: [Q 26-12-09 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. Kinnear)] ;

St. X. C.: o?—Trombay.

Noted and/ or shot: Godhbunder Creek.

Winter visitor. Not common.

The Common Sandpiper: Tringa hypoleucos Linn.

Field identification: Slightly smaller than the Quail. Upper parts brown

tinged with olive. Lower back and rump not white. White conspicuous only

in outer feathers of tail. Lower parts white except breast which is suffused

with pale ashy-brownish. A white wing-bar conspicuous in flight. Utters tee-

tee- tee when flushed and going off. Singly, by tanks, puddles, creeks and

about rocks on the sea_ beach.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @Q 6-4-01 Bombay (J. M. Mason); o_ 12-1-08

Andhéri (N. B. Kinnear?); Q 19-11-17 Kurla (S. H. Prater); 0? 16-11-25

Godhbunder (S. H. Prater); Q 16-12-18 Bombay (S. H.. Prater); ¢ 1-9-18

Bhyandar (A. P. Kinloch); ¢ 2-10-24 Kirla (D. B. Baretto); St. X. C.: 174

Q 1-8-33 Andhéri (H. A.)

Winter visitor. Common. Birds already begin to arrive in some numbers

in the first week of August and may be commonly seen till about the middle

of May. Occasional individuals, however, remain in our midst throughout the

year but they do not breed at this latitude.

The Wood or Spotted Sandpiper: Tringa glareola Linn.

Field identification: Size about that of the Green Sandpiper. Sepia brown

above indistinctly spotted and marked with white. Back and rump_ white.

Breast pale brownish. Whitish stripe above cye. Singly or small parties—

larger flocks later in the season prior to emigration—by flooded fields, tanks,

shallow vegetation-covered jheels, etc.

Specimens : Si. X. C.: 123 0 Bassein, Thana Dist. (H. A.).

Noted: Andhéri, Bhandip, Powai Lake.

Winter visitor. Not uncommon. Earliest date 14 September; latest 9 May.

H. A. observed a solitary example on 20 July (35).

The Redshank: Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser).

Mahratti: Maater.

Field identification: Larger than the Green Sandpiper, and unmistakably of

the tribe in general effect. Greyish-brown above, streaked and spotted with

white. Back white, specially conspicuous in flight when the long slender red

legs trail behind. A white bar in wings. Utters a sharp tiwee-tiwee-tiwee or

tew-tew-lew as it flies off. Singly or small parties at tanks, about mangrove-

lined creeks, tidal mudflats and salt pais.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 9 27-11-99 Hog Island, Bombay Harbour (E.

Comber); CG 8-9-18 Bhyandar (A. P. Kinloch); @ 2-11-08 Bhvandar (N. B.

Kinnear); [Q 25-12-09 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. K.)]; St. X. C.: 124 9

13-10-33 Bassein, Thana Dist. (H. A..).

Winter visitor. Fairly common, but not abundant. Earliest dates 29 July

and 19 August; latest 25 May. On the latter date a flock flying abreast in

a ribbon at about 3-400 feet in N. direction, apparently emigrating.

The Greenshank: Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus).

Field identification: Size about the same as or slightly larger than the

Redshank. Darker greyish-brown above, with white rump. White below.

642. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY > Wol. XL

Distinguishable from the foregoing by absence of white wing-bar, by its olive

green instead of red legs and by its long slender bill being slightly upcurved.

Its call tew-tew-tew is very like that of the Redshank. Usually singly in the

same surroundings as last.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 3 2-11-08 Bhyandar (N. B. Kinnear).

Noted: Andhéri, Malad, Mahutl, Trombay, Gorégaon, Gédhbunder; Kihim,

Alibag, Dharamtar.

Winter visitor, Fairly common, but not abundant. Earliest date 8 August ;

latest 18 June. At 6-30 p.m. on 2 May (1930) a flock of about 100 Greenshanks

was observed at Sakar Creek (Alibag) hugging the coast and flying strongly

due North in ribbon formation—all abreast—at a height of about 500-600 feet.

Almost all sandpipers and allied waders, big and small, pass locally under

the name of Timbla.

The Ruff and Reeve: Philomachus pugnax (Linn.).

Field identification: Male slightly larger than the Redshank: female

appreciably smaller. A wader with noticeably short sandpiper-like bill. Upper

plumage in’ winter, while with us, brown mottled with black and buff; white

below, the breast suffused with brown or buff. Small flocks, mixed with other

waders on tidal mudflats and paddy stubble by creeks, ete.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 9 23-90-18 Bhyandar (Lt. Vebbut); (St. Xe 1G. ae

19-10-33 Alibag (H. A.).

Noted: Bassein (Thana Dist.): Naugaon (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor. Uncommon but possibly often overlooked or confused with

other species.

The Little Stint: Hvolia minuta minuta (Leisler).

Field identification: A diminutive wader slightly bigger than the Sparrow.

Mottled greyish-brown above, white below. Outer tail-feathers brownish.

Flocks on mudflats and the sea beach in association with other stints and

shore birds. When disturbed the flock flies off swiftly in orderly mass form-

ation turning and wheeling in unison and uttering a musical wit-wit-wit or

low tr-rr. The black legs distinguish this bird from Temminck’s Stint, the

legs of which are olive green,

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @Q 21-11-08 Bhyandar (N. B. Kinnear); 00 6-4-24

Sion Causeway (S. A.); 0? 26-11-25 Kurla (D. B. Baretto).

Noted: Andhéri, Mandwa, Rewas, Alibag (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor. Common. Earliest date 25 Sept. latest 6 April.

Temminck’s Stint: Erolia temminckii (Leisler).

Field identification difficult. Size-and general effect same as of the Little

Stint, but with the outer tail-feathers white. In the hand distinguishable by

the shaft of the first primary being white, the others brown. In minuta all

shafts of primaries are more or less white. Habits same as last, though in

smaller flocks and perhaps more often by fresh water tanks, etc.

Specimens: B.N.77.S.% 9 23-32-85, (0? 25-3-86 Bombay (EHAjnn Ste Xae@e

Winter visitor. Less common than the Little Stint. Often in association

with it and with mixed flocks of other waders.

The Curlew-Stint or Pigmy Sandpiper: LErolia testacea (Pallas).

Field identification: Size about that of the Common Sandpiper. Upper parts

grey-brown with a good deal of white streaks and mottling. Upper tail:

coverts mostly white. Lower parts white with brownish wash on breast. Its

diagnostic feature is the slender curlew-like bill decurved towards the tip.

Parties amongst mixed flocks of small shore birds on tidal mudflats, ete.

Snecimen: St. X. :C.: 216 0? 7-10-35 Bassein, (‘Uhana Dist. (iin A)

Winter visitor. Common, but overlooked as a ‘ktich-nai’.

The Dunlin ; Evolia alpina alpina (Linn.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Common Sandpiper. Colouration

and general effect as the last but with upper tail coverts blackish brown,

clearly noticeable in flight. The bill is decurved but to a lesser extent than

in the Curlew-Stint. The proportionately longer bill is a characteristic feature

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE G43

of the Dunlin as is also the rounded ‘hunch back’ profile when at rest.

Small flocks in company with other waders on _ tidal mudttats and the

seashore.

Specimens: oo Decr. 1932 Trombay (Rev. Palacios): 137 Q 20-10-33 Rewas

Kolaba Dist. (H. A.).

Noted: Andheri.

Winter visitor. Uncommon.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper : Limecola falcinellus subspecies ? :

Field identification: Size about that of the Common Sandpiper. General

effect as ot the Dunlin. Upper parts ashy-brown, lower white. breast finely

streaked with brown. Its diagnostic feature is the biil which is depressed and

broad. Singly or small parties, by puddles, etc. on tidal mudflats and seashore,

frequently in mixed flocks of waders.

Speciinenss b:N.i.9.: 0? 23-09-18 Bhyandar (Lt. -Vebbut); St. X. €.7 [195

Noted about Rewadanda Creek—r1st week of November 1933 (Rev. Palacios).

Winter visitor. Not common. The races cannot be differentiated in winter

plumage.

The Woodcock: Scolopax rusticola vusticola Linn.

Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon. General effect that of

an overgrown Snipe.

In Stray Feathers (vol. vii, p. 525) J. D. Inyerarity records one shot by

R. D. Cairns of the Oriental Bank 2 miles from Thana on Christmas Day,

1878. It was flushed in bushes at the foot of some low hills near marshy

ground,

This individual was obviously an exhausted passenger. Some Woodcock

regularly winter in the Nilgiris and adjacent hills, but if this is their usual

route they must pass over without stopping for there is no-other record of

their occurring in our area.

The Wood Snipe : Capella nemoricola (Hodgs.).

Field identification: This and the two following, namely the Common and

the Pintail Snipe are difficult to differentiate in the field except with constant

practice. Size slightly larger than the Quail. Dark brown above streaked with

black, rufous and buff. Very obliterative colouration, blending admirably with

the surroundings. Paler or whitish below. Long, straight slender bill about

24 inches. Singly or wisps on grass-covered marshes, squelchy paddy stubble

and also on tidal mudflats along creeks with rank grass cover, mangroves or

other bushes. Rising with a harsh note pench or scape like the squelching

of a sodden shoe, and flying off swiftly in zig-zags.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: @Q 18-1-17 near Thana (Major M. L. Ferrar).

One was shot near Bombay by T. H. Moore in January 1896 (J.B.N.H.S.,

xXV, 140).

Winter visitor. Rare, but perhaps not always identified even in sportsmen’s

bags.

The Common or Fantail Snipe: Capella gallinago gallinago (Linn.)

Field identification: See supra,

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 13-1-95 Thana (W. J. Pringle); Q 20-1-09 Thana

(N. B. Kinnear); Q 6-2-19 ‘Near Bombay’ (H. A. W. Brent); @ 7-3-21 Thana

(B.C. Ellison); O 3712-23 Thana (R. A. Spence); Si..X%. €.: [126 92 15-10-33

Kihim, Kolaba Dist. (H. A.)].

Noted and/ or shot: Godhbunder, Tulsi Lake, Irla, Vilé Parlé.

Winter visitor. Common. Earliest date 18 September; latest 4 May.

EHA (C.B.B., 167) mentions that snipe were shot on the Flats (meaning

chiefly about Mahaluxmi and Tardeo) every year. Conditions have altered

greatly since that time and suitable marshes no longer exist within town

limits. The snipe have gone the way of the malarial mosquito.

The Pintail Snipe : Capella stenura (Bonaparte).

Field identification: See supra. In the hand it may readily be distinguished

from the Fantail by the 26 or 28 attenuated pin feathers in the tail as against

12 to t4 normal ones in the Fantail.

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Specimens: B.N.H.S.:. o?)) December “1390. Bombay UE: = Barton) pase

27-12-10 Bhandup (J. L. Symons); ¢ 25-1-13 Santa Cruz (N. B. Kinnear).

Noted and/ or shot: Godhbunder, Vilé Parlé, Powai Lake.

Winter visitor. Earliest date 24 Septethber; latest 3 April. We agree. with

Inverarity who wrote in 1879 (S.F., vii, 526) that about Thana and on the

snipe grounds across the Bombay Harbour the Pintail forms the majority

in bags.

The Jack Snipe: Lymnocryptes minima Brunnich.

Irield identification: Smaller than the Quail. Like the Common Snipe

but with a metallic green and purple sheen on the back visible in the hand.

Bill shorter than the Common Snipe’s. Singly or wisps on marshy ground.

Requires heavier cover in the nature of reeds and bulrushes than the Fantail

or Pintail Snipe. Rises silently. Zig-zag flight less swift.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 6-Q. 25-31-05 Thana (W. S., Mullard); G7 283-80

Thana (N. B. Kinnear); ¢ 3-12-23 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (P. M. D. Sanderson).

Noted and/or shot; Godnbunder, Vilé Parle.

Winter visitor. Common.

The Little Cormorant : Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot).

Mahratti: Pan-kaula.

Field identification: Size about that of the Jungle Crow. All black. Long

neck, stiff tail, slender bill sharply hooked at end. A water bird usually

seen swimming, perched on a tree near water or sunning itself with open

wings on some rock or stake. Singly or gregariously on tanks and lakes.

Specimen: St. X. C.: [132 9 20210-33. Rewas,, Kolaba: Dist. (it A.)]

Noted: Tulsi and Tansa Lakes.

Resident. Not common. ;

Breeding: On 1 September (1935) H. A. found several pairs nesting on

large trees in company with Night Herons in the midst of Thana _ town.

Most of the nests contained half fledged young. The nests are made of

twigs and resemble those of the Crow. A normal clutch consists of 3 to 5

eggs, dirty chalky white, narrow. and pointed at both ends. eo

The Indian Shag (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) may also occur in our area.

H. A. has doubtfully observed it at Kihim across the Harbour.

The Indian Darter or Snake Bird : Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. :

Field identification: Size that of a small duck. A black bird with silver-

grey streaks on the back, and brown head and neck. Chin and throat white,

speckled with brown. Tail long and _ stiff. The long slender S-shaped neck,

narrow head and pointed dagger-lile bill are characteristic features of the

Darter. When on the water only the snake-like neck and head are visible.

In flight—attained by rapid wing beats as in the Cormorant—the thin neck

is held outstretched. Perches in branches above water whence it tumbles down

into it on alarm, diving and swimming away swiftly below the surface.

Singly or small loose parties at tanks and lakes,

Resident? Not common. We have only observed occasional examples at

Tulsi and Powai Lakes in Salsette. Also at Tansa. Its food consists of fish

which are chased and captured below the surface.

The Red Sea Masked Booby or Gannet: Sula dactylatra melanops Heuglin.

Field identification: Size that of a large duck. White all over except wings

and tail which are chocolate brown. Naked skin of face dark slaty blue.

Heavy pointed bill greenish yellow.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 25-7-02 Bombay Coast; 0? 28-7-27 Parel, Bombay

(C. Wood).

Straggler. Blown in periodically by gales of the South-west Monsoon.

Other records from Bombay are:

2 specimens captured by E. R. H. Jackson of the Bombay Port Trust in

1909 and 1912. respectively (J.B.N..S., xxi, 1334).

1 Uran_ 10-8-1914.

The Persian Shearwater: Puffinus persicus Hume.

In the B.N.H.S. Collection there is a specimen (0?) obtained at Alibag

in July 1885 by W. I’. Sinclair, presumably blown in by monsoon gales.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 64:5

The Indian Spoonbill : Platalea leucorodia major (Temm, & Schlegel).

Field identification: A large snow-white egret-like bird with a_ distinctive

flat spatula-shaped bill. Singly or flocks, by tanks, jheels and marshes.

Local visitor? Rare. H. A. observed it on the tidal mudflats near Avas

(ISolaba Dist.) across the Harbour, on 21-10-32. It is not uncommon in Nasik

District.

The White Stora : Ciconia ciconia ciconta (Linn.).

Field identification: A large long-necked, long-legged egret-like bird stand-

ing about 4 feet to the top of its head. White—with black wing-quills.

Legs and the heavy pointed bill red. Singly, pairs or small parties on and

about marshes.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.; of? ai-11-25 Kurla (D: 8B. Baretto).

Noted: Sion mudflats (a solitary example 10-11-27). One seen from the

train at Bassein (on mudflats).

Winter visitor. Rare.

The White-necked Stork : Dissoura episcopa episcopa (Bodd.).

Field identification: Similar to but smaller than the White Stork—standing

about 3 ft. to top of head. Black except neck, abdomen and undertail which

are white. The crown is black and looks like a padre’s skull cap. Singly,

by water or marsh.

S. A. observed a solitary example on the edge of Vihar Lake 16-3-24 and

a pair on Sakar Creek, near Alibag, in April 1930.

Local migrant. (Straggler?) Rare.

Taz Paiated Stork: Jbis leucocephala leucocephalu (Pennant).

Field identification: Size about. that of the White Stork. White, closely

-barred and = marked with metallic black above, and a black band across

breast. Striking rose-pink about the shoulders. Long, pointed, heavy yellow

bill slightly decurved near tip. Unfeathered yellow face. Pairs or parties, by

tanks and marshes.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0?—Bombay Harbour (W. S. Millard).

Straggler. There are no other records and we have not come across this

stork in our neighbourhood.

[The Open-billed Stork : Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.).

_Field identification: Size small for stork. Greyish-white with black in

wings. | Distinctive reddish-black bill with the mandibles not fitting closely but

leaving a narrow. gap between them. Pairs or flocks, about tanks and

marshes. . .

..5. A. noted.a couple at Vaishwi Tank near Alibag town on 19 May 1930,

and H. A. observed a large flock at Wassin (opposite Rewas) in Dharamtar

Creek. _ on 23-11-32. The "ards were on a soft. squelechy tidal mudflat in

association. with numerous ducks and waders.

Local migrant. Rare. |

The Eastern Purple Heron: Ardea purpurea manillensis Meyen.

Field identification: A large slender egret-like bird about the size of the

Open-bill, with long thin S-shaped neck and pointed dagger bill. Bluish-grey

and slaty with neck and head chiefly rufous. Breast and abdomen black and

chestnut. A long black crest. Typical heron fight with neck drawn in and

legs trailing behind, unlike storks and cranes which fiy with neck extended.

Solitary, usually standing in water at edge of reed-covered tank or on mudbank

in creek, etc. Stalks along the edge of reed-beds in knee-deep water, peering

intently into it with poised bill, ‘freezes’ suddenly and jabs its bill to snap up

some fish or frog with lightning rapidity.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: [Q 2-12-12 Bassein, Thana Dist. (R. dos Remedios) ].

Noted: Powai and Tulsi Lakes.

Resident? Not common. No breeding record from our area.

- The Common Grey Heron: Area cinerea cinerea (Linn.).

Field identification: Size and general effect as above but ashy-grey with

whitish crown, neck and abdomen. Long black crest. A conspicuous black

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and white line down middle of foreneck. Habits, etc. same as of the Purple

Tieron.

Noted: Powai Lake (on reedy shallow margin); Godhbunder Creek (in

mangroves and tidal mud along banks); Kihim (on rocky seashore). .

Resident? Not common. No breeding record from our .area.

Tie Large Egret : Egretta alba subspecies?

Field identification: Size about that of the Heron. Pure white, with black

bill, legs and ieet. Solitary, at edge of tanks and creeks.

Noted: Powai Lake: Rewas ( Kolaba Dist.).

Status? Rare. The note, usually uttered in flight, is a-harsh Kraa-krr.

Navarro found this bird breeding with EK. intermedia, A. graytt and

E. garzetta at Karjat in July.

The Indian Smaller Egret: Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler).

Field identification: Like the Large Egret but smaller. Usually gregar-

1ously in same biotope as last.

Noted: Powai and Tulsi Lakes. Rewas (Dharamtar Creek) Kolaba Dist.

Resident. [Fairly common.

Breeding: By the middle of May the birds have commenced putting on

their dainty ornamental breeding plumes on the head, breast and back. We

have no breeding record in our area, but Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, .142) tound

nests on a tree near ‘Wassind’ (Vasind) Station on the G.I.P. Railway, about

50 miles from Bombay, in July. The birds nest in colonies, building crow-like

twig nests in trees, either by themselves or in association with herons and

storks. The normal clutch consists of 4 pale bluish-green eggs.

The Little Egret: Egvetta garzetta garzetta (Linn.).

Field identification: Smaliest of the three. Size that of the more familiar

Cattle Egret. Pure white in colour. and a small replica of the preceding two

in all respects. Usually flocks in same biotope and often in association with

the Smaller Egret.

Specimen: BiNieS.: [¢. 12-5-16° Kihin(S. HH. Prater).

Noted: Powai and Tulsi Lakes, Godhbunder; Rewas.

Resident. Fairly common.

Breeding: Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 144) records a large colony nesting in a

tree near Vasind village (G.I.P. Railway—ca 50 miles from Bombay) in July.

In the same tree were also nesting -Cattle Egrets and Paddy Birds. The

nests are similar to those of the foregoing species, the eggs differing only

in being smaller. There are several mixed egret colonies round Bombay,

e.g. Wajrabai Hot Spring, Karjat; and further observation might produce

interesting information. Some years ago these egrets used to be extensively and

lucratively farmed in Sind for the sake of their ornamental breeding plumes.

With the change in women’s fashions, egret feathers no longer carry the

same demand, and prices have also dwindled accordingly. But some small

farms exist even to this day. Egret farming could still become a_ profitable

cottage industry if export of farm produced feathers to foreign countries were

licensed and their production properly organised and controlled. A good account

of Egret Farming in Sind will be found on pages 748-749 of vol. xxviii of

this Journal.

The Cattle Egret: Bubulcus ibis coroimandus (Bodd.).

Mahratti: Gochandi-khao; Hind.: Gdi-bagla.

Field identification: A familiar lanky bird about the size of a country

hen with longish, pointed yellow bill. In young birds the bills are black

aiid they are then easily confused with the Little Egret. Pure white and

very like the Little Egret except in the breeding season when it acquires

golden buff plumes on head, neck and back. Gregarious; usually in attendance

on grazing cattle, snapping up grasshoppers, etc. disturbed in the animals’

progress. Often far from water.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: o? 8-g-18 Bhyandar (A.. P. Kinloch).

Noted: City: Bhuleshwar, Khétwadi (1912), Chowpati, Malabar Hill,

Mahaluxmi; Suburbs and Salsette: Bandra, Khar, Chembur, Powai Lake,

Godhbunder, ete.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE G47

Resident. Common. S. A. has observed an individual for days at

Bhileshwar, in the heart of the bustling bazaar, on a tree partly overhanging

a half dry temple tank and partly a halwai’s shop. The bird spent its time

picking off the flies disturbed oft the sweetmeats in the stall beneath from

time to time and alighting on the tree for respite! Flies appear to be

greatly relished. We have noted another individual at Chowpati who was in

the regular habit of eating flies off a toddy pot hung on a tapped cocoanut

palm tor collecting the juice.

Breeding: By the first week in May, many birds have already donned

their golden breeding dress, and by the end of that month this is general.

Building operations commence by about the middle of May and nesting continues

till August. The birds nest in colonies selecting some large tamarind or other

tree, in or near a village, for the purpose. This tree is usually shared by

Paddy Birds and Little Egrets. We have noted such nest colonies opposite

Bandra railway station, in Andhéri bazaar, in Borivli village, and at Mahaluxmi.

The same trees are used for several years in succession. 15 to 25 nests is

not an unusual number for a colony. The nests are untidy twig structures

like those of the Crow. Three to five eggs form a normal clutch. They

are a pale skim milk blue in colour.

The stomach of a fledgling examined was packed with grasshopper remains,

a small crab and about 200 Blue-bottle flies (Musca vomitoria).

Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 142) found the Cattle Egret nesting at Vasind

(G.I.P. Railway) in July.

The Indian Reef Heron: Demiegretia asha (Sykes).

Field identification: Size about the same as, or slightly larger than the

Cattle Egret. Very similar in general effect to the Small Egret but found in

2 colour “phases : (1) White, (2) Slaty-grey. Occasional birds are intermediate

being partly white and partly grey. Singly or pairs about rocky seashore,

mangrove-lined creeks and tidal mudflats.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: [21-11-10 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. Kinnear) j

Noted: Mahim, Andheri, Bhyandar, Mahi, Kihim, Rewas, Hornby Vellard.

Status? Our records are only between 18 October and 20 May. Not un-

common but sparingly.

The Indiaa Pond Heron or Paddy-Bird : Ardeola grayii (Sykes).

Field identification: Size about the same as or slightly less than the Cutt.

Egret. Most of the plumage white, concealed by an earth-brown mantle so that

when at rest on the edge of a tank the bird is almost invisible. As soon as

it rises, however,—usually with a croak—the white wings, back and underparts

flash into prominence. Singly or gregariously at every piece of water-pool,

puddle or tank, inundated paddy-field, creek or on the seashore. Especially

fond of village tanks in the process of drying up.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: ¢ juv. 14-7-13 Colaba, Bombay (S. H. Prater).

Resident. Very common. Its food consists for the most part of frogs. Its

normal method of hunting is to wade into water or stand poised on the edge

as still as a dummy and dart at any prey coming within striking range.

Breeding: By about the middle of April the birds commence to don _ their

nuptial plumage. The back becomes rich maroon. A long white occipital crest

is developed and the legs and feet—normally greenish-yellow—assume a beautiful

salmon-pink tint. By the middle of June the majority of birds are in full

breeding dress. Most nests are found between July and September. Paddy-

birds breed in colonies in association with other egrets and Night-Herons. Their

nests are untidy platforms of twigs like those of the Crow, built in large

trees such as tamarind or mango. We have observed nest colonies at Bandra

(opposite railway station), Victoria Gardens (Byculla), and in the midst of

Thana town. Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 142) found nests at Vasind (about 50

miles from Bombay) in July. A normal clutch consists of 3 or 4—rarely 5—

pale greenish-blue eggs.

The Indian Little Green Heron: Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsf.).

_ Field identification: Slightly smaller than the Paddy-bird. Above slaty or

blackish-grey glossed with bronze green; below paler grey. Singly by rocky

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. XL

or mangrove-lined tidal creeks, ae -etc. Occasionally found at rocky hill

streams. . .: i a2

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 3-11-20 Kennery Island, Bombay Harbour (V. S.

La: Personne) ; .3 aia 30-5-37 Godhbunder- (C. "McCann).

Noted: Mahul, Andheri, Powai and Tulsi Lakes.

_ Resident. Fairly common, but unobtrusive. The stomach of a_ specimen

contained shrimps and mudfish (newtas).

Breeding: On 30 May Mr. C. McCann found a nest in a mangrove bush

near Godhbunder Creek. In structure it was like that of the Paddy-bird. It

contained 3 young in down—with the wing quills sprouting—which were able

to clamber about the branches.

The Night Heron: Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax Linn.

Mahratti: Raat-baggal or Raat-koku.

_ Field identification: Larger than the Paddy-bird. Of the same general effect,

but with an appreciably stouter bill. An ashy-grey bird with black crown, nape

and long crest at back of head, the last with some white feathers in it. Lower

parts chiefly whitish. Young birds are brown, streaked with rufous. Their

re tae are white broadly streaked with. dark brown. Colonies, roosting in

favourite large trees during the day and flying out in parties at sunset with

loud raugous kwaaks to feed. at tanks and creeks.

Specimens: B,N.H.S.: ¢ 28-7-14 Carnac Bunder, Bombay (Counsell) ; 2

-11-99 Hog Island, Poms Harbour (E. Comber).

Hume (Ss F., iv, 415) disturbed a large colony on Elephanta Island and

shot a few in ‘January 1875.

--Resident.. Common. - Considered: finest- ‘game bird’ in Salsette and much

persecuted by -local ‘sportsmen’!

Breeding: - The Night Heron nests in colonies-- which often extend over

several adjacent trees, between June and September. They build the usual twig

nests of the Crow pattern often sparsely lined with leaves. _We have records

of large colonies on Pithecolobium- trees in Victoria Gardens, Bombay, and in

Thana town where almost every available Banyan and Peepal tree is utilised.

The eggs—usually- 3 or 4—are pale greenish-blue in colour. _The young birds

soon leave the nest and clamber about the neighbouring branches keeping up

an incessant click, click, click, etc. The din which a nesting colony at this

stage produces can be heard fully half a mile away..

Stomachs of fledgling Night Herons examined by us contained among other

things a fresh unbroken Night Heron egg, a leg of embryo of same, remains—

of Gerardia praevestiana and shrimps, ete.

Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., vi, 415) found the Night Heron breeding on islets in

the Vihar Lake, and at Elephanta, in August.

The Yellow Bittern : Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis (Gmelin).

Field. identification: Somewhat smaller and slenderer than the Paddy-bird

but of the same general effect. Yellow, brown, rufous and chestnut predominating

in plumage. Black crest. Singly, by edge or reedy swamps and _ occasionally

mangrove-lined creeks. | Unobtrusive, creeping away surreptitiously when

suspicious. Seat A hl rage AeG

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 25-1-09 Thana (N.:B: Kinnear); ‘Si-X. \C..; 263

GO juv: 21-11-36 Powai Lake (H. A.). .

Resident. Not common. -

The Chestnut Bittern: Jxobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin).

Field identification : Similar to above, but with upper parts chestiut- -cinfanion,

lower pale chestnut. Habits, etc. same as of the Yellow Bittern.

Noted: Powai Lake ; Kihim (Kolaba Dist.).

Fairly common among the reeds at Powai Lake. Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S.,

il, 45) shot them at Goddhbunder and also one near Penn (Kolaba Dist.) on

28-11-1886.

Breeding: H. A. observed a bird carrying twigs on two consecutive days

in August, near Powai but failed to find the nest. Navarro has found several

nests at Khandala and Karjat during May, June and July.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE G49

The Bittern: Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linn.).

Field identification: Considerably larger than the Paddy-bird. Short, stout,

pointed bill and large feet. A buif coloured bird of the general effect of the

Paddy-bird with black back and blackish streaks and barring on rump and

in the lower plumage. Singly, in reed beds and shrubbery on marshes.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: @ 4-12-16 near Thana (A. F. Forbes).

Winter visitor. Rare. We have not come across the Bittern in our area, but

J. D. Inverarity (S.F., vii, 526, 1879) believed it to be not uncommon, though

seldom seen. In 8 years he had only seen three. One he shot on 22-10-1877

on the ‘Flats’ half a mile from Byculla Club, close to the railway and ‘within

200 yards of the Foras Road which crosses the flat from Bombay to Worlee’.

The second he saw on 12-1-1878 on Bhiwandi Tank and the third he shot on

24-2-1878 at Panvel. He also saw several others subsequently (J.B.N.H.S., ii,

44). Mr. Kotwal shot a specimen at Parle on the 3rd January 1939.

The Flamingo; Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum Temm.,

Marathi: Roht.

EHA (C.B.B., 167) records seeing an example not far from Hog Island in

Bombay Harbour. In April and May 1930 two flocks (or the same flock?) of

about 12 birds were observed at Alibag and Kihim (Kolaba Dist.), respectively

flying along the seashore in a northerly direction. There are several other

records fer May and this bird is probably a common passage migrant.

The Lesser Flamingo : Phoeniconaias minor (Geottr.).

In the old card catalogue of birds in the B.N.H.S, Collection, prepared by

Mr. N. B. Kinnear, there is listed a specimen Q 2-1-1898 Thana (J. Mason),

We have not seen the specimen and have no further details.

The Nukta or Comb Duck : Sarkidiornis melanotus (Pennant).

Field identification: Larger than the domestic duck. Black above glossed

with green and blue; white below. Head and neck white speckled with black.

A comb or knob at forehead near base of bill in the male.

~ Inverarity (J-B.N.H.S., ii, 45) records the shooting of a solitary young of

the year at Penn (Kolaba Dist.) on 28-11-1887. We know of one other shot

at Kihim (Kolaba Dist.) in May a few years ago.

Local straggler.

The Cotton Teal : Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin).

Field identification: The smallest of our ducks. Size between the Pigeon

and the Jungle Crow. Rather similar in colouration to the Nukta. Bill goose-

like, not as flat as the duck’s. In flight whitish edge of wing conspicuous

in male.

Specimens: [¢ 2 7-12-09 Daman Road, B.B. & C.I. Rly. (R. L. Sinclair) ].

Noted: A pair on Powai Lake 30-11-34 (H. A.). Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii,

46—1887) saw large flocks at Neral below Matheran. One shot near Karjat.

Status? Probably local straggler. Rare.

The Lesser or Common Whistling Teal: Dendrocygna javanica (Horstf.).

Field identification: Smaller than the domestic duck. A chestnut coloured

duck confusable with no other of the same size. Small flocks. Shrill whistling

notes constantly uttered on the wing distinctive. Flight rather feeble and un-

ducklike, reminiscent of the Jacanas.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 22-5-26 Mahadalla Tank, Malad (E. Henricks) ;

[dG 29-11-15. Kalyan (W. S. Millard)].

Noted: Powai Lake, Irla; Kihim (Kolaba Dist.) on rocks on seashore!

A flight of about 4o birds was seen at Hornby Vellard on 6-11-38. They

settled out in the bay well out of range, but passing the same way a

couple of hours later, we saw a swimmer trying to retrieve two winged birds,

and a man with a gun watching the proceedings. It may be an achievemeni

to shoot wild duck in Bombay City, but unless some sanctuary is allowed to

game birds (especially a resident species) we shall soon be exterminating theny

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, XL

Resident? Uncommon and in small numbers. Possibly breeds around Powai

Lake.

The Sheldrake : Jadorna tadorna (Linn.).

Mr. C. McCann observed a small party on Tulsi Lake some years ago. Other

records from the Deccan show that this bird occasionally straggles further

south.

The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck : Casarca ferruginea (Voeg.).

Hindustani: Chakwa.

Field identification: Larger than the domestic duck. Orange brown with a

shiny green patch on the predominatingly black and white wings. Head and

neck buff. Pairs or small parties.

W. F. Sinclair (J.B.N.H.S., i, 166) observed a pair in Bombay Harbour

(ca. 1886). H. A. noted a party of 4 at a brackish pool on a tidal mudflat

near Rewas (ISolaba Dist.) on 22-11-32.

Winter visitor. Straggier? It is common round Nasik and in the Deccan.

The Mallard : Anas platyrhyncha Linn.

Field identification» The ancestor of our domestic duck, equal to it in size

“und same in colouration as the green-headed plumage often seen. The female

is dark brown with buff streaks producing a game bird pattern.

The only records of its occurrence we have are (1) that of E. H. Aitken

(].B.N.H.S., xiii, 398) who says that owing to the severe drought in Gujerat

and the Deccan a few were seen about Bombay in the winter of 1900 (2)

Sinclair (J-B.N.H.S., iii, 71) has recorded one from Nagotna in Dharamtar

Creek (3) One was shot near Panvéel on 17 November (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 1052).

The Spot-bill or Grey Duck : Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster.

Field identification: Size that of the domestic duck. Rather like the female

Mallard in colouration with some white in the wings and two orange-red spots

at base of bill on either side of forehead.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: [0? 7-12-09 Daman Road, B.B. & C.I. Rly. (R.

o> sinclain):|.

Straggler. Aitken (J.B.N.H.S., xiii, 398) mentions the Spotbill occurring in

or near Bombay in the winter of 1900 due to the drought in Gujerat and the

Deccan. S. A. observed a party of 4 birds flying over Kihim (Kolaba Dist.)

on 1-10-30.

Tbe Gadwall: Chaulelasmus streperus (Linn.).

Field identification: Smaller than the domestic duck. General aspect of

plumage pale brownish-grey with rufous head and neck. A black-and-white

Wing-bar particularly conspicuous in flight, and a chestnut patch on wing.

Underside white. Female: mottled dark and light brown with whitish under-

parts and wing-bar as in male.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: [¢ Q@ 26-12-09 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. Kinnear) ;

Q 15-6-90 Alibag (W. F. Sinclair). ]

Noted and/ or shot: Andhéri, Chembir (‘kutchra-patti’), Trombay; Kihim

Winter visitor, in small numbers. Not uncommon. Of bags of 14 and

» ducks made near Chembur, two and three respectively were Gadwall.

The Wigeon: Mareca penelope (Linn.).

Field identification: Smaller than the domestic duck. General aspect

pencilled grey. Chestnut head with cream coloured patch on its forepart,

combined with the brownish-pink breast and the blue-grey bill suffices to

identify the male. Female rather like the female Gadwall but Jacks the

wing-bar. The blue-grey bill is a diagnostic character in both sexes.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: [¢ 26-12-09 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. Kinnear). ]

Noted and/ or shot: Santa Cruz; Kihim.

Winter visitor. Uncommon.

The Common Teal: Nettion crecca crecca (Linn.).

Field identification: Our second smallest duck, only slightly bigger than

the Cotton Teal. Male: pencilled greyish colour. Chestnut head with a broad

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY .AND: SALSETTE B54

metallic green band running through the eye, lined on either side with whitish.

A tri-coloured wing-bar—black, green and buff—especially conspicuous in flight.

Female rather like female Gadwall with a metallic green and black wing-bar.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 92 7-10-24 Lamzai, near Kirla (D. B. Baretto).

Noted and/ or shot; Andhéri, Santa Cruz, Bassein, Thana, Gddhbunder,

Tulsi Lake; Naugaon (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor, in small numbers. Not uncommon.

The Pintail : Dafila acuta (Linn.).

Field identification: Slightly smaller than the domestic duck. Male; upper

plumage pencilled greyish. Head brown with a white band on either side

running down into the white neck and underparts. Its chief characteristic is

the long, pointed pin-like central tail feathers which extend beyond the tail.

The elongated body, the long slender neck and pointed tail usually help to

recognise the drake. Female: mottled brown and buff. In general rather like

the females of the Gadwall and Wigeon but slenderer in build.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: [Q 26-12-09 Panvél, Kolaba Dist. (N. B. Kinnear). ]

Noted and/ or shot: Bassein (Thana Dist.), Chembur, Trombay (‘Kutchra-

patti’), Kihim.

Winter visitor in small numbers. H. A. has observed a small flock among

the rocks on the seashore at Kihim (Kolaba Dist.).

The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal: Querquedula querquedula (Linn.).

Field identification: Slightly larger than the Common Teal. Male recognisable

by his pink-brown white-speckled head with the broad conspicuous white eyebrow

and by the bluish-grey on his wing shoulders. The female resembles the females

of so many ducks of the same size that without some practice it is difficult to

recognise her by herself.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 3 7-12-09 Daman Road, B.B. & C.I. Railway.

(R. L. Sinclair).

Noted and/ or shot: Naugaon and Rewas (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor. Not common.

The Shoveller: Spatula clypeata (Linn.).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the domestic duck. More

characteristic than its plumage and unfailing as a recognition mark is its

peculiar flat shovel-shaped bill, considerably broader at tip than at base. This

is possessed by both sexes though they differ considerably in colouration.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 5-12-99 ‘Thana’ (purchased).

Noted and/ or shot: Trombay (‘Kutchra-patti’), Rewas (Dharamtar Creek),

Waklan (near Mumbra), Alibag (Vaishwi Tank).

Winter visitor in small numbers. Not uncommon. Latest date 19 May.

The Red-headed Pochard or Dun Bird: Nyvoca ferina ferina (Linn.).

Field identification: A squat duck, somewhat smaller than the domestic

bird, recognisable by its rotund shape and the conspicuous tri-coloured plumage

of. the male—head chestnut; breast, rump and hind parts black; body pencilled

grey. The female is predominantly dirty grey-brown.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 8-10-93 Bombay Harbour (W. S. Millard).

Noted and/ or shot: Bassein, Chembtr, Powai Lake.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Not uncommon. Out of 2 bags of 7 and

ta duck, one and 2 respectively were of this species.

The White-eyed Pochard : Nvroca rufa rufa Linn.

Field identification: Smaller than the domestic ‘duck. General aspect of

plumage rufous-brown and blackish-brown with a whitish wing-bar. Abdomen

white. Female duller coloured.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q 17-11-08 Andhéri (N. B. Kinnear).

Noted and/ or shot: Kihim and Alibag (Kolaba Dist.).

Winter visitor. Not uncommon as wildfowl go in our area. In the cold

weather of 1931 we observed fairly large flocks floating on the sea not far

from the shore (at Kihim) but always well out of gunshot. At dusk—often

652 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL \AIST. «~SOCKETY: 2 Vol. Xi

after if was quite dark—the birds regularly flighted inland in parties and in

twos and threes taking the same route every evening. Similarly, W. F. Sinclair

(J.B.N.H.S., xiii, 191) writes: ‘This is the sea duck of Alibag Coast, where

flocks not exceeding 50 were constantly to be observed in winter. They

generally rode just outside the surf where they were safe from disturbance

from passing boats. It is likely that they used the, sea as refuge during the

day and fed inland at night.’ |

The Scaup: Nyroca marila marila (Linn.).

Aberrant straggler. J. D. Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 45) shot a female on

a small tank near Panvél on 13-1-1884. No other record.

The Tufted Pochard: Nyroca fuligula fuligula (Linn.).

Field identification: Size and rotund shape of the Red-headed Pochard. Male

black and white with a conspicuous black tuft at back of head of same colour.

Female like male but brown where he is black and lacking the crest.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: OG 5-12-99 Thana.

Noted: Alibag (Vaishwi Tank). Inverarity (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 45) records it

near Penn, Kolaba Dist., on 28-11-1887. ;

Winter visitor. Scarce. Latest date 14 March. Most duck visiting or

passing over Bombay and the surrounding neighbourhood, take refuge on the

sea during day time, and flight in to feed in the evening. Even the

essentially fresh water duck like Wigeon and Pintail are often seen beyond

the surf during the day.

The Goosander : Mergus merganser merganser Linn.

Aberrant straggler. E. H. Aitken (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 56) shot one (either Q

or immature <) on 2-12-1886 at Shewa on the east side of, and across Bomhay

Harbour. It was playing along in a shallow sheet of water forming a

reservoir of the salt works. No other record.

The Little Grebe or Dabchick : Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori.

Mahratti: Pdan-barki.

Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon. A drab coloured water

bird with short pointed bill and practically no tail. Gregariously, on village

tanks, etc. swimming about in open water or among the floating weeds, and

diving at the least suspicion.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 9 12-3-93 Thana (J. M. Mason); 9 19-11-17 Kurla

(S. H. Prater); ¢ 6-12-18 Colaba Cove, Bombay Harbour (J. A. D. McBain).

Noted: Dhobi Talao, Gwalia Tank and Babulla Tank (Mazagon) before they

were filled up; Mahaluxm!, Parél, Andhéri, Chembur, Powai Lake, etc.

Resident. Common. Present on practically every village tank and congre-

gating on larger sheets of water as the former gradually dry up in the hot

weather. Thus on Vaishwi Tank, which provides the water supply to Alibag

town, ‘S. A. counted 132 individuals on 19 May (1930) when most of the

smaller tanks in the neighbourhood were quite or almost dry. A couple of

months previously the number of Dabchicks on this tank had been considerably

smaller. The call is a sharp tittering often heard when the birds are disporting

themselves of an evening. They can seldom be induced to fly. On taking

alarm they either dive below or patter along the surface for some distance

vibrating their diminutive wings rapidly. When once started on the wing,

however, they fly well and often for considerable distances. Their food consists

of water insects and their larvae, tadpoles and small crustaceans.

Breeding: The season is not sharply defined. H. A. found a nest in a mill

pond at Mahaluxmi in September, and another on the village tank at Kihim

(Kolaba Dist.) im October. Fry (J/.B:N.H.S.. xxi, (275) toolk 4 clutches fon

eggs from the ‘Mahaluxmi Pond’ between 16 November and 31 March. On

22-11-34 H. A. observed a juvenile in downy striped plumage with red beak on

Konkan Tank, not far from Mumbra (Thana Dist.). The nest is a rough pad

of sodden weeds placed on floating vegetation. A normal clutch consists of 3

to 5 eggs. These are white at first but soon get discoloured to dirty brownish

by the constant soaking and contact wih the sodden weeds.

THe END,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 1.—Rainbow Trout showing Fin-rot on the caudal and anal fins. Stumpy 7

caudal fin (cf) and frayed anal fin (af) are noteworthy.

Fig. 2.—Rainbow Trout with Carcinoma of Thyroid. Atrophied gill filaments |

(f) are seen attached to the tumours (c). |

Fig. 3.—Brown Trout with Carcinoma of Thyroid (c).

NOTES ON THE DISEASES OF TROUT AT THE: MAHILI

HATCHERY—KULU (PUNJAB).

Dr. Hamip Kuan, M.Sc., LL.B. (Punjab), Ph.D. (Cantab).

Fisheries Research Officer, Punjab, Lyallpur.

(With a plate).

Little attention has so far been given to the diseases of trout

in its Indian habitats. The control of parasitic and other diseases

is a problem of considerable importance. Under domestication, i.e.

when herded together and fed on artificial food, trout, like all other

animals, fall victims to parasites and contract diseases.

Gaschott (1931) has given an account of the various diseases,

to which trout are susceptible, and has dealt with their diagnosis

and treatment. Davis (1936) has dealt with internal and external

parasites of trout and such other diseases as Fungus, Pop-eye,

Thyroid tumour, Intestinal inflammation, White spot disease, Blue

sac disease and Soft egg disease. Moore (1923, 1924) has made

a study of diseases of fish in State Hatcheries in New York.

Carcinoma of Thyroid in the Salmonoid Fish has received an

exhaustive treatment in the well illustrated paper by Gaylord and

Marsh (1914). Several other investigators, both in Europe and

America, have made a_ study of the various parasites and

diseases of trout and other fish and dealt with their. control and

treatment. - -

A systematic study of the diseases of trout, it is regretted, has

not. been made -on account of lack of ‘facilities, and in the present

paper an account of such diseases as have come to our notice at

the Punjab Government Trout Hatchery at Mahili (Kulu) is

presented. :

The diseased trout were obtained from the Hatchery and most

of this material was received preserved in 5 per cent formalin. In

a few cases alive sick fish were also examined. Of the two species,

Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout cultivated at the Mahili Hatchery,

the former has sutfered far more acutely from parasites and other

diseases than the latter.

The commoner diseases at the Mahili Hatchery have been

Fin-rot, Carcinoma of Thyroid, Inflammation of Intestine, and

Fungus.

Fin-rot or Tail-rot or Fin-disease was first noticed at the

Hatchery in August 1929 among Rainbow Trout, and it appeared

in an epidemic form. The diseased fish had grown sluggish and

dark in colour. The dying fish came to the surface, gasped for

air, turned upside down and after a few hours died. Both in the

adult and in the fingerlings the caudal fin had lost its rays and had

been reduced to a stump (Fig. 1). In most of the cases dorsal.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. xan

pectoral and anal fins had also been affected and showed naked fin

rays without any covering of epidermis.

Fin-rot is caused by a rod-shaped bacterium which can usually

be found in large numbers in the infected fins (Davis 1936). The

infection usually starts from the outer margin of the fin, where

the epidermis becomes thickened and forms a white line, visible

externally across the fin. The fin rays are also attacked and soon

become frayed and broken. Sometimes only a portion of the fin

is destroyed, and in other cases the outer half or two-thirds is

destroyed.

The young fingerlings usually die before the infection has spread

to the underlying tissues; while in the adults the tissues at the

base of the fins are also affected. The disease varies greatly in

its intensity. Among the fry the mortality is always heavy. Among

adults recovery is possible though the fins retain their stumpy

appearance. According to Davis (1936) ‘the fins regenerate more

or less completely’. No such regeneration of the fins, however, has

so far been noticed among the fish which have recovered at the

Mahili Hatchery.

According to Davis (1936) ‘little information has been obtained

regarding the factors that tend to bring an outbreak of the disease’.

At the Mahili Hatchery, however, it has been definitely observed

that fish and fry reared in clear spring water remain unaffected ;

while those reared in ponds fed by river water, which brings in

silt during the floods, always suffer from an attack of Fin-rot

soon after the monsoon rains. At Madhopur Farm, too, flood

water in July was directly responsible for the outbreak of this

disease among Rainbow Trout fry.

Control.—A salt bath instead of producing any healing effect,

seemed to hasten the death of the sick fish at the hatchery. Davis

(1936) recommends baths of a solution of copper sulphate, 1 : 2,000,

for one or two minutes. But it is too strong a solution to be

administered by unskilled hands either to adult fish or to finger-

lings. A bath of 1 : 20,000 solution of copper sulphate for 10 to

15 minutes however, proved efficacious in early stages of the

disease. The bath was repeated daily and healed the fins within a

fortnight. The fish in which the disease had advanced did not

survive. The warm water bath, recommended by Taplin (1932),

proved beneficial during winter. The fish from the hatchery pond,

where the range of temperature was 38°F. to 48°F., were trans-

ferred to a spring fed pond with a temperature ranging from

55°F. to 58°F. and were cured of the disease completely.

Carcinoma, Thyroid tumour or Goitre in trout is said to be

analogous to goitre in man (Davis 1936). It is, therefore, inter-

esting to note that in the Kangra District, where Mahili Trout

Hatchery is located, human beings, too, suffer from goitre.

1 Dr. W. Rushton (Fishmongers Hall, London), to whom the diseased

Rainbow Trout were sent for examination, reported that ‘No external. lesions

cotld be found or anv features, which point to, or suggest, that the fish had

died from ‘‘furunculosis” .. .’

Note.—Furunculosis is another bacterial disease, the most characteristic symptom

of which is the presence of open sores on the body (Davis 1936).

NOTES ON THE DISEASES OF TROUT 655

The disease has not so far been noticed in an epidemic form

at the Hatchery. Only occasionally one or two fish have suffered.

The tumours of thyroid, in the diseased fish examined (Figs. 2

and 3), were located at the junction of the first and second pair

of gill arches, on either side, and also between the third and

the fourth gill arches. The former pair of tumours were visible

internally too, on the floor of the mouth. Atrophied gill filaments

were seen attached to the tumours.

The primary cause of thyroid tumour is now generally considered

to be a deficiency of iodine, which is essential to the proper function-

ing of the thyroid gland (Davis 1936). Overcrowding, a limited

supply of water, and insanitary condition in the ponds also appear

to be important contributing factors.

The diseased fish linger on for months and months, and it is

only when the tumour has enlarged to such an extent that

it has spread into the gill arches, that the blood vessels cease to

function and in portions the circulation is stopped and the fish

dies.

Control.—At the Mahili Hatchery the fish in which the disease

was noticed in an advanced stage were always killed. In the

early stages of the disease a weak bath of iodine (potassium iodide)

in I : 1,000,000 strength has given satisfactory results, and the

fish recovered. Gaylord and Marsh (1914) recommend the

administration of the following chemical baths: iodine (potassium

iodide) 1 : 1,000,000; arsenic (arsenic oxide) I : 3,000,000, and

mercury (mercuric chloride) 1 : 5,000,000. Davis recommends

(1936) addition of iodine directly to the food: a table-spoonful of

I per cent iodine dissolved in 1 per cent solution of potassium iodide

‘thoroughly mixed with about 50 pounds of ground food is

sufficient to keep the fish from showing any trace of thyroid

tumour’.

Intestinal Inflammation: Most of the Rainbow Trout attacked

by Fin-rot at the Hatchery suffered from inflammation of the

intestine as well. In 1929 when the epidemic of Fin-rot appeared,

the fish, as an economical measure, were being fed on 75 per

cent oat flour and 25 per cent dried fish. It was rather expecting

too much from these carnivorous fish to maintain their vitality

on such a poor diet. The diseased fish had grown dark in colour,

refused to take any food and sought the corners of the pond.

The intestine was inflamed and contained only mucus. One Brown

Trout that died in February 1930 had a large tumour in the

intestine which filled up the entire lumen.

The disease is apparently caused by unsuitable food. Change

of diet, recourse to natural food, such as aquatic insect larvae,

worms, snails, slugs and a large proportion of meat in their diet

improves the condition of the fish.

Fungus or Saprolegnia has so far not caused any serious damage

at the Hatchery. Saprolegnia readily attacks dead eggs, dead fry

or any dead organic matter lying in the rearing or hatching boxes.

Adults are attacked by the fungus when they have been handled

roughly, especially after the stripping season. It appears as tuft

of white threads—mycelial filaments—on any part of the fish after

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

some physical injury, and its filaments soon spread into the

underlying tissues. ;

Control.—A 3 per cent soiution of common salt for 5 to 10

minutes or until fish show signs of distress, has so far proved very.

efficacious. Patches of skin overgrown with fungus, when rubbed

gently with cotton soaked in a 1 : 2,000 copper sulphate solution

or solution of common salt in vinegar or iodine, have effected

speedy recovery. The most effective remedy to prevent an attack

of fungus is to remove the root cause of the disease. Daily

picking of dead eggs, cleaning all the troughs and hatching trays,

regular salt baths for the fish, after they have been handled, have

always proved effective against an attack of fungus.

The writer had an experience of a very striking example of

Saprolegnia growth on Carp. In a Carp Farm in the Punjab the

fish were confined to a portion of tank with a wire netting screen

as a partition. Whenever fresh water was let into the tank, the

fish rubbed their heads against the wire netting attempting to escape

towards the inflowing current. They consequently received injuries

on their lips, mouth and head, where fungus appeared in profusion

and the fish began to die in large numbers. The wire netting

screen was at once removed, the diseased fish were given salt

baths and in a very short time recovered.

LITERATURE.

Davis, H. S.—Care and Diseases of Trout.’ Invest. Rept. 22. U.S.Bur.

Fish, 1 Wash. (1936). 3

Gaschott, Otto.—'Some Diseases of Trout.” Salmon and Trout Mag. 63,

pp. 171-188; and No. 64, pp. 273-282 (1931).

Gaylord, H. R. and Marsh, M. C.—‘Carcinoma of the Thyroid in the

Salmonoid. Fishes.’ Bull. U.S. Buy. Wish, »xxxii. 191 o(1914):

Moore, Emeline.—Diseases of Fish in State Hatcheries.’ Twelfth Annual

Report. N.Y. Conser. Comm. 1922 (1923).

Moore, Emeline.—‘A Report of Progress on the Study of Trout Diseases.’

Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. liii. 1923 (1923a).

Moore, Emeline.—‘Diseases of Fish.’ Fourteenth Annual Report: N.Y.

Cons. Com. 1924, (1925). :

Taplin, H. J.—‘Cure of Fungus Diseases.’ Fishing Gazette, 15th. October

(1932).

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF THE SHAN STATES, BURMA.

Cap. VW. CGC, CARROMT,

I have recently been reading through the back numbers of the

Journal from vol. x, 1895, and to my surprise I have not noticed

any account or list of the butterflies of this very interesting part

of Burma.

While I have not covered all of the Shan States during my

fifteen years of collecting I think I may claim to have a fairly

good representative collection of butterflies from this area.

The Shan States covers a large amount of the hilly country in

Upper Burma. The highest elevation reaches about 6,000 feet above

sea level. Both the Southern and Northern sections are reached

either by rail or road. The railway terminates at Lashio in the

North and Shwenyaung in the South. Beyond these railheads are

fairly good second class roads up to the Chinese border. It is not

advisable, however, to travel by car far beyond the railheads in

the rainy season. In the dry season the roads are in good con-

dition in so far as second class roads can be made good and one

can motor through what I consider to be one of the most interesting

countries in the world. The scenery is beautiful beyond description

and the different tribes vary as does the scenery. The motorist

passes through rolling downs, dense jungle and lovely pine woods

with a lake dotted here and there in the course of one morning’s

drive.

In the Identification of Indian Butterflies the author, referring

to Burma, says that ‘in many ways the Thandaung ghat is one of

the best collecting places in the Indian Empire; it is the meeting

place of the Chinese and the Malayan elements and possesses a

number of species or well defined races that do not appear to be

found elsewhere.’ This section referred to is on the same range

of hills as the Shan States but geographically not in the Shan

States.

I might go farther than the above-mentioned author and say

that the whole of the Shan States is one of the best collecting

grounds in the Indian Empire. I feel sure readers will agree when

they notice the long list of butterflies to be found therein, many of

which are very rare and not found elsewhere.

Maymyo, the writer’s headquarters, while not in the Shan States

proper is on the plateau at the beginning of the Northern section

and is an excellent locality for many rare and interesting varieties.

During my twelve years of residence here and eight at Kalaw in

the Southern section, I have built-up a good collection of butterflies

from important places. In addition to Maymyo and Kaiaw I have

toured the States extensively and collected butterflies wherever I

travelled,

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Before giving the list of butterflies to be found in the Shan States

I would mention I should be very glad to exchange with any

collectors in India and Ceylon. I have many hundreds of duplicates

and would be glad to get into touch with fellow collectors all over

India especially Southern India and Ceylon.

The names given in the following list are taken from the 1st

edition of the Identification of Indian Butterflies by Brigadier

Evans, which I believe in some cases differ a little from the names

given in the 2nd edition.

As I am not an expert there may be mistakes in the names

especially in the Lycaenidae. This family together with the

Hesperidae I find most difficult to name as there are so very many

varieties.

PAPILIONID 2.

TROIDES

aeacus, Fairly common in all parts of the Shan States. Very fond of

feeding on flowers of lantana.

helena cerberus. Common and as above. The variety eumages is very rare

and [ have only seen one male during the many years I have been collecting.

BYASA

aidoneus. Rare but if one knows the time of flight which is during September

one can collect a few specimens in and around Maymyo. This year I caught

four males and two females. The colour of the female given by Col. Evans

is brown. Those caught by me are not in any way brown but a distinct

slaty black.

zaleucus. Very rare in the Shan States. I have only seen two males during

my 15 years of collecting, one in Kalaw in the South and the other at

Maymyo in the North.

aristolochiae gouiopeltis. Very common all over the country.

philoxenus polyeuctes. Fairly plentiful during May and September. Evidently

it is double brooded as they are not seen between the above two months.

crassipes. Very rare indeed. I have only seen one from Kalaw in the South

during my many years of collecting.

CHILASA

agestor agestor. I generally get half a dozen of these each summer during

April. Evidently feeds on the camphor tree as I have caught a number round

this tree in my garden. It is a good mimic of Danais tytia tytia and can easily

be taken for it.

slateri marginata. I have not found this butterfly in the Shan States proper

but it is found at the foot of the Thandaung ghat adjoining the Shan States.

clytia clytia. Common all over the country. |

clytia onpape. Also fairly common especially in the North beyond Lashio

and up to the Chinese border.

PAPILIO

memnon agenor. Males of this variety are to be found eight months of the

year. Females, however of all three forms are scarce.

rhetenor. Rare: I have only one in my collection; a female caught on

11-5-35 at Maymyo.

protenor euprotenor. Very rare in the Shan States but common in other parts

of Upper Burma.

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF THE SHAN STATES 659

bianor gladiator, Found at Kalaw in the South only this year. During

my eight years’ residence there I did not see a single specimen. In September

-of this year a friend caught several in his garden. It may be I had taken it

for paris as it flies with it and looks very much like it on the wing.

SUS

polyctor ganesa. Fairly plentiful at Kalaw in the South but I have not

-found it in the North. This flies also with paris paris and is difficult to tell

from it on the wing.

paris paris. zy ery common all over the country. I noticed the specimens taken

from the Shan States are much larger than those I have seen in other parts of

Burma and those from India.

LAW 5

arcturus arcturus, Rare in the Shan States.

mahadeva. Rae does not appear to fly about 2,o00 feet and is found at

Nan-Pan-Det at the foot of the Kalaw Hills and at low altitudes round about

Taungoo towards the Karen Hills.

Yi.

) f

castor castor” Rare. Also does not appear to fly above 2,000 feet. I have

caught it at Lebin in the South Shan States. Males are filth eaters and

can be found feeding on excreta of animals.

a) yt nT VU ’ =

helenus neces Common all over the Shan _ States.

a coee)

chaon chaons” “Also very common especially at Maymyo.

noblei. I have heard that this is found in the Shan States but have not come

across it. I understand it is more common in the North of Burma around

Myitkyina.

‘polytes romulus. One ‘of our commonest butterflies. I have not come across

the 3rd form of female, the one like hector. The other two female forms are

fairly common. 3 ‘

ITTY

_demoleus demoleus. Very. common everywhere.

’ machaon verityi, Fairly plentiful in the Southern Shan States ie rare ‘In

the North. It appears to fly at 5,000 feet and above. I have caught them

at Kalaw and Taunggyi and I understand they are fairly common at a place

called eee:

4 wv.

_xuthus.~ a have not heard of this being found in the Shan States but it

may be found in the South towards the Chinese and Siamese borders.

PATHYSA

Beit (ee ee “

glycerion. | have only caught one male of this in the Shan States although

it is. fairly common on the plains of Upper Burma.

agetes agetes. ~ “Rare at altitudes of above 2,000. More common at the

foot of the hills. oe

LUO ¥

nomius swinhoei.. Common at between two and three thousand feet. Males

can be found by the hundreds taking moisture from the beds of streams.

Females are fairly difficult to get.

aristeus hermocrates, Flies with the above and not distinguishable from

swinhoei until one has it in the net. Fairly common.

antiphates pompilius. Common at low altitudes. Very rarely seen above

3,000 feet.

ZETIDES

cloanthus. “Rare in the Shan States. Caught one in Kalaw some year's

igo but seen none since.

sarpedon sarpedon Very common all over the country and most parts of

the year. “a

doson axion. Fairly plentiful all over the country. Flies along with s.

sarpedon.

eurypylus cheronus. Plentiful, especially during April and May in the hills.

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

bathycles chiron Common and flies with the former three varieties.

agammemnon agammemnoa. Common but not so plentiful as the above four.

PARANTICOPSIS

macareus gyades. Males are fairly common during April and May. Feed on

moisture in stream beds and easily caught. Females appear to be rare.

xenocles kephisos. Not at ail common. Fly during April and May and

like agestor appear to feed on camphor trees. I generally collect about two

pairs ot this each year. Evidently single brooded.

megarus Similis. 1 have caught males of this at 2,000 feet on the hills to

Maymyo. No itemales caught as yet, but no doubt they could be found by

getting into the jungle ott the roadside where the males are found. Like

others of this family the males are fond of moisture on roads and stream beds.

MEANDRUSA

gyas aribbas. A very rare butterfly. I secured a male in Kalaw at 4,500

feet during the summer of 1923. Commoner at 6,000 feet near Mogok.

5 Ee ;

payeni amphis. I have not seen this butterfly in the Shan States but believe

it is to. be found at Mogok 6,000 feet along with the above gyas.

TEINOPALPUS

imperialis imperatrix. There is-one place only in Burma where this beautiful

buttertily is to be found and that is at Thandaung, Karen Hills, adjoining the

Southern Shan States. Evans says in his Jdentification, N. Burma to Ataran.

The late Mr. Cooper said he saw a wing of one in the Ataran but I don’t think

this is sufficient proof to say they are to be found there. I have not heard

of any of these butterflies being .caught .outside of Thandaung, on the hill there

known as Thandaunggyi. The butterflies are very difficult to catch. and fly

very early in the morning between 7 and 10 o’clock. After that time they seem

to disappear down in the valleys. Perhaps if one followed them down to the

valleys they could be beaten up. Mr. Sparks of the Burma Railways informed

me he has caught as many as half a dozen in one morning. I doubt if this

number could be seen now apart from caught in one morning. They — fly

during April. I propose going up there next April to try my luck and _ if

possible shall follow them down to the valleys when they disappear at about

10 a.m.

LEPTOCIRCUS,

curlus. Common at low altitudes but I have not seen them at above

3,000 feet.

meges indistincta. Common and as above.

PIERIDZ.

LEPTOSIA

nina nina. Not at all common in the Shan States. One sees an occasional

one during April and May.

PIERIS

_ api montatia, Not too plentiful. I have not seen any in the Northern Shan

States but have seen. odd ones at Kalaw in the South.

canidia indica. Very common all over the country.

brassicae, Common in Maymyo in the summer months. I noticed. this

is not listed as being found in Burma.

APORIA

agathon agathon. Rare. I have only seen this in the South Shan States.

ee ed

"0,

NOLES OND BUTRERELIES +On LHE SHAN. STATES 661

DELIAS ld oJ

singhapura agostina. Fairly plentiful all over the country.

eucharis. ‘Common both South and North.

hyparete hierte. i Fairly plentiful at different times of the year.

v eee: o

belladonna burmina. Rare. I only collected one of this from the South,

Kalaw, many years ago. Seen none in the North,

Vv descombesi leucacantha. Not rare and can be found most all over the country.

aglaia. Common .during summer months.

; LTO

thysbe pyramus, Very common around Maymyo in the North and not scarce

in the South.

PRIONERIS

thestylis. Rare. Only found one male at Kalaw many years ago.

Vclemanthe. Rare. Not seen in the North, odd specimens found at Kalaw

in the South.

h ‘Soh

HUPHINA |

lea, Not at all common in the Shan States. Can be found more plentifully

at low elevations.

nerissa dapha. Rare at high altitudes. More plentiful at foot of hills.

APPIAS

lalassis. Rare in the South but not found in the North by me.

lalage lalage. “Not too plentiful in any part of the country.

- libythea olferna. Rare and I have not found this fly at higher than 3,000 feet. |

~ lyncida hippoides, (Common at low altitudes.

albina darada. Common at. low altitudes, rare higher up.

paulina adamsoni. Very seldom seen it in the Shan States.

nero galba. ai caught a couple of these in the Katha District not far from

the Shan States but evidently it prefers the plains and does not fly to higher

altitudes.

CATOPSILIA,

crocale. Common all over the country and most of the year.

pomona. Common.

_pyranthe minna.. Common.

GANDACA

~ farina burmana. Rather scarce, an occasional one can be seen in the

summer months.

DERCAS

verhuelli doubledayi. Maymyo seems to be the headquarters of this butterfly

as it is exceedingly common about six months of the year.

GONEPTERYX

thamni nepalensis While Maymyo is the headquarters of the above, Taunggyi

in the S.S.S. would appear to be the home of this butterfly. Hundreds of

males are to be seen on the hills feeding on duranta flowers. Females however

are very scarce.

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

TERIAS

libythea. Common.

laeta, Ditto. |

blanda silhetana. Common but not so numerous as the above two.

hecabe hecabe. Very common.

COLIAS

None of this family in the Shan States; but I understand croceus fieldii

is to be found in N. Burma. However, I have not come across it during

my various tours in Upper burma so | should think it either very local or rare.

IXIAS

pyrene latifasciata. Common at below 3,000 feet but very seldom seen at

‘above this altitude.

HEBOMOIA un

glaucippe glaucippe. Common at low altitudes but rather scarce at 4,000

and above.

PARERONIA

avatar avatar Not too plentiful in the Shan States.

valeria hippia. Fairly common in the South but not too common in the

North. The variety philomela is very rare and I have not seen it in the Shan

States but have caught it on the plains of Lower Burma. Ey Pe ie .

DANAIDZ.

HESTIA

lynceus hadeni. While this is not found in the Shan States I would

mention that it is fairly common in the Myaungmya District in Lower Burma.

Bassein is given in the Identification by Evans but I think this is misleading.

During my trips to Bassein especially for this butterfly I never came across

a single one. On the other hand a friend living in the Myaungmya District

sent me several good specimens and said it was plentiful there. I should

think it flies only within a radius of 50 miles, and so is very local.

aglea melanoides. Common all over the Shan States.

melaneus plateniston., Fairly plentiful but not so common as the above.

tytia tytia. Quite a number can be caught during six months of the

year. April to September.

limniace mutina, Very common all over the country.

melissa septentrionis. Common and flies with the above.

gautama gautama. I have not come across this in the Shan States.

plexippus... Very common indeed.

chrysippus. Ditto.

EUPLOEA Yo tt

mulciber mulcioer. Very common.

alcathoe doubledayi.. Rare in the Shan States. I have only caught one male

during a long period of collecting.

alcathoe oesatia. Rare, One female only in my _ collection.

diocletiana diocletiana. Common at the foot of the hills but very seldom

seen at above 2,000 feet.

klugii macclellandi. Rare in the Shan States.

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF THE SHAN STATES | 663

oe |

klugi crassa. Rare im) the Shan States.

AILAZAA 4 : ie

midamus splendens. Very seldom seen in the Shan States.

-midamus brahma. | have not come across this as yet not even in the

Karens. It is probably very local.

/ godarte. Very common all over the country and at all altitudes.

deione deione. Rare in the Shan States proper but not so at the foot of

the Karen Hills, |

harrisi hopei. Very se!dom seen; but I understand it is to be found up

towards Lashio in the North.

SATYRIDA.

This is a family that I have not been able to do much with. In my early

days as a collector I was not interested in the common browns. When I

did get an interest I found my cabinets were too full to allow room for

Mycalesis. However I have a few noted which I give below but which is

nothing like a complete list of this butterfly found in the Shan States. At

a later date I hope to be able to compile a more representative list.

MYCALESIS

francisca, 2.0

~ gotama charaka.

perseus blasius.<.o

mineus mineus. = 07?)

-visala neovisala,

/- Suavolens,

~NMicotia, Ao,

«» mMamerta mamerta. 005

LETHE ew

Sidonis Sidonis. Not at all comnion in the Shan States. One male only in

my collection,

}\ Lf

sufa, “Not common in the Shan States but more plentiful in Northern

Burma towards the Chinese frontier.

europa miladana, Quite common all over the country.

rohria rohria. Common.

a r :

confusa gambara. Very common indeed all over the country and at all

altitudes.

~ verma stenopa. Common in and around Maymyo. I have not noticed

it in the South.

latiaris.’ Rare. One male only in my collection.

“mekara zuchara. Not common at high altitudes.

-chandica flamona. Rare. Only one male caught by me,

distans. Not too rare. A few specimens caught by me. The few specimens

I have caught have been in my garden in Maymyo in the middle of

Cantonments.

vindhya. Rare, only one male caught by me,

kansa. Common, especially in the North.

Sinorixs’ Rare. One female only in my collection.

pulaha pulahoides. Rare. One male only secured by me.

}

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

bhadra. Very rare. I have only seen one of these in the Shan States

and that was at Kalaw in company with Dr. Haynes when we both did a

scramble for this prize which luckily fell to me.

muirheadi ohima., Rare and only at lower altitudes.

ORINOMA

damaris. - It used to be fairly common at Kalaw in the South and I

had not noticed it in the North before this year during September when I

caught six males. I had been over the same ground every year end the same

month for the last twelve years but never saw it before this year. I did not

come across any females.

YPTHIMA

hubneri hubneri. Common.

baldus baldus. Very common.

savara. Not common in the Shan States.

sakra austeni, Common at foot of Karen Hills.

ZIPOETIS

scylax. I have only found one male during my many years cif collecting

and I should call it rare in this part of Burma.

ORSOTRIOENA

medus medus. Very common indeed.

ERITES

I have not come across any of these although I notice they are listed

as found in the Shan States.

NEORiNA

westwoodi. One specimen, male, only from the foot of the Shan States

near Mogok.

ANADEBIS

himachala. 1 found plenty of this at the bottom of the Goteik Bridge

in the North. It was quite common there. Not. seen elsewhere. Perhaps

very local. :

diademoides. One male caught only at the foot of the Karen Hills near

Taungoo.

MELANITIS

leda ismene. Very common all over the Shan States. Very variable on

the underside.

zitenius zitenius. Not rare in and around Maymyo. Flies with the above.

ELYMNIAS {

hypermnestra undularis. Common in the North.

¥\ JOY Ps = F =

nesoea timandra.. One specimen only from Kalaw in the South.

AMATHUSIIDA.

AEMONA

lena, Caught a few in Kalaw. Appeared to be very lacal.

lena haynei. Common near Maymyo and very variable. I don’t find any

difference in the sexes except that the female is much larger than the male. It

js double brooded and flies during April and September.

NOTES VON BULTERPLIES OF PHh SHAN STATES 665

FAUNIS |, \).

arcesilaus Not found at high altitudes. Very common at foot of hills.

STICOPTHALMA

’ louisa tytleri. This large butterfly is also found at the foot of the hills.

Rare in the Shan States.

¥ louisa louisa. Fairiy common at the foot of the Karen Hills. I have not

noticed it higher up in the Shan States proper.

THAUMANTIS

diores. “Rare in the Shan States. One male only sent me from Momeilk

State near Mogok.

THAURIA

lathyi amplifascia. Fairly common in Maymyo but very local. Double

brooded May and September. Unless one is on the spot when this emerges

it is difficult to get perfect specimens. They fly so low and slow that they

are the prey of birds and reptiles.

-—~ alicis pseudaliris. Common at the foot of the Karen Hills. Very rare in

other parts.

AMATHUSIA

-~ phidippus friderici, Very rare and only found at the foot of the Karen

Hills. One damaged male only in my collection.

AMATHUXIDIA

amythaon. I have found this also at the foot of the Karen Hills and

in no other part of the Shan States. Very difficult to get perfect specimens

no doubt owing to its great size.

ZEUXIDIA

—~amethytus masoni, This is another butterfly of this large family that is

found only at the foot of the Ikaren Hills. It would appear that Pathichaung

where these butterflies are caught is the home of the Amathusiidae.

DISCOPHORA

tullia zal. Very common all over the Shan States. The variety spiloptera

is very rare and I have not been fortunate in getting this. The other variety

indica is not so rare.

continentalis continentalis Nothing near so common as the ebove. Only

one male in my collection.

ENISPE

euthymius; Rare in the Shan States but common at the foot of the hills.

A number of these were sent me from the Upper Chindwin District and are

apparently very common there.

(To be continued),

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY JIN} UND PAS

Major R:-S.° PP. BATES, MeB Olu,

(With 6 plates).

It has been suggested that I should write an article for the

Journal on how I get my photographs of Indian Birds, giving all

reievant details of cameras, lenses, exposures, distances from the

subject, hides, and apparatus and methods generally. This I will

endeavour to do, but be it remembered that in India there are as

yet tar too few bird photographers, and in a country of this size

our paths seldom seem to cross. My methods therefore are methods

evoived largely from my own experience and may consequently be

in a number of respects as antiquated as parts of my apparatus.

With the rapid evolution of miniature and small cameras, the

continual speeding up of emulsions, the introduction of fine-grain

developers, and the increasing popularity of colour photography,

methods in all branches of photography are bound to undergo almost

perpetual modification if not indeed considerable alteration. I do

however venture to assert that the methods of the bird photographer

have not altered appreciably but that these modern improvements

have merely rendered their application easier. In other words, once

you get your bird where you want it, nowadays, with any luck at

all, you should be able to take a successful picture of it under

almost any conditions of terrain and climate.

To generalize, bird photographs can be obtained in four ways:

(1) From the hide. |

(2) By concealing the camera and releasing its shutter from a

distance by electrical or other means.

(3) By stalking.

(4) By flashiight.

Of flashight photography I am quite ignorant, and have never

even attempted it, so on that subject I have exactly nothing to say.

Stalking is generally, to put it vulgarly, a mug’s game. By

that I do not mean to imply that it should not be attempted at all.

I have seen some excellent photographs achieved by stalking, but

to walk about the countryside with a reflex camera at the ready

and an eye on every bird you see sitting on a bush is a complete

waste of both time and energy.

But, and it is a big but, there is one division of the breeding

birds of this country to the obtaining of whose photographs the

stalking method can be most successfully applied. Practically every

negative I possess of Herons, Egrets, Storks, Cormorants, Spoon-

bills, and Ibises, and I have a few hundred, were taken paddling

myself about their breeding grounds in a boat with a reflex between

my knees, gradually on successive visits accustoming the birds to

my presence until I was able to work up the boat, or let it ydaite

]

PLATE

Soc.

‘ouRN. BomBay Nar. His.

Ihe Hide, uncamouflaged and with one side raised to show its construction. It is pitched on a sloping bank.

BERD = PHOTOGRAPHY IN IN:DIA 667

on a favourable breeze, close up to the subject I wanted. These

birds have a habit of breeding in colonies; colonies sometimes of

great size and complexity, containing every one of the species

enumerated. When the trees they use stand in a village or on

dry land, the nests for safety’s sake will be confined to the summits

of the tallest, but where they stand in water, nests may be quite

low down from a few inches above its surface up to the crests of

the half-submerged trees.

Two points of great importance emerge above all others in this

work: the boat must be easy to manceuvre but stable so that noisy

or jerky movements can be avoided; and the camera, preferably

a reflex, should be capable of accommodating a lens of com-

paratively long focus. For years I have used a 12 inch focus

Dallmeyer Tele-anastigmat. I have heard of longer focus lenses

being used on birds and animals, such as those of 17 inch focal

length, but the danger of getting blurred images through camera

shake and movement is much increased, and very large images

from which direct prints can be made are by no means a necessity.

I have not laid down the reflex as being the one and only type

of camera for this purpose as the rangefinder- coupled small camera

obviously has great possibilities but I have as yet had no chance

of trying one out in a Heronry. The first boat I used, a light

canoe, was definitely unsuitable, and after very nearly precipitating

myself and my camera into the water I had to abandon all thoughts

of climbing from it into the trees or taking photographs standing

up to obtain a higher viewpoint. The rather broad collapsible

punt evolved later proved much more useful. The illustration of

the Openbills was taken from it. Big enlargements from _ this

negative show no signs of camera shake or movement whatsoever

and although stalked these birds very definitely are not in the least

afraid. On the contrary, they are entirely engrossed in their own

I cannot remember how far distant I was from these-Openbills

but not more than 25 feet and probably less. The images on the

negative are approximateiy half an inch in height. I remember on

one occasion in this same Heronry a kindly breeze wafting me

imperceptibly towards a Spoonbill until I was so close to the old

gentleman that I could have prodded him with the end of the

paddle. It was impossible to include all of him on the plate and

eventually I found his head and neck taking up the whole of the

focussing screen.

As for stalking what might be termed land birds, I have always

found it extremely difficult, except on occasions in the case of

nesting birds which rely for protection on immobility and obliterative

colour pattern,—such for instance as Nightjars and Sandgrouse.

Most birds seem to have an uncanny intuition and take to flight

in that split second in which the photographer decides it is time

to expose his plate. Actually what happens is that you stop or

slow up for a fraction of time to press the release and the already

suspicious bird is off the mark quicker than you are. And with

that profound statement I think we will leave stalking to look

after itself,

668 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL GUST eS OCI acl aus

The other two methods have of course a great deal in common,

but to my mind you miss more than half the fun by merely camou-

flaging the camera close to a bird’s nest when you might just as

well conceal yourself along with the camera. One of the greatest

joys of bird photography from the hide is that you have the chance

of studying a bird and its habits at the closest range. When it

is most surprising how very different a bird looks really near

engaged in its normal day’s work. The texture of every feather,

the intricacies of its colour pattern, its little idiosyncrasies and

habits, become apparent; whereas at the distances you normally

look at birds in your daily rambles, only their general ways and

appearance are discernible.

Another great disadvantage in concealing the camera only is the

necessity of approaching it and so disturbing the bird after every

exposure. And a bird which is continually interrupted during

incubation or in its visits to the nest with food and material is not

likely to act in a normal manner for long. No, all things con-

sidered, photographs taken from the hide are bound to be the most

satisfying both to the taker and the viewer, and also the least

upsetting to the bird if due care be exercised.

I wonder if I might digress for a moment to get a grouse off

my chest. If there is one type of photograph which I abhor, it

is the type not infrequently seen in the daily press of some half-

fledged terrified young bird with its useless toes at all angles

obviously on the point of falling off the perch to which it has

been made to adhere through sheer fright. Such photographs are

in reality nothing but unnatural fakes. Yet apparently there are

people who see something in such misleading pictures. By no

stretch of the imagination can they be termed nature pictures

anyway. In fact I cannot i.szagine anyone taking up bird photo-

graphy seriously ever producing such worthless stuff. True bird

photography is the art of portraying birds and their lives as they

live them, so young birds incapable of leaving their nests should

not be taken out of them to produce improbable photographs.

The less the contents of a nest are interfered with the better.

Young ones I never touch, and eggs only when I am taking a nest

and egg photograph. Then in deep nests I push the eggs towards

the back of the cup inserting a pebble or short twig to keep them

there. To tilt a nest to show its contents is a great mistake and

straightway introduces an unnatural look into the picture. It is

the camera which should be tilted, never the nest. Besides, pulling

the nest about may lead to desertion. And if a bird deserts a nest

upon which I am working, I consider a very black mark has been

chalked up against me.

As an instance of where a distant release would have proved

useful, here is an amusing incident which happened to me this

year when photographing a Brooks’ Nuthatch. With the hide

scarcely 7 feet from the old Woodpecker’s hole which they had

cemented up until its entrance might just have accommodated a

halfpenny, I had obtained half a dozen negatives with very little

trouble. On development I was dissatisfied with the lot, so the

following day I went back to try my luck again. The birds were

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA 669

now so tame that they actually visited the nest while I stood

motionless on the very spot on which I intended to erect the tent.

I therefore put up the camera as close to the hole as I could and

retreated some thirty yards to see results. Both birds made dis-

agreeable noises from the next pine tree so after a short time I

decorated the camera with hazel twigs. This move immediately

had the desired effect, and the huge lens was ignored. But I had

no distant release so took up my position just behind the camera.

This cbviously met with disapproval so my wife proceeded to stuff

leafy twigs into my hat, down my neck, into my pockets, the tops

of my stockings; in short she made me thoroughly uncomfortable.

Every time I moved I rustled like a rattlesnake and shed bits of

foliage. Nevertheless by the time I gave up trying to balance most

of a bush on a large prominence accentuated by my _ stooping

posture, I had obtained the pictures I required. It was an interest-

ing experiment, but the day’s work would have been accomplished

more comfortably and just as quickly from my tent. And _ this

at last brings us to photography from the hide.

In the first place what is meant by a hide? Every bird photo-

grapher probably has his own ideas on the subject. Some seem

to consider a wigwam affair of a drab-coloured sheet thrown over

a few sticks tied together at the top to be sufficient. In England

where the photographer is most likely to be his own porter, such

a sketchy affair may be indicated, but personally I put down comfort

in the hide to be one of the first essentials. Nothing can be more

tiring and disheartening, and consequently conducive of bad work,

than sitting hunched up in a cramped position unable to move

without fear of bumping into the sides of the tent, particularly on

a sticky day in the monsoon. Remember that birds resent movement

much more than they do noise so the tent must be roomy enough

to permit a certain amount of freedom. This does not mean that

it must be large, but it should be so constructed that it retains its

symmetrical shape when erected on the most sloping and uneven

ground, or anchored in a tree.. Not only will such construction

be conducive to comfort but the possibility of frightening away

the bird through inadvertently sticking a knee or an elbow into a

portion of the tent wall which you had not realized to be so close,

will be greatly minimized.

I described my original tent in Bird Life in India. My present

one 1S a great improvement upon it and is constructed as follows.

I bought four lengths of ? inch iron piping (as used for encasing

electric wiring) each four feet long and had 2 inch spikes fixed

into one end of each. The bore of this piping is such that 4 inch

diameter brass covered curtain rod slides into it very comfortably.

These tubular curtain rods can be bought in any bazaar at about

2 annas a foot and are extremely light. On to these are fitted

collars provided with a wing nut by which the amount of rod

protruding from the iron piping may be easily adjusted. So much

for the legs of the framework.

The top consists of three more lengths of the iron niping, two

being side pieces 2 ft. 9 in. long, and the third, one of the ends,

2 ft, 2 in, in length. These rods are threaded at both ends ta

670. JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL AMSi= SOCIETY Wola

screw into three-way angle pieces, the down-pointing socket of the

three being to accommodate the top of a leg. The fourth rod, to

complete the rectangle, is a wooden unthreaded one which fits easily

into place in its sockets by slightly forcing the side bars apart.

When complete the roof frame measures 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. The

tent therefore is 3 ft. long by 2 ft. 6 in. wide and adjustable in

height from 4 ft. up to more than 7 ft. Not that I have ever had

occasion to use it so attenuated, as firstly six or eight inches of

the legs will probably be embedded in the earth, in marshy or

sandy ground perhaps a good 2 ft. Secondly the excessive

permissible length of each leg is to allow of the roof remaining

level when the tent is pitched on an abrupt slope, where the outer

legs of course have to be considerably longer than the upper ones.

If the roof is not kept level with the tent walls vertical then you

are in for trouble with the drill cover which will not ‘hang’ but

ruckles up and cannot be clipped together without gaps forming at

the upper corners of the tent.

I once threw away a good chance of photographing a Chukar

through neglecting to check up on this point. I had waited

patiently for nearly two hours while both the birds cackled in-

cessantly from amongst some rocks fifty yards above the hide. At

length complete silence reigned as a pair of hawks responsible for

the disturbance betook themselves further afield. A few minutes

later I turned to look through a peep-hole in the side of the tent

at the same time raising my hand. With a startling whirr of wings

and much abusive language a Chukar hurtled down the hill side.

It had been within a few feet of the back of the tent paddling

along the goat track which led straight past the nest and had

obviously seen my hand through the gap a few inches wide which

I had failed to notice.

I consider it necessary to have the cover rather tight fitting

so that it cannot flap about in a high wind. The last time I was

at home I saw a photographer working upon a Golden Plover’s

nest on a Yorkshire moor. His tent was almost white, or appeared

so against the dark heather; its sides were so loose that in the

blustery wind then blowing they were flapping in and out with

considerable force, and lastly there had been no attempt at camou-

flaging this tent so alien in its sombre surroundings. Some

distance away I picked out the disconsolate Plover making no

attempt whatsoever to go near its nest.

An added disadvantage of loose tent walls comes to light in

this question of camouflage. If the cloth can blow about in a wind,

not only may the bird be frightened away but grass, leafy branches,

and other materials used for concealment, are apt to be dislodged.

The fabric of my tent consists of khaki drill, a rectangular

strip 3 ft. by 23 ft. forming the top on to which the sides and ends

each 44 ft. in length are stitched. Inside the top are 8 tabs which

clip round the bars of the roof frame with large press studs to

keep the roof taught. At one time I had a flap in this roof which

I could turn back for ventilation. The first time it rained I got a

stream of water on my head and into the focussing hood of the

reflex. I now depend on the fresh air which gets in at the edges.

BIRD . PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA 671

Each of the sides has an overlap of 2 inches and on this overlap

are large press studs at 8 inch intervals. Across the roof and

on all four sides about a foot apart are thin ropes caught to the

drill at intervals. Into the loops thus formed the camouflaging

material can be stuffed with a good chance of its remaining in place.

For peep-holes I am afraid I mutilate the walls with a pen-knife.

Specially prepared holes always seem to be in the wrong place,

but after a few short slits have been made here and there, one

or other will turn out to be right and the mutilation may cease.

Some photographers, I believe, use a periscope, but I have never

availed myself of this device, perhaps to my loss.

For the lens apertures I have found Zipp fasteners most useful.

In the front panel I have two, each a foot long opening up and

down from the centre. I have now added long ones in each of

the side panels since finding myself incapable of dealing with a

Himalayan Pied Kingfisher which contented itself with sitting on

Suard 8 teet to the left of the tent, never once flying up to the

nest-hole upon which I had trained the lens.

I always carry four short iron pegs and a length of rope wrapped

up in the tent in case the ground should prove too hard to drive

in the legs and for use when the tent has to be raised from the

ground in a tree or on a platform. For local use I also substitute

§ inch curtain rods for the iron ones as the latter are so much

heavier. I prefer however to take the stronger legs when out on

trek to avoid any possibility of a breakdown.

Unfortunately birds seem to have an absolute flair for putting

their nests in awkward situations. On occasion the only possible

advice is ‘find another nest’, but if time permits and the necessary

materials are procurable, the majority of nests can be dealt with.

Ground-breeding birds of course prove the easiest victims, although

in reed-beds and even on marshy ground it may be necessary to

sink four posts into the mud and lash on to them just above

water-level a plank platform on which to erect the tent. I have

used a boat on occasion in deep water but the slightest movement

is apt to make a boat sway; so a fixed platform is definitely

preferable. It is when we come up against birds which nest in

tall trees and on ledges on cliff faces that real difficulties crop up.

A nest in a pine tree for instance is likely to be particularly

difficult to cope with, as a thousand to one no position for the

tent exists at the requisite distance.

In dealing with a Blue Magpie’s nest, which was approximately

30 feet from the ground in an attenuated maple, I once had to

transport five 35 ft. pines from where they were lying two miles

away in the debris of an avalanche and sink each one well into

the ground in order to form a scaffolding for the tent 15 ft. from

the maple. Incidentally I also moved my camp back three miles

to be on the scene of action. The priceless part about this effort

was that by far the best negatives I now possess of the birds in

question were obtained by concealing the tent in a nearby clump

of viburnum bushes when the scaffolding was in process of erection,

as I noticed that both birds in their agitated comings and goings

frequently alighted on a particular perch not 6 feet from the ground

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL ALIS fo SOCIETY ago] =x.

about thirty yards from the site of our labours, Still, I was not

sorry that I had gone to so much trouble as I procured a further

series of the bird at and on the nest.

As I discovered eventually that this perch was at all times a

great favourite with both birds, the tale certainly points a moral,

and that is, study the actions of the birds you want to photograph.

If you can, it pays every time to spy on your intended subjects from

afar, to study their lines of approach to the nest, and to take a

good look round to see what alternative routes they may use or

where they may stand or perch in the vicinity of the nest. It may

be with certain birds that the discovery of a nest is not essential.

Some birds which feed round the margins of ponds, on the banks

of rivers, or on the sea-shore, such for instance as members of

the Sandpiper family, can be photographed by putting the tent close

to a favoured mud spit or inlet. But whatever your intended

approach to the bird may be, your study of its habits will enable

you to form in your mind’s eye an idea of the composition of your

picture and so to select the position of the tent accordingly. Birds

are often very set in their ways so that the rather sudden appear-

ance of the tent in most cases will not cause them to alter their

routes.

The actual position for the tent of course depends on a number

of other conditions as well. You have to take into consideration

the size of the bifd and the focal length of the lens in use; on

these depend the size of the image on the plate. Other factors

are the conformation of the ground or tree in which it has to be

anchored, the background, the immediate surroundings of the nest,

the direction of the sun, and the object you are out to attain, by

which I mean whether you are after a close-up of the hird only or

wish to show its habitat as well.

Depth of focus is naturally bound up with the size of the bird.

It is no use getting so close to a large bird that if it happens to

sit facing the camera its tail is going to be out of focus. Make

sure that the entire bird and all its surroundings you want shown

up will be within the field of focus at the largest stop you may

have to use, as any defects in focus will naturally be exaggerated

in subsequent enlargements. It is really impossible to lay down

hard and fast rules as to the distance of the hide from the subject

so I have included a couple of illustrations from direct ‘contact

prints to show the actual size of the image obtained. In point of

fact, with the 12 inch tele-anastigmat lens most of my photographs

of birds varying in size from the tiny Warblers up to the size of a

domestic hen have been taken at distances between 6 and 15 feet.

The conformation of the ground is naturally of importance. It

may be auite impossible to put the tent just where you would most

like it. Or again for purposes of concealment, it may be advisable

to put it a couple of feet further away, say to conform with the

line of some ‘bushes (on..either side of) it; sUhis “may sentaili a

somewhat smaller image, but better a small image than a nervous

bird loath to approach its nest. This of course introduces the

subject of .camouflage. I sometimes think I err on the side of

overcaution in this respect, but I am sure a few extra minutes

‘ TH

iv 7 VF IMNVYLC 19/Q T

t ie

su i }

uMOIg V

BLED) PHOTOGRAPHY IN “INDIA 673

spent on making the tent blend in with its surroundings will never

be wasted. As a general rule the smaller the bird, the less its fear

of the tent and consequently the lesser the need of elaborate

concealment. Nevertheless, I always contrive to make the tent

tone in with its background as much as [I can.

To hide the lens is decidedly important. The hood of my large

lens, which incidentally is four inches in diameter, is black. I

have had a small bird refuse absolutely to face this uncovered

and yet that same bird has come quite happily as soon as the black

rim has disappeared under a ring of green leaves. I have now

had it painted green but I still take the precaution of twisting

some grass or large leaves around it.

The question of representing the lens when the camera is not

in position is also a matter of concern. As far as possible, even

with a bird I expect to be far from timid, I put up and camouflage

the tent at least the evening before I intend to use it, as near dusk

as possible. I have found that a bird will more readily return to

its nest in a failing light and by the following day be quite used

to the hide’s proximity, consequently saving one a tiring wait as

well as being more natural in its behaviour. So far I have never

once had my tent tampered with except on occasion by ravenous

goats and cattle out for an easy meal provided by the camouflaging

material. But it is obviously unwise to leave the camera and lens

out all night if it can be avoided, so I hang a black disc over the

lens aperture to represent the absent lens.

A couple of years ago now I tried my luck on a Dabchick in

front of whose nest a shikari I thought I had trained in my ways,

had put up my hide two days previously. When I arrived I at

once had occasion to find fault with him for forgetting the disc. His

reply was that the bird was quite tame and had been sitting all

morning.

Once the camera was in place that bird did everything conceivable

except venture in front of the lens. For an hour I could -have

stretched out my hand and have touched it as it lay on the water

in the shelter of the tent wall. Time and time again it swam round

the nest under water but only on one occasion did it come to the

surface for a fraction of a second to give the water a terrific slap

nearly frightening the life out of a Reed-Warbler which had unwisely

landed on the nest.

As I have only the one tent but may at times wish to work

on two or even more birds on the same day, I often put up dummy

hides of leafy branches or grass and then substitute the real tent

for these when occasion arises. In each case I invariably add

something, the lid of a tin, a piece of paper, the end of a bottle,

to represent the lens.

I have now mentioned all the essential points I can think of

in connection with the erection of the hide’ so we can proceed to

get inside it so to speak. In many ways birds seem to be rather

' It may at times be necessary, when dealing with very shy birds, to

put up the tent or dummy hide some distance away, moving it up gradually

to its final position,

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, (NATURAL GIST... SOCIETY, “Vol. XE

unintelligent creatures but it does not do to imagine that they are

altogether void of intellect. Any bird is certainly capable of

deducing the fact that you must be in the hide if you walk up

to it quite alone and suddenly disappear from view. But

fortunately for us most of them seem quite incapable of distinguish-

ing between one and two persons. It is therefore essential to have

a helper to see you into the hide. “Not only is" hist presence

necessary in deceiving the birds, but he can assist in the final

closing up of the hide, see that no foliage is likely to droop over

the lens as it withers, and stay in the immediate vicinity until you

have finished making disturbing’ noises moving sitdes and

accessories into more handy positions, testing and setting the

shutter, and settling in generally. Another of his duties in a

populated area is to keep other people and animals at a respectful

distance. It is more than annoying to have to leave the tent

without photographs orly to find the cause to have been due to

an admiring audience sitting far to close and in full view of the

nest. On one occasion this year the undesirable audience was a

Cuckoo. It was really very silly of the birds to be so suspicious

of it, especially as they were already feeding a large young Cuckoo,

no doubt the intruder’s: offspring, in their own nest. But there it

was; until I had signalled up the shikari to shoo the Cuckoo

away from its observation post, those Redstarts were not going

to visit their home.

As it is quite on the cards that a bird jon its, arrival at the

nest will do the unexpected, it may be necessary to call up the

helper to cope with the situation to save getting out of the hide

yourself and thereby giving the show away that you are concealed

there. J arrange with him to return at stated intervals to a distant

viewpoint from which he can see my S.O.S. I wait till I think the

bird is out of the way or at any rate in such:a position that it

cannot see the movement and then push a corner of a handkerchief

out of “‘the-back ‘of the ent:

Nearly all my work in the hide for the last twelve years has

been carried out with the aforementioned Dallmeyer Tele-Anastig-

mat lens on a series of reflex cameras. I believe that this particular

lens of 12 inch focal length working at an aperture of F3.5 is no

longer made. It is certainly responsible for the rather ‘soft’

character of most of my photographs. Whether this softness is

an advantage or a disadvantage in nature photography I leave to

others to judge, but I do know that I hope to use that Jens for

many more years. Certainly when I see some of the very beautiful

and amazingly sharp photographs in Country Life and The Field

I occasionally have misgivings: they are obviously so capable of

enlargement to any degree. But whatever the lens used, I consider

its focal length should lie between 8 and 12 inches, preferably

nearer the latter. Lenses of the combinable type, which by using

the separate components give a choice of focal lengths, are most

useful but seem to be somewhat out of favour these days.

I have possessed a number of reflex cameras, partly because

they get treated rather roughly and partly through searching for

the ideal. These have’ varied* from 5 by 4 ins:) (o4by 12 icmento

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA 675

1 plate, the best size probably being the last. I would however

like to experiment with a 34 by 24. which in these days of small

cameras and fine grain would probably be just as effective and

certainly cheaper in operational costs. Plates, tanks, and all other

accessories too would be less buiky and more convenient in all ways.

The ideal does not exist, but the points to look for when

purchasing a reflex camera for bird or nature work generally are

a not too noisy shutter which can also be reset speedily with a

minimum of noise—some make an appalling prolonged series of

clicks. It must be possible to alter the shutter speed with the

shutter wound, and the figures should be easily readable at an angle

and in a dim light. The focussing hood should be detachable.

It should have a reasonably long extension and a firm lens panel

not given to sagging when fully extended.

The tent is generally quite dark enough for the image to show

up quite clearly on the screen without the hood, and headroom in

the hide is often a problem. Without it too, it is possible to fix a

mirror at such an angle just above the screen that you can sit at

ease and without strain behind the camera and yet see at a glance

what is in the field of view. I have fixed up the discarded mirror

of my old car on my present reflex so that I can adjust its angle

to suit my position behind the camera. I believe there is a special

naturalist’s reflex which has a monocular finder set for the purpose

of viewing the screen from behind. To my mind there is one great

objection to this: you cannot keep your eye glued to a small eye-

piece without strain, whereas to glance every few seconds without

leaning forward into a comparatively large mirror is no strain

whatsoever. A periscope is perhaps the real answer to the problem.

At one time I had difficulty in altering the stops, but by fitting

a long lever to the iris diaphragm’s edge and screwing a notched

wooden strip to the side of the camera as a guide I can now

readjust the aperture of the lens in a moment with quite sufficient

accuracy for all practical purposes.

In the hide the camera may often have to be quite low down,

within eighteen inches or so of the ground, so a short tripod is a

necessity. I have never seen a really suitable one on the market

so far, but it is not difficult to adapt any of the wooden ones. It

is however essential that the camera tripod and turntable should

be sufficiently strong to prevent vibration. When the camera front

is fully extended with a heavy lens on it, vibration set up by the

movement of the mirror or focal plane shutter can be serious. The

turn and tilt tops sold for small cine cameras are no good for

this purpose. Something of robust construction is required, both

the movements of which can be worked smoothly and quickly

with one hand.

As a rule it is very unwise to chase a bird about with the lens.

If it notices the movement, which ten to one it will, it is quite

on the cards that you will have to pack up and go home. On the

other hand it may be really worth while to take the risk. Possess-

ing already a number of photographs of Stone Plover on the nest, I

thought the risk quite worth while when I saw both birds standing

close together a few feet to one side of their eggs. As it happened

676 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) “SOCIED VY. sviclmeus

they spotted the lens as soon as I started” to move i 1 mever

got another photograph of either of, that pair but I still think

the attempt was justifiable.

On occasions two hands seem quite insufficient to cope with

all there is to do. A fairly long antinous release is a help on

these occasions which can be kept in the hand while working other

gadgets. Most reflexes can be fitted with this type of release. It

may sound rather idiotic but I seriously contemplated making use

of wan electric release in the hide, intending to work if by means

of a beil-push under my foot so as to leave my hands free. I

still think it would be well worth a trial. The ‘Electrolease’, as

the one I contemplated buying is called, unfortunately had not

come into production when I went to Kashmir last year so I have

not followed up the idea.

As. regards the question of exposure, 1’ do not tind 1t easy to

proffer advice. I have been rather lax in keeping records, as I

consider a bald statement of exposures and stops is of little use

since there are so many varying factors to consider. Naturally

there is a great tendency to cut exposure to Stop) movementera

tendency which must be resisted. If you are uncertain of the

correct exposure, it is better to overdo it. Modern emulsions can

stand great over-exposure but under-exposure cannot satisfactorily

be compensated for. It is surprising what long exposures are often

given in bird photography. It is a matter of choosing, or hitting

upon, the right moment to release the shutter. You cannot expect

every exposure to be successful. You must often work on the

idea of making a number of exposures on a restless bird in the

hopes that one or two of them will not show movement. I reckon

that round about 80 per cent of my negatives have been obtained

with exposures in the neighbourhood of 1/20th second; a number

with exposures far longer than that. Two excellent plates of the

Turtle Dove which illustrated my article in the Journal last

September were each exposed for 10 seconds.

I strongly advise the purchase of a good photo-electric exposure

meter. It will of course be necessary to allow somewhat for

different types of subject, but within those limits, which you can

only learn by experience, stick to what the meter says and you

will not go far wrong. As a second string I kept my optical meter

—a Biwi—which has definitely proved its worth, as twice, thanks

to India’s climate, my electric meter has ceased to function..7On

the whole exposures in bird photography need to be rather longer

than for other subjects, as more often than not you will require

to bring out considerable detail in the deeper shade and you are

working at very close quarters.

There are two other articles of furniture which I now always

take into the hide with me; one a strong folding stool which I

bought at Boots’ for a shilling, and the other an acquisition which

I invested in two years ago and now wonder how on earth I ever

did without, namely a changing bag. It is infuriating to find you

have used up your last plate just as the birds are affording

opportunities for better photographs than any you have obtained.

Just after I had taken the photograph of the Paddy-field Warbler

JOURN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

The Yellow-billed Blue Magpie of the North-West Himalayas: a picture obtained through observing that the birds

when disturbed at the nest often made use of this perch within 6 feet of the ground.

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA 677

which also appeared in the September number of the fournal, the

other bird arrived and sat a couple of inches below the nest for

some considerable time. The two birds together would have made

a delothul: picture:

A large number of double plate-holders—I much prefer plates

to films—take up space, besides being expensive to buy, but it ts

quite simple to slip a spare box of plates and the changing bag

into your pocket for use in emergency. I have used the bag in

the hide a number of times now. Besides, it simplifies filling the

plate-holders and transferring the plates to the developing tank at

any time of day when you are out in camp. For this purpose a

large bag is convenient. I find the whole-plate size the most useful

for my 9 by 12 cm. plates.

Every bird photographer should do his own developing and

do it on the spot. It does not mean a tremendous increase in the

gear to be transported. Ali you need in camp is the changing bag,

a reliable developing tank, a thermometer, a small set of scales, an

ounce measure, two or three bottles, and a limited supply of

chemicals. Actually I carry a second tank for washing purposes

into which the developing tank slips for packing, so that if necessary

I can develop two batches of plates one after the other and so

economize in solutions and time.

There are numerous advantages in doing your own developing

immediately. It gives you a chance of revisiting the scene of your

labours if your first efforts turn out to have been failures, and

secondly you can develop for the type of negative you require. Most

D. & VP. firms are inclined to send out strong contrasty negatives

which look lovely but are difficult or even impossible to enlarge

from. It is not necessarily their fault. They mostly have to work

on mass production principles, treating all plates and films alike

as they have no idea of the subjects with which they are dealing.

In the rains exposed plates are apt to deteriorate rather quickly,

so the sooner they are dealt with the better. While yet another

advantage lies in the fact that you learn of any faults in exposure

at once and can apply the knowledge gained the next time you

enter the hide.

Ever since they came into being I have used Iford Hyper-

sensitive Panchromatic plates—for the small camera for views the

fine-grain version of the same films. A panchromatic emulsion is

undoubtedly necessary for bird-photography. It is almost un-

believable how many brightly coloured birds can be faithfully

portrayed on these materials without the use of a filter. I once

hurriedly snapped a Black and Yellow Grosbeak when it was

cracking pine seeds a few feet behind our tents. This however

was by no means a success so the correct filter—a ‘beta’ is generally

sufficient—is on occasion very necessary.

I am afraid I still remain faithful to the well-tried pyro developer,

the formula for which is given on every box of Ilford plates. It

has few ingredients and is so delightfully simple to compound.

Into the bargain it produces an exceedingly good printing image.

A great deal is heard these days about fine grain developers, and

quite rightly so. Few direct prints are ever seen in nature

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

photography so a negative free from objectional grain is a necessity

as eniargements will greatly emphasize the mealy appearance of a

coarse-grained image. For bird photography, for which the real

miniature Cameras are not suitable, the [.D. II or D. 76 developers

are quite capable of producing a_ sufficiently fine-grained image

without increase in exposure, but with due care the pyro developer

will not unduly emphasize grain. See that both the developing

and fixing solutions are at the same temperature, not too warm,

do not over-develop, and all should be well. I have spoilt a number

of negatives through insuffcient attention to these points, and

reproduce the Rubythroat photograph to show how an otherwise

good negative can be reduced to mediocrity by careless processing.

in this case I grossly over-developed a whole batch of 6 plates.

In development as in exposure you must resist that tendency to

carry it too far in a misguided effort to bring up shadow detail.

Stick to the time and temperature chart for the particular plates

and developer you are using and do not develop for excessive

contrast which in India usually already exists to add to your

aifficulties.

‘this year I took to Kashmir all the ingredients for making up

a metol-hydroquinone borax fine grain developer (I.D. II). The

formula for this is as follows :—

Metol cet aus oe (ong 20 a2iGSs

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) es w-» O80" Pir,

Hydroquinone ae wee Antes Goce:

Borax a a m pers ON eas

Water to oe ve se tej) 20 (OZ:

It has good keeping qualities, is not laborious to make up, is

economical, and to develop about 250 4 plates—the number I used

last leave—in a tank requiring 20 ozs. of solution approximately

the following quantities of chemicals will suffice :—

Metol oe ee ts i Tae OZ:

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) ot ovat emily se

Hydroquinone ae Be 24 0ZS.

Borax Be, He cat Bhi OT EAOZ:

These you will admit do not take up a great deal of room

and compared with what you would have to pay a firm for process-

ing this number of plates, not to mention the outlay on postage

and packing, the cost of these materials, working out at under

Rs. g is ludicrously small. If you choose to employ the pyro

developer, both the bulk and cost of the chemicals. will be

considerably less.

Having developed your negatives it follows that you might just

as well go a stage further and make your own enlargements and

slides from them. Except when I amon leave, I take very few

photographs of birds. I find that all my spare time in between is

fully employed with the enlarging and slide making from the

negatives I have accumulated. Enlarging can be very interesting

as well as very simple. The greatest advantage accruing from

joing your own work is that you can produce just the result you

MUDIIYIP 9yI Jo Jin ej dud oY OF UOtlU

ules SNOIAYO IY], “AMUYSeS]E UE JOXT COO

nel

YUMLOTNSuUl pure U.K

ye pedopaop pueviu

WUdOPIA

APAIAO OF ONP SeM PUR dANIDId 9YyI WOAE SIVA pP

OYP} OANVROU B LUOIy posivpuo JroruIAGny UvArpRUP,

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA 679

desire. In ninety-nine negatives out of a hundred only a com-

paratively small portion makes the picture and after all you should

be the best judge of what those limits are and how the photograph

should be reproduced. No amount of correspondence with a

distant firm is going to produce quite the same result, besides which

if special enlargements are to be made from every negative you

send away it 1s going to come in very expensive.

All my enlarging is done with a vertical enlarger which |

constructed from two derelict $-plate ‘Triple-Victos’ which you can.

buy for a few shillings each, and a 6) inch condenser mounted

complete with carrier stage which I obtained from Messrs. J. J.

Lancaster & Sons of Birmingham. For the lens I was lucky enough

to be already in possession of a Ross Xpres salvaged from a former

Reflex. The firm just mentioned sell all the parts separately for

making up enlargers as well as complete instruments.

I keep a stock of [ford glossy bromide paper, whole-plate size

in soft, normal, and contrasty grades, so that employing an amidol

developer I can turn out good black and white enlargements from

any of my negatives eminently suitable for reproduction. [£nlarge-

ments of various sizes on other grades and surfaces of paper I

also turn out when the fit takes me.

I believe I also mentioned that I am in the habit of making

lantern slides. They are a tremendous asset and are very easy to

make with a little practice. I seldom make these slides by contact

but use the enlarger to project the image the most suitable size

on to the slide, sometimes slightly enlarging from the original,

more often reducing it. I find it is easier to produce a good slide

from a mediocre negative than it is to produce a_ satisfacotry

enlargement from it. If amidol is used no additional chemicals are

required, but I prefer a hydroquinone caustic-soda developer to the

amidol as I like the blacker tones it produces. For the sake of

convenience I append the formulae of the amidol and hydroquinone

caustic-soda developers which are as follows :—

Amidol for Bromide Papers (I.D. 22)

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) As Pee oeOne ES:

Amidol . ae — at L000 ot,

Potassium Bromide a us ae 2 O OFS:

Water to we cae is a 2ONO75-

This developer does not keep for more than two or three days,

j Hydroquinone Developer (I.D. 16)

No. t. Hydroquinone Solution.

Hydroquinone = 4 TOO OS

Sodium sulphite (anhyd rous) sa as ot Of

Water to 2 rae ae iu 2002S:

| » No. 2. Alkali Solution.

Sodium hydrate (caustic-soda_ stick) sus, (OOr SES,

' Potassium bromide ad a en. 65 Ses:

Water to a, on ae ... 20 OZS.

’ For use take equal parts of each.

é 7

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Although [ have allowed myself to wander off into formulae,

may I hasten to add that I have no intention of turning this article

into a discourse on photography in general, about which in any

case [ am incompetent to write, so for any of the actual processes

of developing, enlarging, printing, slide making, and general tittivat-

ing of faulty negatives, may I commend you to any of the excellent

manuals on these subjects produced by the makers of the plates

and papers you will be using.

C naiinel

ADDENDUM AND CORRIGENDUM.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

Part II,

(Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xl, pp. 681-92).

Agathia laetata F. Page 691 after line 5, insert

‘Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 6-xii-31,

pupated g-xil-31, and a female emerged 23-xti-31.’

P. 686, 16th line from bottom for Prodenia littoralis Boisd. F.

read Prodenia litura F.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Pari lie

(Continued from page 408 of this volume),

SPHINGID® (continued).

Theretru oldenlandiae Ff.

Moore, ep. Ceyl., u, 17, pl. $5, Ng. Ta. 1682-52:

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 37. 1892.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 567.

Bell and Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 448, pl. 6, figs. 4

AMG eS5.5, LOR7,

Ovum—Usual Sphingid type, pale green in colour. Deposited

evening 22-vii-36. Hatched morning 25-vi1-36.

ist instar—Head round, pale green. When newly hatched the

ground colour is pale green and the larva is unmarked. Later the

ground colour darkens and a series of seven subdorsal spots appears,

from the 4th to roth somite. Under a lens these spots have

the upper half red and the lower yellow. Horn black. Moulted

27-Vil-36.

2nd instar—Head and body black. <A subdorsal yellow speck

between the rst-2nd and 2nd-3rd somites. <A series of seven sub-

dorsal yellow spots ringed with black from the 4th to roth somite.

Horn black with the base yellow. Legs yellow. Moulted 29-vii-36.

3rd _instar—Similar to preceding. Instead of the two specks

on the thoracic somites, there is now a subdorsal hne consisting

of a number of yellow and white dots. In most examples the

spots on the 4th and 5th somites are centred with black and those

from the 6th to roth with orange. Sublateral area sprinkled with

minute white dots. Moulted 31-vii-36.

4th instar—Similar to preceding. The first two ocelli with

lack pupils and with the black ring edged internally at top and

bottom with a white and a black line. The other five ocelli with

an orange horizonal stripe edged above and below with whitish.

A few yellow specks at the base of the horn forming a continuation

of the series of subdorsal ocelli and extending along each side of

the anal somite. Horn black tipped with white. Moulted 2-viii-36.

Final instar—Head dull black. Legs pinkish. Ground colour

*,. blackish, the abdominal somites marbled with darker and with a

, black dorsal line. Thoracic somites with a subdorsal line of yellow

and white dots and with a cream sublateral stripe merging into

the sublateral white speckling of the abdominal somites. The ocelhi

on the 4th and 5th somites consist of a black ring edged above

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and below internally with a white and a black line, this encloses a

yellow area with a large black pupil sprinkled with white specks.

On the 6th to roth somites the ocelli consist of a black ring, edged

internally at the top and bottom with w hite, and enclosing a purplish

spot, just below the middle of which is a paler horizontal line

with yellow ends. One specimen had this line entirely yellow.

A transverse dorsal stripe along the anterior edge of each of the |

abdominal somites formed of a series of short longitudinal cream

lines. A line of yellow specks from the base of the horn extend-

ing to the anterior and posterior edges of the rith somite. Horn

black and long, the base yellow and the tip white. In all stages

it is very mobile and can be moved backwards and forwards. At

the beginning of each instar the ground colour is very black and

the rings surrounding the ocelli are difficult to detect, later the

ground colour becomes greyer and the rings are then clearly visible.

Ceased feeding 5-vill-36 and pupated 7-viil-36.

Pupa—In a loose cocoon spun among litter on the surface of the

ground. Bone colour with blackish shading. Abdominal somites:

with a dark olive green dorsal stripe. A subdorsal black dot on

each somite. Spiracles set in a black spot. Intersegmental areas

darker in colour. Ventrum with an interrupted black median line.

The black shading more pronounced sublaterally. Thorax with two

subdorsal black dots. Wing cases with a line of black specks

along the costa coalescing into a blotch at the centre. Proboscis

sheath forming a slight keel in front of and below the head. A

male emerged 17-vili-36.

Food-plant—Garden Balsam (Impatiens sp.)

Described from a number of larvae; some bred from ova and

others found in the 2nd and 3rd instars in Calcutta in July 1936.

Hampson’s description is as follows :—‘Larva pale purplish

brown; a subdorsal line of yellow and white spots with a pale

lateral line below them on the thoracic somites; black ringed ocelli

on 4th to roth somites, the first two centred with blue, the posterior

with purple. In the early stages these posterior ocelli are centred

with crimson and there are dorsal bands of yellow specks.’ Seitz

is no better and writes ‘Larva deep dark brown, almost black,

peculiarly dotted light, particularly on the sides. On the rings 4

and 5 there are lateral fictitious eyes, on the following rings only

yellowish lateral spots. Horn very long and thin. On species of

Vitis, Arum decurrens, Caladium, Colocasia, on Balsaminae and

other plants. The caudal horn is very agile and may be raised

and lowered (Semper). Pupa brown marked with black; it has no

projecting proboscis-case but a coniform snout.’

Rhyncholaba acteus Cr.

Moore, Lep. Cevls W523, pl, 286; tie. a 1 SS2-be:

Hamps., fauna Brite ind.. Moths, 3, 100. 13802.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 568. Nay

(Bell and Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 462, pl. 6, figs. |

8-10. 1937.) , Pa

Ovum—Yellow green, ovoid and smalt for the size of the msect.

Hatched 25-1x-31.

THE EARLY STAGES. OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 683

Ist instar—Head yellow green, body blue green. Horn thin,

about half the length of the body, black with a yellow base. Moulted

27-1X-31.

2nd instar—Head yeliow green, body blue green. <A large white

subdorsal spot on the 4th somite and a series of smaller oval white

spots outlined in dark blue from the 5th to the roth somite, the

posterior spots being less conspicuous than the anterior. Horn as

in previous instar. The thoracic somites begin to assume the

tvpical tapering Choerocampid shape. Moulted 209-ix-31.

3rd instar—Very similar to the previous one. The spot on the

4th somite develops a dark pupil. The base of the horn orange.

Moulted 1-x-31.

4th instar—Head blue green. True legs orange pink. Body

blue green. Thoracic somites tapered, with a dark dorsal and a

pale subdorsal line. 4th somite bearing a subdorsal ocellus con-

sisting of a yellow green ring, edged internally and externally with

white, containing an indigo blue spot anteriorly, the posterior

portion being bright green dotted with white. A series of seven

indistinct oblique white lateral stripes. A series of six elongated

yellow subdorsal spots outlined with dark blue from the 5th to the

roth somite. Horn about half an inch long, the base orange

followed by a narrow black, a wide white and a wide black ring,

the tip white. The whole carried erect and curved slightly forward.

Moulted 3-x-31.

Final instar—Similar to the previous one except that the

horn is orange pink, short, thick and curved downwards. Pupated

in a slight web among leaves on the surface of the ground

8-x-3T.

Pupa—Brown with a dark dorsal line and lateral stripes. Ventral

surface white, a black central and two dark brown lateral stripes.

Wing cases pinkish brown, the edges darker. Tongue case free

and circular. A male emerged 20-x-31.

Food-plant—Caladium.

Described from a batch of six larvae from ova found in Calcutta.

Of these, one assumed a pinkish ground colour after the first

ecdysis, another after the second and three after the third, these

all produced the brown form of larva described below. The sixth

remained green throughout. All wild larvae that I have seen have

Deen Of the ereen form,

Final instar—Brown form—Head and ground colour tobacco

brown. The subdorsal thoracic lines yellow. The ring of the

ocellus on the 4th somite very dark brown edged internally with

white and externally with yellow. The spots on the 5th to 1oth

somites very conspicuous, the centres bright vellow green. Other

markings the same as the green form.

Hampson described the born as yellow and does not mention

the brown form. He also appears to have been ignorant of the

shape of the pupa as one of the characteristics given for the

Choerocampinae is ‘Pupa without external sheath for the proboscis’.

Seitz’s description is ‘Young larva green, later on often dark brown,

in front very pointed; on the 4th ring a very large expressive

fictitious eye, surrounded by yellow and often shaded with dark;

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

on the other rings lateral light ovals and below them dark oblique

patches. Horn very small.’

CyYMATOPHORID.

Thyatira batis L.

Hamps.,.fauna Bute Ind., Moths, 180, ~13862,

Head lobed, brown marked with rufous. Body dark purplish

brown, the dorsum slightly paler. 4st somite with a slight and

2nd with a very pronounced double dorsal hump. 5th to gth and

11th and i2th somites each with a single dorsal hump. Legs

rufous. The prolegs marked externally with orange. The larva

rests with the head and theracic somites curved along the abdomen

and the posterior somites held up. When small somewhat

resembles the excreta of a snail. ;

Pupa was formed in a leaf spun to the bottom of the box.

Pale fuscous brown irrorated with darker specks. The _inter-

segmental areas darker. Head rather obtuse.

Food-plant—Rubus_ sp.

The imacinesemerse apoutso. p.m.

Described from a full fed larva found in Darjeeling 21-v-35,

pupated 26-v-35, and a male emerged I1-vi-35.

Hampson reproduces a figure from Buckler’s Larvae Brit.

Butterflies and Moths, which shows a larva with more pronounced

humps than mine, and gives the following description :—‘Larva

brown; the rst somite purplish, the 2nd and 3rd yellowish; paired

dorsal hump on 2nd and 5th to terminal somites; oblique lateral

dark stripes on 4th to toth somites.’

LIMACODID 2.

Parasa lepida Cr.

Moore, Geb. Ceyl. 51, 1276 pL 128, fe eb. rSse-se8.

Hamps., Fauna Bnt. Ind., Moths, 1, 388: 1362:

Flamips.,-1i. et, 1,672, ply 755 lose et ees aOR.

Hering. Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, -x, 694.

Head brown and retractile. 31st somite retractile with a double

black dorsal spot. Ground colour green. A blue dorsal stripe edged

with dark olive green and then with whitish. . A similar lateral

stripe. A sublateral series of ten scoli tufted with urticating bristles,

these are very short and mossy in appearance, the posterior two

pairs with a black basal spot. A- subdorsal series of ten scoli

increasing in size to the 3rd, which is large and with a few red

bristles in addition to. the green ones, the next five very small,

the. oth large and red. tufted, the roth smaller. Ventral surface

whitish outlined in yellow. Some larvae have the ground colour

between the dorsal and lateral stripes whitish.

Penultimate instar—Similar to the final but the area between

the dorsal and lateral stripes whitish with a blue subdorsal stripe.

No black basal spot on the posterior scoli. The lateral scoli them-

selves much longer and not so mossy in appearance. The first

three and last two of the subdorsal series very much larger and

tufted with black bristles, the 4th to 8th practically invisible,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 685

Cocoon hard and dark brown, oval in shape and with some of

the larval bristles, which turn black, woven into each end. In

nature the cocoon is spun on the trunk of the tree on which the

larva has fed and is completely covered by a web into which bits

of bark are spun. Several cocoons are spun close together and

they are extremely difficult to detect until the covering web has

weathered away. The imago escapes by cutting a circular lid out

of one end of the cocoon.

Food-plant—Mango (Mungifera indica Linn.), Gardenia and

many others.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta

Q-vii-36, one of which pupated t1-vii-36 and a male emerged

4-Vili-36.

The larva is evidently very variable but none of the descriptions

I can find applies to my examples. Hampson, in the Fauna of

British India, describes it as ‘pale green, whitish or bright yellowish

ereen abeve; three dorsal mauve or green bands; subdorsal and

sublateral series of short spinous tubercles, the spines of the anterior

and posterior tubercles tipped with red.’ In the Illustrations of

Heterocera he writes ‘The larva differs considerably in colour

according to the plants upon which it has been feeding—two well

marked varieties feeding on coffee and tea. The former usually

have a pale greyish white ground colour, with three bright green

dorsal stripes ; whilst those living on the tea plant are more brilliantly

coloured, having brilliant mauve stripes on a rich yellowish green

ground.’ The plate clearly shews the basal black spots on the

posterior scoli but they. are not mentioned in the text. - The

description in Seitz is ‘Larva light green with three dorsal yellow

or green bands, with subdorsal and lateral spined appendages, the

spines of the anterior ones being spotted red.’

Natada suffusa Moore (=Macroplectra nararia Moore f. cos-

miana Swinh. (=suffusa Moore)).

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 381. 1892.

Moores ep. C05 415, pl. 21, jos. 8, Sa. “1857-1550.

Head brown and retractile. Ground colour green. <A purple

brown dorsal stripe, bread anteriorly and narrowing to a line on the

7th somite, from which it again broadens posteriorly. A yellow

spot on each side of the dorsal stripe on the 7th somite. A series

of 11 lateral projections with urticating bristles, the rst and 2nd

short, red and directed forwards, the 3rd red, long and directed

sideways, the 4th to roth short, green and directed sideways and

the 11th long, green and directed backwards. <A double dorsal

row of tufts of very short urticating bristles. In some examples

the dorsal stripe is almost obsolete.

Ceocoon—Spherical, purplish brown.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn, (Crape Myrtle).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-xii-31,

pupated 28-xii-31, and a male emerged 109-1-32. |

Hampson describes the larva of N. nararia Moore, which he

makes conspecific with suffusa, as ‘yellowish green above, pink

below; a yellow or pinkish dorsal band; a subdorsal series of red

6864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL- FIST. “SOCKET YS 2 Viol. 2a

tipped spinous tubercles; a sublateral series of larger whitish

tubercles with very short spines, the tubercles at each end being

long, those at the posterior end longest.’

NOCTUIDA.

Polytela gloriosae F. |

Moore, Lep. Ceyl.,:i1i1,43, pl..145, tie, aa. 91884587.

(Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 168. 1894.)

(Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 86.) |

Head brown. Legs brown with black tarsi. Prolegs orange.

Ground colour purplish black. «1st somite with an orange dorsal

blotch edged anteriorly with six black and posteriorly with two

white spots. 2nd and 3rd somites each with an ovate orange sub-

dorsal blotch containing a black dot and with a white spot on the

outer edge. ist to 12th somites with a white dorsal spot on the

posterior edge of each somite, the 6th to 12th somites with a |

smaller white spot on the anterior edge as well. 4th to 9th somites

each with two subdorsal white spots. toth to rath somites each

with an orange subdorsal blotch. A lateral white spot between |

each somite from the ist to .rith,. 3rd) to ‘1th somites with ya |

sublateral white spot on the anterior portion of each somite. The

dorsal and lateral spots largest.

_Pupa reddish brown, subterranean.

Food-plant—Various kinds of Lily, particularly Gloriosa

superba, and Amaryllis.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 31-vii-32,

buried itself 2-vili-32 and a male emerged 14-Vvili-32.

Seitz gives the ground colour as ‘purplish brown irrorated with

silvery blue’ and describes the white spots as yellow. Hampson

describes the larva as ‘smooth, purple black with dorsal, lateral

and sublateral series of white spots; purplish lateral blotches on

thoracic and two terminal somites; head, legs and a dorsal spot on

rst somite red’. (Hampson’s description seems to be based on that

of Moore, whose figure shews a larva with dull brownish lateral

blotches on the 2nd, 3rd, rith and rath somites.)

Prodenia littoralis Boisd F.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, a0, pl. 146, fig. 1b. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ul, 247. 1894.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 320.

Head black with an inverted yellow V. Legs black. Ground

colour purplish black, a subdorsal series of triangular black marks,

the apices directed towards the dorsum. 2nd and 3rd somites each

with a subdorsal yellow spot; 4th to gth somites each with a dull

reddish subdorsal spot. Ventral surface paler. Claspers brown.

Pupa subterranean, of typical Noctuid shape. Colour bright

chestnut brown, the skin between the somites and a dorsal line

darker. Spiracles surrounded by a dark ring.

Food-plant-—Very varied. I have found it on Antirrhinum,

Zinnia, Spinach, Lettuce, Castor and Caladium, whilst Moore

records Lantana as a food-plant. In captivity it will eat almost

anything, .

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA | 687

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 27-11-35,

buried itself 1-iii-35 and a male emerged 13-11-35.

Hampson’s description, which is copied almost word for word

from Moore, is ‘Pale violet brown, with a subdorsal series of narrow

yellow spots with black lunules above them; a lateral series of

purplish black spots centred by a white dot; a sublateral white

fine.”

Spodoptera mauritia Bsd.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 321.

Head olive brown with an inverted pale Y. Ground colour

dark grey. 1st somite with a white dorsal line, which is continued

along the dorsum as a more or less well pronounced purplish stripe.

A subdorsal pale stripe, edged above with a black lunule on each

somite. A sublateral pale stripe edged above with purplish. Ventral

surface greenish.

In the rst instar the larva is green with a black head. The

head becomes brown after the first ecdysis. Some larvae become

brown in the 4th instar, whilst others remain green with a brown

lateral stripe, a few having a brown dorsal stripe in addition. All

become brownish grey in the 5th instar with the adult markings

more or less pronounced.

Pupa in a slight earthen cocoon just below the surface of the

soil. The pupae vary considerably in colour, most of them are

mahogany with the abdominal somites paler but a few are uni-

colorous yellow brown.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta,

-one of which pupated 12-11-38 and a male emerged 20-iii-38.

Seitz’s description is ‘Larva dark brown marbled w:th whitish;

dorsal line white edged; subdorsal and lateral lines white; head

red brown; venter greenish; feeding on cereals, reported to be

injurious to rice in the Punjab.’

Sphetta apicalis Wk.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 114, pl. rar, fig. 2a. 1882-82.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 167. 1894.

Head pale yellow with a few coarse hairs. Ground colour

grey. A white subdorsal line, straight on the thoracic somites but

forming a series of Vs with their apices directed backwards on

the abdominal. A white lateral line and a yellow sublateral stripe.

Each somite with a black lateral and a yellow sublatera! setiferous

tubercle. 3rd to 12th somites each with four subdorsal setiferous

tubercles, those on the 3rd black, on the 4th, 5th and 6th red, on

‘the 7th, 8th and oth the inner black and the outer red, on the

toth black, on the t1th red and on the 12th the inner black and

the outer red. Anal plate marked with red. Ventral surface pale

greenish.

Pupa dark mahogany brown. A slight projection between the

eyes. The cremaster a bunch of hooked spines. In a slight cocoon

between two leaves,

688° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. (SOCTEMY. Vol 2sE

Described from a full fed larva found at Peshoke (2,500 ft.

Darjeeling District) 21-xii-36, pupated 5-i-37, and a male emerged

24-1-37.

Moore’s description, most of which is copied by Hampson, is

‘Larva greyish blue above, green below, with a longitudinal waved

darker greyish blue lateral band dividing the two colours; a dorsal

row of blunt tubercles from fifth segment, and a subdorsal row of

small black spots, one cn each segment, the dorsal tubercles and

anterior segments with a few short blackish hairs, and a single

hair from each segment below the lateral line. Pupa purple brown.’

In the figure the shape ts distorted but the red tubercles are clearly

shewn.

Chloridea obsoleta F. (=Heliothis armigera Hbn.).

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 51, pl. 150, fig. ra. 1884-87.

Hamps.; 21 bet ix.) 02) pls 76, fie. .2 25 1ooee

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind.,. Moths, 1, 174. 1894.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 308.

Head small, colour very variable. Body with a few hairs, the

colour very variable, the only censtant feature being a white line

along the anterior edge of each proleg.

Form 1. Head green. Body green with a darker dorsal line

due to the contents of the intestines. A darker lateral line above

the spiracles and a white sub-spiracular line. Ventral surface

brighter green.

Form 2. Head very pale brown. Body yellow green with‘ a

paler sub-spiracular line. The 4th to 1oth somites each with an

indistinct rust coloured subdorsal blotch, that on the 4th somite

largest. Ventral surface darker green.

Form 3. Head very pale brown. Body pinkish grey, the 1st

somite less tinged with pink. A grey dorsal and lateral stripe. A

pink spiracular stripe edged above and below with a white line.

4th to 11th somites each with a darker grey subdorsal blotch joining

the lateral stripe and, on the 4th and 11th somites, joining the

dorsal stripe as well. 5th to 1oth somites each with a pair of black

dorsal spots. Ventral surface paler.

form 4. Head pale olive brown. Body putty colour tinged -

with pink. <A greyish dorsal stripe rather more pronounced on: the

11th somite. A whitish sub-spiracular line. Ventral surface tinged

with green.

Form 5. Head honey colour. Body pale olive brown. A darker

dorsal stripe more pronounced on the 11th somite. A darker sub-

dorsal stripe and a whitish sub-spiracular stripe. Ventral surface

whitish tinged with green.

Food-plant—Carnation, Antirrhinum and other cultivated plants,

the larvae preferring the flowers. They are semi-nocturnal and

cannibalistic.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Noctuid in shape but

long. and slender. Abdomen yellowish brown with a dark dorsal

line, the intersegmental areas darker brown. Thorax tinged with

olive green. Wing cases anteriorly olive green shading into

yellowsh brown posteriorly. Cremaster a very long double spine,

PFHE-BARLY. STAGES’ OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 689

Described from a series of full fed larvae found in Calcutta,

one of which pupated 16-11-34 and a male emerged 28-i11-34.

Hampson’s description is ‘Dorsal area pale brown; a lateral

whitish band; ventral area pale green; éach segment with some

black specks; head red brown. Or green with a dark dorsal and

two yellow lateral lines; the thoracic somites speckled brown and

black, 5th to roth somites with lateral brown blotches, anal somite

vue an irregular black dorsal mark. Feeds on rose buds.’ Moore’s

figure shews a pale green larva with a subdorsal series of large

pear-shaped black blotches.

Anua (Ophiusa) coronata F.

Meore, ep, -Ceyl., 1m, 153, pl. 166,-To. 5. 13884587.

(Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 502. 1894.)

Head brown, a yellow stripe along the median suture, a sub-

median yellow line and a pink stripe edged anteriorly with yellow

and posteriorly with black. Body sienna brown, a double dorsal,

a double subdorsal and a lateral line of somewhat paler brown.

The dorsal lines touch twice on the 8th somite enclosing a dark

spot. A pair of subdorsal yellow tubercles on the 11th somite.

Ventral surface light brown with darker specks. Claspers externally

very dark brown with a transverse yellow stripe, orange internally.

A velvety black spot between the first and another anterior to the

second pair of prolegs. I found one example in which the ground

colour was flesh pink.

Pupa dark purple and enclosed in a slight cocoon of gummy

silk spun, in captivity, between leaves.

Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 19-x-31, pupated

26-x-31, and a male emerged 9-xi-31.

Hampson’s description appears to have been made from an

immature, preserved specimen. The yellow edged lateral spot on

the 5th somite is only present in ie Sornples. The brown

stripes of the head darken to black in preserved specimens. The

mention of paired black tubercles on the roth and r1th somites

must be a mistake, the pair on the 11th somite is the only one

present ‘and that is yellow. (Hampson’s description is based on

that of Moore, whose figure shews a considerably shorter and

stouter larva than mine.)

Paralleliia (Ophiusa) algira L.

Head reddish brown with a pair of triangular pale yellow spots

on the vertex. Body long and thin. Ground colour pinkish brown.

A pale double dorsal line, edged on each side by a narrow blackish

stripe. A narrow lateral stripe slightly darker than the ground

colour and a blackish sublateral stripe. A reddish brown subdorsal

dot on the anterior portion of the 4th somite. None of the stripes

is of solid colour but each is composed of minute dots superimposed

on the ground colour. Ventral surface pale with a black median

stripe expanding slightly between each pair of prolegs. Legs reddish

brown. Claspers marked internally with carmine, externally the

base with a few minute blackish dots, the apex marked with

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

carmine. «st pair obsolescent. A pair of red dorsal tubercles on

the 11th somite.

Pupa between two spun together leaves. Purplish black

covered with a white bloom. Spiracles very noticeable.

Food-plant—Castor (Ricinus communis Linn.).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 20-vi-38,

pupated 23-vi-38, and a male emerged 2-vii-38.

Phytometra jessica Btlr.

Head and legs pale green. Ground colour pale green. A

double white dorsal line, a double white subdorsal line and a white

lateral line. A few short white hairs springing from white freckles.

Ist and 2nd pairs of prolegs obsolete. Body narrow anteriorly,

broadening posteriorly. One example had the head and legs marked

with black and a black lateral dot in the middle of each somite.

Pupa pale green with a brown subdorsal spot on the posterior

edge of the thorax and with the skin of the dorsum between the

ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th abdominal somites brown.

Proboscis sheath slightly longer than the wing cases. Enclosed

in a hammock shaped cocoon of thin white silk, in nature presumably

spun on the underside of a leaf.

Food-plant—Antirrhinum flowers.

Out of five larvae, two died from the attacks of a fungoid

disease and one was killed by hymenopterous parasites.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 9-11-35, pupated

It-111-35, and a female emerged 17-i11-35.

Cosmophila erosa Hbn.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl.; 11,784, ple.155,- Seth. mos4-87-

Hamps., fauna Brit. Ind., Moths aan 9 1So4,

Head green. Body green with a dorsal, subdorsal, lateral and

sublateral line of minute white dots. Shape long and slender, the

first pair of prolegs aborted, the second partially so. Some examples

with a darker dorsal stripe.

Pupa in a spun together leaf. Rather slender with a small

tooth projecting forward from between the eyes. Colour dark

purple brown, the thorax darker than the rest.

Food-plant—Garden MHollyhock (Malvaceae).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 8-11-38, pupated

11-11-38, and a male emerged 21-11-38.

Moore's figure shews a plain green larva with red prolegs and

this feature is mentioned in his description and also in Hampson’s,

who more or less copies him. Both give Hibiscus, also Malvaceae,

as the food-plant.

GEOMETRID&.

Agathia laetata F.

Moore, ep: -Ceyt., 111, 437, pli 107, 0S. 5b. | 1884-o=

(Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 11,487.) 1805,)

(Prout Seitz, Indo-Austr. Geometridae, xii, 69.)

Head brownish. Ground colour dark green dorsally suffused

with dull reddish purple. 1st somite divided into two lobes and

Rah

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 69]

posterior somites slightly swollen. Very like the new growth of

Oleander, on which it feeds.

Pupa'in a spun together leaf. Buff coloured with dark dorsal

markings.

Food-plant—Oleander (Nerium odorum Soland).

Hampson’s description is ‘larva green with dorsal prominences

on «st and r1th somites. Pupa yellowish green above, green

below, the abdominal somites black-speckled’ and this is copied

by Seitz, except that the dorsal prominences are said to be on

the ‘prothorax and 8th (?) abdominal somite.’

Photoscotosia miniosata Whk.

Head small, pale olive green. Ground colour pale green, tst

to 3rd. somites with a rufous dorsal stripe with a dark median

line. 4th to 8th somites each with a rufous triangular dorsal

mark, the apex directed forwards, gth to 11th somites with a

similar, but much fainter, mark. Last somite and anal claspers

dark olive brown.

Pupa very dark purplish brown with the intersegmental areas

paler. Pupated in a spun together leaf.

Food-plant—Rubus sp.

Described from a full fed larva found in Darjeeling 11-v-35,

pupated r4-v-35, and a female emerged 2-vi-35.

Percnia ductaria Wk.

Head and the dorsum of the 1st somite yellow brown, the latter

with two black spots. Ground colour black, the skin shining as

if oiled, with a yellow dorsal and sublateral and a white subdorsal

and lateral stripe. Venter with a white median and lateral stripe.

Legs yellow, claspers yellow marked with black. The skin is

extremely thick and tough.

Pupa slender, very dark mahogany brown. In captivity in a

slight earthen cocoon just below the surface of the soil.

The larvae are semi-gregarious, several being found on _ the

same bush of the food-plant (name unknown) but it is rare to find

more than two on one leaf.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found at Peshoke

(2,500 ft. Darjeeling District) 23-xii-36, one of which pupated 3-i-37

and a male emerged 109-1-37.

Buzura (Biston) suppressaria Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 407, pl. 188, fig. tb, 1c. 1884-87,

(Hamps., Fauna Brit, Ind., Moths, i, 247. 1895.)

Head lobed, mottled brown. Ground colour mottled brown.

tst somite lobed. 2nd to rith somites with a pair of pale dorsal

spots. tith somite with a transverse black stripe. Pale lateral

tubercles on 7th and 8th somites. Spiracles red. Anal plate and

claspers reddish.

Another form has the ground colour dark green with a darker

dorsal stripe and dark suffusion between the somites. A lateral

patch on the 3rd somite, a transverse stripe on the r1th and the

anal claspers black.

692 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Pupa very dark purple, almost black. Abdomen ending in a long

anal spike. Subterranean.

Food-plant—Cassia sp. and Lagerstroemia indica Linn. (Crape

Myrtle).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 9-xi-31,

buried itself 11-xi-31 and a female emerged 11-i-32.

Hampson describes the green form only and says that the

larva of the female is paler than that of the male. I have not

observed this.

PYRALIDZ

Sylepta derogata F.

Fletcher, Some South Indian Insects; pl. xxxv, figs. 2533 and

Head brown, legs black. Ground colour green; rst somite

with two black dorsal spots. A white spiracular line. Clothed with

sparse hair. Lives in a spun together leaf. Before pupating the

larva turns pink.

Pupa reddish brown in a spun together leaf.

Food-plant—Hollyhock.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 6-1v-32, pupated

g-iv-32, and a male emerged 15-iv-32.

Correction

NyYMPHALIDZ:.

Euthalia garuda Moore, suddhodana Fruhs.

On page 398 of vol. xl of this journal, I described this larva

as having a series of eleven feathery scoli. This should, of course,

be ten. The ‘2nd to 1roth’ and the ‘11th’ in the following lines

should be corrected to ‘2nd to goth’ and ‘roth’.

ARCTIIDZA.

Utetheisa pulchella L.

The description appearing under this name on page 4o2 of

vol. xl of this Journal is really of the larva of Utetheisa lotrix Cr.

and the heading should be read accordingly. Specimens bred this

year have been determined by the British Museum (Natural

History) and I understand that this species has not been bred

before. The reference originally quoted apply to true pulchella.

(To be continued). 7

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA.

The CRUCIFER are a very important Natural Order, and one

which includes many esculents and few poisonous or medicinal

plants. They are annual, biennial, or perennial herbs without milky

juice. They are dispersed all over the world; reaching, in the polar

regions and on the highest mountains, the limits of flowering-

plant vegetation. The family consists of 220 genera and 1,900

species; most of these inhabit the South of Europe and Asia Minor ;

they are rarer in the tropics, in extra-tropical and temperate

South America. Several species are cultivated in numberless

varieties and forms as vegetables.

The members of the Order are acrid, stimulant, and anti-

scorbutic; seeds oleaginous, frequently pungent.

The following have been isolated from different parts of the

plants :—(1) alkaloids—cheirinine, sinapine—; (2) aromatic alcohols

—inositol— ; (3) enzymes—-myrosin—; (4) glucosides—cheirolin,

glucocheirolin, glucotropoeolin, sinalbin, sinigrin—; (5) uctds—

behenic, erucic, fumaric, myronic, oleic, stearic—; (6) pigments—

quercetin—; (7) mustard oils—allyl, benzyl, phenyl ethyl.

The medicinal and poisonous crucifers of the world belong to

45 genera:—ALLIARIA (temperate Europe; Asia); ALyssum (Mediter-

ranean; Europe); ARapipopsis (Europe; Western Asia); ARABIS

(northern temperate regions; south America); BARBAREA (northern

temperate regions); BERTEROA (northern temperate regions of the

Old World); Brassica (Mediterranean; Huropé, Asia); Bunras

(Mediterranean; Asia); CAKILE (northern temperate regions); CAME-

Lina (Mediterranean ; Europe); CapsELLa (temperate and sub-tropical!

regions); CARDAMINE (cosmopolitan; chiefly temperate regions) ;

CHEIRANTHUS (Mediterranean ; northern temperate regions) ; CLYPEOLA’

(Mediterranean); CocHLEARIA (Europe, Asia Minor); CRAMBE

(Mediterranean; Europe, Asia, Polynesia, Patagonia); DEnrTariA

(northern temperate regions); DESCURAINIA (northern temperate

regions; South America); DipLotaxis (Mediterranean; Europe);

Drasa (northern temperate and arctic regions; south-western North

America); ERopHita (Mediterranean; Europe); Eruca (Mediter-

ranean); ErRysimum (Mediterranean; Europe; Asia); Farsgtia

(Mediterranean); HELIopHILA (South Africa); HEspERrts (Mediter-

ranean; Europe); [serts (Europe, Asia); Iopanrnus (Atlantic North

America); Isatis (Mediterranean; Europe; Asia); Lertpium (cosmo-

politan); Lunaria (Europe); Martrurota (Mediterranean; Europe,

South Africa); Moricanpia (Mediterranean); NAsTurRTIUM (cosmo-

politan); Rapicuta (North America); RapHanus (Mediterranean; °

Europe; Java); Raprstrum (Mediterranean; central Europe);

Roripa (northern hemisphere); SENEBIERA (subtropical regions;

Europe); SEsEL1 (Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia); SrsymBRrum

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

(northern temperate regions) ;

THysaAnocarpus (California); VEsicaria (Europe) ;

THLASPI (northern temperate regions) ;

Wasasia (Japan).

The medicinal and poisonous crucifers of India belong to 24

ALYSSUM, ARABIDOPSIS,

CHEIRANTHUS,

Eruca, ERyYSIMUM,

genera :—ALLIARIA,

CAPSELLA, CARDAMINE,

CURAINIA, Drapa, EROPHILA,

BARBAREA,

COCHLEARIA, CRAMBE, DEs-

TF ARSETIA,

BRASSICA,

ISATIS,

LEPIDIUM, MATTHIOLA, MoricAnpia, NASTURTIUM, RAPHANUS, SISYM-

BRIUM, THLASPI.

A. Pods narrow, long. Seeds usually uniseriate (pods some-~

times short in Nasturtium)

I. Sepals narrow, erect; valves without horns or append-

ages; stigmas erect, connate or decurrent on the

style ee ns = Le

Il. Sepals broad or narrow; stigma undivided or shortly

bilobed

a. Sepals erect, lateral saccate.—Hoary, leafy erect

herbs

b. Sepals spreading, ‘not saccate ; pods tumid ; seeds

Flowers usually yellow

q-angled; seeds uni-

minute, biseriate.

c. Sepals not saccate; pods

seriate. Flowers yellow

d. Sepals not saccate; pods hardly nerved, usually

purple

B. Pods short, broad. Seeds usually biseriate (pods some-

limes long and seeds uniseriate in Farsetia)

I. Pods 2-celled; sessile, many-seeded. Seeds compres-

sed, often winged, uniseriate ir:

Il. Pods 1-2-celled, 2-many-seeded, valves often tumid.

Seeds biseriate (sepals never saccate). Flowers white

of yellow 2 0 -iG a eee Seer

a. Sepals, short, spreading. Glabrous herbs ie

b. Stamens often appendaged; pods usually orbi-

cular and 4-seeded.—Hoary herbs

c. Stamens not appendaged ; pods longer than br oad,

many-seeded.—Hoary herbs

TP betals sentinre

tt Petals bifid

C. Pods usually sessile, long, narrow. Seeds usually 1-

seriate. Stigma capitate, emarginate or shortly bilobed

I. Flowers yellow, pedicelled, Pods terete,

valves 3-nerved ne one

If. Flowers white. Pods terete, valves pee

smooth or striate

III. Flowers yellow, pedicelled, bianteate,

or flat, valves 1-nerved

IV. Flowers white, purple or rose-coloured. Valy es of the

terete or compressed pod 1-nerved or nerveless

V. Flowers yellow, rarely purple, ebracteate. Pods

elongate, narrow, compressed tetragonal or terete;

valves linear, 1-nerved, frequently keeled

ebracteate.

Seeds

Pods cylindric

D. Pods short or Jong, cotyledons longitudinally folded or

deeply grooved

I. Stigma capitate, truncate or 2-lobed

a. Pods long. Seeds uniseriate

b. Pods short, turgid, beaked.

IT. Stigmas connate, forming an erect cone.

~ -A’ glaucous large herb or undershrub

Seeds | eerie

Pods. tong.

MATTHIOLA.

CHEIRANTHUS.

NASTURTIUM.

CARDAMINE.

FARSETIA.

COCHLEARIA.

ALYSSUM.

DRaABA.

EROPHILA.

SISYMBRIUM.

ALLIARIA.

DESCURAINIA.

ARABIDOPSIS.

ERYSIMUM.

BRASSICA.

ERUCA.

MOoRICANDIA. - -

THE MEDICINAL &- POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA 695

IX. Pods short, dehiscing throughout their length, compres-

sed laterally at right angles to the septum

I. Cotyledons incumbent, straight, curved or longitudin-

ally folded

a. Pods many-seeded, valves not winged ue OAPSELLAS

b. Pods few-seeded, valves winged or not .... LBPIDIUM.

Il. Cotyledons accumbent, straight. Pods compressed

notched; valves winged or keeled oa i. DHLASPI.

I. Pods short, indehiscent, not jointed, usually hard

Pods 1-celled, oblong or linear, wing thick.—Glaucous

herbs aes oe ve Saw SISATIS:

G. Pods long or short, transversely jointed; joints indehi-

scent or the lower 2-valved or reduced to a_ pedicel

for the upper

Lower joint of pods a seedless pedicel, upper globose

1-seeded aes mo Be ... CRAMBE.

H. Pods long, not jointed, indehiscent, either 1-celled and

many-seeded or breaking up into many 1-celled, 1-seeded

indehiscent fragments

Pods long, terete, hollow or septate; seeds globose

2-3-celled me se sa, ... RAPHANUS.

ALLIARIA.

The two species of this genus inhabit Western Asia, Europe,

and North Africa.

Alliaria officinalis Andrzej. is found in the Western Himalaya

from Kumaon to Kashmir, at 6,000-10,000 feet. From Afghanistan

it extends westwards to the Mediterranean, Central and subarctic

Europe: es :

The herb and seeds are esteemed diuretic, diaphoretic, and

expectorant, and are used as external application in gangrenous

affections, and to promote suppuration, healing of cuts, bruises

and ulcers. . |

In England the leaves used to be taken internally as a - sudorific

and deobstruent, and externally were applied antiseptically in

gangrenes and ulcers. The juice of the leaves taken alone or boiled

into a syrup with honey is found serviceable in dropsy. .

The plant is to be used fresh, for it loses its properties on

drying.

Dutch: Lookkruid, Look zonder look—-; English: Beggarman’s Oatmeal,

Cardiacke, Caspere, Eileber, English Treacle, Garlick-roast, Hedge-garlick,

Jack- by-the- hedge, Leek-cress, "Garlick Mustard, Fenny Hedge, Poor Man’s Garlic,

Poor Man’s Mustard, Poor Man’s Treacle, Sauce-alone, Swarms—; French:

Alliaire, Herbe aux ailles, Herbe aux aillets, Herbe aux Bille. Julienne alliaire— ;

German: Knoblauchhederich, Knoblauchkraut, Knobiauchsrauke—; Greek:

Skordion—; Italian: Erba alliaria—; Pacific Coast: English Treacle, Garlic

Mustard, Garlicwort, Hedge Garlic, Hedge Mustard, Leek Cress, Poor Man’s

Mustard—; Portuguese: Alliaria—; North America: Hedge Garlic+-; Russian :

Chessnovitsa— ; Spanish: Aliaria—.

ALYSSUM.

The genus includes 120 species, natives of Europe, the Mediter-

ranean region as far as Central Asia, the Canary Islands, Madeira;

naturalised elsewhere.

Alyssum maritimum Lam. is cultivated in gardens in North-

western India. :

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEL Y= Vols

The plant is commonly used in Spain as an antiscorbutic and

diuretic. In Barcelona it is highly esteemed as an astringent for

gonorrhoea.

Catalan: Caps blancs, Herba blanca, Sempre en flor—; English: Sweet

Madwort—; French: Alysse, Alysse maritime, Alysse odorant, Alysson, Cor-

beille d’argent, Corbeille d’or—; German: Steinkraut—; Malta: Allison, Sweet

Alysson, Buttuniera—; Roumanian: Galbenus, Lubit—; Russian: Taritsa— ;

Spanish: Aliso de mar, Bosqueletes anchos, Bosqueletes de dama, Bosqueletes

de plata, Mastuerzo maritimo—.

ARABIDOPSIS.

The genus consists of 11 species distributed over Europe, Asia,

and Africa.

Arabidopsis thaliana (Linn.) Heynh. is found in Kashmir at

5,000-10,000 feet, and in Kumaon. It extends to Afghanistan,

Western Asia, Central Europe, and the Mediterranean region; it

has become naturalized in North and South America, South Africa

and Australia.

It is used in Spain and other parts of Europe to cure sores in

the mouth.

English: Thale Cress—.

BARBAREA.

The genus consists of 15 species of the northern temperate

regions, chiefly European.

Barbarea vulgaris Br, is found in the temperate and subalpine

Himalaya and Western Tibet at 6,000-10,000 feet. It is distributed

to Western Asia, Europe, North and South Africa, and Australia.

In Spain the leaves are a reputed vulnerary.

In La Reunion the piant is used as a stimulant and antiscorbutic.

Catalan: Herba barbara, Herba barbera, Herba de Santa Barbara—;

English: Winter Cress, Yellow Rocket—; French: Barbarée, Barbarée vulgaire,

Cresson de terre, Cresson vivace, Girarde jaune, Herbe aux charpentiers, Herbe

de sainte Barbe, Herbe de saint Julien, Herbe de sainte Marguerite, Julienne

jaune, Rondotte—; German: Barbarakraut, Erdkresse—; La Reunion: Cresson

de terre—; Pacific Coast: Bitter Cree, French Cress, Hedge Mustard, Land

Cress, Normany Cress, Rocket Cree, St. Barbara’s Cress, Winter Cress, Winter

Rocket, Yellow Rocket—; Spanish: Yerba de los carpinteros, Yerba de Santa

Barbara—.

BRASSICA.

The genus numbers 33 species, often polymorphic, chiefly

Mediterranean.

The seeds of most of them are stimulant and laxative.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—B. cam-

pestris Linn., B. Napus Linn., B. nigra Koch., B. olerucea Linn.,

B. Rapa Linn.—; in Japan—B. campestris Linn.—; in China—B.

campestris’ Linn., B. cernua Thunb., B. Napus Linn. var. chinensis

(Linn.) O. E. Schulz, B. oleracea Linn., B. Rapa Linn.—; in Indo-

China—B. campestris Linn., B. integrifolia (West.) O. E. Schulz,

B. Napus Linn. var. chinensis (Linn.) O. E. Schulz, B. oleracea

.THE MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA _ 697

Linn.—; in the Philippine Islands—B. integrifolia (West.) O. E.

Schulz.—.

A. Ovary multi-ovulate (9-45). Pods 1.5-10 cm. long.

Beak distinctly conical, sometimes as thick as the pod,

often 1I- or 2-seeded

I. Stem-leaves amplexicaul

1. Flowers not surpassing the buds at flowering

a. Calyx closed. Petals pale yellow, 1.8-2 cm. long.

Pods with undulate margins. Leaves more or

less fleshy me me ... I. B. oleracea.

b. Calyx half-opened. Petals intensely yellow, 0.9-

1.8 cm. long. Pods with straight margins.

Leaves membranous ese on uw 20 De Napus.

2. Flowers surpassing the buds at flowering pee ge De GOI PeESLYAS.

II. Stem-leaves sessile or petiolate

1. Leaves with a plane margin ae .. 4. B. integrifolia.

2. Leaves with a crisp margin ... 5. Bb. cernua.

B. Ovary few-ovulate (5-11). Pods 0.8-3 cm. long. Beak

very thin, always seedless ed e . .6.-B. mgra.

1. Brassica oleracea Linn. is cultivated in all its numerous

varieties all over India. The typical plant is indigenous in Central

Europe.

The Cabbage has entered into the Ayurvedic Materia Medica,

and is very often prescribed by vaids for a variety of ailments.

The cabbage and its numerous associates are well-known house-

hold remedies.

The seeds are diuretic, laxative, stomachic, and anthelmintic.

The leaves form a good application in gout and rheumatism. An

Irish cure for a sore throat is to tie cabbage leaves round it; and the

same remedy is applied in England with hot cabbage leaves for

a swollen face.

The red cabbage is most emollient and pectoral. The juice

made into syrup, without any condiments, is useful in chronic

coughs, and in bronchial asthma. It is considered in France to

be highly antiscorbutic.

The leaves of the common white cabbage, when gently bruised

and applied to a blistered surface, will promote a free discharge,

as also when laid next the skin in dropsy of the ankles. Its

juice will cure warts.

Bengal: Kopi—; Catalan: Col—; Chinese: Kan Lan, Pe Ts’ai, Pao Pao

Ts’ai—; Deccan: Karam—; Dutch: Kool—; Egypt: Krumb—; English:

Cabbage, Colewort, Collet, Sea Cabbage, Wild Cabbage—; French: Chou,

Navette d’hiver, Rabette—; German: Gartenkohl, Kohl—; Greek: Krambi—;

Gujerat: Kobia—; Hindi: Band gobi, Karamkalla, Kobi, Kopi—; Hova:

Laisoa, Laisoamasombika—; Indo-China: Cam lam—; Iraq: Lahanoh—;

Italian: Cavolo—; Kurdish: WKalam—; Marathi: WKholkhol—; Moldavian:

Curechiu—; Mundari: Arakubi, Kubiara, Potomkubi—; Polish: Iarmuz,

Kapusta— ; Portuguese : Cauve, Repolho—; Punjabi: Band gobi—; Roumanian:

Varza—; Russian: Kapusta—; Sanskrit: Dalamalini, Dalasarini, Kebuka,

Kechuka, Keluta, Kembu, Kembuka, Pechuka, Pichuni, Polini, Supatra,

Swadukanda, Swalpavitapa—; Spanish: Berza, Col—; Swedish: Kahl—; Sze-

Chwan: Lien Hoa Pe—; Tamil: Gos, Kos—; Telugu: Gos.

2. Brassica Napus_ Linn., indigenous in the South Mediter-

ranean region, is cultivated in India. | |

The root is emollient and diuretic. Its juice 1s useful in chronic

coughs and bronchial catarrh.

698 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Chinese use the seeds to cure coughs complicated with

dyspnoea, and to subdue expectoration due to cold.

Afrikaans: Raap—; Catalan: Nap—; Chinese: La Pa Tzeu, Lo Pou Tse— ;

Danish: Stekroe—; Dutch: Steekraap—; English: Coleseed, Navew, Rape—;

French: Arbi, Chou navet, -Navau, Navet—; German: Raps, Reps, Ruebsen,

Stechruebe—; Greek: Bunias—; Hindi: Kali sarson, Tori—; Iraq: Saljam—j;

Italian: Napo, Navone—; Maita: Navone, Neveu—; Mundari: Huringmani,

Mani, Turimani—; Persian: Saljam—; Polish: Rzepnica—; Portuguese:

Nabo—; Roumanian: Broajba—j; Russian: Briukoa, Dikayia Repa, Nyemets-

kayia Repa—; Sadani: Lutumani, Turimani—; Spanish: Nabo, Nabo comun,

Nabo largo—; Swedish: Stickrave—; Uruguay: Colza, Nabo—.

var. chinensis (Linn.) O. E. Schulz is cultivated in India, China,

Korea, Japan and Java.

The entire plant is antiscorbutic, arthritic, and resolvent.

The seeds are considered stimulant, stomachic, and laxative.

In Indo-China the leaves and stems are considered to be anti-

dysenteric. The seeds are used in gleet and in difficult parturition.

In Chinese drug shops the plant is represented as dry, round,

light-coloured cakes of vegetable matter made from the broken

leaves. The cakes have been found to contain a large amount of

various vitamins (Hsien Wu).

; Indo-China :

Annam: Cai—; China: Sung—; English: Chinese Cabbage

- Mundari: Kubi,

Van dai—; Japan: Onuma—; Malaya: Pak chai piang—;

Risakubi—.

3. Bassica campestris Linn. is naturalized in India. In ‘all

probability it is indigenous in the mountainous region of the

Mediterranean. |

The tubercus roots and the seeds are said to be antiscorbutic.

-. The. seeds yield Oil of Colza, which is officinal in Sweden as

Oleum Rapae.

Arabic: Chardal—; Betsileo: Anambe—; Brahu:r: Mashna muli—; Catalan:

Colinap—; Danish: Raps—; Dehra Dun: Banga sarson, Sarson—; Dutch:

Koolzaad— ; English : Coleseed, Colza, Field Cabbage, Navette, Swedish Turnip,

Wild Navew—; French: Chou des champs, Chou colza, Navette—; German:

Rape—; Hova: Ananomby, Anantsonga, Nave—; Italian: Colza—; Malta:

Summer Rape, Wild Cabbage, Rapa selvatica, Caulicelli, Liftia—; Meerut:

Banga sarson, Sarson—; Mundari: Piramani—; Oudh: Pila sarson—; Pacific

Coast: Bargeman’s Cabbage, Common Navew, Nape, Rutabaga, Summer

Rape, Turnip, Wild Navette, Wild Navew—; Rohilkhand: Pila sarson—;

Roumanian: Rapita—; Russian: Colza, Surepitsa—; Sadani: Sarso—; Spanish :

Colinabo, Colza, Nabicol, Nabina—; Uruguay: Colza, Nabiza, Nabo—.

var. rapa (Linn.) Hartm. is cultivated throughout India. The

Ayurvedists distinguish two varieties, the red and the white, and

consider the white the better of the two.

The seeds mixed with hot water form an efficient counter-irritant

poultice. The oil, combined with camphor, forms an efficacious

embrocation in muscular rheumatism, stiff neck, etc.; it is used

in- dengue fever wrth benefit, and it is rubbed on the chest in

bronchitis.

In Indo-China the roots and the leaves are considered stomachic ;

the ground fresh leaves are applied to abscesses; the seeds: are

given in colic. . :

Afrikaans: Raap—j; Annam: Lu bu, Tron cu—; Arabic: Khardaleasvad— ;

Bengal: Kalisarson, Sadarai, Sanshi, Shalgram, Shurshi, Schwetrai, Sursha,

THE .MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA _ 699

Sursi— ; Burma: Amemniyenzi—; Canarese: Kappusasoe, Sarsive—j; Catalan:

Nap’ de bou, Nap rodo—; China: Yun T’ai—; Cutch: Surah—,; Deccan:

Kalerayan, Pilerayan—; English: Rape, Wild Turnip—; German: Reps, Ruebe,

Ruebsen, Rurnips—; Gujerat: Kalarai, Raira, Sarashire, Sarsawa—; Hasara:

Dakubi— ; Hindi: Bangasarson, Baralai, Dain, Dainlai, Jadiya, Jariya, Kalerai,

Kalisarson, Khetiya, Lahi, Lahota, Lai, Laita, Pilasarson, Pilirai, Rararada,

Rarasarson, Sarson, Sarsonzard, Shalgham, Shetashirsha, Sursi, Tori, Toriya— ;

Indo-China: Man thanh, Vu than—; Ivrag: Shaighan—; Kurdish: Shailam— ;

Lepcha: Kanyang—; Malayalam: Karupakatuka—; Malta: Swede—; Marathi:

Kalamohare, Sherasa—; Mundari: Dakobi, Piramani—; Nagpurt: Dahakobi,

Dahakubi— ;_ Persian: Sipandanesiyah—; Punjab: Gonglu—; Quetta-Pishin :

Jamboi—; Rajputena: Sarson, Sarsu—; Sanskrit: Bhutaghna, Bimbata, Dura-

dharsha, Grahagna, Kadamba, Kadambada, Kadambaka, Kalasarshapa, Katu-

kasveha, Katusveha, Rajakshavaka, Rajika, Rakshitaphala, Sarishapa, Sarshapa,

Sidhaprayojana, Sidhartha, Tantubha, Tantuka, Tuverika, Ugragandha— #;

Sinhalese: Kaluabbe, Wal-aba—; Spanish: Nabo gallego, Turnep—; Tamil:

Karuppukkadugu— ; Telugu: Nallaavalu—; Uthal: Sarih—.

4. Brassica integrifolla (West) O. E. Schulz is much culti-

vated in India. It is distributed over the Indo-Malayan region,

temperate Eastern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, the West Indies, and

South America.

The seeds are warming, sudorific, and a well-known aid to

digestion. They are much used in internal congestions, in spas-

modic, neuralgic, and rheumatic affections, and in morbid states of

the cerebro-spinal system.

In medicine the oil is used as an embrocation and is applied to

the skin in eruptions and ulcers.

Bengal: Raisarasha—; Bombay: Rai, Rajika, Sarson—; Canarese: Sasive—};

China: Pai Chieh—; Cutch: Rai—; English: Indian Mustard, Rai—; French:

Moutarde de I’Inde, Moutarde rouge—; Gujerati: Rai—; Hindi: Badshahirai,

Barirai, Barlai, Gohnasarson, Khasrai, Rai, Sarson, Sarsonlahi, Shahzadarai— ;

Indo-China: Ben, Rau cai, Rau mo, Spey top, Thuy thai—; Kashmir: Asur—;

Konkani: Samsvel—; Malaya: Pak kai—; Marathi: Mohari, Rayan—;

Mundari: Rai, Raimani—; Pacific Coast: Chinese Mustard, Cosson, Indian

Mustard, Russian Mustard—; Philippines: Mostaza—; Portuguese: Mostarda

de India, Mostarda vermelha—; Sadani: Rai—; Sanskrit: Rajika—; Sinhalese :

Abba—; Tamil: Kadugu—.

5. Brassica cernua (Thunb.) Forbes and Hemsley is cultivated

in India. It is found in China, Japan, and the West Indies.

The leaves are used in Indo-China as an antidysenteric. They

are powerfully diaphoretic.

A decoction of the seeds is given in lumbago, cough, and

indigestion.

— China: Chieh—; English: Black Mustard—; Indo-China: Gioi—.

6. Brassica nigra (Linn.) Koch is cultivated in India and many

other countries.

The leaves and seeds are much used by Hindu and Mahom-

medan practitioners, who credit them with valuable therapeutical

properties.

The dried ripe seed is rubefacient, vesicant, emetic, stimulant,

tonic and revulsive.

The seeds act as a digestive condiment, if taken moderately.

If swallowed whole they operate as a laxative, and for this purpose

are sometimes prescribed in dyspepsia and other complaints attended

with torpid bowels,

700. JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST? SOCIET Yo a Volnexae

The flour of the seeds is used in the form of a poultice being

a useful and simple rubefacient and vesicant. Mustard poultices

prove highly serviceable in cases of febrile and inflammatory dis-

eases, internal congestions, spasmodic, neuralgic, and rheumatic

affections. Mustard flour in water is highly recommended as a

speedy and safe emetic. It is reckoned as a medicine of great

value by the Javanese and the Chinese.

The Meskwaki Indians of Wisconsin grind the seed and use

the powder as a snuff to cure cold in the head.

The pure fresh oil is a stimulant and mild counter-irritant when

applied externally. As such, it is very useful in mild attacks of

sore-throat, internal congestion, and chronic muscular rheumatism.

Mustard seed has been recommended by Sanskrit authors as

a cure for snake bite and scorpion sting; but Caius and Mhaskar

have shown that it has no antidotal value against snake or scorpion

venom.

An alkaloid, sinapine, has been isolated from the seeds; also

myrosin, sinigrin, inosite, albumins, gums, and colouring matters.

Arabic: Khardal, Khirdal, Khurdal—; Bengal: Baisarisha—; Bogotd:

Rabano, Rabano de canarios—; Bombay: Rai, Sarsan—; Canarese: Bilesasive,

Karisasive, Sasive—; Danish: Senep—; Deccan: Raiee, Suroo, Sursoo—;

Dutch: Mosterd, Zwart mosterd—; Egypt: Kabar, Khardal, Khodar, Lifsan— ;

English: Black Mustard, Mustard, True Mustard—; French: Chou noir,

Moutarde. Moutarde grise, Moutarde noire, Navuce rouge, Sénevé, Sénevé

noir—; German: Gruener Senf, Hollaendischer Senf, Mustert, Schwarzer Senf,

Senf—; Greek: Napi, Napia, Sinapi, Sinipi—; Gujerat: Kalirai, Rai—; Hindi:

Aslra, Banarasirai, Ghorrai, Jagrai, Kalirai, Lahi, Makrarai, Rai, Sursu, Suru,

Taramira, Tira—; Ivaqg: Khardal—; Italian: Senapa, Senapa nera, Senapa

vera—; Konkani: Sansonv—; Lepcha: Kun-rang nok—; Malta: Rlack Mustard,

Senapa, Senapa nera, Sinapa, Mustarda seuna—; Meskwaki: Fitciko, makani— ;

Pacific Coast: Black Mustard, Brown Mustard, Kerlock, Red Mustard—;

Persian: Sarshaf—; Polish: Gorczyka—,; Portuguese : Mostarda, Mostardeira— :

Potenza: Lassand—; Prairie Potawatomi: Tcotca’mosikin—; Reggio: Senva—;

Roumanian: Mustar—; Russian: Gortchiz2a ; Sanskrit: Asuri, Atitikshva,

Jwalanti, Jwalatprabha, Katuasuri, Krimixa, Krishnasarshapa, Krishnika,

Kshava, Kshavaka, Kshudhabhijanana, Kshujjanika, Kshutabhijanaka. Kshu-

taka, Madhurika, Raji, Rajika, Raktasarshapa, Raktika, Sarshapa, Tikshna-

gandha—; Sind: Ahor, Kali sursoon, Suraj—; Sinhalese: Ganaba, Kalu-aba— ;

Spanish: Mostaza—; Swedish: Senap—; Tamil: Chirukadugu, Kadugu— ;

Telugu: Avalu—; Treviso: Colzat—; Urdu: Rai—; Uruguay: Mostacilla

negra, Mostaza negra—; Verona: Ravenele—.

CARDAMINE.

The genus includes 100 cosmopolitan species, natives of temperate

and cold regions, especially of Europe and Western and Central

Asia.

The plant is bitter and antiscorbutic. The flowers are diuretic,

useful in chorea and asthma.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—C. alpina Willd.,

C. amara Linn., C. asarifolia Linn., C. gelida Schott., C. hirsuta

Linn., C. impatiens Linn., C. parviflora Linn., C. pratensis Linn.,

C. resedifolia Linn., C. sylvatica Linn., C. trifolia Linn.—; in Indo-

China—; C. hirsuta Linn.—; in Northern America—C. pratensis

Linn.—.

A. Petals linear, erect, very minute, white, often absent ... 2. C. impatiens.

B. Petals spreading, 3 times as long as the sepals sels CG. pratensis:

THE MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA 701

1. Cardamine pratensis Linn. is found in Kashmir. It 1s

distributed to Northern and Western Asia, Europe, Abyssinia, and

Noth America.

The plant is considered to be stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic.

In some parts of Europe the plant is used in the treatment of

nervous affections. In Cornwall the flowering tops have been

employed for the cure of epilepsy throughout several generations

with singular success; though the use of the leaves only for this

purpose has caused disappointment.

The seeds contain myronic acid.

Catalan: Creixans de prat, Creixens de prat—; Dutch: Gemeen schuimblad,

Koekocksbloem, Pinksterbloem, Weidekers—; English: Apple-pie, Bird’s-eye,

Bogspinks, Bonny-Bird-Een, Bread-and-Milk, Canterbury Bells, Cuckoo’s Bread,

Cuckoo-flower, Cuckoo-pint, Cuckoo’s Shoes and Stockings, Gilliflower, Gookoo-

buttons, Headache, Lady Flock, Lady’s Glove, Lady’s Smock, Lamb Lakins,

Lucy Locket, May Blob, May Flower, Milkgirl, Milk Maids, Paigle, Pigeon’s

Eye, Pink, Shoes and Stockings, Smell Smocks, Spink, Whitsuntide—; French :

Bec a Jloiseau, Bouquet au coup, Cardamine, Cardamine des prés, Cresson

amer, Cresson élégant, Cressonnette, Cresson des prés, Cresson sauvage,

Passerage sauvage, Petit cresson aauatique—; German: Fleischblume, Gauch-

blume, Kuckucksschaumkraut, Schaumkraut, Schluesseblume,

Wiesenkresse,

Wiesenschaumkraut—; Greek: Kardamini, Sisymbrion eteron—; Italian:

Cardamantina, Cardamina, Crescione pratense, Nasturzio salvaggio—; Langue-

doc: Creissouneto, Creissoun de prat—; Moldavian: Stupitul cuerlui—; Polish:

Aengkrasse— ; Roumanian: Pascele calului, Scuipatul cucului, Spumeala— ;

Russian: Kress, Serdechnik—; Spanish: Berros de prado, Mastuerzo de prado,

Mastuerzo pratense—.

2. Cardamine impatiens Linn. occurs in the temperate

Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, at 5,o00-12,000 feet. It is

distributed to Afghanistan, temperate Asia and Europe.

The plant is stimulant and diuretic.

English: Mountain Bitter Cress, Narrow-leaved Bitter Cress.

CAPSELLA.

The genus consists of 4 species, natives of temperate and

subtropical regions.

Capsella Bursa-pasteris Medik. is a weed of cultivation; it is

found in temperate India in cultivated places.

Plant astringent; seeds stimulant. The herb and its seeds were

employed in former times to promote the regular monthly flow

in women.

Apparently the uses of the plant are unknown in India.

It has been used in English domestic practice from early times

as an astringent in diarrhoea; it was much used in decoction with

milk to check active purgings in calves.

A well-known popular remedy in Europe and North-America.

It is of prompt use to arrest bleedings and floodings, when given

in the form of a fluid extract; and it may be considered a most

reliable medicine for staying fluxes of blood. The fluid extract of

the herb is also given for dropsy as a diuretic.

The Menomini of Wisconsin use the plant as a cure for poison

ivy; the plant is steeped, and the water when tepid is used as

a wash.

702>. fOURNAL,, BOMBAY \ NATURAL VHIST. (SOCIETY (Vol. Scr

In Bogota the herb, and more particularly the inflorescence, 1s

considered a cure for blennorrhagia.

In Tongking the seeds are given in troubles of the chest; the

whole herb when fresh is used as an hemostatic.

Extracts of Shepherd’s Purse have been used as substitutes for

ergot. They have been asserted to contain acetylcholine, choline,

and possibly tyramine, as well as fumaric acid and inositol; but,

according to Wasicky (Ber. deutsch. Pharm. Ges. 1922, 32, 142);

plants free from fungoid infection are devoid of active constituents.

Baluchistan: Halaku—; Catalan: Bossas de pastor, Bosses de_ pastor,

Sarronets de pastor— ; Chinese : Ch’i—; Colombia: Calzoncitos, Pan y quesito— ;

Dutch: Herderstaschje—; English: Bad Man’s Oatmeal, Blind-weed, Case-weed,

Clapper Pouch, Cocowort, Fat Hen, Lady’s Purse, Mother’s Heart, Naughty

Man’s Plaything, Pepper-and-Salt, Pepper-and-Shot, Pick Pocket, Pick Purse,

Pick-your-mother’s-heart-out, Poor Man’s Permacety, Poor Man’s Pharmacetty,

Purse, Rattle Pouch, Sanguinary, St. James’s Wort, Shepherd’s Bag, Shepherd’s

Pouch, Shepherd’s Purse, Shepherd’s Scrip, Shepherd’s Sprout, Tooth-wort,

Toywort, Ward-seed, Witches’ Pouchers—; French: Bourse a berger, Bourse

a curé, Bourse de capucin, Bourse & Judas, Bourse a pasteur, Bourserette,

Boursette, Capselle, Fleur de Saint Jacques, Houlette, Malette, Malette a berger,

Millefleur, Molette, Molette de berger, Molette des pasteurs, Moufette, Moutarde

de Mithridate, Moutarde sauvage, Tabouret, Thlaspi—; German: Bauensent,

Beutelschneiderkraut, Blutkraut, Brillenkraut, Daxenkraut, Gaensekresse, Geld-

beutel, Grischel, Groeschelkraut, Herzelkraut, Hirtentaeschel, Huirtentaeschlein,

Hirtentasche, Klaffer, Klapperkraut, Kleep, Kuespelkraut, Lapatekrokt, Muen-

selkraut, Nadeldieb, Saeckelkraut, Schaeferkraut, Schedelkraut, Schinken, Taes-

chelkraut, Taschenblume, Taschendieb, Taschenkraut, Voegelikraut—; Harboi

Hills: Chambraka—; Indo-China: Te, Te thai—; Irish: Clappedepouch— ;

Italian: Borsacchina, Borsa di pastore, Borsapastore, Erba raperina, Millefiori— ;

Malta: Shepherd’s Purse, Borsacchina, Borsa di pastore, Gargir il gemel—;

Menomini: Wisakipiko’sa—; Roumanian: Buruiana de figuri, Buruiana vierm-

elui, Iraba rosie, Pungulita, Tascuta ciobanului, Tascutita, Traista ciobanului— ;

Russian: Pastushiya sumka—; Spanish: Bolsa de pastor, Botella, Hierba del

cangrejo, Hierba del carbonero, Mastuerzo macho, Paniquesillo, Pan y quesillo,

Zurron de pastor— ; Tongking : Dinh lich, Dinh luc—.

CHEIRANTHUS.

The genus includes 20 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region, Central Europe, the Himalayan region, and North America.

C. Cheiri Linn. is the only therapeutically active species. Its

flowers are officinal in Portugal.

Cheirianthus Cheiri Linn. is cultivated in Indian gardens.

The seeds are tonic, diuretic, expectorant, stomachic, aphrodisiac ;

good in dry bronchitis, fevers, and injuries to the eye (Yunani).

The flowers, said to be cardiac and emmenagogue, are used in

paralysis and impotence. They are boiled in olive oil; and this

prepared oil is much used for enemata.

The dried petals are much used in Upper India as an aromatic

stimulant.

The seeds are also used as an aphrodisiac.

An alkaloid, cheirinine, has been isolated from the leaves and

seeds. The seeds contain cheiroline, which appears to exist in the

plant as a glucoside. Quercetin has been isolated from the colouring

matters of the flowers.

Bengal: Khueri—; Catalan: Violer groch—; Dutch: Muurbloem—; Egypt:

Manthur—; English: Banwort, Bee Flower, Bleeding Heart, Blood Wall,

THE. MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA _ 703

Bloody Warrior, Cherisaunce, Chevisaunce, Churl, Geraflour, Gilly-flower,

Handflower, Heartsease, Jacks, Jeroffleris, Jilliver, July Flower, Keyry, Sweet

William, Wallflower, Wallstock-gillofer—; French: Baton d’or, Carafée, Casse

col, Coquardeau, Giroflée, Giroflée jaune, Girofiée des murailles, Giroflée des

murs, Giroflée suissard, Murayer, Murer, Rameau d’or, Ravenelle jaune,

Violette girofiée, Violier jaune—; German: Gelbveiglein, Goldlack, Handblume,

Lack, Lackviole, Gelbe Levkoje, Gelbe Viole—; Hindi: WLahurishubu, Todri-

surkh—; Iraq: Shabbo asfar—; Italian: Violaciocca gialla, Viola gialle—;

Languedoc: Girouflado fero, Granié—; Malta: Wallflower, Violaciocca gialla,

Gizi safra—; Portuguese: Goivo amarelho, Violeta amarelha—; Punjab:

Todrisrafarmani, Todrisiyah, Todrisurukh— ; Roumanian: Micsunea—; Russian :

Jeltofiol, Levkoi— ; Sind: Todrisiyah, Todrisurkh— ; Spanish: Alhelf amarillo— ;

Urdu: Todrisurkha—.

COCHLEARIA.

The genus consists of 20 species, natives of Northern temperate

and Asiatic regions.

Acrid, bitter, antiscorbutic herbs.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—C. armor-

acia Linn., C. officinalis Linn.—; in Brazil—C. armoracia Linn.—};

North America—C. officinalis Linn.

Cochlearia flava Ham. is found in the Gangetic valleys from

the Punjab to Bengal.

The plant is used as a febrifuge in Bihar.

CRAMBE.

The genus includes 20 European and temperate Asiatic species;

some of them distributed to Polynesia and Patagonia.

In Europe C. hispanica Linn. and C. maritima Linn. are con-

sidered specifics against scrofula.

Crambe cordifolia Stev. is found in Kashmir and Baluchistan,

whence it spreads to Afghanistan, Persia, and the Caucasus.

At Hindubagh, in Baluchistan, the plant is used as a cure for

nielel.

Baluchi: Pilgosch—; Harnai: Nawarra—; Hindubagh: Pashai, Skharyae,

Skhrai—; Khwas: Naghour-—; Kila Saifulla: Pursail—; Nushki: Pilgosch— ;

Wazirt: Navgra—.

DESCURAINIA.

The genus numbers 43 species; most of them inhabit the cold

and temperate regions of the whole of America; some are found

in Asia, Europe and Macronesia.

D. sophia (Linn.) Webb. is used medicinally in Europe and in

the United States of America.

Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb. (=Sisymbrium Sophia Linn.)

occurs in India from Kashmir to Kumaon up to 14,000 feet, in

the Eastern Himalaya, the Salt Range, Peshawar and Baluchistan.

It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, Mesopotamia, the Mediter-

ranean region, Central Europe, arctic and subarctic Europe, China,

Japan, Central Asia. The plant has run wild in South Africa,

North and South America, and New Zealand.

104" JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY,” Vole

The flowers and leaves are astringent and antiscorbutic. An

infusion of them is a popular remedy in Spain.

In China and Malaya the drug is regarded as demulcent. laxative,

and febrifuge.

In Baluchistan the seeds mixed in syrup are swallowed as a

cure for fever. On the Pab Hills in Jhalawan the plant is used

as a febrifuge.

In the United States of America the herb is used externally in

indolent ulcers, and the seeds are given internally in worms,

calculus complaints, etc.

The juice, mixed with an equal quantity of honey or vinegar,

has been recommended for chronic coughs and hoarseness, and

ulcerated sore-throats. A strong infusion of the herb has proved

excellent in asthma, and the seeds formed a special remedy for

sciatica.

Arabic: Khubah, Robesetti—; Catalan: Herba de la sabiduria, Herba de

Santa Sofia—; Chinese: T’ing Li—; English: Flixweed, Fluxweed—; French:

Argentine rouge, Herbe des chirurgiens, Herbe de la sagesse, Herbe de sainte

Sophie, Mort aux vers, Moutarde de chien, Rhubarbe des paysans, Sagesse des

chirurgiens, Sisymbre sophie, Sophie des chirurgiens, Thalictre des marchands,

Thalictron, Thalictron des boutiques—; German: Besenkraut, Feinblaetrige,

Rauke, Schuttrauke, Sophienkraut, Sophienrauke, Wurmkraut—; Harboi Hills :

Rush—; Hindi: WKhubkallana—; Indo-China: Bo nuong cao—; Jhalawan:

Rush—; Kalat: Rush—; Kivani: Khashir—; Malaya: Tien theng yan, T’ing

li yen—; Mastung: Rush—; Pab Hills: Rush—,; Persian: Khakshi—,; Pishin:

Khakshir— ; Quetta: Khakshir, Khashir—; Spanish: Ajenjo de Serifo, Hierba

de los cirujanos, Hierba de la sabiduria, Serifio absintio, Sofia de los cirujanos— ;

Teheran: Yowdri—; United States: Flax weed—; Urdu: Khakshir—.

DRABA.

This genus includes 150 species; natives of the northern tem-

perate, arctic, and alpine regions, and of the Andes of South

America.

Draba muralis Linn. is found in Kashmir up to 6,000 feet. It

extends to Asia Minor, Europe, and North Africa.

The plant is used in Spain as an antiscorbutic.

English: Small Whitlow Grass—.

EROPHILA.

The genus includes 4 species, natives of the Mediterranean region

and spread over Europe.

Erophila vulgaris DC. is found in Kashmir at 5,000-6,000 feet.

It is distributed to Afghanistan, Western Asia, and Europe.

The plant is considered in Spain as an astringent and vulnerary ;

it is a popular remedy for the whitlow.

English: Spring Whitlow-grass—; French: Drave—.

ERUCA.

The genus consists of 5 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region.

FE, sativa Gars, is used medicinally in Europe.

THE MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA 705

Eruca sativa Gars. is indigenous in the Mediterranean; but is

cultivated in many parts of India.

The seeds are vesicant, and the whole plant is considered

aphrodisiac.

In Europe the young ae are used as stimulant, stomachic,

diuretic, and antiscorbutic. A strong dose will cause vomiting,

and may be taken in the place of ipecacuanha. Powdered, the

effect is less strong than that of mustard.

Afghanistan : AL vneleNes Arabic: Buckl—; Bengal: Shwetsursha, Suffed-

shershi, Swetsarish—; Catalan: Ruca—; Egypt: ’Afin, Gergir, Gery, Shiltam— ;

English : Dame’s Rocket, Dame’s Violet, Jamba, Purple Rocket, Rocket, Vesper-

Flower, White Rocket—; French : Roquette, Roquette cultivée, Roquette des

jardins— ; German: Senfkohl—; Hadramaut: Buckl—; Hindi: Dian, Taramira,

Taranuri, Tira—; Italian: Ruchetta, Rucola—; Kumaon: Chara, Dua—:

Loralai: Mulai—; Malta: Rocket, Ruchetta. Rucola, Aruca, Eruca—; North-

Western Provinces: Duan, Lalu, Sahwan, Tara, Taramira, Tira—; Persian:

Jambeh—; Punjab: <Assu, Jamnia, Tara, Taramira, Usan—; Sanskrit:

Bhutaghna, Bimbata, Daradharsha, Grahagna, Kadamba, Kadambada, Kadam-

baka, Rajakshawaka, Rajika, Rakshitaphala, Sarishapa, Sarshapa, Sidhapra-

yojana, Sidharta, Tantubha, Tantuka, Tuverika, Ugragandha—; Sind: Jambeho

Kalasurson— ; Spanish: Oruga, Raqueta, Roqueta—.

ERYSIMUM.

The genus number 8o0 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region, and inhabiting Europe and Asia.

Erysimum repandum Linn. is found in Kashmir at 5,000-7,000

feet; it is distributed to Persia, and westwards to Eastern Europe

and North Africa.

The plant is used in Spain as an antiscorbutic.

The seeds, when placed in water, become coated with transparent

mucilage. In Persia they are given in fever; and externally, in

the form of a poultice, to relieve pain in the stomach.

Arabic: Khvbah—; Baluchistan : Kashir—; Hamadan : Tukhm-i-khakhshir— ;

Persian: Khakechi—.

FARSETIA.

The genus includes some 20 Mediterranean species, spread over

North Africa, Western Asia, and Northern India.

F. ramosissima Hochst. var. macrocarpa Schweinf. is used

medicinally by the Moors.

1. An erect rigid shrub. Flowers large. Seeds biseriate .... 1. F. Jacquemontii

Twiggy, covered with denser and finer, closely appressed

pubescence. Flowers small. Seeds uniseriate is

3. A rigid hoary undershrub. Flowers large. Seeds dgiteany

biseriate fe nae ah 3:

F. Hamiultonit.

F. aegypliaca.

1. Farsetia Jacquemontii Hook. fil. and Th. is found in

Northern India, West Rajputana and Sind, extending to

Afghanistan.

The plant has a pleasant pungent taste and is taken as a cooling

medicine after pounding. In the Punjab it is considered specific

for rheumatism.

Punjab: Faridbuti, Faridmuli, Lathia, Mulei—; Rajputana: Kagpilang—.

(06, fOURNAL,. BOMBAY YNATURALG HISE: GOCE TV (aiol.n exe

2. Farsetia Hamiltonii Royle occurs in the Punjab, Western

Rajputana, Sind and Baluchistan; it extends to Afghanistan, Persia,

Arabia and North Africa.

The plant is pounded and taken as a cooling medicine. It is

considered specific for rheumatism in the Punjab.

Punjab: Faridbuti—.

3 Farsetia aegyptiaca Turra is found in the Punjab. It is

distributed to Afghanistan, Arabia, Syria, and North Africa.

In the Punjab the plant is considered specific for rheumatism.

It is taken as a cooling medicine after pounding.

Arabic: Djarba, Garba, Garbun, Gjerba, Haifal, Turra—; Punjab:

Faridburi—.

ISATIS.

This genus includes about 50 species, natives of the Mediter-

ranean region, and Central and Western Asia.

Isatis tinctoria Linn. is found in Western Tibet, and is cultivated

in many parts of India. It is distributed westwards to Europe and

the Canary Islands.

The leaves have been used medicinally in the treatment of

jaundice, scurvy, and other ailments; but they are of no value.

California: Ash-of-Jerusalem, Dyer’s Weed, Dyer’s Woad—; Catalan: Herba

de Sant Felip, Pastell—; English : Dyers’ Weed, Dyers’ Woad, Woad—; French:

Goucde, Guede, Guesde, Pastel, Pastel des teinturiers, Vouéde—: German:

Faerber, Waid—; Italian: Guado, Isatide, Pastello—; Roumanian: WDobrisor,

Dobrusor—; Russian: Sinilnik, Vaida—; Spanish: Anil de Aragén, Hierba

pastel, Hierba de San Felipe—.

LEPIDIUM.

The genus includes 100 cosmopolitan species.

The genus is acrid, antiscorbutic, and sternutatory.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—L. campestre

R. Br., LL. crassifohum W. K., 0. Draba Linn. £2 sranminforum

Linn., L. Iberis Linn., &. latifokwm,Linns, L, perfeliatum Tinned.

ruderale Linn., L. sativum Linn., L. virginicum Linn.—; in West

Africa—L. sativum Linn.—; in Southern Africa—L. capensis

Thunb., LL. schinzii Thel.—; in Brazil—L. ruderale J.inn.—; in

Guiana—L. virginicum Linn.—; in North America: L. medium

Greene.

I. Pods orbicular-ovate, notched at tip, valves winged ... 1. L. sativum.

II. Pods transversely oblong, tip entire, valves wingless .... 2. L. Draba.

III. Pods elliptic or ovoid, tip entire, valves wingless

1. Leaves fleshy ats ee ne 3. LScrassuolwum,.

2. Leaves not fleshy 1a 3. 4. WL. latsfoliune:

IV. Pods elliptic or oblong, tips retuse or aareneu valves

keeled, wingless or winged at tip only

1. Valves winged at tip

2. Valves almost wingless

EL. ruderale.

L. perfoliatum.

1. Lepidium sativum Linn. is cultivated throughout India.

The seeds are used by both vaids and hakims on account of

their mucilaginous properties. They are prescribed as a laxative,

and applied to hurts or sprains as a poultice,

TEAM DLCHNALS. @ .POTSONOUS CRUCIFERS .OF INDIA... 707

According te Honigberger, the plant in the Punjab was admini-

stered in cases of asthma, cough with expectoration, and bleeding

piles. The root is used in secondary syphilis and tenesmus.

According to Bellew, the seeds are also considered to be

galactagogue in the Punjab, and are administered after being boiled

with milk, to cause abertion. O’Shaughnessy found the drug to

answer as a gentle and warm aperient.

The leaves are mildly stimulant and diuretic, serviceable in

scorbutic diseases.

The seeds are a popular Hausa medicine; preparations are made

both for internal and external use. The chief medicinal use is

for rheumatic pains and swellings, the seeds crushed and mixed

with water as a draugnt or made into liniments; also a dressing for

sores in camels and horses. They are also given for diarrhoea and

dysentery.

Afghanistan: Tara tezak—; Arabic: Habb-er-reshad, Habrasjat, Half,

Harfulabaz, Hurf, Jarjir, Reschad—; Bengal: Alevarie, Alleevree, Halim—;

Bombay: Ahaliva, Asalia—; Bornuw: Karabou—; Burma: Mongnyin, Samun-

gni—; Canarese: Allibija, Kurutige—; Catalan: Enciamet de caputxi, Herba

de Ja fluxid, Morritort, Murissa—; Deccan: Halim—; Egypt: Habb-er-reshad,

Reshad— ; English : Common Cress, Garden Cress, Passerage, Pepperwort, Town

Cress—; French: Anitor, Cresson alénois, Cresson des jardins, Cresson de terre,

Nasitar, Nasitor, Nasitort, Passerage cultivée Fulani: Takere fondu—:;

German: Gartenkresse, Kresse, Pfefferkraut—; Gujerati: Asalio, Halim—;

Hausa: Labsur, Lausur—; Hindi: Chansur, Chaunsar, Halim, Halon, Hurf,

Malavan, Tara, Tezac—; Iraq: Rashad—; Italian: Lepidio, Nasturzio—; Kano:

Lausuru—; Kanuri: Lapsur—; Kaisina: Lafsu—; Languedoc: Cercoucello— ;

Malta: Garden cress, Agretto, Crescione inglese, Habberxa—; Marathi:

Ahliva—; Mundari: Camcur, Cancur, Ilicamcur—; North-Western Provinces :

Halang, Halim—; Persian: Rukhame-ispanda, Tereh tizec—; Portuguese:

Mastruco—; Punjab: Halim, Halon, .Shargundei, Tezak—; Sanskrit: Ashalika,

Bhadra, Chandrashura, Chandrika, Charmahantri, Darakrishna, Drighabija,

Kalamesha, Karavi, Nandini, Pashumehankarika, Raktabija, Raktaraji, Sidha-

prayojana, Suvasura, Vasupreshpa—; Sind: Ahree, Ahreo, Assaria—; Sokoto:

Lafsur—; Spanish: Berro de jardin, Malpica, Mastuerzo, Mastuerzo hortense— ;

Tamil: Aliverai—; Teheran: Tukhm-shahi—; Telugu: Adalavitulu, Adeli,

Adityalu, Adiyalu—; Urdu: Halim—; Waziristan: Halayo—; Yemen: Half—;

Zaria: Lafsur—.

2. Lepidiam Draba Linn. is found as a weed of cultivation in

the Punjab. It occurs in Persia, Mesopotamia, Caucasus, Europe,

and the Mediterranean region.

The plant is said to possess antiscorbutic properties; and to

control bleeding, if used raw.

In Loralai the seeds are used as a cure for flatulency, seven

or eight being taken at a time.

In Waziristan it is used as a stomachic and tonic. In Europe

as an antiscorbutic.

Afghanistan: Bijindak—,; Arabic: Neffélé— ; Baluchi: Garbust—; Brahui:

Garbust—; Catalan: Capellans, Palitra—; English: Hairy Cress, Hoary Cress— ;

French : Drave—; Hindi: Bajindak—,; Iraq: Jinaibrah, Qunaibrah—; Ispahan:

Montchih— ; Jhalawan: Garbast—j; Kalat: Garbust—; Kila Saifulla: Buska— ;

Kohlu: Halia—; Loralai: Buski—; Malta: Hoary Cress, Cocola, Lattona— ;

Mushki: Garbast—; Pishin: Bushka—; Quetta: Bushka, Busk—j; Spanish :

Lepidio drava—; Tabriz: Khili-wili—; Tasmania: Hoary Cress, White Weed— ;

Waziri: Bashka—; Zhob: Bushka, Buska—.

3. Lepidium crassifoliumW. K. is found in Baluchistan and

the Oriental region, spreading over to Europe,

108. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST OS OCIED VY. VV olweeae

The plant is employed as a rubefacient in rheumatism. The

seeds are prescribed internally in rheumatism and dropsy.

4. Lepidium latifclium Linn. is found in Kashmir. It is

distributed to Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North

Mica,

The plant is depurative and antiscorbutic. It is used as a

resolvent in skin diseases.

Catalan: Herba de la fluxié, Morritort bort, Morritort salvatge, Piperotis— ;

English: Cress, Dittander—; French: Passerage a larges feuilles, Grande

passerage—; German: Breitblaeterige Kresse, Pfefferkraut—; Italian: Mostar-

dina, Peperella—; Ladak: Gonguch—; Portuguese: Herva pimenteira, Herva

serra, Lepidio—; Spanish: lLepidio, Lepidio de Plinio, Mastuerzo mayor,

Piperitas, , Piperitis—.

5. Lepidium ruderale Linn. is found in Kashmir at 7,000-13,000

feet. It extends through the Oriental region to Europe. It also

eccurs in Australia.

The plant is used in impetigo.

Brasil: Mastruco, Menstruco—; English: Narrow-leaved Pepperwort—;

Tasmania: Narrow-leaved Cress—; Uruguay: Yuyo de resfrio.

6. Lepidium perfoliatum Linn. is found in Baluchistan and

Afghanistan, whence through the Oriental region it extends to

Southern Europe.

In Europe this plant is popularly believed to be a_ useful

antiscorbutic.

MATTHIOLA.

This genus includes 50 species of the Mediterranean region,

inhabiting Europe, South Africa, and the Western Himalaya.

The leaves of the following species were formerly used as

emmenagogues in Europe—M. incana R. Br., M. tristis R. Br.,

M. varia DC.—.

Matthicla incana R. Br. is indigenous in the Mediterranean

region and in Western Europe; it is cultivated in Indian gardens.

The Mahommedan authors distinguish between three kinds of

seeds; yellow, red, and white; but in practice no distinction seems

to be made between them. They are all considered bitter, tonic,

diuretic, expectorant, stomachic, aphrodisiac; good in dry bronchitis,

fevers, and injuries to. the eye.

The seeds are used in infusion in cancer; mixed with wine

they are given as an antidote to poisonous bites. In the Punjab

and in Sind they are reckoned aphrodisiac.

Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that the seeds

are not an antidote to snake venom.

Arabic: Bajar-ul-kumam, Manthur—; Catalan: Violé comi—; Egypt:

Kheyly, Manthur, Manthur madbag—; English: Gilliflower, Hoary Stock, Queen

Stock, Stock—,; French: Mathiola—; German: Winter Levcofe—; Indo-China :

Tu la lan hoa—; Ivaqg: Shabbo—; Malta: Queen’s Stock, Stock, Violaciocca,

Gizi— ;_ Persian: Todri—; Punjab: Todri liba, Todri safed—; Sind: Todri

safed— ; Spanish: Aleli encanecido—; Urdu: Todri safed—; Uruguay: Aleli—.

THE MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF .INDIA 709

MOoRICANDIA.

The genus consists of to Mediterranean species.

Moricandia tortuosa Hook. fil. and Th. occurs in the salt plains

of the Punjab, west of the Indus.

\ decoction of the flowers is rubbed on for eczema in Waziristan.

NASTURTIUM.

The genus consists of 50 cosmopolitan species.

The plant is diuretic, stimulant, and antiscorbutic. The seeds

are mildly laxative. |

The following are used medicinally in Europe—N. fontanum

Aschers., N. palusire DC., N. sylvestre R. Br.—; in La Reunion

—N. fontanum Aschers.—; in Madagascar—N. barbareaefolium

Baker, N. fontanum Aschers.—; in China—N. montanum Wall.—;

in Indo-China—N. fontanum Aschers., N. indicum DC.—; in Brazil

—N. fontanum Aschers.—; in North America—N. curvisiliqua Nutt.,

N. fontanum Aschers., N. palustre DC.—.

1. Aquatic, stem creeping and floating a 1. N. fontanum.

2. Stems weak, suberect, smooth, slightly hairy ... 2. N. palustre.

3. Erect, rough-hairy or sometimes glabrous annual ... 3. N. indicum.

4g. An annual much resembling N. indicum but less

robust with larger, smoother, less divided leaves... 4. N. montanum.

1. Nasturtium fontanum <Aschers. is found in many _ hill

stations, in the Punjab, Waziristan, Baluchistan; and thence to

Afghanistan, temperate Asia and Europe.

The fresh plant is widely known for its antiscorbutic and

stimulant properties. It is used in Brazil in troubles of the chest.

Amarah: Kobani—; Brazil: Agriao—; Catalan: Creixans, Creixens, Gredas,

Morritort d’aigua—; Deccan: Lutputiah—; Dutch: Water-kers—; Egypt:

Gorrat-el-ain— ; English: Shamrock, Stertion, Water-cress—; French: Cailli,

Cresson, Cresson aquatique, Cresson d’eau, Cresson de fontaine, Cresson officinal,

Cresson de ruisseau, Nasitord, Santé du corps—; German: Braunkersch,

Brunnenkresse, Kersche, Quellranke, Wasserraute, Wassersenf, Wiesenkresse— ;

Greek: Sisymbrion—; Hindi: Deskandar—; Hova: Anandrano—; Irish:

Biolar—; Italian: Agretto—; Crescione, Nasturzio, Sisimbrio, Sisimbro—;

Malta: Water-cress, Crescione d’ acqua, Cresciuni, Sija—; New-Zealand:

Iwowhiti-whiti— ; North-Western Himalayas: Piriyahalim—; Portuguese: Agri-

ao—; Provencal: Creiso—; Roumanian: Brancuta, Cardama de izvor, Hrenita,

Nasturel—-; Russian: Kress—; Sinhalese: Kakutupala—; Spanish: Berro, Berro

comun, Berro de fucute, Mastuerzo acuatico—; Swedish: WKiaellkrasse—; Waziri :

Dalamira, Thermera—.

2. Nasturtium palustre DC. occurs in North-Western India,

the temperate Himalaya up to 10,000 feet, Assam, and Bengal; it

is spread over the temperate regions of both hemispheres.

The fresh plant possesses the antiscorbutic properties of the

genus.

China: T’ing Li—; Egypt: Manthur, Mufrad—; New South Wales: Native

Cabbage— ; Pacifitc Coast: Marsh Cress, Marsh Yellow Cress—.

3. Nasturtium indicum DC. is found throughout India in wet

places from Ceylon to Kashmir and Mishmi, Bengal, Assam, Chitta-

gong, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula. It extends to Malaya and

China.

710: YOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALINEISH YES OCI Vo leycieencle

In Indo-China the plant is considered diuretic, stimulant, and

antiscorbutic. The seeds, which are said to be laxative, are also

used in the treatment of asthma.

Indo-China: Cai cot xoi, Dirh lich, Lai hoang, Thuy gioi thai—.

4. Nasturtium montanum Wall. occurs in North-Western

India up to 7,o0co0 feet, in Sikkim, the Khasia Hills, and Burma.

It extends to Java, China, and Japan.

The plant has antiscorbutic properties.

China: Han Tsai

RAPHANUS.

The genus consists of 8 species, mostly Mediterranean.

R. sativus Linn. is. used medicinally in Europe, China, Indo-

China, Malaya, and the Malay Archipelago.

Raphanus sativus Linn. is found in temperate and warm

countries; it is cultivated all over India up to 16,000 feet.

The radish has a hot, sharp, bitter taste; stomachic, binding,

anthelmintic; nervine tonic; good in tumours, piles, and all inflam-

mations; useful in diseases of the heart, amenorrhea, hiccough,

leprosy, cholera; the juice relieves earache. The flowers are bechic

and cholagogue (Ayurveda).

The root is useful for urinary complaints and piles. The seeds

are sharp and bitter; laxative, tonic, emmenagogue, carminative ;

good for the spleen and in paralysis; produce alopecia; mixed with

wine they counteract the effects of the bites of. snakes: and other

poisonous animals (Yunani) ;

Radish seeds are peptic, expectorant, diuretic, laxative, carmin-

ative, and corrective. In the Punjab they are considered to be

emmenagogue. They are much used in Indo-China by native

practitioners.

~ The roots are used for urinary and sy philitic diseases; they are

a reputed medicine for piles and gastrodynic pains.

The juice of the fresh leaves is also used as a diuretic and

laxative.

The syrup of radishes is excellent for hoarseness, bronchial

difficulty of breathing, whooping-cough, and other complaints of

the chest.

These seeds are not an antidote to snake venom (Mhaskar and

Caius).

Arabic: Bajrulkijal, Bokel, Boukir, Bou-toum, Fidgel, Figl, Fugel—; Bengal :

Mula, Muli—; Bombay: Mula, Muro—; Burma: Monelahmungla, Moula—;

Canarese: Bili, Mullangi, Mullangiyanne—; Catalan: Raba—; Chinese: Lai

Fu, Tsai Fu Ken—; Danish: Redike—; Deccan: Mulli—; Dutch: Radijs—;

Egypt: Fidjel—; English: Garden Radish, Rabone, Radish—; French: Navet

rave, Radis, Petit radis, Radis rond, Radis rose, Petite rave, Rave rose,

Tendrette—; German: Gartenrettich, Rettich, Retting, Sommerrettich, Winter-

rettich— ; Greek: Raphanis—; Gujerat: Mala, Mura—; Hausa: Fijil—; Hindi:

Fugil, Mula, Muli, Muro, Purabi sarisha, Sweti sarisha, Tora, Toorub—; Hova:

Radisa— ; Hungarian: Retek—; Indo-China: Cu cai, Lai bac, Lo bac, Lu bu—;

Tvaq: Fujl—; Italian: Rafano, Ramolaccio, Ravanello, Ravano—; Japanese:

Daion—; Kolami: Morai—; Konkani: Mullo—; Kurdish: Tur—; Languedoc :

lod

THE MEDICINAL & POISONOUS CRUCIFERS OF INDIA 711

Rabasso, Rafe—; Malaya: Lobak, Loh fook—; Malayalam: Mullangi—; Malta:

Radish, Radice, Rafano, Figel, Ravanall—; Marathi: Mula, Muri—; Mongolia:

Laopang, Lobin, Turma—; Mundari: Morai, Moroe, Murai, Muroe—; Mysore :

Magunigadde—; Nepal: Mulasinki—; North-Western Provinces: Muli—;

Persian: Tukhmeturub, Turup—; Philippines: Rabano—; Portuguese: Rabanete,

Rabano, Rabao, Rabao negro—; Punjab: Muli, Mungra, Taramira—;

Roumanian: Ridiche—; Russian: Radis, Rediska—; Sanskrit: Bhumikakshara,

Dirghakandaka, Dirghamulaka, Dirghapatraka, Hariparna, Hastidanta, Hasti-

dantaka, Kandamula, Karukandaka, Ksharamula, Kunjar, Kahakanda, Mrita-

kshara, Mulaka, Mulavha, Nilakantha, Rajaluka, Ruchira, Ruchishya, Shankh-

amula, Shimbiphala, Sita—; Sind: Muri—; Sinhalese: Rabu—; Spanish:

Rabano, Rabano cultivado, Rabano negro—; Swedish: Raettika—; Tamil :

Mullangi, Mulinghie—; Telugu: Mullangi—; Tibet: La phug—; Turktsh:

Turp—; Urdu: Mulekebija—; Uruguay: Rabanito, Rabano—; Yemen: Bokel,

idyl—. ae

SISYMBRIUM.

The genus includes 77 species, found chiefly in the temperate

regions of both hemispheres.

Whe -eenus is diuretic and expectorant.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—S. altis-

simum Linn., S. austriacum Jacq., S. Inio Linn., S. Loeseltt Linn.,

S. officinale Scop., S.. strictissimum Linn.—; in North America

S. officinale Scop., S. pinnatum Greene—.

A, Fruiting pedicles as broad as the pod he pen Se De GLLISSEIUNT.

B. Fruiting pedicles” slender

1.° Pods 3.8-5 cm., erect ie ee age rare ee bier

2. Pods 2.5-3.8 cm., slightly curved ies saa Bele LOeSelit:

i. Sisymbrium TIrio, Linn. is found in Rajputana, Punjab,

Peshawar, Baluchistan, and Kohat. It is distributed to Central

Asia, Afghanistan, Arabia, the Mediterranean, and Eritrea,

The seed is expectorant and restorative, and used externally as

a stimulating poultice.

It is also said to be febrifuge.

In Spain an infusion of the leaves is given in affections of the

throat and of the chest.

_ Arabic: WKhubah, silihg—; Catalan: Apagallums, Mata-llums— ; Egypt :

Figl-el-gemmal, Harra—; English: London Rocket—; Ivaq: Huwairah—;

Malta: London Rocket—; Merwara: Parjan—; Persian; Kharkasi—; Punjab :

Janglisarson, Maktrusa— ; Sind: Junglisurson—; Spanish: Matacandiles, Oruga

leonina, Rabanillo amarillo—; Urdu: Khubakalan—,

2, Sisymorium altissium Linn. occurs in Kashmir up to

8,000 feet and in Chitral. It is distributed to Persia, Western

Asia, the Mediterranean, and Central Europe.

The leaves and flowers are considered astringent and

antiscorbutic.

3. Sisymbrium Loeselii Linn. occurs in Kashmir up to 8,000

feet and in Peshawar. It is distributed to Central Asia, Siberia,

Western Asia, Central Europe.

The leaves and flowers are given in scurvy and in scrofula,

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

‘THLSAPI.

The genus consists of 60 species inhabiting the Northern

temperate regions.

Thlaspi arvense Linn. is found as a weed of cultivation

throughout the temperate and subalpine Himalaya, ascending to

14,000 feet. It is spread over Europe and Asia, always in

cultivated places.

The seeds and the shoots are used medicinally by the Chinese.

In Spain the plant is considered astringent and the seeds stimulant.

Catalan: Traspic—; Chinese: Hsi Ming—; English: Mithridate Mustard,

Penny Cress, Shepher’s Furse—; French: Monnoyére, Tabouret des champs—;

Italian: Erba storna—; Spanish: Mostaza salvaje, Talaspico, Tlaspios—.

BOMBAY’S FISHING INDUSTRY.

Dr. S. B. SETNA, MiSC), F-R.M.S., Php. (Cantab.),

Fisheries Officer, Department of Industries, Bombay.

FISHERMEN’S STRUGGLE FOR .EXISTENCE.

Bombay’s pre-eminence as a port and a great commercial

centre has tended to obscure from our mind the fact that originally

it was nothing but a group of unconnected, mean fishing islets.

rom such humble origin it has grown to be India’s Gateway

and foremost port, with ships from all the world calling at its

magnificent harbour. The fishing trade, which was its original

mainstay, has not, however, kept pace to the same degree with

its commercial progress. ‘The trade is still conducted at various

spots in the city where it undoubtedly was in days gone by, and

this serves as a useful reminder of the former origin of our

great city.

The fish landed in Bombay averages 30,000 tons only and yields

Rs. 80 lakhs. An idea of the wealth which the harvest of the sea

is capable of producing may be had from the example of Japan,

where vast revenue is realised from Fisheries (coastal, deep sea,

whaling, trawling and fish rearing). The complete figures for 1934

showed a catch of 50,00,000 tons, valued at 3,04,450 million yen

(Rs. 2,38,612 millions). This is equivalent to about one-third of

the world’s sea fisheries. Fish landed in Spain, Great Britain,

Australia and France annually is valued at approximately

Rs. 53,00,000, Rs. 27,00,00,000, Rs. 1,60,00,000 and Rs. 9,33,00,000

respectively.

Supplies inadequate:—The immense potentialities of a flourish-

ing fishing industry have not yet been realised in our Province.

Although there has been a substantial improvement in recent years,

the progress is slow. The increasing demand for fish in Bombay

is clear evidence of the fact that there is a real and profitable

market for the sale of this valuable foodstuff in our city. The

supply falls, however, considerably below the demand as a visit

to any market will show. Bombay, with its lengthy coast-line of

over 1,300 miles, has numerous estuaries, creeks providing natural

facilities for fishing, but despite these, the supply is still far from

adequate to cope with the demand. Not only during the monsoon

when the local supply is practically nil, but even during the fair

season, large quantities of fish have to be imported into the city

to meet but unsatisfactorily the needs of the people. The result

of this scarcity is that fish is frequently not available to many

who would otherwise make it a regular item of food.

The main reason why fishing does not occupy the rightful

place that is due to it among our country’s industries is because

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol) “XE

the peculiar structure of our society ordains that fishing and the

trade in fish must be conducted exclusively by those whose avocation

it is by caste. The whole industry is, thus, in the hands of

people who belong to the lower strata of our society, with no

capital, no education, no initiative and no _ business capacity.

Under such circumstances, it is hardly to be wondered at that the

fisheries of the Bombay Province, in common with those of other

maritime provinces in India, are undeveloped and that our supply

is what may best be described as scanty and unsteady.

Neglected imdustry:—-The general belief that fishing is a mean

occupation solely to be pursued by one or two special castes

results in restricting fishing to those whom the accident of birth

makes it their life’s calling. Except for a few individuals, there

have been no instances of men of education and capital entering

the fishing trade on a large commercial scale. Fisheries, in

consequence, have not attracted capital from any of the high caste

money-owning classes in this Province, whereas in other maritime

countries, the importance of fisheries in the commercial organisa-

tion has always been recognised.

The result of conditions obtaining in this country is that the

industry is unable to provide, from the meagre resources of the

few who pursue the craft, the capital and the driving power

necessary to exploit to the fullest extent the ungathered harvest

of our teeming seas. The insufficiency of the supply of fish is

due to the low catching capacity of our fishing methods and also

to our faulty system of distribution. These dithculties are further

enhanced by the limited period of the year during which fish is

available. Experience has shown, that ‘Bombay has an abundant

supply of fish from September to December. These four months

represent the peak of the fishing season for Bombay fishermen.

Later on from December to June, when cnough fish is not available

in the immediate vicinity of Bombay, it is brought from distant

sites by rail, sailing craft, bus and launches.

Small Reale of DpORL One —Sea fishing in the Bombay Province

is conducted on a small scale only. As a rule, fishermen do not

eo out more than 1o to 12 miles from the shore to fish.

Occasionally they go as far as 20 to 30 miles; but the smaller

boats do not venture into water deeper than 16 fathoms. More-

over, most of the fish landed by sail boats is caught in huge bag

‘nets which are attached to long stakes planted in the sea bed and

‘it is obviously impossible to fix these stakes in waters more than

12 or 15 miles from the coast owing to the great depth. Our

fishermen, owing to the distance of the fishing fields from Bombay

and their frail fishing craft, are thus not able to touch more than

the bare fringe of the fishing grounds. If fishermen could go

further afield and land their catch in Bombay, the result would be

many. times more satisfactory. There is room for an increase of

50 per cent. in the quantity of fish normally sold in the Bombay

markets. The position in the mofussil, so far as supply is

concerned is ‘acute, and in several districts fish as an article of

‘diet -is more often than not a rare luxury which few can afford.

There is'no reason why this state of affairs should continue as

a eae

BOMBAY’S FISHING INDUSTRY 715

there are fruitful fishing fields not very far off from Bombay.

There is another facility and that is the number of landing sites

in Bombay itself, so that the increased supplies could be judiciously

landed at appropriate distributing centres.

Landing site and fishing grounds:—Fish is landed at various

ports in Bombay both on the East and West side of the island.

These places are Arthur Bunder, Sassoon Dock, Bhaucha Dhakka,

Chowpathi, Mazagaon, Sewri, Worli, Mahim, Dharavi, etc. By

far the bulk of the fish brought to Bombay is landed at Arthur

Bunder and Sassoon Dock, both in the Colaba area. These centres

have been traditional sites of fishermen’s colonies for generations

past, and the fishermen have plied their trade there for countless

years. The most flourishing colony, where trade is briskest, 1s

undoubtedly Sassoon Dock. It affords a safe and convenient

anchorage for the frail fishing craft. Moreover, there are suitable

facilities for landing fish here, from whence it is quickly despatched

for sale to the markets. The ubiquitous bus is used to transport

the fish to the markets. The increasing use of motor vehicles is

gradually displacing human labour and the sight of the fisherwomen

staggering under a ponderous load, once so familiar in the streets

of Bombay, is now becoming increasingly rare. Handcarts are

also extensively employed to carry fish from the landing sites to

the markets.

Apart from Bombay’s own colonies of fishermen, there are also

fishing communities at Worli, Chimai, Korah, Danda, Manori,

Bhyandar, Bassein, Virar, Kelva, Satpati (near Palghar), Nawapur,

Chinchani, Dahanu, etc. The fisher folk at these places fish not

only off shore and in creeks but also in the deep sea at a distance

of about 12 miles from the coast.

The fishermen of Satpati, it may be added, venture as far as

Kathiawar for Pomfrets, although it must be made clear that they

do not actually catch fish but merely buy it from the Kathiawar

fishermen and bring it to Bombay. These fishermen willingly

incur the hazards of a long voyage in their primitive vessels,

because they know that the return voyage from Diu to Bombay

will be assisted by favourable winds and that their pomfrets, which

in February, March and April are not available in Bombay, will

then fetch an attractive price in our city.

Fish from places such as Danda, Vesava, Manori, Uttan,

Bassein, Palghar, Broach, etc. situated on B.B. & C.I. Railwav

is invariably brought by train to Bombay and landed at the

Grant Road Railway station, whence the B.B. & C. I. Rail-

way vans hurriedly set off with the fish parcels to the various

markets. Of the two railways namely the B.B. & C.I. and the

G.I.P. Railway, which serve Bombay, it is through the former that

fish is imported into Bombay, as this railway runs more or less

parallel with the coast. Fish is also imported by steamers from

Karachi, Okha in Kathiawar, Veraval and Jamnagar, either in

air-proof ice-boxes or ordinary ice-boxes. Had it not been for

these imports by rail and steamer, it is certain that the fish caught

locally would by no means suffice to meet the large and the con-

stant demand for fish in the city.

416 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY INATURAL HIST, SOCIETY ~ aVol. gece

It would not be out of place here to describe the various

processes from the time the fish is caught till it is sold to -the

public.

Stages in marketing of fish:—Landing of fish comes first in

the natural order of sequence. As soon as the catch is landed,

the fishermen’s problems begin. This aspect of the fishermen’s

trade has never been fully explored and explained. The marketing

of fish is an elaborate affair in view of the numerous links in the

business. The central figures in the picture of the fish trade are

undoubtedly the owners of the fishing craft, the fishermen who

actually fish, the wholesale fish merchants, the commission agents,

fish retailers and lastly the consumers. There are many other

actors who make up the full cast, but I shall deal only with the

principals and try to show how each one of them hopes to benefit

from the landing of a catch of fish.

Some of the fishermen do their own marketing. Their

womenfolk carry the fish to the market and retail it there. A

large majority of the fishermen are dependent, however, for

marketine on wholesale fish dealers. Here, a local dealer acts

as a banker. At the beginning of the fishing season merchants

enter into contracts with as many fishermen as possible under-

taking to buy up their entire catches from time to time at definite

fixed prices for different types of fish. These dealers advance the

fishermen the money necessary for boats and nets. They also

give the fishermen periodic cash advances for incidental domestic

expenditure, marriave and death expenses, etc. Some dealers own

sail boats which they send out to sea to collect fish from the

various fishermen with whom they have entered into a contract

and brine it to the landing site. Before the fish is handed over

to the collecting boat, the catch is individually counted and made

over to the dealers. Accounts are struck up later, after about a

week or so, when the fishermen return to port. The accounts

are finally settled by the contractor after he has deducted the

advance made for the upkeep of boats and nets. Any balance,

if outstandine to the fishermen, is then paid to them by the

wholesale dealer. These dealers in their turn send the catch to

Bombay to the Crawford market to their commission agents, who

auction the fish and charge six per cent for their service. At

this stave the fish passes into the hands of people who retail the

fish in the Crawford market or pass it on to their sub-agents for

retail sale in other markets of the city.

Meagre earnings:—Our fishermen have no other source of

livelihood than fishing. Their earnings are meagre. If one takes

into consideration the months when no fishing is done, owing to

the monsoon or to the disappearance of fish from our coast on

account of migration, the earnings obtained during the fishing

season if spread over the period of a year are reduced to an

insionificant fi7ure. Thus in a few months of brisk fishing they

must earn for the whole year. Even in the fishing season earnings

are far from great, owing firstly to fierce competition and secondly,

to the fact that the commodity before it finally reaches the

consumer from the boat, passes through many hands_ the

BOMBAY’S FISHING INDUSTRY fay

wholesale dealer, the commission agent and the retail vendor. The

money obtained by the fisherman, who has incurred all the risks

and hazards of his trade, is scarcely a fraction of what the

consumer pays the retail vendor. Whether every man who handles

the fish makes a big or small profit, or no profit, does not alter

the fact that every transaction is to be paid for. The fisherman’s

catch as it changes hands gets dearer in the process and_ his

legitimate margin of profit is narrowed down by the superfluous

intermediate agencies that cumber his trade for their own gain,

An illustration will make this clear. I shall refer specifically

to pomfrets, the season for which is from September to November.

The wholesale dealer, from whom the consumer eventually gets

his supply, pays the fisherman about Re. 1 to Rs, 1-8-0 per kodi,

—the technical term used in the fishing trade for a lot of 22 fish,

but never does the public get pomfrets at an anna each or even

at four annas a pair, even the height of the fishing season. Any

household that buys fish at this time will confirm the statement

that the cook never charges less than six to eight annas a parr.

The price of course rises when the pomfret is out of season, and

then Re. 1 to Rs. 1-8-0 per pair of pomfrets is not uncommon.

Precarious calling :—Apart from the distributing media which

absorb, without much effort, the profit that is readily due to the

fishermen the latter have to contend with a number of adverse

factors. If foul weather is left out of count, the fisherman has

yet other problems. He has no certainty that every trip to the

fishing fields will be productive. On a bad day the catch will

be small, even an abundant catch may be a mixed _ blessing.

It means a glut on the market for that day, with a corresponding

diminution in the prices paid by the wholesale dealer and therefore

in the margin of profit. Further, fish have first to be caught and

landed, they do not fall into the nests. They have to be tracked

and their favourite haunts located. This means time, money and

effort. Boats and fishing gear have to be purchased before any

fishing can be undertaken. Wear and tear and destruction of gear

are heavy, and repairs and replacements take away a large share

of the return. It is scarcely to be wondered at therefore that our

fishermen lead a hand-to-mouth existence, for they are invariably

in debt. Conditions are against them, and even if they want to,

they cannot modernise their methods, owing to habitual poverty:

Fishermen's apathy:—The possibilities of the development of

the fishing industry in and around Bombay are great, but the

reason why no progress has been made is, first, the chronic poverty

of our fishermen and secondly, their inveterate disinclination to

introduce modern methods. No improvements can be expected

as long as they continue to fish in the manner of their forefathers.

Our fishermen, it must be admitted, are a conservative community,

indifferent to the introduction of new devices. They lag behind

only because they have steadily failed to keep pace with the times.

The prime necessity is to educate our fishermen to a realisation

of the value of adopting modern and improved methods of fishing.

That the seas around Bombay teem with fish, has been

abundantly proved by the investigation of the William Carrick, the

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

trawler specially brought out by the Bombay Government to survey

and locate the fishing grounds in our waters. The work of this

vessel showed that just the bare fringe of the fishing grounds is

now touched, and that with improved fishing gear, our fishermen

could not only venture further afield and augment the yield but

also earn greater profit for themselves.

Other main problems confronting the fishing industry are the

question of rapid transport, cold storage of the catch and efficient

methods of distribution, so that fish reach the market within the

minimum time.

Government’s help to industry:—The first problem, namely,

that of transport has in some measure been tackled by the Govern-

ment of Bombay, who have successfully demonstrated that there

is a fine opening for’ private enterprise, either for fishermen

themselves or others co-operating with them, in the use of launches

for the speedy transport of fish. The Bombay Government, in

1933, inaugurated an experiment to popularise the use of motor

launches as fish carriers. That the progress of the experiment

has been encouraging is evident from the fact that every year

since, there has been an addition to the number of vessels. The

vessels, of which there are now nine, were originally meant fo

operate within a radius of about 30 miles from Bombay in order

to demonstrate to the fishermen the advantages of launches over

sail boats for the rapid carriage of fish.

The launches did not, however, confine themselves to this

restricted sphere of operation. They went farther and farther

afield, first to Ratnagiri, then to Malwan and so until they now

brine fish from Karwar, which is nearly 300 miles from Bombay.

The time taken in the round trip to Karwar is about five days.

The fish, which is stored in the holds of the vessels in ice, reaches

Bombay in excellent condition.

The launches have not only served to demonstrate the advant-

ages of fast mechanical transport. They have also fulfilled another

ereat object; by making available in Bombay a supply of fish at

a period of the year when fish was usually not available in

sufficiently laree quantities to meet the constant demand. The

launches have also, incidentally, served to introduce to _ local

consumers; types of . fish, which, before: the operation ‘of-"the

launches alone the Konkan coast, were scarcely ever to be seen

or even heard of in the Bombay markets. Foremost among these

is the mackerel, known in the vernacular as bangda. This is a

fish of exceptional nutritive value, rich-in proteins and fat contents.

Since the introduction of the launches the city’s supply of fish has

been auomented by lakhs of pounds. During the current fishine

season these launches brought from the Kanara coast, about 270

miles from Bombay, 15,00,000 lb. of fish. |

The success achieved by the Bombay Government’s experiment

to popularise the use of rapid sea-going transport has stimulated

and encouraged capitalists and educated people to come forward

and invest in launches. A most. encouraging sien! for capitalists,

who have so far kept aloof, can do much to develop our fishing

industry and help our fishermen, who by their own unaided efforts

BOMBAY’S FISHING INDUSTRY ~ FAS

cannot prosper. The fishing industry occupies a prominent place

in| most maritime countries of the world. Even Kings and

aristocrats support and encourage it. It may not be generally

known that the king of the Belgians is the patron of a fishing

organization known as the ‘Ibis’, which owns a number of fishing

vessels.

Neglected varieties of fish :—The co-operation of the public is

also an essential factor in any scheme to develop the fishing

industry. As matters stand at present the public confines its

choice of fish to only three or four popular varieties, with the

result that other types are usually unsold and converted into

manure. A part of the fishermen’s catch is thus rendered entirely

unremunerative and profitless. Usually about 30 varieties of fishes

are landed in Bombay daily, but there is a real demand for only

about four or five varieties, namely, pomfrets, rawas, dara and

surmai. Other equally tasty and good fish, such as mackerel, dog

fish, sardine, kupa, Rokeri, bhing, pala, ghol, akru are bought

by only poor people. Yet the fish bought by the poor are no

less tasty or nutritive than those in constant demand by the more

well-to-do. The better classes are merely the victims to their own

ignorance, and do not know what they are missing.

These neglected varieties could be popularised by the general

public widening their usual sphere of choice. The public will not

only be extending a non monotonous menu but will also be helping

our fishermen to realise a larger return for their arduous and

hazardous labours. By increasing the demand for such fish, the

public can indirectly stimulate general business throughout the

country. With the marketing of bigger catches, the purchasing

power of the fishermen will increase.

Fish a_ health food:—There are several reasons why_ fish

should commend itself as an item of diet. The dietetic value

of fish and its superiority over other flesh foods such as meat

and game is unquestioned. Centuries ago it was known in

a vague way that the eating of fish was conducive to health, but

only within comparatively recent years has it been established that

the belief had a basis in fact. Scientists and dieticians have

examined various fish foods and revealed many startling facts bv

their investizations and experiments. Some of the oils extracted

from the livers and bodies of certain fish are nowadays renowned

the world over for their wonderful health-huildine and curative

properties. At the present time, scientists in Canada and elsewhere

are conducting intensive studies into the nutritive qualities of fish

and every year there is announced some discovery of importance to

the health of mankind. Only recently, it was stated that Line

Cod, a Pacific Coast food-fish ‘has been found to be one of the

richest known sources of insulin’—a substance which is of great

value in the treatment of diabetes.

Fish contains a relatively high percentage of protein, the most

important constituent of food, but its dietic value is enhanced

hecause of the health-guarding and health- building elements found

ine it. Dheses actors, combined with the tastiness and ease of

digestion make it a food of exceptional value,

(20. JOURNAL, BOMBAY "NALURAL WHIS hiGSOCIET Ve 0) cs

Another valuable property in which fish abounds is iodine.

This inexpensive drug is so commonly used for the treatment of

wounds that we do not realise its great therapeutic value. Iodine

is a great prophylactic against such diseases as goitre. Vast

areas of land contain almost no iodine at all, and hence iodine does

not occur in the flesh of land-living food animals which feed upon

them. On the other hand, it is relatively abundant in the bodies

of different varieties of fish. Such common fish as cod, haddock,

halibut, lobsters, etc., contain, per pound, several times the human

body’s daily iodine requirements, so that if fish is eaten regularly

the body is supplied with the iodine essential to health. Dr.

J. F. McClendon, who several years ago was sent to Japan by

the Rockefeller Foundation to make an exhaustive study of the

diet of the Japanese people, reported that in Japan there is only

one case of goitre to every 10,00,000 people. Another very

striking observation recorded was that there was no radium in

Japan. This is because they have little or no cancer. This new

association of no goitre and no cancer in a country where the diets

are enormously high in iodine leads one to believe that the goitre-

preventing qualities found in sea foods are also valuable prevent-

ives for cancer.

Enough has been said to make it abundantly clear that the

fisherman is undoubtedly the most conspicuous figure in the picture

of the fishing trade, but the public thinks little of him, or of the

hardships and difficulties he unmurmuringly undergoes.

The fisherman is entirely an unknown entity to us. His humble

personality never comes within our ken. We are practically

ignorant of his very existence and this is because we entrust our

marketing to a legion of servants. It is true we have no fish

markets devoted exclusively to the sale of fish as in other European

countries; but this ought not to deter us from visiting the fish-

landing sites and learning something of the numerous varieties

of fish landed and the conditions under which the trade is pursued.

Only thus could we come into more intimate contact with the

fisherman. The welfare of the fisherman and his trade is in our

own hands. Visits to fish-landing sites can be of immense edu-

cative value. The average fish-eater in this country does not know

the names of more than half a dozen stock varieties of fish. It

is by visiting fish markets and fish-landing sites that we can widen

our knowledge of the infinite variety of the denizens of the seas

and perhaps kindle among our children an interest in marine fauna,

for it is on the younger generation, who will have to deal with

the changed conditions of life and food supply that the future

prosperity of the industry will eventually depend.

THE HABITS OF THE COMMON EARWIG OF

ANNAMALAINAGAR, EUBORELLIA STALI (DOHRN).

K. B. THIAGARAJAN, B.SC.

To collect material for studying the development of the common

South Indian Earwig, I have kept under observation for the past

six months a large number of living specimens collected mostly

from Annamalainagar and to a small extent from Tanjore and

Coimbatore. The observations I have made so far are embodied

in this note. Observations on the Indian Dermaptera were made by

Dr. Annandale (1),1_ M. Burr (2), and Morgan Hebard (3). My

observations, as shown below, differ from theirs in certain

RESPECtS.

In my laboratory the earwigs were placed in slightly moist

humus in wide-mouthed jars. They were periodically fed on

earthworms, petals of Hibiscus rosa sinensis, garden snails, etc.

The natural haunt of Euborellia stali (Dohrn) is under stones,

dead leaves, and in almost all places in the soil where a certain

amount of moisture is present. Like all other earwigs, they burrow

in the soil. The insects are nocturnal in habit and do not emerge

by day-light. They are not attracted by light. They are alert

active creatures, running away, when disturbed, holding their

forceps widely opened.

The forceps of earwigs are weapons of offence and defence.

Dr. Annandale with reference to Labidura riparia Pall., var. inermis,

Die Gemarccd as follows :—

‘I have never seen an earwig nip another, nor I have been

able to induce one to nip my finger’ (1). But I find that not only

does this earwig protect itself with its forceps but it can inflict

severe wounds with them. Gadeau de Kerville has shown that

the forceps are used as weapons of offence and defence and he

has recorded a number of interesting notes on the function of the

forceps of the earwigs. ‘Gadeau de Kerville was nipped by .

Forficula auricularia so strongly that blood was drawn, and Com-

mander J. J. Walker had the same experience in New South Wales

with the largest known earwig Anisolabis colossea’ (2).

Euborellia stali is a small species and is not able to pierce tough

skin, but nevertheless when caught it tries to extricate itself, by

using its forceps.

Though chiefly carnivorous these earwigs feed freely on vegetable

matter. They eat the petals of Hibiscus rosa sinensis, of Thespesia,

and of the rose, also rotten oranges, tomatoes, plantains, etes Phey

also eat killed arden snails, small soft- bodied insects, dead grass-

1 Numbers in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper,

122) JOURNAL, BOMBAY @NALU RAL HIS i aSOClE Tay mV olamese

hoppers, dead prawns, earthworms, mutton, eggs of small creatures,

etc. Mr. B. Burr fed Labidura riparia cn blue-bottle flies. They

sucked them dry and left the empty skin (2). Dr. Annandale

noticed that Labidura riparia, sometimes carries its prey on its

forceps (1). I find the forceps are really very useful implements

for catching the food and conveying it to the mouth. The earwig

attacks and seizes its prey with its forceps and then bending: its

body to one side, transfers it to its mouth.

When these earwigs are placed in large numbers in a single

jar they become cannibalistic, the stronger ones eating the weaker.

The young are very active and move more quickly than the adults.

Green found that Elaunan bipartitus (Kirby) ‘when handled gave

off a pungent odour like that of the Bombardier beetle’ (2). The

species with which this note is concerned did not exhibit the same

character.

The sexes can be distinguishd to a certain extent by their size,

the shape of the forceps, and the number of segments. Males are

smaller in size, and their forceps are more curved than those of the

female. The straight and unnotched or entire forceps of the female

are heavier in build and stronger than those of the male. There

are only 6 abdominal segments in the female while in the male

there are 3.

Euborellia stali is neither a household nor a garden pest.

Breeding habits.—To study their breeding habits the earwigs

were sorted out in pairs, and placed in separate jars. In mating

the male usually backs up to the female and touches her forceps.

The female in her turn expands her forceps and comes closer to the

male. The male then twists its tail portion and effects a connection

tail to tail. In the act of copulation the ventral side of the male

is opposed to the ventral side of the female. Copulation usually

lasts for about 15 minutes. The female, being stronger, sometimes

drags her partner.

My observations in these respects conform to those of de Geer,

Lesne, de Bormans and Gadeau de Kerville (2).

Oviposition.—I have collected eggs of Euborellia stali in the

months of November, December, January, February, March, April,

June, July and August (i.e., practically all through the year). The

female takes about 20 hours to lay the full complement of eggs

which are usually about 35 in number, ovoid in shape, white in

colour, and small in size. Milton observed 48 eggs laid by a female

earwig (4). Some species, as several observers have recorded, are

known to lay as many as 90 eggs at a time (2).

Maternal care.—The female earwig sits over her eggs, and

guards them. The male never approaches the brooding female.

If the eggs are separated from the mother they are not found to

hatch. Mr. and Mrs. Milton observed the same thing in their

study (4). If disturbed when brooding, the mother takes the ege's

one by one in its mandibles and removes them to a safe corner.

She cleans them every now and then with her mouth; and, if

seriously disturbed, she eats them. If, for instance, the cluster

of eggs is scattered, the mother makes no attempt to collect them,

but responds by eating them. de Geer in the case of the species

THE HABITS OF THE COMMON EARWIG 423

observed by him found that the mother picked up all the eggs

when scattered in the different parts of the sand-box (2).

Incubation takes about eight days in the case of EFuborellia stali

(Dohrn). In the case of forficula auriculuria it is said to be

about 16 days (4). The young ones are white in colour, and

there is no structural difference between the young and the adult

except in size. The active newly hatched young ‘cluster round

the mother sometimes sitting on her back. I one of her young

tends to stray the mother seizes it in her mandibles and restores

it to the family circle. The mothers’ solicitude for her brood lasts

for nearly 3 days after hatching, then she leaves them to fend

for themselves. I have not as yet been able to determine the

number of moults passed through before a young becomes an

adult.

FEnemies.—At night, when the earwigs came to the surface of

the soil in the jar, they were attacked by lizards and cockroaches ;

and I actually found a lizard eating a large number of my captives.

Cockroaches usually attack the smaller ones. Ants sometimes

invade the jars in large numbers and do considerable damage.

Some of my earwigs were also infected with ticks. The ticks are

ectoparasites, and many may be found adhering to the body of a

single earwig. The whele metabolism of the victim is affected and

it usually dies after two or three days of infection.

IT am highly thankful to Mr. Hemsingh Pruthi, Imperial Ento-

mologist, New Delhi, for his identification of my specimens as

Euborellia stali (Dohrn). He was also kind enough to suggest

some literature for my study of earwigs.

I am also thankful to Mr. R. V. Seshaiya, Lecturer in Zoology,

Annamalai University, under whom I have been carrying on my

study on Dermaptera.

REFERENCES CITED.

Journal of the Astatic Society, Bengal, 1926, vol. ii.

Fauna of British India—Dermaptera, by Malcolm Burr.

Studies in Indian Dermaptera, by Morgan Hebard.

Ent. News, vol. xxxvi—1926, 8 months study of earwigs by Milton,

ERGs BS) es

EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA

Jo Fs CAS. Si..b ass

AND

Miss K. S. RADHA, M.SC.

(St. Xavier’s College, Bombay)

ANALVSES XLVILI—LI

XLVIN—Sozil from Salt-Lick

Serial No. 107.

Locality —Begur Reserve, about 15 miles from Manantoddy, Wynaad.

Collected and sent by—D. Mc D. Currie, Esq., District Forest Officer,

Wynaad.

Hard buffy lumps. Powder gritty and soapy to the touch.

Minerals 4 we si ss 2Or oo Perucenmt.

Clay oe ss me in PUES He

Sand ae re ‘tie pe 12.98 rr

Organic debris sie soi is Heoret DOT ne

Moisture a ares ae ee east! Fe

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ... ee oo 59: S000 as

Insoluble in nitric ac‘d Be: ee tas 42°500) te

Magnesia (MgO) ney bb co S02 SS 0te we

Lime (CaO) Bae aay tie a Rote

Alumina (AI,0,) ane Jed ae Sor 4G ee

Silica (SiO,) soluble a ae as T2360 tae

Phosphorus (P,O;) ae as cca OOOO anne

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) ee fae aoe OIE OG

Moisture and organic matter ie See OuOO Sistas

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of sodium, potassium, chlorine,

manganese and carbon diox:de, 0°C43 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter,

and 0:090 per cent. water-soluble organic matter.

2. The lick is a little nullah down which there is a tiny stream flowing

during the south-west monsoon. It dries up very quickly.

The Reserve borders Coorg in the North, and Mysore on the East.

The forest is good deciduous forest consisting mainly of teak, Terminalia

tomentosa, Lagerstroesmia, and Plerocarpus marsupium. ‘The rainfall is about

70 inches. The country is undulating and in parts hilly. The elevation is

about 2,700 feet.

3. The lick is much visited by sambhur and chital.

KARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA 795

XLIX. Common Earth

Serial No. 108.

Locality—Begur Reserve, about 15 miles from Manantoddy, Wynaad.

Collecied and sent by—D. Mc D. Currie, Esq., District Forest Officer,

Wynaad.,

Friable lumps of black soil. Powder soft.

Minerals ae a hae ... 24°50 per cent,

Clay ie = tne eee, 7

Sand es a aa Pee ass: ~

Organic debris sa ia Wis aroma are A

Humus roe oe aa oh (90

Moisture ae oe oe we Geo 7

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) .. ee ... 71°960 per cent.

Insoluble in nitric acid ... ae ... 43°060 ne

Soda (Na,OQ) _... ios a6 ween U' O90 "

Potash {,O). ... ae ae .. 09342 i

Lime (CaO) eee = ie wee = 09451

Alumina (Al,O,) a - as 1 2906 3

Silica (>i0.) soluble ek _— ws. 10°030 -

Phosphorus (P,O,) ae = BS weOeZs oO -

Ferric oxide (Fe,O3;) See ee feo OO0 ‘§

Moisture and organic matter “5 «. 9°984

)

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of magnesium, sulphur, chlorine,

mangatrese and carbon dioxide, 0°060 per cent. water-soluble inorganic matter,

and 0:105 per cent. water-soluble organic matter.

2. The earth was collected from a spot about 200 yards away from

Salt-lick No. 107.

L. Soil from Salt-Lick

Serial No. 109.

Locality—Begur Reserve, about 15 miles from Manantoddy, Wytiaad.

Collected and sent by—D. Mc D. Currie, Esq., District Forest Officer,

Wynaad.

Hard lumps of greyish earth; fracture mottled white and brown. Many

rootlets. Powder buffy, soft.

Minerals vee oe ste ... 11°49 per cent.

Clay ae ‘af oes res sod ies) "

Sand oe Be re .. 46°61 3

Organic debris sat re rs: pes. OF 56

Moisture a abe se .. 405 5

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ... are ree he

Insoluble in nitric acid ae ae ee ok ee

Soda (Na,O) ve as ie ie, ae 0 082i

» Magnesia (MgO) ses oo ee EUIG ie Oe

Lime (CaO) om one re Be SOTU2ME tee

Alumina (Al,O,) ee oe ue “0 1955- ay

Silica (SiO,) soluble an Be fae BPSK ee - 58

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) is ve M0 SOU ean

Moisture and organic matter = oe 4-189

oD)

Remarks; 1. Thesoil contains traces of potassium, phosphorus, chlorire

and carbon dioxide.

2. The lick is situated on the bank of a little stream, which always

contains water, about two miles distant from Salt-lick No. 107.

3, The lick is much frequented by sambhur and chital].

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (ISD. VSOCIET Yi ola

LI. Common Earth

Serial No. 110.

Locality—Begur Reserve, about 15 miles from Manantoddy, Wynaad.

Collected and sent by—D. Mc D. Currie, Esq., District Forest Officer,

Wynaad.

Friable lumps of black soil, wlth many rootlets. Powder soft.

Minerals se a: ae fa SO Lauper ceme

Clay 203 saa a sar? 6205 i

Sand te a Ee sac) +0074 fe

Organic debris sie i ane Sa ni :

Humus dice ca ie ae, 0278 *

Moisture eo a ea i OS ha

Fine Earth (2) mesh sieve) fee se yoo Z00sper cent:

Insoluble in nitric acid a ws 45°160 *,

Lime (CaO) Ae yee me 20LSZ6 e

Alumina (A1,0O.,) aaa ig ide 4) 209 -

Silica (SiO,) soluble on ay ot teas | RODD is

Ferric oxide (Fe,QO,) oe oe Ee Patel Rs

Moisture and organic matter sea tee EO. -

Remarks: 1. The soil contains traces of sodium and phosphorus.

2. The earth was collected from a spot about 200 yards away from

Salt-lick No. 109.

REVIEWS.

I.—PAGEANT OF WINGS, by Douglas Gordon. Pp. 304. London: John

Murray; 1938. Price $s. 6d.

This book consists of seventeen chapters describing the marvels of animal

life and behaviour; and though dealing mainly with birds, it has also many

references to the denizens of the sea and coast-line, of the field, wood and

moor. It makes no claim to strict scientific treatment, and its best portions

are those farthest from the systematic method of professional studies. The

author abandons himself to those aspects of animal life that have been a

.Most constant source of interest and pleasure, and have come most frequently

under his observation. His standpoint is one of experience and common

sense, and his watchful eye is always open to the seeming eccentricities and

drolleries of animal behaviour rather than to those proper responses to

environment and evolution duly catalogued by the science of the schools. Mr.

Gordon tells many good stories of personal encounters, the humour of which is

enhanced by gay little drawings.

The reader will find here much that he may wish to know about the

aeronautic artistry of birds, the mysteries of night and dawn, vocal expression,

colour scheme, comedy and tragedy at home and abroad, domestic life in the

open and behind the green curtain, perils at sea and on land, the charm of

the seal, the land of pigs and poetry, etc.

The author may lay claim to be a writer of singularly charming narrative.

J. F.C.

IIl.—TREES AND MEN, by E. Hughes-Gibb. Pp. 172. London: Alexander

Moring, Ltd; 1938.' Price 8s. 6d.

Mrs. Hughes-Gibb always impresses one as knowing what she is writing

about, and her books hold the attention of the specialist and of the general

reader alike. This volume, which aims at describing the true relationship of

men with trees, is intensely interesting and full of curious details about the

characters, habitats and provenance of trees; it contains plenty of solid observed

fact, and this is never allowed to slide into hypothesis.

Right from the dawn of history, records reveal that the trees have nursed

us, watched over and sheltered us, fed and warmed us. We have io thank them

for the production of soil and the fertilisation of the earth; for the control of

climatic conditions by regulating temperature and dryness; for the check they

exert on jungle life, and for their value as purifiers and oxygen manufacturers

in great towns and cities. And ever as our powers and needs grew and the

complexity of our life developed, the trees have been ready for us and supplied

us with paper and artificial silk, the greens and blues and purples of aniline

dyes, cordite and lyddite, turpentine and rosin, rubber and cork, and sugar.

Science has shown the way to many profitable by-products and, impelled by

their greed for money, men have wantonly destroyed the friends on whom

they depend so much.

The trees that have been sacrificed wholesale by man must by man be

replaced. And it is gratifying to note that at present there are everywhere in

the civilised world signs that man is awakening to the great value of trees

and to their real place in the economy of Nature. He no longer thinks of

them merely as producers of useful or necessary commodities; he realises that

they have a larger réle. The need of Afforestation is no longer a disputed

question, and already the work has begun in many countries. However good

the other chapters of the book may be, those on afforestation and forest

fires are the best of ali and the most interesting.

eG,

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XL

III.—LE PETIT PEUPLE DES ™RUISSEAUX. Par Marcell) Piponnier,

Pp. 130. Paris: Bourrelier: 10938. 13° francs.

The author writes of the lower animals which people small streams, a

fauna which is largely cosmopolitan and, on this score, ought to arrest the

attention of naturalists the world over, India not excepted.

The book is attractively got up, well printed, generously illustrated, and

inexpensive. It opens with a chapter on aquatic plants, by way of an introduc-

tion to the habitat, a factor of paramount importance in the everyday life of

the occupants: their likes and dislikes, their tempers and humours, their modes

of getting a living, and their relation to man. Here are the surface gliders

and the divers: beetles, bugs, and the larvae of drone-flies and mosquitoes ;

lower down, all manners of crustaceans, such as Cyclops and carp-lice; still

further down, the larvae of caddis-, crane-, dragon-, and May-flies; and

at the bottom, shrimps and molluscs in plenty. Dipping almost at random into

these chapters, the reader may be sure of coming upon curious and out-of-the-way

happenings, quite unlike the commonplaces of many natural history books.

Especially engaging are the accounts of the mosquitoes and the shrimps. Another

good chapter is that about worms and _ leeches.

M. Piponnier has done his work admirably, and the whole book bears the

authentic stamp of the nature lover.

jG:

IV.—_THE ANNUAL REPORT AND BALANCE SHEET OF THE

CEYLON GAME AND FAUNA PROTECTION SOCIETY FOR: THE

SEASON 1937-1938 has been recently issued (November 1938).

This Society was first formed over forty-four years ago ‘To prevent the elimina-

tion of Game in Ceylon, by destruction of animals for trading purposes, to

further the interests of legitimate sports, and to conserve one of the food

supplies of the inhabitants.’

The objects of the Society were revised in 1928, the Rules being also revised,

and the scope of the Society extended so as to embrace the general Fauna of

the Island. In these the reference to ‘one of the food supplies of the inhabitants

was rightly omitted for the great reduction in the number of animals and birds

which has taken place no longer permits of such supply, apart from the fact

that in these modern days domestic animals and birds can furnish all the meat

that is needed by the people, and there is no justification for slaughter of wild

creatures for food.

A comprehensive History of the Society was published in 1931 by Mr.

A. C. Tutein-Nolthenius, a most enthusiastic and hard-working member of the

Society for the past twenty-two years, and reviewed in our Journal (vol. xxxv,

No. 3 page 665). The many difficulties up to then encountered by the

Society were fully set out, these including the failure to enforce the Laws,

and Rules thereunder, enacted by the Ceylon Government which, if memory

serves correctly, stated on one occasion that ‘Our Game Laws are quite efficient

but we regret we have not the power to enforce them’!

That regrettable state of affairs appears to continue, for at the present

time the new Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (No. 2 of 1937) which was

proclaimed and came into force on the 1st March 1938 has (page 3 of the

Report), ‘been considerably better honoured in the breach than the observance.

It has already, in fact, become another dead-letter Ordinance, outside certain

of the Reserved Areas that are watched by Forest Department Guards and

Watchers, and the small areas watched by our own Watchers.’

Such a regrettable state of affairs is not peculiar to Ceylon. Madras goes

one better! (or worse) as the South of India Wild Life Protection Society

launched in 1933 with a flourish of trumpets from Ootacamund and Madras

was moribund within a very few months of its inception, and has not since

been heard of. It appears to be’as dead as the Dodo.

The Ceylon Society however, its work carried on by a strong Executive

Committee aided by a very able Honorary Secretary, does all that is possible:

so there is much hope for the future.

The membership of the Society is now 280: 2 Life Members, 251 Ordinary

Members, 23 Overseas and 4 Honorary Members.

REVIEWS 729

The Society’s Journal Loris continues to appear with increasing popularity ;

and the Wild Life Calendar for 1939 with 24 full plate photographs of Wild

Life of Ceylon jungles (Rs. 2:50, post free) is a very excellent idea which

might be copied by our own Society.

Reports on Reserves by the five Honorary Wardens are interesting to read.

In 1929, there were 66,936 licensed firearms in Ceylon and about 836 game

licenses. _-The Game Licenses issued in 1937-38—1st November to 3oth April—

were 526. We are not informed if the 66,000 have increased or decreasd:

but judging by what has been happening in India it is likely that they have

very largely increased and that many of them are used for the slaughter of

all kinds of small animals and birds to satisfy the meat-hunger of the people—

the something-for-nothing demand.

The appointment of a whole-time Game Warden has been urged by Dr.

R. L. Spittel as vitally necessary to the proper enforcement of the new

Ordinance and the Rules. In this he will, as he says, no doubt have the

support of every member of the Society and of all who have real knowledge

of the realities of wild life preservation. It is likely, indeed, that the Ordinance

will continue to be a dead-letter unless such an appointment is made.

A cash balance of Rs. 1,971 is carried over to 1938-39.

Mr. A. C. Tutein-Nolthenius has been elected President of the Society and

Mr. W. W. A. Phillips, Honorary Secretary for the past ten years, continues

his good work.

The Report for 1938-39 Season will be looked forward to with much interest.

a VW eB

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I.—WHY ELEPHANTS VISIT SALT-LICKS.

I obtained the answer to a phenomenon that has puzzled me

for years when photographing elephants, and incidentally am able

to record something to the credit of the salt-licks. I have often

noticed that at salt-licks frequented by elephants there are enormous

accumulations of droppings more or less in the same place and

all looking as if they had been placed there at the same time. But

as, in some cases there was so much, even what appeared to me

to be far beyond the capacity of an elephant, I often wondered

how they managed to do it. I know now. Here is the solution.

When I went into the lick I carefully examined the edge of the

lick with my glasses and saw that although the elephants or an

elephant had been there about two days before, the rim ofthe

pool was practically free from droppings. The big elephant came

in about a quarter to five and after I had exhausted all my available

films I left him to it. The following morning I went to the lick

but the elephants had moved off. But, along the edge of the lick

there was an accumulation of droppings which would have been

a credit to. an entire herd of elephants. No doubt the smaller

one had been there too but he evidently did not go to exactly the

same place as the big bull. I did not make any examination then

because I expected to be there for some days and did not want

to disturb the lick. But at the end of my last day there—the

elephants never came in again—I made a thorough examination of

the place and found that this enormous accumulation of dung—

about half a bullock cart load !—had obviously been made by the

big elephant; partly on account of its’ size and partly on account

of its coarseness. The dung of the smaller one was much smoother.

I had a good look round the game tracks leading into the lick

and I have no hesitation in saying that the night those two

elephants had been in the vicinity they must, or at any rate the

big one must, have gone in and out of the lick very many times.

I therefore deduce that the sulphur, which from the length of

time the elephant sucks up the water must amount to a considerable

quantity, acts as a pretty quick aperient and the ‘walk round’ is

done between times to get it to work properly! Finally I suppose

when he feels he wants a little more of the lick, ‘that salt-lick

feeling’ he goes down again and has a good drink. While there

his tummy works and he adds to the mound. Of course there is

a good deal of speculation about these deductions of mine, but I

think it is more or less a fair conclusion to arrive at. The salt-

lick is their chemist’s shop, and in the case of a sulphur-lick it

works very quickly. I am sure this will interest you.

SUNLAWS,

Bukit BETONG, T. HUBBACK.

Kuata Lipis, PAHANG, F.M.S.

November 12, 1938.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 731

II.—THE MATING OF ELEPHANTS.

While out shooting wild elephants in 1919 on the west of

Payagale, about 20 miles north-west of Pegu, Burma, I chanced

to witness a unique sight, and was sorry to be without a camera

at the time. It was the mating of a wild bull-elephant and cow-

elephant. I was searching for a tusker that morning and came

upon a herd of wild elephants which were scattered grazing.

Entering stealthily in their midst followed by two Burman guides,

I saw from a hill streamlet, after an hour’s stalking, two wild

elephants—a bull tusker and a cow—far removed from the

herd just at the foot of a hillock. The bull had its trunk round

the left hind leg of the cow-elephant, at the same time pressing

his right tusk on her left rump, using this as a lever to inflict

pain so that the cow would be obliged to submit to his wishes.

No resistance was shown, apparently because the bull had a

thorough hold on her.

From my place of vantage, say within 50 feet away, I saw

the bull forcing the cow, held in the above manner, to walk up

the rising ground for about the space of 20 or 30 yards; they

turned and the bull loosening his hold, rose on the cow in the

act of service. They gradually descended in this manner to the

foot of the hill, On reaching level ground the bull got off, laid

hold of the cow again as described above and made her repeat

the ascent. This movement was carried out three or four times

in succession till the service apparently came to an end.

The wild bull then released the cow which ran away to join the

herd once more. The bull stood for sometime before he moved off.

The scene was so impressive and unique that I was loath to

shoot the tusker, and allowed him to go his way. I don’t think

such a sight has been witnessed by many shikaries, and I therefore

record this note.

No. 10. 3RD STREET,

PEGU. ft. GONZALEZ.

November 27, 1938.

III.—BEHAVIOUR OF GAUR OR INDIAN BISON (BIBOS

GAURUS).

Major Rossel in his article on page 325 of your September

1938 issue, comments on the apparent inability of bison to

recognize men moving in thé open at over 50 yards; I have had

many experiences of the same kind and at much shorter ranges,

when trying to obtain photos. Twice recently I have stalked up

to solitary bull bison in fairly open country. In one case I managed

to conceal myself behind a bush while I prepared my camera for

action. When all was ready I found that the bison was walking

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTE*SOCIETY, Vol, XE

slowly straight for my bush and when he had reached a distance

of about 20 yards I stepped out into the open. As he had his

head down when I first stepped out from behind the bush I gave

a shout in order to make him look up. This he did at once and

remained staring at me for some considerable time. He did not

appear unduly alarmed and eventually turned round and trotted off

slowly, pausing several times to look back.

Personally I think the eyesight of the gaur is poor. When

first observing a strange object, his curiosity overcomes all other

inclinations. The sense of hearing is quite good, but as bison

themselves generally make a lot of noise, either feeding or beating

off flies, most ordinary sounds are inaudible to them.

Their ability to scent human beings at a distance is distinctly

good and I have known a herd wind me at a distance of a quarter

of a mile in open country. When compared with the Burma saing

or banteng, the gaur seems a rather stupid animal or at any rate

he exhibits a much greater indifference to danger. The saing has

much better powers of vision and a far greater sense of smell.

Twice recently I] saw very definite -proof~ of (this:,.p-On =the frst

occasion I arrived at a big salt-lick to find a herd of bison

and a solitary bull saing with the bison. The wind was not

really favourable for the animals to get my scent, but in a

couple of minutes the bull saing had galloped off whilst the bison

appeared quite unconcerned. On another occasion I came on a

herd of about 50 bison resting in open country with a pair of bull

saing lying down with bison. On this occasion a fairly strong

wind was blowing from the herd towards me and I was able to

approach to within about 30 vards of the nearest bison. I then

sat down chiefly with the object of seeing whether any of the

animals would become suspicious. Within a few minutes the two

sainge began to show uneasiness and after walking towards me

for a short distance, they charged off. The bison on the other

hand, after the first alarm caused by the saing running away, did

not appear worried. Another characteristic of bison is the manner

in which they will fraternise with elephant.

I have often seen wild elephant and bison feedine peacefully

toyether; and last. rains I obtained rather striking proof

of this characteristic of bison. I was touring in the Pidaung

Sanctuary (where incidentally the animals are just as wild as

elsewhere) and spent a few days riding round on a tame elephant.

One morning I came on a huge herd of bison, numbering more

than too animals resting in open scrub forest and I was able to

approach within a few feet of the bison which showed not the

slightest suspicion. It was indeed a rather remarkable sensation

when I ‘looked an old bull in the eye’ at a range of 15 feet. I should

mention however that it was necessary to keep the wind in the

right direction and when eventually I began to wander into the

herd the bison knew that something was wrong. The effect of

more than a too huge black bodies rising simultaneously from

every bush in the locality was indeed striking. All attempts

to approach saing on the elephant proved futile and I could’ never

approach nearer than 50 yards, Hog deer were also thoroughly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 733

frightened by the elephant, but I passed several sambhur at very

close range without causing them any alarm.

Maymyo, Burma. Ee} MUSTIVE.

November 5, 1938.

IV.—DERIVATION OF THE NAME SELADANG

In the very interesting article by Mr. Hubback on the Malayan

Gaur or Seladang a derivation of the name seladang is suggested

on page 10. It seems possible that the name was imported into

Malaya with the animal, as it is suggested that the animal came

in from the North. The Manipuri word for the mithun (Bzibos

frontalis) is sandang and the Kuki word for the same animal is

sel. Further research might revel that the word is similar in

other languages.

IMPHAL,

MANIPUR STATE, C. GIMSON.

ASSAM.

December 27, 1028.

V.—SORE NECK IN SAMBAR.

The Theory of ‘Atavistic Degeneracy’.

In my article on the Malayan or Burmese Sambar (Rusa unicolor

equinus) which was published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society, vol. xxxix, No. 2, dated 15th April 1937, I touched

at considerable length on the subject of the ‘Sore Neck in Sambar’.

Subsequently Mr. S. R. Daver of Jagdalpur, Bastar State, India

in an interesting article entitled ‘Cause of Sore Neck in Sambar’

(Journal, vol. xl., pp. 118 to 122) gave his views on the subject.

He stated that he had the good luck to read a passage in a small

book The Story of Animal Life by Mr. B. Lindsay which explains

the cause of ‘Sore Neck’ in Sambar in such a manner that it

leaves no room for any doubt. Mr. Daver states that the fact of

the matter is that the Sambar, although sometimes described as

the ‘Monarch of the Dale’, does not carry any blue blood in his

veins. He has a much humbler origin than people think. The

‘Sore Neck', Mr. Daver says, is nothing but a badge of an

inferiority complex which sambar and other higher forms. of

animals carry round their necks to remind them for all time that

they were once marine animals. When the Himalayas were under

water these animals including the ancestors of the Sambar perhaps,

were swimming in the shallow sea. Mr. Daver says that he has

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

seen several sambar at close quarters during the course of 20

years of his roaming in the jungle but has never seen a single

specimen of a sambar with a ‘sore neck’. In biological languaye

‘sore neck’ according to Mr. Daver, is an instance of ‘atavistic

degeneracy’. Mr. Daver quotes Mr. Lindsay :

‘What we see as a bare patch and a sore on the necks of the animals

used to be a place where gills were attached when these animals were leading

a marine life. The disease is called ‘‘cervical fistula’’.’

Mr. Daver goes on to quote another extract from Mr. B.

Lindsay’s book as follows:

‘Nor do we need to go into the nursery to find links with our inferiors. Much,

indeed far too much, has been written of late years about ‘‘atavistic degeneracy”’,

that is to say, degeneracy which imitates the characteristics of our forefathers.

Many things which are classed as diseases, whether of the body, mind, or

moral nature may be explained in this way. Take the gills which as we

have stated exist in all the vertebrates but not in the adult of the highest

groups. In a sickly individual even amongst the highest vertebrates, traces

of this are sometimes seen existing in the adult as a gap or open space in

the neck called by the medical man ‘‘cervical fistula’’: this is an instance of

degeneracy in the body. Take, for another instance, the kleptomaniac who

snatches up everything he takes—a degeneracy of the mind, a relic of savage

nature out of place in civilized man. Yet the gill space is an ancestral

feature which has its right time to appear though it is out of place in the

adult: and the ‘‘want to snatch’’ stage, as we have already seen is quite natural

in the young child.’

To understand clearly the development, position, and modification

of gills in the modern animal Mr. Daver quotes another passage

from Mr. B. Lindsay’s book, as follows:

‘The classes of the vertebrata are fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and

mammals. We used to learn that these fishes had gills, and amphibia gills

for a time; but to be strictly accurate, we must say that fishes have gills

and all the rest of the vertebrates have gills for a time. There is no exception

to this rule not even among the highest vertebrates. But in these vertebrates

which stand higher in the scale of life than amphibia, viz. reptiles, birds,

and mammals. these gills are never brought into use. Thev only exist in

the early embryo and afterwards disappear, giving rise by their modification

to other structures. Strange to say one of these structures is the ear. This

takes its origin from one of the gill clefts or spaces. The Eustachian tube

which communicates between ear and nose is part of this cleft; and the

little bones which are inside in the ear represent the bones of the ‘‘gill cleft’’.

For in fishes, bones support each gill and are conected together to form a

complex arrangement. In the higher vertebrates, which possess gills only in

the embryo, this gill skeleton is much modified and persists as a bone, its

hyoid bone supporting the tongue. The gills of vertebrates arranged in

successive pairs along the throat, are ‘‘performing gills, that is to say they

consist essentially of holes or spaces which pass right through the wall of the

throat.’

Since reading Mr. Daver’s theories in the Journal regarding

the cause of ‘sore neck in sambar’ I have tried but failed to obtain

a copy of Mr. Lindsay’s book. However, I also had the luck to

come upon an article entitled ‘The Concept of Atavism’, which it

appears to me does not quite uphold Mr. B. Lindsay’s theory or

Mr. Daver’s explanation that the sore in question is a gill. The

salient portions of the article in question are herewith reproduced.

‘During the days when biologists were sedulously engaged in supplying the

finishing touches to the house that Darwin built, it was the usual practice

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 735

to regard every possible arrest in development or unusual character of an

organism as the persistence or recurrence of an erstwhile normal feature of

the particular organisms, ancestor, or ancestors. Such a_ reversion to the

presumed ancestral condition was termed an ‘‘atavism’’ from the Latin ‘‘atavus’’,

an ancestor. This concept and the term expressing it, abounds in the writings

of nineteenth century biologists. Haeckel’s ‘*Biogenetic Law”’ really represents a

generalized synoptic version of this concept applied to a particular case, and

calculated to resume a certain supposed routine of phenomena under a particular

law. Today few biologists believe that in its ontogenetic development any animal

actually repeats the developmental stages of its phylogenetic history. In

development the organism apparently passes only through those stages of

development which are akin to similar stages passed through in the ontogenetic

development of its ancestors; and this is essentially what Van Baer said in

his ‘‘Hypothesis of Recapitulation’’, which is not to be confused with the

so-called Biogenetic Law. In development the organism does not repeat the

adult stages of its ancestors, but only those stages of development through

which its ancestors as a whole have more or less in common passed. This,

as Van Baer originally pointed out, is why the early stages of related animals

resemble one another more closely than do the differentiated adults. Modern

recognition of these facts has brought the Biogenetic Law into disrepute.

The conception of Atavism however, persists. Reference to many modern

texts on embryology, general biology, and the writings of a fair number of

morphologists, will supply examples of the uncritical usage of this term. One

recent work by a notable worker has a section entitled ‘‘Reappearance of Lost

Ancestral Structures in Man’? and as the example of such structures we are

given the gill pouches . . . (of) the early embryo . . . (which) may . . . persist

and form an open fistula on the side of the neck’’. Surely it is clear that

such a fistula.is due to the mal-development or arrest in development of an

embryonic character of the individual and not to the reappearance of a character

which the species and class has lost but which may have been present in

some remote phyletic ancestor. In this connection it is worth drawing attention

to the fact that the conventionally accepted homology between the gill pouches

or arches of fishes and the branchial arches of mammals is open to serious

question.

The occasional occurrence of a tail in man or of an azygos lobe of the

risht lung, microcenhaly, large canine teeth, the fourth molar. the divided

molar bone, the ‘‘third trochanter’? of the femur, the entepicondylar foramen

of the humerus, suner numerary mammae, and many other characters have

been and still are cited as examples of atavism. Yet in every case it can he

conclusively shown that such characters are not upon any view to be regarded

as reversions to an ancestral condition. Changes in development and_ in

development rates resulting in persistence, suppression, reduction, hypertrophy,

duplication, multiplication of structures and normal variability are processes

quite adequate to account for the so called ‘‘atavisms’? which are commonly

cited. In short it is more than doubtful whether the concent of atavism has

anv counterpart in reality: and I think it will be agreed that unless the

concept can be applied to some demonstrable tvpe of phenomenon it were

better that the term were altogether dropped from the vocabulary of the

biologist.’

It seems to me therefore that we can hardly accept as correct

Mr. B. Lindsay’s theories which Mr. Daver has supported in his

article about the sambar sore being a gill and its appearance being

due to atavistic degeneracy. There is nothing degenerate about

the Malayan Sambar as we hunters know full well. It really is not

a bare patch at all but an area oozing out. . . . something, a scent,

a perfume gland. Black buck, elephants, and camels have them;

whilst serow have them between the toes. It seems strange never-

theless that although there must be quite a large number of

experienced scientists and naturalists in the country apart from

experienced sportsmen none of them have as vet succeeded in dis-

covering why that circular sore on the sambar’s neck is there,

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST/\ SOCIETY, Vol, XL

always in the same spot. Can it be a secretory gland? No doubt

we will get to the bottom of this matter in the near future.

KaLaw,

SHAN STATES, W. S. THOM:

BURMA,

October 1938.

VI—THE RECORD THAKIN HEAD.

(With a photo).

I enclose herewith a photo of a thakin head which has recently

come into my possession. The head was brought down by a

Mishmi tribesman several years ago and came into my possession

through the courtesy of Mr. F. P. O’Connor of Itakhooli Tea Estate.

The frontal part of the horns are extremely gnarled and ridged

and this point combined with close proximity of the two tips

indicates the great age of the beast.

The measurements—very carefully taken and checked by a

friend—are as undernoted :—

Length. Girth. 71p to tip. Widest spread.

254 Rt. 15

25° Lit. \ 15 \ ° uy)

Unless Rowland Ward’s Records contain measurements which

can beat it this head would appear to be the record,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 737

There is one head given in Burke’s Indian Field Shikar Book

which has horn lengths of 25 and 243 but the spread is no more

than 13+.

The measurements, when compared with those given in this

book of records, are remarkable for the ‘tip to tip’ measurement,

and the ‘widest spread’.

HooGrRIJAN TEA ESTATE,

Upper ASSAM. Ee WOOLEY SMITH. Dr. c,

November 18, 1938.

[The largest head of a Mishmi Thakin recorded in Rowland

Ward (9th Edition) is one belonging to the late J. F. Needham.

The owner’s measurements are as follows :—

Length on Front curve Circumference Tip to Tip —Eds.|

25” 13” na

VII.—A TREE MOUSE (VANDELURIA OLERACEA) IN

THE NES TIO SPIDER:

Dr. Gravely, in his notes on ‘Indian Insects, Myriapods and

Arachnids’ (Rec. Ind. Mus., xi, 1935, p. 535), while discussing

at length the habits of the spider Stegodyphus (Fam. EREsIDAe),

observes as follows:

‘Associations of other animals with African species of

Stegodyvphus have been recorded by Marshall and Pocock. Marshall

describes a doormouse which lives in Stegodyphus webs and

ultimately drives away the spiders, and both authors refer to

a Microlepidoptera which lives with the spiders in their nests.’

To add to this his own experience in India, Gravely cites the

case of the Moth (Brachmia xerophaga), living with Stegodyphus

sarasinorum: also that of a Uloboid spider making use of the

webs of Stegodyphus and concludes that ‘other associations,

probably of a more casual nature, may also occur.’ To illustrate

this remark, he narrates how, once in Orissa ‘when pulling

STEGODYPHUS nests to pieces in order to obtain lepidopterous

larvae,’ he found ‘in addition, the following animals alive within

them:

one Cribellate spider (? DictTynipak),

one Centipede (? GEOPHILIDAE),

one large LrpismMaTID and

two minute Beetles (ANTHICIDAE and CLAVICORNIA).’

In support of the foregoing, may I venture to place before your

readers further evidence which I have recently come across. Whether

the association is casual or of a permanent nature cannot be said

without further evidence but the case is quite unique as no similar

incident has been, to my knowledge, ever recorded from India.

On 11-8-1938, I went for a whole day cross-country tramp with

my friend, Mr. R. G. Kharadi, sB.sc. We intended to collect

insects for the museum of the Gujarat Natural History Society.

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

After going for about ten miles, we entered a grove of mango

trees, where I saw a spider’s nest at the end of a branch. The

height of the nest was about 8 feet and I had to take a couple

of jumps before I was able to take hold of it. While trying to

locate the entrance to the nest which appeared to be blocked by

some dark object in the interior, I was startled to find a pointed

nose and.beady eyes Starine at me! Hastily 1 let oor the

branch and up it went to its original position. We now

determined to collect both the nest and its occupant (which we

realised was a mouse) and again after some fancy jumping, I

succeeded in breaking off the portion which supported the nest.

The mouse had disappeared inside the nest; to prevent its escape,

I placed the nest in a cloth bag and tied its mouth. On the way

home we came across several spider nests in cactus hedges, which

we collected with their occupants but nowhere did we find any

other animal occupying them nor did we again see another tree

with a spider’s nest in it.

On inspection in the laboratory the nest was found to contain

not only several spiders and a mouse, but also a litter of six young

mice! Mr. Kharadi was able to identify the mouse as Vandeluria

oleracea, the Long-tailed Tree Mouse, which was later verified

by Mr. Prater. The spiders were dark brown or blackish in colour

with markings on the top of the abdomen. I think they are

Stegodyphus sarasinorum.

AHMEDABAD, H. G. ACHARYA,

NorTH Gujarat, F.Z.S.

October 9, 1938.

[One of the spiders taken in the nest forwarded to the Society

for identification by Mr. Acharya has been identified by Dr.

Gravely as an Epeirid (near FE. nauticus), but not actually that

species. FE. nauticus is nocturnal in its habits, resting by day in a

small silk-lined retreat and going to the centre of its orb-web for the

night. The retreat of this particular species is ordinarily not large

enough to hold anything bigger than the owner and could certainly

not contain a tree mouse and its family. ‘The actual nest which was

subsequently forwarded to us by Mr. Acharya proved to be that of

the Common Social Spider, Stegodyphus sarasinorum. These

spiders live in colonies and their nests take the form of a dense

untidy mass of cobwebs, spun amongst leaves and branches, and

usually contain the dry remains of various insects devoured by the

owners of the nest. As indicated in the note, the nests of these

spiders provide a lodging for a variety of creatures which live in

association with them. In the instance under comment, the Epeirid

Spider, discovered in the nest was, like the tree mouse, an intruder.

The tree mouse not finding the nest quite to his liking proceeded

to refurnish it with pieces of dry grass, the remains of which

were found in the nest. The Long-tailed Tree Mouse lives in trees

and shrubs and usually builds a nest. of grass or grass and leaves

in the branches. It occasionally places its nest in the thatch of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 739

houses or in beams; but, like the African Doormouse, it may

occasionally take up its quarters and rear its family in the nests of

other creatures. McCann found one of these mice occupying the

deserted mud nest of a swallow.—Ebs. | |

VIHI.—NUMBER OF YOUNG OF LONG-TAILED

TREE-MOUSE VANDELURIA OLERACEA.

Blanford (F.B.I. Mammalia, p. 403) says that he found ‘3

young on one occasion and 4 on another’.

I recently came across a nest of social spiders (vide—Misc. note

no. VII in this Issue) inhabited by a 2 Long-tailed Tree-Mouse

(Vandeluria oleracea) with 6 young which had not opened their

eyes yet. The measurements of the young were as follows:

Head, body 12% in., tail 1 in. Adult female: head, body

3 in., tail 44 in. (Blanford’s measurements for a full-grown adult

die. #icaG@ bodys 2.201. £0371. tail’ 295, to, 4.5 in.)

AHMEDABAD, H. G. ACHARYA,

NorTH GUJRAT. F.Z.S.

October 9, 1938.

IX.—LEOPARDS FROM VICINITY OF NAGA HILLS.

These are the particulars of some adult leopards shot in this

vicinity.

Length. Weight Length. Weight.

a= lei" 1123) ibs:

je oar 130) <5

Loe en 3, BS" &, 6’— 1% — 82 Ibs.

Vs 3 — I[ze7 6’- 3% — 79 (Black)

Males 6’— 7” — 89 ,, Female 67 — 2” = 72

Hie = — 5’—10” _

1h — —

6’— 8” — 100 ,,

6’ - 6” ia ma

It would appear that unlike the tigers of this district the

Leopards compare in length and weight with those recorded from

other parts of India.

TOwWKOK TEA ESTATE, G. H. L. MARSHALL.

SONARI P.O.

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

X.—MEASUREMENTS OF TIGERS SHOT IN THE

NAGA-HILIES

A Correction

In the proceedings and account. Section of» Vola"xX Ul] Nowy

I notice you state Mr. Marshall publishes records of tigers shot

‘by him’ in the Naga hills, Assam. I would like to point out that

this is incorrect. The total of 59 animals comprises the bag of

many fellow sportsmen to whom I am greatly indebted as well as

my own. I am responsible for the game register of this district

and have personally measured many of these tigers and can vouch

for the accuracy of the figures.

Towkok TEA ESTATE, : G> Hk: MARSHALE:

SONARI P.O.

December 15, 1938.

XI—MIGRATION AND METHODS OF BIRD SNARING IN

NORTH: BAST ARABEA.

(Five text figures).

From a bird life point of view, Kuwait, and the promontory

on which the town lies, would appear to be one of the most

interesting spots in the Middle East for the study of migratory

birds. I do not profess to be able to explain why this is so, but

to my mind Kuwait can be likened to the Northern end of a

long narrow corridor or tunnel, through which migratory birds,

moving up from South East Arabia and India, along the Western

shore of the Persian Gulf, and conversely moving south again

(though to a lesser degree), have to pass. Thousands of migratory

birds seem to pass over Kuwait town and the strip of coast about

twenty miles wide, which stretches south along the Arabian shore.

The phenomenon may have to do with the fact that birds

flighting to and from Northern climes and the Tropics, and who

happen to choose the Western shore of the Persian Gulf for their

route, are inclined to hug the sea coast, as being cooler and having

more watering places where they can assuage thirst than in the

interior.

Certain it is that every variety of migratory bird is so

common during the Spring, and to a lesser extent during the Autumn

migration, that almost the entire youth population of Kuwait town,

and the tribes lying on the coast’ to the south: of if; so. ineor

catching and trapping these birds as a regular pastime.

The birds so caught are sold in the bazaars as playthings to

amuse other children, or are eaten, or again are sold to those

owning Falcons with the object of providing a change of diet for

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 741

these birds in the non-hunting season. The market price is about

nine pence for just

over tour pounds of

small dead birds.

On almost every

house roof in Kuwait

and the villages to the

south of it, as well as

on the ground in the

vicinity of Badawin

encampments, one can

see small artificial

trees, made of clumps

of bushes tied toge-

ther and placed in

prominent positions to

attract birds in flight.

Each of these bushes

contains several traps

of the “type — called

Sulaba, .and it is

astonishing how many

birds are caught and

brought down from

the house tops by the

youth of the city.

Though it is all

very heartless and

cruel from a West-

erner’s point of view, ieee ema — ee

ee oe eee

sport affords great

happiness and joy to thousands of youths, and young boys, who

have little else in the world to brighten their drab lives.

The skill with which these young Esaus set their traps and

entice birds to come and be caught, has only to be seen to be

believed. It is little short of marvellous.

There are three main types of traps used for snaring small

birds. They are known as:—

(1) ‘Fakh’

(2) ‘Sulaba’ A

(3) ‘Salia’

(1) The ‘Fakh’ is mostly used for catching the Lesser Kestrel

Hawk which appear some years literally in tens of thousands over

the town during the end of March and April. These birds are

caught with a decoy. A Kestrel is obtained, and tied by both

legs to a heavy stone with a strong piece of cord about 2 ft. long,

in a place near some trees where the birds are known to roost.

All round this bird are placed ‘Fakhs’, carefully covered with

light sand and pegged to the ground, with only a wriggling grub

visible. The Hawks seeing the one on the ground circle round

tall

’42- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and round above it, and eventually settle round about and are

caught as they peck at the grub on the trap. The boys, who lie

hidden behind a wall or in some shallow pit, then rush out and

F i= ‘decoy’ Kestrel, tied by the leg and surrounded by carefully covered .

traps of the Fakh type.

capture the flapping bird. The traps are carefully adjusted so that

the bird’s legs are never broken, but the trap is just too heavy

to enable them to fly away with it, although they very often drag

the pes out of the’ sround.

Tre (> sel.

Trap sprung

Fig. 3.—Fakh.

These lesser Kestrels are a great joy to the boys of Kuwait

who walk about with them on their wrists imitating the Sheikh’s

falconers.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743

The Oil Company’s rig, which has been put up this year some

35 miles South of Kuwait town has attracted these birds to roost

on it in thousands.

Shrikes and many other small birds are caught in this trap,

when it is placed near a small tree where birds come to settle.

The same grub, known locally as a ‘ghubbie’ is used, but the

trap is not pegged down. |

(2) The ‘Sulaba’ is usually placed sticking out above the arti-

ficial bushes on the house tops of Kuwait. As many as 6 can

as z

(ost Hon o} shrings

rs sel- {yajs,

Trap aprung Trap sef

Fig. 4.—Sulaba.

be put into one bush. In the small gardens outside the town these

traps may be seen placed against the low mud walls, or perhaps

in a bush of flowers or other prominent place. They are not

baited, but attract merely as a perch in a land where trees

and bushes are scarce. The bird alights on the peg, along

which the fine string is carefully arranged, and its feet are

caught in the string as the peg falls, and the two sticks spring

open.

The bird so caught, if it be a Shrike, has. one of its wing

feathers removed and passed through its nostril and round its

beak twice; this prevents it from opening its mouth. It also has

one of its wings twisted, which prevents it flying away. Other

varieties of birds have, when caught, one wing only twisted, and

then are put into small palm frond baskets and sold in the streets

or bazaar.

(3) The ‘Salia’, or net trap, is the third kind, and is used on

trees in the ‘Hautas’ or gardens of Kuwait. It is composed of

a fine fishing net fastened to a curved bamboo frame. This is

thrown over a small tree such as a ‘Sidr’ or Tamarix, and slopes

#44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

down to the ground at the back where heavy stones are placed

on it. The small birds goto roost in the tree, and in. the early

Fig. 5.—The Salia trap.

morning are driven down into the net on the ground and: picked

out.

Kuwalt, (MRS) cH. K.2P. DICKSON:

PERSIAN GULF.

Seprember 20, 21020:

XII.—BIRDS OBSERVED IN AND NEAR TAMBARAM,

SOUT ANDTA,

(Supplementary observations made between April and October i

issued as an addendum to the paper published in No. 3, p. 467.

of this Volume),

-. The Red-vented Bulbul: Molpastes cafer caufer (Linn.).

August 11th 1938—nest and 3 eggs in a bauhinia tree, about

7 It. above the ground. August 14th—egegss stolen.

8. The Red-whiskered Bulbul: Otocompsa jocosa emeria

(Linn.).

July 24th 1938 and several following days—a small and newly

fledged bulbul was about the garden; its red ‘whiskers’ seemed

absent, and the red of the vent was .a pale. yellowish scarlet. A

parent bird was observed feeding this young one. ;

9. The White- prowed ulna ~Pycnonotus luteolus -luteolus

(Lesson).

August 15th 1938—hest in eee bush. in garden; two- very

newly hatched chicks.- August 23rd——one of these chicks’ observed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES #45

apparently dead in the nest at 12-30 p.m.; by 5-30 p.m. it had

been removed from the nest. August 28th—the other chick almost

fully fledged. August 29th—the nest empty.

11. The Black Redstart: Phoenicurus ochrurus (Gmelin).

A hen redstart in the garden on October 23rd 1938.

16. The Paradise Fiycatcher : Vchitrea paradisi (L.).

October roth 1938—a male in full white plumage in the garden.

A bird in chestnut plumage, with short tail, was about the garden

for about ten days from October 1st onwards. Neither bird has

been seen since October toth. Two birds in chestnut plumage,

with short tails, observed catching insects from a pond in Vandalur

Forest on October 3rd 1938.

19. The Grey backed Shrike: Lanius schach caniceps (Blyth).

August 7th 1938—nest in a terminalia tree in the garden, about

15 ft. from the ground, in a very exposed position. Nest very

untidy, with a long bit of rag hanging from the side. Four eggs,

bluish-speckled. The parent bird was seen on the nest every day

for over a week. August 19th—the nest empty.

24. The Black Drongo: Dicrurus macrocercus peninsuluris

(Ticehurst).

July 24th 1938 and several following days-——two very young

drongos, with very short tails and red mouths, in the garden

with adult birds. Parent birds seen feeding the young.

30. The Bratminy Mynah: Temenuchus p. pagodarum (Gmel.).

June 26th 1938—two birds seen in the garden. August 5th

1938—a small flock first seen in the neighbourhood. This is earlier

than we have ever seen a flock appear before.

33. The White-throated Munia: Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.)

July 19th 1938 and several following days—several munias

observed in the college jungle.

43. The Pitta: Pitta brachyura (Linn.).

October 8th 1938—the pitta heard for the first time this season

in the jungle about a mite north of the college.

October 18th 1938—pittas established in the garden again.

45. Lhe Coppersmith : Xantholaema haemacephala.

July 1938 to October 1938—coppersmiths now very common in

the gardens of the college estate.

56. The Hoopoe: Upupa epops (Linn.). ; 5

July and October 1938—two hoopoes observed for several days

ata time im the garden: -~ |

“46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

58. The Common Indian Swift: Micropus affinis (Gray).

Two of these swifts spent the afternoon of August roth 1938

Aying through and round our house. They have not been seen

since then.

67. The Pale Harrier: Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).

A female, presumably of this species, first seen this season over

the college qunele, on ‘October sooth 1938.

72. The Spotted Dove: Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

(Gmel.).

August 28th 1938—a nest, with brooding bird, in a duranta

bush, about 12 ft. above the ground, immediately outside a window

of our house. Eggs not seen. The bird was still sitting when we.

went away from home on September 3rd, but the nest was empty

and deserted when we returned on September roth.

In addition to these further observations on birds already in

our original list, the following have been noticed within the last

few months :-—

The Orange-headed Ground-thrush;: Geocichla citrina citrina

(Lath.),

October 24th 1938—an orange-headed ground-thrush in the

garden for about half an hour this evening. It settled in a

bauhinia tree, watching us and waiting for our departure, and

therefore gave us an excellent opportunity to observe it with the

field-glasses at quite short range. There was no doubt about its

identity.

The Indian Koel: Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus Linn.

Koels were heard for the first time since December 1932 in

this neighbourhood on August roth 1938, in Vandalur Forest, when

the characteristic call was quite unmistakable, and was heard at

frequent intervals for about an hour. Koels are very common in

the gardens of Madras City, and it is surprising that they are so

rarely heard in and round Tambaram.

The Indian Shikra: Astur baditus Gmel.

October oth 1938—a shikra bathing in one of our bird baths

just outside my window, and then sitting for some time in the

tree above the bath, affording excellent opportunity for close

observation.

The Asiatic Sparrow-hawk : Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell),

October 21st 1938—a sparrow-hawk, probably a female, being

distinctly brownish above, bathing in one of our small bird baths

for several minutes. Birds of this type have been frequently seen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 747

here before, but have never given the same facilities for close

observation and identification.

MapDRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, A. M. BARNES.

‘TAMBARAM,

CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT.

October 23,. 1938.

XIIJ.—THE DISTRIBUTION AND NIDIFICATION OF THE

INDIAN (PUNJAB) RAVEN (CORVUS CORAX LAURENCEI

UME) IN SIND:

The distribution of the Punjab Raven in Sind, as Ticehurst

records; is rather curious.

Parts of the’ Province, particularly Upper and Middle Sind

possess physical features and a climate similar to the southern

districts of the Punjab, where this Raven is common and a

permanent resident, yet its range and distribution in Sind, even

in districts which are like the Punjab, are peculiar and of great

ornithological interest.

So far as I am aware it is a permanent resident only in the

Khirthar Range and in the Thar Parkar district, where also, it

is not met with, except as a straggler, outside the southern and

eastern talukas of the Thar desert, which is bordered by the Rann

of Cutch on the South and Rajputana on the East.

I am reliably informed that this Raven is resident in the west of

Jodhpur and Jaisalmir States and birds met with in the eastern

rejistan tracts of Khairpur State and Sukkur district probably enter

Sind from Jaisalmir State which borders these localities.

Ghotaru, where Blanford found it late in the breeding season

is only about 25 miles from the Sind border.

Elsewhere in Sind this bird is purely a winter visitant, though

quite a few remain to breed in suitable localities.

In Upper Sind, though a regular winter migrant, it is, strange

to say, very localised. It is as abundant in Jacobabad now, as it

was in Hume’s time, 66 years ago.

At Shikarpur it is common, yet at Sukkur only about 20 miles

south-east, it is rarely seen. I saw only two birds during’ five

winters. At Ghari Yasin 10 miles south-west of Shikarpur, it is

again common and extends further south, another 1o miles to

Gaheja. It is again met with in Khairpur State and the northern

talukas of Nawabshah district extending as far south as Darbelo

and Kot Laloo, about 60 and 75 miles respectively, south of Sukkur.

To Lower Sind it is but a rare winter straggler. In 1872 Hume

found it at Hyderabad and Ticehurst met with it below the Baran

gorge near Soorjana, in Karachi district.

In Thar Parkar where Blanford found it ‘everywhere’, this

Raven is known to the Tharis as Rodh Kang. As already mentioned

it is resident in the desert tracts bordering the Rann of Cutch and

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. GUST @SSOCLEIN savior oxae

Rajputana and breeds on lone Kandi or Babur trees in the vicinity

of desert towns, villages and hamlets.

A clutch of 4 eggs which incidentally reached me in an omelette,

was sent to me from Ranahu in Khipro taluka, and 2 nestlings,

there were 5 in the nest, from Diplo. “Thar coatherds also told

me that they had come across nests near Gadro, Chachro, Sami

Vari and Mithi.

I failed to find any birds at Mirpurkhas, Jamesabad, Samaro,

Digri, Chhor or Umarkot during January and February 1936 and

Tharis told me that these places were only occasionally visited by

these Ravens. At Char about 8 miles south of Samaro I came

across a few birds, but failed to find any nests. Tharis at Char

told me that it was common around desert villages and hamlets

further north, east and south.

In Middle Sind I came across it in Khairpur State and

Nawabshah district during ae winter of 1935 and found them

around town and village refuse heaps or near cultivation, at

Gambat, Kot Laloo, Meheabfun Kandiaro and Darbelo. At

Kandiaro a pair were viciously attacked by a horde of House Crows

and literally driven out and away from the Canal Bungalow

Compound. As I left Nawabshah district in December 1935 I am

unable to say if any birds breed there.

In Upper Sind, where this Raven is a regular coid weather

visitant, it is Common in some places and yet conspicuous by its

absense in others. In January 1930 I met: with it in Sukkur

district at Gaheja, Ghari Yasin, Jagon, ot Sultan and Shikarpur,

where it was very common and able to hold its own with the House

Crows which swarmed there. It was partial to town and village

refuse dumps, but was also met with in sprouting cultivation,

particularly if freshly watered, and ploughed fields lying fallow.

On the 19th January 1930 I found a nest ready for eggs in a lone

andi tree in open forest near some cultivation between Jagon

and Kot Sultan. A few days later I took a nest with 5 eggs

between Kot Sultan and Zarkhel. The nest’ was in a stunted

Kandi tree in thin forest. Here again the tree chosen was well

away from any others.

During my stay in Sukkur district from 1930 to 1934, though

I came across this Raven yearly on both sides of the river I found

it very localised. On the left bank of the Indus it was fairly

common in parts of Ubauro taluka and I found it at Khambra,

Reti and Kobar. I was fortunate enough to find almost yearly, a

nest or two, with eggs or young, near Janwar Belo, between Kobar

and Daharki. In each case the nest was placed on a long Kandi

or Babur tree in thin forest interspersed with patchy cultivation.

I never found more than 5 young or eggs in a nest.

In Sukkur itself, on the right bank of the river, I met with

this Raven but twice, seeing a single bird on the 14th August 1931

and another, probably the same bird, as the locality was ihe « same,

on the 25th of the month.

I did not come across it on the left bank of the Indus south

of a line roughly linking Khambra and Daharki.

In the Khirthar Range, Day met with it in January. In

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

bale |

tbe

Gao

February 1933 I was brought a highly decomposed bird and four

cracked, frothing eggs, taken from a rock ledge, near Khenji Nat,

in the Northern Khirthar. The Rind Baluch who brought the evil

smelling mess told me that quite a few birds bred annually, mostly

on inaccessible rock ledges, in the Khenji and Sita Nai gorges.

Ticehurst saw eggs taken ‘from near Jacobabad’, and Culbertson

also had eggs sent him from this locality. I was in Jacobabad

in 1934, but unfortunately left the district in late November, too

early for nests. Nevertheless I found several old nests on rock

ledges in the hills near the Uch oasis, in Bugti territory, about

8 miles from the Sind Border and About 24 from Jacobabad. Mrs.

C. J. Rae told me that she had seen many Ravens and had also

noticed some nests on the cliffs there, in December or January the

year previous.

At Jacobabad itself the birds were common, and were also met

with along the Desert and Begari canals and at Mauladad 7 miles

south of “Jacobabad. Birds were first seen at Jacobabad rte anv

numbers on the 11th October and by the 25th of November thev

were abundant. At one of the Regulators on the Begari Canal I

once saw quite a dozen Ravens, three Small Cormorants and a

House Crow or two gorging on dead and dying fish left behind

in shallow pools formed by the receding waters of the canal, and

Ticehurst records that Hume was informed that great tumbers die

because of the heat and the diet of putrid fish.

In Upper Sind this Raven is known by the name of Takrut

Kang, takar meaning ‘hill’; while on the Bahawalpur State Border

(Punjab), the Seraikis know it by its Punjabi name, Dodar Kang.

A shikari zamindar of Daharki told me that he often came

across this Raven when shooting chink between Reti and Khenju

in Ubauro taluka, and once found a nest on an isolated Kandi

tree in the desert near Khenju, about 15 miles south-east of

Janwar Below, where I have taken nests myself.

In late August and early September 1930 I came across quite

a few birds in the sand bhits of Rohri taluka, near Mamro. and

Sauhara, in the desert tracts of Sukkur district, drained then,

during the abkalani season, by the Eastern Nara and the Karo

Naro. These birds, though, were probably early arrivals from

Jaisalmir State, due to the abnormal conditions that year, a year

of floods and wide spread inundation, as the same year I saw a

pair at Shikarpur as early as the 30th July

The majority of birds visiting Upper Sind arrive early in October

and begin to leave early in March. I have come across birds how-

ever as early as the 30th July and as late as the 9th May, but these

being either single birds or lone pairs, were cbviously stragglers.

It can safely ie said however, that the migration of this Raven

to Upper Sind begins in late September and lasts till late March,

and that quite a number of birds remain to breed in selected localities

beyond their permanent habitat, to which they return for the hot

weather after rearing their young.

Why birds which remain to breed and even those which are

purely winter visitants fail to make a permanent abode in parts

of Sind, which afford a habitat similar in many respects to the

150 WOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL BIST. “SOCIETY. Vol. See

lower Punjab, where this Raven is a permanent resident, is .a

puzzle. The intense heat of Upper Sind and lack of rainfall may

be reasons, but on the other hand the southern Punjab can be just

as hot, though the rainfall I think is better, as is definitely, the

irrigation system, factors which make conditions very different to

what they are at present in parts of Upper Sind not affected by

the Sukkur Barrage:

Since I met this Raven so frequently in the northern talukas of

Nawabshah district in 1935, it may in time extend to suitable tracts

along the whole of the Sukkur Barrage Canals system and perhaps

the favourable conditions created by perennial canals, between

Sukkur and Hyderabad, will result in this Raven being less localised

in Sind than it is at present. May this be so, as the Punjab Raven

is a useful, handsome and interesting bird.

IC ARACHI, KR, BATES,

Qelover 27, 1923, F.Z.S., M.B,.O.U.

Indian Police.

XTY,—A NOTE-ON THE RESIDENT OWES OF SIND;

1. Tyto alba stertens (Hartert). The Indian Barn Owl.

The Indian Barn Owl is rare in Sind. Hume met with it at

Larkana, Scrope Doig and Butler at Hyderabad, and Ticehurst at

Karachi, while Culbertson obtained a clutch of eggs from the river

banks at Malir in Karachi district.

I first came across this owl in January 1923, in Karachi, where

a pair had their home in the dome of the D.J. Sind College, and

till 1928 frequently met either one or both of them in Burns Garden

or in the vicinity of the college itself. They moved about freely

after dark and rent the stillness of the night with their unearthly

screeches.

During the summer of 1925 a pair took possession of a corner

turret of the old Chartered Bank building, one of the oldest buildings

of modern Karachi, but something disturbed the birds, probably

my prying into their private affairs, and they deserted the place in

October the same year.

On the 25th April 1928 I came face to face with a full grown

bird in perfect plumage hopping sedately up the main stairway of

the City Police Quarters, a four storied block with a tower, in the

heart of the city. On seeing me, the bird flew up on to a cross-

beam at the top of the stair-tower and gave me a look as much

as to say, ‘What the devil are you doing here’. I stared at him

till I got a crick in the neck, and that night left the tower window

open. The next morning he had gone, but had left behind, as a

souvenir perhaps, a solitary pellet consisting of the bones of what

appeared to be a small rat and some bird, possibly a sparrow.

On the 20th December 1929 I came across a pair in.an old

Kubh, on a spur of the Makli Hills at Pir Patho, Karachi district.

This pair evidently had eggs or young in a recess, about 30 feet

<ay

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 751

high, in the cracked and tottering wall of the Kubh, as the female

(presumably) was sitting close, while her mate sat in stony silence

on a brick ledge near by and calmly looked down at me.

Both birds flew out on being disturbed but an hour or so later

were again in the Kubh, one in the recess scarcely visible, the

other on the ledge, peering down at me in the way owls have.

The nest was too risky to take so I left the birds to continue

their vigil over the thousands of graves surrounding the Kubh and

littering the whole spur, at the extreme end of which overlooking

a bend of the Bagar canal, was that ‘holy of holies’, the shrine of

Pir Patho, which is still reverenced by Muslims and Hindus alike.

I did not come across this owl in Hyderabad district in 1929,

or in Sukkur, Jacobabad and Nawabshah districts from 1930 to

1935. In February 1936, however, I found a pair occupying an old

Rest House at Mirpurkhas, Thar Parkar district. The floor under

the cross beams on which the birds sat was strewn with pellets,

which contained mostly the bones of small rodents. I looked for

‘a nest and found a suitable recess which may have been used as

one the year previous. It contained nothing.

At nights I often came across either one or both of these birds on

the outskirts of the town, my attention being attracted by their ear

splitting screeches.

In June 1936 [ saw a captive bird sharing a cage with a Dusky

Horned Owl in the Karachi Zoo. Both birds looked very miserable

and unhappy. In May 1938 I saw a bird on several occasions at

‘dusk in the vicinity of the G.P.A. Hall. It, like the others I have

met, appeared to take a delight in screeching when on the wing.

2. Ketupa zeylonensis semenowi (Sarudny?) The Arabistan

Brown Fish Owl.

The Fish Owl is one of the rarest owls in Sind. I have come

across it but twice in 18 years and was lucky enough to obtain an

egg on my first acquaintance with it. Ticehurst did not meet with

it, but records East Narra, Larkana, Gaj River and Jungshahi as

localities where it has been obtained.

In the plains of Sind it is only met with in riverain, canal and

dhand tracts, where there are large leafy trees which afford close

cover. In the hills it is probably confined to the rocky gorges of

more or less perennial streams, such as the Gaj-1-Nai, Sita Nai and

the Baran river, where shade and shelter are available.

On the 29th December 1922, between Talhar and Palh in the

Hyderabad district, I stumbled across a small deep dhand, growing

dense thickets of tamarisk and sar grass, the place was teeming

with Lesser Whistling Teal. In the vicinity were several great

siris, pipal and bar trees. While resting in the shade of an immense

bar tree I noticed a partly eaten mud fish on the ground below and

a careful search among the leafy branches above revealed a Fish

Owl taking quiet stock of me. Realising that its mate was ‘In’

somewhere on the tree, I flung a clod of earth at the only likely

place, a junction of massive bifurcating boughs, and out, to my joy,

flew another owl. I was up that tree, which was luckily easy to

climb, in less time than it takes to tell, and found, in a hollow

(92 “JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAL=sHES i 4 75 OCIE Tar, Viole

formed by branching boughs, a single, perfectly fresh egg. The

nest hollow contained some mud, small clods of earth, a few

dried bar sticks and bar leaves, fish bones, the remains of a Whistling

Teal and some feathers, mostly Pond Heron and Whistling Teal.

Thinking I would be able to visit the place again and secure not

only the birds but also a full clutch of eggs, [ left the birds in peace,

but as ill luck would have it, I was transferred to Karachi shortly

after and so do not know whether the single egg I have is that of

semenowi or leschenaultt.

On the roth March 1936, about 14 years later, I came across

another of these owls, which did not appear to be quite full grown,

seated on a shady tree on the bank of the Jamrao canal near

Jhelur:, Thar Parkar district. -On- the “16th ‘of the month Wiawas

again in the locality, this time with a gun, but failed to find the

bird. Unfortunately I did not have the time to thoroughly search

all the thickly foliaged trees along both banks of the canal.

. Bubo coromandus coromandus (Lath.). The Indian Dusky

Horned Owl.

The Dusky Horned Owl, which is found throughout the plains,

in forest, riverain and canal tracts is by far the commonest Horned

Owl in Sind. I have met with it frequently in suitable habitat in

every District in‘the Province.

It breeds from December to February, but few fresh eggs will

xe found after the middle of January. As a rule it appropriates

an old nest, generally that of a Pallas’ Fish Eagle or a Vulture.

On several occasions I have taken eggs from a deserted Kite’s nest.

During the breeding season both sexes are exceedingly noisy and

call, one answering the other, both night and day.

During the first week of November 1935, a pair took possession

of an old kite’s nest on a Kandi tree ina thick. clump of ‘other

large trees in the compound of the D.S.P.’s bungalow at Nawabshah.

The birds were very noisy at all times, but more so at night. As

a rule the female occupied the nest, while her mate sat stolidly in a

sivis tree near by. Their diet was varied, as from time to time

found the remains of ring doves, crows, a roller, a pond Heron,

rats, a squirrel and a huge frog on the ground below the ‘homes’ of

these two birds. Only on one occasion did I see them mating,

it was late in the evening, in the nest itself, and judging from the

row that went on at the time, and that often heard at night, mating

apparently took place, on occasions, several times during a night.

On the 14th December the nest contained two perfectly fresh eggs.

The birds on losing their eggs moped a bit and left the locality for

a short while. They did not. however go far, as they were still

heard at night. They returned within a few days, mere noisy than

ever and once again took possession of the deserted kite’s nest.

On the 31st December, my last day in Nawabshah, I sent a man

up to the nest, about 4o feet high, and he reported that the nest

contained nothing except mud and some clods of earth. Two fresh

ges however were taken on the 17th January, 17 days later,

a sent to me by a friend, who packed the eggs so carelessly, in

spite of detailed instructions, that they were both broken in transit.

MISCELLANEOUS .NOTES 753

I have taken quite a score of nests in Sind and one in the U.P.

and have always found this owl in possession of a deserted nest,

that of an eagle, vulture or kite. On the ground below and some-

times in the nest itself lie the remains of past meals.

On one occasion I found the remains of a leveret, on another,

those of a monitor lizard. Ticehurst records that T. R. Bell

found two dead porcupines in a nest.

In Sukkur district I found one of these owls, on a river bund

at dusk, devouring a freshly killed Brush-tailed Rat. A Mohano

told me that he saw one of these owls catch and eat a fish about

a foot in size. I have at times found fish bones below a nest, but

not often. Yo a Sindhi.an owl is either-a Gue ora Chibiru. ~As

the term Gug is applied indiscriminately to all large owls, the owl

the Mohano saw may have been a Fish Owl. He said that ‘it

pounced upon the fish in shallow water and flew off with it in its

talons.

He could not see what fish it was, as it was getting dusk, but

thought that it was a mud fish.

4. Bubo bubo bengalensis (Frankl). The Indian Great Horned

Owl.

The Great or Rock Horned Owl though not often met with in

the plains is not uncommon in dry, hilly tracts, where there are

ravines, nullahs and dry water courses with high banks. I: have

met with it in such localities in Karachi, Sukkur and Thar Parkar

districts.

Culbertson took a clutch of 4 fresh eggs in December, which he

found in a depression at the foot of a mango tree on the banks of

a canal at Badin, Hyderabad district.. In March 1924 I took. 2

eggs from a hole in the bank of a dry water course near Jungshahi,

Karachi district. In Sukkur district I came across two nests, one

in an old Kubh (February 1930), and the other in a ravine (March

1931). Again in February 1936 I found a nest with 2 young in

a hole in the side of a nullah in some sand bhits near Umarkot,

Thar Parkar district.

A note on the distribution and nidification of this owl in Sind,

appears im vol. xxxix, No. 3, page 631, of the Society’s: journal.

5. Otus bakkamoena deserticolor (Ticehurst). The Sind

Collared Scops Owl.

The Collared Scops Owl which is by no means uncommon in Sind

is met with in suitable places throughout the Province.

Owing to its habit of lurking by day, it is more cften heard

than seen. Its soft ‘ak-tk-ak’, repeated at intervals is most often

heard during the stillness of the night. This little ow! is partial

to forests and topes, but nevertheless is met with in gardens, on

canal banks and road sides where there are suitable trees.

It loves to sit, looking for all the world like a little gnome, well

concealed amongst the leafy branches of some densely foliaged tree,

the mango being a favourite.

I have come across it frequently during the past 18 years in

1°

every district in Sind and have taken nests with either eggs or

(94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ONATU RATS VAIST USO CIETY = aV ol. exe

young in Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur districts. It breeds from

February to April, both months inclusive. I have taken fresh eggs

in early February, March and April from holes in mango, kandi

and lai trees. Butler took a nest in Hyderabad'in April. T. R. Bell

records finding a nest in a hole in the bottom of the foundation of

a deserted Neophron’s nest in a large white poplar. I have never

found more than 4 eggs ina nest. Asa rule the eggs are deposited

on an apology for a nest lining in the way of a few feathers, grass

stems and dried leaves. The eggs as a series, are larger and

more spherical than those of the Sind Spotted Owlet.

At Mirpurkhas I saw one of these owls mobbed by a crowd of

White-eared and Red-vented Bulbuls. The Scops was decidedly

‘hot and bothered’, and how he did not twist his head off trying

to face the chattering attacks of his tormentors launched simul-

taneously from all sides was a wonder. The noise attracted a

family of Jungle Babblers, who added their shrill abuse to the

shower of invective overwhelming the unfortunate Scops from every

direction. He stuck it stoically for some minutes and then made

a dash for the shelter of a leafy pipal tree, followed by his horde of

tormentors.

Harrington Bulkly took a nest of this owl on the 1st March

in the Pabb Hills, in Las Bela State.

6. Otus brucei (Hume). The Striated Scops Owl.

The Striated Scops Owl is rare in Sind and has seldom been

met with, nevertheless I am inclined to believe that many a bird is

missed on account of its lurking habits and that, to some extent,

it is resident and breeds. Blanford obtained a pair east of

Umarkot, Thar Parkar district, in January; and Scrope Doig one

at Hyderabad in December.

I have met with it but thrice in 18 years, at Khebar, Hyderabad

district, 12th March 1929;.Taror, Sukkur district, 30th December

1930 and Karachi 28th March 1932. At Khebar a single bird was

found seated in a leafy mango tree. I searched for the pair but was

unable to locate it. In a tamarisk belt in a valley between sand

bhits near Taro, I noticed one of these owls peeping out of a hole

in an old lai tree. The hole contained some feathers and dry lai

leaves but no eggs.

At ‘Karachi, a single bird chased by House Crows took shelter

in an upper storied flat in Civil Lines. Jt was caught and sent to

me. I.kept it caged for some days but as it refused all food, in

the way of crickets, cockroaches and black beetles, and began

to. droop, | gave. it.its freedom. I feel sure that “a> systemacie

hunt for this Scops Owl in suitable localities during ihe breeding

season would prove that it is more elusive than rare, and that

it breeds in Sind.

7. Athene brama indica (Frankl.). The Sind Spotted Owlet.

This Owlet is by far the commonest owl in Sind and is met with

everywhere, throughout the Province. It breeds in February, March

and April, laying as a rule in holes in trees and buildings. In the

hills around Khadeji, Rehri and Bram Hyderi in Karachi district,

; Aa

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 755

it breeds in holes in cliffs and the precipitous sides of gorges and

water courses. | have also found eggs or young on_ several

occasions in deserted crows’ nests, and once in a hole in the side

of a small quarry; while in Sukkur district several pairs had their

homes in natural holes in solid stone, great masses of rock, in the

old bed of the Indus near the ruins of Aror. The nest lining which

is generally very meagre, consists of a few feathers, grass stems

dry leaves.

Three to five eggs are laid, in most cases four and these as

a rule are found, like most owls’ eggs, in all stages of incubation,

due presumably to the irregular intervals at which they are laid and

the habit this owl in particular has of holing up during the day,

with the result that incubation begins, intentionally or otherwise,

trom the time the first egg is deposited. It is not unusal to find

beth female and male in a nest containing eggs. On one occasion

I rooted out three full grown birds and their parents, five in all,

from a hole in a mango tree.

In the U.P. this bird is most appropriately named, WKhus-kut-

euttia, and in Upper Sind I have heard Seraikis call it, also appro-

priately, Chugal-chirt. It is surely needless for me to explain why.

In Sind, the name Chibiru is applied indiscriminately to it and all

other small owls.

KARACHI, Ke R. BATES,

October 26, 1938. EZ.S.,, M.B.O.U:

Indian Police.

XV.—VULTURES FEEDING AT NIGHT.

I have heard it said that vultures will occasionally feed on a

carcase at night, if there is a moon; but I cannot remember having

actually observed this myself, so the other night out of curiosity

I went out after dinner at about 9 o’clock to visit the remains of a

cow that lay on the hill side below my cottage.

The moon was about three-quarters full, but misty clouds

reduced visibility. The carcase of the cow at which the vultures

had been feeding on during the day time lay on the open hillside,

but round it on two sides was fairly thick cover-bushes and long

grass, and the ground fell away below it to pass into a bushy

ravine. As there had been a leopard about recently I took a shot-

gun and electric torch.

Coming to the carcase I passed within twenty yards of it

screened by bushes, and as I did so, I heard the vultures on the

remains. They were apparently actively feeding on it as they were

hissing and apparently squabbling over it. I took a half turn

round it and suddenly appeared some ten yards from the carcase

and flashed my torch on it—though it was hardly necessary to

do so in the moonlight. There were about fifteen vultures gathered

all round the body and they stretched up their heads and necks to

view the intruder. They consisted of White-backed Vultures and

the Northern Long-billed Vultures in about equal numbers. There

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

was one Black Vulture among them though three had been at the

carcase during the daytime.

They then began to leave the carease flying off downhill to-

wards the ravine—one by one—some pitching again on the hill side

nearby. But one of them a White-backed Vulture crouched—

drawing his neck in and depressing his head as if trying to hide

himself and refused to go. I went right up to him and poked him

with the muzzle of my gun! He then made a short flop of a few

yards: down the hill where I left. him in the grass.. It is, possible

that he was injured in a fight with the cthers or with a piedog

during the daytime.

What would a leopard have done had he come to this ‘kill’?

Do leopards and tigers ever kill vultures in order to eat them?

I have seen a tiger in the daytime spring up from his ‘kill’ and

jump. up at the wultures but he -did’ not -cetone. 7 That “was

apparently only to drive the vultures off.

On the other hand I shot a leopard who was in the habit of

climbing the big Banyan trees to eat the young vultures in the

nests! Was that an exceptional depravity—or is it not unusual?

I am now of the opinion that vultures will feed by moonlight

if they are not afraid to come to ground at the carcase. That we

never see them do so when waiting up for tigers and leopards is

no doubt from their fear of the big cats and other night prowlers.

Many interesting questions arise from this observation. What

species of vultures are given to feeding by moonlight? How much

moon. must..there be to tempt them down? Do they feed’ ever

when there is no moon? It should be possible to test their sight

by night at any Zoo where they are held captive . . . and also

their sense of smell . . . has that ever been investigated?

TAUNGGYI, 5.0.0: i RV EIV ESE:

BURMA.

October 4, 1938.

AVIL—THE STATUS AND NIDIFICATION OF THE

PERSIAN. BEE-EAVTER«*(MEROPS PERSIOCUS? PERSICUOS

PAE EN aol:

The Persian, or rather Iranian Bee-eater is an early summer

migrant to Sind, where it breeds in suitable localities, freely in

some places, sparingly in others.

Thousands of birds enter the Province yearly, numbers remain

to breed, others pass on into Rajputana, which so far as I am

aware is the limit of its extension east.

The route through Sind embraces the whole Province, from

Kashmor in the north, to Karachi in the south. The general

direction of migrating birds is always towards the east and birds

any distance away from their’ regular breeding’ haunts fly very

high, exeept when feeding. on eters € ee os

--: Birds--as’-a-rule begin: to arrive in Sind m-itate April or early

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ria]

May, the movement continuing till the end of the month and at

times extending into early June. Early arrivals may be met with

in middle April.

Butler records it on the 16th April. I have not met with it in

any numters earlier than the 27th April. The majority of birds

however are seen during the first half of May. Birds forming the

eastern fringe of the movement are often carried out to sea and

these on returning to the coast line, take a north-easterly route

over the creeks and mangrove swamps via Bram Hyderi, Jari,

Petiani and Keti Bunder towards Thar Parkar, where I am told

they breed in the sand bhits in the desert tracts of the district,

which extend into Rajputana.

Birds in flight attract attention by the habit they have of

chirping to each other, and the peculiar call notes when heard

during the silent hours of the night, just before dawn, are most

pleasing to the ear. From my yearly Rough Notes I find that

migrating birds have been heard or seen from 4-30 a.m. to G-30

a.m. and from dusk to 11-40 p.m., so it’s fairly evident that they

rest or feed during the heat of the day, which is intense in Sind

during May and June, yet this Bee-eater builds as a rule in most

hot, arid tracts, where there 15 no water except that in canals, the

full flow of which is somewhat later than the arrival of the birds.

Butler found it at Hyderabad in July, and Scrope Doig thought

that it bred in July and August in the Eastern Nara district.

Ticehurst received a breeding bird from Draklan near Kashmor in

May, and Gordon came across it around Jacobabad and at Kubo on

the Desert Canal in June, where it was plentiful.

During my stay in Sind, now 18 years, I have met. with this

Bee-eater, at suitable times of the year from Karachi to Kashmor.

In JSarachi district, where there are no_ suitable breeding

grounds, it is met with only as a bird of passage.

On its arrival in early summer it tarries but to rest and feed,

and passes on, flying high, to its breeding haunts on the eastern

borders of the Province and Rajputana.

Numbers of birds however remain in suitable places in Middle

and Upper Sind to breed, the majority continuing east to their

regular breeding grounds. It arrives again in Karachi district in

late August and September and numbers, more young birds than

adults, may be met with in the vicinity of dhands, where they

perch on pan, sar and lai and delight in hawking the numerous

winged insects which infest the lai thickets and reed beds, which

are to be found in the majority of Sind dhands. Around Karachi

itself they are seldom met with on their return, and when seen or

heard, are flying high, towards the Persian Gulf or Baluchistan.

Personally I believe that these flights, which pass over Karachi

in October and early November, are on their return passage to Iran

and Irak, and that this Bee-eater returns to these countries by

the end of November, as, to the best of my knowledge, none

have been met with anywhere in Sind from December to mid-April.

The reason why more of these autumnal or return. flights are

not seen is due probably to the great height at which the birds. fly.

My attention has invariably been attracted by the call notes and

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

even with these as a guide I have often found it dificult to spot

the birds and have often failed altogether to do so. Even when

located, few, comparatively to the numbers heard, are actually

caught sight of.

In Sukkur district in 1930 I came across great numbers of this

Bee-eater en route to their breeding grounds in late April, May

and June and on the 28th August the same year found hundreds

of adults and young hawking over Ghari dhand, then an immense

sheet of water with great reed beeds and thickets of lai and sar.

The birds which were scattered over an area of several square

miles permitted an easy approach and I was able to watch them

gracefully hawking insects at very close quarters.

The next year I was able to follow up my observations and on

the 12th June was rewarded by discovering a small colony digging

nest holes in a high bank of the Kalandar Shak, Mirpur Mathelo

taluka. I also came across in the same taluka, many birds in

small parties of a dozen orn‘so around Yaro lund, Sahib) Khan

Lund and the Raini Wah. The majority of birds however appeared

to be making their way to some sand bhits, which I could just

see in the dim distance further east. On the 25th June I found

a small scattered colony near Detha Bhaya, breeding in low sand

bhits and mounds near the Mahie Wah. I dug out several nests,

some quite 4 feet deep, but was too early for eggs. On the 6th

July I came across a few pairs, which were obviously breeding in

some sand bhits at Nur Shah-jo-Bhit in the Rohri taluka but did

not have the time to look for nests. The 11th of the same month

found me at Khenju, in Ubauro taluka, near the Rajputana border,

where I found quite a large but scattered colony breeding in the

banks of a Kario and in sand bhits in the vicinity. I dug out a

number of nests and collected 23 fresh eggs, some ‘of -which-l

sent Mr. Stuart Baker. No nest had more than five eoss= or

young. In one nest we found only three callow young, in another

the largest Saw-scaled Viper it has been my lot to see, and I]

have seen scores. This particular specimen measured a trifle over

26 inches in length and almost 44 inches in girth. It had dined

on five callow young... Incidentally it was its last meal. Men

with me, who live in tracts where this Viper abounds said that

they had never before seen such a large lundi, a name by which

this viper is known in Upper Sind, meaning ‘bob-tailed’.

The nests- dug out varied in length from 3 to 6 feet, the ese

chamber being quite large enough for a bird to turn round in

when seated.

In one case we caught a sitting female by placing an ajrak

(sheet) over the nest entrance and thumping the ground above.

The bird, a female with a well marked incubation patch was given

to W. H. Cole, who had not a specimen in his collection.

On my return, | was able to revisit the small colony at Kalandar

Shak on the rath July. [ dug out two nests, one containing: five,

and the other four eggs.

The year following I saw many birds flying over Sukkur and

met with them at Duber, in Rohri taluka and in talukas further

north where I had met them the year previous.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 759

In July and August 1934 I came across this Bee-eater from

Ghari Khairo to Kashmor in the Upper Sind Frontier (Jacobabad

district), and on the 2zoth July found a scattered colony of about

two score birds breeding in the banks of an old Kario and in

mounds in semi desert between Thull and Tangwani. In September

birds were still to be seen along the Desert and Begari canals but

were fewer in numbers.

At the end of November I failed to meet with it anywhere.

In Nawabshah district 1 saw many birds in flight in May and

June 1935. On the goth May a single bird passed over Nawabshah,

shortly after a terrific dust storm.

It was calling loudly and evidently had been separated from

the flock during the storm. It was cbviously in distress but

struggled on manfully in a north-easterly direction, calling pitifully

at short intervals.

Near Tharushah on the r4th July I came across about a score

of birds in pairs or single in suitable breeding ground alongside

a canal, but did not have the time to look for nests. I also found

a smail scattered colony in a similar situation along the Rohri

canal, near Saurie about 35 miles from Sakrand, but here also I

did not have the time to look round for nests, the predominance

of single birds however told a plain tale.

When at Umarkot in Thar Parkar district in February 1936,

a Meghwar shikari informed me that numbers of this Bee-eater

arrived in the district in May and bred in the sand bhits throughout

the desert portions of the district.

This bird is well known in Sind as ‘Wado Tracalo’, and the

smaller species, the Sind Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalis

beludschicus Neum) as ‘Nando Tracalo’.

KARACHI, LR ES,

October to, 1938. E:Z.S:juM. 38.0.0)

Indian Police.

KV SAUNT AND HABITAT OF PITTA C. CUCULLATA.

HARTL. IN WEST BENGAL.

(With a plate).

During an excursion in quest of breeding birds to Satgachia

(District Burdwan), which lies 20 miles east of Burdwan town, on

23rd June, 1935 I came across a pair of Pitta c. cucullata Hartl.,

one of which was captured with the aid of a bird-catcher who

happened to be with me. The occurrence of this species is un-

known in Western Bengal, and it is therefore of interest to record

the circumstances connected with my excursion.

The location of Satgachia is attractive In many ways, but apart

from. its physical peculiarities which are described below, and. its

accessibility by motor road, the fact that an acquaintance lives there,

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

whose repeated invitation for my visit to his country bore pointed

reference to the prospect of an almost untrodden field from a

bird-collector’s pomt of view, was enough inducement for this

excursion. An exceptionally protracted summer, however, with its

attendant discomforts made an earlier trip impossible. A few

showers having occurred preliminary to the breaking of the monsoon

which helped to bring down the temperature I tound my _ oppor-

tunity. and at once decided to come out. The trip was made on

June g23,- 1935..1n my. motor car’. The drive via the -Grand- Trunk

Road was at once enjoyable and instructive, as I had a chance of

looking at the countryside, which embraces long stretches of -the

contiguous. districts. of Howrah, Hooghly and Burdwan. The

approach to my destination lay through a feeder road, which -takes

off from the main road at mile 56. As _I reached the. outskirts of

Satgachia I perceived a difference in the outlook, specially- in

vegetation and in the upward trend-of the level of the land. The

thickets and scrub-jungle on the bed and along the banks of the

river. Banka arrested special attention and -I-- obtained .a few

interesting species. from this locality, e.g.-.Pycnonotus luteolus

Less. (reported in.j.B.N.H.S., .xxxvill, 620-21, 1936). .The neigh-

bourhood, to the north, alongside the Kalna Road reveals other

interesting spots overgrown with scrub jungle, where I was busy

collecting in the afternoon. My prospect was about to be marred,

however, by the gathering clouds which so overcast the sky that

I felt inclined to return, when I heard from a short. distance some

loud notes, very like those of the Indian Pitta, which is not un-

common in Bengal. Following these sounds, I reached an orchard

at the far end of a low-lying and grass-covered field bordered

with bamboos. It seemed less frequented and was overgrown with

fruit trees interspersed with patches of scrub and prickly thickets.

Here as I ‘anticipated, I came upon, a pair of Pittas..-In the

approaching gloom of the evening made darker by the thickening

clouds, I could hardly discern them clearly, but what little I saw

of them left me in no doubt as to their behaviour, which was

evidently of courtship,—erect posture with characteristically Pitta-

like movements of the body and tail, and loud impetuous calls,

uttered almost alternately by the couple. As I came closer I saw

clearly on the ground two moving figures, hopping about and

almost challenging each other by gesture and voice. On my

approach they flew up to a mango tree. I set my catcher on to

them and, in a minute one was caught. To my utter surprise

I found it te bé-a- Pitta c. cucullata Hartl)- The aain hadenony,

burst with terrific force, making me retreat for shelter, and when

it. stopped, full thirty minutes later, my search for the second

bird proved in vain. For it was too late then, and no clue was

found as to any possible nest of the Pitta in the neighbourhood.

The exquisite condition of plumage of the captured specimen, its

time of occurrence and incidental behaviour bespeaking courtship

display, suggests that it is obviously a breeding species of the

locality. It has since been thriving in my aviary.

: Measurements: Wing 114 mm., tail 42 mm., tarsus 43 mm.,

culmen.-23° mm. -’ re 16s 87 eh ify Th nies &

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 1.—Swamp and marsh fed by overflow water of the river Banka.

Fig. 2.—Aspect of the ‘transition belt’ along the course of the Banka. Stretches

of waste land overgrown with scrub- and bush-jungle.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 761

It is remarkable that there is no record of this species from any

part of Central and Western Bengal, although it is found to occur

in. Eastern Bengal, e.g. in Chittagong, Noakhali, Tipperah and

Mymensingh. It is common in the hills of Jalpaiguri, but in North

Bengal generally it appears to be a breeding species both in the

hills and plains. It is also known to breed in some places in

the- plains of the United Provinces. The species does not seem

to be exclusive in its choice of habitat, occurring as it does in

different haunts and situations, both in the hills and plains. .Mr.

Stuart Baker writes, ‘it frequents forest of all kinds, the deepest

and wettest as well as the driest and thinnest, while it may also

be met with in bamboo-jungle, scrub-jungle, and in crops, such as

mustard.and rice, or in cultivation outside forest.’ In its habitat

in the plains it appears to affect cover, tree- and bush- -jungle, orchard

and overgrown waste land. Shy and always alert, it rarely shows

itself in the open. The orchard and tree-grove in Satgachia in the

district- of..Burdwan-where. I found the Pittas offer cover,: shelter

and seclusion sufficient for their mode of life, while the neighbouring

bamboo-clumps, prickly thickets - and undergrowth apparently

provided additional attraction to the breeding pair.

Mention is necessary of the fact that Burdwan, due to its peculiar

physical. features, naturally resolves itself into two distinct areas,

entirely different from each other. The whole of the western.-part

and “an inconsiderable area to its east have a marked affinity -to

the rocky, non-alluvial plain of Chota Nagpur, while the remaining

eastern portion, in which Satgachia lies, presents. many features. of

homogeneity with. the districts in the neighbourhood of- Calcutta,

e.g. Hooghly and 24-Parganas. Ecologically this- tract, which

forms a rather narrow belt of alluvial land, may be regarded as a

continuation of the Gangetic delta with patterns of vegetation

characterising Central Bengal. The climate is moist and equable.

The mean maximum temperature in the dry season (December to

April) varies from about 80° to ro1°, and remains- steady at about

go° in the monsoon months. The total average of rainfall between

May and November amounts to 53 inches. While these physical

conditions are to a great extent reflected in the topography of

Satgachia, its proximity to the more open, undulating, rocky and

arid- zone cannot altogether leave it impervious to its influences.

Nor is it difficult to detect in or around this area evidences of a

process of transition whereby the rocky soil merges into the alluvial

tract. An impetus to such merging may be looked for in the action

of the river Banka, which traverses the whole of this tract, it being

originally ‘a spill channel of the Damodar which is pre-eminently a

hilt-fed stream, bringing down vast quantities of silt from the Chota

Nagpur plateau. How far this reacts'on the flora and fauna of

the locality requires careful investigation, but it is apparent that

while the characteristics which it shares in common with the rest of

the Gangetic delta remain more or less constant, minor modifications

have- crept’ in under stress of circumstances and environmental

factors, which tend to invest it with features peculiarly its. own.

These are manifestly of interest and importance, for, ornithologi-

cally, they appear to induce an influx of species not ordinarily

763 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. XL

attached to a habitat in the deltaic region of Central Bengal. The

salient features of the locality are noted below :

1. Mainly alluvial country typical of the rice plain of the

Gangetic delta, featuring low water-logged areas as well as high

lands; the latter harbouring hamlets and villages while the former

give rise to swamps and jhils covered with tall grass, marsh weeds

and sedges characteristic of the Gangetic plain. Extensive marshes

lying near the banks of the Banka are sustained by the overflow

of that river.

Absence of genuine forest, though a certain amount of jungle

including genuine forest trees, e.g. Sal (Shorea robusta) has grown

up through depopulation of villages or abandonment of sites

formerly inhabited. Orchards and tree-groves mixed with shrub-

beries of semi-spontaneous and sub-economic trees and shrubs are

found in abundance, while trees grown to a gigantic height line as

a rule the roads and highways.

2. What may be called the ‘transition belt’ les some distance

off to the north and northwest, along the course of the river Banka,

and in a marked degree on its northern bank, where the peculiar

soil deposits bear evidence of transfusion of rocky decomposition

with deltaic alluvium.

A rugged and rather open tract, devoid of tree-groves in

striking contrast to the rest of the locality, where vegetation is

unimportant and mostly uneconomic and of stunted growth.

Scrub- and bush-jungle abounds in this belt, pre-eminently featuring

the flanks of the river Banka and the stretches of waste land

around, the tangled hedges and prickly thickets lying buried in

overhanging creepers and various milk weeds.

so, KaiLAs BOSE STREET, S, Cla AW

CALCUTTA.

September 8, 1938.

XVIII.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN PURPLE

MOORHEN (PORPHYRIO P. POLIOCEPHALUS) IN

CHITRAL.

I enclose the skin of a Purple Moorhen (P. p. poliocephalus)

shot today in Mastuj. As apparently no one has previously seen

a bird of this species in Chitral, I thought it might possibly be

of interest to you.

H. S. STANSFELD,

Capt., Chitral Scouts.

CHITRAL SCOUTS,

CHITRAL,

NVI ote

November 17, 1938.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 763

XIX.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BANDED CRAKE

(RALLUS E. AMUROPTERA) AND THE MALABAR WOOD-

PECKER (MACROPICUS J. HODGSONI) IN THE

BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS, S. INDIA.

It may be of interest to record that a young specimen of the

Banded Crake (Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera) was killed here

in the middle of August. I should like to know whether the Banded

Crake has previously been recorded at this altitude (Billigirirangans,

Central South India—s5,700 ft.).

The Malabar Woodpecker (Macropicus javensis hodgsont) is now

fairly common here, although I am sure it did not occur on the

Billigirirangans some years ago. I think records todate place this

bird on the Western Coast, from Travancore to Belgaum.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

S. [ENDIA.

September 20, 1938.

{[Mr. Morris’ note adds to the few records of the occurrence

of the Banded Crake in Southern India. No examples of this bird

were obtained by the Society’s Surveys in this region. The bird

occurs in the Sub-Himalayas and from east to west and ranges

southwards in smaller numbers in the Western and mcre wooded

parts of Peninsula India. The extension of the range of the

Malabar Woodpecker to the central hills of South India is

interesting. Previous records are confined to western ranges of

the Presidency.—Ebs. |

XX.—THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN SOOTY TERN

(STERNA FUSCATA INFUSCATA) IN THE LACCADIVE

ISLANDS.

I send herewith 4 eggs and would be very grateful if you could

help me in identifying them. They are the eggs of Oceanic Terns

of apparently two species and were collected in May on Putti

Sandbank in the Laccadive Group. As breeding had not begun

when I visited the Islands last February, I left word asking for

specimens of eggs from the tern colony to be taken when obtainable

and if possible skins also of the breeding birds. Unfortunately the

latter have not been forthcoming, so that I am afraid certain

identification is impossible.

(CCOOVERCOLLY,

SOMWARPET, EF. N, BETTS.

COORG.

October 10, 1938.

«64. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (IST. SOCIELY. Vole Xtc

[Mr.. Stuart Baker to whom the eggs were sent for ientihcation

writes as follows :—

‘The eggs taken during May in the Laccadives by Mr. i N.

Betts are undoubtedly those of the Indian Sooty Tern (Sterna

fuscata infuscata) and are all of the same species; the largest and

smallest of the 4 eggs sent come well within my maxima and

minima measurements. The eggs of this bird vary in the most

extraordinary way in colouration and very greatly in size. -Hume

found Sooty Terns breeding in the Laccadives in February when

there were well grown chicks as well as hardset eggs and from

this we could infer that one egg laying season lasted from December

to February. Now it is interesting to have a second laying season

recorded for May.. Although we have no doubt ourselves that the

eggs: belong to our Indian form, it w one be desirable to get some

specimens of the birds to confirm this’, S.|

XXI.—MIGRATION ROUTES OF GEESE...

Perhaps the following information may be worth while placing

on; @ecord.« "Over ‘the village of Dambuk in the Sadiya Frontier

Tract lies what must be in Assam one of the chief migration routes

of Geese on their wav to and from their breeding grounds. I was

twice lucky enough to see this migration flight, in 1934 and again

in 1936. It appears to start as arly as the middle of January,

and goes on until the end of March. The beginning and middle

of March seem to he the peak periods for the northward migration.

Dambuk lies right at the foot of the Hymalayan foothills which

rise to between 5,000 ft. and 6,000 ft. immediately behind the

village, gradually rising still higher as one goes further north;

nothing but a jumbled mass of mountains. The valley of the

Dibang river is some little distance to the east, whilst that of the

Dihang (Brahmaputra) is roughly thirty miles to the west.

In 1934-1 was at the village for the first week of March, and

from about 4 o’clock in the afternoon every day until late at nicht

gaggle after gaggle of geese appeared at intervals of about fifteen

minutes from the south and south-west, flying at an altitude of

about 4,000 ft. to disappear over the saddles in the hills towards

the. north behind the village. Their ‘honking’ sounded very

melancholy as if they did not relish the thought of the inhospitable

country over which they had to fly for there is nowhere en route

where they could possibly alight.

Thousands of birds must have passed over each day 1? was there

and when one woke up during the night the birds could still, be

heard going over.

Apparently there must be at the sources of the Dibang on the

Great Snow Range some very convenient passes which the birds

make regular use of. By far the bigger valley is that of the

Dihang where my headquarters were at that time; but not a sinole

goose ever went north by this route. I toured along the foot hills

for a hundred miles during several migrating seasons;. but ‘never

MISCELLANEOUS . NOTES 765

any where. else did I see even one per cent of the number of birds

going north that I saw at Dambuk.

In. 1936 i wasuthere from the 11th to the: 13th of January; but

the migration had evidently only just started and very few gaggles

were seen. On the average only two or three gaggles of 25 to 30

birds each were passing northwards each day I was there. The

birds were at too great a height for even a guess at their species.

Dambuk is, I should mention, some 25 miles or more from the

nearest point where geese are usually found and there is dense

jungle between.

This migration route appears to be a very old and well established

one, for the Abors have a legend that on their northward flight

the birds are advancing with war cries to make war on the Musk

Deer, whilst when they return they come with shouts of victory

after sucessful combat! Unfortunately I have never heen able to

see the southward migration.

GAUHATI, tena kh SONS.

KamRup DISTRICT, Indian Police.

ASSAM.

October 16, 1938.

XXII-—COTTON TEAL (NETTOPUS COROMANDELIANUS).

AT NASIK

This bird was a single female -(no others were seen) and was

shot on Lake Beale, near Ghoti, about 20 miles South West of

Nasik, on January 2nd. I regret the skin was not preserved, but

a careful examination was made, in comparison with the description

and illustration found in Game Birds of India by Stuart-Baker, and

there 1s no doubt whatsoever as to the identification.

NASIK. GC. GREATS,

January 3, 19309.

SX —— FISH OR GREATZAGE.

(Reprinted from the ‘Field’).

Sir;—-With reference to the above article by Mr. T. C. Bridges,

in the Field of October 22nd, it is worthy of interest that the

majority of modern ichthyologists appear to be of the opinion that

‘centenarian’ carp are non-existent; that, in fact, they never have

existed. According to the Fishing Gazette of May 25th, 1935, a

German scientist, Professor Rochner, who has studied carp for

many years, states that they ‘live twenty-five to thirty years only.

The ancient carp of Fontainebleau are a legend . for the ponds

there were emptied in 1789, in 1825, and again during the Commune.

The monster carp there, 9c centimetres long and 60 in girth, Is

only twenty-five years old.

In his History of Fishes (pages 425-6), Mr.-J. ie Norman quotes

Dr. Regan’s comment that the statements concerning most of the

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INATURAL HiSa: SOCIETY ~ Vol. exh.

very old carp ‘rest on very unreliable evidence,’ and adds that,

‘although there is good reason for believing that under artificial

conditions this fish may attain to a good old age, it is doubtful

whether it exceeds fifteen years in a wild state.’ This, I think,

aptly sums up the position in the case of carp, since these placid

fish take very easily to a domestic life.

Both authors are equally sceptical about the alleged great age

of certain pike, though Dr. Regan concedes ‘it is probable that

fish of sixty or seventy pounds weight are at least as many years

old.’ Mr. E. G. Boulenger (Angling, October-December, 1936,

page, 7) states that ‘no pike of over fifteen years is definitely

recorded’ (my italics). Ireland, as is well known, produces some

superb- pike; yet, so far as I am aware, scale readings, where

practicable, have not revealed any evidence of notably long-lived

individuals. One of the heaviest Scottish pike netted in recent

years—a female fish weighing 35 lb., and measuring 4 ft. in length

(Loch Ken, 1935), was estimated, from examination of scales, to

be eighteen to twenty years old (Fishing Gazette, June 29th, 1935).

Unfortunately, numerous discrepancies are to be found between

various authors’ accounts of ‘long-lived’ carp and pike. In some

cases even the metal of which the marking ring was composed

differs in different stories, some writers having that it was brass,

others copper, and yet others insisting on gold! Gesner’s marked

pike, taken (circa?) 1497, was supposed to have been placed in a

lake by the Emperor Frederick II in the year 1230, but, (as) Mia.

Norman has pointed out, ‘ they (t.e., other authors) cannot

agree as to which of the Fredericks was responsible for marking

the fish, or as to the exact locality at which it was finally captured.

Its length has been stated to be 19 ft., and its weight five hundred

and fifty pounds’ (my italics).

Incidentally, it would appear that the Teutonic sense of humour

was more pronounced in those times than now; for we read ( I

really must apologise to Mr. Norman for quoting him so exten-

sively !) that the actual skeleton of this monster pike is said to be

preserved in the cathedral at Mannheim, but ‘a celebrated German

anatomist’ who studied it during the last century ‘found that the

vertebrae in the backbone were too numerous to belong to a

single individual—in other words, that the skeleton had been

lengthened to fit the story!’

‘DAVENA,’ PETER MICHAEL,

56, CRANMORE LANE,

ALDERSHOT,

HAntTs.

XXIV.—ON THE NESTING HABITS OF THE GOURAMI.

(OSPHRONEMUS GORAMY [LACEPEDE)).

The nesting habits of Anabantoids are interesting in that the

male constructs a floating nest of air bubbles to the under side

of which are attached the eggs deposited by the female. The

paternal parental care lasts till the absorption of the yolk in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 767

young larvae which after this are capable of leading an

independent existence. The spawning habits of Colisa fasciata

(Colisa vulgaris) and Osphronemus goramy which are essentially

alike have been given by Carbonnier (1876 and 1877). The breeding

habits of Macropodus chinensis (M. opercularis) are also apparently

the same in view of the reference made by Carbonnier in his paper

(Carbonnier, 1876). Waite (1904) has given an account of the

breeding habits of the Siamese fighting fish, Betta pugnax Cantor.

There is a short note on the breeding habits of B. splendens by

Chute (1935). The nesting habit of a South Indian form, Macro-

podus cupanus (Polyacanthus cupanus) has been worked out by the

present writer (Jones, 1939) and this has been found to be just as

in the other Anabantoids.

While engaged in going through the literature connected with

the breeding habits of the Anabantoids, the author was surprised

to find divergent nesting habits attributed to the Gourami by

different workers. The observations of Carbonnier (1877) on the

nesting habits of this form is in general agreement with that of

other Anabantoids. A few extracts from his account are given

below. ‘He’ (referring to the male fish) ‘soon commenced in one

of the angles of the aquarium the formation of a nest of froth,

which in a few hours attained a considerable size—6 to 74 inches

in diameter and 4 to 4$ inches in height.’ The life of the bubbles

depends on the quantity of mucus contained in them and the fish

appears to make a selection of the good bubbles. ‘For this purpose

he kept at the surface of the water, turning his back to the nest,

and drawing in the outer air, expelled it by degrees in front of

him in the form of gaseous bubbles. The badly preserved bubbles

burst, and there only remained those the envelop of which possessed

suitable consistency; these he then collected and carried into his

nest.’ ‘At times the buccal secretion seemed to slacken, and the

male could no longer elaborate his globules. He then descended

to the bottom of the water to seek for some confervae, which

he sucked and chewed for a few moments as if to excite and re-

awaken the activity of the mucous membrane.’ With reoard to

the behaviour of the male after the egos have been deposited by

the female he says ‘A Macropodus or Colisa would not have been

embarrassed about collecting the eggs and arranging them in his

mouth; and in order to raise them to the surface he made use of

a most curious stratagem. He rose to take in an abhundant

provision of air; then, descending, he placed himself well below

the eggs, and suddenly, by a violent contraction of the muscles

of the interior of the mouth and pharynx, he compelled the air -

collected there to escape by the gill apertures. This air, infinitely

divided by the branchial lamellae and fringes, was, so to speak,

pulverized; and the violence of the expulsion was such that it

escaped in the form of a regular gaseous powder, which enveloped

the eggs and conveyed them to the surface.’ It takes three days

for the eggs to hatch out (Temp. 25°C.=77°F.) and the paternal

care lasts for about another ten days. About 2,000 to 3,000 eggs

are laid at a time, and the fish has the faculty to spawn several

times a year,

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST... SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The nesting habit of the Gourami as given by other workers

is quite different from the one given above. No reference is made

of a floating nest consisting of air bubbles. Weber and de Beaufort

(1922), say: ‘The eggs are attacHed to water plants or

received in a nest, composed of plants.’ Deraniyagala (1929),

dealing with the Labyrinthici of Ceylon, says ‘This fish is

reported to breed when six months old and builds a bird-like nest

of mud and weed, to which the ova are attached. The young

according to Indian workers, hatch out after a month and are

guarded by the parents.’ Sundara Raj (1931) in a pamphlet issued

by the Madras Fisheries Department says, ‘During the breeding

season nests are constructed by the fish in the weedy margins of

the pond with stems and blades. of grass and aquatic plants

(Elodea, Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, etc.) and in these ‘the eggs are

deposited by the female. The male generally guards the nests.

The young fry emerge from the eggs in about a fortnight but if

the weather is warm, in shorter times.’ In the Fisheries Depart-

ment Aquarium at the Madras Beach (Marina) the nest of a

Gourami resembling very much the nest of a bird can be found

exhibited in a show case.

In no other Indian fresh water fish so far as I know a definite

nest made of water weeds or grasses is recorded. Apart from the

Anabantoids eggs attached to floating mass of air bubbles are not

known in any other Indian Fish. In the Ophiocephalids, where

we get floating eggs, bubbles of air are absent and the eggs are

self-buoyant due to the presence of a large oil globule. Budgett

(1901) when dealing with breeding habits of some West African

fishes refers to frothy floating egg masses in the case of the

Characinid, Sarcodaces odoe. In Gymnarchus niloticus and Heter-

otis niloticus, two other West African fresh water fishes, nests

made out of water weeds are recorded (Budgett 1gor1).

It is evident from the extracts given already that the nesting

habits of the Gourami are different according to different workers.

It is rather strange that the same species should exhibit such varied

habits. We find that the observation of Carbonnier does not differ

from the typical nestine habits of the Anahbantoids and therefore

one is disposed to consider it as more probable. However this is

an interesting problem that requires further investigation.

Since writing the above account a few more references con-

cerning the nesting habits of the Gourami have come to the notice

of the writer and the relevent portions in them are given below.

It has not however been possible to consult the works of Dabry

de Thiersant! and of General Hardwicke.’

Gilbert has given in this Journal (1894, vol. viii, Part 2, Ppp:

435-8) the following notes on the breeding habits of this form

that he observed in an aquarium of about 15 gallon capacity with

some ornamental rock work at the bottom consisting of a central

curved stone: ‘One morning when I came as usual to look at

‘ La pisciculture et la péche en Chine," 1872,

* Zool. Journ., iv, p. 309. a

. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES |. 769

my. fish I noticed that some thing unusual had happened; all the

fish but one had hidden themselves amongst the weeds and the

only. visible fish was truly terrifying spectacle. He had turned

a. jet black and his red eyes by contrast, shone like live coals;

his fins were all erect, and he was making furious charges at

any of the other fish which ventured to show their noses. Presently

I espied another black-looking fish quite motionless underneath

the rock-work bridge, and then I understood what was taking

place. After chasing away all intruders the male came down to

the female under the bridge.’

Immediately after they separated the female emitted a stream

of 15 or 20 eggs, and to my disgust the pair immediately set

to_ work (apparently) to gobble them up. One or two eggs which

were caught in the eddies and carried down amongst the rocks

were immediately snapped up by the other fish which were

hanging around for this purpose. This took place several times

and at last I noticed that the pair had frequent mysterious visits

to the undersides of the hollow stone, but there was nothing there

that I could see.’

The next morning these visits were explained and I then noticed

the female frequently rising to the surface and bringine down

with her a mouthful of air which she let go against the underside

of the bridge until there was a large silvery globule accumulated.

The eggs had, it appeared, been plastered to the underside of

the rock and she was now supplying them with air.’

Every now and then the globule would overflow and a large

bubble would rise to the top; she however kept on brineine down

more air with the idea, I suppose, of keepine the supply fresh.’

I have already mentioned that these fish seem capable of

actually breathing atmospheric air, but what the eggs should want

with air, and compressed air at that, I leave others better versed

in fishlore to explain. The eggs could hardly have been less safe

had the parents put them on the top of a floating leaf, as one or

other had to remain constantly on guard to keep away the other

fish.’

Another point struck me, which was the great self-denial

exhibited by the pair, and more especially by the male; these

eves seemed to be regarded by the other fish as great delicacies,

and I could quite imagine a bad husband (and I suppose there are

such things amongst fish as amongst other animals) bolting his

mouthful “of eggs and explainine the contretemps and excusing

himself on the grounds of a sudden inclination to cough.’

Jordan in 1905 in his Guide to the study of Fishes referring

to the work of Hardwicke says (p. 166) ‘General Hardwicke tells

how the Gouramy (Osphromenus gouramy) in the Mauritius, forms

a nest amongst the herbage growing in the shallow water in the

sides of tanks’. Here one cannot say for certain what kind of

a nest he refers to.

~Sundararaj (1916, Rec. Ind. Mus., xii, p. 281) while dealing

with the fresh water fish of Madras after referring to the works

of the previous authors on the subject says ‘the nest is of .a

nearly spherical form composed of plants, preferably tuft of 4

17 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST: SOCTETY “Wol. XL

peculiar grass (Panicum jumentorum) which grows on the surface

of the water, and considerably resembles a bird’s nest in form. It

is usually attached to plants or weeds growing at the edge of the

pond and the bottom selected is muddy while the depth varies,’

According to Darby de Thiersant in natural surroundings the eggs

are attached to water plants.

J; Aw Thomson: in his The* New: Natural History, vol. in, sp:

533 says ‘At the breeding season it makes a nearly spherical nest

of water grass and the like, and usually fastens it to plants

growing at the margin of the Pond. At this time the fish assumes

a jet black colour and flashing red eyes, and becomes very

pugnacious in defence of the nest. The Gourami 1s one of those

fishes that can use dry air gulped in at the surface and a very

interesting fact is that every now and then the mother brings

down a mouthful of air and discharges it upon the eggs, thus

securing their thorough aeration. Here we have a fish puffing

air on its eggs! Surely that is experimental.’ On page 536 of

the same work, under the photograph of a Gourami he says

‘This malayan fresh water fish, acclimitised in India, the Guianas

and Mauritius, is famous for the bubble nest that the male con-

structs and guards. It is made of air bubbles entangled in a

mucous secretion from the mouth. The fish itself may grow to

be two feet long, and is very palatable.’ The two statements are

contradictory.

Boulenger (Zoo and Aquarium Book, 1932) gives the figure of

a bubble nest of Macropodus opercularis (=M. viridiauratus) with

the parent guarding the nest and producing fresh bubbles in the

place of those lost.

It has not been possible for the present writer to observe the

nesting habits of the Gourami. Gilbert’s observations tally with

those of Carbonnier in that the male makes a bubble nest as all

other Anabantoids whose breeding habits are known. It is

however difficult to conceive the same species exhibiting two quite

different nesting habits even granting conditions are different.

Habits like these are derived by instinct and as such it is impossible

for them to get changed under different conditions. In the

author’s opinion one should consider a bubble nest as the natural

and probable one in the Gourami till it is definitely proved to be

otherwise.

I am. indebted to Mr. S.-H.” Prater and Drs.) ocaaton

clearing my doubts, regarding the nomenclature of certain

Anabantoids and to Mr. L. de Fonseka of the Colombo Museum

Library for sending me certain extracts dealing with the breeding

habits of the Gourami.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

Budgett, J. S.—On the Breeding Habits of West African Fishes, with an

Account of the External features in the Development of Protopterus annectans

and a Description of the larva of Polypterus lapradei.’ Trans. Zool. Soc.

London, xvi, 2 (1901).

Carbonnier, M.—‘Nidification of the Indian Rainbow-Fish.’ Ann. Mag.

Nat. fHist., vol.. xvii, p. 172 (1876).

Idem.—‘The Gourami and its nest.’ Ibid, vol. xix (1877).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “fess

Chute, Walter H.—‘Guide to John G. Shedd Aquarium’ (p. 174) 1935—

Michigan.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P.—‘The Labyrinthici of Ceylon.’ Cey. Journ. Sci. (Spol.

Zeyl.), vol. xv (1929).

Jones, S.—On the Breeding Habits and Early Development of Macropodus

cupanus (Cuv. et Val., 1939. (Jn course of publication.)

Sundara Raj, B.—Osphronemus gouramy. (Madras Fisheries Department—

Pamphlet (1931).

Waite, E. R.—'The Breeding Habits of the Fighting Fish (Betta pugnax

Cantor.).. Rec. Aust; Mus., vols v (1904).

Weber & de Beaufort.—‘Fishes of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago’, vol. iv (1922).

TRIVANDRUM. S. JONES.

[A mistake in the identity of the species concerned probably

accounts for the extraordinary divergence in the nesting habits of

the Gourami as described by various authors. It is possible that

the species whose nesting habits were described by M. Carbonnier

(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xix, p. 274, 1877) was aot the true

Gourami (Osphronemus goramy Lacépede) but one of the other

Anabantoid fishes which habitually constructs a ‘bubble’ nest.

Many fishes of this group bear a general resemblance in form and

have the same distinctive prolongation of the ventral fin rays into

long thread-like appendages, and require for their correct identi-

fication a little more than the cursory examination possible through

the glass of an aquarium. Further, it should be indicated

that the popular name of Gourami has been generally applied not

only to tne true Gourami (O. goradmy) but to various Anabantoid

fishes of different genera such as Trichogaster, Colisa, Helostoma

and Tvrichopsis; some of which, such as Trichogaster trichopterus,

and Trichopsis vittatus, were formerly included, with the true

Gourami, under the genus Osphronemus. Dr. Kyle (Biology of

Fishes) gives the name Gourami to fishes of the genus Tvichoguster

and illustrates the bubble nest of Tvichogaster labiosus (=Colisa

labiosus Day) which he calls the Thick-lipped Gourami. Colisa

labiosa, like the true Gourami, is marked with irregular bands

across its sides; only these markings are more vividly coloured

—light, blue-green bands alternating with darker bars of orange

brown. Another distinctive feature in this species is that the lips

of the male are thickened and more prominent than in the female.

The true Gourami on the other hand is a sombre coloured fish,

its general colour is dark brown with a few irregular whitish bands

across the body. Also in this species there is no marked and

prominent thickening of the lips in the male. Carbonnier, in his

description of the nesting habits, gives no clue to the colouration

of the nest builder, he refers however to the ‘brilliant’ colours

of the male—a character by no means strikingly apparent in the

true Gourami. Further his description of the lips of the male

which he says were ‘tumefied in an abnormal fashion’ seem to

indicate that the species he was dealing with was not the true

Gourami (O. gordémy) but Colisa labiosa Day, formerly known as

Trichogaster labiosa, the thick-lipped Gourami, which habitually

builds a bubble nest. Gilbert’s description of the nesting habits

of the ‘Gourami’ which appeared in the Society’s Journal is

probably again a case of mistaken identity. He describes his

772, JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL... HIST. -SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Gourami as ‘jet black with red eyes’ a description which hardly

fits the colouring of the true Gourami. Further he expresses

surprise that his ‘Gourami’ weighing not more than three or four

penny weights should breed. The average weight of the breeding

Gouram1 would run into as many pounds and more. The necessity

for careful identification of the species in recording breeding

habits is made clear. Writers who have subsequently referred to

the ‘bubble nest’ of the true Gourami have. probably accepted

Carbonnier’s original description. The most recent of these is

Innes (Exotic Aquarium Fishes, 1935) who writing of the Gourami

(O. gourami) refers to them as ‘bubble nest’ builders and qualifies

his. account. by stating that they do not usually breed in aquaria.

Which is probably. correct. as the usual, type of aquaria do not

provide these fishes with the conditions or the facilities for con-

structing the ‘nest’ of reeds which they build for the reception. of

the. egss. —Eps. |

This is a list of fishes collected in one season in 1936 from

the Sabarmati River and one or two tanks neighbouring Ahmeda-

bad. These specimens were originally to form part of an extensive

collection from all sources around this city, but owing to unavoidable

circumstances, the work was indefinitely postponed.

“The fishes collected by the author, together with some other

from. Prof. J, J. Asana of the Gujrat College, were submitted to

Dr. eo. le ee who very kindly identified ee named them. Each

due - @ ences nomenclature prevaleat here) it 1s thought

advisable not to include the vernacular synonyms in the present

note.- In a future note, it is intended to give these, together with

new material; also an attempt will be made to give a short de-

scription of the several fishing places which provide for the Ahmeda-

bad. market" and information on the economic side of the: Fishing

Industry in this part of the Presidency.

_ The present collection has been handed over to the Gujrat Natural

oy Society for their museum.

Wc cemeriee Pe ee ot ee

-1.° Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham.). | ti Woe, ae

2. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.).

NOTOPTERID&.

3. _Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

CyYPRINIDZ.

> 4. -Labeo. fimbriatus (Bloch).

5. Labeo-calbasu (Ham.).

6. Labeo dussumieri.(C. & V.).

7. Labeo. potail (Sykes).

8. Labeo boggut (Sykes).

MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES — 778

_g. Labeo sp. young specimens.

10. Cirrhino cirrhosa (Bloch).

ji. Cirrhina reba (Ham.).

12, Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.).

13. Barbus sophore (Ham.).

14. Barbus sarana (Ham.).

15. Barbus arulius (Jerdon).

16. Barbus ticto (Ham.).

17. Barbus sp. (Large-scaled Barbell).

18. Barilius bendelisis (Ham.).

—19.. Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Wo ao ee ec... 3 BAG.

20. -Mystus cavasius (Ham.)..

ea 2iT 5 Wallago a attw- (Bloch).

XENENT TODONTID &.

22; Xenentodon cancila (Ham.).

_ - QOPHICEPHALIDA.

ore Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.

AMBASSIDZ:.

24. Ambassis ranga (Ham.).

. GOBIIDA:.

25.. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

AHMEDABAD, .. .. . . w........ ..- H..G. ACHARYA,

- NortH GujRaT,) = oo Saar FZ.

September 6, 1938. — aa rs |

. XXVI.—A CASE OF POISONING FROM THE BITE OF A

SPIDER.

In the accompanying parcel I am sending you a large black

Tarantula-like Spider. I think it is dead but please be careful

when. opening the tin. I did not know one got these creatures in

India. My mali was. cutting some low jungle in. the garden

yesterday when it. ran up his arm and bit him near the elbow.

His arm began to swell immediately and became very painful.

The swelling had the appearance of a lump with small blisters

beneath the skin, covering an area of some four square inches. -He

found it difficult to bend the elbow. after about two hours. After

treatment the symptoms subsided-within 24 hours except fora

slight stiffness and. soreness. There was ‘no fever. The bite drew

774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

blood in one place. Could you very kindly name the spider for me

and be so good as to let me know if its occurrence is at all rare.

GAUHATI,

KamRUP DISTRICT, Re“ E: PARSONS:

ASSAM.

October: 20, 1988:

|The spider referred to by Mr. Parsons is one of the large

Mygalomorph spiders, commonly known as ‘Tarantulas’. It has

been identified by Dr. Gravely as Cheliobrachys sp. The name

Tarantula is derived from Tarentum a town in Italy, and originally

was applied to a species of Lycosid or Wolf Spider which is cem-

mon in the Mediterranean countries. The term is now generally

extended to the large Mygalomorph spiders so widely distributed in

the tropics of which a number of genera and species occur in India.

The most remarkable of the iden forms are the spiders of the

genus Poeicilotheria; great hairy creatures some large enough to

cover the span of a man’s hand. Despite their forbidding appear-

ance, these spiders do not usually bite except under extreme provo-

cation. <All spiders possess a pair of poison glands opening near

the tip of the fangs, but few seem to have the power of injecting

their poison into human beings. It is believed that the poison is not

automatically injected whenever the fangs are used but is under the

spider’s control and that the venom is economised when a simple

wound is sufficient for the purpose. This probably explains the

divergent views regarding the effect of a spider’s bite. We have

no precise knowledge regarding the effects of poisoning by the

various Indian forms of Mygalomorph spiders. Dr. Gravely in his

article on Indian Spiders (J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, p. 1045) refers to a case

communicated to him by Dr. Sutherland of Kalimpong in which a

boy of 14 years was bitten in the finger by a well grown female

of the species Macrothele vidua. The pain extended up to the arms

and down the side. After 24 hours the finger was still swollen.

In a second instance recorded by Dr. Gravely, the victim of a

much larger species Chilobrachys fuwmosus suffered no ill effects

beyond a slight local swelling. Dr. Gravely suggests that the

feeble effects in this instance might have been due to the spider

having emptied its poison glands under the irritation to which it

was previously subjected. Drops of poison were seen exuding from

the tips of its fangs. No precise experiments have been carried

out with the Indian species: but Mons. B. Houssay has demon-

strated that some of the large Mygalomorph spiders of the Argentine

are highly venomous to animals and present some danger to man.

Full grown rabbits, guinea pigs and pigeons may be killed in a

few minutes. In Man the bite of certain species produces intense

pain, local swelling accompanied with fever and delirium and may

in children and persons in ill health, result in death. Aguilar (Rec.

de la Soc. Med. Argentina, xvi, 1908) records the death of a

child of 7 years who succumbed to the effect of the bite of one

of these large spiders, 7 days after being bitten. There is also

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 775

the authenticated, case (Insect Life, 1, 1889, p. 205) of the death of

a farm labourer bitten by a spider Latrodectus. mactans. In this

instance the victim. was bitten at half past eight in the morning

and died between 11 and 12 o’clock in the night. - Small pimples

were raised in the neighbourhood of the bite. Intermittent pains

and spasms ended in a comatose condition from which thé man

did not rally. Latrodectus is a Theridid whose poisonous reputation

almost rivals. the Tarantula. It is regarded as_ particularly

dangerous in such widely spread regions . of the world : as

Madagascar, New Zealand, Algeria, the West Indies and North

America.—Ebs. | |

XXVIT.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CERTAIN

BUTTERFLIES AT NASIK. 4s

1. Gomalia elma albofasciata (African Marbled Skipper).

A single specimen of this insect, a male, was taken ina garden

in Nasik in June 1938. It is at present in my private collection

and is available for examination if required. According to. Evans,

Identification of Indian Butterflies, this insect is shown to range

from South India as far North as Poona and to be rare everywhere,

it appears from this that its occurrence in Nasik, some distance

North of Poona is even more rare, being at the extreme limit of

its previously recorded range. 7

2. Kallima philarchus horsfieldii (Blue Oakleaf).

A specimen of this butterfly was taken in December 1938 in

a garden in Nasik. The one taken was a female, and is in fairly

good condition, only. one hind wing being slightly damaged.

Another of the same species was seen, but not taken, near Bhanda-

dara, some 4o miles from Nasik during the month of August.

The identification has been made by reference to the same authority.

NASIK, 3 - C.J. RAE,

Jannary 251930: Executive Engineer.

XXVIII.—AN IMPROVED CELLOPHANE WING MOUNT.

In a previous note (1936 Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxviii,

634) I described a method of mounting the wings of Lepidoptera

on cards under cellophane. Time has shewn that the method then

described is not altogether satisfactory and the present one has

been evolved in order to get over the various drawbacks. :

Materials required :—Visiting, or other suitable, cards, moisture

proof cellophane and a suitable adhesive, such as Gripfix. Moisture

proof cellophane should be used in preference to ordinary as it is

not affected by changes in humidity.

A suitable sized window is cut out of one card (the cover) with a

sharp knife or razor blade and any projecting edges at the back of

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. (NATURAL HIST?°SOCIETY, Vol. XL

the cut scraped down. ‘The size and position of the window is

then traced with a sharp pencil on a second .card (the support).

A piece of cellophane, slightly larger all round than the window,

is then cut out.

The wings to be mounted are severed as close to the point of

attachment as possible, a razor blade is the most satisfactory

instrument to use for this, but care must be taken to see that no

shred of flesh or muscle is attached as this will give rise to mildew

in the finished mount.

A film of the adhesive is then brushed over the previously

pencilled window on the supporting card, the wings placed in

position with a pair of fine pointed forceps, the cellophane put in

place and pressed down and the whole thing is then put in a heavy

book or under a weight and left for twelve hours or until it is

completely dry.

The support and cover are then pasted together and allowed to

dry under pressure, after which the name, locality and date can

either be written on the mount itself or typed on a separate slip

and stuck on.

CaLcurta. - D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

October 13, 1938. F.R.E.S,

XXIX.—THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE COCONUT.

(A correction).

Irom the citation in Dr. H. N. Ridley’s monumental work The

Dispersal of Plants throughout the World, p. 321, I had assumed

that Peter Martyr himself had visited the Moluccas. Later I could

see that he was the historiographer of the court of Spain and wrote

the history of the voyage of Magellan and his followers round the

world under orders of Charles V who placed into his hands all the

journals of that voyage.’ Thus the sentence beginning with -Peter

Martyr in the text on page 177 of my paper on the ‘Original Home

of the Coconut’ in the September number of this Journal, vol. xl,

No. 2 has to be altered in the following manner. Peter Martyr

who wrote the history of the voyage of Magellan and his followers

round’ the world has recorded that in- the Moluchas Islands

(Moluccas) the coccus (coconut) grew quite accidentally (1521).

This minor error. could have been avoided had I been able to

look into Dr, Ridley’s: reference firstly... However, the following

two references may be relevantly let in with this.

Antonio Pigafetta,” one of the lucky survivors of Magellan’s

terrible voyage and a man of letters, had Kept. his. notes of. the

voyage himself after giving a copy of it:to Charles V. His account

was separately published, though in a somewhat mutilated form,

in France and later in Italy. He has given an elaborate account

of the uses of the coconut in the islands of the West Pacific and has

recorded its occurrence in an island, between Moluccas and Timor,

inhabited by savages who were more beasts than men and who

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES” ; aie

were anthropophagi. Saavedra® sailing in a southerly direction from

New Guinea in 1529 found many small low islands full of palm trees

(evidently coconut) at 10° or 12° S. latitude. The people of those

islands knew no fire and ate cocos instead of bread and raw fish.

‘They break cocos before they be ripe and putting them under the

sand, and then after certain daies they take them out and lay them

in the sunne, and then they will open.’

MADRAS. P. V. MAYURANATHAN,

Curator, Botany Section,

Government Museum, Madras.

October 10, 1938.

REFERENCES.

* Pinkerton: Voyages and Travels, vol. xl, p. 299.

eT bid 2 px 374:

* Galvano: Discoveries of the World. MHalsluyt Society’s Publication, pp.

178 and 179.

XXX.—OCCURRENCE OF TWO PLANTS NEW. TO

: KASHMIR.

During the course of his limited scope of work as a Forest

Ranger, the writer found to his great surprise Lilium giganteum

Wall., growing wild in the Kishenganga Valley. Curiously enough

the plant is localised in a single place, far away from habitation

and in a steep nala where the possibility of its introduction by

human agency is remote. This species, so far as the writer thinks,

has not been recorded west of the Sutle; up to now. The only

reference of its existence in the Punjab is by Collett in Narkanda.

A specimen of Iris collected in the Liddar Valley was sent to

Kew and identified as Ivis Milesit Foster. No record about its

collection west of Kulu is available.

The writer would be interested to know if any of the readers

of your Journal has come across or known of these two plants

having ever been collected -west of the Sutlej and the Ravi

respectively.

FOREST SCHOOL, PREM NATH KOHLI.

BANDAPORE—KASHMIR.

September 28, 1938.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS: PF. M. D. SANDERSON, S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN, 6 APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY