CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

No. 1

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS, PART III.

By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. (With one coloured and five black and white plates)......

NoTEes ON SOME WASPS AND BEES (HYMENOPTERA) OF POONA AND THE WESTERN GHATS.

By F. L. Wain, s.s.J.£. (With a plate and 21 figures) ....cccccccccccccccccseccecscecescsecseces

Ducks UNLIMITED: AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN CEYLON. By Philip K. Crowe.

TT CAD QLE) se eR COON. SAUCERS cs MRA Soe A NOCD a, ulated aalols SoSOee vob gede seine

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. II. THE ADVANCES, AND IN PARTICULAR

THE PLANT COLLECTING, OF THE THIRTIES AND FORTIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY. By I. H.

BS Urey oe le cl bam AN ie VAC aut sea ki et SN Pek kerk Bail

MARINE NEMATODES FROM THE BAY OF BENGAL. I. PHASMIDEA. By Richard W. Timm.

CAG IDIATE) Ph ee ee A eae, IR eS AIL o} SON R Sete ws cose esas s

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By N. C. Nair and G. S. Nathawat...

DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM AND PATTERN IN TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES. By

NK Dixit NSC UAE TWO TEXT fISULES) 2100. co eas ce cos cke teen ewc cues Coeeda be cewcs cout tsouens

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—Margaronia indica Saund. (PYRALIDAE: LEPI-

DOPTERA). By R. C. Patel, M.sc. and H. L. Kulkarny, M.sc. (With a plate and a graph)

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS. By Max Vachon. (With a plate and 17 figures) ...........000.

Some USEFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND CUTTACK. By H. Pattnaik ................cccceceeceneenees

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA, Part III. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ......

SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF Mysore. By M. Puttarudriah and G. P. Channa

BS ASA ATMA eye eer NEE As ee Pu cn NUD sla Lede e Uren nade gsebad Ween odes ceecseivedlonceos ses

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE COMMON “TREE Hopper’ Ofinotus oneratus

WALK. (HOMOPTERA, MEMBRACIDEA) IN OrISSA. By Upendra Chandra Panda and

IBASAMtAMKCUIM ATHENA ee eee ee ee eae ee ea eee eee v en adosedaeeceese

REVIEWS :—

fee howat the Angling Paradise (EMR Ge) 6.055. sec ck cece csc cccsel Gesdodicceocccesosdossues

he Mcers of Mrengeam CBU Bas) ss. occ Gees sess eess slic occas aces cccsssccceeosswsseses

Pelican) inpthewVVilGeEMess (RGR) (os sk scaeges esac os scseeicn ook cabaaeoncweccecedtee ces cheeses

4. The Flamingos: Their Life History and Survival (S.A.) ...........cccccececeseeeeeees

5. Embryology of Heterometrus scaber (M. L. Roonwal) ............cccccccececceeeeeeees

The early Embryology of Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera) (P.J.D.) ......

PAGE

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Macaque Monkey eating Mushrooms. By M. L. Roonwal (p. 171). 2. Lion v.

Tiger. By E. P. Gee (p. 171). 3. Transferring of the Indian Lion to an additional Locality.

By K. 8S. Lavkumar (p. 173). 4. Wild Elephants in the Union of Burma. By Tun Yin

(p. 175). 5. A large pair of Elephant’s Tusks from Burma (With a photo). By Tun Yin

(p. 178). 6. Albino Elephants. By Tun Yin (p. 179). 7. Predator and Prey at Salt-licks.

By E. P. Gee (p. 181). 8. Incubation Period and ‘Mortality Rate’ (?) in a Brood of the

Magpie Robin [Copsychus saularis (Linn.)]. By N. G. Pillai (p. 182). 9. Some Notes on the

Plumages of Centropus sinensis (Stephens). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 183). 10. The

Occurrence of the Pinkbreasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri) in Dehra Dun. By K. S.

Lavkumar (p. 185). 11. Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover (With a plate). By Loke

Wan-Tho (p. 185). 12. The Dimorphic Egrets. By J. Berlioz (p. 188). 13. Bird Notes

from Kutch. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 190). 14. Fighting among Birds. By R. S. P. Bates

(p. 191). 15. Bird Migration in India. By Editors (p. 193). 16. The Changing Scene:

Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur (M.P.). By P. V. Beatty (p. 194). 17. Solar Eclipse and

Animal Behaviour. By G. H. Marsden (p. 194). 18. Jumping Snakes. By H. A. N. Medd

(p. 195). 19. A Python’s Meal (With a photo). By Tun Yin (p. 196). 20. Dhaman or

Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) drinking Milk. By J. E. C. Turner (p. 196). 21. Strange

Accident to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.) By Humayun Abdulali (p. 197). 22. The

Spawning of Carps. By J. D. Lovatt (p. 197). 23. On the Occurrence of Mummified

Eels in the internal organs of Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and Pomadasys sp. By K. H.

Mohamed. (p. 199); 24. Occurrence of the Echiuroid Worm Ikedella misakiensis (Ikeda)

in Indian Waters (Gulf of Kutch). (With a text figure). By P. W. Gideon, P. K. B. Menon,

S. R. V. Rao and K. V. Jose (p. 201). 25. The unusual resistance to starvation of

Saccharicoccus sacchari (Ckll.). By D. V. Murthy (p. 202). 26. Some interesting Obser-

vations on the Royal Chamber in the Mound of the Termite Odontotermes redemanni

(Wasmann). By B. Banerjee (p. 203). 27. Some common Termites of Calcutta. By

Barundeb Banerjee (p. 204). 28. Notes on the Common Black Garden Beetle Basilianus

neelgherriensis. By (Miss) M. E. Wolfe Murray (p. 206). 29. Tarache nitidula F., a

Semilooper Pest on Cotton in South India (With a plate). By S. Venugopal (p. 207). 30.

Partial Emergence of the Imagines of Dragonflies (Odonata) due to the absence of a

holding place (With two figures). By D. R. Krishnan (p. 210). 31. Hesperiidae of the

Khasi and Jaintia Hills. By Sir Keith Cantlie (p. 212). 32. Further Notes and additions

to the List of Butterflies from Bombay and Salsette. By A.E.G. Best (p. 215). 33. On

the phenomenon of Drumming in Egg-laying Female Butterflies. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya

(p. 216). 34. The Poisonous Qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. By H. Santapau

(p. 218). 35. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn., a new record for India (With a plate). By

R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 218). 36. Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (With a text figure). By

H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 220). 37. Some New Plants for the Dangs Forest,

Bombay State (With two plates). By H. Santapau and D. P. Panthaki(p. 221). 38. China’s

Book-like Rock Formation with 25-million-year old Plant Fossils. By Prof. Hsen Hsu Hu

(p. 225). 36. Wild Life Preservation in India. By Tolaram K. Mirchandani (p. 226).

GELEANINGS ): 6c655 Geo S85 ob cides Siac Sgeeisla hohe Sle wists Gea ie iS AS alee TRIS RO LED Uap neta aTe Ure rer nre oV eco RI tole See 228

INOTES AND: NEWS 00.2355 25.c Soc clacere's os ss sialetere crorslsccle's ge Ea STs Rae UETs aie EDS OS irate aietetes eisteratteeicte seers 234

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST

TECEMBER 1955 oe Oe BPG Ge a EE I each C Ta Seve TS tare PR Cte 235

THE HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1955 .......ccccceccscccceccccccececcccscees 236

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO

PRUGUST: V9SG occ oie eh emia Coe ee ae EEE Ieee Ua CLAS Meta aE Te tate lattia 243

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING .....ccccccccccccccccccvccccccccccccccccenccceesccccenses 245

GEORRECTIONS so sisicc ccc sc cece chose eee I SIRE PEE OLED eB NN ENE Ea eiciovn 245

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ......--c-eseeeeeeeeeeee 246

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54 Vii

No. 2

PAGE

HIsTORY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES. By H. Srinivasa

INAOINAS DESC aEANG Ls GHEEIE LWOUDIQKES is waiia's sais oeFc since soeiciaie' ole Soiessin cise diel veldowledion weenie. 251

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS. By N. C. Nair and G. S. Nathawat.

(TEE @. TUBE D)). ASSO 8B ce SSUES AEN Ado CIE aPIeIe Gs HER EIOEICG ESP ra betarel unease ni an MR Pt atta ai 281

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA, PART IV. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S........ 302

VOICE AND LARYNX IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE. By W. C. Osman Hill, m.p.,

BRS Evang A. H Booths: (With twodtexk fiZULeS)), cokceseds vaste selen's deste vaseoeescbaes ed soos seid 309

ON A ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF THE ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA. By P. H. D. H. De

SlAemULIAIOIE CTO i ea re ene secu yeas cone CuGitbiac esas see ge seaacceemeukcemeeccecc sss 322

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAMILY LIFE OF THE FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL, Funambulus

pennanty Wr. By (Mrs.) Aruna Banerye 7.012) Lec o weleesseacsocecsectecccccascossces 335

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA WITH A NOTE ON THE BREEDING SEASON OF Bankia indica

Nair. By N. Balakrishnan Nair, Ph.D. (With a plate, three text figures anda graph)... 344

THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN, By Swami Pranavananda, F.R.G.S. ......cccccescccesceccesscesssees 358

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS. By B. N. Ghildyal. (With a sketch map) 365

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF THE SLENDER Loris Loris tardigradus (LINNAEUS).

By (Mrs.) Swarna Subramoniam, M.SC. (With five plates) .......cecceccccecccccceccescccscees 387

ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY STATE, PART I. By B. F.

Chhapgar, M.Sc. (With one coloured and eleven line plates, and two text figures) ...... 399

OBITUARY :—

Brigadier W.. El. Evans. G:S.1.,C.1.B., DiS.Oc, RB aes sa, Bun oon cates teee dehy 2 ceseeceae, 440

REVIEWS :—

1. Features of Evolution in the Flowering Plants (P.V. Bole)...............cseseeeesees 442

Dae line Shetpayand the Snowman CHA.) coeds. ocsccscccsccsccseceeocecheodedeccescectseceseos 443

Be Birds of Ceyloms 32'(S As) eee a ae heh ods wane es Sk vo owe ss deka baachance See 444

4. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops (J. A. Ali) ..............cceceeeees 444

a Open Air Guides— Bark (EH Santapau) i cccccccceseccesesseesesussssntaccsscsescoscseesess 445

6. List of Indian Fungi—1952-1956 (H. Santapau) .................sceecescceesseccesevsoes 446

dmeButtentites ofthe indian Region (Ll. Ni) ai. cc suecedesecdoccsscdcespess savieneeocesiocions ces 447

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Footprints of ‘Snowman’. By Swami Pranavananda (p. 448). 2. Hairless Lion

Cubs in the Trichur Zoo. By M. Govindankutty Menon (With a plate) (p. 450). 3. “Scent

Trails’ and ‘Pooking’ in Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 452). 4. Following up wounded

Tiger at night. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 454). 5. Further notes on the Himalayan Mouse-

hare, or Pika (Ochotona rufescens). By S. A. Akhtar (p. 455). 6. A note on Insects

consumed as food by Squirrels and Birds at Kundri Forest, Palamau District, Bihar. By

S. Krishnaswami and N. S. Chowhan (p. 457). 7. Tusks of Indian Elephants. By R. C.

Morris (p. 460). 8. Hypnotic Behaviour of a Whiteheaded Babbler (Turdoides striatus).

By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 460). 9. Drumming of the Malabar Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker Brachypternus benghalensis. By B. Vijayaraghavan (p. 461). 10. Accidental

Vili CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

death of a Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Megalaima haemacephala (Miller)]. By B. Vijaya-

raghavan (p. 462). 11. Halcyon pileata inland. By F. N. Betts (p. 462). 12. Redlegged

Falconet, Erythropus amurensis (Radde), near Bombay. By Salim Ali (p. 463). 13. An

incubating Peacock (Pavo cristatus Linn.). By Y. S. Shivrajkumar (p. 464). 14. Occur-

rence of the Ruff and Reeve [Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus)] near Coimbatore. By

Editors (p. 464). 15. Rednecked Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar,

Bombay State. By Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (With a plate)

(p. 465). 16. Some Riddles of Game-bird Migration in Kutch. By H. H. Madansinhji of |

Kutch (p. 466). 17. The Liver Fluke of the Frog, Rana tigrina—a new record of Meh-

raorchis ranarun Srivastava, 1934 (Pleurogenitinae). By R. S. Tandon (p. 468). 18. Ticks

from Baluchistan, West Pakistan. By Henry Field (p. 469). 19. Bionomics of the Pump-

- kin Caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 470). 20. A new

pest of Screwpine in Kerala: Agonia fuscipes Baly (Hispinae, Chrysomelidae). By M. R.

G. K. Nair (With four figures) (p. 470). 21. A giant form of Celosia argentea L. By J.

Sakharam Rao (With a photo) (p. 474). 22. Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta, or E. alba:

Which is the correct name ? By H. Santapau (p. 475). 23. Alternanthera paronychioides

St. Hil.—A Correction. By H. Santapau (p. 476). 24. Habenaria panchganiensis—New

name for a Bombay Orchid. By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 478). 25. Wild Life

Preservation in India: Predator Control and the Introduction of Exotic Species, By C.

L. Boyle (p. 478).

FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD, Ploceus philippinus LINN. By Salim Ali and

Vijaykumar -C:. Ambedkar. (With a. plate) oe. ce 20 ak

ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY STATE, PART II. By B. F.

Chhapgar, M.Sc. (With one coloured and five line plates, and one text figure) ...........-

INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS. By K. M. Gupta and T. N.

Bhardwaja. (With 48 ‘text figures): 2025 GRE, AG OT re a I

THE LION OF THE Gir. By Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse (Deceased) ......... cee ccc eece esc eeeceeveecees

NOTES ON THE Briielia GROUP OF MALLOPHAGA (FEATHER-LICE), WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF

FOUR NEW SPECIES. By Wolfdietrich Eichler, D.sc. (With four text figures) ..........0.++.

BRIEF NOTES ON CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB (INDIA). By K. N. aumear

M.SC., PH.D. (London), F.E.S.1. (With 34 text fiQures) ..cccccccccccnccvcceccceccecccecceececscs

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF A SELECTED AREA OF DEHRA DUN—JUNE 1946 To JULY 1951. By

Mrs. M. D. Wright (Deceased). (With a Sketch map) ....cccsccsccseccencencccnccecesncesacs

TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN CoAsT. 1. REPORT ON A COLLECTION FROM

TONDI AND ADIRAMPATNAM, East Coast. By N. Balakrishnan Nair and O. N. Guru-

mani. (With eight text figures). oo. cowseotssccceca once a hae bes eeke ce aeeac ates an eeee een eee ee eor

GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT (SOUTH INDIA) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FODDER

GRASSES.: BY, 0.) SakharamlRao 25 dac5 cise suede oe vamioad oaicion 6 tes apiscalinetes Gane seen see mrancees

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY. By P. W. Gideon,

P. K. B. Menon, S. R. V. Rao and K. V. Jose. (With a map, one plate and five text

PIEULES) iis dice acces cade uc dels cheb Sacer seer aee ee seek oe eB TO te ee eee eee

Tue GENUS Cuscuta IN BoMBAY. By H. Santapau, s.J., and (Miss) V. Patel, B.sc. (With

a plate)”: vee oe ks Sa BP SRI ok acc ARNON cae a a Ree aN recy, fotats Dead te ne A aE EO

OPERATION OF THE Dol NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA COoAsT. By S. V. Gokhale. (With seven

LEXEYIBUTES)F. hb bcc ELC REE be LU EE SE REE SON NN EOE IN

PAGE

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489

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550

568

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627

663

674

690

707

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

Notes ON SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION IN THE TAWNY Pipit (Anthus campestris), BLYTH’S

Pieit (A. godlewskii), AND RICHARD’s Prprt (A. novaeseelandiae) IN Asta. By B. P.

AMEE ALOE ESUITE)) Vasil eke seca dosnt ca secstac toe Uelvastsdiesecvsccescscacseesds

A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BomsAy. By D. V. Bal and K. H. Mohmed. (With

WO LRECCTIRTC NEMESUMES rice eee ese canoe ees cco eeuna once tec ssieos solesistes hie oan Gndee cclage segues

THe BIOLOGY AND BIONOMICS OF Lestodryinus pyrillae Kigrr. (DRYINIDAE: HYMENOPTERA)

A NYMPHAL PARASITE OF Pyrilla perpusilla Walk., AND A NOTE ON ITS ROLE IN THE

CONTROL OF Pyrilla. By B. R. Subba Rao. (With a plate)... cc cicccc ccc cece ecccccseceuees

REVIEWS :—

1. eeAnimals of the Ruhuna National Park (HY Ac). osc eles led acc cee

f), Viihyptintss Soaliony J8sutGls, CD): 08, 189) cceonccoacsye5¢scrde sdesbecasoeeeceaco: conc sae ueSH use Sue eco

3. Audubon Western Bird Guide: Land, Water and Game Birds (D. E. R.).........

aya the Amphibia,otGeyvion (Es Gy Si) era ee ke ek leek Oils bike csuees

So Britismitees: A Guide for Everyman (D. EIR.) cic. oo cceetkc ccs cssceceedsesees SORE

Gi INO Passport, coubibet GRE Ia) eee Ue ccs a sce o ie scceceeccsces

7. Natural History of Birds: A Guide to Ornithology (S. A.) .............c..eeseeeeeees

8. The Ornithologists’ Guide: Especially for Overseas (S. A.) ............c000ceee00 ie

OFT Onitheyirailof Vanishing, Birds (Di Ey R.) oon 8 22.005 i ded. ee el ee

NDDULIONS TO) DHENSOCIEDY:S IEIBRARY, (oc ccc sade lack oe ule Seen eee ee kb a ose cue Coeue owes see cele

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. The Abominable Snowman. By D. E. Reuben (p. 762). 2. On the status of the

Great Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) in Nepal (With a map). By P. D. Stracey (p. 763).

3. The Spiny Babbler in Kathmandu Valley. By R. L. Fleming (p. 766). 4. ‘A Dabchick

is Born’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 767). 5. Bird Life of Madhya Pradesh. By H.

G. Alexander (p. 768). 6. Reflected glow from the eyes of the Gharial [Gavialus gangeticus

(Gmelin)]. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 769). 7. Occurrence of a rare Sting Ray [Taeniura

melanospila (Bleeker)] in Bombay Waters (With one plate and one text figure). By H. G.

Kewalramani and B. F. Chhapgar (p. 770). 8. The ‘Marala’—a sink net used in the

backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa (With two text figures). By P. Mohapatra (p. 773). 9.

Migration of Insects. By Editors (p. 775). 10. Notes on the Butterflies of Rangoon. By

A. E. G. Best (p. 776). 11. An episode from the life history of the Moth Suana concolor

Walker. By S. Szafranski (p. 784). 12. Notes on the biology and control of the Lily

Moth Brithys crini Fabricius (With a plate). By Nawab H. Khan and Zille Hasan Abedi

(p. 785). 13. An undescribed luminous Beetle Larva from South India (With one photo-

graph). By J. Samuel Raj (p. 788). 14. Two new species of Priochirus (Staphylinidae:

Coleoptera) from India (With two text figures). By Rudolf Dvorak (p. 790). 15. The

Swarming Termites of Delhi. By H. S. Vishnoi (p. 792). 16. On the Harpacticoid Cope-

pod Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) (With one plate). By S. Krishnaswamy (p. 793).

17. A note on the Nematode Mermis indica v. Linstow parasitising insects. By O. S.

Bindra and §. U. Kittur (p. 796). 18. A new variety of Gymnosporia falconeri Lawson from

northern Oudh, Uttar Pradesh. By M. B. Raizada (p. 796). 19. Dolichos bracteatus

Baker: Clarification of nomenclature. By S. I. Ali (p. 797). 20. Ipomoea tropica, new

name for a common Bombay plant. By H. Santapau, s.J., and V. Patel (p. 798). 21. A

new species of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain from Manipur (With a plate). By D. B. Deb

(p. 799). 22. Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum et Standley, and its cultivars in Lalbagh,

Bangalore (With a text figure). By M. H. Mari Gowda (p. 801). 23. Some name changes

in the Flora of India. By J..K. Maheshwari (p. 804)

(GEE G Sie eee eae eee eee ee eee ee eaudedsviesecens

726

732

x CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

No. 4

PAGE

THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD OR DIOCH IN WEST AFRICA: An Ecological Study.

By Gérard Morel, Marie-Yvonne Morel and Francois Bourli¢re. (With four plates,

one text figure and three Sraphs) (onic e ee 811

BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES: OBSERVATIONS ON THE FECUNDITY OF THREE COMMON

SPECIES OF MINOR BARBELS. By K. H. Ibrahim. (With one figure) ...........0..c0cceeeee 826

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By J. Pallithanam,s.J. 9 .............. ccc eee eee 835

A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIATOM GENUS Pinnularia. By H. P. Gandhi.

(With twenty-one JIZUres) O26. ccs CO ee LUD OE CD ae 845

MATING IN ScorPIONS. By A. P. Mathew. (With three text figures) ...ccccccccccecccucsecceees 853

THE GENUS Eremopogon STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES WITH Schizachyrium NEES. By M. B.

Raizadaand S. K. Jain: (With @ plate)... secs ee eee 858

INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF TIDE ON THE ATTACHMENT OF BARNACLE CyPRIDS. By A. Daniel.

(Withi three: Srapns) soc ce vuca Gen cu ahs wee Nee Eee Ne EH RE Cola eee ee 866

REPTILIANA~ By Lieut:-Col. As Ee Mosse iin cae. etaenc ns neeetsie slo a cloia een ne eee es 869

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL

STATE— II: By Ray Kumar Gupta occco elec eae aaa eee cee ata, eee 878

STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SQUIRRELS AND

BIRDS AS SERIOUS SEASONAL PREDATORS. By S. Krishnaswami, N. S. Chauhan and P.

S. Negi: (With @ text figure) ioe es ee EUR E EEE RC EE 887

THE ALGAL FLORA OF THE PONDS AND PUDDLES INSIDE THE BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY

Grounps, INDIA. By G. S. Venkataraman. (With seventeen text figures) .............4+ 908

TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS. By M. W. Ridley. (With two plates) .............c0cceee 920

New PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA—II. By D. Daniel Sundararaj and V. Rama-

krishnan: :GWith [WODIGles): 055 doesn. coe esiee oooh Ue es Sasa Se eR ee ee ee 925

OBITUARY :—

1. Norman Boyd Kinnear, 1882-1957. (With @ photo) .......cccccccccccccccecccencenceees 928

2. Philip McDonell Sanderson, 1884-1957. (With @ Photo) ......cscccaccencecncenceecees 930

REVIEWS :—

1.) The ‘Evolution of Man: (RGR) ie jane Occ eeaee ecco sc ieee en ee eee eae tee eee eameanis 933

2. Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs (Kerala) Series No. 3 (B.C.M.) ...........0. 936

3. ' Zoological Phetography im’ Practice) (Wi-Wil iene... ess csecedotienee stn ecssesee ose: 937

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica. By D. E. Reuben (p. 941). 2. Habits of the

Serow [Capricornis sumatraensis (Bechstein)]. By Major R. J. Solomon (p. 941). 3.

Ceylon’s Wilpattu National Park (With a plate). By J. H. Burnett (p. 942). 4. A Sunbird’s

unusual nesting site (With a photo). By Joseph George (p. 943). 5. Edible-nest Swiftlets

in Burma. By Salim Ali (p. 944). 6. The Grey Junglefowl in Salsette. By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 946). 7. Rednecked Phalarope Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) in Southeast

Asia. By Tom Harrison (p.947). 8. A double-headed Krait, Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider)

(With a photo). By V. R. Jha and P. D. Gupta (p. 947). 9. A jumping Snake. By J. H. H.

Peppe (p. 948). 10. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake (With a text map).

By J. C. Roy and N. Sahoo (p. 949). 11. An indigenous fishing Rod and Tackle (With

a text figure). By F. R. Goldschmidt (p. 953). 12. On a new caterpillar Pest of Screw-

pine: Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh. (Lepidoptera: Agrotidae) (With a text figure). By

M. R. G. K. Nair (p. 954). 13. Egg-laying of the Dragonfly Indophaea cardinalis (Fraser)

[Odonata: Insecta]. By (Miss) Evelyn Bowden (p. 957). 14. Note on a Hunting Wasp,

Notogonia jaculatrix (Smith). By F. L. Wain (p. 957). 15. Notes on three common Tree-

hoppers (Membracidae: Hemiptera) in Orissa. By Upendra Chandra Panda and Basanta

Kumar Behura (p. 958). 16. Homeric battles on the dinner table. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton (p. 961). 17. Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea: Notostraca) in Pilani, Rajasthan.

By S. N. Mathur and Narsingh Sidhu (p. 961). 18. Destruction of timber by Marine

Organisms in the Karwar port (With a graph). By V. C. Palekar and D. V. Bal (p. 962).

19. Solanum esuriale Lindl. A new record for Bombay State. By V. D. Vartak (p. 965).

20. Further notes on the Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). By H. Santapau

(p. 966). 21. Thespecies of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras. By H. Santapau (p. 967).

22. Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz.—Further-comments. By G. L. Shah and H.

Santapau (p. 969). 23. On the occurrence of Fritschiella tuberosa Iyeng. in Pilani (Rajas-

than) (With a text figure). By M. C. Joshi (p. 970). 24. A caterpillar-parasitising Fungus.

By Editors (p. 973).

GIGEINIING Sie ea cys Or athe ca AOU Se us LEER EC occ Leta sole ace Pena ie ee

INOIEESVAIND INE WS eos eicae cues cc cisltes oicalee Code Cue LOU CMe cate) TOU Sg GE ni Gh es ee

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st

IDECEMBER. LODG6 ¢ hie esos erect ac ateue deus Ue ores Gas Ts L ENE ye lee, ciosa coe oes

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1956 ... oo. cece ccs escccccccccconcscccncsces

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO

PRUGUSTs TOSI ee ees ea rine sao aee eau u ta uMN una GEE uO eer ereN yoo aueuwoneeees

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ............eceeeceevcce

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERALE MEETING (22056000. cs

PAGE

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, Some notes on

the plumages of Ceniropus sinensis

(Stephens) oT i ee

—_________—__—_—_—.-, Strange accident

to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.)...

——___________———-, Reflected glow

from the eyes of the Gharial [Gavialus

gangeticus (Gmelin)] .

Woe, The grey Jungle-

fowl in Salsette

ABEDI, ZILLE HASAN, see KHAN, “NAWAB

AKHTAR, S. A., Further notes on the

Himalayan Mouse-hare or Pika

(Ochotona rufescens) .

ALEXANDER, H. G., Bird life of Madhya

Pradesh

ALI, SALIM, Redlegged Falconet, Er y-

thropus amurensis (Radde) near Bom-

ay a ua aoe ne Eve

, Edible-nest Swiftlets in

Burma ... ap ore is as

, and AMBEDKAR, VIJAYA-

KUMAR C., Further notes on the Baya

Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn.

(With a plate) ..

ALTE S. 1.5 Dolichos bracteatus ‘Baker:

Clarification of nomenclature

AMBEDKAR, VIJAYAKUMAR C., see ALI,

SALIM

BAL, D. V., and MouMmepb, K. H., A

systematic account of the Eels of

Bombay. (With fourteen text figures)

, see PALEKAR, V. C.

BANERJI, ARUNA, Further observations

on the family life of the Five-striped

Squirrel Funambulus pennanti Wr. ...

BANERJEE, B., Some interesting observa-

tions on the royal chamber in the

mound of the Termite Odontotermes

redemanni (Wasmann) : 5

BANERJEE, BARUNDEB, Some common

Termites of Calcutta .

BASAVANNA, G. P. CHANNA, see Pur-

TARUDRIAH, M.

BATEs, R. S. P., Fighting among Birds

BeaTry, P. V., The changing scene:

Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur

(M.P.) .

BEHURA, BASANTA. KUMAR, see “PANDA,

UPENDRA CHANDRA

BERLIOZ, J., The dimorphic Egrets :

BEST, A. E. ‘Ge Further notes and addi-

tions to the list of Butterflies from

Bombay and Salsette ae

PAGE

183

197

769

946

455

768

463

944

491

797

732

335

203

204

191

194 |

188

215

Best, A. E.G., Notes on the Butter-

flies of Rangoon i :

Betts, F. N., Halcyon pileata inland ~

BHARDWAIA, ap N., see GUPTA, K. M.

BINDRA, O. S., and KITTUR, S) U., A

note on the Nematode Mermis indica

v. Linstow parasitising insects ;

BooTtH, A. H., see HILL, W. C. OsMAN

BOSWELL, K., ‘Scent’ trails and‘ pooxing’

in Tiger ee ees fi ile

, Following up wounded

Tiger at night .. ?

BOURLIERE, FRANCOIS,

GERARD

BOWDEN, EVELYN, Egg-laying of the

Dragonfly Indophaea cardinalis

(Fraser) (Odonata: Insecta) ..

Boye, C. L., Wild life preservation in

India...

BURKILL, I. H. Chapters « on the History

of Botany i in ‘India. II. The advances,

and in particular the plant collecting

of the thirties and forties of the 19th

century

BuRNETT, J. H., Ceylon’ S Wilpattu Na-

tional Park (With a plate)

BurTon, R. W., A Dabchick is bom

—___—_—__———.,, Homeric battles on the

see MOREL,

dinner table

CANTLIE, KEITH, Hespenidae, ‘of the

Khasi and Jaintia Hills

CHAUHAN, N. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, Sy

CHHAPGAR, B. Bo On the Marine Crabs

(Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay

State. Part I. (With one coloured and

eleven line plates, and two text

the

ures 5

yaaa On Marine

Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of

Bombay State. Part II. (With one

coloured and NG line plates, and one

text figure) .

CHHAPGAR, B. F.,

H. G.

CHOWHAN, N. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, S.

CROWE, PHILIP Ke Ducks Unlimited:

and Wild Life Preservation in Ceylon.

(With a plate) ..

DANIEL, A., influence aff staze G: tide

on the attachment of Barnacle Cy-

prids. (With three graphs) ...

De SitvA, P.H.D.H., On a Zoological

collecting tour of the islands off

Jaffna. (With a map) .. oer

see "KEWALRAMANT,

PAGE

7716

462

796

452

454

957

478

942

767

961

212

399

503

866

322

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dep, D. B., A new Species of Gleadovia

Gamble et Prain from Manipur.

(With a plate) ..

DHARMAKUMARSINHUI, R. Si; see SHIV-

RAJ KUMAR OF JASDAN

Drxit, K. K., Differential response to

form and pattern in two species of

Indian Honeybees. (With two text

figures) ..

DVORAK, RUDOLF, “Two. new species of

Priochirus (Staphylinidae: Coleoptera)

from India. (With two text figures)

Epirors, Bird Migration in India

, Occurrence of the Ruff and

Reeve [Philomachus pugnax (Linna-

eus)] near Coimbatore uN,

, Migration of Insects . :

, -A caterpillar- -parasitising

Fungus

EICHLER, WOLEDIETRICH, “Notes. on the

Brielia group of Mallophaga (Feath-

er-lice) with descriptions of four new

species. (With four text figures)

FIELD, HENRY, Ticks from Baluchistan,

West Pakistan

FLEMING, R. L., The Spiny Babbler in

Kathmandu Valley

GANDHI, H. P., A contribution to our

knowledge of the Diatom genus

Pinnularia. (With twenty-one figures)

Gee, E. P., The management of India’s

Wild Life Sanctuaries and National

Parks. Part II

, Lion v. Tiger

Predator and prey at salt-

licks

GEORGE, JOSEPH, A Sunbird’ Ss ‘unusual

nesting site. (With a photo) :

GHILDYAL, B. N., A botanical trip to

the valley of flowers. (With a sketch

map) ...

GIDEON, P. W., MENON, Pp. K. B. , Rao,

RS: V., AND JOSE, K. Vie Occurrence

of the Echiuroid Worm Ikedella

misakiensis (Ikeda) in Indian waters

(Gulf of Kutch). (With a text figure)

———__—___—_—_—___——_—., On tthe

Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch: A

preliminary survey. (With a map, one

plate and five text figures) ...

GOKHALE, S. V., Operation of the Dol

net off the Saurashtra Coast. (With

seven text figures) ,

GOLDSCHMIDT, F. R., An indigenous

fishing rod ‘and tackle. (With a text

figure) . ahs ant

GOwDA, M. H. “MARI, " Bougainvillea

buttiana Holttum et Standley, and its

cultivars in Lalbagh, Bangalore.

(With a text figure) ...

GupTA, K. M., AND BHARDWAJA, ap. N.,

Indian Marsileas: their morphology

and systematics. 2. On the Examina-

PAGE

799

201

690

714

953

801

tion of some Collections of Marsilea

in India. (With 48 figures)

GuPpTA, P. D., see JHA, V. R.

GuPTA, RAJ KuMAR, Botanical explo-

rations in the Bhillangna Valley of

the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State-II

GURUMANTI, O. N., see NairR N. BALA-

KRISHNAN

HALL, B. P., Notes on specific identifica-

tion in the Tawny Pipit (Anthus cam-

pestris), Blyth’s Pipit (A. godlewskii)

and Richard’s Pipit (4. novaeseelan-

diae) in Asia. (With a text figure) ...

HArRRISSON, TOM, Rednecked Phalarope

Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) in South-

east Asia i

HILL, W. C. OsMAN, and BootH, A. H.,

Voice and larynx in African and

Asiatic Colobidae. (With 2 text

figures) ... ¢

Hu, Hsen-Hsu, China’s “book- like rock

formation with 25 million year old

plant fossils

IBRAHIM, K. H., Bionomics of forage

fishes: Observations on the fecundity

of three common species of minor

barbels. (With one figure) ...

JAIN, S. K., see RAIZADA, M. B.

Jua, V.R., and Gupta, P. D., A double-

headed Krait Bungarus caeruleus

(Schneider). (With a photo) ...

Jose, K. V., see GIDEON, P. W.

Josu1, M. C., On the occurrence of

Fritschiella tuberosa lyeng. in Pilani

(Rajasthan). (With a text figure)

KAPADIA, Z., see SANTAPAU, H.

KEWALRAMANI, H. G., and CHHAPGAR,

B. F., Occurrence of a rare Sting Ray

[Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker)] in

Bombay waters. (With one plate and

one text figure)

| KHAN, NAwWAB H., ad " ABEDI, ZILLE

HASAN, Notes on the biology and

control of the Lily Moth Brithys

crini Fabricius. (With a plate)

Kirrur, S. U., see BINDRA, O. S.

KRISHNAN, D. Re Partial emergence of

the Imagines of Dragonflies (Odonata)

due to the absence of a poldne oe

(With two figures)

KRISHNASWAMI, S., CHAURAN, 'N. S.,

and NecaI, P. S., Studies on non-insect

Enemies of Lac with special reference

to Squirrels and Birds as serious

seasonal predators i

, AND CHOWHAN, N, Si A

note on insects consumed as food

by Squirrels and Birds at Kundri

Forest, Palamau District, Bihar

KRISHNASWAMY, S., On the Harpacti-

coid Copepod Phyllognathopus te

(Maupas). (With one plate) :

KULKARNY, H. L., see PATEL, R. Ce

xlii

PAGE

550

878

726

947

309

225

826

947

970

770

785

210

887

457

793

X1V

LAVKUMAR, K. S., Transferring of the

Indian Lion to an additional locality

—_—_—_——-, The occurrence of

the Pinkbreasted Parakeet (Psittacula

alexandri) in Dehra Dun He

-, Bird notes from

Kutch ...

LovatTr, J. D., The spawning of Carps

MADANSINHJI OF Kutch, Some riddles

of Game-bird Migration in Kutch ...

MAHESHWARI, J. K., Some name changes

in the Flora of India

MARSDEN, G. H., Solar eclipse and

animal behaviour

MATHEW, A. P., Mating in Scorpions.

(With 3 text figures)

MATHUR, S. N., and SIDHU, NARSINGH,

Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea:

Notostraca) in Pilani, Rajasthan

MepbpD, H. A. N., Jumping Snakes

MENON, M. GOVINDANKUTTY, Hairless

Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo. is

a plate) b

MENON, P. K. B., “see GIDEON, i WwW.

MIRCHANDANI, TOLARAM, K., Wild Life

Preservation in India: Dandeli and

the Dangs ;

MOHAMED, K. H. ,On the occurrence of

mummified eels i in the internal organs

of Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and

Pomadasys sp. Wa

MOHAMED, K. H., see BAL, D. ve

MOoHAPATRA, Re The ‘Marala’ —A sink

net used in the backwaters of Ganjam,

Orissa ... oe: ane Pie Ne

MoreL, GERARD, MoreEL, MaArieg-

YVONNE, AND BOURLIERE, FRANCOIS,

The Blackfaced Weaver Bird of

Dioch in West Africa: An ecological

study. (With four plates, one text

figure, and three graphs)

MorEL, MARIE-YVONNE, see More,

GERARD

MorkrIs,

Elephants ie Bh

Mosse, A. H., The Lion of the Gir ak

Mosse, A. H. E., Reptiliana

Murray, M. E. WoLrFe, Notes on the

common black garden Beetle Basili-

anus neelgherriensis

Murtuy, D. V., The unusual resistance

to starvation of Saccharicoccus sac-

chari (Ckll.) ch

Nair, M. R. G. K., A new ‘Pest of

Screwpine in Kerala, Agonia fuscipes

Baly (Hispinae, Chigsomelds

(With four figures)

—______—__—__-, On a new " Cater-

pillar Pest of Screwpines: Lycaugesia

longipalpis Swinh. (Lepidoptera :

Agrotidae). (With a text figure) ...

Nair, N. BALAKRISHNAN, The Ship-

worms of South India with a note on

the Breeding Season of Bankia indica

R. C., Tusks of Indian

PAGE

173

185

190

97,

466

804

194

853

961

195

450

226

199

773

811

460

568

869

206

203

470

954

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Nair. (With a plate, three text figures,

and a graph)

—, AND GURUMANI,

O. N., Timber boring Molluscs of the

Indian Coast I. Report on a Collec-

tion from Tondi and Adirampatnam,

East Coast. (With eight text figures)

Nair, N. C., and NATHAWAT, G. S.,

Vegetation of Pilani and its neighbour-

00 AN os ie ae

Vegetation of Harsh Nath, Aravalli

Hills. (With a map)...

NATHAWAT, G. S., see NAIR, N. GC.

NEELAKANTAN, K. K.,, Hypnotic Lo

haviour of a Whiteheaded Babbler

(Turdoides striatus) :

NEGI, P. S., see KRISHNASWAMI, Ss:

PALEKAR, V. S., and BAL, D. Vv, Des-

truction of Timber by Marine Orga-

nisms in the Karwar Port. (With a

graph) ...

PALLITHANAM, ” “Observations on the

Flora of Kodaikanal .. i

PANDA, UPENDRA CHANDRA, and

BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, Further

observations on the biology of the

common ‘Tree-hopper’ Ofinotus

oneratus Walk. ivan Mem-

bracidae) in Orissa BAe

Notes on three common Tree-hoppers

(Membracidae: Hemiptera) in Orissa

PANTHAKI, D. P., see SANTAPAU, H.

PATEL, R. C., and KuLKARNY, H. L.,

Bionomics of the Pumpkin Cater-

pillar—Margaronia indica Saund.

(Pyralidae: Lepidoptera). a a

plate and a graph) F

PATEL, V., see SANTAPAU, H.

PATTNAIK, H., Some useful Weeds in

and around Cuttack . ae

PepPE, J. H. H., Aj jumping Snake

PILLAI, N. G., "Incubation period and

‘mortality rate’ (2?) in a brood of the

Magpie-robin WCepey crs saularis

(Linh.)]

PRANAVANANDA, ‘SWAMI, The Abomin-

able Snowman 3

f ‘Footprints of

‘Snowman’...

PUTTARUDRIAH, M. A and BASAVANNA,

GP: CHANNA, Some beneficial Coc-

cinellids of Mysore

RaizapA, M. B., A new variety of

Gymnosporia falconeri Lawson from

Northern Oudh, Uttar Pradesh

—____—_——,, and Jain, S. K., The

genus Eremopogon Stapf, and _ its

affinities with Schizachyrium Nees.

(With a plate) ... We a ues

RaJ, J. SAMUEL, An_ undescribed

luminous Beetle larva from South

India. (With one photograph)

PAGE

344

663

281

460

962

835

160

958

118

140

948

182

358

448

156

796

858

788

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

RAMAKRISHNAN, V.,

D. DANIEL

Rao, B. R. SusHa, The Biology and

Bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae

Keiff. (Dryinidae: Hymenoptera). A

nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla

Walk., and a note on its role in the

control of Pyrilla. (With a plate) ...

Rao, H. SRINIVASA, History of our

Knowledge of the Indian Fauna

through the ages. (With two plates)...

Rao, J. SAKHARAM, A giant form of

Celosia argentea L.

see SUNDARARAJ,

is Grass Flora of

Coimbatore District (South India)

with special reference to fodder

grasses .

Rao, R. SESHAGIRI, Parthenium hystero-

phorus Linn., a new record for India.

(With a plate) .. :

Rao, S. R. V., see GIDEON, P. W.

REUBEN, D. E., The Abominable Snow-

man

, The Indian Mongoose

in Jamaica ye

Rip.ey, M. W., Terns of the Seychelles

Islands .

ROONWAL, M. I Macaque “Monkey

eating mushrooms i

Roy, J. C., and SAHoo, N., Additions

to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake.

(With a text map) oes Hes

SAHOO, N., see Roy, J. C.

SANTAPAU, H., The poisonous qualities

of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. ... sae

—____—., Eclipta prostrata, E.

erecta, or E. alba which is the correct

name ?... ee see te ae

—_____—_—_—_——., Alternanthera parony-

chioides St. Hil.—A correction

—______———_, Further notes on the

Indian Species of Curcuma (Zingi-

beraceae) we foe os ibe

—_—__—_———., The species of

Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras

——_—__—_———-, and KaAPapiA, Z.,

Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl.

(With a text figure)

Habenaria panchganiensis—New name

for a Bombay Orchid

—____—_—_—__,, and PANTHAKI, D. P.,

Some new Plants for the Dangs

Forest, Bombay State. (With two

plates) ay ae sie Uae

ST anc PANEL, V. The

Genus Cuscuta in Bombay. (With a a

plate) : a a uh

: and ———,

Ipomoea tropica new name for a

common Bombay Plant

SANTAPAU, H., see SHAH, G. L.

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., Notes on

Heterocera of Calcutta, Part ITI

the

PAGE

741

251

474

674

218

762

941

920

171

949

218

475

476

966

967

220

478

221

707

798

153

—_____—___——., Notes. on

Heterocera of Calcutta, Part IV

—_—___________—., Bionomics of the

Pumpkin Caterpillar, Margaronia in-

dica Saund.

SHAH, G. L., and SANTAPAU, H., Neu-

racanthus ’ sphaerostachyus Dalz. —_

Further comments

SHIVARAJKUMAR OF JASDAN and DHAR-

MAKUMARSINHJI, R. S., Rednecked

Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in

Bhavnagar, Bombay State. (With a

plate)

SHIVRAJAKUMAR, YY. S:, “An incubating

Peacock (Pavo cristatus Linn.) :

SIDHU, NARSINGH, see MATHUR, S. N.,

SOLOMON, R. J., Habits of the Serow

[Capricornis sumatraensis (Bechstein)]

STRACEY, P. D., On the status of the

Great Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicor-

nis) in Nepal. (With a map) ..

SUBRAMANIAM, SWARNA, Some observa-

tions on the Habits of the Slender

Loris, Loris tardigradus oe):

(With five plates)

SUNDARARAJ, D. DANIEL, and “RAMA-

KRISHNAN, V., New Plant records for

South India—II. (With two plates) ...

SZAFRANSKI, S., An episode from the

life history of the Moth Suana con-

color Walker ...

TANDON, R. S., The Liver Fluke of the

Frog Rana tigrina—A new record of

Mehraorchis ranarum Srivastava, 1934

(Pleurogenitinae)

TMM, RICHARD W., Marine Nematodes

from the Bay of Bengal: I. Phas-

midea. (With a plate)

TREHAN, K. N., Brief notes on Crop

Pests and their control in the Punjab

(India). (With 34 text figures)

TURNER, J. E. C., Dhaman or Rat Snake

(Ptyas mucosus) drinking milk

VACHON, Max, The biology of scor-

pions. (With a plate and 17 figures)...

VAIDYA, VIDYADHAR, G., On the pheno-

menon of drumming in egg-laying

female butterflies

VARTAK, V. D., Solanum ecuriale Lindl.

A new record for Bombay State

VENKATARAMAN, G. S., The Algal Flora

of the ponds and puddles inside the

Banaras Hindu University Bonds:

India. (With 17 text figures) :

VENUGOPAL, S., Tarache nitidula F., a

semilooper Pest on Cotton in South

India. (With a plate) .. me

VIJAYARAGHAVAN, B., Drumming of the

Malabar Goldenbacked Woodpecker

Brachypternus benghalensis ...

ee Accidental death

of a Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Mega-

laima haemacephala (Miller)}

the

PAGE

302

470

969

465

464

941

763

387

925

784

468

581

196

128

216

965

908

207

461

462

XVi

VIsHONI, H. S., The swarming Termites

of Delhi

Wain, F. L., Notes on some Wasps and

Bees (Hymenoptera) of Poona and

the Western Ghats. (With a plate and

21 figures) oa ie ue Si

—______——, Note on a hunting Wasp,

Notogonia jaculatrix (Smith)...

Wan-THo, LOKE, Experiences with Little

Ringed Plover. (With a plate)

PAGE

792

957

185

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

WriGut, M. D., Notes on the Birds of

a selected area of Dehra Dun—June

oe to July 1951. (With a sketch

ap)

Yin, Ten “Wild Elephants i in the Union

of Burma ;

A large pair of Elephant’ 5

Tusks from Burma. (With a eo

, Albino Elephants fs

"A Python’s meal

PAGE

627

175

178

179

196

LIST OF PLATES

The management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks. Part III.

Plate I. 1. Wild Elephant (makhna) Kaziranga, Assam

(Coloured) 2. Barasingha or Indian Swamp Deer in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh ..

Plate II. Wild Tusker Elephant in Bandipur, Mysore ute

Plate Tif. 14. Hog Deer in Kaziranga, Assam -

2. Mother and baby Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros in Kazi- \.

ranga, Assam a

Plate[V. 1. Typical thorny scrub on the fringe of the Gir Forest a)

2. A young male Lion, with mane starting to grow, comes out to a a

‘kill’

Plate V. 1. A hurriedly constructed ‘hide’ for photographing lions

2. A young adult male Lion photographed from the above ‘hide’ .

Plate VI. 1. A portable ‘hide’ of hessian cloth, camouflaged and in position }

at a salt-lick

2. A barking Deer buck photographed from the above ‘hide’ ii

Notes on some Wasps and Bees (Hymenoptera) of Poona and the Western Ghats

Plate Leaf-cutter Bees (Megachile disjuncta) in action

Ducks Unlimited: and Wild Life Preservation in Ceylon

Plate. Ducks Unlimited: Scenes in the Grey Lodge Wildfowl Refuge, oot

fornia

Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal: I. Phasmidea

Plate. Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal A-B. Rhabditis marina var.

bengalensis new var.; C-E. Tylenchus marinus n.sp.; F-I. ee eae

lobus limuli n.g., n.sp.

Bionomics of the Pumpkin Caterpillar Margaronia indica Saund. (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

Plate. The Pumpkin Caterpillar Margaronia indica Saund: A-B. Eggs; C.\

Larva; D. Pupa; E. Adult By i

The biology of Scorpions

Plate. The Rock Scorpion (Buthus sp.) with young on her back

Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover

Plate. 1. Redwattled Lapwing (Hoplopterus indicus) a

2. Little Ring Plover (Charadrius dubius) ae

Tarache nitidula: ¥., A semilooper Pest on Cotton in South India

Plate. Life History Stages of Tarache nitidula F. on Cotton

Parthenium hysterophorus Lim., a new record for India

Plate. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.

Some new Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State

Plate I. Indigofera oreophila Santapau and Panthaki

Plate If. | Moghania praecox var. robusta Mukherjee

History of our Knowledge of the Indian Fauna through the ages

Plate I. 1. The mythical Yali with leonine body and elephantine fuce from

a Hampi relief

2. Hunting scenes from file throne platform at Hampi in Mysore

depicting antelopes, sambar and leopards

PAGE

136

186

208

218

XVill

Plate IT.

‘The Shipworms of South India with a note on the Breeding Season of Bankia indica Nair

Plate.

Some observations on the habits of the Slender Loris, Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus)

Plates.

LIST OF PLATES

Another form of the mythical Yali with leonine body and limbs,

mane and tail but with Canine face and bovine horn and ear.

From a panel of a ‘mantapam’ at Madurantakam in Chingleput

District, Madras

A formal ‘Swan with crest and curled plumes and a short. neck

From a carving in wood on a doorway in Chingleput District

Madras

Experimental test planks of Cedrela sp. showing the destruction

caused by Shipworms

Three entire shipworms (Bankia indica)

Loris tardigradus:

Ite

Position in climbing

Position at rest

Various positions of body and limbs

On the Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State Part I

Plate A.

Plate 1.

Plate 2.

Plate 3.

Plate 4.

Plate 5.

Plate 6.

Plate 7.

Plate 8.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata

Atergatis integerrimus

Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus

Matuta planipes

Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera

Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus

Dromia dormia (Linnaeus)

. Pseudodromia integrifrons Henderson

Calappa lophos (Herbst)

. Matuta lunaris (Forskal)

. Matuta planipes (Fabricius)

Leucosia pubescens Miers.

Leucosia sima Alcock

. Philyra globosa (Fabricius)

Philyra corallicola Alcock

. Arcania septemspinosa (Fabricius)

. Dorippe astuta Fabricius

Elamena cristatipes Gravely ©

Menaethius monoceros Latreille __

Hyastenus planasius (Adams & White)

. Doclea gracilipes Stimpson

. Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus (Milne-Edwards)

. Schizophrys aspera (Milne-Edwards)

i. Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor Herbst

Cryptopodia angulata Milne-Edwards & Lucas

. Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus (Herbst)

. Scylla serrata (Forskal)

. Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata (Herbst)

. Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus (Linnaeus)

. Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera (Fabricius)

. Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata (Fabricius)

. Charybdis (Goniosoma) callianassa (Herbst)

. Charybdis (Goniosoma) orientalis (Dana)

. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites (Wood-mason)

Thalamita crenata Milne-Edwards

. Thalamita prymna (Herbst)

Atergatis integerrimus (Lamarck)

Atergatis floridus (Rumph)

. Atergatis roseus (Ruppell)

Platypodia cristata (Milne-Edwards)

Xantho (Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus baccalipes Alcock

. Leptodius exaratus (Milne-Edwards)

« s .

e e °

e e e

Cae e e ° e e E ° ° e e e ure e ° e ° ° e e ° ° ° e . ° ° ° e ° e e . e e ° e e

PAGE

387

92/393

399

404

405

412

413

418

419

424

425

Plate 9.

Plate 10.

Plate 11.

a-c.

d-f.

g-i.

j-l.

m-o.

-r.

a-c.

d-f.

g-1.

j-l.

m-o.

a-c.

d-f.

g-i.

j-l.

m-o.

p-r.

LIST OF PLATES

Leptodius crassimanus Milne-Edwards

Leptodius euglyptus quadrispinosus Chhapgar

Medaeus granulosus (Haswell)

Etisus laevimanus Randall

Galene bispinosa (Herbst)

Actaea savignyi (Milne-Edwards)

Myomenippe hardwickii (Gray)

Ozius rugulosus Stimpson

Epixanthus frontalis (Milne-Edwards)

Pilumnus vespertilio (Fabricius)

Pilurmnus longicornis Hilgendorf

Heteropanope laevis (Dana)

Eurycarcinus orientalis Milne-Edwards

Eriphia laevimana smithii Macleay

Eucrate crenata dentata (Stimpson)

Litocheira angustifrons Alcock

Litocheira setosa (Milne-Edwards)

Hairless Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo

Plate.

Rednecked Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar, Bombay State

Plate.

Male lion cub, 3 months old, before shedding the sparse coat of

hair

Lion cubs, hairless male and normal female, six months old

Hairless lion cub, male, about twelve months old

Rednecked Phalaropes, Bhavnagar

Rednecked Phalaropes in flight, Bhavnagar

Further notes on the Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn.

Plate.

On the Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Bombay State Part II.

Plate B.

Plate 12.

Plate 13.

Plate 14.

Plate 15.

Nests in the ‘bell’ or ‘helmet’ stage ready for appropriation by

hens. The cock on the right is reinforcing a new attachment .

A newly arrived hen perches on the cross-bar or “chin-strap’, while

the cock clings and flutters excitedly on the outside

Ocypoda ceratophthalma

Gelasimus marionis nitidus

Varuna litterata

Metopograpsus messor

Grapsus strigosus

Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica

Gelasimus annulipes

. Pinnotheres placunae Hornell and Southwell

. Pinnotheres quadratus Rathbun

. Pinnotheres vicajii Chhapgar

Ocypoda ceratophthalma (Pallas)

. Ocypoda cordimana Desmarest

Ocypoda rotundata Miers

Gelasimus annulipes Latreille

. Gelasimus marionis (Desmarest)

Gelasimus dussumieri Milne-Edwards

Dotilla myctiroides (Milne-Edwards)

. Macrophthalmus pectinipes Guerin

Macrophthalmus sulcatus Milne-Edwards

Macrophthalmus latreillet Desmarest

Macrophthalmus pacificus Dana

Macrophthalmus depressus Ruppell

. Macrophthalmus crinitus Rathbun

. Grapsus strigosus (Herbst)

. Metopograpsus messor (Forskal)

Metopograpsus maculatus Milne-Edwards

Varuna litterata (Fabricius)

. Pseudograpsus intermedius Chhapgar

ye Te)

XIX

PAGE

432

438

450

465

503

506

507

514

515

XX LIST OF PLATES

Plate 16. a-c. Sesarma (Sesarma) quadrata (Fabricius)

d-g. Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica de Man

h-j. Sesarma (Sesarma) taeniolata White

k-m. Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta de Man

n-p. Metaplax indica (Milne-Edwards)

q. Metaplax distincta Milne-Edwards

r-s. Plagusia depressa tuberculata (Lamarck)

On the Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch: A preliminary survey

Plate. 1. Stoicactis sp.

2. Gemmaria sp.

3. Ikedella misakiensis

4. Balanus amphitrite

The Genus Cuscuta in Bombay

Plate. a. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

b. Cuscuta australis R. Br.

c. Cuscuta chinensis Lamk.

d. Cuscuta hyalina Roth

The Biology and Bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieff. (Dryinidae:

Hymenoptera). A

nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla Walk., and a note on its role in the control of

Pyrilla

Plate. Egg of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer

Fully developed Lestodryinus grub

3. Cocoon of Lestodryinus pyrillae on sugarcane leaf

4. Adult female of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer

5. Adult male of Lestrodryinus pyrillae Kieffer

6. The modified foreleg of the female Dryinid

7. Hyperparasite: Cristatithorax quadricolor Gir

8. Parasitised Pyrilla nymph showing the development of the thy-

lacium between the wing pads

Occurrence of rare Sting Ray [Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker)} in Bombay Waters

Plate. Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker) (Female)

Notes on the biology and control of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius

’

Plate. Larvae of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius feeding on the jeavesnt

of Crinum latifolium

On the Harpacticoid Copepod Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas)

Plate. Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas)

A new Species of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain from Manipur

Plate. a-f. Glaedovia banerjiana Deb

The Blackfaced Weaver Bird or Dioch in West Africa: An ecological study

Plate I. a-d. The various stages of nest construction in Quelea q. quelea

Plate Hl. 1-2. The connubial display near the still unfinished nest

Plate II]. 1. Males “standing guard’’ on their nests. Incubation stage

2. Male feeding the young

Plate TV. 1. ‘The traps used for catching immature Queleas

2. The aviaries for breeding experiments, Richard-Toll Ornithological

Station

The genus Eremopogon Stapf and its affinities with Schizachyrium Nees

Plate. 1. Eremopogon strictus Camus

2. E. foveolatus Stapf

3. £E. tuberculatus Camus

Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum Raizada et Jain

)

PAGE

922

704

707

741

772

794

800

816

817

818

819

862

LIST OF PLATES XXi

PAGE

Terns of the Seychelles Islands

Plate I. 1. White Tern, 2. Lesser Noddy, 3. Sooty Tern (adult), 4. Sooty Tern

(young), 5 Crested Tern, 6. Little Tern, 7. Common Noddy, 922

8. Blacknaped Tern, 9. Roseate Tern, 10, Brownwinged Tern ...

Plate Il. 1-2. An island covered with Sooty Terns is one of the most remarkable ‘973

sights that an Ornithologist can see (Desnoeufs Islands) A

New Plant Records for South India—II

Plate I. 1. Lippia unica sp. nov. eel 926

2. Cenchrus glaucus sp. nov. is

Plate I]. Figs. 1, 2,6 & 8. Cenchrus glaucus spec. nov. ae 927

Figs. 3, 4, 5 & 7. Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. ef

Ceylon’s Wilpattu National Park

Plate. 1. Wild Buffalo in the Wilpattu Park i53 942

2. Cheetal aE

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 54

Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4

PAGE

Actaea savignyi 432 | Calappa lophos

Aerides maculosum 220 | Cedrela sp.

Agonia fuscipes 471, 472, 473 | Celosia argentea

Agrotis sp. : 600 | Cenchrus ciliaris

Aleurolobus barodensis 585 - glaucus

Allobriielia museiberolinensis 579 | Cervus duvauceli

—_—_——-- rhinocichlae a 579 | Charadrius dubius a

Ammophila laevigata ... ue we 27 | Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata :

Ampulex compressa ... he ae 30 | ———— (——__ calllianassa

Amsacta moorei 593 |$ ————— (—_—_) cruciata ...

Androctonus australis as ee 129 | ————— (Goniohellenus) hoplites

ee hector ... ES IS PSI S)S) (Goniosoma) lucifera

Anous stolidus pileatus ee 922 | ————— ) orientalis

-- tenuirostris tenuirostris iis 922 | Chilo zonellus ie

Anthophora zonata ... hs ee 35 | Chiton ... :

Anthus campestris 731 | Chthamalus stellatus stellatus

— godlewskii 731 Graph 3 nue i

novaeseelandiae : 731 | Colobus polykomos vellerosus.

Aplonis panayensis strigatus ... 580 | Crinum latifolium é

Arcania septemspinosa 412 | Cristatithorax quadricolor

Archaea janata 592 | Crocisa ramosa ae

Atergatis floridus oe 425 | Cryptopodia angulata

integerrimus .. 399, 425 | Cuscuta australis

roseus 425 - chinensis a

Athalia proxima 612 | ————- -- var. ciliaris

Aulacophora foveicollis: 604 - hyalina

Axis axis Le sue ae 942 - reflexa -

Axis porcinus ... See Hee a 5 | Cylindrospermum muscicola vat. mac-

Bagrada picta ... * 594 rospora re :

Balanus amphitrite ... He 704 | Dacus cucurbitae

- yariegatus Diaphorina citri

Gmph 1 ee 3 866 | Doclea gracilipes

- tintinnabulum tintinnabulum: Dorippe astuta

Graph 2 . 866/867 | Dotilla myctiroides

Rance (Bankiella) edmondsoni Aes 665 | Dromia dormia

) indica. 666 | Ducks Unlimited

indica ... 346, 348, 349, 350 Plate

Batocera rufomaculata a 618 | Earias insulana

Bembex trepanda ‘ 30 | Elamena cristatipes

Blackfaced Weaver Bird or Dioch in

West Africa, The

Fig. 1 812

Botanical Trip to the Valley of Flowers

A Sketch map as ae 365

Bougainvillea buttiana 803

Brithys crini 784

Briielia fulmeki 580

muniae 580

Bubalus bubalis 942

Bungarus caeruleus 948

Buthotus alticola 130

Buthus occitanus 137

Buthus sp. 136

Elephant’s Tusks from Burma, A

large pair of

Photo

Elephas maximus

Elis thoracica ... a

Empoasca devastans ...

Epilachna sp. ...

Epixanthus frontalis

Eremopogon foveolatus

- strictus ...

- tuberculatus

Eriosoma lanigerum

Eriphia laevimana smithii

Etisus laevimanus

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Eucrate crenata dentata

Eumenes petiolata a aie sae 31

Eurycarcinus orientalis 438

Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake, Addi-

_ tions to the

“Map bay 950

Fritschiella tuberosa ce 971

Galene bispinosa 432

Gelasimus annulipes ie ... 303/507

- dussumieri ... Bas oe 514

- marionis 507

— -- nitidus 503/507

Gemmaria sp. ... ee 704

Gleadovia banerjiana ... Se 800

Gnorimoschema operculella 609

Grapsus strigosus 503/515

Gygis alba monte 922

Halicephalobus limuli oo ie a 90

Heliothis obsoleta 601

Heterometrus scaber 128, 134, 139, 854, 855, ee

Heteropanope laevis 3

Hieroglyphus banian ... 584

Hispa armigera 596

Hoplopterus indicus 186

Hyastenus planasius 412

Hydroprogne tschegrava 922

Icaria ferruginea det et ee 33

Idiocerus sp. ... 618

Ikedella misakiensis _ 202, 704

Indian Fauna through the Ages, His-

tory of our a of the

plate I , A is 252

plate II } 253

Indian Honeybees, Differential Res-

ponse to Form and Pattern in two

species of

Text fig. 1 109

Text fig. 2... ; 110

Indian Marsileas: Their Morphology

and systematics 48 figures 552 & 553

Indigofera oreophila Be 224

Ischnurus ochropus } 138

Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor 413

Laphygma exigua a 602

Leptocorisa varicornis 597

Leptodius crassimanus ee 432

euglyptus quadri. ispinosus aes 432

exaratus on, 425

Lestodryinus ane 741

—_—__—__—-- pyrillae .. 741

Leucosia pubescens 405

-- Sima ... 405

Lingula anatima 695

Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo, Hairless

Plate ae : 450

Lippia unica =e A iS 926

Liris aurata ... a2 aah 26

Litocheira angustifrons 438

——_——-- setosa 438

Lobipes lobatus 465

Loris tardigradus

Plate 1 387

Plate 2 me a 392

Plates 3 & 4 ... 392/393

Plate 5 t 393

Lycaugesia longipalpis

Macrophthalmus crinitus NaS

—_—____-___——- depressus ...

——_____—_—__—-- Jatreillei

- pacificus a

- pectinipes ...

—_—______—- sylcatus

‘*‘Marala’’—A sink net used in the

backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa, The

Text fig. 1 van us

Text fig. 2

Margaronia indica

Graph

Marine Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura)

of pone State, On the

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Marine Fauna of Gulf of Kutch, On

the

Map

anne organisms in the Karwar Port,

Destruction of timber by

Graph ose ae

Mopie lunaris

planipes

Medaeus granulosus ...

Megachile lanata

Menaethius monoceros

Metaplax distincta

indica ;

Metopograpsus maculatus

—__—__—_——— messor

Mino dumontii kreffti

Moghania praecox var. robusta

Monophlebus stebbingi

Munia maja ae

Muntiacus muntjak ; wee

Muraena (Gymnothorax) favaginea Be

cae ) meleagris ..

= ( ) picta :

—__—___- ( ) pseudothyr-

soidea

- (——_____-) undulata un-

dulata ...

Muraenesox cinereus ... ’

-- talabonoides

Muraenichthys gymnopterus ...

Mutilla nobilis :

Myomenippe hardwickii oe

Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus

—_——_—_——— (————_) sanguinolentus

Notes on Birds of a selected area of

Dehra Dun—June 1946 to July

1951

Sketch map .

Note on the “breeding season of

Bankia indica Nair, The shipworms

of South India with a

Graph ,

Obituary

Photo: Norman Boyd Kinnear ...

Photo: Philip McDonnell Sander-

son oat a Sse ap

Observations on the fecundity of three

common species of Minor Barbels,

... 399,

503:

... 399,

399,

627

353

928

9390

XXIV

PAGE |

Bionomics of Forage Fishes: |

Fig. 1 ae sigh 832 |

OS pods ceratophthalma ae SOS, c SOT

-- cordimana ... A aa 507 |

———-- rotundata ... ae Sea 507

Odynerus ovalis oa oy ms a2

Oedogonium lautumnarium ... ane 913 |

- rufescens 913

Operation of the Dol net off the

Saurashtra Coast

Fig. 1 oe ES: a ie TAS

Fig. 2 ee Be e 716

Fig. 3 718

Fig. 4 719

Fig. 5 720

Fig. 6 721

Fig. 7 at Bat sae Zs

Ophichthys apicalis Me a vs 739 ||

-- cephalozona Be! we 739

Orthochirus innesi _... ae ae 132

Ozius rugulosus Sie oe cys 433 |

Pandinus imperator... cue as 131

Pantala ae, my) ae ie Pas

Panthera leo... ot LO.

Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus 413

Parthenium hysterophorus ... she 218

Philyra corallicola ae ge 405

globosa a Be kk 405

Phyllognathopus viguieri ak ve 794 |

Pieris brassica me gi: 603

Pilumnus longicornis . ee su ore 433 |

- vespertilio ... oe Ha 433 |

Pinna nigra... au ae i 702

Pinnotheres placunae ... aa fh 506

quadratus 506

- vicajii ; ne, 506

Pinnularia acrosphaeria f. undulata ... 848 |

———- —-—————— v. minor ... 848 |

- aestuarii V. interrupta ... 848 |

--- VetGla is. a 849 |

- angustefasciata ... Ae 848

- prebissonii v. producta ... 849 |

- —____- V, ——___—__ |

f. biundulata we see 848 |

— - conica woe ai ey 848

-@SOX V. Capitata ... oe 849 |

-——- V. fasciata ... cea 849

- isostauron ... Ws 849 |

ee ee, conifera ae 849 |

- karnatica 848 |

- legumen Vv. florentina- _ 848, 849 |

- microstauron \. ambigua .. 848 |

- neglecta V. interrupta ... 849 |

~ stomatophoroides v. ornata

f. erlangensis ... 848, 849 |

Pisoodonophis boro... wed ae 738 |

—_—_—_————— cancrivorus ... wae 738 |

Placenta placenta Hey : a 702 |

Plagusia depressa tuberculata ee 322) |

Platydera gossypiella ae Mee 591 |

Platypodia cristata 425

Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii v. crassa . 913

Ploceus philippinus _... Ae a 49]

Polistes hebraeus fe se 33 |

Priochirus (Plastus) astoliensis

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Priochirus (Plastus) maitrta ... 791

Procolobus Goes) badius wal-

droni aor ae Hei sie 318

Prodenia litura _ a a Bi 594

Pseudagenia blanda ... he boy 24

Pseudodromia integrifrons : 404

Pseudograpsus intermedius... onl 31)

| Puntius ticto ... ee coe sais 832

| Pyrilla ... Ae Lae Ke 741

Pyrilla perpusilla ee me ae 584

Python’s Meal, A

Photo es iy aun 196

| Quadraspidiotus per niciosus ae

| Quelea quelea quelea ...

| Rhabditis marina v. bengalensis

614

816, Si 818, 819

| Rhagophthalmus sp. ... mae a 789

Rhinoceros unicornis ... sk ae 5

Map ... ae un ol nas 763

Rhinocichla mitrata ... a ne 579

Salius flavus... : uh; Si 25

- madr aspatanus ye aad 26

| Sceliphron madraspatanum ... sth 28

Schizachyrium Pay eau ities $62

| Schizophrys aspera... : Bais 413

| Schoenobius bipunctifer a Lo 596

Scirpophaga nivella ... a, Bee 586

| Scolia quadripustulata ee ue 23

Scorpio maurus 5a8 a se 136

Scylla serrata ... Eh si 418

Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta ... SE 522

- oceanica ... 2 D0BLS22

- ) quadrata ... Ay p22

oss - —) taeniolata ta p22

Sirogonium strictum Vv. ee ala 913

| Sphex aurulentus ce ats 29

| Spirogyra nitida v. microspora a 913

--— singularis ne 2s 912

-— spreeiana V. kashiensis ... O12

Sterna albifrons ; ; 922

| anaethetus antarctica— 922

| ——— bergii thalassina ane Med 922

—_——— dougallii arideensis ... 922

fuscata nubilosa 922, 923

sumatrana mathewsi ... Nae 922

Stoicactis sp. ... : 704

Studies on Non-Insect enemies of Lac,

with special reference to squirrels

and Birds as serious seasonal pre-

dators

Text fig. aH die 888

Suabids unusual nesting site, A

Photo : ae Soh sls 944

Sylepta derogata mat soe : 588

Taeniura melanospila ... gals 772

Tarache nitidula 2 a Bh 208

Telescopium telescopium Bs a 699

Teredo ( Zopoteredo) bengalensis bn 671

(Teredo) indica : 669

cee ) madrasensis ac 668

ed | ) navalis wh why 667

( ) parksi oan aN; 670

| —_—_—_—— (Psiloteredo) tondiensis a 672

| Thalamita crenata ue We 424

—_—__—_—- prymna 424

| Thrips tabaci 610

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Thyrsoidea macrurus ... ... A 735

Tramea : es se 211

Trypoxylon intrudens . ae oe Pi

Tylenchus marinus... a ANE 90

Uroconger lepturus _... oes she 734

Varuna litterata 503, 515

Vegetation of Harsh Nath, “Aravalli

Hills

Map ... ee hse ie As 281

Virachola isocrates

Xantho (Lophoxanthis) seaber rimus

baccalipes

Xylocopa latipes :

Zoological Collection Tour sh the

Islands off Jaffna, On a

Map .. St Bis

Zygnema sphaerica var. -, microspora

XXV

PAGE

621

425

323

912

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Abies pindrow us .. 366, 386

Abisara echerius angulata Gi Ae 781

Abrus precatorius _... 372

142, 209, 1283) 284,

286, 287, 591, 626

Abutilon indicum

Acacia ... ou aK 105, 286, 298

arabica OD: oe 289, 299, 962

——-— catechu Na Ee 643

decurrens ie a us 843

jacquemontii Pe 95, 289, 298

leucophloea 96, 289, "298, 960

melanoxylon Me s 843

modesta 108) 469*

planifrons as iN 670

scorploides.. 814

senegal 93, 285, 289, 299, 813, 814

tortilis j : i813! 814

Acalypha ciliata . 295, 299

Acanthochiton ae wee 697

Acanthopneuste occipitalis se 768

Acara morosella a aE has 470

Accipiter badius badius a ne 328

virgatus S3 Bi ries 656

{Accipter =] jAccipiter

ACER ae Ly i 226

Achaea janata. De ae ie 592

Acherontia styx bes ee 620

Achras sapota re Hay sie 97

zapota ae Si aya 97

Achyranthes ... SS aa 713

— aspera .. MACRY: 150, 294,883

——_——__——— bidentata 5 382, 842, 883

——_—_————- polygonoides .. ah 476, 477

Aconitum balfourii ... tne me 368

- ferox Lua aoe 969

- heterophyllum i chy 878

- violaceum . ie ... 366, 368

Acontia ... 389, 608

graellsi_ : 207

Acorus calamus 937

Acridotheres ginginianus 642

tristis 641, 890, 903

we melanosternus ... 330

Acrocephalus agricola a ee 768

———————- dumetorum ... 768

Actaea iss h 429, 432527

granulata 432

— savignyi , 432, 5275'535

Actinopteris dichotoma ; ; 286

Actitis hypoleucos ... ~ ... ie 328

Adelura caeruleocephala _... Ag 633

Adhatoda 4 .os 285, 300, 713

—_——_—- vasica 104, 148, 283, 285, 286, 293,

294, 299, 380, 463, 628, 648

Adiantum annulatum 286

Adocia J iy sai at 693

PAGE

Adoretus 616

pallens 620

Aeginetia indica 380

Aegithina tiphia 631, 890, 903, 905

Aegle marmelos ue 95, 346, 960

Aeolarchis sphenotoma 470

Aeolesthes holosericea 616

Aerides maculosum as Ws 220

Aeromachus ... on ape ane 783

—__——. ihora 214

—____—_-—-— stigmata ws 214 —

Aerua lanata .. 100, 150, 294

——-- tomentosa 93, 283, 284, 285, 294, 299

Aeschynomene indica aun . 154, 710

Aesculus indica ise ae uy, 371

Aethiopsar fuscus ... ane ane 642

Aethopyga ignicauda oe Su 648

siparaja fe a3 Apis 648

Agathia laetata nee ates wes 153

lycaenaria... a ue 153

Agathodes ostentalis 306

Azeniaspis pyrillae 747

Ageratum conyzoides a i 291

Agestrata orichalcea ... ie!

Agonia fuscipes 470, 473, 954

Agrimonia eupatorium “soi eee 373

Agrostis canina as AB ao 885

-micrantha ... ee ee 885

Agrotera basinotata ... a A 305

- scissalis Ae ae i 305

Agrotis ; ‘ih 594, 600, 608

- flamatra nee HES ee 600

- ypsilon 600

Ailanthus excelsa 288, 298

Ailopus ae Wee a 588

Ajuga macrosperma Bee nae Uae 381

———-- parviflora Me i se 381

Alauda arvensis 647

-— gulgula ‘ ae ane 647

Albizzia a .. 91, 936

———_=- [lebbeck = ] lebbek

-- lebbek 160, 161, 289, 936, 960

--marginata ... 936

-- adoraiissima ae oe , 936, 937

Alcedo atthis ... a sa bs 651

Alcemerops athertoni ate ae 651

Alcides porrectirostris ae Bie 617

Alectoris graeca s ee 752

Aleurocanthus husani ; ane 622

Aleurolobus barodensis Be Be 585

Alhagicamelorum _... aie ... 103, 105

Allamanda cathartica hes 97

Allium cepa 296, 610

stracheyi ... 366, 385

wallichii 367, 385, 884

Slane yy he)

Allobrielia

*listed as B. Kahur

XXVill

PAGE |

Allobrielia amsel .. 579, 580 |

—__—__——- museiberolinensis ae 579

—____—_——- rhinocichlae 579, 580 |

Allophylus serrulatus ie ae 838 |

Alloteropsis cimicina 675, 679 |

Alnus bss Nt i ae 366 |

Aloe vera at su ie wa 101

Alphaeus Bo ne 696

Alseonax latirostris ... ae Ae 635 |

Alternanthera .. ee Hi vie 477

bicolor a &. 100 |

ficoidea : 477

paronychioides _ 476, 477 |

polygonoides .. 476, 477 |

sessilis 150, 284, 285, 294 |

(Althaea=) Althea

Althea rosea

Alysicarpus tetragonolobus iki

Alyssum cochlearioides ... 804, 805 |

Amandava amandava sits 643 |

Amarantus wo. 294, 298 |

-- gangeticus Be 294 |

- gracilis 712

- spinosus ... 150, 284, 294

——- viridis oe 294

Ambassis commersoni ee ee 325 |

Amblypodia centaurus 215

——_—__—-- —-— centaurus 782

Ammodytes _... ae sae whe 199

Ammonites AO sls gitar SP

Ammophila ... : ae ae Di |

ee laevigata ie Zi

Amorphophallus campanulatus - 151

Amphilophis insculpta 677

—_________-- pertusa 674, 675, 676

eS pseudoischaemum ste 677 |

Amphitrite 694 |

Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides ... 783 |

Ampulex ae soe se ten Bs)

——__—— compressa ... a Se PAY ns Ue

Amsacta moorel . 393, 597, 599, 601, 796 |

Anabaena affinis oH ae ae 918 |

- torulosa ss ae 918 |

Analyta melanopalis ... 5 ne 307 |

sigulalis bee af vn 307 |

Anaphalis araneosa 376

-nubigena ... mee au 376 |

—____—_- —__———- polycephala ... 881

- royleana aoe ss 376 |

- triplinervis 3 .. 376, 881

Anas acuta... os aa beg 193 |

——-- penelope | Me as sa 193

—--— platyrhynchos ... i ae 193

Anax ... si sae we 210

Ancistriodes nigrita 214

Ancylolomia chrysographella- ae 302

Andrachne cordifolia si ale 383

Androctonus australis wie a 129 |

(oe ee - hector ob 132 35

Andrographis paniculata... 148

Andropogon ey Be 93, 858, 885 |

—_—___—_-—— annulatus uae 105 |

delavayi 858, 860, 865

(delavyi=) delavay I

foveolatus 858, 859, 860, 861, 862 |

161, 591, 626 |

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Andropogon foveolatus genuinus ... 858

—____—_____— strictus ... 858

— == gryllus .- ‘ La 885

—_———— paranjpyeanum | ... 860, 865

pumilus as ae 678

strictus ... 859, 860, 862

——__—_—_—— tuberculatus 858, 860, 863

| Androsace lanuginosa .. 366, 378

—_—-_——--- sarmentosa a sie. 378

| Aneilema divergens 385

Anemone vitifolia ate 368

Anemonea ose ie Nae Ry 693

Angelica glauca 880

Angulus ae aN 703

-- sinuata ue se a 703

| Aniseia calycina 799

Anisomeles ovata 149

Anogeissus ; 6 286

aa jatifolia ... 285, 286, 298

- pendula ... 92, 283, 285, 289, 298

Anona squamosa : i 960

Anous stolidus pileatus 922

- tenuirostris tenuirostris 922

Anser ... : : as 662

| Anthophora ... oes ane 34, 35

—____——_——- fallax... Me AE 35

—_—_——-- zonata ... at, one 35

Anthus campestris A 726, 731

-- __—___—_ campestris 728, 730

—______-- —_______-. griseus 728

| ——-- kastschenkoi 728, 730

| ———-- godlewskii sae 726, 731

| —_——-- hodgsoni 647

-- novaeseelandiae 726730

ane centralariae 726, 730

= dauricus 726, 730

woes malayensis 329, 726,

Dit 730

ae richardi 329, 726, 730

—_———=- rufulus 726, 727, 730

nee sinensis... 727, 730

ee ussuriensis... 726, 730

——~=- waitei 726, 727, 728,

729, 730

-- roseatus 647

-- rufulus 647

-- striolatus 726

| ———--- thermophilus 726

-- trivialis 647

Anticharis linearis 98, 293,299

Antigastra catalaunalis ihe 307

| Antigonon leptopus ... ei, a 100

| Antilope cervicapra 270

| Antirrhinum orontium 104

| Antitrygodes ... : 154

Apanteles flaviceps 238

Apatura camiba i lest We 216

Aphalinus mali ee a a 615

| Aphanochaete repens . 909, 910

Aphis gassypil 156, 157, 158, 590

maidis Mee ues 156

malvoides ag ibe GH 158

(medicagenis =) ‘medicaginis

medicaginis . 157, 602

neril 156, 157, "158, 159

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Aphis rumicis . pat Lind 59

Apis we ; 36

—— dorsata 36

—— florea 36, 981

— indica 36, 981

— mellifera .. 981

Aplocheilus ie 388

Aplonis panayensis strigatus 580

Apluda aristata 675, 678

Appias albina . : 215

___-- darada_ 778

lyncida hippoides 778

Apriona cinerae 615

Apus . 4 961, 962

Acie heliaca 657

nipalensis 657

rapax ... 657, 824

Arachis bypoeaca 593

Arca 254

Arcania soe a 408

septemspinosa 408, 525, 532

Archernis tropicalis hae 307

Architectonica laevigata a 699

Ardeola grayil : . 327, 662

: ibis coromanda 328

Argemone mexicana ... 93, 141, 284, 286, 299

Argya caudata 630

Argyria sticticraspis .. 587

Aristida adscensionis ... 102

depressa 102, 105, 296, 684

—_——~— funiculata 102, 684

histricula 296

hystrix 684

mutabilis ae 684

setacea ... 675, 684

Aristolochia bracteata 286, 295, 299

Arius... i 253

Arnebia hispidissima .. 98, 286, 292, 299

Arnetta atkinsoni : tee 214

Artamus fuscus 329

Artemisia Ae 710

-- parviflora 3 881.

-- scoparia Bk 291

-- vulgaris Gs ... 376, 881

-- vy. myriantha 377

Artocarpus gomeziana 963

- integrifolia 161

Arum ovatum Bee 969

Arundinella avenacea 683

—___—___—-- fuscata 684

-- holcoides 684

-- mesophylla 683

-- pumila 684

—__—_—__—--- setosa 683

Arundo donax 684

Asclepias curassavica 97

Asparagus adscendens 385

curillus 885

filicinus 385

——_——_—— racemosus 296

Asphidosiphon me 695

Asphodelus tenuifolius | 296, 298

(Asphoedelus= ye Senode ls

Aspidiotus auranti ae 622

Aspongopus brunneus 605

XXIX

PAGE

Aspongopus janus 605.

Aster asperulus 376

wae diplostephioides — 376

- thomsoni 376

Asteracantha longifolia ie 148

Asteria .. ... 694, 704

Asterolecanium — ve 5 159

ee fosum 159

(Asticopterus = ) Astictopterus

Astictopterus jama 214

Sele ae Glivascens: 783

Astrea stellata 698

Astropecten 704

Astur badius .. 656

Atella phalanta si 781

Atergatis y We AD Se 5207;

—_—_— floridus ... 426, 427, 534

integerrimus 425, 426, 527, 534

ocyroe ae ANS 426

roseus 426, 527, 534

Athalia proxima ... 603, 612

Athene brama ae 655

Atherigona indica 600

Atriplex crassifolia 100

Atylosia scarabaeoides 372

Aucklandia costus 78)

Aulacophora atripennis 604

—______——-- foveicollis 604

Aularches miliaris 595

Aulosira fritschii 912, 918

Avena barbata 885

- sativa 603

Avicennia alba 982

Axis porcinus Ne 271

Axonopus compressus — be 679

Azadirachta indica .. 288, 937

Baccaurea Be 710

_ Badaniia exclamationis 5 PALS hs4

Bagrada picta .. 593, 594, 603, 604, 612

Balanites as 815

aegyptiaca ... P83. 814

roxburghil ... 92, 283, 285, 288, 298

Balanus amphitrite 696, 866, 867, 868

variegatus 866

crenatus ies 866

eburneus 866

————-— improvisus ... 866

tintinnabulum 696, 866, 867, 868

——-—-- —__--—— tintinnabulum 866

Bambusa aH 286, 664

arundinacea 102, 664

bambos : 297

Bankia . : 239, 345, 351, 354, 664

(Bankia) bengalensis ie 345

( ) bipalmulata a 345

(Bankiella) edmondsoni 345, 664, 665

(Nausitora) gabrieli ... 345, 346

—— (Bankiella) indica 345, 665, 666

——— indica 344, 346, 347, 356

(Neobankia) lineata . wah 345

lineata 346

(Nausitora) madrasensis ges 345

Bankiella : ae BAe ... 345, 664

Baoris farri d 215

- penicillata 215

XXX

PAGE

Barachus vittatus ae eas 214

Barbus tor khudree ... Se Pe 197

Barleria cristata es 380

prionitis aD ia ie alas

Basilianus neelgherriensis ... 206, 207

Batagur eS ae .. 203, 254

Batocera horsfieldi... as oe 617

- rufomaculata 617, 618, 619

Bauhinia a we 286

- purpurea nes 654

- racemosa ... 269, 298

——_———-- reticulata Bp 814

- rufescens 814

- variegata 160, 161

Begonia laciniata 879

picta ... os dh, a 374

Bembex ou ae By 30

~ trepanda ae ae 42 30

Bemisia tabaci ... 390, 611, 613

Berberis ee we A, Su 368

chitria 5 oy 1) 368

— lycinum ans ue ue 368

Bergia odorata nak sae et 103

Berta ae be As 154

Beta bengalensis A 609

Betula utilis ... 366, 384

Bibasis amara ... : 213

gomata sena ... 213

harisa .. 213

——— jaina 218

oedipodea 213

vasutana ee 213

Bidens pilosa ... ; soa) 291 299376

Bischofia javanica... ae uf 843

Biston suppressaria ... a a, 155

Biophytum sensitivum oh 370

Blainvillea rhomboidea ... 286, 291

Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia 286, 294, 299

scindica , oe 99

Blumea amplectens y. arenaria aA 805

- —_______-- y, maritima a 805

a -- y. pubiflora is 805

—_—_——- ——-- y, tenella ek 805

- arenaria aay Bes es 805

- lacera 145, 291, 300

———- obliqua a ae 805

- obliqua y. arenaria . 805

—— - v. Maritima ae 805

——_——- ——_---- y, pubiflora Nee 805

——_—- ——_---- y, tenella... aes 805

- pubiflora eae Mas A 805

Boarmia subflavaria ... Ree ate 155

Bocchoris acamasalis ay ceaiie he BOS

- artificialis .. ne AG, 305

- inspersalis ... , he 305

oyna 305

- rotundalis . 305

Boehmeria aa ; 156, 157, 158, 713

ee platyphylla ce 384

Boenninghausenia albiflora .. Mazi. 879

(Boerhavia=) Boerhaavia

Boerhaavia diffusa... 93, 105, 150, 282, 283,

284, 286, 294, 381

mt .. 286, 294

—- repens :

94, 370, 963

Bombax malabaricum

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

346, 663, 665, 667,

668, 672, 673

Borassus flabellifer

Borbo bevani ... 214

———--- cinnara ae a Aw 783

Bos bubalus... nuh a 2 255.270

—-- gaurus... ne Das nat 255

—--indicus ... ... 294, 255

Botia striata v. kolhapurensis - 980

Botrydium ; 970

-- eranulatum 916

—_—___——-- tuberosum 916

Botryllus 705

Botyodes asialis Me 305

flavibasalis ... 305

Bougainvillea .. a Si - 803, 804

- buttiana 801, 802, 803, 804.

Brachiaria distachya .. sue . 675, 680

——_—_—— eruciformis 680

mutica , ah Cole 680

paspaloides 102

ramosa 102, 297, 300, 674, 675, 680

semiundulata : 680

——_—_——-~ semiverticillata 680

Brachycaudus pruni ... 616

Brachypternus benghalensis 461, 462, 649, 890,

900, 902, 905

Bradina admixtalis a 304.

Branchipus 962

Brassica campestris: Vv. “sarson. 626

juncea : 626

napus 603, 626

rapa ... atte 603, 626

Breynia rhamnoides ... AD eh 101

Bridelia stipularis

Brithys crini

Briielia .. 577, 580

cyclothorax 578

fulmeki 580.

muniae 580

nebulosa 578, 580

trithorax 578

Brumus suturalis eh ue 159

Brunella vulgaris ae BF oe 883

Bryonia lacinoisa ae aoe se 96

Bucklandia populnea Bae 838

Bufo fergusonii a 326

—— melanostictus 326, 332, 334, ee

Bulbochaete aay 911

Bulla... ais Be ise pa 701

——- ampula ... ae Ape cs: 701

Bungarus caeruleus ... oa te 947

Bunodactys _... dice ue Bah 693

Burhinus oedicnemus 659

Bursa tuberculata 700

Bursera 346

Butastur teesa ns a Ph 657

Butea (3: as Aas ae 891

monosperma 103, 457, 887

Buteo rufinus ... ae ait 657

Buthotus alticola ay ou om 130

Buthus . : a ba ark 138

occitanus Nee i Bee 137

Butorides javanicus Hs 662

-- striatus javanicus 327

Cacomantis passerinus 653

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Cadaba farinosa 713

Caesalpinia pulcherrima 95

Caesulia axillaris 376

Cajanus indicus 160, 162, 960

Calaenorrhinus asmara concertus 783

Calappa ant 404

———-- (Lophos) lophos : 404

-- lophos i 404, 524, 532, 542

Callianche 709

Callicarpa arborea _ 368, 380

Calligonum polygonoides 92, 105, 283, 284,

295, 299

Calliope pectoralis 633

Calophyllum ... 963

— ee inophyllum 160, 161

Calornis payanensis ... 580

Calotes : 496, 869

-- versicolor 327, 332

Calothrix fusca 917

Calotropis ; 156, 157, 159, 218, 285, 294,

308, ane

gigantea ... 146, 158, 159, 207,

209, 218, 257, 292, 299, 960

procera... 93,105, 218, 283, 284,

292, 299, 962

Caltoris bromus 215

cahira 215

——_—-~ ——--- austini 784

cormasa 215

kumara 215

sirius . 215

tulri 215

Calodon oy 705

Camellia scottiana $7

- theifera 57

Campanula canescens bs 378

Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) com-_

pressus oe 160, 162, 959

a compressus . 459, 959

Cancer (Galene) bispinosus ; 431

(Atergatis) floridus 426

——_—— (Actaea) granulatus .. 432

(Atergatis) integerrimus ; 425

Cannabis sativa uh ... 383, 654

Canscora diffusa : 147

Capila jayadeva ; 213

- pennicillatum ... 213

———- phanaeus 213

- pleridoides 213

Eaplleedum filiculmis 676

-- huegelii 676

Gapodacus erythrinus 643

Capparis decidua 92, 283, 284, 286, 287, 299

Capra falconeri 271

Capricornis sumatraensis 941

Caprimulgus asiaticus eidos ... 329

macrurus 652

Caprinia conchylatis ... 305

Caprona agama 214

- ——_-- agama Bs 783

Capsella bursa-pastoris .. 367, 369

Capsicum annum 613

- frutescens . 292

Carapa s 346

Cardiospermum ‘haticacabum 288

XXXi

PAGE

Cardium asiaticum ... 702, 703

-coronatum ... ae 703

Carduelis caniceps 644

Carex filictna ... 885

nubigena 885

Carissa ee ae a 713

-- carandas 155

-- spinarum | 368, 237. 372, 378, 385

Carniotome versicolor ‘ 381

Carpinus : p oe 226

Carpomyia vesuviana — 620

Carteria cordiformis .. ns nen 908

Carya .. Ae 226

Cassia fistula ... 155, 160, 161, 302, 305, 960

- obovata h sate 95

- occidentalis 144, 289, 299

- slamea i ah 95

- (toara=) tora”

- tora . a 95, 105, 289, 711

Cassiope fastigiata 366, 367, 378

Cassytha its nce 707

Castalius rosimon rosimon me 781

Casuarina : ay 963

Catachrysops strabo ... 781

Cataclysta fuscalis ree 304

Catla me . 198, 834

——--catla. 833

Catopsilia crocale 778

florella gnoma 778

pomona 778

pyranthe ... 778

——_—_—— -minna ... 778

Cautleya eg is 884

Cedrela 4 . 295, 346

- toona ... 285, 288, 299, 346, 371, 627

Cedrus deodara ius 386

libani ... : ane ass 368

Celaenorrhinus asmara 213

-- aurivittata 213

-- badia.. 213

-- dhanada 213

- leucocera 213

———-- munda 213

-- nigricans 213

-~ plagifera 213

-- platula 213

-- putra 213

—_—— -- pyrrha 213

-- raina 213

——_—_____—_--- zea 213

Celastrus paniculata ... 371

Cellana (Patella) 691

Celosia argentea “100, 150, 294, 474

Celtis australis... 383

tetrandra 843

wightii .. 843

Cenchrus j ... 93, 105

——_—-biflorus ... Bae 93, 284, 296

catharticus ... 282, 283, 296, 299

ciliaris 102, 674, 675, 683, 926, 927

glaucus patti Ged, 920, 927.

[prieri=] prurit

prurii 102, 296, 300

setigerus

——_—__—— 674, 675, 683

Centotheca lappacea aby 688

INDEX TO SPECIES

XXXii

PAGE

Centropus sinensis 183, 191, 654, 890, 903

pe SL EES - intermedius 183, 185

ar Dakkotl 83) 184, 185, 329

——E— - sinensis ... 183, 184, 185

Cephalandra indica . 144, 290

Cephrenes chrysozoa 214

Ceratina viridissima ... 34

Cerceris ay oe 31

humbertiana 30

Cerchneis amurensis . 463

Cercocebus oe 314

albigena ... 311

Cercomela fusca 632

Cercopithecus aethiops 314

-—_—______—_-- camp belli 313, 314

—___—___——-- diana ... 314

-- lowel .. wae 310

-- mona Hsb32-34

—_______—--- petaurista 311, 313, 314

Cerianthus aff bee 694

Cerithium 699

Ceropegia tuberosa 97, 292, 298

Certhia himalayana 3 632

Cervus ... ae 254

affinis ... 755

Ceryle rudis 651

~ ——-- leucomelanura . 329

Cestrum ne 713

-- nocturnum ; 98

Cethosia cyane 781

Chaetophora pisiformis i 910

Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus 633

Chalcophaps indica Ae 214

Chapra mathias 595

Characium ambiguum ce 908

Charadrius alexandrinus seebohmi ... 328

- dubius See 185

- - curonicus — 328

- jerdoni ; 660

Charaxes polyxena hierax 780

Charybdis Me ih (ih 8 eer IOS 26

———__——— (Goniosoma) annulata ... 420, ee

533

annulata ... pie 421

(Charybdis) callianassa ... 420

(Goniosoma) callianassa 421,

526, 534

——____——— callianassa 421

(Goniosoma) cruciata 418, ven

cruciata is 419

(Goniosoma) cruciatus ... 419

(Goniosoma) crucifera ... 419

(Goniohellenus) hoplites 423, mee

534

hoplites 423

lucifer : 420

(Goniosoma) lucifera 420, 526, 533

(Charybdis) luciferae 420

) orientalis 422

(Goniosoma) orientalis ...422, ve

orientalis .. 422

— (Goniosoma) quadrimacu-

lata ag ie 420

Cheiloneurus pyrillae

Cheiranthus cherii

Chela phulo

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum i.

Chelonodon patoca

Chenopodium album

-- glaucum

—____—___-- murale

Cheritra freja freja

Chibia hottentotta

| Chilades laius laius

Chilasa clytia onpape

v. dissimilis

Chilo suppressalis

——- trypetes ...

——- zonellus

Chilomenes 6-maculatus

Chionachne koenigii

-- semiteres

Chiton

Chitra as

Chlamis singaporina . Ae

Chlidonias hybrida

-- leucoptera

Chloeres

Chlorella vulgaris

Chlorinoides :

acubatus.

Chloris barbata

-- incompleta

Chloroclytis

Chlorodryinus

—--___-—- pallidus

Chlorophytum :

Chloropsis aurifrons ...

Choaspes benjaminii

-- hemixanthus

-- plateni

-- xanthopogon

Chomelia asiatica

Chorinemus sancti-petri

Chromodoris ...

ar universitata

Chrotogonus ... se

Chrozophora obliqua

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus

Chrysomma sinensis ..

Chrysopa lacciperda ...

- madestes

Chlorinus aculeatus y. armatus

Chrysophrys datnia

Chrysopogon hackelii

—____——- montanus

- orientalis

- verticillatus

—___—_—_—- zeylanicus

Chthamalus stellatus .

—————_-- stellatus

Cicer arietinum

Ciconia ciconia

- nigra ...

| Cinnamomum camphora

- wightii

Cinnyris asiaticus

238, 598, 599

691, 696, 697

.. 296, 675

At Ad

385, 675, 677

587

159

675

253

702

661

328

154

909

413

687

155

747

239

631

213

840

951

701

587, 597, 598, 600

. 295, 300

649

630

887

952

677

"., 867, 868

866

600

191

661

653

842

648

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Ciona .. ae art ae ads 705

Circaea alpina _ oa bin seg 374

Circus aeruginosus ... Bae 656

Be aeruginosus Bae 328

———-- macrourus ans ane as 328

Cirphis ee os eh ee 796

—--- unipuncta ane abe ns 599

Cirrhina mrigala sg .-. 833, 950

Cirrhochrista brizoalis aN ets 303

Cissampelos hexandra uae oes 141

pareira ... . 368, 713

Cistanche oe ea ace Be 105

Cisticola juncidis F 25

Citrullus colocynthis ... _ 93, 105, 284, 290, 299

- fistulosus 626

- vulgaris at we age “, 290, 626

Citrus medica ... as st ... 95, 621

—___-- vy. acida ae 5 95

——-- vy. galgala oe Be 626

—-- vy. limetta ie ie 95

—_—_-- v. medica ee be 95

——-- sinensis 3 Ge Ae 626

Cladophora glomerata Any Ae 909

Clamator coromandus a3 sb 328

--jacobinus ... Ke a 653

-- ——_—_—— jacobinus Ane 328

Clanculus ek sae se sas 698

—————-depictus .... ae as 698

Clanis pallidula iad re i 158

Clavellina ys ae Gri 705

Cleistogrammica a te a 709

Clematis gouriana ... sh Be 368

-munroana ... Ae 836

Cleome papillosa ra 93, 287, 299

- viscosa 93, 141, 283, 287

Clerodendrum Bae es 285

—___—_- inerme 99, 149, 713

- (phlomidis = ‘phlomoides.

phlomoides 93, 283, 285, 294,

298

- reds) eblenieides

Clitoria ternatea 144

Closterlum acerosum Bey ase 914

————————- cornu... wae aay 914

decorum ... Bd ae 914

ehrenbergii Jie i) 914

lineatum ... xa bss 914

—_————— pusillum .. She te 915

Clypeaster Hee A seth 704.

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis 305

Cnicus wallichii . 93, ‘oy 291, 298, 300

Coccinella arcuata.... 23 159

septempunctata . Bi ae 602

(septumpunctata=) sep-

tempunctata

Coccinia indica 118, 119, 124, ee

Cocculus cebatha

—_— villosus aa es _ 140, 299

Cochlearia alyssoides Be si 804

-cochlearioides ... 804.

-- flava nas _ 804, 805

Cocoecia aie ae re Le 616

Cocos nucifera she ae sia 346

Coelioxys decipiens ... aie oe 34

XXXII

PAGE

Coelophora _... as, ee a 159

Coilia dussumierii _... Wye wee 715

Coix gigantea ae a) see 675

Coladenia agni fe aa ue 213

————-- dan fatua ... ee aa 213

—_—_———-- dan festa ... of SH 213

—_—_———- fabia Ne sae aie 213

—————- indrani _... ee Hee: 213

Colebrookea oppositifolia ... 380, 883

Coleochaete scutata ... .-- 910, 911

Coleus barbatus -.. 365, 380

Colisa lalius ... oe 952

Collocalia brevirostris ‘unicolor a 329

-francica ... pss iss 945

—__————- innominata 945

Colobus 309, 315, 316, 318, 319, 320, 321

-- polykomos ae cA . 311, 316

ce te dollmani _ ae 311

-- _______-- vellerosus 316, 317

Colquhounia coccinea sh ma 381

Columba livia Gus as ails 658

Comibaena ... cae 153

Commelina benghalensis 151, 284, 296

obliqua ... . 296, 299

Comostola confusa ... vee me 154

-- laesaria ... wok ae 154

Conchrus a ou ue 195

Convolvulus calycinus- a 5 799

—_____—__—. glomeratus v. volubilis. TW

Copsychus saularis ... aie ... 182, 634

—_—____—--- - ceylonensis Ne 329

Copitha purreea _... ext Oy, 214

Coptotermes ... oe sak 205

—_—_—_——— heimi 205, 792, 793

Coracias benghalensis ae 650

- —__—___——- indica Lee 329

Coracina novaehollandiae layardi ... 329

Corchorus . 105

acutangulus 93, 142, 283, 284, 287

antichorus . 94, 105

-___—_—tridens ... 283, 284, 287, 299

trilocularis ‘ i 287, 299

—— urticaefolius j 94

Cordia myxa ... ae: Be sa 292.299

Cordiceps ee ia a ef: 973

-sinensis ... ie: es 973

Coriandrum sativum ave Uns 290

Coriaria nepalensis.... as fas 75

Cornus capitata aoe ae ee 375

Coronopus didyma ... aah aoe 93

Corvus macrorhynchos a as 628

Be colminatus: 330

-- splendens .. 271, 628

Be protegatus its 330

Corydalis cachemiriana ae cas 369

————--longipes ... ues als 369 -

--meifolia ... oh a 878

- nana 367, 369

Corylus colurna wee ... 366, 384

Cosmarium depressum see ee 915

nitidulum Mi its 915

Cosmophila indica... ii aoe 207

Cosmos bipinnatus ... ae wi 161

Cotoneaster bacillaris .. 366, 373

XXXIV

PAGE

Cotoneaster microphylla 373

Cotula alba ees 476

Crambus atkinsoni > 302

Craspedia 154

—_—_———-- cleoraria 154

-emissaria ... 154

—_——____—- fibulata 154

- nictata 154

- opicata 154

remotata 155

Crataegus crenulata ... 373

Crataeva religiosa ie 103

Cremanthodium oblongatum _ 882

Crenidens indicus ae 952

Crinum asiaticum .. 101, 785

- latifolium ... 101, 785

Cristatithorax quadricolor ... 746, 749

Crocidolomia binotalis 8 307

Crocidophora Peeper 307

Crocisa ; 34

~ emarginata 34

- ramosa BAe ae 35

Crocodilus palustris ... Ss) QDS

—_—__———-- porosus ae De

Crocopus phoenicopterus 657

Crossoptilon harmani 755

Crotalaria burhia . 93, 105, 282, 289, 299

juncea 95, 144, 591, 626

(Crotolaria=) Crotalaria

Croton 3 710°

== sparsiflorus .- 100, 143

Crozophora obliqua ... a 100

Cryptocorine ... ... 968, 969

Sse meeboldii ... 968, 969

Cryptolepis buchanani e 649

Cryptopodia ‘ ied ee 415

ee angulata e225 1 4159526, 7533

Cryptostegia grandiflora 97

[Crysopogon=] Chrysopogon montanus

Ctenolepis cerassiformis 96, 290, 299, 300

Ctencptilum vasava ; 214

_ Cuculus canorus 652

micropterus oe 653

Cucumis sativus ... 290, 626

- trigonus 96, 286, 290

Cucurbita maxima ate 290

- moschata ... 96

—_—_—_——-- pepo BS 119

Culicicapa ceylonensis 636

Cuon alpinus ... 270

Cupha erymantus lotis | 781

Cupressus torulosa 385

Curcuma a 966, 967

inodora 966

pseudomontana 966

Curetis i, a 44]

Cuscuta is 105, 707-713

———— arabica 711

australis 707, 708, 709

boissieri i 711

capitata 379

= chinensis 707, 708, 709, 710

oo - y. Ciliaris 707, 708, 709, 711

ciliaris ae 711

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Cuscuta europaea 708

————~ grandiflora . 712

hyalina 293, 298, 299, 707, 710, 711

—reflexa 98, 147, 293, 298, 707, 708, 212

sulcata 710

Cyamopsis psoralioides " 289, 626

Cyananthus 2 367

-- integer 377

-- linifolius 378

--lobatus ... 377, 882

Cyanosylvia svecica ... 633

Cyanotis 296

- axillaris 296, wee 300

Cyathula tomentosa ... 883

Cybister tripunctatus asiaticus 961

Cycas revoluta ae 103

Cymbopogon .. ahi 679

—__—_____——-- caesius . oe 679

- coloratus .. 675, 678

- confertiflorum ne 678

- flexuosus ... 675, 678

—- gidarba : 679

- martini 678

- parkeri i 102

Cylindrospermum muscicola vy.

macrospora . : 918 .

[Cynanthus= ] Cyananthus | lobatus-

Cynodon barbata oe 688

—_—_—_—— barberi ue 687

bournei _.. 688

dactylon 151, 285, 296, 675, 687

-- v, intermedius 687

montana 688

—_———— polystachya 688

Cynoglossum wallichii 379

Cynopterus ace 498

Cyperus arenarius 195, 296, 299

nubigena 885

rotundus _ 93, 151, 284, 285, 296

Cypraea 5S oe : 254, 700

- arabica : 700

-- ocellata - 700

Cypselus 498

Cyrotococcum longipes Ce 682

- oxyphyllum ... 682

- patens 682

- radicans 682

—________—-- trygonum ... _ 675, 682

Dactyloctenium aegyptium 284, 297, 675, 688

—___—___—_- scindicum 102

Dacus cucurbitae 606

——-- ferrugineus 619

——-- zonatus 606, 617, 619, 622

Daimio bhagava bhagava 783

- phisara 214

- sinica ... 214

Dalbergia : 91, 654

—_—_—_——- Jatifolia 963

- SiSSOO 289, 372

Damonia 253

Danais aglea melanoides 779

agleoides as 779

———chrysippus ... ae 779

——— limniace mutina a: 777, 779

Danais melanippus indicus ...

mellissa septentrionis

plexippus :

similis vulgaris

Danthonia kashmiriana

Daphne cannabina

papyracea

Darpa hanria ...

Datura fastuosa

___--— stramonium ..

Daucus carota

Deba surrectalis

Debregeasia hypoleuca

- velutina ..

Deeringia celosioides

Delias eucharis

- hyparete ue

-- hierte

——-- thysbe pyramus

Delphinium vestitum

Demiegretta

—______—_- sacra

Dendrelaphis ... =

Dendrobium alpestre

Dendrocalamus strictus

Sad

- Dendrocitta formosae

—_—_—______-- vagabunda

Dendrophis soe

Dendrostoma

Dentalium

-- octangulatum

Desmodium concinnum

- floribundum

- gangeticum

- oxyphyllum

- parvifolium

- reniforme

Desmostachya bipinnata

Deudoryx epijarbus amatius

Deutzia corymbosa

Deyeuxia sylvatica

Diadord :

Dialeurodes citri

Dianthera

Diaphorina citri

Diasemia ramburialis

Diaspis echinocacti

Diathetes pandanae ...

Dicaeum ignipectus

Dichanthium annulatum

-- caricosum

—_——_————--- nodosum

Dichocrocis evaxalis ...

——_—_—---- punctiferalis

[Dichoma=] Dicoma

Dichrostachys cinerea 285, 286, 289, 298, 300 | Echinochloa [colona= ai colonum

96, 285, QO 299 | aR ee

Dicoma tomentosa.

Dicrurus longicaudatus

- macrocercus

- ——_____——- minor

Digera arvensis

Digitaria :

- adscendens .

- griffithil

639, 890, 901, 503

INDEX TO SPECIES

697 = astuta

372 | Dosinia

- colonum

- crus-galli

- stagnina

30 | Echinops echinatus

OAC | ee es

Me 294,298 | 228 = niveus

710 | Echis carinata

Eclipta ...

XXXV

PAGE PAGE

... 779, 780 | Digitaria longiflora 102, 679

ue 779 —- marginata 105, 296, 675, 679

7719 - ——__—_“ y, fimbriata 679

779 - royleana eas 679

886 | Digitaria sanguinalis .. : 102

382 | (Digitatlis=) Digitalis purpurea 842

884 | Dilinia medardaria 155

a 213 | Dinebra retroflexa_... 688

.. 160, 292 | Dinopium Penenalcnse jaffnense 329

a 882 | Diogenes A, A 696

.. 290, 375 | Dioscorea sativa 385

305 | Dipsacus inermis ’ 367, 375, 880

384 | Dipterocarpus alatus ... é 945

844 | Dirades adjutaria 153

382 - theclata 153

778 | Dissoura episcopus 661

778 | Ditylenchus 90

778 | Doclea el 412

778 gracilipes 412, 525; 2°

878 | Docophorulus S77

ee 188 | Dodonaea viscosa 838

... 188, 189 | Dolichoris 613

oe 327 | Dolichos biflorus é 95

384 - bracteatus ... 797, 798

689 | —___—_- ghaticus 797, 798

629 - lablab 158, 626

629 | Donax es 703

257, scrotum é 703

695 | Doratanthera linearis 98

697 | Dorippe i 409

409, 524, 532, 542

703

372 | Dotilla e 511

289 myctiroides... 511, 529, 537, 543

372 | Dracaena apsustitelia 101

372 | Dromia 401

372 - dormia “401, 402, 525, $32, 542

102 - rumphii - 401

782 | Drosera lunata 374

373 | Dryobates auriceps . 649

S86) | 2 mahrattensis 461, 890, 900, 901,

698 902, 904

622 | Dryocalamus nympha 327

710 | Dryocopus hodgei 461

622 | ———__—_- javensis 461

307 | Dubyaea 377

158 | Duranta 654

470 -- repens 713

649 | (Dychrostachys =) Dichrostachys 7

205 677 | Dysdercus cingulatus ‘ ... 590, 608

. 102,677 | Earias be ve : 608

677 | ——--- fabia ap: 590

305 | ——-- insulana ... 590, 591

305 | Eburna is 254

Echeneis naucratus 952

102, 674, 675, 681

5 681

195, 327, 332, 333, 334

102, 286, 296, 300 | ——- [carinatus=] carinata

679 : Suh -

475

XXXVI INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Eclipta alba 145, 291, 475, 476 | Equus hemionus khur 271

erecta 284, 285, 475, 476 | Eragrostis 93, 105

prostrata ‘ be --. 475, 476 - amabilis 385

Ectenascidia thurstoni 705 | ——————- aspera 685

Edgeworthia buxifolia 73 | —_———- bifaria i . 675, 687

Egretta asha : 189 | ———_——_- poebpiyl 687

——---— dimorpha Sen 189 | —————_- cilianensis .. 686

———-- garzetta .- 188, 189 - ciliaris 685

-- gularis... .. 189, 190 - cynosuroides 102

-- schistacea 189 | —_____- diarrhena v. koenigii 686

Elaeocarpus oblongus 837 | —————- gangetica ... Sh 102, 686

——_—_—_—_—-- tuberculatus 837 | —————-- minor 102

Elamena 409 | ———_—_- nigra 686

- cristatipes 409, 5254533 - nutans 686

Elanus caeruleus vociferus ate 656 | —————- pilosa 675, 686

Elasmus : ae 904 | ———_—_- plumosa 102, 686

<= claripennis ue 891 | ———-—_- poaeoides .. 686

Elatostema sessile his 384 | —————- tenella : 385

{[Eleocarpus =] Elaeocarpus —_—_——_- - Vv. plumosa 686

Elephantopus scaber 286, 291, 298, 300 | —————_- viscosa . 385 —

Elephas maximus 175, 178, 179, 36: 254, 560 -tenuifolia . 686

Eleusine indica he 688 | —————- unioloides ... SAB 686

--lagopoides ... 688 | —————- viscosa -.. 102, 686

-- scindica 102 | —————- willdenoviana 4 686

-- verticillata ... 102, 688 | Ercta ornatalis aah ie 305

Elis annulata ... Eremopogon ... : ... 858-865

—-- asiatica 24 | ———__-- delavayi. . 860, 865

—-- thoracica . 2 23, 24 | ——————_-- foveolatus 675, 678, 858, 859,

Elshottzia strobilifera sie 380 860, 861, 862, 865 ‘

Elymnias hypermnestra tinctoria ae 780 -- paranjpyeanum - 860, 865

aa -undularis ... 779 --[paranjpyenum=] paranjpyeanum

Elytraria ; Ae Pes 293 | ——————_-- Strictus 859, 860, 861, 862, 864

-- crenata 286, 299 | ——————_-- tuberculatus 860, 861, 863

Emberiza cia 645 | Eremopteryx grisea na ye 648

-- fucata 6495) =e ceylonensis : 329 |

-- melanocephala 190, 645 | Eremotermes paradoxalis eS 793

-- stewarti ... ous ie 645 | Erigeron ie 5 376

Emmalocera cools vou see 587 - linifolius 376

Empoasca oe 592, 598 - multiradiatus 881

: devastans . . 589, 607, 608, 609, 611 - obliquum 805

punjabensis | . 609, 611 | Eriobotrya ae 226

solanifolia Wee Lae 609 -- japonica 626

Endotricha decessalis oy es 303 | Eriocheir sinensis $43

—____—-- ruminalis fee nee 303 | Eriochloa procera 680

Enhydra fluctuans ... ne ee 145 | Erionota acroleucus ... 214

Enneapogon elegans ... cee eee 688 - thrax = 214

Enteropogon monstachyos ... sae 687 - ———-- thrax 783

Entada scandens ae ag Pe 960 - torus ae 214

Entomophthora as 974 | Eriosoma lanigerum ... 615

Ephedra foliata _ 93; 105, 297, 298, 299 | Eriphia ae Sal 437

Epicrocis aegnusalis . ase 303 -- laevimana smithii 437, 527, 536

Epilachna 611 -- smithii ne 437

es dodecastigma 606 | Erolia temminckii .. 328, 661

——_———- dumerili a 605 | ——-- testacea... at 328

ee vigintictopunctata ae 606 | Ervatamia coronaria’... 97

[Epilachnai=] Epilachna dichotoma 97

Epilobium a on 367 | ——_——— divaricata ... 97

roseum 367, 374, 879 | Erythrina 641

royleanum : 374 -- suberosa 95

Epimys brachma A 755 | Erythrocebus ... 314

Epinephelus tauvina ... 325 | ———— —- patas ... 314

Epixanthus is, oe 434 | Erythropus amurensis 463

- frontalis .. 434, 528, 535 | Esacus recurvirostris ... 659

Equus caballus mh 254 | Esomus danricus 950

INDEX TO SPECIES XXXVil

PAGE PAGE

Estheria 962 | Eumenes aa 31, 32

Eticlla zinckenella 303 —- affinissima ... 31

Etisus ... ba 431 - conica 31

———-= laevimanus 431, $27, 535 - esuriens 31

Etroplus maculatus Ae: 326 - flavopicta 32

Eublemma _..... 5 . 899, 904 - petiolata 31

-- amabilis 887, 890, 891, 896, 897 | Eumyias thalassina 636

-- Olivacea . ee 607 | Eupatorium glandulosum 841

Eucalyptus : 161, 836, 838 | Euphorbia ap 105, 298

| acmenoides 838 - -- clarkeana 295, 298

- amygdalina 838 | ————- dracunculoides 100

- calophylla ' 838 | —————-- geniculata 383

- corynocalyx 838 | —————-- hirta 143, 295, 383

- crebra 838 | —————-- hypericifolia 286, 295

~ diversicolor 838 | —————-- jodhpurensis 105

- eugenioides 838 | —————--- microphylla 295, 299

- ficifolia 838 | —————-- millii He 100

- globulus ... 838 | —————-- neriifolia 104, 105, 285, 286, 293,

- gonocalyx 838 f : 295

- gunnil 838 | Euphorbia nivulia Re 105

- haemastoma 838 | —————-- pilosa .. 383, 884

- hemiphloia 838 | —————-- pilulifera .. .. 143, 295

- longifolia 838 | —————-- prolifera ... | 383

- maculata ... A 839 | —————-- rothiana ... 843

- macrorrhynchia .. 839 | —————-- royleana ... 104, 105, 378, 383

- microcorys 839 | ——_———-- splendens ve 100

- obliqua 839 | Euplax bosci . , 515

- paniculata 839 | Euploea 779

- paucifolia 839 crossa 215

- pilularis ... 839 godartii i 779

—- piperita ... 839 mulciber mulciber ... 7719

- punctata 839 | (Euprocitis=) Euproctis

- resinifera 839 | Euproctis fraterna : ... 592, 620

- robusta 839 -- lunata A .. 592, 620

- rostrata 839 | Eurrhyparodes bracteolalis ... 305

- rudis 839 | ——_—_——_——— tricoloralis 305

- saligna 839 | Erycarcinus 4 436

- salmoniphloia 939 | ——_-- orientalis 436, 528, 535

- santalifolia 839 | Eurydema a 613

- sieberiana 839 | Eurythoe ae 694

- stricta 839 | Euscorpius .. 138, 853

- stuartiana 839 | Eutermes ee 206

- tereticornis 839 | ————— horni oe 206

- viminalis ... 839 | Eutetranychus banksi 157

Euchelus a 698 | Euthalia garuda garuda 780

- asper 698 -- lepidea sthavara 780

- indicus 698 -- lubentina 216

Euchloris quantula 154 -- __—_——- indica 780

-- Subtiliaria ... 154 | Euxoa ... 600

Euchrysops enejus 781 | Euzophera perticella .. 303, 607

Euclasta defamatalis ... 306 | Evolvulus alsinoides ... 147, 293

Eucrate : 437 | Fagonia be 105

- crenata ue 438 arabica 288, 299

- ——--— dentata 437, 527, 536 bruguieri 95

-——--—- y. dentata .. ee 437 | Fagopyrum esculentum 382

Eudynamis scolopacea scolopacea ... 329, 653 | Falco chicquera 657

- (scolopaceus=) scolopacea peregrinator 656

Eugenia Jambolana ... 154,161,374, 626, 890 tinnunculus tinnunculus : 328

malaccensis ... bis Be 161 | Farsetia hamiltonii 93, 105, 286, 299

Euglena viridis 916 jacquemontii 105, 286, 299

Eugrammica ... 709 - Oaduemontit—) Japquemont

Eulalia phaeothrix 676 | Fascioloria & 254

_ Eumelea ludovicata 153 | Favia uae 954: 694.

-- rosalia 153 | Feronia elephantum ae “ 95

XXXVI

PAGE |

Ficula laevigata ve Bist 700

Ficus... oa aoe ee 9]

——- bengalensis 295, 960

———- (benghalensis =) bengalensis

——- carica ve ; cae 617

——- hispida 844

——- glomerata 101, 119, 893

——- religiosa 295

Filia ve 226

Filodes fulvidorsalis M 305

Fimbriaria i 286

Fimbristylis squarrosa_ ... 296, 300

Firmiana : ; 226

Formenkreis 311

Fringilla montifringilla 578

Fritschiella Fa es 971

a tuberosa 970, 971, 973

Flacourtia indica ue mt as 713

Flemingia vesita 372

Fluggea leucopyrus 100

Foeniculum vulgare ... 375

Fragaria indica h 372

Francolinus francolinus 659

-- pondicerianus ... a 659

———_—_--- ——_______ cevlonensis 328

Franklinia gracilis : ome 639

Fuchsia corymbiflora 839

Funambulus palmarum brodiei 330

Bere: 335, 434, 457, 889, 894

Funaria Bd 286

Gafrarium 703

Galene .. é as 431

bispinosa 431, 527, 535

Galeodes tae os as se 961

Galerida cristata 648

Galerucella singhara ... 613

Galinsoga parviflora .. 841

Galium aparine a sat 375

———-aspeifolium . ... 375, 880

- rotundifolium i 880

Galleria mellonella 302

Grallinago 661

——__—_——-- solitaria 661

(Gallium=) Galium . 800

Gallus gallus ... 659

- sonnerati Sa 946

Gangara thyrsis soe Piles ZAlS)

———_-- ——_-- thyrsis ve 783

Gardneria ovata 841

Garnotia scoparia 684

Garrulax leucolophus 629

Gavialis gangeticus 254, 272, 769

(Gavialus=) Gavialis

Gaultheria trichophylla . 367, 378

Gelasma goniaria 1a

Gelasimus 507, 508, 528, 696

— acutus Ht 511

——-— annulipes . Hise 508, 510, 528, 531,

537, 543

dussumieri 510, 511, 529, 537

—————— marionis ... 509, 510, 529, 537

seen -nitidus ... 510, 529, 537

——_——- - y. nitidus 510

—__——— urtvillei S11

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica 328

Gemmaria x ie 694

Gennaeus leucomelanus hamiltonii 659

Gentiana argentea 379

decemfida vy. aprica 379

pedicellata v. ee 841

Geokichla citrina 634

Geranium EE 366

—- collinum 370

- nepalense ... 370

— - ocellatum ... 370

Gerardinia heterophylla 383

Gerbera lanuginosa .. 377

Gerres oyena ... 325

Gerydus boisduvali assamensis 781

Geum ... oe as 366

——--elatum ... S367, 372

Gisekia pharnaceoides 105, 283, 284, 290

Gladitsia ‘ 226

Glaucidium brodiei 655

-- radiatum 655

Gleadovia He yin 799

banerjiana ... 799, 800

kwangtungense : 799

Gleichenia linearis 766

Gleotrichia pisum 918

Glochidion neilgherense 843

Glossocardia linearifolia 291

Glossogobius giuris ... 326

Glyceria tonglensis 886

Glycosmis pentaphylla 371

Glyphodes bicolor 306

—__—_——--- bivitralis ... 306

- caeSalis 306

-- canthusalis 306

-- hilaralis 306

-- indica 306

-- itysalis 306

—-- Jaticostalis 306

-- marginata 306

-- negatalis ... 306

-- psittacalis 306

-- stolalis 306

-- unionalis .. 306

-- vena ls 306

Glyricidia ; 157

Gnaphalium indicum — Ss 146

—____—_—_— luteo-album ... 376, 881

pulvinatum _... ane 376

Gnorimoschema operculella 609

Gomphrena ficoidea ... 477

—___—___—_-- Eobecrous 477

Goniohellenus on 423

Goniosoma ... ... 419, 526

—_—_____—_ annulatum A 420

crucifera ... 419

cruciferum 419

luciferum 420

orientale .. 422

————___— variegatum v. callianassa 421

Gonodactylus .. oa be 696

Gossypium herbaceum 587

Gracilea royaleana 102

Grammica 709

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Gangea maderaspatana nee ie 146

Grantia Sat ae ae 56

Graphium agamemnon se ae 216

nomius nomius ... sa 215

Grapsus — Be $15

—-- (Pachysoma) quadratus §20

-- ‘strigosus 515, 529, 531, 537, 543

Graucalus javensis Bee se 638

Grevillea ia 641, 643

Grewia Opposiitalia a: 94, 370

-- populifolia 287, 299

Gryllotalpa africana ... ge ees oe)

Gryllus viator .. gas a Sa 588

Guazuma tomentosa . wae ae 94

Gyamopsis psoralioides Das cae 602

Gygis alba monte ... ite ae 924

Gymnarchus niloticus ge ae 229

Gymnorhis xanthocollis Pa ay 644

Gymnosporia falconeri 796, 797

———__—_——— -- y. kanjilalti 797

montana 92, 93, 284, 285, ae

Gynandropsis pentaphylla . 141, 287

Gypaetus barbatus ... Ae Mes 656

Gyps fulvus_... ae ra One 655

——-himalayensis ... Be eae 655

Gysekia pharnaceoides a hs 299

Habenaria panchganiensis ... an 478

variabilis ... ah Be 478

(Haberaria=) Habenaria marginata 384

Hackelochloa granularis ee we 679

Halcyon pileata eps ane ate, 262

-- smyrnensis ... Ba cas 651

-- —_____-- fusca... wn 329

Halenchus ome ae as oan 89

fucicola... Aes ee 89

———-—— mediterraneus ... as 89

——_—-——— Mexicanus aa ie 89

—— zoSsterae ... ae 8 89

Halenia elliptica os of 882

[Haliaetus=] Haliaeetus leucogaster 979

Haliastur indus ue : a 656

—____ —_---- indus is ie 328

Halicephalobus ues a 88

———_—__—_—__—-- limuli tee ee 88

Halpe arcuata <a ees Boe 214

—---homolea ___.... i obs 214

———-- knyvetti Te a i 214

——-- kumara as ne Bs 214

——-- porus ... cate 214, 784

- sikkima cae ee o 214

——-- wantona sik ae He 214

——--zema ... ae oe oe 214

—— zeman ak Be 783

——-- zola zola ue We be 783

Haltica caerulescens ... ch ae 609

Hamamelis..... Whe. at, et 226

Hamelia patens ms a vy 648

Hamiltonia suaveolens ou is 375

Haminoea galba ae tee or 701

Hantzschia__... av AL Me er 845

Harpodon nehereus ... . 714, 715

Hasora anura as ares An 213

-- badra ... Sea MG we a 213

XXXIX

PAGE

Hasora badra badra ... ie ue 782

-- chromus aS zh ioe 213

——---- taminatus _.... Bes 213

Hebomoia glaucippe slaucippe se 778

Heise convolvuli on 3 620

Helianthus annus Nie nM sak 960

Helicrisum bracteatum we. oes 841

(Heliothes=) Heliothis

Heliothis Sam : ey es 606

obsoleta ... 601, 611

Heliotropium ... ot 93, 105, 298

—_—_______—_- eichwaldii : 292

- indicum 98, 147, "292, 299

— - marifolium 98

—-- ovalifolium ... NE 98

- subulatum 98, 286

- undulatum 292, 299

- zeylanicum 292, 298

Hemicarex hookeri... 885

Hemidactylus brooki parvimaculatus 327

—___—_—_—_— frenatus Be se 326

leschenaulti ... nes 327

triedrus triedrus oe 326

Hemiechinus auritus collaris ae 236

Hemipus picatus capitalis ... ane 637

Hemirhamphus far... gh Hee 325

—_—_____——--- gaimardi ... eee, 325

—_—____————-- xanthopterus Ge 324

Hemithea costipunctata ... . 154

Herculia igniflualis ... oo bbe 304

———-- nigrivitta... aa eh 304

-- suffusalis ... ae BAe 304

-- tenuis me ae ce 304

Herdmania ... vee a 705

Herminium angustifolium ba a 384

Herpestes auropunctatus ... nee 941

— -- flavidens maccarthiae _... 330

Herpestis monniera ... aMe La 148

Heterocephalus glaber sa in 452

Heterographella bengalella ... ie 303

Heterometrus ... aie : 854

scaber ... 128, 134, 138, 139,

169, 853, 854, 855

Heteropanope nee ian 436

—__—_—__——-- Jaevis ... 436, $28, 535

Heteroplax dentatus ... oat 437

Heteropogon contortus : _ 675, 677

-- oliganthus kh He 678

Hibiscus angulosus ... © ... tke 837

-- cannabinus ... 591, 592, 626

-- esculentus ae 608, 626

———-- micranthus ... ee : 94

Hierococcyx varius... a 653

Hieroglyphus banian ... 583, 584, 595

—_______——- nigrorepletus ... 598

Hilsa kanagurta wae ey ha 950

Hippolais scita ou “te sss 768

Hippolysmata .. She aoe pe 696

Hiptage benghalensis _ nee se 370

madablota ... oa Bh 370

Hirundo daurica ae Mee ois 646

-- fluvicola’... sae HS 646

———-- nipalensis_ ... aes Bee 646

-- smithii a bag Be 645

x] INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Hispa armigera se . 595, 596 | Impatiens sulcata cer 371

Holarrhena antidysenterica eae ss 160 | Imperata cylindrica v. koenigii he 676

Holcocera__.. ... 899, 900, 901 Indicapus sylvaticus .. ot. 769

SS pulverea 88%: 890, 891, 897, 901 Indigofera 105, 223, 283, 298

Holopiclca Je 986 255 argentea 105, 286, 288, 299

- integrifolia 285, 295, 299 cordifolia .. 105, 288, 711

Holothuria pardalis ... 704 dosua ! oi ” 372

Homo . 935 enneaphylla .. 288, 298

Homochliamys pallidus. 640 gerardiana - 372

Hoplopterus duvaucelli 660 Taatola 95, 288

Huphina nerissa dapha 778 oreophila oot Dn), Ta

: 9 ap

Hyalomma excavatum 46 pentaphylla ” 289, 299

- marginatum 469 pulchella 372

Hyarotis microstictum _ 214 Sear a "

subulata 95

Hyas 697 — tinctoria 288

Hyastenus ac 506 411 trigonelloides 95

—__—_— —-— planasius . 411, 525, 533 triquetra "999 998

Hydrocotyle asiatica ae 145 A a 929. 993, 224

gq contetta 2S a en "289, 298

Hyguecanpus ore sere, TERR ae Indophaea cardinalis ... Me OST

Hydrodictyon reticulatum ... | Indoplanorbis exustus a 254

Hydroctena bi 693 Ind 3

Hydroprogne caspia caspia as aye | leks oe --. 160, ee

________- tschegrava 924 ; Fone membraciphaga . aS 16

Hydrorybina bicolor ... 304 | 48a auicis vee 162

Hygrophila quadrivalvis 710 | Inula cappa 376

spinosa Q 148 ——- grandiflora 376

Hymenoptychis sordida 304 | lTonidium suffruticosum 141

Hypacanthis spinoides 644 | Iphione ee “ 694

Hypera variabilis 602 | (Ipomea=) Ipomoea

Hyperaspis maindroni : ey 158 | Ipomoea aa a vcs 910, 911

——_——__—- v. brumoides 158 - batata ace 609

Hypericum cernuum ... ces 370 - biloba me 711

——- elodeoides 1970) /878 - calycina 2 198. 99

- hookerianum on 836 = pestrigridis ue oe 293

—_—_—_____- mysorense 836 - quamoclit Cm 98

Hyperythra lutea 155 tropica ... 798, 799

Hypochaeris glabra re 841 -turpethum .. ... 293, 300

Hypogynium ... ... 858, 860 - vitifolia 293, 298, 300

___—"__.. foveolatus .. 860, 862 | Isachne angladei aie 683

Hypolimnas bolina : 780 - dispar HE 683

—___—___——- misippus 780 - kunthiana v. latifolia 683

Hypolycaena erylus himaventus 782 | Ischaemum aristatum 676

Hyposidra talaca : 155 commutatum 676

Hypsipyla robusta _ ... 303 rugosum ... 676

Hypsopygia mauritialis 303 timorense 676

lambrix salsala : 214 | Ischnurus ochropus 138

- salsala 783 | Iseilema laxum : 678

Icaria Une 32.33 prostratum ... 678

ferruginea 32, 33 | Isocentris filalis 307

—— — marginata 32 | Isometrus 138

variegata 33 | Ixias pyrene latifasciata 778

Icerya purchasi 156 | Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 237

Ichnocarpus frutescens 378 - sinensis 237

Tdiocerus : : 618 | Ixodes kerri 239

atkinsoni 618 | Ixora wae 153

—_———. clypealis . 618 | Jynx torguilla .. 649

Ikedella é ae _ 201, 691 | Jacaranda se 91

~ misakiensis .. 201, 202, 695, 705 - mimosaefolia 99

Hex dipyrena ... : 365, 371 - ovalifolia ... 99

Impatiens bicolor 371 Jamides alecto eurysaces 782

- oalsamina .. 960 bochus bochus 781

- roylei 879 - celeno celeno e 781

- scabrida 371 kankena pseudelphis 782

INDEX TO SPECIES xli

PAGE

Jatropha curcos ies i A 143

Juaravia pallidula —.... ee a 158

-- SOror aoe ne sp 158

Juglans regia sie Bc be 617

Juncus sphacelatus ... oe AN 885

Juniperus wallichiana sae ae 385

Justicia adhatoda ie i 104

-- heterocarpa ... 293, 299, 300

—— Pau penS Ee - 293, 298

-- simplex 293

Keasiy i Ba " 309, 315, 316, 318, 320

john, .4. se 314

—— senex aus £314, ats

———- ———- monticola fe aes 314

——— ——-- nestor Lie aa Bis 319

——— ———- senex ay 316

Kallima phillarctus horsfieldii aie 2S

Kalopanax ... E i ais 226

Kalotermes beesoni ... ci aon EYE

Khuranti Ae Le oe a 951

Kigelia pinnata ay ABs Bee 99

Kirchneriella obesa_... ae sae 909

Kirganelia reticulata ... ae bs 711

Kochia indica ... ug ea ee 104

Koeleria cristata aa me he 885

Koruthaialos butleri ... te ae 214

—______—-- rubecula shy Ad 214

Labeo bata... ere er Ne 833

——-- calbasu ae os 833

——--rohita ... : icy: 833

Lachnosterna longipennis ae in 616

Lactuca brunoniana ... eee Ae 377

—lessertiana .., aa) Ao 377

— violaefolia a S063

Lagenandra 967; 968, 969

-- meeboldii_ 967, 968, 969

-- Ovata 967, 968, 969

—-- toxicaria 967, 968, 969

Lagenaria vulgaris 119, 290, 626

Lagerstroemia indica 5357155

——_——_———-- lanceolata ... ae 963

Lalage melaschista_... eae Ss 638

Lambrus ber 415

—- (Platylambrus) prensor 415, 2

LB)

———-- prensor ae Be Re 415

Lamellidens ... wes ve 254

——_——__—-- marginalis ae ae 254

Lampides boeticus ... 781

Lanius schach 637, 890, 901, 903

-- vittatus oe 637

Lantana camara y. aculeata ... sis 149

-- indica 104, 380

Laphygma exigua 588, 599, 602

Larus brunneicephalus aes 328

ichthyaetus _... a8 Ad 328

Laternula uf a Mi ee 703

-- labiata seit fae 703

Lathraea squamaria ... 293, 298, 300

Laurfrea bat a 93, 105

nudicaulis Ea 291, 299

pinnatifida .. 97, 291, 300

Lawsonia alba aA oa ibe 711

Leersia hexandra ee me ae 688

PAGE

Lemna . ... 286, 298

- trisulca bd wee ... 296, 300

Leonotis nepetaefolia a a 104

Leontopodium alpinum ee Sa 376

Lepidagathis ... ae aS “ise 711

Lepidium ruderala_... Bias 369

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis ie 325

Lepidocephalus guntea ee ane 951

Leptadenia .... wa ete aes 713

- reticulata 960

-spartium 93, 105, 283, 284, 292,

299, 814

Leptocentrus substitutus _... 959

—_—_—___—-- taurus .. 958, 959, 960

Leptochloa chinensis ... ah ne 685

— - obtusiflora A we 685

- uniflora ... ob As 685

Leptocorisa varicornis _ 470, 597

Leptodermis lanceolata ce sie 375

Leptodius --. 428, 527

- crassimanus 429, 527, 535

—————- euglyptus ... : 429, 430

——_—_—-—- —--— quadrispinosus. 429, 527

—_——_———-- exaratus 428, 57, 535

Lepthodius exaratus ... a ine 428

Leptoptilos cruminiferus _... a 824

Leptosia nina nina ... i 2a 778

Lepyrodes geometralis Bae Bok 306

neptis sie a sien 306

Lespedeza stenocarpa Bie 372

Lestodryinus .. a 746, 747, 749

—_____--- pyrillae. . 741, 749

Lethe europa niladana lose Bas 779

rohria rohria ... ise 779

Leucas aspera ... ae cae 149, 294, 299

cephalotes _... the 883

ciliata ... oe ba 294, 298, 300

hyssopifolia_ ... Ba my 381

lanata ... . 381, 883

urticaefolia 99, 294, 299, 712

(urticifolia =) urticaefolia

vestita . ae Bae Alsi 842

Leucinodes apicalis ‘ae : 307

- (orbanalis =) orbonalis —

——- orbonalis .. es .. 307, 607

Leucopolius alexandrinus awe see 660

Leucosia <n . 406, 525

- pubescens 406, 525, 532, 542

- sima 407, 525, 532

Leucotermes ... ee Hes 3 205

Liacos analis ... one oct il 24

Ligia... : ae son 696

Liminitis procris procris ie ba 780

Limulus ‘ bit oe 88

Linaria cabulica. 293, 299, 300

-- minor. Bek Stig ane 98

Lindenbergia indica ot sa a 379

—__—_—_——_-- ruderlis ee sae 379

—_—__———-- urticaefolia__.... nn 295,298

Lingula 4 He ... 691, 692

- anatima ... 605, 705

Lippia geminata ap ae sos 929, 926

- nodiflora et sie Ne 380

- unica fe 925, 926, 927

Liquidambar ...

Liris aurata

Lissemys punctata ceylonensis

Lithodomus ...

Oe lithophaga

Litocheira

angustifrons

—— setosa at

Littorina <a me

Liza dussumieri

—- oligolepis

Lobipes lobatus

Lobipluvia malabarica

Lobivanellus indicus ...

Lobocla liliana

Lochnera pusilla

Lonchura malabarica

Lophactaea cristata

Lophomachia picturata ;

Lophophanes melanolophus

Lophoxanthus Bn ys

Loranthus longiflorus

neelgherrensis

pulverulentus

—_—___——— vestitus

Loris tardigradus

Lotongus sarala

—$$—.

Loxura ee continentalis

Lucifer ..

Luffa

——-- acutangula

——- aegyptiaca

Lupa pelagica ... ye

——- sanguinolenta ...

Lutjanus russelli

Lycium (europaeum=) europeum

. 93, 98, 105, 292, 299

- europeum

-Lycaenesthes emolus emolus

Lycaenopsis

Lycaugesia longipalpis

Lycodon aulicus

Lycopersicum esculentum

Lygropia amyntusalis

— quaternalis ...

Lymantria obfuscata ...

Lysimachia alternifolia

Lytta tenuicollis

Mabra eryxalis

Mabuya carinata

Macaca mulatta

—_—_—-- radiata ae

Macalla carbonifera ...

Macaria fasciata

frugaliata

Machaerota noctua

Macrones gutio

Macronyx strigosus

Macrophthalmi

Macrophthalmus

crinitus

depressus ...

— latreillei

pacificus

—-- lycaenina lycambes

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

438

438 527, 536

439° 527, 536

Be 0

325

190, 465, 497

- 328, 660

660

213

97, 292, 299

- 330, 498

427

154

629

427

295, 298, 300

843

649

oe 383

.. 387, 398

ie 214

782

696

119

Me 290

.. 290, 626

418

417

952

781

441

954, 955, 956

: 327, 949

610

306

614

882

599

304

ee 207

pail eeger

bs 236

303

155

980

325

805

Bs 512

... 507, 512

515, 529, 537

514, 529, 537

513, 529, 537

514, 529, 537

Se rece ener ie ee SNE

PAGE

Macrophthalmus pectinipes... 512, 529, 537

—________—_—— simplicipes $12

— sulcatus 513, 529, 537

Mactra ; oe 703

-- cornea d 703

Maesa perroitetiana ... 841

Maja (Dione) affinis ... 414

Malacosoma indica bee 613

Malva parviflora 591, 626

Malvastrum tricuspidatum 287, 299, 591, 626

Mangifera 668

indica 346) 963

Manisuris myurus 679

Marasmia trapezalis . 305

- trebiusalis ... 305

- venilialis 305

Margaronia 470

-- indica 118, 127, 470, 981

Marsilea

567

—___——- ballardii . 559, 563

- brachycarpa . 554, 565

- (brachycharpa =) brachycarpa

- brachypus ... : . 554, 566

—- coromandelica . 554, 566.

—_—_—-- pracilenta . 554, 566

- minuta 550, 551, 554, 567

ve erosa ; 560

ee major 556

— - poonensis 562

- quadrifolia .. 554, 557, 558, 560,

562, 563, 564

- quadrifoliata “8 555, 560

—- strigosa 562

— - vestita 551, 561

Martesia 351

Martynia diandra 104

Maruca testulatis 307

Matapa aria 214, 783

- cresta 214

~ druna 214

- purpurascens 214

- Savisarna 214

Matuta : : 405, 543, 696

-- flagra ... af 406

—_———-- lunaris 405, 406, 524, 532, 542

———-- planipes iss 406, 524, 532

-- victor ... vad 405

-- victrix 405

Meandria nee 694

Meconopsis aculeata ... ... 367, 369

-- baileyi Pa 755

Medaeus on . 428, 430

- granulosus Be 430, 527, 535

Medicago denticulata... 626

—____—_- sativa , 602, 626

Megachile ; ue 33, 34

—_— albifrons ... 34

cephalotes 34

disjuncta ... 33, 34

— lanata 34

Megalaima asiatica 650

550, 551, 554, 567

-- aegyptiaca 550, 551, 554, 556, 557,

558, 561, 562, 563, 564,

PAGE

Megalaima haemacephala 462, 650, 890, ae

— - virens marshallorum 649

—— - zeylanica .. 650

—————— zeylanica 329

—_—_—____- (zeylanicus=) (heen

Megalaspis cordyla ie 951

Mehraorchis ranarum ... 468, 469

Melanitis leda ismene a VS)

Melanocenchris royleana 102

-Melanochelys trijuga... — ... ars 326

Melhania tomentosa ... 0) 280, 287, 298

Melia 3 a a 91

——— azedarach 288

composita uae 346

Melilotus alba .. 289, 626

Meliosma wightii 843

Melipona iridipennis ... 36

Melolontha fucicauda 616

Melophorus inflatus ... 488

Melophus lathami 645

Membranipora 705

Menaethius ee Sits oe 410

—_—_——— monoceros eas 925.7539

Menippe (Myomenippe) eae 433

Menochilus 6-maculatus : _ 156, 159

Mentha sylvestris 381

Merismopedia punctata 917

Mermis indica . 796

Merops orientalis fay 650

-— ceylonicus 329

- philippinus philippinus 329

- Superciliosus ae 651

Merremia hastata a 293

Sn Beet ptiile 98

Metapeneus see sea WS

Metaplax ie ae Nevin 2 265505 543.

-- distincta ... fu 23h 50.535

-- distinctus ... bee we 523

-- indica a 644

Metopograpsus 3 ae S16; 529

Pe maculatus 5 igh 529, 538

—________—-- messor 516, Sy AAs 529, 537

Micrasterias americana 916

Microcerotermes 205

Microhyla ornata he 326

rubra str 20,, S32

ae ce see b Beinn. /)8)

Microloxia 514

Micromeria biflora 381

Micronia aculeata 153

Micropes excavatus 585

Micropus affinis 652

-- melba 652

Microsarcops cinereus 660

Microscelis psaroides by, oe 631

Microtermes ... ae se POD OZ, 98

——_—_—_——— heimi Bhs bs 205

mycophagus wea 793

—_—_—__——— obesi .. 205, 583

Microtricha cotesi 616

Microtus brandti 482

Millingtonia hortensis 99

Milvus migrans 656

INDEX TO SPECIES xlili

PAGE

Milvus milvus lineatus Bako Dh 656

Mimastra cyanea es 2 ... 614, 616

Mimosa hamata ah .-- 92, 96, 289, 298

— himalayensis see ah 96

pudica sah rete is 144

—rubicaulis ... us igh 96

Mimusops hexandra ... © ... sa 97

Mino dumontii krefiti ate ins 579

Mithrax aculeatus ... ha ok 413

Moghania praecox ... ou 225

iy robusta. i 224

vestita age it shi 372

Mollugo cae wee aa ve OS. 10S

--cerviana ... on ... 284, 290

=~ hirta 2. a ay ae 285, 290

———-—--- nudicaulis ... ve . 284, 290

- — spergula 96, 142

Molpastes cafer . 631, 390, 901, 903, 905

—— leucogenys eh 631

——_____- — --- leucotis aN esleha 631

Momordica balsamina wes ..- 96, 290

-- charantia a3, LL: 290.626

= dioica 7: he a 290

Monogyna__.... a i sa 709

Monogynella ... cee UN 709

Monophlebus stebbingi Be ae 619

Monotheca buxifolia .. wae re 73

Monsonia senegalensis | SN Ris 103

Monticola cinchlorhyncha ... ce 634

solitaria ... oe oa 634

Mooreana trichoneura a 214

Morina longifolia... Ws 366, 375, 880

Morinda tinctoria _.... sa aS 960

Moringa oleifera a a ee 371

Morus aiba_ .... uh, os ... 295, 844

- indica ... ue ae Bas 844

-nigra ... ae “ie ae 844

Motacilla alba As a ... 646, 752

- cinerea ie ae a 646

———-—-- citreola ... i 647

—_____—-- flava ee Boe . 647, 752

-- __— beema s 647

-- maderaspatensis ... soe 646

Mucialla rufivena , an etna SOD

Muehlenbeckia platyclados Ae ne 100

Mugil speigleri E 2 Ate 325

Mulleripicus pulverulentus ae Pk 462

Munia maja... Us 580

Muraena (Gymnothorax) favaginea 736, 737

SSS nee

favaginea.... AS a 733

) meleagris. 733, 736

aa Picta: > 22.1:733.4736

cosy ee a

pseudothyrsoidea ... ues it PSSe 437

= —_________———) undulata

v. undulata ... ite Sis see 733

undulata... ae Ae be 737

macrura .... BAG ae 735

meleagris ... as Rae 736

picta at ue aie 736

tesselata .... ae ds 737

Muraenesox ... oe a ene 735

xliv

PAGE

Muraenesox cinereus 733, 734, 735

- talabonoides Li LO SST SAS TOS

Muraenichthys gymnopterus Ee S VAT ISIS)

—_—_—_—__—_———- schultzi é 733

vermicularis ... 733

Murex ... : 700

= tribulus - 700

Murraya koenigii 371, 937

Musa sapientum 101

Muscicapa parva 635

-- strophiata 635

Muscicapula rubeculoides 636

— superciliaris 636

—_—_—_—_—— tricolor .. 635

Mutilla argenteomaculata 22

-- emeryi Ap

-- nobilis i 22, 23

= pulchiventis Le 22

-- valida .. 22

Mya ... 351

Mycalesis mineus mineus 779

--- perseus blasius 779

Myelois pectinicornella Ais 303

Mylabris BA .. 601, 606

- macilenta 621

- phalerata 608

- tiplensis 608

Myllocerus Ae 598

——___——-- blandus ... 588

——- maculosus 588

Myomenippe ... ie hots 432

_—_____.- hardwickii 432, 433, 528, 535

—________-- granulosa ae 432

Myophoneus caeruleus 635

Myosotis sylvatica ee 379

Myrica nagi .-. 305, 384

Myristica ... 669, 670

Myzus brassicae ; ‘ 593

Nacaduba dubiosa sivoka 782

nora nora 782

Nacobia diemenalis 305

(Naia=) Naja

Naja bungarus 257

—--— hannah ... 272

—--naja naja a S47)

——-- tripudians S21 S4y,

Nanophrys 152

Nardostachys jatamansi 880

Nasalis ; _ 309, 315, 316, 318, 320

-- larvatus 3 . 315, 316

Nassarius : 700

-- olivacea 700

Nasturtium officinale 369

Nausitora 345

Nectarinia asiatica ae 943

ee - asiatica ... 330

——_———— zeylonica ... 330

Neobankia 345

Neolitsea a 842

zeylanica .. 842, 843

Nemoria indecretata ... 154

Neophron percnopterus 655

Neopithecops zalmora 781

Neotermes gardener ... 238

Nepeta graciliflora 381

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Nepeta spicata .. 365, 381

Nephelium litchi : 153

Nephila maculata iy we 981

Nephopteryx leucophaeella .. 303

—____—_—_-- paurosema 303

Nephus regularis 157

Neptis .:. TTB: 780

- columella ophiana ws 780

- hordonia hordonia 780

——_—- hylas adara 780.

- jumbah 215

- - jumbah 780

Neptunus 5 A 417, 423, 526, 697

-- (Neptunus) pelagicus 418, 526,

533, 542

-- pelagicus 418

-- sanguinolentus

Nerita ... : val

- albicilla

- oryzarum

Neritina :

-- crepidularia

Nerium si i

Nettion crecca

Neuracanthus sphaerostac hyus

Nezara viridula

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia

- tabacum

Niltava

-- macgrigoriae ..

-- sundara

Ninox scutulata

Nomia westwoodii

Noorda blitealis

- fessalis

Nothosaerua brachiata

Notocrypta curvifascia

feisthethami

paralysos

Notogonia jaculatrix ...

-- subtessellata

Nyctibatrachus humayuni

Nycticorax nycticorax

Nymphaea stellata

Nymphula affinialis

-- crisonalis ...

-- depunctalis

-- fluctuosalis

-- foedalis

—_—_—_——-- responsalis

Ochlandra travancorica

Ochlodes brahma

siva ,

subhyalina ..

Ochotona rufescens

- ———_——-. vulturna

Ochus subvittatus

Ocimum basilicum

-- canum

(Ocimun=) Ocimum

Octopus

Ocypoda

nycticorax

-- (Neptunus) sanguinolentus

417, 418, 419, 526, 533

417

698

713

662

969

307

214

99, 149, 294, 298, 710

... 99, 294, 960

703

506, 507, 528, 543

PAGE

Ocypoda ceratophthalma 528, 536, 543

——-—-- cordimana ... $07, 528, 536

- rotundata 508, 528, 536

Ocypode albicans 89

—- ceratophthalma 506

- (Ocypode) cordimana 507

- cordimana ... : $07

- cordimanus 507

Odontoptilum angulata 214

—_________--- —_____-- angulata ... 783

Odontotermes 204, 206, 792, 793

—______———-- dehraduni 3 ie 793

-- heimi ... 205

-- horni ... 205

-- obesus 204, 457

-- obscuriceps 205

—________-- redemanni 203, 204

Odynerus Ave 32

-- miniatus 32

-- ovalis 32

Oedogonium ... 908, 909, 910, 912

—_—________-- hians : 911

-- lautumnarium 910

—______—-- rufescens 911

Oenanthe picata as 632

Oenopopelia tranquebarica ... 658

Oenothera odorata 839

—_—_—_——-— rosea 374, 839

Oldeniandia 105

—_______- brachiata _ 96, 291, 298,300

- corymbosa 96, 145, 286, 291, 300,

375

- gracilis ... a 375

- umbellata 291, 298, 300

Oligodon arnensis albiventer ss 327

esos bilineale 304

-- picale 304

Oliva lepida 701

- nebulosa 701

Omphisa anastomosalis 307

Oncidium ‘ 701

Ooencertus paplionus 747

Ophibolus getuleus 948

Ophicephalus .. oe 826

—______—-- striatus 833

_Ophichthys se 199

apicalis ... 199, 732, 733, 939

cephalozona 732, 733: 738, 739

Ophisurus serpens Poe 199

Opisthophthalmus 854

aie SS Jatimanus typicus 853

Oplismenus compositus 681

Opuntia dillenii 290

Oriens ada ‘ 214

- goloides 214

Origanum vulgare 381, 883

Oriolus kundoo 641

-- oriolus 890,.903

——-- traillii ... 641

—--- xanthornus 641

Ornithospila 154

Oropetium thomaeum _ 687

Orsonoba clelia 155

Orsotrioena medus medus 7719

Orthaga euadrusalis .. 303

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Orthetrum 210

Orthochirus innesi 132

Orthotomus sutorius . es 639

—______- -— sutorius 329

Oryctes rhinoceros 5 388

Orygia decumbens 93, 96

Oryza meyeriana 688

-- sativa ... 595, 688

Osbeckia stellata 374

Oscillatoria brevis 917

—____——- granulata 917

lacustris .. ae 917

quadripunctulata 917

——_—_—— — tereberiformis 917

Osicerda he aide Se 155

Otinotus oneratus . 160, 163, 958, 960, 981

- pallescens aoe te 163

Otocompsa emeria 190

flaviventris 632

Otus sunia : ae 654

Oxalis corniculata 370

-- latifolia 370

-- pubescens 837

Oxya ... : 595

Oxybelus agilis. 31

Oxycaraenus loetus 590, 608

Oxyrhachis tarandus . 959, 960

Oxyria digyna 382

Oxytenanthera monadelpha .. 689

Ozius 433

rugulosus. 433, 528. 535, 542

Ozola microniaria ; 153

Pachidiplosis oryzae ... 238

Pachynoa pectinicornalis 307

-- sabelialis 307

Pachyzancla aegrotalis 307

—_—___——- licarsisalis 307

——__—_—_—- phoeopieralis 307

Pagyda traducalis 305

Palamnaeus 138

Palmipis 704.

Pamphlebia 154

Pandanus ; 101, 470, 664

—-- tectorius . 671, 954

Pandinus ee 130

imperator . 131

Pandorina morum : a 908

Panicum adscendens ... . 102, 296

- antidotale 297, 299, 681

- colonum ie 102

-maximum ... 681

-montanum ... 682

- paludosum 681

- psilopodium see 681

- ramosum ... 102, 297

- repens ... 675, 682

- stagninum 102

- subeglume ... 682

Panicum turgidum 93, 105, 283, 297

- trypheron _ 675, 681

Pantala : oat 210, 211

Panthera leo saetlarle 173, 450, 568, 576

- tigris : ... 171, 452, 454

Pantoporia perius ss 214, 780

Panulirus 696

xlvi INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Paphia ... mak ae ae 703

malabarica ae 505, 522, 703

textile an Be : 703

undulata Site ees 703

Papilio demoleus eis 216, 217, 621

demoleus ... TET

memmnon agenor ... ben Vibe

polytes es as oe 216

—_— romulus ane oe WUE

Parabonellia... ah m3 ny 201

—__—_——— misakiensis at ae 202

Paracanthonchus caecus me i 89

Paraechinus micropus micropus _... 236

Paramithrax ... 413.

—e (Chlorinoides) aculeatus 413, 525,

533, 542

Parasa ... se fy Be a ~ 616

-lepida ... ae 238

‘(Paratetranchus =) Parate tranychus

Paratetranychus indicus sch Pill sel)

Pareronia valeria hippia ne ae 778

Parevaspis carbonaria ay AS 34

Parkinsonia_ ... Ep ik ae 713

Parnara ganga acs Sekek rueee 214

guttatus Beh ... 214, 783

—naso ... een aoa 214

Parnassia nubicola 367, 373, 879

Parnassius epaphus sikkimensis _... USD

Paroaria cucullata ... a aus 578

Parreysia favidens ... ae ae 254

Parthenium hysterophorus Se Alt PAU)

Parthenos sylvia gambrisius ... je 780

Parus major ambiguus A ce 979

caschmeriensis ... o 629

monticola see OB ae 629

Paspalidium flavidum jest” 26752680

—_—_-___——- geminatum eee ae 681

Paspalum conjugatum gt oie 680

-- orbiculare ... rae ie, 680

——-- sanguinale .. é oss 102

+ cruciatum ae 886

-- scrobiculatum uae 680

Passer domesticus 644, 890, 901, 903

es —- soror et 2 330

——-- montanus ie ae a 578

-- rutilans any cy is 644

Passiflora calcarate ... abe os ~ 840

--coerulea..... ae fe 374

-- edulis se es sh 840

-- leschenaultii Bh ne 840

Patella radiata ge Bas A 698

Pavo cristatus nae a ..- 464, 659

Pavonia zeylanica.... ike 28298

Pecten singaporina ... rat eae 702

Pedalium murex 99, 105, 293, 299

Pediastrum tetras see pe can 909

Pedicularis carnosa ... at Ls 380

-- gracilis... it in 882

—_—__-- pectinata a ... 380, 883

—_—_____--- —___——— palans....__... 883

-- siphonanthe aes ay 380

Pelecanus ie ah, 191

Pelecypoda a ee wh 701

Pellorneum ruficeps ... Ricae ce 630

Pelopidas agna aioe ue ae 214

PAGE

Pelopidas agna agina 784

-- assamensis 214

————--- conjuncta . 214

-- sinensis He 214

Penaeus ... 696, 715

(Peneus =) Penaeus

Penium libulata 914

Pennisetum é Met 814

hohenackeri Ap 683

typhoides ... 626, 683

typhoideum 293, 297, 599

Peperomia reflexa a2 SOD S02

Perdicula asiatica 659

Periclimnus ib 696

—_______ brevecarpalis 696

Pericrocotus brevirostris 638

- peregrinus 638, 890, 904

—__________- -_______ ceylonensis 329

—_—__—_—_—-- roseus Us bat 638

——_____- speciosus 638

Periopthalmus 705

Peristrophe . 713

——EEE bicalyculata 99° 282, 286, 293, 299

Perotis indica ... . 675, 685

Pharoscymnus euimeti 159

—______———- horni 158, 159

Phaseolus aconitifolius 289

- mungo Hee i 156

- roxburghii 626

- radiatus 289, 601, es

- pauciflorus

— - semierectus =

- vulgaris 289

Phenacoccus insolitus 156

Philanthus 30

—___—__—-- basalis 30

Philomachus pugnax ... 464

Philyra : ... 407, 525

-- corallicola 408, 525, 532

-- globosa

Phleum alpinum

Phlomis bracteosa

Phlyctaenodes massalis

Phoenicoparrus jamesi

Phoenicopterus antiquorum

-- chilensis

—_________--- ruber

Phoenicurus ochrurus

Phoenix dactylifera

sylvestris

Phragmites karka

Phryganodes analis

Phycita defiguralis

-- hemixanthella

-- infusella

Phyllanthus Bie

== emblicd

-- madraspatensis ...

-- niruri

—_____——-- uninaria ...

Phyllocnistis citerella

Phyllognathopus —...

——_____———- viguierl

Phylloscopus ...

—______—_-- affinis

407, 525, 532

ae 885

883

307

169

168

ue 168

.. 167, 168

; 633

10}

296

684

305

303

589

i 962

.. 100, 265

Bye 9 35295

93; 143, 295

_ 143

621

795

793

768

INDEX TO SPECIES xlvii

PAGE PAGE

Phylloscopus collybitus _... Ad 768 | Pinnularia legumen y. florentina ... 847

—_—_____—_-- fuscatus Se ie 768. | —————— marginata 848

-- griseolus isd ahs 768 | — microstauron f- biundulata 847

-- inornatus ae a, 640 | ——______- -_________- v. ambigua 847

-- -- humei ose 768 | —— -neglecta v. interrupta... 850

-- occipitalis on a: 641 | —————— nodosa v. pecudoerae lima 848

-- ___——- occipitalis ... 769 | ———— polyonca ... 4 Po 850

——_—_—_——--trochiloides: ... ... 7168, 769 | —— regina aoe Bel 850

Physalis minima se Aue ... 286, 292 | ——_——-—— stauroptera v. longa ie 849

peruviana ... ne ... 292, 299 | —————- stomatophora v. bergil ... 846

Phytomyza atricornis si ie 601 | ——-— stomatophoroides a 846

Picea morinda be ioe aie 366 | ———_____ —_______—_—_- v. nuda 849

——- smithiana ay ae nae 386 | ———___- -________ -- v. ornata

Picumnus innorminatus See gas 461 f. erlangensis 846

Picus canus_... a Ea se 462 | —_———— westii is ui ve 851

——- xanthopygeus ... os bea 462 | Pinus excelsa ... Bi oe ae 386

Picorrhiza kurooa__... ue aoe 883 | ———- gerardiana me ee be 74

Pieris brassica ae se ... 603, 611 | ——- longifolia ae ae a 386

——- ovalifolia es 3 ... 365, 378 | ——-- roxburghil ie se oN 365

Pilea scripta_... Be ss Bae 383 | ——- —— Sargent... a 386

—--— umbrosa es pe eh 383 | —-—- wallichiana ie ie ... 368, 386

Piliocolobus ... ae ie She 309 | Pionea ablactalis ies fo: a 308

Pilumnus a a .. 434, 528, 697 albicostalis ... ty sas 308

-- longicornis Lt 439> 526,53) fous Be a, ce 308

-- vespertilio ... se 4340204999 | SPiper” :.. oe ane e 710

Pimpinella diversifolia a Boe 880 | Piprisoma agile oa Ne ae 649

Pingasa ae Nes Be uae 153 | Pison argentatum 338 oe Dy

Pinna Be ae as oes 701 | Pisoodonophis boro ... ae 783. 738

—— nigra... tae Be oie 702 | ———_—__- cancrivorus ... 732. 733, 738

Pinnotheres_... oe 385 oe 503 | Pistia stratiotes ay! ae 151

-- placunae 503, 528, 536, 542 | Pisum sativum... Ae eee he 601

-- quadratus oe ie 506 | Pithauria murdava ... ... ie 214

—————-- similis... oe soe 504 | —————- stiamineipennis ... ie 214

—_—___—--- vicaJil_-... a . 305, 528 | Pithecolobium dulce ... aa ... 161, 960

Pinnularia ss . 845, 852 - - saman ee 267

acrosphaeria f undulata... 845 | Pitta brachyura Se nue 649, 890, 901

—_—____—_——— v, genuina he Placenta placenta... sas 702

undulata... 845 | Placuna placenta aes ah 503, 504, 505

Pinnularia acrosphaeria v. minor... 846 | Plagusia ase 523

aestuarii... he 851 -- depressa v. squamosa eee 523

- -- Vy, interrupta ee Syl Gy) eS -- y. tuberculata ... 523

— --y. lata ... gee Soi -- tuberculata 523, 529, 531,

————— angustefasciata ... ie 850 538

———_____ —_________-- y. schmidtii 850 -- squamosa ... Sa a2 3, S04

braun... Pecn cers! 848 | Plantago amplexicaulis sen 99

v. amphicephala... 848 | ——_——- major fs - a 381

vy, ———_—_—__—__ ff. Plastingia callineura ... ue ate 214

conica is 848 | ——-——-- naga sh a = 214

vy. ———___—_ ff. . Plastus . : ze ne a 790

subconica ... 848 | Platalea leucorodia ... a oe 193

——___—— brebissonii vy. producta ... 847 | Platanista gangetica ... ais ae 270

ov, ‘ Platycarya _..... bat say 226

biundulata .. 847 | Platydera gossypiella .. Uh il 591

———_-——. conica aah ane Bae 847 | Platylambrus ... i sel sits 415

———_———— divergens ... ae 846 | Platypodia _... ne Bo: ag 427

———— — y, capitata Ba S508 ee == ChiStatal. 2s. ODS 20 SOA

————— esox : Bale ... 849, 850 | Platytes argentisparsalis as ae 302

——______- —_- y. capitata Hos Sa 849 | Plaxipora Hee aw ah 697

——- y. clevei sip oe 850 | Plectranthus gerardianus abe a 380

——-y.fasciata ... 48 849 | Plectronia ficiformis ... aoe Be 840

interrupta f. braunii fas 848 | Plegadis falcinellus ... i 191

isostauron SAerages Ui. ae 852 | Pleurospermum angelicoides... ae 880

aa v.conifera... 852 | ———_—————- candollii_... fy 880

———v. genuina <.. 852 | Pleurotaenium ehrenbergil vy. crassa 915

Karnatica (42.1) 7. Gs: hate 846 | Ploceus philippinus 491, 502, 643, 890, 903, 979

xl viii

PAGE

Ploceus philippinus philippima 330

Plotosus anguillaris 324

Pluchea lanceolata ae seh 105

Plumeria acutifolia... mee i 97

Plumularia Kee, : 693

Plusia nigrisigna 611

-- orichalcia 611

Plutella maculipennis 611

Pluvialis dominica fulva 328

Poa aspera se 102

Podagria 608

Pogonatherum paniceum as 676

Poinciana a a rae bee 9]

—_______- regia - ape Sa 95

Poinsettia pulcherrima a ox 101

Polistes we ae sak Ae 33

- hebraeus oe ae AE 33

- stigma av was a 33

Pollinidium binatum . 676

Polyalthia longifolia ... 154

Polycarpaea et a 105, 141, 286, 287, 370

836

Polycarpor tetraphyllum

Polydactylus indicus . 199, 200, 201

Polydorus aristolochia oh OP aye

un 3

Polygala 240

-- abyssinica 93, 105, 287, 299, 365, 369

-- chinensis a 369

—_—_—-- crotalarioides 369

———--- erloptera 93, 105, 283, 284, 287, 299,

369

-- persicariaefolia 369

-- ramaswamiana 240

-- tatarinowli ... 369

Polygonum 710

—_—_—_—— affine us 367, 382, 884

—alatum ... es xia 884

amplexicaule .. 382, 884

——— Son .. 366, 382

chinense . 713

donii ue nee 382

plebejum _ 150, 284, 285, 295, 298,

382

polystachyum 367, 382, 884

vaccinifolium 367, 382, 884

——__—_—— viviparum xe 382

Polynemus we. W225

Polynoe 694

Polypogon monspeliensis 385

Polytremis discreta 215

-- eltoca 215

—-- lubricans ... ae DAS

Pomadasys 2a . 199, 200

Pomaderris lanigera . es 837

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ... 630

ae -- _____——-_ ferrugilatus 767

a ee schstiecDS 630

Pompilus fenestratus .. ee eee 25

mitis Bee Hs BE 25

Pongamia ai : 158

- glabra 303

Porites . ; ee 694

Portulaca grandiflora — sie 94

-- oleracea 141, 142, 287

-- quadrifida ... . 142, 287

Procolobus

oases (Piliocolobus) badius ...

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Portunus (Oceanus) crucifer 419

woe ) dentatus 420

(Neptunus) pelagicus 418

(Portunus) pelagicus 418

pelagicus ... 418

(Thalamita) prymna a5 424

——_—— (Neptunus) sanguinolentus 417

(Portunus) sanguinolentus 417

sanguinolentus 43 417

Potamides Bs 699

Potanthus confucius ... 214

- ganda 214

——_-—-- juno 214

——_———-- lydia 214

- nesta ate 214

——__—_- pallida .. 214

- palnia 214

- pseudomaesa 214

- rectifasciata 214

- sita 214

— - trachala 214

trachala tytleri 783

Potentilla : in 366

-- argyrophylla 367, 373, 879

—___—-- ____—_—_—_ y, atrosanguinea 373

-- fruticosa ee Le 373

-- fulgens <c. SHOOTS

-- microphylla ve 879

Pouzolzia hirta 5 384

-- pentandra ... 384.

-- viminea 384

Pratapa deva ... : 214

Precis almana almana | 781

atlites ane 781

— hierta hierta 780

hierta magna 780

——— iphita iphita 781

lemonias lemonias ae 780

orithiya ocyale ue AG 780

Presbytis .. 309, 316, 318, 319, 320

- everetti ey ae 315

- femoralis a .. 315, 316

—__—_- chrysomelas 315

- frontatus ae 315

—————- hosei ‘ Nee 315

- melalophos ... oto SS

- rubicundus ... ee 315

——-——- thomasi ... 316, 318

Primula i : 882

_—____ floribunda 378

—_— involucrata ... iA 882

— macrophylla v. macrocarpa 882

Prinia inornata oe age au 640

Ss -- insularis 329

———-- socialis ... F 640

——-- sylvatica 640

Prinsepia utilis 372

Priochirus By, Pee a 790

(Plastus) astoliensis 790

a ) maitrta ... 791

Prionia squalidaria 155

Pristipoma argenteum 951

Procapra gutturosa _ 484, 486

309, Bide 316, 318, 319, 320

Siz

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Procolobus (Piliocolobus) pag

waldroni ; Sie 318

— - badius. .., 316, 318

- - badius fe 312

- badius waldroni . 311, 316

—_____—__- verus 313, 315, 316

Prodenia litura 592, 594, 612

Prosopis 91, 286

-- spicigera 92, 283, 285, 289, 299, 962

Protosiphon botryoides : 970

Prunella atrigularis 635

Prunus bokhariensis .. 616

Pseudagenia blanda .. 24

- micromegala 24

- tincta 24

Pseudaspidimerus circumflexa v.

testaceus - 157

Pseudococcus ... 156, 157, 158

—__—___—- victoris , 157

Pseudodromia ae a 402

caphyraeformis 40

integrifrons 402, 25532

Pseudograpsus fe ‘ 519

———_—___—_—_—_. intermedius ooh ae -. 519, 530

Pseudogyps bengalensis 655

Pseudoraphis aspera .. 683

Pseudoterpna ruginaria pet Hh 153

Psidium guava a, i fi 57, 622

Psiloteredo os i : 671

Psittacula alexandri 185

-- cyanocephala 654

-- eupatria 654

-- himalayana 654

--krameri_. ie 654

-- manillensis 328

Pteria vulgaris 702

Pterocles orientalis 466

—- senegallus ... 467

Ptochophyle permutans 154

—___—_—_- togata 154

.. 196, 327, 334, 807,949

93, 105, 291, 298

Ptyas mucosus

Pulicaria wightiana

Pullus castaneus - 156

——-- gratiosus 156

——-- nubilus 156

——-- picescens 156

——-- victoris a 156

Punica granatum : nee 379, 620, 626

Puntius ; _ 826, 827, 828, 829, 831

- conchonius 833

- stigma - 826, 834

-ticto ... c “826, 834

-- vittatus 826, 834

Pupalia lappacea 93, 294, 299

Pycnarmon caberalis . Ne 304

—_—_—— - f. abdicalis 304

—— meritalis . : 304

virgatalis 304

Pycnonotus cafer cafer : 329

luteolus insulata 329

Pygospila tyres 306

Pyralis manihotalis 303

pictalis 303

Pyramidula rupestris salimalii 239

Pyrausta incoloralis ; 308

xlix

PAGE

Pyrat, phoehcralls 308

Pyrene . 700

Pyrilla . 598, TAL, 742, 743, 745, 741, 748, 749

- perpusilla 170, 584, 741, 749

(Pyrilloxenes=) Pyrillozenos

(Pyrilloxenus=) Pyrillozenos

Pyrillozenos ste 749

——- compactus 746, 747, 749

Quadraspidiotus perniciosus one 614

Quelea .. si es ... 811, 825

quelea .. : a2 ... 811, 825

a - aethiopica .. 812, 822

a - lathami 812

—_____ _____- ques 812

- russ 812

Quercus incana 365, 366, 379, 382, 383, 384

Quisqualis indica ae 96

Ramila acciusalis 302

-- marginella 302

197) 326,3321333) 334

753

——- cyanophlyctis 272, 396. B32. 333, 468,752

-- limnocharis greeni "753

Rana breviceps

2 | ———- corrugata

——- (Hyalorana) poupotals 753

- tigrina as Bs) 468

ee - crassa 326, 332,333

Ranunculus diffusus ... se 368

Raoiella indica id Si, 158.

Rapala jarbas ... 782

-- melampus ~— 216

———-- pheritimus petosiris ... : 782

-- schistacea 21S: 782

Rattus rattus kandianus 330

Ratufa bicolor 3 315

Reinwardtia trigyna ... 370

Rhabditis ocypodis ... ; 89

-- (Choriorhabditis) marina

v. bengalensis Re ee On,

-- marina : 87, 89

Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger 753

—_________-- —___—__-- eques 753

-- leucomystax ... 332;

— _. —____- maculatus. 326, 332,

334.

-- maculatus 197

—________-- microtympanum ap 52

Rhagophthalmus ihe ... 178, 789

Rhamphiopis rostratus : 824

Rhinoceros oe 763

—_____—. unicornis 763

Rhinocichla mitrata ... ae 579

— -- mitrata 579

Rhipidura albicollis 637

aureola 637

—__— -- compressirostris 330

Rhipiphoro-thrips cruentatus ae 620

Rhododendron arboreum .. 365, 378

-- campanulatum 368, 378, 385

-- lepidotum .. 366, 378

Rhodometra 155

Rhodophila ferrea ferrea 632.

Rhopalosiphum [nympaeae =] ae

—__—_—___—__—— nymphaeae

Rhyacornis fuliginosus

Rhynchium ue

633

_PAGE PAGE

Rhynchium brunneum 32 | Saroglossa spiloptera 641

metallicum 32 | Satarupa gopala 214

nitidulum : 32 | Satyrium nepalense 384, 884

Rhynchoglossum obliquum ... 380 | Saussurea Na 367

Rhynchops albicollis ... 190 | —__——- albescens ‘377

Rhynchosia bracteata 797, 798 - denticulata 377

Rhus cotinus ... 37] | ——————- gossypiphora 377, 881

———- parviflora 368, 371, 378 - hypoleuca ... 377, 881

Riccia ©... 56 286 | —————- kunthiana ... 881

(Ricinis =) Ricinus - lappa a 73, 881

Ricinus communis 6 295, 592 - obvallata ... 366, oii: 881

Riopa punctata .. 327, 334 - piptathera ... 377

Riparia concolor 645 | —————- taraxicifolia aun 881

- paludicola 646 | Saxicola caprata 632

- rupestris 645 -- torquata 632

Rita. eh. wae 253 | Saxicoloides fulicata ... a8 634

Rivea ornata ... 104 | ——_——___- —-_--- fulicata... 329

Rosa... . 713 | Saxifraga diversifolia ae 367, 373, 879

___-- moschata | 373 | ———_.— filicaulis 373

Roscoe purpurea 884 | ———— hirculus 373

Roscoea procera 384 | ————— ligulata 373

Rostratula benghalensis 661 | ————— moorcroftiana 373.

Rottboellia exaltata ... 679 | Scardamia metallaria 155

Rousettus 498 | Scatophagus argus 326, 952

Roylea elegans 381 | Sceliphron Wis 28

Rubia cordifolia 880 | ———-- coromandelicum 28:

Rubus ellipticus ae 372 | —_———_-- madraspatanum ... 28

Ruellia prostrata ... 293, 299 -- violaceum 28

Rumex dentatus 100 | Scenedesmus bijugatus 909

——--- hastatus 382 | Schefflera racemosa 843

———--- nepalensis 382 | Schizachyrium 858, 865

Ruscus hypophyllum 101 | —————__- delavayi 860, 865

Russelia juncea : 98, 648 | ——_—____-__- patampycaa 861, 865

Saccharicoccus sacchari 158. 203 | Schizophrys ; 414

Saccharum munja 92. 102, 105, 283, 300 -- asper 414

- officinarum. ie 583 | ——————--- aspera 414, 525, 533

—- spontaneum 102, 296, 300, | Schoenobius adjurellus 303

626, 676 bipunctifer 303) 596

Saccolepis indica 5 682 | ———————- immeritalis 303

interrupta ... 682 | —— incertellus 303

Sacculina 696 | Sciaena : 725

Sacellum 700 | Scirpophaga aurifiua .. 302

Sagitta ... 704 | ————_——_-- bisignata 302

Salius a ae 25529 —- gilviberbis 302

aureosericeus 25 | —————_—~ nivella 586

consanguineus ... 25 | Scirpus maritimus 296

flavus 25 | Scobura isota ... 214

——— fulvipennis i 25 phiditia 214

madraspatanus... 25, 26 | Scolia aureipennis 23

Salmalia malabarica .. 370 | ———-- bilunata 23

Salvadora 286 | ——-- histrionica Bp 23

- oleoides “92, 285, 291, 299 | ———-- quadripustulata 23

- persica 283, 285, 291, 299 | Scoparia dulcis 293, 299

Salvia ... “ie Aas 104 | Scopimera myctiroides 511

——-- lanata ... a 381 | Scopula us 154

Sameodes cancellalis ... 307 | Scorpio maurus 136

Sanicula europea bi 880 | Scutellaria linearis 381

Sanseviera cylindrica ... 101 | Scylla Ke 416

Sapium insigne 383 serrata .. a Alle: 418, 526, 533,543

- sebiferum 383 Seman ; "157:

Saponaria vaccaria 103 - guimeti 157

Sarangesa dasahara ‘ (214, 216 - nubilus Nee 156

cores - dasahara 783 - (=Pullus) quadrillum 156

Sarcococca pruniformis 383 | Sebastonyma dolopia 214

Sarcogyps calvus 655 | Sedum ewersii 374

INDEX TO SPECIES

INDEX TO SPECIES li

PAGE PAGE

Sedum multicaule sa 374 | Sirogonium stictum v. elite um 914

trullipetalum .... ... 367, 374 | Sisymbrium irio aah ESN bis 93

Sehima nervosum .. 675, 676 | Sitana ponticeriana 327

Seicercus burkil 640 | Sitta castanea te xa Bes 630

xanthoschistos 640 | Skimmia laureola__.... ye ... 626, 879

(Selinium=) Selinum Smilax aspera ... ca ©: 385

Selinum tenuifolium ... soe .. 375, 880 | Smithia dichotoma 289, 298, 300

—_ v. filcifolia 375 - sensitiva 285, 289, 300

Semiothisa se 155 | Solanum ; 965

Semnopithecus ~ 309, 314, 315, 318, 320 - esuriale Be 965

ees NS entellas, ; 3 314, 315 | ——-——- indicum 292, 298, 965

priam fH 314. 316 - melongena ... 238, 292, 606, 710

—— _ —— schistaceus 314 - nigrum . 148, 284, 292, 379, 882

Senecio amplexicaulis 881 - seaforthanum BS ae 379

- arnicoides 881 | -tuberosum ... 609

- chrysanthemoides 881 | —————- verbascifolium 379

- nudicaulis 377 —- xanthocarpum 148, 292, 299, 379

Sepia bey 704 | Solartum Ne 699

Sericostoma pauciflorum Pane 98, 292 ,298 | Solen 703

Sertularia ae "693 | Solen lamarckii_ 703 °

Sesamia inferens 587, 597, 598 - truncatus 703

Sesamum indicum ee 293 | Solenopsis geminata .. 459

Sesarma 520, 530 | Solidago virga-aurea 376

-- (Sesarma) minuta 522, 530, 538, 543 | Somatina anthophilata 154

———— --) oceanica... 521, 530, 538 | Sonchus sas 286

-- oceanicum ... my 520 -- arvensis . sae ... 291, 300

-- (Parasesarma) plicata 6 520 - asper sh ae 97, 291, 300

——_——-- (Sesarma) quadrata 521, 530, 538 | ————- oleraceus aut Stig 291

-- quadrata - cB 520 | Sopubia trifida 379

-- (Sesarma) quadratum 520 | Sorex araneus ... 487

-- quadratum ... 520 | Sorghum ne any et 475, 814

-- (Sesarma) rotundata : 520 (halepenae=) halepense

—___-- --) taeniolata 521, 530, 538 halepense 102, 585, 626, 677

--taeniolata.... ce 521 (helepense=) halepense

-- (Sesarma) taeniolatum 521 nitidum ... 677

-- taeniolatum ; 521 vulgare 20m. 585, 598, 603, 626

Sesbania aculeata = 161, 162 | Soriculus baileyi ; 755

- aegyptiaca ... 592, 626 | Sovia grahami "4 214

= —- grandiflora ... 161 | ——-lucasii magna .. 214

Seseria sambara 214 | Spalgis epius epius 781

Setaria 105, 710 | Spergula rubra 94

ca glauca .. 102 | Spermacoce ... Sac 105

intermedia 675,683 | == — -- hispida ... 145, 284, 291, 299

italica ... 682 -- stricta 96, 291, 299, 375

—_—— pallidifusca 674, 675, 682 | Sphaeroma : cs s ae 964

——— palmifolia 682 - terebrans... 963

verticillata 102, 675, 683 | Sphenoptera ... Mos 617

Sexava nubila ... a 470 | ———————-- gossypil 591

Shorea robusta a “627, | Sphex<”.. bs 28, 29

Sida (7): ‘ : 105 | ——-- aurulentus 29

—- cordifolia _ 142, 284, 287, 298 | ——-- lobatus . 28

—- grewioides BE 94 - luteipennis 25, 29

——- humilis 286, 287, 299 | ———-- splendidus 29

—-—- rhombifolia 287 | ———-- umbrosus 29

——- veronicaefolia 103, 142, 287 -- vicinus ? 29

Sidastrea at 694 | Spialia galba ... 214

Siganus javus ... - 325 , Spilanthes acmella 841

Sillago sihama 325 | Spilornis cheela 657

Silonia silondia 951 | Spinacia oleracea 626

Simarouba 288 | Spindasis gabriel 782

Siphocoryne indorassica - 605, 613 | ——___—— lohita : 216

Siphonocladus a 87 | — ——— himalayanus- 782

Sirogonium floridano 914 syama peguanus 782

floridanum _ 914 vulcanus vulcanus 782

— stictum v. microsporum 914 | Spiranthes australis ... 384

jit

-- risoria

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Spirogyra anomala 912

—-- margaritata 912

-- nitida vy. microspora 912

-- singularis 913

-- spreeiana y. kashiensis O12

Spirulina gomontii 917

Spondias mangifera ... 960

Sporobolus 105

— coromandelianus — aos 685

————--—— diander ... ... 675, 685

glaucifolius aa} 102

—— indicus rte 885

ae orientalis oe O2. 297.

—__—_—__—— piliferus ... : 685

— scabrifolius 685

—— spicatus ... 685

oe tremulus ... 685

—— virginicus 102

———-—— wallichii ... 685

— Squilla .. 696

Stachys melissaefolia .. 381

——_—_- sericea 883

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops 631

Stachytarpheta 5 Ba et 713

——__— — indica 93, 104, 294, 298

Staurastrum clepsydra y. sibericum 916

— - dickie ae 916

——_—_———- dubium ... 916

Stemmatophora pallidella 304

Stenolobium stans 98

Stephania japonica 836

Stephanoaetus coronatus 311

Sterna albifrons 924

aes —- sinensis 328

—_——- anaethetus antarctica... 921

- bergii thalassina 923

- dougallii aridensis 923

————- fuscata nubilosa 920

————- sumatrana mathewsi ... 923

Sterrha macrospila 155

————-- sacraria 155

Stethorus ; 157

—————-- gilvifrons 157

-- parcepunctatus 157

-- pauperculus 157

— -- tetranychi 157

Sticholotis os 158

‘cribrellata 158

Stigeoclonium attenuatum 910

— -- flagelliferum .. 910

-- nanum 910

Stigmus niger 30

Stilbum cyanurum 31

Stimula swinhoei 214

Stizus oe 30

blandinus aes 30

Stoicactis ... 694, 696

Stranvaesia glaucescens : 373

Streblus asper . ae ie 713

Streptopelia chinensis _ a: «.. 658, 752

rs ceylonensis oe 328

-- decaocto 658

-- orientalis 658

- meena 658

752

Streptopelia senegalensis

Striga at a

lutea

Strobilanthes ... aDe

——_-—_—_-- dalhousianus sa

—__—__—_—--- discolor

Stromateus cinereus ...

Sturnia malabarica

Sturnopastor contra ...

Sturnus pagodarum pagodarum

—_——- vulgaris ae

Suana concolor

Suastus gremius

- minuta

Sunneta

donacina

Surendra quercetorum quercetorum

Surniculus lugubris

Sus scrofa cristatus

Swertia alternifolia

—_——-- chireta

-- cordata

-- cuncata

———-- paniculata

——---- purpurescens...

Sylepta aurantiacalis ..

-- Cocea

-- junalis..

Sylvia curruca .

Symplocos paniculata...

————— racemosa ...

—_ Spicata eit:

Syngamia abruptalis ...

-- floridalis

Syntarucus plinius

Syzygium arnottanum

-- cumini

-- montanum... vad

Tabernaemontana coronaria...

Taccocua leschenaultii

Tachytes a

- modesta

- nitidula

Tacsonia mollissima ...

Taeniura lymma

- melanospila

- melanospilos

Tagiades cohaerens

- gana

- japetus

—<—<——

ravi

- litigiosa

-menaka

- paira

Tajuria cippus cippus

Talanga sexpunctalis ..

Tamarindus indica

Tamarix articulata

—_———-- dioica

Tamraca torridalis

Tanacetum longifolium

- nubigenum

Tarache

— nitidula

notabilis

PAGE

658

105

293, 298, 300

578,-

306, 588,

OS Ur

97, 306

e770,

770, 771,

304

- 103, 289

285, 287, 299

(207.208

. 207, 589

Yarucus :

Tatera indica ceylonica

Tatobotys varanesalis

Taxillus vestitus

Taxus baccata

Tchitrea paradisi

Tecoma capensis

—stans...

— undulata

Tecomaria capensis

Tectona grandis

Tealiaf ..

Telanthera ficoidea

-- polygonoides

Telescopium

—_—_—__—— telescopium

Telicota ancilla bambusae

ancilla

colon

-——__—— linna

onara i

— stinga

Tellina ... ;

timorensis

Temenuchus pagodarum

Temnopleura ... oe

Tephrina disputaria ... B

Tephrodormis pondicerianus _

Tephrosia

- purpurea ... 7 "282,

- strigosa ih,

- tenuis

Terastia meticulosalis

Terebella :

Teredo . 39. 345,

(Zopoteredo) bengalensis

(Teredora) clava

clava ie

(Teredo) furcillatus xe

furcillatus : ane

(Teredora) gregoryi ...

gregoryi i He

(Teredo) indica.

indica .

(Teredothyra) linearis”

(Teredo) madrasensis

madrasensis

(Kuphus) manni

(Teredora) minoris

(Teredo) navalis

navalis

(Teredo) parksi

parksi ..

(Teredora) rehderi

rehderi

(Psiloteredo) tondiensis

Teredora es ie

Teredothyra

Metias: ieee

——-- Blanda silhetana

——-- hecabe hecabe

——-- Jaeta sikkima ...

——-- libythea

Termes... af

Terminalia

".. 346, 667,

INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

98, 710

92, 293, 299.

ue 9

668, 960, 963

oe, 693

477

696

699

783

214

783

703

642

704

155

638, 890, 901

105, 711

284, 285, 289

805

289, 298, 805

; 307

694

666, 671,964

. 345, 671

ss 345

346

345

346

345

5 346

.. 345, 669

st 346

aes 345

... 345, 668

: 346

963

oe 345

... 345, 667

... 346, 667

... 345, 670

346

345

346

672

345

778

718

778

aoe 778

... 204, 613

346, 639, 716

PAGE

Terminalia arjuna 103

-- paniculata 963

—_—___——--- tomentosa 963

Terminalis myriocarpa 654

Tetranychus Stes 157

_—_________- cucurbitae .. 605, 608

—________- tetericus ne 608

Tetrastichus pyrillae ... 7147

Tetrastigma muricatum 837

Tetridia caletoralis 307

Tetrodon : 705

Teucrium quadrifarium ae 381

Thais a ... 696, 700

- carinifera - 700

——- rudolphi 700

——- rugosa 700

——- sacellum i 700

Thalamita 423, 425, 526

— crenata 423, 597, 534

prymna . 424, 425, 527, 534

—— —- y, crenata ‘ 423

Thalassodes acutissima 154

— -- avicularia 154

-- quadraria 154

oso -- rubrolimbraria .. 154

— -- veraria 154

Thalera caudularia 154

—_———- chrysolineata 154

Thalictrum cultratum. 368

——- javanicum 8 368

——______-- minus vy. majus ... ee 368

- reniforme 3 . 366, 368

—_______—- (reniformis=) reniforme -

Themeda cymbaria a 678

——_——- quadrivalvis 678

- tremula 678

—_—_———- triandra 678

Therapon jarbua 325

Thespesia ; 346

-- populnea 94

Thevetia ; 158

Tholymis 210

Thoressa cerata : 214

- fusca debitis 214

Thrips indicus 602

———- tabaci ... 610

Thrissocles 953

Thunbergia 99

Thymus serpylium va 381

Thyrsoidea macrurus is 1335139

Thysanophrys indicus 3 325

Tichodroma muraria .. 632

Tockus birostris 651

-- erythrorhynchus 824

Torquigener oblongus : 325

Trachylepidia fructicassiella .. 302

_ Trachypithecus 309, 315, 318, 320

—_________-- cristatus 315

-- -- pyrrhus 315

-- obscurus 315, 316, 318

-- phayrei crepusculus 315

——___-- pileatus = 314

- Trachys muricata 684

_ Tradescantia as 101

- Tragus biflorus 102, 675, 684

liv INDEX TO SPECIES

PAGE

Tramea Aon Rey lad . 210, 211

Trapa ... Be aed ae oe 156

-- bispinosa_ a dae 5A aie 626

Trialeurodes ricini... is 593

Trianthema .... ab 93, 105, 293, 712

—_—__—_—_—— crystallina aie an 290, 299

hydaspica ile 96

monogyna ane 142, 290

—_—_—_——. pentandra ow 286, 290, 299

Tribulus ae aa sid Bt 293

-- alatus an Ane 94, 288, 299

-- terrestris... 93, 105, 284, 288

Tricephalobus ... a36 : : 88

Trichiurus savala a ae 715

Trichodesma amplexicaule Ne 292, 298, 299

—______——-- indicum a 93

Trichopus litteratus ... ae fe 518

Trichosanthes ... oe oe Ae 290

—____—_—_—— dioica .. 118, 119

Tridax procumbens . . 146, 286, 291, 299, 377.

Tridgodes cuneilinea . 154

Trigonella foenum-graecum .. Eee O26

Tringa glareola a Lay g28. 464, 661

-hypoleucos _... ate 660

- ochropus sa Asp wa 661

Trionymus sacchari ... yg ams _ 586

Trionyx aa aie sak 253

Tripogon bromoides ... a0 au: 687

jacquemontii Riko Be 687

——__——— pungens ... eee as 687

Trirhogma caerulea ... a va 30

Triticum dicoccum ... & Das 689

- vulgare uit ae .-. 999, 689

Triumfetta pilosa : une oe 94

___.____-- rhomboidea 285, 287, 298, 299

Trochus Se a 698

Troides helena cerberus sa ae 777

Troiometra ... Bee 704

Troa aristolochiae goniopettis pe TA

——-- coon doubledayi ane ah: 777

—--- varuna astorion Bs aoe A be

Trypoxylon ... wee an Fee ID

—_————— bicolor ... sue ay 2)

——_—__—_—— intrudens res ae Di

Turbo bruneus on Oe af, 698

Turdinirmus ... a Ane oe 578

Turdoides nipalensis ... ae ... 166, 767

—- somervillei .-- 630, 890, 901

- striatus... fee a 460

Turdus .. ses af Bho. Sas TN)

—-- atrogularis se 35 ae 634

Turitella cerea ° a Li she 699

Turnix sylvatica a ek ee 659

Tylenchus re 5 oe 1s 90

—————- marinus... ais sat 89

Tylophora mollissima uae eo 341

—_—_—_— tenuis ae sa A 841

Tylosurus giganteus ... ae i 324

—____——- strongylurus sis a 324

Tyto alba ne ip eae or 190

Weary ws. uid ate ay 696

ae (Gelasimus) sc RRAEASS 696

—-- annulipes ae ae _ 239, 508

——- dussumieri bi she oy 510

——- marionis ... ee ¥as SMe 509

Uca marionis nitidus

—_——— ee SSSSFSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSFFSeSeSFeeeEeEEEE

- vy. nitidus

Udaspes folus ... aaa

Uliocnemis cassidara

Ulmus ... ‘

Umbonium ie

vestiarum

Upupa epops ...

—r

Urentius echinus

- sentis v3

Urochloa panicoides ...

reptans

-- setigera

——

Urocissa melanocephala

Uroconger lepturus_

Uroloncha malabarica

-- punctulata

Uronema confervicolum 5

Uropeltis macrolepis mahableshwarensis 237

Urtica dioica ...

——-—- parviflora

Utethesia pulchella

Valeriana wallichii

Vallaris heynei

Varuna

——--- litterata.

Varanus bengalensis . Sh

Vaucheria geminata ...

Verbesina alba

- prostrata ...

- pseudo-acmella

Vernonia cinerea

Wrightia tomentosa ...

—_—__—_—- ceylonensis

146, 284, 291, 298

PAGE

239

510

24s 783

: 153

226

698

652

329

238

Mt 607

... 297, 681

... 675, 681

: 681

629

732, 733, 734

: 643

643

909

383

591

880

378

518

.. 405, 518, 530, 538, 543

327

mS 916

... 175, 176

.. 475, 476

175, 176

conyzoides ... 291

Vermetus 699

Vespa cincta 33

Vetiveria lawsoni 677

- zizanioides . M 677

Viburnum 366

—— coriaceum y. _ capitellata .. 843

cotinifolium 2x; ae 375

Vicia hirsuta 95

Vinca rosea 164, 292

Vigna catjang ... 960

Viola biflora 369

-———- cinerea ... 103

——- distans ... 369

——- serpens ... 369

Vipera russellii - 947

Virachola isocrates . 620, 621

Vitex negundo “99, 149, 380, 960

Vitis pedata ine 144

— quadrangularis .... 143

—— trifolia 5 144

—— vinifera ... sts 619

Viviparus bengalensis 254

Volvox aureus 908

Wallago 253

Waltheria indica : 103

Withania somnifera . 284, 2925299

Woodfordia 643

—— floribunda Ae 374

—_________- [frutisosa =] fruticosa .. 374

- Wollea bharadwajae ...

919

“97, 285, 292, 299

INDEX TO SPECIES Iv

PAGE

Xanchus 254

Xancus pyrum 700

Xanthium 710

- strumarium 146, 291, 299

Xantho 427

- (Leptodius) crassimanus 429

—____- (______--) exaratus 428

- exaratus Hays ats 428 |

- hydrophilus ... 428

- (Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus

baccalipes 427, 430, 527, 535

Xylia xylocarpa : : 963

_Xylocopa aestuans 36

-- amethystina 36

-- dissimilis 35, 36

-- latipes 35, 36

--rufescens ... 36

Ypthima baldus baldus 779

- hubneri hubneri 7719

Yucca ... Me — 101

Zanthoxylum alatum: 371

Zea mays 297, 597, 675

Zela zeus : ; 214

Zenkeria elegans 684

Zetides agamemnon agamemnon 777

-- doson axion ... fl

PAGE

Zetides eurypylus cheronus ... 777

—_——-- sarpedon sarpedon ... THE

Zinckenia fascialis 305

—_—_———-- perspectalis 304

Zizeeria Otis otis | 781

trochilus putli 781

294.381. 628, 631, 635, 640,

643, 645, 648, nee 814

143, 153, 155, 160, 288, 620,

626

—___-__— mauritiana ... os Tl S79

——_—— nummularia ... 288, 299

(numularia=) nummularia

oenoplia.. 160

rugosa 93, 105, 283, 284, 285, 962

(xylopora=) xylopyrus

(xyloporus=) xylopyrus

(xylopyra=) xylopyrus

Zizyphus

jujuba

—_—_——— xylopyrus 105, 286, 288, 298

Zoanthus a 694

Zographetus satwa 214

Zootecus insularis a 254 .

Zopoteredo . 345, 671

Zornia diphylla 286, 289, 300

Zosterops palpebrosa be 648

Zygnema sphaerica ce 913

—_—__—_—- ______ f, microspora 910

ii \

> *

‘ ui

5 k

Paes

i: 5

STE

——

3 Je 5 te — teins > aa =

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4 = way

/ ] . jOURNAL OF THE | .

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 54, No. 1

Editors |

SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU,s,J.

DECEMBER 1956

Rs, 15

is... JOURNAL OF THE

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Published bi-annually, containing Original papers and

reviews in all branches of Pure and Applied Zoology

ee ee ee

Annual subscription per volume of two issues:

Foreign: Rs. 22; Inland: Rs. 20.

A few back numbers are also available, subject to prior sale.

A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from

the Honorary Treasurer.

Reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, the (late)

Dr. G. D. Bhalerao, Indian Journal of Helminthology and Prof.

Thapar Sixtieth Birthday Commemoration Volume, 1953, could

also now be had from the Office of the Honorary Treasurer,

Dr. B. S. Chauhan, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12, India.

All orders, remittances and communications regarding above should

be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer.

2 (O10 rose rcanSvcrncice (eS Ee Ste

03090 000 C00 IE ereSereme rele ca tee a0ee

e300 C0000 C000 ee econ Ca ercaer cabo Coorcaorcaercancaercao *

RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY

Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Rev. E. Blatter, s.., and

W. S. Millard. Second edition. Revised and brought up-to-date.

With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text-

figures. Price Rs. 20. © i

(to members Rs. 16).

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and

M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and

numerous text-figures. Price Rs. 22.

|, (to members Rs. 17-8-0).

The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali. 5th (New) Edition.

With 56 coloured plates depicting 224 species, and 22 in mono-

chrome from photographs. Price Rs. 20. |

(to members Rs. 16).

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 1

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL

Parks, ParT III. By EB. P. Gee, M.A., ¢.M.Z.S. (With one coloured and

five black and white plates) ans aes ane vas

NotEs ON SOME Wasps AND BEES (HYMENOPTERA) OF POONA AND THE

WESTERN GuHats. By F. L. Wain, s.s.5.E. (With a plate and 21

figures) ay sek aa 8 a5 na

Ducks UNLIMITED: AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN CEYLON. By

Philip K. Crowe. (With a plate)

CHAPTERS ON THE History OF BoTANY IN INDIA. II. THE ADVANCES,

AND IN PARTICULAR THE PLANT COLLECTING, OF THE THIRTIES AND

FORTIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY. By I. H. Burkill

MaRINE NEMATODES FROM THE Bay oF BENGAL. I. PHASMIDEA. By

Richard W. Timm. (With a plate)... ays

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND 1TS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By N.C. Nair and

G. S. Nathawat — eas sa we Wes

DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM ANB PATTERN IN TWO SPECIES OF

INDIAN HONEYBEES. By K. K. Dixit, M.se. (With two text figures)...

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—WMargaronia indica Saund.

(PYRALIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA). By R.C. Patel, msc.and H. L. Kul-

karny, m.se. (With a plate and a graph)

THE BiotoGy OF Scorpions. By Max Vachon. (With a plate and 17

figures) wae

SomE UseFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND Cuttack, By H. Pattnaik

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CaLcumtta, Part III. By D. G. Sevastopulo,

F.R-E.S.

SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDs OF Mysore. By M. Puttarudriah and

G. P. Chaona Basavanna. ... Son see

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BroLocGy oF THE ComMMOoN ‘TREE

Hoprer’ Otinotus oneratus WaLK. (HOMOPTERA, MREMBRACIDAE) IN

Orissa. By Upendra Chandra Panda and Basanta Kumar Behura.

REVIEWS :— | ;

1, Powaithe Angling Paradise (F.R.G.) tee

The Tigers of Trengganu (B. Basu) ae ei if

Pelican in the Wilderness (R. R.)

The Flamingos: Their Life History and Survival (S.A.)

_ Embryology of Heteromelrus scaber. (M..L. Roonwal)

mn nN PR wo

.-- The early 2 of Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera)

-(P.J.D.) a iesh eb a

PAGE

42°

107

118:

128

140:

153:

~156

- 160

144.

164

166

eG]

169

170

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 1—(cont¢d.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— _

1. Macaque Monkey eating Mushrooms, By M. L. Roonwal (p.171).

2. Lion wv. Tiger. By E.P. Gee (p. 171). 3. Transferring of the Indian Lion

to an additional Locality. By K.S. Lavkumar (p. 173). 4. Wild Elephants

in the Union of Burma. By Tun Yin (p. 175). 5. Alarge pair of Elephant’s

‘Tusks from Burma (With a photo). By Tun Yin (p. 178). 6. Albino

Elephants. By Tun Yin (p.179). 7. Predator and Prey at Salt-licks. By

EK. P. Gee (p. 181). 8. Incubation Period and ‘Mortality Rate’ (?) in a

Brood of the Magpie-Robin [Copsychus saularis (Linn.)]. By N.G. Pillai

(p. 182). 9. Some Notes on the Plumages of Céntyopus sinensis (Stephens).

By Humayun Abdulali (p. 183). 10. The Occurrence of the Pinkbreasted

Parakeet (Pstttacula alexandri) in Debra Dun. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 185).

11. Experiences with Little Ringed-Plover (With a plate). By Loke Wan-

Tho (p. 185). 12. The Dimorphic Egrets. By J. Berlioz (p. 188). 13. Bird

Notes from Kutch. By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 190). 14, Fighting among

Birds. By R. S. P. Bates (p. 191). 15. Bird Migration in India. By Editors

(p. 193). 16. The Changing Scene: Paucity of Bird Life in Jabalpur (M.P.).

By P. V. Beatty (p. 194). 17. Solar Eclipse and Animal Behaviour. By

G. H. Marsden (p. 194), 18. Jumping Snakes. By H. A. N. Medd (p. 195).

19. A Python’s Meal (With a photo). By Tuu Yin (p. 196). 20. Dhaman or

Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) drinking Milk. By J. E. C. Turner (p. 196), 21.

Strange Accident to a Frog (Rana breviceps Schneid.). By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 197). 22. The Spawning of Carps. By J. D. Lovatt (p. 197)

23. On the Occurrence of Mummified Eels in the internal organs of

Polydactylus indicus (Shaw) and Pomadasys sp. By K.H. Mohamed. (p. 199);

24. Occurrence of the Echiuroid Worm J/kedella misakiensis (Ikeda) in

Indian Waters (Gulf of Kutch) (Witha text figure). By P. W. Gideon,

P. K. B. Menon, S. R. V, Rao and K. V. Jose. (p. 201). 25. The unusual

resistance to starvation of Saccharicoccus sacchari (Ckll.). By D. V. Murthy

(p. 202). 26. Some interesting Observations on the Royal Chamber in the

Mound of the Termite Oduntotermes redemanni (Wasmann). By B. Banerjee

(p. 203). 27. Some common ‘Termites of Calcutta. By Barundeb Banerjee

(p. 204). 28. Notes on the Common Black Garden Beetle Laszlianus

neelgherriensis. By (Miss) M. E. Wolfe Murray (p. 206). 29. Zarache

nitidula’F.,a Semilooper Peston Cotton in South India (With a plate).

By S. Venugopal (p. 207). 30. Partial Emergence of the Imagines of

Dragonflies (Odonata) due to the absence of a holding place (Wzth two

figures). By D. R. Krishnan (p.210). 31. Hesperiidae of the Khasi and

Jaintia Hills. By Sir Keith Cantlie (p. 212). 32. Further—Notes and

additions to the List of Butterflies from Bombay and Salsette. By

A. E.G. Best (p. 215). 33. On the phenomenon of Drumming in Egg-laying

Female Butterflies. By Vidyadhar G, Vaidya (p. 216). 34. The Poisonous

Qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. By H. Santapau (p. 218). 35.

Parthenium hysterophorus Linn., a new record for India (With a plate). By

R. Seshagiri Rao (p. 218). 36. Notes on Aerzdes maculosum Lindl.

(With a text figure). By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p. 220). 37. Some

New Plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State (With two plates). By

H. Santapau and D. P. Panthaki(p. 221). 38. China’s Book-like Rock

Formation with 25-million year old Plant Fossils. By Prof. Hsen Hsu Hu

& 225). 36. Wild Life Preservation inIndia. By Tolaram K. Mirchandani

(p. 226).

‘(GLEANINGS eee eee eee eos eoe eee

NotES AND NEws cee eee @eo eee eae eee

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL FIISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE

YEAR ENDING 31ST DECEMBER 1955 ie ees

THe HonorRARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1955

AppENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD

JANUARY TO AUGUST 1956 o oe os.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

CORRECTIONS z

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

PAGE

228

234

235

236

243

245

246

JourRN. BomBay NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLAtE 4

Wild Elephant (makhna), Kaziranga, Assam

Barasingha or Indian Swamp Deer in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh

(BOOS eee Gee)

ee JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1956 VOL 54 No. 1

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

AND NATIONAL PARKS

ey CEE. MEA. ./CoMeZsS

PART III

(With one coloured and 5 black and white plates)

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION vi pad. tee: ae aut an i

RECENT WoRK OF THE INDIAN BoaRD FOR WILD LIFE Ba Bie uh 2

PrRopEeR Lanp Use ESSENTIAL FoR WILD LikE PRESERVATION ae bee 3

SoME POTENTIAL NATIONAL Parks

1. Assam se iN 554 ie ee. Ags 5

2. Madras $545 Ean Pa BAe ah, ae 6

3. Mysore Mi oe 7

4. Saurashtra ae : 8

SoME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE LIONS OF THE GIR FOREST

1. Indian Lion and African Lion 10

2. Different Varieties of Indian Lion a

3. Introduction of African Lions into inden 12

4. Natural Food Supply for the Lion 14

5. Compensation for Livestock killed by Lions fs poo ie

6. Number of Lions to be captured for Introduction into a New Locality goo) tt)

SPORT AND WiLp LIFE PRESERVATION 16

‘HipEsS’ ror Wirtp Lire PHOTOGRAPHERS io By ii Ho Aeon ALE

CONCLUSION 20

REFERENCES 21

IGN dR. O- Di Us" 1,0 N

This paper forms the third of the series, Part I having appeared

in the Society’s Journal, Vol. 51, No. 1 (December 1952), and Part II

in Vol. 52, No. 4 (April 1955). With vat slow but gradual evolution

of properly organised wild life conservation in India, with successive

meetings of the Indian Board for Wild Life and its Executive

Committee, and with more travels on my part around India’s wild

MAR 4

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

life centres, it is inevitable that there should be a succession of these

papers at two- or three-year intervals.

Since writing the last paper, a few places in Assam, Madras, and

Mysore have been re-visited; but’ in particular the famous Gir Forest

of Saurashtra was visited for the first time in January 1956, and

the present paper naturally deals mainly with this most interesting

place and its peculiar problems. ;

RECENT WORK OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE

since Part II of this series was written, the activities of the

Indian Board for Wild Life in connection with national parks and

sanctuaries may be summarised as follows:

The Executive Committee and the Board itself met in Calcutta

in January/February 1955 and discussed the need for clarifying the

general principles that should govern the creation of national parks,

wild life sanctuaries, and protected areas. The Board called attention

to the following points: —

(@j Neat onal Ea tales:

(i) National Parks are areas set apart by an Act of the com-

petent Legislature for permanent preservation. Such areas may have

for their objective the preservation of one or more of the following

features: geological, pre-historical, historical, archaeological, scenic,

faunal, and floral.

(ii) It is not an essential condition of National Parks that there

should be no human intervention. Where it is desired to exclude

human intervention altogether, it may be possible to set apart a

suitable part within the National Park, a sanctum sanctorum which

may receive absolute protection.

(iii) Such parks are not to be created lightly.

(iv) In framing proposals for the constitution of National Parks,

the Board considers it desirable that State Governments should consult

it and avail themselves of the technical knowledge and experience at

its disposal.

(v) The Board recommends further that legislation to be enacted

in various States for the creation and management of National Parks

should follow a common pattern. In order to facilitate this, the

Board will prepare and circulate a model draft bill.

(6) Wild Lite Sanetwar ies:

Wild Life Sanctuaries are areas ordinarily set apart by an Order

of the State Government for the purpose of preserving wild life. The

management of such sanctuaries is adequately dealt with under

Resolution 6 ‘Protection of Nature and Wild Life’ of the Mysore

Session of the Board held in 1952. The Board recommends that

sanctuaries conforming to the standard laid down under Resolution

6 (b) of the Mysore Conference may be constituted as such.

In many States there may be areas where it may be considered

expedient : ! Lo ae a oe EC

(i) to afford special protection to wild life, in order to enable

INDIA*S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 3

species of wild life which are on the verge of extinction to re-establish

themselves ;

(ii) to afford protection to wild life attracted to water impounded

in River Valley Projects and to other irrigation works;

(iii) to afford protection to wild life in and around large towns

and sacred places.

Such areas may be constituted by an order of the Government,

which may also lay down the degree of protection.

The Executive Committee of the Board met at Ootacamund in

May 1955, and among other resolutions resolved to advise the State

Governments that, pending the constitution of any sanctuaries into

national parks, any attempt that might be made to change their

existing character or whittle away their resources in any way should

be guarded against. It also examined the Draft National Parks Bil

clause by clause, and made a number of suggestions to be incorporated.

The Executive Committee again met at Sasan Gir in January 1956

and considered a great number of items dealing with wild life conserva-

tion in general. As regards -wild life sanctuaries and national parks

in particular, it was decided to collect information from all sources

regarding the methods of preventing diseases contracted by wild life

from domestic animals grazing in or near sanctuaries. The Draft

Model Bul for National Parks, as finalised by the Law Ministry, was

again considered before being sent to the State Governments.

In 1955 national parks were created in the following States:

Kanha in Madhya Pradesh, and Shivpuri in Madhya Bharat.

Proper LaNnp UsE ESSENTIAL FOR WILD LIFE PRESERVATION

In most parts of the world nowadays the rapidly increasing human

population, with consequent increasing demand for land for settle-

ment, cultivation, and grazing, presents grave problems. When such

a demand for jand occurs near reserved torests or wild life sanctuaries,

forest officers and wild life conservationists often find it difficult to

convince land-hungry people that it is in the public interest to continue

maintaining these forests and sanctuaries.

Moreover, there is a commonly held idea that wild life is some

thing intangible and abstract, something to be appreciated by the

select few who are able to comprehend the aesthetic, recreational, and

biological value of flora and fauna. Even some educated persons in

high positions in India have been known to exclaim ‘We cannot

afford to keep Kaziranga/Kanha/Gir Forest. Human _ beings are

more important than wild animals. These places must be given up

to settlement and cultivation.’

In such matters one must be realistic: the land-hungry people and

their political leaders can produce facts and figures to support their

case, and so we must be in a position to prove that a good wild life

sanctuary has a greater value to the country as such, rather than

just as an area of land to be opened up for settlement or grazing.

Otherwise, if we cannot show good reason why Kaziranga/Kanha/Gir

Forest should continue to be maintained as wild life sanctuaries or

national parks, then we will sooner or later lose them.

4, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 54

It is really all a matter of proper and effective land use. Land

must, in all places, be put to the best possible use after taking into

consideration each particular case; and it must be carefully considered

whether a sanctuary or national park is more valuable to the country

as a whole if it is maintained as such, or if it is ‘opened up for

settlement, cultivation, and grazing.

As wild life has dwindled and is still dwindling very rapidly, and

as wild life and beautiful unspoilt scenery are a priceless irreplaceable

heritage and a most valuable national asset, it is obvious that

sanctuaries must be safeguarded, even if it may bring some temporary

unpopularity on those who have to enforce such measures.

To get down to rock-bottom facts and figures, I will state the

general position at one of India’s foremost sanctuaries, Kaziranga

in Assam. In recent years several square miles of valuable sanctuary

land within the southern boundary, favourite haunt of rhino, wild

buffalo, and deer, and accessible to visitors even in the rainy reason,

have been opened up to villagers for grazing their tame buffaloes

and cows. This pressure on the sanctuary is increasing, as the

following figures of domestic buffaloes allowed to graze inside the

sanctuary show:

Number of domestic animals

Year allowed to graze inside the sanctuary

1950 100

1954 500

1956 1000

If this rate of encroachment is allowed to continue and if similar

encroachments are allowed in other parts of the sanctuary, with

accompanying cattle-borne diseases spread among the wild animals,

there will be very little left of Kaziranga and its unique fauna in

fifty years’ time.

Now the following figures show the tourist or economic value

of Kaziranga, with consequent revenue for Assam in particular and

for India as a whole:

Visztors from Visitors from

Year abroad India Total

1950-51 25 21 46

1951-52 78 42 120

1952-53 167 106 273

1953-54 172 134 306

1954--55 188 306 494

1955-56 287 616 903

As revenue from the tourist trade is an indirect one, not confined

to one place but spread over the whole country visited, it follows

that for every Re. 1 spent by foreign visitors at Kaziranga about

Rs. 30 or 4o are spent in the rest of India. Therefore for every

Rs. 6,000 (the amount paid by foreign tourists at Kaziranga in

1954-55) spent here, about Rs. 2,10,000 are spent in the rest of

India. And if the increase of popularity of Kaziranga continues at the

(29 “dF + 004d)

‘aiosAyy ‘indipueg ut jueydely Jeysny, pil

were TAT AN!

JouRN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE III,

Mother and baby Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros in Kaziranga,

(Photos 2: Gee)

INDIA°S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 5

above rate, the revenue to Assam and India will be very great indeed

in fifty years’ (ne

It is clear, therefore that the economic value of Kaziranga as a

wild life sanctuary is so important to Assam and to India that this

piece of land (166 square miles) should be preserved inviolate with

sacrosanct boundaries as a national park. All possible steps should

be taken so that the local surplus village population with their

increasing cattle should be given land and grazing facilities elsewhere,

or else the numbers of their cattle reduced.

So far, then, from not being able to afford to keep Kaziranga/

Kanha/Gir Forest, we cannot afford to lose such places.

This very same problem occurs all over India, and the case of

Kaziranga is duplicated in most other States. In fact it is found

all over the world; and as George Petrides (1955) has pointed out in

his admirable ‘Report on Kenya’s Wild Life Resources and the

National Parks’, Kenya’s wild life and the tourist trade brought by

it are of the utmost value to the country as a source of considerable

national income. He has established that improper land use is chiefiy

responsible for the diminution of Kenya’s wild life, and that complete

wild life habitats should be carefully preserved.

It is perhaps not fully realised in India that the potential value

of her wild life as_a source of revenue from tourists is very great

indeed. Wild life is an important industry, even in the U.S.A. In

Kenya wild life ranks as the third most important industry after

coffee and sisal. Tourists who go to see, and occasionally shoot, wild

life in Kenya spend about four crores of rupees annually there. Each

year there are about 1,00,000 visitors to the Nairobi National Park

alone to see its wild life.

Wild life is an industry as tangible as tea, oil, jute and coal, for

which land is required to be set aside in select areas for the benefit

of the whole country for all time.

SOME POTENTIAL NATIONAL PARKS

The following places, all potential national parks of India, were

visited by the writer since the previous paper was written, and observa-

tions were made as under:

tr. Assam. In December 1954 the new ‘Tourist Lodge at

Kaziranga was opened to visitors. Specially constructed for visitors

to the sanctuary, this five-roomed ten-bedded rest house has modern

sanitation and electric light. It is fully equipped in every respect for

visitors, who need now bring nothing with them in the way of

bedding, food, servants etc. A new tree-top house has recently been

constructed north of Hulalpat Camp, but I have not yet had the

opportunity of visiting this place. A set of eight picture postcards

depicting wild life in Assam has been printed, tooo of each, for

sale to visitors. This is an encouraging step in the right direction.

A rest house has also been built at the foot of the hills near

the Manas River in the North Kamrup (Manas) Sanctuary. When

the new access road, aligned to avoid erosion by the river, becomes

consolidated and when the rest house is fully equipped, this sanctuary

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

should be a most attractive place for visitors. No more has been

heard of the proposal for requesting the Bhutan Government to create

a sanctuary on their side of the border, adjacent to the Assam sanc-

tuary. It is to be hoped that a move in this direction can be made

before it is too late.

Unfortunately no progress has been made with the draft Assam

National Parks Bill, by which it was hoped that by now these two

fine wild life sanctuaries of Assam would have gained the status of

national parks.

A small one-and-a-half-square-mile wild life sanctuary was created

at Garampani in 1952; and since poaching has been reduced at these

seven Salt-licks and hot-springs the number of wild animals and birds

to be seen there has increased considerably. Considering that this

area is famous for butterflies and plant life as well as for wild life,

Garampani Wild Life Sanctuary deserves full attention for strict

protection and development.

2. Madras. I re-visited Mudumalai Sanctuary on the afternoon

of May t1oth and morning of 11th 1955, staying the night at the

Kargudi Rest House. I must congratulate the Madras Government

on a considerable all-round improvement in the administration of this

place since my first visit made in 1950. The Rest House had been

improved and was cleanly kept. A separate ‘game staff’ had been

provided purely for wild life preservation in the sanctuary, and

consists of one game warden, one assistant game warden, two forest

guards and two watchers. ‘This staff works within the Forest Depart-

ment, with no forestry duties to perform, and thus is able to

concentrate on the elimination of poaching and the observation and

protection of wild life. This is just the kind of administration required

for sanctuaries in India under the present policy of not having a

separate wild life department.

There was no fee for cameras, and this is a wise policy, especially

as the forest and undergrowth are very thick and photography cor-

respondingly difficult. I obtained no photographs during my two

visits, although my three cameras were held ready all the time.

The extensions to the sanctuary, I understand, are still in the

proposal stage, and shooting in these blocks has not yet been stopped.

As I was unable to visit these parts I am unable to comment on

the desirability or otherwise of these extensions; but in general

it is considered that a larger wild life sanctuary is preferable to a

smaller one, provided it can be effectively administered. —

I make the following suggestions, not in a critical sense but as ideas

for the further improvement of the sanctuary:

1. As the forest is very thick with an annual average rainfall of

65” compared with 38” at Bandipur, and as the viewing of wild

life is difficult with photography still more difficult, I think the

possibility might be considered of creating a few grassy areas or

maidans of, say, 200 or 300 yards in width, in suitable areas acces-

sible to visitors, where wild life could be viewed in the open, as at

Kanha in Madhya Pradesh.

2. Salt-licks and water-holes could be made at these open places,

so that wild life can be easily located, seen, and photographed,

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 7

3. More motorable link roads would be a great advantage, with

Bandipur as the ideal.

4. Exploitation of timber and plantations of young trees might be

eliminated in the vicinity of the Rest House and the parts chiefly

visited by visitors, so that the conditions of an ‘inner sanctuary’

might be fulfilled.

5. At least 75% of the wild dogs should be destroyed. I saw wild

dogs on three occasions in only two visits, and on one of these

occasions a chital was being chased.

6. The charge for a night at the bungalow could be increased

from Re. o-8-o to about Rs. 2 or Rs. 3, and more amenities provided

such as a filter and drinking water.

7- The compound of the bungalow could be improved with flowering

trees, shrubs and plants (preferably local indigenous flora, rather thai

the ordinary flowers found in gardens in towns).

8. A pamphlet describing the sanctuary and its wild life, with map

and illustrations, would be very advantageous.

9g. I noticed new signboards, with ‘Mudumalai Game Sanctuary’

and the title ‘Game Warden’, were being used. The word ‘game’

could in all cases well be replaced by the words ‘wild life’, in

accordance with the general policy adopted in India.

3. Mysore. I re-visited Bandipur Sanctuary on the afternoon

of 12th and morning of 13th May 1955. Coming here immediately

after Mudumalai, I was struck by the difference in vegetation etc.

With an annual average rainfall of about 38”, instead of 65” at

Mudumalai, the forest was sparse, stunted and without much under-

growth at this time of the year, making conditions ideal for viewing

and photographing wild life, in most photogenic surroundings.

My visit on 12th was unfortunately marred by the continuous

breaking down of the Forest Department lorry which was taking me

round. A herd of about 30 ‘bison’ was observed, but they may have

been frightened by the misfiring of the lorry engine and were very

wary. No photographs were obtained.

The morning visit on elephant-back was better, and in addition

to chital and peafowl I saw and photographed a fine tusker elephant.

Some suggestions for the even further improvement of the sanctuary

were made by me in December 1952, and to these I would add the

following :

1. The right vehicle for visitors to see the sanctuary from, I think,

is not a lorry but a Land-Rover with a station-wagon or truck-like

body, with a trapdoor in the roof for photography. In East Africa

I tried out every kind of vehicle, including a Bedford Hunting Truck

and Land-Rovers with truck-like bodies and trapdoor (‘sunshine’)

roofs. The latter were the best, and could seat 6 people comfortably,

and are cheap on petrol. I used this kind of vehicle in tours in

Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika, leaving the road and going right

across country at times.

2. | saw a ‘tiger block’ with a sandy path being prepared all

round it, presumably for tracking down a tiger, adjacent to the

sanctuary boundary. I hope that tigers are not being shot in the

adjacent forests. ;

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEST. SOCIEDY. Vol. 54

3. The tiger, which is the most spectacular of beasts in India,

and possibly the world, is the very animal most sought after by

visitors to see and photograph. If any sanctuary in India can ‘Jay

on’ a tiger for visitors to see, this will be the sanctuary or national

park par excellence. Possibly some artificial means would have to

be employed, viz. keeping a tame or semi-tame tiger in an enclosed

area, or feeding wild ones regularly (with ‘doped’ meat?), or even

making a natural-looking enclosure with a moat all round as in

the Mysore and Travancore Zoos, only larger in extent.

There might be an objection that such a tame or semi-tame tiger

would appear unnatural, while the ‘purists’ might object simply on

principle. But how otherwise can we show our tiger to visitors?

The vast majority of the public, who have few chances of visiting

sanctuaries, would welcome such a step. And after all, many of the

lions of the national parks of Africa have for various reasons (among

which man-given meat can sometimes be included) become semi-tame

and display themselves openly to the many thousands of visitors who

come from all parts of the world to see them, thus bringing in a

substantial revenue to the country and giving a fillip to the cause of

wild life preservation.

In this connection it is interesting to note that Champion (1939)

expressed the conviction that the tigers of the Hailey National Park

would in due course ‘carry on their daily life regardless of the

presence of human beings in the way that lions are now to be seen

doing in the national parks of Africa’. As they have not done so,

then other means should now be tried so that these fine creatures

can be seen and enjoyed by visitors.

4.Saurashtra. A meeting of the Executive Committee of

the Indian Board for Wild Life at Sasan Gir from January 18th to

20th 1956 gave me the long awaited opportunity of seeing the famous

Gir Forest and its lions. Two extra days were very kindly allowed

by the hospitable Government of Saurashtra, making a total of five

days altogether. Under the personal and knowledgeable guidance of

the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar we were shown lions; and all the

available information was given to us. Thus by studying the material

that has been written about the Gir and its lions, by listening to all

that was told us by our hosts the Rajpramukh, the Minister, the

Conservator, and others, and supplemented by personal observation,

it was possible even in the short space of five days to come to a few

general conclusions about what must be one of the most complex

and interesting wild life centres of India. ey

It was particularly interesting for me to see the Indian lion in

its habitat, after my visit to East Africa where the African lion 1s

one of the main attractions.

I will confine myself to only a few broad generalisations about

the Gir, and will avoid touching on such aspects as description,

history, census, forest operations, etc., which have been so ably dealt

with by others. In fact most of my observations will purposely be

of such a general nature, as rather to be the basis of future and more

detailed investigations than attempts at passing final verdicts, which

INDIA’?S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 9

can only be arrived at after very much more thorough and prolonged

field work.

The first thing that struck me was that here was a first-class potential

national park, which did not enjoy the status even of a wild life

sanctuary! At the time of writing this paper the Gir is a region

consisting partly of Reserved Forest and partly of village settlements,

cultivation, and grazing areas, through the whole of which runs a

railway and some roads. It was explained to me that as there were

villages, cultivation, and grazing of domestic livestock in the lon

areas, therefore they had not been created a national park.

If this is so, then this must surely be the result of a misunder-

standing. For while it is true that the generally accepted definition

of an ideal faunal national park is an area free from human settle-

ments etc., it should not follow that because there happen to be some

human settlements in an area therefore that area cannot become a

national park! Many of the world's finest faunal national parks

have villages and grazing of livestock inside them, such as the

Nairobi National Park in Kenya, the Serengeti National Park in

Tanganyika, the Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, and the

Kafue National Park in N. Rhodesia.

For more detailed examples, there are 198 Somalis living in the

4o-square-mile Nairobi Park, with 200 head of cattle. In the 5,500-

square-mile Serengeti Park there are approximately 2,000 Masai and

others living in the park, with their 3,00,000 head of cattle, sheep,

and goats. In the 756-square-mile Queen Elizabeth Park there are

villages containing about 2;000 inhabitants, though their livestock is

few in numbers due to tsetse fly.

It is obvious that where there is good grazing for wild herbivorous

animals, there is also good grazing for domestic animals, with

accompanying human settlements. This is the big problem in East and

Central Africa: how to reconcile the two diverse objectives of wild life

preservation and safeguarding the interests of the indigenous and

sometimes nomadic human populations.

If such villagers can be moved by rehabilitation, or if their villages

can be excised from the proposed national park, then so much the

better. But if they must be included, and if for political. and other

reasons the grazing by their livestock cannot be prevented, then at

least this can be restricted, controlled, and regulated after a careful

study of the conditions and in conformity with a wise policy of

effective land use.

In this respect we can learn an interesting lesson from East Africa.

When, for example, the Serengeti National Park of Tanganyika was

created, it was laid down that the rights of the indigenous local

inhabitants would be safeguarded. But these ‘rights’ were never

defined. Consequently these indigenous inhabitants can now at any

time hold a meeting and demand something as a right, which it is

very difficult for Government to oppose. Moreover, more people may

come into a park from outside and cattle may increase enormously

in numbers, making subsequent control extremely difficult. Further,

the habits of the villagers may change: for example the Masai in

East Africa never used to hunt wild animals, but since intermarrying

with other tribes has taken place some of them have now taken to

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

hunting, with consequent detriment to the wild life of the national

parks.

When the Queen Elizabeth Park of Uganda was being created in

1952-54 there was some opposition, and the 2,o00 villagers resident

within the boundaries of the proposed park were allowed to remain.

But regulations ensure that no cash crops are allowed to be grown

by them, and only sufficient cultivation is allowed to be done for the

production of their own food. No hunting is allowed. A fishing

village area was excised entirely from the park.

From all the foregoing facts, then, it follows that the Gir Forest

could be created a national park with some, if not all, of the maldharis

and others remaining there with their livestock, provided that suitable

legislation is enacted clearly defining their rights, demarcating the

boundaries of their land for cultivation and grazing, regulating the

numbers and types of their livestock, ensuring that precautions are

taken against cattle-borne diseases, prohibiting further inroads of men

and livestock from outside, and so on.

In fact the villages in the Gir, the maldharis, and their beasts can

even be regarded as a picturesque attraction of a future national

park, providing interesting subjects for sightseeing and photograph-

ing by visitors.

There is not a shadow of a doubt that the Gir Forest and its

lions, as well as its other wild animal and bird life, would rank

as one of the best national parks of India. Its close proximity to

Bombay, the threshold of India’s tourism, is an additional attraction.

It is only one-and-a-half hour’s flying from Bombay to Keshod and

one-and-a-half hour’s motoring time from Keshod to Sasan Gir, where

a palatial Guest House with numerous well-equipped rooms awaits

a regular stream of tourists and visitors. These potential tourists

and visitors do not come only because there is no publicity,

no provision for their reception, and no open-for-all arrangements to

show them the lions.

A further attraction to the Gir as a national park should be the

new one-and-a-half square mile lake due to be formed by the dam

over the Hiran River. In fact a veritable ‘Periyar’ in the heart of the

lion country is about to come into existence, with the two-fold

advantage of perenniai drinking water for wild life and. scenic beauty

for human visitors.

SoME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE LIONS OF THE GIR FOREST

tr. Indian Lion and African Lion. A <caretulicom-

parison of lions as seen in my cine films of East Africa and of the

Gir reveals that the Indian lion is perhaps a little stockier, a little

shaggier, less whitish in the underparts, less dark in the head and

neck, has a bigger tuft on its tail and has a mane not quite as big.

The common notion that the Indian lion is a maneless or mangy

beast is quite erroneous. I was very impressed with the lions which

I saw in the Gir, which numbered seventeen in four days of looking

for them. Four lions with reasonably good manes were seen, and

the lionesses were fine animals.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Typical thorny scrub on the fringe of the Gir Forest. Two of a pride of five Lions

can be seen on a ‘kill’, while a kite circles overhead in anticipation.

A young male Lion, with mane starting to grow, comes out to a ‘kill’.

(Photos : E. P. Gee)

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE,

A hurriedly constructed ‘hide’ for photographing lions. (This is the lions’ view

of the ‘hide .)

A young adult male Lion photographed from the above ‘hide’. [ts mane has not

yet developed.

(Photos; E. BP. Gee)

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 11

Regarding size of manes of maned lions, it has often been pointed

out that the presence of thick undergrowth, thorny scrub, etc. in

India is a deterrent to the growing of big manes. It is claimed that

the manes of Indian lions get too much ‘combing’ and are con-

sequently smaller than those of their African cousins. R. I. Pocock,

(1939), however, does not agree with this. He says: ‘This notion that

the combing action of thorns accounts for the scantiness of manes

in many lions has often been thoughtlessly quoted with approval as

supplying a satisfactory explanation of the fact. There is not a word

of truth in it. The most that thorns could achieve would be keep'ng

the mane tidy by the removal of dead, moulted hair, which might for

a time adhere to the growing mane before being shed. They could

no more affect its potential luxuriance than the daily use of a comb

can reduce the quantity of living hair on a woman’s head’. |

I feel myself that further field investigations and zoological garden

study are needed to decide this matter. A possible explanation of

the slightly smaller manes found on Indian lions could be found in

the fact that their Gir Forest habitat, which is only about 200 to

goo ft. above sea level, has a much hotter climate; whereas in

Africa the lions range over comparatively cool uplands of 3,500 to

6,000 ft.

Another reason for the lack of lions with really good manes in

the Gir may be found in the custom in the past for V.I.Ps. to come

and shoot. Up till quite recently, a quota of about four lions were

officially allowed to be shot annually, and as a maneless or poorly-

maned lion is no trophy, only the lions with the largest manes got

shot, inevitably resulting in a stock of lions with smaller manes.

Fortunately this custom has now ended, and Indian lions are fully

protected by the Government of Saurashtra. It is to be hoped that

if any reduction in numbers is ever contemplated in the future, then

only the aged and sickly lions and lionesses will be destroyed by persons

specially deputed for the job by -the authorities in charge of adminis-

tering the area.

Wynter-Blyth (1956) considers that the number of lions has already

increased sufficiently to necessitate a reduction in their numbers, in

order to prevent overstocking within the limits of the Gir Forest and

to counter inevitable complaints from the maldharis. With his great

experience of the area he is most probably right in this. But his

suggestion that five or six permits per annum to shoot lions might

be given as an experimental measure is fraught with the very danger

referred to above, unless such permits are given only for lions

outside the Gir Forest and only for lions without good manes.

Pew memen tay arieties of Indian Lion. The Jam

Sahib of Nawanagar, whose knowledge of the Gir lions is only

equalled by his intense interest in them, has informed me that there

are two distinct varieties of lions in the Gir. These are described

as (i) the ‘donkey’ variety, more vertical-shaped, bigger, fiercer, and

which go in prides of up to six in number, and (ii) the ‘waler’ variety,

more horizontal-shaped, smaller, better natured, and which go in prides

of up to fourteen in number,

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Ere

The Conservator of Forests, Saurashtra, has also informed me

that there are ‘two distinct sizes of lions in Gir Forests’. But I

cannot find this theory substantiated in any journals or books, and

consider that this would be a most interesting subject for study in

the field. Any evidence to prove or disprove this theory would have

to be supported by measurements or photographs of living animals.

Live cOCmMoet Om OmNvr rw CA mi voOms Tia to Lindiva.

It is known that three pairs of African lions were imported from

Africa into India (in about 1916) by the Maharaja of Gwalior,' but

these were quickly shot out owing to their lack of fear of human

beings after a short spell of captivity. As Gwalior, which is SSE.

of Delhi, is a very considerable distance from the Gir Forest, it is

presumed that there can have been no mixture of African blood as

far as the Gir lions are concerned. I am personally against the

introduction of African lions into any part of India, and would prefer

the Indian lions to remain as ‘pure’ as possible.

I do not think that any African lions have ever been brought into

the Gir, but am indebted to R. W. Burton and E. C. Apcar for

drawing my attention to the following newspaper report which alleges

that this was in fact done about the year 18g0.

According to an article by Lovat Fraser published in a newspaper

in India (about 1924?), some African lions were alleged to have been

introduced into the Gir prior to the shoot arranged (about the year

1890?) for H.R.H. the Duke of Clarence, elder brother of (later)

King George V.

This newspaper article reads: ‘When the Duke of Clarence’s visit

was announced the Junagadh authorities, fearing that he might not

get good sport, secretly obtained a number of African lions which

were brought across the Indian Ocean in native sailing vessels and

turned loose in the Gir. They multiplied amazingly, they were far

more formidable than the Indian lions, and they had big manes’.

According to the article, it was not until about 1908 or 1909 that

the news of the reported introduction of these lions from Africa

leaked out. In 1906, the article continues: ‘Lord Lamington, then

Governor of Bombay, and several others went to the Gir to shoot

At the first day’s shoot three lions and a lioness were killed.

Lord Lamington, Colonel Kennedy and Sir James du Boulay each got

a lion. Major Carnegy, the local Political Agent, was attacked by a

wounded lioness and instantly killed, whereupon the camp was broken

up... The lions all had large manes and were much larger than

Indian lions. Sir James du Boulay’s lion measured 11 ft., and

Colonel Kennedy’s was 10 ft. 10 in. I was present at the shoot and

noted the measurements myself. The manes and measurements

produced much mystification. It was not until two or three years later

that the mystery was privately explained.’ (Then follows the passage

quoted in the previous paragraph.)

The belief that ‘they multiplied amazingly’ is easily explained:

the Jam Sahib has informed me that in those days the Nawabs

‘ See the note ‘Experiments in implanting African lions into Madhya Bharat’ by

Col. Kesri Singh, JBNHS, 53: 465—Eps.

INDIA*S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 13

of Junagadh used purposely to let it be known officially that the

number of lions in the Gir was very low, about 12 or 13 only. This

was because every British Viceroy, Commander-intChief, Governor

of Bombay, Indian Princes, and others down to persons of less

importance were in the habit of longing to be invited to shoot a lion.

Even Lord Curzon at the turn of the century was informed that there

were only about 12 lions left, and therefore he refrained from shooting

and encouraged the preservation of the lions instead. Actually there

must have been about 100 lions in existence in those days, if not

more. So naturally anyone actually going there and shooting lions

would be surprised at the real number of these beasts in the Gir.

The belief that the ‘African’ or ‘mixed African-Indian’ lions were

‘far more formidable than the Indian lions’ may to a certain extent

be discounted by the following historical fact: M. A. Wynter-Blyth

and R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (1950) have pointed out that the years

1899 and 1900 were famine years in the Gir, and that in rgo01-1904

‘almost all the game in the forest had died off, and the lions .

were living on the edge of the Gir and preying soiely on cattle with

occasional human victims.’ And that subsequently (about 1904-

1911) ‘the habits of the lions underwent a profound change, for

never again are they heard of as a menace to human life. This was

in all probability the result of a return to normal conditions after

the famine years.’

The record-breaking measurements given above are even more

easily explained in L. L. Fenton’s book ‘The Rifle in India’, where the

author says: ‘At the time of Lord Lamington’s shoot in the Gir,

when Captain Carnegy was so unfortunately killed by a wounded

lion which three of the party were engaged in following up, it was

stated that one or two lions which were then shot measured over

11 ft. in length, but it afterwards transpired that the measurements

were taken after the animals had been skinned, and they are,

therefore, obviously of no value.’ As L. L. Fenton was present at the

shoot in question as an organiser, his explanation of these outsize

measurements can be taken as the correct one.

Another explanation, if such were needed, of such ‘record’

measurements is this: I am informed that there used to be a system

of measuring lions for V.I.Ps. in the Gir which consisted of pulling:

out the front legs and measuring from the front claws up to the nose

and round all the curves.

I have enquired from the appropriate authorities in Saurashtra as

to the possibility of there being any truth in the newspaper report

of African lions being brought by dhows to the Gir. Not only do

there appear to be no records or even legends of it ever having

happened, but also the report can be discounted for the following

reasons:

(i) There was no real shortage of lions in the Gir at the time.

(The official low ‘estimate’ of 12 or so has been previously explained.)

(ii) The voyage from East Africa to Junagadh by dhow takes at

least two months, and as no dhow would attempt the voyage till the

monsoon was over lions could not be brought in time for cold weather

shoots.

id JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIBIY, Vol. 64

(ii) A very large meat supply ‘on the hoof’ would have been

necessary, making such a project almost impossible.

(iv) Even if such ‘imported’ African lions were let loose after

being caged during a sea journey of at least two months in a dhow,

they would have quickly fallen victims to the Gir lions.

A possible clue to the start of such a rumour may lie in the

following extract from L. L. Fenton’s book concerning the shoot for

the Duke of Clarence: ‘At daybreak I had a visit from the Dewan,

who .. . came over to suggest that, rather than that the Prince

should be allowed to leave the Gir without bagging a lion, two lions

which had been sent out from Junagadh during the night, confined

in cages or carts, should be set free in the jungles, and then be

driven out to be shot . . . Of course, neither Colonel Kennedy

nor I would entertain the Dewan’s suggestion for a moment

So the matter was dropped, and the lions were sent back to their

home in Junagadh. I have often wondered since how the latter

would have acted had they been set free.’

As Nea tur ale ood) Sip piliy tomatic, eano meet aw as

reported to us that many of the wild deer and antelope, which in

addition to domestic livestock form the food supply of the lions, had

died of foot-and-mouth disease. It was, therefore, suggested that

additional nilgai might be captured and imported from elsewhere.

This would surely be a very costly venture.

Probably the following steps to increase the natural food supply

for the lions would be adequate:

(i) Reduce the incidence of cattle-borne diseases by strictly cons

trolled prophylactic measures, and by the prohibition of more domestic

animals being brought in from outside.

(ii) Reduce or prevent any possible shooting of deer and antelope

by sportsmen and poachers. |

(iii) Put an end to the publicising of wild pig (a valuable lion

food) as vermin to be destroyed on all possible occasions.

(iv) Reduce the number of panthers which account for a large

number of deer, antelope and pig.

5. Com pie m spat tO My OG ae ie stro len oon le deamon

Lions. A problem in the Gir Forest and its surroundings is the

payment of compensation liable to be claimed by maldharis and others

for domestic animals killed by the protected lions. While it may be

argued that people who choose to live and graze their cattle close

to the habitat of carnivora in order to get good cheap grazing must

face the risk of losing some of their stock without compensation,

there are other aspects of the problem which must here be taken

into account, e.g., the historical precedent set by the former Ruler,

the Nawab of Junagadh.

My own humble suggestion on this point is that as such ‘kills’

by lions are exactly what are wanted by tourists and visitors to the

Gir, a proportion of the revenue obtained from visitors could be

allocated as part compensation to the maldharis who lose buffaloes

and cattle. In other words, when a cow or buffalo is killed by a

lion, the owner should immediately report the matter to the appropriate

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 15

quarter. Visitors could then be rushed out to the spot (if it is the

right time of the year) to observe and photograph the lions from

a ‘hide’, on payment of duly prescribed fees. A substantial revenue

would ensue, a portion of which could be earmarked as part com-

pensation to the persons who have suffered loss of livestock.

yum ber ot! Lions to be Captured for lnt'r o-

decwon into a New Locality. “It is proposed to catch

and move a few Indian lions from their present one and only refuge

in the Gir Forest to an additional locality within their former range

and with suitable conditions of environment. First of all a small

area of Tikamgarh in Vindhya Pradesh was contemplated for this

venture. More recently it has been provisionally agreed to catch and

transfer a few lions on an experimental basis to the Chakia Forest

south-east of Banaras in Uttar Pradesh, where conditions are reported

to be favourable for the re-introduction of these animals. If the ex-

periment takes place and succeeds, it may be repeated in one or two

other parts of India where lions formerly existed, where local present-

day conditions are suitable and where natural food supply is available.

In selecting an area for the re-introduction of lions firstly the supply

of natural food (deer, antelope, pig etc.) must be adequate; secondly

the area should be free of tigers which would obviously resent and

oppose the invasion of their territory by other large carnivorous

animals and thirdly the villagers and other members of the public in

the vicinity should be prepared by suitable publicity beforehand so that

they would welcome and assist the experiment. 3

A problem now confronting us is this: when the time comes to

catch and transport a few lions to, say, Chakia Forest, how many

should we transport? At first we thought of a pair of lions, or two

pairs. Then it was pointed out by a correspondent that perhaps the

ratio should be one lion to two lionesses, and that two lions and four

lionesses would be the ideal number to transport.

Again more recently it has been maintained that as lions live in

family groups, a complete family should be caught and sent to the

new home. But what should be the future breeding prospects of

such a family party, except that grown-up male cubs would have to

pair with their mother and sisters, if and when the father allowed

them to do so? I felt myself that two young adult lions and four

young adult lionesses from different family groups in the Gir Forest

might be the best answer. And then let them sort themselves out in

their new home. | 7

This problem was referred to several authorities on wild life in

Africa, and the following replies have been received. Keith Caldwell,

late of the Kenya and Uganda Game Departments, writes: ‘I am

strongly of the opinion that re-stocking should be done, if at all

possible, by moving one or more complete families. I don’t think

there is any danger of damage being done by ‘inbreeding’ and I fancy

that, as they grow more mature, the family will split up. The ideal

would I think be two families. If two young males and four females

are moved may 1 advise that they are all taken at the same time

and let out together. If this is done they are far more likely to

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY TNA IC AIe at Sd eS O'CiE Teas Vola

settle down without fighting than if they are’ liberated in their new

homes at different times in different places. In this latter case

serious battles are most likely to take place when the wanderers meet

each other !’

C. R. S, Pitman, formerly Game Warden of Uganda, writes to say

that he agrees with the suggestion of ‘two young adult lions and

four young adult lionesses from different family groups’. R. Bigalke,

Director of the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, writes:

‘I favour the plan of taking two lhons and four lionesses from different

groups.’

R. A. Critchley, President of the Game Preservation and Hunting

Association of Northern Rhodesia, writes: ‘We, ourselves, think 2

young males and 4 females is the best combination.’

M. H. Cowie, Director of the Royal National Parks of Kenya, in

an interesting letter on the subject of moving lions into a new

locality, considers that it should be done in two distinct phases as

follows: Jirst Phase. One adult lion, at least two adult lionesses,

and as many of their half-grown cubs as possible should be moved.

It does not matter if the animals are related. If more than one

adult lion is moved, they are likely to fight and disrupt the pride.

Second phase. When the half-grown cubs have grown up and stari

hunting and courting, then a second adult lion should be introduced,

if possible more virile than the first one, so that it can take over

domination of the young pride. The old lionesses are likely to accept

the original lion, while the young lionesses are likely to prefer the

newly introduced lion. This will give the required new blood.

After carefully analysing the above opinions from experts on lions

and conditions in Africa, the following would appear to me to be a sate

summarisation of the principles which might govern the moving of

lions in India:

(i) Only one adult lion, preferably a good maned specimen, should

be moved with the first ‘batch’.

(ii) The first ‘batch’, in addition to the adult lion, should include

two lionesses, and if possible some of their half-grown or three-quarter

grown cubs (preferably female).

(iii) All the above animals in the first ‘batch’ should be released

at the same time and in the same place, with live food tied up for

them.

(iv) At a later stage, when the grown-up cubs (either introduced

with the first ‘batch’ or born subsequently) start to hunt and court,

a second adult virile and maned lion should be introduced.

SPORT AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION

It is important that we should recognise the exact status of the

sportsman when considering measures for wild life preservation in

India. By ‘sportsman’ I mean, of course, the bona fide sportsman

who not only scrupulously observes the game laws and shooting rules

in respect of close seasons, protected animals, reserved forests, and

so on, but who also shoots only a limited number of game birds and

animals. The so-called ‘sportsman’ who is a butcher, or who is in

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 17

any way unscrupulous, is a menace to wild life conservation almost

as much as the poacher is.

It is universally admitted by all those concerned with conservation

of wild life throughout the world that the bona fide sportsman is one

of the best friends of wild life. For by occasionally tracking and

. shooting game within the law, he becomes well versed in jungle lore

and jungle craft and develops a knowledge and love of wild animals

and birds not always obtainable by the man who is purely an observer

or naturalist. The bona fide sportsman who later in life gives up all

shooting for the camera, binoculars, and notebook is usually one of

the ablest protagonists of wild life conservation.

It is universally admitted, also, that the presence of a bona fide

sportsman in a forest is the most effective deterrent against poachers.

Obviously no sportsman who has paid for and taken out licenses,

permits, and reservations in a Forest Block is going to tolerate any

kind of interference from poachers during his shoot. And even if

there has been any poaching previous to his shoot he will soon hear

about it and ‘raise hell’. For this reason poachers usually give sports-

men a very wide berth. And for this reason many experienced

sportsmen all over India have been made Honorary Forest Officers in

order to assist the Forest Departments of States in the preservation ot

Riaiclelie rat 3.

- At the meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board

for Wild Life held at Ootacamund in May 1955 it was agreed that

Game, Shooting, and Fishing Associations play a very important role,

and that real sportsmen in any area are an asset in the preservation

of wild life. Consequent upon this, the Secretary of the Board in

October 1955 addressed a letter to all Heads of State Forest Depart-

ments to the effect that Game Associations and Natural History Societies

should be encouraged.

And yet, in spite of all the foregoing evidence that bona fide sports-

men are an asset to the country in general and to the Forest Depart-

ment in particular, how often do we hear of sportsmen being rebuffed,

of sportsmen receiving no replies to their letters, of sportsmen not

being issued with shooting and fishing permits after payment of the

usual fees! Worse still, many sportsmen and naturalists have written

helpful reports about poaching, bombing of rivers for fish, and other

illegalities to the Forest Officers concerned, and have received not

only no thanks for their efforts, but not even an acknowledgement !

It is essential to preserve the wild life outside as well as inside

our sanctuaries and national parks; and no real progress can be made

in India until full encouragement and recognition is given to genuine

sport and genuine sportsmen throughout the country.

‘HIpEs’ FoR Wiip Lire PHOTOGRAPHERS

Much has been written by eminent bird photographers on their

technique and on the types of photographic ‘hides’ used by them;

but very little has been written on ‘hides’ for animal photographers.

Nowadays roughly three out of every four visitors to a wild life

sanctuary or national park carry a camera of some kind. They

obviously want photos of wild life, and this requirement of visitors

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

must be satisfactorily met if the wild life tourist trade in India is to

be efficiently developed. And yet very few of the staff of our sanct-

uaries understand even the elementary requirements of an average

photographer.

A few generalisations, therefore, on the subject of photographic

‘hides’ would not be out of place in this paper. Visitors can usually ~

obtain some photographs from a motor car or riding elephant. But

if more time is available, most visitors would welcome a quiet

pleasant day or half day in a ‘hide’, especially if the ‘hide’ over~-

looks a water-hole or salt-lick. From such ‘hides’ wild animals can

be observed coming out and towards one, instead of running away

as they usually do when they see a human being. A glimpse can be

obtained of them behaving naturally, feeding, drinking, courting, and

so on.

I have seen ‘hides’ specially made for photographers in Kaine

Hailey National Park, Kanha, Bandipur, Gir Forest, and other places.

They were all made by the Forest Department with the best of

intentions, but from most of them no good photos could possibly

have been taken. Some were sited in unsuitable places from where wild

life would be far too far away, if seen at all. Some were fixed in

trees as high as 25 ft. or 30 ft. from the ground, and from these

only a bird’s eye view of wild life could have been obtained. Some

were admirably set up on the ground, but were too thick, possessed

no peep-holes through which the photographer could see, and the

branches and vegetation had not been cleared in front.

The first requirement of a photographic ‘hide’ is that it must be

as close as possible to where an animal is likely to appear. Even

with a 13.5 cm. telephoto lens and a 35 mm. camera, a chital would

appear quite small at 60 ft. It would make a better picture at 30 ft.

The next requirement is that a ‘hide’ must be as low as possible

to the ground while still giving a clear view of the subject. Animals

photographed from elephant-back, when the camera lens would be

about 12 ft. or 15 ft. above the ground level, would have a semi-bird’s-~

eye-view appearance. If the undergrowth and grass permit, a ‘hide’

constructed on the actual ground would be the best, so that the

camera lens would be about 3 ft., or 4 ft. from the ground. If there

is too much undergrowth and grass, then the lowest height possible in

order to see over the vegetation in front would be the best height

to photograph from, say 6 ft. to 10 ft. Above that height one would

get a picture in which one is looking too much down on the animal. .

On the other hand, where there are dangerous animals about,

such as rhinoceros, rogue elephant, man-eating Carnivora, and so on,

then the hide: would have to be either protected by a ditch 7 ft.

wide all round it (for rhino and elephant), or placed in a tree just

out of reach of the dangerous animals, say 15 ft. up. In this respect

however, wild animals in general eed not necessarily be regarded

with fear by photographers. Wild animals very rarely attack a human

unless provoked to do so. Theodore Hubback (1939) wrote of his

photographic experiences in ground-level ‘hides’ in the Malayan jungle:

‘T never think of taking a firearm with me into a ‘“‘hide’® and none

should be permitted to do so’.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI

A Barking Deer buck photographed from the above ‘hide’.

(Photos = Ex P. Gee)

INDIA’?S WILD LIFE.SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 19

The next requirements of a photographic ‘hide’ is that no branch,

twig, leaf, blade of grass, and so on should be left uncut in the direct

line of vision between the camera lens and the subject to be photo-

graphed. Although a human being looking with two eyes (set 3”

apart) at a deer, say, will see the deer quite clearly in spite of a

few intervening twigs or leaves, yet the single lens of a camera will

faithfully record every twig and every leaf which happens to be

in the line of vision, the nearer the bigger, and the resultant photo

will be spoilt. A few twigs, leaves, or grasses near the animal itself

are all right, in fact these would make the subject appear more natural ;

but anything nearer between the subject and the lens of the camera

is to be avoided at all costs.

The next requirement of a ‘hide’ is that it must appear unobtrusive

and natural. This can easily be done by camouflaging the ‘hide’ so

as to make it appear part of the surrounding landscape and vegetation.

The size of the ‘hide’ is a minor detail, depending on how many

people with how many cameras will remain inside it, and for how

long. Generally speaking, the smaller the ‘hide’ the better and less

conspicuous it will be.

The choice of materials for making a ‘hide’ also depends on the

time available and the place in which it is made. Obviously the

materials of the locality should be used, leafy branches in forest, grass

in grassland etc. As little disturbance to the place as possible should

be caused. . ESIC :

A disadvantage of using vegetation or grass to construct a ‘hide’

is that it will wither, shrink and change colour. Also the breeze

can dislocate a leaf or a twig which would then interfere with the

field of vision. To overcome.these drawbacks I myself have a portable

‘hide’ made of hessian cloth dyed a suitable shade of green, with

bamboo poles to hold it up, and with rectangular slits through which

photographs can be taken. These slits must be horizontally rectangular

to allow for lateral movement of the camera and for the view-finder

and range-finder as well as the lens of the camera to function pro-

perly. This portable ‘hide’ can be quickly set up in a_ suitable

position behind grass or undergrowth or creepers, and when finally

fixed appears almost invisible.

The top must be covered over, not only to keep out the rain

and bird droppings, but also to prevent birds and monkeys from

observing one inside the ‘hide’ and then giving the alarm.

The direction of one’s approach to the ‘hide’ must be carefully

worked out whenever possible, so that it can be screened to allow

one to enter one’s ‘hide’ unobserved by the subject. The path can be

swept of dry leaves and twigs to ensure a silent approach. A well

known device is this: if two persons are going to sit up in the

‘hide’, then about four or five persons can go to it, the two remain

when all is ready and the others return. Any wild life watching the

proceedings will be led to think that all have returned and that no one

is about.,

‘Another great advantage of having a photographic ‘hide’ on or

near the ground is that it cannot be used by poachers for. illicit

shooting. A machan type of ‘hide’ in a tree would have to be

dismantled after use or else carefully watched in case poachers used

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

it. A possible precaution against the use of such tree-top ‘hides’ by

poachers would be to have it in the form of a ‘cage’ with a lock4

up door and a sharply apexed roof so that poachers could not sit

up on top of it. ,

A type of ‘hide’ worthy of trial where dangerous carnivora may

exist is a portable or transportable cage with detachable sides, large.

enough to hold two or three persons when placed in position on the

ground. If constructed of bars of aluminium or some light alloy, the

photographer could transport it to a suitable place and safely remain

inside to do his photography. Such a cage, I understand, is now

being tried out in Kotah for tiger photography.

The possibility of constructing (in suitably dry terrain, of course)

an underground ‘hide’ near a water-hole or salt-lick should not be

ignored. The Warden of Amboseli National Reserve in Kenya was

planning to make one near Ol Tukai water-hole for viewing elephants

and rhino at close quarters when I was there in 1954.

If no convenient water-hole or salt-lick exists in a sanctuary, there

is no objection to constructing an artificial one at a suitable place.

The most famous ‘hide’ in the world was the former Tree-tops House

at Nyeri in Kenya, which was built near an artificial salt-lick.

In the siting of ‘hides’ the following considerations should be

taken into account: (i) direction of the prevailing wind, so that wild

animals coming out will not get wind of the hidden photographer,

(ii) the direction of the sun, so that it will not shine directly into the

camera lens and so that animals coming out will be in good light,

and (ii) the background and foreground should be as photogenic as

possible.

Whenever expert or experienced photographer visitors come to a

sanctuary, their methods and technique, and their praise or criticism

of the facilities provided for them should be studied, in order that

improvements and new developments in this field can be made.

If photographic ‘hides’ on the above lines could be provided in

India’s wild life sanctuaries and national parks for photographer

visitors, it would add considerably to their attraction and international

status.

CONCLUSION

In this paper much emphasis has been placed on the need for the

management and development of India’s wild life sanctuaries and

national parks for tourists and visitors. This is not due to any desire

on my part to commercialise wild life; rather it 1s) the result of

recognising some of the land and population problems confronting

India and the rest of the world. war

Unless we can produce evidence of the economic or tourism value

of our wild life sanctuaries, the other values (aesthetic, recreational,

scientific, and biological) may not be sufficient to tip the scales

in favour of their maintenance and continuance. Our statesmen,

politicians, planners, economists, and others may give heed to the

unwise ephemeral demands of unenlightened local interests, instead

of considering the need for long-term planning and preservation for

the benefit of the country as a whole.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 91

Tourists from abroad and visitors from other parts of India coming

to our wild life sanctuaries and national parks will bring revenue as

well as the general realization of the value of our wild life. This

revenue and this realization are both sorely needed to preserve for

posterity a valuable but vanishing national asset.

REFERENCES

Champion, F. W. (1939): The Hailey National Park.

- foe M. D. (1954): Save the Lion from Extinction. Indian Forester,

124).

Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1950): The Gir Forest and its Lions, Part II.

JBNHS, 49 (38).

— — — (1954): Report of the Regional Secretary for Wild Life, Western Zone.

Fenton, L. L. (?): The Rifle in India.

Gee, E. P. (1952): The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and

National Parks, Part I. JBNHS, 51 (1).

— — — (1955): The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries” and

National Parks, Part II. JBNHS, 52 (4).

Hubback, Theodore (1939): Wild Life Photography in the Malayan Jungle.

JBNHS, ™ (1).

Indian Board for Wild Life (1955): Indian Wild Life Bulletin, 2 (1).

— — — (1955): Indian Wild Life Bulletin, 2 (2).

Petrides, George A. (1956): A Report on Kenya’s Wild Life Resources and

the National Parks.

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The Fauna of British India, Mammalia Vol. I.

Singh, Kesri (1956): Experiments in. Implanting African Lions into Madhya

Bharat. JBNHS, 53 (8).

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1949): The Gir Forest and its Lions, Part I. JBNHS,

48 (3).

— — — (1950): The Gir Forest and its Lions, Part II. JBNHS, 49 (3).

~— — — (1956): The Lion Census of 1955. JBNHS, 53 (4).

“NOTES ON SOME WASPS AND BEES (HYMENOPTERA)

OF POONA AND THE WESTERN GHATS

ag:

F. L. WAIN, S.S.J.E.

(With a plate and 21 figures)

The following notes are based on a somewhat desultory collection

made during the past five years. ‘The nomenclature is that of Fauna of

British India series (Bingham). |

Wasps can roughly be distinguished from Bees, as being less hairy

and not having the broad dilated joint on the hind legs which bees use

for carrying pollen. Wasps are carnivorous in the larval stage, whereas

bee grubs feed on honey and pollen. In the adult stage both Wasps and

Bees are vegetarian. Both groups contain social and solitary forms.

WASPS

Wasps are divided into two main groups, the Hunting or Digging

Wasps (Fossores) and the True Wasps (Diploptera). ‘The latter fold the

wings lengthways in two when at rest.

FOSSORES

The females of these wasps hunt for prey of various kinds on which

to lay their eggs. The prey is stored up in various ways, usually alive

but paralysed by being stung, to ensure the grub shall have fresh meat

for its food and not be poisoned by eating decayed food.

Family MUTILLIDAE

The females are without wings, and at first glance look something

like ants ; but they move much more quickly. They are said to lay their

eggs on the larvae of various kinds of bees.

Mutilla argenteomaculata ¢. About three quarters of an inch long, with

six silver spots on the black abdomen. (Khandala).

Mutilla pulchiventris ?2. Less than half an inch, with five silver spots.

(Poona).

Mutilla valida . Same size as above with four spots. (Lonavla).

Mutilla nobilis @ (Fig. 1). Head and thorax red, abdomen with golden

spots. (Lonavla).

Mutilla emeryi ?¢’. Orange red abdomen, (Matheran. Lonavla).

WASPS & BEES OF POONA AND WESTERN GHATS Qe

Family SCOLIIDAE

These are usually heavily built hairy wasps. They make no nest,

but the female burrows in the earth to find beetle larvae, on which the

Fig.1. Mutilla nobilis Q

eggs are laid. They can sometimes be seen entering heaps of decaying

leaves in search of the large iat white beetle grubs. These wasps are

often found at flowers. ?

Scolia bilunata. Black, with four yellow spots on sides of the abdomen.

The male is slighter with three spines on end segment. (Poona), -

Scolia quadripustulata (Fig. 2). Black with red spots or band on the

abdomen. A very common species. (Poona. Khandala).

millimetres

Fig. 2. Scolia quadripustulata 3

Scolia aureipennis. Entirely black, with a coppery sheen on the wings.

Tips of the antennae red. (Poona),

Scolia histrionica. Strikingly coloured in red and yellow, with some black

markings. (Poona),

Elis thoracica (Fig. 3).. Black, with thick whitish hair on the thorax. I

have seen this wasp burrowing in loose earth, but when I dug out

the earth only two crickets were found. I could-not find any beetle.

larvae, (Poona. Khandala), ee

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Elis annulata c’. I have only found males. Smallish, black with yellow

bands. (Poona. Matheran, Lonavla).

210

)

. \9

toriliny 2 res

Fig. 3. Elis thoracica 2

Elis asiatica ? A large entirely black wasp. (Poona).

Liacos analis. Black, with most of abdomen bright red. (Matheran),

Family POMPILIDAE

These wasps have very long legs; the abdomen is never on a jong

thin stalk, as in many of the Sphegids ; the eyes are not kidney-shaped.

This group contains wasps of very varying ‘size. Most store the prey

in holes or crevices in walis or trees, or in the ground, though a few

make little mud cells. The prey consists of spiders, crickets or grass-

hoppers.

Pseudagenia blanda (Fig. 4). This genus makes little earthen cells in

which the prey (spiders) is stored. This wasp is about half an inch

long, bright metallic blue. (Bombay).

leo

wi (lime tyes

Fig. 4, Pseudagenia blanda 2

Pseudagenia tincta. A small black wasp. (Poona).

Pseudagenia micromegala? Another smaller black wasp, with two dark

bands in the clear wings. (Poona). - :

WASPS G BEES OF POONA AND. WESTERN GHATS 25

Pompilus fenestratus. This genus preys on spiders and stores them in

some nearby hole in the earth or crevice, blocking up the entrance

afterwards with a small stone or earth. ‘This species is very small,

black with red abdomen. (Poona).

Pompilus mitis. Similar to the above, but larger. (Poona).

Salius aureosericeus. Sa/zis contains some of the largest species of wasp.

They prey on various kinds of Orthoptera. ‘his species is a large

insect, with a wing-spread of two and a half inckes. It is black,

with head and fore part of the thorax covered with golden hairs.

The wings are deep yellow. It may have been this wasp (unless it

was Sphex luteipennis) which I saw flying with a large green grass-

hopper held in its legs. It dropped the grasshopper and flew off be-

fore I could see it properly. (Matheran).

Salius fulvipennis. Similar to the above but smaller. Often seen in light

forest. (Lonavla).

Salius flavus (Fig. 5). Rather smaller than Salius fulvipennts, with the

feet black. (Poona. Khandala),

Fig. 5. Salius flavus 2

Salius consanguineus. Black, with orange legs and dark purplish brown

wings. (Matheran. Lonavla).

Salius madraspatanus (Fig. 6). A large wasp, velvety black all over, with

dark brown wings, having a purple sheen. I saw this wasp as it

captured a grasshopper about its own size. The wasp stood over

its prey and stung it carefully on the underside of the thorax. The

grasshopper was then quite paralysed. After cleaning itself up, the

Salius took the prey in its mouth and dragged it along between

its legs. It flew only occasionally in short flights of a few inches.

The grasshopper was pulled up the trunk of a Banyan tree to the

wasp’s nest in a crevice in the ou quite high up. (Lonavla,

Matheran).

26. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Family SPHEGIDAE

| This is rather a heterogeneous group. They are distinguished by

the first thoracic segment, which is short, like a kind of collar round the

Fig. 6. Salzus madraspatanus about to sting a grasshopper nymph.

neck, and which does not reach back to the base of the wiugs as in all

other wasps.

Tachytes modesta. Black with lines of silvery pile onthe abdomen. The

legs reddish. TZachytes makes holes in the ground for nests and

stores Orthoptera for the grub to feed on. (Poona).

Tachytes nitidula. Similar, but with legs black. (Khandala).

Notogonia subtessellata. A small black wasp, which also nests in the

ground and preys on crickets. (Poona).

Liris aurata (Fig. 7). A beautiful little wasp, the golden pile on the head

and prothorax being quite conspicuous. I have noted these wasps

“2

- o*

(aay, =

1 Br.

es °

Fig. 7. Livis aurata 2

occupying a hole in a wall at nights for several nights in succession.

Jt preys on crickets and stores them in nests underground. | (Poona).

WASPS & BEES OF POONA AND WESTERN GHATS | 27

Pison argentatum. A very small black insect, less than half an inch

long. I think this is the wasp which builds small elliptical mud

nests, many together, often in houses in the corners of ceilings and

walls. (Poona). | | | |

Trypoxylon intrudens (Fig. 8). This also comes frequently into the house.

It has a very long narrow tapering abdomen, reddish with black

coe

mellime tres

Fig. 8. Zrypoxylon intrudens &

apex, which makes it fairly easy to identify at once. ‘These wasps

build mud nests, which I have always found singly, on walls of

houses, indoors. They are oblong, and rough outside. They are

stored with paralysed spiders for the grub. (Poona).

Trypoxylon bicolor. Similar to the above but larger.

Ammophila laevigata (Fig. 9). Another wasp with a very long petiole to

- the abdomen. At first glance it resembles 7rypoxylon bicolor, but can

Yo UU

millimetres

Ye)

‘Fig. 9. Ammophila laevigata 2

be distinguished by the two apical spurs on the intermediate tibiae

and the more complicated venation of the forewings. TZyrypoxylon

-has only one tibial spur and a comparatively simple venation. Am-

_mophila nests in the ground and stores carterpillars or spiders. A

nest of Ammophila laevigata 1 found was dug vertically in level

fairly hard ground. I saw the wasp just as it had brought a green

Caterpillar, which iay rigid and paralysed some three inches from the

_nest hole. The wasp went down the hole two or three times, and

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

then, seizing the caterpillar by the head in its jaws, dragged it down

the hole, the wasp going backwards. It then came up and proceeded

to close up the hole. First a large flat stone was put over the

mouth of the nest, then smaller ones, and finally dust swept over.

The ground was made quite level and small stones and pieces of

grass arranged over the top, so that no sign of the hole remained.

(Poona. Lonavla).

Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fig. 10). Another wasp with a very long

thin petiole to the abdomen. It is strikingly coloured in black with

i y/

ere

J (x8

| al

millimetres

Fig. 10. Sceliphron madraspatanum

yellow petiole and legs. Sceltphron makes cylindrical mud cells and

stores them with spiders. A nest examined contained twenty

three spiders. (Poona. Lonavla).

Sceliphron coromandelicum. Distinguished from the above by having

the posterior legs yellow, without any black marks on them. I

have noticed some of these wasps congregating together in the

evenings on some branch or leaf, for several nights in succession.

(Poona).

Sceliphron violaceum. Dark shining metallic blue all over. This

species seems often to buiid the mud cell ina hole. I once saw

one use the ventilation hole of a sola topi. It first widened the

hole, bringing out bits of pith by the front legs. The nest was stored

with spiders, carried by the front legs only, except one large one, for

which the wasp used the front and intermediate legs. This large

spider was carefully stung before being pushed into the nest. Five or

six spiders were putin. The nest was then closed with mud, the

pellets being carried in the mandibles. At. first it was worked

smooth, but the finishing coat was put on roughly ard allowed to

remain so. The whole process took two days, during which the

~~ removai of the topi at intervals did not seem to upset the wasp at

~_ all. (Poona. Matheran. Lonavla).

Sphex lobatus. All species of Sfhex make nests in the ground and store

them with various kinds of Orthoptera. This species is a large wasp,

nearly one and a quarter inches long, brilliant metallic blue-green all

WASPS © BEES OF POONA AND. WESTERN GHATS 39

over, with yellowish wings. In hunting for crickets, this wasp digs

in loose earth like a dog, using the front and intermediate legs, and

sending a spray of earth out behind. Large stones and sticks it

removes in its mouth, walking backwards as it removes them.

(Poona. Lonavla).

Sphex splendidus. About the same size as the above. The head, thorax

and legs are brick red and the abdomen metallic purple. I have not

noticed this wasp digging for prey, and it probably attacks grass-

hoppers. It frequents hard, stony, dry ground. (Lonavla. Sinha-

gad).

Sphex luteipennis. A very large black wasp with yellow wings. This

may have been the insect I saw flying with the large green grass-

hopper, if it was not Sa/zws. But I have seen it stated that Sphex

always drags its prey along the ground. (Matheran).

Sphex umbrosus. Smaller: black with whitish pubescence on thorax.

Wings transparent and colourless. (Poona).

Sphex aurulentus (Fig. 11). Reddish, with apex of abdomen black, A

common species. (Poona. Matheran. Lonavla).

ani lls metres

Fig, 11, Sphex aurulentus ©

Sphex vicinus? Smaller; black variegated with dull red. Also very

common. (Matheran. Lonavla. Poona).

Ampulex compressa (Fig. 12). Shining metallic blue-green, with posterior

legs red. It is characterised by a very long narrow pro-thorax. It

preys on cockroaches and often enters houses in search of them. I

have seen this insect with a cockroach it had just captured. Itsoon

flew off however, perhaps as I was standing too near. The cock-

roach gradually recovered from its paralysis and after about fifteen

minutes walked away. Ampulex stores its prey in a hole or crevice,

blocking up the entrance. (Poona).

30: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Trirhogma caerulea. Dark metallic blue, about half an inch long.

Uncommon. (Poona).

millimelres

Fig.12, Ampulex compressa &

Stigmus niger. A minute black wasp, less than one quarter of an inch

long, with conspicuous stigma in the wing. It is often seen on the

window pane in houses. (Poona).

Stizus blandinus. A rather heavily built wasp, black, with abdomen

light brick red. In Europe a S?#ézus preys on frog-hoppers. (Poona).

Bembex trepanda (Fig. 13). Variegated yellow and black. Aeméex is

partially social, many individuals making their nest burrows in the

rKe)

wit i mefees

Fig. 13. Bembex trepanda &

same patch of sandy soil. It preys on flies, and is unusual in that

the prey is killed, not paralysed. ‘The nest is only temporarily closed

and the mother wasp brings more flies for the growing grub as it

needs them. The characteristic of this genus is the long prominent

labrum, or upper lip. (Poona. Lonavla).

Philanthus basalis. Small black wasps with yellow bands on the

abdomen. The legs are reddish. Often found at. flowers. They

nest in holes in the ground, closing the entrance with loose earth.

I have seen a small Chrysid wasp enter a nest, so presumably it

parasitises the Phzlanthus. (Poona. Sinhagad. Lonavla). -

Cerceris humbertiana? A tiny wasp, black with yellowish markings, and

the first segment of the abdomen red. The characteristic of this

WASPS & BEES OF POONA AND WESTERN GHATS 31

genus is the strongly constricted segments of the abdomen, as if

tight threads had been tied round at intervals. Cercevis is said to

prey on beetles. (Lonavla).

Oxybelus agilis. Another tiny wasp, with some whitish markings.

(Poona).

DIPLOPTERA

Family EUMENIDAE

The True Wasps are divided into Eumenidae and Vespidae. The

only constant feature which distinguishes them, is that the former have

only one apical spur on the intermediate tibia, the latter have two.

Eumenids are solitary wasps ; Vespids are social.

Eumenes petiolata (Fig. 14). A large red wasp, with long

narrow petiole

to the abdomen, which is yellow, with a black band.

All this genus

Pao)

millimetres

Fig. 14. Humenes petiolata 2

make beautiful little clay nests, shaped like an earthenware ‘ chatti’,

complete with rim. They store them with caterpillars, closing the

cell and usually plastering the whole over roughly with mud, so that

the ‘ chatti’ is no longer seen. (Poona).

Eumenes affinissima. Small and black with a few yellow markings. All

, Eumenes have the long narrow petiole. (Poona).

Eumenes esuriens. Like Awmenes petiolata, but half the size. (Poona).

Eumenes conica. Large, red, with black markings. ‘This wasp often

enters houses in order tc build its nest. It is frequently parasitised

by a Chrysid wasp, Stz/bum cyanurum, bright metallic green which

may often be seen in the house searching for Aumenes’ nests.

(Poona).

32. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Eumenes flavopicta. Large, with very long thin petiole; yellow and

- black bands. (Matheran. Sinhagad. Lonavla).

Rhynchium brunneum. Ahynchium differs from Humenes in not having

‘the long petiole. This species is dull red with black markings. It

often enters houses in order to make its nest in some hole in the

furniture. It lines the hole and closes it with mud. It stores cater-

pillars, which I have seen it bring to the nest fying, held under the

body by the six legs. (Poona).

Rhynchium metallicum. Jet biack all over. (Poona).

Rbynchium nitidulum. Only to be distinguished from the above by the

curious projections from the sides of thorax. (Poona).

Odynerus ovalis (Fig. 15). A small black and yellow wasp with no

petiole. It makes its nests in the perpendicular banks of streams or

—_—

millimetres

Fig. 15. Odynerus ovalis 2

ponds. ‘The nest is at the end of a short tunnel, at the entrance to

which it constructs a fragile earthen tube, hanging downwards. I

have seen it stated that these bent tubes discourage parasites from

entering. Odynerus stores caterpillars for the grub. (Poona.

Lonavla).

Odynerus miniatus. A tiny wasp, smaller than the above. (Poona).

Family VESPIDAE

These are the True Social Wasps.

Icaria marginata. Very common, A small red wasp. They make the

nest of 5-40 cells, of wasp-paper. The cells al! open downwards

and are attached by a strong ‘stalk’ to the underside of leaves,

branches etc. They often build in houses. A distinguishing character

of /caria is the very retractile end segments of the body, which are

usually folded into the large bell-shaped second segment in telescope

fashion.

Icaria ferruginea (Fig. 16), Larger than the above, red with broad

yellow band on abdomen. (Poona. Purandhar).

WASPS G@ BEES OF POONA AND WESTERN GHATS 33

Icaria variegata. A common tiny red wasp with yellow and black mark-

ings. (Poona. Lonavla).

ins imeWves

Fig. 16. J/caria ferruginea 2

Polistes stigma. /olistes has no petiole as /caria has. (Poona. Lonavla).

Polistes hebraeus (Fig. 17). Large yellowish, with some black markings.

(Poona).

eX) 30

millimetres

ie)

Fig. 17. Polistes hebraeus 2

Vespa cincta. A large wasp with conspicuous yellow band round the

abdomen. The sting is said to be dangerous. (Poona. Lonavla).

BEES

Nomia westwoodii. A small black bee, one-third of an inch long with

greenish yellow bands on the abdomen. A solitary bee, nesting in

tunnels in the ground. (Purandhar).

Megachile disjuncta. Megachile comprises the Leaf-cutter bees. They

line their nests with pieces of leaf which they cut in the following

way. The bee sits on the edge of a leaf, the legs holding it on

either side. It then begins to cut in a semicircle towards its tail.

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

As the cutting goes on the piece of leaf is rolled up between the legs.

As the last cut is made, it flies off with the cut piece rolled up

between its legs. They nest in holes, often in houses; some make

mud cells. I found one nest, put among the roots of a fern, made

entirely of rose petals. The nest is filled with honey and pollen for

the larva. Megachile disjuncta is black with a conspicuous yellow

band round the waist. (Poona).

Megachile lanata (Fig. 18). Bright rusty red hair on the head, thorax

and top of abdomen. The rest of the abdomen with thin white

wmillinelees

Fig. 18. Megachile lanata 2

bands. A common species, which often enters houses to nest. It

makes mud cells. (Poona. Lonavla. Sinhagad).

Megachile cephalotes. A small black bee, with thin whitish bands on

the abdomen. (Poona).

Megachile albifrons. Black, with snow white pubescence on head, sides

of thorax and bands on the abdomen. (Sinhagad).

Parevaspis carbonaria. A black rather hairless bee witn darkish wings.

It is parasitic on Megachile. (Poona).

Ceratina viridissima. A tiny bright metallic green or blue bee. Common

at flowers. They are said to nest in hollow stems. (Poona.

Sinhagad. Lonavla).

Coelioxys decipiens. Black, with white markings and bands on the

abdomen. ‘The abdomen is rather long and, remarkably pointed,

shaped somewhat like a carrot. These bees are parasitic upon

Megachile. (Poona).

Crocisa emarginata. Cvyocisa is parasitic in the nests of Azthophora and

can often be seen examining walls or banks for the nests. This

species is black with markings and bands of a beautiful bright blue,

varying in shade. (Poona. Matheran).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ion.

ta) in act

JUNC.

dis

ile

tter Bees (Mega

Leaf-

WASPS & BEES OF POONA AND WESTERN GHATS 35

Crocisa ramosa (Fig, 19). Another beautiful bee, jet black with snow-

white spots. (Poona, Sinhagad).

SS)

mulli metres

cy:

9°

Fig. 19. Cvrocisaramosa 3

Anthophora zonata (Fig, 20), Stoutly built bees, with bright shining blue

bands on the abdomen. <Azthophora have remarkably long tongues.

iS rks)

Xs)

mcellign eles

Fig. 20. Anthophora zonata 2

They fly very rapidly and are also often seen hovering quite still in

front of flowers. They are gregarious, nesting in holes in steep

banks or in walls, many ‘together; but they are not truly social.

(Poona, Sinhagad, Lonavla).

Anthophora fallax. Rather smaller than the above, with white bands.

(Poona. Sinhagad).

Xylocopa dissimilis. These are the Carpenter Bees, which excavate holes

in wood to make their nests. I have seen nests in the beams of

house roofs and in bamboo poles. The mandibles must be immen-

sely strong, as they bore beautifully neat holes in-the hardest wood.

This species is a large black bee, one and a quarter inch long with

irridescent wings. (Poona. Lonavla).

Xylocopa latipes (Fig. 21). Another large black bee. The male has

curiously flattened front legs, yellow and fringed with long thick

yellow hairs, (Lonavla)

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Xylocopa amethystina. Black, but about half the size of Xvylocopa

disstmttis. (Poona).

—_—

—_

Fig. 21. Xylocopa latipes 3

Xylocopa aestuans. Black, with bright yellow thorax. (Poona.

Matheran).

Xylocopa rufescens. Brown, with golden brown thorax. (Bombay).

Apis dorsata. Apis comprises the honey bees and are social, the com-

munities consisting of a single fertile female or queen, workers and

males. This species is the large Rock Bee which places its combs

in the open, under eaves of roofs, on the under side of branches, or

under overhanging rocks. (Poona. Lonavla).

Apis indica. [n the wild state, it nests in hollow trees, holes in walls, or

even abandoned white-ant mounds. It has been successfully domes-

ticated, and takes readily to hives. (Poona. Lonavla).

Apis florea. The smallest of the 4fzs genus. It places its combs in the

open, in trees, or bushes, or in creepers on the sides of houses. It

is very common in the district. (Poona. Lonavla).

Melipena iridipennis. Sometimes called ‘Mosquito bees’. They are

social and are tiny black bees, hardly one quarter inch long, often

seen at flowers. For the size of the tee, they carry enormous loads

of pollen on the hind legs. I have found nests only in holes in walls,

the entrance usually very narrow and scmetimes with a curious

trumpet-shaped tube of wax projecting. The tubes I have seen

were about one inch in diameter at the end and projecting only about

two inches. (Poona).

My thanks are due to the Rev. A. E. Bean, s.5.J.., for the action

drawings.

DUCKS UNLIMITED:

. AND WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN CEYLON

PHILIP K. CROWE

(With a plate)

Few non-hunters seem to realize that the Survival of game in many

parts of the world depends primarily on sportsmen; yet it is certainly

logical to surmise that those who derive their greatest pleasure and relaxa-

tion from shooting should be those who make the greatest effort to

ascertain that their sport continues. Certainly many who do not shoot

have contributed greatly to the preservation of wild life but, in most

countries where protection exists today, the generosity and interest of the

hunters have exerted the major pressure to save the game.

Take ducks in America. Fifty years ago countless millions of wild

fowl filled the skies as they winged across the United States to and from

their breeding grounds in Canada. ‘There will always be ducks’ said

the hunters and the ornithologists. Then suddenly, in the twenties, the

migrations fell off alarmingly. ‘The Wild Life Service estimated that not

more than 30 million ducks were left out of an estimated normal of 200

million. The great banners of waterfowl that used to wave across the

skies had shrunk to tattered ribbons. Something had to be done and

done quickly.

The sportsmen met the challenge. A small group, headed by Joseph

P. Knapp, formed the ‘More Game Birds in America Foundation’ and

hired 2,000 biologists and observers to conduct an International duck

census. ‘The result of this survey revealed that the trouble lay not in

over shooting but in the breeding grounds. Draining of the Canadian

marshes, to plant wheat to meet the needs of a hungry world during two

world wars, was having its baleful affect on the wild fowl population

The survey estimated that 70 per cent of the prospective North

American duck population died on these far northern breeding grounds,

and that nearly 90 per cent of all the ducks that flew over the United

States were bred in these same marshes, Only 23 million acres of land

in America was considered good breeding territory for ducks while

Canada had 640 million acres. In the vast wet lands of Alberta, Manitoba, .

and Saskatchewan lay the Continent’s ‘duck factory’. The answer

obviously was in Canada but, in 1937, there was no way in which U.S.

Government funds could be spent in another country to improve water-

fowl breeding grounds ; the job had to be done privately.

At the foundation meeting set up in Washington, the matter of a

tile for the organization was brought up and ‘Ducks Ltd.’ was

suggested. ‘Limited, hell ! said one outspoken member, ‘ what we want

is ducks unlimited’. And ten days after incorporation, ‘ Ducks Unlimited’,

financed by American and Canadian sportsmen, started its first big project,

the restoration of 50,000 acres in Big Grass Marsh in Manitoba, ‘There

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY VNAG UW RAVE HUIS dS OG inva mVoleera4

was no time in those pioneer days for permanent dams ; the earth was

pushed with bulldozers, holes were blasted in the prairie to hold water.

Without water the ducks died. Everyone helped. ‘The Canadian Provin-

cial Governments turned over 60 million acres of poor wheat land;

thousands of farmers promised cooperation. One dour old Scotch wheat

farmer said ‘ Dead ducklings ruin my hay’, and then his face softened

and he added ‘I sort of like the living things on my land.’

While these first dams were being built, reports from the field showed

that other causes besides drought were cutting down the flocks. Crows

and magpies devoured 15% of the eggs ; fires destroyed another 12% ; so

did Indians, skunks, coyotes, wolves, squirrels, and jackfish. In fact, these

great northern pike were estimated to consume 8 million ducklings a

year! ‘Ducks Unlimited’ attacked the enemies on all fronts. Wire

nets kept out the fish ; a bounty was placed on crows and magpies ; and

the Indians were persuaded to give up eating duck eggs by giving them

funds to buy other food they liked better. Even beaver were imported

to build their water-holding dams and give the Indians a better living

from trapping. ‘Today the record is impressive. ‘ Ducks Unlimited ’ has

established 3,000 miles of shoreline nesting areas ; built 614 dams; banded

70,000 ducks and geese ; planted thousands of aquatic plants; and main-

tains 600,000 acres of water on the prairie provinces of Canada.

Ail this has cost money, more than $5,000,000 to date, and it has all

come from duck hunters. Have the results justified this expenditure ?

By 1947, ten years after ‘ Ducks Unlimited’ started functioning, the duck

population had risen to 160 million and in every year, but one, an

increase has been noted. ‘This year’s census will probably show that the

total is again approaching the norm of 200 million ducks, which the

scientists think is about the right number for the continent to carry.

The interesting fact about this recovery in America’s duck population

is that it has taken place zz sfzte of a greatly increased number of hunters.

Moreover, more than 2 million duck licenses are issued yearly in the

United States, a four-fold increase since 1934, and if these license-holders

and the generations after them are to find sport in the skies more money

must be raised to open up new breeding grounds in the north country.

It isa challenge that Ducks Unlimited, financed by the sportsmen of

America, is willing to face.

Here in Ceylon we also face a crisis in the Island’s wild life. Accord-

ing to Major W. W. A. Phillips, one of the Island’s leading authorities,

the last half century has seen great changes in the status and distribution

of the Island’s unique wild life ; some notable forms are already extinct,

or verging on extinction, and others have been sadly depleted in numbers

and restricted in range. He predicts that the next half century will un-

doubtedly see the extinction of many valuable species.

Not all of these species can be saved but a concerted effort by the

sportsmen of Ceylon could go a long way towards aiding the government

to preserve many of those birds and animals which provide the hunter

with his happiest hours. An organization dedicated to protecting the

Island’s wild life already exists, The Ceylon Wild Life Protection Society,

but it Jacks funds and the whole-hearted support of the sportsmen.

Some people seem to think, in fact, that the Society is opposed to legiti-

mate sport. This is not the case. No one knows better than the members

of the Society that the animals shot under license in the government

preserves constitute but a minute fraction of the numbers killed illegally.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

- ie : 5 : -

: = 2 5 os a as ad mw,

~ g . : mc i * x

ee ae ES & » ee a ~ Bo * Me me ed

oes x : Sees oS o ~ S . ee

: “ ‘ x = # * ies Ba 5

os. P ce Se es os. or oe . — <

ee ee = EE 6 es 22 3ee 3

3 Yo 8 ee - ‘ ee ‘ Se % tk & eg —

: a ere : * ee %

* A Se es ‘ Se ee EN ec a ee Se a ee é he a *. 4 Cid

Nie . * RK se : oe

Ducks Unlimited : Scenes in the Grey Lodge Wildfowl] Refuge, California.

(Photos : Salim Alt)

DUCKS UNLIMITED 39

So far, however, the Society has made no real effort to attract and

organize the Island’s sportsmen.

Even for many of Ceylon’s rigidly protected fauna the end seems near.

The most dramatic and tragic example of approaching extinction is

provided by the Ceylon elephant. At the beginning of this century, it

was estimated that at least 2,000 of these great beasts roamed the

Island's jungles. ‘Then, the herds migrated into the hills during the dry

season and elephant paths could be seen along the ridges of the moun-

tains. There was even a small resident herd in the Horton Plains area.

Today, experts say there are less than half this number left and they

declare that, since the rate of depletion by killing and capturing is about

twice the normal rate of increase, the writing is on the wall for Ceylon’s

noblest animal unless draconian steps are taken immediately to save it.

Two forms of our wild life are already virtually extinct. The Ceylon

Hog-Deer, which used to be plentiful in the Galle area, has vanished.

Pressure of population to open new lands to cultivation has driven this

interesting little deer from the coastal area and, since it was apparently

unable to survive in the inland hill country, it has been killed out.

Another inoffensive mammal, the Dugong, has become so rare in the

shallow seas of the Mannar area that for all practical purposes it is also

extinct. Major Phillips thinks that, even with strict protection, it is now

doubtful if this unique species, from which the ancients drew their tales

of mermaids, can recover. Several years ago I. saw one swimming ina

tank of turtles and offered to purchase it in order to set it free. The

fisherman who had netted it told me, however, that there would be no

use in this gesture as it would immediately be caught by someone else.

Sluggish and trustful, the Dugong seems doomed.

The wild buffalo, protected from shooting by his resemblance to his

tame brothers and a perpetual closed season, is still found in good

numbers in the national parks, but illegal capture, for domestic use, has

all but exterminated it in other areas. On a five day trip down the

Mahaweli Ganga, which flows through one of the Island’s few remaining

isolated jungle areas, I saw only a few tracks of wild buffalo.

Spotted Deer and Sambar reproduce rapidly ; they are still plentiful,

therefore, in the national parks and shooting reserves, but outside of these

protected areas they are becoming increasingly rare. I have made many

motor trips around the Island and have kept careful notes of all wild life

seen. Even.on the long stretches where the roads run through heavy jungle,

as on the link between Puttalam and Anuradapura, and Anuradapura and

Trincomalee, I saw pitifully few deer, and all of these during the day.

Night shooting from cars has driven the surviving game deep into the

forests. Lights on the road at night may mean death to them.

The deer are protected by law, however, and ostensibly derive some

benefit from the closed season. No laws cover the Sloth Bear, Leopard,

Croccdile, or Wild Pig. Outside the reserves, they can be shot the year

round, and this indiscriminate slaughter goes on twelve months a year.

In the Wanni I saw a she-bear with two cubs which a local ‘ sportsman ’

had shot from a blind over a water hole. He said he had no use for the

skins, could not afford to mount the heads, and had only shot the trio

for fun. On another occasion I saw the skin of a leopard cub that would

not cover a baby. The hunter who had shot it tried to sell it to me for

a ‘trophy’. Pig’s flesh cannot be touched by Moslems but Moorish

poachers frequently shoot pig to sell the flesh.

40 JOURNAL, BOMBA VoNAT URAL “HUSH a SOCLET Vi aioli) 104

The sale of the flesh and skins of all wild life is prohibited by law

but they can be bought in almost any village near a jungle area, and the

vats of the government tannery in Colombo are always full of skins in

and out of season. The Crocodile, which performs a useful purpose in

cleaning up dead animals in the tanks, is now extinct outside the protected

areas. Its belly skin sells for a price that makes the fine for selling it a

minor hazard. |

The primates have also suffered. The Grey Langur or Wanderoo,

and the Red Monkey have been greatly reduced in numbers. ‘There is

some point in shooting the Red Monkey as it is very destructive to crops,

but the big Langurs gain most of their sustenance from the jungle and

are shot only by the Tamil labourers for their flesh.

The birds have also suffered. The peafowl, Asia’s largest and most

beautiful game bird, is continuously poached for its feathers, flesh, and oil.:

The ayurvedic belief that the oil, emanating from a peafowl’s legs, is a

specific for a number of diseases results in a constant illegal market for

the unfortunate bird. Legitimate hunters kill only a few peafowl for it is

an extremely wary and keen eyed fowl ; it takes a long, lucky shot to bag

one during the day. At night, however, the big birds roost in trees and

it is then that the poachers slaughter them as they huddle, silhouetted

against the sky, in the moonlight.

The Painted Partridge, formerly plentiful in the Uva hills, is now

virtually extinct except for small numbers in the country around Nilgala.:

Major Phillips believes that the extinction of this beautiful little partridge

is not so much due to over-shooting, trapping, and egg-stealing as to the

burning of the grass and patna lands. The Grey Partridge has also

decreased alarmingly, and is now confined to the Mannar area and a few

islands off the coast there. I had some good partridge shooting on Irani-

tivu but since then have heard that a party of market-hunters invaded the

island and shot virtually every bird they could find. As the partridge

cannot leave the island, the distance to the mainland being too great for

them to fly, it would not be difficult to exterminate them.

The Comb-duck and the Glossy Ibis have gone completely from

Ceylon. Occasionally, a straggler from India is identified but both of

these rare and interesting birds have ceased to breed in the island’s

tanks. In 1880 the famous ornithologist, Legge, reported that Comb-ducks

were fairly common in the north and east and about the same period

Layard noted that the Glossy Ibis was seen in abundance in the north of

the Island. Despite laws protecting them, Egrets, Herons, and Storks are

being persecuted to a point where they too may face extinction. Un-

fortunately all these beautiful birds are edible, as well as providing fine

feathers for the children.

Even eagles and other large raptores, whose flesh has no food value

whatsoever, are shot by irresponsible hunters, The Rufousbellied Hawk-

Eagle is virtually extinct and the numbers of Legge’s Hawk-Eagle and

the proud Whitebellied Sea Eagle are decreasing yearly. The Malabar

Pied Hornbill, which looks like a bird from the pre-ice age and takes off

slower than a heavy bomber, is now rare outside the reserves, and the

Ceylon Broadbilled Roller can only be found in a few remote localities.

Blame for Ceylon’s vanishing wild life is of course due to a number

of factors of which the most important is probably the steady increase in

the Island’s population. In 1900 only 34 million people lived in Ceylon.

Today there are nearly 9 million and by 1980 it is predicted there will be

DUCKS UNLIMITED 1

18 million. Ceylon’s rate of increase, 2°8%, is the third highest in the

world and is exceeded only by Venezuela and Panama. Pressure for

food, from the increasing number of mouths, naturally results in opening

up of more land to cultivation with an inevitable effect on the habitats

and feeding-grounds of the wild life.

The Wild Life Department is doing a heroic job with an inadequate

and underpaid staff. The Ranger of one large reserve that I know is not

even provided with a jeep; he is expected to patrol an area of several

hundred square miles on foot or bicycle. The poachers of course have

cars. It is estimated that great numbers of the guns now in use on the

Island are illegally possessed and must be assumed to belong to these

same poachers, but according to the Ministry of Home Affairs steps are

being taken to issue licenses to ad/ applicants. It has also been decided

~ to return those illegal firearms which were confiscated during the previous

regime. ‘The reason given for these decisions was that the people need

these guns ‘ for protection in remote areas’.

No one would quarrel with the right of the villager to protect himself

and his chena from attack by wild animals, and with this in view licenses

for 1,11,357 guns were issued in 1955, certainly an adequate arsenal to

cope with a few hundred elephants and bears. During the same period

only 2,081 game licenses were purchased and the official kill of Axis deer

was 80, sambar 5, and peafowl 10,—a minute fraction of the number of

protected animals and birds destroyed either illegally or ostensibly in

defence of crops.

The net of all this is that, unless there is strong public support for

stricter protection, much of the Island’s wild life will continue to diminish

and some will become extinct. Now is the time for all sportsmen to-

help stem this tragic tide by banding together under the aegis of the

Wild Life Protection Society and embarking on a plan of positive action.

f The ducks were saved in America, and the wild life can be saved in

eylon.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA

Il. THE ADVANCES, AND IN PARTICULAR THE

PLANT COLLECTING, OF THE THIRTIES AND

FORTIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY

I. H. BuRKILL

(Continued from Vol. 51, p. 878)

My first chapter carried the history of the science of botany in

India as far as the time of Wallich’s long leave, 1826-32, leave in

which he took to London the collection of bundles of dried plants,

that had grown up in the Calcutta Botanical Garden, and was allowed

to draw from India House bundles that had been deposited there;

all the specimens thus assembled he sorted, like to like, i.e., he assigned

them to species, made them up into sets, and distributed these sets

to, as he said, 20 centres of botanical work in 8 different countries,

that they might do the great service of interesting the botanical world

in the flora of India and of keeping botany in India in line with the

advance of the science by ensuring the necessary international specific

nomenclature.

This, the second chapter, carries the history forward a couple of

decades. Although it covers a very much shorter time, it requires as

many printed pages, and the names of the collectors are as many.

That this should be the case indicates how greatly the two decades

make a period of intensification. They make also a period of widening

outlook and considerable achievement of reputations made or main-

tained and of strenuous undertakings. The beginning was in the

nature of an awakening, for Wallich’s leave extended long enough for

Wight and Royle to require absence from India during it, whereby

India was deprived entirely of its leaders in the Science.

Who were those left in India when the three were away? It will

aid the reader to form an idea of the situation if they be enumerated.

The seniormost was the missionary J. P. Rottler, whose know-

ledge of the flowering plants of southern India was considerable; he

possessed a good reference herbarium and would name the specimens

of others; but he was already 78 and losing his vigour. Bernhard

Schmid, also a missionary, had moved from Tinnevelly to the Nilgiri

Hills, where he was now at the beginning of his botanizings. Lieut.-

Colonel W. H. Sykes, holding the post of Statistical Reporter, Bombay,

was collecting plants in the Deccan; but he was not botanically minded

and the collection went without determinations until entrusted to

Royle about 1840. In Ceylon, James Macrea by a little collecting was

adding to the herbarium at Peradeniya, but probably merely increasing

the material without making determinations. The surgeon Alexander

Gibson and the administrator J. S. Law were not out of their initial

years in India and John Graham arrived in Bombay only in the year

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 43

of Wallich’s departure. On the other side of India, although the

scientific membership of the Asiatic Society had strengthened, as the

Centenary Review of the Society makes evident (p. 17), William Carey

alone remained.

While conceding that the contemporaneous absences of Wallich,

Wight and Royle created a situation, the pause of which made the

years 1828-32 a dividing line, there was an associated circumstance

not to be overlooked. It was that every botanist who resided in India,

from Koenig to the years named, had been taught, thought and

classified in the Sexual System of Linnaeus, a cramping, fettering

system, bound to be superseded; and the first signs of supersession by

the Natural System reached India after Wallich’s departure on leave.

The reader will now appreciate my use of the word ‘awakening’ as

a character of the period under review.

It is rightly said that a system of classification demands knowledge

of everything that is to be simplified by it. The objective justifies the

system; and the Linnaean System simplified the arrangement of cabinets

of specimens, lulled the born collector for whom it was prepared and

was a means of getting on with what was immediately in hand, but

raised a cloud of dust against the philosopher. Reynolds Green, writing

in his History of Botany in the United Kingdom (p. 124; 1914) as a

philosopher, condemns the Linnaean System more than it deserves. It

was a product of its time, a ready help in assimilating in some order

the flood of new species that emerged from the world-wide explorations

of the latter part of the 18th century, a short cut or key. As meeting

the situation it was a masterpiece. Not only did it do this, but by

its simplicity it popularized Botany. The professors of the medical

schools seized it,.so to speak, with both hands and spread it out before

their classes with the result that all the surgeons who came to India

had a knowledge of it. Others joined the surgeons for, being so easy

of comprehension, it took Botany to a place in a liberal education and

even into the drawing: rooms. India was affected by this diffusion

in that the proportion of medical men who studied plants in India

fell from two in three to one in three. Justifying my allusion to

Botany in the drawing rooms, I would refer to the interest taken by

three eminent ladies: the wife of the Marquis of Hastings, Governor-

General from 1814 to 1825, would ask those who collected plants to

give her duplicates that she might send them to a museum in

Edinburgh in which she was interested; the wife of the Earl of

Amherst, Governor-General from 1825 to 1829, was not only a keen

gardener who sought out beautiful plants and got them into cultivation,

but possessed a small herbarium; the wife of the Earl of Dalhousie,

Commander-in-Chief, spent the warmer months of the year 1829 at

Simla, where between Sabathu towards the plains and Mashobra deeper

into the mountains she collected about 600 species. The Countess

was competent enough to make determinations and very enthusiastic,

as Carey who met her in Calcutta on the eve of her departure for

Simla, has recorded for us.

The advances of Botany needed a little time before Europe was in

a position to spread them to India. Fifty years passed from the

publication by Linnaeus of his Sexual System to the publication by

Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu of the Natural System, and rather over

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NAM UIA iil Sidts sS\ OCI Eyam Vig) sao

sixty from Linnaeus’s publication to Koenig’s bringing the use of it

to India, Koenig and A. L. de Jussieu being contemporaries. The

Natural System, devised and advocated in France, had to pass to

and be taught in Britain, before it could follow to India; and the first

‘teacher of it in Britain was William Jackson Hooker (afterwards

Sir William), Professor of Botany at Glasgow, 1829-41; the second,

John Lindley, Professor of Botany in University College, London,

1829-60. I shall have cause to mention both, not as visiting India

but as exercising a considerable influence on those who botanized in

India. Their influence began at the time of Wallich’s long leave, or

forty years after the publication of A. L. de Jussieu’s Genera plantarum

(1780).

I said (in chapter 1, p. 846) of my first period that no aspect of

botany was studied except classification: the same is nearly true of

the second period; but the classification had now a deeper insight.

A single illustration will bring home to my readers why it was

so enormously to the benefit of the Science that the Linnaean System,

having served for a short time, should pass away. Let us liken each

system to a container of sufficient dimensions to hold all the units

to be classified if accurately placed. The container by the Linnaean

System would have directions for placing in its lower parts; that by

the Natural System directions at all levels. It is obvious which of

the two is the better. Could the theory of the origin of species have

been arrived at by a Linnaean systematist? And is it not clear that

the theory and the Linnaean System are incompatibles?

In the first chapter, heavy type was used to indicate the appearance

in the narrative of the more important botanists: in this chapter it

will be used more often as the history becomes more intricate.

WILLIAM CAREY AND HIS CONNECTIONS

William Carey (1761-1834) occupies a somewhat unique position in

the history. He was a wonderful linguist. As the son of a village

schoolmaster, he sought at first to find a way through life as a

schoolmaster; then, in missionary fervour, he volunteered for a difficult

life in India and landed in Calcutta in the year of the transfer of

Roxburgh from Samalcottah to Calcutta, i.e., in 1783. To earn a

living he became an indigo planter in Malda; and at that place he

mastered the Bengali language into which he translated the New

Testament. He had his translation ready when fortuitously a trained

printer joined the Mission at Serampore, a printing press was obtained

and Carey moved to the press. He had no aptitude for business, but

was a born teacher and a perfect editor. He had become a friend

of Roxburgh when still at Malda and acquainted with Colebrooke.

After moving to Serampore he could easily reach Roxburgh’s doorstep

by boat; and the intimacy ended in Carey being Roxburgh’s editor.

It has been stated (chapter 1, p. 870) that in 1813 Roxburgh,

before he sailed from India for the last time, put into Carey’s hands -

a manuscript copy of his Flora Indica. A delay in Ceylon gave him

a chance of botanizing and he found a little information to insert in

the copy which he sent by post to Carey. Though in the two years

left to him before his death (1815) he continued to work on another

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 45

copy of the Flora that he had taken with him, nothing more was

added to the copy that he had entrusted to Carey. After his death

Carey consulted Wallich regarding publication, and Wallich with

characteristic impulsiveness volunteered to bring the MS. up to date

by inserting his own finds. Carey agreed; and the first volume was

issued in 1820. The second volume was delayed by Wallich’s year

in Nepal, but appeared in 1824. ‘The third volume was never prepared

because Wallich’s affairs became too much involved. After Wallich

had gone on leave in 1828, the Baptist Mission Press at Serampore

holding the copyright, two of Roxburgh’s sons approached Carey,

asking him to print the whole work from the copy that their father

had left with Carey; and this was done, save that for some undeclared

reason the ferns were omitted ; and the work appeared in three volumes

in 1832. There is no sign of Carey in the text save for the editing:;

but Carey had become a botanist and was active. Prain in the preface

to his Bengal Planis (p. 18) says that between Roxburgh and Carey

‘little or nothing had been left . . . for successive generations of

botanists to add’ to the list of higher plants that occur in Central

Bengal. Carey assuredly sent dried plants to Roxburgh which

Roxburgh mixed with his own, but proof is lacking.

Carey almost immediately after he had domiciled himself at

Serampore (1800) was appointed to teach Bengali in the Governor-

General’s new College in Fort William. This and a tremendous hunger.

for books drew him into Caicutta so much so as to make him equally

a man of Calcutta as of Serampore. But except for a short paper on

the agriculture of Dinajpur (As. Res. 10, p. 1; 1808) he published

nothing in any way botanical. He cultivated a garden in Serampore

assiduously. In the year 1820 he called together a meeting in Calcutta

to originate an Agricultural and Horticultural Society. The meeting

was badly attended, but getting official support he got his way, and

the Agricultural and Horticultural (Agri-Horticultural) Society of India

came into existence. It never operated far from Calcutta in spite of,

the word ‘India’ in its title. When Carey’s move had been made,

one of the two Tytlers who at that time showed an active interest in

economic plants, R. Tytler, wrote that he had already ventilated in

Allahabad the idea of a similar society; and we may take it that the

time was ripe for Carey’s move, though it expended its efforts in the

introduction into gardens of plants suitable for them and very doubt-

fully touched agriculture at all. Wallich became its Secretary, or one

of its secretaries, soon after its foundation and the Society was allowed

the use of a part of the Botanic Garden as a nursery, of which it

had the use until 1872. Wallich and his successors apparently saw

no rivalry, though much of what the Society did was what they also

were doing. Wallich wrote appreciatively of the Society’s work in

Hooker’s Journal of Botany at a relatively late date (5, p. 1373 1853).

The Society started Transactions of its own and provided an outlet for

papers in economic botany.

Jacquemont on one of his visits to Carey’s garden met there

Professor and Mrs. Mack (he miswrote the name Mac). John Mack

was a scholarly man from Edinburgh who had become a teacher in

the College that the Mission had founded. He was not a botanist, but

took an interest in some branches of Natural Science; and when in

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

£826 he and his wife visited the Khasia Hills on a tour of inspection,

they made a collection of dried plants which they gave to Sir William

Hooker. The excellence of the specimens received commendation.

To Serampore in 1827 a Danish surgeon, Joachim Otto Voigt (1795-

1843) went to occupy the post which had been Wallich’s 20 years

earlier ; and in Serampore he became a disciple of Carey. When Carey

died he took charge of Carey’s garden dedicated, as it was, to public

service. He formed a herbarium which at his death was given to the

University of Copenhagen and duplicates were given to Sir William

Hooker which, therefore, are now at Kew. As will be mentioned

later, Voigt had charge of the Calcutta Garden for two months in

1842 and the occasion gave him the opportunity of uniting catalogues

of the Serampore and the Calcutta gardens into one under the title

Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis. Voigt made more of it than a mere

catalogue by embodying economic information, records of failures,

experiences of himself and Carey at Serampore, and some information

supplied by J. W. Masters, who had served as Head Gardener under

Wallich (for Masters see pp. 61 & 64 forward).

Henry Piddington (1797-1858) was another who came under Carey’s

influence. After a few years at sea he settled in Calcutta:and made

a reputation as a meteorologist. But before he became absorbed in

weather observations and after he had allowed himself to be elected

a Secretary of the Agri~Horticultural Society, he prepared, manifestly

at Carey’s suggestion, his English Index to the Plants of India,

which is a dictionary of vernacular names with botanical equivalents.

Piddington calls himself a tyro in Botany ; and this was his only publica-

tion that directly interests us. He remained for long active in the

Agri-Horticultural Society.

TuE UNOBTRUSIVE LEADERSHIP OF ROBERT WIGHT

Robert Wight (1796-1872) qualified in Medicine at Edinburgh when

Daniel Rutherford was the professor. Rutherford fired no enthusiasms,

and Wight did not leave the University a botanist. But when in

1819 he had entered the medical service of the East India Company

and had found that the amusements of his associations in cantonments

did not provide a congenial outlet for his energy, he turned, as he

explained later in a letter to Professor von Martius, to the vegetable

kingdom for occupation and in the leisure of his regimental duties

studied the plants about him. He was soon sending collectors out

to bring to him plants from distances beyond the limits of his own

excursions. His station being Samalcottah (Samalkot), where succes-

sive official Madras botanists from Roxburgh forward had lived, the

tradition of employing men of the country-side as plant-collectors was

alive, and moreover it is not unlikely that he received help from

Shuter. He managed to get three botanical works, an early edition

of Linnaeus’s Genera plantarum, Willdenow’s Species plantarum and

Persoon’s Synopsis, by which he proceeded to determine his finds.

These books kept him working by the Linnaean System which

doubtless would not be strange to him. Perhaps it was well for this

lone traveller that he had the easier artificial System to encourage him,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 47

though as will be seen, he was not slow in discarding it when his

opportunity came.

Wight was transferred successively to Rajahmundry and Veilore.

When he had been collecting for about four years, he needed help

with his nomenclature, and made up a bundle of specimens which he

addressed to Robert Graham, the new professor at his old University ;

but the bundle was lost at sea; and it seems as if Wight could not

immediately make up another. However, he did so in 1826 and this

packet he sent to Sir William Hooker, professor at Glasgow. By way

of comment on the change, the reader may be reminded of Francis

Hamilton’s remark: ‘Dr. Hooker at Glasgow I see frequently ...

he is more active than Graham.’ Wight doubtless had chosen well

and his material got attention. In the same year, Wight was taken

from regimental duties and given the post of Botanist that had been

successively Koenig’s, Roxburgh’s, Russell’s, Heyne’s and Shuter’s.

Koenig had travelled to Siam on it and the others to various destina-

tions. Wight immediately travelled, going right to the very south

of the Indian Peninsula on a zigzag course. Such journeys were of

course costly because so much equipment had to be carried, food and

a tent, employing a fair number of attendants, including an armed guard.

Heyne, journeying from Samalcottah to Hyderabad, had a party of

40. Wight’s much longer journey extended over 24 months; it took

him among other places to the Palni Hills where he found a flora

quite new to him. But when in the next year he proposed a much

longer journey, he was abruptly brought to earth by the abolishing

of his post and by being sent to Negapatam, again in medical charge

of a regiment. |

Wight had been giving bundles of dried plants to other botanists,

not all in Britain. Delessert in Geneva was one of the recipients.

After 24 years at Negapatam, whence he collected as much as he

could by sending out collectors, he took leave and brought all that he

had to London in time to find Wallich in the middle of his work of

distributing the Calcutta and India House material. The excellence

of Wallich’s arrangements so pleased Wight that he would have had

what he had brought with him absorbed ; and indeed Wallich had some

of Wight’s plants which he had obtained from India House to

which Wight must have sent them. Wallich evidently could not take

more; and Wight betook himself along with his newer collections to

Scotland, where he found a co-adjutor in G. A. Walker Arnott.

George Arnott Walker Arnott (1799-1868) had been a school-fellow

and also with Wight at the University ; but while Wight was studying

Medicine, he was studying Law. In the end he did not adopt the

Law as his profession; instead, as Wight was becoming a botanist

in India, he betook himself to Paris and studied Botany there. Re-

turning from Paris, he worked with Sir William Hooker in Glasgow.

Having met Bentham, he joined the last named in a tour of the

Pyrenees. Could Walker Arnott, after study in Paris, after work with

Sir William Hooker in Glasgow, and after a botanical exploration

along with Bentham, have been a follower of the Linnaean System?

That he was not; and he carried Wight into the Natural System, as

they wrote conjointly their excellent Prodromus Florae Peninsulae

Indiae orientalis on the material that Wight had brought back with him.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

The first volume appeared in 1834, and then Wight’s return to India

arrested the work at a point which would have been one-third of the

whole. The two collaborated in a couple of supplementary papers

and that was the end of their association in work for India.

Wight, while engaged on the Prodromus was a welcome guest in

Sir William Hooker’s house; and Hooker happened to be engaged

in preparing the plates for his supplement to Sowerby and Smith’s

English Botany. The idea of illustrating in a comprehensive way the

flora of Britain, as that work did, gave rise in Wight to a desire to

illustrate the flora of India in a similar manner, and out of that desire

were born all these of his books: (i) I/ustrations of Indian Botany

with plates numbered 1 to 41, reproduced from Hooker’s Botanical

Miscellany, 1834, (ii) Illustrations of Indian Botany with plates

numbered 1 to 182 in two volumes, 1840-50, (i) Icones plantarum

Indiae orientalis in six volumes, with plates numbered 1 to- 2,100,

1835-53, and (iv) Spicilegium neilgherriense in two volumes with plates

numbered 1 to 202, 1846-51. To eftect his purpose, he had to learn

the art of lithography, which he did in Sir William Hooker’s house,

to train his artists, and to secure a printer. The printer worked in

Madras city; Wight suffered from transfers to the Nilgiri Hills and

then Coimbatore, as he told von Martius in a letter, at the inconvenient

distance of 300 miles from his printer. He bore fhe expenses himself

and the loss which, he says, was made tolerable by the Government

taking 50 copies.

Wight on returning to India in 1833 was posted to Bellary; then |

his regiment was ordered to march to Palamcottah at the extreme

south of the Peninsula. Wight found the transport of his impedi-

menta most inconvenient. After arriving at Palamcottah, he was sent

on a mission of inspection to the experimental spice-garden at Kuttalam

(Courtallam), a pretty place at the open end of a depression in the

Ghats through which winds off the Indian Ocean carry coolness and

humidity. Wight revelled in this place which gave him his second

experience of the southern mountain flora; his first had been when he

climbed the Palni Hills in 1826. But he contracted fever and was

driven to take a period of leave which he used for a visit to Ceylon.

He took with him two of his collectors and met there General

G. W. Walker and his extremely energetic wife with whom he

botanized.

At this point in my narrative it is desirable to record what had

been the course of Botany in Ceylon after Koenig’s visit in 1781 (see

PP. 874-5 of the first chapter). I commence, therefore, with another

missionary, Joham Peter Rottler. As Koenig was the first of the

‘Tranquebar botanical missionaries, so Rottler was the last. Rottler

(1749-1836), after an education at the University of Strasburg, joined

the Mission (1776) and lived in India for 60 years, for the first half

working from Tranquebar and for the second from Madras city. He

travelled and collected plants in many places and co-operated with

others in making up sets of dried plants which had various destinations.

One went to J. C. D. von Schreber at Erlangen and is believed to

have been transferred later to Munich; another went to Delessert at

Geneva; Wallich received two bundles on his return from his long

leave ; Wight was able to obtain a set; and in some way, earlier than

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 49

Wallich’s leave, a set had reached India House which Wallich was

allowed to have and distributed as ‘Herb. Madras’. It is improbable

that one set was like another; the Geneva specimens, for instance,

are not to be assumed as of contemporaneous origin with what

entered Wight’s collections. Rottler at his death had a considerable

herbarium which he bequeathed to the Vepery Mission and the

Mission sent it to King’s College, London; this collection, the college

gave to Kew in 1872; but there is a suspicion that it had ceased to

be entire. Rottler’s specimens were commonly devoid of any locality

of collecting.

Rottler made two visits to Ceylon, one in 1788, the other in 1795.

The conditions in 1795 were very favourable for collecting, as he had

been engaged to travel with Hugh Cleghorn (1781-1834), Private

Secretary to the Governor of the island and after that the first

Colonial Secretary, that he might serve as interpreter in a tour of

inspection. The tour over, he remained to continue the collecting.

By arrangement, specimens were sent to India House in 1797.

Rottler’s biographer, Thomas Foulkes, states that he was informed

by Cleghorn’s grandson that they were subsequently put into the

collection at King’s College. Rottler’s mastery of “Tamil led to the

preparation of a dictionary. Of its three volumes only one was printed

before Rottler’s death; the other two were issued in 1837 and 1839.

In the dictionary are to be found the first equatings of botanical and

Tamil plant-names. Five years after the third part had been issued,

the Tamil botanical dictionary of Simon Casie Chitty came out as a

further effort at passing the terminology of Botany into southern

India.

But to return to Ceylon, after Rottler the next to botanize in

Ceylon was William Kerr, chosen by Sir Joseph Banks in 1812 for

the management of the Garden in Colombo where he died in 1815,

to be succeeded by Alexander Moon, likewise chosen by Sir Joseph

Banks. Moon moved the government garden to Peradeniya, where

he died in 1825. His successor was James Macrae, chosen by Lindley ;

he served from 1827 to 1830. Kerr, Moon and Macrae had graduated

for appointment by travel in search of plants for cultivation; and the

establishing of such in Ceylon was their first duty. Moon was the

best equipped for the work and published in 1824 A Catalogue of Ceylon

Plants which holds the names of 366 species that he had alive in

the Peradeniya Garden, together with the names of plants found outside

that he recognized, bringing the total to 1127. Moon made no

acknowledgement of help from Europe, but there are specimens in

the herbaria of London indicative of correspondence. Macrae sent

specimens to Lindley and added also to the collection of dried plants

which Moon had started; but Macrae’s time in Ceylon was very short.

After Macrae’s death Peradeniya had in turn 5 care-taker superin-

tendents; one of these was J. G. Watson, accepted on the recom-

mendation of Wallich when on leave in London; another was J. G. Lear,

an employee of the horticultural firm of Knight of Chelsea, who being

in Ceylon was locally taken into employment. During Watson’s

service, the traveller Baron Karl von Huegel spent four months in

Ceylon. Contact with Watson is not recorded and of the visit little

is in print except that he collected and dried plants extensively, as

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

recorded in a privately printed memoir of 1904 wherein the places

that he visited are named; and Bentham visiting Vienna in 1839 saw

there the Baron’s collections.

Almost throughout the years of these care-taker superintendents

General G. W. Walker was in Ceylon; and the General was virtually

in loco parentis to the Garden.

George Warren Walker ( 1844) had been Governor of St.

Helena and from that island he and his wife had been active in

sending plants and seeds to the Glasgow and Edinburgh professors,

1.e., to Sir William Hooker and Robert Graham. After a subsequent

period of leave, the General was sent in 1830 to Ceylon as adjutant-

General, where in unhurried journeys of inspection through all parts

of the island, the palanquin bearers who carried him would command

his interest by drawing attention to flowers seen by the way, and

these the General collected. Wight having gone to Ceylon, as

recorded, went on’ one of these journeys with the General: Ievis

obvious that Mrs. Walker would travel less than her husband; but

she ascended Adam’s Peak on one occasion and wrote a long account

of her experiences which Sir William Hooker printed (Compan. Bot.

Mag. 1, p. 3; 1835). She did most of the correspondence regarding

their plants, but he the business of despatching etc. They looked

to Hooker and to Graham for determinations, and sent much to them,

enriching at the same time the herbarium at Peradeniya. ‘The General

expressed his complete disapproval of J. G. Watson as merely a col-

lector and entirely unable to read the Language of Botany; and he

begged that a scientific man should be placed in charge of Peradeniya.

Watson certainly collected; and the fact that he obliged Wallich with

dried garden plants when Wallich asked for them may be kept in

mind in connection with Wallich’s selection of him. He sent dried

plants also to Lindley. It is not unlikely that the General’s protests

reached quarters influential enough to secure the appointment of

George Gardner, the first botanist as distinct from horticulturist to

be in charge of Peradeniya.

Wight’s visit to Ceylon in 1836 and contact with the General led

to an undertaking on Wight’s part to name up the Peradeniya col-

lections; and these were entrusted to him for the purpose. Wight

then proceeded to supplement the Ceylon material, placing again in

Ceylon in 1837 two collectors. If, as seems to have been the case,

the whole of the Peradeniya herbarium was packed and sent to Wight,

its size at the time would not have been great.

In 1838 another botanist of the Army arrived in Ceylon; this was

John George Champion (1815-45). He was stationed at first in the

centre of the island and later at Galle. He did not meet Wight but

they corresponded. Champion was at Galle when Prince Waldemar of

Prussia, making a tour of the East, landed at the port of Kalutara

which is between Galle and Colombo, bringing with him as his personal

physician the young and inexperienced botanist Werner Hofimeister.

Champion took the physician botanizing, while the Prince proceeded

to Kandy and was shown round the Garden at Peradeniya by the artist

Harmanis De Alwis. At this date General Walker was no longer

in the island. Threats of war in the north of India had caused his

transfer to Madras in 1837, then to Calcutta, then to Meerut; finally,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 51

after a visit to Mussoorie, he and his wife ended at Simla. In 1844,

Champion, who had taken the unofficial position towards Peradeniya

that had been the General’s, corresponded with Wight regarding the

loaned collection, and saw that it was back in place for the use of

Gardner. Wight evidently had had it for a long time.

Before Gardner’s arrival another botanist had reached the island;

this was William Ferguson (1820-87), a professional surveyor.

Gradually he developed a special interest in economic plants, in ferns,

and in seaweeds. However, his years of activity really belong to the

third period of this history.

George Gardner (1812-49) had been a pupil of Sir William Hooker

and, when qualified in Medicine, had travelled for 5 years in Brazil.

It is interesting that to have travelled seems to have remained a

qualification for the Ceylon appointment. It is doubly interesting that

an occupant should have been chosen with a botanical qualification.

Unfortunately the seeds of ill-health were in him and almost immediately

he was obliged to take leave; this he did by returning Wight’s visit ;

he went to the Nilgiri Hills and botanized there with Wight. In 1846,

Wight had joined the editorial staff of McClelland’s Calcutta Journal

of Natural History, and now Gardner was added. Griffith had become

an editor two years earlier. Gardner now used the opportunity it

afforded him of publishing. An editorial staff including Griffith,

Gardner and Wight was a strong one botanically; but the financial

support which the journal obtained was inadequate. The Asiatic

Society of Bengal a few years earlier, manceuvring to finance its

output of print by offering for sale separately the scientific and literary

papers that it accepted for the Asiatic Researches, had observed that

it was left with unsold scientific parts when the corresponding literary

parts of volumes were sold. This demonstration regarding demand

might have pointed to difficulties that McClelland’s venture had to

face.

Wight’s short period on the staff of the journal was almost his

only connection with northern India, except correspondence with

Wallich and Griffith, so completely did he belong to the Peninsuia

where his authority in taxonomy extended from Ceylon to. Bombay

and from Ceylon to the Circars. It was indicated in my first chapter

(p. 873) how John Graham accepted that authority ; it will be indicated

how it was passed on through Gibson and Dalzell; Nimmo’s friendship

with Wight was built on it; and from what has just been recorded,

it is clear how it was established in Ceylon.

Immediately before the illness which led to Wight’s holiday in

Ceylon, he had had information that his employment was to be

changed. He told Walker Arnott that he anticipated a roving life

and that it might be for a year or longer. It proved not to be a

roving life and it lasted 17 years. He was removed from the Military

Department and told to enquire into the state of Agriculture in

southern India and to conduct experimental cultivation of cotton,

tobacco, senna, sugar, coffee, spices, and madder and to enquire into

the possibilities of cinchona. Cotton was put into the front. For a

time he resided in Madras city where he undertook the management

of a garden started by a new Agri-Horticultural Society and was

drawn into the affairs of the Madras Society of Literature and Science,

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

contributing several papers to their Journal, always such as had an

interest beyond his own subject of taxonomic botany. From Madras

city he was moved to the Nilgiri Hills and then to Coimbatore. Ten

bullock carts were required to move his collections and machinery

from the one to the other. Without doubt, he collected much in the

Nilgiri Hills; at Coimbatore he was but a short distance from the

Anamallai Hills; but C. E. C. Fisher does not find that he collected

in them (see Records Bot. Survey Ind. 9, p. 5). In. 1853, his retire-

ment came. The collections which he then brought to London for

final elaboration were in a very large measure made up of southern

hill-plants got by his collectors. These plants were distributed from

Kew in 1869.

Wight left India too soon to have any part in the establishment

of Cinchona. The first individual plant to reach the East was in

Java in 1851 and further plants in 1854; it was not until 1860 that

planting commenced in the Nilgiri Hills and the establishment there

was the work of William Graham Mclvor, Superintendent of a Botanic

Garden established at Ootacamund.

FURTHER COLLECTING IN SOUTHERN INDIA

When in 1828 Wallich brought together all the collections that

he could command, he had a small number of species from the Nilgiri

Hills collected by Leschenault and a larger number collected by

P. j. Noton of the Bombay Mint. In 1827, an association called

‘Unio Itineraria’ i.e., the Travel Union, was formed in Germany at

Esslingen near Stuttgart, with the object of maintaining a collector

or collectors of plants in the field whose collections were to be divided

among the subscribers. Under the guidance of Ernst Gottlieb Steudel

and Christian Friedrich Hochstetter, the Union prospered; they handed

it over as a going concern in 1842 to the charge of Rudolp Friedrich

Hohenacker, to whom it occurred that there might be a market for

dried plants from that part of India where Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus

had been illustrated. Hohenacker sought for but failed to get someone

to collect actually in Rheede’s country, i-e., near Cochin, but found

a missionary, F. Metz, resident at Mangalore, 240 miles further north,

prepared to do the collecting. _Hohenacker could scarcely have been

expected to know that Mangalore is outside the climate of Cochin: it

is beyond where the second annual peak of rainfall which characterizes

the Equator has died away and is where the months of April and

May have a dryness that influences the vegetation. F. Metz of the

Basle Mission was not a botanist, but a collector ready to earn as

much as he could, that he might put up mission buildings. Hohenacker

sought for someone in Britain to name the plants when they had

been collected, but in vain; and he accepted the services of Frederik

Anton Willem Miquel who was at the very beginning of his career.

Miquel naturally was slow. The first dividend came at the end of

1847. The plants distributed then are labelled Kanara and may be

assumed to have come from within the District of South Kanara.

Next, Metz had a short period of collecting about Mercara in Coorg;

he was now at an elevation probably not reached at all by men who

brought Rheede’s plants together. Then the Mission moved Metz to

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF ‘BOTANY IN [INDIA 53

the village of Keti at a few miles from Ootacamund in the Nilgiri

Hills and holding still less of Rheede’s vegetation than at Mercara.

However, he had not done much collecting before he decided to

cease in consequence of heavy losses between gathering and shipment.

He had been a diligent agent whose specimens, indifferent at first,

improved as he gained in experience. Some authors quote these spe-

cimens as Hohenacker’s, which is misleading, for Hohenacker was

only an intermediary.

Another missionary was living in Ootacamund when Metz was moved

to Keti whose interest in the plants of the Nilgiri Hills was deeper.

This was Bernhard Schmid (1787-1857). His first place of residence

in India was in the District of Tinnevelly. There his health broke

down, driving him to the Nilgiri Hills, where, it seems, his botanical

interests were aroused. Not wholly recovering, he returned to Europe,

taking with him or having to follow him a small collection of dried

plants and some coloured drawings. He had been trying to determine

what to call his plants by the use of Roxburgh’s Coromandel Planis and

Persoon’s Synopsis, neither work likely to be really helpful. At the

end of the year 1831, Baron Karl von Huegel, who has been mentioned

already, had reached Bombay, and from Bombay, he worked his way

southwards, reaching the Nilgiri Hills in February and botanizing

there with Schmid for six weeks. Karl Alexander Anselm von Huegel

(1795-1870) was of German ancestry, but Austrian adoption—a great

collector who enriched the Vienna Museum considerably by what he

brought to it. He records that Schmid conducted him about the

country-side and put his herbarium freely at his disposal. Doubtless,

specimens still exist which Schmid put into von Huegel’s hands.

Schmid had a list of 471 species which he recognised and might

name to the genus and only rarely to the species. In 1836, he

returned to Europe and being a native of Weimar which is only 20

miles from the University town of Jena, it was natural that he should

make contact with Jonathan Karl Zenker, the professor of Botany in

that University. The date and manner of making contact is not known;

but the result was that Schmid gave to Zenker the materials from

which Zenker published in .1845 a decade of Plantae indicae quas

collegit Bernardus Schmid, followed by a second decade in 1847.

Zenker died in 1848, and there were no more decades. The botany

of the two published was entirely Zenker’s; and Zenker had had to

build on to the original drawing by dissections and perhaps sundry

details. Zenker has been accused of disregarding the work of others

assuming novelty for whatever he had.

At the time of von Huegel’s visit to the Nilgiri Hills, a resident

medical officer was preparing a guide-book, his name R. Baikie. Von

Huegel helped him by supplying notes on the climate and vegetation,

posting them back to Dr. Baikie from Ceylon, to which he proceeded

after leaving the Nilgiri Hills. These notes were incorporated by

Dr. Baikie in the text of the book Observations on the Neilgherries

(1834); Schmid provided his list of 471 species and Baikie appended

it together, with three coloured plant-portraits. If the three portraits

represent, as is probable, the foundation that Zenker had for his plates,

a good deal of each of Zenker’s plates was due to Zenker. Schmid

returned to Ootacamund in 1845 and remained there for the rest of his

54: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

life. Before returning he visited London and called on Sir William

Hooker at Kew. This visit resulted in a promise to give dried plants

to Sir William, who provided the drying paper; and it is recorded

in the Kew Bulletin (1901, p. 52) that Schmid sent nearly 1,000 during

the next few years. He sent lesser numbers elsewhither: Urban records

(Jahrb. Bot. Berlin, 1, p. 61; 1882, mis-spelling Schmid’s name) the

receipt in 1848 of 41 specimens; and it is recorded by Thomas Thomson

that the Calcutta Garden received a bundle. In 1857 Schmid, aware that

his life was near its end, asked Sir William Hooker what he should

do with specimens still in his possession and was advised to offer

them to Hohenacker. If Hohenacker received them, they were added

to Metz’s plants. It is apparent that the greater part of the flowering

plants which Schmid collected are now in the Kew herbarium.

Schmid had been collecting ferns and mosses. Just before his death

he received a list of determinations of ferns that he had sent to

Gustav Kunze, the Professor at Leipzig, and forwarded it to the

Madras Society of Literature and Science. It was printed in their

Journal (19, p. 79: 1858). His family received soon afterwards a list

of mosses determined by Johann Karl August Mueller of Halle; and

this list appeared in the same volume (p. 84).

In the year of Schmid’s death a second edition of Baikie’s

guide book appeared, edited and much altered by W. H. Smoult, but

Schmid’s list was unaltered. Smoult was a man of Calcutta, interested

in economic plants.

The following were collectors of plants in the Nilgiri Hills of

Schmid’s time:—Sir Frederick Adam, Governor of Madras from 1832

to 1837; two missionaries, Thomas Foulkes and another named Weigle;

and the energetic ‘botaniste-agriculteur’ George Samuel Perrottet of

Pondicherry. The first two sent their collections to Sir William

Hooker; the third collected the mosses that reached J. K..A. Mueller ;

and the collections of the last were on sale in sets in 1853 and 1857.

Perrottet’s were by no means all from the Nilgiri Hills; he collected

widely, even up to Bombay.

Metz’s collecting in Coorg has been mentioned. He was not the

very first to interest himself in the flora of Coorg, for in 1811 a

surgeon named David White published an account of the Cardamom

cultivated along the Ghats (Trans. Linn. Soc. 10, p. 228). Rottler

in some way obtained plants from Coorg. In 1834, the State

was extensively explored by Captains William Munro and George

Stevens Gough who made rather large collections. William Munro

(1818-80), ultimately a General, began his collecting in India in Coorg

and continued it in many other parts of India until 1848, when he

took considerable collections to London to work up with the help of

Bentham. Previously, he had given specimens liberally to Wight and.

Griffith. George Stevens Gough, later the second Marquis Gough,

appears to have done more collecting than what he did with Munro

in Coorg and in the Nilgiri Hills. There are other collectors of south-

western India who need naming. One was Charles Mitlett, a tea-

merchant who yearly spent the tea exporting season in Canton, but

between the seasons was able to travel back to Ceylon or Malabar :

little is recorded of what he collected in these places, but of what he

collected in China much (see Bretschneider, Hist. European Bot.

Cia DRS ON iihy HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 55

Discoveries in China, p. 288; 1898). Another was Thomas Lobb, an

employee of the horticultural firm of Veitch: he in 1848 collected showy

plants on the western side of the Ghats and in Mysore. A third was

the Rev. E. Johnson, who resided in Travancore and contributed a

list of orchids, which he had found, to the Madras Journal of Literature

and Science (19, p. 215; 1858).

In Ceylon a great interest in the ferns arose, and three men became

specialists in these plants. One was Sir William Norris (1793-1859)

who had been in Ceylon as Puisne judge, then Recorder of Penang,

and lastly in Ceylon again as Chief Justice. He did not confine his

collecting to ferns; but they were his greatest interest, and he sent

his difficulties to Sir William Hooker for determination. The other

two were in business in Colombo, George Wall (? 1821-94) and

Thomas W. Naylor Beckett. They became friends of Thwaites when

he succeeded Gardner as Superintendent of the Peradeniya Garden, and

worked conjointly at the ferns with him. The collection of Beckett

is at Liverpool.

The zoologist Thomas Caverhill Jerdon (1811-72) collected plants

in many parts of southern India and retained his collections until his

‘leath, after which they were given to Kew.

- John Campbell, an army officer, brother of William Campbell, who

was the first secretary of the Edinburgh Botanical Society, collected

during the years 1835-37 about Hyderabad and in the Circars, and sent

plants to Wight.

‘THE ASSAM DELEGATION’

TO ENQUIRE INTO THE POSSIBILITY OF A TEA-INDUSTRY

IN NORTH-EASTERN INDIA

For a century before the foundation of the Calcutta Botanical Garden,

merchants had known that it was possible to obtain seed of the tea

bush and grow the plant, but that the production of commercial tea

did not follow. And so it was that the bush was brought into the

Garden soon after its foundation as something of interest and then

introduced afresh by Lord Macartney’s Embassy to China in the year

of Kyd’s death (1793), certainly then with an emphasis on possibilities.

According to Wallich, whose knowledge of the Garden was not

contemporary with either of its introductions but began in 1807, the

bush as he knew it from that date to 1828 was always sickly; but

did not die. Merchants in India perhaps took no interest whatever

in its presence in the Garden; but they could not forget what large

profits would follow successful production of commercial tea in India.

Govan, when superintending the Saharanpur Botanical Garden,

advocated trying tea there. But India got no further, It was in

London that a movement was started; a Mr. Walker, a member of

the East India Company, moved the Company to action; he had read

in the library of the Company at India House Francis Buchanan’s

account of the raising of crops in the Shan Hills and of trade in

the leaves to the Burmese; and he had found in a copy of Don’s

Prodromus Florae Nepalensis that Edward Gardner, when Resident

in Nepal in 1820, had found there a bush in cultivation and had sent

a twig to Wallich in Calcutta (see Communications Relative to the

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Cultivation of the Tea Plant in India, (1839). As Wallich was in London

when Mr. Walker moved the Company, he was asked to comment ;

and along with informing the Company that the bush was unhealthy

in Calcutta (he did not diagnose the cause), he suggested that suitable

situations might be found in the mountains of India, perhaps in ~

Kumaon, Sirmur or Garhwal, ‘corresponding entirely with those in

China and Japan in which the cultivation of the tea shrub is carried

to the greatest extent and perfection’. The Directors put the papers,

including Wallich’s memorandum, into the hands of Lord William

Bentinck, who had just been chosen to be the new Governor-General ;

and he on his arrival in Calcutta in 1833 laid them before his Council

with a recommendation for attention. Wallich by this time was back

in India and became inevitably one of the members of the ‘Tea Com-

mittee’ which was nominated by the Council to formulate proposals

for. action. The. Secretary of the Committee was (a) merchant,

G. J. Gordon. The mercantile community was further and well re-

presented. One of the official members was James William Grant

(1788-1865), a man of wide interests whom I shall need to name again.

He was the Grant to whom Griffith dedicated his genus Grantia ; and

he was for a short time, two years after nomination to the Tea

Committee, in temporary charge of the Calcutta Botanical Garden.

The Tea Committee first of all sought advice at Saharanpur from

Hugh Falcener who had succeeded Royle; and Falconer advised exactly

as Royle would have done that trials should be made in the near-by

Himalaya, ‘from Dehra Dun up to 3,000 ft.’. Wallich concurring

pointed out the presence there of his seed collector, Robert Blinkworth,

who could be made available to assist. So he was; and it seems that

he was involved in planting in Kumaon or Garhwal to the end of his

life. As a second recommendation the Tea Committee asked that seed

be procured from China; and it was decided that Gordon should go

to get it. Wallich thereupon volunteered to act as secretary and was

appointed to do so, being thus brought to the very centre of the

Committee’s business. He offered to go to the north-western

Himalaya, where he would have made extensive plans for the receipt

of what Gordon was to get; but the Government decided that this

was not necessary. Plans were made for the distribution of the seed

to come from China and most of it was to go to the north-western

- Himalaya; the Nilgiri Hills were to receive a fair quantity and the

balance was assigned to unspecitied places in southern India. What

arguments were adduced to give second preference to the Nilgiri Hills

cannot be stated. Assam was not thought of; then suddenly it came

into view, by the discovery that a rumour of several years earlier

that tea actually occurred there was founded on fact. The story of

the discovery is complicated by the number of men who had a part

in it.

In 1823, a certain Robert Bruce travelling up the Brahmaputra,

as others were doing, on the look out for a business opening, was

successful in getting into relations with a Singpho chief; and from

the Singphos he learned that they prepared for themselves a tea

locally. As he told no one, his position remains somewhat shadowy.

In 1824, the first Burmese War broke out. Many an officer during

the fighting and exploring would have had a chance of learning as

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 57

much as Robert Bruce had learned; and it would seem that it was

then that the rumour referred to above reached Calcutta. But the

only record of this rumour is in a much later circular of the Tea

Committee. The Governor-General’s agent on the North-eastern

Frontier in 1826 was a capable officer by name David Scott; and into

his possession came a leafy twig from Manipur, said to be of a shrub

“which gave tea. This he sent to Calcutta. A statement that it came

from Tezpur was an error. Wallich with caution decided that the

specimen probably represented a species of the genus that gives tea,

but not the tea bush itself; and he put it away as Camellia (?)

scottiana. Scott died without doing more. Pemberton afterwards told

Griffith that this plant was only known from one spot, which may

well have been true as to the knowledge; but according to Sir George

Watt, who explored in Manipur in 1883, there 1s much wild tea in

eastern Manipur.

When the Burmese War broke out, a younger brother of Robert

Bruce, Charles Alexander Bruce, arriving in India as part of the

personnel on one of the Company’s ships, volunteered for war service

and was given charge of a gun-boat or gun-boats on the Brahmaputra ;

and he remained in Assam after the war, policing the upper waters

of the river. In 1831, he passed under the orders of a new political

officer, Captain Charlton. The two from this date took parts in the

exposure of Tea in Assam that can scarcely be distinguished. While

it is evident that Bruce had opportunities of knowing more than

Charlton by reason of longer residence, Charlton had the administra-

tion in his hands, and whatever knowledge there was to be passed on

passed through him to the Governor-General’s Agent at Gauhati.

This was Francis Jenkins who had succeeded David Scott in the

position. According to C. A. Bruce, the Singphos reminded him of his

brother’s interest in the Tea. Robert had died. Records show that

Charlton had a knowledge of the presence of Tea at least in 1832,

for in that year he wrote to Jenkins regarding it and, more than that,

he tried to send a living plant to the Calcutta Garden. Wallich

presumedly had not yet returned, and Charlton tried to get it to its

destination by the services of the surgeon, John Tytler, but he failed.

Charlton brought seedlings into his garden; but this may not have

been until 1834. The Singpho village of Bisa in the Lakhimpur

Frontier Tracts near the Burhi Dihing river is likely to have been

the place whence they came, for Bruce appears to have been familiar

with the growing there. It is 30 miles in a straight line from Sadiya.

Charlton who had submitted specimens to Jenkins in 1832, submitted

more in 1834. Dr. H. H. Mann suggests (in ‘Bengal : Past and Present,’

72, p. 11) that Jenkins had asked for them which is extremely

probable, for it is certain that neither Charlton nor Bruce had clear

ideas of the importance of the presence in Assam of the Tea bush.

Charlton sent leaves to Jenkins in May and leaves with fruit in

November. These Jenkins forwarded to Wallich who determined them

as representing Camellia theifera, the true source of Tea. He imme-

diately informed the Tea Committee (24 December 1834), and the

Committee recommended that a Delegation be sent to study the con-

ditions under which Assam produced it, Wallich to be in charge with

another botanist and a soil expert to support him, the botanist to be

08 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

William Griffith and the soil- -expert John McClelland. Jenkins expected

that the area of the Tea bush in Assam would be found to be the

margin of the tea-growing area in China and had ideas of using the

occasion for ascertaining the nature of the country of northern Burma

and towards Yunnan.

William Griffith (1810-46) was mentioned in my first chapter (p. 876)

as having been brought to Wallich in London by his teacher Lindley, -

and as having drawn up accounts and made illustrations which Wallich

put into his Plantae Asiaticae Rariores. Wallich was so impressed

by Griffith’s ability that, on learning that he was about to sail for

India, he made up for him a small bundle of named plants to

help him to recognise species which he was sure to meet. Griffith

then reached Madras already with a reputation. From Madras he

was sent to Mergui and he was in that distant post when wanted

by the Tea Committee.

John McClelland (1805-85) had joined the medical service in India

in 1830 and was in Kumaon, when he likewise was wanted. His

interest was in Geology; but at times in his career he turned botanist

and collected rather considerably; in 1849 he did this in the Bengal

district of Birbhum and in 1855 in Lower Burma. The two young

men, Griffith 24 and McClelland 29, were ill-matched with Wallich,

who at 48 was old for his years.

Francis Jenkins (1793-1855, ultimately a Major-General), after

proving. his ability as an administrator at Nagpur, succeeded to the

post of Agent to the Governor-General at Gauhati in Assam. He

would have the Delegation cross the Khasia Hills and he would send

them from Gauhati up-stream; but that was not all; he sought to

arrange that a party would come to the Assam border from the Residency

at the Burmese Court to meet at the frontier a party that he would

send from Assam. As it required a little time to get Griffith to

Calcutta, Jenkins had time for planning. Finally Wallich, Griffith and

McClelland left Hugli by boat on 31 August 1835, to thread the

Gangetic delta and then the jheels of Sylhet to Terrya Ghat, whence

they climbed to the plateau, Griffith both in the jheels and on the

plateau meeting a vegetation the like of which he had not seen before

and collecting with that intensity which was his, Wallich to whom

the plants were not altogether new relatively indifferent. Disastrously,

Wallich had not brought enough drying paper, and a quarrel resulted

when Wallich deprived Griffith of his means of collecting. McClelland

seems to have silently sided with Griffith, as he saw Wallich removing

Griffith’s specimens from the plant-presses to make room for his own.

Wallich afterwards could write generously of Griffith (see for instance

in Hook. Journ. Bot. 1841, p. 192); but Griffith never forgave Wallich,

though in his private diary he wrote at the time the excuse for

Wallich that he was ill, and when ill was irritable. Griffith had

already planned his own ‘Flora Indica’; and this could have irvitated

Wallich, for Wallich would not forget his own failure to produce an

extended edition of Roxburgh’s Flora Indica.

During the assembling of the Delegation, Gordon returned from

Canton with the first of the several consignments of Tea seed that

he was destined to procure. The missionary G. Gutzlaff had helped

him and was in a good position to do so for he served the Chinese

CHARTERS JON LHEY HISTORY. OF BOTANY, IN. INDIA 59

Inspector of Trade as an interpreter. Of this first consignment of

seed, 20,000 were set aside for Assam and 20,000 for the north4

western Himalaya; the balance, which was small, was allotted to the

Nilgiri Hills. An attempt to forward the consignment in a germinated

condition was made, possibly with injudicious haste, and the seed

for Assam arrived the worse for that at their destination, Sadiya,

early in 1836. The Delegation must have been in the Khasia Hills

when the seedlings left Calcutta; its three members arrived at Gauhati

on 23 November 1835, and left for Sadiya nine days later, reaching

Sadiya 16 January 1836, just ahead of the seedlings. Before that

date, Charlton had had the misfortune of being wounded in repelling

a raid into the valley, and he was in hospital, Bruce being in charge

of affairs. Charlton’s garden with the transplanted tea plants in it

was a mass of weeds and its fence broken through by straying cattle;

however, the young piants were there for the Delegation to see.

Bruce took the Delegation forthwith to Bisa, where two areas were

examined. On the way back to Sadiya another, 12 miles above

Sadiya, was visited. Next, a site for a nursery for the seedlings

from China was selected, the position being Saikhoa (alias Chykwa)

within a few miles of Sadiya. Bruce then took the Delegation to

the Muttack country on the east side of where Dibrugarh now is;

and for more than a month they wandered very uncomfortably from

one area where the Tea bush was to another. Lastly they went down

stream and visited an area in the neighbourhood of Jorhat. McClelland,

whose report on the soil seems to have been excellent, thus got the

facts on which to form his judgment. Griffith thought that Bruce’s

knowledge was superficial and in this doubtless was right; Bruce grew

knowledgeable later. As soon as the Jorhat area had been seen,

Wallich, extremely anxious to get away from what he thought would

end his life, went down stream, taking Bruce with him, the others

of the Delegation thinking that Wallich had left them behind with

the intention of excluding them from a hearing. They made a short

expedition into the Naga Hills; and then Griffith passed under the

direct orders of Jenkins. :

When Bruce had cause in 1839 to report to the Tea Committee

on subsequent work, he gave a map showing in how many further

areas he had found the Tea bush.

By Jenkins’s arrangements Griffith was to join the exploring party

for the Burmese boundary in the next cold weather; meanwhile he

was established at Sadiya, and stayed there except for an attempt

made with Jenkins’s approval to penetrate the Mishmi Hills along the

beginning of the route which Wilcox had used when in 1827 he

succeeded in establishing the volume of the Irawadi at Manchi and

therefrom the not altogether remote position of its origin. Griffith,

however, was very soon turned back by want of porterage, but not

without considerable collections. Immobilized in Sadiya by the rains,

he threw his energy into detailed examinations of the plants about him,

carrying his investigations as far as his microscope could take him

in accordance with a habit that he had formed either at, or more pro-

bably before, coming to India and now, with the lure of his ‘Flora

Indica’ ahead, intensified. At Mergui, his regimental duties had been

light enough to have allowed him to commence collecting these

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

descriptions; at Sadiya he had nothing to prevent him from getting

on with them until in February 1837 came the time for joining the

party for the Burmese frontier. It was led by Major A. White.

Grifhth, before he started, examined the nursery of Tea seedlings at

Saikhoa and found the last of them perishing. Major White’s party

ran into great difficulties; for that reason it could not keep together

but trailed out; and the forward part got to the top of the Patkoi

Range with the hinder part unable to catch up. Griffith was in front

when a messenger arrived to say that the party from Burma was not

far away. This party was led by Dr. George Thomas Bayford and

had been two months on the way. It was to be another two months

in getting back. There was a meeting between it and the front of

Major White’s party on 5 March 1837; but the transport had got

into such a state that both parties had to go back, and Griffith’s

extremely forward position made it expedient that he should join the

Burmese party rather than go back as Major White did; he and

Bayford therefore went to Ava. It was a wonderful journey: the

track was not unknown, but was through lawless country and un-

civilized stock, by habit resentful of strangers, though perhaps

opportunely rather cowed by the tramp of armed men through the

hills during the fighting of the Burmese war. Passage had to be

bought, Griffith says, expensively. A remark by McClelland in an

obituary notice that ‘Griffith travelled with only one servant’

has been misinterpreted into ‘travelled with only one companion’.

It was not so; but he travelled in a very small party and must have

foregone largely the making of collections. Yet he collected even in

the Hukawng Valley which he crossed, then reached the limits of

Chinese seeking amber and jade, and so Mogaung, from which place

transport by water was available. Griffith got the Tea bush once;

and Captain S. F. Hannay, a member of the Assam party, when he

had been in Burma earlier had seen it once, so that the journey seemed

to confirm Jenkins’s idea of continuity between Shan tea growing and

Singpho encouragement, the Singphos finding it worth while to fell

rival shrubs to increase their limited supplies—the occurrence natural,

the local abundance consequently artificial.

From Mogaung to Ava, Griffith and Bayford used water-transport

and reached the end of their adventure in May.

Griffith’s diary, reproduced as pp. 60-108 of the appropriate volume

of his Posthumous Papers, gives in detail what he saw on his journey

and pp. 115-145 give a report which he made to the Government.

Griffith must have remained for several months in the neighbour-

hood of Ava; then he descended the Irawadi to Rangoon, taking

along with him considerable collections. He contrived to reach

Calcutta by sea in May 1838. After the manner in which Wallich

had left him at Jorhat, breaking up the Delegation, he had not

expected to be required to make a report on Tea, but he was asked

to do so. Complaining that the facts were no longer fresh in his

memory and that the collections of the Delegation, which had been

for two years at Calcutta in Wallich’s possession for study, had not

yet been got into such order that he could profit by them, he obeyed

the demand and reported to Wallich who sent the report to the Agri

Horticultural Society for publication (Trans. 5, pp.—85). In it,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY. OF BOTANY IN INDIA 61

Griffith; on data much too meagre, sought to argue that the genera

associated with the Tea bush in Assam, by occurring also in the tea

tracts of China, showed the bush endemic in both places. He was

disappointed that Wallich had not cleared the ground for him.

Griffth’s connection with Tea ceased with the report. On the

other hand, C. A. Bruce had become wholly absorbed; his activities

may be judged by a pamphlet printed in 1838, entitled An account of

the manufacture of Black Tea as now practised in Saddiya and by a

report which he sent in 1839 to the Tea Committee which distributed

it, and the Asiatic Society of Bengal printed it (Journal, 8, p. 1297),

as also the Madras Society of Literature and Science (Journal, 10,

p. 169). The number of patches or plantations under his charge

becoming too numerous, they were divided into two groups, half

under him and half under John White Masters who had been Head

Gardener in the Calcutta Garden under Wallich. Next, the Assam

Company having been established, the Government made over the

larger part of the patches to its care, glad to be freed from what

was under them a costly undertaking. The Company retained. Bruce

and Masters until 1843 and then tried new controls. Masters went

back into the service of the Government and became sub-assistant

under Jenkins in the Nowgong District in which position he made

an expedition into the Naga Hills and on it collected plants which

were sent to Calcutta. Later he was Extra Assistant Commissioner

of Golaghat and when he retired in 1862 was awarded a special pension

for ‘his very high character as a public officer’.

Jenkins caused large collections of dried plants to be made about

Gauhati. Under him at that place as the Government Apothecary was

Charles J. Simons who collected both in the valley and in the Khasia

and the Mikir Hills. The earlier of these collections were sent to

the Calcutta Garden, the last to Sir Joseph Hooker. Jenkins obviously

helped Thomas J. Booth to make his horticultural expedition from

Bishnath into the hills of the Daphlas at the south-eastern corner

of Bhutan. Booth had been sent to India by his uncle Thomas

Nuttall, the eminent American botanist.

GRIFFITH’s FURTHER SERVICE

Griffith was not allowed to stay long in Calcutta after his return

from Burma, but was detailed to accompany the Mission of Captain

Robert Charles Boileau Pemberton to Bhutan. Again he left Hugli

by water on the last day of the month of August; this was exactly

three years from his earlier departure. He chose to cross the Khasia

Hills again, as he had done with Wallich, but varied the route. From

Gauhati, he went with the Mission which penetrated the mountains

northwards to a depth of about 80 miles, then turned west and cros-

sing high passes, one of 12,500 ft., regained the plains by the Buxa

Duars as the rains of 1838 were commencing. Jenkins would have

liked to keep Griffith in Assam; but the Governor-General, Lord

Auckland, had other work for him and attached him to the army of

the Indus which was preparing to march on Kandahar. Lord

Auckland expressed the wish that the military authorities would give

Griffith every liberty consistent with safety.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

So Griffith, leaving Calcutta, went over the northern plains to

Ludhiana from which he wrote that he would rather be in Lower Bengal

than in a sandy place where the flora was so sparse. He followed

the Sutlej to the Indus and the Indus to Shikarpur; then went with

the army through the Bolan Pass to Quetta, botanized all the way to

Kandahar and from Kandahar to Kabul. When he left Afghanistan,

it was by Peshawar. If a map be consulted it will be seen that he

went round the central massif, not through it; but he reached con-

siderable heights in the north-western parts of the country. When

the army was being withdrawn, he asked leave to remain with surveyors

who were finishing their work; and this was granted. He stayed

until it was unsafe to stay any longer; and the last part of his ex-

ploring was in the latitude of Kabul, which he examined very thoroughly.

Unfortunately he had a long illness during this extension of his time,

suggesting that his excellent constitution was not completely proot

against the strains that he put on it. He made many friends among

the officers who were prepared to collect for him; otherwise he engaged

local men to collect and bring plants to him. It is noteworthy how

many of the officers who collected were men of note for their ability.

These he records as giving him dried plants. Firstly the surgeon

David Ritchie (1809-66). He had been a pupil of Robert Graham in

Edinburgh. MHis service during this war took him to Herat whence

he brought a collection to Griffith. Griffith, whose travels towards

Herat ended at Kandahar, was particularly grateful for this, which,

he remarked, proved to him that the flora of even the hottest parts

of Afghanistan is European in character. Ritchie, though he published

nothing, remained a collector through the rest of his Indian career,

collecting in Bombay, Sind, the Punjab, and Central India, and the

herbarium which he built up was given after his death to the Royal

Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Another co-adjutor was a surgeon on

the Bombay staff named Grant who brought plants from Saighan to

Griffith. Griffith acknowledges also the services of Captain E. Sanders

who continued to collect for him until his death, shortly before Griffith’s,

and of Lieutenants Thomas Hutton, an excellent zoologist, and Henry

Mortimer Durand, afterwards knighted for his eminent services.

Sanders had collected for Griffith between Kandahar and Herat; and

these specimens would have linked up with Ritchie’s, but were

lost in fording a river. Hutton and Durand collected chiefly about

Quetta.

Griffith was not a man to miss an opportunity, and on his way

back to Calcutta he doubled his easier marches to provide time for

diverging northwards to Simla and Mussoorie, and southwards to

Jabalpur. But the season was mid-winter and not good for collecting

the flowering plants, though both divergings afforded him a glimpse

of country that on no other occasion he could have seen. He had

suggested travelling within the mountains the whole way from Kabul

to Simla, but that was disallowed. Evidently by visiting Jabalpur,

he enlisted the help of Donald Macleod who was at the time Principal

Assistant to the Commissioner at Jabalpur; and Macleod made a

collection for him. William Munro, mentioned earlier as having

commenced collecting in Coorg, was about this time at Agra

whence he sent specimens to Griffith. Griffith, unable to visit Nagpur

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 63

himself, sent a collector to that place. Further he had material thence

from Markham Kittoe. Kittoe earlier had been sent from Orissa to

enquire into a report that coal was available inland; he collected then

and at various places at various times between the Circars and

Nagpur.

Another illustration of Griffith’s intention to get collections from

places that he could not visit is his sending of collectors from Calcutta

to Darjeeling in 1843. He kept a personal collector for years in the

Khasia Hills. All this was done to make his ‘Flora Indica’ as extensive

and complete as possible. He relied on Wight for the Peninsula.

When Griffith had arrived in Calcutta from Afghanistan, he occupied

himself in sorting and arranging his collections, eliminating to some

extent duplicates from which Sir William Hooker and Lemann profited ;

but Lemann passed what he received to Bentham. Meanwhile he

was appointed surgeon at Malacca, an appointment which pleased

him as promising leisure, and a delightful flora. The forest began

only four miles from the town and from his dwelling he would see

the alluring outline of Mount Ophir. Within a very short time of

his arrival at his station, Sir William Norris came from Penang to

botanize with him on that mountain. In 1842 Wallich’s health gave

way and Griffith was summoned to Calcutta to take charge of the

Garden. Wallich’s departure was urgent; and as time was _ needed

for Griffith’s journey Voigt was invited from Serampore to bridge

the gap. Griffith arrived at the beginning of December 1842. It

was a bad day for the Garden when this happened, for he proved to

be quite unsuited: he destroyed its amenities as a pleasure garden

because it did not satisfy him as a taxonomic chart: he declared

that the association of the two are incongruous. The consequences

of what he did are given in the next section. His acting appointment

lasted for exactly two years, save that he was only on his way to

Calcutta during the first three months. Wallich returned from his

leave in August 1844. Griffith, released by his return, remained in

Calcutta, busy with his own affairs, mainly the arranging of his col-

lections, preparing them for despatch to Britain where in the leave

which could not be put off much longer, he would work on them

towards his ‘Flora Indica’. More duplicate material was eliminated

to the benefit of Wight and Gardner in Ceylon. He arranged serially

his Assam species under numbers 1 to 1,460, his Bhutan species 1 to

1,191, and his Afghan species 1 to 1,275. It would seem that the

names of the actual collectors disappeared in the arranging. What

happened to subsidiary localities is not evident. Then in December

1844 he returned to Malacca and had scarcely taken full charge of

his duties when he was taken ill; and died (9 February 1845) from,

it would be, those fell consequences of malaria that killed Jacquemont.

WALLICH’s SECOND PERIOD OF SERVICE

AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FIRST CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDEN

itericeenecessdny. to rebum to tie year “1332, that is| the ‘year

when Wallich resumed his post at the Calcutta Botanical Garden.

This he did with diminished success, which may be attributed to a

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

loss of health. My preoccupation, consequently, at the commencement

of this section is Wallich’s health. He had been declared ill at

different times; he had been driven out of India in 1812, when he

took a voyage to Singapore... His health was given as a reason for

his taking leave in 1828. In 1830, Sir William Hooker wrote of him

as ‘greatly enfeebled by twenty years of incessant bodily and mental

fatigue’ (Bot. Miscel. 1, p. 42). Griffith in 1836, when with him on

the Assam Delegation, recorded that he could not sleep and was in

a nervous state, fearing that he would not return from Assam alive,

and that his marches were so short as to be of only five miles. At

the end of the Delegation, he almost fled from the country. Minutes

of the committees on which he served tend to record absences. In

1842, he was driven by ill-health out of India and went to the Cape.

When he returned in 1844, it was for no more than two years of

work. Wight in 1845 wrote ‘Wallich’s botanical day is over’. In

1847, he left India for the last time. During the few remaining years

of his life he distributed with Bentham’s help a residuum of the great

collections that he had handled so well during his leave of 1828-32.

He died in 1854. The above justify the conclusion that Wallich,

after returning from leave, was not the man that he had been.

I have had occasion to refer to his quarrel with Griffith. Rather

unwillingly I have to refer to another, because of. its bearing on

happenings to the Garden. In the month of August, 1838, Wallich

demanded the dismissal of his head gardener, J. W. Masters, accusing

him of gross misconduct in abetting attacks on the management of

the Garden. Masters protested; but the Government replied that

discretion in the matter was with Wallich. And Wallich got his

Way.

John White Masters (c. 1792-1873) had gone to Calcutta to help

in the carrying on of a school; at a date after Wallich’s return in

1832, he was engaged by Wallich as Head Gardener in the Botanical

Garden. After his dismissal he went to Assam and was given charge

of Tea plantations as has been recorded (p. 61). When recording

it, I called attention to the high character that he had. It is not

possible to judge between Wallich and Masters; but it is necessary

to note that Wallich was under criticism.

A writer called him ‘Wallich who goes somewhere every year’

implying neglect of his charge by absence; and the statement at one

time was not untrue: in 1826, he had travelled through the sub-

montane forests of Oudh; in 1827, in the teak forests of Burma; in

1828 he took leave and was away till 1832; in 1835, he was in Assam.

But he had not been away between the Assam Delegation and the

year of the dismissal of Masters. In the issue of McClelland’s Calcutia

Journal of Natural History of July, 1840 (1, p. 302), Wallich was

editorially accused of neglecting the Garden; it is not said in what

way. In the issue of July 1841 (2, p. 288), a more precise accusa~

tion is made. Wallich had reported to Government at the end of

1840 on what he called ‘the exertions and progress which have been

made during the last five years’, detailing at great length the number

of living plants sent out. The list is long enough to justify a remark

that Royle printed at this time (Essay on the productive resources of

India, 1840), to the effect that the influence of the Calcutta Garden

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 65

had altered the horticulture of Bengal; but what the reviewer in

McClelland’s journal wrote was: ‘Dr. Wallich seems unfortunately to

be impressed with the idea that the introduction of plants into the

Botanic Garden and the neighbourhood of Calcutta is the great object

of the institution’. The reviewer develops only one complaint: it is

that the Garden had ceased to have any field parties out coilecting

seeds and plants; but he means to say ‘whatever the activity in

horticulture, there is inadequate botany’. As already recorded,

Wallich’s health broke down so completely in August 1842 that

he left India hastily and Griffith arrived towards the end of the year

to act for him. Griffith immediately wrote a report on the Garden;

and we, trying to read history, bringing the two fault finding state-

ments in McClelland’s journal alongside this report and remembering

the intimacy between McClelland and Griffith, become convinced that

the McClelland-Griffith combination issued the unsigned accusations.

We may therefore examine Griffith’s report and form an opinion on

the accusation that Wallich had ‘neglected’ the Garden, which, I

think, must be that ill-health had taken the energy out of Wallich,

who was passing into a condition of marking time. Griffith arrived

in Calcutta to act with his mind made up; he knew what he wanted.

Printed copies of the letter that he wrote asking approval for what he

would do bear the date 1 May 1843. But printed in his Posthumous

Papers is a letter from him to Wight, dated 23 January 1843, which

must have been written before the other. However, the month is of

small importance. In the letter to Wight, Griffith tells him that he

had the sanction of Government for his alterations; turning to the

other letter we find the proposals. The Garden, he states, was ‘literally

choked with trees’, some of them mutilated and some fallen. The

students of the Medical College came weekly for a lesson in recog-

nizing the sources of their drugs and for them the medicinal plants

were labelled in Bengali; but otherwise there was no labelling. It

had been a custom to dry specimens cut from plants when they

flowered in the Garden and preserve them in a reference collection

kept in a seed-shed where they could be looked up if the name of

any plant were questioned. The plant names were otherwise retained

in the memories of the older and more experienced staff (or mis-

remembered). But Griffith found that the safeguard had been allowed

to get into disorder. It had existed from early days, broken up by

Wallich when he went on leave, renewed on his return, and then

disordered. Griffith, rightly convinced of its importance, had_ the

Garden collected over and not only made up a Garden set, but caused

four others to be made which he was prepared to deposit elsewhere.

Of the specimens which Wallich had had dried after 1832, Thomas

Thomson said the labels showed that Wallich had had trouble in

deciding what the names should be, so confused had the Garden

records become. Griffith stated that the library was also in disorder.

Yet again, Roxburgh had laid out a Linnaean garden, i.e., a border

of selected plants spaced to exhibit the Linnaean System of Classifica-

tion; and it, too, had been in disorder before Voigt took over. It is

very easy for such borders, where annuals are likely to be common,

to get out of order by the scattering of their seeds with a consequent

volunteering in wrong positions. Griffith says so much of disorder

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

that his indictment was serious; and he could scarcely say so much

without foundation. He asked for fundamental changes as well as

corrections of what had gone wrong. He would gather into one place

nurseries that were scattered about the grounds; he would replant so

as to get related species in apposition and have a garden of the

Natural System to contrast with the Linnaean System, as well as

formal flower beds; he would fill the many small tanks with earth

taken from one single large tank; the surface left over would be

allotted to trees planted like with like; above all, he would build

up a working herbarium—a public herbarium, he called it—in the top

storey of the Superintendent’s house, placing it there because the

situation was airy. Roxburgh had asked for that top storey that he

might very largely live in it, and it was only accessible through the

lower private quarters of the house; Wallich had stored his dried

collection in the basement, which one must say was thoroughly un-

suitable but completely accessible. As to the reference collection in

the seed-shed, Griffith asked that the Government would give ‘rigorous

orders’ for its strict maintenance. Towards the ‘public herbarium’ he

put aside a quantity of his own duplicates. He would increase it by

sending out collectors, selecting them out of his staff; and he would

do all without asking for additional funds. Of these proposals, he

wrote to Wight: ‘The Government have approved all my suggestions

and plans for improvements of the Garden. My plans are for

a Natural Garden (i.e., a border exposing the Natural System) flanked

by a garden of medicinal plants and a garden illustrating the useful

plants of Lower Bengal. The first will occupy a large circle or ellipse

with interior circles or ellipses, the central, the smallest, for Acoty-

ledons ; the second for Monocotyledons and the two outer for Dicoty-

ledons. Whatever this arrangement be, the same will be that of the

flanking gardens. The situation in front of the Conservatory will be

convenient for the Natural garden—trees and large shrubs will not

be admitted; but they are to occupy other parts and be in groups

of Natural Orders and Classes’. Then he adds: ‘I apprehend, hows

ever, that all my labour will be thrown away for want of time to

complete the work before the period of my acting appointment

expires’, Then why did he begin it? His apprehension was right;

Wallich returned in August 1844, and the work stopped. Griffith

must have had to enlarge the open place in front of the Conservatory

to accommodate his circles. Now these were in the full sun, trees

excluded; and trees are the natural clothing of the land in a climate

as that of Calcutta. Griffith had not thought things out; the shade

loving ferns had a central position; and we find him later admitting

to Wight that he was short of ferns that would tolerate the position.

The impracticability of Griffith is evident.

Griffith found his teaching work heavy. He was of course new to

it. He realised the need of a local Flora for the students, and sug-

gested that he would write one. Such a work by Griffith would have

been in the Natural System; but the Calcutta students were doomed

to the Linnaean System for yet a very long while.

Wallich having resumed charge, Griffith moved into the residential

part of Calcutta and busied himself until December completing the

arrangement of his collecticas and packing what he would need in

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 67

London on the leave that he was anticipating. He had undertaken

to get Voigt’s Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis printed and had to

see that through the press. His friends noted signs of bodily wear, but

his mind was as vigorous as before; he warehoused his collections,

married and went to Malacca where at once he reorganized his col-

lecting. Then he became ill and rapidly worse. Alarmed at the

prospect of the collapse of all his hopes, he willed the materials that

he had assembled, dried plants, plants in spirits and copious notes,

to the Company whose officers had encouraged him to go so far.

It is interesting that transfer by will was required, and very interest-

ing that he was individualistic in suggesting no botanist to take

his work up. Wight, as soon as he heard of Griffith’s death,

suggested that a full set of Griffith’s dried plants should be

retained in India at Calcutta and even offered to mount the speci-:

mens. Like Grithth, he wished to see a public herbarium at the

Garden. The Government accepted the printing and ordering of

Griffith’s notes and drawings and the making available of his collections

of dried plants without specific plans for maintenance; and they en-

trusted the work to McClelland, Griffith’s most intimate friend after

Wight. Wallich becoming ill again, it was convenient to put Mc-

Clelland in charge of the Garden temporarily, for he needed the

Garden’s artists and the Garden’s facilities for arranging Griffith’s

material. Griffith, had he lived, was to be Wallich’s successor; on

his death the choice fell on Falconer who at the time was in Britain

on leave, the length of which was extended on purpose to enable

him to finish his examinations of the vast supplies of fossil bones

that he had taken to London. McClelland, completely infatuated

towards Griffith, now in charge of the Garden, resumed the remodel-

ling of it on Griffith’s plans. Sir Joseph Hooker, arriving in Calcutta

in January 1843, saw the resultant desolation and wrote to Falconer

to warn him of it (see Life and Letters, 1, p. 235; 1918). When

he came later to write his Himalayan Journals, he put his impressions

in this form (1, p. 3; 1854): ‘Of the Gardens it is exceedingly difficult

to speak; the changes had been so great and from a state with which

I had no acquaintance. There had been a great want of judgment

in the alterations made since Dr. Wallich’s time when they were cele-

brated as the most beautiful gardens in the East, and were the great

object of attraction to strangers and townspeople. I found instead

an unsightly wilderness without shade (the first requirement of every

tropical garden) or other beauties than some isolated grand trees

which had survived the indiscriminating destruction of the useful and

ornamental which had attended the well-meant but ill-judged attempt

to render a garden a botanical class-book’. The Garden had been

and still was a playground for Calcutta, perhaps then more so than

later. It seems strange that Calcutta did not protest as the destruc

tion developed; but, Hooker commented, Calcutta seemed to think

little of its Garden. It may be recalled that the Garden had been

known as ‘Wallich’s pet’ in the twenties of the century. Granted that

its condition had deteriorated then, had Calcutta lost enough of its

pride in it to be indifferent, though the change in the form which it took

must have been distressing? One feels exceedingly sympathetic

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

towards Wallich who saw the ruin, and perhaps through his ill-health,

felt powerless. ae eo fe

_ Wallich published very little during the second half of his service.

Griffith, blaming him for not having brought back to Calcutta a set .

of his plants, said that he had prevented himself from the continua-

tion of his work by depriving himself of the means of recognizing

his own species. It has been suggested that Wallich, when distri-

buting his plants from London, had entertained the idea of not return-

ing to India, in which case he would not need to allot a set for

personal use in India. The suggestion is plausible. When he found

after returning that he had spoilt his means of recognizing the species

that he had in the Garden, as already explained, he had it collected

over and then found himself, as Thomas Thomson noted, in frequent

doubt as to the proper names. Still more would he find himself in

doubt in regard to wild species. Why were the growing plants with-

out labels? Gardeners in Europe at the time used painted wood or

stamped strips of lead for labelling what they grew. It had been

possible with a larger effort to do something in Calcutta; but there

is no record of Wallich having tried to label the species. He seems

to have considered quantity of species in the Garden his aim rather

than quality, and that would mean retention though unhealthy (as in

the case of the Tea bush). of that which did not stand up to the

saturated soil and excessive humidity, the trees that Griffith said were

‘fallen’.

In regard to the absence of a working herbarium, it seems that

Wallich did not wish for one. He told Sir William Hooker how difh-

cult it was to take care of dried plants; he collected sparingly when

in the Khasia Hills with Griffith, and he retained no field collecting

parties. But he could not avoid collection of dried plants being sent

to him, just as they were sent to India House to be taken care

of. Collectors assumed that he ought to do so. On his way back

to Calcutta in 1832, Rottler, seeing him in Madras, gave him what

would seem to have been the first bundles of a new accumulation.

Vicary followed in 1833, in sending plants from Saugor. The Assam

Delegation resulted in stimulating Jenkins to collecting. Schmid sent

a small bundle. These and other gifts resulted in a collection of

collections, which is a different thing from a working herbarium. The

quantities increased from Griffith’s time forward ; and Thomas Thomson

inherited charge of a not inconsiderable store when, in 1854, he

succeeded Falconer as Superintendent of the Garden: he then made

an inventory which he sent to the Asiatic Society of Bengal for

publication (Journ. 25, p. 405, reprinted in Hook. Journ. Bot. 9,

p. 33) and from it we learn what additions had come in to that date.

Along with the bundles already indicated, the collection had held one

of the three sets which McClelland had constructed from Griffth’s

material. Kittoe’s gatherings had gone into it; there was a small

bundle of plants from the District of Jessore presented by a mission-

ary, J. Barry, a larger collection from Birbhum made by McClelland,

Khasia Hill plants collected by the geologist Thomas Oldham, a smaller

bundle from the same hills from the surgeon Joseph Fayrer (after-

wards knighted), and plants both from the hills and the Assam valley

from the pharmacist C. J. Simons; H. F. C. Cleghorn had sent plants

Coeah SON i Hike STOR YOK BOTAN YEN TEN DRA 69

from the northern districts of the Madras Presidency; and Gibson’s

herbarium from Bombay had been given; also Sind plants from Stocks,

Jabalpur plants from R. H. Beddome, ‘and’ Simla plants from Edge-

worth. Vicary gave plants additional to his first gift. Thomas

Thomson possessed a large herbarium of his own. It must be obvious

from this that the botanists in India in general thought that there

should be a working herbarium at Calcutta; but such a herbarium

had never as yet been organized.

McClelland’s last act, before surrendering his charge of the Garden

in 1847, was to issue a Guide-book with a map, which is very diffi-

cult to interpret because there is no permanent feature in it except

the great Banyan tree; even the river banks are not there. The map

shows, of since lost features, Griffith’s circles and the places allotted

to ‘orders and classes’ in the arboretum, but does not give an idea

how far these positions had become occupied. A list in it of species

in cultivation is not for the garden as a whole and is in general

unhelpful as a historical record.

When Sir Joseph Hooker was leaving India in 1850, he saw the

Garden again with Falconer, now in charge, ‘very busy . . . replant-

ing the greater part of the grounds’. It was necessary to fill up

tanks that by injudicious cuttings were destroying the most valuable

parts of the land, to drain many acres and to raise embankments to

prevent the encroaching of the river (Himalayan Journals, 2, p. 244;

1854). The Garden had had an internal economy by which its own

need in timber, cordage, bamboos, etc. was met; this economy had

been destroyed. :

GRIFFITH AS A BOTANIST

_ Sir George King in an address to the British Association in 1899

said of Griffith (p. 6): ‘No botanist (of India) ever made such ex~

tensive explorations nor himself collected so many species (estimated

at 9,000) as Griffith did during the brief thirteen years of his Indian

career; none ever made so many descriptions of plants from living

specimens. His botanical predecessors and contemporaries were men

of ability and devotion: Griffith was a man of genius’. This will

not be disputed. Professor W. H. Land (in F. W. Oliver’s ‘Makers

of British Botany’, p. 179; 1913), estimating his calibre, calls attention

to his prodigality of labour and to his penetration in search of facts.

Griffith worshipped Robert Brown and Francis Bauer, Brown for his

refusal to stop in taxonomy short of the ultimate power of his micre-

scope, and Bauer for the faithfulness of his delineation. One may

say that what he wanted was the absolute truth, and this from his

wecns. Dhoroughness came to him as a student; he would let no

character escape examination in the plant before him and he would

examine every available plant to the limits of available time. Just

before his death, he was seeking what he could do with a more

powerful microscope than he had had. I have referred to the oppor-

tunities that he used at Sadiya for sitting at a table with pen and

pencil, preparing the descriptions to which Sir George King referred,

each description supported by drawings. These were material which

McClelland had for publication; they were not, as they stood, ready

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

for his ‘Flora Indica’, but for reference in writing the Flora when the

opportunity should arrive. He condemned in strong terms the basing

of a System of Classification, as Linnaeus had done, on a selected

character. When Lindley brought into Botany the use of the

word ‘nixus’ or ‘inclination towards’, its idea caught him; but Lindley’s

unremitting attempts at betterment did not. He would not venture

a conclusion halfway as Lindley did. Otherwise, he was devoted

to the Natural System with the conviction that Lindley would have

taught him. His explorations with his microscope took him into fields

of reproduction where he could not reach a solution; but he did his

best (for this see Professor Lang’s account of him). He was a wider

student of plants than any contemporary in India; none but he

attempted the determination of mosses. Ferns he collected with great

assiduity, content to leave the naming to Sir William Hooker, who

seems to have received more Indian material from him than from

any one else. Animals he collected for others and sent them to the

India House.

The preparation of descriptions, as at Sadiya, was a continuation

of work that he was already doing at Mergui at the beginning of

his Indian career. Arduous travel cut into his opportunities; Malacca

he hoped would enrich them. He went there in 1841; a couple of

years earlier, he had thoughts of long leave coming to him in 1842;

at returning to Malacca, in 1844, he was sure that it could not be

far ahead; and then he died in 1845, considerable preparations having

been made towards the return to London, where only he could consult

books and collections, which would ensure nomenclatural accuracy in

his Flora. Incidentally, it must be mentioned that Sir William Hooker

had moved his large collections to Kew when he was appointed

Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1841, and London offered

unparalleled resources for what Griffith proposed. That he would

have completed it is to me more than doubtful; he had no ability

to measure time and the area of his target had become too large;

it had become the flora of the whole face of Asia towards the Indian

Ocean. Hooker’s Flora of British India with its 14,500 species may

be used as a measuring rod. It took the labour of Hooker for a

quarter of a century, through which he commanded a great deal of

assistance; and the design was compressed; but Griffith would have

started. He does not seem to have estimated how many species he

would be called on to describe, though he made some rough guesses

at the sizes of his collections from various parts of India, 1,900 from

Tenasserim, 1,700 from Assam, supplemented by a further 1,000 from

his own personal collector, 800 from the Mishmi Hills, 1,000 from

Bhutan, and over 1,200 from Afghanistan. The intensity of his ex-

aminations led him to observing the limits of variation and he declared

that Variability had to be used as a character in defining species ; some

had it more than others. Such a conviction implied extension of his

descriptions. He had a way of requiring the course of development

and would have been an organographer rather than a morphologist

had the distinction come in his time. He was so critical of past .

work that he wrote to Wight that he held, say, a third of the genera

recognized as genera on sufferance, convenient for use but needing

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA Wl

testing. He lived to work at generic level and sought to make then:

stable. Surely a great object!

THE INTERIOR OF NORTHERN INDIA

When the Afghan War was over, the officers who had dried plants

for Griffth became scattered in cantonments towards the centre of

India and mostly not remote. Ritchie returned to Bombay and then

he was sent to Sind where he renewed his collecting; he made a

considerable personal herbarium which, increased by many moves,

remained in his possession until his death in Scotland in 1866. Hutton

was sent to Neemuch in Rajasthan and Durand to Meerut, but pro-

bably these two did no more botanical collecting. Meerut, with a little

diversified flora, had been the collecting place of several beginners.

Finlayson had been there; Royle testifies to his collecting, but whither

his plants went is not evident; Royle apparently began his Indian

collecting at Meerut. The following also collected there: Falconer,

Vicary, Thomas Thomson and Edgeworth. The last named was sta-

tioned in Bundelkhand towards the end of his service and explored

the district of Banda with considerable thoroughness. Griffith, Macleod

and Beddome have already been mentioned as collectors of Jabalpur.

EDGEWORTH, THE FIRST ECOLOGIST

Michael Pakenham Edgeworth (1812-51) was sent to Edinburgh

as a student of languages when, as it happened, the present Botanic

Garden was being laid out; and he found pleasure in watching the

progress. There was no formal teaching, but a gathering of knowledge

from William McNab who had the business in hand. Then he went

out to India in the administrative service and was sent to the northe

western plains. From Ambala, when stationed there, he made short

journeys into the Himalaya and collected. At Ambala the daily tasks

ef administration focused his attention on the relations of crops to

soils and then, extending his interest to the relations of the spon-

taneous plants to the same soils, he wrote a paper (Journ. As. Soc.

Bengal, 7, p. 751; 1838) which may be regarded as the first ecological

paper published in India. Edgeworth’s other publications were

{taxonomic or dealing with geographic dispersal.

Among his friends were two who supplied him with specimens from

deep in the Himalaya. One was Captain William Hay, Superintendent

of the Hill States, with his office in Simla. He became Lord William

Hay while still at Simla, and later the Marquis of Tweeddale. He

travelled deep into the mountains towards the upper Indus, drying

specimens which he gave to Edgeworth. The other friend was

Lance who visited Spiti and Lahul and Dras to the north of

the snowy barrier across Kashmir; and again the plants collected

were given to Edgeworth. Edgeworth submitted these to Bentham

through whose herbarium they passed to Kew. He was stationed for

a time at Multan and investigated its flora thoroughly.

The ecological work next done in India after Edgeworth’s was

that of Hugh Cleghorn, whose first paper after he came to India was

ix)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

on hedges, the plants used for them and the plants that use them

as situations (dian. Mag. Nato ost. 1, p. 435. 1o50), | Water, leah

published an account of the sand-binding plants of the Madras shore.

THREE BOTANICAL EXPLORERS OF KASHMIR

WHO WERE ALLOWED ENTRY DURING THE LIFE OF RANJIT SINGH

Ate the end “ef my first chapters (p17S77), Il eaveram soluline on

Jacquemont’s visit to India, one summer of which he devoted to

collecting in Kashmir. His success in gaining entry led to permission

being given to two others, Godfrey Vigne and Baron Karl von Huegel.

The latter has already been mentioned as having botanized in the

Nilgiri Hills and in Ceylon. Godfrey Thomas Vigne (1801-65) had

left Britain in 1832 without plans for a visit to the north-western

Himalaya: this he explains in his book, Travels in Kashmir (1842) ;

but the desire came after his arrival in Bombay at the end of a

journey through Persia. He spent the summer months of 1834 in

Simla, where he made contact with the three Gerards and with

Sir George Everest, then the Surveyor-General; and perhaps the plan

of his rough surveying came out of this. With Ranjit Singh’s

permission he entered Kashmir in 1835. Describing his baggage,

he names a plant-press as part of his outfit; but there is evidence

of its use in only two parts of his wanderings. In the same year

Baron von Huegel obtained a like permission; and it happened

that the two met in Srinagar and, having met, travelled together

about the Valley and left together for Lahore. Vigne seems not to

have collected plants in that summer; von Huegel probably did; if

so, his specimens went to the Hofburg Museum in Vienna. He

wrote a large book in four volumes Kashmir und das Reich der Siek

(1844) in which there is no botany. Vigne returned to the mountains

in 1836 and remained in them until 1838, during which time he col-

lected in two places; one was on the edge of the Deosai plains near

Dras and the other was in the Astor valley. When Vigne reached

‘London he took his bundle of plants to Royle in which he was a

bit late for Royle’s convenience, as Royle had published almost the

whole of his Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains ;

but Royle supplied Vigne with a short account of the flora of Kashmir,

which Vigne printed as a supplement to his own book. Royle had

found determinations of the species difficult in consequence of im-

perfect drying and rough handling; but he preserved the specimens

which are in his herbarium at Liverpool. Determination today would

be easier than it was to Royle in consequence of the flora having

now become relatively well-known.

In 1836, Sir Alexander Burnes started on a Trade Mission for Kabul

taking with him Hugh Falconer, the successor to Royle at Saharanpur.

Circumstances altered the purpose of the Mission which, as far as

Falconer was concerned, became one of economic exploration; and

Falconer, detached at the Afghan border, tried to find a way up the

Indus but after three marches was held up at Derband, deflected and

passed into Kashmir, wintered there and in 1837 travelled via Tragbol

and the Kishenganga valley to the upper Indus where he found Vigne,

CHAPTERS ON THE IIISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 73

across the Indus near Skardo, and to Askoli, collecting all the way.

Vigne’s collection: from Astor and Falconer’s on his journey from

Tragbol to Skardo were the first plants from the Himalaya towards

its right-angle bend of the Indus. Royle, as said, could not do much

with Vigne’s plants, and it. has to be added that Falconer’s found

them way into’ the back water’ of India House. ‘But’ Falconer

had his attention all the time on what he saw and wrote to Royie

‘in London a long letter telling him of the plants that he had collected.

The Linnean Society printed it in their Proceedings (1830, p. 7). Falconer

followed Royle and differed from most of the earlier botanists in

India in recording the localities whence his plants came; these were

written in Persian or Devanagari script against his specimens; clearly

he required his collectors to do this. Again following Royle, he paid

special attention to anything economic. The Botanic Garden at

Saharanpur, indeed, kept very closely to its first intentions and under

William Jameson who succeeded Falconer in 1842 was little but

economic. Falconer’s earlier papers, with one exception, were on

economic plants and in pairs. The information to give which was

purely economic he put into a paper for the Agri-Horticultural Society

in Calcutta, and the information of more narrowly scientific value he

sent elsewhither. In this way, he wrote on. ‘Kut’ or ‘costus’

(Saussurea lappa C. B. Cl.=Aucklandia costus Falc.), on asa-

foetida and on the paper plant, Monotheca buxifolia Decne, which

he called Edgewovthia buxifolia. At heart Falconer was a geologist ;

it is recorded of him that as soon after landing at Calcutta as was

possible he was in the Asiatic Society’s Museum on a geological quest.

His arrival in Saharanpur coincided with the discovery in the Siwalik

rocks, through the digging for the Jumna canals, of plentiful bones

of extinct animals and he made for himself a great reputation by

studying them. A diligent collector of plants, he was more so a col-

lector of these bones, so that when proceeding on leave in 1841,

while he had 76 packages of plants, he had 5 tons of the bones;

and when he had arrived, the plants were put into India House

to be taken care of, and there they lay until after his death in 1865.

Griffith’s death led to Falconer being appointed to the post of

Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Garden. Wight had foreseen

this, and wrote that he regretted how much more Falconer was a

zoologist than a botanist. Falconer, after taking over, was soon

required to go to Tenasserim to report on the forests and there he

made considerable collections of plants.

PENETRATION OF THE HIMALAYA

BETWEEN THE RIVERS SUTLEJ AND KALI

The reader will recollect that the first botanically minded visitor

to this part of the Himalaya was General Thomas Hardwicke who

went on a diplomatic Mission to the ruler of Garhwal, whose capital

bears the same name, Srinagar, as the capital of Kashmir. Hard4

wicke entered the Himalaya at Kaldwara and followed a trail

which crosses the mountains to the Alaknanda valley some thirty miles

back in a straight line. The Alaknanda river is here at an elevation

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

of about 1,700 ft. and flows westwards to enter the Ganges

within the hills. The next penetration was a little further westwards;

in it William Spencer Webb reached Jumnotri where the river Jumna

takes its origin. His companion Felix Vincent Raper wrote a report

on the travel (As. Res. 11, p. 449; 1810) which names various plants

as observed to occur. This was immediately followed by Moorcroift’s

dash through the Himalaya and out on the Tibetan side at the

Manasarowar Lake where the Sutlej has its origin. The plants

which he brought back were sent to Robert Brown in London.

Hardwicke’s and Moorcroft’s introductory contributions to a know-

ledge of the mountain flora were made before the Nepalese War of

1814-15. The peace made at the end of it enabled Webb to continue his

survey and, as already recorded (chapter 1, p. 869), Wallich promptly

placed his collectors Kamrup and Blinkworth under Webb’s protec-

tion. Thus he reaped a harvest of hill plants. Botanizing in the

Himalaya after this moved again westwards following the establish-

ing of the cantonment of Sabathu and the associated sanatorium of

Simla. The first permanent house at Simla was built in 1822. In

1817, that is to say before Simla came into being, the surgeon

George Govan, not yet with the Garden at Saharanpur under his

charge, travelled for a short distance into the mountains from Sabathu

in the company of the surveyor Alexander Gerard. In the next year

Alexander Gerard, starting again from Sabathu and joined by his

brother Patrick Gerard, penetrated via Spiti as far as Shipke. Again

a year later, 1.e., in 1818, the then Surveyor-General James Dowling

Herbert, taking Patrick Gerard with him, went by Kotgarh which

is 40 miles east of Simla to Shipke.

An explanation is due for the termination of penetration at Shipke:

Shipke is the place where Tibetan authority is met in this part of

the Himalaya, a political terminus, but not the boundary of the

Himalayan flora. Commonly, in human geography, highlanders flow

over the rim of a plateau and this the Tibetans have done conspicuously

in three places, the Chumbi valley between Sikkim ‘and Bhutan, the

Kyerong valley to the north of Khatmandu, and a wide-angled area on —

the east of Lahul in which is Shipke. It followed that at Shipke a

number of early explorations were unwillingly terminated.

In 1821, Alexander Gerard with his surgeon brother James Gilbert

Gerard visited the Shattul and Borendo passes. The next penetration,

which was also in 1821, was a further move westwards; Moorcroft

travelled via Kangra and Kulu into Lahul and forward to Leh in

the Upper Indus valley where he remained longer than the Govern-

ment thought reasonable, wintering there and emerging over the Zoji

pass into the Vale of Kashmir. As before, he collected a little. On

this occasion, the collection was sent to Wallich.

There were three Gerards. Alexander (1792-1839) had commenced

surveying in the Punjab plains in 1812. In 1817, his work was trans-

ferred to the hills. James Gilbert (1794-1835) was in the medical

service. Patrick (1795-1838) was an army officer, whose service was

continuously in the hills. Of the three he made the closest relations

with Wallich, and it was against a specimen which had reached

Wallich from Patrick that the name Pinus gerardiana was written,

in consequence of which Lambert stated that the pine was dedicated

CHARTERS AON SEE il SORRY: (Ol » BOTANY. “EN aN DIA 15

to him. The three brothers held closely together, and Vigne records

spending an evening with the trio. Alexander wrote An account of

a journey through the Himalaya (Edinb. Phil, Journ. 10, p. 295;

1824), i.e., of the journey to Shipke in which Patrick joined him.

James wrote An account of the Spiti valley and the circumjacent

country (As. Res. 18, p. 238; 1833). The three between them kept

meteorological records at Sabathu or Kotgarh in 1817 and continued

to do so for a long time.

Spiti proved to be the botanists’ way into the remoter Himalaya

from the front westwards of the Ganges.

Judged by the circumstance that Govan, when he returned to Scot-

land in 1823, took with him a collection of plants, it seems likely

that in the trip of 1817 he collected, but that is not established.

He did not record the trip; but he recorded another made through

Nahan, the capital of the State of Sirmur (Edinb. Journ. Sci. 2, p.

277: 1828). At Nahan, he had a nursery as a branch of the Saharan-

pur Garden and therefore he must have had cause to visit it; but the

elevation is only about 1,000 ft. above Saharanpur, and the climate

can differ in little. Govan. communicated plants that he collected to

Wallich and they were distributed in the great distribution of 1828-32.

His interests seem to have been mainly geological: but he could

discuss mountain plants with the Countess of Dalhousie when they

met in Scotland; and he had in his possession specimens which he

could give to her. Royle, succeeding Govan at Saharanpur, found

his medical work too heavy in his first years to allow him to leave

the station, so he trained collectors to procure hill plants for him,

but when he asked them to go as far as Kunawar they ran away.

However, a good friend in the regiment stationed there, Lieutenant

E. Maxwell, had a collection made for him. Wallich’s tour of inspec-

tion of the Oudh forests in 1826, brought him as far as Hardwar

and Dehra Dun, but not actually into the mountains. Mussoorie (so

named from Coriaria nepalensis, the masuri of the hill men) took its

crigin from Dehra Dun, by an officer stationed in Dehra Dun building

for himself a house. It was there before Wallich’s journey. It was called

the Potato patch from that valuable plant having been raised first in

its garden. Royle soon had in Mussoorie a larger garden for acclima-

tizing, one of 4o acres, and therefore cause for visiting the station.

He recorded no visits, nor any travel at all, save a journey to the

summit of the Chur mountain through Sirmur in the direction of Simla.

He closed Govan’s Nahan nursery; the garden at Mussoorie was

obviously much more serviceable. By 1828, he had plant-collectors

more reliable than the first that he could send as far as the Vale

of Kashmir in the company of home-going shawl pedlars. He used

the pedlars also for procuring plants from Kashmir, surely on a large

scale, for Jacquemont looked round the Saharanpur garden in 18306

on what he calls hundreds of plants from the Vale of Kashmir, which

represented species that he had already seen in the hills, and guessed

from their origin the elevation of the Vale before he had actually

been there. In 1828, when Wallich was proceeding on leave, the

artists of the Calcutta Garden were sent to work under Royle. If

Royle had asked for them, it was because he had already planned

to write his Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalaya mountains ;

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

if, he. had not asked for them, then the use of them suggested the

writing. The latter is the more probable because from the time of —

the arrival of the artists he redoubled his efforts to get material

together. He ransacked the bazaars for trade products perhaps more

assiduously than he had been doing, and he certainly intensified his

field collecting. He sent collectors to Kashmir in 1829 and 1831 and

in the latter year caused Kunawar to be explored again.

It is of interest that two of the friends who supplied dried

plants to him, George William Trail and A. D. Lindsay, shared his

economic occupations; the first was the author of an account of the

rural economy of Kumaon and the second of a similar paper on the

uplands of Pithoragarh, west of the Kali valley. Another friend who

collected for Royle was James Stephen, an army officer who visited

the Bamsaru pass, whereby one may get from the Ganges to the

Jumna watershed. Another friend of the Army was a Major Cohen.

It has been recorded already (chapter 1, p. 877) that Jacquemont

passed through Saharanpur when he first entered the Himalaya and

left his collections to date in Royle’s care; he called again to recover

them. Another visitor to Saharanpur of the same year was a traveller

who remains mysterious. Royle calls him Mr. R. Inglis of Canton

and an address-list of members of the Asiatic Society of Bengal

records his name with China as his country. He had travelled to

Shipke; returning to the plains he called on Royle and showed him

plants that he had collected. He did not give his collection to Royle,

but sent it to Robert Brown. Robert Brown later, when Royle had

settled himself in London and was working on his IIlustrations, passed

the bundle over to Royle for such use as he could make of it. Inglis’s

plants are in Royle’s herbarium at Liverpool. It is intriguing to

find a man from Canton, whom one cannot identify, going to, the

Tibetan border in the Bimal

Royle invited subscriptions to his Tinserarions in quarterly parts

and worked nearly to time in the years 1833-36; but fell out of time

after that and did not get the last part out until 1840. Meanwhile,

he had become Professor of Materia Medica at King’s College. When

the book had been finished he divided his specimens into three sets;

the best he kept for himself and it is now at Liverpool; of the other

two, he gave one to the Linnaean Society and he sent the other to

Berlin.

Why did Royle from Saharanpur pay attention in particular to the

Vale of Kashmir and to Kunawar? Because they were centres of

population and his botanical collecting started with an economic bias.

The sanatoria, such as was Simla, brought botanists into the

mountains who were less interested in the plant as useful than as some-

thing classifiable and satisfying to whatever urge to collect that was

in them. The first of the Simla botanists was the Countess of

Dalhousie who made a collection of about 600 species between April

and October, 1829. Royle’s friend, G. W. Trail, seems to have visited

Simla at that time. Jacquemont paid three short visits in 1830 and

Inglis one. The three Gerards were in and out of Sabathu. Thea

Lord William Hay had his office in Simla. G. T. Vigne spent the

cold weather of 1833-34 there, but he probably did not collect at all.

Baron von Huegel was there in 1835 and Vicary was at Sabathu,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 77

So far 10. The Countess’s plants found a resting place in Edinburgh;

Royle’s along with what Royle obtained from Trail, Vigne and Inglis,

are now at Liverpool; the Gerards’ were sent to Wallich and so went

into the great distribution; Hay’s were given to Edgeworth who

‘shared them with Bentham; von Huegel gave his plants to the Museum

in Vienna, and Vicary’s were sent to the Calcutta Garden, a scattering

indeed! Continuing, Griffith paid his short visit to Simla in 1841

and his friend Captain Sanders, now a Major, was there. In 1844,

General and Mrs. Walker made a collection in Simla which they sent

to Sir William Hooker. In 1845 the Artillery officer, Edward Madden,

was there and while he was there the first Sikh War suddenly broke

out. On the eve of this, Prince Waldemar of Prussia who has been

mentioned (p. 50) as touring in Ceylon with his botanist-physician,

Werner Hoffmeister, arrived in Simla. He had visited Khatmandu

and then penetrated the north-western Himalaya as far as Shipke,

Hoffmeister ventured on to the battlefield of Ferozshah, where a musket

ball from the Sikh lines killed him. His collections were sent to

Berlin and there entrusted to Johan Friedrich Klotzsch for a report.

Klotzsch decided that Hoffmeister had collected 456 species, to 108

of which he gave new names (Bot. Ergebn. d. Reisen des Prinzen

Waldemar von Preussen; 1862). Scarcely ever has a worse piece of

taxonomic work been presented to the botanic public: on the test,

when it came in the working up of the Flora of British India, barely

a dozen of Klotzsch’s so-called new species were found good. The

work is abundantly and well illustrated and that is its only merit.

Hoffmeister had not labelled the individual gatherings and consequently

even a geographic value is denied. Berlin and Kiel seem to have

shared the specimens. In 1847, R. S. Simpson collected in Simla,

and in June and July of that year Thomas Thomson was there await-

ing his companions of the Kashmir Boundary Commission and had

ali the leisure that he could desire for collecting the flowering plants

of these two months. These plants, which he collected with his

usual thoroughness, went into the collections of Hooker and Thomson

and so were distributed from Kew in 1855. Lastly, making 18 individual

visitors in all, James William Grant needs mention to bring the Simla

list to the year 1850. There was plenty of material for a Simla Flora

by then, but no way of bringing it together. , :

Kunawar, because it is so accessible from Simla, received visits

from Jacquemont, Inglis, Hay, Madden, Hoffmeister and Thomas

Thomson; and earlier Royle, as recorded, had had it doubly collected

over.

The hills west of Simla received less attention. Edgeworth col-

lected in Nandi and Kangra. William Hawtayne Parish visited Nandi

and Kulu in 1847, collecting in particular ferns, and added what he

got to the collections of Hooker and Thomson. William Jameson

(1815-92) of the Bengal Medical service, early in his Indian service,

collected where Parish had been. He succeeded Falconer at Saharan-

pur in 1842, and held the post until 1875 with considerable effect in

promoting the cultivation of economic plants, but with little further

work in investigating the wild hill plants.

- Beautiful collections were made on the western side of Kashmir

by James Edward Winterbottom (1803-54). After taking a medical

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

degree in Oxford, he spent his life in travel. In 1846, he went to

Java and then returned westwards to India; proceeding to the north-

west, he entered Kashmir through Hazara and travelled through the

mountains to Astor, to Skardo in the Indus valley, and to Gilgit

beyond. This was followed by a short visit to Khatmandu; and then |

he joined Richard Strachey to make his great journey to the sources

of the Sutley. Winterbottom returned to Britain, but set off wander-

ing again and died away from home in 1854. His joint work with

Strachey has its place in the next section; his herbarium remained

in the possession of his family until 1900, when it was given to Kew.

A few words need to be said regarding work centred on Mussoorie.

Naturally as Royle had founded a garden as a branch of his in Saharan-

pur, collecting in that direction remained an interest of Saharanpur.

Falconer when he had succeeded Royle, sent collectors through the

whole countryside up to the Niti Pass; and Jameson knowing that

Hooker and Thomson contemplated a ‘Flora Indica’ added material.

Edgeworth had a period of service there.

THREE ATTEMPTS TO EXAMINE THE HIMALAYAN FLORA IN DEPTH

Early in the Survey of the north-western Himalaya the Ganges

was a boundary between two fields of work: W. S. Webb, who had

been the first in the survey of the mountains, was told to continue

where he had commenced, and J. D. Herbert to survey west of the

Ganges. That is how the latter came to journey to Spiti in 1819

(see p. 74). Botanical work followed the pattern of the Trigono-

metrical Survey, and there were two botanical journeys right through

the north-western Himalaya, one on each side of the Ganges. A

third was far away in Sikkim, with the whole length of the forbidden

land of the Kingdom of Nepal separating it. It was a need of fixing

the northward limits of Kashmir that evoked the Commission of Major

Alexander Cunningham, Dr. Thomas Thomson, and Captain Henry

Strachey on Herbert’s side of the Ganges.

Thomas Thomson (1817-78) had been a pupil of Sir William Hooker

in Glasgow and a fellow-student of his son Joseph Dalton Hooker.

He entered the medical service in Bengal and was sent to the northern

plains (1839) where he botanized diligently through Rohilkand, whence

he made short trips into the Himalaya. In 1847, orders came to him

at Ludhiana, where he then was, to proceed to Simla to join the two

named with him above for the purpose of examining the most northern

mountains at the back of Kashmir. He had to wait until August

before the three could start; then they took the road through Kunawar

to Spiti, where Henry Strachey left the others that he might proceed

to the upper part of the Indus, where he was to survey ; Cunningham

and Thomson directed their way towards Leh, where they parted.

Thomson’s work was to explore the routes from a little above Leh

down to the right-angled bend below Rondu, and also the valleys of

Nubra and Shyok. He was caught by winter and compelled to stay

at Skardo until the Zoji Pass was passable. He crossed it to the

Vale of Kashmir, only to ask for a second season in the parts where

he had been. He returned through Zanskar and going beyond the

Indus visited Karakoram. Thomson must have gathered practically

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 79

all the flowering plants that occur in the parts that he visited, just

as Griffith had gathered practically all to be had about Kabul.

Henry Strachey (1816-1912) was the elder brother of Sir Richard

Strachey. He did not possess the zeal for collecting of his brother

but enough to make him collect, though sparingly. He did a work

of most arduous surveying. He had visited the sources of the Sutle]

in the year before he was put on the Commission (Journ. As. Soc.

Bengal, 17/2), and in 1847 he went to the sources of the Indus.

Richard Strachey (1817-1908; afterwards Sir Richard) had entered

the Bombay Engineers and transferred to the Bengal Engineers. He

was sent to the Jumna Canals until, in 1846, the survey of Kumaon

was entrusted to him.

In enumerating the Simla botanists I have named Edward Madden.

He (1805-56; ultimately a Lieut.-Colonel) had developed a great

interest in mountain passes, perhaps initiated by considerations of

mountain warfare; and, immediately after the Sikh war, we find him

visiting the Shattul and Burum passes (1845), and later the Pendras

pass (1846), and then the Pindari glacier. He collected plants on these

expeditions and described his experiences in the Journal of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal (15, p. 79: 16, p. 226). Illness'‘caused him to

go to Almora, where he met Sir Richard Strachey who was com-

mencing his survey. A common interest: resulted in a joint paper.

Madden retired and in retirement he became President of the Edinburgh

Botanical Society; and he gave his official presidential address to the

Society on the distribution, chiefly altitudinal, of trees in the Himalaya.

After retirement, he had been sending dried plants to Kew. Strachey

in the course of his survey was at the Pindari glacier a year after

Madden and again in the next year. In 1848, Winterbottom, having

left Kashmir and having made a short visit to Khatmandu, joined

Strachey to proceed from Almora to Milam and over very high passes

to the Manasarovar Lake, the source of the Sutlej, at 15,000 ft. As

stated, Winterbottom made beautiful collections in Kashmir and now,

with Strachey, did the same in Kumaon and within the limits of

Tibet. Not only were the dried plants well selected, the labelling was

excellent. Strachey returned to Britain and spent 1850 determining

his species and then distributing sets of them with a printed list.

This list was reprinted in Atkinson’s Gazetteer of the North-west

provinces of India (II, 1882) and, after a revision of the names by

Duthie and others, republished in 1905. It is said of it in the intro-

duction rightly that it gives a cross-section of the Himalayan flora from

the plains of Rohilkhand to the loess plateau of Tibet.

The third cross-section, that of Sir Joseph Hooker in Sikkim, was

all but contemporaneous with the two in the north-western Himalaya.

Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911; knighted in 1877) was the second

son of Sir William Hooker. Having decided on the outlines of

his travel, he arrived in India in January 1848, at which date

Thomas Thomson was in the remoter parts of Kashmir, and Strachey,

arranging for but not yet engaged in his great journey to the

Manasarovar Lake. He made his way through Chota Nagpur and

by Patna and Purnea to the Sikkim Himalaya and established quarters

at Darjeeling. Then he commenced an intense effort to acquaint him-

self thoroughly with the plants obtainable there through the activity

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 54

of a crowd of up to 18 collectors. In a letter to his sister (Life and

Letters, 1, p. 260), he described his morning’s work, the arrival of

the collectors with the spoil of the previous day in baskets on their

backs, himself preparing labels, setting aside that to be drawn and

that to be dried. When he felt that he had started this well, he

made a short trip to the mountain of Tonglu. When the autumn had

come, he made the first of his journeys through the mountains. With

sanction he entered Nepal and travelled up the Tambur valley, that

is to say on the further side of Tonglu and Kinchinjunga, to the

passes into Tibet. This occupied him from the middle of October

to the middle of January, when he regained Darjeeling over the

Islumpo Pass and through Pemionchi. Then followed an early spring

collecting of the plants of the outer hill faces to secure what had been

missed in the previous year. At the commencement of May he

started’ up the Tista valley and spent the summer close to the

political boundary of Tibet. The two thrusts, one up the Tambur and

the other up the Tista, were not so remote from each other as were

Thomson’s and Strachey’s, and phytogeographically may be counted

as one. Hooker went to the frontier in two successive years and

so did Thomson. .

Hooker would have liked to spend the next summer in Nepal, but

that could not be arranged. Instead, Thomson joined him and they

moved the collecting to the Khasia Hills where they worked with

great intensity from early June to late November. While they were

there, Thomas Lobb (see p. 55) passed by with his train of collectors

of living plants. I do not know what motley of transport he was

using, but it tickled the imagination of Hooker to call it Lobb’s circus.

From the Khasia Hills, Hooker and Thomson moved to Chittagong,

then to the Sundribans and so to Calcutta. Both returned to Britain in

1851. Their collections were pooled, worked up into sets, and distribution

began in 1855, distributed just as Wallich’s were to secure international

agreement in nomenclature; Thomson worked up his diary into his

book entitled Western Himalaya and Tibet (1852), and Hooker wrote

his Himalayan Journals (1855); the two conjointly issued the first

volume of their projected Fiora Indica (1855). Then lack of financial

support compelled abandonment. As the first 280 pages hold a

valuable review of the state of knowledge of the flora of India, making

it much more important than the rest, it is a pity that we cannot

alter the premature title. : . ais |

Sir Joseph Hooker had been able through his father to arrange

from India for the publication of his Rhododendrons of the Sikkim

Himalaya; and the parts followed one another from 1849 to 1851.

It is appropriate here to mention John Ferguson Cathcart. He (1802-

51) was of the administrative service in Bengal, where he collected

a herbarium; and it was his pleasure to employ an artist to make

plant-portraits of the most striking flowers, much of the work

being done in Darjeeling. After his death the plant-portraits were

given by his sister to Sir Joseph Hooker who used them for the

IHustrations of Himalayan plants selected from drawings made jor the

late fe shCathicart. lon P Aaery | |

The combined collections of Hooker and Thomson were computed

at 150,000 specimens, representing roughly 3,500 species from Sikkim,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 81

3,000 from Khasia Hills, about 1,000 from the plains of norti-

eastern India, the same number from the plains of north-western India

and lastly 2,000 from the north-western Himalaya.

As soon as it was known that the two would write a Flora, help

flowed in. The collecting of Jameson has been mentioned ; James

William Grant sent plants from Kunawar; Jenkins and his associates

in Assam increased their collecting; Falconer, now in Calcutta, sent

so many men to Khasia to collect that Hooker suggested the path-

sides were becoming stripped of vegetation; the Government of France

responded with a set of Jacquemont’s plants, and Andrew Fieming,

a geologist then mapping the Salt Range, sent a considerable

collection.

While Hooker and Thomson were busy tidying their work by

distributing their duplicates, Wight happened to retire, bringing to

London his last collections. Wight made these up into sets which

were distributed from Kew in continuation of the Hooker and Thomson

sets. Hooker contrived to get out of India House Falconer’s

76 boxes of dried plants deposited in 1844 and these, somewhat

deteriorated by their 20 years of waiting, were distributed also.

WESTERN INDIA

In my first chapter (p. 873) the progress of the Bombay botanists

was carried to the publication of John Graham’s Catalogue of the

tlants growing in Bombay and its vicinity. A mistake was made

there: Dr. Lush did not work in Ratnagiri, but in Poona. The error,

which is regretted, has been corrected in this journal (52, p. 228).

Lush, who had taught in one of the London medical schools before he

went to India, was perhaps the first experimental worker on cotton,

antedating Wight’s work; but Wight’s lasted longer. Lush had ex-

periments not only in the Dapuri Garden but in Khandesh and in

Dharwar. He published on cotton in 1835 or shortly before Wight

had charge of experiments.

Alexander Gibson succeeded Lush at the Dapuri Garden in 1838. He

had arrived in Bombay three years before John Graham. John Suther-

land Law had arrived two years before and Lush one year before. John

Graham was in Bombay 11 years before the publication of his Catalogue

of Bombay plants; Lush 12; Law 13; and Gibson 14. Before any of

these were in a position to study the Bombay flora, William Henry

Sykes (1790-1872, ultimately a Lieut.-Colonel), an excellent man of

business and a zoologist of considerable competence, collected plants

in the Deccan, chiefly about Poona. He held the post of Statistical

Reporter, Bombay, from 1824 to 1829, but continued to collect to

1831. Wallich indicated on the map that ends his Plantae Asiaticae

Rariores his travelling. The collections amounted to about 1,000

species. He did not study them; but John Graham had the use of

them and Gibson also. They were given to the Linnaean Society and

the Society asked Royle about 1840 to make determinations. In 1863

when the Society withdrew from curating small collections, Sykes’s

was sold and found a home in the herbarium of van Heuckx in

Antwerp.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY: \Vols 54

Joseph Nimmo seems to have been born in India, his father the

captain of a ship trading in and out of Surat or Bombay, but this

is a surmise. As a young man he was in Government service at Surat

(1819), but lost his appointment; and it is not known what his employ-

ment was later. His means were apparently restricted and, in cor-

respondence with Sir William Hooker, he more than once apologised

for not being able to do more collecting. Wight, with whom he

corresponded, thought highly of him; he corresponded with Royle

also, seeking determinations. Wight indeed calls him ‘the acknow-

ledged head of the corps botanique of Bombay—a gentleman whose

diligence in collecting is only equalled by his liberality in distributing

the proceeds’. I think that Nimmo must have had a greater influence

than appears on the surface and perhaps saw Graham through the

accumulation of data for his Catalogue as he finally finished it and saw it

through the press. John Sutherland Law (1810-1855) was born in India

(as were Royle and Hugh F. C. Cleghorn) and resided in India from

1829 to 1854, firstly at Thana, and later at Dharwar or Belgaum.

He made a considerable herbarium by which Gibson much benefited

and was generous in giving plants to Sir William Hooker and to

the Oxford Garden. Alexander Gibson (1800-67) did considerable

service for Botany in the Bombay Presidency. The Government

employed him as a vaccinator in the Deccan and in Khandesh; and

that wandering employment brought to him a most intimate under-

standing of village life and the plants of the open country. He seems

to have been at the beginning rather a lone figure, as Wight was,

and it was Law who helped him out of that. When Graham’s

Catalogue appeared Gibson checked his collections by it. A year

before it came out he had written his General sketch of the Province

of Guzarat (Trans. Bombay Med.-Phys. Soc., 1, p. 1; 1838), and in

the same year he was put in charge of the Dapuri Garden at Poona.

Two years later he published a report on Teak (Trans. Bombay Agni.

—Hort. Soc. 1840, p. 120) and a year later reports on Senna and

Tobacco. Six.years after this (1847) he was appointed Conservator

of Forests and held the post until retirement in 1860. He was the

first of such officers that India had; the attempt, very much earlier,

to arrest the over-exploitation of the Teak supplies having been a

police measure which proved ineffective. Gibson as a forest officer

was after a time to have Dalzell associated with him. Nicol Alexander

Dalzell (1817-78) arrived in Bombay in 1841, at which date Gibson was

not yet a forester, but a promoter of any kind of crop likely to be

useful, i.e., he was in charge of the Dapuri Garden. Dalzell had an

Edinburgh degree but not in Medicine, and he took an appointment

in the Custom House, botanizing in his leisure. Next he took a

subordinate position in the Forest service and worked his way up.

He intercalated descriptions in a copy of Graham’s Catalogue; they

were sketchy, but Gibson approved of them and financed the printing.

In this way, Dalzell’s and Gibson’s Bombay Flora originated (1861).

It is Graham’s Catalogue expanded. Bombay had a second vaccinator-

botanist ; this was John Ellerton Stocks (1822-54), a pupil of Lindley,

with a medical degree. He reached Bombay in 1847 and was _ sent

to vaccinate in Sind. A year after commencing work there, he found

it possible to reach Shah Bilawal in Baluchistan (see Hook. Lond.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 83

Journ. Bot. 7, p. 550; 1848) and a year later to go as far as Quetta

and Nushki (Hook. Journ. Bot. and Kew Miscell. 2, p. 303; 1850).

Griffith had been to Quetta a year before Stocks, but there was this

difference between them, Griffith came by the Bolan pass, but Stocks

from the southward. In 1852, Gibson being on leave, Stocks acted

as Conservator of Forests, having charge privately of Gibson’s

herbarium which he enriched. In 1853, he brought his personal col-

lections to Kew to work on them, but died in 1854.

Dalzell succeeded Gibson as Conservator of Forests in 1860.

Gibson’s plants were given to the Calcutta Garden. The line of

botanists in charge of the Bombay forests was continued by the

appointment of Eyre Champion de Crespigny (1821-96). He had

reached India in 1845. The posts of Conservator of Forests and

Superintendent of the Dapuri Garden were combined in his case. He

made a herbarium which is now at Manchester. So also is a Bombay

herbarium of ferns made by another medical man, Andrew H. Leith.

On p. 62, I referred to David Ritchie (1809-60), a surgeon of the

Bombay service, as providing Griffith with dried plants from Herat.

He during 35 years, 1831 to 1866, collected considerably. In 1838

he was in Afghanistan; later at different dates he was in Sind, the

southern Mahratta country, the western Punjab, and Central India;

and his collections were in his possession at his death. Then they

were given to the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

During the period under review, Herbert John Giraud reached

India (1842) and became a teacher in the Grant Medical College; and

Bernard Kaspar Kamphoven, a Danish botanist, visited Bombay (1845)

and made a collection which is at Copenhagen, with duplicates at

Kiel.

WiuGHT’S IMMEDIATE SUCCESSORS IN MADRAS

Wight was in India to the last years of this chapter; among

those who joined him the most conspicuous was Hugh Francis Clarke

Cleghorn (1820-95). He had been born in India, and had received

a medical degree in the University of Edinburgh and with it returned

to India in 1842. It has been recorded that Wallich was nominated

Professor of Botany in the Calcutta Medical College in 1837; Giraud,

as recorded in the last section began teaching in the Grant Medicai

College and had the title of Professor of Botany in 1845: Cleghorn

was made Professor of Botany and Materia Medica in Madras in

1851, where judging by his versatile writing, he was assuredly an

inspiring teacher. So too Giraud seems to have been. Cleghorn in

his first years collected plants in the northern parts of the Madras

Presidency which were sent to the Calcutta Garden. In 1856, he left

his teaching for the post of Conservator of Forests and was finaily

Inspector-General (1867). His herbarium.is at Edinburgh.

A less purposeful collector of Madras of these years was Gideon

Thomson, a younger brother of Thomas Thomson. He made large

collections through collectors which passed into his_ brother’s

possession and then were distributed through Kew. A _ resident

in Tinnevelly, L. D. Thomas, sent a small bundle of plants to

Sir William Hooker in 1844.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

MossEs STUDIED; BUT LOWER CrypToGaMs AWAIT FURTHER

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MICROSCOPE

Francis Buchanan collected a few mosses when in Nepal in 1802.

Edward Gardner, who was Resident at the Court in Khatmandu in

1820, collected more, and after him Wallich. Royle collected some

in north-western India; and Wallich had 113 numbers for distribution

when in London. Sir William Hooker had commenced describing

Indian mosses in 1820 in his Musci exotici, and with Robert Kaye

Greville continued this in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1-3

(1824-25).

At the other end of India Schmid collected mosses in the Nilgiri

Hills and gave them to Zenker at Jena, who, when he died in 1848,

had done nothing with them. Karli Mueller of Halle, obtaining

possession of these, described them in 1853, twenty years after their

collecting. Schmid, on receiving a list of the determinations, just

before his death passed it over to the Madras Society for Literature

and 9 Science; “and jit appeared sin) gthein journals (Toy. S45 S53):

Perrottet collected in the same part of India and his specimens were

worked up by Montagne (Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 2, 17, p. 243; 1842).

Wight collected on occasions. Griffith collected mosses vigorously in

the Khasia Hills when on the Assam Delegation and worked them

up when at Sadiya. He alone in India touched their taxonomy ; other-

wise the naming of Indian mosses required that they be sent to

specialists in Europe. William Mitten made a complete review of these

plants as known to him from India in 1859 (Journ. Linn. Soc. Suppl.

1). He names the following as collectors: Bélanger, Booth, Buchanan,

Foulkes, Edward Gardner, George Gardner, Gough, Griffith, J. D.

Hooker, Law, Mack, Maxwell (a Ceylon collector), McIvor, Parish,

Perrottet, Royle, Schmid, Richard Strachey, Gideon and Thomas

Thomson, Walker, Wallich, Wight and Winterbottom. It is evident

that the date for study of the mosses had come; and it may be

commented that students of them had contrived to get them into fair

order without much magnification.

So too the date for the study of the Hepatics had come. The

collectors of mosses were prepared to collect Hepatics also. Falconer

went further and published in 1851 a new genus. Through the years

1844 to 1847, Gottsche’s, Lindenberg’s and Nees Von Esenbeck’s

Synopsis was in course of publication. It occupies a place parallel to

Mitten’s review of the mosses. By the number of Indian species

known to these authors, Waillich comes first, and Perrottet second.

Of Algae and Fungi there is little that need be said. Rottler had

collected some of the larger seaweeds; Strachey and Winterbottom

had collected lichens to which Churchill Babington gave names. Royle

did not let Chara pass unnoticed. Bisbee has occupied himself in a

search into references to fungi (see Butler and Bisby in Sci. Monogr.

no. 1 of Imp. Council of Agr. Res., 1931).

FELLOWSHIP AS AN AID TO INDIVIDUAL EFFORT

To this point the investigations of botanists in India have been

referred to as the occupations of individuals; and their corporate

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 85

efforts kept in the background. Wight called a friendly working

together of the Tranquebar missionaries a_ botanical Society, but

surely there was no scientific society as such bodies are understood.

The missionaries were united as missionaries, and the words ‘United

Brothers’, which Wight indicates as the name of the society, was no

more than a name for the Moravians to which these missionaries

belonged. As United Brothers, they agreed to using this as the name

of the Mission to transmit dried plants to Banks. Instead of the

United Brothers, the first Society formed in India was the honoured

Asiatic Society (of Bengal) which Sir William Jones called into being:

in 1784 or two years before the founding of the Calcutta Botanic

Garden. Its business was to be learned; and Science was within the

ambit of its learning. The Society’s journal, Asiatick Researches,

the first volume of which appeared in 1788 contained one botanical

paper. The Society asked that communications to it be polished,

expected them to be of some length, and hedged their printing with

rules that made it very deliberate, so deliberate that the founder’s

aspiration for an annual volume devolved into a volume at an interval

of, on the average, 2? years. That was not a marching With impatient

Calcutta, and, when the Society was about 30 years old, provoked

demands for a change, a dropping of some of the dignity for the

sake of a quicker return. In what group of members protest was

strongest, I do not know; but one botanist, William Jack, isolated

in Sumatra, recorded his wish for a journal that would accept and

print quickly notes that needed record such as if not recorded tended

to delay larger things, and in his words encumbered his’ work.

Though the Society in the third decade of the 1oth century debated

its course, it at that time somehow could not contrive reform,, or

rather its attempt at reform led nowhere. Carey’s Agri-Horticultural

Society had in 1829 started the printing of Transactions and took

papers with an economic appeal, somewhat relieving the pressure for

reform. Further relief came in an interesting way. James Dowland

Herbert, who has been mentioned as surveying in the north-western

Himalaya, being in Calcutta as the Deputy Surveyor-General, started

in 1829 at his own risk a little venture called Gleanings in Science.

It came out monthly and had a popular appeal. In 1830, he leit

Calcutta putting the Gleanings into the hands of a relatively new

man, James Prinsep; and Prinsep in 1830 was elected a Secretary

(there were two) of the Asiatic Society. To him it occurred as of

advantage to make the Gleanings, which punctually recorded the pro-

ceedings of the Society, into an organ of the Society. The council

ecnsented. The punctual Gleanings now became the Journal of the

Asiatic Society (he added of Bengal) and made a way for prompt

printing. The gain was never lost and the Asiatick Researches slowly

died.

In Madras in 1834, the Society for Literature and Science com-

menced a journal parallel to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal as an outlet, and an Agri-Horticultural Society was formed

in 1836 likewise providing an outlet. Bombay had done similarly

slightly earlier. Wight used the Madras Journal of Literature and

Science during the years when he was in Madras; and Gibson made

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

use of the Bombay Agri-Horticultural Society’s Tvansactions for the

publication of his paper on Teak.

The Surgeons had societies of their own in all three Presidency

cities, and if, as they sometimes did, they printed a botanical paper

they were not out to help the botanists. The few occurrences that

there were need not be named. Bombay had a Geographical Society

which printed a paper on the rural economy of the District of

Ellichpur, but not another with the slightest botanical interest.

In 1840 McClelland seems to have thought that the biological

sciences might sustain a quarterly and began his Calcutta Journal of

Natural History. This was premature, and publication ceased in 1847.

McClelland after three years secured as co-editors Griffith (1844),

Wight (1846), and George Gardner (1846), who were obviously glad

to have the outlet; but their competence did not save it. All other

publications printing papers on Natural history had the backing of

an association of members behind them.

RETROSPECTIVE

Two men dominate this chapter, Wight and Griffith. The mantle

of Roxburgh, left behind when he was transferred to Calcutta, may be

said to have been picked up by Wight who extended the influence of

Roxburgh’s Coromandel Plants over the whole Peninsula. Griffith was

the follower of no one who had preceded him in India; he came as

a fresh impulse out of the school which was in a position to influence

Botany in India. He showed no interest in economic botany which

was a gate that helped a number of others to official recognition. To

him the plants of India needed recognition, and that demanded all the

energies which he used up with such prodigality. It was greatly to

the credit of the rulers or india that they recognized and used his

genius and that after his death they did what was immediately in their

power to save as much as possible of his work.

Griffth’s intensity of examination led him to turning over in his

mind the implications of variability where he was probably halted by

Swainson’s dictum varieties ‘do not perpetuate the peculiarities that

they possess’. Swainson’s writings had impressed Griffith.

Within the period, actually in 1835, the Company had decided on

an educational policy in which taxonomic botany was recognized as

needed in the medical schools; it was also recognized comtempora-

neously as fitting a man for the control of experimental horticulture

and preliminary forest conservation. Bombay’s interest in supplies of

Teak brought the last recognition to the front in Bombay.

The taxonomic outlay had got so far that ecology could appear, and

with Sir Joseph Hooker’s work phytogeography also. Furthermore,

as I have suggested, the taxonomy was spreading from the large and

obvious to the less easily studied mosses and hepatics, but the period

left the still smaller plant-life virtually unstudied. Publication for

the botanists seeking print became a little easier.

(To be continued)

MARINE NEMATODES FROM THE BAY OF BENGAL

I, PHASMIDEA

RICHARD W. TiIMM

Notre Dame College, Dacca, East Pakistan

(With a plate)

In January 1956 the writer made a large collection of free-living

marine nematodes at Cox’s Bazar, located on the Bay of Bengal below —

Chittagong near the Burma border. Most of the nematodes were obtained

off Sonadia Island, a sand island about two miles from the mainland.

The island has sand banks on its south side and broad mud flats on the

north side. The prevailing current is from the southeast. The species

reported here are of the Class Phasmidea, a group which is plant-para-

Sitic, animal-parasitic, or free-living in soil and freshwater, but rarely in

the sea. :

Family RHABDITIDAE

Rhabditis (Choriorhabditis) marina Bastian, 1865 var. bengalensis,

new variety

Description ; Transparent body with fine striations ; lateral fields with

six fine incisures, about 1/6 the body diameter wide, beginning just

behind the stoma and ending just behind the spicule head. Six distinct

lips with small papillae. Cervical papillae just above the level of the

excretory pore. Stoma typical, 15 deep, with conspicuous telorhabdions.

Oesophagus with swollen corpus, slightly narrowed isthmus, and valvate

bulb. Excretory pore just above the oesophageal bulb; excretory sinus

cell in the curve of the bulb. Testis extending almost to the oesophageal

bulb, reflexed 2184. Spicules 48u long, cephalated, with internal

division. Gubernaculum 20u long. Bursa faintly striated, enclosing the tail

tip. Genital papillae : 3 pairs of large preanal papillae, equally distributed ;

2 groups of 3 pairs each of postanal papillae. Fifth papillae turned out-

ward at the tip ; all papillae extending to the bursal margin. Phasmids

just behind the sixth pair of genital papillae. Tail 1.5 anal diameters

long.

Mie Ske mire var cO': 02'5:6-5 6, 35,1;

FHlabitat : Living within a large clump of branching filamentous alga

(Siphonociadus), collected from a sandy bottom in 1 foot of water at

low tide.

Type locality: Sonadia Island, Bay of Bengal, Cox’s Bazar, East

Pakistan.

Discussion: This specimen differs from the published descriptions

(e.g., Schuurmans Stekhoven, 1935; Meyl, 1955) and our own obser-

vations (at Woods Hole, U.S.A.) of the typical form of Rhabdttis marina

in the distribution of the preanal genital papillae. In A. maria the first

pair of papillae is in line with the head of the spicules and the second and

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

third pairs are close together just anterior to the anus. While there is

variability in the female tail (Osche, 1954), the position of the genital

papillae is a constant character. Therefore we are designating a new

variety to embrace our unique specimen.

Family CkEPHALOBIDAE

Halicephalobus new genus

Definition: Cephalobidae, Panagrolaiminae. Lips 4, distinct. Pro-

rhabdions distinct. Meso- and metarhabdions broken or obscure ;

telorhabdions distinct. Oesophagus with well-defined median bulb.

Isthmus shorter than corpus. Terminal valvate bulb. Prodelphic ovary,

doubly reflexed. Differs from all genera of Panagrolaiminae except

Tricephalobus Steiner, 1936, in the possession of a median oesophageal

bulb, and from all other genera in the double flexure of the ovary.

Type species : Halicephalobus limuli n. sp.

Halicephalobus limuli new species

Description : Cuticle with fine striations, luz wide. Faint lateral

fields, 1/8 to 1/10 of the maximum body diameter wide. Lips 4, distinct,

the lateral lips seemingly confluent with the ventro-submedial. Stoma

cylindrical, total length 11-124. Prorhabdions distinct. Posterior part

of stoma almost as wide as the anterior part, inclined slightly ventrally.

Ventral telorhabdion more prominent than the dorsal one. Ventral

metarhabdion distinct and unbroken (in living worms); dorsal meta-

rhabdions broken. Musculature surrounds the base of the prorhabdions

Oesophagus composed of a long corpus, a swollen median bulb, a narrow

isthmus, and a terminal valvate bulb. ‘The nerve ring crosses at the

mid-isthmus. The excretory pore is ventral to the nerve ring, just

anterior to the terminal bulb. Cervical papillae located midway between

the nerve ring and the terminal buib. Phasmids indistinct, probably at

33% of the tail length. Prodelphic ovary, extending 12-17.2% of the

body iength forward, reflexing and extending 7.1-14.6% of the body

length posterior to the vulva, then reflexing again to just before the vulva.

Post-vulvar uterine sac lacking. One egg with shell in the uterus at a

time, 52 x 18x, with a large distinct nucleolus. ‘Tail uniformly tapering

to a tip, conical, 4.5—5 anal diameters long.

Female: 426-460u ; a, 20—21.3; 6, 4-4.8; c, 6.7-7; V, 59.3-61.2%.

Hatitat : Among algae and debris around the leg bases of the king

or horseshoe crab (Limulus).

Typte locality: Mouth of a small freshwater stream, Cox’s Bazar,

Bay of Bengal, East Pakistan.

Discussion : Four specimens of “Limulus were collected in January,

1956, killed in 5% formalin in sea water, and preserved in a 5 gallon can

with several fishes. After 5 months, scrapings of algae and debris were

taken from the leg bases of the king crabs and examined. Hundreds of

individuals of Hlalicephalobus were found, including many which were

living and producing ova. ‘The formalin at this time was still concen-

trated enough to preserve all the specimens in the can in good condition,

but when living worms were transferred to fresh 5% formalin in distilled

water they were killed. Some of the living nematodes were placed in

tap water in a Petri dish, where they continued to survive and lay eggs.

MARINE NEMATODES FROM THE BAY OF BENGAL 89

Juveniles hatched out and grew to maturity, but there seems io have been

no further reproduction. A few of the nematodes were still alive after 6

weeks. At no time were any males found, and reproduction seems to be

without males. |

Many members of the Family Cephalobidae have previously been

reported from haline biotopes (e.g., Meyl, 1955). The commensal asso-

ciation of free-living marine nematodes with snails, crabs, crayfish, and

gammarids is also well known (Baylis, 1915; Cobb, 1928; Chitwood,

igS5- W- schneider, 1932; Vimm, 1951; Kinne and Gerlach, 1953).

Chitwood and Timm (1954) observed that Rhabdztis marina can survive

in either sea water or tap water. The writer has kept Ahabditis ocy podis

Chitwood, 1935, alive for more than 6 weeks in both tap water and

artificial sea water (3.1% saline). &. ocypodis is a commensal of the

‘ghost crab’, Ocypode albicans, on North Carolina (U.S.A.) beaches.

Osmotic regulation or osmctic adjustment of marine nematodes has never

been reported (cf. Krogh, 1939), but would make an interesting study.

In unpublished experiments we have shown that Paracanthonchus caecus

(Bastian, 1865) is poikilosmotic rather than homoiosmotic. Due to the

impermeability of the cuticle osmotic adjustment does not take place

through the cuticle, but probably is a function of the ventral excretory

cell and, to a lesser extent, the intestinal! cells.

Family TyLENCHIDAE

Tylenchus marinus new species

Description: Body cylindrical, transparent, tapering rapidly anteriad

from the middle bulb and finely tapering posteriad from just behind the

anus; posterior half of tail uniformly tapering to a fine point. Cuticular

striation very fine, not observed on the head. Lateral field with 4 faint

incisures. Head not set off, not supported internally by sclerotized pieces ;

cheilorhabdions unsclerotized. Stylet fine, 12.8u long, without distinct

basal knobs but with sclerotized attachment points. Oesophagus tylen-

choid ; middle bulb weli set off, with small valves and weak musculature ;

somewhat expanded terminai bulb, not extending over the anterior end

of the intestine. Excretory pore opposite the beginning of the terminal

bulb. Ovary single, outstretched, extending almost to the base of the

oesophagus ; short post-vulvar uterine sac. Cervical papillae opposite

excretory pore. Phasmid at the end of the conical portion of the tail.

Tail 11.7 anal diameters long, with uncinate tip.

emales Ola: a 32 > b, 5.6: Cc) 63 Vi, 71°:

Flabitat: Living in the top inch of bottom mud on a mud flat at low

tide.

Type locality: Sonadia Island, Bay of Bengal, Cox’s Bazar, East

Pakistan.

Discussion: The systematic position of this species is difficult to

determine since the male is lacking. The only known genus of marine

tylenchs is Hfalenchus, represented by A. fucicola (de Man, 1892) Cobb,

1933; HH. mediterraneus (Micoletzky, 1922) Cobb, 1933; A. zosterae

(Allgén, 1934) Chitwood, 1951; and H. mextcanus Chitwood, 1951. The

first two species have a hooked tail, as in our specimen, but the oesopha-

gus of Halenchus is characterized by the presence of free oesophageal

glands overlapping the anterior of the intestine. It also has internal

cephalic sclerotizations and a striated lip region. The plant-parasitic

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

genus Ditylenchus does not have such a lengthy tail. We are placing our

specimen provisionally, therefore, in the genus 7ylenchus.

ACKNOW LEDGEMENT

The writer is indebted to Dr. G. Steiner, University of Puerto Rico

Agricultural Experiment Station, for his many criticisms and suggestions.

REFERENCES

Aligén, C. A. (1934): Freilebende marine Nematoden aus Holland’s Vaderé

und der nahegelegen Ktsste Schonens (Siidschweden). Vf olia Zool. & Hydrobiol. 6

1) : 74-75.

marine, land, and fresh water ; with descriptions of 100 new species. Zr. Linn. Soc.

London, 25 (2): 73-184.

Baylis, B. A. (1915) : Two new species of MWonhystera (nematodes) inhabiting

the gill-chambers of land crabs. Anu. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 16, Nov. : 414-421.

Chitwood, B. G. (1935) : Nematodes parasitic in, and associated with, Crustacea

and descriptions of some new species and a new variety. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash.

2 (2): 93-96. ;

en B. G, (1951): North American marine nematodes. Zexas Jour. Sci.

3 (4) : 617-672.

Chitwood, B. G.& R. W. Timm (1954): Free-living nematodes of the Gulf of

Mexico, Fish. Bull. 55, Wash.: 313-323.

' Cobb, N. A. (1928) : A new species of the nemic genus Syringolaimus. J.

Wash. Acad. Sci. 18 (9) : 249-253.

Cobb, N. A. (1933) : New nemic genera and species, with taxonomic notes. J.

Parasitol. 20 (2) : 81-94.

Kinne, Otto & S. A. Gerlach (1953) : Ein netter Nematode als Kommensale auf

Brack wasser-gammariden, Gammarinema gammari n. g., n.sp. (Monhysteridae).

Zool. Anz. 15t (7/8) : 192-203.

Krogh, A. (1939): Osmotic Regulation in Aqnatic Animals. Cambridge,

242 pp.

ed J-G. de (1892) : Uber eine neue in Gallen einer Meersalge lebende Art

der Gattung Zylenchus Bastian. Festschrift Rud. Leuckart, Leipzig, 121-125.

Meyl, A. H. (1955): Freilebende Nematoden aus binnenlandischen Salzbio-

topen zwischen Braunschweig und Magdeburg. Arch. ft. Hydrobiol. 50 (3/4) :

568-614.

Micoletzky. H. (1922). Neue freilebende Nematoden aus Suez. Sitzungsd.

Akad .Wiss. Wien. Abt. 1, 131 (4/5): 78-103.

Osche, G. (1954) : Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis mariner Ahaddztis-Arten (Nema-

toden). Zool. Anz. 152: 242-251.

Schneider, W. (1932): Nematoden aus der Kiemenhohle des Flusskrebses.

airch. Hydrobiol. u. Planktonk. 24: 629-636.

Schuurmans Stekhoven, J. H. (1935): Nematoda Errantia. Die Tierwelt der

Nord-u. Ostsee. T. V, b: 173 pp. :

Steiner, G. (1936) : Opuscula miscellania nematologica. IV. 4. Observations on

Tricephalobus longicaudatus (Biitschli, 1873). Proc. Helm, Soc. Wash. 3-(2):

74-80.

Timm, R. W. (1951) : A note onthe cell inclusions of Syringolaimus smarigdus

Cobb, 1928. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 18(2) : 125-126.

ABBREVIATIONS ON PLATE

cB — copulatory bursa OES — oesophagus

cP — cervical papiila OES B — oesophageal bulb

E — egg OES v— oesophageal valve

EX P — excretory pore OV — ovary

GP — genital papilla PH — phasmid

GUB — gubernaculum sp — Spear

H — hemizonid SPIC — spicule

INT — intestine sT — Stoma

LIN — lateral incisures UT -— uterus

NR — Nerve ring Vv — vulva

Hist. Soc.

Journ. Bombay Nat.

SITE RS terra

= ae = EEF EEo= 285

_ es eS Ee = Sei

fl=> = EEL EE EEE EE = see ji a ‘ i, :

‘4 ca Troy! 1 T vt { TTT TAM LD Toi som NN AN LZ } oe 8 o fo} (<} °

<a ma vervarieele! fit i =i E pian Vio =) $ yw, D

oS 2 : ! Mi Luly) { yy SK .

SS.

ELE PPE -)-) SE

=O ECE Se

Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal

PETHERT

| 5 :

| or =

re SSS =e

oe '

rhs po)

BcEEShalsaetsmsepebesneSasce cases cesscnass cea assoos see Rekeeeseeaees

QO, ee SESS

Lil

2 O's

oo OD

= oo

AQ Fy “6,

‘e)

A. Oesophageal region.

p. C. Head. D. Oesophageal region.

I, Female reproductive system.

A—B. Rhabditis marina var. bengalensis new vat.

C—E. 7ylenchus marinus n. §

tail. F—I. Halicephalobus limuli n.g.,n. sp. F. Head. G. Female tail.

tail.

region.

(For abbreviations see end of text)

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD

N. C. Narr & G. S. NATHAWAT

Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, Rajasthan

INTRODUCTION

Pilani in its present phase is a very promising venue for the study of

plant succession as the place is undergoing a process of rapid physical

developments and changes. An arid sun-scorched sandy area broken

by a dreary succession of shifting sand dunes, spotted with trees and

scattered and meagre growth of desert plants, is being rapidly converted

into the verdure of a cultivated region. The growing plantations of trees

such as the large leafy Ficus, Melia, Dalbergia, Prosopis, Albtzzia, Jaca-

vanda, Poinciana, etc. lining the streets flourish well and impart a green

and wooded appearance. The magical transformation is due to the

endeavour of the Birla Education Trust.

The earliest attempts to study the vegetation of the place include those

of Mulay and Ratnam (1950), and Ramachatudra (1950). A synecological

study of the vegetation around a temporary pond was made by Ratnam

and Joshi (1952). Recently Nair and Joshi (1955) studied the sand dune

vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood. Bakshi (1954) gave a

detailed account of the vegetation of the place covering an area of 40

square miles, and has given a long list of 312 plants. It was found that

Bakshi’s list requires some correction as it includes a considerable number

of piants not found either in the wild or in the cultivated state in the area

Bakshi surveyed. He has also omitted a large number of plants and

therefore the present paper is called for.

Bakshi has described in detail the ecological features of the vegetation

of the area. However, a few words must be said about these aspects to

give the reader a general idea of the floristic composition with regard to

different habitats.

The rainfall rarely exceeds 15” and the rainy season is from July to

September. The cold season begins towards the close of November

and extends up to February. ‘The temperature sometimes falls below

freezing point. The spring is of short duration, February and March,

and the area blossoms at this period becoming a mass of colour for a short

time. From the middle of April to the middle of June the days are very

hot and the temperature shoots up to 115° F. Dust storms are also not

infrequent in these months.

Bakshi writes, ‘as in Jodhpur (Sarup, 1952) there is a constant breeze

in Pilani from the south-west to north-east from about February to

October with a velocity of nearly 8-10 miles per hour. The velocity

increases during May to 20 and the direction changes from west to east’.

This is very surprising as there is no anemometer in Pilani or in its close

vicinity to determine the speed of the wind. :

The nature of the soil varies from locality to locality and based on this

three types of localities can be marked out :

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

(a) Localities with more or less stable dunes. Vast stretches of sand

dunes occur in Pilani. These dunes, though formed of loose sand, are

not shifting ones and support a shrubby stunted vegetation especially of

Capparis decidua, Gymnosporia montuna and trees like Prosopis spicig-

eva and Balanites roxburghit. These sand dunes are in a definite direc-

tion, generally from south-west to north-east. The soil is calcareous and

these dunes put on a green appearance even after very slight showers.

(6) Localities with sand dunes of the moving type. Like the above

area sand is piled up into dunes but they areat the mercy of the winds.

The area beyond Vidya Vihar up to the bed of Khantli, a purely rainfed

stream, in the west has mostly a rolling topography due to vast stretches

of hummocky sand dunes in succession. However, there are indica-

tions that the desertic character of the area is fast fading or already lost

in some places due to encroaching vegetation. Several spots in this

locality, which were full of shifting sand dunes until seven years ago,

have been completely colonized by thick growth of Calligonum polygo-

noides and Saccharum munja. Sand dunes of the shifting type are also

common on either side of Pilani-Loharu and Pilani-Chirawa roads. Some-

times rocky projections raise their heads. ‘The direction of sand dunes

in these places depends upon the configuration of such rocky ridges

and prominences. The soil is calcareous, as in the above case, and

the vegetation in this area is very scanty. Moving dunes in associa-

tion with rocks are found about two miles north of Pilani town and

also near Narh‘along Pilani-Chirawa road.

vated fields, the villages, and the Vidya Vihar colony and its neighbour-

ing places. In this area sand has become stable due to prolonged weather-

ing and is different from typical desert soil. The top layer is compact

and fertile due to accumulation and admixture of organic matter. It

is neutral or slightly alkaline and the pH increases with depth. ‘This

is Gue to increasing proportions of calcium formed due to leaching. -

This type of soil can grow good crops.

The general character of the vegetation corresponds with the physi-

cal aspect, the nature of the soil and irrigation. The Vidya Vihar and

its neighbouring areas support a fairly good vegetation. Pure desert

until a few years ago, this area at the present time is an extensively

green and cultivated tract. Obviously water plays an important role

in the development. Water 1s pumped up from deep wells and is supplied

to the various parts of the place. This water supports the luxuriant

erowth of plants. The Vidya Vihar area is surrounded by cultivated

fields interspersed here and there with dunes mostly of the Barchan

type. The dominant indigenous trees of the locality are Prosopis

spicigera, Tecoma undulata, Anogeissus pendula, Acacia arabica, and Bala-

nites voxburghtt. Wherever sub-soil water is available, agricultural

operations are carried on by the villagers.

Beyond the cultivated areas come with incongruous suddenness vast

stretches of sandy plain with patches of thick growth here and there. The

erayness of the area is increased by spiny and thorny plants. The

vegetation is a scrub jungle composed mainly of the more dominant

species Prosopis spicigera and Capparis decidua, and wherever thick

erowth occurs it is mainly a Prosopis-Capparis association. The com-—

mon plants of the locality are Tecoma undulata, Anogetssus pendula,

Salvadora olecides, Balanites roxburghii, Acacia avabica, Mimosa hamata,

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 93

Zizyphus rugosa, Gymnosporia montana, Calotropis procera, Leptadenia

spartium, Ephedra foliata, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Lycium europaeum

etc. In summer the ground lies bare except fora few hardy perennials and

the area puts on a turf of greenery after the rains. The ground vegetation

just after the rains consists mainly of Zephrosia purpurea, Trianthema

sp., Zyrtbulus terrestris, Aerua tomentosa, Phyllanthus madraspatensts,

Phyllanthus nirurt, Achyranthes aspera, Cleome viscosa, Polygala erio-

ptera, Polygala abyssinica, Mollugo sp., Crotalaria burhia, Corchorus

acutangulus, Boerhavia diffusa, and grasses mainly Eragrostis sp.,

Cenchrus sp., Andropogon sp., Cyperus rotundus, etc. In subsequent months

the vegetation is rather scanty, as most of the above-mentioned plants dry

up. In winter only a few plants, such as Argemone mexicana, Achyran-

thes aspera, Heltotropium sp., Trichodesma indicum, Coronopus didyma,

Launea sp. etc., are found.

In loose rippled sand Calotropis oes Crotalaria burhia, Aerua

tomentosa, Panicum turgidum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cztrullus colocynthis,

Mollugo sp., Eragrostis sp., etc., are the early colonizers. The stabilized

dunes show an interesting elevational zonation, and this aspect was dealt

with in some detail by Nair and Joshi (1955).

The vegetation in the rocky areas is very sparse. In the crevices and

other places where some soil has been formed grow Orygia decumbens,

Cnicus wallicht, Clerodendrum phiomidis, Pupalia lappacea, Stachytarpheta

indica and zrasses such as Conchrus, Eragrostis, Andropogon, etc. The

common tree species in these rocky areas 1s Acacia senegal.

ADDITIONS TO Baxksui’s LIstT

NyMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea stellata Willd. Cultivated in gardens.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cocculus cebatha DC. A woody climber. Common ; flowers after rainy

season.

CRUC LEE RA E

Farsetia hamiltonii Royle. Rare; flowers, July—Sept.

Sisymbrium irio Linn. A medium-sized hairy annual with pinnately

divided leaves, end lobes large, but often arrow-headed, flowers

yellow, capsules 14-25” long.

Cheiranthus cherii Linn. Cultivated in gardens.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Cleome papillosa Steud. A strongly scented, hairy, glandular annual;

leaves cordate, penninerved, lower long-staiked, upper sessile or nearly

so ; flowers very small, pinkish to dirty yellow, in racemes ; seeds reni-

form. Common after the rains.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala abyssinica Bresch. Common.

94, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Spergula rubra Linn. A green annual of moist places. Leaves opposite ;

seeds wingless : flowers cold season.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca grandiflora Linn. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers red, opening

at noon.

TAMARICACEAE

Tamarix dioica Roxb. A small tree with drooping branches. Flowers

pinkish in peduncled and panicled spikes. Disc of flower 5-lobed,

anthers purple.

MALVACEAB

Bombax malabaricum DC, Cultivated. A few plants in Vidya Peeth

garden.

Hibiscus micranthus Linn, A small shrub ; flowers axillary, single, pink

or white. Seeds cottony. Rare in rocky areas.

Thespesia populnea Corr. Three plants have been introduced in the

nursery in 1955.

Sida grewioides Guill. Common in dry places. Flowers white or

yellow. Corolla slightly exceeding the calyx.

SANITIN, Oop ON Cia

Guazuma tomentosa Kunth. A few plants cultivated.

A eles AC Aa

Grewia oppositifolia Roxb. A small under-sized tree. Leaves large (2-4

by 1-2°5”) with stout petioles. Peduncles leaf-opposed or few

axillary. Fruit one- to 4-lobed, black when ripe. Often cultivated by

the villagers for the fruits. Leaves lopped for fodder. ‘The bast fibre

is used for ropes. The wood has an unpleasant smeil whea burnt.

Flowering from April to August.

Triumfetta pilosa Roth. Herbaceous or shrubby; lower leaves ovate,

upper lanceolate, all stellately hairy ; flowers yellow in fascicled leaf-

opposed cymes. Spines of fruit hooked. Rare; flowers during cold

season.

Corchorus antichorus Raeusch. A small woody perennial. In dry places ;

capsule straight or curved, cylindric, beaked, four-valved. Common.

Used as fodder for camels. Flowers Sept.—Oct.

Corchorus urticaefolius W.and A. Capsules short, slightly three-angled,

“bent downwards, valves with transverse partition. Leaves cordate

- or ovate, acuminate. Common ; flowers rainy season.

Ibe (S(On® OY O16 IN Cin iN

Tribulus alatus Delile. Leaflets five pairs or less. Common during rainy

season.

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD OE:

Fagonia bruguieri DC. Branches trigonus, grooved ; leaflets ovate, fleshy.

Internodes very short. Leaves three-foliate in the lower, one-foliate

in the upper parts.

RUTACEAE

Feronia elephantum Correa. Cultivated in the Botanical garden.

Citrus medica Linn. The following varieties are cultivated.

var. medica.

var. limonium.

var. acida,

var. limeetta.

Aegle marmelos Corr. Cultivated particularly near temples. Flowers

April and May. The fruit ripens a year later.

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotalaria juncea Linn. Cultivated; rare.

Indigofera linifolia Retz. Flowers during the rainy and cold seasons.

Indigofera subulata Vahl. Common during the rainy season.

Indigofera trigonelloides J, & S. Rainy season, frequent.

Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. Common during the rainy season.

Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. Rainy season.

Vicia hirsuta Koch. Rare. A wiry herb. Flowers cold season and

after.

Dolichos biflorus Linn. Cultivated.

Erythrina suberosa Roxb. Cultivated in gardens.

Phaseolus pauciflorus. Cultivated.

Phaseolus semierectus Linn. A few plants from the farm area in Sept.

1955. Most probably introduced along with other seeds.

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Linn. Cultivated.

Cassia siamea Lamk, Planted along roadsides and also in gardens. Intro-

duced in 1949.

Cassia tora Linn. A small shrub. Rare; flowers during rainy season.

Cassia obovata. Rare; flowers during rainy season.

Poinciana regia. Planted on roadsides. Frequent. Flowers Feb.—March.

Acacia jacquemontii Benth. A thorny bush with sweet-scented yellow

flowers in globose heads. Bark used for tanning. Branches lopped

for fodder. Flowers Feb.-May. Rare.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Acacia leucophloea Willd. A smali tree. Easily recognised by its ter-

minal panicles of flowers and brown velvety pods. Flowers

Aug.—Nov.

Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk. A shrub with smaller prickles (0-1” long) than

Mimosa hamata. Flowers pink turning to white, in globose spikes

in axillary fascicles. Fruit flat square. Sutures slightly prickly.

Flowers July to Sept. Rare. (Gamble considers the North Indian plant

clearly distinct from Lamarck’s species and calls it A/zmosa himalay-

ensts Gamble. (Vide Kew. Bull. 1920, p. 6.)

(CO iwWipINR S40 AC js Ae

Quisqualis indica Linn. Cultivated in gardens.

CucuRBITACE AE

Momordica balsamina Linn. Bracts variegated. Common during the

rainy season.

Bryonia laciniosa Linn. A few plants were seen in August 1954 in the

farm area.

Cucumis trigonus Roxb. A trailing herb. Stems with rigid hairs. Leaves

3-5-lobed, roughly circular in outline, covered with hairs on both

surfaces. Male flowers in small clusters. Female flowers standing

single. Fruit small, yellow when ripe. Flowers August-November.

Cucurbita moschata Dusch. Cultivated.

Ctenolepis cerasiformis Naud. A monoecious climber. The stipuliform

bract is the characteristic feature of the species. The only other

report about this plant from Rajasthan is from Harsh Nath by Nair

and Nathawat (1956).

FICOIDEAE

Mollugo spergula Linn. Very rare. Just after the rains.

Trianthema hydaspica Edgew. Very rare. Flowers after the rainy season.

Orygia decumbens Forsk. In rocky places. Frequent. Flowers July—

October.

RUBIACEAE

Spermacoce stricta Linn. Erect herb ; both carpels dehiscing ventrally.

Seeds polished.

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. Common after the rainy season.

Oldenlandia brachiata Hook. An annual; stem four-angled. Rare.

Sept.—Nov.

COMPOSITAE

Dicoma tomentosa Cass. A densely white tomentose herb. Heads soli-

tary, subaxillary and terminal. Rare.

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 97

Pulicaria wightiana Clark. Common. Flowers Oct.—Jan,

Launea pinnatifida Cass. Common during the cold season.

Cnicus wallichii DC. Robust shrub with spreading branches. Leaves

sessile, pinnatifid, tomentose, lobes ending in long slender, rigid

spine ; rare ; flowers in cold season.

Sonchus asper Hill. Rare, cold season.

Echinops echinatus DC,

SAPOTACEAE

Achras sapota Linn. (4. zapota Linn). An evergreen tree, cultivated

in most places, Flowers appear throughout the year, the fruits ripen

mainly during March, April, August and September.

Mimusops hexandra Roxb. A handsome tree. Flowers Nov.-—Dec.

Calyx lobes 6, stamens 6, alternating with 6 staminodes. Ovary 12-

celled. Cultivated.

APOCYNACEAE

Lochnera pusilla K, Schun. A small annual with white flowers; com-

mon in the fields as a weed.

Ervatamia coronaria Stapf.—£. divaricafa (Linn.) Alston. (Syn. Zader-

naemontana coronarta R. Br.) A small shrub of gardens. Flowers

white, fragrant at night, inodorous during day. Follicles with 3-6

seeds embedded in a red fleshy aril.

Ervatamia dichotoma Blatter. A small shrub. Only two plants in

Chandra Bhavan.

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. A rare deciduous tree. Young parts tomen-

tose; corona of orange-coloured scales. Follicles black, 8-14” long,

laterally compressed. Flowers rainy season.

Plumeria acutifolia Poiret. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers white. Fra-

grant.

Allamanda cathartica Linn. A woody climber with large bright yellow

flowers. Cultivated.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Ceropegia tuberosa Roxb. A perennial herb. Rare. Flowers during rainy

season,

Cryptostegia grandiflora R, Br. A large evergreen ornamental woody

climber with rose flowers. Cultivated.

Asclepias curassavica Linn. A Mexican plant, common in gardens.

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

BoRACINA CE AE

Heliotropium indicum Linn. Leaves up to 4” long. Fruit beaked;

common in moist places. Flowers Oct.

Heliotropium subulatum Hochst. Spikes not bracteate. Fruit not beaked ;

nutlets rounded tuberculated on the back. Flowers cold season.

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk. Spikes with persistent bracts, fruit not

beaked. Nutlets densely silky on the back. Flowers cold season.

Heliotropium marifolium Retz. Spikes bracteate, bracts conspicuous,

leaf-like, lanceolate. Fruit bristly, subglobose, nutlets brown.

Arnebia hispidissima DC. A diffuse hairy herb. Flowers small, white

in racemes. Nutlets tuberculated on all sides. Common. Flowers

hot Season.

Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks. A straggling undershrub of sandy

soil. Flowers Dec.—Feb. ee .

CONVOLVULACEAE :

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Parasite on small trees or shrubs. Flowers

Sept.-Feb. Rare. ,

Merremia pentaphylla Hallier, Cultivated.

Ipomea quamoclit Linn. Rare, in gardens.

SOLANACEAE |

Lycium europeum Linn. A thorny shrub. Flowers white, Oct—March.

Common in sandy areas. hs

Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Cultivated in gardens for the fragrant flowers.

OCR O PU AR TA CHE

Anticharis linearis Hochst. (Doratanthera linearis Benth). A Small

herb with purple flowers. Common, August-December.

Russelia juncea Zucc. A Mexican shrub with rush-like green and rib-

bed stems, branches slender in whorls. Common in gardens.

Flowers most part of the year.

Linaria minor Desk. Cultivated in gardens.

BIGNONIACEAE

Tecoma stans Juss. (Svenolobium stans Seem) A large shrub; leaves

pinnate ; flowers yellow, corolla with red lines on the inside. Culti-

vated in gardens and also as a hedge plant ; common, Flowers Sept.—

April. 7

Tecoma capensis Lindl. (Syn. 7ecomaria capensis Spach). A rambling

shrub indigenous to south Africa. A few plants cultivated in

gardens.

VEGETATION OF PILAN]. AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 99

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. Indian cork tree. A_ tall tree with white

fragrant flowers in panicles. Believed to be indigenous to Burma.

Common in gardens ; spreads--naturally by root suckers. Flowers

March-April.

Kigelia pinnata DC. Sausage tree. A medium-sized tree, indigenous to

tropical Africa. Commonly cultivated on the sides of roads.

Jacaranda mimosaefolia D. Don. (Syn. J. ovalifolia R. Br.).. A. hand-

some tree with beautiful blue flowers in terminal pas Flowers

April. In gardens. .

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex Linn. In sandy places ; rare.

ACANTHACEAE

Blepharis scindica T, Anders. A spinous bristly small shrub with flowers

in Strobilate spikes. Flowers Sept.-Oct. Rare, in sandy areas.

As tar as we are aware, this is the first report of the plant from

_ Rajasthan.

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. An erect herb. Stem six-angled. Flowers

in trichotomous cymose panicles. Flowers pink; Oct.—Jan.

uipwelvea te sp. Cultivated in gardens.

eps VERBENACEAE

Vitex negundo Linn. A hedge plant; rare.

Clérodendrum inerme Gaertn. An evergreen unarmed shrub... Grown in

gardens. Flowers white. ee

: LABIATAE

Ocimum basilicum Linn, . Cultivated.

Ocimun canum Sim. Rare.

Leucas urticaefolia R. Br. Common.

PLANTAGINACEAE.

antago. amplexicaulis Cav. A sparsely hairy annual .with a short

- branching stem ; leaves sheathing, radical, narrowly lanceolate ; many

axillary scapes exceeding the leaves and ovate spikes. Sépals four

with thick green midrib and membranous margins. - Corolla white,

_ lobes concave. Capsule two-seeded. Seeds boat shaped fused with

the pericarp. Common in Stabilised soil during cold months. This

is the first report of the plant from Rajasthan.

AMARANTACEAE

Nothosaerua brachiata Wt. An erect slender branching herb; stems

sparsely hairy; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, narrowed at: the’ base,

Spikes cylindrical. Perianth 3-5-lobed; stamens 2, free; ovule

single; flowers October to December. Borders of fields and moist

places. -

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Aerva lanata Juss. Rare. Flowers rainy season.

Alternanthera bicolor In gardens. Rare.

Celosia argentea Linn. Cultivated in gardens. Often found as an escape

but never wild.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium glaucum Linn. Common, January-April.

Atriplex crassifolia C.A. May. Frequent cold season.

POLYGONACEAE

Rumex dentatus Linn. The enlarged perianth in fruit with a smooth

tubercle on the back, and margins irregularly toothed. Common

in Winter.

Antigonon leptopus Hook. Coral creeper. Cultivated in gardens. Flowers

July—November.

Muehlenbeckia platyclados Meiss. A glabrous shrub indigenous to Solo-

mon Islands. Recently introduced in the Botanical garden.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia dracunculoides Lamk. A dichotomously. branched slender

annual, 10-20” high with sessile, linear or linear-lanceolate leaves,

lower alternate, upper opposite. Floral leaves shorter ; involucre

subsessile, solitary in between the branches, campanulate hairy on

the inside, lobes ovate ciliate ; glands crescent-shaped; styles free

to the base, bifid; testa of seed brownish white leprous. Carun-

cle small. This plant was first noticed in Pilani in Feb. 1954,

near the Engineering College. In the years that followed it was

noticed at several spots, during the months of January-March.

Euphorbia millii Ch. des Moulins (Syn. Z. splendens Bojer) Cyathium is

closely subtended by two broadly ovate bright red bracts. Culti-

vated as a pot plant, very rare.

Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Only very few plants. Cultivated.

Fluggea leucopyrus Willd. A rigid bushy shrub, branches terminating in

sharp thorns. Frequent. Flowers July-August.

Crozophora obliqua A, Juss. A herb; leaves stellately tomentose on

both sides. Stamens five, ovary covered with stellate hairs and scales.

Rare,

Croton sparsiflorus Morung. A low shrub; Leaves ovate to lanceolate,

serrate at apex ; leaf stalk has a pair of bracts (?) at the base. Flowers

in slender racemes at the ends of branches; male flowers at the

upper region, female flowers very few, stamens 10-15, outer

perianth green, inner white (absent in female flowers). Capsule hairy,

three-angled ; seeds shining, spongy white, cap conspicuous. Flowers

most part of the year. A native of S. America. Introduced in

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 101

Bengal in 1898 or so, after which it has spread rayidly through-

out India. However, this is the first report of the plant from

Rajasthan. In Pilani the plant was first noticed by the authors

in 1953. Now colonies of it occur at various places in the area.

Poinsettia pulcherrima Grah. A few plants cultivated in gardens.

Bridelia stipularis Blume. A scandent shrub with dark grey bark.

Flowers monoecious, greenish yellow, in axillary clusters. Male

flowers sessile. Female pedicelled. Rare. This appears to be

the first record of this plant from Rajasthan.

Breynia rhamnoides Muell. An evergreen shrub; leaves distichous, alter-

nate; stipules short setaceous. Flowers monoecious in few-flowered,

axillary clusters. Male flowers : calyx with six inflexed teeth, sta-

mens three, pistillode absent. Female flowers: Calyx campanulate,

six-lobed, enlarged in fruit. Rare.

URTICACEAE

Ficus glomerata Roxb, Cultivated. Rare. Fruit edible.

SCITAMINACEAE

Musa sapientum Linn. Rare, cultivated.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum asiaticum Linn. Cultivated in gardens ; common.

Crinum latifolium Linn. Common in gardens.

oe A Con AE

Aloe vera Tourn. In gardens.

Ruscus hypophyllum Linn. A small shrub 12-18” high. Leaves re-

placed by phylloclades. Cultivated in gardens.

Sanseviera cylindrica. In gardens, not rare.

Yucca sp. In gardens, rare.

Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. Cultivated in gardens.

PALMAE

Phoenix dactylifera. Only very few plants. Cultivated.

PANDANACEAE

Pandanus sp. A few plants cultivated around Shivganga. Introduced in

1953.

COMMELINACEAE

Tradescantia sp. Very rare. Cultivated.

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

gaady = GRAMINEAE

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. :

Cenchrus prieri (Kunth) Maire

Saccharum munja Roxb. A tufted perennial grass spreading rapidly by

suckers. A good fibre is obtained from the plant. Common.

Saccharim spontaneum Rare, cultivated.

Melanocenchris royleana Nees. | (Gracilea voyaleana K K, f).

Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf. |

Sporobolus orientalis Kunth.

Sporobolus glaucifolius Hochst.

Sporobolus virginicus Kunth.

Poa aspera Jacq.

Setaria glauca Beauv.

Setaria verticillata Beauv.

Tragus biflorus Schut.

Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. (Fleusine scindica Duthie).

Dichanthium caricosum A, Camus.

Brachiaria ramosa Stapf (Panicum ramosum Linn.).

Brachiaria paspaloides Pres].

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr. (Panicum adscendens H.B.K.).

Digitaria sanguinalis Scop. (Paspalum sanguinale Linn. ).

Digitaria longiflora.

‘Aristida funiculata Trin, & Rup. 7

Aristida depressa Retz. (Avistida adscensionis Linn.).

Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (Avagrosiis cynosuroides Beauv.)

Eleusine verticillata Roxb. we

Echinochloa colonum Link- (Panicum colonum Linn. ).

Echinochloa stagnina Beauv. (Panicum stagninum Retz.).

Eragrostis viscosa -'Trin. as

Eragrostis gangetica Steud.

Eragrostis. plumosa Link.

Eragrostis minor Host.

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.

Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Cultivated in Chandra Bhavan.

VEGETATION OF -PILAN]J AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 103

CYCADACEAE

Cycas revoluta Beddome. Cultivated in gardens.

CORRECTIONS, AND LIST OF PLANTS REPORTED BY BAKSHI

BUT NOT FOUND IN THE AREA SURVEYED BY HIM

CAPPARIDACEAE

Crataeva religiosa Forst.

V1lOnA CRA

Viola cinerea Boiss.

CAR YVOPRHY EWA CH ACE

Saponaria vaccaria Linn. Bakshi states that it is a frequent weed in the

fields. But we have seen it only in the cultivated state in gardens,

and it never runs wild in Pilani.

epe? HLATINACEAE.

Bergia odorata Edeow.

~~ MATEY ACEARE

Sida veronicaefolia Lamk.

STERCULIACEAE

Waltheria indica Linn.

GERANIACEAE

Monsonia senegalensis Guill. & Perr.

LEGUMINOSARBE

Alhagi camelorum Fisch. Strangely enough Bakshi mentions it to be a

common species. Not only in Pilani but also in the neighbouring

places the existence of this plant is doubtful (See Nair, 1955 ; Nair

and Nathawat, 1956). It is a plant characteristic of western Raja-

sthan.

Butea monosperma. Bakshi considers it to be a common tree in Pilani,

. There is only a single tree in the whole of the area surveyed by

Bakshi and it was introduced into the Botanical garden in 1953.

Tamarindus indica Linn. Bakshi states that it is a frequent plant of the

locality. ‘There are only half a dozen plants (cultivated) in the area

surveyed by him.

Acacia modesta Wall,

COMBRETACEAE

‘Terminalia arjuna Bedd. Five plants are cultivated around Shiv Gana,

but Bakshi reports it to be a frequent species of the locality.

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

CONVOLVULACEAE

Rivea ornata

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Antirrhinum orontium Linn.

PEDALIACRAE

Martynia diandra GI],

ACANTHACEAR

Adhatoda vasica Nees (Justicia adhatoda Linn.). Bakshi mentions that this

plant is not infrequent in Pilani, but we have not come across it any-

where in the area surveyed by him. Several attempts have been

made to grow this plant in the Botanical garden and elsewhere but

failed.

VERBENACEAE

Lantana indica Roxb. Bakshi writes that this plant is frequent in Pilani

becoming a.troublesome weed in some places. His statement is

erroneous as this plant does not occur at all in the wild state. It was

in 1953 that a few plants were introduced in one of the gardens and

they too do not grow well.

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. Bakshi mentions about blue flowered plants.

We have observed only white flowered plants, and the existence of

blue flowered plants is not likely.

LABIATAE

Salvia aegyptiaca

Leonotis nepetaefolia

CHENOPODIACEAE

Kochia indica Wight.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia royleana Boiss.

Euphorbia neriifolia Linn.

CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY

The aim of the present paper is to correct Bakshi’s account of the

vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood, and to provide some more

information with regard to the vegetation of the locality. 145 new plants

have been recorded. A list of plants not found either in the wild or in

the cultivated state, but reported by Bakshi, is given.

Excluding known cultivated plants, the flora of Pilani and its

neighbouring villages consists of 275 species representing 165 genera

and 51 families, Gramineae is the only Monocotyledon well represented,

VEGETATION OF PILAN] AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 105

There are 60 species of monocotyledonous plants of which Gramineae

consists of 49 species. Except Leguminosae and Compositae the Dicoty-

ledons are also poorly represented. Of the 215 species of Dicotyledons

34 belong to Leguminosae, 18 belong to Compositae, while the remaining

163 species belong to 44 families. There is only a single Gymnosperm

Ephedra toliata.

The ratio of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons is 1: 11:5 of families,

1: 4:3 of genera, and 1: 3°8 of species. The ratio of genera to species

is 1: 1°64.

23 families have 1 genus each, and of the remaining 28 families 11 have

2 genera, 2 have 3 genera, 4 have 4, 6 have 5, 1 each has 6, 7, 15, 16,

and 24 genera respectively. The families having 6 or more genera are

Amarantaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Compositae, and Gramineae.

Of the 165 genera, 101 are represented by a single species, 32 by 2 species,

14 by 3, 3 by 4,6 by 5, and 2 by 6. The families having 6 or more

species are Cruciferae (6), Capparidaceae (6), Cucurbitaceae (6), Asclepia-

_ daceae (6), Solanaceae (6), Tiliaceae (8), Convolvulaceae (8), Acanthaceae

(8), Amarantaceae (8), Boraginaceae (9), Malvaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae

(12), Compositae (18), Leguminosae (34), and Gramineae (49). These

families make more than three-fifths of the flora. ‘The various genera

are poorly represented. The largest genera containing 4 or more species

are Mollugo (4), Trianihema (4), Cenchrus (4), Sida (5), Corchorus

(5), Indigofera (5), Tephrosia (5), Acacia (5), Euphorbia (5), Eragrostis

(6), and Heliotropium (6).

Out of 275 species 21 are trees, 49 are shrubs or undershrubs and 205

herbs. Phanerogamic hydrophytes are not represented in the natural

vegetation of the area under consideration. Cuscuta, Siviga, and Cistanche

ate the parasitic genera of phanerogams. Climbing plants are well re-

presented. 32 species of climbers belonging to 12 families are present in

the flora of the area. The largest numbers of climbers belong to Convol-

vulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Leguminosae.

The psamophytes of the locality are Farsetia jaquemontit, F. hamit-

tonit, Polygala erioptera, P. abyssinica, Polycarpaea corymbosa, Tribulus

terrestris, Fagonia sp., Corchorus antichorus, Zizyphus rugosa, Z, xylo-

porus, Crotalaria burhia, Indigotera argentea, I. cordttolia, Tephrosia sp.,

Cassia toara, Citrullus colocynthis, Mellugo sp., Gisekia pharnaceoides,

Spermacoce sp., Oldenlandia sp., Pulicaria wightiana, Echinops echinatus,

Launea sp., Pluchea lanccolata, Calotropis procera, Leptadenia spartium,

Lycium europeum, Pedalium murex, Boerhavia dittusa, Aerua tomentosa

Calligonum polygonotdes, Cyperus arenarius, Cenchrus sp., Saccharum

munja, Digitaria marginata, Panicum turgidum. Aristida depressa,

Eragrostis sp., Sporobolus sp., Setaria sp., and Andropogon annulatus,

‘The data presented in the previous pages suggest that there is a close

similarity between the flora of Pilani and its neighbourhood and that of

Chirawa (Nair, 1956). The dominant families and genera of western

Rajputana and the area under consideration are practically the same (See

Blatter and Hallberg, 1918-1921 ; Sarup, 1951: Sankhala, 1951: Sabnis,

1929). However, the absence of some of the very characteristic plants

of western Rajasthan, eg., Alhagt camelorum, Euphorbia royleana,

E.. nerittolia, EF. jodhpurensis, E. nivulia etc. is very striking.

We are thankful to Dr. B. N. Mulay for facilities and encouragement.

We are also thankful to Messrs. M. C. Joshi and B. D. Deshpande for

their interest and helpful suggestions,

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY

mvarty T.S. (1954) : Vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood, J/BNA'S,

‘52: 484-514.

Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. E. (1918-1921), The flora of the Indian desert.

ibid. 26-27 (different pages).

Hooker, J. D. (1885) Flora of British India, London. |

_. Mulay, B.N. & B. V. Ratnam (1950) : Study of vegetation feund round about

‘Pilani and its neighbourhood. Proc. Indian Sci. Cong. Poona (3): 64-65.

- ..Nair, N.C. (1956) : Flora of Chirawa. Proc. Raj. Acad. Sci. 6: 49-64.

Nair, N. C. & Joshi, M. C. (1955): Sand dune vegetation of Pilani and its

neighbourhood. Symp. Vegetation types India. Baroda. (unpublished).

: Nair, N.C. & Nathawat, G.S., Vegetation of Harshnath. /SNAS (in press).

Ramachandra, K. R. (1950): Common grasses found round about Pilani. Pvoc.

Indian Sci. Cong. Poona. (3) : 65-65.

_.. Ratnam, B. V. & Joshi, M, C. (1952): An ecological study of the vegetation

near about a temporary pond in Pilani, Pvoc. Raj. Acad. Sct. 3: 1-15.

Sabnis, T. S. (1929): A note on the ecology of the flora of Sind. J. Indian

Bot. Soc. 8: 263-236.

5 Sankhala, K. S. (1951): Enumeration of the flowering plants of North-

wesfern Rajasthan. Uni. Rajputana studies. Biol. Sect. 1: 43-56.

Sarup, = (1951) : A list of common plants of Jodhpur and its neighbourhood.

ibid. 1: 29-35. .

DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSE TO FORM AND PATTERN IN

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN (HONEY GEES

BY; oo

KK. -Dixii. M.Sc.

(Department of Zoology, University of Poona)

(With two text figures)

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Sele IntROpUcTION . —\...1 ae oe Cen we Pe N07

2. MarTERuats Re ee ce pean haat ... 109

3: MetHop oF EXPERIMENTS ieee ite a ee sae ae eo? 110

4, OBSERVATIONS _ ... 500 ie oes | | pes ae 112

5. Discussion Spe sjoce Me Be BAE ak Bete tigett ees Fa

6. SUMMARY i Be ee i sEh SG

7, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | uae Te ws Ras aeee 17

REFERENCES Sine ie oe a ian re (ake)

1. INTRODUCTION

Honeybees are the most important among the social Hymenoptera

as agents for pollination in plants. This is mainly due to their

faculty of flower constancy, by which is meant the attachment of

honeybees to flowers of a particular species of: plant for obtaining

nectar and- pollen for a considerable period of time. In returning

to the same type of flower and in being able to distinguish between

flowers of different species of plants, the honeybees are supposed to

make use of certain clues,. such as the colour, form, scent,.and the

position of the flowers. However, it is only in the European honey-

bee Apis. mellifera that these factors of sensory physiology and

behaviour have been analysed and have been proved to be of impor-

tance in the phenomenon of flower constancy. It was with. the

object of investigating the possible importance of ‘form’ in- the

flower constancy shown oS boretey HIS OES that the present work

was undertaken.

Considerable work on the Nhat of discrimination of foen arid

pattern in A. mellifera based both on spontaneous preference and on

preference induced by training has been done in Europe, especially

by German workers.

_- Won Frisch (1914) trained honeybees to select a punlowershaped

pattern from a gentian-shaped one, but neither he nor Hertz (1929a)

1 Dedicated to Prof. K, von Frisch.-on his. seventieth birthday. .

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

could succeed in training the bees to distinguish between such

figures as triangles, squares, and circles. However, the bees couid

distinguish these patterns from the subdivided ones, and they could

easily be trained to choose only the more subdivided pattern. Hertz

(1929b) also performed experiments on the spontaneous, as opposed

to induced, form-preference in A. mellifera. She did these by training

bees to feed from a uniform white surface and then offering them

a choice of two alternative black-on-white patterns on which they

had never been fed. They preferred any black figure to the white

background and so Hertz came to the conclusion that their spontaneous

preference regarding various figures was related to the quantity of

outline, irregularity and size of patterns, and the independence of

their components. There was no absolute criterion of attractiveness,

but the attractiveness of any pattern depended upon its value relative

to that of other objects which the bee could see at that time. At

any rate, bees preferred the most contrasting patterns. Later, Hertz

also performed experiments with three dimensional models. The result

was that bees responded to the shadows of these three dimensional

models in the same way as they did to the black parts in the blacks

on-white patterns.

Gertrud Zerrahn (1933), who trained honeybees to one pattern and

then presented them with a choice of two patterns which were similar

in character but different in their degree of subdivision, also concluded

that the bees had a spontaneous tendency to alight upon whatever

pattern possessed the greatest length of contour. Wolf and Zerrahn-

Wolf (1935) offered untrained honeybees a free choice of pairs of

chessboard patterns and they concluded that the reaction of bees to

patterns depended only on the rate of change in the stimulation of

their eyes. Wolf (1933 a, b) demonstrated the importance of ‘flicker’

in bee vision, and concluded that the quick variation in the stimula-

tion of the facets would cause the bee to alight, and discover groups

of flowers.

This simple hypothesis, however, can not explain all the observed

facts. After taking a review of all the work done on this subject,

including her own work, Hertz (1935) concluded that the amount of

outline possessed by different black-on-white patterns was certainly

not the only quality by which they were distinguished; a figure was

perceived as a complex thing, which might have several different

properties which could be used for alternative training.

From the foregoing, it appears that our knowledge of the subject

of form discrimination in honeybees is far from complete. The con-

clusions reached by Hertz, Wolf, and Zerrahn are partially contradictory.

Ribband’s book (1953) contains a wealth of information on the vision

of honeybees and yet his section on ‘Perception of Form and Pattern’

leaves the impression that much more data are necessary. There iS,

however, a certain measure of agreement on one point, namely that,

when the bees are confronted with a pair of figures of similar general

character (but differing in the amount of contour or degree of sub-

division), they prefer the figure with greater contour to the one with

less, as long as they are able optically to resolve both patterns and

consequently recognise them as such.

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES 109

In attempting to investigate the response of the Indian honeybees

to form and pattern, the following problems were posed:

(i) What preferences, if any, do the various species of Indian

honeybees show for one of two patterns similar in all respects except

in their length of contour (or degree of subdivision, contrast, degree

of brokenness, etc.)?

(ii) If there is such a preference, is there a point of subdivision

of pattern at which this preference is reversed? And if so, when?

(111) Does the choice of pattern depend on the distance at which

the bee decides on which of the two to alight?

2. MATERIALS

Results recorded in this paper have been obtained from experiments

on Apis indica and Apis florea. During the training of the bees and

the tests, the experimental table was covered with a uniform light

grey paper. During the test this background of light grey served

to provide a strong contrast to all other patterns provided which were

made in jet black.

Two series of patterns (or figures) similar to some used by Zerrahn

(toga), one later referred to as the star series, and the .other the

chequerboard (or chessboard) series, have been used in these experi-

ments. In the star series of patterns, photographic black paper was

cut and stuck on light grey (same as the background colour) card-

board discs. |

The radius of each pattern was always the same, namely one

inch. The star series consisted of five gradations of patterns of

increasing complexity shown in text figure 1 (A-E). Pattern A showed

A B

TEXT-FIGURE 1. Star series of patterns A to E.

the least amount of contour between black and light grey. The amount

of contour increases successively through B, C and D tto reach its

climax in E. Two specimens of each grade of pattern were prepared.

In addition to these patterns, two specimens each of solid black discs

and solid medium grey discs of the same diameter as the black rays

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HISd SOCIETY, Vol. 194

in the star series were prepared. The medium grey chosen (M 15

of the standardized Baumann series) was approximately intermediate

in shade between the lght' grey and the black used in these

Experiments: 72 4 ae 3 :

In. the chessboard series two figures each of five grades of

patterns of increasing contour complexity were prepared. Here,

however, the black parts of the figure were not stuck on light grey

squares but were painted jet black. in Indian ink on it. The five

grades in the chessboard series are designated as A’, B’, C’, D’, and

B’ (figure 2). The least subdivided pattern A’ presents the least

A' i Bi

TexT-FIGURE 2. Chequerboard series of patterns A’ to E’

amount of contour of black and light grey, while the degree of sub-

division as well as the amount of contour increases successively

through B’, C’ and D’ to reach its climax in E’. Two specimens

of medium grey squares (M 15) were also prepared for the chequer-

board series.

3. MetHop or EXPERIMENTS

At the beginning of the experiments with each of the two species

of honeybees the bees had first to be lured to the experimental table

in order to perform the experiments. The method of luring both

A. indica and’ A, florea is essentially the same. The bees are lured

either directly from the hive when it is accessible, or else from the

flowers on which they feed in nature. During luring a piece of filter

paper smeared with honey is held near the bees. When one of the

bees happens to crawl on this honey-soaked filter paper it feeds from

it:' After feeding, the bee returns to the hive and apparently alerts

its companions, for in a short while a group of about ten to fifteen

bees is seen feeding from the filter paper. The filter paper together

with the bees thereon, is then slowly transferred, by stages, to the

experitmental table where concentrated sugarwater drops are uniformly

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES iit

scattered over a transparent piece of ‘Perspex’ (I.C.1.) which, in its turn

lies above the light grey paper which forms the background colour. The

filter paper together with the bees on it is finally kept near one of

these sugarwater drops. When the honey on the filter paper is ex-

hausted, bees discover the sugarwater drops and commence feeding

on them. The filter paper is then discarded. Thereafter, the bees

regularly visit the experimental table and feed on sugarwater drops.

The sugarwater drops are renewed as soon as they are exhausted.

This part of the experiment is called the training. The bees in this

case are being trained to associate food with the light grey colour

of the uniform background. If the bees have been fed for a suffi-

ciently long time on a given spot, they automatically visit the same

spot at approximately the same hour on subsequent days. This fact

obviates the need of luring the bees to the experimental table every

day.

The perspex, referred to above, is of the same appearance as

glass but differs from it inasmuch as it does not cut away the

ultra-violet rays to the same extent. During the training of the bees

as well as the tests, a piece of perspex covers the whole arrange-

ment, either of the light grey paper alone or with the patterns on

it as the case may be. This is to ensure that the bees do not train

themselves to the smell of the light grey paper. ,

During training the perspex, over which sugarwater drops are laid,

is cleaned at frequent intervals by means of a moist cloth. This

precaution is taken to ensure that the bees do not associate the bee

scent with food. This has been shown to occur in A. mellifera and

so is suspected to occur also in the Indian species of -honeybees.

Care is also taken during training to see that the bees do not form

large clusters round a single sugarwater drop; for if this is allowed

to happen the bees might get trained to an accumulation of their own

shapes and colour, instead of to the light grey colour and this factor

may distort the results to be obtained in the test.

After training to the light grey background, tests are performed

with figures on which the bees had not been fed. In the test, two

specimens each of two patterns for which the bees’ inborn preference

is to be tested are kept on the light grey paper which is already

on the training table, and this whole arrangement is covered over by

a new clean sheet of perspex. The patterns are laid out on the table

in such a manner that all of them have an equal chance of being

visited by the bees. In the tests, no sugarwater drops are offered over

the perspex. Ordinary water drops were offered instead on the perspex

directly above the patterns, in some of the tests, while in the rest

there were no drops. The presence of water drops in the test merely

serves to enhance the number of visits on all the patterns offered,

but does not materially alter the nature of the results. In the tests

where the perspex is raised, the presence of water drops greatly

facilitates accurate recording of the number of visits, which is other-

wise very difficult. The number of visits that the bees pay to each

of the patterns offered is recorded. When a sufficient number of

visits have been recorded the test is closed down, and training the

bees to light grey paper is resumed in the manner. described above.

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

During each test the experimental table is turned once through an

angle of 90°, so as not to give any pattern (also called ‘figure’ in this

paper) an advantage over the other only because of its position.

The reaction of bees to figures were tested under two main

conditions:

(a) with the figures covered only with a layer of perspex, and

(b) with perspex raised over the figures so that it covered the

whole arrangement at a distance of 14”.. For this purpose a frame

was designed which could be used to raise the perspex and which,

at the same time, prevented the entry of the bees from below it.

4. OBSERVATIONS

The results obtained in the experiments with the two species of

honeybees are recorded below in the form of tables. The signs in

the column at the extreme right in the table show which pattern (the

less subdivided or the more subdivided) out of a pair is preferred by

the bees, and to what extent? The signs used to indicate the pre-

ferences are +,++, and +++. These are explained below Table

1. The preferences shown by the bees in these experiments are

entirely spontaneous or inborn, inasmuch as the tests are not pre-

ceded by training the bees to any particular pattern. It is significant

that the choice between the two patterns by the bees is based on

relative and not on absolute characters of the patterns in question.

Table 1 and 2 show the results of experiments with A. indica in

which the star and the chequerboard series of patterns respectively

were used. Tables 3 and 4 record the results of experiments with

A. florea in which also the star and the chequerboard series of pattern

respectively were used.

TABLE 1

Perspex | Percentage of visits | Total Remarks*

ae eed raised on each of the No. of

or not? patterns VISHS ‘l/eae’ cub iMate come

1 A&B | No A— 33:3, B-—66°7 42 ae oe

Z B&C No B—33°3, C—66°7 120 sha

3 C&D No C-—50 , D—S0 32 equal equal

4 C&D Yes C—71:'4, D-28°6 49 + +

5 D&E No D --54°2, E—45°8 35 ap

6 | Black disc

& E No Black 13:6, E—86°4 44 +++

7 B& E No B—33°3, E—66°7 37 ++

8 B& E Yes B-71°4, E—28°6 63 ++

9 A&E No A—32°5, E—67°5 40 ++

10 A&C No A-25, C-—75 32 | Te te Sp

11 A&C Yes A-—67:5, E—32°5 40 ++

12 |MI5& E No M15—15°3, E—84:7 13 staat icte

13. |M1I5&E Yes M15—-52, E—48 48 at

14 |M15&D 54 ae

Yes M15 - 46:2, D—53°8

SP EL IT LS IP LO ELLE TE EES SENSE Ty n TP ES ETS

* Slightly preferred +, preferred + +, greatly preferred +++.

Expt.

hoe

NI Dm NF

ES ET

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES

Patterns

offered

B’ & EB’

Black sq.

& C

B’ & D’

Black sq.

& E

M15 & D’

SVE

Apis indica.

TABLE 2

Perspex | Percentage of visits

raised or

not ?

Yes

Apis florea.

Total

Chequerboard series

113

Expt.

No.

OON DMF & Hr

Patterns

offered

SOW >>> b> bb >>

RRR SHOES HE

HOS mE oOyOOtD

Perspex

raised

or not?

{

Remarks

on each of the No. of

patterns visitS Tess sub.|More sub.

| B’—75'5, E’ —24°5 4S Pap ae

Black — 20, C’—80 35 +++

B’46°6, D—53°4 30 +

B’ — 67, D’ —33 59 + +

D’-—81, E’ —19 37 +++

Black -- 29:6, E’—70°4, 27 ++

M15—63°1, D’ —36°9 38 ++

TABLE 3

Star series of patterns

| Percentage of visits ee Remarks

on each pattern Ursits

Less sub./More sub.

A —34:7, B—65°3 46 te

A-—45°9, B—54°1 49 ap

A— 23°8, C—76°2 88 Tap ae

A-—38'9, C—61L°1 77 +

A-—26°8, D—73:2 97 ++

A—50°5, D—49°5 175 equal equal

A — 24°3, E--75°7 111 +++

A-—47°1, E—52°9 89 +

B—39.4, E—60°6 152 +

C—55°3, D—44°7 94 | +

D—-52, E—45 104 | +

M15—49°7, D—50°3 108) equal equal

Expt.

No.

COND UP NH

Patterns

offered

TABLE 4

Apis florea. Chequerboard series

Perspex | percentage of visits | 2otal SESH AS

raised No. of

Or not? perch patter visits

Less sub.|More sub.

No A’ —42°6, B’:57-4 54 +

No A’ -- 24°3, C’ —75°7 82 ++

No A’ —27°3, D’7:27 117 ++

Yes A’ —46°4, D’:53°6 114 a

No A’ —48°7, E’ —51°3 78 +

No D’ —55°5, E’ —44°5 63 | +

Yes Dit 55, 045 69 | +

Yes 98 i

M15—48, D’—52

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

5. DIscussion

One of the most significant and interesting results obtained from

the present study was that both the species of honeybees, even when

they were trained to feed only from a uniform light grey surface,

visited in overwhelmingly large numbers the black-on-light grey

patterns offered to them in the test, whereas the grey background to

which the bees had been trained attracted only very few.

In A. indica it is seen (Table 1) that among pairs of star patterns

which differ but little from each other as regards the amount of

contour (or the degree of subdivision) they present, the more sub-

divided figure is nearly always preferred (though sometimes only

slightly) to the less subdivided one, as seen in Experiments 1 and

2, or at least the less subdivided figure is never preferred to the more

subdivided one (e.g., Expt. 3). If the difference in the amount of

subdivision is greater between the two figures, as in Expt. 10, the

more subdivided pattern is markedly preferred to the less subdivided

one.

If this inference is correct, then it is to be expected that the

preference of the subdivided figure will cease (or even be reversed)

as soon as the limit of the optical resolution of the pattern in question,

by the eyes of the bee is reached. This supposition, in fact, seems

to be correct in the case of A. indica. The results of Expt. 5 show

clearly that a point is reached when the less subdivided figure (D)

(text figure 1) is preferred to a more subdivided one (E). Thus, at

the level of subdivision as exemplified by E, the limit of optical resolu-

tion for A. indica is reached.

Though we find in the abovementioned case that the less sub-

divided figure is slightly preferred to the more subdivided one, yet

the difference in the percentage of visits between the two is small;

that is to say, there is no sudden reversion of preference. This

might be explained by, the assumption (confirmed by direct observa-

tion) that the distance at which each bee discriminates between

the two patterns is not constant, but varies round a certain median

value, most probably according to a Gaussian curve. Consequently,

for a certain number of bees which decide at a greater distance, the

finer pattern will have become already blurred while other bees, flying

low, still recognize and therefore prefer it.

If this interpretation is correct then the preference for the less

subdivided figure should visibly increase if the bee is forced to make

her choice between the two at a greater distance. This has been

effected by the abovementioned device of raising the perspex so that

the distance between it and the plane of the figures becomes 1%”.

In this case, 14” is the minimum distance from which each bee can

view both the patterns and choose between them. In fact, in Expt.

4 (Table 1) where this has been done the less subdivided figure C is

definitely preferred tc the more subdivided one D. This result is

substantially different from the result obtained in Expt. 3, where the

same patterns were used but without raising the perspex. The same

phenomenon is even more strikingly illustrated by Expts. 7 and 8,

as also by Expts. 10 and 11. In all these cases, the bees behave

as if for all or most of them the more subdivided patterns E, D and

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES 115

even C become blurred when viewed from a distance of 14”. We

assume that such blurred star figures of black-on-light grey appear

rather like medium grey discs to the bee. The fact that the finely

divided star pattern D when confronted with a medium grey disc

(M 15) under a raised perspex is almost exactly as attractive to the

bees as the latter (Expt. 14) fits in with this assumption. The same

holds for the star pattern E (Expt. 13). It is obvious that when

the perspex is not raised above the plane of the figures, a greater

proportion of bees will always be able to distinguish and prefer the

finer pattern, hence even the border line pattern E 1s preferred to B

(Esspt. 7) and to, As (xpt. 9). “However, the preference of E is not

quite commensurate with its degree of subdivision.

The results obtained, when the chequerboard series of patterns are

offered to A. indica in pairs (Table 2), are in conformity with the

results obtained with the star series and thus substantiate the

hypothesis of the form discrimination of A. indica outlined above.

The limit of optical resolution is reached for the bees at E’ (text

figure 2) of the chequerboard series, as shown by Expt. 5. The only

puzzling result is that of Expt. 7. Here the compact figure M 15

not only reaches the attractiveness of the finely subdivided figure D’

but surpasses it when the perspex is raised. This is contrary to the

assumption that the visits on this could never more that equal those

on D’, even if the chequerboard becomes completely blurred and there-

fore similar to a grey square of the same luminosity.

Results of a similar nature are obtained with A. florea. Results

of Expts. 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9g in Table 3 illustrate the fact that the

untrained bees when confronted with pairs of star patterns always

prefer the more subdivided patterns to the less subdivided ones. ‘These

results are quite comparable to those obtained with A. indica. That,

from a certain degree of subdivision of pattern, the preference of the

bees is reversed in favour of the less subdivided figure is shown in

A. florea by the result of Expt. 10. Here the less subdivided figure

C is preferred (though slightly) to the more subdivided figure D. Thus

it seems that for a certain amount of bees the limit of optical resolu-

tion of patterns is almost reached in A. florea between C and D of

the star series of patterns. This is in contradistinction to the case

obtained in A. indica where, as shown by Expt. 3 of Table 1, the

limit of resolution is not quite reached between C and D. The fact

that in A. florea the bees already prefer figure C to figure D' seems

to indicate that they have a lower visual acuity as compared with

A, indica.

The result of Expt. 11 under Table 3 corresponds with the result

of Expt. 5 in Table 1, thus showing that for both A. florea and

A. indica the finely subdivided pattern E has less attraction than the

less subdivided pattern D. Results of Expts. 2, 6 and 8 in Table 3

show that, as in A. indica, the preference is reversed in favour of the

less subdivided pattern in A. florea when the perspex is raised 14”

above the plane of the figures offered. The only result which does

not fit in is that of Expt. 4 in Table 3. For this experiment seems

to show that A. florea still prefers pattern C to pattern A, even when

the perspex is raised by 14”. This result differs from the result of

Expt. 11 in Table 1 where under similar conditions A. indica showed

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

a definite preference for pattern A over pattern C. Expt. 12 in Table

C shows that for A. florea pattern D is very much similar to a

medium grey disc when the perspex is raised to a height of 14” above

the figures in the test. This result agrees with the result obtained

with A. indica.

Table 4 contains the results of experiments on A. florea in which

the chequerboard series of pattern were used. In experiments 1, 2

and 3 the patterns displaying greater contour are preferred to those

showing less. Expt. 5 shows that the most subdivided pattern of the

series, I)’, is slightly preferred to the least subdivided one, namely

A’. Unfortunately the same experiment was not performed for A. indica

but a closely comparable experiment, Expt. 1 in Table 2, shows that

the most subdivided pattern E’ is not preferred to one of the less

subdivided patterns B’. In fact B’ is nearly thrice as much visited

as kj’, This fact seems to indicate that A. florea has a greater visual

acuity than A. indica. But this is contradictory to the previous hypo-

thesis. Also Expt. 8 shows that, unlike A. indica, the medium grey

M 15 is confused with pattern D’ when the perspex is raised in the

test to a height of 14”. Other results in Table 4 are similar to those

obtained with A. indica. ,

Thus, as in the case of A. mellifera, a figure or pattern which

presents a greater contour is preferred to one with less both by

A. indica and A. florea. This preference, however, is shown only as

long as the eye of the bee is able to resolve a pattern as such. Beyond

that limit the preference of the more subdivided figure is reversed,

most probably because such a figure seems blurred to the bees. In my

experiments the reversal which occurred when the distance between the

contours reached a certain absolute value was not sudden but gradual. |

This points to the fact, confirmed by observation, that the distance

at which the bees make their choice between alternative patterns is

not the same for all of them, but there is a median value around which

the other values of distance lie, most probably along a Gaussian curve.

It is intended, in future work, to obtain comparative values of visual

acuity for the different species of honeybees by introducing an arrange-

ment whereby the bees would be compelled to make their choice

between different patterns at certain constant distances. The results

obtained are likely to lead to a more definite conclusion than is possible

on the basis of the present work, purely from the point of view of

difference, if any, in the visual acuities of the different species of

bees. The results thus far obtained seem to suggest that A. florea

might have a slightly greater visual acuity than A. indica.

6. SUMMARY

As in the case of the European honeybee, A. mellifera, a pattern

which presents a greater contour is spontaneously preferred to one

with less, both by A. indica and A. florea. This preference is shown

only as long as the bee’s eye is able to resolve a pattern as such.

Beyond that limit the preference of the more subdivided figure is

reversed, most probably because such figure seems blurred to the bees.

This reversal is not sudden, but gradual. This points to the fact that

the distance at which the bees make their choice between alternative

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN HONEYBEES Jule

patterns varies for different species of bees around a. median value,

inost probably along a Gaussian curve. The results thus far obtained

seem to suggest that A. florea may have a slightly greater visual

acuity than A. indica,

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Dora Ilse for suggesting this problem,

helping me with the literature, and for valuable assistance in the

interpretation of results. My grateful thanks are due to Prof. M. A.

Moghe for extending all the facilities for completing this work and

for making very useful suggestions regarding this paper. I also

thank Shri J. F. D’Souza of Poona who very kindly permitted me to

work with the hive of A. florea situated in his compound. Finally,

I wish to express my gratitude to the authorities of the Bombay

Natural History Society for giving me a research grant and for their

sympathetic attitude and constant help.

REFERENCES

Frisch, K. V. (1914): Der Farbensinn und Formensinn der Bienen. Zool. Jb. Abt.

3, 35; 1-188.

Hertz, Mathilde (1929 a): Die Organisation des Optischen Feldes bei der Biene,

I. Z. vergl. Physiol, 8: 693-748.

— — — (1929 b): Die Organisation der Optischen Feldes bei der Biene, I.

Z. vergl. Physiol. 11: 107-45.

— — — (1935): Die Untersuchungen tiber der Formensinn der Honigbiene.

Naturwissenschaften 23: 618-24.

Ribbands, Ronald (1953): The behaviour and social life of honeybees. B. R. A.,

London.

Wolf, E. (1933a): Critical frequency of flicker as a function of intensity of

illumination for the eye of the bee. J. gen. Physiol. 17: 7-19.

— — — (1933b): Das Verhalten der Bienen gegentiber flimmenden Feldern

und bewegten objecten. Z. vergl. Physiol. 20: 151-61.

Wolf & Zerrahn-Wolf, Gertrud (1935): The effect of light intensity, area and

flicker frequency on the visual reactions of the honeybees. J. gen. Physiol. 18: 853-63.

Zerrahn, Gertrud (1933) : Formdressur und Formunterscheidung bei der Honigbiene.

Z. vergl. Physiol. 20: 117-50,

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR—MARGARONIA

INDICA SAUND. (PYRALIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)? |

R. C. PATEL, M.Sc. (AGRI.),

Institute of Agriculture, Anand

AND

H. L. KULKARNY, M.Sc.,

Professor of Agricultural Entomology,

College of Agriculture, Dharwar

(With a plate and a graph)

INTRODUCTION

The pumpkin caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund., is noted as one

of the important insect pests of cucurbitaceous vegetables grown in

this part of the world. The caterpillars attack both leaves and fruits

and thus cause considerable damage. The damage to fruits is a

direct loss and is prominently noted during August and September.

Weekly observations taken during the period of investigation showed

that the caterpillars occur on the crop from the first fortnight of

June to the second fortnight of November, i.e., up to the pruning

time of the crop. The peak of infestation was, however, noticed

after 3 to 4 weeks of initial infestation. During 1953-54, the attack

was initially noted on parwar (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) which

subsequently spread on tondli (Coccinia indica W. & A.) crop.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The pest was commonly found on tondli and parwar. To judge

the incidence of the pest in the fields, three leaves of different stages

of growth were selected at random and the population level was

recorded. Every week 10 different vines were selected at random and

the average incidence of the pest on a medium-sized leaf was worked

out. The incidence of the pest damaging the fruits was noted by

observing 100 fruits at random. The larvae were reared on tondli

leaves in the laboratory in glass petri dishes or glass bowls. The

leaves were maintained green and succulent by keeping wet cotton-

wool plugs at their petioles. The pupae, as they formed, were taken

out, sexed and kept in separate dishes until emergence of the adults.

The sex of the moths as they emerged was confirmed and individual

pairs were introduced in glass chimneys with hanging paper strips.

The moths were fed on sugar solution. The moths laid eggs on the

* Being a part of the thesis for the m.sc. (Agri.) degree submitted to the

Gujarat University by the former author under the guidance of the latter.

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR © Vy)

paper strips.. Fresh strips were substituted and those with eggs were

removed for egg counts. Permanent mounts of the insect material were

prepared following the usual method. The material was treated with

concentrated chlorine water subsequent to potassium hydroxide treat.

ment, in order to decolorise the material satisfactorily. It was then

washed, dehydrated in ascending series of alcohol, cleared in clove oil

and mounted in balsam.

HIsTORICAL REVIEW

Hampson (18096) recorded the insect as damaging cotton leaves

throughout the Australian and Oriental regions. In India it was first

recorded by Lefroy and Howlett (1909) on cucurbits. Fletcher (1914,

1921) has given a general description of the life stages of the insect

and has reported that it occurs in the plains of India, Burma, and

Ceylon on snake gourd, cucumber, turia (Luffa), Cucurbita pepo, and

kaddu. Ramkrishna Ayyar (1923, 1940) observed that it occurs on

melon and various other cucurbitaceous crops. He has briefly described

some of the life stages without giving the details regarding its

bionomics. Other important records are by Pruthi (1936) and

Sevastopulo (1948) from India, by Gosh (1925) from Burma, and by the

Entomological staff (1923) from Ceylon. Vayssiere and Mimeur (1925)

observed that in French Sudan it occurs on egg-plant and cotton.

According to them the larval and pupal stages last for 16 and 11

days respectively. In Queensland, May (1946) found it to be most

common on watermelon. He observed that the larval and the pupal

periods last for 3 weeks and 5 days respectively.

GEOGRAPHICAL DiSTRIBUTION

The insect has been recorded by various authors from various

Indian territories, Burma, Ceylon, Fiji,, Oriental and Australian

regions, Netherland Indies, Samoa, Mauritius, Tonga Island, Indo-

China, Japan, French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, West

Africa, and French Sudan.

HOST-PLANTS

Within India the insect has been reported to feed on snake gourd,

cucumber, turia (Luffa), Cucurbita pepo, kaddu, melon and cotton.

Outside India, it is reported as feeding on Momordica charantia L.,

Ficus glomerata Roxb., snake gourd, melon, New Guinea bean (a

cucurbitaceous plant), pumpkin, cotton, soyabean, cucumber, and

egeg-plant.

However, at various farms of the Institute of Agriculture, Anand,

Bombay State, the insect was found breeding on parwar (Trichosanthes

dioica Roxb.), tondli (Coccinia indica W. & A.) and bottle gourd

(Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe).

NATURE OF DAMAGE

The larva feeds on the lower surface of the leaves leaving the

epidermis of the opposite side in the form of a thin papery translucent

membrane. It binds up two adjacent leaves or folds up a single leaf

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

and continues feeding while remaining inside the fold. The areas

attacked by the caterpillars show various irregular patterns of different

sizes. Generally the caterpillars remain stationary while feeding and

consequently continuous patches of damaged areas result on the host

leaves. The damaged patches then dry out, with the result that

the leaves get distorted. The larvae attack the tender fruits and

often start feeding on the ovary of the flowers and thus the fruit

formation is much hampered. Well-developed fruits with hard rina

are not damaged, but a good number of developing fruits are attacked.

The larva bores a small hole in the fruit for its entry and eats away

the inner part, thus rendering it useless.

STUDIES ON LIFE-HISTORY

he eon (Plater) mie: Xl)

The eggs measure on an average 0.7990.037 mm. along the longer

axis and 0.488 +0.035 mm. in width. They are thin-walled, normally

oval, laid flat, and barium yellow! when viewed against a white back-

ground. Generally they are laid singly on the undersurface of the

host leaves. To study the distribution of the eggs laid, 112 eggs

were examined and it was found that 46 were laid singly, 16 in

groups of 2 each, 12 in groups of 3 each, 8 in groups of 4 each,

and a single group each of 7, 8 and 15 eggs. The moths did not

show any marked preference as to the host material for laying the

eggs.

to the natural shape of the eggs when laid is cylindrical

with bluntly rounded ends, the shape varies according to the pressure

on its flexible chorion from the surfaces on which they are laid. The

chorion is thin, transparent, and appears with pentagonal reticulations

when viewed under high magnification (Plate, fig. B). Appearance of

the larval eyes in the form of two dark spots on one end indicates

the nearness of the end of the incubation period. The incubation

period of eggs varied from 3 to 6 days under different conditions of

temperature, whereas at a constant temperature of 87.0-t1.5°F. they

took 3.0 days to hatch. The data obtained are given below:

(Gable 12)

TABLE 1]

Incubation period of eggs of Margaronia indica Saund.

Incubation period of

S . . Period of Temperature in °F . pee : eggs in days

Study : observed :

Average | (Min.— Max.) Average |(Min.— Max.)

1 August 5

2 January 10

to 19, 1954} 68°18 (60°9 ~ 80°0) 382 5°8 (5—6)

3. |Incubator | 87-07E1°5 395 3°0 (3-3)

to 13, 1952| 77:0 | (73-0-80°0) 265 4-0 (4-4)

* The colours have been described following Ridgway (1912).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

2.0 ma.

1. 0 vem:

The Pumpkin Caterpillar, Margaronia indica Saund.

A.—Eggs.

B.—Reticulation on the egg chorion.

C.—5th instar larva.

D.—Pupa of M. indica Saund.

E.—Adult.

sits3)

pay

i Ashe

ries

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR 121

Irom the data presented in the table, it is evident that with the

increase in mean temperature, the incubation period of eggs decreases

considerably.

The Larva:

The tiny larvae break the egg-shell near their head region at the

time of hatching. They move about for some time and later become

semi-Stationary. In the first two instars, they feed very little. The

caterpillars show a distinct tendency to move beneath the leaves ir-

respective of the leaf surface presented to them. The larvae, prior

to moulting, turn pale yellow and suspend feeding. Subsequent to

moulting the larvae appear mineral green in colour, are more active,

and feed vigorously. They pass through 4 or 5 instars in their larval

life of 9 to 14 days.

finer Ile Onwvim wih auvias (Pilate, fe .C):

The full-grown larva measures on an average 18.5 mm. in length

and is greenish with a pair of white streaks, running more or less

parallel from the prothoracic region to the last abdominal segment.

These streaks are not well marked in the freshly emerged larvae.

Head: The head is rectangular with a few setae and well-developed

epicranial suture. Ocelli: 6 pairs of which one pair is posterior to

the base of the respective antenna and the remaining five pairs are

arranged still posteriorly in a semi-circle. Antennae: 3-segmented,

situated outside the arms of the epicranial suture. Segment II is

about two and half times longer than segment I. Two small conical

sensillae and two setae arise from the tip of the segment II. Of

these setae one is about twice the length of the whole antenna.

Segment III is the smallest of all with 3 apical sensillae.

Thorax and abdomen: Mesothoracic and metathoracic terga present

a pair of black specks placed at the base of the subdorsal seta. The

larva possesses 3° pairs of well-developed thoracic legs each having a

single claw at the distal end. Prolegs, 5 pairs in number, are present

on 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and roth abdominal segments. The chaetotoxy

of the body segments was observed to be similar. Each segment

presented 6 setae on the dorsal side and two pairs of setae arising

side by side on the lateral sides. All these setae arise from the

apices of minute tubercles and form definite longitudinal rows of setae

on the body.

_ At the time of each moulting the neck-membrane behind the head

capsule showed a crosswise split dorsally through which the larva

wriggled itself out by alternate expansion and contraction of the

body. Prior to moulting, the larva turns pale yellow or yellowish

green, but it assumes a mineral green colour subsequent to moulting.

Before the prepupal stage, when the larva is full fed, the colour

changes to apple green with prominent ‘white streaks. It remains

well attached to the leaf surface and shows reduction in length. With

the cessation of feeding the larva begins to fold the leaf to prepare

its cocoon. At this stage the white streaks disappear and the larva

appears lustrous neva green in colour. The cocoon is prepared in

two sections. The outer loose cocoon is prepared by binding the leaves

together and it provides the bedding for the inner cocoon. The inner

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

cocoon which covers the larval body is suspended in the hollow of

the outer cocoon. The outer loose cocoon prepared by the larva

measured on an average 28.4 mm. and the inner cocoon, which is

also loosely spun of silken threads, measured on an average 15.7 mm.

The prepupal length of the caterpillars measured from 13 to 14.5 mm.

Duration of the larval period.

Studies on larval duration were conducted during 1952 and 1953.

The data collected are presented in Table 2.

From the table it is observed that the larval duration is longer

in the first and last instars. The larvae passed through four or five

instars during different periods of study. The larval duration during’

the second half of September is observed to be 11.6 days and 12.0

days when the temperature in the laboratory varied from 76.0°F. to

87.0°F. with a mean of 81.68°F. During the latter half of December

1953 the larval period is observed to be 13.04 days when temperature

in the laboratory ranged between 64.0°F. and 89.0°F. with a mean

of 75.73°F. In the incubator maintained at 87.5-+ 1.5°F. the larval

period is completed within 9 to 12 days with an average of 10.45

days. The larval period in general varied from 9 to 14 days, during

different periods of study. 3

Food consumption and growth of larvae.

An elaborate experiment was arranged with a view to finding out

the daily food consumption and the rate of increase in the body-

weight of the larva during the period of its growth. The food

consumption was obtained by recording the area of host leaf consumed

by the caterpillar in 24 hours. The weights were recorded daily in

the morning at 8 a.m. on a sensitive chemical balance. Fresh food

was then supplied to the caterpillar for feeding. Table 3 gives the

data collected during the experiment. During the period of experiment,

the temperature in the laboratory ranged between 76.0°F. to 87.0°F.

with a mean of 81.68°F.

The average food consumption and the average body-weight gained

by the caterpillars are shown on the graph. From this as well as

from Table 3 it will be observed that the caterpillars feed com-

paratively little during the first five days and also gain very little in

their body weights. During the three days prior to prepupal condition,

they feed voraciously and also gain in their kody weight quite

considerably. | |

The P wp a‘(Plate wig D):

The pupa is typically of an obtect type. The freshly formed pupa

is mineral green with pale yellow intersegmental region. Subsequently,

the body-coloration becomes dark brown. The pupae measured from

12.0 to 14.5 mm. in length and from 3.0 to 3.5 mm. in width. It

is bluntly rounded towards the head region and tapers posteriorly to

a point with 8 apical cremasters equally situated on lateral sides.

With the aid of the cremasters the pupa remains well attached to

the cocoon.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Averege daily food consumption in square ems.

RELATION BETWEEN GROWTH AND FEEDING CAPACITY

OF THE LARVAE OF MARGARONIA INDICA SAUND.

KEY:<- ‘

AVERAGE DAILY WEIGHT, +---- = W\\

AVERAGE DAILY FOOD ; \

CONSUMPTION, eee n

110

100

$ 8 & 3 8 8

Average daily weight of the caterpillar in mgms.

Wee

Agi

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123

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN. CATERPILLAR

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124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

TABLE 3

Average daily food consumption (sq. cm. of leaf area of Coccinia indica W. & A.)

and the weight (in mg.) of the caterpillars of W/. indica Saund.

ms mI z > : = Ee =

Daily consumption of leaf area in sq. cm. and daily body-weight

in mg. of individual caterpillar

Age of

larva in peeeaiemee Ee! :

days ce G, G, Go Average

A W A Ww A WwW A W A Ww

1 500 (PZB |) = dca Ooze eas OS doc Ph cco 0-2

2 0:01 0°3.|0°012} 0-3 | 0°62 0°3 | 0:01 0°3 | 0°-13} 0:3

3 0017; 0:41 0:00 03 , 0:036| 0-4 | 0:030) O-4 | 0°021) 0°38

4 0°16 10 | 0:069| 0:4 | 0:19 0-4 | 004 0°6 | 0°115| 06

5 0-25 2°2 | 0°077| 1:0 |-0°038; 12 | 0-14 1:0 | 0°126) 1°35

0°402 4°4| 0-45 | 4:0 | 0-48 5°0 | 0°38 4°38 | 0°428} 4°55

1°83 18-6 | 1279) 14:4 10°85 1032) | $0:95) 81322 9 eZ 25y| eal

g |3:30 | 43-4] 1-10 | 18:6 | 1-04 | 17-0 | 1°52 | 20-2 | 1:74 | 24:8

9 2°45 | 57-4| 845 | 76:6 | 5:6 | 49:0 | 8:15 | 75-2 | 6:16 | 64°55

10 510 | 61:6 {16°85 j125-6 |11-45 | 98:8 |19°9 120-0 | 13°33 |101-5

11 2°82 | 502 |10°30. | 96:0 {10°35 | 92°8 | 5°85 {1020 | 7°33) 85°25

A = Leaf area in sq cm, consumed by the caterpillar.

W = Weight of the caterpillar in mg.

Out of 104 pupae observed, it was noticed that a day prior to

emergence of the adult, the pupae showed development of black bands

along the margins of the wing-pads. Male pupae developed black co-

loration on the posterior end, whereas in female pupae no such

coloration developed. At the time of emergence of the moth, the

pupal covering ventrally showed a longitudinal split from the apex

of the head to the second abdominal segment in the region of rostrum.

Sex Differentiation in Pupa.

In the male pupa, the oth and roth abdominal segments presented

black coloration for a day prior to emergence of the adults. This

development of black coloration is due to large number of black scales

on the ventral side of the anal tuft of the male moth. No such

coloration developed in the female pupae.

The position of the genital pores also differs in the male and the

female pupae. In both sexes the anal aperture is situated on the

ventral side of the roth abdominal segment in the form of long dark

streak with inwardly bent ridges at the sides. The genital aperture

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR — 125

in the male pupa is situated on the 9th abdominal segment o.2 mm.

away from the anal aperture. In the female pupa it is. situated on the

8th abdominal segment 0.54 mm. away from the anal aperture. The

genital aperture in male and female pupae measured on an average

0.32 mm. and 0.29 mm. in length respectively. .

Duration of the pupal period.

The results of various observations made on the duration of the

pupal period are summarized below in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Duration of the pupal period of MW. indica Saund.

= SSeS

Temperature in °F. Pupal period in days

$ No. of

S. No. ae Og) ini ee ta ae pupae SAE SR

ue ; observed nf

Average |(Min.— Maz.) Average] (Min. —Max.)

1 jAug.1to15,| 77°00 (72°0—62°0) | 19) 6°55 (6-8)

195203 ae | |

2 | Aug. 19to | 79°66 | (76:0—82°0) 14 6:07 (5-7)

27, 1952 : |

3 | Sept. 7to | 80°39 | (75:0—86-0) 10 6:0 (6-6)

15, 1952 } | 3

4 | Sept. 16 to | 81°88 (76°0 —87°0) | 38 5°92 (S—7)

28, 1952 |

5 | Sept.27to | 84:3 | (790-920) | 18 567° G7)

Oct. 6, 1952 2 : :

6 |Dec. 26, 1953) 71°58 (60°0 - 86°0) | i9 9°90 (9—13)

to Jan. 14, |

1954 7

7 \Incubator—1| 87°041°5 cae 16 3°75 (5--6)

8 |Incubator—2| §9°64 1°54 __ a ; 17 5°24 (5-6).

From Table 4 it is evident that the pupal period varies with

temperature. During August to October (average temperatures

77.0 F. to 84.3°F.) the period varied from 6.55 to 5.67 days. During

December /January (average temperature was 71.58°F.) the period was

9.90 days. The shortest pupal duration observed was 5.24 days in

the incubator maintained at 89.0-+ 1.0°F.

ive Moth (Plate, fie. EF). -

The moth measured on an average 0.962=£0.09 inches across the

wings and 0.49 0.04 inches in length. The costal margin of the fore-

wing is banded dusky drab in colour. -The band is continuous on

the head and first two thoracic segments. It further extends to the

humeral margin of the forewing and hindwing and is continuous on

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 54

the 5th and 6th abdominal terga. The rest of the wing is white

with chinese violet lustre when held across the light. A globular

tuft of scales is present at the posterior end of the abdomen. In

male the scales in the middle are thickly set and present a black

triangular patch on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces. In female

the scales in the middle of the tuft are light coloured and the whole

tuft appears orange in colour. The sex ratio worked out for 105

individuals was 54.29 females to 45.71 males.

Longevity and fecundity of M. indica Saund.

To study the egg-laying capacity of the female and the longevity

of adults the moths were caged in glass chimneys in pairs. The

data obtained are given in the table below:

TABLE 5

The longevity and fecundity of 7. indica Saund. —

: ; 4 : Total life in -

Number Pre-ovi- | Ovi-posi- | Number of} Post-ovi- days

Be bce Number | position tion eggs laid | position

apes of pairs | period in | periodin | by the | period in

days days female days Male Reale

1 1 2 | 2, 53 | ea!) 5 4

2 ] i 3) 249 i 4 5

3 1 1 2 OM 0 4 3

4 1 2 2 298 i 4 hs)

5 1 3 J 22 2 5 6

6 1 1 2 205 1 3 4

7 1 Z 1 23 4 4 7

8 1 1 2 366 0 3 3

Average 1°63 1°88 159°1 Sle 4:0 4°63

The total adult life ranged between 3 to 7 days at the mean

laboratory temperature of 81.0°F. The average pre-oviposition and

post-oviposition periods were 1.63 and 1.13 days respectively. The

oviposition period was, on an average, 1.88 days.’ The egg-laying

capacity of a single female varied from 23 to 366 (average 159.1)

eggs per female. The females survived a little longer than males.

SUMMARY

Although the Pumpkin Caterpillar has been recorded on wide

varieties of host-plants from different countries, no complete record of

its bionomies has hitherto been published. The egg, larval, and pupal

periods varied from 3 to 6, 9 to 14, and 5 to 13 days respectively

BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR 17

during different period of study. The egg-laying capacity of the

female varied from 23 to 366 eggs. The pre-oviposition, oviposition,

and post-oviposition periods varied from 1 to 3, 1 to 3 and o to q days

respectively. In both pupae and adults the sexes differ morphologically.

The number of larval instars varied from 4 to 5. The rate of feed-

ing is greatly accelerated during the three days prior to the prepupal

stage.

REFERENCES

1. Entomological staff (1923): A preliminary list of pests of cultivated plants.

Ceylon. Dept. of Agric. Bull. 67: 68.

2. Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects: 435-436.

3. — — — (1921): Annotated list of Indian crop pests. Agric. Res. Inst.

Pusa. Bull. 100: 86. .

4. Gosh, C. C. (1925): Report of the Entomologist and sericulture work for

the year ended 30th June 1925. Rangoon. pp. 10+8.

5. Hampson, G. F. (1896): Fauna of British India—Lepidoptera. 4: 360.

6. Lefroy & Howlett (1909): Indian Insect Life: 518.

7. May, A. W. S. (1946): Pests of cucurbit crops. Qd. Agric. J. Brisbane 62

(3): 137-150.

8. Pruthi,-H. S.. (1936): Report of the Imperial. Entomologist. Sci. Rept.

Imp. Inst. Agric. Res.- 1934-35. Delhi, pp. 141-152.

9. Ramkrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1923): Some insects noted as pests of fruit trees

in South India. Agric. J. India, Calcutta 18 (1): 50-59.

10. — — — (1940): Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India. Madras

Government Press, p. 268.

11. Ridgway. (1912): Colour standards and nomenclature. Washington D. C.

12. Sevastopulo, D. G. (1948): Food plants of Indian Geometridae and Pyralidae.

JBNHS, 47 (3): 493-498.

13.. Vayssiere, P. & Mimeur J. (1925): Les pyrales de Cotonnier (Sylepta derogat:

F. et Glyphodes indica Savnd.) an Afrique occidentale francaise. Agron. Colon.

Paris, 90: 225-268,

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS!

Max VACHON

(With a plate and 17 figures)

INTRODUCTION

Scorpions are arthropods celebrated in both history and legend,

and there is no lack of material for those seeking the reasons for

their wide reputation for supernatural powers and their significance

in painting and sculpture. Biologists, and palaeontologists too, can

find much to interest them in scorpions. It is impossible to discuss

here all the features which make them so fascinating; the present

article is restricted to certain peculiar features of their biology and

morphology, and attempts to explain some of the apparent contradic-

tions which are found.

Scorpions and the related spiders belong to a group of arthropods

that has been distinct for several hundred million years. Scorpions

differ in many ways from insects, the whole head and thorax forming’

a single unit, the cephalothorax, covered by a shield. Behind the

cephalothorax come an abdomen of seven segments and a tail with

five, terminating in a further segment, the poison gland. |

In front of the head there are two small pincer-like appendages

pointing forwards; these are the chelicerae (figures 5, 8). There are

Fig. 8. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) feeding.

* Reprinted from ENDEAvouR, Vol. xii, No. 46 (April 1953), with the kind

permission of its editor and publishers.

We are indebted to Dr. A. P. Mathew for the notes which appear within

square brackets in the text. Also for kindly supervising the preparation of some

of the figures, and supplying text figure 17—Epbs.

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS. - ; 129

five pairs of legs, the first pair of which, the pedipalpi, are strong

and terminate in claws. The bases of these two legs form part of.

the mouth (figure 13). The remaining four pairs are alike, and are

used for locomotion. |

Behind the legs and covering the ventral part of the cephalothorax,

i.e., at the start of the abdomen and behind the genital region (figure

13), there are a pair of curious appendages, the pectines or combs.

Legs LY >

Ley OS

Fig. 13. Androctonus australis (L.), female. Ventral surface, showing the parts

of the body. Total length 8 cm.

These are peculiar to the scorpions, and are found in both young

and old of both sexes. With the poison gland, they serve to dis-

linguish scorpions from all other arthropods.

A rare anomaly, which has attracted much attention, consists in

a doubling of the tail. Figure 1 shows an adult female with two

identical tails, each perfectly formed. This division of the rear end

of the body sometimes also affects a portion of the abdomen; 3t

originates during embryonic development, a case of incomplete

twinning. The anomaly was known in antiquity, for Pliny, citing

Aelian, placed these double-tailed scorpions in a class by themselves.

ScORPIONS AS LivING FOSSILS

Scorpions are one of the oldest forms of life still to be found on

the surface of the earth. Only a few hundred fossilized specimens

are known, but it must be remembered that we are dealing with a

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

land animal whose chances of fossilization may well have been slight.

Examples recorded from many parts of the world show us that the

scorpions have remained essentially unchanged for hundreds of millions

Fig. 1. Buthotus alticola (Pocock), adult female from Afghanistan, with two

perfect tails. Length of body 9 cm. (After Gaillard).

of years. Fossil scorpions resemble the present-day Pandinus (figure

4) in possessing a pair of chelicerae, a pair of pedipalpi, four pairs

of legs for locomotion, a poison gland, and ventral pectines. It is

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 131

Fig. 4. Pandinus imperator (C. L. Koch), adult. female from French Guinea.

Length of body 18-20 cm. (After Gaillard).

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

thus| impossible wrongly to classify a fossil scorpion, and modern

scorpions may well be described as ‘living fossils’.

It must not be assumed, however, that the scorpions have remained

completely unchanged from the earliest times. It is possible to discern

differences of detail between fossil ‘and present-day scorpions which

have resulted from an evolutionary process; these have been studied

by the American arachnologist A. Petrunkevitch (5, 6).

THE STABILITY OF THE SCORPIONS

During vast epochs of time, scorpions have been subjected, like

other forms of life, to great geological and climatic changes. How

have they been able to resist these changes, to adapt themselves to

them, and to survive? I have recently published a revision of the

north African scorpions (9), of which two examples (figures 2 and

3) are shown here, and in the course of this study I have put forward

certain hypotheses to explain their sustained success.

_ Two characteristic scorpions from north Africa

Fig. 2. Androctonus australis (L.) hector C. L. Koch, a lethal species from the

northern borders of the Sahara. Length of body 9.5 cm. (After Gaillard).

Fig. 3. Orthochirus innesi E. Simon, a species from the Saharan oases. Length

of body 3 cm. (After Gaillard).

North Africa has not always been a desert as it mainly is today;

in the course of time it has undergone a succession of wet and dry

periods. After the final rainy period of the Quaternary, a long dry

Tt BIOLOGY MOK SCORRTONS 133

period set in which transformed a region of luxuriant growth into a

desert. How did the Tertiary fauna withstand this catastrophe? The

present distribution of the scorpions of the Sahara is characteristic:

they are few in numbers and are split up into small colonies, last

relics of a past greatness. There are regions virtually devoid of

water where scorpions, like most other animals, have completely

disappeared; there remain, however, large or small regions, from

mountains to oases, where conditions, though much changed, still

permit life to continue. Moreover, scorpions live in the soil, under

stones, or in burrows, and they can thus relatively easily find surround-

ings which fulfil their requirements and which are to some extent

stabilized. Finally, it must not be forgotten that even large changes

in the general climate are much diminished in the superficial layers

of the soil. Extensive researches into microecology, especially that

of insects, indicate that the micro-climate in the layer beneath the

surface is largely independent of the external general climate.

Scorpions have thus managed to survive in conditions of heat and

drought, first because of their subterranean habitat, and secondly

because there remain here and there areas where their old conditions

of life still obtain. Above all, however, they have survived because

of their ecological plasticity.

It is generally believed that scorpions are characteristic of dry

or desert regions, but I consider this to be wrong. They are but

the remains of an ancient fauna, still quite abundant, which lived

under quite different conditions of temperature and humidity. If they

have survived, it is because of their great adaptability—their capabili-

ties are great, their demands few. I cannot sustain this argument

here in detail, but I can mention some remarkable experiments on

the feeding and respiration of scorpions. They can, for example,

remain in an inert condition at freezing point for a period of weeks,

and yet return in a few hours to a normal mode of life. They can

withstand, without hurt, total immersion in water for days on end,

or the blocking of seven out of their eight lungs (4). They have

remarkable possibilities of haemopoiesis (i.e., making blood) and a

very small respiratory coefficient. Moreover, they are sluggish creatures

and thus consume little energy in moving about. More important

still, they can gorge themselves with food in a few hours, or survive

without feeding for many months, even for more than a year. In

my opinion, scorpions are a striking example of creatures whose

persistence derives not from the fact that their surroundings have

remained unaltered, but from the fact that they are able to neutralize

large changes in their surroundings by resorting to their subterranean

habitat; in addition, their remarkable physiology enables them greatly

to vary the tempo of their existence. Largely unaffected by extremes,

they are virtually independent of their surroundings; herein lies the

most certain guarantee of the immortality of their race.

DETECTION AND CAPTURE OF PREY

The food of the scorpion consists of living creatures of many kinds

that share its habitat, insects (both adults and larvae), spiders,

millepedes, and even small rodents. The mode of capture of prey

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

has often been observed, and descriptions by early -naturalists are

well known. Here I illustrate certain characteristic attitudes. At rest,

or ‘sleeping’ (figure 5), the scorpion is motionless, with its ventral

Fig. 5. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) the large black scorpion of the West

Coast of India. Length of body 13 cm. Posture at rest.

surface against the ground, the tail curved on the flat, and the legs

folded. When hungry, or if a victim is detected, the attitude of the

animal changes (figure 6); it moves slowly forward, supported on its

Fig. 6. Heterometrus scaber (Thorell). Posture when on defensive or in search

of prey.

hind legs, with claws open and extended and tail raised and pointing

forwards. Often the scorpion will then hesitate, and the final act of

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 135

capture seems almost accidental, an act of defence rather than of

attack. If the prey is active, the scorpion may even withdraw for

a time, but it waits patiently and finally achieves its aim. Then,

especially if the victim struggles, it inserts its sting (figure 7) where

Fig. 7. Androctonus australis (L.) hector C. L. Koch, capturing and stinging prey.

best it can, often without any delay, and the prey, held in the claws,

is carried towards the chelicerae. These seize it and inflict deep

wounds, through which the contents of the victim’s body escape and

pass into the scorpion’s mouth. The chelicerae play the most important

part in this operation. They break down the tissues of the victim,

of which there finally remains nothing but a mass of unabsorbable

residues ; these are sometimes got rid of by using the claws as tooth-

picks.

It is not entirely clear how the scorpion first detects its prey.

The eyes are too crude to be of much assistance, and in any case

the scorpion is a nocturnal animal for which visual impressions can

be of no great significance. Other sensitive organs must therefore

be concerned, notably the sensory hairs or trichobothria found only on

the pedipalpi. These hairs are present at birth, and do not alter in

number or position during growth. They are of considerable im-

portance in classification (figures 10, 12), and certainly represent very

primitive characters. The trichobothria are easily recognizable by the

shape of their point of insertion, which resembles the top of a well

(figure 11), by their fineness, and by the thinness of the membrane

which links them to the integument. They are richly supplied with

nerves, and can certainly detect minute air-currents such as those

caused by movements of the prey. They are, in fact, like tiny re-

ceiving-sets, pointing in all directions and spaced out along the

pedipalpi, which when extended act as huge antennae, ;

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY a NATIOIR AL CHINS Tite SOORE IV an olin

10 If I2

Fig. 10. Claw of Scorpio maurus (L.), a scorpion from north Africa, living

in a burrow. External view, showing the sensory hairs.

Fig. 11. Sensory hair, much enlarged, between two ordinary hairs.

Fig. 12. Same claw as in figure 10 (internal view).

EXTERNAL DIGESTION

The scorpion has to macerate its prey, because the mouth is able

to take in liquids only. There is a powerful pharynx, which sucks

the liquid contents of the victim into the large middle intestine, where

it can be digested. Scorpions are not peculiar in sucking their prey,

but are Aare in that digestion is effected outside the body by

means of powerful enzymes ejected periodically during feeding; in

this they resemble some other arachnids. As the scorpion feeds,

from time to time it ceases to suck and liquid is regurgitated upon

the victim. It appears: that this liquid originates in the middie

intestine, which is rich in glandular tissue, and that the scorpion

actually regurgitates its digestive fluid during its meal. The study of

external digestion in other arachnids, particularly spiders and pseudo-

scorpions, leads to the belief that the breaking-down of the tissues

of the victim is caused not only by this intestinal fluid but by secre-

tions form, specialized glands, analogous to salivary glands, which are

poured into or over the victim at the moment of regurgitation. The

anatomy of the scorpion is not sufficiently well known for this analogy

with other arachnids to be perfectly reliable, but it does seem that

the regurgitated fluid is activated by other substances secreted from

the specialized glands, and sometimes, as in certain spiders, by the

poison itself. I have recently pointed out (8) that the poison must

not be considered solely in connection with the capture of prey: it is

related to the feeding-process as a whole and forms but a part, albeit

the best known, of the physiological complex which constitutes the

external digestion. In scorpions, too, the poison has its role in this

complex; it not only cuts short the victim’s resistance but aids, by

catalytic or other chemical action, in the digestive process itself.

REPRODUCTION AND Ngaio OF THE EMBRYO

In scorpions the sexes are distinct, though they resemble each

other in all but small details. Fertilization necessitates the coming

SpLonpy *Q °O :0104q

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S .Joy,ouL 94 L “SdATISUIIY} 1oj yyrys OJ 914k []8 d1oY} UTeUTIT pue yorqg S .1oaq,Oou 94} UO Joquueo Koy uloqg o1e Kau se uoOosS SY *sunod BUIAT| YjIOs suliq suord.09g

"yorq Jay UO SUNOA YIM (ds snying) uotds09¢ yoy 94]

Bin |

Is is de

Trades

eae a

Ces

Orie eg

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THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 137

together of the two sexes and is accompanied by curious display.

Maccary (2) and Fabre (1) have described some of these displays, the

promenades a deux in which male and female walk ‘hand-in-hand’ ;

and the arbre droit in which the two animals appear to be fighting

(figure 9). The conclusion of these nuptial dances I have not observed,

a ‘

: j

KF “a

Fig. 9. Posture known as the ‘arbre droit’ (after Fabre, and from personal

observations) preceding copulation in Buthus occitanus (Am.), a scorpion from

Languedoc, France. The female is on the left.

but anatomical investigation bears out the statements of early writers ;

the male fertilizes the female directly in a true copulation, which is

rather rare in other arachnids. In the course of this act, the male

protrudes certain special organs to form a temporary penis, with

which he inserts the sperm and finally places in position a vaginal

‘plug, a kind of post-nuptial hymen (9, pp. 31-6). ,

- The course of development of the fertilized eggs inside the mother

differs according to whether the eggs are rich in yolk (as in_ the

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Buthidae) or are completely lacking in yolk (as in the Scorpionidae).

In the first case, the eggs pass quickly into the oviduct and develop

there, consuming the yolk with which they are filled [e.g., as in

Euscorpius, Isometrus, Buthus etc.|; in the second, the fertilized egg

remains in place and becomes closely commingled with the maternal

tissues. At the end of its development [in the latter type] each embryo

lies in a diverticulum which possesses a tubular extension. This

extension, almost an umbilical cord, is applied to the wall of

the mother’s intestine, from which it draws off nutrients by

osmosis. The food is transformed by glandular secretions and then

led through the tube to the actual mouth of the embryo. We can

almost speak of it as a bottle and teat process, since A. P. Mathew

(3) has shown that at this stage the embryo scorpion has a well-

developed pharynx and sucks the maternal fluid. Its _ chelicerae

(figure 15) end in contractile vesicular organs which actually take

Vesicular

organ of the

chelicerae

~ Bottle

-Nutritive fluid

Vesicular organ

of the

Uterus

14 15 16

Figs. 14-16. Embryos of Ischnurus ochropus C. L. Koch, from East Africa.

(14) Diverticulum of the uterus containing an embryo, showing the ‘feeding-

bottle’.

(15 and 16) Diagrammatic representation of horizontal sections of the anterior

part of the diverticulum, showing the relationship between the embryo’s chelicerae

and the teat; the latter can be carried to the mouth of the embryo by the

chelicerae (fig. 16).

hold of the teat and carry it to the mouth. I have described this

remarkable process of embryonic nutrition |in Ischnurus ochropus | else-

where (7). [The embryonic nutrition in the 5. Indian Heterometrus

(=Palamnaeus) scaber as described by Mathew (3 & 3a) is similar in

THE BIOLOGY OF SCORPIONS 139

principle, but differs in many details (fig. 17).] We see that although so

much alike in outward appearance, there exist great internal differences

between various scorpions. In some the embryo is left to feed itself

on the yolk of the egg, while in

others embryonic nourishment is

a complex affair resulting from

a process of mutual adaptation

between the organs of mother

and young.

Feeding Bottle

=-=. Diverticulum

CONCLUSIONS

The scorpions are members

of an ancient race whose fossils

go back to “very carly-' times.

Their essential morphology has

fpemarned unchanged for

hundreds of millions of years,

and this has gained for them

the name of ‘living fossils’. Yet um 4. Tail

they are none the less products me)

of evolution. The complexity of

their digestive processes, carried

on in part outside the body, and ES RS

the mode of nutrition of the Fig. 17. Embryo of Heterometrus

embryo in some species, requiring scaber in the diverticulum showing the

a close adaptation between (‘feeding bottle’ and its ‘teat’ which is

mother and young, both bear inserted at the mouth opening. In the

Pe Ce Polat ann tomicalen ola. diagram the left chelicera and part of the

: : pedipalp are removed so that the teat may

tion of long duration. Equally, je seen. (A. P. Mathew).

the complex system of the sensory

hairs and the elaborate nuptial dances must have evolved over im-

mensely long periods. Ecological studies show that scorpions possess

a plasticity rendering them largely unaffected by external changes.

They are an example of a type which early achieved a high degree of

perfection; they have subsequently continued without substantially

changing, degenerating, or disappearing, but also without giving rise

to new forms.

Abdomen

REFERENCES

1. Fabre, J. H. (1923): ‘Souvenirs Entomologiques.’ J. H. Delagrave, Paris.

2. Maccary, A. (1810): ‘Mémoire sur le Scorpion qui se trouve sur la Montagne

de Cette.’ Gabon, Paris.

3. Mathew, A. P. (1948): Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 27 (4): 111.

3a. — — — (1956): Embryology of Heterometrus scaber (Thorell) Univ. of

Travancore Res. Inst. Memoir, 1. (September).

. Millot, J. and Paulian, R. (1943): Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 58: 97.

. Petrunkevitch, A. (1952): Syst. Zool. USA, I (i).

. — — — (1952): Amer. Scient., 40 (1): 99.

. Vachon, M. (1950): Arch. Zool. exp. gén., N. et R., 86 (3): 137.

— — — (1951): C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 283: 205.

— — — (1952): ‘Ktudes sur les Scorpions.’ Institut Pasteur d’Algérie.

SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN AND AROUND CUTTACK

H. PATTNAIK

Lecturer in Botany, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack —

oe ee

There is no systematic account of the Flora of Orissa State; no

work of this nature has yet been done since its separation trom Bihar in

1936. Haines (1925), Prain (1903), Bal (1942) and Mooney (1950) have |

not laid much stress on the cetailed study of the flora of this State.

Recently the Botanical Survey of Crissa has started with a view to dis-

covering rare, economic and medicinal plants. This State has rich

natural resources and there are many virgin forests with vaiuable plants

in the ex-State areas. Some preliminary work has been done on the

useful weeds of Cuttack and its neighbourhood.

Cuttack city is surrounded by two rivers, i.e., the Mahanadi and its

branch the Kathjuri. The general soil of the city and its neighbourhood

is sandy loam and also alluvial at some places. A number of

weeds grow up in different seasons and these become abundant in the

rainy season. Some of them are used locally as medicinal plants,

foodstuff, and fodder. ‘These weeds are not totally undesirable; some

of them have various important uses. With a view to finding out the

local names and the uses of these common weeds the present work

has been undertaken.

COLLECTION AND OBSERVATION

The important and dominant weeds have keen collected during their

flowering seasons. ‘lhe plants described in the list are arranged in the

same order as in Haines’s Bolany of Bihar and Orissa for convenience.

Most of these plants have been collected by the author with the help of

Mr. N. K. Chayu Patnaik. They have been pressed and preserved in the

Herbarium of the Botany Department of Ravenshaw College, Cuttack.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

MENISPERMACEAE

1. Cocculus villosus DC.

Local name .... Dadaya (Or.)

Habit ... Aclimber on hedges.

Flowers .... November to April

Uses _... The juice of the leaves mixed with water has

| the property of coagulating into a green jelly.

like substance which is taken internally,

sweetened with sugar. The roots and leaves

are used in rheunnatic pains.

SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 141

2, Cissampelos hexandra Roxb,

Local name ... Akanamini (Or. )

Habit : ... A lofty climber.

Flowers .. April to August:

Uses ... The root is. used in fever, diarrhoea, urinary

diseases, dyspepsia, etc.

PAPAVERACEAR

3, Argemone mexicana Linn.

Local name ... Agara or Kantakusuma (Or)

Habit ... A prickly herb.

Flowers ... April to June.

Uses ... The oil from the seed is purgative, and the oil

is also used in various kinds of skin diseases.

Coop PEAR Tt Dp Ae EH AcE

4. Cleome viscosa Linn.

Local name ... Chota anasorisa (Or. )

Habit ... A pubescent herb.

Flowers ... July to September.

Uses ... The juice of the leaves is locally poured into ear

for ear-ache.

5. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC,

Local name . Amasorisa (Or.)

Habit ... A strong smelling weed.

Flowers ... July to September.

Uses .... Used as a substitute of Cleome viscosa.

VIOLACEAE

6. Ionidium suffruticosum Ging.

Local name ... Madan masta (Or.)

Habit .... Herb with pink flowers.

Flowers ... December to March.

Uses .... The leaves and tender stalks are domuleck?.

CARVOGP AVL L AC EA EB

7, Polycarpaea corymbosa [Lamk.

Local name ... an Jatjatia (Or.)

Habit ... rect herb.

Flowers ... August to November.

Uses .... Used locally as a remedy for the bites of veno-

mous reptiles.

PORTULACA CEA E

8. Portulaca oleracea Linn.

Local name ... Bada balbalua (Or. )

Habit ... A prostrate or erect, sub-succulent Berbl

Flowers we July to October.

Uses .... It is locally used as an article of diet in scurvy

and liver diseases.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

9. Portulaca quadrifida Linn.

Local name ..- Balbalua (Or.)

Habit .. A prostrate, creeping and sub-succulent herb.

Flowers ... July to October.

Uses ... same as in P. oleracea.

FICOIDEAE (AIZOCEAE )

10. Mollugo spergula [Lj in.

Local name w= | lita sac. (On.)

Habit .«. A herb near ponds.

Flowers .«. February to April.

Uses .. Lhe juice is applied in itch and other skin

diseases.. The leaves are used as an article

of diet.

11. Trianthema monogyna Linn.

Local name on. Eurunig(@rs)

Habit ... A succulent herb.

Flowers ... July to October.

Uses . The root is used as a medicine, generally in

acute anaemic conditions.

MALVACEAE

12. Abutilon indicum G,. Don

Local name .» bedipedica (Or,)

Habit ... Annual shrub

Flowers ... september to January.

Uses ... Used in various diseases. The roots are

useful in leucoderma.

13. Sida cordifolia Linn.

Local name ... Bisiripi (Or.)

Habit -... An erect undershrub.

Flowers ... August to December.

Uses ... The leaves and roots are said to have medi-

cinal value ; leaves for healing sores.

14. Sida veronicaefolia Lamk.

Local name ... Bajramuli (Or.)

Habit ... A perennial herb.

Flowers ... beptember to April.

Uses ... The leaves are used as locai application in

cuts and bruises.

TLeeA Cor AGE

15. Corchorus acutangulus Lamk.

Local name .... Bana-nalita (Or. )

Habit ... An erect herb.

Flowers | ... september to November.

Uses ... The dried leaves are used in dysentery.

SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 143

EUPHORBIACEAE

16, Croton sparsiflorus Morung

Local name ... Gandha tulasi (Or.)

Habit ot 1 AneRD,

Flowers ... May to September.

Uses ... The latex is used in cuts and wounds.

17, Euphorbia hirta Linn. Syn. &. pilulzfera (F.B.1.)

Locai name ... Chitakuti (Or.)

Habit ... A herbaceous weed.

Flowers ... All the year round.

Uses ... Lhe latex is applied locally in case of eye coms

: plaints. The plant, as a whole, is slightly

stimulant and narcotic.

18, Jatropha curcas [.inn.

Local name ... Jahaji, Baigaba (Or.)

Habit ... A large shrub.

Flowers ... May to October.

_ Uses ... Used as a hedge plant. The juice of the stem

and leaves is applied to wounds,

19, Phyllanthus niruri Linn.

Local name ... Badianla (Or.)

Habit ... An erect annual herb.

Flowers ... August to December.

Uses ... Used in dysentery.

20. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.

Local name ... Bhuinania (Or.)

Habit ... A suffruticose annual.

Flowers ... July to December.

Uses ... Used in sleeplessness of children.

RHAMNACEAER

21. Zizyphus jujuba Lamk.

Local name ... Barakoli (Or.)

Habit ... A small tree or shrub.

Flowers ... March to October.

Uses ... Fruits are eaten when ripe and these make good

jams. The bark and seeds are used for

diarrhoea and the decoction of root for fever.

VITACEAE

22, Vitis quadrangularis Wall.

Local name ... Hadavanga (Or. )

Habit .. woalfmentose shrubs.

Flowers .. July to October.

Uses ... The upper part of the plant is used for bowel

complaints and a poultice for broken bones.

Lad.

23,

two

26.

Zs);

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Vitis trifolia Linn.

Local name ... Amala-lata (Or.)

Habit ... A herbaceous climber.

Flowers ... April to September.

Uses ... seeds and roots are used for the treatment of

yoke sores of buliocks.

_ Vitis pedata Vahl.

Local name ... Guali lata (Or.)

Habit ... A large climber.

Flowers .. August to September.

Uses ... This plant is used as domestic medicine, because

of its astringency.

PREP Ec OUIN Ae AGE

, Clitoria ternatea L,

Locai name ... Aparajita. (Or)

Habit ... Twining herb.

Flowers ... From October to December.

Uses ... lhe roots and flowers have medicinal value.

Used in urinay disorde:s.

Crotolaria juncea Linn.

Local name ... Chanapata (Or.)

Habit .. Aestoutishmulbs

Flowers ... August to January. Yellow.

Uses ... Yields fibre and used as green manure.

CARSALPEINA CE Ar

, Cassia occidentalis Linn.

Local name ... Chakunda (Or.)

Habit , an undershrub,

Fiowers ... August to October.

Uses .... Roots, seeds and leaves are known to be pur-

gative, and are also useful in cough and

whooping cough. The plant is also used for

skin diseases,

MIMOSACRERAE

. Mimosa pudica Linn.

Local name ee Way cult (Or)

Habit ee ebricklyasirup:

Flowers =. July to Maren:

Uses ... The leaves and roots are used for piles and

fistula.

CUCURBITACEAE

Cephalandra indica Nand.

Local name ..5 Kainchikakudi (Or. )

Habit ... A climbing herb.

SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 1451

Flowers ... August to December.

Uses ... The leaves mixed with butter are applied as a

liniment to sores. The roots have also

medicinal value.

UMBELLIFERAE

30, Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn.

Local name ... Thalikud! (Or.)

Habit ... A herb with long creeping stems.

Flowers ... November to January.

Uses ... It is useful as a tonic in diseases of skin,

nervous system and blood.

RUBIACEAE

31. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn,

Local name ... Ghar-podia (Or.)

Habit ... A diffuse annual herb.

Flowers ... June to January.

Uses ... It is usedin jaundice, liver complaints, and

chronic malaria.

32, Spermacoce hispida Linn.

Local name ... sana ghar-podia (Or.)

Habit ... Procumbent herb.

Flowers .-- October to December.

Uses ... Lhe roots and seeds have medicinal value.

COMPOSITAE

33 Bilumea lacera DC,

Local name ... Pokasunga (Or.)

Habit ..» A hairy herb.

Flowers .-. October to March.

Uses ... The expressed juice of the leaves is a useful

anthelmintic. It is used in cases of thread-

worm. ~

34, Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk.

Local name ... Kesadura (Or.)

Habit ... A slender herbaceous weed.

Flowers .. August to February.

Uses ». The boiled decoction of the root is drunk as

a purgative and emetic. It is also used in

various skin diseases, speciaily leprosy,

chronic skin diseases, and ring-worm. The

leaves and flowers are also used in tooth-ache.

The juice of the leaves is used as a hair

tonic.

35, Enhydra fluctuans Lour.

Local name .s» Hidimichi (Or. )

Habit ... A prostrate herb.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Flowers .-- December to’ January. ...

Uses ... Used as a vegetable and laxative. It is claimed

to be useful in diseases of skin and nervous

system.

36, Gnaphalium indicum Linn.

Local name ... Naka-chunkuni (Or.)

Habit .... Hoary or woolly herb.

Flowers ... March to July.

Uses ... The leaves have medicinal value.

37. Grangea maderaspatana Poit.

Local name .. Agnikumart Or.)

Habit ... A procumbent weed.

Flowers ... December to May..

Uses ... Ihe leaves are regarded as valuable stomachic.

38. Tridax procumbens Linn.

Local name ... Bisalyakarani (Or.)

Habit .o. Fert:

Flowers ... November to June. ©

Uses ... The stem, leaves, and roots are used in case on

wound and cuts.

39. Vernonia cinerea Less.

Local name ... Pokasunga (Or.)

Habit ... An annual herb.

Flowers .. August to April.

Uses .. A poultice of leaves is applied to the head for

headache. Bruised leaves are apple’ for

ring-worm by some people.

40, Xanthium strumarium Linn,

Local name ... Bana gokhara (Or. Ine

Habit ... -An erect herb.

_ Flowers ... November to February.

Uses | ... It has proved useful in urinary diseases.

APOCYNACEAE

41, Vinca rosea Linn.

Local name ... Sada-behari (Or.)

Habit ji. 44, Avherb.

Flowers - «,.. All the year round.

Uses .... The juice of the leaves and flowers is used as

CT Be ian application for wasp stings.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

4?, Calotropis gigantea R. Br.

Local name oe eeutkal( Om).

Habit ... A stout-shrub...

4:3.

44,

45,

46.

47.

48.

SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK | 147

Flowers ... December to July.

Uses ... The latex is locally used for wounds and tooth

troubles. The leaves are also used for

fomentation for the diseases of the chest.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora diffusa Br,

Local name ... Banbana (Or.)

Habit wee A. herb,

Flowers _ ... All the year.

Uses .... The plant is used as a laxative.

BORAGINACEAE

Heliotropium indicum Linn.

Local name ... Hatisundha (Or.)

Habit ... A small herb.

Flowers onc (October to-May..

Uses ... The plant is locally used as application for boils,

sores and stings of insects.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb, Oe

Local name .-- Nirmuli (Or.)

Habit .. A leafless twining parasite,

Flowers. . __.... October. to December.

Uses ee eae Seeds are regarded as cartninative.

Evolvulus aismaraes Linn.

Local name ... Bichhamalia (Or. ‘

» Habit. ...... -4...~4\ much branched diffused perennial. herb:

Flowers ~ .... July to December. |

Uses Lae The leaves and roots are used in dysentery.

“SOLANACEAE m

Datura fastuosa Linn.

Local name ..» Dudura (Or.)

Habit ... A small shrubby plant.

Flowers ... July to November. - a é

Uses - 4 .The leaves, seeds, and. roots are used in

medicine. The leaves and roots are smoked

in asthma.

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Local name ... Hemaraj (Or.)

Habit _... Annual herb.

Flowers.) 22202... -February to: March, .

Uses ... The leavés have medicinal value.

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. é4

49, Solanum nigrum Linn.

Local name ... Nunununia (Or.)

Habit ... Gregarious herb.

Flowers ... Most of the year

Uses ... Lhe kerries and the juice are said to have

laxative and diuretic properties.

50. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.

Local name ... Ankaranti (Or.)

Habit ... A prostrate prickly herb.

Flowers ... December to June.

Uses ... Fruits and roots are used in medicine. Root is

used in cough, asthma, and catarrh. Root is

locally used as a preventive against small-pox.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

51. Herpestis monniera H. B. & K.

Local name ... Brahmi (Or.)

Habit ... A creeping sub-succulent herb.

Flowers ... August to February.

Uses .... Used as brain tonic.

ACANTHACEAE

52, Andrographis paniculata Nees.

Local name ... Bhuinimba (Or. )

Habit ... A herbaceous weed.

Flowers .. March to August.

Uses ... It has reputation as a bitter tonic in dysentery.

It is also used as substitute and sometimes

adulterant of chiretta (Swertza chiveta Buch.-

Ham.) |

53, Asteracantha longifolia Nees. Syn. Mygrophila spinosa T. Anders.

Local name ... Koilikhia (Or.) ee

Habit ... Arobust spiny herb. —

Flowers ..- October to December.

, Uses ... The leaves and roots have medicinal value.

54. Barleria prionitis Linn.

Local name ... Daskeranta (Or.)

Habit ... A prickly shrub.

Flowers .. April:

Uses ... It is used in medicine for various diseases.

It is locally used as hair tonic.

55, Adhatoda vasica Nees

Local name ... Basanga (Or.)

Habit ... <A tall shrub.

Flowers ... February to March.

Uses ... The juice mixed with ginger is used as a

remedy for cough.

56.

of.

So:

59,

‘SOME USEFUL WEEDS IN CUTTACK 149

VERBENACEARER

Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn.

Local name 2 Gengutin(Or.)

Habit ... A straggling shrub.

Flowers ... December to April.

Uses ... It has reputation as a febrituge.

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Mold.

Local name ... Naga-airi (Or.)

Habit ... Astraggling shrub with small prickles.

Flowers ... All the year round.

Uses ... Leaves are used to relieve indigestion.

Vitex negundo Linn.

Local naine ... Begunia (Or).

Habit 2) A shrub

Flowers .». Most of the year.

Uses .»» Lhe roots and Jeaves are regarded as tonic and

febrifuge. The decoction of the leaves is

given in headache and catarrh.

LABIATAE

Anisomeles ovata Br,

Local name ..» Bhutamari (Or.)

Habit .. <A strong smelling Aaa herb.

Flowers ... september to November.

Uses ... The plant is used in medicine as carminative,

astringent, and as tonic.

60, Leucas aspera Spreng.

61.

Local name ... Gaisa (Or.)

Habit ... An annual herb.

Flowers .». september to January.

Uses ... The juice of the Jeaves is applied in chronic

skin diseases.

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Local name ... sugandha (Or.)

Habit ... An aromatic herb. :

Flowers ... september to December

Uses ... The seeds and leaves are used aS medicine.

The juice of the leaves mixed with ginger

and black pepper is given in cold and fever,

Ocimum sanctum Linn.

Local name fe hulasn(@r:)

Habit ... An undershrub and sometimes cultivated.

Flowers ... October to February.

Uses ... The leaves are used in cough, cold, and bron-

chitis. The preparation is applied to skin

in ring worm.

150.

63.

64,

65,

66.

67.

68.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.

Local name ... Ghodapuruni (Or.)

Habit ... A diffuse herb.

Flowers ... August to November.

Uses ... Used locally in jaundice.

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Local name ... Apamaranga (Or.)

Habit ... A herbaceous plant.

Flowers ..» October to January.

Uses ... It has got a reputation as medicinal plant.

Alternanthera sessilis Br.

Local name ... Madaranga (Or.)

Habit -... A prostrate herb.

Flowers . ~—...... + July to January.

Uses : ... Used as a. vegetable. Also medicinally in

dysentery and liver disorders.

Amaranthus spinosus J,. Ridley

Local name ... Kantaneutia (Or.)

Habit .. <A prickly herb and a common weed.

Flowers we.» Throughout the whole year.

Uses ... Theleaves areusedas spinach. It is claimed to

be a good cattle fodder which increases milk,

The roots are used externally for curing

inflamed wounds and for ripening boils.

Aeérua lanata Juss.

Local name ... Paunsia(Or.)

Habit ... A perennial weed.

Flowers .... November to January.

Uses ... The flowering tops and roots are used in the

treatment of head-ache.

Celosia argentea Linn.

Local name ... Ganjachulia (Or.)

Habit ... A glabrous erect annual herb.

- Flowers - ... August to December.

Uses ... Seeds are used in diarrhoea.

69.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum plebejum Br.

Local name — ... Muthi saga (Or.)

Habit ... A diffusely branched prostrate’ herb. .

Flowers . ... February to May.

“Uses >of os ... Used as a vegetable and the root is very useful

astringent.

70.

AL.

> SOME USEFUL WEEDS. IN CUTTACK 151

ARACEAR

‘Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume

Local name tip Oliai@rm) a 7

Habit ... A stout herb with a single aerial leaf.

Flowers f .... November to February.

Uses ... The corm is used as a vegetable. It is used in

medicine for dysentery.

Pistia stratiotes Linn.

Locai name ... Borajhanji (Or.)

«Habit -. .. A floating weed.

Flowers ... February to May.

Uses ... The plant is cooling and demulcent.

(2s

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus rotundus Linn.

Local name ... Mutha (Or.)

elapit ... A weed of gardens and waste grounds having

~ small black tubers.

Flowers ... July to December.

Uses ... The rhizomes are used in medicine in stomach

73.

(lee

troubles and dysentery.

GRAMINEAE

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

Local name se Wuba (Or)

Habit ... A trailing herb (runner).

Flowers ... Most of the year.

Uses ... It is goad fodder for cattle. The bruised grass

is applied to wounds or cuts to stop

bleeding.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Local name ... Kanasiri (Or.)

Habit .. A sub-succulent creeping herb.

Flowers ie July to November

Uses ... Used as a vegetable and a good fodder. It is

said to have medicinal value.

DISCUSSION

This is preliminary work and the investigation of the flora of Orissa

is in progress. Weeds are not always undesirables. Though these plants

disturb the growth of the cultivated plants, they are of use in some way

or other. Plants almost universally considered troublesome become of

great value under special circumstances. We have got a vast wealth

and variety of plants which grow under natural conditions in waste places,

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

ditches, ponds, river banks andjforests. Most of these plants are used

even to-day as folk-medicine. Vegetable drugs have been known all over

the world for centuries. Medicinal plants are mostly used in crude form

locally. Families like Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Vitaceae, Compositae,

Solanaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Labiatae and Amaranthaceae have

a large number of useful weeds in this locality.

SUMMARY

Preliminary work has been done to find out the useful weeds of

Cuttack and its neighbourhood. Most of the weeds are found to be

useful in some way or other. Some of these plants have high medicinal

value. The detailed investigation is still in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is a part of the work done in connection with the Botanical Survey

of Orissa entrusted to Prof. B. Samantarai by the Board of Scientific and

Industrial Research, Orissa. My thanks are due to the said Board for

financial help, and to Prof. B. Samantarai for kind supervision and

encouragement. I am also grateful to Mr. C. M. Bastia of this Depart-

ment for his encouragement.

REFERENCES

1. Bal, S. N. (1942): Useful plants of Mayurbhanj State in Orissa. Records

Bot. Surv. India, 6 : 1-118.

2. Haines, H. H. (1925): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, parts 1-6, London.

3. Mooney, H. F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa,

Ranchi.

4, Prain, D. (1903) : Bengal Plants. Vols.I and II. London.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Part III

(Continued trom Vol. 53 (4), p. 658)

The present part includes the families Uraniidae, Epiplemidae and

Geometridae. The first two are both very small groups and the third, in

my experience, is very poorly represented in the plains of India. The

treatment is on similar lines to previous parts.

URANIIDAE

Micronia aculeata Guen.—One at light, unfortunately I have no record of

the date of capture.

EPIPLEMIDAE

Dirades theclata Guen.—Fairly common. Records for vi and x. Now

D, adjutaria Wik.; D. theclata is the African species.

GEOMETRIDAE

OENOCHROMINAE (Hampson’s ORTHOSTIXINAE)

Eumelea ludovicata Guen.—Uncommon. Records for x and xi, The

Fauna treats it as a synonym of vosa/za Guen.

Ozola microniaria W]k.—One in x.

HEMITHEINAE (Hampson’s GEOMETRINAE)

Pseudoterpna ruginaria Guen.—A single specimen bred in iv. Larva on

Nephelium litcht. Now Pingasa.

Agathia lycaenaria Koll—Imagines not common. Records for i, ii, viii,

xX, Xi and xii. Larvae common on Oleander and I have not been

able to find any distinguishing character to separate them from the

larvae of the next species.

A. laetata F.—Imagines common. Recorded in iii, x, xi and xii. Larvae

common on Oleander.

Uliocnemis cassidara Guen.—Common. Records for i, ii, iii, vii, x, xi

and xii. Larvae reared ad ovo fed on Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae),

Lagerstroemia indica (Lythraceae) and /xora sp. (Rubiaceae). Now

Comtbaena, ce , |

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VTST. SOCTE IY, 1Volamo4

Lophomachia picturata Hamps.—Uncommon. Recorded in x and xi,

Not in the Fauna.

Euchloris quantula Swinh.—One f. g/areosa Swinh. in x. Now. Cv/loeres.

Comostola confusa Warr.—Rare. Records for 1 and xii. Not in the

Fauna.

Euchloris subtiliaria Brem.—Common. Records for i, vi, x and xi. Now

Comostola laesarta Wik.; &. subtiliarza not occurring in India.

Nemoria indecretata Wik.—Common. Recorded in vi and vii. Now

Microlexta.

‘Thalassodes quadraria Guen.—Common. Records for iii, iv, vi, vii, ix,

x, xiand xii. Larvae on Polyalthia longifolia (Anonaceae).

T. veraria Guen.—Likewise common. Records for i, iii, vi to ix, xi and

xii. One larva found on cultivated Chrysanthemum.

Gelasma goniaria Feld.—One ini. The Zhalassodes acutissima Wk. of

the Fauna, but this is really another species.

Thalassodes rubrolimbraria Guen.—One in xii. Now Pamphilebia.

T. avicularia Guen.—One in viii. Now Ornithospila.

Hemithea costipunctata Moore—Uncommon. Recorded in xi only.

Treated in the Fauna as a synonym of Zhalera caudularia Guen,

Thalera chrysolineata Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ii and iii, Now

STERRHINAE (Hampson’s ACIDALIINAE)

Ptochophyle togata F.—Common. Recorded in i, ii, vi and ix to xii.

The Fauna does not distinguish this species from permutans Hamps.

Larvae on Lugenza jambolana (Myrtaceae). —-

Somatina anthophilata Guen,—One in i.

Trigodes cuneilinea Wlk.—One in x. Now Autiirygodes.

Craspedia emissaria. Wlk.—Common. Records fori, ii and vii to xii.

Larvae on Aeschynomene indica (Leguminosae). This, and all the

following Craspedia species, are now included in Scopula.

C. cleoraria Wlk.—Very common. Records for i to iii and ix to xii-

Larvae on a Cultivated Lantana (Verbenaceae). The Fauna treats

this as a synonym of fibulata Guen., from which it is distinct.

C. opicata F.—Common. Records for x only.

C. nictata Guen—Common, Records for iii, vi, vii and ix to xii,

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 155

C. remotata Guen.—Common. Records for i, tii and x to xii. My

specimens agree with the figure in the Fauna, but Hampson has

lumped a number of species together.

Sterrha macrospila Prout—Common. Records for i, v to vii, ix, xi and

xii, Not in the Fauna.

Sterrha sacraria L.—One in vi. Now Ahodometra. The Fauna includes

it in the Larentiinae.

LARENTIINAE

The only example of this sub-family is an unidentified Chloroclystis

which I bred fairly commonly.

ENNOMINAE (Hampson’s BOARMINAE)

Scardamia metallaria Guen.—Rare. Records for vii only.

Prionia squalidaria Hbn.—Rare. Records for i, ili, vil, x and xi. Now

Osicerda.

Macaria fasciata F'.—Fairly common. Recorded in viii, Now Semio-

thisa.

M. frugaliata Guen.—Fairly common. Records for ii, vi, xi and xii. Now

Sentothisa.

Tephrina disputaria Guen.—One in Viii.

Orsonoba clelia Cr.—One in vii.

Hyposidra talaca Wlk.—Fairly common. Recorded iniand ii. Larvae

on Castor.

Dilinia medardaria Herr. Schaff.—A single specimen bred in xi. Larva

on Zizyphus jujuba.

Hyperythra lutea Cr.—Not uncommon. Records for ili and x.

Biston suppressaria Guen.—Common, also larvae. Records for ali months

except vii, ix and xii. Larvae on Cassia fistula, Lagerstroe-

mia indica and Carissa carandas (Apocynaceae).

Boarmia sublavaria Guen.—Common. Records for iv, vi to x and xii.

A disappointing list; a Mercury Vapour lamp would, I feel sure, have

produced considerably more, both species and individuals.

(To be continued)

SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF MYSORE

M. PUTTARUDRIAH AND G, P. CHANNA BASAVANNA

Division of Entomology, Depariment of Agriculture, Bangalore

This list pertains to the further collections made and hosts noted sub-

sequent to those reported by us (1953 and 1955), and is prepared on

the same basis as the previous ones. It includes 25 species belonging to

8 tribes, the tribe Scymnini being numerically well represented. Most

of the species included here were determined by Dr. R. D. Pope of the

British Museum, London, as also the synonymy of Menochilus 6-macila-

dus (Fabr.). The identification of Scymnus (= Pullus) quadrillum Motsch.

and Scymnus nubilus Muls. was confirmed by Dr. A. P. Kapur of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. The mite species mentioned here

were determined by Dr. A. Earl Pritchard of the University of California,

Weare grateful to them.

ScyvyMNINI

Pullus nubilus Muls. This species was reported by us (1953) under the

name Scymnus nubilus Muls. as feeding on aphids infesting groundnut,

cowpea, jowar, Phaseolus mungo and cotton. It has since been found

feeding on two more species of aphids, Aphis neriz Fonsc. and Rhopalo-

siphum nympaeae (L.), and the brinjal mealybug, Phenaccccus insolitus

Green. The predator was found active on the above hosts from January

to May.

Chatterjee and Bose (1934) have recorded the species from various

places in South India as occurring throughout the year but abundant

during July and August.

Pullus picescens Gorh. The species was found feeding on the aphid

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae infesting Zzapa, an aquatic plant, during

January 1954. Both young ones and adults were found together on

aphid-infested 7vapa plants.

There appears to be no record of the species in India.

Pullus victoris Motsch. <A variety of this species was reported by us

(1955) as feeding on Pseudococcus sp. infesting Loehmeria plant. The

species was found breeding extensively on aphid-infested (A. xeriz)

plants of Calotrogis during March-May 1954 round about Bangalore.

Pullus castaneus Sic. ‘The species was previousiy recorded by us

(1955) as feeding on AfAzs mazdis Fitch, and has been since found feed-

ing on the cotton-aphid Aphis gossyp7i Glov. during April 1954 around

Bangalore.

Pullus gratiosus Weise var. The beetles of the species were bred from

the fluted scale, /cerya purchasi Mask. infesting Casuarina around Mandya

(Mysore) during May 1954. This was previously found by us (1955) feed-

ing on Pseudococcus sp. infesting Boehmeria.

Scymnus (=Pullus) quadrillum Motsch. When this was last recorded by

us (1953) the specific determination was doubtful. The determination has

SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF MYSORE 157

since been confirmed by Dr. A. P. Kapur. The predator has also been

found feeding on the cotton aphid A. gossyfiz, and aphids infesting brinjal

around Bangalore.

Scymnus sp.? guimeti Muls. Since last reporting (1955) this species

on aphid-infested cotton plants around Bangalore, the species has been

found on the potato-aphid Aphis malvoides Das and on A. neriz, infesting

Calotropis plants during February to April 1954.

Scymnus sp, This undetermined species was bred from the aphid,

A. malvoides, infesting potato plants around Bangalore during February

1954.

Nephus regularis Sic. The species was found abundantly in the larval

and adult stages on mealybug, Pseudococcus sp., infesting Boehmeria

plants together with another coccinellid PP. vzctorzs, during April 1954,

au also to a lesser extent on Pseudococcus-infested G/yricidia and guava

plants.

Stethorus gilvifrons (Muls.) The species was found feeding on the

red spider mite (Zetvanychus sp.) infesting papaya plants around Banga-

lore during January to March L954. Larvae and adults were seen in large

numbers on the lower surface of leaves particularly on those that were

heavily infested with mites.

The species has so far been recorded only from North India (Kapur,

1948) as feeding upon mites infesting apple tree and castor.

Stethorus tetranychi Kapur. The adults of the species, which have

very close resemblance to S. gd/vifrons, were found feeding on red mites,

Ravtella indica (Hirst), infesting areca palms round about Tharikere

(Mysore) during April 1954, and also on 7etvanychus sp. infesting papaya

leaves at Hebbal (Bangalore) during August 1953.

Stethorus sp. nr. pauperculus Weise. Ste/horus pauperculus se. has

been recorded by us (1953) as feeding on sorghum-mite, Pavratetrany-

chus indicus Hirst. Adult specimens, which have been identified as

Stethorus sp. nt. pauperculus, have been found feeding on mites, Auteira-

nychus bankst (McG.), infesting castor around Bangalore during A pril

1954. Both grubs and adults were seen amongst the mite population on

the lower surface of leaves | |

Stethorus parcepunctatus Kapur. The beetles of this species were

collected from mite (7. zudica)-infested areca palms around Tharikere

(Mysore) during April 1954.

The species has been described by Kapur (1948) as a new one

from material from Kanara (India) without record of any host.

ASPIDIMERINI

Pseudaspidimerus circumflexa (Motsch.) var. testaceus (Weise). The

predator has been found to be active almost throughout the year and

feeding on several species of aphids. The following are the additional

aphid-hosts which have not been included in our previous records (1953,

1955) :

y gossy pit, infesting Pstdium guava during November 1953; Aphzs

vumicis Linn., infesting cowpea during January 1954; Aphis medicaginis

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY..NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Koch., infesting Dolichos lablab ; A. neriz infesting Calotvopis gigantea ;

A. malvoides infesting potato, and aphids infestiny brinjal. It has also

been found to feed on the mealybug, Pseudococcus sp., infesting Boehmeria

plants.

HYPERASPINI

Hyperaspis maindroni Sic. Since our last record (1955) of the species

as feeding on Pseudococcus sp. infesting Boehmeria plants, it has been

found feeding on A. gossypii on cotton. Only adults were found on

aphid-infested plants during October 1954 round about Bangalore. It

was also collected from Pseudococcus-infested Boehmeria plants during the

above month,

Hyperaspis maindroni Sic. var. brumoides Sic. This variety was found

together with the above species on aphid-infested cotton plants around

Bangalore. A large number of adults were also bred from Psezdococcus-

infested cotton plants received from Hiriyur (Mysore) during January 1954.

Both adults and larvae of the predator were seen actively feeding on

~ young ones of the mealybug, and appeared to have good controlling

influence on the mealybug infestation.

PHARINI

Sticholotis cribrellata Fairm. Larvae of this species were found feeding

on an undetermined scale infesting the nodal regions of bamboo twigs,

and usually covered by sheaths at Hebbal (Bangalore). This was re-

ported by us (1955) as Sticholotis sp. nr. cr7brellata feeding on the same

species of scale, and there appears to be no other record of this in India.

Sticholotis sp. This unidentified species is quite distinct from the

other species of S¢tzcholotzs in our collection and was collected from

Pongamia galls during April (1954). Host is not known. The beetle is

smaller in size than the other species of the same genus so far recorded

by us, and with the elytra shining dark and the pronotum and head paler.

CLANINI

Juaravia (= Clanis) pallidula Motsch. Guibebeueet | to our previous

record (1955) the species has been collected from Pongamia twigs infested

with an undetermined mealybug during April 1954 around Bangalore.

Juaravia soror (Weise). This common species of the genus was

collected on areca palms infested with mites, A. zzdica, around Tharikere

(Mysore) during April 1954. Only adults could be seen during the time

of collection. This was last reported by us (1955) on mealybugs, infest-

ing sandal trees.

COELOPTERINI

Pharoscymnus horni (Weise). The adults have been collected from

mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari Ckll.)-infested sugarcane around

Mandya (Mysore). The species has also been noted to be quite abundant.

on ZYhevetia plants infested with hard scale, and cactus infested with

Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché) during J anuary—J une 1954, ancl? more g areu

larly on cactus.

SOME BENEFICIAL COCCINELLIDS OF MYSORE 159

The species has been identified by Dr. A. P. Kapur as P. hornz,

whereas the specimens from the same lot and others appearing same have

been put as Pharoscymnus guimeti (Muls.) by Dr. R. D. Pope of the

British Museum, London. However, the name given by the former has

been followed here as it is the correct name for the species.

CHILOCHORINI

Brumus suturalis, This fairly common species, which has been recorded

by various workers as feeding on a variety of hosts, like mites, psyllids,

aleyrodids, aphids, and coccids, was found in good numbers feeding on

A. nerit infesting C. gigantea, around Bangalore during May 1954. Only

adults were found during this period.

COCCINELLINI

Coccinella arcuata Fabr. <A variety of this species (var. oclomaculata)

was recorded by us (1953) as feeding on A. rumiczs, infesting cowpea.

The species has since been found in a paddy field near Bangalore. The

beetles might have been feeding on aphids found here and there on paddy

in the field.

Coelophora sp. This species, which differs fom the other species of

the genus in our collection, has been found feeding on Asterolecantum sp.

’ nr. fusum Russel infesting bamboo at. Hebbal ere dre) during October

158:

Menochilus 6-maculatus (Fabr.) Since the previous record by us

(1955) from Malavalli (Mysore) the species has been collected from cowpea

plants infested with A. rumicis and on Calotropis plants infested with 4.

nertt during April 1954. bes orig as

Two colour forms have been found together on both these hosts. In

one, the elytra are entirely yellowish brown excepting for a very thin,

black line along the anal margin of each elytron ; and these narrow black

margins form.a single narrow black streak along the mid-longitudinal line

when the elytra are held together over the body. In another form, each

elytron bears a zigzag yellowish-red marking which together form a

vigzag cross bar on the elytra when the wings are held together.. The

rest of the elytra is shining black. The colour pattern of the pronotum is

the same in the two series. Menochilus 6-maculatus (Fabr.) is synony-

mous with Chzlomenes 6-maculatus (Fabr.) reported in our earlier paper

(1953), and the former is the valid name of the species. In addition to the

above two colour forms, there are two more principal types of colour

patterns in the species in our collection. In one, the beetles show the

typical three black markings on each elytron, and in the other type,

elytra are entirely shining black with at most a thin paler costal margin in.

some specimens.

REFERENCES

Chatterjee, N.C. and Bose, M. (1934): Znzd. Forest Rec., 19 (7) : 1-10

Kapur, A. P. (1948): Bull. ent. Res., 39 (2) : 297-320.

ap ee cial: M. and Channa Basavanna, G. P. (1953): nud. J. Ent. 15 (2) :

ay peo aa M. ad oo peer Gai. Cage LH. Se EGUE oa

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE

COMMON ‘TREE-HOPPER’ OTINOTUS ONERATUS

WALK. (HOMOPTERA, MEMBRACIDAE)

IN ORISSA :

UPENDRA CHANDRA PaNnpa

Fakir Mohan College, Balasore

AND

BASANTA KuMAR BEHURA

Ravenshaw College, Cuttack

SYNOPSIS

Fifteen new host-plants of the membracid Otinotus oneratus

Walk. are recorded. It infests woody plants during winter and

summer. The eggs are laid in parallel rows, each row consisting of

6 to 15 eggs. Q. oneratus is found all the year round, but is most

abundant during the rains and autumn. It takes about a month and

a half for its development from egg to adult. The adults sit with

their head pointed downward, upward, or towards the base of the

branch. They are most active during the hot parts of the day.

During mating, the male and female point in opposite directions and

copulation lasts about an hour or less. The nymphs and adults are

attended by the ant Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr.

The adults of O. onevatus are parasitised by a species of Indoxenos

(Strepsiptera).

INTRODUCTION

Otinotus oneratus Walk. is one of the most widely distributed

membracids of India, occurring in Ceylon as well (Distant, 1908,

1916; Behura, 1951; Behura and Sinha, 1951). One of us (Behura,

1951) recorded observations on the habits of O. oneratus. The present

paper embodies further observations made at Balasore and Cuttack

during 1952 to 1955.

HosT-PLANTS

It has already been recorded (Behura, 1951) that the membracid

feeds and breeds on fifteen species of host-plants in Orissa. In the

present paper, the same is confirmed and an additional fifteen host-

plants are recorded from Orissa (Table No. 1.). |

In Balasore, the most preferred food-plant of O. oneratus is Datura

fastuosa on which all the stages of the membracid are found in

large numbers in August. The plants next in preference are Cajanus

indicus, Cassia fistula and Albizzia lebbeck. During winter and summer,

the insects are found in lesser numbers and usually abound on woody

plants like Zizyphus jujuba, Zizyphus oenoplia, Calophyllum inophyllum

and Bauhinia variegata. In the gardens of the city of Cuttack,

t61

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162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

however, O. oneratus is most abundant on Inga dulcis and Sesbania

aculeata, ; .

EGG=-LAYING

The eggs are laid in parallel rows under the soft bark of hosi-

plants. They are embedded vertically and. in a slightly inclined

fashion. The number of eggs found in each row varies from 6 to 15.

They are whitish when laid and gradually turn pink and finally biack

before hatching. The eggs are laid at all seasons, but in the largest

numbers during the rains and autumn.

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE

O. oneratus is seen all the year round. In Balasore, they are

most common during June to October. The development from the

egg to the adult of the membracid on the host-plant Cajanus indicus

at Balasore during January and February 1954 was found to take

about a month and a half, during which five instars were observed.

HasiTs

O. oneratus is gregarious in nature. The adults and nymphs are

found crowded in the nodal and apical parts of the young shoots

and on the lower side of the midribs of the bigger leaves. They rest

motionless on the host-plants for hours together engaged in sucking

the sap. The adults sit with their heads pointed upward downward

or towards the base of the branch.

Both the adults and nymphs are very active during the hot parts

of the day. They take to the wings on the slightest provocation on

clear sunny days, while on a rainy or cloudy day they crawl round

the twig and fly away only when much disturbed.

MATING

The mating activity begins from about to o’clock in the day. The

male crawls over the female so that their caudal extremities meet.

Sometimes two or three males are found to crowd on the back and

sides of a single female. -In copulation, the aedeagus of the male is

inserted into the female gonopore, the claspers of the former aiding

in grasping the latter’s body. Then the head and body of the male

are moved through an angle of 180° so that the copulating pair face

in opposite directions. Copulation lasts about an hour or less. The

hooked nature of the aedeagus prevents quick separation of the pair

in copula, and when disturbed the female keeps on dragging the male

behind her or the pair falls to the ground without being separated.

Finally, the male again moves to his original position and withdraws

the aedeagus effecting a separation.

ATTENDANCE By ANTS

In all the host-plants, O. oneratus is usually attended by the

common black ant Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr.

OTINOTUS ONERATUS WALK. IN ORISSA 163

The ants keep on moving constantly on the twigs and leaves infested

by the nymphs and adults and guard the ant-cattle against any un-

welcome intruder. The honeytubes of the nymphs are often kept

raised. The ants lick the drops of honey from the tips of the honey-

tubes as they move among the drove. The adults sometimes ward

olf the ants by moving their bodies sideways, when the latter coax

them for more honey. On transferring some live nymphs and adults

of O. oneratus to some isolated pot plants at Balasore, the ants

were found to begin their march to the unattended membracids within

a few hours.

PARASITES

Both at Cuttack and at Balasore, the adults of O. oneratus were

found to be parasitized by a Strepsipteran, a species of Indoxenos.

The number of parasites collected between October and February

1053-54 a) balasone were, on female hosts—r) 1,111, (1, 2; 2; and

Om male hosts lal l 2, 3 3. 3. hus /the maximum number OF

parasites collected from a single individual was three. The proportion

of sexes in the parasites differed, the number of females being greater

than males. The present parasite differs in some respects from

Indoxenos membraciphaga Sub. bred from O.. pallescens (Syn:

O. oneratus) in Mysore (Subramaniam, 1927) and may prove to be a

new species.

Parasitization by the Strepsipteran appeared to be not fatal to the

host, as some live specimens of O. oneratus collected in the fieid

showed that the parasites had already escaped from their bodies,

although apparently the latter were leading a normal life. The

parasitized membracids are characterised by a nodular growth at the

side of the abdomen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere thanks are due to Sri C. M. Bastia and Sri H. Patnaik

of the Departments of Botany, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, and to

Sri P. C. Sinha, Department of Biology, Gangadhar Meher College,

Sambalpur, for their kind help in the determination of the host-plants

recorded in the paper. We also record our gratefulness to Prot.

P, N. Ganapati, Professor of Zoology, Andhra University, for his

kind help in the preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Behura, B. K. (1951): Habits of the common membracid (‘Tree-hopper’) Otinolus

oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota), JBNHS, 50 (2): 294-304.

— — — and Sinha, H. (1951): A record of the common membracid, Otinotus

oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota) from the city of Patna (Bihar)—ibid.

50 (1): 183-184. ;

Distant, W. L. (1908): The Fauna of British India, Rhynchota. 4: 40-41.

— — — (1916): ibid. 6: 160. :

Subramaniam, T. V. (1927): A new genus and species of the Strepsiptera from

South India, Indoxenos membraciphaga gen, and sp: nov:—Trans; Ent. Soc. Lond.

75 : 131-135. bit |

; | ee clubs OREVIEWS | SVOMI Yoni es esaut

Be ee nee m yd aios ot tto

a ups | PowAT" CHE “ANGLING oPARADISE: ope Bis 1, ‘Aniore.

80. ‘pages: Hind’ ‘Kitabs Limited, Bombay-r. ORG) dese igiro os 10

‘A new mook ‘on aneliee is always welcomed ‘by followers. of Izaak

Walton in India. In fact this little publication on Bottom” Fishing

goes a long way to fill the gap.since Mr. Thomas’s classic was first

published some 7o years ago. The author is one of our Powai Lake

veterans: ‘andvhas also ‘incorporated, the, views, of a,number. of, ether

old: timers. -Toemy knowledge) this»is the first publication. on. Botto:

Fishing “with: particular reference to Bombay): waters) and, it. will, be

found indispensable for De eied sy and visitors, from. abroad, and. from

other parts ‘of the country <:

From othe ‘anglers’ point!. ap ‘view, he a that the. pathee: ‘deals

witty a -specialised:s subject; Botton ‘Fishing. .at . Powai. Lake,

appears to-be a definite acne Pec gire (Lake, which, covers, an

afea of 72:6 “square .miles, provides versatile. cand: NACIIDES methods. ‘of

angding for’ Bottom feeders such: as Rohu; Mirgil, Galabos, and. ‘Catla,

of which the Lake holds very remarkable specimens, particularly. Catla,

of }well lover 100 JB. cin tweightss asieici:

o.s-A study of>the' Book wills reveal aha ane hake contrary ‘to what

we ‘usually call:ao{Tank’;-can be-successfully fished, by, various methods

accordmg tosrseasons and: water. level... The author, also, gives. useful

information-on ~building ; rafts;,and. beats: suitable, tor. fishing. _

The tackle, as described by the author, time -proyed, by .n many SHieniag

at Powai, il no doubt be found most suitable for any type of

bottom fishing in other parts ef, the.,country.

_ One would have wished that the book contained a number of ood

plistographs depicting the! beautiful scenery, at Powaij and; itis hoped

that’in <a future . edition this sonore will. lobes comedies without

an increase in peer isd .ygolord io tasmitsaed sda

2. THE TIGERS OF TRENGGANU. By LtsCol, A’ Locke.

Pp. xvit+ 191 (8.4/5”.x 53”). 38, plates,and 2 maps. Museum Press

Limited, London, 1954. Price 16 sh. net.

The author was). posted 45 An’ administrative officer) at Frengganu ;

it was a part of his duty to destroy eleven Hea and es ag

the habits of ene tigers. aL) at Wistar

Chapter one is mostly concerned with the background. — — —

Chapter two deals with the distribution, size and iabits* of “the

tigers in Malaya and particularly in Trengganu. According” to" the

author every ten square miles in Trengganu held one tiger, “which

he thinks is less than the estimated density in tiger country in India.

ba Jot NTAIDO2 .TeIHPAABEIWSK KY yRaMOd AKA) 165

Malayan, tigers; appear, to. be. smaller than,,.Indian ones. From; the

measurements . of; the,,eleyen_ tigers and eight tigresses .shot by. him,

and, from .those- shot by Hee The, Sultan’ of Johore,, the average

length. ofa Malayan tiger 1s. given. as; Sift, G5in., and of,a.tigress

Petey Lely In, ABAINY, 9: ft. (@ ing and,.8)-ft, 6 ig: odespectinely fps the

Indian “aaieal. a ees

The; Malayan: nee is. andl to Cee a sone ncilin ‘secretion en

ae root, of .the tail. A similar habit has not been recorded. in, India.

The principal natural. food of tiger in Malaya is wild, pig... As other

game animals are rather.scarce,.Malayan. tigers.become, cattle. lifters

more frequently. Malayan tigers are very fond of dogs, while in

India leopards are reputed to be so

The proportion of sexes is shen. as 60% males to 40% females

and the breeding season from November to March, The maximum

number in a litter is given as six, which seems to be higher than

i India: Milk ‘teeth are kept for about stx months. The second set

of’ teeth are hollow, the cavities finally close after about twenty months.

The new and permanent canines grow up inside the hollow milk teeth.

The cubs are ysuckled: for about five’ months. after ‘birth, after. eae

the motherogives: them small game ‘to start with.

~The: maximum. longevity is 25 to 30 years...» The augiloon collected

alt othis information ins about three years.

«Chapter. three deals with diet, kills,and area covered: hs Alnieaddy

ied in: Chapter-two the principal diet) is wild ‘pigs: with ,anscoceasional

barking: deer, sambar, peafowl, and giant sea>turtlés, which are turned

on itheir>back and eaten at<leisure.. The Malayan, tiger: is’ not.averse

to domestic cattle, i sheep; goat; domestic pigs; dogs, tame monkey

and “poultry. » The bigger animals are killed by biting; the breaking

of-theineck' vertebrae being considered accidental. However, the author

has not witnessed actual killing and his description ‘does not: agree ‘with

that:of Dunbar Brander, Perhaps owing to its smaller size the Malayan

tiger has ‘to''resort) to ai different» method. | Theobigger animals! -are

dragged and. not? carried::; Like the Indian tiger;).the »Malayan:'tiger

also starts eating the hind. part of the. kill.) .-Krequently:.the: Malayan

tiger» is a carrion: eater. :Malayan tigers do not,» while walking, place

their. hind: feet on top, of»: pugs made .by the .front feeby:cas 2 Indian

tigers:.are supposed; todo. «The Malays .use batted ppuue aan and

noosentraps: to/kill' of capture tigers.

- Chapter four -deals. with. tiger | Beane “ese end cee are

not. practicable -in Malaya., Sitting up over ai killor actidentab: en-

edunters-seem to be the was of killing tigers: 9.) >

» Chapter five and six deal with the different cattle lifting tigers the

ae has, shot: onl

, Chapters seven and: eight deal sith man: rouaae tigers. All the

man-eaters> shot by the;:author, were| maless) From) jthe:, accounts; it

would appear that the» mdn-éaters of Malaya. are. much. less cunning

and formidable than those of India. In Malaya a man- eating, tiger

does. not. become-.so, greata. menace as the man-eater,,in, India; for

the following, reasons: (a) smaller area, of operation,,.so. easier,, to

locate, (b) greater determination. and. skill of the, Malays)!!! (c), exe

berienced hunters more readily forthcoming, Pin |

Chapter nine! is: a collection of Malay. superstition’ anal ane

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

During the short time at his disposal the author tried to learn

as much about the Malayan tiger as possible, and has turned out a

very interesting book indeed, though many of his opinions and cons

clusions do not agree with those of people who have studied and

hunted tigers in India and elsewhere. The author was in the habit

of following up a tiger immediately after wounding it, even at night.

What experienced shikaris in India will think of this practice can

well be imagined. The author’s attempt to make a census of tigers

in Malay may usefully be tried in India. His sincere admiration for

a noble animal is apparent all through the book.

B. BASU.

2. (PELICAN |) UN. | PERE WNC ID ICING Sin ee NAUUIRVAUE TSS

OpyssEy IN NortH America. By F. Fraser Darling. Pp. 380

(82” x 54”). With 2 maps and 15 plates (28 photographs). London

1956, George Allen and Unwin. 25) sir me

Dr. Fraser Darling is weil known as an authority on wild life

and his writings have done much to bring about an increasing re-

cognition in Britain of the importance of Nature Conservation. His

most recent book describes his travels in America. Somewhere beyond

Wall Street and the Pentagon, Broadway and Manhattan, the high-

powered cars, escalators and chromium plating lies the America of

the pioneers, the America of wide prairie, virgin forest, desert and

swamp. What have they done with it since the first homesteaders

established their farms so many years ago? Dr. Darling supplies

part of the answer. America is constructed on a vastly larger scale

than anywhere else. Here under a magnifying glass are the universal

natural principles at work, providing him with abundant confirmation

for views based on observations in tiny insular Britain; and drastic

illustration of the consequences of disregarding ecological laws.

The inter-relation between species in any habitat is so close that

interference with one upsets the ecological balance. Man in the course

of his phenomenal rise to become the dominant species of the present

age has done this over and over again, often with serious and totally

unforseen consequences. To give only one example, the author des-

cribes how the extermination of the timber-wolf in North America,

instead of increasing the number of white-tailed deer, has led to their

decrease. No longer kept on the move by wolf packs, the deer stay

in one spot and after finishing all available food starve to death. In

Scotland. a role similar to that of the wolf is played by the sheep-

dog, which drives the sheep from place to place and prevents over-

grazing. If we are to control our environment intelligently an

understanding of the factors holding natural communities together

is essential, and this can only be acquired by a lifetime of patient

observation.

Most interesting perhaps are Dr. Darling’s remarks on soil usage,

especially relevant in the context of India’s plans for expanding her

agriculture under the Five Year’ Plan. Are we relying too far on

the fertility of our soil to repair damage done by forcing marginal

soil to yield arable crops? Such a practice impoverishes the soil, and

REVIEWS. —° 167

in satisfying present needs we may well be robbing future generations.

Other parallels between Indian and American conditions can be

drawn. ‘There is immediate wealth to be picked up from breaking

an ecological climax, as in the felling of Wisconsin’s forests.’ Writes

Dr. Darling: ‘The biological shock of doing such a thing is very great

tea ee ghackine: oo trees round our villages and the large-scale

felling of timber by private owners in order to make quick profits are

destroying what ought to be valuable natural assets. We are left

with land which is practically worthless from the agricultural point

of view and which may take centuries to return to the forest that

“represents the climax vegetation.

In some ways it is a pity that Dr. Darling has adopted the diarist’s |

style, noting down events and thoughts as they occurred to him.

Thus we find the price of a haircut in San Francisco next to a dis-

cussion on land misuse in California, and, immediately after, we are

back in San Francisco’s Italian quarter for dinner. Along with some

interesting general information and some which is neither interesting

nor particularly original there is much of value in the book. We may

or may not agree with all Dr. Darling’s conclusions, but he has a

definite contribution to make to our thinking on matters of ecciogy,

and it is to be hoped that this book will stimulate interest in his more

serious scientific publications.

R.R.

4. THE FLAMINGOS: Their Life History and Survival. By

Robert Porter Allen. Pp. xv+ 285 (104” x8”). 15 plates (6 coloured),

and numerous line figures from field sketches etc. New York: National

Audubon Society, 1956. Price $3.95. |

This is the National Audubon Society’s Research Report No. 5.

Though it covers all the famingos of the world, it has special reference

to the American or West Indian Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber,

which is threatened with extinction in portions of its range. It is the

result of some 3 years’ field study of the species and analysis of the

data collected. |

To those familiar with Dr. Allen’s previous research reports in the

same series, namely on the Roseate Spoonbill and the Whooping

Crane, and to any one who, like the reviewer, has had the privilege of

seeing this dedicated field ornithologist in action, this magnificent piece

of work is only what was to be expected. Indeed the National Audubon

Society are to be congratulated on their choice, for here Dr. Allen has

done it again! sy ae

Properly organized interest in the American Flamingo began to be

taken only recently since the realization of its fast declining status

by a group of far-sighted naturalists headed by Mr. Arthur Vernay,

and more particularly after the founding of The Society for the

Protection of the Flamingo in the Bahamas—‘the largest remaining

stronghold of the American flamingo’. Owing largely to ceaseless

persecution by local inhabitants the bird was being rapidiy pushed to

the verge of extinction.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NARURABSHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

enS~Phes: Report iso divided mto.sthewfollowing>:main« sections:

(4) Distribatiom:& Migration, (2) Numbers;>(3):>Food Habits::and

Ecology, (4) The Breeding “Cycle, ‘and (5)>Conservation« ‘sAn Introdue-

tion’ at the beginning ‘provides a very fuil: overall background | survey

of- the flamingo: through the ages and throughout the’ world: legend

and early history; :classification,:comparison of species” including detailed

descriptions’ of-allthe’six’ forms belonging to}the three genera currently

recognized.’ The large: flamingo. of the Oldcand New Worlds, treated

by Some ‘taxonomists jas races,°is given specific: rank as- Phoenicopterus

antiquorum “and °P.° ruber respectively, with a third SEES oe ms

ue chilensis, confined to Chile int SJsAmmericas : qo"

-On~ the- map en “p. 33 of the— Distribution ~ and: Nesting ai P.

antiquoruny in- relation to rsothermal ‘lines, reported former nesting

is: shown in‘Ceylon=* It niay ‘be well tos point» out,° however,that! a

scrutiny of these reportshave ‘proved: theny to’ be ‘groundless. ong based

Taam et

fdigely” ‘upon “eonjecture* and? speculation. 2 oozionsid as g lose

‘Phe author’ believes’ that’ the enormous: sebdine: aiblenies! of the

Gitar Rann“ of Kutchthe: most populous'so faf known anywhere in

the’ Sworld—send their flocks to E.- Africa forthe winter ‘months, at

least large’ numbers of them: ‘This is’ a reasonable speculation,® but

éan only be proved by ‘a large-scale? marking of the birds! 2Ini fact

most of the existing distributional problenms ‘connected: cwithothe

flamjngo seem capable of solution only through large-scale marking

and adequate follow-up.

An estimate of the present aggregate of the West Indies Flamingo

(P. ruber) at five of its principal known nesting places is given as 21,500

breeding :adults., .dt showsja-slightly, downward: trend since 1952 when

the, total, -of; the adult breeding birds was, estimated , api23,450,q 4 hope

is expressed that,the continuation. of the.present protection. programme

instituted by the Flamingo Protection ‘Society of the, Bahmas, and: other

agencies, will, with the help of the vital statistics presented in this

Report, hélp to rehabilitate population numbers. It is Concluded from

an ‘analysis | of ‘the data available that formerly the ‘total population

numbered something: like 95,000 antag dla ee Hae 120 Bion

and © 7 “minor population” units. rae

‘Apart ftom human’ persecution, the West Wiaias AainiAbd siiflers

drastic loss through the periodic hurricane cycles to which-its distribus

tional’ range here is ‘exposed, ‘On'-account of ‘these ‘recurrent’ catas-

trophies ° fits believed ’ ‘that ‘the ‘ntimbers’ of - this” Pes were never

as great ‘as. those ofits Old World cousench :

Perhaps the ‘most illuminating Chapter’ is that ‘dealing ait: ins

Habits. and Ecology... “All available’ information has beer skilfully cols

lated and - Supplemented ‘by’ the authors Own: extensive’ field vstudy.

It, is pointed out that the factor of high salinity, common ‘toocalb

Alanving6 ® ‘Rabitats,” ‘is’ perhaps / of? the! most? Gonsistent, vitabosurvival

Wali? High? salinity tends’ to° produce the abtndance*and variety of

the’ Tinute™ organisms | ‘ipon which’ the 'flarhingo feeds: “Phe large ssize

of ‘the? birds tongue | which® fairly’ fills the mouth’ ‘cavity! ‘precludes the

swallowing ~ of= large’ food® items. The foéd' is ‘eonfined ‘to ‘vegetable

and? ‘animal’ items ‘mostly’ of tiny Or’ evel ‘microscopic - size, largely

Swallowed in? thé’ fofir of “otgahic Sand’ 6F ‘mud! ‘But! a’staidy of the

bird’s feeding places suggests a great many‘ potential food items

TTHIG2 JTeITRARMB MAU VAaMOR AAVADOL 169

besides those taken cfrony stomachs, ~so thats there is still room: for

exhaustive: seadies (On theo food cand: feeding. ‘sabits=of the flamingos.

19/'SPhél-@hapter%6n “Ther ‘Breeding: Cycle des¢ribes: in detail: ocne

behaviour, opair:cformation, » eel none copulation, «nest obuilding: -and

othér “matters © conmected> witho incubation; aso. hatching and, early

behaviour, herding, and dispersal of ‘thecyoung. ‘The final: section of

the? Report deals: with - Conservation: ol he: main causes of. ve

bid vaturdl oshyisient causes’ see as storms), eld: waves ete. One

Sach? alone” in’ the «Camargue last year is: known to- have : killed: off

over’ 35606°birdso! Natural °predators: do. appreciable: damage: ini-some

areas, but this does not appear to be a major limiting factor. Nearer

homeé, fi thé’éase? of! our “Kutch colonies, the growth of the-practice,

apparently’ within recent’ years, among villagers ’around:-the, borders

of” the” Great “Rann: of? organized rounding up and slaughtering: large

numbers 6f flightless © young” flamingos has become a serious) menace.

Rt “this: stage” ‘the “young arev unbelievably fat and are greatly relished

ay £86a? ‘by ‘the meat-€ating / locals. The newly appointed - flamingo

wardentef the Government of Kutch will, it 1s es. be- instrumental

in curbing this vandalism.

A Conditions in all the enon flamingo breeding areas are reviewed

aa the measures for protection already adopted or called for are

desoribedor suggested. .Dr.-Allen concludes that perhaps except in

the.,.case,,of, the . Andean. species Phoenicoparrus ‘jamesi about which

not; enough. AS, known, the overall world position of the flamingos,

barring. in _certain, specific, areas, eg., in the Carribean “region, “is

fairly satisfactory and happily presents no serious s problems of Sues

at. _ Present. . :

he: Bibliography is impressive. It occupies” 21 pages. and: ites

Something © “hike: 700 separate items covering practically all> that. has

ever been: written about 'the flamingo. The Report is, tany fact a

comprehensive epitome of our knowledge concerning the? bird.

ay frontispiecem colour’ by R. T- Peterson illustrates -all tie 5S1X

flamingos of the world showing their comparative characteristics of

size and coloration. ‘The other five coloured plates’ unfortunately -do

not. all ‘do justice in their reproduction to their’ original transparencies;

but the monochrome plates are good and the line drawings ex cellent

and | well ‘chosen throughout, ee ‘the various maps. DSS:

SSI

to ge) EMBRYOLOGY. OF HETEROMETRUS SCABER, By A, P.

Mathew. ~ Zoological | Memoirs, University, of. ‘Travancore Research

Enstitutesoe Vol. d;: EDP Ils Ss ane 14 Plats: Trivandein,

oo 1956. : (5 3ton ten

Phe: Memoir’ by! ‘Dr. A pe’ MaitKew on ithe arene ‘of . any

Indian scorpion, Helerometrus scaber, forms a valuable contribution

to the embryological literature on the development of Arthropods... After

a historical resumé, the’ author describes briefly the material wwotked

with and thé technical methods “followed in’the stwdy:°°He then gives

a brief account of the bionomics, the female reproductory systém; the

structure of the egg, the details of maturation and fertilization, the

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

segmentation of the egg, the development of the blastula and

the processes of gastriation. This is followed by accounts of the

development of the mid-gut, the nervous system and: certain other

organs of the body. Toward the end is given a brief account of the

birth of the young ones. This scorpion breeds throughout the year

in southern India and is viviparous.

It is clear that the author has carried out a aseftal and painstaking

study of scorpion embryology. He has taken care not only to give

his findings in detail but also to discuss them against the background

of previous knowledge. In this way the reader is able to judge for

himself the value of the findings and the extent to which they are

original.

The account is well-illustrated with several text-figures, 14 plates

and a frontispiece. We should like to congratulate the author on bring-

ing out this fine Memoir. Also deserving of congratulations are the

University of Travancore which sponsored the publication and the

University Grants Commission of the Government of India which pro/

vided financial aid to the publication. We shall look forward to the

publication of subsequent Zoological Memoirs which, we hope, will

maintain the high standards set in the first Memoir.

M. L. ROONWAL

6. THE EARLY EMBRYOLOGY OF PYRILLA PERPUSILLA

WALKER (HOMOPTERA) INCLUDING SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE LATER

DEVELOPMENT. By Klaus Sander. Aligarh Muslim University Publica-

tions (Zoological Series on Indian Insect Types. Edited by Dr. M. B.

Mirza). 1956. Price Rs. 5.

Embryological work on insect types has not found favour with

Indian entomologists. In fact except Dr. Roonwal’s paper there hardly

exist any standard papers on the studies of insect embryology in India.

Dr. Klaus Sander’s present paper is a good beginning in this direction.

The author in this paper has brought in a keen sense of observation

as he follows the different stages of early development. Regarding

the description one feels that it could have been shortened. Im-

mediately after Material and Methods the author could have taken

observations, and instead of bringing controversial matter under this

heading it would have been better to put it under discussion. Under

this heading the different papers on early development could have been

discussed and the present observations compared. By doing so a

running observation would have made better reading than getting

mixed up with comparisons and controversies. Similarly the use of

such words as Ental membrane, Mycetom, Vorkeim-Anlage, Symbionts

and a number of others are probably not commonly used in the

English vocabulary of this nature. A note explaining them would

have helped many readers. We feel that im further work of

this nature the precision and clarity as seen in the papers of Dr.

Heymons, Paterson and Miller would be very helpful to Indian workers.

However, Dr. Klaus Sander has certainly opened up in India a new

line of work and we hope that many Indian workers will profit by

the same.

1D D)-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. MACAQUE MONKEY EATING MUSHROOMS

The macaque monkey, Macaca mulatta (Zimmerman), is common

in the New Forest estate of the Forest Research Institute near Dehra

Dun (Uttar Pradesh), ca. 600 metres above sea-level. It moves

about the estate in small troops, doing depredation to gardens and

cultivation. During the summer monsoon, mushrooms. spring up

profusely from the ground all over the area. They usually acquire

a whitish umbrella-shaped body which attains a height of upto 4 cm.

One day in August, 1955, I saw a large male macaque pulling out

and eating these mushrooms with relish. A few days later another

male was observed repeating the same performance. ‘The observation

seems to be worth recording. As several species of mushrooms grow

in Dehra Dun, I am unable to say which species the monkeys were

eating. one

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA, M. L. ROONWAL

September 24, 1956.

Ze TIONG. TIGER

Col. Kesri Singh’s interesting Miscellaneous Note entitled

‘Experiments in Implanting African Lions into Madhya Bharat’, in

Vol. 53, pp. 465-68 of this journal, gives the details of how lions

were imported from Africa into Gwalior in 1916. This information

is most welcome, especially as we are now concerned with the pro-

posal of moving a few lions from the Gir Forest into some other

parts of India. {See my paper entitled ‘The Management of India’s

Wild Life Sanctuaries’ and National Parks’ in this issue of the

Journal, pp. 1-21.)

An interesting point was raised, also, in the details concerning

lions versus tigers in combat. Col. Kesri Singh is of the opinion

that the lion was ousted from its habitat in India by the tiger, but

this is not confirmed by some naturalists. R. I. Pocock, for example,

iets Hauna of British India, Mammalia, Vol. I, pp. 220-221 gives

emphasis to the slaughter of lions in India by sportsmen and others:

particularly by British army officers during the nineteenth century.

This shooting out of lions, he maintains, was the real cause of their

disappearance in India, while the more wary tiger managed to

survive. |

In support of this theory, Pocock points out that lions have also

disappeared from parts of Europe, SW. Asia and Africa, where there

were no tigers to interfere with them. I am indebted to the Jam

Sahib of Nawanagar for the information that in many parts of NW.

India, where the lion has disappeared, there were never any tigers to

contribute to this.

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Pocock goes even further by suggesting that the lion entered

India from the NW. and was able to spread as far south as the

Narbada River in spite of the. previous occupation of many of these

parts by the tiger, which (according to him) had probably entered

India Pee om tne oe to ue cou to uns sae of the

peninsula. | a : — 2

Pocock, also is of ae opinion then evenyational Mien bi tiger did

exist in the same‘ region, their difference of habit™and habitat® would

not necessarily bring them into actual conflict with each other, and

that ‘an encounter would eee as likely-end in mutual ‘avoidance as: in

a fight, and in the event of a ‘fight the lion’s “chance?! of ‘success, So:

far as anything is known’ to” ZEKE! contrary, would ‘be''as good Jas the

tiger’s. Hence there does not’ appear to be’a particle of evidences that

the tiger played even a ‘subordinate ne in ne extermination’ “oF the:

lion in Inda.’ (8p J

Now for the fate of some ofthe: African’ 11da6 awiieA release? into

Gwalior forests. Col. Kesri Singh has explained ‘how’ these” three

pairs of lions were confined in a‘ 20 ft. stone wall enclosure ‘for about

4 years’ befote being” released?’ Col. Kesri ‘Singh has very kindly

informed me in a letter that the size of this enclosure was only “about

Too ft. square’. This must surely have been a very severe handicap

to, the, lions—to be thus confined for four’ yeats ahd’ then’ released

straight into tiger country. Imagine a few tigers confined’ ‘for’ four

years in a similar enclosure in the Gir Forest and ‘then released~ £6

fight the Gir lions on their ‘home ground’!

Col. Kesri Singh refers..to. three,duels arranged by him between

tigers and lions, in which the tigers won on each occasion. In this

connection, itis interesting to, note that the Jam Sahib .of Nawanagar

has informed me. that he has himself witnessed a ‘fight between. al tion

and a tiger on four occasions, on all of which the lion won. ~*~,

My own humble opinion is that I do. not. think much: importaneé

should be attached to whether the lion or the tiger was victorious in.

any particular duel unless the two animals were equally matched in

every respect. In other words both tiger and lion.would have to be

the same sex, same age, same weight (relatively), _ same ‘condition,

same iueaion of captivity, same jee of time since, last feeding ‘and

drinking, etc., etc... The combat would also have to be ‘airanged

under such boudiions and circumstances that ‘neither animal had’ any,

unfair advantage over. the other. , To. organise such a combat ‘would

be extremely difficult—in fact almost impossible. ,

There is also.,another, aspect. to. be considered.. le hacy been the

practice of many makers of nature films, especially ol the Holly wood

and more recent T.V. Schools, to. present. only the sensational. - Their

animal films include staged fights .between captive, animals unnatur: ally!

forced to fight each other, and ferocious charges by deliberately

provoked animals, simply to pamper audiences which are ignorant, of

real. jungle conditions and which have become accustomed to a series

of .excitements. and thrills in nature films... This is most unfortunate,

since not only. are, such. films an, unreal portrayal of wild life, but’

also ~vhen. a. serious, field, naturalist produces a. genuine wil life fifi,

of: what’ he -has actually. seen, it is likely to, appear flat and t uninterést :

ing after those made by the ‘animal ight’ school.

Sek pista

ao ie is OO eG)

YM D4 SCELBANEOUSt*NOTES\LOG ALAA IO| 173

Having seen African lions in East Africa and Indian lions in the

Gir Forest, I have immense respect for these creatureso* And having

seen tigers in various parts of India, I have the highest ‘admiration

for these. Both animals in their own different ways and in their-own

different habitats are equally worthy of our admiration.» I> would

rather think of them as mutually respecting and avoiding each other

if they happened to meet in the wild state.

Doyane T.E., ae

OaTInG P.O., E..,P; GEE

ASSAM, eee Sein

August 20, 1956.

3. TRANSFERRING OF THE INDIAN LION TO AN

ADDITIONAL LOCALITY

There has been much thought given recently to the moying of

lions from the Gir Forest to other parts of their former range.. The

idea no doubt is to insure the future of this noble animal from possible

extinction by man or through epidemic diseases or other natural

catastrophies, and as such is to be welcomed. Is there however,..any

need to do this at all? ; ao;

In the Gir Forest the lions live out in the surrounding cultivation

and less in the forest itself, except in the eastern part of the reserve.

Lions are animals of the open country and do not like forests. That

they are found in the Gir is no doubt owing to the broken nature’ /of

thé terrain’ which allowed the last of the animals © shelter < fromthe

shikaris who wiped them out over the rest of the country; ane possibly.

also, due) to the: great numbers _ of. cattle, grazed im) the forest, p1o-

vidi ‘them with “a ° “plentitudd® OP foud.2! Ia “former times: the “lions

ranging 2 across the north-west of India’ ‘must have fed on milgaitand

buck which “were ‘found in plenty in the areas freqtiénted by°the lions.

Now where is. there naa ‘place where these antelopes | cat “be found ‘in

the concentrated: ‘numbers sufficient to. support: ‘a pride ‘of tions? *Y As

in the case of tiger, cattle are a substitute tit place” of ~ “the ‘lion’s

natural, food, while other forest game § such | as Cheetal” cani~ ‘néver form

atal=Ta,

the sole diet | -of the > BBD eae this in amin, ome it, be. fair _to

mou

dismissed. ae Se an: oniS ee

Another eae ie which ; eal to- ie locked ‘into pero trapping

ee the lions commences 18< that:-of housing: them. while , ‘che . full family

15! beings ‘caught,sande tilldthey/sare-moved ;to | itheis new,,, home. at 1S

obvious that the present ‘econmmnedation: if: the: Junagedh Z00-1 AS; limited

174 JOURNAL, BO MEBAY GNA BATE EUS Tiras) O1G iis sulio) aoe

and not desirable, since I have found there a tendency among the

keepers and some visitors to annoy the animals. This infuriates the

lions, which is only natural, as well as removes the respect they have

for man.in their natural state. What the consequences will be when

these animals are released in their new home 1s too fearful to imagine

—witness the killings by the lions which recently escaped from the

Junagadh Zoo.

Granted ‘that all the above objections are removed, on what

grounds has the need for this sort of transplanting become necessary?

Lions have existed in the Gir for centuries and even if in the past

epidemics might have reduced the race, they have always managed

to multiply again to their former numbers, so it has never been

claimed that the present reduction of the once widely spread lion to

its limited habitat has resulted from causes other than their destruction

by man and by depopulating of the game that comprised their food.

Since the killing of lons has been completely banned, the Gir lions

have kept on increasing most vigorously, and there is every possibility

that if the animals are given continued protection, they will slowly

spread out into the country around their present range. This natural

increase will create a need to keep their numbers down by judicious

shooting. It is therefore apparent that there need be no anxiety

about possible extinction of the lion in the Gir and consequently this

scheme is quite uncalled for, unless of course it is intended to give

another State the pride of being the possessor of Astatic Lions. This

privilege, however, is fraught with much danger and ts not worth the

effort. |

RAJKUMAR COLLEGE,

RajJKOT, SAURASHTRA, KS: LAVKUMAR

September. 29, 1956. .

[Mr:.E. P. Gee, who is particularly interested im this problem,

comments on the above as follows: é

‘While it is true that tne Gir Forest and its surroundings may be

an ideal habitat for Indian lions, this is not the sole reason for their

survival there. Another reason is that they were protected by the

former. Nawab of Junagadh, whereas they never received any pro-

tection in any other part of India.

As to imposing an ‘‘economic loss on people living around the

proposed new lion sanctuary’’, the importance of doing publicity

about the lion and its habits in the event of a new home fer the

Indian lion being proposed, was accepted and emphasised at the last

meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild

Life. Only if the State authorities and the people of the neighbour-

hood are in favour of having lions brought into their area should such

a project be undertaken.

The case of (African) lions being introduced into Gwalior State

some years ago cannot fairly be cited, as the conditions under which

these liond were released into the forest were far from ideal.

In addition to chital, it is presumable that sambar, pig and other

such animals will also constitute the food of lions re-introduced into

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 175

a new locality within ther former range. It was never intended to

re-introduce the lion into an area unless there was an adequate natural

food supply to enable it to SULA without necessarily having to prey

on domestic cattle.

If lions are ill-treated by essen: in the Junagadh Zoo, this should

be speedily reported to the appropriate State authorities, possibly with

a copy to the Secretary, Indian Board for Wild Lite.

It is a fact that the Indian Jion is af present not only safe but

actually on the increase in the Gir; but in addition to the danger of

diseases, droughts, famines and other natural calamities, there is

also the risk of un-natural calamities such as wars, civil commotion,

total deforestation, uncontrollable killing etc. which have to be guarded

against. Moreover, there appears to be a genuine desire on the part

of certain other States in India to re-introduce a valuable, important

and interesting animal into their forests.’—Eps. |

45 WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNION OF BURMA

CENSUS

A careful census made in 1935 put Burma’s elephant population

at about 10,000 head. Reckoning on 6,000 of these being females,

and half of these being of breeding age, and at the rate of one calf

in four years, the average annual birth-rate would be 750. From

this substract 125 natural deaths each vear, which leaves the average

of annual increase of 10,000 animals at 625.

WiLtp ELEpHANT CONTROL SCHEME

A comprehensive scheme of wild elephant control in which game

rangers worked in conjunction with kheddah operators was sanctioned

in 1935. A number of permanent blocks were selected and the

objective of the scheme was the extermination of elephants living

outside these blocks. Very considerable damage to crops was done

by wild elephants, which would in future be confined to areas as

remote from cultivation as possible. It was estimated that a stock

of between 4,000 to 5,000 wild elephants would be retained in the

permanent blocks. The game rangers were employed chiefly on

‘crop protection up to 15th January, after which most of them were

engaged in extermination operations.

PLAN OF KHEDDAH OPERATIONS

All licences for capture of elephants were issued under the elephant

control scheme. Under this plan certain areas were closed to opera-

tions as elephant sanctuaries, others were classified as areas in which

the extermination of elephants was desirable in the interest of the

country’s development, and the greater part of the forests in which

wild elephants occurred was. divided into a number of kheddah blocks

to be worked over in rotation by kheddah licensees.

176° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) “SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Destructioa “of ‘ usta -resulling'© from! the ‘elephant. control

scheme anid otheragencies. : ee ee

fad ylivpeeasss ds Adey old cléms oj yiqque boot

1935- 26 to -1940- a lites oiesmob ac

ain > [Burin Sse fii a, “ : eS apes :

w lego" a , “spgygp rage oft 02 ac ees

| Gate in ‘tieddahs, : s , ine Cae Gn at ish, ee ee

_ Federated. Shan States > aa | ae gi I es oe — i pale)

nbsiied idan nini-97 419 gibal ni 2oisi@ iedt0 nisteo to

Cede in kheddals. elesioihiords ofai Ismias entiesrsiai bas

Total... + 443 ae 443

AMAUG AO “OIMU aH IGrand¢lotal Hoa JSD i1w

In justification of the large nlimber of eigoltanntls dO killed,

the Chief Conservator “of ‘Forests wrotes °°

> “The elephant controP measures “adopted in» A936 Have produced

good results and should prove of lasting value. Further’ extensive

operations should not be “necessary. During’ the - period 1933"36 fo

1939-40, 2,131 elephants have been deeeeby ba by ‘game: rangers, age

elephants herr been destroyed “by other agencies, and oii ‘elephants

have been captured in kheddahs. During the coming year, operations

will be continued onza +educed ;scale...,l-1s,almostyeertain that a small

staff of game rangers will have to be maintained eee for crop

DROKE HOR work} around - permanent’ elephant -blocks.”. ss-ssconm05 2

LUI £

--The-Annual: Reperto on:'Ferest: Administration in: ae 1939-40.

-. ‘Elephant>eontrelschemedin' the-Mongmit !Division: (Federated) Shan

States): was cabandoned ‘shortly? after the beginning :of the! year owing

too the shortage of ammunition s “Fhe: abandonment: of thee scheme: has

aoteseen anybincrease in destruction> by wild elephants “and if is: pro-

tbable sthat: ‘thec:villagers «would be<freed from serious? trouble: “forsa

atimberbof'searssto come after:thesdestruction, of of fools een Le

ute three>yearscin which the2control scheme was under operation.2:59

wAnnual Report on Wild® Life Preservation in’ _the Federated Shan

coe for the year ending 31st. Marchsag4ro isixs ai bsgsans

In paid Life Protection ie es “publishes during World

Simla, H. C. Smith Stig

ao Spacer Kheddah Operations:'> (Some) years? ‘agooit> was‘ esti-

-mated that. there. were: about:'5;000 wild elephants.) Ascmdéany [as 500

+have been ceapturedsitizacyean but cin: future’ about: 200-will-probably be

sthe “number? that-ican: bédeapttured: annually without: detriment bo the

eles that?it wills be ‘deemed -advisabledto bmaintaine’so!o.9) et vita

oFigurés: of ° elephants dcitled fartdy ‘captured: nm 119412424 are > not

aeleele During >otheo'| War>o*period:> kheddah ~ operations were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 177

suspended. The number of wild elephants shot illicitly must be

negligible. Adopting the 1935 formula the. increase during the war

period 1942-43 to 1944-45 would be about L250:

The number of wild elephants in 1945-46 would be about 5,000 +

I,250=6,250.

In 1947-48 kheddah operations were conducted in Maritime,

Sittang, Hlaing and Northern Circles. From 1949-50 to 1950-51,

kheddah operations were confined to Maritime and Northern Circles,

In 1951-52 kheddah operations were confined only to the Northern

Circle.

The number of elephants shot from 1945-46 to 1951-52 is 29.

The increase from 1945-46 to 1951-52 would be about 2,7<50.

PRESENT PoLtcy OF GOVERNMENT

In order to build up the present inadequate elephant power for

the timber extraction industry to its pre-war strength, the Govern-

ment encourages kheddah operations whenever possible and issues

kheddah licenses liberally to those who want to capture wild

elephants. Such licenses are issued to cover an area of suificient

extent where elephant herds are seen to forage more or less regularly.

The area is properly defined, and within such area a few kheddahs,

pr to) 4) generally, “are buile im’ places most likely to be used by

elephants in their runs during beats. The license fee is just a nominal

sum, but on each captured elephant the Forest Department levies

royalty at rates depending on the height of the elephant. The only

condition upon which the forest Department insists is that the

area to which the license applies should be possible for Forest Officers

to inspect. In other words licenses are given only for those areas

where there is sufficient security.

At present such licenses are issued in Maritime Circle and

Northern Circle, that is to say in the forests of Arakan, Tenasserim

along the coast, and also in the Kachin State. The yearly average

of elephants captured is 150.

The total number of clephants captured in Burma and the Kachin

State from 1945-46 to 1951-52 is as follows:

Number died,

Number captured released or Balance

escaped

909 140 769

Number of elephants killed in Burnmia and the Kachin State from

1945-46 to 1951-52 1S 29.

IK AC lie Sane.

Large herds including many tuskers cause considerable damage

to taungya cultivation in the Suprabum and Putao sub-division. In

1952, a rogue elephant was shot to protect the timber elephants of

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

the State Timber Board. The number of elephants captured during

the last three years 1952-53 to 1954-55 is as follows:

Number died,

Number captured released or Balance

escaped

129 28 --101 oN

Total number of elephants killed from 1952-53 to 1954-55 IS On

25 InyA Myainc Roan,

University P.O., TUN VIN:

RANGOON, BCss, -(Retd))

August 23, 1956.

A LARGE PAIK OF ELEPHANT’S TUSKS FROM BURMA

(With a photo)

In the Society’s Journal 37: 468, J. K. Stanford has given a

description of a large pair of elephant’s tusks which he saw at

Lonkhin, in the house of Kansi Duwa. He did not get the oppor-

tunity to weigh the tusks then.

. This pair was brought down to Rangoon recently and were found

to weigh 180 lb., when weighed at the air strip, Myitkyina. 7

The measurements and weight of these tusks therefore are:

Length Pe Ginth Weight Remarks

R-67-54 174” eee |

L606 75 17” } } 180 Ib. Owner—Kansi Duwa.

For comparison, measurements and weights of some other large

pairs of Burmese tusks are given below. a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 179

Extracts from Appendix I—-Burma Game Manual 1929.

Length Girth Weight Remarks

R-8’- 9” ae ae Government House

L-8’-6” eae bs Rangoon (R. W.)

J Rel 8h" itil Wie 102 lb. The tusks of the sacred

L-7'.-34” Be 97% ib, white elephant. from

Mandalay Palace.

Owner—The Marquis

of Waterloo. (R.W.)

R7’-94" 174” 72\b. Shot by J. N. Clough.

L-8’-6” 72 74 Ib, Kyaikto District 1896

(I.F.S.B.)

R-6'/-8” 184” 84 lb. Owner—H. Shaw Dum.

L-6’—-5” 184” 82 lb. (R.W.)

R-6/-11” 154 | 106 ib Owner—Gordon Smith

L-6’ -6" 154 i ; (R.W.)

R-6'7" IL 110 1b Shot by H. E. Flint.

5.9! 7.” : Mogok Forest Division

R6’-25" 174 os Shot by A. Haziehood.

L-6’-14” 174 is Basein Forest Division. -

Extract from The Burmese Ferester. Vol. V, No. 2.—December

1955. (Page 134)

Length Gi th Weight Remarks

R-7’ -114" 163” } 138°6 Ib A big. tusker — shot

L-7' -11” 164” | ; at Hnokeho, Bhamo

Division in 1936 by

U Su.

25, InvA Myainc Roan,

University P.O., TUN YIN,

RANGOON, ) | BeC.9.. (etd: )

August 23, 1956.

6. ALBINO ELEPHANTS

Early in the present century an albino elephant calf was captured

by the Government kheddah department in the Katha Forest Division.

The calf was presented to the Trustees of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda,

but died shortly after arrival at Rangoon as a result of over-feeding

by pilgrims.

Later in the century, one was captured in the Toungoo Forest

Division. The owner Saw Durmay Po Min, took the . albino

elephant along with one black elephant for exhibition in Europe

and America. On the return journey, the clephant died at

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Calcutta. A photo of this albino elephant is published in ‘Wonders

of Animal Lite’ Volume 2. page 1,026.

In) 1930," ay ganie tran ser employed on elephant control in the

Ngaputaw Township in the Henzada-Bassein Division, was charged

in heavy bamboo jungle by an elephant, which he had to shoot in self

defence. The animal on examination, turned out to be an albino.

In 1940, a game ranger operating in the Mayu Hills of Arakan

Division was aiso compelled to shoot an albino elephant.

25, InyA Myainc Roan,

University P.O., TUN YIN,

RANGOON, BiC.S. (vera)

August 23, 1956.

[To the above records may be added that of the white calf born

to one of the elephants of the Bombay bBurmah Trading Corporation

Ltd. In a note published in the Journal at the time (Vol. 26, p. 286-—

Decr. 1918), Sir Henry Macnaughten gave this interesting informa-

tion: ‘A female calf born on 6th March 1918 aroused a good deal of

excitement by its unusually light colour, and in view of the

importance attached by the Burmese to the birth of a genuine

SINPYUDAW it was thought advisable to submit the claims of the

calf to a jury of prominent Burmans on the 7th April.

‘The points of a SINPYUDAW appear to be as follows:

1. Twenty toes,

Zo Canleyes,

3. Dail Dah Gal -Raik

4. Red mouth,

5. Light coloured and smooth skin.

‘The calf though possessing a rather light skin at birth and pearl

eyes failed to fulfil these conditions, having only eighteen toes and a

tail that was not up to the requiremen its. It was therefore at once

pronounced to be not a genuine SINPYUDAW.

‘The colour has since grown perceptibly darker and on reaching

maturity is not likely to differ in any way trom the ordinary.

‘The fact that the “‘whiteness’’ of an elephant depends as much on

the possession of certain points as on its colour may be of interest

to your readers, as most people appear toe believe in the existence of

a milk white animal. ‘

In a letter to The Field of 16 Decr. 1926, (reprinted in the Journal

32: 214), BD, FE. Mache records the bith or a similany calli are

one of the Borneo Company’s timber elephants in N. Siam. Local

experts pronounced it to be a true ‘Chang Peuak’ or White Elephant,

a verdict which was confirmed by a specially deputed oificial of the

Royal White Elephant Department in Bangkok. “The chief ‘‘points”’

looked for in such elephants’ writes Mr. Macfie, ‘appear to be (1) a

light red skin, the lighter the better, with still lighter coloured patches

on belly and inside of legis 12) white hairs on body and tail; (3) a

very light pink palate or roof of mouth; (4) eyes a light Linke oialle

colour; (5) white toe nails. The number of toes does not seem ito

matter materially, but five on each foot, fore and hind, is considered,

I believe, a mark of high caste.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181

[In Vol. 46 (p. 396) is published a note by Mr. E. S. Simon (with

photograph) of a cow elephant captured in the Travancore forests

Wiech wom the) basis oly aihe, above, points’ was a true White

Elephant’. This, apparently, is the first record of such an albino in

the Indian peninsula.—EDs. |

7. PREDATOR AND PREY AT SALT-LICKS

In forest where there are sait-licks, earth-licks or hot-springss,

one finds tracks of wild animals coming from all directions to a single

focal point. The same applies, to a certain extent, to an isolated

water-hole. Wild elephants, gaur, sambar, chital and barking deer

(speaking of NE. India) visit these licks regularly.

It would be interesting to know if predators such as tiger and

leopard ever take advantage of the existence of these licks, to lie in

wait for their prey. And do the big cats themselves ever visit the

licks for medicinal purposes?

It is possible that deer and other animals, when visiting an open

salt-lick along well-worn paths, exercise greater care than usual. I

have observed barking deer approaching a lick with the utmost

alertness and caution, and I! feel that this may deter the predators

from attempting to ambush them.

E. H: Peacock (JBNHS. 37: 780) writes: ‘Some natural law

appears to protect the game at these licks from ambuscade by the

Carnivora; at least I like to think so. I have never seen or heard

of a kill at, or very near, a salt-lick’. Theodore Hubback (JBNHS

41: 48 et seq.) mentions having twice seen a tiger at salt-licks in

Malaya, but does not refer to their drinking there, or killing their

prey, or refraining from killing.

F, W. Champion in his book ‘The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow’

(page 108) explodes the myth that there is any kind of truce- between

the jungle animals at times of drought, when water-holes are few and

far between.

At the main hot-spring in the forest in Garampani Wild Life

Sanctuary in Assam tracks of tiger have often been seen, and once

a friend of mine actually saw a fine tiger there in broad daylight.

Last October when accompanying the Senior Conservator of Forests

to this place we found the remains of a half-grown gaur at this hot-

spring. As there were no traces of a poacher’s machan nearby, we

presumed that it had been killed by a tiger or large leopard.

It would be interesting if any members of the Society or their

friends can give more information on this interesting aspect of salt-

licks.

Doyane T.E.,

(CHATTING! TEA Oe Ie BGs

ASSAM, -

June 6, 1956.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

8. INCUBATION PERIOD AND ‘MORTALITY RATE’ (?)

IN A BROOD OF THE MAGPiE-ROBIN [COPSYCHUS

SAULARIS (LINN.)]

Looking through my notes, I find the following entries in respect

of the Magpie-robin which, as throwing some light on the period of

incubation and ‘rate of mortality’ (?) of the chicks, may be worthy

of record.

A nest was discovered cn 28 February 1953 in a hole ca. 9” deep

at the tip of a 5-foot bamboe stake in the fence forming the boundary

of the Zoological Gardens at Trivandrum. The fence was in bad

repair and the stake, loose from its anchorage was leaning forward

at such an angle that the nest was hardly more than 3 ft. from the

ground.

28-2-1953. Four eggs, greenish and liberally blotched.

14-3-1953. One egg hatched in the afternoon.

15-3-1953- The remaining three hatched.

24-3-1953. Nestlings show a white patch on their bodies; very

warm and humid.

29-3-1953. Nestlings looking well.

0-3-1953. At 10.30 a.m., three of the nestlings had disappeared

and the 4th was crouched at the bottom of the nest;

sometime later, it was found in an erect posture

and quite dead. No trace of injury on the nestling ;

no sign of the others in the neighbourhood ; the male

_ parent was found later, calling from a nearby tree.

The dead nestling was weighed (9.6 gms.) and

transferred to spirit.

It can be seen from the above, that 15 days had elapsed between

the discovery of the eggs and their hatching. Assuming that the

nest was found the day the clutch was completed, perhaps a coinci-

dence, or within a day or.2 of it which is more probable, the incuba-

tion period may be taken to be 15 to 18 days.

The fate of the nestlings remains a mystery. If they had been

destroyed by predators, it is hard to see how the fourth could have

escaped without so much as a trace of injury. Death from. excessive

heat or disease or starvation can also be ruled out as in such cases

the victims should have been found dead or dying, within the nest

itself. And besides, they were looking so well only the previous day !

There is a probability that the young birds had flown from the

nest. This seems plausible in the light of the observations made by

Dr. M. Nice in the course of her study of the Song Sparrow in

America, that in Passerine species the majority attain flight pro-

ficiency at about 17 days of their hatching. In the present case, ithe

chicks, already 15 days in the nest, may have gained sufficient

strength to fly from the nest. This they might have done and in the

‘stampede’ that followed, their weakling brother (or sister) might

have got choked to the point of death.

An examination of the preserved specimen showed that it had iis

wing feathers well developed, but the tail was nothing more than a

flat knob with no feathers at all, The head and body were bare,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES i - 133

save for a small patch of short, black feathers just behind the bill

and a few feathers in a line at the beginning of the spinal ridge.

The earliest rudiments of feathers could, however, be made out as a

triangular patch on the chin, a thin line along each lower jaw and as

a large inverted ‘V’ commencing from the gullet.

The white patch on the body referred to earlier, which had the

appearance of a fungal growth, has disappeared in spirit.

*‘GOKULAM’,

NANTENCODE, N. G. PILLAI

TRIVANDRUM.

[It appears more than probable that the three chicks left the nest

in the natural course and that the fourth, being a weakling, was

thereafter abandoned to its fate by the parents. This is not

uncommon in passerine birds.—Ebs. ]

9. SOME NOTES ON THE PLUMAGES OF CENTROPUS

SINENSIS (STEPHENS)

Stuart Baker (Fauna Vol. 4, p. 190) describes the young of

C, s. sinensis (Stephens)—‘ Distribution: Northern India, roughly from

Sind and Kashmir through the North-West Provinces, Punjab and

United Provinces; the sub-Himalayas as far east as Eastern Assam

and south to the Ganges Valley in Bihar and Bengal’—as having

the plumage barred in young birds with a great deal ot variation.

He also records his personal observations regarding females, but not

males, breeding in such juvenile plumage. He does not refer to the

young of the other two races, i.e., C. s. intermedius (Hume)—‘Assam,

south of the Brahmaputra; Cachar and Sylhet, Tippera, Chittagong,

Comilla, Burma, North Malay State, Siam and the. Indo-Chinese

countries, Yunnan and Hainan’—and C. s. parroti Stres.—‘Ceylon

and India, south of the range of sinensis’—implying that they are

also barred as in the nominate race.

Whistler and Kinnear in their report on the Eastern Ghats

Ornithological Survey, JBNHS, 37: 528, drew attention to the

question of juvenile plumages in the Crow Pheasant (Centreopus

sinensis). They found some young similar to the adults, while others

wore a barred plumage. They thought that this might be of sub-

specific significance, but stated that they did not have sufficient

material to settle the point.

The Society’s collection contains 7 juvenile skins which are barred

oo parts mentioned against them:

3& (Assam). Secondaries and upper tail coverts.

o ? (Bihar). Wings and underparts; tail missing.

o ? (Bihar). Wings, underparts and entire tail.

& (North Shan State). All wing quills and coverts; traces on all

tail feathers and underparts.

= 9 (Prome Dist., Burma), Most secondaries ; upper wing coverts

and central tail feathers.

~- un

* Bear traces of duskiness, see infra.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

A specimen from Gwalior has slight traces of bars on the tips of a

few of the brighter purplish feathers of the hind neck, but otherwise

it agrees with parroti.

Mrs. Cicely Lushington in a letter to the Society in December 1945

wrote: ‘The fledglings of this bird in Ceylon, contrary to what is

said in text books (Waite: Birds of Ceylon, p. 218), are just like

the parents, but a little duller. Mr. W.W.A. Phillips has handled

a number of fledglings and says that “‘he has never found any barrings

in the Ceylon form’’.’

The only unbarred juvenile available in Bombay is one from

Khandala, Western Ghats, Bombay State, collected on 4 October 1935.

This is a of and shows very slight traces of duskiness in the upper

wing coverts. The wing feathers are not yet fully grown.

As the above suggested that the young of parroit may diifer from

those of the other two races in not being ‘barred, I wrote to the

British Museum and Mrs. B. P. Hall of the Bird Room very kindly

examined the material available there. She writes that in an ex-

tensive series of parvoti from Southern India and Ceylon there are no

juvenile ‘or immature specimens with barred wings or tails while there are

juveniles, or immature birds, with barred wings and tails from Karnal;

Jhang, Bhimbar District, Multan, jagadhri (Ambala Dist.) and

Lucknow; also from Bengal and all countries of eastern Asia.

Duskiness in Upper Plumage

In the course of this examination I was struck by the marked

duskiness of the wing coverts in some individuals which contrasted

sharply with the chestnut of the rest of the wings. Of 11 males and

20 females of all races, this duskiness was found in 8 specimens, all

females of parroti, trom the following localities: Bombay (2), Orissa

and Bastar (4), Ambala (1) and Deihi (1)—all collected between

10 November and 15 January. Females of parroli taken in March

(1), May, (2) and September (2) showed no trace of this duskiness nor

did any males taken in January (1), March (2), June (1), August (1)

and October (2).

Except for slight traces on two juvenile females from Nepal and

Prome, there was no duskiness in any of the other races though we

have females taken in November (Meerut), December ({Bhagowni,

Bihar and Assam), January (Thayetmyo, Burma), February (Jagadhri,

Ambala District, Punjab} and March (Bahawalpur, and Prome,

Burma).

We have referred to the females from Delhi and Ambala as parrot

while one collected by Basil Edwards in Delhi was named sinensis by

Whistler (JBNHS, 31: 560).

Mrs. Hall has also referred to 8 adults from Delhi in the British

Museum as sinensis. From Jagadhri, Ambala District, Punjab, we

have in Bombay a female which is definitely sinensis while another

dusky individual referred to above from the same district appears to

be parroti. It would therefore appear that the distribution of the

two races sinensis and parreti around Delhi and northward into the

Punjab along the Jumna Valley has to be worked out afresh—there

is either a mixed population with overlapping characters or both forms

occur (?).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 185

Summary

From the evidence available, it appears: |

(1) that the juveniles of C. s. smensis and C. s. intermedius are

barred, while those of C. s. parroti are not. cae

(2) that the females of parroti acquire a marked sootiness on

their wing coverts between about November and January.

(3) that there is either a mixed population or two forms overlap

in the Punjab and northwards along the Jumna Valley. |

Messrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAyY-3,

September 26, 1956.

10. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PINKBREASTED

VAUD (esi tACyu nA ALEXANDER) IN DEHRA DUN

On 14 November 1955, Mr. Gurdial Singh of the Doon School and

myself, while sitting under a Toon tree in the school grounds, saw a

party of these attractive parakeets fly into the tree, and we were

able to watch them through field glasses on and off throughout the

afternoon as they moved about in the branches overhead, feeding

in clumps of loranthus parasitising on the toon branches. While

feeding they were very quiet and their presence in the tree was only

felt by the continual rain of leaves and other matter they dropped

down while feeding or when. attention was attracted by the whirr of

wings as a bird flew from one branch to another. The flock con-

sisted of over a dozen birds of both sexes, and when they flew from

one tree to another they did so in a compact wheeling mass uttering

loud and very distinct trumpeting calls quite unlike those of the

Slatyheaded or the Alexandrine parakeet, both of which were around

in fair numbers. The pink breast in the males is a very conspicuous

feature as is also the rather short tail. Mr. George of the F.R.I. who

is a knowledgable bird student of Dehra Dun informs me that this

bird has never been mentioned before from the Dun.

RAJKUMAR COLLEGE,

RAJKOT, Is. LAVKUMAR

SAURASHTRA.

[The western limit of distribution given in the Fauna is “Kumaon’

without any specific locality.—Eps. |

11. EXPERIENCES WITH LITTLE RINGED-PLOVER

(With a plate)

The Little Ringed Plover (Charadruis dubius), is not a rare bird

in Kashmir. Anyone looking for its nest may with perseverance and

-a little luck soon find it. It is not an excessively shy bird and seldom

looks with great disfavour upon a photographer’s hide, and yet my

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

own attempts to photograph it in the summer of 1944 led to a series

of adventures which culminated in the most surprising thing that has

so far happened to me as an ornithologist. -

My first nest was found on an island of mud in the middle of a

marsh. The marsh seemed bottomless and shivered with virgin horror

at the touch of human feet. It was a perfect barrier protecting the

island. Ditches intersected it in many places, and on the surface of

the Lethe’d dullness of their waters the flowers of white water-lily

floated like little waxen boats. To reach the island one either walks

across the marsh in a series of hurried steps during which the weight

of the body is never allowed to rest on one foot for longer than is

absolutely necessary; or it is possible to use a rough kind of marsh-

shoe consisting of a circle of withies attached by ropes to a central

oblong of wood. Two lengths of grass rope tied to the central portion

form a thong into which the foot is thrust, but the shoe is extremely

uncomfortable to use.

On this first occasion, the island was soon reached. I crept into

my hide which was already in place, trained my camera on to the

nest and waited for the bird to return. The nest was a mere hollow

scraped in the mud and contained three eggs; it was surrounded on

three sides by tufts of straight-growing, sharp-pointed grass. Within

a quarter-of-an-hour the bird was back and was photographed as it

stood beside the nest. Unfortunately, the noisy shutter of my

Graflex camera frightened the bird, and it flew off and made no

further attempt to return. The plover, on subsequent occasions when

frightened by the sound of the shutter would run a short distance

from the nest, and then peck furiously at the ground, making the

earth fly. Psychologists would explain this behaviour as a kind of

‘karthas's’, an outlet for pent-up emotions generated by the pull of

two opposing emotional forces of equal strength: on the one hand a

strong desire to incubate the eggs; and on the other an equally great

desire to run away. (Similar behaviour under like circumstances |

have_also noticed in the case of another member of the family

Charadriidae, the Common Sandpiper.) Fear, in the Ringed Plover,

also finds emotional outlet in a raising of the leg which is shivered

violently, an action resorted to by the bird when approaching the

nest, literally ‘in fear and trembling’.

The incubating bird, once frightened by the sound of the camera

did not return a second time until driven back by its mate which

until now had remained out of sight. The frightened bird had only

flown a short distance away, and it was to be seen pecking at the

ground for food, occasionally making a short run, and as it came

to a stop performing a little hiccup of a bow. Now its mate came

Hying over calling, Sweet-vyou, Sweet-you, ordering the other in an

urgent voice back to the eggs; together they returned to the nest

and stood on opposite sides looking at it, and bowing to each other

in their curious jerking fashion. After seeing its mate safely back in

the nest, the second bird then flew away. For one reason or another

_the incubating bird left the nest on five occasions, but each time

returned to it. |

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - ot

Photographing the Little Ringed Plover seemed easy, too easy to

be good, and sure enough ill-fortune stepped in and ruined most

of my pictures! The films I was using, being of pre-war stock, had

suffered a drop in speed of 4oo%, and as I had not made sufficient

allowance for this all the negatives were badly underexposed.

Another opportunity to return to the marsh came a week later.

The shikaris promised me two nests of Ringed Plover and one of

Redwattled Lapwing. But Fate still had me in her bad books, and

on arrival we found that a pair of Kites had anticipated us by half-

an-hour and had eaten every egg. The agitated Lapwings came

shouting loudly overhead: Did-he-do-it? Did-he-do-it? Did, did,

did-it. ‘Don’t be stupid, of course, he did!’, I muttered under my

breath. Larks, flying high above this row nearer earth, sang un-

heeding ‘at heaven’s gate’ and their

‘... notes of music fell as sacramental water

Sadly sprinkled on a raging world.’

The robber kites came over again, flying low on reconnaissance, and

if I had had a gun I would gladly have shot them. We set out,

not very hopefully, to look for more nests but of course we found

none. Trouble, which had come a single spy at the end of my last

trip, now returned a third time to the attack. In a moment of in-

attention I' fell into soft, clutching mud. The shikari was a long

distance away but when my own efforts to extricate myself only made

me sink deeper, I called for his help; the man reached me when the

sucking mud had reached to my hips, but a little hard tugging how-

ever soon got me out.

As I sat unhappily cleaning the mud off my legs Fate suddenly

decided to withdraw from further offensive operations and, as though

to make up for her previous sour behaviour, now treated me to a

sight of the Ringed Plovers’ nuptial display. The female was search-

ing for food at the edge of a patch of tall grasses when the male

came flying over beating his wings rapidly and calling excitedly,

Sweet-you, Sweet-you, Sweet-you.! When he landed nearby, he fluffed

out the side feathers of his breast and with bill extended ran towards

his mate as if wishing to drive her away. She trotted off a little

distance, and awaited her charging knight who, with bill extended

like a lance, came after her at a crouching run. A foot or so away

from her, he straightened out of his crouch and drawing himself

up to his full height walked the intervening distance doing a rapid

goose-step, first raising one leg, then the other, in front of him

stiffly ; a curious, comical, preposterously cock-of-the-walk performance.

The rapidly goose-stepping legs looked, from the side, like two blades

of a pair of scissors snipping away at speed. The female, as he

came nearer, crouched down slightly, while he advanced waving his

legs in the air. Once close he jumped on her back and there, for

an appreciable time (perhaps 20 seconds), he stood literally ‘treading’

her, his feet working strenuously. As he did this her tail slowly came

* The Handbook of British Birds says of the European race that it ‘has a

butterfly-like display-flight with long, slow, sweeping wing-beats, often following

a zig-zag course’.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAG UteAe yee Sie OCs TV say io} amd

up, and lowering his body he met her, and in a trice the deed was

done. Immediately, he was off her back and going away at a run,

breast feathers again fluffed out and tail twitching. A second later

he flew away.

I finally succeeded in photographing the Ringed Plover less than a

week later; it was a case of ‘third time lucky’. On the rocks and

shingle at the edge of the Sind River at Woyil Bridge I took a

series of pictures of the bird at its nest, all of which turned out

well. After I had photographed the Ringed Plover I moved over

to my circular hide which had been set up beside the nest of a

Redwattled Lapwing. The lazy shikari had omitted to lace up the

top of the hide, and as I had already spent five hours taking pictures,

I too felt lazy, and so did nothing about it. I had been waiting only

10 minutes when there was suddenly a noise of flapping and a large

bird landed on the top rim of my hide; I looked up at the same

time as the bird looked in and it would be difficult to say who was

the more surprised, because as the bird scuttled away it dropped

something heavy with a thud into my lap. The Osprey flew off to

a distant tree and looked back ruefully at my tent while I, rubbing

the blood off my thigh, picked up a headless two-pound fish from

the ground! After such a gift from the sky I decided to suspend

further operations—it is well not to ask too much of good Fortune—

and with my headless fish tucked underneath my arm I went back

to my houseboat in great glee.

CaTHAy CINEMA,

SINGAPORE, | LOKE WAN-THO

October 2,. 1956.

12, THE DIMORPHIC EGRETS

It has become a common practice among modern systematic

ornithologists to unite under the generic name Demiegretta Blyth a

number of species and subspecies of dimorphic herons, which, apart

from their polymorphic appearance (i.e., their individually variable

coloration: slate grey, white or pied) and their partiality for a marine -

habitat, are rather widely different.

They represent at least two different types of birds, and I have

already expressed the opinion (L’Oiseau et la Rev. franc. d’Orn., 1949,

pp: fo jet, seg.) that the, generic name, Denmresgrceiia tought tombe

restricted only to the typical species D. sacra (Gm.), the well-known

Reef-Heron. Morphologically this species differs from the others now

included in the same genus chiefly in the relative proportions of the

tarsus and the bill, and also in the nature of the ornamental feathers.

But, besides this unquestionably distinct type of heron, the identity

and validity of the other forms of dimorphic egrets erroneously

associated with it [in fact much more closely allied to the Little

Egret, Egretta garzetta (L.)], are more uncertain and have already

been discussed in many papers. It is clear that only a close study of

their biological relations comparatively with the Little Egret can

afford some definite knowledge on the question,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 18)

When only skins or stuffed specimens are compared, it seems

extremely difficult to differentiate Egretta garzella from white speci-

mens of E. gularis (Bosc), E. asha (Sykes) (=E. schistacea), and

still more so from those of E. dimorpha Hart. The colour and the

proportions of the legs and toes are the same in all of them, the

plumage is identical, with the same seasonal changes of ornamental

feathers, etc. As already pointed out by myself (loc. cit.), and more

recently by Bannerman for the African birds (Birds of trop. W. Afr.,

Wieser 22) ce! coloun of the pill Seems’ to remain the only

appreciable differentiating character (besides some slight differences

in size), being black in the always white FE. garsetta and also in E.

dimorpha, both in its slate and white phases, against horny brown or

even yellowish in E. gularis and E. asha, in their dark as well as

white phases. E. garzetta and the white phase of E. dimorpha look

practically one and the same bird.

Owing to some uncertainty still prevailing in the respective status

OL eh earzewa and, the cdimonmpmic eonets: which. (so close to it

morphologically, are said to live in the same countries: E. gularis

in West Africa, EH. asha in the Red and Arabian Seas (including the

West Coast of India), E. dimorpha in Madagascar and East Africa,

it would be particularly desirable to study more closely their ecological

relationships in the countries where they occur together. The coloured

phases of these egrets seem to be found essentially, at least as

breeding birds, along the sea-coasts of tropical and subtropical areas,

spreading however to the interior in Madagascar and (? perhaps only

as seasonal migrants) in West Africa.

In my opinion, these dimorphic egrets represent most probably

nothing but local populations of the widely spread E. garzetta, adapted

to a marine habitat and it seems hardly necessary to recall that their

dimorphic character has long been proved by dark and white birds

having been observed paired in the same colonies, and even dark and

white chicks. having been found in the same nest.

Finally there is another difference of generic value between the

Reef-Heron Demiegretta sacra on the one hand, and the Little White

Egret Egretta gargetta and its dimorphic allies on the other. In the

Reef-Heron the white phase occurs only in the tropical zone of its

habitat, the grey phase being the commoner over the rest of its habitat

from Japan to New Zealand. The reverse is the case with the

Little Egret: its white phase is by far the most widely spread, the

grey phase being essentially restricted to the tropical zone.

We do hope that in India, where both E. garzetta and E. asha

commonly occur in suitable places, probably not side by side, it will

be possible to study the problem of their relationship more closely.

In India, it seems generally believed that E. garzetia has more

gregarious habits and that E. asha is seen more often as a solitary

bird. But we must not forget that in the Red Sea? area this latter

bird is known to breed in more or less extensive colonies of mixed

1 Also on the west coast of India.—IiDs.

190 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

individuals, grey ones and white ones, and the same occurs in the

very closely allied E. gularis along the coast of West Africa, colonies

which are quite similar to those of the Little Egret.

MUSEUM NATIONAL D’HISTOIRE NATURELLE,

RUE DE BUFFON, 55, J. BERLIOZ

Paris, FRANCE,

October 12, 1956.

13. BIRD NOTES FROM KUTCH

Maharajkumar Himmatsinhji of Kutch very kindly let me have re-

cords from his diary of interesting bird occurrences in Kutch over the last

several years, showing how a place like Kutch, situated as it is across a

major migration route can always have surprises in store for the regular

bird-watcher. With his permission I reproduce some of his interesting

observations together with a couple of my own during my visit there in

April 1956. | :

Indian Skimmer: Ahynchops albicollis

August 1947 on the Laija Creek west of Mandvi: two birds observed

on two subsequent days by M. K. First record for Kutch.

Haircrested Drongo: Chibia hoitentolta

Seen by M. K. S. Himmatsinhji in January 1948 in the Vijay Villas

gardens at Mandvi. Call note very distinct, and through binoculars,

the hair-like crest very clearly noted. ‘Tail forks rounded and a high

sheen on the mantle. First record for Kutch and possibly for this

part of India.

Rednecked Phalarope: Lodbipes lubatus

Seen by M. K. on Devisar tank north of Bhuj in May 1948, and subse-

quently also in May 1949. Actively swimming around ; and when

disturbed, flying a little way to resettie on the water and commence

feeding. Chestnut-red on sides of neck and white cheeks very con-

spicuous. First record for Kutch.

Barn Owl: J7'yio alba

A live specimen shown at the exhibition held in Bhuj in April

1956. It had been caught at Talvana near Mandvi. This owl

not met with in Kutch by Salim Ali, though it had been noted

by Lester.

Blackheaded Bunting: Hméeriza melanocephala

Noted by M. kK. on 9 September and again on the 29th of the

same month in 1950. It therefore is also an autumn passage migrant

and, as Mr. Salim Ali mentions, a possible winter visitor. Seen by me in

fair numbers on Pachham on 7 April 1956.

Redwhiskered Bulbul: Oren psa emeria

Saw one bird in the Vijay Villas gardens on 11 April 1956. Fifteen

of these birds had been released by M. K. S. Himmatsinhji at Man dvi in

1950, and they seem to be quite happy in the shady groves there.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 191

Crow Pheasant: Cenivopus sinensis

This unfortunate but very successful introduction seems to have ex-

panded its range considerably since the Salim Ali survey, for we noted a

bird on the edge of the Banni many miles north of Bhuj.

White Stork: Ciconza ciconia

Recorded by Lester in August 1895. Seen by the M. K. on the Raval-

pir tank near Mandvi in January 1955.

Grey Drongo: Dic: urus longicaudatus

A single bird was shot by M. K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar

in the Vijay Villas gardens at Mandvi in January (?) 1955.

Pelican sp.? FPelecanus sp.

Eight birds seen by us on the Dhand 11 April 1956.

Glossy Ibis *: Plegadis falcinellus

Seen by us on the Dhands, 11 April 1956. M. K. S. Himmatsinhji

tells me that he has regularly seen these birds in small numbers in winter.

Mr. Salim Ali saw one during the Survey and H..H. the 3 MEE record-

ed them on 4 April 1945.

RAJKUMAR COLLEGE, K. S&S. LAVKUMAR

RAJKOT, SAURASHTRA.

14. FIGHTING AMONG BIRDS

Last March a Water-Rail was picked up dead on the roadside

near a marshy stretch of the River Wey. First thoughts were that

it had probably been killed by a passing car. The only discoverable

injury, however, proved to be a small hole in the back of the skull.

Searching for other possible ways by which it might have met its

end, my mind went back to a terrific fight I witnessed between two

other members of the Rail family—two Moorhens in fact. A Moorhen

is a Moorhen the world over, so although the fight occurred in

Southern England it might just as easily have happened in India

or anywhere else. Here then is what I wrote down at the time.

‘About noon yesterday I looked out of the passage window in

time to watch one of the fiercest territorial fights I have ever witnessed

amongst birds. The contestants were two moorhens. The snow was

nearly six inches deep on the bank of the stream with a till-then unbroken

surface so that the forms of the dark contestants were thrown up

to perfection against a spotless background. How long the fight had

already been in progress I do not know, but from the lengthening

pauses, during which they remained interlocked like a pair of in-

fighting boxers, they already seemed pretty tired. Their methods of

defence and offence were most interesting. Sitting back on the tail,

supporting itself from tumbling backwards by half-opened wings,

one bird would box and claw at the other, but I am not at all sure

that this was intended to injure the other bird so much as to hold

2 [Mr, Humayun Abdulali saw a flock of some 60 birds on the island in Hamirsar

tank, Bhuj, on 21 and 22 April 1955. On the 23rd they were absent.—EUS.]

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?T. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

it off or alternatively to push it down. For it was obviously with

the bill that the main damage was being done. One bird would

stretch upwards and with a vicious downward jab attempt to reach

the back or top of the other’s skull. Once I thought the fight was

going to end abruptly for one bird suddenly weakened; its head sagged

to one side and it laid itself open to a series of vicious blows which

rained on the back of its head, such cruei stabs that I quite expected

its complete collapse and death. Then it rallied for a space and

almost turned the tables on its opponent, both birds fluttering into

the air until they once more became interlocked. Lying back on

extended wings with feet intertwined and bills agape they lay for

a few moments in the snow, gasping for breath and obviously tired

to death but still unwilling to cease their strife. A third bird appeared

from the stream and mildly interested approached to within a couple

of feet but, probably being the lady in the case, took no part in the

contest and, after watching for a minute or two, encircled the com-

batants and then withdrew whence it had come. The fight recom-

menced with, if anything, greater ferocity and a fearful pecking bout

ensued until one bird—I think it was the one that had previously

collapsed—suddenly broke away and turning its back literally staggered

with a definite list to starboard to the bank. Its opponent did not

follow up its advantage with the energy I expected but lurched after

it with lowered head and both disappeared into the stream bed. I

thought all was over, but not a bit of it for every now and then a

fluttering wing-tip or a vicious down-stabbing bill appeared for a

fleeting instant above the bank. My wife suggested I should stop

the contest, but I felt that if I did so it would only result in further

and fiercer fighting so soon as they had regained their breath.

The fight had started over twenty minutes previously when I eventually

went to investigate. As I reached the point where the two birds had

disappeared I saw nothing; but from twenty yards down stream came

a sharp danger note and the noise of floundering wings. The fight

had drifted downstream and very probably until my advent was still

in progress. So fierce had been the struggle that some ten square

yards of the snow’s surface was beaten down and criss-crossed with

feetmarks and impressions of their bodies, and everywhere bright red

stains speckled the churned-up snow; not merely a drop here and

there but as if the blood had splashed from the vicious stabs or

smeared from blood-stained talons. There were however no feathers

nor bits of down strewn upon the snow so the scrabbling feet with

their long claws were probably not responsible for much of the gore

but, as I have already suggested, the boxing matches are seemingly

to hold off and press down the opponent so that the advantage goes

to him who can gain sufficient height to rain those dreadful pick-axe

blows on the vulnerable top and rear parts of the skull. One or

both of these birds must have sustained heavy injuries. How often,

I wonder, are these fights for territorial supremacy fights to the death?

HAYBARN,

‘THURSLEY, )

SURREY, ENGLAND, 1 oe) ee IBIS IS.

September 5, 1956. Lt-Col. 1.a. (Retd.)

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194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

16. THE CHANGING SCENE:

Paucity of Brep Lire IN JABALpuR (M.P.)

When I first knew Jabalpur in 1904 it was a jungly little station,

less than a quarter of its present area; bamboo clumps were every-

where, and game abounded. It was cooler then than now, and frosts

were to be.expected in the cold season. We do not get them now.

Most of the jungle has been cleared for cultivation and building

purposes. Rainfall has become uncertain, and subsoil water, and in

wells, is lower.

All this change has been coming about gradually during the last

fifty years, but it is only during the last four or five that I have

noticed the absence of well-known birds. I write only of the Jabalpur

Corporation and Cantonment areas, and cannot say what the con-

ditions are outside, as I now rarely go out. But duck, teal and

geese, which used to pass overhead, are now not seen. Rosy Pastors

were common when silk cotton trees were in bloom. The trees are

still here, but not the visitors. Have not seen a single Redstart this

cold weather, and only one Grey Wagtail. It was about pittas calling

in my garden that I first got into touch with you. They are not here

now, and the following have also become rarities: White-eye, Pipit,

Treepie, Pied Wagtail, Tailor Bird, Honey-sucker, and _ various.

flycatchers, and I am inclined to think that common resident species

are fewer in numbers; for example, it is rare to observe a Pied Myna.

GARHA,

JABALPUR, POV) BE Asis

February 26, 1956.

17. SOLAR ECLIPSE AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

I was interested in the Note at p. 708 of Vol. 53, No. 4, of the

Journal.

I went to Japan in 1936 to help Dr. Royds, the Government

Astronomer at the Solar Physics Observatory, Kodaikanal, South

India, in making observations at the time of a total eclipse of the sun.

Until the sun was totally obscured, the darkness was no greater

than during daylight with heavy cloud, and such birds and domestic

animals as came to my notice behaved in no way out of the common.

But as soon as the moon’s shadow, dramatically racing across the

earth’s surface at several hundred miles an hour, reached the place,

(the time was about 1 p.m., local time), the darkness at once became

such as we know in India during a clear moonlight night near the

time of the full moon, and all anima! noise and movement ceased

forthwith. As, some fifty-five seconds later, the moon’s shadow

passed away with equally dramatic suddenness, the usual animal

noises of early dawn were heard on all sides,—cocks crowing, etc.—

and normal movement was resumed. It was very remarkable how,

for a period of darkness lasting less than a minute, the animal re-

action was the same as for a whole night.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195.

I must therefore controvert the second sentence of your editorial

note. It should, I submit, be modified to read that ‘at the peak of

any eclipse less than total the darkness is no greater than on some

of the heaviest overcast monsoon days.’ If at the place of observation

the eclipse is total, the circumstances are wholly different. Your

foot note, I may add, even in this modified form, would be relevant

to the Note to which it was appended, since that solar eclipse was

not total at the place of observation (or, indeed, at any other place).

ScoTT CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,

NAGERCOIL,

TRAVANCORE, G. H. MARSDEN,

INDIA, M.A, (Cantab.)

October 17, 1956. Principal.

18. JUMPING SNAKES

‘Mr. D. E. Reuben’s note in your issue for April 1956 and his query

regarding the ability of snakes to jump reminds me that last year

I raised the same question in a letter to Country Life.

I was moved to write the letter by an article that appeared in

that journal about poisonous snakes in which the author remarked on

the agility (not amounting to jumping) of Echis carinata. I may say

that the following incident, which I described in my letter, elicited

several replies all of which seemed to indicate that such action by a

snake was beyond the experience of the writers.

On an autumn evening in, I think, 1930, I was dressing for dinner

in my quarters at the Delhi Gymkhana Club when my bearer, a most

observant and reliable man, suddenly shouted to me from the verandah,

“Sahib, jumping snake!’’ On going out to investigate he pointed to

a small snake, tightly coiled in the manner of a viper, on a charpoy

on the verandah. He said that when he arrived on the verandah the

snake, which was lying on the mat outside the door, had suddenly

projected itself, “‘in one’’, from the mat on to the charpoy, a hori-

zontal distance of some 8 feet, with a rise of 18 inches.

There was an electric light over the charpoy and to ensure the

despatch of the snake before it could escape into the surrounding

darkness I shot it with a 12-bore gun, somewhat to the discomfiture

of the newar of the charpoy.

On submitting the mangled remains next day to that well-known

authority, the late J. C. Roberts, I was informed that they were those

of an Echis carinata. |

Admittedly I did not witness the incident myself, but I have no

reason to doubt my bearer’s testimony, nor does it seem impossible

that the muscular power of a coiled snake should enable it to project

itself through the air for a short distance, especially as it would have

an excellent ‘‘take-off’’ from the rough door-mat.’

6, ARTILLERY MANSIONS,

WESTMINSTER, H. A. N. MEDD

Lonpon, S.W.-1,

August 28, 1956.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

oo. ig.. JA PYTHON’S MEAL-

The above photo was taken by U Maung Gale, Divisional

Forest Officer, Shwebo, on z2oth August 1955; shortly after the

Python had swallowed a small thamin in Kyaikthin Wild Life

Sanctuary.

25, INyAmMyAING Roap,

UNIVERSITY Pe@: TON (MAING

RANGOON, | pa BIGss.. (etd?)

April 2 tO 50: : :

20. DHAMAN OR RAT SNAKE CGS MUCOSUS)

~ DRINKING MILK

As it is often stated that no snakes drink milk, the following may

be worth recording, This happened at Kheri in the Wiser RES the

monsoon in 1923:

The milk-drinking Dhaman used to come from, the scrub jungle

near the bungalow, where we would have waiting for it a saucer “of

milk near our chairs in front of the verandah. The scrub’ jungle was

quite 20 yards away. Regularly in the evening we would place the

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES V08 oho. 197

saucer of milk in the same place and regularly the Dhaman would

emerge from the scrub and come along and drink the milk. While

it approached us, my friend and I had to remain motionless and silent,

MOL even A empine to turn our heads or. move a hand. But our

eyes were free to watch our guest who after emptying the saucer,

returned as silently and gracefully as he came. It was a ee

entertainment.

We had trained the Dhaman to come closer and closer, first. by

placing the saucer on the edge of the scrub, then nearer and nearer

to the bungalow, eventually close to where our chairs would be put

in front of the verandah.

Happy VALLEY,

MANDERSTON P.O., qT; B.C; ees ee

NATAL, S. AFRICA, LF. | (Retd. };

August 20, 1956.

ar. STRANGE ACCIDENT TO A FROG (RANA BREVICEPS

7 SCHNEID.)

On rsth July 1956 in the cistern cutside Cave 3 at the Kanheri

Caves, Salsette, Bombay, I saw a foam-nest of Rhacophorus

maculatus stuck in the angle of two vertical rock walls, a few inches

above water. <A large frog was seen with his head inserted into the

bottom of the nest. On attempting to pick him off, the top of his

snout was) found to be so firmly attached to the nest, that the whole

mass had to be pulled off together. The frog was an adult male of

Rana breviceps, in an extremely weak condition. He had apparently

poked his nose into the nest in an attempt to climb the wall and would’

no doubt have died in this curious position. The stomach was empty

dnd the guts contained remains of vegetable matter.

Messrs. Faiz & Co., :

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY-3, | |

October 29, 1956.

22. THE SPAW NING: OF. GCAKPS

I have only now read Dr. Goldschmidt’s letter together with

Dr. Kulkarni’s reply published on page 634 of the December 1954

issue of the Journal.

Although this correspondence specifically refers to Labeo ronita

a similar question has been arousing my curiosity for some time. I

refer to the spawning of Barbus tor khudree in the Periyar River

above the Lake.

The SW. Monsoon rains at the end of May certainly induce these

fish to move up the river from the lake, and spawning takes place

between July and August. The river is also in flood at the beginning

of the NE. Monsoon in October and early November. During

November and early December I have taken large numbers of both

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

clean and gravid fish. This at any rate would indicate that the

Periyar Mahseer spawns between June and December, seven months

of the year, which is considerably more elastic than the period June-

‘August mentioned by Dr. Kulkarni.

It may be that this can be explained by the rainfall of the Western

Ghats, but when Dr. Goldschmidt deduces that fish with ‘blood-red

discoloration near the vent,,and orange spots on the gill covers’ had

already spawned, I wonder whether this is necessarily so. For

mahseer with this spawning livery taken by me in early December

have been full of roe or milt. Whether these fish are unsuccessful

spawners similar to salmon ‘baggots’ I must leave for Dr. Kulkarni

tol say.

Theoretically, it would seem unnatural for a fish to spawn when

rivers are in spate, for this must inevitably give rise to a big waste

of ova.

I think it likely in the circumstances perhaps peculiar to the upper

reaches of the Periyar River that fish move up from the lake with

the first monsoon floods and that there are a number of early spawners

in June, July and August. A proportion of this early run of fish may

not become sexually mature until September and October when they

would spawn at the same time as the later, or second run of fish after

the main flood months.

During November, gravid fish have been taken by me between

one and twelve miles from the point where the river joins the lake,

and during the same month I have caught a number of fish in spawn-

ing livery and full of roe entering the river from the lake. It is

evident that a certain amount is still to be understood about the

spawning habits of the masheer here if not of the Cyprinidae as a

whole.

BonamMIi ESTATE, |

FAIRFIELD P.O., Jo De LOVAGS

Wesel.

March 10, 1956.

[Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Bombay State, to

whom. the above was shown, comments as follows:

‘Mr. J. D. Lovatt states in his note “‘The Periyar Mahaseer spawns

between June and December, seven months of the year, which is

considerably more elastic than the period June-August mentioned by

Dr. Kulkarni’’. Mr. Goldschmidt’s note and my comments on it

referred to the spawning of the major carps, viz. Catla, Rohu and

Mrigal only. Mahaseer is not conventionally included in this group

of the major carps. As such, Mie ovattes companison mot que

spawning season of major carps with that of the Mahaseer is not

quite relevant.

Dr. Hora,! Dr. Hamid Khan? and others have pointed out that

the Mahaseer spawns more than once during the year. Dr. Hamid

Khan found that the Mahaseer in the river systems of Northern India

spawn first in January and February; secondly in May and June when

a, NT NT a

‘Elona: «Se 1a. (1945) Proc Nain Wnstacc.) Inde NiO\ nex:

* Hamid Khan (1939): JBNHS. Vol. 41.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199

the snow melts and rivers are swollen, and thirdly from July to

September when the rivers are flooded with monsoon rains. Thus,

there is a strong evidence that the period of spawning of the Mahaseer

is an extensive one, which is unlike that of the major carps mentioned

above. It is quite possible, therefore, that the Mahaseer in the

Periyar Lake may be breeding in the period June to December.’—

Eps. |

23. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MUMMIFIED EELS IN

THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF POLYDACTYLUS

INDICUS (SHAW) AND POMADASYS SP.:!

Accidental inclusions of foreign objects in the body cavity of

fishes have been reported by various authors. These include

mummified specimens of sand eels (Ammodytes sp.) and pipe-fish on

the walls of the abdominal cavity of Cod and Haddock (Atwood,

1857), while a variety of other objects like vertebral column of fish,

fish hooks, knife and even hermit crab have been found in the body

cavity and visceral mass of cod, haddock and pollock (Atwood, 18509,

1869; Collins, 1884; Barret, 5885 and Williamson, 1911). Earlier

literature has been reviewed by Gudger (1922). Deraniyagala (1932)

found some mummified remains of Ophichthys apicalis (Benn.) in the

body cavity of large percoid fishes. Smith (1953) observed that

Ophisurus serpens (L.) has the habit of piercing into the body of

other fishes.

During an investigation of the biology of some of the trawl fishes

landed at Bombay, certain hard, flattened bodies, apparently re-

sembling small eels were found embedded in the mesenteries and

other internal organs of Polydactylus indicus and Pomadasys sp.

On closer examination of the material in the laboratory they were

found to be mummified eels, probably belonging to the genus

Ophichthys. Though the material was shrunk, stiff and to some

extent distorted in shape, it was in a remarkable state of preservation

which rendered identification possible. The following table (page 200)

gives the details of observations.

All the fishes that harboured these eels were closely examined to

find if there existed any wound or mark on the walls of the stomach

through which they might have entered the body cavity. No such

wounds were visible, nor was there any apparent sign of ill-health in

any of them.

Coming to the question as to how these eels may have reached

such situations normally inaccessible to them, Barret (1855) explains

that they might have been swallowed by the host and that with the

help of their pointed jaws they might have penetrated the walls of

the stomach and worked their way into the body cavity. Though

Williamson (1911) is satisfied with this explanation as far as pointed

objects are concerned, he thinks that it is hardly the way a hermit

crab might have reached the body cavity. The crab, he thinks might

’ Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Marine

Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam.

NAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

JOUR

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MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES) 3. 41). 201

have passed through the walls of the stomach at a point where the

tissue was weakened, possibly by the attack of some intestinal

parasites. ‘So far as the present observations are concerned the earlier

explanation given by Barret (op. cit.) seems to hold good, firstly

because of the very pointed snout of these eels and secondly because

eels often formed an item of food of the adult P. indicus wherein

this phenomenon was commonly observed (Mohamed, 1955).

Mypnenarenuliythankcs are dues to. Dra (NK: Panikkar for his

encouragement and guidance.

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES

RESEARCH SUB-STATION, K. H. MOHAMED

WEsT HILL, KOZHIKODE-S,

September 5, 1956.

REFERENCES.

Atwood, N. E. (1857): Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 6; 176.

— — — (1859): ibid, 7: 4.

ame a (OOS) anid adi: 364%

Barret, W. H. (1885): 3rd. Ann. Rep., Fish. Bd. Scotland, Appendix F. 5: 70-72.

Collins, J. W. (1886): Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., 6: 381-383.

Deraniyagala, P- &. P. (1932): Spol. Zeyl., 46 (8): 355-356.

Gudger, E. W. (1922): Jour. Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., 22: 452-457.

Mohamed (ke, ES (1955)s Ind. four. Bish., 2 164-179.

smith, J. L. B. (1958): The Sea Fishes of Southern Africa,

Williamson, H. C. (1911): 28th. Ann. Rep., Fish. Bd. Scotland, 3: Scientific

Investigations, 62.

24. OCCURRENCE OF THE ECHIUROID WORM IKEDELLA

MISAKIENSIS (IKEDA) IN INDIAN WATERS

(GULF OF KUTCH)

(With a text figure)

Durine a Survey ot the low tide belt of Pirotan Island, to miles

off Jamnagar, we came across an interesting Echiuroid (a bonellid),

Ikedella misakiensis' (female) which we believe has not so far been

reported from Indian Waters, but only found within the vicinity of

Shimoda Marine Biological Station, Japan! The specimens collected

were fairly large and seem to differ from that described from Japan

in certain features, especially in the position of the nephridiopore.

The survey was made on 11 and 12 June 1956, and Ikedella was

discovered on the 1ith morning. An interesting feature about the

animal’s activity is its relationship with the temperature of the surround-

ing water. It extends its proboscis only when the water gets

sufficiently warm. It was. after nearly 2 hours of waiting on those

coral rocks that the worms were seen to extend their proboscis into

the water. It was observed that the body of the animal is always

placed slightly oblique inside the rocks. The rocks had to be broken

1 Synonym, Parabonellia.

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

before the animals were removed entire. Even during low tide these

worms were completely submerged under water.

Die scrr pt tom

The colour of the

body is pale brown. it

is semi-transparent, with

a longitudinal white line

traversing the body from

the anterior to the pos-

terior region, and _ indi-

cates the position of the

ventral nerve cord. The

nephridiopore opens in

the anterior region of the

body on a papilla placed

on the left of the mid-

ventral line.

The length of the

worm from the tip of the

proboscis to the anus

ranges from 5.6” to 9.3”

(fig.). The body length

FANAeS FORT O. mtONsns i

and is. slightly bent

ventrally. The body is

almost cylindrical and

sausage-shaped. I ln é

proboscis is ribbon-like,

grooved on the ventrai

side and is dark violet

in «colour. adhe souter

margin of the proboscis,

throughout its whole length, extends on either side as a thin

white border which becomes more prominent in-the bifid region.

A detailed study of the ecology and anatomy of the worm is in

progress and will be published later.

We would like to express our thanks to the Director, Fisheries

Department, Saurashtra Government, for the help rendered by his staff

during our stay in Pirotan island. Our thanks are also to Dr. Norman

Tebble (Annelida Section) of the British Museum for kindly identifying

the specimen.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, P. W. GIDEON, P. K. B. MENON,

BIRLA COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, S. RYVURAOM SK Va TOs

Pilani (Rajastan). :

ventval nerve Coral

Anus :

Fig. Jkedella misakiensis (Ikeda)

2 natural size

REFERENCE

Sato, Hayao (1935): Parabonellia misakiensis (Ikeda) found in the vicinity of

the Shimoda Marine Biological Station. Annoto. Zool. Japan. 15 (1): 142-144.

* Government of India Research Schoiar (Senior).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 203

25. THE UNUSUAL RESISTANCE TO STARVATION OF

SACCHARICOCCUS SACCHARI (CKLL.)

The sugarcane mealy bug Saccharicoccus Sacchari Ckll. is becoming

increasingly important in the sugarcane growing areas in the Nizamabad

district of Andhra State. A comprehensive account of its status

on sugarcane has been given by Puttarudriah (1954).

On 4-7-1956, three medium-sized gravid female mealy bugs «vere

taken out from the leaf sheath of a sugarcane plant and put in a small

specimen glass tube plugged with cotton wad. 28 numbers of pinkish

coloured crawlers were observed on 11-7-1956. By oversight the tube

was stowed away without any food supply either to the crawlers or to

the female mealy bugs. On 6-8-1956, when the tube was accidentally

taken out, the crawlers were found clustered together between the

cotton wad and the inside of the tube. No sooner was the wad taken

out, than all the crawlers were observed to move about briskly. The

female mealy bugs were, however, dead. This shows the remarkable

tenacity of the crawlers of the mealy bug: to live without food and

in an unnatural environment for such a long time.

Govt. AGRI: RESEARCH STATION,

RubRvur P.O., D. V. MURTHY

NIZAMABAD DiIsT., ANDHRA.

REFERENCE

Puttarudriah, M. (1954): Ind. J. Ent., 16 (1): 1-10.

26. SOME INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS ON THE

ROYAL CHAMBER IN THE MOUND OF THE

TERMITE ODONTOTERMES REDEMANNI

(WASMANN)

Termite mounds and their peculiarities have been described by ditfer-

ent authors!—4and it is believed that generally the royal chamber of the

mound lies below the level of the ground surface. But some excep-

tions have been recorded about the royal chamber, in a mound of the

termite Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann) at Jhargram. The

mound, about 15 in. in height, was peculiar in having the royal

chamber located superficially, about 5 in. below the upper dome of the

mound. Curiously, the chamber occupied the northwest sector of

the mound and not north-east, a position that has been described

as ‘invariable’ by Deoras'. The queen in the chamber was however,

lying parallel to the magnetic meridian, i.e., in the North-South

direction. |

It may be pointed out that Mukerji and Mitra* recorded two

abnormal positions of the royal chamber at the Maithan dam area

only during rainy seasons. The present note records the observation

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

in the summer (April) 1955, and suggests that certain bio-ecological

conditions, rather than purely environmental conditions, govern the

position of the royal chamber in the termite mounds.

NATURAL HiSTORY SECTION,

InpIAN Museum, B. BANERJEE

CALCUTTA.

REFERENCES

Deoras, P. J.. (1949): Current. Soc. 18. :

Gupta, S59 Ds (1953))-Proc. Nat. ists Sos indiana:

Mukerji, 1. and (Mitcayy PP. 1Kke (1949) Rroc. Zool= Soe. Beneal, aisle.

Wishnoi, “Het S7i(195a)) sProcs lind: Sica) Cong want o:

eis obama

27. SOME COMMON TERMITES OF CALCUTTA

Termites are quite common in Calcutta throughout the year and

particularly at the onset and during the rainy season, when they make

their appearance in large numbers. Although all the castes of a particular

species are not available at one time and at a particular place, a general

idea about them can be had from collections made in the different parts

of the city. In the present communication, a list of these termites, with

short notes about the conditions under which they were found, is given.

The collections were made in the months of June-July 1956.

As the classification of the termites is controversial and since Holm-

eren’s (1917) general treatment on the Indian termites requires some

important modifications, I have mainly followed Banks and Snyder’s (1920)

classification, as enumerated by Imms (1951). The genus Zevmes, how-

ever, has been omitted, since it shows remarkable morphological similari-

ties with the genus Odoztotermes, and the two genera have been considered

together as the genus Odontotermes. All the species mentioned here

belong to the Family Termitidae.

Family ‘TERMITIDAE

Clypeus with median eye. Frontanelle present.

Genus ODONTOTERMES. Hoimg.

Antennae 16-17 jointed.

1, O.redemanni Wasm.

Head of the soldier oval and narrowed anteriorly. The tip of the jaws

bent in, and above the left jaw there is a slight projection. This is the

most common mound-building termite of Bengal. Nests are quite

common in certain suburbs of Calcutta. Two types of workers (Major

and Minor) present in the collection.

?, O.obesus Ramb.

Head rectangular. Left jaw with tooth in the middle. Large number

of specimens (both workers and soldiers) obtained from the compound

adjacent to the Zoology Dept., University College of Science, Calcutta.

They were found attacking a cut piece of coconut pulp. Two types of

workers and one type of soldiers present in the collection.

MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES LEVIN, | 205

3, O.heimi Wasm.

Major workers collected in large number from an old wooden frame

work. Soldiers collected from another place. Workers and soldiers

quite common at Jhargram.

4, O.horni Wasim.

Stout mandible with pretty big tooth. Workers and soldiers collected

from a wooden shelf.

5, O. obscuriceps Wasim.

Left mandible bent basally. Soldiers obtained from an old house at

Calcutta:

Genus COPTOTERMES Wasm.

Frontanellae towards the anterior end, large and open.

1. C.heimi Wasm.

Head narrow at the anterior end and rounder at the hinder end.

Soldiers and workers collected from under a log of wood.

Genus MICROCEROTERMES Oilv. (?)

Both mandibles equally bent concave on inner side. Serrated internal

edge.

1. Microcerotermes sp.

Jaws a bit smaller than the size of the head of soldier. Specimens

(mainly soldiers) collected from the old stem of a tree.

Genus MICROTERMES Wasm.

16 jointed antennae. Soldiers smaller than the workers.

1. M. heimi Wasm.

Small mandibular tooth. Workers and soldiers collected, while attack-

ing a wooden shelf containing books. They were preparing tunnels

within the shelf.

2. M. obesi Holme. (?)

Specimens, mainly workers, collected while coming out of a hole, in

the compound attached to the Zoology Dept., University College of

SCIENCE.

Genus LEUCOTERMES Oilv.

Rectangular head. Pronotum strongly grooved anteriorly.

1, Leucotermes sp.

Antennae 14-15 jointed. Workers collected from debris in Garia, a

few miles away from Calcutta.

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Genus EUTERMES Mull.

Mandible very small. Head with frontal tube.

1. E. horni Wasm.

Vertesae and Frons in one line. Specimens obtained from old wooden

debris.

It should be noted that of ali the termites mentioned above, the genus

Odontoltermes is the commonest in Calcutta, not orily in the particular

period referred to above, but throughout the year. The insects are very

common in the older houses of Calcutta, and their number increases

during the rainy season.

My thanks are due to Prof. D. Mukerji, Reader in Zoology, University

of Calcutta, for giving me permission to work in the Entomological

Laboratories, Zoology Dept., University College of Science, Calcutta.

NATURAL HISTORY SECTION,

INDIAN MUSEUM, BARUNDEB BANERJEE

CALCUTTA,

August 3, 1956.

REFERENCES

Banks, N. and Snyder, T. E. (1920) : U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 108.

Holmgren, K. and N. (1917) : Mem. Dept. Agri. India, Entom., Ser, 5.

Imms, A. D. (1951) : ‘Text Book of Entomology, London,

Wasmann (1903): Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 17.

G9 DO

28. NOTES ON THE COMMON BLACK GARDEN BEETLE

BASILIANUS NEELGHERRIENSIS

In January last, I again found one of these beetles on our garden

path (Lovedale, Nilgiris). They are quite common about here, but

I have never been able to find out what they would eat, as they are

generally found ‘taking a walk’ on the garden paths. But as I had

been told that it might belong to the Carabidae family which is

carnivorous, I thought I would try if this one would eat rather raw

cooked meat cut into quite small pieces. When it had settled down

in its new quarters, I found that it began eating the meat quite a lot.

In strange surroundings, i.e., in captivity, they are very quick

to sense, or hear, any ‘foreign’ approach, and will ‘freeze’ at once.

So that it is not easy to observe them eating, but I found that by

approaching very quietly, and staying very still, I could observe it

when it was quite definitely eating the meat.

This beetle I sent to the Bombay Natural History Museum for

indentification, and was told that it was not of the Carabidae family,

but was Basilianus neelgherriensis of the family of Passalidae. It

appeared to be something new to find that they would eat meat, so

when I again found one of these beetles in the garden about three weeks

ago (August) I thought I would experiment once more. This one took

longer to settle down; either he was already well fed when I found him,

or he had had some definite journey in his mind! It was at least

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 207

two days before he would touch any meat, I tried him first with

raw meat, but nothing would tempt him. Two days later, however,

he quite definitely ate the half-cooked meat which this time I had

put in his box all in one piece, about one inch long and a quarter

inch broad. Though this time I did not observe the beetle actually

eating, the meat’s surface clearly showed marks all over it of having

been well bitten.

Having once more proved to myself that these beetles will eat

meat, at least in captivity, I released Basilianus neelgherriensis back

into the garden.

I should be very grateful for any remarks these notes of mine

may produce from others, and would like to know what is this beetle’s

natural food. I now know they are wood-boring, so suppose they do

a certain amount of harm; but perhaps there is some good they

also do.

c/o Miss HEATH,

LOVEDALE P.O., (MISS) M. E. WOLFE MURRAY

NILGIRIS,

September 3, 1956.

29. TARACHE NITIDULA F., A SEMILOOPER PEST

ON COTTON IN SOUTH INDIA

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Cotton is one of the important cash crops grown extensively in

South India. Like any other crop it is also subject to the attack of

a number of pests. Among them three semiloopers figure pro-

minently, namely, Cosmophila indica G., Acontia graellsi F., and

Tarache mnitidula F. Of the three loopers, in some years Turachie

nitidula F, assumes the status of a major pest defoliating the leaves.

It has a wide distribution throughout the plains of Southern India.

Fletcher (1914) has recorded the occurrence of this pest on Calotropis

gigantea besides cotton. Hussain (1925) has reported it on Punjab

Cotton with another species of Tarache namely, notabilis, during the

months of May and August. Taylor and Chopra (1921) have

classified it as a major pest of cotton in the Transvaal and the Punjab,

effectively controlled by light traps. Lesne (1931) also is of opinion

that it is a major pest of cotton. Ramakrishna Iyer (1940) reckons

this insect as a sporadic local pest appearing now and then on cotton

doing extensive damage.

A severe infestation was noted in the Central Farm, Agricultural

College, Coimbatore during 1955 which gave an opportunity to pursue

the life-history of the pest as very little is known on its bionomic and

control aspects. The following is a short account of the observations

made on this pest at Coimbatore.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ENAGORALSAISH SOCIETY. Wild

Aphre iM omeint aig a7):

Hampson (1910) has given the following description :

‘Head and thorax silvery white; palpi above, antennae, forelegs and the tarsi

brownish ; abdomen white. Fore-wings silvery white; an oblique quadrate olive-

brown patch from costa near base to median neryure and a triangular patch on

middle of costa; the terminal area broadly olive-brown shading to purple-grey with

the indistinct dark curved post-medial line near its inner edge commencing in the

white sub-terminal line with very short streaks on the veins from it to a fine white

line just before termen enclosing a series of spots the spot above tornus being

blackish; cilia white tinged with brown at tips. Hind-wing white, the veins of

terminal area tinged with brown the termen suffused with brown, narrowing to

tornus. or confined to apical area; cilia white with a brown line through them

towards apex.’

bie housitoury,:

The moths copulate after a day of emergence, and the femaie lays

30 to 40 eggs singly on the surface of the leaves. The eggs hatch

out in the course, of three days. 7 the, cateypillarcs anes viene acume

and move on the plant in a looping manner. ‘They feed on the tender

leaves biting the edges of the leaflets. There are four moulis during

the larval stage. The caterpillar feeds voraciously and becomes full

grown in 20 to 22 days. The full-grown caterpillar undergoes a

drastic contraction in size just before pupation. It pupates in the

soil without any elaborate cocoon formation. The pupal period

varies from 12 to 15° days... Vhus, the whole lvie-cycle from eso to

adult takes 33 to 37 days.

fe)

he egg is circular in shape, greenish in colour and measures

0-577 mm. (Figs db). Whe egg periodsvanies) irom 3, te74 dave.

barvial: St Stage. (20)

Newly hatched larva about 2 mm, long, with prominent head,

brownish black in colour; body slender and blackish; the interseg-

mental area blackish white. Prolegs confined to 5th, 6th and roth

segments of the abdomen, the anterior ones being inconspicuous.

The larva moves actively in a looping fashion.

2nd Stage:

Length about 6 mm. Body orange coloured with a number of

white spots; second and third thoracic segments with a smoky blacis

patch on the dorsal side and the last anal segment with two distinct

white spots. Each segment provided with four black tubercles; the

anal segment raised in the form of a hump and provided with 2

orange-coloured tubercles on the summit. Paired prolegs three in

number, and orange coloured with black crochets; thoracic legs

whitish yellow in colour.

BVO Stages

Length about 1.6 cm. Body including head, thorax, abdomen

and prolegs chocolate brown with number of black and white spots,

some of the black spots on the thoracic and abdominal region being

located on raised tubercles; hairs on tubercles black; two whitish

patches seen prominently abutting the dorso-median line on the third

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

LIF a HIS TORY ST. AGES OF

EXPLANATION TO THE PLATE.

12 EGG GAGMIFIED

22 YOUNG CATERPIULAR

22 FULL GROWN CATERPILLAR

3 PUPA

4 ADULT

if "a

beanie vi

% ;

\ A

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

‘horacic, ist abdominal and anal segments. Spiracles distinct as

black oval patches.

ath Stage:

Larva pink coloured and about 2 cm. long. Body smooth and

provided with brick red spots, a pair of them each on the head, on

the thoracic segments as well as ist, 2nd, 3rd and 8th abdominal

segments.

5th (Final) Stage: (Fig. 2b)

Length about 2.4 cm., body very stout, smooth and ashy grey,

greenish, yellow and green; head-shield mottled in appearance.

Thoracic segments show progressive increase in size with prominent

swellings on the first and second. Second, third and fourth abdominal

segments smaller in size with a prominent hump situated dorsally on

the eighth segment. The total larval period varies during July to

August from 20 to 22 days.

Pupa:

Pupa naked dark brown, oval and measures 5 cm. in length. Pupal

period during late July to August varies from 10 to 12 days (lig.3).

ALTERNATIVE Host PLANTS

This caterpillar has a number of alternative host plants namely,

Calotropis giganiea, Hibiscus esculentus and Abutilon indicum besides

being specific to cotton crop.

REMED/AL MEASURES

Since this larva, of late, appeared in a virulent pest form sporadi-

cally, a small scale insecticidal trial was conducted in the Central

Farm area. Four treatments, namely, sprays of BHC 0.1%, DDT

om, Aldrin 0.196 and Dieldrin' 0.19%, were tried on the infested

plants. Four heavily infested plants were selected for each treat-

ment and the population of caterpillars on 5 leaves per plant was

counted before and after treatment. The following results were

obtained (Table I).

TABLE 1

Taran Treatment and population

counts.

Treatments Number of Population after Percentage

leaves |Population treatment in of reduction

examined Bete in popula-

per plant MN ROIN ES || eee ee tion.

24 Hrs. 48 Hrs.

1. BHC 01% fy) 12 4 0 100%

2. DDT 1% 5 14 9 7 95%

3. Aldrin 0:1% 5 10 6 4 €0%

4, Dieldrin 0°1% 5 16 8 6 63%

5. Control 5 12 10 10 Nil.

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

From the trials it is evident that BHC 0.1% can etfect a complete ~

mortality of the caterpillars within 48 hours after treatment. Next

in order of efficacy are Aldrin and Dieldrin respectively. In the

trials conducted, spraying was adopted in preference to dusting as the

former alone was found practicable for dealing’ with the caterpillars

which usually remain on the underside of the leaves.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is deeply indebted to Sri K. P. Ananthanarayanan B.a.

(Hons.), Government Entomologist, for his kindness in going through

the paper and making valuable suggestions.

MaprAs AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. S: VENUGOPAL,

B.sc. (Zool.), B.sc. (Bot.), M.sc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chopra, R. L. (1928). Annual Report of the Entomologist to the Government

of Punjab, Lyallpur, 1926-27. Rep. Dept. Agri. Punjab 1926-27, 1: 43-69.

Fletcher, T. B. .(1914): South Indian Insects: 132.

Hampson, L. H. (1910): Cat. Lep. Phal. Brit. Mus., 10: 768.

Hussain, M. A, (1925): Annual Rept. of the Entomologist to the Government

of Punjab, Lyallpur, 1924. Rept. Dept. Agri., Punjab, 4 (2): 55-90.

Lesne, P. (1931) : Coup d’oeil surles pronapaux ennemis ducotonieram Mozambique.

Rev. Bot. Appl., 10: 781-791.

Ramakrishna lyer, T. V. (1940): Hand-book of Economic Entomology Supt.

Govt. Press, Madras. 241.

Taylor, J. S. (1927): A note on some African Lepidoptera of economic importance

with special reference to eastern Transvaal. Ent. Rec., 39 (10): 141-144.

30.. PARTIAL EMERGENCE OF THE IMAGINES OF

DRAGONFLIES (ODONATA) DUE TO THE ABSENCE

: OF A HOLDING PLACE

(With two figures)

While engaged in a study of the Biology of Dragonflies of

Ramanathapuram District (South India) in an attempt to elucidate

the conditions attending the emergence of the imago, I came across

interesting cases of partial emergence of the imagines and subsequent

drowning of the latter, due to the absence of a holding place in the

laboratory experimental jars, where several dragonfly nymphs were

kept for observation and study. Since there is no record of a similar

observation, it was felt that this interesting case is worthy of record-

ing. In view of the importance of the dragonflies in the biological

control of mosquitos (adults and larvae), the present observation at

this critical stage in the life-history comprising of a shifting over from

aquatic to aerial mode of life will be of considerable interest.

Thirtyseven nymphs belonging to the genera Pantula, Tholymis,

Tramea, Orthetrum and Anax were kept in a glass jar of 2’x1’x 14’.

The jar was half filled with clear pond water free from reeds, weeds

and other usual resting structures for the nymphs, to note whether

the nymphs could metamorphose into adults without a suitable object

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Zi1

for gripping and if the emergence could be postponed even after the

completion of the metamorphosis. The smooth inner surface of the

glass jar did not permit a firm hold for the legs of the nymphs. It

was noticed that, whereas, in the control bowls which contained

partially submerged reeds, normal metamorphosis took place and the

adults emerged out of the nymphal cases leaving behind the exuviae

above the level of water, in the present instance the emergence of the

imago was partial. In case No. 1, (nymph of Pantala) it will

be seen that only a’ part of the head and thorax of the imago

fc Emerging imago

Nymphal case

Fig. 1. showing the partial emergence of the imago of Pantala.

emerged through the ‘crack’ in the nymphal case while the rest

of the body could not be pulled out which remained within the

case. In the second case (nymph of Tvamea) the emergence was found

to be still more advanced but incomplete. The entire head, thorax

Emerging imago Neopia case

CFE

Fig. 2. showing the unsuccessful emergence of the imago of Tramea.

212- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

and the three pairs of legs emerged out of the nymphal case, but the

wings and the abdomen could not be pulied out by the emerging

insect, obviously due to the absence of a firm substratum, on which

the nymph could firmly hold, to pull the wings and the abdomen.

It will be of interest to note the statement of Corbet (1955), in the

light of tha present observation. He states, ‘It is worthy of mention

that, after metamorphosis has been completed, it is probable that

emergence can be postponed for a considerable time. ... . This

ability to postpone emergence for a considerable period until conditions

become favourable might well be of adaptive significance.’ However,

the present observations indicate that (1) the duration of nymph

cannot be extended beyond a certain period. Instead of postponing

the emergence, the imago while still partially encased in the nymphai

cover, gets drowned, in the attempt to emerge, and that (2) it fails to

emerge successfully in the absence of a suitable foot-hold. The

present observation, therefore, suggests that one of the essential

requisites for the successful emergence is the availability of a suitable

substratum on which the nymph could hold fast.

Thanks are due to Dr. N. Balakrishnan Nair for suggestions and

help in the preparation of this note, and Prof. Samuel Raj for

facilities given.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALAGAPPA COLLEGE, D. R. KRISHNAN

IKARAIKUDI,

October 14, 1956.

REFERENCE

Corbet, Philip (1955): Proc. R. ent. Soc. of Lond., (A) 80: 115-126.

31. “ HESPERIIDAE OF THE KHAST AND JAINDITAy Eiics

Brigadier Evans in his Catalogue of the Hesperiidae of Europe,

Asia and Australia frequently mentions the Khasi Hills or the Naga

Hills and Manipur but often merely records Assam, so a list for the

Khasi and Jaintia Hills is just worth making. The collectors working

under Tytler in the Naga Hills and Manipur between 1911 and 1913

took many Hesperiids now in the British Museum (Natural History),

but those procured by others from the Khasi Hills, nearly all from the

Cherra area, were evidently only a small part of the general takings

of butterflies, as one finds many species represented from the Khasi

Hills by only one or two examples in the British Museum. One can

therefore conjecture that a few more species do occur but have not

been taken, though I have only one such in my collection. This

was meagre when I left India; subsequent procurement from the

Shillong dealer resulted in large numbers but most of them of a few

commen species. The obtaining of a few species not known to exist

is not worth heavy and expensive slaughter. The list is made binomial

for compression; trinomials indicating the Assam subspecies can be

found in Evans’s book. Abundance or rarity can be judged by the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

numbers recorded for Assam generally, and of the Khasi Hills parti-

cularly, in Evans, but I have noted VC, C or NR for some species

which I have got in numbers sufficient for such recording,

The male of any unknown species can be identified by dissecting it

under a dissecting microscope and going through the pages of drawings

of genitalia at the end of Evans’s book. When genitalia are very similar

in allied species, the key will generally show differences in the imago.

In very few cases is the amateur left in doubt. Brigadier Evans does

all his dissections by moistening the end of the abdomen with wood

naptha. The body is held in the fingers or by a forceps with a clip

and the skin removed by a needle and forceps. The left clasp is

detached and stuck, inner side upwards, on a card by an adhesive,

such as seccotine. The rest of the genitalia are detached all together

and stuck on the card which is placed below the insect on the pin.

Much practice is needed as at first one breaks off portions. If the

novice has only one or two specimens of a species and fears failure he

can cut off the tip of the abdomen and soak overnight in, or boil for

two minutes in a test tube in, a ten per cent solution of potassium

hydroxide, wash and dissect in methylated spirit in a watch glass.

The left clasp is detached and put alongside the rest of the genitalia

on a card when the spirit will at once soak away into the card and

the genitalia can be moved into a spot of adhesive on the card. This

latter method is not a good scientific one as curling may ensue on

the card and small differences in clasps of nearly allied. species may

become unrecognisable by distortion, but it allows the amateur to

identify species by an easy dissection. By both methods the laborious

art of slide making is avoided. If at the time of capture the genitalia

are extruded by pinching the abdomen, they can be seen subsequently

at any time without dissection. Also dissection is not necessary if

the genus is known or can be guessed by a collector with some ex-

perience. He will then know what to look for and can merely brush

away the scales by a small brush with its hairs cut very short and

expose a clasp. If a view of the inner side of the clasp or of the

ventral aspect of the uncus is required the end of the abdomen can

be moistened with wood naptha and a needle used to open the

clasps. For such inspection removal of the abdomen from nae thorax

may not be necessary.

Females are often a difficulty and sometimes an impossibility

unless the corresponding male has a distinctive locality and I have to

thank Brigadier Evans for his never failing help in such cases.

Bibasts oedipodea, jaina, harisa, vasutana NR, amara, gomata

sena. 7 .

Hlasora anura, chromus, taminatus, badra.

Badamia exclamationts.

Choaspes platent, benjaminiz, xanthopogon, hemixanthus.

Capila phanaeus, pennicillatum, pieridoides, jayadeva.

Lobocla liliana.

Celaenorrhinus pyrrha, ratna, plagitera, platula, leucocera (the

commonest), putva, munda, nigricans, badia, asmara, zea, LS i

aurivittata.

Darpa hanria.

Coladenia dan testa, dan fatua NR, fabia NR, indrani, agni. .

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Savrangesa dasahara VC.

Satarupa gopala.

Seseria sam bara,

Chamunda chamunda.

Daimio sinica C., phisara C.

Tagiades japetus NR, gana, parra, litigiost C, menaka NR,

cohaerens,

Mooreana trichoneura.

Ctenoplilum vasava.

Odontoptilum angulata.

Caprona agama.

SAtalia galba.

Asticopterus jama C.

Arnetta atkinsoni.

Ochus subvittatus.

Barachus vittatus.

Aeromachus stigmata, jhora.

Sebastonyma dolopia.

Sovia grahami, one in B.M., lucasiz magna, one in my coll.

Thoressa cerata, fusca debilis, only the type male and female.

Fflalpe zema, kumara, knyvetti, sikkima, porus, homolea NR, arcuata,

wanitona.

Pithauria straminetpennis NR, murdava NR.

lambrix salsala VC.

Koruthaialos rubecula, butlert.

Stzmula swinhoei.

Ancistroides nigrita.

Notocrypta paralysos NR, curviftascia C, fetsthelhami NR.

Odaspes folus,

Scobura phiditia, tsota.

Suastus gremius, minuta,

Copitha purreea.

Zographetus satwa.

Flyarotis microstictum.

Plastingia callineura, one in B.M., one in my coll, zaga, one in

B.M

Lotongus sarala.

Gangara thyrsis.

Zela zeus, only the type.

Evrionota torus, thrax, acroleucus,

Matapa aria, druna, savisarna, cresta, purpurascens.

Ochlodes subhyalina, siva, brahma.

Oriens gola C, goloides C.

Potanthus vectitasciata, one in B.M., tvachala, pallida, one in B.M ,

pseudomaesa, juno, one in B.M., szta, one in B.M., confucius, lydia,

ganda, one in B.M., zesta, one in B.M., paluzza. On dissection the

species found is usually palzza.

Lelicota colon, linna, ohara. (ancilla may occur but dissections

hitherto have shown only linna).

Cephrenes chrysozoa.

Parnaia guttatus C, ganga, naso.

Borbo bevani Cc. Tes

Pelopidas sinensis, agna, assamensis NR, conjuncta,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

Polytremis lubricans C, dzscreta NR, eltola NR.

Baoris tarri, penicitlata.

Caltoris sivius, one in B.M., cahira, bromus, cormasa, kumara,

tulsz.

June 14, 1956. SIR KEITH CANTLIE,

iC... Netd)

32, FURTHER NOTES AND ADDITIONS TO THE

LIST OF BUTTERFLIES FROM BOMBAY AND SALSETTE

With reference to the list of butterflies from the above areas,

published in Vol. 50, No. 2 of your journal, and the further list in Vol. 53

of December 1955, I have recently spent a further five months in Bombay

from early February to the end of June 1956. During this time I was

able to spend most week-ends collecting, and have to record the following

additions to the list :

1. Pantoporia perius. This is fairly common along the stream which

runs from Tulsi Lake through the Kanheri National Park, and also at

Powai Lake.

2. Neptis jumbah. A single male was taken near Tulsi Lake and

another on the path between Tulsi and Vihar Lakes. Thisis a rare

Insect on the Island.

3, Amblypodia centaurus. Two males and one female were taken on

the stream between Tuisi Lake and Kanheri, and another male on the

stream between Tulsi Lake and Powai Lake.

4, Pratapa deva. Two males taken on the hilltop to the north-east of

Powai Lake, and several others were seen in the same place.

5. Rapala schistacea. Several males on a hilltop where the Ghodbunder

Road attains its highest point between Ghodbunder and Thana.

6. Gangara thyrsis. A male flew into my flat at 9 p.m. at Hill Park,

Malabar Hill, and settled on a lamp, where it was taken by hand. Others

were seen in the late evenings in the garden.

During the hot weather the stream running from Tulsi Lake through

Kanheri National Park is practically dry, but there are several parts

where butterflies are to be found, and at the lake end there is always a

trickle of water. This is one of the best areas on the Island.

This year was a good one for Kallima Phillarctus Horstieldiz and

there was not a single day without seeing at least three or four. One

was even seen in the City immediately outside the Society’s Office, and

another in the garden of Hill Park, Malabar Hill.

Another butterfly much commoner than usual was Graphium nomius

nomius of which there were literally hundreds at wet patches on the

stream mentioned above at the end of May.

Other butterflies seen this year, of which I had previously only taken

a single specimen, were :

Appias albina.

Euploea crassa

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

A patura camitba

_Euthalia lubentina

Rapala melampus

Syntarucus plinius

Spindasts lohita

Sarangesa dasahara

P.O} box lO:

~ RANGOON, BuRMA, Av. (Gp BEST

August 25, 1956.

33. ON THE PHENOMENON OF DRUMMING IN

EGG-LAYING FEMALE BUTTERFLIES

Dr. Ilse’s note about the ‘Behaviour of Butterflies before

Oviposition’ [JBNHS, 1956, 53 (3)| very lucidly reviews the present

state of our knowledge of the ‘drumming’ behaviour—quick alternate

tapping on the leaves with forelegs—-by female butterflies immediately

before the deposition of each egg. The reference made by her to my

observation on the behaviour of the egg-laying female of the Lemon

Butterfly, Papilio demoleus, encourages me to write the following few

lines on this subject.

While working on the colour and form perception in some

butterflies, I had occasion of observing their way of life very closely.

To study the normal behaviour of these butterflies, natural surround-

ings were imitated as nearly as possible in a special part of a large

cage. Here, I was able to observe ‘drumming’ in Papilio demoleus,

Papilio polytes, Polydorus avristolochia and Graphium agamemnon. I

actually used this behaviour in the female of Papilic demoleus as a

basis for a series of experiments on colour vision (Vaidya, 1956).

There is still a lot of doubt about the exact purpose served by such

tapping on the leaf by female butterflies before oviposition. The

explanation offered by Bell (1909)—that it helps in driving away the

spiders and micro-ichneumons from the leaf which would otherwise

destroy the eggs and the larva—-seems to me also too fragile to be

acceptable. Dr. Hse (l.c.) maintains that this behaviour allows the

female butterfly to select the exact plant (larval host plant) for

egg-laying by testing the chemical properties of the leaf, and then to

select such a leaf as is not too turgid or too dry by testing its physical

properties. This explanation, which comes of a long standing ex-

perience of nature study, seems to be very near the truth.

Some of my recent observations, however, stand in apparent

contradiction to the above hypothesis. They are as follows:

(a) During my experiments on the responses to colours by the

egg-laying females of the Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus, I

observed that an egg was laid on an artificial paper leaf (a saturated

blue-green paper of the standardized Ostwald series). In view of the

fact that this paper was not even remotely identical with a leaf of the

citrus (the larval host plant) in physical properties like texture,

turgidity, etc., nor in its chemical nature, it is difficult to explain this

behaviour by Dr, Ilse’s hypothesis. It seemed that the actual

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217

response to coloured papers by the egg-laying females was directed

by the odour of the citrus plant kept outside the cage but not very

far away from the experimental arrangement.

(b) In the presence of a strong odour of crushed citrus leaves

a number of females of Papilio demoleus in my cage actually laid after

drumming, a large number of eggs on wet soil, on white mosquito-

netting, on wire-netting, on an empty tin (which I sometimes used to

store water), on my white dress and even on my fingers. This

observation shows that even where drumming is performed, eggs may

be laid, under certain conditions, on objects in no way comparable to

ay citrus leat.

the Government Fruit Experimental Station at Kirkee, a female of

Papilio demoleus laying eggs. On two occasions, I found that after

performing ihe usual drumming this female laid eggs on two different

weedy plants growing in the citrus beds. One of them belonged to

the Compositae and the other to the Graminae. These are surely quite

unlike in chemical composition to Rutaceae, to which all citrus plants

belong. Moreover, it must be remembered that the plants belonging

to Compositae and Graminae can never support the larval development

of Papilio demoleus.

In the light of these observations, I feel, it is necessary to re-

consider the whole problem of ‘drumming behaviour’ in egg-laying

butterflies.

In Papilio demoleus, I have observed that the drumming’ is

accompanied by the simultaneous fluttering of the wings. At the

moment of the actual deposition of an egg, the drumming’ stops

abruptly but the fluttering of wings continues. . It seems that drumming

and fluttering of wings are effects of some common cause.

As an egg rapidly makes its way through the oviduct to the female

genital opening as a result of contraction of muscles in the wall of

_the oviduct, the female is probably under the influence of ‘pangs of

labour’ of considerable intensity. May I suggest that drumming

with forelegs and fluttering of wings are probably nothing but external

manifestations of a momentary uneasiness arising from pain?

A detailed discussion on this subject will be included in a paper

on the observations and experiments on the behaviour of the egg-

laying’ female of Papilio demoleus.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF Poona, VIDYADHAR G. VAIDYA

POONA-7, :

August 22, 1956.

CATR ER ACh URE

Bell, T. R. (1909): Common Butterflies of the Plains of India, JBNHS, 19 (3).

Ilse, Dora (1956): Behaviour of Butterflies before Oviposition, JBNHS, 59 (8).

Vaidya, V. G. (1956): Observations and Experiments on the Behaviour of the

egg-laying Female of Papilio demoleus L., (Unpublished).

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

34. THE POISONOUS QUALITIES OF CALOTROPIS

~GIGANTEA R. BR.

Recently I came across the following reference on the subject in

the J. Ceylon Br. Asiat. Soc. 4: 157-159, 1865-1866: ‘A few remarks

on the poisonous properties of the Calotropis Gigantea, the Mudar of

Bengal, the Yercum of the Tamils, and the Warra of the Sinhalese’,

by W. C. Ondaatje, Esq. Asst. Col.-Surgeon.

The author of the paper writes: ‘From the effects which the

milk of Calotropis gigantea has thus been ascertained to produce, it

appears to me to belong to the class of Narcotic-Irritant poisons . :

And further down: ‘The milk of the Mudar may be placed on the

list of the most deadly vegetable poisons in Ceylon and India...’

It is generally accepted that the sap of Calotropis gigantea and

other species of the same genus is poisonous; but the following

observations may show the contrary. Whilst engaged in the botanical

survey of Saurashtra, on many occasions I did notice that shrubs of

C. procera and C. gigantea seemed to be much damaged as if browsed

upon by some animals—cattle and goats? But I did not see any of

these animals eating the plants. Both species are common in

Saurashtra, and during the dry season one often sees bushes of

Calotropis with nothing but the bare stems.

In October last year { did in fact see goats actually eating

Calotropis gigantea leaves. I had climbed to the top of the ghat road

at Khandala, when I met a large flock of goats being driven towards

Bombay. The goats were marching along and stopping occasionally

for a bite on herbs or shrubs near the road. Several goats stopped

near a shrub of C. gigantea and proceeded to eat its leaves with

apparent relish and plenty of haste; when they had finished every leaf

on the shrub, they continued their march along the road. Their lips,

nostrils and in fact most of their heads were covered with the white

milky sap of the plant. It was further noticed that although there

was plenty of grass on the ground, goats did not pay any attention to,

it, and went straight for Calotropis.

From this observation, two points seem to be clear: the first is

that the plant is not such a violent poison as the quotation given

above would suggest; the second is that goats, and possibly other

ruminants, may develop a particular taste for some plant that in itself

may be rather unpalatable.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BoMBAY, H. SANTAPAY, s.}.

August 27, 1956.

35. PARTHENIUM HYSTEROPHORUS LINN., A NEW

RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a plate)

During my stay at Poona in January 1956, Shri H. Paranjape,

Retired Horticulturist, Government of Bombay, gave me a specimen

for identification, saying that he had found it growing as a stray

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe,

or ap oe

Parthenium hysterophorus Linn,

Fig. 1. Twig. 2. Leaf. 3. Apical part with inflorescence. 4. Inflorescence.

5. Outer bract. 6. Bract of female flower. 7. Bract of male flower. 8. Female

flower with bract and with a pair of male flowers with bracts. 9. Female flower.

10. Male flower. 11. Stamen. 12. Fresh fruit. 13, Diagrammatic representation

of floral arrangement in inflorescence.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219

plant in his compound. The same species was later found to be

growing in abundance as a weed near the river bank and in a scattered

state along the dry fields surrounding Poona Agricultural College.

The plant has been identified as Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.

There seems to be no record of this plant from India or even from

Bombay State in particular. As it may be of interest for other

botanists, a detailed description (prepared by the writer as no des-

cription could be procured from the literature available with him)

together with the diagrams of various parts of the plant, is given

along with this note.

Plant: herbaceous growing to a height of about 1-1.2 metres

(3.5-4 ft.), the diameter of upper part upto 45-60 cm. (1.5-2 ft.),

Stem: whitish hairy, angular, longitudinally grooved, profusely

branched. Leaves: alternate, simple but pinnately and irregularly

much dissected, dissected tips acute, margin entire, pubescent on

both sides but more so on upper surface, hairs whitish, thin texture,

venation more prominent cn lower surface, length varying from

2-8 cm. breadth upto 5 cm. Inflorescence: terminal. or avxillary,

peduncled, peduncle upto 1 cm., slightly hairy, head with an involucre

of usually 5 outer bracts followed by 5 very thin bracts each sub-

tending a female flower with two male flowers one -on either side,

each male flower in turn enclosed in a bract of its own and then

finally followed by male flowers only, probably without bracts or

bracts insignificant or represented by hairy structures, all bracts and

floral arrangement spiral (vide fig. 13), head upto 4 mm. long, 4-5

mm. in diameter, outer bracts ovate, acute, upper two-thirds of

margin lined by fine hairs, venation prominent, upto 2.5 mm. long,

upto 1.5 mm. broad. Female flowers usually five, bracteate, bract

obovate, thin, transparent, margin lined by irregular filmy layers,

venation distinct, upto 2 mm. long or slightly more, upto 1 mm.

broad or slightly more, flower jug-shaped with ovary as distinct

lower part, corolla as cup-shaped upper part, lobes indistinct, enclos-

ing style, stigma bifurcated, slightly exerted, stylar canal faintly

visible through transparent ovary, two appendages one on either side

at the junction of the upper and lower parts, ovule single, basal, dark,

distinct, flower upto 2.5 mm. long. Male flowers developed in pairs

along with five femzle flowers and after that developed singly; flowers

developing with female flowers bracteate, bracts oblanceolate, thin,

transparent, margin lined by irregular filmy layers, somewhat boat-

shaped in young stage enclosing male flowers, upto 2 mm. long or

slightly more, upto 0.5 mm. broad or slightly more, male flower in

general more or less infundibuliform with a _ slight constriction

demarcating lower abortive ovary and upper transparent corolla,

lobes five, distinct, acute, stamens five, syngenecious, anthers with

small knob-like prolonged connective, filament very short, flower upto

1.5 mm. long or slightly more. Fruit: in fresh stage ellipsoid,

obovate, dark, brittle with remnants of cup-shaped corolla, appendages

and style persistent, 2 mm. long, 1 mm. broad.

The plant is said to be a native of the West Indies, Central and

Northern America. Collections from West Indies, United States of

America and South Africa only are available in the Herbarium of the

Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta. There are however, no collections

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 ©

from India in that Herbarium. This is possibly an exotic weed and

has probably got acclimatised in the Western part of India. Further

exploration in the various parts of India, particularly Western India,

may reveal its occurrence in other localities. It would be interesting

to gather details of its economic importance if any.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN CIRCLE, R. SESHAGIRI RAO

NIRALA, Regional Botanist

SHILLONG,

August 3, 1956.

36. NOTES ON AERIDES MACULOSUM LINDL.

(With a text figure)

This is one of the most beautiful of our Bombay orchids; and

until a few years ago, it was one of the most common of the wild

orchids indigenous in the State; its beauty has been its undoing, for

many visitors to our hill stations plundered the countryside and re-

moved whatever specimen was easily available.

Recently we found a specimen in the cemetery of Purandhar Fort,

Poona District, that was noteworthy for its very large size; total

length 28 cm., leaves 8 pairs, each up to 32x5 cm. This plant has

been under cultivation in Bombay, and has come into flower in April

of this year.

Aerides maculosum Lind). showing flowers and vegetative proliferation

Many orchids seem to have a-rest period during. which flowers

are not produced; this apparent inability to flower has caused many

collectors to throw away otherwise valuable specimens. We have

kept our plant under observation since October -1954; for. the period

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 291

October 1954 to June 1955, the plant was watered regularly every

day, but it did not flower; after the monsoon rains of of 1955, the plant

was left unwatered until this year’s monsoon supervened. During

the period when the plant was regularly watered, its vegetative

growth was fast; during the dry season, when it was left unwatered,

growth was slow, but this seems to have induced profuse flowering.

At the end of April of this year we noticed the first signs of the

coming flowers; by the middle of May 1956 it showed a large bunch

of flowers (a central rachis with four lateral branches).

Towards the end of May of this year the flowering spike gave

rise to a vegetative proliferation at its end; gradually 4-6 fleshy leaves,

much smaller in size than those at the base of the plant, appeared

beyond the flowers; these terminal ieaves gradually fell off, but. new

leaves appeared in their place, so that 4-6 were always present on the

plant.

Unfortunately we had only one specimen, and so could noi carry

out experiments with proper controls, on the effect of the profuse

watering during the dry season. It is quite possible that the early

flowering of the plant and its vegetative proliferation may be due to

the abnormal watering it received. The plant in its wild state is

known to flower only between the end of May and the middle of

June.

The diagram herewith appended was:drawn by one of us from the

living specimen. At present the preserved plant is kept in Blatter

Herbarium of our College.

H. SANTAPAYU, s.,}.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, Z. KAPADIA, B.sc. (Hons.)

BomBay,

July 5, 1956.

37. SOME NEW PLANTS FOR THE DANGS FOREST,

BOMBAY STATE

(With two plates)

Under the auspices of the Gujerat Research Society, the senior

author has been conducting intensive botanical surveys in the Dang's

Forest; some of his research students have joined in many of his

outings. The results of the survey of the Dangs Forest have been

published in the Jour. of the Gujerat Res. Society; the work is still

continuing. The present paper gives details of two striking plants

that have been found to be rather common all over the Dangs. The

junior author has been working on the Papilionaceae of Bombay State

and has accompanied the senior author on several excursions to the

Dangs.

Indigofera oreophila spec. nov.

Accedit ad Indigoferam tritam Linn. charactere generali florum,

foliorum et habitus; ab ea tamen differt praesertim sequentibus notis :

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

foliorum magnitudine et forma, inflorescentia aeque longa ac folia vel

hisce duplo longiore, fructibus tenuioribus. pee

Suffrutex valde ramosus, 150-180 cm. altus; culm teretes et sub-

lignosi ad maturitatem, tenues et paulo angulati in juvenili conditione,

adpresse albo-pilosi. Folia trifoliata, alterna, petiolata, stipulata ;

petiolus 20-27 mm. longus, productus 10-13 mm. ultra foliola lateralia,

adpresse pubescens, supra late et tenuiter canaliculatus. Foliola 3,

membranacea, 22-45 x 12-15 mm., elliptico-oblonga, rotundato-apiculata

ad apicem, obtusa ad basim, integra, paulo adpresse pubescentia in

superiore pagina, in inferiore vero plus pubescentia et pallide viridia ;

nervi laterales 4-5-jugi, alterni, indistincti; petioluli 1-2 mm. longi,

aliquantum tumescentes, pubescentes ; stipulae 3 mm. longae, subulatae,

ciliatae, persistentes ; stipellae minutae, lineares, persistentes. Inflores-

centia axillaris, racemosa; inflorescentiae rachis 5-20 cm. longa,

angulosa, pubescens, tenuissima, saepe ad apicem curvata, fructifera

evadens aliquanto robustior. Flores 20-40, laxe dispositi, pedicellati,

bracteati, pediculo 1 mm. longo, erecto sub alabastro, reflexo sub flore

et fructu, bracteis singulis sub unoquoque pediculo, 2-2.5 mm. longis,

subulatis, pubescentibus, caducis. Calyx 3-4 mm. longus, fere ad

basim usque divisus, dense et adpresse pubescens, sub fructibus

persistens; dentes 5, inter se aequales, lineari-lanceolati, ciliati.

Corolla rubra, exserta; vexillum 5x4 mm., suborbiculare, sessile,

fastigatum ad basim, tenuiter pubescens in parte dorsali; alae 5x 1.5

mm.; carina 5x 1 mm., calcarata ad basim, ungue 2 mm. longo ornata.

Stamina 9+1; filamenta 5 mm. longa, sub apice libera per : mm.,

alterna quidem breviora; antherae uniformes, basifixae, apiculatae.

Ovarium 3 mm. longum, lineare, tenuissime pubescens; stylus 1 mm.

longus, angulum rectum cum ovario efformans; stigma capitatum,

terminale. Legumen 25-30x1 mm., tetragonum, lineare, apiculatum,

adpresse pilosum, reflexum, intus septatum. Semina 7-8, singula

2x1 mm., ovoidea, levia, ochracea colore.

Typus lectus in Dangs Forest, in loco Waghai, die 23 mensis

octobris, anni 1955 a D. P. Panthaki, et repositus in Blatter Herbarto,

Bombay, sub- numero 2,350; paratypi Santapau 109,985, 20,081 et

20,281 lecti eodem in loco et positi in Blatter Herbario et in herbario

Hortus Regii Kewensis, in Anglia, paratypus alius, Panthaki 2,415,

positus in Blatter Herbario.-

Indigofera oreophila spec. nov.

This new species approaches in many respects Indigofera trita

Linn.; the general character of the plants is the same, the shape and

structure of flowers is rather closely similar. The main differences

are the following: the leaves are much large, the leaflets broader,

the inflorescence much longer, at times even twice as long as the

leaves, the fruits somewhat more slender in the new species.

Undershrub, much branched, 150-180 cm. tall. Stem terete and

subwoody when old, slender and slightly angled when young,

appressedly white-pubescent. Leaves trifoliate, alternate, petiolate,

stipulate; petiole 20-27 mm. long, produced 10-13 mm. beyond the

attachment of the lateral leaflets, appressedly pubescent, with a broad

shallow groove. ‘Leaflets 3, membranous, 22-45 x 12-15 mm., elliptic

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 223.

—oblong, apex rounded-apiculate, entire, base obtuse, upper side

appressedly slightly pubescent, the lower one more so and pale green;

lateral nerves 4-5 pairs, alternate, rather faint; petiolules 1-2 mm.

long, slightly tumid, pubescent; stipules 3 mm. long, subulate, ciliate,

persistent; stipels minute, linear, persistent. Inflorescence axillary,

racemose; rachis 5-20 cm. long, angled, pubescent, very slender, often

curved at the apex, becoming somewhat stouter in fruit. Flowers

20-40, laxly arranged, pedicellate, bracteate; pedicels 1 mm. long,

straight in bud, reflexed in flower and fruit; bracts one at the base

of each pedicel, 2-2.5 mm. long, subulate, pubescent, caducous. Calyx

3-4 mm. long, divided nearly to the base, strongly and appressedly

hairy, persistent in fruit; teeth 5, equal, linear-lanceolate, ciliate.

Corolla red, exserted; standard 5x 4 mm., suborbicular, sessile, taper-

ing at the base, downy on the dorsal side; wings 5x1.5 mm.; keel

5x1 mm., connate dorsally except for the claw, bearing a short spur

before tapering into a 2 mm. long claw. Stamens 9+1; filaments

5 mm. long, free for less than 1 mm. from the apex, every alternate

one slightly shorter; anthers uniform, basifixed, apiculate. Ovary

3 mm. long, linear, puberulous; style 1 mm. long, bent at right

angles to the ovary; stigma capitate, terminal. Fruits 25-30x 1 mm.,

tetragonous, linear, apiculate, appressedly hairy, reflexed, septate

within. Seeds 7-8, each 2x1 mm., ovoid, smooth, yellow ochre.

The type of this new species has been collected at Waghai, in the

Dangs Forest, on the 23rd October, 1955 by Miss D. P. Panthaki, and

has been deposited in the Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, under the

number Panthaki 2,350; the paratypes, Santapau 19,985, 20,0%1 and

20,281, collected from the same locality, have been placed in Blatter

Herbarium and in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

in England; another paratype, Panthaki 2,415, has also been deposited

in Blatter Herbarium.

This new species is quite a striking plant. It grows gregariously

in dense clumps usually in the undergrowth of tall forest, the clumps

at times being over 5 m. in diameter; the usual or average height of

the clumps is well over one metre, and some individual plants reach

nearly to 2 metres. Another noteworthy feature of the plant is the

size of the inflorescence, which often is at least twice as long as

the full-grown leaves. In general appearance the plant is decidedly

a shrub or undershrub, as against Indigofera trita L., which is only

a more or less robust herb.

Our new species has been found in flower in October-November,

in fruit from November to January. Exataination of the species oi

Indigofera from Bombay State, in Blatter Herbarium, has revealed

that our new species is fairly widely distributed in Bombay State; we

have seen specimens from various parts of the Dangs Forest, from

Purandhar Hill, Poona Dt., and from Borivli; in every case the plant

grows in the undergrowth of the forest, or where no forest is present,

in the undergrowth of tall shrubs. We have named it oreopiila to

commemorate the fact that the new species seems to be restricted to

the hills in Bombay State; we have seen no specimen from the low

parts of the Konkan proper. | |

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

The main differences between our new species and Indigofera trita

Linn. can be given in tabular form as follows:

Ind. trita L. Ind. oreophila.

Stems ..» 60-120 cm. high 150-180 cm. high.

Leaves spn) | 4X SNS) sanhen, 22-45 < 22-15 imi

Leaflets ... Obovate-oblong or sub- Elliptic-oblong.

orbicular.

Petiole 4-13 mm. Petiole 20-27 mm.

prolongued 1-6 mm. prolongued 10-13 mm.

Petiolule less than 1 mm. Petiolule 1-2 mm.

long.

Racemes ... 0°6-4 cm. long. 5-20 cm. long.

Flowers close. Flowers lax.

6-12 20-40.

Fruit ... Woody, 2 mm. thick. Slender, 1 mm. thick.

Moghania jpraecox H.L.Li., var. robusta Mukerjee in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 6: 19, 1953.

An erect undershrub, 120-210 cm. high, much branched; stem

woody, terete, younger parts somewhat triquetrous, faintly striate,

glabrous. Leaves trifoliate, alternate, petiolate, stipulate; leaflets

11-25 x 2-6.8 cm., subcoriaceous, oblong-ovate, or lanceolate, obscurely

repand, acuminate, base of central leaflet cuneate, that of lateral ones

oblique and rounded, upper surface glabrous, lower one dotted with

minute golden brown glands, and puberulous especially about the

veins ; nerves three strong ones from the base with in addition 6 or 7

pairs higher up; petioles 4.5-8.5 cm. long, slightly winged, smoota

on the dorsal side, deeply fluted on the upper or ventral side, puber-

ulous, the base expanded into a slight pulvinus; stipules 10-13 mm.

long, scarious, ovate, acuminate, ciliate, striate, conduplicate, caducous ;

stipels absent. Inflorescence axillary, racemose; rachis 2.5-8 cm. long,

angled, glabrous. flowers 30-50 in each raceme, close, each supported

by a bract and pedicellate; bracts 6-8 x 2-4 mm., the basal ones ovate

to broadly-ovate, the higher ones elliptic, all striate, ciliate, caducous ;

pedicels 1-2 mm. long, slender, glabrous. Calyx 6-q9 mm. long

glabrous, persistent in fruit; tube 2 mm. long, campanulate; teeth 5,

free, ovates acuminate 4 mm. long, the lower ones the longer, nearly

7 mm. long. Corolla dark purple, exserted; standard 8x6 mm.,

greenish with dark purple veins, suborbicular, acute, with two short

spurs before tapering into a claw, which is 2 mm. long, wings

6x1 mm., white or green with a few purple veins, each with a

spur just above the 2 mm. long claw; kee! 8x 3 mm., almost purple

black at the tip, the colour gradually becoming lighter towards the

base, connate on the dorsal side up to the claw, which is 2 mm. long.

Stamens 9+1, filaments 8 mm. long, united together except for about

I mm. near the apex; anthers uniform, minute. Ovary 2x1 mm.,

straight on the dorsal side, rounded on the ventral, glabrous; style

- mm. long, slender, inflexed; stigma hairy. Fruit 10x 6 mm., turgid,

oblong, slightly apiculate, glabrous, brown. Seeds 2, black, smooth,

truncate, each 2x 2 mm.

‘Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Braet

Lndigotera oreophila Santapau and Panthaki

A. Upper branch in flower and fruit; B. Calyx in fruit.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate {1

Moghania praecox vat. robusta Mukerjee

A. Flowering branch; B. Fruit; C. Flowering calyx

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 225

This plant is very noticeable on account of its size and its

gregarious habit; it grows in dense clumps at the edges of forest;

it is also found in the undergrowth of some of our more dense

forests. It comes into flower in January~March, and into fruit in

March. The records of this species which we have been able to

examine are the following:

T. R. D. Bell 3634/11, from North Konkan, February 1918.

Santapau 19227, from Waghai, in the Dangs Forest, September

1954. :

- N. A. Irani 1688-1689, from Waghai, February 1956.

D, P. Panthaki 2571-2573, Waghai, February 11, 1956; Panthaki

2591 from Waghai, 12 February 1956.

Distribution: Moghania praecox proper has been recorded

only from Chittagong in East Pakistan (C. B. Clarke 19916 A, B, C);

the present variety has been recorded from Yenkatapur, in Chanda Dt.

of C.P., Thana and Dangs Forests in Bombay.

H. SANTAPAU,

Sa, HoNel..

Dee AN PEAK

B.Sc. (Hons.)

38. CHINA’S BOOK-LIKE:- ROCK FORMATION WITH

25-MILLION YEAR OLD PLANT FOSSILS

Numerous plant fossils of the Upper Miocene Age some 25-million

years old can still be seen today near Shanwang Village in the Linchu

district of northern Shantung Province. They are imbedded in a

peculiar rock formation locally called the ‘Ten Thousand Volumes’.

The district in which Shanwang Village is located les twenty

kilometres south of the Tanchiafang station on the Tsingtao-Tsinan

Railway which cuts across the peninsula. At a _ place called

Hsiehchiachuang, in a valley which faces the northeast, outcrops of

volcanic sediments one and a half kilometres long are covered with

basalt of the Pliocene epoch. In the shale rockbeds are found large

quantities of volcanic ash intermingled with which are numerous: thin

layers of diatomaceus earth. With only the help of a pen-knife, these

thin layers can be easily pried loose. And there, lying among these.

layers, are leaves, flowers and fruits of ancient plants. The peasants

here call them ‘Ten-thousand-volume’ rockbeds because these thin

layers of white volcanic ash resemble the pages of an enormous book.

This is a very significant and descriptive name indeed.

By ‘opening’ this ‘heavenly book’ as it is otherwise called, scientists

are able to know the various kinds of plants in this 25-million year

old area as well as the difference between plants of that time and

now. They can also find out what changes have happened during the

past 25-million years and the causes that have brought about these,

changes. | ay

The plants hidden in the rock beds of the ‘Ten-thousand-volumes’,. »

covering a wide range of varieties, are so well preserved that they .

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL-HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

look like herbarium specimens. Even the chlorophy]l is still preserved in

them. Most of them are leaves, though flowers and fruits are also

found among them. Two kinds of monocotylae (plants with only one

seed leaf) and eighty-four kinds of dicotyledonea (plants with two seed

leaves) have been determined. No gymnospermae (plants having naked

seeds such as pines, cedars) have been found. The dicotyledonea consist

of fifteen orders, thirty families and sixty-one genera. There are

seven kinds each of genus Acer and genus Carpinus, three kinds each

of genus Filia and genus Ulmus, the remainder being of only one or

two species.

Most of the plant fossils belong to the flora of eastern Asia.

Eriobotrya, Firmiana, Kalopanax and Platycarya are genera found only

in eastern Asia. The genera of Carya, Gladitsia, Hamamelis and

Liquidambar do not exist in northern China now-a-days. In general,

two-thirds of these genera now grow in the valley of the Yangtze

River. Thirty-nine kinds of the plant fossils are similar to present-

day Japanese plants and eighty-five kinds belong to the same present-

day Japanese plants of as many genera. They are also similar to

Korean plants. The leaves of the plants are bigger and softer than

those plants now found in North China.

Animal fossils such as those of insects, fishes, frogs, turtles and

mammals have been collected and studied, and a series of papers have

been published by Dr. C. C. Young and his associates. But the primary

interest is focussed on the large collection of plant fossils.

On the basis of geological data, geologists judge that these rock

formations were generated by the lake deposits which were accumulated

during an age in which volcanic activities were very active. The

leaves, flowers and fruits which frequently fell into the water were

interlayered with frequent deposits of volcanic ash, which makes it

possible to preserve beautifully these plant materials, the study of

which enables the paleobotanists not only to identify those preserved

plants, but also to understand the change ‘of climate and floral elements

of North China during these long geological times.

Much material has been collected and studied. But by further

collection and research from those ‘heavenly books’ new discoveries

will be made, and further knowledge of those remote times obtained.

INSTITUTE OF BorTany,

ACADEMIA SINICA, PROF. HSEN-HSU HU

September 11, 1956.

39. WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA

DANDELI AND THE DANGS

All Indians who are interested in the protection of Nature are

grateful to the Society for the sustained effort it is making to foster

public interest in the preservation of the fauna and flora of our country.

The Governments are more or less converted to this view and are

moving gradually in the right direction. The creation of the Indian

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 227

Board for Wild Life and special legislation in some States are steps

in that direction. Yet, in spite of the above legislative and organisa-

tional efforts, wild life is decreasing from day to day.

2. In 1942-43, when I was Divisional Forest Officer, Kanara

Northern Division, I selected an area of approximately 100 square

miles suitable for a wild life sanctuary in that Division. The site

selected has natural boundaries, rivers with deep gorges on three sides

and well demarcated P.W.D. road and Forest block boundaries on the

fourth side. It contained a representative stock of wild life and has

several perennial springs and nullahs. By an executive action, sign-

boards were put up at all road entrances and exits, prohibiting’

shooting within the area and the Conservator of Forests, Southern

Circle, declined to issue shooting block permits for the shooting blocks

included in the proposed. sanctuary. Later, when I was the Con-

servator of Forests in charge of this Circle, I closed all shooting in

this area by a notification under Indian Forest Act and submitted

detailed proposals to Government to constitute this area into a National

Park. For this purpose, it was necessary to remove 2 or 3 hamlets

within the area affecting about 500 persons (about 100 families). For

the rehabilitation of these persons, the proposals included the creation

of a model village near Dandeli, cost of which would be met from

selling the forest crop on the proposed site for this village. Here

the displaced persons will have more land for cultivation than they

had in the midst of the forest and better and safer grazing for their

cattle. This arrangement would be to the all-round benefit of the dis4

placed persons as they would be, at the rail head at Dandeli, enabled to

obtain better prices for their agricultural and garden produce and also

get the benefit of all modern social services like sanitation, medical aid,

education and later on electricity from Jog etc., which was denied

them due to their habitation in the forests. The following extract

from the diary of Fr. H. Santapau, printed on page 26 of the Journal,

Vol. 53, would appear to show that no effective action has been

taken so far.

‘30 May, 1954, Sunday. The animal sanctuary is just across the

river ; all we saw were crowds of monkeys, some domesticated buffaloes

and heard jungle-fowl and an occasional woodpecker.’

From the above it should be realized how difficult it is for a State

Government to give effect to any proposals when local interests are

not sympathetic. This explains the progressive diminution of wild life

all over India in spite of protective laws of the Governments.

3. Wild life preservation to be effective should be a Central respons

sibility away from pressure of local interests. For this purpose, the

National Parks should be large enough to be self-supporting financially.

Dandeli sanctuary is one such site.

Another good site for a National Park in Bombay State is Dangs.

Dangs was formerly a confederation of 19 Bhil States. The forests

were leased to the Forest Department of Bombay Province and the

rest of the area was administered by the Political Department. With

the merger, Dangs has been constituted into a District of Bombay

State. The area of Dangs is about 700 square miles, hardly the area

of a taluka, but for political considerations, it is administered as a

district. The whole of Dangs should be constituted into a National

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Park under the Wnion) (Government.. | shave “senvedy as sa) Monest

Officer in Dangs. The Dangi is a good woodsman, but, rather a

poor cultivator. If Dangs is taken over by the Central Government

as a National Park, it will benefit both the Wild Life and Dangies.

Wild life is almost eliminated from Dangs, but, it can be nursed back

to normal for the locality. The objects of management of this park

should be:

(a) Preservation of wild life; :

(b) Preservation and improvement of environmental conditions;

the benefit of Dangies.

(d) Social benefits and improvement in the housing conditions of

Dangies. :

To achieve this, some of the prescriptions of Forest Working Plans

would need revision in view of the changed objects of management.

The forest revenue resources of the area are more than ample to meet

all the needs of Dangies in the matter of cheap food and social services

like education, sanitation, medical aid, cottage industries based on

forest produce, and full employment on game preservation and forest

works. In fact the Dangies will be better off by the constitution of

National Park than they are at present, when the forests are under

commercial exploitation. ;

5, Mopisac,

GANESHKHIND Roab,

POONA 5, TOLARAM K. MIRCHANDANI

October 26, 1955.

GLEANINGS

Falconry Revived in Germany

The 4,o00-year old art of falconry received new impetus when a

training centre for hawks and other raptorial birds was opened near

Waldorf, in the district of Calw in Wiirttemberg. The new training

centre, which it is claimed has no match in Europe, will replace the

Reichsfalkenhof in Brunswick which was destroyed in the war.

The sponsor of the new establishment is the ‘Deutsche Falkenorden’

which has its counterparts in the British Falconers’ Club and in

the -Falconers’ Association of North America. The ‘Faikenorden’,

founded in 1923, held its last exhibition in Dusseldorf in 1937.

England, France, Italy, Egypt, Japan, Yugoslavia, and Arabia were

represented.

The task the new establishment has set itself is the training,

theoretically and practically, of falcons, hawks, and other raptorial

birds which can be used for hunting. All birds of prey, including the

owl, can be trained to the basic art of falconry, which is to kill the

quarry and remain upon it until the falconer picks up the bird or calls

it. to his fist. The Chinese Golden Eagle, it is said, can even be

trained to retrieve its kill. History has it that falconry was known

in’China as early as 2,000 B.c. India, Arabia and Tram also look back

GLEANINGS 229

on a very old tradition in this field. 1n Europe, the quarry at which

hawks are flown consists of grouse, pheasants, partridges, ducks,

woodcocks, snipe, heron, crows, gulls, magpies, hares and rabbits.

In Asia, vultures and gazelles are captured by trained hawks.

{From the Bulletin of the Press and Information Service of. the

German Federal Republic, Bonn, June 28, 1956.|

Electrical Field set ub by Lamprey

Some ‘experiments are being made at McMaster University in

Hamilton, Ontario, on the parasitic lamprey which has been destroy-

ing large numbers of trout and whitefish in the Great Lakes. It has

been found that the lamprey can set up an electrical field around its

head and, when this field is amplified, can light a flash bulb and

trigger a camera shutter, thus taking a photograph of itself.

The research board say that these early observations are of great

biological interest because the electrical field is limited to regions

around the animal’s head. At the moment it appears there is no

resemblance between the phenomenon and that peculiar to the electric

eel, which is not found in the fresh waters of Canada.

Method tof Generation: It is not clear. which oceans. of

the lamprey generate the electrical field, but it is known that the

field is closely synchronized with its breathing movements. The

potentials could be produced by either nerve or muscle tissues, or a

combination of both. A number of experiments to determine this are

in progress, involving drugs and surgical techniques.

Properly described, the field is one of electrical potentials, re-

curring rhythmically, from 200 to 200 millionths of a volt at a distance

of about four-fifths of an inch from the head of a normal lamprey in

fresh water. These potentials occur every four-tenths of a second,

and the duration of each is one twenty-thousandth of a second. They -

are called ‘spike’ potentials because of the shape they make on a

recording machine, and they have been measured at a distance -of

several inches from the head. How far these electrical inpulses are

valuable to the lamprey is still a matter of speculation. They can

hardly be used as radar, as the impulses do not occur sufficiently often.

Signals by African Fish

The first case of fish which send out weak electrical signals, and

apparently use these signals to gain information about their surround-

ings, was reported by Dr. H. W. Lissman of the Department of

Zoology, Cambridge University, in 1951. The one which he first

observed was an ‘African freshwater fish, Gvninarchus niloticus, which

is roughly one foot in length. It sends out continuous signals at a

rate between 258 and 318 pulses a second. The rate is affected by

the temperature of the water but not by the degree of activity shown

by the fish. The greatest observed strength of the signals was

about 30 millivolts.

Dr. Lissman found that the fish responded by their behaviour to

changes in the electric field which they set up about them, and also

to pulses similar to their own. Soon after he found that signals of

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

the same general type but differing in detail were produced by two

other species of fish. He pointed out that the production of these

weak signals was of interest in relation to the origin of organs of

electric discharge, notably in the electric eel, which give a high enough

voltage to be of obvious value to the fish.

Later the electric eel itself was found by Dr. R. D. Keynes te produce

smaller pulses which it appeared to use, like these other fish, to obtain

information about its surroundings. These pulses, normally at the

rate of about one a second and of some few volts (?) strength, are sent

out by the eel only when it is moving. Their rate is increased some-

times to as much as 20 a second, when the eel is showing interest in

any object near by. The case of the electric eel seems to prove that

pulses sent out at comparatively long intervals can be of value to the

fish.

—The Times, March 29, 1956.

(Government of India, Ministry of Natural Resources and

Scientific Research, Science Newsletter No. 225, dated July 3, 1956.)

Atom v. Death Watch Beetle

Atomic scientists in the United Kingdom are planning to use the

atom to outwit the death watch, beetle which each year causes con-

siderable damage to the woodwork of ancient buildings. Physicists

at the atomic energy research establishment at Harwell, collaborating

with timber experts, have found that small doses of radio active cobalt

can halt the reproductive instinct in the beetle and make its eggs

infertile. The method they have developed will be used to protect

historic buildings and furniture, the principal victims of this destruc-

tive.

—The Chemical Age, June 16, 1956.

(ibid., No. 265, dated September 14, 1956.)

Bee-eaters Dust Bath

‘One morning, as I was walking along the banks (of Mutha Canal,

a short distance out of Poona) I saw, some hundred yards in front

of me on the brown earth path what. looked exactly like a heap of

grass newly cut by a lawn mower which the gardener has emptied

from the box of the machine. But the whole green heap seemed to

be in movement. Warily I approached nearer until with my field-

glasses I solved the mystery. What I had taken to be a heaving

mound. of grass proved to be a mass of emerald green bee-eaters,

which were lying close together, higgledy-piggledy, enjoying a dust

bath. Some were lying on their bellies, others on their sides, and all

were flapping their wings with vigour. There must have been thirty

or more birds together on one small patch of ground.’

[From ‘Memoirs of a Camp-Follower’ by Philip Gosse. ~- Published

1934. |

GLEANINGS 231

EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, ROYAL

NaTIONAL Parks, KENyA, 1952

Barricrs and Pences

‘T am convinced that the only successful method of constructing

such a barrier is not only to make it formidable, but also to make

it impossible for the animals to see through or over to the other side

of it. Few animals will charge or jump a fence when they do not

know what lies beyond. ... The growing hedge is undoubtedly

the ideal but by some strange dint of nature suitable plants when

grown in rows seem to aitract the attention of various creatures that

normally would not attempt to feed on this type of vegetation. The

stretch of euphorbia along a portion of the Nairobi National Park,

for example, was very quickly devoured and uprooted by zebra.

although similar isolated plants growing in the same area survived

for years unscathed.

Observations

‘The lions in the Nairobi Royal National Park appear to circle

an area in an anti-clockwise movement, and over a period of about

a week they generally complete the circuit.’

‘Several families of cheetah have been born and 1eared within the

Park, and the number of cubs seems to be in each case five.’

cA few leopards are occasionally seen in this Park, and I like

to hope that they are increasing. The unfortunate trapping and

persecution of leopards in the past few years has reduced these animals

to a point where they are below the number required by nature’s

plan. This is evident from the vast increase of baboons, pigs and

suchlike, upon which the leopards normally prey.’

‘The remarkable thing about wild Africa is the silence—or noise—-

of the night. There are moments when there is absolutely no sound

whatever. Then there is a rustle in the dom palms; a lonely cricket

chirps; an owl hoots; and a gentle breeze glides through. For no

obvious reason there is then a sudden chorus of the most diabolical

noises and every creature that has any means of screeching, snort-

ing, blowing, scraping or croaking, joins in to ensure the greatest

possible disturbance of the peace, and one wonders how the same

cold moonlight ever appeared so lifeless.’

AU bi call le ho ti nie:

Artificial lighting has been introduced at the famous observation

point ‘Treetops’: ‘Power is provided from an engine situated at the

forest edge and by means of a diffused floodlight the whole arena can

be illuminated up to much the same brightness as by the full moon.

The key to the introduction of this system of artificial lighting lay

in bringing the light up from darkness to full strength very slowly, as

any sudden flood of light caused a minor stampede. In a very short

time, however, most of the regular habitues of ‘Treetops’ learned to

accept the light as part of the natural scene, and most animals, even

LN)

3 [OURNAL, BOMBAY INATSUH AE use eS O'Cirh iis Viola oe

including the normally timid rhino, continued to scuffle for salt or to

take their fill of water in full view of the floodlight.

‘The provision of artificial lighting in a National Park was a

subject that exercised the minds of the Trustees, since it could clearly

be argued that this was interference with the natural scene, and was

not the kind of system one would expect in a wild life sanctuary.

Since ‘“‘Treetops’’, however, had been in operation for many years

before the area had been proclaimed as a National Park, and since

artificial lighting made it possible for so many more people to visit

this famous place and see the animals clearly, it was considered to be

a justifiable concession. Since the Royal visit in February, 10952,

artificial lighting has been in use on all dark nights, and appears to

have had no adverse effect on the habits of the animals.’

Sailt-tveks

‘It has been the practice for many years to sprinkle common salt

on the fringes of the pool beneath ‘“‘Treetops’’, but this to my mind

is not the entire requirement of the forest dwellers. On analysis it

was found that the natural salt-lick contained an unusually high

percentage of ferric oxide, and when any of this mineralised soil was

placed at ‘“‘Treetops’’ or nearby it was at once consumed by almost

every kind of animal. This points to a conclusion that common salt

by itself will not be sufficient to satisfy the animals at ‘‘Treetops”’

indefinitely, and as time goes on it may be necessary to recreate the

attractions of the ridge by moving fairly large quantities of the natural

salt-lick up into the forest.

‘Natural salt-licks in various other National Parks have been

analysed and the reports point to a very great variation in the

essential components. This again is a subject for considerable scientific

research, but from observations already made it seems perfectly clear

that common salt by itself is not the main or only requirement.’

[A series of chemical reports on samples of earth obtained at

salt-licks in India was published in the Society’s Journal, Volumes

36-41. No conclusions were attempted and it may now be worth while

re-examining them in the light of experience in other countries. |

EXTRACTS FROM I.U.P.N. BULLETINS. SELECTED AND

ANNOTATED BY R. W. BURTON

The Use of Predators

In the Bulletin is mention of an excellent little brochure, ‘Predator

Control—Why and How’ prepared by the Conservation Commission

of the State of Missouri (U.S.A.) contents of which are well worth

study by all concerned in the Conservation of Wild Life.

: The important factor to be borne in mind is that the

animal, predator though it may be, nevertheless has a definite réle

to alee in the chain of natural balance and that every living creature

is subject to the implacable law that demands the assimilation of

another form of life to assure its own survival.’

GLEANINGS 233

Mii ahas1tes

In its latest Annual Report ‘Nature Conservancy’ (Great Britain)

refers to the conclusions of an inquiry made under its auspices on

spraying selective weedkillers on the vegetation of roadside verges

and on hedges. Such spraying does not always have the desired

effect. Some interesting species of flora have been destroyed, while

others, for whom the treatments were intended, survived. ... The

Ministry of Transport has issued advice. to highway authorities in a

Circular (No. 718) which is to serve as a guide when selective weed-

killers are being sprayed on roadside vegetation.

BO iwests Ot Ve site i d avy

In the British Nature Conservancy's Annual Report it is shown

that:

‘over-grazing and over-burning have not only vastly reduced the

area of Scottish woodlands but have also radically changed their

composition.’

April 1956.

Hydroelectricity

‘The columns of this whole Bulletin (May 1956) would not

suffice to reproduce all the requests that come to the Union appealing

for the preservation of areas threatened by hydroelectric schemes.’

. . . Of course the economic needsi of the country must be satisfied,

but other sites that are less precious to both naturalists and to

scientific study could surely be used, even aithough they may be

further from the development sites.’

Bducatio n

India: ‘The Governor of West Bengal has stressed the need for

education to impress on the Indian people the great national heritage

which their wild life gives them.

In his opinion, wild life on account of its beauty and rarity, is

well worthy of government protection.’

May 1956.

NOTES AND NEWS

The Council of Biological and Medical Abstracts Ltd., London,

has decided to change the title of their journal British Abstracts of

Medical Sciences to

International Abstracts of Biological Sciences

(Honorary Editor: C. C. N. Vass, M.sc., Ph.p., M.B., Ch.B.)

This decision results from two major developments. The first is

an extension of coverage to a wider range of biological research subjects

published in journals throughout the world, and the second is that

the International Abstracts of Biological Sciences, with the co-opera-

tion of the specialist editors selected by the Institute of Scientific

Information of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. will include,

as from the January 1057 issue, translations of the important Russian

papers abstracted in the Referativny Zhurnal Biologit (Soviet Biologi-

cal Abstracts) and Referativny Zhurnal Biolegischekoi Khimii (Soviet

Abstracts of Biological Chemistry), to be published simultaneously

with their appearance in Russian.

International Abstracts of Biological Sciences abstracts the world

literature in the tollowing fields; Anatomy, Animal Behaviour, Bio-

chemistry, Biophysics, Cytology, Embryology, Endocrinology, Ep!-

demiology,. Experimental Biology, Genetics, Haematology, Histo-

chemistry, Histology, Immunology, Microbiology, Nutrition,

Odontology, Parasitology, Pathology, Pharmacology, Physical

Anthropology, Physiology, Radiation Effects, Toxicology and

Viruses. 3

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1955

President

Dr. HAREKRUSHNA MABTAB, Governor of Bombay

Vice- Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.m.s.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Mr. Salim Ali.

Executive Committee

Prof. S. P. Agharkar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. ea

We The Singh, 1.F.S. Ses Me Sit Poona

Mr. J. I. Alfrey, F.R.E.S.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.S.

Prof. F. R. Bharucha, D.Sc., F.N.1.

Mr. R. E. Hawkins bee

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph. D. Re a |

Mr. D. N. Marshall : a ie of BE

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.c.s. (Retd.) as

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary).

Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer)

Advisory Committee

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. »- Ahmedabad

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., 1. LCs .. New Delhi

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph, D., DD. Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S Assam

Dr. S. L. Hora, D.Sc. ae we. Calcutta

Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. ges Attikan

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, O.B.E., F.Z.S., 7 A.

(Retd.) ste sas . Nilgiris

Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc. ... .. Lew Delhi

Dr. M. L. Rone M.SC., Ph.D., F. N. L, F.Z.S.1. ... Dehra Dun

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected

for the year 1956:

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau,’s.J.

Mr, Salim Ali

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NA WAI “ELESd> SON Pe (aye aio. a

Executive Commuttee

Prof. S. P. Agharkar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.1. a as

Mr. J. A. Singh, 1.F.s. = a af - LOE

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s.... Ao

Prof. F. R. Bharucha, D.sc., F.N.I.

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., Ph. D. ‘

Mr. D. N. Marshall as ae \ UE)

Mr. D. J. Panday ieee

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.c s. (Retd.) :

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. M. J. Dickins Oke Treasurer)

Advisory Committee

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. ... Ahmedabad

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1. E.. oA: 1.C. S. New Dethi

Rev. ir. Dre 9B: Freeman, M. Ne tari, D.,

D.D. nae hod wee Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Zz.S. ee .. Assam —

Col oR: Cs Morsis, pR:6-6, BS; en ... Attikan

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, O. B.E., FG ZeSay, de

(Retd)) ae ... Nilgiris

Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc. ... .. Dehra Dun

Dr. M. L. Rone M.Sc., Ph.D., aie 1 BaZeSale ee wha Guia

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1955

THE SOCIETY’s JOURNAL

Patt 4 Of Wool (52,3 Pantsen ce aot Vole ec oemannclmeme Index to

Parts 3 & 4 of Vol. 51 were published during the year under review.

MAMMAL'S

Three papers were published under this head.

Prof. Bernhard Rensch and K. W. Harde in their ‘Growth-Gradients

of Indian Elephants’ have, after a thorough investigation of fifteen

working elephants in Mysore, confirmed the view that Elephas maximus

is fully grown at the age of about twenty-five years and that after

this a slow growth continues up to a high age.

‘Hedgehogs of the Desert of Rajasthan’ by Daya Krishna and

Ishwar Prakash is the result of their study of the distribution and

fossorial habits of the two species Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray

and Paraechinus micropus micropus Blyth. The study was made under

a UNESCO scheme to determine the role of vertebrates in the spread-

ing and preserving of desert conditions.

Dr. Angela Nolte in her ‘Field Observations on the Daily Routine

and Social Behaviour of Common Indian Monkeys with Special

Reference to the Bonnet Monkey (Macaca radiata Geoffrey)’ gives

interesting accounts of the Bonnet Monkey, the Rhesus Monkey

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1955 937

Macaca mulatta Zimmerman, and the Common Langur Semnopithecus

entellus (Dufresne), based on her personal observations during her

study tour in India under the leadership of Prof. B. Rensch. At

the end of the paper, the author suggests a number of problems for

Indian zoologists, the elucidation of which would throw important light

on the natural history and social life of Indian monkeys, which are

very little known.

Bate bs

Seven papers were published under this head.

Salim Ali concluded his regional paper on ‘The Birds of Gujarat’

with Part II, in which he lists 162 more species, together with useful

notes under each.

Nepal birds came in for special attention, and the following papers

were published :

‘Some Birds collected in Langtang Khel, Rasua Garhi Dt. (Central

Nepal)’ by O. Polunin, recording some 100 species.

‘Some Birds from Northwestern Nepal’ by Col. D. G. Lowndes,

which lists 92 species including many that were not met with by

Polunin in northern central Nepal.

‘More Notes on the Birds of Nepal Valley’ by Desireé Proud, is a

useful list of 112 species supplementing her previous contributions on

the same area in Volumes 48 and 49. An appendix gives the status

of the various species as summer and winter visitors and passage

migrants, together with dates of their arrivals and departures.

‘Loke Wan-Tho’s ‘Two Bitterns in a Penang Marsh’ in two parts is

a detailed and readable account of the nesting habits of the Yellow and

Chestnut Bitterns (Ixobrychus sinensis and I. cinnamomeus). Mr. Loke

has, as usual, illustrated his account with some excellent photographs.

The two beautiful coloured plates accompanying the article were

generously donated by the author.

S. A. Aktar in ‘Bird Migration and Fowling in Afghanistan’

describes the several crude but ingenious and highly effective methods

by which hundreds of passage migrants like Wrynecks, Bluethroats,

Pastors, Quails, and Wild Duck are subjected to wholesale slaughter,

while passing through Afghanistan during the winter months.

REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS

Only two herpetological papers were published.

Under ‘A New Form of the Burrowing Snake Uropeltis macro-

lepis (Peters) from Mahableshwar’ V. K. Chari describes a new race,

mahableshwarensis, differentiated on lepidosis.

‘Nyctibatrachus humayuni, A new Frog from the Western. Ghats,

Bombay’ by J. L. Bhaduri and Miss M. B. Kripalani, is. the descrip-

tion of a new species obtained at Khandala supplemented with field

notes by Humayun Abdulali, the collector:

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

FisH & FISHERIES

Four papers were published in this section.

S. L. Hora in his ‘Tectonic History of India and its Bearing on

Fish Geography’ explains how tectonic history is helpful in establishing

geographical distribution of freshwater fishes, the study of which has

been greatly neglected in the past. The mode of dispersal of fishes,

Hora states, is dependent on drainage patterns, river captures, flood

plains and other phenomena which help in the commingling of waters

of different drainage systems. Dr. Hora commends to Indian fish-

geographers the use of ‘The Structural and Tectonic History of India’

published by Dr. M. S. Krishnan, Director of the Geological Survey

of India, in a recent memoir in their Piscine Geographical Studies.

P. N. Saranghdhar in his ‘Comparative Observations on the

Placenta and Foetal Nutrition in Elasmobranchs and Mammals’ gives

the results of his study of over a dozen elasmobranchs of Bombay

in comparison with mammalian placentae. In the light of this com-

_ parison an attempt is made to interpret the mechanism of the yolk

sac and the yolk sac placenta, the early or late formation of which in

this class of fish seems to be influenced by the initial quantity of yolk

in the mature ovum.

In ‘Notes on a Collection of Fish from the Headwaters of the

Bhavani River, South India’, S. Rajan lists 48 species of fish from

two collections made at different periods in 1953 in the Bhavani and

Moyar rivers and some of their tributaries. Detailed taxonomic notes,

together with ranges or distribution of 8 species are given.

‘Trout Fishing in Kashmir’ by Philip K. Crowe is an interesting

account of the author’s fishing experiences during his 17-day stay

in Kashmir. The various localities fished, and the number and weight

ot fish caught are tabulated, which enhances the value of the paper.

INVERTEBRATES

The following papers were published in this section:

LMS SCS:

‘Miscellaneous Notes on Indian Butterflies’ by D. F. Sanders.

‘A Note on Apanteles flaviceps Cam., a Braconid Parasite of the

Cholam Stem Borer Chilo gonellus Swinh.’ by K. C. Chandy.

‘Bionomics of Urentius echinus Dist. (Hemiptera—Heteroptera:

Tingidae), an Important Pest of Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) in

North Gujarat’ by R. C, Patel and H. L. Kulkarny.

‘Some Notes on the Rice Gall-Fly—Pachidiplosis oryzae (W.-M.)

by M. Q. Khan and D. V.- Murthy.

‘The ‘‘Slug’’ Caterpillar—Parasa lepida Cram. and its Control’ by

Kk. P. Ananthanarayanan and E. V. Abraham.

_. ‘Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (Isoptera) No. 3, Some

Observations on Neotermes gardeneri (Snyder) [| Family Kalotermitidae]’

by M. L. Roonwal and P. K. Sen Sarma.

‘PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1955 — | 239

Arachnids:—

‘Ixodes Rerri, a New Species of Tick from a Flying Squirrel from

Southern India (Acarina: Ixodidae)’ by T. Ramachandra Rao.

‘Habits and Habitat of Some Common Spiders found in Western

India’ by T. V. Subrahmaniam, which deals with 22 different species

ol common spiders in Bombay ‘and other districts in Western India,

including Cochin and Travancore.

Crustaceans & Molluscs:

R. Altevogt in ‘Some Studies on Two Species of Indian Fiddler

Crabs Uca marionis nitidus (Dana) and Uca annulipes (Latr.)’ published

the results of his study of the behaviour of these fiddler crabs in

their habitat on the beach at Bandra, Bombay. The paper, as well

ay the field study upon which it is based, is a model for investiga-

tions of this type.

‘Some Indian Land Snails’ by Frau Prof. Ise Rensch reports on

27 species collected during her recent trip to India, in three different

localities, namely, the Western Himalayas, the Western Ghats and the

hills of South Mysore. The paper describes a new race Pyramidula

vupestris salimalu, from the Chakrata-Deoban area of the Western

Himalayas on proportional characters of the shell.

In ‘Marine Organisms Injurious to Submerged Timber in the

Bombay Harbour’ V. C. Palekar and D. V. Bal list the species of

Shipworms (Teredo) and ‘Piddocks’ (Bankia) found in the course of

their survey of marine borers conducted during 1953-54.

BOTANY

Six papers were published.

‘A New Species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island’ by Fr.

Santapau and R. R. Fernandes describes the new species borivlianum.

‘A Botanical Excursion to North Kanara, Bombay State, in May

1954’ is the diary of an excursion undertaken by Fr. Santapau and

some of his colleagues with the object of studying and collecting

medicinal plants in North Kanara. Species of plants met with in

various localities have been listed, adding greatly to the usefulness of

the paper.

‘The Botanical Exploration of the Krishnagiri Park, Borivli, near

Bombay’ is a summary of the results of a botanical survey carried

out by Fr. Santapau and Miss Aban J. Randeria (who was awarded

the Society’s natural history grant). It gives a general description of

the terrain, climatic data and rainfall, temperature and humidity, and

the vegetation of the area. Our thanks are due to the Milk Com-

missioner of Bombay for donating the cost of the coloured plate which

accompanies the paper. Reprints in the form of a brochure are avail-

able with the Milk Commissioner, Wakefield House, Ballard Estate,

Bombay, and should prove of interest and value to students and

visitors to the park.

Parts III & IV: of the serial ‘New Plant Records for Bombay’, by

Fr. Santapau and C. Saldanha, record 9 species not hitherto known

POP OCCUT iN Olli ahead. |

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

In ‘A New Polygala from South India’ S. K. Mukerjee describes

his new species vamaswamiana.

VV De eee:

Five interesting papers were published on wild life and wild life

preservation, a subject which of late has been receiving the special

attention of the Society.

R. C. Morris and Salim Ali, who were delegated by the Society

at the request of the Kashmir Government to review the position of

wild life in the State and recommend measures to preserve the game

animals, particularly the Kashmir Stag, published their report and

recommendations—‘Game Preservation in Kashmir: Report and Re-

commendations of the Bombay Natural History Society’s Delegation,

October 1952’. This report, which was submitted to the Kashmir

Government on the completion of the survey tour, contains among

other practical suggestions and recommendations one to declare the

Black Bear ‘vermin’ in view of the unwarranted increase in its numbers

and its ravages on young deer. The introduction of foreign animals

like the Elk and the Red Deer is discouraged in the absence of an

adequate knowledge of the ecology of these two animals. It is not

known how far the recommendations have been implemented by Ene

Kashmir Government.

Part II of E. P. Gee’s ‘The Management of India’s Wild Life

Sanctuaries and National Parks’ and another contribution by him on

‘The Function of Zoological Gardens in the Preservation of Wild

Life’ were published. The author, who has been intimately associated

with the problem of wild life preservation in our country and has

visited almost all the Indian wild life sanctuaries as also many abroad,

lays down rational definitions of zoological gardens, zoological parks,

municipal parks, wild life sanctuaries, and national parks, so as to re4

move the prevailing uncertainties and misconceptions regarding the exact

character and functions of the various types of parks found in the

world. Observations made during his visits to the sanctuaries in

Assam, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Mysore are

detailed, and the paper is illustrated by some of his beautiful photo-

graphs of wild life. Mr. Gee remarks that India possesses several

advantages not enjoyed by other countries in that she has very fine

tree forests, mountain scenery, and grand rivers, many of which are

wild. life. centres of first-rate national park potentiality, holding many

interesting and beautiful species of mammals and birds not found

elsewhere ‘in the world.

In the second article, while discussing the functions and manage-.

ment of zoological gardens and zoological parks, Mr. Gee lists a

number of animals on the danger list and suggests that efforts should

be made to breed them in zoological parks for subsequent release and

boosting of their natural populations in depleted areas.

Two annual reports (1953) of the respective Regional Secretaries

on wild life in the Western and Southern Regions were published.

In the former, R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji reviews the position in severai

States in his region and recommends the formation of touring Wild

PROCEEDINGS G ACCOUNTS, 1955 244

Life Committees to assess the wild life population from time to time

in a given locality. Mr. Y. R. Ghorpade mentions the species of

animals in the Eastern Region which are in urgent need of the

strictest protection. These include Great Indian Bustard, Hunting

Leopard, Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Black Langur, Malabar Squirrel, Four-

horned Antelope, Chinkara, and Blackbuck.

Mars eR LAN Eou s, Nome s

g6 notes covering all branches of natural history were published.

Phis section of the Journal, as usual, is very popular with the readers,

and contributions of likely interest from members are most welcome.

SCLENSLELOG EB xX PE DIEVON §

No major expeditions were undertaken during the year under report,

but several short collecting trips were made to different localities,

which resulted in considerable accessions, particularly in specimens of

amphibians.

NAehtRn bopu CATO NS Clin ENCE

This scheme, which has completed its ninth year, has become

increasingly popular with schools in view of its useful activities in

spreading interest in natural history among teachers and children.

In the series ‘Glimpses of Nature’ the Kannada edition of ‘Our

Birds’ (No. 1) and a second impression of the English edition were

published.

It is hoped that the Government of Bombay will be pleased to

retain the Society’s Nature Education Scheme as a permanent feature

of the State’s educational programme so that adequate long-term

planning can be undertaken. Its present. activities include guided

tours to places of natural history interest like the Natural History

Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Taraporevala Aquarium,

and the Victoria Gardens, as also field-trips in the environs of the

city, the starting of Nature Study Clubs in schools, arranging film

shows and talks on nature, and publication of simple illustrated

booklets.

iPeUe Bok 4.C. A fb O; NES

The 5th edition of ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ by Salim Ali was

published during the year. It now contains 56 plates in colour (de-

picting 224 species), 3 in line and 22 in half-tone.

‘Butterflies of the Indian Region’ by M.- A. Wynter-Blyth is

making satisfactory progress and there is every hope of its publication

in the course of 1956.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

Total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 51,791-4-3, which

includes grants from the Government of India, Rs. 8,o00, and Govern-

ment of Bombay, Rs. 4,000. as compared with Rs. 37,593-6-8 during

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. §4

the previous year. It will be noted that this increase in total revenue

is due to our new publications ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ (5th

edition), “Some Beautiful Indian Trees’ (2nd edition) and ‘Some Beauti-

ful Indian Cumbers and Shrubs’.

Sales of the Society’s publications were appreciably higher than

last year.

The following is a comparative statement showing the different

sources of revenue received in 1954 and 1955:

| kevenue Revenue Increase Decrease

in in in in

| 1954 1955 1955 1955

ISS, NG Ie INGE DAG ee eS eA Rs. A P

Subscriptions 20,418 0 O| 20,428 0 0 10 0 0 ——

Entrance Fees 1,412 0 0 Lee © © ——. 40 0 0

Publications :

Books E Soe OO | Oy 0 Oye. O OC

Journals cet dil O84 08 a0) 3,320) 20 Ome CsourOm0 ——

Sundries, Taxidermy,

Advertisement, etc. 346 0 0 352 0 0 6 0 0 pais

Interest on Investments 4,092 0 0 4,109 0 0 i Oo ©

Grants:

Govt. of India —— 8,600 0 0 /|8,000 0 Q | —

Govt. of Bombay 4,000 0 0 4,000 0 0 — | ——

Total 37,593 “0 OF ol cole sO Oma 2o Sa Oa On 40 0 0

The net increase in 1955 as compared with 1954 was Rs. 14,108.

The total number of members on our books as at 31st December

1955 Was 1,152, Ob whom 9233) wee mie? members:

for 1955 have so far been received from 665 members.

Subscriptions

During the

year 70 new members joined, 2 life members and 4 ordinary members

died, 5 ordinary members became life members, and 22 ordinary

members resigned.

Sona ee

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing

co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson who

continues to look after the Society’s interests in the U.K.

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954 243

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

COVERING) (ae PERIOD TANUARY’ TO, AUGUST ‘1956

This report covers the current year and is supplementary to that

for the year ended 31st December 1955, copies of which have been

handed out to you.

The April Journal has already been issued and the August number

should soon be available.

Since rst January, 33 new members have joined against which 4

died and 11 resigned, making a total of 936 ordinary members and

233 life members on our books.

The Society’s recent publications, THE Boox or INDIAN BrRDs and

the two plant books, viz. Some BEauTiFUL INDIAN TREES and SOME

BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS, are proving popular and

selling well, a fair proportion of the orders, particularly for the plant

books, coming in from abroad where they have been very favourably

reviewed.

We hope to have ready before the end of this year the long-

overdue butterfly book and also reprints of the wall chart for the

identification of Poisonous Snakes in English, as well as editions

in Gujarati and Marathi. This chart has proved of great usefulness in

hospitals and dispensaries throughout the country.

_ We gratefully acknowledge a grant of Rs. 3,000 from the Sir

Dorabji Tata Trust to make awards for field work in natural history.

Nineteen applications were received and the amount has been divided

amongst 8 selected applicants whose studies cover subjects varying from

the life cycle and ecology of several branchiopods found on the Panchgani

Tableland to a trip into East Nepal for the collection of plants.

It is hoped that the facility will enable the recipients to produce

useful results and that these opportunities for field work will help

them to cultivate and establish a permanent interest in field biology.

The scientific work of the Society is greatly hampered by the fact

that its collections are presently housed in the Prince of Wales

Museum while the reference library and offices are a quarter of a

mile away. An ambitious plan for the establishment of a National

Institute of Natural History in Bombay under the Second Five Year

Pian has, unfortunately, failed to find the necessary support from the

Government of India, but a more modest scheme for housing the

Society’s offices and invaluable research collections in a new extension

on the Museum’s premises is now under negotiation, and we hope

that it will be possible to arrive at some suitable arrangement whereby

pur unique study material will be made more easily accessible to

research workers, and at the same time saved from the deterioration

which they are now unavoidably incurring.

The following 64 members have joined since the last Annual General

Meeting :

FRoM 17TH AUGUST TO 31ST DECEMBER 1955

Cobos ale Gramyilles Pachmarni. Mr. N. A. G. Brools.

Bombay; Mr. S. R. Chowdhuri, Bombay; Dr. Baron von Maydell,

Germany; H. E. The Right Hon’ble Mr. Malcolm Macdonald, New

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Delhi; Mr. Norman Andrew, Birmitrapur; Rev. L. H. Cramer, Italy ;

Mr. K. W. H. Adlam, Coorg; Mrs. M. F. Yessier-Yandell, Calcutta ;

The Chief Forest Officer, North-East Frontier Agency, Tirap (Ledo),

Assam; Mr. H. K. Dang, Letekunjan, Assam; Mr. Jan Roger Van

Oosten, California; The Librarian, Gujarat University Library,

Ahmedabad; Mr. Hamid Wali Moharmad, Nairobi; Mr. Merwan

Chamarbagwalla, Bangalore; Shri Chhatrasalji H. H. The Thakore

Saheb of Limbdi; Mr. Keser Singh, Jaipur; The Principal, Alagappa

College, Karaikudi; Mr. M. Obaidullah, Bettiah; Rev. J. Pallithanam,

s.J., Madras; The Principal, Government Arts College, Cuddapah ;

The Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, Madhya Bharat; Mr.

A. -H. Paul, Hoogrijan, Upper Assam; Mr. Henry Penn Wenger,

Detroit; Brig. S.. 7. Apcar, Nilgiris; The Superintendent, Delhi

Zoological Park, New Delhi; Dr. William H. Moore, California ;

Mr. Arjan Jairamdas, Shillong; Mr. Sris Banerji, Bhagalpur City;

Mr. H. Bradley Martin, New York; Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Calcutta.

FROM IST JANUARY TO 15TH AUGUST 1956

Major A. N. Weinman, Ceylon; Miss’ M: 1. Leveque, France

The Chief Conservator of Forests, Nagpur; Mr. Goverdhandas

Roopchand Kirpaiani, Bombay; Miss M. G. York, Pithoragarh; The

Dy. Director, Soils & Crops, Damodar Valley Corporation, Hazaribagh ;

Rev. Richard Wane-Smith, ‘s:j-, Jamshedpur; Mis’ hi Ms Adcoce

Bombay ; The Principal, Government College, Chandigarh; Mr. A. R.

Crampton, Cachar; The Fisheries Development Ofhcer, M. B. Governs

ment, Gwalior; The Librarian, Nagpur University Library, Nagpur;

Raja Mohammed Etzad Rasul Khan, Jahangirabad Raj; Mr. I. M. Clyde,

Cachar; Mr. Kailash Nath Katiyar, Dehra Dun; Brig. H. G. M.

Dunn, New Delhi; Mire AY amish Pine, Darcanes Assam elvincse

F. Graham Cooch, Ottawa; Mr. Robert Gordon Peirce, Cochin;

Mr. K. R. Sethna, Poona; Mr. J. M. Dalal, Bombay; The Assistant

Municipal Commissioner, Poona; Mr. H. Vv. 1. ‘Blackburn, Raipur

Mr. F. HH: G, Allen, Penang; Mr, Kishore Jayashankar, Gand

Bombay; Mr. M. S. Raschid, Rangoon; Mr. H. H. Tyabjee, Bombay ;

Major J. O. M. Roberts, Gorakhpur; Mr. K. G. Gairdner, Thailand ;

Mr. J. V. Talcherkar, Jamshedpur; Mr. George F. Townes, South

Carolina, U.S.A.; The Principal, St.” joseph:s College’ for Women

Alleppey.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE:

CONFERENCE HALL OF THE B.E.S. & T. UNDERTAKING,

ELECTRIC HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY, ON

WEDNESDAY DHE 22nd AUGUST, r956 AT 6 p.m. WITH

DR. HAREKRUSHNA MAHTAB, GOVERNOR OF

BOMBAY, IN THE CHAIR

me he, honorary. Secretary s Report: for the year ended 31st

December 1955 having been circulated was taken as read. The

Honorary Secretary then read a supplementary report for the period

January to August 1956. (See p. 242.)

2. The balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by the

Honorary, Treasurer were approved and adopted.

3. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory

Committees, as previously circulated to members, were accepted.

On completion of the formal business, Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab,

Governor of Bombay and President of the Society, addressed the

gathering. He remarked on the deplorable lack of interest in Nature

Study among the Indian public, particularly in the case of young

people and school children. This lack of interest and of a lively

spirit of scientific inquiry was to be attributed largely to the apathy

or indifference of the elders at home and of the teachers at school.

He stressed the importance of early guidance, and the rich spiritual

enjoyment to be derived from a proper appreciation of Nature. In

this connection he commended the work of the Nature Education

Scheme conducted by the Bombay Natural History Society with the

aid of a special monetary grant from the Government of Bombay,

and the active and continuing efforts of the Society to promote a

general interest in Nature by the publication of popular, well-illus-

trated books on Indian animal and plant life, and in other ways.

The Governor expressed high appreciation of the Society’s activities

in popularizing the pursuit of natural history, and promised it his full

support for furthering this end.

An exhibition of original paintings of Indian birds, flowers, and

butterflies, from the Society’s collection as well as others kindly lent by

Messrs. Thacker & Co. Ltd. and the Oxford University Press, arranged

for the occasion by Mrs. V. Gardner-Lewis, was greatly appreciated

by the gathering.

| CORRECTIONS

Volume 53 (3), page 487 {April 1956), 4th line from bottom for

U.G. Vaidya read V.G. Vaidya.

Page 690 last line. For ‘the third longest’ read ‘the longest’.

Page 6091 the record for circumference is held by 19}” (C.R.T.

Congreve) item No. 7, and not by No. 11 (Major Goring and C,

Theobald) as stated.

leUlSsis SOXCIUBING, Wo, HE

BOMBAY NATURAL

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Wolk 54, No. 2

3 Editors

SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU,s,J.

APRIL 1957

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE BomBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY

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With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text-

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 2

HISTORY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE

AcES. By H. Srinivasa Rao, M.A., D.sc., F.N.I. (With two plates) ...

VEGETATION OF HARSH NaTH, ARAVALLI HILLS. By N. C. Nair and

G. S. Nathawat. (With a map) sit Ses ie

NoTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CaLcuttA, Parr IV. By D. G. Sevastopulo,

F.R.ES,

VoIckE AND LARYNX IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE. By

W.C. Osman Hill, M.p., F.R.S.E., and A. H. Booth. (With two text

figures) ase hss en i See

PAGE

251

On A ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF THE ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA. By |

P. H. D. H. De Silva. (Witha map) ... ose

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAMILY LIFE OF THE FIVE-STRIPED

SQUIRREL, Funambulus Pennanti WR. By (Mrs.) Aruna Banerji

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA WITH A NOTE ON THE BREEDING SEASON

oF Bankia Indica Nair. By N. Balakrishnan Nair, ph.p. (With a plate,

three text figures and a graph) <

Tur ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN. By Swami Pranavananda, F.R.G.S

A BoTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS. By B. N. Ghildyal.

(With a sketch map) a6 Bee EP

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF THE SLENDER LORIS Loris Tardi-

gradus (LINNAEUS). By (Mrs.) Swarna Subramoniam, m.sc. (With

five plates)

On THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY SratE,

PartI., By B. F. Chhapgar, m.sc. (With one coloured and eleven line

plates, and two text figures) iy Sas See

OBITUARY :—

Brigadier W. H. Evans, C.S.1., C.I.E., D.S.0., R.E.

REVIEWS :—

1, Features of Evolution in the Flowering Plants (P. V. Bole)

The Sherpa and the Snowman (H. A.) a cee

Birds of Ceylon. 3. (S. A.)

An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops (J. A. Ali)

ae@0 gvo

List of Indian Fungi—1952-1956 (H. Santapau) aoe

5. Open Air Guides—Bark (H. Santapau)

Butterflies of the Indian Region (T. N.) me ose

322

335

344

358

365

387

399

440

442

443

444

445

446

447

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 2—(contd.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Footprints of ‘Snowman’. By Swami Pranavananda (p. 448). 2.

Hairless Lion Cubs in the Trichur Zoo. By M. Govindankutty Menon (With

a plate) (p. 450). 3. ‘Scent Trails’ and ‘ Pooking’ in Tiger. By Capt.

K. Boswell (p. 452). 4. Following up Wounded Tiger at night. By Capt.

K. Boswell (p. 454). 5. Further notes on the Himalayan Mouse-hare, or

Pika (Ochotona rufescens). By S.A. Akhtar (p. 455). 6. A note on Insects

consumed as food by Squirrels and Birds at Kundri Forest, Palamau District,

Bihar. By S. Krishnaswami and N. S. Chowhan (p. 457). 7. ‘Tusks of

Indian Elephants. By R. C. Morris (p. 460). 8. Hypnotic Behaviour ofa

Whiteheaded Babbler ( Zurdoides striatus). By K. K. Neelakantan (p? 460).

9. Drumming of the Malabar Goldenbacked Woodpecker Brachypternus

benghalensis. By B. Vijayaraghavan (p. 461) 10. Accidental death of a

Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Megalaima haemacephala (Miller) ]. By B. Vijaya.

raghavan (p. 462). 11. Halcyon pileata inland. By F. N. Betts (p. 462). 12.

Redlegged Falconet, Lrythropus amurensis (Radde), near Bombay. By

Salim Ali (p. 463). 13. An incubating Peacock (Pavo cristatus Linn.). By

Y. S. Shivrajkumar (p. 464). 14. Occurrence of the Ruff and Reeve

[Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus)] near Coimbatore. By Editors (p. 464).

15. Rednecked Phalarope (Lodzpes lobatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar, Bombay

State. By Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (With a

plate) (p.465). 16. Some Riddles of Game-bird Migration in Kutch. By

H. H. Madansinhji of Kutch (p. 466). 17. The Liver Fluke of the Frog,

Rana tigrina—a new record of Wehraorchis ranarum Srivastava, 1934

(Pleurogenitinae). By R.S. Tandon (p. 468). 18. Ticks from Baluchistan,

West Pakistan. By Henry Field (p. 469). 19, Bionomics of the Pumpkin

Caterpillar, Wargaronia indica Saund. By D. G, Sevastopulo (p. 470). 20.

A new pest of Screwpine in Kerala: Agonia fuscipes Baly (Hispinae, Chry-

somelidae). By M. R. G.K. Nair (With four figures) (p. 470). 21. A giant

form of Celosia argentea LL. By J. Sakharam Rao (With a photo) (p. 474).

22. Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta, or E. alba: Which is the correct name ? By

H. Santapau (p. 475). 23. Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.—A

Correction. By H. Santapau (p. 476). 24. Habenaria panchganiensis—New

name for a Bombay Orchid. By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia (p.' 478). 25.

Wild Life Preservation in India : Predator Control and the Introduction of

Exotic Species, By C. L. Boyle (p. 478).

GLEANINGS

NOTES AND NEwsS

CORRECTION

PAGE

482:

488

489

JOURNAL

: OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1957 | VOL. 54 No. 2

HISTORY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN FAUNA

i THROUGH THE AGES

H. SRINIVASA RAO, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I., F,A.SC., F.Z.S.1.

(With two plates)

[INTRODUCTION

Long before the dawn of the era of history, man appears to have

been a practical biologist, systematising his knowledge of the. plants-

and animals amongst which and on some of which he lived. If the

Stone Age evidence of his realistic drawings of the familiar animals

around him on rock surfaces in caves is to be believed, the conclusion

that he was a fairly competent biologist even twenty thousand years

ago is inescapable. In the Neolithic period, he seems to have entered

an era of experimental work in the course of which he not only domesti-

cated and tamed several species of common animals around him but

attempted successfully various kinds of hybridisation.

In the present account of our knowledge of animal life in India,

covering a period of over five thousand years, there is therefore little

that man had not already learnt in the preceding centuries and to

which he had not given concrete representation in the form of drawings,

engravings, etc., although the earlier records are still far from com-

plete. The only justification for the present compilation of the hitherto

known but scattered facts is that en masse they may furnish a better

perspective of animal life in India through the ages than would other-

wise have been possible, to the student of biology as well as to the

student of the history of biology.

The legends of the tribal peoples and the undying traditions of

the Hindu scriptures abound in references to a great variety of animais,

with which the common people and the élite must have come into

contact in their daily lives in their forest retreats and urban settle-

ments.

The avatadras referred to in the Hindu scriptures are each associated

with a common animal or being in a definite, perhaps intentional,

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

chronological sequence of evolutionary significance, from the fish and

the turtle, through the boar and. the man-lion, to the dwarf or the

pigmy in the first five of the avataras: In the next four avatars,

which take human form, there seems to be a social significance in the

main events of their lives. Bhargava was an elemental warrior out to

decimate the iniquitous Kshatriya, Rama was the ideal and over-

conscientious..ruler. of a thoroughly .democratic. people, often. merciful

and» compassionate | to-a fault to ‘the fallen Jenemy, Krishna: was- a

born lover, a diplomat, and a true and constant friend, and Bouddha

proved lionel a typical and uncompromising renouncer or bairagt

(vyragi). The tenth and the last avatara of Vishnu is predicted to

incarnate as a ruthless warrior riding on Wersielaicls to wipe out ‘all

kinds of iniquity.

The Hindu Trinity and other Gracy never on ie use “ee

animals and -their products of various kinds, » as, :their~ vehicles,

ornaments, weapons, etc. Brahma is known to use oe white swan

as his vehicle, Vishnu the kite (Garuda), and’ Siva the bull (Nandi).

The use of the many-headed serpent (ddi-sesha) as the bed, of the

Turbinid Conch-shell (sankha) as the trumpet, the yellow silk garment

(pitambara) ‘as’ the’ favourite. apparel, and the peacock feather as one

of the ornaments of Vishnu are well known. ‘The other member of -

the Trinity, Siva, was more austere and chose the tiger-skin for his

apparel and live snakes as a garland or ornament. Ganesh, Yama

(the God of Death), and Subrahmanya chose a rodent, a water buffalo,

and a peacock respectively as conveyances or aaheway.

More tangible evidence than is found in the Hindu scriptures. of

the extent of our knowledge of animal life in the country is provided,

however, by the animal remains, seals, earthen ware, and terracotta

articles, bearing faithful representations of animal life found in the

Indus valley and the adjoining territories of Sind, Baluchistan, and

the Punjab. |

_ The legendary or mythical denen ss of the Indian ne referr ed

to in the following pages such as the yali (the leonine elephant or the

bovine-canine lion), the savabha (eykdlparavai), and the gandabhérunda

(the two-headed serpent eagle) are perhaps of the same status as the

Loch Ness monster of Great Britain and -the yéti or ‘Abominable

Snowman’ of the snow ranges of the. Himalayas, but they seem to

have. persisted in some cases as a tradition in sculptures or emblems

without a hitherto verifiable background. Even the sardol or sardoola,

referred to,in Abul Fazl’s Memoir as. ‘smaller than a dog but preys

upon lions and other wild beasts’, is not represented in sculpture or

engraving in any literature that the present author is aware of.

Notwithstanding these few instances of imaginative representations or

chronicles in our literature from ancient times, a fairly objective view.

ef the knowledge of animals living in a wild or domesticated state tn

various. periods of history or -pre-history can be obtained, either from

the ‘actual remains. where available,. or from their representations jn

sculptures, paintings, engravings,-‘etc.,- on rock or, pottery, and in

seals and such-like objects.

'. There are practically no references to fossil animals, even though

the. fossil Cephalopod’ Ammonites: of the ‘sub-Himalayan region,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. PEATE |

The mythical Yali with leonine body and elephantine face from a Hampi relief

Hunting scenes from the throne platform at Hampi in Mysore depicting antelopes, sambar, and

leopards

: The Ruler of Sandur

a aa

2 as —————E UDUYSIL ST “Wt s0J0Y,

“seapey] “OSI yndaysury9 Ul WIeyRJURINpRY 3 wuedejuew,

e jo joued e Wwolj “1e9 pue uloOYy JUTAOg pue sort oulueo YyIM nq “ley

pue ouew ‘squiy pue Apog auruoey YA YER [Lory ur ayy jo WIO} JayOUYy

"seupeyy “OLNSIG yndaysuryo ul

ul At MAOOP e uO poom ul BUIAIRO e Wot] “you VIOUS

e pue sound pe]tnos pue SOTO Yd UeMS jeunoft V

I] aLW1q ‘0S “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nuno[

OUR: KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN:..FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 253

known to Hindu religious tradition as sdligram, is held in veneration

as the favourite abode of Maha Vishnu.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present review was undertaken at the suggestion and en-

couragement of Professor K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (formerly Joint

Secretary of the Indian History Congress) about the middle of 1952,

but its completion was unavoidably delayed for over two years. The

author is most grateful to him not only for placing in his hands a good

part of the relevant literature on the subject in Sanskrit, Tamil, and

English obtained from different sources, but also for patiently going

through the manuscript and suggesting many improvements.

The photographs of fabulous animals illustrating this account

were kindly lent by Sri M. Krishnan, Madras, who was also good

enough to place at the author’s disposal a copy of his notes on the

fauna of South India as noticed in classical sculpture and ancient

Tamil literature. The author wishes to take this opportunity to

express his gratitude to Sri Krishnan for his ready assistance.

The author is also thankful to his friend and colleague, Dr.

B. S. Guha, former Director of the Government of India Department

of Anthropology, for a list of selected references on the fauna of

pearl India.

I. ANIMAL WEALTH OF INDIA IN THE 3RD AND. 4TH MILLENIA B.C.

Evidence of animal life in the Indus Valley and the adjoining

territories of Sind, Punjab, and Baluchistan has been brought together

by a careful study of the actual animal remains found in Mohenjodaro,

Harappa, Amri, Nal, Nundara, and Rupar, and of animal representa-

tions engraved on seal amulets, and in the figurines and en-

gravings and paintings on pottery and other ware. Actual

remains of 39 species of animals including 26 of Vertebrates and 13

of Invertebrates were found at various levels. These may be grouped

as follows :—

1. Animals maintained in a Humped cattle, buffalo, elephant,

state of domestication. camei, horse, goat, pig, and

fowl.

2. Animals found near human Dog, mongoose, shrew, rat,

habitations, some of them lizard, and tortoise.

probably semi-domesticat-

ed. :

3. Animals caught, probably for Pig, crocodile, turtles, tortoise

use as food. (Trionyx, Chitra, Damoma,

| and Batagur), freshwater

fishes (carps, cat fishes Rita

and Wallago) and the marine

= ee SO | cat fish Arius, probably im-

Ve 3 ported for consumption, from

| the coast.

254 © JOURNAL, BOMBAY! NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

4. Scutes of turtles, shells of Batagur among tortoises

snails, and the skeleton of Lamellidens and Arca among

corals imported for orna- bivalve molluscs; Cypraea

ment or other uses. (Cowries), Eburna, Fascioloria,

and Xanchus (Chank) among

gastropod molluscs; and Favia

among corals.

5. Animal remains imported Horns of deer (Cervus, 4

probably for medicinal Puls e species). 7

poses.

6. Wild animals. Bear, monkey, jackal, wolf,

squirrel, gharial, and parrot.

7. Animal remains occurring The Clionid sponge, judging

fortuitously. from bore holes on Fasciolarid

shells, the Polyzoan colonies

the markings of which are still

to be seen on shells, and the

Anatinid bivalves embedded in

a mass of madreporarian coral

show that conditions in the sea

were much the same as they

are now.

The elephant (Elephas maximus) was probably wild as there is still

evidence that in Malwa and Nimar it was so till 1600 a.p. ‘The horse

(Equus caballus) was the country-bred, while of the humped cattle

(Bos indicus) there are wild and domesticated forms showing progres-

sive and steady deterioration correlated with the size of teeth and skull.

There were the buffalo, the camel, the goat, the sheep, the ass, and

the boar. The Kashmir Stag, the Sambar or Rusa Deer, the Spotted

Deer, and the Hog Deer which is still an inhabitant of Sind were

common. The domesticated fowl was probably much larger in size

than modern fowls, judging from the size of the femur and other bones.’

The presence under fluviatile conditions of the freshwater bivalves,

Lamellidens marginalis and Parreysia favidens, and of the freshwater

gastropods, Indoplanorbis exustus and Viviparus bengalensis,. and

of the land-snail Zootecus insularis, the gharial Gavialis gangeticus,

the tortoises and turtles, the carps, and cat fishes shows that the

faunal elements on land and in water were much the same then as they

are now. The chank bangles and cores from which bangles have

been sawn show that bangle-making and bangle-wearing were then

as much in vogue in western India as now in Bengal and east India.

We may now turn to the representations of animals engraved or

painted on seals and pottery and to the figurines. Owing io the

bizzare and fanciful forms which have been given to them, the idenahens

tion of these represemtatiolts of animals is probably a little more difficult

a Henodetis, the Father of History, is said to have recorded twenty-three cen-

turies ago that the animals of India, except the horse, were larger than those found

elsewhere (Annandale, N. Journ. ED) Natural History Society 29 : 633-642,

1923). :

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA. THROUGH THE AGES 255

than that of the actual animal remains which rarely, if ever, give room

for ambiguity. Apart from engravings of fabulous creatures on seal

amulets, the recognisable animals are the cattle, the elephant, the

rhinoceros, and the tiger' such as are commonly found in damp

jungles. The lion which prefers a dry zone such as is now found in

the Gir region of Kathiawar does not appear to have figured on seals.

Amongst the cattle figure the water buffalo (Bos bubalus), the Gaur

or bison (Bos gaurus), the humped bull or Zebu (Bos indicus), and a

short-horned humpless bull. The ram, pig, dog, monkey, bear, hare,

and squirrel amongst mammals, and the parrot and peacock among

birds are found engraved on copper tablets or take the form of

figurines, but are never represented on seals. The dog, represented

with the collar round the neck, shows it to have been used as a domestic

pet and a guard. The short-horned and the humped bulls, the ram,

and the rhinoceros were amongst the most popular of the animal

figurines, though curiously the cow is altogether omitted, as also the

tiger which, according to Piggot (1952), still survives in Sind?. The

elephant and the fish-eating crocodile {Gharial) of the great rivers of

India are copied in figurines, though the common pig is omitted.

Lion, goat or ibex, birds of various types, and fishes, and even the

scorpion are represented in the Sind and Baluchistan ware, the ibex

being often used as a decorative motif. Some of the Kulli ware bears

painted decorations in the form of a frieze of naturalistic representa-

tions of animals and plants. The animal representations include

humped cattle, felines in grotesquely elongated forms (which appear to

have been copied by modern advertisers of automobiles, motor oils, and

Iubricants), diminutive stylized goats, conventionalized birds, fish, and

even a bloated stag-beetle. The humped cattle are shown as tethered

to trees or posts indicating their domestication.

II. Animat LiFe In THE VEDIC PERIOD (2000 TO 600 B.C.)*

For a knowledge of the classification of animal life in the period

up to 600 B.c. one has to turn to recorded evidence of such knowledge

in the Upanishads, Susrita Samhita, and other works. The

Chandogya Upanishad has classified animals on the broad basis of their

ovum or seed (bija) into three groups: (1) born of eggs (andaia), (2)

born fully developed or viviparous (jivaja), (3) born of plant-like

organisms (udvijja). The birds, which belong to the first group, and

mammals, which belong to the second group, both of which are used

as food by man, appear to have been divided into the following 8

classes depending on their habitat and feeding habits:

r. Carnivorous land quadrupeds and birds such as fall upon their

prey with force (prasaha).

2. Animals living in marsh or water-logged lands or graze on river

banks (anupa). ;

* The tiger has curiously left no traces of its bones amongst the animal remains

excavated in Sind and Baluchistan,

* We can trace no authentic record in support of this either for the past or the

present. Eps.

* Including the age of the Rig Veda (2000 to 1500 B.C.), the age of the Samhitas

ECL (1500 to 800 B.C.), and the age of the old Upanishads (900 to

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 54

3. Animals living in underground holes or burrows {Rodents and

Insectivores—bhisaya or vilésaya).

4. Animals living in freshwater or seawater (vdrisaya).

5. Animals living both on land and in water—amphibians

(jalachara).

6. Animals living on. dry and elevated hilly or jungle land, een

as deer, etc. (jangala).

7. Birds that scatter their food in picking it up (viskira}, e.g.

crow, bulbul, thrush, pigeon, and other perching birds.

8. Birds that pierce, tear their food (fruits), or torment their prey

(worms) with their beak [ Birds of prey--vulture, eagle, =

etc. (pratudda) |.

The second class anupa appears to have been deemed an important

class as it is further divided into the following groups:—

1. kuléchara—herbivorous quadrupeds frequenting banks _ of

rivers and ponds, including the elephant, the rhinoceros, the

buffalo, and the deer.

2. plava—floating on water, such as geese, ducks, cranes, etc..

3. kOdsastha—living in shells (mollusca), inciuding the large

gastropods, the Chank (sankha) and the smaller gastropods

(sankhana), the mussels, and _ pearl-oysters (sakti and

jalastikti), the various types of. spiral-shelled land gastropods

or snails (sambuka, valluka, vddika, etc.).

4. pddina—aquatic animals with long drawn appendages includ-

ing the tortoise and turtles (karma), the crocodile

(kumbhira), the crab (karkata), the whale or dolphin

(simsumdra) with a protruding snout and pects through

a blow-hole out of water.

5. matsya—the fishes of seawater and _ freshwater, amongst

which are included the whales (tim and timingila) and the

sharks (makara).

The jangala were similarly brolon up Hee into arboreal animals

[parnamriga—ape, monkey, sloth, squirrel, tree cat (putighasa), and

other similar carnivores |, domecde ed animals (gramya—horse, mule,

ass, camel, goat, sheep, etc.-—all non-carnivorous quadrupeds or

akravyada), cave-dwelling animals (guhdsaya—tlion, tiger, panther,

pear, wolf, hyena, jackal, wild cat—all carnivorous quadrupeds).

More or less similar notions seem to have prevailed in the classi-

fications of the animal kingdom enunciated by Susrita, Patanjali,

Prasastapada, and Charaka. Susrita has recognised oviparity,

viviparity, and spontaneous generation amongst animals. He put man

and the carnivorous (vijala) and_ herbivorous ‘pagm) quadrupeds

amongst the viviparous; birds, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and_ fish

amongst the oviparous; worms, insects (krimi, kita, pipilika) amongst

those born of moist heat; and frogs and mealy bugs amongst

those that are born after metamorphosis. Patanjali seemed to have

been aware of a group of small or minute animals without blood or

bones which he classed among the kshudvajantu, but as_ asexually

generated. Prasastapada recognised the asexually generated (aydnija)

from those sexually generated by the union of sperm and a germ

element (ydnija), and amongst the latter the placental viviparous

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA, THROUGH THE AGES 1257

(jarayuja) from the non-placental egg-born (andaja) . birds, reptiles,

fishes, and insects. Charaka recognised four primary divisions . of

animals: (1) the viviparous placental quadrupeds and man (jarayuja),

(2) the oviparous birds, reptiles, and fish (andaja) ; (3) the asexually or

spontaneously generated worms, mosquitoes, etc., born of moist heat

(svédaja or usmaja) and (4) those born of rotting vegetation (udvijja).

There is some evidence of a more precise classification in. the

Susruta Nagdrjuna, as in the case of snakes, which are divided into

5 different genera or families, one non-venomous and four venomous

including one hybrid and three pure families. The venomous are (1)

the hooded cobras (Naia tripudians and N. bungarus) the darvikdra,

diurnal, swift, and bearing marks of chariot-wheels, plough, umbrella,

goad, or phompae on the hood; (2) the non-hooded thick-set, slow,

hocturnal Vipers (mandali) bearing circles or rings on the body ; (3) the

non-hooded nocturnal Krait (?) bearing coloured markings or dots on

the upper parts and sides; and (4) the hybrid vaikaranja. The non-

venomous (nirvisha) family includes the Boidae or python (ajagara),

and the arboreal colubrine Dendrophis (vrikshésaya). ‘The poison of

cobras was believed to be most deadly when they were young, and of

mandali or vipers when middle-aged, and of rajimats when aged.

The differential action of the venom on animals in the different

venomous snakes appears to have been known and is elaboraiely

described.

The Agni and Bhavishya puranas have a number of observations on

the structure and habits of snakes, some of which approximate to

modern verified and recorded facts while others appear to be fanciful

as yet. The latter states that Naiadae (négdas) copulate in the summer

months of May and June (Jyéshtha and Ashddha), gestate during rainy

months and bring forth about two hundred and forty eggs in November

(Kartik), the majority of which are devoured by the parents, but those

that are left break forth from the shell in about two months. Eggs

of a golden hue like that of the red arka (Calotropis gigantea) produce

males, those somewhat paler and of. an elongate ovoid shape bring

forth females, and those of the hue of Sirisha blossom sinners eae,

The young shee turn dark on the 7th day, and in a fortnight to

three weeks the teeth appear. Poison ne formed in the fangs in three

weeks and becomes deadly on the 25th night. In six months more

they shed the skin. Their crawling on the ground is associated with

the folds of the skin on the undersurface expanding and contracting

alternately, and appearing as though they had fine filament-like legs.

The joints on the skin (scales and scutes) are stated to be 240 in

number (sub-caudals excluded). Human beings, oxen, mongooses,

boars, cats, peacocks, partridges (chakéra), and even a scorpion are

stated to be their enemies. The cobras (naga) may live for 120 years,

and the non-venomous snakes for 75 years, estimates which are only

twice as much as the modern ones ranging from 13 to. 30 years or

more for all types of snakes as a whole’.

1 Flower, S.S. Contributions to our knowledge of the duration of Jife in Verte-

brate animals, Parts I to IV. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. {1 and II Fish and

Batrachians pp. 247-289 (1925), III and IV Reptiles pp. 911-981, Birds pp.

1365-1422. Mammals PZ. I, pp. 145-234. Same author in: P.ZS. 1 (1936) ,

CVIT (1937), CVIII (1938).

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

According to Agnipurana the total number of teeth in a cobra is

32 of which four, two on either side, are venomous and have distinct

names (kdlarairi and yamaditika). The non-grooved hard maxillary

teeth accompanying the fangs also seem to have distinct names (kardlt

and makari).

The understanding of the classification of animals seems to become

more precise and scientific at the beginning of the ist century A.D.

In the Jaina work Tattvarthadhigama, Umasvati (ca. 40 a.D.) has

attempted a classification of the animal kingdom on the number of

senses, from the simple to the complex, as follows:—

Invertebrata:

(i) Animals with two senses, of touch and taste, involved in the

selection or rejection of food.

(ii) ‘Animals with three senses, of touch, taste, and smell, involv-

ing the contraction of tissues and appropriation of food.

(iii) Animals with four senses, of touch, taste, smell, and sight.

Vertebrata:

(iv) Animals with five well-developed senses of touch, taste,

smell, sight, and hearing.

Invertebrata:

(i) Worms without appendages (earthworms, round worms, etc.),

and the leeches (jaliika), Annelida (apddika), and those

with unsegmented lateral appendages (nipuraka), the

joint-legged arthropods (gandupdda), the top-shaped

molluscs (sankha) and the Helicoid gastropods (sambuka),

the bivalve molluscs such as pearl-oysters and mussels

(stiktika) are put under the first group.

(ii) The ants (pipilika) and the Formicid red ants (réhinika), the

bugs and fleas (updachika, Rkunthu and tuburuka), the

weevils and lice (trapusabija and karapdsdsthika), the

centipedes and spring-tails (satapddi and wipdtaka), the

plant-lice (trinapatra), the white-ants or termites.

(kdshtaharaka) are among those of the second group.

(iii) The bees, wasps and hornets (bhramara, varata and

sdvanga), the flies, gnats, gad-flies, and mosquitoes.

(makshika, puttika, dansa, and mashaka), the scorpions and

spiders (vrischika and nandydvarta), the butterflies and

moths (kita), the grass-hoppers and locusts pane) are

amongst those of the third group.

Vertebrata :

(iv) The fish (matsya), the oviparous, limbed amphibians and .

reptiles (bhujanga), the oviparous apodal caecilians and

reptiles (uraga), the birds (pakshi), and the quadrupeds

_ (chatuspada and tiryakyéni), and the biped or man

md ~(dvipada) are among those of the fourth group. ah

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 253

The fourth group is sub-divided according to the mode of repro-

duction as follows: (1) andaja (pisces, Batrachia and Reptilia), (2)

jarayuja (mammals born with non-deciduous placenta), (3) pdtaja

(mammals with deciduous placenta).

1. Andaja includes sarpa (serpents), godha (giant lizard-like

monitor, etc.), Rrikalasa (chameleon), grihagolika (house lizard),

matsya (fish), kiirma (tortoise and turtle), nakra (crocodile), simsumara

(porpoise or dolphin), and the lomapaksha pakshi (birds with feathers).

2. Jardyuja includes man, ape, cattle, horse, camel, deer, hog,

lion, tiger, bear, dog, and cat.

3. Potaja includes’ elephants, insectivores,' hare, squirrel,

mongoose, mice, and bats.

Knowledge of animal life in India amongst the Vedic Indians

appears to have been comprehensive and widespread, judging

from references to over 250 species of animals in the Rig, Yajur, and

Atharva Vedas spread over the more important classes of the animal

kingdom, particularly those of the phylum Vertebrata. A broad classi-

fication of animals based on their habits, such as vdyavya (living on

air), dranya (wild), and graimya (tame or domestic), seems to have

been in vogue. Amongst the Invertebrates, the relatively fewer

references are to the terrestrial Insects, though a few marine organisms.

like pearl-shells and the chank or sankha find a mention in the Vedic

texts, which indicates that the Vedic. civilization came into very little

contact with maritime states and civilizations. Amongst the Verte-

brata, by far the most numerous references are to the mammals and

birds, though reptiles, amphibians, and fish find a place in the repertory

of knowledge in the Vedic period.

The herbivorous ruminant and non-ruminant ungulates, and the

elephant (gaja or mrigahasti), the ape (kapi, kimpurusha, purusha

mriga), and the flying fox (manthavala), the graminivorous or

omnivorous Rodents, [hare (sasa), mouse (mishika), rat (akhu) and

mole], and the carnivorous lion (pitva or simha), tiger (vyaghra,

sardila), panther (dvipin), polecat and cat (vrisha damsa), hyena

(sdla-vrika), wolf (vrika), jackal (srigdla), and dog (svana, kukura),

the ichneumon or mongoose (nakula), and the omnivorous bear

(yksha), and the fabulous eight-legged beast or bird of the snowy

regions referred to as Sarabha, and the dolphin (makara) amongst the

aquatic inhabitants appear to be the mammals known in the Vedic

age. There is also reference to the capture of lions in _ pitfalls

(paripad). The bat (jatu) seems to have been treated separately,

neither as a beast nor as a bird. We shall have occasion to revert to

the herbivorous class of animals in greater detail further on.

A great variety of birds finds mention in the Vedic texts: the

carrion-eating vulture (gridhra), the hunting eagle (syéna' or suparna),

the falcon (kshipra-syéna) and other birds of prey, the carnivorous

night-prowler owl (ulaka), the omnivorous crow (vdyasa, l6pa or

smasara Sakuni), the graminivorous pigeon (kapétia), and sparrow

(kalavinka), the insectivorous cock (kukkuta), Cuckoo (referred to

1 The sacrificial altar in the Asvamédkayaga sites discovered near Dehra Dun is

said to have the shape of a syéma in the act of flying with outspread wings (vide

Ramachandran, T.N., in 4./.R. Selections, II, No. 2. pp. 46-48, 1946.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 04

under a variety of names such as kéka, kokila, chakravaka ?, an)

Curlew or snipe (krauncha), -Quail (laba), partridge (or lapwing -?)

(tittiri), peacock (maytra), thrush (ropanaka), woodpecker (casha),

wagtail and the Cattle Egret (gé-shadi), the smaller honey-sucking or

flower-visiting sunbird (palanga or sakunta), the aquatic group of

birds, goose or duck (chakravaka), swan (ati or hamsa), . diver

(madgu), pelican (plava), crane (bdlaka), and heron (kanka). Amongst

the birds mentioned as being capable of separating milk from a mixture

of milk and water are the eagle (suparnaj, the curlew (krauncha), and

the swan or goose (hamsa). The last named is said to be capable of

separating soma from a mixture of it with water.

Amongst the reptiles, the snakes were very well known, each by its

own special features of coloration, structure, or habits. The goat-

eating python (ajagara), the poa-constrictor (asita or vahasa), the

crawler (ahi or sarisripa), the red coloured lohitahi, the speckle-necked

kalmasagriva, the cross-striped tiraska-raji, the valuable-skinned

prddku, the viper {svaja) which is said to be attacked and killed by

the deer or gazelle (harina) constitute the serpent tribes known to

Vedic Indians. Great importance was attached to the study of serpents

(sarpa . vidya). The chameleon (krikalasa) and the house-lizard

(kundrandci, kumbhinasa), amongst the smaller land reptiles, the

crocodile (nakra, also known as ajagara), the alligator (simsumdara),

and the tortoise (kacchapa or kirma) amongst the aquatic: reptiles

appear to be well known.

The only amphibian sensu stricto known was the frog (manduka

or varsha-bhi), which is supposed to have cooling properties and to

call in the rains. The mandtika amongst the amphibians and the

tittiri amongst the birds appear to have been used to designate two of

the Upanishads, the Médndikyépanishad and the Taittiriyépanishad.

It is curious that although a few references to fish and fishermen

are found in the Vedic texts, they refer to a later period in Vedic age

rather than the earlier. Angling of fish by hooks and the drying of

fish and its sale appear to have been prevaient. The terms purikdya,

jasu, matsya, and sakula appear to refer to some genera of fish,

and the terms kaivarta, dasa, dhaivra, and saushkala to fishermen or

their profession and trade.

Amongst the Invertebrates the class Insecta is more frequently

alluded to than the Crustacea and the Arachnida. The crab (karkata

or udra) in the former, the spider (frna nabhi) and the scorpion

(vrischika or ajakava) in the latter appear to have been most com-

monly noticed. The misleading general term ‘worm’ appears to have

been applied to a varied assortment of earthworms, round worms,

millipedes and centipedes, and grubs of insects, referred to under the

terms krimi, adrishta, alandu, avaskava, kaskasa, kita, kapana,

nlangu, etc. The maser alla: or worm-like larval forms of insects

were probably the trina jalayika, and any crawling worm-like form

was. also referred to as tsaru. Among Insects, the biting, the

piercing or stinging, the boring, and the cutting forms seem to have

been recognised. Alapasayu and patanga were the generic terms for

insects, the prakankata and plusi being the noxious ones. The locust

(salabha), the bee (pushkarasada, arangdara, sara, bhringa, madhukrit),

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 261

the cochineal (indragopa), the termite (wpujihwaka) which builds the

ant hill (vapa, valmika), the ants which eat the flesh of the dead

(pipila and pipilika), and the grain-destroying (jabhya) and boring

(tarda) beetles seem to have been, distinguished, as also the different

kinds of flies. The unwelcome and annoying house-fly termed makshi

or ddmasad, the small biting fly or gadfly (damsa), the large biting’ fly

(mashaka) bith is said to be capable of biting even the thick- skinned

elephant, the stinging wasp or other similar insects (suchika), and the

sky- illuminating fire-fly (khadydta) are referred to in a number of places

in the Vedic texts. The flies, mosquitoes, lice, and bugs are classed

generally amongst the sweat- born (svédaja) in Manava Dharma S§@stra.

‘A. theory of spread of diseases by an unseen (adrishta), probably

microscopic, worm (krimi) seems also to have been prevalent.

The horse, the cow, the sheep and goats, and man, collectively

termed pasu, have pecemed frequent mention in the Vedic texts.

The cattle, more particularly the bull, the cow, and the ox, and their

calves, have been treated in great detail as may be seen from the

innumerable terms used to differentiate them at various ages and

conditions. Thus, the oxen employed for drawing carts were anadvaha,

the bull (usra, rishabha, guvaya, gaura) separated from the cows

was maryaka, the castrated ox was nirasta (applied to the castrated

horse as well), the cow ceased to give milk was dhénushtari, and the

cattle having a spleen-shaped mark branded on the ear were plina-

karna, the young cow which has calved only once was grishti, the cow

desiring the bull was vasita, the cow that miscarried was vehat, and

the barren cow was wasd. Shatler the calves of various ages were

distinguished, e.g. the new-born calf (almada), the suckling calf

(dharuna), the 18-month old calf (tryavi), the 3-year old trivatsa,

the 4-year old turyanti or turyavaha, and the young calf vatsa

intended to induce the cow to give milk. Milk (kshira or paiyas) played

a large part in the economy of Vedic Indians. It was taken warm

from the udder or made into édana with grain (kshiraudana), Aja-

kshira (goat’s milk) is also mentioned. :

The cow was the chief source of wealth of the Vedic Indians.

Milk was drunk fresh or made into butter or curds, mixed with soma

or cooked with grain. Cows were milked thrice a day and grazed

thrice. The milking. cows were in the gosala at night, others were

in the open pasture, but in the heat of the day all were in the cattle-

shed. Cows were also used for drawing carts.

A similar distinction of horses as in the cows above seems to have

also been in vogue. The side horse (of the four horses yoked to the

chariot) on the right or in front was prasti-prastya, the stalled horse

not allowed to graze was marya or paslydvant; even the wild ass

(parasvant) was distinguished from the domesticated khara_ or

gardhaba. The mule was. known to be of mixed _ parentage

{Asvatara o& or asvatari 9, or dwirétas) born of the horse and the

ass or the mare, and the ass. There are references to racing (a@jz) and

a semi-circular race-course (saplya or kastha), and presumably the

stalled horses. were carefully maintained for the races or for being

yoked to chariots which took part in the races. The race course had

definite dimensions. Prizes were offered and eagerly competed for.

The steeds used for. the races were often washed and adorned.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, 54

Horses of various colours were known. A white horse with black cars

mentioned in the Atharva Veda is said to be of special value.' Mares

were preferred for drawing chariots, because of their swiftness and

sureness, and also for drawing carts. Keins, halters, and whips

were used to control horses.

The common and uncommon animals known in Vedic times were

intelligently classified according to some peculiarities in structure or

habits. Thus the dreaded beasts of the jungles were mriga bhima, the

animals of the forest were dranya, the small herbivores, sheep, goat,

and ox, were kshudra and anyatédantia (incisors in one jaw), and the

larger whole-hoofed herbivorous horse and the ass the eka-sapha and

ubhayadanta. There was even some reference to the embryonic

membranes (jarayu), the chorion as opposed to the amnion. The

elephant was hastin by the use of its trunk for grasping things, and

man was ubhayadanta {with incisors in both jaws) and hastadana by

his habits of eating. The apes and monkeys which grasped their

food by the mouth were mukhddana. It is evident that in Vedic

times there were different kinds of stags (rsya), deer (ruru), antelopes

(én, krishna), Gazelle (prshta, harina), and also sheep (avi, aja)

and goats (chaga), the buffalo (mahisha), the great bull (mahcksha),

the rhinoceros (khadga or vardhra nasa in weiwaense to its horn), the

boar (vardha or sitkara), and the porcupine (sva-vidh or salal) whose

quills were used for parting the hair and anointing the eyes.

There were innumerable economic uses for various animal products.

The skins (ajina) of animals (goat, gazelle, antelope and tiger) used as

clothing (ajina-vsin), and the furrier’s trade were well known.

Sheep’s wool (i#rnavati) was used for making clothing and for filtering

soma juice. The boar skin appears to have been used as material for

making shoes or sandals (updnah-sathapatha brahmana), and the

rhinoceros hide as a covering for the chariot (sankhydyana srauta

sutra). Flesh of both oxen and cows which were sacrificed was eaten

always cooked, never raw. Hunting was also practised for recreation

as well as for food and for the protection of cattle. The bow and

arrow were used for hunting, but nets and pitfalls mostly for

capture. Birds were caught in nets and snares. Pits were used for

catching antelopes and lions. Elephants were captured with tame

females. The boar was hunted with dogs in chase, and the buffalo

was captured by ropes or lasso.” Fish were caught by netting, by

hook, and by hands, by damming streams, and baiting with poisons.

1 In a recent work entitled ‘ Asvasastva’ by Nakula (Edited by S. Gopalan,

V.Swaminatha Atreya, and K. S. Subramania Sastri of the T. M.S. S. M. Library,

Tanjore, S. India), the considerable knowledge deveioped in ancient India on

horse-lore is referred to. A large mass of practical knowledge concerning the marks

‘of good and bad horses, qualities of different breeds from various countries, the

treatment of horse’s ailments is ascribed partly to mythological and partly to his-

torical authors.

2 Owing probably to the military needs of the age, the knowledge of horses and

elephants reached a high standard. There is thus a treatise on the elephant’s health

(Hastyayurveda) of great antiquity. ‘That a knowledge of animals in general was

cultivated as a scientific pursuit is evident from the system atic treatment cows, dogs,

goats, horses, and even cocks and turtles, receive in separate sections of Varaha-

mihira’s Brihat Samhita (R.C. Mazumdar on ‘Growth of Sczentific spirit in Ancient

India’ in Science and Culture, XVIIT pp. 463-472 (1953)),

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA ‘THROUGH THE AGES 263

- Leather was used as material for making bow-string, sling, thong,

rein, whip, bag, percussion instrument, and bhastra (bottle). The art

of tanning hides appears to have been well known. ‘The wetting of

hides and its stretching over pegs are mentioned in the Vedic texts.

Animal skins (tvac in Rig Veda) were also used in the process of ex-

tracting soma juice from the plant.

The sacrifice of a great variety of animals in asvameédha (horse-

sacrifice) and purushamédha (human sacrifice) appears to have been

common in Vedic times. Over 50 species of animals of all classes,

big and small, are mentioned in the Vedic texts as being fit for such

sacrifice. It is not clear whether all of them were eaten after the

sacrificial ceremony. Amongst these are included serpents and other

reptiles, frogs, birds, bats, carnivorous and herbivorous mammals

including monkeys, even bees and other kinds of insects. Among

human beings, the hastipa (elephant-keeper), the kaivarta (fisherman),

the dundubhi {drum-beater), the saushkala (fish-catcher or angler) are

classed as fit for sacrifice at purushamédha.

II]. AnimaL LIFE KNOWN IN THE PERIOD OF SANGAM LITERATURE

IN THE TAMIL COUNTRY!

A great variety of mammals and birds, and a few species of reptiles

and fish, and of arthropods are referred’ to in the Tamil Sangam

literature of South India. Both the wild and the domesticated species

are mentioned, not in special treatises dealing with their natural

history, but only incidentally in the course of descriptive accounts in

verse or prose of town and country, of crowns and kingdoms, and of

wars and conquests. The sources of such references to animal life in

the Tamil country are not only the well-known and ancient works like

Tholkappiam, Silappadhikaram, etc., but also other forms of literature

like Kurinjipattu, Padittrupathu, Pattinapallai, Kurunthogai, Ainguru-

niru, Malaipadukadam, Kural, Naladiar, Nanmanikkadigai, Nattrinai.

Amongst the mammals are mentioned the wild beasts including

the lion and tiger, the wild cat, the bear and the boar, the porcupine,

the elephant, the monkey, and the deer, the wild cow or bull, the

jackal and the mongoose, the rabbit, squirrel and rat, and the

domesticated ones including the goat, sheep and pig, the cow, bull and

buffalo, the beasts of burden such as the ass, mule and horse, the

elephant and the camel, and the dog and the bitch. The mythological

yali is also referred to.? :

- Amongst the reptiles, the cobra and the python, the tortoise and the

The Tamil Sangam literature is almost certainly spread over a long period, but

there seems to be considerable difference of opinion in regard to its length. Prof.

K. A. Nilakanta Sastri is of the view that it is spread over four centuries commenc-

ing with the 4th century A.D. On the contrary Sri A. Chidambaranar mentions at

least thirteen sangams between 3000 B.C. and 1915 A.D. in his work, Zamizh.

‘Changangalin Varalaru (S. India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinne-

velly Ltd., Madras-1, 174 pp., 1948).

2 The recent discoveries of examples of live animals in the sea of some of the

weirdest species believed to have been extinct for millions of years must caution us

against continued suspicion of oft-repeated statements of observed phenomena in

so-called mythology.

264 ©. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54°):

turtle; the crocodile, and the lizard and the iguana find mention. he

mythical or the freak five-headed cobra is also referred to.

The soaring birds, such as the kite (including the white- nee

garuda) and the vulture, the domestic and jungle fowl, the crow, the

sparrow and the pigeon, the peacock, parrot, koel, skank and king>

fisher, various kinds of owls, and the swan, crane and sea-fowl are

mentioned. The rarity of the white crow.and the white swan had

probably evoked many descriptive chapters in Sangam literature. A

more detailed account. of the birds. referred to in Tamil literature of

the Sangam period is given below.

_. There are singularly few references to fish although some nicdne

kinds like ayirai, iravu, «iral, suyal and. the shark (Surapw) are

mentioned. The only known ‘crustacean is the crab.

Amongst the insects, the ant, bee.and wasp, the deamon fly and che

winged Isoptera (easal), the white- ant or termite, the louse and the

scorpion are referred to. :

A few references to the descriptive accounts of animals in "the

Sangam ‘Tamil period such as are given below will show that they

are a mixture of observed facts, imagination, and poetic fancy, not a

serious study in natural history. | :

In Nedundlvddai reference is made to the chill northern wind

called vadai which affects animals in various ways, preventing

cattle from grazing in the fields, and cows from suckling their caligs,

making monkeys shiver in cold, and birds to fall from trees.

_ The work called Pattinappalai, apart from its being a desea c

account of the ancient sea-coast city of Kaverippattinam, contains

references to many domestic and wild animals known then. The

temple vin) the ‘city “1s compared to an elephant smeared with sacred.

ashes. Cowsheds, cows and butfaioes, deer, pigs, goats, and cocks,

and an unidentifiable animal called 67: are relerred to. The dog: js

described as frisking over bags of paddy, pepper, and other merchandise

like the hill-goat, which jumps from rock to rock. An anchored ship

in the harbour is compared to a tethered elephant in swinging motion.

Amongst the many imports are horses from across the sea. King

Karikala Chéla in prison is compared to a caged tiger, and he is said

to have escaped from prison like the male elephant caught in a pit

which loosens the mud on the sides and fills in the pit to climb out.

His success over the Pandyas and Chéras in the battlefield of Koiivenni

is compared to that of a lion cub in killing an elephant in a single,

pouncing charge.

In Purananooru, and in the tenth song ‘of Pattuppatiu, : are

mentioned several interesting facts of natural history. Donkeys are

said to have- been-employed to plough the ground~after the conquering

king has razed to the ground the ,palaces and fortresses, and elephants

let loose into the tanks and ponds to render them unusable by the

vanquished. The male elephant wounded in battle is said to shun the

company of the female, cease having ablutions in the tank, and to

brood over its injuries and defeat, taking the form of a ahionderaus

call. Elephants are stated to be SO tame as to allow children. to wash

them. The abundance of tigers in ‘the country and their encounter

with elephants which often succeed in’ crushing. them to death are

referred to, as well as a tiger missing an elephant as its prey. not

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 265

caring to hunt a rat even when hungry. ‘An indiscriminate collection

of taxes by the king is compared to the wanton gr azing of a corn-field

by the tame elephant. A female deer which has lost its way in the

hill-forests finds its way back to the herd by the peculiar call of- the

male, which is often taken advantage of by the tigers in the near-by

caves. A hunting dog is said tobe ferocious and fast enough to kill

a herd: ofedeer.) The ‘social habits of monkeys in sharing their finds

in the forest are referred to,.as for instance the male monkey WHEE

plucks a jak fruit inviting its mate to share it with him.

In another work called Kurunthogai there are more references to

the elephant, monkey, crow and other birds, bat, frog, crocodile, and

fish. The male elephant of the desert region is said to peel the bark

of a tree called yam (wb or jms) to squeeze the water out of

it for the female to drink. The attack of a big elephant on a tiger and

resting later in a garden, and the injured tiger waiting for an

opportunity to catch the green-eyed red dog in the forest are referred

to. _A species of grass called the korukkdnthattai is said to be a

delicacy for elephants. The young of black monkeys playing with

peacock eggs laid. on firm ground:in the forest is mentioned. The

bereaved female.monkey with young ones under its care would rather

commit suicide by jumping: into a mountain crevasse than see the

young tormented ‘by its relations. A black monkey with white face

(probably the Langur) with its young ones shivers’ in the cold

rainy season. The owner of a jack-fruit- garden catches the fruit-

stealing monkey with the help of a -net spréad under the tree. The

call of the ubiquitous crow near a human dwelling is said to herald the

arrival of guests, a well-known current belief in many parts of South

India. Among other birds are mentioned the crane, the peacock, the

parrot, the cock, and the dove. The crane known as ndrai lying ia

wait for the fish (dral) is picturesquely referred to as the only witness

to a promise made by a lover to his lady love. The crane known as

maraiyan is said to eat the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica)

and to quench its thirst with water from mountain springs. It is a

common experience that water of the worst kind tastes sweet if drunk

after eating the gooseberry. The parrot is said to eat the neem fruit

in the desert region, a habit common amongst. crows. Cock-fighting

was apparently a well-known sport in the Sangam period. The call of

the dove in the forest is said to be that of a female while the male

is away gathering food for the brood. There is frequent reference to

the red-headed bird called anril, the male and female of which are

inseparable and protest loudly with a cry when separated, which builds.

its beautiful golden-coloured nests on the ground.

The ominous cluck of the lizard (called 6ndi), the structure and

colour of the inflorescence of the sugar-cane while enclosed in its spathe

resembling those of a gravid green. tree-snake, the death o{ snakes

caused by noise of thunder, the flying foxes or fruit-eating bats

going in search of fruit trees at dusk, the call of the tree-frog (thérai)

resembling the sound of a drum called thattai beaten to scare away

parrots from corn-fields, the danger of getting into water where the

bow-legged male crocedile is known to live, the water-dog (probably.

the otter) eating the fish known as valai, which is said to devour

a sweet mango dropping from a free into the pond near the field in

966 ~ JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54°:

which it lives, and crabs scuttling away into their holes at the sight

of a crane are just a few instances of close observation of the world

of animal life. The persistent reference to the eight-legged mountain

goat known as varudai, which is probably identical with the sarabha

in Sanskrit literature, makes it probable, if not certain, that a freak goat

such as we see exhibited in village fairs and festivals with extra legs

hanging from its back is meant, not a mythical beast as is often

supposed. In the Kurunthdgai the reference is to such a goat

suckling its mother.

There are further detailed references to bird life in Tamil literature

both in respect of their habits and their ecological distribution. In

Thélkappiamarabu the class Aves is alluded to as creatures with five

senses. The excellence of the swan (vellankurugu), which is said to

have a wide distribution in other countries in lotus tanks, its white

colour, and its supposed capacity to separate milk from a mixture of

it with water are referred to in a work called Chintamani. As in the

case of the anril, there are innumerable references to a bird called

asunam in Tamil literature. The chdtaka, chakora, chakravaka and

kinnaramithunam are also birds which find frequent reference both in

Sanskrit and Tamil literature. The first-named, with its bright and

shining eyes resembling the scintillating precious stone padmaragam,

lives on mountain tops and is believed to quench its thirst with

rain drops. It is also referred to as vanambadi or méghappul (sky-

lark). In the lexicon called Pingalanighantu, the chakora is referred

to as nilamugippul or the bird which drinks in the moonlight with its

eyes. The beautiful golden-crested chakravakam or némippul is

said to have the sky as its home and its eggs hatched by the heat of

the sun’s rays even before they reach the ground, so that the Jjust-

hatched birds take to the wing immediately. The flapping of the

wings of kinnaramithunam is said to produce a musical sound akin

to that produced ,by the stringed instrument known as the yazh or yal.

A great variety of fowls appears to have been recognised including

the wild junglefowl (kdnakkdézhi), the turkey (vadnkdzhi), and the

domestic fowl (sévarkézhi), and their greatest enemy is said to be the

wild cat, known as_ verugu. Similarly among doves, the

manaivazhpurad, mddappurd, and manipurd. Their gregarious habit

in seeking food, which has given rise to the aphorism kapdtanyayam,

their use as a homing bird to carry messages, their timid habits which

make them fly away at loud noises, and their inability to fly against a

strong breeze are all recorded. Three or four species or varieties of

sparrow are recognised. Amongst these are the house-sparrow and:

probably the weaver-bird (thookandnkuruvi), which builds long pendulous

nests from branches of trees and flies in groups in search of food.

The external features and habits of the egret and the king-fisher have

been accurately observed. The milk-white colour of the feathers of

the egret (kurugu or ndrai), its red mouth and webbed feet [| ?]

resembling the roots of the palmyra palm, its cleverness in catching

fish and crabs, the sharp needle-like golden-coloured beak of the king-

fisher (meenkothukuruvi), and the rapid flapping motion of its wings

in the act of watching the fish in water, resembling the motion of the

hands of the mridangam-player, are picturesquely alluded to. The

beauty of form and gait of the peacock, comparable only to that of a

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 267

young maiden, and the resemblance of the crest on its head to the

flower of a vdgai tree (Pithecolobium saman) are referred to. The

first male progeny of the peacock is said to have a big and beautiful

head-crest somewhat characteristic of the peacocks of the Kékaya

country where the poet Kamban in his Ramayana records the custom

of crowning the first-born in Kékaya. The koel or the Ruil, stated

to be only slightly different from the peacock [?]| and to have a pre-

ference for the mango-tree, visits, like many other birds of its kind,

such regions as have the vasanta (early summer) season on, and lays

its eggs in the crow’s nest where they are hatched by the crow until

the fledgelings show by their voice their real identity.

Several varieties of parrots are recognised, some noted for

imitative speech, some for carrying messages, and some others as

ornamental pets carried on the hand or on the breast. They are said

to prefer the fruit of the Neem tree. The differences among the owls

both in their habitat and in their characteristic cries are recognised,

like those which live in holes of trees or on hills. Tirukixural mentions

the crow as the bird that will beat the owl in day-time. Vultures are

mentioned as forest-dwellers, and one of them, dndilappul, is said to

live near burial grounds and feed on the brain of the human carcass.

The superstitious beliefs regarding the crow and its varieties, such as

the sea-shore crow, the white-plumed and red-mouthed (siruvenkdkkai),

the wave-crow (alaikkGkkat) which is probably a sea-gull or petrel, and

the forest crow (kdnakkakkai) with plumes of the colours of

viruvakshi flowers (probably a species of jasmine), are mentioned.

The distinctions among the bats, which are presumably classed as

birds, have been well drawn. ‘The flying-fox or fruit bat (vauvvdl or

vaval) which hangs head downwards from the dmibal tree with its

wings resembling its leaves, the insectivorous bat (turinjal), which lives

in dark places hanging from the roof of deserted houses and feeds on

insects while on the wing, and the vampire bat, which is stated to suck

the blood from the toe of a sleeping person without his being aware

of it, are among such examples. Among the soaring birds which are

said to fly very high and to build nests on high rocks among mountain

tops are the kites (parundu, poguval, garudan, sakuntam) and the

vultures (kazhugu). The long-lived jatd@yu and sampathi mentioned

in the Ramayana are probably the garuda-kind of kites.

The eight-legged simbul or enkdalparavi or sarabham, which is

so strong as to strike terror among lions, the yanaiirunji which is

capable of attacking the elephant and eating its brain, the big bird

chart which is mentioned in the Mahabharata as being capable of

moving rocks (like the huge birds referred to in the Arabian Nights as

Roc) are presumably to be classed among the legendary animals. The

vicchuli, which is probably a soaring kite, is said to have the power

of sighting its prey from a great height and of swooping down on it

at great speed, picking it up in its sharp beak, and of soaring back to

the sky.

Some more or less accurate knowledge of the ecology of the various

elements of the fauna seems to have existed even in the earliest

known Sangam literature.

_ Thus the ecological divisions are (1) mullai (woodlands), (2)

kuvinjt (hilly regions), (3) marudam (riverine tracts), (4) neydal

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

(seacoast), and (5) pdlai (dry or desert tracts), each with its own

characteristic fauna. The deer, hare, and wild goat which constitute

the food of the people are characteristic of (1); the elephant, bear,

boar, parrot, peacock, and ‘other birds of (2), where hunting’ and

extermination of locusts are the chief occupations of people; cattle,

sheep, goat, rodents, ducks, waterfowl, koel, etc. of (3), where bull-

racing is a favourite sport; the fish, shark, alligator, sea-gull, and

cattle of (4), and the elephant, tiger, wild dog, eagle, kite, and pigeon

of (5)’. :

TV. Anima, LIFE IN THE SULTANATE AND THE MOGHUL PERIOD

Although modern Zoology in India may be said to date with the

advent of the British into this country, it has its roots in the recorded

knowledge left in various authentic works by the Moghul emperors

themselves or by their distinguished contemporaries in their courts.

The memoirs of Babur and of Jehangir and the Ain-e-Akbari of Abul

Iazl, and various other Islamic works have been the main sources of

such knowledge”. The Emperors themselves were great sportsmen and

distinguished naturalists of their times, and their interest in the fauna

of the country was so great that they could hardly allow their

knowledge of it to remain unrecorded. To this knowledge was added

the recorded experience of foreign visitors during the Moghul period.

The animals known during this period belong mostly to the

phylum Vertebrata, more particularly to the mammals which were wild

and hunted or domesticated and used for defence, ceremonial purposes,

and amusements. Elephants, horses, hounds, dogs, cheetahs, lynxes,

falcons, hawks, cocks, parrots were some of the animals which were

most intimately connected with the sports and pastimes of princes or

their wars. During the period between the early 13th century and

the middle of the 16th century, there is abundant evidence of the

civilized way of life in which animals played a great part. Firuz

Tughlak is stated to have maintained a Shikar Department which was

considered to be one of the most important departments of his

Government. Sher Shah is said to have maintained in his Kingdom

5,000 elephants and 3,400 horses, the latter particularly for postal

communications. There were many officials to supervise the royal

stables. In Muhammad Tughlak’s time 2,500 oxen, 2,000 sheep and

various other animals and birds are said to have been slaughtered

daily to supply the royal kitchen. There were 10,000 followers who

rode on horse-back, each carrying a trained falcon for hawking.

Horse-racing and dog-racing were so popular that a regular literature

is said to have sprung up on the study of the habits and the methods

of training horses and dogs. Pedigree horses were maintained, and

the game of polo was played substantially as it is at the present day.

Horses were employed for conveyance and pleasure-riding in addition

1 The author is indebted to Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri for placing at his disposal

some manuscript notes made by various Tamil scholars in S. India, and to the notes

of Sri K. R. Venkataraman, Retd. D. P. I. and Records Officer, Pudukkottai for the

ecological! classification.

2 Ali, SAlim A.—The Moghul Emperors of India as Naturalists and Sportsmen.

JBNHS, Part I, 31 : 833-861 (1927), Part II 32.: 34-63, Part III 32 : 264-273.

(1927-28). pane

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF iNDiIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 269

to racing. Elephants are said to have been trained for carrying heavy

loads, for riding, and for use on ceremonial occasions.! They were

found commonly as far afield as U.P. and Orissa, elephant-

catching was a profession. The idea of game preserves was probably

derived from an old Persian tradition. Great walled enclosures were

built to preserve wild and domestic animals. 'A State preserve near

Delhi 12 krohs (24 miles) in extent is stated to have been maintained.

Rhinoceros and lions, deer and nilgai seem to have roamed at the foot

oi the hills of the Punjab. The lion was, however, the prerogative

ef the monarch to hunt whenever one was spotted. Fishing was as

popular a sport as pigeon-flying or cock-fighting. Alauddin Khilji

maintained a pigeon house, and Akbar was passionately fond of

pigeon flying, a pastime which is still so popular among the muslims

all over India, particularly in the North. The parrot was a familiar

pet in royal palaces, and in the households of the opulent as well as

the poor. Monkeys were also kept as domestic pets. Dogs were

trained for the chase as well as for guarding houses.

Where animals were so largely in use irf the four centuries covered

by this account, their leather could not have been in less demand.

Saddle and bridle for horses, scabbards of swords, covers of books,

shoes, bags for packing sugar as in Bengal, mats in red and blue

inlaid with figures of birds and beasts as in Gujarat, which evoked the

praise of Marco Polo, were all made of leathers of various kinds.

Skins of cattle (ox and buffalo), goats, rhinoceros, etc. were dressed

and exported in shiploads to Arabia and other countries.

A fairly accurate and dependable knowledge of the fauna of the

country during the rule of the Moghul dynasty could be gained from

the memoirs mentioned above. There are references to wild animals,

such as the elephant, lion and tiger, leopard, rhinoceros, cheetah, lynx

and caracal, wild cat and dog, wolf, hyena and jackal, bear

and otter, the flying fox and the flying squirrel, the hare and the

squirrel, and the lemur, the monkey, and the ape. Babur had dis-

tinguished the white-faced Rhesus monkey from the black-faced long-

tailed Langur. He knew that the Gibbon was not indigenous, that

the flying fox was the great bat, that the elephant was peculiar to

Hindustan and occurred in a wild state as far as Kalpi on the right

bank of the Yamuna river in the Jalaun District of Uttar Pradesh, and

that the rhinoceros was distributed ail over north-west India in

the jungles of Peshawar and Sind, and on the banks of the Daryu River

(Gogra). He is said to have hunted a rhino in the Indus Valley in

1519. Abul Fazl has recorded the tailless ape (ban-manush or jal

manus or Orang-utan) as having been brought to Akbar from Bengal.

He has mentioned the lion and the tiger as being numerous, man-

eating tigers having been recorded from Ajmer in 1572 and at Agra

—

1 There are painted representations of horses, elephants and camels in procession

on the ceiling of the Virupakshi temple in Hampi dating back to the 14th century

A.D. One of the panels shows the sage Vidyaranya borne along in a palanquin

preceded by Purohits and followed by a camel. Another shows the Emperor

‘Krishna Devaraya in state procession drawn by horses and elephants. A panel

showing puranic heroes portrays birds and other animals, Hanuman and the Yali,

some of them in a conventional manner, (R. Chinnathambi’s article in ‘The Hindu ’

of Sunday, March 22,1953 on ‘ Paintings in the Virupakshi Temple in Hampi.’.)

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

in 1609, and the milk of a tigress as being a panacea for eye-troubles,

the snow leopard of Kashmir arid the lynx and the caracal as used for

hunting hare, fox, and blackbuck, the hunting leopard or cheetah which

was kept in large numbers by the Moghul emperors for hunting, and the

civet cats which yielded the perfume of which they were so fond as

mentioned in Abul Fazl’s memoir. ‘The animal referred to as sardol

or sardoola, ‘smaller than a dog, but preys; upon lions and other wild

beasts’ is not exactly referable to any identifiable beast of prey.’ The

Kheddah operation of capturing wild elephants in the Gond country of

Mandla in Madhya Pradesh seems to have prevailed in much the

same form as it is practised today. Abul Fazl mentions breast-plates

and shields made of the skin of the rhinoceros, and finger-guards

for bow-strings etc. from its horn.’

Jehangir’s profound knowledge of animal life seems to have been

born of a passion to observe and record the habits of animals. He

referred to the suckling by a goat of a baby langur the mother of

which was shot. He knew accurately the difference between the rare

Lemurs (slender loris or thevangu), of which he had seen an example

brought to him from Goa, and the Simians and anthropoid apes, and

their habit of feeding on milk and plantains. The lion must have been

numerous in his and his father’s times for him to have recorded a

lion hunt by Akbar, to have shot one himself near Malwa in 1617, and

to have permitted Sir Thomas Roe to kill one in his camp near Mandu

in Madhya Bharat. The elephant appears to have been found in a

wild state as far as the Panchmahal District in Bombay. -Jehangir

has recorded the ‘water-dog’, probably the otter, in the Jhelum River,

the breeding of cheetahs in captivity, and several cases of albinism in

a wide range of mammals and birds, including the cheetah, blackbuck,

flying squirrel, hawk, and quail.

The knowledge of the ungulate and bird-fauna of India as recorded

in the memoirs of Babur, Abul Fazl, and Jehangir in the Moghul period

was no less profound. The Yak, the wild buttalo, the various kinds

of goats, and the Nilgai, the antelope, the hog deer, the wild boar,

the dolphin or porpoise, a large variety of game and other birds,

common in the garden and near human habitations and in the jungles

near about, all find a mention in these records. The Moghul emperors

were as a rule fond of hunting, and spared no personal exertion in the

pursuit of sport. They appraised their game by weight, and not by

the dimensions of the body or the horn as is done in- modern times.

Babur had known the wild buffalo (Bos bubalus) to be larger in

size and more ferocious and destructive than the common buffalo.

He described the kala hivan of Hindustan or the Indian antelope or

blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and had noted the occurrence of the

dolphin (Platanista gangetica) in all the rivers of Hindustan and

described its habits accurately by calling it the water hog (khik-e-

abi).

1 [It may be the wild dog (Cuon alpinus) called dhole in central India. Eps.]

2 Timur is recorded to have hunted and killed many rhinoceros on the frontiers of

Kashmir in 1398, and a rhino is reported to have been sent from India to King

Emmanuel of Portugal as a present in 1513, who in turn presented it to the Pope. (‘The

Return of the Rhinoceros ’ by B. V. Ramanujulu in ‘ The Hindu’ August 9, 1953).

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 271

The wild ass of Sind (Equus hemionus kiur) was hunted by Akbar

(April 1571) on the banks of the Sutlej River. Jehangir has recorded

its flesh to be halal and good eating, as also that of the mountain goat

(Capra falconeri). Abul Fazl has recorded the occurrence of the Yak

in the mountainous parts: of Kumaon where it corresponds to the

domestic cow. Though luxurious growth of wool on the limbs had

been noticed by Jehangir, its close resemblance to a buffalo in form

and appearance was not missed. Abul Fazl described how a wild

buffalo was hunted with the help of a tame cow on heat by being

lassoed or held in nooses.

There is good evidence of breeding experiments and hybridisation

of goats and deer having been undertaken during Moghul times.

Jehangir carried out such experiments between the Ibex and _ the

Barbary goat, and Abul Fazl has mentioned the maintenance of

regular deer studs to breed blackbuck to be trained as decoys for

catching and hunting the wild antelope. The hunting of the hog deer

(Axis porcinus) and the wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus) was a

sport in the district of Tutta in Sind. Abul Fazl has referred in his

Fauna of Hindustan to a species of deer larger than a fox with a

rough coat of hair and two protuberance-like tusks, but without

horns, occurring in the northern mountains and Kumaon. This is

probably the musk deer of whose flesh Jehangir had spoken as being

tasteless and inferior. The female of this species is noted to he

without the musk bag, which gives out the characteristic odour only

when it has been dry for a few days. More modern opinion about the

flesh of the musk deer as expressed by European taste is that it is free

from the flavour of musk and very good to eat. The wild boar which

is still plentiful in Sind and a serious pest to cultivation afforded a very

popular hunt. England’s ambassador to India (Sir Thomas Roe) has

recorded the receipt of a gift of a wild boar for his table but with the

unusual request for the return of the extraordinary-sized tusk.

Among the birds described or noticed during the Moghul period

were the common crow (Corvus splendens), the sparrow, the green

magpie, the racket-tailed drongo, the scarlet minivet, the dipper, the

Starling, the myna, the lark, the cuckoo, and the koel near

human habitations, apart from the parakeets, eagle, kite, falcon,

fowl, pheasant, quail, partridge, green pigeon, etc. of the jungles,

and the aquatic birds crane, stork, spotbilled duck, ibis, and the large

bustard, florican, etc. Sparrows were probably such a pest that their

numbers had to be thinned out by pellet bows fitted with bow strings.

Akbar seems to have amused himself with the training of frogs to

catch sparrows. Jehangir has recorded the habits of the pied crested

cuckoo (papihc) and the koel, the former laying its eggs in the nest

ef babbler which brings up its young, as the latter does in that of

a crow. Akbar is said to have maintained 20,000 carrier pigeons.

The Italian traveller, Manucci, has described how the nobles in the

- court of Shah Jehan bred pigeons to carry messages, or to take part

in pigeon-fighting as a sport. The peacock does not appear to have

been favoured for the table by Babur, though classical works allude

to its appreciation at banquets.

Amongst the reptiles and amphibians the marsh crocodile, the

gharial, the python, the cobra, and frogs find mention, while among

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

the fishes the hilsa and rohu are recorded. <A few insects like the

bee, and the silkworm, the gnats, fleas, flies, and lice are also

referred to. |

Babur referred to the Marsh Crocodile (Crocodilus palustris) as

the sherabi or ‘Water Lion’ or siyah sar (=black head in Persian)

(Crocodilus porosus), as occurring in the rivers of Hindustan, and

to the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) as an inhabitant of the Gogra

(Sarju River) ready to carry off unwary hathers. Jehangir has

recorded the shooting of a crocodile in Dhar State, the swallowing

of hares, hog deer, etc. by a python near Aligarh, and of a cobra by

a king Cobra (Naja hannah). Manucci, the Pepys of Moghul India,

has recorded the punishment of corrupt people by the bite of poisonous

snakes in the court of Shah Jehan, while Prince Shah Shuja, Shah

Jehan’s son, has recorded the extraordinary migration of cobras from

fields near Rajmahal in Bengal.

Babur has closely observed the skipping of frogs (Rana

cyanophlictis) along the water surface. The habit of bull-frogs in

swallowing birds including chickens and even snakes, along with the

training of frogs to catch sparrows, are mentioned in Abul F[azl’s

memoirs. The same author has recorded the fishing of palla (hilsa

of Bengal) near Tutta in Sind in the months of February and March

and referred to its unrivalled, fine, and exquisite flavour. Jehangir was

interested in fishing as in the hunt. He thought rohu was the best

fish of Hindustan and recorded an instance of blindness in fish in

one of the streams (Andha Nag) of Kashmir.

The silk industry and silkworms find a mention in Abul Fazl’s

memoirs. The silkworms seem to have been abundant in Kumaon

and Kashmir, and so were mulberry trees the leaves of which con-

stituted their main food. The eggs were, however, imported from

Gilgit and Tibet.

According to Abul Fazl the Kashmir valley appears to have been

infected with gnats, flies, fleas, and lice. Jehangir has recorded the

visit of black bees to the flowers of the lotus and the kumuda.

The maintenance of various animals (goats, rams, cocks, quails,

stags, antelopes) for fights to amuse people, and of hospitals or

pinjrapoles for the care of these and other animals seems to have

been common in the Moghul era. The traveller, Pietro della Valle, had

seen during Jehangir’s reign a pinjrapole at Cambay for many kinds

ot birds (cock, pigeon, peacock, duck), mice, etc., and the traveller,

Thevenot, had known a hospital for birds in Ahmedabad during

Aurangazeb’s time, apart from hospitals for camels, ox, horse, and

other animals. He also recorded that in Dehly (Delhi) wealthy

individuals and kings maintained hawks, camels, dromedaries, mules,

asses, elephants, elks, rhinoceroses, and buffaloes. The last-named

were described to have been of such size and power that they were

unafraid of lions. Some of the home-bred camels seemed to have

been capable of carrying considerable weights, and Jehangir has

recorded an instance of one such having carried on its back a weight

of 42 maunds (1,460 lb.). Thevenot has described a curious method

of capturing water fowl during Aurangazeb’s time by men swimming

upright in water with their heads completely hidden in a many-holed

pot covered by birds’ feathers to cheat the ducks and water fowls,

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 273

and cunningly catching hold of their feet under water and pulling them

down into it to drown them. Equally strange was the method of.

catching sandgrouse and other similar game birds recorded by

fehangir in which the birds concerned were rendered powerless to fly

by a murmuring sound produced by some Kashmiri bird-catchers.

V. ANIMAL LIFE IN INDIA IN THE PosT-MOGHUL PERIOD UP TO:

MopeErn TiMEs (17TH CENTURY TO MIDDLE OF 20TH CENTURY)

Although there are many stray references to Indian animals in the

chronicles of foreign travellers, and evidences of trade and traffic in

animals (ivory, apes, and peacocks) between easterni Europe and India,

the earliest published works based on a study of indigenous animals

were from the pen of foreign residents and sojourners in India.

Robert Knox’s ‘Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon in the

East Indies’ (1681), Koenig’s account of the white-ants of India

1779), Patrick Russell’s accounts of the Indian Serpents of the

Coromandel Coast (1796) and of the Fishes of the Visakhapatnam

Coast (1802), Hamilton-Buchanan’s account of the Fishes of the

Ganges and its branches (1822), and Gray’s ‘Illustrations of Indian

Zoology’ (1830-32), featuring a large number of Vertebrates of the

Indian region, are of this nature.! This tradition of detailed record-

ing of observed natural phenomena relating to the fauna of India has

been more or less continuous during the three centuries following the

disruption of the Moghul dynasty, but much of the organised study of

animal life which struck deep root in the country we owe to the

Gritish residents in India some of whom were keen sportsmen-

naturalists, but more particularly to the learned societies, like the

Asiatic Societyof Bengal in Calcutta, and the Bombay Natural History

Society in Bombay, which they helped to establish with the influence they

wielded as the representatives of the British ruling class.* The

accumulation of permanently preservable parts of animals, such as

bones, skins, and feathers, for exhibition by the members of the former

Society led to the founding of the Oriental Museum of the Asiatic

Society (1814), which led later on (1866) to the establishment of a

public museum under Government auspices in Calcutta, but the

‘ahimsa’ or non-violence attitude of Sir William Jones, the Founder-

President of the former Society, who discouraged the killing of animals

to gain natural knowledge proved a set-back to the study of animal

life in India for sometime (till 1828). The natural curiosity of

interested observers to learn more and more of the structure and

habits of animals could not, however, be curbed for long. From

1829 onwards there was a stream of contributions dealing with

animal structure, particularly of those animals whose anatomical parts

could be preserved in the dry state, as for instance the bones, skins,

feathers, and scales in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, and fish,

and the shells, internal or external, of cuttle-fish, snails, mussels,

cockles, clams, and oysters.

1 Gravely, F. H.—Proc. Asiatic Scc. Bengal (N.S.) XVII, p. exxxii (1921).

ae Review of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784 to 1883). Calcutta

274: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

The records of observed habits of animals in their natural environ-

ment led to considerable curiosity in others who, if they could not

satisfy their curiosity to observe them in their natural haunts, in the

forests, and on the mountains, could at least see them alive confined

in cages. This natural curiosity led to the establishment of zoological

gardens, or ‘Zoos’ ini short, within the municipal limits of towns and

cities. The initial stimulus for the establishment of such zoos came

also from the Asiatic Society as early as 1842, and probably the first

zoo in India was opened in Calcutta in 1876 with the object of

‘developing and displaying the zoological wealth of the country and of

facilitating acclimatisation, domestication, and breeding of animals, and

improving the indigenous breed of cattle and farm-stock’. This was

followed by other zoos in the country in Madras, Mysore, Trivandrum,

Bombay, etc. The maintenance of wild life in zoos and in sanctuaries

to be mentioned below has helped the study of the natural longevity of

various species of animals on a more or less scientific basis, confirming

or rejecting existing beliefs on the subject, recorded or otherwise.

The exhibition of dead animals in museums, stuffed in their skins, and

in attitudes often grotesque and unnatural though based on the

observations of sportsmen and naturalists, did not satisfy the natural

curiosity of people to learn something of the environment in which the

animals lived. This gave a new stimulus to museum technique

though borrowed from the West, particularly the United States of

America, where museum technicians excelled in the art of mounting

the elements of their fauna in as lifelike a manner as seen in nature

against a background of the proper environment. This environment

was cleverly painted on walls in vivid colours with the illusion of

depth and in settings made of natural materials obtained from the

environment, or their substitutes artificially made to resemble them,

the whole scenery suitably illuminated with electricity to resemble the

lights and shades prevailing in the natural environment. A pioneer

in this method of exhibition in India has been the Bombay Natural

Iistory Society in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, which is,

slowly though gradually, being adopted by other museums in the

country.

A similar renaissance in the organisation and exhibition of living

animals in zoological gardens is taking on the form of total elimina-

tion of all bars to the freedom of movement and of hfe of animals

kept in them, such as has been introduced in the founding of national

parks elsewhere in Europe, Africa, and America, which serves a double

purpose, namely of protecting animals from wanton destruction by

shikaris and trophy-hunters and of educating the public in the study

of animal behaviour in their own natural and native environment. A

chain of game sanctuaries for wild life (fish as well as birds, reptiles,

and mammals) is being established all over this country. The pro-

tection to the lion! and the rhinoceros? which have been noticeably

1 The lion seems to have been progressively driven out west further and further

from its original haunts in N. India extending up to W. Bengal and Bihar at the

beginning of the 19th century to the Gir forest in Katbiawar (Saurashtra, now merg-

ed in Bombay State) at the present day. Lions had been recorded alive in Palamau

in Bihar up to 1814, in Central India (Madhya Bharat) up to 1872, in Gujarat up to

1880, in Hariana (Pepsu) up to 1834, and even as far west as Kot Diji in Sind up to

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 275

getting rarer in their natural haunts in India has been one of the first

steps in governmental action to preserve the fauna peculiar to India.*

A greater and more recent stimulus to this idea of wild life preserva-

tion has been the organisation under Government auspices of an Indian

Board for Wild Life, to which is entrusted the task of creating

interest in the people in the wild life resources of the country, both in

their economic and philosophical aspects, and of sustaining it by

continuous educative propaganda and publicity.

Knowledge of the animals in the seas around India appears to

have been confined, however, during the many centuries of Indian

History to certain large-sized animals like the whales and the sharks,

which were apparently brought to the notice of people living on the

coast by the carcases of dead animals sometimes washed ashore.

Even the ardour of British sportsmen and naturalists resident in India

to extend the bounds of knowledge of animal life in the country jay

dormant so far as the sea was concerned. The success of the British

‘Challenger’ Expedition in its cruise round the world, and the efforts

of influential British biologists on the Council of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal were some of the contributory causes to the inauguration of a

marine survey in India in 1874. The interest of the naturalists of the

Indian Museum had already been stimulated by the deep-sea

investigations in 1872 conducted by Wood-Mason in the deep-

sea off the Andaman Coast, and led later on to the appointment of a

Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India. Deep-sea investiga-

-tion was a complicated and costly task. It required a fairly large

sea-worthy vessel and special equipment to capture sea animals at

various depths. The building of the ‘Investigator’ for the Marine Survey

and the procurement of equipment from the ‘Challenger’ which had

completed its cruise in 1877 helped to organise the investigation of

animal life in the Indian seas. Between 1884 and 1926, the year in

which the ‘Investigator’ ceased to carry a naturalist on board, the fauna

of the seas along the coasts of India, Burma, Ceylon, and as far afield

as the Persian Gulf, and in depths down to 2,o00 fathoms, around

the oceanic islands of the Andamans and Nicobars, the Maldives and

the Laccadives, was investigated. This survey revealed a great

wealth of animal life, both Vertebrates and Invertebrates, of the most

varied and weird kind, which was described and illustrated in special

publications brought out by the authorities of the Indian Museum from

1898 onwards.

For the first time in India, the attention of the Indian students

of zoology in the Madras and the Punjab universities, where the subject

DR ce nen ae cet al ee UE Ce

1842 which is only about 20 miles east of Mohenjodaro. The introduction of East

African lions into Gwalior late in the 19th century when the Indian Lion had almost

become extinct proved so disastrous that they had to be exterminated soon after

their introduction. d

2 To ensure the maximum possible protection to the Rhinoceros in Assam, which

is the State emblem of the Assam Government because of its almost exclusive

occurrence in that State, a ‘Rhinoceros Preservation Bill’ is being drafted by that

Government. : ‘

8 This protection has now been extended by the Board to 11 more species

viz. the snow leopard, the clouded leopard, the cheetah, the wild ass, the Kashmir

stag, the musk deer, the brow-antlered deer, the pygmy hog, the great Indian

Bustard, the pinkheaded duck, and the whitewinged wood duck.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 04

had been introduced for higher studies, was drawn to the far greater

wealth of animal life in the sea than on land, most of which was un-

familiar except to those actively engaged in catching fish at sea for many

generations, and of which there exists no recorded knowledge in history.

The part played by museums of Natural History, of which there are

only a few in number at present in this country, and by aquaria, which

can be counted on the fingers of one hand, in disseminating an

authentic knowledge of the infinite wealth of life in the sea is still so

small that it will take many years of effort to attain a decent standard

of public education in the subject of the unfamiliar aquatic world.

The pride of founding the first aquarium in India as early as 1909

goes to the Government Museum of Madras which arranged to exhibit,

in specially built glass-faced cisterns with arrangements for constant

circulation of water and air, some colourful sea-animals, particularly

fish of certain types common on our Coast.’ After nearly 33 years of

existence on the Madras Marina Beach opposite the Presidency College,

the aquarium was closed down in 1942 in the middle of the Second

World War, and reopened to the public only recently in an attenuated

ferm exhibiting a few small species of freshwater fish. The aquarium

at Trivandrum maintained by the Marine Biology Department of the

University of Travancore and the more modern one on the Marine

Drive (Taraporevala Aquarium) at Bombay maintained under the

auspices of Fisheries Department of Bombay continue to stimulate

the curiosity of people in the forms of hfe which inhabit the sea.

No less important and vital contributions to our knowledge of the

infinitely varied life, both in its grosser and in its minuter and cryptic

forms, in the vast world of Invertebrates both on land and sea were

made in the first half of the twentieth century. These were inevitably

the result of scientific investigations undertaken in connection with

agriculture, forestry, medicine, animal husbandry, and other applied

biological sciences. Innumerable animals, acting as pests and vectors

of diseases in plants, animals, and human beings, were discovered and

described and controlled, among other means, by the employment

of biological methods based on the mutual natural animosity of two

Or more species of animals. The discovery of the method of trans-

mission of the malarial and plague parasites (?), which was made on

Indian soil, led to appropriate efforts in the direction of controlling the

actual vectors, namely the anopheline mosquitoes and the rats res-

pectively, which carried the disease-causing parasites.

Although the elements of every group of the animal kingdom have

their own environment to which they are adapted in every way, the

competition for living space and food often compels them to extend

their domain into neighbouring regions. The study of the geographical

distribution of animals, on which many theories of the present and past

configuration of continents and seas are based, has therefore been a

subject of considerable importance. In so far as the Indian fauna is

concerned, this study of geographical distribution of strictly indigenous

and related species of animals has been greatly furthered by the

publication of records of animal distribution maintained in the course

1 The control of the Aquarium was later (1919) [transferred from ;the Govern-

ment Museum to the Madras Fisheries Department.

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 277

ot expeditions under official auspices during the British regime in India

into the adjoining extra-territorial regions. The Yunnan Expeditions

(7868 and 1875), the Persian Boundary Commission (1870-72), the

Second Yarkand Commission (1873-74), the Dafla Expedition (1874-75),

the Afghan Delimitation Commission (1885), the Afghan-Baluch

Boundary Commission (1896), the Pamir Boundary Commission (1896),

the Military Expedition to Lhasa in Tibet (1903-04), the Seistan-

Arbitration Commission (1903-05), and the Abor Expedition (1911-12)

have not only brought to light some rare and hitherto unknown groups

of animals, but also the peculiarities of distribution of various animals

of the Indian continent, and their excursions into adjoining geographi-

cally similar territories ignoring man-made political boundaries’.

VI. FisH AND FISHERIES IN INDIA

There are several references to the knowledge of fish and fisheries

in India through the ages”. One of the earliest of them on the subject

is to be found in the Susrita Samhita (ca. 600 B.c.*) where a knowledge

of the known marine and freshwater fishes of India and their habits

in relation to their habitat, form, and motion is clearly indicated. It

‘s found that in the Sanskrit names given to freshwater fishes of

various kinds living in the larger rivers like the Sindhu and the Ganga

(indus and Ganges) there is some significance in reference to their

structure or habits. Names like prithuroman, sakula or sakalin,

salkin, samvar seem to have such significance, though terms like

matsya, meena, anmisha, jalasaya and usha may be applicable to any

kind of fish in reference to their habits, and their places in the classifica-

tion of the animal kingdom. In the age to which Susrita’s works

(ca. 600 B.C.) and Kautilya’s Arthasastra (ca. 300 B.c.) refer, there

seems to have been ample evidence of a more or less detailed observed

knowledge of fish as a valued item of food and as providing an

industry, as being aquatic and oviparous, and as capable of being

classified in terms of their structure (scales and body plates, spines,

barbels, colour and markings) or habits (in standing or flowing waters,

swimming and sticking to substrata, etc.). The identification of the

fish or fish-like aquatic mammals which find a mention in Asoka’s

pillar edict V, attempted by Hora (1950), appears to be quite plausible,

and the fish referred to are the boneless or cartilaginous sharks and

skates, the slippery eels, the death-feigning globe-fish, and the lumpy-

bodied porpoise. Coins of the Pandyan Kingdom are stated to bear

the fish symbol as the Chola and Chera coins bear other animal

symbols like the tiger, bird etc. (vide Dandapany, T.S. in ‘The Hindu’,

r4th March, 1957).

1 «Progress of Science in India during the past twenty five years’. Ind. Sci.

Congress Association Silver Jubilee, 1938. Edited by B. Prashad.

2 The Atharva Veda and the Satapatha Brahmana are said to narrate a legend

in which a fish saved a Manu from a deluge. Similar legends seem to exist in some

of the earliest mythologies of the world (vide U. Venkata Krishna Rao in Bhavan’s

Journal, 3 (7) : 56-58, 1956).

3 According to the agreed chronology at the Symposium of the National Institute

of Sciences of India, the dates of Susriita Samhita, Arthasastra, and Charaka Samhita

4th century B.c. have been advanced to 100 to 200 a.p.

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

The gradual development of fisheries in irrigation tanks in north

and south India from the 5th century to the 16th century a.p. has

been traced in several works. King Someswara’s Mdnas6llosa of the

12th century is said to contain in a chapter entitled ‘matsyavinoda’ a

large mass of interesting facts relating to various types of fish and

to the sport and pastime of angling as known in the preceding two

centuries. These reveal a very detailed and accurate knowledge of the

maintenance of tanks and ponds, and the culture and angling of various

kinds of fish valued as food and game. Someswara’s classification of

fishes, specially of the kind used in sport, is based on their size and

habitat, and the references to the rod, line, hook, and bait are also in

relation to the nature of the waters fished, marine, estuarine, or

riverine.

One of the more recent works on sporting fish in India and Burma

(Macdonald, 1048)! contains a list of freshwater fishes very little

different from those known to Someswara.

Fisheries is mentioned as one of the thriving industries in the

Vijayanagar Empire’. é:

The second World War, the Bengal famine of 1943 and the

recommendations of the Famine Commission (1945) seem to have given

a great fillip to the study of Fish and Fisheries in India although

same attention had been bestowed on this subject tor over a century

previous. Panikkar (1956) has recently reviewed the progress of

work in fish and fisheries in the country®.

Se ee ee

1 Macdonald, A. St. J., Circumventing the Masheer and other Sporting Fish im

india and Burma (Bombay, 1948).

2Mahalingam, T. V., Economic Life in the Vijayanagar Empire. (Madras 1953) .

8 Panikkar, N. K. (1956)—Progress of Science in India, (1938-50) Section VII,

Zoology, pp. 92-151 published by the N.LS.1.).

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF INDIAN FAUNA THROUGH THE AGES 279

APPENDIX

UMASVATI’S CLASSIFICATION

ot Kskudrajantu

(including small animals Invertebrata—boneless and without red-blood. )

Ayonija

YOnija

| |

le i |

Svédaja Udvijja Matsya Uragaor Bhujanga (quadru-

(no examples Sarpa pedal and

given) (Ophidia) 5-clawed )

| Batrachie (8 spe-

sea River &e cies of

Reptilia frogs)

time—makara

é (whale) (shark)

Krimi Platyhelminthes

Apadika j Nemathelminthes |

(Annelida) Venomous Non-venomous

Nupuraka ... Oligochaeta (3 species) (one species) |

Jaluka ..- Hirudinea and 80 varieties

based on scale-

Gandu pida Arthropoda markings.

Pipilika ) Hymenoptera Hybrid

R6hinika j (one species)

Bhramara

Varata and i Lomapaksha pakshi

paranga (Aves)

U pachika

Kunthu Hemiptera Plava — aquatic or amphibious

Tuburaka

Coleoptera Viskira ; Passeres,

Tailakita ) oil-worm Pratuda § Columbae, etc.

Khadyota j glow-worm ;

Utpataka Aptera Prasaha—birds of prey.

Trinapatra j Thysanoptera ? ;

Kashtha naraka—Neuroptera

Makshika \

Mashaka pee

Puttika Diptera

Dansa

Kita ... Lepidoptera

Patanga ... Orthoptera

Vrischika | ;

Nandyavartha j Arachnida

Satapadi Myriapoda

Kosastha Mollusca

(living in shells)

Sankha Gastropoda (short-spired )

Sambuka site i

Wodila i Helicoid and long-spired

Suktika Lamellibranchia

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

VII. REFERENCES

Ali, Salim A. (1927-28) : The Moghul Emperors of India as Naturalists and

Moe Part I 3r (4) : 833-861; Parts II and III 32 (1): 34-63;

(2) : 264-273.

Ashraf, Kunwar Muhammad (1935): Life and Conditions of the People of

Hindusthan (1200-1550 A.D.) mainly based on Islamic Sources. Journ. Asiatic

Society of Bengal. Third series x : 103-359.

Gravely, F. H. (1921) : History of Zoology in India and Ceylon.—Pyoc. Asiatic

Soc. Bengal, N.S. 17: cxxxii—cxlvi.

Hora, S. L. (1935) : Ancient Hindu Conception of Correlation between Form

and Locomotion of Fishes. Journ. Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 1: 1-7.

— — (1948) : Sanskrit names of Fish and their Significance. Journ. Roy.

Asiatic Soc. Bengal Science 14 (1) : 1-6.

-—— — (1948) : Knowledge of the Ancient Hindus concerning Fish and Fisheries

of India I. References to Fish in Arthasastra (ca. 300 B.C.), Ibid: 7-10.

— — (1950): 11 Fishery Legislation in Asoka’s Pillar Edict V (246 B.C.)

Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Letters 16 (1) : 43-53.

— — (1951) : III Matsyavinoda cr a Chapter on Angling in the Manasollasa by

King Someswara (1127 A.D.), Ibid, 17 (2) : 145-169, pls. xviii-xxi,

— — (1951) : Zoological Knowledge with Special Reference to Fish and Fisheries

in India before 225 B.C. Archiv. Internat. D. Hist. Sci. 15 : 405-412.

— — (1951) : Maintenance of Irrigation Tanks through Fishery Revenue in

Ancient India. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Letters, 17 (1) : 41-50.

—— (1951): A Sanskrit work on Angling of the Early Twelfth Century.

Nature, 167 : 778.

— — (1951) : History of Science and Technology in India and South East Asia.

Nature, 168 : 1047.

— — (1952) : Central Board for Wild Life—Science & Culture, 18 (11). |

912-515. |

Macdonell, A. A. and Keith A. B. (1912) : Vedic Index of Names and Subjects ©

(Indian ‘Texts Series) —John Murray, London. :

Marshall, John (1931) : Mohenjodaro end the Indus Civilisation. Arthur

Probsthain, London.

Piggot, Stuart (1952) : Prehistoric India (Pelican Books A 205), 293 pp.

Panikkar, N.K. (1956) : Fish and Fisheries in ‘ Progress of Science in India ’,

1938-50, Section VIII, Zoology, by H. Srinivasa Rao. Nat. Inst. Sci. India,’ Sub-

section II, Fish and Fisheries, pp. 92-151.

Prashad, Baini (1932) : Some Pre-Linnaean Writers on Indian Zoology, Acharya

Ray Commemoration Volume, pp. 68-76 (Calcutta). . S

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals—pp. xxxii and 263, pls. 101 ~

andl map. Bombay Natural History Society. one,

Rao, H. Srinivasa (1938) : An Outline of the Fauna of India. ‘An Outline of

the Field Sciences of India ’ by S. L. Hora. Ind. Sci. Congress Assn. Silver Jubilee ©

Session, 1938, pp. 91-124, pls. v—vii.

-— — (1938) : Progress of Zoology in India during the past twenty five years.

‘ Progress of Sciences in India’ by B. Prashad. Indian Sci. Congress Association

Silver Jubilee, 1938, pp. 353-433 ‘

Seal, B.N. (1915): The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus—Hindu

Classification of Animals —pp. 177-201 (London).

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VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS

| N. C. Nair & G. S. NatHawat,

Depariment of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, India

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

Thanks to the facilities afforded by the Birla College of Science,

Pilani, it became possible to undertake the much desired sutvey of the

vegetation of Harsh Nath in the early part of October 1955, when a large

number of plants were collected in addition to a considerable amount of

field notes and ecological data. Unfortunately the time at our disposal

was short for any but a superficial study. Nevertheless, it must be

mentioned, the study has enabled us not only to compare the various

communities encountered, in terms of their perennial components, which

constitute the structural framework of the vegetation, but also to observe

the herbaceous plants that come out during the rainy season and the

early winter plants. The aim of the present paper is to place on record

the present floristic and ecological features of the vegetation so as

to provide a basis for comparison at some future date.

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

The Aravalli Hills, the weather-worn remnants of an ancient chain of

mountains that came into existence durin2 the great erganic upheaval

towards the close of the Dharwar era, are a great feature of Rajasthan.

Harsh Nath is one of the highest peaks in this ancient mountain system.

It is situated 27° 37’ N. and 75° 8’ E., close to the north-eastern extremity

of the range. In shape it is long and narrow but the top spreads out into.

an irregular picturesque plateau about five miles in length and three

miles in breadth. ‘The place commands a superb view of its environs ;

the succession of hills, the views of the plains and silvery sand dunes from

them, and the varied greenness, all combine to form a view of the

most charming scenery. The direction of the hill is south-west to

north-east. The highest point in the hill is about 3,000 ft. above sea-

level. Here there are a few shrines—the remnants of a glorious past—

that are regarded with sentimental attachment by millions of people. The

hill is not far from the beaten track, seven miles south-east of Sikar, from

where a motorable road leads right up to its foot. One reaches the

top by a zigzag path about three miles long.

The north-western face of the hill is rather een and the vegetation.

is comparatively thick. On the northern tace a lot of biotic disturbances

are at work, particularly due to the removal of rocks for construction and

other purposes. At lower levels a lot ot earth-cutting is done. At

the foot of the hill on the eastern side is the village of Harsh. The

horseshoe shaped hill is surrounded on the western, northern and

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

eastern sides by a small, purely rain-fed stream which remains dry during

most part of the year. Inthe south and south-east are several small

barren hills of the Aravallis, from which Harsh Nath is cleariy separated.

The hill is rugged in outline and the rocks are highly crystalline,

consisting of schists and quartzites. The important minerals of the

Azavallis are mica, copper, quartz, etc. (see Wadia, 1944),

CLIMATE

The paucity of climatic data available for Harsh Nath prevents us

from presenting anything other than those of the close-by station Sikar.

The climate is dry. The rainy season is short, lasting from the end of

June to the middle of September. The remaining period of the year is

practically free from rain ; sometimes, however, a few showers fall during

the winter months.

The annual mean maximum temperature varies between 72.9°F. in

January and 107.9°F. in June, the average for the twelve months being

90.5° F. The mean minimum temperature varies from 41.5° F. in

December to 83.5° F. in June. The highest maximum record is 115° in

May andthe lowest minimum 25° F. in the month of December.

The average rainfail per year is 16.95 inches distributed over 28.5

rainy days. Most of itis due tothe south-west monsoon from the

middle of June to the middle of September. ‘Thunder storms sometimes

occur.

There is a constant breeze from south-west to north-east and the

speed varies from 1-8 miles per hour in November to 7-20 miles per hour

in June. Dust storms are frequent in the months of May and June. The

relative iumidity attains its maximum in August and September, 80 and

76 respectively. The lowest 33 is reached in April.

SOIL

The water table seems to be very deep. ‘The capacity of the

rocks to hold water is very limited and the greater portion of the

monsoon rain is washed off into the plains where it gets collected in

temporary ponds. -

The soil supporting plant growth consists of small pieces of gravel

and rocks derived from the disintegration of gneisses and schist. It is

rather thin and contains a variety of humus derived from decaying plant

and animal remains. Wherever the locaiity is rich in biological soil

formed due to human agency by the addition of animal excreta and other

manure the vegetation is comparatively rich.

VEGETATION

During the present study the top of the hill was approached irom four

sides in parties of three each. The vegetation falls naturally into

interesting and fairly distinct elevational zones though they intermingie

to a certain extent and merge with one another, so that very clear limits

cannot be assigned to each. Some of the elements that constitute the

vegetation are present throughout the hill, eg. Tephrosia purpurea,

Cenchrus catharticus, Boerhaavia ditfusa, Peristrophe bicalyculata, etc.

5 adhe Zope : a= te

VEGETATION OF HARSH-.NATH, ARAVALL] HILLS 283

Certain plants, such as Adhatoda vasia, Indigofera sp.. Capparis

decidua, etc., were found only at the base and top of the hill.

The account of the vegetation of Harsh Nath will be incomplete with-

out a general account of the vegetation of the neighbouring plains

around the hiil. The general structure of the vegetation of the plains is

similar to that of other arid regions of Rajputana and corresponds to the

dry semi-desertic type of vegetation. As might be expected, thorny plants

figure prominently. In spread out sand the early pioneers to colonise are

Aerua tomentosa, Crotalaria burhia, Leptadenia spartium, etc. In some

places colonies of Aderua tomentosa, Leptadenia spartium, Calligonum

poly gonoides, Panicum turgidum, etc. are found. Relatively thick growth

occurs in places and the principal associations are

(@) PROSOPIS-CAPPARIS association

Prosopis spicitgera. d

Capparis decidua. C

Anogeissus pendula. 1

Lizyphus rugosa. ¥

Calotropis procera. 1

Salvadora persica. ft

Aerua tomentosa. c¢

Boerhaavia dittusa. c

Polygala ertoptera.

Corchorus acutangulus. c

(6) BALANITES-ANOGEISSUS association

Balanites roxburghit. d

Anogeissus pendula. c

Zizyphus rugosa. ¢

Calotropis procera. t

Clerodendrum phlomidis. tr

Aerua tomentosa. ¢

Corchorus acutangulus. tr

Abutilon indicum. x

Capparis decidua. d

Saccharum munja. ©

Calotropis procera. ¢

Clerodendrum phlomidis. t

Cleome viscosa. t

Corchorus tridens. r

Coccinia indica, +

Cenchrus catharticus. c

Gisekia pharnaceoides. a

(d) BALANITES-ACACIA association

Balanites roxburghii. d

Acacia arabica, c

Prosopis spicigera, t

*d dominant ; a abundant; c common; r rare

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

Zizyphus rugosa. r

Solanum nigrum. v

Tephrosia purpurea. c

Withania somnitera. rt

Citrullus colocynthis. t

Szda corditolia. r

Commelina benghalensis. r

(¢) GYMNOSPORIA-CAPPARIS-ZIZYPHUS association

Gymnos porta montana. d

Capparts decidua. ¢

Zizyphus rugosa. a

Leptadenia spartium. ©

Calotropis procera. f

_ Abutilon indicum. r

Aerua tomentosa. c

Cenchrus biflorus. a

Dactyloctenitum aegypticum. a

Tribulus terrestris.

Mollugo nudicaulis. r

(f) ZIZYPHUS-CALLIGONUM association

Zizyphus rugosa. C

Callygonum polygonoides. c

Aerua tomentosa. r

Leptadenia spartium. tf

Corchorus tridens. r

Argemone mexicana. fr

Vernonia cinerea. f

Boerhaavia dittusa. ¥

(g) TEPHROSIA-CORCHORUS association (in open sand)

Tephrosia purpurea. C

Corchorus tridens. t

Corchorus acutangulus. ¢

Mollugo cerviana. Cc

Mollugo nudicaulis. c

Gisekia pharnaceoides, c

Spernacoce hispida. r

Polygala evrioptera. f

(2) AMARANTUS-ALTERNANTHERA association (in moist ‘soil of

partly dried up ponds)

Amarantus spinosus, a

Alternanthera sessilis. 2

Calotropis procera. r (in seedling stage only),

Polygonum plebejum. c

Mollugo hirta, c

Argemone mexicana. t

Eclipta erecta. £

Cyperus votundus. 1

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS 285

oO SMITHIA-MOLLUGO association (in moist soil around ponds)

Smithia sensitiva. a

Mollugo hiria. a

Eclipta erecta. 1

Alternanthera sessilis. c

Cyperus rotundus. fr

Cynodon dactylon.

Polygonum plebejum. c¢

Foot of the hill. The vegetation at the foot of the hill and up

to 1,500 {t. consists mainly of shrubs with trees here and there. The

plants that are common in the plains, diminish gradually from the base

upwards. The vegetation in the zone shows a remarkable uniformity,

and the elements that constitute the shrubby community are

Adhatoda vasica. 4d

Zizy phus rugosa. C

Tephrosia purpurea. Cc

Clerodendrum phlomoidis. +

Calotropis procera.

Aerua tomentosa. v

Gymnosporia montana. f

The tree species found in this zone are Balanites roxburghit, Wrightia

tomentosa, Tamarix artitulata, Prosopis spicigera, Anogetssus pendula,

A, latifolia, and Salvadora persica.

Between 1,500 and 2,000 ft. As the proximity of this zone

is reached Adhatoda, Calotropis, ‘and Clerodendrum drop away, and their

places are taken by new elements and stunted trees become more and

more prominent. In this zone the prominent plants are

- Anogeissus latifolia. ¢

Prosopis spicigera. ©

Wrightta tomentosa, 1

Acacia senegal. tf

Gymnosporia montana. C

- Dichrostachys cinerea. vt

Euphorbia nerittolia, r

Dichoma tomentosa. ¢ - -

Triumpheta rhomboidea. 1

Above 2,000 ft. There is a remarkable change in the vegeta-

tion above this level. The trees become more and more prominent.

They branch profusely and form a canopy. The prominent trees are

_ Anogeissus latitolia. a.

Salvadora oleoides. _ r

Cedrela toona. c

Floloptelea integritolia. 1

Wrightia tomentosa. C

Prosopis spicigera. {

Acatia senegal, 1.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

On the boulders and in the crevices and pockets of rocks, where some

soil has been collected, Auphorbia neritfolia, Blainvillea rhomboidea,

Digitaria adscendens, etc. grow. At places, pure colonies of Auphorbia

neritfolia are met with. The shrubby plants of this zone are

Gymnosporia montana. C

Dychrostachys cinerea. ¥

Blepharts boerhaaviaetolia. ¢

Peristrophe bicalyculata. c¢

Abutilon indicum. 1

Sida humilis. r

The herbaceous vegetation consists of

Physalis minima. Cc

Polycarpaca corymbosa. fr

Zornia diphylla. c

Cucumis trigonus. Cc

Arnebia hispidissima. Cc

Boerhaavia repens. ¢

Euphorbia hypericitolia. r

Melhania tomentosa. tr

Actinopteris dichotoma. Cc

Adiantum annulatum. c

The common bryophytes are Riccia, Funaria, and Fimbriaria.

Such areas with good vegetation are not many in Harsh Nath. The

highest point and the greater part of the tableland are practically devoid

of vegetation except for some stunted plants of Anogetssus latifolia,

Euphorbia nerittolia, and thalloid piants such as lichens, etc.

In some of the valleys were observed luxuriant growth of bamboos.

At the highest point there are a few artificial ponds in which were seen

Lemna. Around these ponds the soil supports .a thick growth of

Bambusa, Anogeissus, Holoptelea, Salvadora, Acacia, Prosopis, and shrubs

such as Zizyphus xylopora, Capparis decidua, Abutilon indicum,

Bauhinia sp., Adhatoda vasica, Peristrophe bicalyculata, and herbs such as

Boerhaavia ditfusa, Elytraria crenata, Trianthema pentandra, Aristolochia

bracteata, Oldenlandia corymbosa, Elephantopus scaber, eliotrvopium

subulatum, Indigotera argentea, Tridax procumbens, Sonchits sp., etc.

DETAILED LIST oF PLANTS COLLECTED

Menispermaceae

Cocculus villosus DC. Rare; vegetative.

Papavaraceae

Argemone mexicana Linn. This winter plant was seen flowering in

several places in the vicinity of temporary ponds.

Cruciferae

Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. Common in the plains. Flowering.

F. hamiltonii Royle. Flowering and fruiting. Rare. _

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALL] HILLS 287

Capparidaceae

Cleome viscosa Linn. Rare. Flowering and fruiting.

Cleome papillosa Steud. Rare, flowering.

Capparis decidua Pax. Vegetative. Common.

Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC, Common in the plains. Flowering and

fruiting.

Caryophyllaceae

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk, Fruiting.

Polygalaceae

Polygala erioptera DC. Common. Flowering and fruiting.

P, abyssinica Presh. Flowering. Rare.

Portulacaceae

Portulaca quadrifida Linn. Rare. Flowering.

P, oleracea Linn. Rare.

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix articulata Vahl. Rare; vegetative. |

Malvaceae

Sida cordifolia Linn. Fiowering. Common.

S. rhombifolia Linn. Flowering. Rare.

S. humilis Willd. (= Szda veronicaefolia Lamk.) An under-shrub. Rare,

flowering.

Pavonia zeylanica Cav. Flowering. Common.

Malvastrum tricuspidatum A. Grey. Rare, fruiting.

Abutilon indicum Linn. Common, flowering.

Sterculiaceae

Melhania tomentosa Stocks. Flowering. Rare, Erect tomentose herb,

Flowers yellow. Fertile stamens five alternating with five

staminodes.

Tiliaceae

Triumpheta rhomboidea Jacq. Flowering. Common.

Corchorus acutangulus Lamk. Flowering. Common.

Corchorus trilocularis Linn. Flowering. Common.

Corchorus tridens Linn. Flowering. Common.

Grewia populifolia Vahl. Rare, flowering.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Zyzgophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris Linn. Common. Fruiting.

Tribulus alatus Del. Flowering. Common.

Fagonia arabica Linn. Fruiting. In the plains. Rare.

Simaroubaceae*

Balanites roxburghii Plan. Common.

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Rare.

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica Lamk. Cultivated.

Melia azedarach Linn, Cultivated. . , Pe

Cedrela toona Roxb. Only on the higher altitudes of the hill. Vegeta-

tive.

-Celastraceae

Gymnosporia montana Roxb. Flowering. Common.

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus xylopyra Willd. Vegetative, abundant at the foot of the hill and

in the plains.

Z. nummularia W, & A. Common in the plains. Flowering.

Z. jujuba Lamk. Cultivated.

Sapindaceae

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Common in the higher altitudes of

the hill. Flowering.

Leguminosae

Indigofera linifolia Retz. Flowering. Rare in the plains.

Indigofera argentea Linn. Flowering. Common in the plains. One of

_ the pioneers in fresh sand dunes.

Indigofera cordifolia Heyne. Common. Flowering.

Indigofera tinctoria Linn. A few plants on the roadside. Probably

cultivated. :

Indigofera enneaphylla Linn. Flowering. Common.

* This family name is based on that of its type genus Simarouba, established

and so spelled by Aublet to commemorate the barbaric Carib name for plants

of the genus. The spelling was changed by de Candolle.in 1811 to Szmaruba, but

as pointed out by Sprague (Kew Bull. 1929 p. 243) the original spelling must

be used. ae es 2

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS 289

Indigofera pentaphylla Linn. Flowering. Rate.

Indigofera triquetra Dalz. A wiry small herb. Common, flowering.

Indigofera wightii Carab. Flowering and fruiting. Rare. This plant

with its silvery foliage was found to reach a height of 4-5 ft.,

although the normal height reported is 2-3 ft.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers. Flowering. Abundant both in the hill and in

the plain.

Tephrosia tenuis Vahl. Rare. Flowering.

Smithia sensitiva Ait. Flowering and fruiting. A shrub 1-2 feet high.

Common at the base of the hill near ponds.

S. dichotoma Dalz. Rare. Flowering.

Zornia diphylla Pers. Common throughout the hill. Flowering,

Crotalaria burhia Hamilt. Common on the plains. One of the dune

pioneers. Flowering.

Desmodium gangeticum DC. Rare. Flowering.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. A few plants in the village Harsh. Seems to be

cultivated.

Melilotus alba Lamk. A few plants at the bse of the hill near temporary

ponds. Flowering.

Cyamopsis psoralioides DC. Cultivated and arcid from the fields,

Phaseolus mungo yar, radiatus. Cultivated.

P. vulgaris Linn. Cultivated.

Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacg. Cultivated.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. Rare, flowering and fruiting,

Cassia tora Linn. Common both in the plains and on the hili.

Flowering.

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. Small trees in the higher altitudes of the hill.

Common.

Tamarindus indica Linn, Cultivated.

Dichrostachys cinerea W, & A, Flowering, rare.

Acacia arabica Willd. Rare.

Acacia senegal Willd. ‘Common on the hill,

Acacia leucophloea Willd. Common in the plains,

Acacia jacquemontii Benth. Common in the plains. Flowering.

Prosopis spicigera Linn. Abundant.

Albizzia lebbeck Willd. Cultivated.

Mimosa hamata Willd. Common in the plains. Flowering.

Combretaceae

Anogeissus pendula Edgw. Flowering; rare on the hill. Common in

the plains.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Cucurbitaceae

Cucumis trigonus Roxb. Flowering and fruiting. Rare.

Cucumis sativus Linn. Cultivated, often runs wild.

Momordica dioica Roxb. Rare, flowering and fruiting.

‘Momordica balsamina Linn. Flowering and fruiting. Not uncommon.

Momordica charantia Linn. Cultivated.

Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. (Common in the plains. One of the dune

pioneers. Generally has long and trailing branches,

Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. Cultivated.

Ctenolepis cerasiformis Naud. Climbing, scabrous herbs with simple

tendrils. Leaves simpie, orbicular 5-7-lobed, middle lobe acute

longer than the others. Flowers monoecious; male on small

inconspicuous axiilary peduncles, females solitary in the same axil of |

the male. The stipuliform bract is the characteristic feature of the

species.

Luffa acutangula Roxb. Cultivated, fruiting.

Cucurbita maxima Duch. Cultivated. Flowering and fruiting.

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. Cultivated.

Trichosanthes sp. Cultivated.

Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. Cultivated, fruiting.

Cephalandra indica Naud. Rare, flowering.

Ficoideae

Trianthema monogyna Linn. In moist places. Common. Flowering.

T. pentandra Linn. Flowering and fruiting. Common.

T. crystallina Vahl. Rare.

Mollugo cerviana Seringe. Flowering and fruiting. Common on fresh

sand dunes and rarely in association with other plants. One of the

dune pioneers.

M. nudicaulis Lamk. (as above)

M. hirta Thunb. Flowering. In moist places and in dried up temporary

ponds. oe

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn, Flowering and fruiting. Common in loose

sand,

Cactaceae

Opuntia dillenii Haw. Rare. Vegetative,

Umbelliferae

Daucus carota Linn. Vegetative.. Cultivated.

Coriandrum sativum Benth. Vegetative. Cultivated.

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALL]. HILLS 291

Rubiaceae

Spermacoce hispida Linn. Flowering and fruiting. Common in the

plains.

S. stricta Linn. (As above)

Oldenlandia umbellata Linn. Fruiting. Common.

Oldenlandia brachiata Hk, f. Flowering and fruiting. Common.

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. Flowering and fruiting. Rare.

Compositae

Blainvillea rhomboidea Cass, Flowering. Common.

Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Flowering. |

Eclipta alba Hassk. Common in moist places, flowering.

Glossocardia linearifolia Cass. Flowering. Rare.

Bidens pilosa Linn. Flowering. Common.

Vernonia cinerea Linn. Flowering. Common.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Flowering. Rare.

Pulicaria wightiana Clarke. Common in the plains. Flowering.

Elephantopus scaber Linn. Rare. In shade, flowering.

Tridax procumbens Linn. Abundant. Flowering.

Cnicus wallichii DC, Flowering. Common.

Launea pinnatifida Cass. Flowering. Rare.

Launea nudicaulis Less, Flowering. Rare.

Sonchus oleraceus Linn. Flowering. Rare.

Sonchus arvensis Linn. Flowering. Rare.

Sonchus asper Vill. Flowering. Rare.

Artemisia scoparia Wald. Flowering. Common.

Blumea lacerss DE. Flowering. Rare.

Xanthium strumarium Linn. Flowering. Common at the base, particularly

in moist situations.

Vernonia conyzoides Wight. Flowering. Rare.

Salvadoraceae.

Salvadora persica Linn. Vegetative. Common on the hill, Not in the

plains.

Salvadora oleoides Decne. In the plains, rarely on the hill. Vegetative.

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

A pocynaceae

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. Common on the hill, not in the plains.

Flowering.

Lochnera pusilla Flowering. Rare.

Vinca rosea Linn. Cultivated.

Asclepiadaceae

Leptadenia spartium Wight. Flowering. Common 1n the plains. One

of the pioneers in fresh sand.

Ceropegiatuberosa Roxb. Flowering. Rare.

Calotropis procera R.Br. Flowering. Common in the plains. Rarely

on the hill up to 1,500 ft. One of the pioneers in fresh sand.

Calotropis gigantea Br. Common in the plains.

Boraginaceae

Arnebia hispidissima DC. Throughout hill, flowering.

Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. Flowering. Common.

Heliotropium eichwaldii Steud. Flowering. Common.

Heliotropium undulatum Vahl. Common in the shade afforded by other

plants.

Heliotropium indicum Linn. Flowering. Common.

Trichodesma amplexicaule Roth. Flowering. Common.

Cordia myxa Linn. A few plants at the foot of the hill. Probably

cultivated.

Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks. Flowering. Common in the plains.

Solanaceae

Withania somnifera Dunal. Flowering. Common at the foot of the

hill. : :

Solanum nigrum Linn. Common. Flowering.

Solanum xanthocarpum Ster. Flowering. Rare, in the plains.

Solanum indicum Linn. Flowering. Rare, on the hill.

Solanum melongena Linn. Cultivated.

Physalis minima Linn. Flowering.

Physalis peruviana Linn. Flowering.

Datura fastuosa Linn. Flowering. Rare.

Lycium europeum Linn. Flowering. Common in the plains both in

loose and stabilized soil. rif

Capsicum frutescens Linn. Flowering. Cultivated.

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALL] HILLS 293

Convolvulaceae

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. Common both in the hill and in the plains.

Cuscuta hyalina Roth. Parasite on 7yéanthema, Tribulus, etc. at the base

of the hill. |

Cuscuta reflexa Forsk, Rare. Parasite on Adhioda vasica at the base of

the hill. 5

Ipomoea vitifolia Sweet. Flowering. Rare.

Ipomoea turpethum Br, Flowering. Inthe hill. Rare.

Ipomoea pestrigridis Linn. Rare. In plains.

Merremia hastata Hallier. Flowering. Throughout the hill.

Scrophulariaceae

Lindenbergia urticaefolia Lehm.

‘Lathrea squamaria Linn. Root parasite on Euphorbia neritfolia.

Common.

Linaria cabulica Benth. Common from 1,200 tt. to 1,600 ft. Flowering.

Scoparia dulcis Linn. In moist places at the base of the hill.

Striga lutea Linn. Root parasite on Pennisetum ty phoideum.

Anticharis linearis Hochst. Flowering. Common in the plain.

Bignoniaceae

Tecoma undulata G, Don. Common in the plains. One of the principal

trees of the area.

Pedaliaceae

Pedalium murex Linn. At the base of the hill. Common in sandy areas.

Flowering.

Sesamum indicum DC. Flowering. Stray plants here and there. Pro-

bably spread from the fields,

| Acanthaceae

Justicia procumbens Linn. One of the most abundant herbaceous plants,

flowering.

Justicia simplex Don, Smaller than the above species. Flowering,

Frequent.

Justicia heterocarpa T, Anders. Flowering. Rare, only in the hiil.

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. Abundant at the base and top of the hill

in moist situations.

Ruellia prostrata Lamk. Flowering. Common.

Elytraria crenata Vahl, Flowering. Rare; one of the shade-loving

plants.

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Adhatoda vasica Nees. Abundant at the base and top of the hill.

Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia Pers, Flowering. Prostrate undershrub.

Common. | .

-Verbenaceae

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. Flowering. Common. -

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. Flowering. Rare.

Labiatae

Leucas aspera Spreng. Flowering. Common.

Leucas urticaefolia Br. Flowering, rare, only in the hill.

Leucas ciliata Benth. Flowering. Rare.

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Ocimum sanctum Linn. In the neighbourhood of villages, and near

temples at the top on the hill. Flowering.

Ocimum canum Linn. Flowering. Rare. From 1,000 ft. to 2,000 ft.

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Fiowering. Common.

Boerhaavia repens Delile. Flowering. Common.

Amarantaceae

Aerua tomentosa Forsk. Flowering. Common inthe plains. A pioneer

species on the sand dunes.

Aerua lanata Juss. Rare.

Amarantus spinosus Linn. Flowering. Common at the base of the hill

in moist places. ,

Amarantus viridis Linn. Flowering. Common in the plains.

Amarantus gangeticus Linn. Flowering. At the base of the hill in moist

places.

Amarantus sp. Very tall, 9-12 ft., with long spines: near cultivated

fields.

Achyranthes aspera Linn. Flowering. Common in the plains.

Alternanthera sessilis Br. In moist places at the base of the hill,

Digera arvensis Forsk. Flowering. Common in the plains.

Celosia argentea Linn. Flowering. Common ai the base of the hill.

Pupalia lappacea Moq. Flowering and fruiting. Common; a_ shade-

loving plant of the plains found in association with Zizyphus, Calo-

tropts, etc.

Nothosaerua brachiata Wight. Flowering. Common near waterlogged

areas. oe

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album Linn. Flowering. Common in the fields.

Chenopodium murale Linn. In moist places.

Polygonaceae

Calligonum polygonoides Linn. Vegetative, common in the plains. One

of the dune pioneers. Sometimes it prefers to grow at the very

crest of dunes.

Polygonum plebejum Br, Common near temporary ponds. Flowering.

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia bracteata Retz. At the foot of the hill and in the plains, in the

shade and in open sandy soil. Flowering and fruiting.

Loranthaceae

Loranthus longiflorus Pers. Flowering. Parasite on Holoptelea, Cedreia,

etc.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn. Common.

Euphorbia hirta Linn. Common in moist situations. Flowering. (syn.

E. pilulitera L.) :

Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. Common on the hill. -

Euphorbia microphylla Heyne. Common, flowering.

Euphorbia clarkeana Hook. Common. Flowering.

Phyllanthus madraspatensis Linn. Flowering. Common.

Phyllanthus niruri Linn. Rare.

Chrozophora obliqua A, Juss. A tomentose small shrub 1-3 ft. high

Flowering. Common in the plains.

Acalypha ciliata Forsk. Flowering. Rare. In the higher altitudes of

the hill,

Ricinus communis Linn. Flowering. Cultivated and running wild.

Urticaceae

Ficus religiosa Linn. Flowering and fruiting. Rare. Probably all

cultivated plants.

Ficus benghalensis Linn. Only four plants at the base of the hill (Harsh

Village) and two plants at the top. Probably cultivated.

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. Vegetative. Rare.

Morus alba Linn. In the Village. Probably cultivated. Vegetative.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Liliaceae

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Vegetative, at the base of the hill.

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. A common weed of the cultivated fields.

Allium cepa Linn. Cultivated.

Commelinaceae

Commelina benghalensis Linn. Flowering. Common in moist shady

_ places.

Commelina obliqua Buch.-Ham. At higher altitudes. Common.

Cyanotis (axillaris Roem ?) Common.

Palmae

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. In the plains.

Lemnaceae

Lemna trisulea Linn. Vegetative. Common in the artificia) ponds at

the top of the hill,

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus Linn. Frequent in moist places.

Cyperus arenarius Retz. Flowering. Common.

Fimbristylis squarrosa Vahl. Flowering. Rare.

Scirpus maritimus Linn. Rare.

Gramineae

Aristida histricula Edgew.

Aristida depressa Retz.

Cenchrus catharticus Del.

Cenchrus prurii (Kunth) Maire.

Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.

Saccharum munja Rone!

Saccharum spontaneum Linn.

Cynodon dactylon Pers. |

Digitaria adscendens (H. B. K.) Henr. (=Fanicum adscendens H. B. K.)

Digitaria marginata Link.

Chloris barbata Sw.

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALL]I HILLS — 297

Panicum turgidum Forsk.

Panicum antidotale Retz.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium Willd.

Brachiaria ramosa Stapf (= Panicum ramosum Linn.)

Sporobolus orientalis Kunth.

Bambusa bambos Vilm.

Urochloa panicoides Beauv.

Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. Cultivated.

Zea mays. Cultivated.

Sorghum vulgare. Cultivated.

Gnetaceae

Ephedra foliata Boiss. Common in the plains.

STATISTICAL SYNOPSIS

Table I gives the number and percentage of |families, genera, and

species of each class.

Table I

Dicotyledons | Monocotyledons

Total

poe x No.

Families} 88°24 45 | 11°37 6 51

Genera 85°62 126 14°38 OA 147

Species 87:00 194 13°00 29 223

Excepting Gramineae, the Monocotyledons are poorly represented.

Of the 29 species of Monocotyledons 18 belong to Gramineae while the

_rest belong to 5 different families. Excepting the families Leguminosae

and Compositae, the Dicotyledons are also poorly represented. Of the

194 species of Dicotyledons, 27 belong to Leguminosae, 20-belong to

Compositae, while the remaining 147 belong to 43 different families.

The ratio of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons is 1: 7°5 of families,

1: 6 of: genera, and 1: 6°7 or species. The ratio of genera to species is

1: 1°53. This ratio indicates the small proportion of species to the

genera and families.

Out of 51 families, 23 are represented by one genus each and of these

15 have only a single species each. Of the remaining 36 families

10 have.2 genera each, 5 have 3, 3 each have 4 and 5 genera, 2

have 6 genera, 1 has 8 genera, 2 have 13 genera, and 1 has 16 genera.

298 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

The families having 8 or more genera are Net ge (8), Legumino-

sae (13), Graminae (13), and Compositae (16).

Of the 147 genera 101 are represented by a single species each, 29 by

2 species, 13 by 3, and 3 by 4 species. The remaining 2 genera have 5

and 8 species.

The iargest families having 6 or more species are Malvaceae (6),

Leguminosae (27), Cucurbitaceae (6), Ficoideae (7), Compositae (20),

Boraginaceae (8), Solanaceae (8), Convolvulaceae (7), Scrophulariaceae

(6), Acanthaceae (8), Labiatae (6), Amarantaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae

(10), and Gramineae (18). Leguminosae, Compositae, Gramineae,

Amarantaceae, and Euphorbiaceae make more than one-third of the

flora.

The various genera are very poorly represented. The eee genera

having 4 or more species are /udigofera (8), Euphorbia (5), Amarantus,

Heliotropium, and Acacta (4 each).

Out of 223 species, 28 are trees, 48 are shrubs and under-shrubs, and

147 herbs. Climbing plants are represented by 17 species, and parasites

by 5 species. Cuscuta retlexa, Cuscuta hayalina, Striga lutea, Lathraea

sguamaria and Loranthus longitlorus beiong to the class of Parasites.

Phanerogamic hydrophytes are represented by one species of Lemna.

The Gymnosperms are represented by a single species Ephedra

tfoliata.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The following eiements can be distinguished in the flora of Harsh

Nath.

(a) ENDEMIC ELEMENT

Triumpheta rhomboidea

Mimosa hamata

Acacia jacquemontit

Indigoteva wightit

Tephrosia tenuts

Indigofera triquetra

Anogeissus pendula

Oldenlandia umbellata

Oldenlandia brachiata

Pulicaria wightiana

Vernonia cinerea

Cnicus wallichiz

Ceropegia tuberosa

Leucas ciltzata

Asphoedelus tenutfolius

Sida cordifolia

Dichrostachys cinerea

Pavonia zeylanica

Digera arvensis

(6) MALAYAN ELEMENT

Indigotera enneaphylla

Bauhinia racemosa

Solanum indicum

Smithia dichotoma

Melhania tomentosa

Ailanthus excelsa

Balanites roxburghit

Anogeissus latifolia

Zizyphus xylopyva

Tvichodesma amplexicaule

Lindenbergia urticaetolia —

Sevicostoma pauciflorum

Clerodendrum phlomoides

Stachytarpheta indica

Polygonum plebeium

Loranthus longitlorus

Euphorbia clarkeana

Ocimum basilicum

Elephantopus scaber

Acacia leucophloea

Ffleliotropium zeylanicum

Ipomoea vititolia

Cuscuta vetlexa

Justicia procumbens ~

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS 299

Cedrela toona

Shermacoce hispida

Wrightia tomentosa

Calotrobis gigantea

Solanum xanthocarpum

Cyanotis axtllaris

(¢) AFRICAN-PERSIAN ELEMENT

Farsetia jacquemontit

Farsetia hamiltonit

Tamarix ariiculata

Tribulus alatus

Fagonia arabica

Zizyphus numularia

Indigotera pentaphylla

Polygala ertoptera

Acacia arabica

Acacia senegal

Salvadoia persica

Salvadora oleoides

Calotropis procera

Leptadenia spartium

Grewia popultfolia

Dichoma tomentosa

Launea nudicaults

Cordia myxa

Aerua tomentosa

Heliotropium undulatum

Ocimum canum

Cocculus villosus

Arnebia hispidissima

Leucas urticaetolia

Peristrophe bicalyculata

Withania somnttera

Callygonum polygonoides

Acalypha ciliata

Cyperus arenarius

Argenmtone mexicana

Cassia occidentalis

Elytraria crenata

Bidens pilosa

Physalis peruviana

Farsetia hamiultonizt

Sida humiles

Malvastrum tricuspidatum

Triumphela rhomboidea

Adhatoda vasica

Leucas aspera

Euphorbia microphylla

Ffloloptelea integritolia

Commelina obliqua

Spermacoce stricta

Indigotera argentea

Crotalaria burhia

Prosopis spicigera

Citrullus colocynthis

Cleome papillosa

Capparis decidua

Polygala abyssinica

Panicum anttdotale

Trianthema crystallina

Gysekia pharnaceoides

Trianthema pentandra

Ctenolepis cerassiformts

Lyctum europeum

Tecoma undulata

Corchorus trilocularis

Ephedra foliata

Cuscuta hyalina

Anticharis linearis

Linarta cabulica

Pedalium murex

Pupalia lappacea

Corchorus tridens

Blepharis boerhaaviaetolia

Ruellia prostrata

Justicia heterocarpa

Aristolochia bracteata

Nothosaerua brachiata

Cenchrus catharticus

ake INTRODUCED TROPICAL AMERICAN WEEDS

Malvastrum tricusbidatum

Scoparia dulcis

Aanthium strumarium

Tridax procumbens

Of the 223 species collected the following are new records for

SUES Ue ale —

Lochnera pusilla

Arnébia hispidissima

Fleliotropium indicum:

Trichodesma amplexicaule

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

Smithia sensztiva

Smithia dichotoma

Zornia diphylla

Dichrostachys cinerea

Ctenolepis cerassttormts

Oldenlandia umbellata

Oldenlandia brachiata

Oldenlandia corymbosa

Elephantopus scaber

Cnicus wallichii

Launea pinnatitida

Sonchus arvensis

lpomoea vitifolia

Ipomoea turpethum

Lathraea squamaria

Linaria cabulica

Striga lutea

Justicia heterocarpa

Leucas ciliata

Loranthus longitlorus

Chrozophora obliqua

Cyanottis axillaris

Lemna trisulca

Fimbristylis squarrosa

Sonchus asper

Blumea lacera

Saccharum spontaneum

Brachiaria vamosa

Cenchrus prurtt

Saccharum munja

Digitaria adscendens

SUMMMARY

Harsh Nath is one of the highest hills of the Aravalli mountains.

The vegetation of the area around the hill is similar to other arid regions

of Rajasthan. The vegetation of the hill shows an interesting elevational

zonation. At the foot of the hill Adhatoda with a number of other

species forms the dominating element. At about 1,500 ft. <Adhatoda

drops away and mixed associations of trees and shrubs of various families

are met with. Above 2,000 ft. the trees become more and more promi-

nent. In the valleys luxuriant growth of bamboos was observed.

Of the 223 species collected 184 are found in other parts of Rajasthan

(Blatter and Hallberg, 1918-21 ; Mulay and Ratnam, 1950 ; Ramachandra,

1950 ; Sankhala, 1951 ; Sarup, 1951; Ratnam, Teste Ratnam and och

1952 ; Biswas and Rao, 1953 ; Bakshi, 1954 ; Nair, 1955 ; Nair and Joshi,

1955). Sabnis (1929) gave an account of the principai families of the

deserts of Rajasthan and Sind. He included Grainineae, Leguminosae,

Compositae, Cyperaceae, Convolvuiaceae, Amarantaceae, Boraginaceae,

Cucurbitaceae, Acanthaceae, and Malvaceae as the dominant families of

Rajputana desert. The principal families of Harsh Nath are Legumino-

sae (27), Compositae (20), Graminae (18), Amarantaceae (11), Euphorbi-

aceae (10), Acanthaceae (8), Boraginaceae (8), Solanaceae (8), Ficoideae

(7), Convolvulaceae (7), Scrophulariaceae (6), Cucurbitaceae (6), Malva-

ceae (6), and Labiatae (6). In contrast to the vegetation in the plains of

Rajputana the families Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, and Euphorbiaceae

are well represented. ,

Three different elements, western (African-Persian), eastern

(Malayan), and Indian, are distinguished in the flora of Harsh Nath. The

- western element predominates over the eastern element. The eastern

type is a little less than one half of the western.

We are thankful to Dr. B. N. Mulay for facilities, encouragement, and

suggestions, to Rev. Fr. Santapau for kindly going through the manu-

script and suggesting several improvements. We are also thankful to our

students Messrs. Murali, D. Menon, C. O. Varghese, Chuda, Kan Singh

Dharamjit Singh, and Miss 8. R. Kahatae for assistance.

VEGETATION OF HARSH NATH, ARAVALLI HILLS 301

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bakshi, ‘I. S. (1954) : Vegetation of Pilani and its Neighbourhood. J/BNAS,

52: 484-514,

Biswas, K. and Rao, R. S. (1953): Rajputana Desert Vegetation. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India. 19: 411-421.

Blatter, E. and Hallberg, F. E. (1918-21): The Flora of Indian Desert.

JBNFS, 26-27 : (different pages).

Hooker, J. D. (1885) : Flora of British India. London.

Mulay, B. N. and Ratnam, B. V. (1950): Study of the Vegetation found round

sont Pilani and its Neighbourhood. Proc. Indian Sci, Cong. Poona. Part III :

64-65.

Nair, N. C. (1955) : Flora of Chirawa. Proc. Raj. Acad. Sci. 6: 49-64.

—— — — and Joshi, M. C. (1955): Sand Dune Vegetation of Pilani and its

Neighbourhood. Symp. Veg. Types India. Baroda (Unpublished).

Ramachandra, K. R. (1950) : Common grasses found round about Pilani. Proc.

Indian Sci. Cong. Poona, Part III: 65-66.

San ay B. V. (1951): Vegetation of Loharghal. Proc. Raj. Acad. Sct.

2: 26-36.

—— ee and Joshi, M. C. (1952) : An Ecological Study of the Vegetation

near about a Temporary Pond in Pilani. ibid. 3 : 1-15.

Sabnis, T.S. (1929) : A Note on the Ecology of the Flora of Sind. J. Indian Boi.

Soc. 8 : 263-286.

Sankhala, K.S. (1951): Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of north-western

Rajasthan. Oniv. Rajputana Sct. studies (Biology Section) 1: 29-35.

4 Sarup, Beate) ; A List of Common Plants of Jodhpur and its Neighbourhood.

ibid. x: 29-35.

— ——— (1952): Plant Ecology of Jodhpur and its Neighbourhood. A Contri-

bution to the Ecology of north-western Rajasthan. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sct. India.

1: 223-232.

Weaver, J. E. and Clements, F. E. (1938) : Plant Ecology. New York.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Part IV

(Continued trom page 155 of this Volume)

The present, and final, paper in this series covers the Pyralidae.

This is a family that is neglected by most collectors, why it is difficult

to understand as, generally speaking, its members are not unduly small.

Many of them are of outstanding beauty, and many others possess secon-

dary sexual characteristics of unusual interest. Several species, also, are

of economic importance.

PyYRALIDAE

GALLERIINAE

Trachylepidia fructicassiella Rag.—Bred from larvae found in pods of

Cassia fistula in iv.

Mucialla rufivena Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in ii and viii.

Galleria mellonella L.—Imagines rare, larvae common in wild bees’

nests. Recorded in i, x, xi and xii.

CRAMBINAE

Crambus atkinsoni Zell. Uncommon. Recorded in x only.

Platytes argentisparsalis Hamps.—Rare. Records for x and xi.

Chilo suppressalis W]k.—One in xi.

Ancylolomia chrysographella Koll.—Very common. Records for iii, vi,

Vil, oxox and! x1

SCHOENOBIINAE

Ramila marginella Moore—Uncommon. Recorded in ix only.

R. acciusalis Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for viii only.

Scirpophaga auriflua Zell—Very common. Recorded in vii, ix, x and

S. gilviberbis Zell—Not uncommon. Recorded in x only.

S. bisignata Swinh.—Not uncommon. Records for vii, x and xi.

NOTES ON THE HETERCCERA OF CALCUTTA 303

Schoenobius immeritalis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in ii, vi, vii, x and

x1.

S. bipunctifer Wlk.—Very common. Recorded in i, ii, and ix to xii.

S. adjurellus Wlk.—Common. Recorded in vii, x and xi.

S. incertellus Wlk.—Common. Records for ii, iii, x and xi.

Cirrhochrista brizoalis Wlk.—Common. Records for i to iii and vii to xi.

PHYCTINAE

Heterographella bengalella Rag.—Two in x.

Euzophera perticella Rag.—Uncommon. Recorded in i, v, ix and x.

Nephopteryx paurosema Meyr.—Common. Recorded in x, xi and xii.

N. leucophaeella Zell—Common. Recorded in x and xi.

Epicrocis aegnusalis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in i, ii and ix to xii, 7

Myelois pectinicornella Hamps.—Bred from larvae found in pods of

Pongamia glabra in i and ii,

Hypsipyla robusta Moore—Uncommon. Recorded in xi only.

Phycita hemixanthella Hamps.—Uncommon. Records for iii, vii, x and

x1.

P. defiguralis Wlk.—Uncommon. Recorded in iv only.

Etiella zinckenella T1eit—Not common. Recorded in ii and xi.

EPIPASCHIINAR,

Macalla carbonifera Meyr.—Bred in v and vi. Not in the Fauna.

Orthaga euadrusalis Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ii, iii, x and xi.

ENDOTRICHINAE

Endotricha decessalis Wlk.—Uncommon. Recorded from viii to xi.

E. ruminalis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in vi, x and xi.

PYRALINAE

Hypsopygia mauritialis Bsd.—Not uncommon. Recorded in vii to xi.

Pyralis pictalis Curt—Common. Recorded in ii, x and xii.

P, manihotalis Guen,—Common. Records for ii, iv, vi, vili and xii,

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Stemmatophora pallidella Hamps.—Uncommon. Recorded in vi, ix and x,

Tamraca torridalis Led.—Rare. Recorded in ix only.

Herculia tenuis Btlr.—Rare. Recorded in vi only. | !

H. nigrivitta Wik.—Not uncommon. Records for i, ii, ili, vii and x.

H. igniflualis Wik.—Uncommon. Recorded in iti, vii and x. |

H. suffusalis Wlk.—Common. Records for ii and vi to x.

HYDROCAMPINAE

Nymphula foedalis Guen.—Common. Recorded in Pano Xi, |

N. responsalis Wik.—Common. Recorded in vi, ix and x.

N. crisonalis W1k.—Common. Recorded in x and xi |

N. affinialis Guen.—-Common. Recorded in 1, x and a :

N. fluctuosalis Zell__Very common. Recorded in iin x and xt

N. depunctalis Guen.—Common. Records for ix to xii.

Cataclysta fuscalis Hamps.—Not uncommon. Recorded in ix and xi. -

Oligostigma bilineale Snell—Common. Recorded in iii, x, xi and xii, ©

O. picale Guen.—Uncommon. Recorded in x and xi.

Talanga sexpunctalis Moore—Uncommon, Records for vii to xi.

Hymenoptychis sordida Zell.—Rare. Recorded in iii only.

Tatobotys varanesalis W1k.—One only in vi.

Bradina admixtalis Wlk.—Very common, also in herbage. Recorded

in ji, x and xt.

Hydrorybina bicolor Moore—Kare. Recorded in viii only.

Mabra eryxalis Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in x and xi.

PYRAUSTINAE

Pycnarmon virgatalis Moore—Uncommon. Recorded in x only.

P. caberalis Guen.—f. abdicalis Wik. not uncommon. Recorded in ix,

x, and xi.

P. meritalis Wlk.— Uncommon. Recorded in Xi.

Zinckenia perspectalis Hbn.—Not uncommon. Recorded in ix, x and

xi, |

NOTES VON, THE Hi EREROCERA Of CALCUTTA 305

Z. fascialis Cr.—Very common. Larvae on garden Balsam. Records

for all months except iv and v.

Eurrhyparodes tricoloralis Zell—Uncommon. Recorded in x and xi,

E. bracteolalis Zeli—Fairly common. Recorded in ix and x.

Agrotera basinotata Hamps.—Common. Recorded in ix and x,

A. scissalis Wlk.—Uncommon. Recorded in iv and xi.

Pagyda traducalis Zell.—Common. Recorded in ix, x and xi,

Ercta ornatalis Dup.—Common. Records for ii, vi, vii, x, xi and xii.

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guen.— Very common. Recorded iniand ix

to xii. ;

Marasmia venilialis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in i and ix to xii,

M. trebiusalis Wik.--Common. Recorded in i, ii, x, xi and xii

M. trapezalis Guen.—Common. Recorded in i, ii, and ix to xii,

Syngamia abruptalis Wlk.— Uncommon. Records for x and xii,

S. floridalis Zell.—Common. Records for ix, x and xi. Larvae on

Urticaceae sp.

Bocchoris rotundalis Hamps.— Uncommon, Records for tii and v to xi,

B. onychinalis Guen.—Uncommon. Recorded in v, viii, ix and x,

B. acamasalis Wlk.—Not uncommon. Records for i, ix, x and xi,

B. inspersalis Zell—Rare. Recorded in i and x,

B. artificialis Led.— Common. Recorded from vii to x.

Caprinia conchylalis Guen.—Not uncommon. Records for ix, x and xi.

Filodes fulvidorsalis Hbn.—In herbage, rare. Recorded in xi only,

Phryganodes analis Snell.—Uncommon. Latvae on Cassia fistula,

Recorded in i, viii, x, xi and xii.

Dichocrocis evaxalis Wik.—Fairly common. Recorded in v, vi and x,

D. punctiferalis Guen.—From larvae in seeds of Castor. Recorded in

iv only.

Nacoleia diemenalis Guen.—Rare. Records for xi only.

Deba surrectalis Wlk.— One oniy in x.

Botyodes asialis Guen.—Common. Recorded from vi to x,

B. flavibasalis Moore—Not common. Recorded in i, vii and xii,

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Sylepta derogata F.—Common. Larvae on Hollyhock and other Malva-

ceae. Recorded in iv, vi, ix, x and xi.

S. aurantiacalis Fisch.—Not common. Recorded in xi only.

S. lunalis Guen.—Common. Recorded from vii to xi.

Lygropia quaternalis Zell.—Fairly common. Records for iii, viii and x.

L. amyntusalis Wlk.—Fairly common. Recorded from vi to x.

Agathodes ostentalis Hbn.—Common. Recorded in vii, ix, x, and xi.

Glyphodes laticostalis Guen.—Uncommon. Recorded in i, iii and x.

G. negatalis Wik.—Common. Recorded from i to v and in x, xi and xii,

G. psittacalis Hbn.—Uncommon. Recorded in x only.

G. hilaralis Wlk.x—Common. Recorded from vii to xii.

G. marginata Hamps.—Rare. Recorded in viii only.

. vertumnalis Guen.—Common. Larvae on TZabernaemontana coro=

naria (Apocynaceae). Recorded in i, iii and from vii to xii.

G. unionalis Hbn.—Uncommon. Larvae on Jasmine. Recorded in i,

iii, viii, ix, xi and xii.

G. stolalisGuen.—Rare. Recorded in x only.

G. itysalis Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in vi, vii and xi.

G. bivitralisGuen.—Common. The male has an extrusible brush on

either side of the prothorax; this is not mentioned in the Fauna.

Larvae on Peepui. Records for i and vi to xii.

G. caesalis Wlk.—Common. Larvae on Peepul. Recorded for iii and

from vii to xii.

G. canthusalis Wlk.—Fairly common, Larvae on Peepul. MRecorcs for

ii, iii and from viii to xii.

G. bicolor Swains.—Common. Recorded from vii to xi.

G. indica Saund.—Common. Neither in India nor Africa have I ever

seen a female. Recorded in 1 and from vi to xii.

Pygospila tyres Cr.—Common in some years, in others completely

absent. Recorded in v, vi, vii and viii.

Euclasta defamatalis W1k.—Rare. Recorded in iii, iv, vi and x.

Lepyrodes neptis Cr.—Common. Larvae on Jasmine. Records for vii

tO Xii.

L. geometralis Guen,—Not common. Recorded in ix, x and xi,

NOTES ON TG@E HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 507

Analyta sigulalis Guen.—Common. Recorded in i, ii and iii.

A. melanopalis Guen.—Common. Recorded in ii, iii, ix and x.

Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.—Common. Larvae in the fruits of various

Solanaceae. Records for i, iv, and from vii to xi.

L. apicalis Hamps.—Not common. Recorded in ii, iv, ix, xi and xii.

Crocidolomia binotalis Zeli— Very common. Recorded in i, il, iii, ix,

ey Bll Elinel abl,

Sameodes cancellalis Zel]l.— Very common. Recorded in i and from vii

(0) SS

Archernis tropicalis Wlk.—One only in x.

Terastia meticulosalis Guen.—Uncommon. Recorded in iii, iv, vii, x and

Omphisa anastomosalis Guen.—One only in vi.

Isocentris filalis Guen.—Fairly common. Recorded from vii to xi.

Crocidophora ptyophora Hamps.—Larvae on Bamboo, very common in

some years, absent in others. Recorded in vi and from vili to xi.

Maruca testulalis Geyer. po umen: also in herbage. Recorded in i,

ii, Vi, x, xt and -xil,

Tetridia caletoralis Wlk.—Uncomimon. Records for iv, v and vii.

Pachynoa sabelialis Guen.—Common. Recorded in i, iv, ix, x, xi and xii.

P. pectinicornalis Guen.—Uncominon. Records for ii, v and xi.

Pachyzancla licarsisalis W1lk.—Very common, also in herbage. Recorded

in i and from vi to xil.

P. phoeopteralis Guen.—Fairly common. Recorded ini, ix and x.

P, aegrotalis Zell—Common. Recorded in ii, vii, ix and xi.

Phlyctaenodes massalis Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in iii only.

Diasemia ramburialis Dup.—Rare. Recorded in 1, ii and x.

Antigastra catalaunalis Dup.—Very common. Recorded in i, v, ix, x,

xi and xii.

Noorda blitealis Wlk.— Common. Recorded in iii, vi, vii, viii, x and xi.

N. fessalis Swinh.—Uncommon. Recorded in iv, v and vii,

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Pionea albicostalis Swinh.—Rare. Recorded in ix only.

P. leucanalis Swinh.— Rare. Recorded in x and xii.

P. ablactalis Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in xii only.

Pyrausta phoenicealis Hbn.—Not uncommon. Recorded in vi, viii -

and x.

P. incoloralis Guen.—Uncommon, but larvae common on Calotropis sp.

(Asclepiadaceae). Recorded in 1, vi, vii, viii, x, xi and xii.

Concluded

VOICE AND LARYNX IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC

COLOBIDAE

W. C. OsMAN HILL, M.D., F.R.S.E.,

Zoological Society of London

AND

A, H. Boots, B.A.,

Lecturer in Zoology, University College of Ghana

(With 2 text-figures)

SUMMARY

Laryngeal specialisation is a feature of the Primate family Colobidae.

In an attempt to discover how far this may be correlated with vocal

performance, extant field notes on voice have been summarised, and

compared, so far as possible, with new material. The principal anatomi-

cal features of the larynges of seven genera are outlined.

Procolobus, in its alto utterances, associated with a small relatively

unspecialised larynx, lacking saccules and accessory sacs, stands isolated

from the other genera. On the other hand the larynx of Colobus (sensu

stricto) is especially large, lacks an air-sac, but shares with its Asiatic

congeners the deep resonant voice and the presence of a subhyoid sac and

laryngeal saccules. Presbytis, while similar anatomically to its Asiatic

congeners, emits a unique chuckling call; its larynx is very small. These

preliminary results at once emphasise the close relationship of true

Colobus to the Asiatic genera and the apartness of Procolobus.

INTRODUCTION

In apaper on the anatomy of the Olive Colobus Monkey (Hill, 1952)

it was noted that details of the animal’s utterances were not available, and

that consequently laryngeal structure could not be interpreted in terms

of function. The Olive Colobus is by no means unique in this respect;

as we discovered during this investigation, the recording of details of

mammalian voices is as yet in an unsatisfactory state. ‘The family Colobi-

dae are, however, of exceptional interest in their laryngeal anatomy, parti-

cularly with regard to the presence of accessory sacs in Some members of

the group. We have therefore collected all the available data on Colobid

utterances, and examined preserved larynges of the following genera:

Colobus, Procolobus (including Pzlzocolobus), Semnopithecus, Kast, Trachy-

pithecus, Presbytts, and Nasalis. ‘The results for the Asiatic forms have

been obtained from the collections and field notes of W. C. O. H., supple-

mented by data from the iiterature. The African forms have been

investigated by A. H. B. in Ghana (the Gold Coast); anatomical notes were

checked by W. C. O. H, 7

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

THE REPRESENTATION OF ANIMAL UTTERANCES

The problem of representing in print the vocal performances of

animals is one to which iittle serious attention has been paid. Writers

who mention animal utterances are apt each to choose his own method,

and they generally record their observations in terms of the vowels and

consonants of their own language. Confusion results from the lack of

standardisation, as may be seen by reference to almost any book on the

natural history of birds.

Adoption of the standard international phonetic symbols would

seem to be an elementary step towards clarity and consistency. Even

these, designed as they were to represent human phonation, are

often far from adequate to denote the performance of a differently con-

structed larynx, still less that of a syrinx. Nevertheless, together with

notes on pitch and quality, they can provide a much closer approximation

than do the casual transcriptions so commonly published.

In recent years, conscientious ornithologists have attacked the com-

mon use of consonants in the transcription of bird calls, particularly the

labiai # which, for a bird, is an anatomical impossibility. The same sort

of criticism is generally valid for representations of mammalian utterances,

not so much in this case on anatomical grounds, but rather due to -inaccu-

rate observation or to misleading linguistic convention.

Such a conventional use of consonants has its roots in onomatopoeic

names, which are common in every language. ‘The same conventions

sometimes apply in languages of very different structure. For example,

kb is used at the beginning of a syllable to indicate that the vowel immedi-

ately following begins at full volume, that it begins softly, ch (|) that

itis harsh, and so on. & is also used to indicate a break between two

svllables, as in the yee ‘cuckoo’. Phonetically, the cry of the bird

approximates to ‘U ? u:’, and it is best imitated by the human voice if

the glottal stop is used as indicated between the two syllables. Cer-

tainly the consonantal & is incorrect. An exactly analogous case is the

Ashanti onomatopoeic name for the monkey Cercopithecus lowet: the

root of the name is ‘ kwaku ’, the cry ‘a ? BRS

Consonants used in this way will here be called zzdicator consonants.

The main disadvantage of their use in describing the utterances of a

monkey lies in the fact that the animal may indeed be capable of

producing genuine consonants. If an observer in recording a call uses

indicator consonants, it is impossible to tell, without further informa-

tion, whether consonants are uttered or not.

In this paper, we have necessarily admitted indicator consonants where

the data are drawn from the literature, or where our field notes had

been taken before the phonetic transcription had been contemplated.

But wherever possible, the cries of the monkeys are recorded first phon-

etically, with notes on pitch, volume, and quality, and then in English

transcription, using indicator consonants.

THE VOICES OF COLOBIDAE

Our knowledge of Colobid utterances suffers from the fact that these

monkeys, and more particularly the African forms, are exceedingly diffi-

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE 311

cult to keep in captivity; and, whilst it is an admittedly important principle

that all calls heard in captivity should be checked against field records, the

captive specimen is a most useful subject. Not only does it enable the

transcription of the call to be checked, but it also gives what is apt to be

all too rare in the field, a view of the animal during phonation, unimpe-

ded by the forest foliage or by the necessity for concealment.

Colobus polykomos. This species has been studied as representing the

Black Coiobus Formenkyreis. No differences have been observed between

the calls of the three subspecies fo/ykomos, dollmant, and vellerosus, ‘The

voiceis at once distinguished from those of the Red and of the Olive

Colobus (genus Procolobus) by its deep pitch and great resonance,

The full call of the Black Colobus is characteristically uttered by the male.

It may easily be represented phonetically as ‘a: 9: 9: 9: About five to

ten syllables are normaliy uttered, the full duration of the call being about

seven to fifteen seconds. ‘There is a distinct rise in pitch and volume both

Within each syllable and throughout the callas a whole. Beginning about

21 octaves below Middle C, each syllable represents a rise of something

over a semitone in pitch. In quality, the call resembles a human bass

voice straining below the lowest pitch in its register, but it has the great

resonance noted above, which prevents its being called a ‘grunt’. Even

within the closed forest, the call can be heard from a great distance. A

suitable English rendering would be ‘rurr rurr rurr rurr’. The fuli call

would seem to have the same sort of significance as in monkeys and

apes in general. Usually, if not invariably, uttered by an adult male, it

may be heard in the absence of any apparent external stimulus. In such

cases it may be interpreted as an assertion of status by the overlord of a

troop. It is, however, also used in defiance, particularly in the presence

of the Crowned Hawk-Eagle, Stebhanoaétus coronatus. Similar behaviour

on the part of a mangabey Cevcocebus albigena has been recorded by Mal-

brant and Maclatchy (1949).

The alarm-call, which may precede the full cali uttered in defiance but

is more often heard alone, is common to all ages above the infant, and to

both sexes. It takes the form of an explosive snort, uttered partly

through the nose. Phonetically it approximates to ‘tnr’.

These two cries might be considered to be the only fuliy social utter-

ances of the Black Colobus. The remainder are of a more intimate nature,

having significance apparently either to the utterer alone, or to its imme-

diate neighbour (mother, offspring, rival, etc.).

When mortally wounded, the Black Colobus utters isolated, resonant

croaks, similar to the syllables of the full call. This observation applies

to adults of both sexes. ;

Occasionally, when the observer is within a very few yards of an un-

suspecting troop, a very soft grunting may be heard. ‘This call has about

the same initial pitch as the full call, but lacks both the resonance and the

rise in pitch when repeated. It is easily confused with a similar sound

of different significance uttered by the male of Cercopithecus peiaurista.

Only one specimen has been shot while making the call. ‘lhis was a

lactating female. Though apparently intimate, the call has not been heard

in captivity.

The only other adult call recorded consists of a series of snorts ait |

ered at about }-second intervals, These are quite irreproducible in print,

but recall the noise made by a pig excitedly rooting. In the field, the call

312. | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

has only been heard when two individuals quarrel, or when a wounded

specimen on the ground is approached. In captivity, itis the call most

frequently uttered, both by adult and subadult specimens down to about

one year old. It seems to indicate any kind of excitement, not neces-

sarily anger or defiance. It can be imitated to good effect by hunters,

who thereby induce the monkeys to show themselves, apparently in

curiosity.

The calls of the young Black Colobus are not detailed here. ‘They

include a variety of screams and other intimate and often pathetic noises.

The ni to grunt at a very low pitch is acquired within a few months

of birth.

Procolobus (Piliocolobus) badius. The two races P. 6. bdadius and

P. 6. waldroni have been studied; they have closely similar vocal capabi-

lities, and the species is notable for its apparent inability to remain silent

for any length of time. Often uttered from the tops of the highest trees,

its monosyllabic call is very bird-like when heard froma distance. At

closer range, however, it has a much more human quality.

The basic call, from which all the others are apparently derived is

‘ jau) ’, pitched in the octave below Middle C. An English version with

indicator consonants would be ‘kyowp’. (Natives of Guiglo, Ivory Coast;

nickname the species ‘kyow-kyow’). All the variants of this basic call

can be imitated with great accuracy and without strain by the human

female.

The basic call is uttered most frequently, most loudly, and at its high-

est pitch in the presence ot an intruder, whether human or animal. Even

under comparatively peaceful circumstances, however, the effort put into

the act of phonation is considerable. ‘The vocal individual can, indeed,

be identified at a distance by the shaking of the surrounding vegetation.

When a fight is in progress, the combatants’ utterances may become

more abrupt and ferocious or (perhaps in the case of the loser) more

drawn-out and feline. In the latter case, the glottal stop is absent thus:

‘iau:’. The English version of this call is ‘ yow’.

An utterance less frequently heard is a simple ‘au’ (English ‘ ow’).

The quality and pitch of this sound are those of the human female at a

rather low point in her register. It is neither very emphatic nor very

loud, and is often interspersed in a series of loud ‘ kyowp ’ calls, as if the

utterer were exhausted by the effort. The only two specimens obtained

while uttering this call were adult males.

The last variant of the basic call is very rarely heard. Our two field

records appear to suggest that it is part of a deliberate act of defiance by

the overlord male of a troop. In both cases the troop had been pursued

without shooting, in an attempt to isolate the nursing mothers. After a

considerable distance had been covered, the dominant male abandoned

the upper canopy and descended to within one hundred feet of the ground,

pacing up and down in an agitated manner and constantly looking down

at the hunters. The cry uttered was a fierce and at the same time

drawn-out variant of the basic call, something between a howl and a bark

in quality.

The Red Colobus is both unusual and limited in its vocal range.

Although the adult calls do apparently include expressions of alarm, defi-

ance and more casual intercommunication, they are all variants of a single

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE 313

simple utterance. The cries of infant and juvenile stages have not been

studied in detail, as such specimens rarely survive more than a few days

in captivity, while the volume of the cries is so feeble that in the field they

can only with difficulty be heard at all. It is interesting to note, however,

that a distinct consonant has been heard in one of the calls of the infant

Red Colobus. The call is a bird-like ‘tju’ or ‘ tjav ’. In view of this

observation at close range, it must be regarded as possible that the conso-

nant is also used by aduit monkeys on some occasions, but remains

undistinguished at treetop height.

Procolobus verus is but poorly known ecologically and ethologically.

The opportunity is here taken of modifying certain impressions of its habits

which were reported in the earlier paper (Hill, 1952). In Ghana and

Ivory Coast, the species appears to be neither rare, omnivorous, nor

solitary. It is, however, both shy and silent, alike in its progress through

the thick undergrowth and in its reluctance to use its voice. It lives in

parties of from 5 to 20 individuals, which are most frequently to be found

feeding in company with the much noisier Cercopitheci, C. mona, C. camp-

belli, or C. petaurista. Communal feeding does not imply a common

diet, since the Olive Colobus remains true to type in eating only leaves.

The above remarks will be expanded elsewhere, but for the present pur-

pose they serve to explain the paucity of observations and the remark-

ably limited use of the voice.

Apart from screams of terror, the only call of this species which can

be regarded as satisfactorily recorded is a truly remarkable utterance.

The call is ‘u: u: u: u: Iau Iau ui: ui: IaU’. It rises steeply in pitch and

volume to the penultimate syllable, and dies away onthe last. In English

it may be rendered ‘hoo hoo hoo hoo yow yow wee wee yow’. The

call may be compiete, or only a part of it may be uttered. In neither

case is its significance clear. Like the calls of the Red Colobus, it is

alto in pitch and almost humanin quality until the climax, when it

degenerates into a scream. The whole effect is more like the cry of a

Chimpanzee than that of a monkey, especially when several members

of the troop are calling at the same time. The relationship to the call

of the Red Colobus is, however, clearly audible in the ‘ yow’ syllable,

which is, very rarely, uttered alone.

No definite alarm call has been heard from this species, even when a

troop has been surprised in the absence of Cercopitheci. There is little

doubt that the silence of the Olive Colobus is correlated with its frequent

association with these Guenons. The latter, being largely fruit-eaters,

are of a much more active and inquisitive disposition when feeding, and ate

almost invariably the first to spot an intruder. Their alarm calls are,

moreover, apparently understood and acted upon by the Olive Colobus.

This behaviour is in contrast to that of the Red Colobus, which, feeding

generally ata much greater height, is normally seen to disregard the

activities and utterances of the Cercopitheci, and sometimes even those of

the Black Colobus.

The most striking feature of the calls of the African Colobidae as a

group is their lack of close and obvious interrelationships. The Black

Colobus especialiy is widely separated from its relatives.

As between Cercopitheci, by contrast, there is a very distirict common

pattern to the vocal performances of the various species. This has been

remarked upon by Haddow (1952). In West Africa, for example the calls

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

of C. mona and C. campbelli are, though interdistinguishable, closely

related. C. petaurista is a little more distant, and C. dzana still more so.

C. aethiops is altogether harsher, and lacks any musical notes. Avrythroce-

bus patas is still recognisably Cevccpithecus-like. But between the Guenons

and the Mangabeys (Cercocebus spp.) there is virtually no comparison.

Of the Colobus monkeys, it is clear that the Olive and the Red species

are least different in their vocal range. ‘The degree of difference is hard,

to judge, but if a comparison with the Guenons may be taken as a guide

the differerice between the calls of the Olive and the Red Colobus is at

least equal to that between the calls of Avythrocebus and of any Cerco-

pithecus sp. From both the Red and the Olive Colobus the Black Colo-

bus is separated by a gap at least as wide as that between Cercopithecus

spp. and Cevcocebus spp.

Semnopithecus entellus. Considering Blanford’s remark (1888) that

‘Few, if any, wild animals afford better opportunities for observation

than the Hanuman Monkey’, there is very little information about its

voice. The same author goes on to describe two calls. The first is

‘a joyous, musical “ whoop ”’ uttered in motion, used chiefly at dawn and

dusk,’ and the second ‘a harsh, guttural alarm-note’. Stripping the former

call of its indicator consonants, it may well correspond to the full call

of the Black Colobus, though the African species has never been

observed to utter the full call in motion.

Semnopithecus schistaceus. ‘The call is “hoop, hoop’, generally utt-

ered as a warning cry by one of the troop’, Pocock (1939). This cry is

doubtless almost identical with that of the Hanuman recorded above.

Semnopithecus priam. The voice of the male of this species is a deep

‘u:’, several times repeated. In English this may be written ‘boom’.

Each syllable is of longer duration than in the rather similar caliof Kasz

senex. In quality, the note is like the bay of a foxhound, but the pitch

is rather higher. There is also a conversational whine, used more by

females and juveniles.

Kasi johnii. Blanford describes this species as very noisy, having a

long loud full call anda low, guttural alarm call, used also in anger.

Kinloch (1923) gives the full call, as ‘hoo-ha hoo-ha hoo’, uttered at any

time of the day. As already noted (Hill, 1937), the roaring full call is

like that of K. senex monticola. ‘The double ‘hoo-ha’ recorded by Kin-

loch appears to be one of the effects of ereat resonance of the voice;

phonetically it approximates to ‘usa:’. There is also a short, sharp

growl, probably the alarm call noted by ao and a whining note

used by temales and juveniles.

Kasi senex. Phillips (1935) gives the cali of the male as ‘hooh hooh

hooh.’ He also reports-a shrill squeak indicating curiosity, and a bird-like

twitter expressing pleasure or excitement. W.C.O.H. has confirmed these

observations. The male full call is deeper, more throaty and more

sharply cut off than in Semnopithecus spp. It is seldom heard in capti-

vity, though the squeak and twitter are frequently used.

Trachypithecus pileatus. McCann (1933) mentions a harsh bark,

interpreted as an alarm call, and a squeaking noise.

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE 315

Trachypithecus phayrei crepusculus. Tickel] (MS), quoted by Blan-

ford, states that the short, deep bark of this monkey resembles that of

Semnopithecus entellus.

Trachypithecus obscurus. The voice is similar to that of Kasi senex.

There are two versions of the alarm-call. The shorter is a sharp‘ tn)”,

English ‘chak’, At other times a disyllabic call is used thus: ‘ tna )o:’

English ‘cha-hav’.

Trachypithecus cristatus. Banks (1931) notes that a young captive

specimen of the typical race uttered plaintive, gibbon-like squeaks. The

alarm-call of 7. c. pyrrhus is given by van Balen (n. d.) as ‘ki cha hau’

(Dutch). Forbes (1897) quotes onomatopoeic native names collected by

Hose as follows: Dyak - ‘bigok’; Kayan -—‘chikok’. These are clearly

versions of the alarm call which seems to be characteristic of the genus.

Presbytis femoralis. yan Balen gives the native name as ‘gyak-gyak’,

which is presumably an imitation of the alarm call. Banks likens the

noisy staccato chuckle of P. f, chrysomelas to that of a giant squirrel

(presumably Ratzfa bicolor).

Presbytis melalophos. yan Balen transcribes the cry as ‘kjék kjék

kjék kjééék kjééék kjék kjik kijk’ (Dutch).

Presbytis frontatus, P. hosei, P. everetti. Banks finds the ‘loud chuckles’

similar to that of P. femoralis, but notes also that P. hosez and P. everett?

utter a snorting sound similar to that of /Vasalzs.

Presbytis rubicundus. This species has a scolding, truculent cry, and,

according to Banks, another call which is a series of loud, resonant chuck-

les; the first note of the latter is as in P. f. chrysomelas, the succeeding

four sharper and shriller.

Nasalis larvatus. Hornaday (quoted by Forbes, 1897) gives the cry

of the Proboscis monkey, presumably the full male call, as ‘honk’ or

‘kec-honk’. Shelford (1916) refers to it as a ‘sort of snorting bark’

and believes that the fleshy nose plays’a part in its production. Banks

states that anger is expressed by a loud, resonant snore uttered with

opened mouth. He also remarks that inhalation and exhalation through

the nose are audible at some distance. The female has a petulant cry,

faintly resembling that of a goose.

COMMENTS ON VOICE

Despite the heterogeneity of the above observations, certain patterns

of vocal capabilities emerge. Firstly there is the undoubtedly aberrant

performance of Procolobus verus. The restriction of the utterances of this

species to alto and treble pitch even in adult males is especially note-

worthy. ‘There is no evidence of the typical bark or even a snort.

What we have referred to as the full call, emitted typically by the

dominant male, would seem to have a common pattern in Colobus,

Semnopithecus, Kasi, and Trachypithecus. ‘This consists of a series of

simple repeated syllables of great resonance. The generally monosyllabic

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

alarm call is also rather closely similar in all these genera, and probably

Nasalis falls in here, though data are at present insufficient relative to’

this genus.

Presbytis appears to be unique in its ability to produce a chuckling

sound. Such calls are common in mangabeys and macaques, but have

not been recorded in any other Colobid genus. ,

The squeaks and screams recorded at various points in the account

are, of coutse, common to all young monkeys. But the twittering sound’

reported in Kasz appears to be peculiar to that genus.

LARYNGEAL ANATOMY

This account of the comparative anatomy of the Colobid larynx is

largely supplementary to that already given elsewhere (Hill, 1952).

Dimensions. The measurements given in Table I reveal that Colodus

polykomos possesses by far the largest larynx of those measured (the

size is equal to that of an adult human male). At the other end of

the scale, Procolobus verus and Presbytis femoralis both have very small

larynges. Pvocolobus badius has a slightly larger one, but the organ is

still distinctly inferior in size to those of the remaining Asiatic genera,

which are remarkably uniform in this respect.

SWAY ie aL

Dimensions of Colobid larynges. Adult Males.

Diameter

Length Dorsoventral ‘Transverse ~

Colobus polykomos vellevosus «.. 59 36 34.

Semnopithecus priam ae 36 23 21

Kast Ss. senex ane 39 20 20

Trachy pithecus obscurus ba 35 21 21

_Presbytis thomasi a: eG» 13 12

Nasalis larvatus “a 36 20 24

Procolobus verus sus 20 2) eee 14

Procolobus badius waldront ne 24 16 15

The hyoid apparatus. Throughout the Colobidae, the corpus

hyoidei has the shield-like shape common to all Catarrhine monkeys.

This shape is generally associated with the presence of some kind of

subhyoid sac opening into the larynx at the base of the epiglottis. The

convexity of the shield is disposed antero-ventrally, its concavity to-

-wards the vestibulum laryngis (Fig. 1B). Despitethe absence of a subhyoid

sac in the genus Pvocolobus, the shield-shaped corpus hyoidei persists ;

the bone is, however, of relatively solid structure.

The anterior cartilages. The epiglottis is broad in all Asia-

tic genera andin Colobus. As already noted (Hill,1952), it is relatively

broader in Procolobus verus than in P. badius, but in both species it nar-

rows appreciably towards the tip. In all genera, it is placed at a pronoun-

ced angle to the axis of the thyroid cartilage; this angle is often almost a

right angle, but its variability is doubtless in part due to the process of

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE

317

L.S.O.

5 ae

Vee pap pire tee

~ Vest. F.° AER

OF Ola

2 - . an

EEE

MORN AN a. 3

Fic, 1.

Colobus polykomos vellerusus

Larynx of the adult male,

A: opened by a median dorsal incision to show internal features; B: in left lateral view

Ary =Arytenoid cartilage; A. S. O.=Air-sac opening; Hy =Corpus hyoidei; L.S.O. =

Opening of laryngeal saccule; Th.=Oblique thickening of thyro-hyoid membrane; Vest.

F,=Vestibular fold; Vo. F.= Vocal fold; Wr.=Wrisberg’s cartilage.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

fixation. The epiglottis thus forms an almost complete, mobile roof to the

vestibule. |

The free margin of the epiglottis is entire in Semnopithecus, Kast, and

Presbytis melalophos, slightly notched in some specimens of Tvachypithecus

obscurus and of Procolobus, and distinctly notched in Wasalzs. In Colobus

and in Presbytis thomasz there is a broad, shallow depression at the tip.

Wrisberg’s cartilages are markedly swollen in all the forms investi-

gated, with the sole exception of Procolobus badius. In this species, they

hardly project from the aryepiglottic fold (Fig. 2). Ot the remaining forms

Vest. F.

WS ARY

i e ‘ % = j ee :

‘ VA = a de

Ge ; a =

VA e ~ ae:

zg of ‘3 2

; : ele e mM ° ; O e :

‘y ° Off see . oP

Y : . .. 1 > OS Gas : Vo. F,

G “Ly :

q: ff Z ;

hh Y ee

hl ids

A :

EG. we.

Procolobus( Piliocolobus) badius waldroni .

Larynx of the adult male drawn as the corresponding views in fig. 1.

F, = blind fossa in position of air-sac opening.

Other references as in fig. 1.

they are perhaps least developed in Kasi and Tyachypithecus, though

even here they are unusually prominent.

Vestibular folds. These organs are usually well defined,

especially towards the mid-ventral line, where they are sharply demar-

cated. They are, however, inclined to be feeble in Presbytis thomas¢ and

in P,. melalophos. In Colobus the vestibular folds are blunt-edged, having’

a loose, fleshy appearance (Fig. 1A). The ventral (median) extremities of

the vestibular folds of the two sides are separated in all Asiatic genera by

the opening of the subhyoid sac. In Colobus, the extremities of the

vestibular folds are continued into the walls of the sac. In Pvocolobus,

where the sac is absent, a blind fossa in the same morphological position

separates the folds (Fig. 2A).

The main part of the opening of the subhyoid sac is more or less

slit-shaped in /Presbytis. In Semnopithecus, Kast, Tvrachyptthecus,

Nasalis, and Colobus (Fig. 1A), there is at the anterior end of the median

slit a transverse extension, giving the opening a T shape. The transverse

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE 319

limb of the T effectively defines the cranial border of the vestibular

folds, hence the feeble definition of these folds in Presbytzs.

Subhyoid sac and air sac. In all Asiatic genera studied,

both these structures are present. The sabhyoid sac opens into the larynx

by the generally T-shaped opening described above. It then expands to

a capacity of some few millilitres beneath the concavity of the corpus

hyoidei. Its expansion is limited particularly by the oblique ligamentous

thickenings of the thyrohyoid membrane (Fig. 1B), and by the corpus

hyoidei itself. Colobus resembles the Asiatic genera in this respect.

In the Asiatic genera the subhyoid sac ventrally takes a turn caudad

as funnel-like passage, piercing the thyrohyoid membrane and deviating to

the right to bypass the stratum of the infrahyoid muscles. Thereafter, it

expands in the subcutaneous areolar tissue to form the main portion of

the air sac, which extends over the base of the neck to the clavicular

region, and anteriorly as a saccule in the interramal region. In a female

of Kasz senex nestor, a cast of the uninflated air-sac displaced 35 ml. In

life, the sac is capable of much greater inflation, standing out as a goit-

rous body in the neck. Inflation and deflation are possible without

accompanying phonation. ‘The platysma myoides overlies the sac super-

ficially and doubtless serves to deflate the organ.

In Colobus, the subhyoid sac is not continued into an air sac, the

thyrohyoid membrane being nowhere pierced. In Pyrocolobus, there is no

subhyoid sac. The blind fossa noted above doubtless represents a vesti-

gial subhyoid sac, which has become reduced simultaneously with the

larynx as a whole.

Laryngeal saccules. These structures are blind, inextensile

upgrowths of the ventricle, which resemble those of the human larynx.

They do not become extra-laryngeal as in Apes, but they are relatively

larger than those in Man, except in Procolobus, where they are very much

reduced. ‘The openings of the laryngeal saccules, bounded by the vocal

and vestibular folds, are narrow and slit-like in the Asiatic genera, and

extremely so in Procolobus. In Colobus, they are quite broad and irregular

in shape (Fig. 1A). |

Vocal folds. Colobus is unique in possessing vocal folds with a

blunt, curved anterior edge. In the Asiatic genera, the vocal folds are

straight and sharp-edged, as in Procolobus.

In laryngeal anatomy, as in voice, the genus Fyrocolobus in many

respects stands isolated from Colobus and from the Leaf-monkeys of Asia.

The reduction of the subhyoid sac and of the laryngeal saccules are the

chief points of difference. Colobus is intermediate between the Leaf-mon-

keys and Pvocolcbus in one particular, namely the presence of the subhyoid

sac without its extension into an air-sac. In the structure of its vocal

and vestibular folds, however, it conforms to neither group, and must

be considered aberrant.

DISCUSSION

It j is evident that at this stage laryngeal structure and voice can only

in the most general terms be correlated.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

1 1Ze ot Vary moc. ahelexpecied relationship between physical

dimensions and depth of voice appears to hold good. In this respect

there are three distinct groups.

a. Colobus. Larynx very large. Voice extremely deep.

b. Semnopithecus, Kasi, Trachypithecus, Nasalis. Larynx large.

Voice deep, but not, apparently, as deep as Colobus. :

c. Presbytis, Procolobus. Warynx small. Voice staccato, rather high

pitched (Presbytis) or distinctly alto (Procolobus). —

2.Subhyoid sac. The voices of all those genera possessing the

subhyoid sac are described as ‘resonant’ by most observers. ‘This obser-

vation is of particular interest in the case of Presbytis, in view of the small

size of its larynx.

3. Air-sac. Negus (1949, p. 56) concludes that ‘there is little evi-

dence to support, but much to disprove, the generally accepted view that

air-sacs are developed for the purpose of voice’. He suggests that the

significance of practically all air-sacs (including the subhyoid sacs mention-

ed above) is that they enable air to be conserved during periods of

intense activity, when it is not possible to bring into action the normal

muscles of inspiration and expiration. Any vocal function they may

perform is held to be purely secondary. This view is worthy of some

discussion, since Negus’s work is the most cog hen on the subject

of comparative laryngeal anatomy.

Since there is no muscular mechanism by which the air sac can be

filled directly from the ambient atmosphere, the air with which it is infla-

ted must come from the lungs. This is doubtless achieved by the follo-

wing stages: (1) air is drawn into the lungs; (2) the oral and nasal pass-

ages are closed; (3) the lungs are emptied by a normal expiratory move-

ment, and the air thereby forced into the air sac. The process may be

repeated until the sac is fully distended. - Finally, the lungs may be inflated

in addition. The animal would then be ready, according to Negus’s

theory, to undertake a bout of strenuous activity.

There are, however, several-objections-to the above suggestion as to

the function of the air-sac. In the first place, the sac will inevitably

contain only expired air, with a relatively low oxygen and high carbon

dioxide content. Secondly, if the normal respiratory movements are to

be avoided during the period of intense activity, the only possible means

of passing air between air-sac and lungs is the very slow process of mix-

ing by diffusion, rendered even slower by anatomical considerations. It

would be possible for the monkey without impairing its activity to

perform a normal expiratory. movement, and then perhaps to reinflate

the lungs by deflating the air-sac. But since the mechanism for deflation

is merely the weak platysma myoides, it is doubtful if there is any real

support for this suggestion. Lastly, there is no indication that Colobus

-and Procolobus, which lack air sacs, are any less capable of violent or

sustained activity than are the Leaf-monkeys. We therefore consider that

the explanation of Negus as to the primary function of the air-sacs is

unsatisfactory.

On the other hand, it is almost certain that any vocal significance

which the air-sac may have is secondary. The position of the opening is

such that only if air is breathed zz from the sac will it pass over the vocal

folds on its way out to the atmosphere. Air passing out directly through

VOICE IN AFRICAN AND ASIATIC COLOBIDAE 321

the nose or mouth cannot itself be responsible for phonation, though it

may modify the sound produced by air passing out from the lungs over

the vocal folds in the normal way. In addition, the inflated air-sac

almost certainly affects the resonance of Leaf-monkey utterances. |

It has been remarked above that the air-sac is capable of inflation and

deflation without any accompanying phonation. The performance has a

marked effect on the appearance of the animal. It is thought likely that

the action may have sotne social significance, and that this significance

may be the primitive one.

On the other hand, the subhyoid sac, as noted above, would appear to

be purely vocal in function. The resonance of the calls of the Asiatic

genera might perhaps have been ascribed to the presence of the air-sac

alone. But the air-sac is absent in Colobws, while the resonance of the

call remains very great. The case cannot ke regarded as proved, since

the larynx of Colobus is.exceptionally large, and would have resonance in

its own right. No other possible function, however, suggests itself at

present.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -

‘The field work in West Africa was supported by a grant (to A. H. B.)

from the Academic Board of the University College, Ghana. A. H. B. is

also indebted to Professor E. E. Edwards — of the same institution for

facilities of various kinds.

Observations on the Leaf-monkeys, where not culled from earlier

literature are based on the field notes of W.C. O. H., and correlated with

later laboratory studies on material personally collected in India and

Ceylon, supplemented with specimens generously donated by Mr. W. J.C.

Frost to whom our thanks are due.

REFERENCE

van Balen, J. H., n.d. Dierenwereld van Insulinde. 1 De Zoogdieren, Zutphen,

W.J. Thieme & Cie.

Banks, E. (1931): ‘‘A popular account of the Mammals of Borneo”, J. Mala-

yan Br, Asiat. Soc., 9 (2): 1-139.

Blanford, W. T. (1888): Fauna of British India. Mammals. London, Taylor &

Francis.

Forbes, H. O. (1897): A Handbook of the Primates. Vol, II. London, Edward

Lloyd.

Taddow, A. J. (1952): Field and laboratory studies on an African monkey,

Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti Matschie, Proc. Zool, Soc. Lond., 122: 297-394.

Hill, W. C. Osman (1937) : The Primates of Travancore, Proc. Zool, Soc. Lond.,

107 B: 205-216.

— — — — — (1952): The external and visceral anaiomy of the Olive

Colobus Monkey (Procolobus verus) Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 122,: 127-186. -

Kinloch, A. P., (1923): The larger Mammals_ of the Nelliampathy Hills,

JBNGAS, 29, 552- 554. |

McCann, C., (1933): Observations on some of the Indian Langurs (Pithecus) .

JBNHS, 36: 618-628.

Malbrant, ‘R., and Maclatchy, A. (1949): Faune de P Equateur Africian francais,

id Mammiféres. Encycl, Biol., 36: 1-323.

Negus, V. E. (1949) : The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx,

London, Heinemann.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1935): Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon, Colombo,

Colombo Museum.

Pocock, R.I. (1939): Fauna of British India, Mammals, 2 ed., vol. 1, London,

Taylor and Francis. Ape

Shelford, R. W.C, (1916): A Naturalist in Borneo, London, T, Fisher Unwin,

p. 13.

ON A ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF THE ISLANDS

OFF JAFFNA *

P. H. D. H. De Siva,

Assistant in Zoology, National Museums, Ceylon

(With a map)

Lying to the west and south-west of Jaffna is a group of eight islands,

namely Karaitivu, Leyden, Mandaitivu, Punkudutivu, Eluvativu, Anala-

tivu, Nainativu, and Delft. Although a number of collecting tours had

been undertaken from time to time to the island of Iranétivu, which lies

about 12 miles to the south of Jaffna as the crow flies, no attention has

been focussed on the fauna of the islands off Jaffna. It was decided,

therefore, to make a preliminary survey of the fauna of these islands, and

a tour of three weeks’ duration was commenced during the second week

of February this year (1956). Little attention was paid to the collection

of marine fishes, but great emphasis was placed upon the collection of

freshwater and land forms.

The islands closest to the mainland of Ceylon are Karaitivu, Leyden,

and Mandaitivu, the first of which is Karaitivu.e Kavaztzvu is situated

at a distance of nearly two miles from the mainland and is almost nearly

rectangular in shape. It measures nearly 44 miles in length and about

three miles in width at its broadest region. Itis much narrower at the

middle. A two-mile causeway, the Punalai Causeway, connects it with

the Jaffna Peninsula, whilst by ferry with the island of Leyden at

Kayts. In the grey loamy soil region of the central, southern, and north-

western ateas paddy is cultivated, whilst palmyrah abound in the remain-

ing sandy tracts of the island. The north-eastern and eastern shores of

the island show patches of open country and marsh. The Island of

Leyden lies nearly parallel to the western and south-western coasts of

the Jaffna Peninsula. It is longer than broad, being nearly 15 miles in

length and nearly 44 miles in breadth. It is connected with Karaitivu by

ferry at Kayts and with Jaffna by ferry and causeway. Paddy culiivation

is mainly centred in the grey loams of the central and northern areas of

the island. The rest is sandy with sand dunes along the western shore,

and open country on the eastern margin of the island. In the sand dune

area palmyrah predominate, being replaced by thorny scrub and cacti in

the open country. MWandaitivu is a comparatively small island lying

at the southern extremity of the island of Leyden and connected to the

latter by road. In some areas the soil is of the reddish variety, where

tobacco cultivation is practised. The rest of the island is practically un-

suitable for any cultivation. Both palmyrah and coco-nut are grown.

The island of Punxkudutivu is nearly square-shaped, lying to the

south-west of Leyden and nearly 4 miles in length and about 34 miles in

breadth. To its west lies the island of Nainativu and to its north-west

* Published with the permission of the Director, National Museums, Ceylon.

ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA 323

the island of Eluvativu. Paddy cultivation is extensively practised in

the grey loamy soil region, being replaced by the cultivation of cereals

and palmyrah in the remaining sandy area. The northern shore is main-

ly open country, whilst there is a large area of marsh on the eastern shore.

Punkudutivu is connected by a 2} mile causeway with the island of Ley-

den. Atits south-western margin are two other small islands, Naduturit-

ti and Kurikaduvan, the former being practically all marshy. Eluva-

tzivu, is a small island lying to the west of Kayts, at a distance of about

31 miles from Kayts as the crow flies. It is much longer than broad,

Scale: Quarter-inch=ca. 2.5 miles,

Map to show the Islands off Jaffna. -

J. P.=Jaffna Peninsula. K.=Karaitivu. L.=Leyden M.=Mandaitivu.

E.=Eluvativu, A.=Analativu. N.=Nainativu. D.=Delft. l= Iranétivu.

J.=Jaffna,

being nearly two miles in length and less than a half a mile in width at

its widest region. It is entirely sandy with no cultivation either of paddy

or cereals except for a tiny patch at its southern end. The whole island

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

abounds in palmyrah. The water in the few wells of the island is

brackish and at the t me of my visit the inhabitants were draining water

from shallow pits dug on the shore. I was also informed that by the

beginning of April water has to be brought to the island from Kayts.

Analativu lies to the south-west of Eluvativu and is much longer, be-

ing nearly 2! miles in length andnearly amile in breadth. Paddy

cultivation is centred around the grey loamy soils of the central region of

the island, whilst the sandy areas abound in palmyrah. ‘Tracts of open

country fringe the northern, southern, and western shores. Wells contain

freshwater and at the time of my visit there were a large number of

freshwater ponds and ditches.. Between Eluvativu and Analativu is a

small uninhabited island of low scrub. At the southern end of Analativu

is another small island, Puliantivu. Nainativu is another small

island, nearly 2} miles in length and about a mile in breadth. It lies to

the west of Punkudutivu and at a distance of nearly 11 miles from Kayts

as the crow flies. Paddy and tobacco cultivation is practised in the cen-

tral region of the island, whilst the rest of the island is sandy. The

western shore is open country. Freshwater wells and freshwater pools

and ditches are found. ‘There is also pipe-borne water along the main

road from the Jetty. Delft is the furthermost of the eight islands, and

lies to the south-west of Nainativu, and Punkudutivu, about 16 miles from

Kayts as the crow flies. It is nearly 5} miles from the island of Naina-

tivu. It measures nearly 7 miles in length and about 33 miles in breadth

at its widest region. It is perfectly flat. Paddy cultivation is practised

in the western portion of the island, whilst in the remaining areas cereals

are cultivated. In the northern part palmyrahs predominate, whilst the

southern region is open country with low trees and scrub in the south-

eastern area and open plains nearly surfaced with coral stones. Except

for the lagoon no pools or ditches were seen at the time of my visit.

Well water is brackish. The extent of the island is nearly 18 sq. miles

(Lewis, 1909).

The following is a list of specimens collected from the islands during

this tour :—

A. FISHES

i, Marine

‘qa. Plotosus anguillaris (Bloch). Off Leyden. A shoal of young about

11 inches in length were collected from near the shore. These

ware observed from time to time to swarm together and to swim

out.

6, Tylosurus strongylurus (Van Hasselt), Eluvativu. Dorsals I, 13..

Anals 1,15. PectoralsI, 10. Ventrals I, 5. Total length 337 mm.

One specimen.

c. Tylosurus giganteus (Schlegel). Leyden. Dorsals 21. Anals. 18.

Pectorals 14. ‘Total length of largest specimen is 400 mm., of

which the head length is 120 mm. ‘Two specimens.

d. Hemirhamphus xanthopterus Cuvier and Valenciennes. Leyden.

Dorsals 16. Anals 15. Pectorals 13. Total length is 300 mm. One

specimen.

ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA 325

e. Hemirhamphus far (Forskal). Leyden. Dorsals13. Anals 12. Pec-

torals 12. Total length is 398 mm. One specimen.

f, Liza dussumieri (Valenciennes). Eluvativu. Dorsals IV, 8. Anals

- III, 9. -Pectorals 16. One specimen.

g. Epinephelus tauvina (Forskal). Eluvativu. Dorsals XI, 15. Anals

III, 8. 5 vertical bands on body. Total ee is 160 mm. One

specimen.

h, Sillago sihama (Forskal). Eluvativu. Dorsals XI, 22. Anals 26,

VentralsI, 5. Total length is 125 mm. One specimen.

Zz, ,Siganus javus (Linné). Karaitivu. Dorsals XIII, 10. Anals VII, 9.

Ventrals II, 3. Total length is 105mm. One specimen.

7. Thysanophrys indicus (Linné). Leyden. Collected at night close

to the shore. Dorsals I, VII, 15. Anals 13. Total length of

largest specimen is 144 mm. ‘Two specimens.

k, Torquigener oblongus (Bloch), Leyden. Collected at night close to

the shore. Dorsals 12. Anals 10. Total length of largest speci-

men is 120 mm. —

/, Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton-Buchanan). Leyden. Dorsals 10. Anals

9. Immature specimens nearly 50 mm. in total length,

Il. Brackish Water

a, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Leyden.

Three V-shaped bands on caudal fin. ‘Total length of largest

specimen is 61mm. ‘Three specimens.

ie Macrones gulio (Hamilton-Buchanan). Karaitivu and Punkudutivu,

Total length of largest specimen is 113 mm. Four specimens.

c. Hemirhamphus gaimardi Cuvier and Valenciennes. Immature speci-

mens. Karaitivu and Leyden. Numerous specimens 38-76 mm. in

total length.

d. Mugil speigleri Bleeker. Karaitivu and Analativu. Total length of

largest specimen is 98 mm. The specimen from Analativu was

from a pool of freshwater.

e, Liza oligolepis ( Bleeker). Karaitivu. Height of body 32 inches in

total length. Largest specimen is 51 mm.

A Amibaseis commersoni Cuvier. Karaitivu. Dorsals VII, I, 10. Anais

III, 10. Total length of largest specimen is 40 mm. Three

Specimens.

g. Therapon jarbua (Forskal). Karaitivu. Dorsals XI, 10. Anals 8,

One specimen. — ee

h, Gerres oyena (Forskal). ‘Karaitiva and Leyden. Dorsals IX, 10,

Anals ITI, 7. The 2nd dorsal spine 2 in, head length,

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wolk 54

i, Scatophagus argus (Linné). Karaitivu. Total length of largest speci-

men 59mm. _ Four Specimens.

7. Etroplus maculatus (Bloch). Karaitivu and Leyden. Dorsals XVII-

XVIII, 10-11. Anals XII-XIII, 8-9. Pectorals 14. Ventrais I, 5.

Caudals 16. Depth of body 22 in. total length. Four specimens.

k. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan). Karaitivu. Total length

53mm. One specimen.

B. AMPHIBIANS

]. Rana tigrina crassa Jerdon. Karaitivu and Leyden.

2. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. Karaitivu, Leyden, and Punkudutivu.

Collected from both fresh and brackish water pools and ditches.

It was observed that the body colour of those from the brackish-

water pools and ditches was much paler and more yellowish than

in those from fresh water. ‘The dorsal blotches so conspicuous

among those from the freshwater pools and ditches were hardly

decipherable.

3, Rana breviceps Schneider. Leyden, Punkudutivu, Nainativu, and

Delft. |

4, Rhacophorus leucomystax maculatus (Gravenhorst). Punkudutivu,

Analativu, Eluvativu, and Nainativu.

5. Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibr.). ‘Leyden. |

6, Microhyla rubra (Jerdon). Leyden, Analativu, and Nainativu.

7, Bufo melanostictus Schneider. <Karaitivu, Leyden, Punkudutivu,

_ Analativu, and Nainativu.

8, Bufo fergusonii Boulenger. Analativu.

C. REPTILES --

1. Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger), Nainativu.

2. Lissemys punctata ceylonensis (Gray). Leyden and Punkudutivu.

3. Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel. Numerous on the palmyrah trees in

all the islands, descending to the ground at night.

4, Hemidactylus triedrus triedrus Lesson. Eluvativu. Four specimens,

two males and two females. Femoral pores 7/7 and separated by

a single scale. The femoral pore counts from a number of speci-

mens from the mainland of Ceylon are as follows: (a) 7/7 and

separated by a single scale, Tunnakai(N.P.); (6) 12-13/12-13 and

17/15 and separated by three scales, Trincomallee (N.P.); (c) 17/16

and separated by three scales, Batticaloa (E.P.); (d@) 17-18/11-17

and separated by three scales, Wellawaya (S.P.), and (e) 18/19 and

separated by three scales, Gammaduwa (C.P.). It is evident that

IDK.

12:

14.

15.

16.

17.

ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA 33%

the range of distribution of the forma ty pica appears to extend

as far south as the northern province of Ceylon. It may even be

that the Eluvativu and Tunnakai specimens belong to a new race

but more information is necessary to elucidate this.

, Hemidactylus brooki parvimaculatus Déraniyagala. Analativu. -

. Hemidactylus leschenaulti Dum. and Bibr. Nainativu and Delft.

. Calotes versicolor Daudin. Rather scarce. Practically in all the

islands.

. Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier. Leyden. Young specimens, fairly nu-

merous on the sand dunes on the western shore.

. Mabuya carinata (Schneider). Karaitivu, Mandaitivu, and Delft.

10.

Riopa punctata Gmelin. Nainativu and Delft. A specimen was

collected along with three specimens of Achzs cavinatus under a

fairly large coral stone in the open plains of Delft.

Varanus bengalensis (Daudin). Leyden.

Ptyas mucosus (Linné). Karaitivu and Delft.

Oligodon arnensis albiventer (Giinther). Analativu. Supralabials 7,

3rd, and 4th touching eye. Praeoculars1. No loreal. Costals 17,

17,17. Ventrals 172. Subcaudals 47.. Anals 2. 18 black bands

from neck to vent and 6 on tail with two incomplete bands.

Dendrelaphis sp, Analativu. Specimen seen only.

Lycodon aulicus (Linné). Eluvativu. Collected at night from the

sides of a well. Supralabials 9, 3rd, 4th, and 5th touching eye.

Praeoculars 1. Loreals 1. Costals 17, 17, 17. Ventrals' 189. Sub-

caudals divided and number 60. Anals 1.

Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin). Nainativu. Collected at night at

the foot of a coco-nut tree and supposed to be numerous according

to the inhabitants. Supralabials 7, 3rd, and 4th touching eye.

Praeoculars 1. Joreals 1. Internasals 2. Costals 13, 13, 13.

Ventrals 209. Subcaudals 77. Anals 2. 33 white bands on body

between neck and vent and 22 on tail.

Naja naja naja Linné. Analativu.

Echis carinatus Schneider. Mandaitivu, Punkudutivu, Nainativu and

Delft.

D. Birpbs

. Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield). Eluvativu.

. Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Karaitivu, aie Punkudutivu, Eluvativu,

Analativu and Nainativu.

328

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

. Ardeola ibis coromanda (Boddaert). Karaitivu, Punkudutivu, Anala-

tivu, and Nainativu.

_ Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linné). Karaitivu.

. Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). Karaitivu, Leyden, Mandaitivu,

Pluvativu, Analativu, Nainativu and Delft.

. Accipiter badius badius (Gmelin). Delft.

Circus macrourus (S, G. Gmelin). Delft.

Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linné). Delft.

. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus. Leyden, Mandaitivu, Elu-

vativu, Analativu, and Nainativu.

. Francolinus pondicerianus ceylonensis Whistler. Karaitivu, and

Delft.

_ Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert). Delft.

. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin). Leyden, Eluvativu, Analativu,

and Delit.

_ Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin. Leyden, Mandaitivu, Punku-

dutivu, Eluvativu, Nainativu, and Delft.

Charadrius alexandrinus seebohmi Hartert & Jackson. : Punkudutivu.

. Tringa glareola Linnaeus. Delft.

. Actitis hypoleucos (Linné). Eluvativu and Nainativu. |

, Erolia temminckii (Leisler). Mandaitivu.

. Erolia testacea (Pallas). Analativu.

_ Larus ichthyaetus Pallas. Delft.

. Larus brunneicephalus Jerdon. Leyden, Mandaitivu, and Punkudu-

tivu.

. Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck). Leyden.

. Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin). Leyden and Punkudutivu,

. Hydroprogne caspia caspia (Pallas). Leyden.

Sterna albifrons sinensis Gmelin. Delft.

. Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis (Reichenbach). In all the islands.

. Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein). In all the islands.

. Clamator jacobinus jacobinus (Boddaert). Delft.

. Clamator coromandus (Linné). Leyden.

29).

30.

eile

ooh

34.

ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA 339

Eudynamis scolopacea scolopacea (Linné). Leyden and Analativu. A

single female bird (juvenile) was collected from Analativu and its

_upper plumage was distinctly blacker with the feathers on the lores,

cheeks and nape tipped rufous. Faint patches of rufous also seen

on the wings and the tail feathers.

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann. Karaitivu and Leyden.

Caprimulgus asiaticus eidos Peters, Leyden.

Collocalia brevirostris unicolor (Jerdon), Karaitivu, Leyden, Eluva-

tivu, Analativu, Nainativu, and Delft. |

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach. Karaitivu, Leyden, and

Analativu.

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Boddaett). Teveeny Eluvativu,. Anala-

tivu, Nainativu, and Delft.

, Merops phillippinus philippinus Linnaeus. In all the islands.

. Merops orientalis ceylonicus Whistler. Karaitivu, Eiuvativu, Anala-

tivu, Nainativu, and Delft.

. Coracias benghalensis indica Linnaeus. In all the islands.

, Upupa epops ceylonensis Reichenbach. Karaitivu.

, Megalaima zeylanica zeylanica (Gmelin). Karaitivu.

, Dinopium benghalense jaffnense UND isiler Karaitivu, Leyden, Elu-

vativu, and Analativu, —

, Eremopterix grisea ceylonensis Whistler. Nainativu and Deift.

. Anthus novaeseelandiae richardi Vieillot. Mandaitivu and Delft.

. Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis Eyton. Karaitivu and Leyden,

. Pericrocotus peregrinus ceylonensis Whistler and Kinnear. Punkudu-

tivu and Analativu.

, Coracina novaeholiandiae layardi (Blyth). Punkudutivu.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot. Eluvativu, Analatiyu, Nainativu, and Delft.

: Pycnonotus cafer cafer (Linné). Karaitiyu, Leyden, and Delft.

. Pycnonotus luteolus ineulac Whistler and Kinnear. Punkudutivu.

, Saxicoloides fulicata thay (Linné). Leyden and Mandaitivu.

. Copsychus saularis ceylonensis Sclater. Karaitivu and Leyden.

, Orthotomus sutorius sutorius (Pennant). Nainativu and Delft.

. Prinia inornata insularis (Legge). Delft.

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 64

53. Rhipidura aureola compressirostris (Blyth). Nainativu, and Anala-

tivu.

54. Nectarinia asiatica asiatica (Latham). Punkudutivu, Eluvativu, and

Delft.

55. Nectarinia zeylonica zeylonica (Linné). Karaitivu, Analativu, and

Nainativu.

56. Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linné). Delft.

57, Lonchura malabarica (Linné). Analativa and Delft.

58. Passer domesticus soror Ripley. Analativu.

59, Sturnus pagodarum pagodarum (Gmelin). Delft.

60 Acridotheres tristis melanosternus (Legge). Leyden, Mandaitivu,

Eluvativu, Analativu, Nainativu, and Delft.

61. Dicrurus macrocercus minor Blyth. In all the islands.

62. Corvus splendens protegatus Madarasz. Leyden, Mandaitivu, Eluva-

tivu, Analativu, Nainativu, and Delft.

63. Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. Mandaitivu, Analativu,

and Nainativu.

E. MAMMALS

. Tatera indica ceylonica Wroughton. Leyden.

Rattus rattus kandianus Kellart . Analativu.

. Funambulus palmarum brodiei (Blyth). Leyden and Delft.

Po rm

. Herpestes flavidens maccarthiae Gray. Delft.

DISCUSSION

No detailed information regarding the physical and climatic features

of these islands is available and it is proposed, therefore, in view of their

situation within a radius of twenty miles of Jafina to consider the condi-

tions occurring in the Jaffna Peninsula as the conditions likely to prevail —

over these islands.

Geologically the Jaffna Peninsula as well as the islands consist of a

huge limestone block and the islands represent the submerged portion of |

the Peninsula (Cook, 1951, p. 330). It is of Miocene age belonging to

the Kudremale-Jaffna series (Coates, 1935, p. 104) and of the calcareous

facies (Adams, 1929, p. 443). The Peninsula as well as the islands are

flat and low-lying with outcrops of limestone, especially in the northern

parts of the Peninsula and in many of the islands especially Delft. The

limestone in the Peninsula is highly fossiliferous, the fossils being mainly

of foraminifera and mollusca. A. M. Davies who made a study of these

fossils is of opinion that the Puttalam-Jaffna limestone series is of

Pontian or Sahelian age, and that these rocks are identical with similar

ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING TOUR OF ISLANDS OFF JAFFNA_ 331

rocks at Quilon in Travancore (Coates, 1935, p. 105). The thickness of

the limestone in the Peninsula is unknown, but it is presumed to be some

hundreds of feet deep. The limestone bed of the Peninsula is fairiy level

as it extends under the sea. Consequently, the sea water enters the

underground circulation. ‘The thick bed of porous limestone allows the

water to percolate rapidly and the rain water being slightly acidic riddles

the limestone with tiny holes. Asa result the surface is left dry and all

the water sinks below to circulate in these holes. Caverns and under-

ground rivers ate common and the wells in the Peninsula some distance

away from the sea have salty water in them, and in other parts fresh-

water springs occur on the shore. Practically the water in most of the

wells in the island is also salty. At Leyden, Analativu, and Nainativu

there were pools of fresh water at the time of my visit. The inhabitants

of the island of Eluvativu were seen to drain off for drinking purposes

the water collected in shallow pits near the shore. The conditions are

much more severe in the islands than in the Peninsula, especially Eluva-

tivu and Delft where there is so little fresh water that cultivation is extre-

mely cificult and the inhabitants have always to drink coco-nut water and

toddy (Cook, 1951, p. 137). Grey loams occur in the islands and, as in

the Peninsula, these support paddy cultivation while the remaining parts

are sandy, allowing the cultivation of cereals in favourable patches and the

growth of the palmyrah palm. Cacti and thorny scrub predominate in the

stretches of open country.

These islands in common with the northern and north-western tracts

of the Peninsula come under the ‘arid zone’ with an annual rainfall of

between 25”—50” , 60% of the total rainfall occurs in the months of the

north-east monsoon. ‘The climate is marked by a ‘ single maximum rain

“‘peak” in winter due to the strong NE. Monsoon dominancy and with a

marked ‘summer ” dry season.’ (Thambiahpillay, 1954, pp. 37 and 49).

The average monthly rainfall as computed tor 29 years from 1911-1940

(Thambiahpillay, 1954, XII, No. 4, p. 269) is as follows :—

Station p{e|ulafa}s|s

s|o|n| >

Jaffna | 4.4” | 1.5% | 1.57 | 2.2” | 2.0” jose [ose Dro 2.0) 2 10.4”

9.2” | 10.5”

The average number of ‘rainy days’ for Jaffna as computed for

29 years, ie. 1911-1940 (Thambiahpiliay, 1954, XII, No. 4, p. 270) are

as follows :—

Station

J |e

Jaffna 8 | 3

The number of days of drought for Jaffna are 223 for 1931 and 190

for 1932 (De Silva, 5. F., 1936, p. 55).

The average rainfall for the western portion of the Peninsula and the

islands is less than 10 inches during the months of the south-west mon-

soon. Rains begin usually in September. October to December are the

wet months and by January sunny weather begins.

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY; Vol, 54

- The average temperature over Jaffna and the islands is about 82°F.

Jafina-shows a seasonal variation in temperature of 8°F. and shows also

the highest rise in temperature in the months of March and April. This

rise in temperature is presumed to be caused by the warm air over the

Deccan exerting an influence. The smallest range of temperature occurs

in the months of June and July, when the humidity of the air is 76-78%,

and this accounts for this small range of variation. The highest range of

variation occurs in the month of February, during which period the

humidity of the air is the lowest being 66%. The Precipitation Index for

Jaffna is 69.1 and the Temperature Efficiency is 147.

Sifting the above environmental features of the Peninsula and the

islands the following factors may be ORS SSL to influence the animal

populations inhabiting them :—

a. the porous nature of the imestones pompociae the Peninsula and the

islands, which allows the rain water to percolate rapidly leaving the

surface dry ;

b. the entry of sea water into the under erouad credence, resulting in the

water in most of the wells becoming salty ;

c. the average rainfall being between 25-50 inches and 60% of the rainfall

occurring in the months of October to December ;

d. the average temperature being 82°F ., the highest range being shown:

in the months of June and July ; and

e. the number of days of drought being over 190.

It is evident, therefore, that the primary factor that controls the eat ane

populations in the islands is the availability of fresh water and,

consequently, the type of land animals inhabiting them must be able

to withstand the jong dry spell. It is very likely that during the rainy

season there is an annual exodus of land animals from the Peninsula to

the islands that are now connected with it, and in these they spread

widely. But with the commencement of the dry spell those animals that

took their abode near freshwater wells alone could survive, whilst the

others would perish. As a result animals are everywhere scarce during

the dry months in these islands. The common garden lizard, Calotes

versicolor, so profusely met with in the mainland of Ceylon, is seldom

seen, and I did not see more than six specimens during my sojourn in all

the islands off Jaffna. Allthe temporary pools and ditches would be dry

by April, and the specimens of Rana tigrina crassa and Rana cyanophlyctts

living in them would perish. Therefore, the few land animals who are

fortunate enough to establish themselves in the vicinity of freshwater

wells would alone survive. In the islands of Analativu and Nainativu

there is a small community of land animals living in close proximity to

the wells and taps, either in holes and crevices or under heavy stones.

The water used by the inhabitants for washing and bathing purposes

keeps the ground near the wells moist, and at nightfall all these animals

creep out of their shelters to hug the moist earth. At Analativu I saw

specimens of Rhacophorus leucomystax, Microhyla rubra, and Bufo

‘melanostictus around bathing wells, and at Nainativu specimens of Rana

breviceps, Rhacophorus leucomystax maculatus, Microhyla rubra, Bufo

melanostictus, and Echis carinatus around the water taps.

The’ absence of Rana tigrina crassa and Rana cyanophlyctis in those

islands’ not connected with the Jaffna Peninsula, such as Eluvativu,

Analativu, N ainativu, and Delft, indicates that these forms are unable to.

survive in them in the absence of permanent pools or wells of fresh water.’

ZOOLOGICAL .COLLECTING TOUR OF ‘ISLANDS .OFF JAFFNA 233

Both spend a good deal of their time in water and, even though a few of

them could have got across to these islands through the agencies of

launch and canoe, the absence of fresh water would have been detrimen-

tal to their survival, and the pioneers would have perished. At the same

time Rana cyanophlyctts was collected from pools of brackish water,

although it is considered to be essentially a freshwater form. In this

respect it may be regarded to display some degree of ‘ecological

plasticity ’, which wouid have favoured their survival in the salty water of

the wells inthese islands. Either the water in the wells is too salty, thus

precluding any amphibian life, or that the iaunch and canoe are not

efficient means of dispersal may perhaps be the reason why Rana

tigrina crassa and Rana cyanophlyctis are not found to occur in those

islands not connected with the Peninsula.

In any discussion of an island fauna the effects of sconripnical

isolation should find an important place. Till recently all these islands

remained Separate, and during this period geographic isolation was nearly

complete except for any dispersal through the agency of the canoe.

‘Isolation’, according to Deraniyagala (1947, p. 76) ‘first exerted a

major influence upon Ceylon when the islands separated off the mainland

of Asia during Miocene times. Extensive tracts especially to the north

of Ceylon went under the sea to emerge subsequently to connect with the

mainland.’ - The islands off Jaffna Peninsula therefore represent the

submerged portion of the Peninsula which have been elevated subsequen-

tly. The island of Karaitivu lies at a distance of nearly two miles from

the Peninsula and separated from Leyden by nearly halfa mile. Mandaitivu

is situated in close proximity to Leyden and Punkudutivu nearly 21 miles

from Leyden. The island of Leyden lies nearly 2 miles from the

Peninsula. All these islands mentioned above have been connected with

one another and with the Peninsula during recent times by ferry and

causeways. ‘The islands of Eluvativu, Nainativu, and Delft remain

separate even to thisday. Thereis no doubt, therefore, that in all these

islands the chief ecological barrier which restricted the ‘flow of individuals

from one population to another’ was the stretch of water separating

them. But with the construction of causeways and the inauguration of

a ferry service these stretches ot water have ceased to be an ecological

barrier preventing animal dispersal. It is true that stretches of water do

not serve as ecological barriers to the dispersal of most insects and birds,

especially so when the distance concerned is so little. I have seen the

butterfly Polydorus hector Linné: and the Indian Edible Switt flying

across over the sea from Leyden ‘in the direction of Analativu, and a

carpenter bee following our launch all the way from Nainativu to Kayts.

But there is no doubt that water is an effective barrier in the case of land

animals, and the only means of animal: dispersal to these four islands,

namely Eluvativu, Analativu, Nainativu, and Delft, must be through

canoe and launch which ply between them.

The animals collected from the islands do not appear to display much

variation in spite of such intensive geographic isolation, and most of them

are identical with the Peninsular forms. ‘The only specimens of interest

are specimens of Rana breviceps, which appear to be diminutive with its

dorsal body colour bluish green, and Lchzs carinatus, which displays a

higher range of circumorbital scales. The specimens collected from the

islands are all of south Indian stock. It is evident, therefore, that a more

comprehensive collection is necessary to elucidate how far geographical

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

isolation has been accompanied by the development of biological isolating

mechanisms.

Although detailed evidence is lacking it is necessary to make a

passing reference as to how land animals in these islands tide over the

long dry spell. I have seen a specimen of Ptyas mucosus at Delft hiding

in a hollow of a tree nearly seven feet from the ground. I have collected

three specimens of Achis curinatus and a specimen of Riopa punctata

from under a Jarge coral stone in the open plains of Delft. Four

immature specimens of Rana breviceps were collected from under a coral

stone near the drying lagoon, hiding themselves in a crab burrow. I

have seen Rhacophorus leucomystax maculatus in enclosures on the ground

near pipe connections. Close to these taps, in holes, crevices and under

stones, I have coliected specimens ot Bufo melanostictus and Echis

carinatus. I have aiso seen at Delft the mongoose hiding in caverns in

large coralline rocks close to the shore. This should also be another

aspect that should receive a closer study. |

In conclusion I wish to compare this collection of zoological speci-

mens with another collection from the island of Rameswaram made by

Edgar Thurston (1895). I wish to comment upon the birds only. Of the

23 birds listed by him the following birds also occur in the islands off

Jaffna: Kestrel, Shikra, Common Bee-eater, Goldenbacked Woodpecker,

Pied Crested Cuckoo, Common Coucal, Indian Hoopoe, Black Drongo,

Madras Redvented Buibul, Magpie Robin, Jungle Crow, House Crow,

Brahminy Myna, Spotted Dove, and Brownheaded Gull.

REFERENCES

Adams, F. D. (1929) : The Geology of Ceylon. Res. Council of Canada.

Cain, A. J. (1954) : Animal Species and their Evolution : 13J-168.

Carter, G. S. (1952): Animal Evolution ; 223-237.

Coates, J. S. (1935): The Geology of Ceylon. Ceylon J. Sci. (B), 19: 101-107.

Cook, E. K. (1951) : A Geography of Ceylon.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1946) : Some Phases of the Evolution of Ceylon. Pyoc.

Ass. of Sct. Sec. VD. 69-85.

— — — (1951) : Some New Races of the Snakes Hryx, Callophis and Echis.

Spol. Zeylan. 26 (2). 148.

— —— (1953): A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. Il—

Tertrapod Reptilia.

— — — (1455) : A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. II—

Serpentoidea.

De Silva, S. F. (1936) : The New Geography of Ceylon.

Ellerman, J. Rk. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. 8. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals : 29/-298 and 637.

Fernando, L. J. D. (1954): Progress of the Geological Survey of Ceylon. Bull.

C.G.S. 1-10.

Hugzley, J. (1940) : The New Systematics.

Lewis J. F. (1909) : Notes on Delft. J.R.A.S. (Ceylon) : 341-360.

Mayr, E. (1942): Systematics and the origin of Species ; 216-274.

Munro, I. A. S. (1955) : The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1953) : A (1952) Revised Checklist of the Birds of Ceylon.

Smith, M. A. (1943) ; Fauna of British India (Reptilia), Vol. LILI.

aaa op G. (1954): The Rainfall Rhythm in Ceylou. Univ. Ceylon

feev. 12, (4

—_— ere tee and the world climatic mosaic. Umiv. Ceylon Rev. 12;

Then *s, (1895): Rameswaram Island and the Fauna of the Gulf of

Mannar. Madras Govt. Mus. Bull., 77-89.

Wait, W. E. (1931) : Manual of the Birds of Ceylon.

Wall, F, (1921) : Notes on Some Ceylon Snakes. Sfol Zeylan, 11 : 399,

= (1921) : The Snakes of Ceylon.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAMILY LIFE OF THE

PIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL, FUNAMBULUS PENNANTI WR.

(Mrs) ARUNA BANERJI

Since the publication of my first article in the December 1955 issue

of the Journal [Vol. 53 (2): 261] I have continued my notes and

am now in a position to give a further account of the family life of the

most interesting of pets, the squirrel.

On 26 July 1955 my pet squirrel had had her fifth litter of three.

Since early morning of August 29, she had a retinue of suitors who

gave her hot chase. She was finding out the queerest of hiding places

because, I think, she was not quite ready for mating and had been

accidentally discovered. The young ones were just one month and

three days old. She had had a hard time and looked a little ruffled

by the evening, and once even jumped on to the courtyard from the

asbestos roofing when in the clutch of a male during mating, very

unusual behaviour.

On September 1, I found that her young ones had not left the

nest as yet and the nest-building instinct of the mother had been

awakened. She went into our dressing-room and investigated a wall

almirah of books, behind which she found a place that appealed to

her. The next moment she was frantically pulling at a silk blouse

that was on the cloth-rack next to it. I retrieved that from her grasp

and gave her two pieces of cloth which she arranged into a nest

behind the books. In the evening she went back to her young ones

in the wooden box in her original almirah. Every morning she went

about building her new nest, but the moment I took down the books

which she was happily chewing and gave her a cardboard box instead,

she took offence and left the site.

On September 11, my mother complained of a tear in the mattress

from which cotton was missing. Next morning she called me to show

the latest nest. A window of the room had been kept closed all

through the winter months. The room had become stuffy so mother

kad opened the window. Against it and the chik that was always

hanging stood her nest of cotton taken from the mattress. The

moment the squirrel saw that her nest had been discovered she started

taking the materials out and deposited them in the wooden box still

containing the young. They are now one and a half months old.

That same evening I went over to our cottage where, chatting

over tea, I heard a young squirrel give a call at a distance. It was

rather late and the calls persisted at intervals so that I was definite

the mother was nowhere about or else she would most certainly have

come to that call.

I went out of the gate and into the lane and, after much searching,

found the baby squirrel peeping out of a crevice in the wall next to a

drain. I put my hand in to extricate her and she licked my finger but

was afraid to come out. At last while trying to catch hold of her

she ran out and went along the drain. I gave chase and caught her,

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

completely soaked in drain-water. After giving her a bath I rubbed

her dry with a towel and let her rest to quiet down her heart-beat.

That very night she sucked milk and came to me the moment I called.

Probably hunger and loneliness throughout the day was the cause of

such quick tameness, the first so far in my experience.

Her I shall call Squirrel Junior to distinguish her from my two-year

old pet, Squirrel Senior.

On September 14, I found neither the mother nor the young ones

in the wooden box when I went to clean the almirah and change

the papers. . Near about 7.45 p.m. I heard one of the young squirrels

calling out. The sound came from the first storey but the next

moment there was a sound of something falling, and there was the

young one on the ground. He went up the. stairs again calling at

intervals, and I followed him. As I watched the young one by torch-

light I saw the mother come to him and guide him up the girder and

on to the roof. Every time the young one fell in the attempt and

whimpered, the mother came down immediately and began coaxing

him up again. Finally she succeeded. Then she wanted him to go

up into a room through a hole which was on a higher level. When

he finally did succeed goaded all along by his mother, the watch

read 8.45 p.m., exactly one full hour’s perseverance.

Then I understood that, in that room above, the mother had made

a nest for her coming litter after her nest behind the window had been

discovered by us. She had transferred all the material from the

old site to the new. a | hae ee

One night I stayed back at Dehra Dun. Next morning she must

have come as usual for her snack and not found me. Near about

3.30 p.m. when I went out on to the courtyard and looked up I saw

the mother playing with her two young ones on the roof-top. The

next moment she saw me, theugh I had not called out to her,

she recognized me and came down the girder and the stairs, her usual

route. I-was deeply impressed by her intelligences) 9)

Squirrel Senior comes morning and evening for a snack and goes

straight to the dining room. If she does not find me there she comes

to the drawing room where I usually study. When I call her back

to the dining room she makes a go for the dining table and waits

for me to open the Frigidaire in which [ keep her provisions. ~Onee

it so happened that my cousin was reading in the drawing room and I

was in the kitchen. About ten minutes later she came and cailed

me. The squirrel had. been in the drawing room she said and, fail-

ing to attract her attention for the past fifteen minutes, had finally

come forward and nipped her to make her realize the fact that she

was waiting to be fed. a fO OFkG” Eee

One day I saw a surprising drama at the cottage. - From the

stairs I was watching a wall with crevices when T noticed two- adult

males at play. All of a sudden one went along the vertical surface of

the wall peeping into the crevices. Three were empty, and at the

fourth he stopped and became tense. I was certain there was a

nest there and a squirrel was sitting inside. The next moment there

was something rushing out and the possessor of the nest chased the

intruder hotly. She then came back to her nest and she looked so

odd with just a stump of a tail like a rabbit, and I also noticed she

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON FIVE-STRIPED. SQUIRREL 337

was quite near confinement. The intruder who had not learned a

lesson the first time came inquisitively again to impress himself upon

her, but she was in no mood for his attentions and gave him a second

chase when he was bold enough to step inside her nest. He then

realized he was actually unwanted and did not come back a third

time.

My Squirrel Junior has become a great pet. She has her box on

a table in the drawing room. When I go to bed I lock the door

for fear of rats, and the squirrel sleeps quietly through the night in

darkness.

Early morning she has a tablespoonful of warm sweetened milk.

If I enter her room noiselessly she does not stir, but the moment she

hears voices she steps out of her box, stretches herself, and puts out

her long pink tongue as she yawns shamelessly. She is active as

long as there is somebody in the room to appreciate her activities. As

soon as she finds everything quiet about her she jumps on to the

table and into her box and enjoys a quick nap.

In the evening she is literally sleepy and curls herself cosily in

the lap, and sucking and playing with a finger falls asleep very

quickly. On October 5, 1955, Squirrel Junior has been with me 24

days. Nuts and grapes are her favourite.

On October 11,- 1955, I could not recognize my Squirrel Senior

when she came down for her snack in the afternoon. Yesterday she

was plump and round and today she is as slim as ever. I could guess

she had delivered her litter in the room upstairs either last night or

early this morning. The gestation period in this sixth instance was

exactly one month and 12 days.

_ I came back from a holiday on January 9, 1956, and found my mother

feeding a whole retinue of squirrels on the verandah of our first storey.

They came for food but not to the feeder. I continued giving them

food but on strict condition that they came to take it from my hand.

Squirrels Senior and Junior came directly, and the rest, about 7 or 8

in number, gradually lost their fear. The moment they see me ‘making

for the verandah they come down from the roof where they laze in

the morning sun. If for some reason I cannot make it or am_- late

they” come down, on to the cou bard in a band and thus attract my

notice.

Among these replat attendants are Schick s youngsters from the

-Jast litter, two in number. One of them is an albino and very small

and- scraggy for its age. I think there must be some vitamin

deficiency in the mother’s diet because she too, I find, has developed

-a marked white spot on her forehead, and the upper half of ‘her body

seems to be getting lighter in colour.

There was a swarming of suitors since 11 in ihe morning of

January 14, 1956, and Squirrel Senior was hiding while frantic searches

“were on. I watched expectantly but I had to go to the railway

_ station to receive some guests and consequently missed the drama.

When I came from the cottage the next morning my servant mentioned

- the fact that a squirrel had dropped on the courtyard from the. first

storey and stayed there stunned for a time before getting away.

‘Maybe the mating was in ‘progress and she had fallen nue trying: to

extricate herself from the iron grip of her’ suitor.

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

On February 25, 1956, as I was talking to a friend in the drawing

room my pet squirrel came in and sat on the top of the sofa. IJ gave

her pistachio nut which she devoured greedily. Then I saw blood on

her left flank and on the back left foot. For the time being I took

her to be Squirrel Senior, and seeing her bleeding I decided that she

had been delivered that morning and now she had come to be fed.

Then, as I went to the dining room, imagine my surprise when I

saw Senior on the casing. Seeing me she came down into her

almirah and it was then that I noticed that she was as slim as ever

and I realized that she had been delivered either the night before or

early that morning. Hence as was her custom she had not been out

that morning but was resting after the ordeal and keeping watch.

The gestation period in this seventh litter comes to one month and

TI days.

Recognizing Senior, it dawned on me that the squirrel in the

drawing room was my pet Junior who was now 6 months old and

mature. She had been surprised and waylaid and in the onslaught

that had followed her coming of age declaration, blood had been drawn.

Pursued by her suitors relentlessly she had come to us for shelter.

There was pandemonium on the stairs, and in the courtyard hell

let loose. After feeding her and quenching her thirst I quietly closed

the door of the drawing room. The moment she had got back her

breath she showed keenness to go out. She would advertise herself

by springing on to the wire-meshed door that opens on to the courtyard.

There would be frantic displays by the suitors who gave call after call

coming on to the wire-meshed door from the outside.

Carefully I slipped in an eager male into the drawing room and

quickly closed the door. The moment he went towards her on the

couch constantly wooing her with his soft calls she came forward coyly

to him. Thus they mated quietly for ten minutes until suddenly she

threw him off with a struggle and a bite. I was surprised to note that

he was very keen for a second mating but she was no longer willing.

There were too many suitors outside who incessantly called to her.

Then it struck me that she was all for variety because, no sooner had

1 released her, she ran up the stairs hotly pursued by her suitors, and

I caught up with her quietly mating behind the box-room door

immediately after. Her late suitor was still imprisoned in the drawing

room. It was then that I realized why there were so many com-

petitors on the field and why they did not leave soon after the first

mating but stayed on till the close of the day.

This love life went on till 6.30 p.m. when with fading light the

suitors left one by one. With my pet Squirrel Senior conditions had

been somewhat different. She was more used to the house. So naturally,

when pursued, she would hide within the rooms where disturbance

was likely to be less. Consequently there were fewer matings but

each lasted longer, but now I am certain that in her case too there

must have been more than just one suitor who had successfully wooed

her. Monogamy is far from the rule in the squirrel kingdom; on the

contrary, I think that there is a far greater likelihood of the majority,

if not all, of the suitors having a fair chance of successfully wooing a

willing female in a given area.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL — 339

As a rule the love life of a squirrel lasts but a day. For the first

time I saw it continued, though for an instant, the next day. On the

afternoon of February 26, Junior mated again. The mating was a

lone case with no competitors on the field, and a half-hearted affair

signifying nothing. They had come across each other accidentaily, not

deliberately as yesterday, and they separated immediately.

On March 3, 1956, I saw Squirrel Junior for the first time collect

cotton wool for the nest she had to build for her future litter, an

instinct awakened exactly a week after the mating took place. I had

placed some cotton wool in a hollow under the tank. She had not

needed it then but had carefully noted the place. Now when the need

arose she came down with that definite intention and went straight for

it. She rolled a little of it at a time into manageable balls and made

a number of trips up to a second storey room where the cots are

kept.

On April 7, 1956, Squirrel Senior mated for ‘the eighth time

being just two years and six months old. The young ones from her

last litter are just one month and 13 days old. For the last two days

i have been watching her getting male attention, but she never lets

them come any nearer. That day I had not noticed anything at first

until I went up to feed them and found none, and understood that for

‘the day food was of minor importance. A full band of suitors, half-

tailed, three quarter, and whole, were hot on her trail while she was

constantly giving them the slip. Once in the process of mating I saw

a second male cover the first male and bite ‘him to make him lose his

hold. .In the meantime a third male came and covered the second

male. Yet the original male was oblivious of the pandemonium behind

him though the female was struggling to free herself. Another time

in the process of mating on the roof of the next compound they

managed to attract the attention of a kite which came low to catch

them in its talons, but they rolled away just in time and missed being’

food for it. When all was quiet with the coming on of dusk, Squirrel

Senior came down to her almirah where I had kept warm tea for her,

knowing that she would be very thirsty. She lapped it up, stretched

and cleaned herself, and then went into the box where the two young

ones were waiting for their feed. She had come to them after 12 hours,

to be exact.

Both Squirrels Senior and Junior enter the kitchen for a brief respite

because it is a hiding place for them as well as a provision store. The

males are not primarily interested in food, but if a monkey-nut comes

in the way the finder does justice to it while the rest follow the chase

which is not for a moment given up until after dark.

There is a funny incident connected with this wooing. On

March 18, 1956, I had taken out a female from Senior’s seventh

litter to bring up when she was three weeks old. By April 7, she

had become a great pet, and that afternoon as I lay down beside her

wooden box she was frisking all over me. One suitor had come into

the room in search of Squirrel Senior. He saw the young one, and

with very sweet calls he came wooing her while I lay stiff and watched.

He came on to my body, and the moment he was face to face with

the youngster she gave him such a clucking with the teeth that he

drew back, but came forward again and again, calling all the time.

340 {OURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL SIS T: SOCME DY. Wwolweod =

She would have none of him and drove him away with her gnashing

teeth and rushing forward, so that he finally left her in peace.

When the male suddenly discovers the hide-out of the female he

makes such a din over it, that he no longer gives the wooing call but

those short quick sgenles: Grrr the tail jerking nervously over the

body. Thus attracted the stronger male then comes forward and

drives the weaker ones from the area by bites and chases. One such

male chased another along the beam of the first floor with the result

that the latter lost its hold and fell on the paved courtyard below. He

was stunned for sometime, and then when he tried to go up the stairs

he had literally to drag himself, one back leg having become limp.

On April 7, my pet Squirrel Junior littered for the first time, 2 in

number, the gestation period being 42 days. During the first litter

the teats are not as prominent as after subsequent litters, especially

the upper two. Her nest is in the upper room in a basket hanging

from a nail with a cot standing against it for her to reach it.

On April 13, just 6 days after mating, the instinct of nest-building

has been awakened in Squirrel Senior. From her already built nest

she takes out materials, rolls them into a ball, goes along the casing

to a certain distance, returns to her almirah and her wooden box by

the same route, and rearranges it as if building anew. It is a very

interesting performance. ee :

On May 3, 26 days after mating, I saw Squirrel Senior for the

first time deliberately prevent one of her young, now 2 months and

S days old, from entering the box where it was born. There were. all

females in this seventh. litter, and now the one I have reared and the

two reared by the mother play together in the courtyard, ‘but at night

each goes back to her respective sleeping quarters. One of the young

aas left. the box but. the other. still occupies it. The mother was

keeping watch on the almirah next.to the door leading to the courtyard.

As soon as the young one came on to it she chased it off and resumed

her watch. The second time it came the mother attacked her, and

losing: her balance she fell on the floor. Not ‘in the least r uffled the

youngster went up the curtain, on to the Frigidaire and then into her

box in the wall almirah, while’ the mother looked on stupefied at

this short cut and successful occupation of the nest she had. decided

on for her coming: litter.

On May 20, 1956, Squirrel Junior, whose first eee is one month

and thirteen days old, mated for the second time and she herself just

nine months old. 'Stray suitors had been following her for the fast

two days but she chased and drove them out of the room containing

the nest, and went back to the cot where her young ones played after

abandoning the basket. Squirrel Junior calls for her food by squeak-

ing at the top. of her voice to attract my attention as she feels uneasy

to come. down the stairs for fear of being caught and bitten unawares

by Senior. On May 20, as I came out with her buttered toast I saw

her surrounded by suitors. Once, as I was sitting on the ledge next

_to a hole for the passage for rain-water, the mating pair came out of

the shelter in the process of mating and dragged along until they

were just behind my sari to protect themselves. from the. sun, .and

remained there. until another inquisitive squirrel, came. to investigate

and forced them apart. With the setting sun there, was just a young

FURTHER: OBSERVATIONS ON FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL 341

male in sight to whom Squirrel Junior eagerly went when he gave the

love call, but when he came to mate he turned out to be immature, and

try as he might he could give her no satisfaction. She would run

about and come again and again to him and he would mate but with

ne result, until it became quite dark.

The same day, May 20, Squirrel Senior gave birth to her eighth

litter, the gestation period coming to one month and twelve days.

This is the second time she has left her regular nest to make another

in the adjoining compound, the first time being last summer; but that

litter she had brought back when the monsoon broke. This time she

left for two reasons: because her seventh litter had occupied it for quite

some time, and secondly, there was a fuse in the casing above the

trigidaire.. When the repair was being done the man had been too

near the almirah containing the box, anal the mother was sitting at the

other end of the casing watching the man. Since then she abandoned

the almirah.

Each squirrel has such distinct characteristics that it surprises me

when people put them all in one category and leave it at that. They

are as different from one another as any two human beings. Squirrel

Junior and the one I reared from the seventh litter just put their mouth

to the milk and drink their fill without once raising their head, and then

‘wipe the chin on the stone. Squirrel Senior takes each sip and with

her right paw wipes the last drop from her chin and then cleans the

paw with her tongue. This is her peculiarity and she does it after

every sip, be it tea, milk, or coffee.

Their tastes differ as well. Senior accepts wheat flour ‘kneaded in

water during gestation period only, Squirrel Junior never. They both

Jove bread but it must be toasted and liberally buttered; the youngest

refuses- to touch it. They have a common liking for orange slices,

pistachio, and monkey-nuts Bt of course, any msect barring ants,

dead or alive, they just relish: Once I saw Squirrel Senior rush and

catch’ an adult ‘locust and at another time watched her capture a

praying mantis, and quite a specimen it was, and ‘all that was left of

both were the wings and the prickly legs.

On July 2, while I was on my way to the station I was conscious

of a Somimouon: and then -saw a retinue of suitors following ‘my pet

Squirrel Senior. Her fast litter is one month and fourteen days:

Previous to that I had been away for a month so that I had missed

the exact date when conception took place of Squirrel Junior. There

‘must have been an unfortunate accident to her litter which should have

arrived on June 30, since she had mated on May 20. Then a month

usually elapses between the arrival of one litter and the conception for

the next. As I said I was away so I cannot say -how the litter was

ce” but it certainly was, or how can 1] account for. the discovery

I made on August 16, 1956.

My father came down that morning and: asked me to £0 up to. his

room and turn the bed as there was a squirrel’s nest by the pillow.

Naturally I was scandalized, and shamefacedly went up and turned

‘over the mattress, and imagine my. surprise when I saw between it

and the cot, not only quite a large nest but all in the game - were

‘three baby scuaercla The canvas of the cot had been neatly cut and

cctton-wool from the mattress had been liberally used to line the nest.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

The upper surface of the mattress, the bed sheet, and even the mosquito |

net had not been touched. In case the weight of the body pressed on

the nest the mother had been careful to build the nest next to the space

occupied by the pillow.

Gently I took out the whole nest along with the young ones, all as

red and hairless as could be, barely two or three days old. The

mother was nowhere near about. After some time she came, saw the

nest, ate the biscuit I gave her, and then proceeded to investigate.

The moment she saw her young she caught hold of it by the nape of

the neck and went straight for the cot. Not finding the nest there she

refused to come out. As I drove her out she left the young one in

it and came out. Very carefully I took the young one out which

then gave a squeak, and then the mother was frantically jumping all

over me to get it back. Surprisingly she did not bite me, but as I

put the youngster in her nest she caught hold of it and ran up the

stairs. By the time I went up she had vanished.

I scanned for her far and near but there was no sign, and I was

afraid that she would forget about the other two, and they would

die of starvation since they were too young to be reared by hand. As

I was sitting on the steps feeling despondent I saw her coming out of

the ventilator. I was amazed at her intelligence. She stepped on

one side of ihe ventilator and it opened, and as she went in it closed

after her. Beyond was a ledge where she had hidden the young one

she ran away with. In the meantime I went to investigate why she

had left her previous nest to make a second in the cot because they

usually like to bring up consecutive litters in the same nest as Squirrel

Senior is doing. I found the cot that stood for her staircase had been

removed during summer for guests to sleep in the open. I put up the

framework of a cot against the basket for Squirrel Junior to go back

to her old nest if I could pursuade her.

Losing my patience waiting for her to come for the two young

ones in the box, I took one out and immediately it gave a soft squeak,

hearing which the mother ran out helter-skelter. She came directly to

my open palm, caught the young one by the nape of the neck and,

because I was too near the ventilator, went straight to her old nest in

the basket. They have a remarkable memory. As regards counting

the litter they are no good. If two are removed behind the mother’s

back they are none the wiser, but let the mother see you in the process

of removing and she becomes well-nigh frantic. Squirrel Junior

was happy with one, forgetting the one on the ledge and the third

still in the box. The moment I brought it out and it squeaked, the

mother remembered and without the least effort to bite me took it back

to her nest. Seeing her quite oblivious of the youngster on the

ledge I had it taken down by ladder all covered with dust and took

it up to the mother, who graciously came and took it back but only

when I managed to make it squeak. Junior has the sweetest of

tempers. Compared to her, Squirrel Senior is a perfect volcano. I

give her wide berth when she has a litter, and even when I feed her

outside the almirah I have to be on guard, as she is always on the

look-out for opportunities to come and nip me, and rather sharp ones

too.

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON FIVE-SfRIPED SQUIRREL 343

On August 14, Squirrel Senior has given birth to her ninth litter,

and for the first time of four. The gestation period was 1 month and

12 days. JI have seldom seen such a possessive squirrel as Senior.

Both Junior and Senior have for the first time littered together and one

can quite understand their hunger. Squirrel Senior will not allow

Junior the hospitality of the house. The way she gives chase would

have forced any other squirrel to leave the territory for good, but

Junior is made of sterner stuff. Driven by hunger she takes every

opportunity to slip in to be fed unnoticed, and the moment she

glimpses Senior she flies up the stairs followed closely by her enemy

clucking and snapping viciously at the heels. The very next moment

Junior comes down the stairs by a round-about way to renew her un-

finished dinner, while Senior continues searching for her.

The young one I took from the 7th litter to bring up, Senior

managed to drive out of the house as she is very much against sharing

her territory with another, be it one of her own litter or a foundling

as is Squirrel Junior. Today (September 4, 1956) as I write, I shall

take out and rear one from the ninth litter, now three weeks old. In

case I succeed in keeping this third female within the vicinity, I hope to

record a comparative study.

Postscript: I had been away for over a couple of months so that

I cannot say when the next conception or when delivery took place,

but when I came back on November 19, 1956, | found a litter of 3 in

the box in the almirah belonging to Squirrel Senior. They looked

quite 10 days old, this her tenth litter.

This time, as with the previous litter, the mother found a new

way of ridding the nest of her young. Just before they became

unwieldy, say at 45 days old, she took them out one by one by the

nape of the neck up the stairs to a room above where they were safe

from human curiosity !

On January 6, 1957 Squirrel Senior has mated for the eleventh

time in her young life of three years and three months. She is

already the mother of 24, not counting her first litter that met with

tragedy.

SUMMARY

The observations I have so far recorded show that female

squirrels reach maturity between 6 and 8 months. They take the

initiative in advertising to the squirrel world their presence and

willingness to be wooed. The males commence the onslaught with

frequent calls, each having a fair chance of mating with a female

once. They come for a day only, and it is the female alone that

makes the nest and rears her young. ‘The gestation period is on an

average between 4o and 42 days. ‘The young are born blind and

hairless, but the markings are faintly present. There are usually

three litters in the year, with an average of 3 young per litter. Two

and four young in a litter are rare. One and five I have never

come across. The teats are 4 in number. During the suckling

period, which lasts for nearly 2 months, the mother spurns male

attention. |

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA WITH A NOTE ON

THE BREEDING SEASON OF BANKIA INDICA NAIR

N. BALAKRISHNAN Nair, Ph.D.

Department of Zoology, Alagappa College, Karakudi

(With a plate, three text figures, and a graph)

INTRODUCTION

The importance of the preservation of timber structures against

the attack of marine borers has been recognised in India only very

recently. While the teredines of Europe, Australia, the Pacific

Islands, and the New World are well known, and we possess a

vast body of information about the taxonomy of these molluscs

through the papers of Jeffrey (1860), Wright (1865), Hedley (1901),

Calman (1919), Bartsch (1921, 1922, 1923, 1927), Miller (1924),

Lamy (1927), Sivickis (1928), Moll and Roch (1931, 1937), Iredale

et al. {1932), Edmondson (1942, 1946), no serious attention has been

paid to a systematic study of the shipworms of the Indian waters.

Our present knowledge of the shipworms of India is due mainly to

the contributions of Erlanson (1936), Roonwal (1954), Ganapati and

Nagabhushanam (1955), and Palekar and Bal (1955), but none of

these authors have made any exhaustive investigations into the

taxonomy, anatomy, or physiology of these borers. In spite of the

Indian coast-line of about 3,000 miles and a continental. shelf of more

than 100,000 square miles, and dependence on wooden country log-

rafts and dug-out canoes for fishing operations, and timber for marine

construction, it is strange that so little is known regarding these

marine borers which cause immense economic loss to underwater

wooden structures all along the sea-front. A taxonomic survey of

the shipworms was, therefore, undertaken during 1953, especially as

it would serve as a foundation for further work. The information

presented in the following pages represents the results of an attempt

1o investigate the biology of these borers in the Indian waters as a

preliminary to further investigations. It is most likely to help

persons interested in the depredations by marine borers and to be of

importance to industries and persons who have interest in local

waterfront. structures.

In order to procure specimens of as many of the sdetine species

of borers. as possible, and information as to their relative and actual

importance and. period of activity, different types of timbers such as

drift logs, floating seeds, underwater wooden structures like piles,

wharves, floating fenders, hulls of boats, and catamarans, were care-

fully examined. Further, a system of test planks were submerged,

in selected sites in the sea for the procurement of material for: the

study.

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 345

‘The teredines collected by the author from the South Indian

waters are listed below on the basis of the classification used by

Bartsch (1922).

List or SHIPWORMS COLLECTED FROM Soutu INp1a!

Genus Bankia Gray

1. Bankia (Bankia) bengalensis Nair

2. Bankia (Bankia) bipalmulata Lamarck

Sub-genus BANKIELLA Bartsch |

3: Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair

4. Bankia (Bankiella) edmondsoni Nair

Sub-genus NEOBANKIA Bartsch 7

5. Bankia (Neobankia) lineata Nair

Sub-genus NAusrrora Bartsch

6. Bankia (Nausitora). madrasensis Nair

7- Bankia (Nausitora) eahniee Nair

Genus Teredo Linnaeus

8. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair

9g. LTeredo (Teredo) parksi Bartsch

10. Teredo (Teredo) furciliatus Miller

11. Teredo -(Teredo) indica Nair

12. Teredo (Teredo) navalis Linnaeus

Sub-genus TEREDORA Bartsch

13. Teredo (Teredora) gregoryi Dall et al.

14. Teredo (Teredora) clava Gmelin

15. Teredo (Teredora) rehderi Nair

16. Teredo (Teredora) minoris Nair

Sub-genus ZOPOTEREDO Bartsch

17. Teredo (Zopoteredo) bengalensis Nair

Sub-genus TEREDOTHYRA Bartsch

18. Teredo (Ered yra) linearis Nair

The information regarding the distribution of the species along

the Indian coast, the relative amount of damage of which the different

species are capable, and the ecological conditions under which they

live is very scanty. Such knowledge is necessary in order that

possible attack. may. be predicted and prevented, or actual attack

reduced in intensity or altogether stopped. There also seemed to be

little information available regarding the food requirements of these

borers, and still less about their breeding habits and development. _

During the course of the systematic study, the author found that

there are different species of borers infesting the same type of timber,

1 A detailed account of this is in the course of Pubticasion in econ of the

Indian Museum.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

as well as a single species infesting different types of timber

(Nair, 1956). Bankia indica, the commonest form found in the clear

off-shore waters of Madras, was found to attack mainly red cedar

(Cedrela) and Melia composita. Teredo gregoryi and Terede

madrasensis rank second and third in abundance and degree of

destruction, and attack a wider range of timber Cedrela toona,

Terminalia sp., Aegle marmelos. On the west coast it was found

that piers and jetties made of teak (Tectona grandis), coco-nut stems

(Cocos nucifera), and mango wood (Mangifera indica) are affected by

Bankia (Nausitora) gabrieli and Teredo navalis. Teredo navalis was

obtained in large numbers from parts of discarded country canoes of

Thespesia in the Pulicat Lake and from the turtle cages of Borassus

flabellifer in Tondi. The more important forms collected from Madras

harbour were Teredo madrasensis, Teredo furcillatus, Teredo indica,

and Teredo parksi, chiefly from underwater timber structures, and

with the help of test panels of Myristica sp. Teredo clava was

collected from the floating corky seeds of the mangrove Carapa sp.

Teredo rehderi was found infesting Mangifera indica, Bursera sp., and

also from drifting bamboo poles. Bankia lineata was obtained in

large numbers from floating logs washed ashore on Madras beach

during the monsoon times. (Plate, photo 1.)

THE RESISTANCE OF UNTREATED TIMBERS TO MARINE BORER ATTACK

From an examination of 16 species of timbers belonging to eleven

families, Nair (1956a) observed that green sections without exception

offered more resistance to marine borers than did dry ones. It was

also noticed that barks of timbers offer considerable protection

against these pests. Of the 16 species studied, only very few showed

any notable resistance and the majority showed no promise of any

resistance at all. Coco-nut and palmyra stems showed considerable

powers of resistance for the first 12 months and teak for 6 months of

the experiment. Hence, untreated coco-nut and palmyra stems, as

well as teak wood, assure their usefulness for sea-water exposures

for some months at least, and even for longer duration if properly

treated.

The exact factor which serves as the security against marine

borers is not properly understood. It has been shown that presence

in appreciable amounts of silica, alkaloids, oils, acids, and resins can

inhibit the activity of the borers (Edmondson, 1955).

Tue MarinE GROWTHS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BoRER ATTACK

During the course of the study, the effect of marine growths on

the attachment of borer larvae was studied. It was observed that

undisturbed marine growth retarded larval infestation with a con-

sequent effect on the development of borer destruction. It is probable

that the barnacles, polyzoans, tunicates, and the mussels found in

large numbers on the test panels, when alive would consume great

quantities of the larvae as part of their planktonic diet. The

barnacles provide calcareous bases, which adhere to the timber so

closely that they prevent outside penetration into the areas they cover,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SSE MOINS

PHoto 1. Experimental test planks of Cedrela sp. showing the

destruction caused by Shipworm

Puoto 2. Three entire Shipworms (Bankia indica).

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 347

even after the death of the animal. The dense fleshy compound

tunicates also probably can temporarily slow down the attack of

borers.

Bankia indica Nair

GENERAL ORGANISATION OF THE BODY

The common shipworm Bankia indica occurring in large numbers

on the fishing floats; used in San Thome, Madras was studied in detail

regarding the anatomy, sex changes, breeding season, development,

and physiology of digestion.

Like other teredines, Bankia indica has a long, slender, cylindrical,

and soft body. Covering only a small portion of the anterior end

of the visceral mass, the irregularly-shaped shell functions as the main

organ for the excavation of the burrow, and accommodates within it

only the discoidal foot, anterior part of the alimentary canal, and the

adductor muscles. The shell valves when in contact gape widely in

front and behind for the projection of the foot and extension of the

body respectively. The edges of the shell are not brought together,

because of the modified contact on the dorsal and ventral articula-

fionsy (Fig. /2.)

The general arrangement of the organs in Bankia indica as seen

from the right side when the shell and mantle are removed is shown

in figure 1. Due to the lengthening of the body, the visceral mass

occupies approximately a third of the body while the ribbon-like

posterior part of the ctenidium extends from the visceral mass to the

base of the siphons. Most of the organs lie behind the posterior

adductor muscle instead of anterior to it as in most lamellibranchs.

(Pig 1.)

The shell valves are irregular in outline. The anterior regions are

sculptured with sharp denticles whereas the posterior part is compara-

tively smooth. The details are shown in figure 2.

Pallets are peculiar structures which occur at the base of the siphons.

on either side beneath the muscular coliar of all the shipworms. In

Bankia indica,when the two pallets are pressed against each other their

semi-circular outer surfaces form a complete conical plug, with which

they can effectively close the circular opening of the burrow. If the

salinity of the sea water should considerably change, or if poisons are

introduced or the timber is taken out of water, the pallets are thrust

into the opening, closing the burrow as a shield protecting the soft

animal inside.

The Adductor Muscles: The adductor muscles are very

highly modified. In cross-section the posterior adductor is about

1r times larger in area than the anterior adductor. From _ their

position and attachment on the valves it is evident that these two

muscles instead of contracting simultaneously as in typical dimyarians

do so alternately, drawing together the front and hind parts of the

shell valves causing the two valves to swing upon each other back

and forth on the pivot formed by the dorsal and ventral knobs.

This type of movement helps in boring. The large size and mode

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

i~)

x 2ipQs ack

Key to the Lettering of Figure.

AA Anterior adductor.

AAO Anterior aorta.

AC Anal canal.

AN Anus.

APC Anterior part of the ctenidium.

ARD Afferent renal duct.

AU Auricle of the heart.

CAG Caecum of the stomach.

CH Cephalic hood.

CO Collar of the mantle.

CTI Coiled typhlosole of the intestine.

DD Digestive diverticula.

ERD Efferent renal duct.

ES Exhalant siphon.

F Foot.

G Gill.

1 Intestine.

1s Inhalant siphon.

K Kidney.

LP Labial palp.

M Mouth.

OV Ovary.

OVD Oviduct.

PA Posterior adductor.

PC Pericardium.

POA Posterior aorta.

R Rectum.

SBC Suprabranchial cavity.

ST Stomach.

Vv Ventricle.

VG Visceral ganglion.

Fic. 1. The general arrangement of the organs in Bankia indica as seen from the

right side.

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 349

of attachment of the posterior adductor suggest that the valves can

be brought together at the anterior end, and that its vigorous adduc-

tion is responsible for the powerful outward thrust of the anterior

part of the shell valves. The divarication of the denticulated front

ends is of significance in the boring operations, the relatively feeble

adduction through the contraction of the anterior adductor being

sufficient to bring back the shell to normal position.

CALLUS

SHELF

Fic. 2. Outer and inner views of the shell of Bankia indica.

Key to the Lettering of Figures.

AL Anterior lobe.

AUR Auricle of shell.

APS Blade.

POM Posterior median lobe.

SAM Anterior median lobe.

SMM Middle median lobe.

The Foot: The foot of Bankia indica is short and cylindrical,

and is situated at the extreme anterior end of the visceral mass

ventral to the mouth. This organ serves to grip at the burrowing

end, while the shell is rotated round this point of attachment during

the drilling process. The front surface of the foot which is thus

applied to the wood is cordate in outline with a smooth central disc4

like area or ‘sole’ bounded by elevated, wrinkled, peripheral, glandular

margins, which are ciliated and thrown into folds. This shape and

structure are quite in keeping with its habit of using this organ for

attachment.

the Boring Mechanism: The foot,/of this’ pelecypod

illustrates how plastic the organic body proves when an animal adopts

an entirely new habit. It is so specialised that it is just a sub-

circular disc with pedal muscles of other lamellibranchs modified for

assisting in boring into wood. There has been much discussion as

to whether these animals do this boring by mechanical or chemical

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

means or a combination of both. Notwithstanding the correct

suggestion of Home that the foot adheres to the wood acting as a

centre-bit while the animal is boring with the shell, there have been re-

peated claims that the foot is directly concerned with the boring

activities (Jeffreys, 1865; Hedley 1901; Kuhlman, 1914). These authors

considered that the shell effects a grip on the sides of the burrow

supporting the foot against the wood. A study of the histological

structure of the organ in Bankia indica, as well as observation of

this organ in the living specimens, lead the present author to conclude

that its primary function is to effect a cupping action at the end of the

burrow to hold the shell in position while boring. The peripheral

wrinkled region with its ciliary covering helps to conduct the grated

particles of wood to the mouth. The unique shape of the shell, its

elaborate denticulations, the development of additional faces such as

the posterior lobe for the insertion of the posterior adductor muscle,

the acquisition of secondary articulations to achieve a special type

of movement, the loss of the hinge teeth, the reduction of the ligament,

and the histological peculiarities of the shell suggest that the shell

eer

i 7

{ \CTI CAG

Fic. 3. Diagrammatic sketch of the stomach and caecum showing the ciliary

currents.

Key to the Lettering of Figure.

ADO Anterior openings of the digestive diverticula.

CAG Caecum of the stomach.

CR Ciliated ridge.

CT Coiled typhlosole.

CTI Coiled typhlosole of the intestine.

DD Digestive diverticula.

GIT Gastro-intestinal typhlosole.

GT Gastric typhlosole.

O Oesophagus.

OCG Opening of the stomach into the caecum,

OMG Opening of the stomach into the intestine.

PDO Posterior opening.

SS Style sac.

VDO Ventral openings of the diverticula.

gaihe ete

ase ecen een eer =/

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 25k

in Bankia has a specific function to perform. When one considers

that the shell in these forms is not only a boring organ but a feeding

organ as well, Hedley’s suggestion (1gos) that the shell in Teredinidze

is degenerate and the next step would be its complete disappearance

sounds strange. It is true that the shell has lost its protective

character, but in this specialised bivaive in which protection is

afforded by the nacre-lined burrow the shell is assigned the role of

scraping such fine particles of wood as will be easy to feed upon,

and the form both of the foot and shell suggest a long specialised

evolution. The pronounced development of the posterior adductor,

its fibres being suited for powerful and frequent contractions, its

insertions being adapted for facilitating powerful outward thrust of

the denticulated regions of the shell valves, indicates that this muscle

is part of a mechanism which has been perfected as a whole. It is

obvious that no one organ can be elaborated or simplified without the

other organs associated with it undergoing appropriate changes.

One is inclined to wonder whether such a complex mechanical pattern

can be produced by just an opportune gene pattern or by the gradual

addition of details of structure.

The Alimentary Canal: The stomach of Bankia. indica

bears five distinct kinds of diverticula, the caecum, the sac of the

crystalline style, the dorsal caecum, the lateral pouch, and the digestive

diverticula. The caecum is a long cylindrical, non-ciliated, blind tube

extending from the. stomach, and forms the largest part of the

alimentary canal. This organ is usually filled with wood particles and

its ventral wall is infolded to form a two coiled typhlosole extending

through the entire length. The free edge of the typhlosole is further

rolled up, considerably increasing the internal surface area of the

caecum. The wood particles held between the folds of this typhlosole

are found in a state of dissolution, suggesting that a certain amount of

digestion of wood takes place in the caecum. The crystalline style

sac is pyriform and opens into the stomach at its left side on the

anterior end. It contains the crystalline style, which is a gelatinous

lexible body of a glassy transparency, shaped like a club. The style

of this form is smaller than those of Martesia and Mya. Since the

style matter is continuously added on, the style was found intact, re-

taining its bulk in all specimens, assisting both in digestion by the

liberation of the enzymes as weil as in the mechanical process of

pushing the particles of wood into the stomach. The gastric shield,

which in other bivalves functions as a protective shield against

the abrasive action of the tip of the rotating style, covers only

a very small area of the stomach wall. The dorsal caecum is an out-

pocketing of the anterior, dorsal wall of the left side of the stomach.

Since this sac also is filled with particles of wood, it is probable that

it serves as a receptacle for large particles of wood, too many of

which would block the proximal region of the stomach and impede

normal functioning. The lateral pouch is a distinct outpocketing of

the stomach wall in between the dorsal caecum and the sac of the

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

crystalline style. Since the wall of this pouch shows several muscle

fibres it is probable that this sac by its pulsations aids in the movement

of food in the stomach. The digestive diverticula are composed of

numerous blind tubules and occupy the ventral region and posterior

side of stomach and also extend into the foot and communicate with

the stomach by ducts. Those of the posterior side are by far the largest

and are distinguishable into a large more dorsal right half and a small

left half. The right part is brownish green and lies on the right side

of the posterior part of the stomach, while the left part is fawn-coloured,

composed of few tubules and containing particles of wood. ‘The ducts

being lined by ciliated epithelium help the movement of particles.

These facts and the presence of wood particles in the fawn-coloured

region lead to the inference that this region of the digestive

diverticula serves as a place where wood can be received and BEES

upon by enzymes.

Even though the essential food-collecting mechanism of the gills

is represented and functions as in typical lamellibranchs, the enormous

development of the caecum and the attenuation of the branchial

groove into a passage of such a length and narrow diameter that the

food particles that can travel along this to the mouth become limited

in size and quantity. This involves such a rigorous elimination, that

the major part of the plankton and suspended particles conveyed by

the water currents have to be rejected as pseudofaeces. Thus the

function the gill discharges as a region of reception of food in other

lamellibranchs ®& minimised owing to the high ‘specialisation towards

the exploitation of the wood which they bore into as food. This

accounts for the absence of plankton and diatoms in the alimentary

canal. As a direct consequence of the specialisation towards a wood

boring habit and a diet of wood particles, this mollusc has become

so incapable of making full use of the water-borne planktonic food

that, when the wood supply is exhausted, it becomes helpless even-

though it is equipped with enzymes which can digest carbohydrates,

fats, and proteins, available from the plankton (Nair, 1955).

THE SEX CHANGES

Bankia indica is unique in the possession of a seminal receptacle

closely connected with the reproductive organs. In these timber

borers which live in floating wood and therefore form isolated com=

‘munities, storage of sperms and their conservation will be of survival

value.

Bankia indica is essentially protandric, nearly all females passing

through a preliminary functional male phase before reaching the

female phase. In view of the presence of a few spermatocytes in the

cortical regions of the follicles, it is not improbable that the females

after a functional spawning phase may revert to the male phase and

produce spermatozoa.

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 353

THE BREEDING SEASON

During the course of the study, it was felt that an exact knowledge

regarding the breeding season of Bankia indica will be of value to

formulate means for the conservation of timber against iheir attack.

In this boring pelecypod, as in many invertebrates of tropical seas,

breeding appears to be continuous, marked by seasonal intensity.

The frequency of the occurrence of larvae in plankton tow-netted in

the in-shore area, the appearance of post-settled stages on test planks,

as well as the condition of the gonads of adults studied during the

different months support this conclusion.

No.OF % OF GRAPH

SPAT ADULTS VELIGERS.

152 54 1520

144 51] 1440

136 48 11360

128 45 1280:

120 42] 1200.

M2 39 1120

104 36 1040:

96 33 960:

88 30 880:

80. 27 800:

72 24 720

64 2!) 640:

56 18 560:

48 15 480:

40 12 aay

32 9 1 320

24 6f 240

16 3 160

8 0 2

0 10

JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT

2- —— —‘_ RIPE FEMALES Cras Oy NERIGER LARVAE

B— e——>—m RIPE MALES aK CJUVENILES

GrapH. Curves illustrating the occurrence of larval veligers in plankton, settle-

ment of spat on test planks, and the condition of the adults in respective

months.

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

TABLE

Table showing the gonadic condition of adult Bankia indica, the frequency

of the occurrence of the iarvae in plankton, and the number of post-settled stages on

test planks in respective months.

1 2

Percentage of adults from test

pancls of 5’ x 4” x 33”

Veliger* | Post-settled

Month larvaein | stage 2 cm.

plankton long from | Males fie cle Females

5U0 cc.. test panel

5’ x 4” x 3h”

Full | Spent “wat | spent | 2 Full ean | seem Spent

July 1300 79 14:4 18:9 222, 43:3

August ae 800 130 21°8 12:7 25°5 38°1

September a0 500 80 30°5 S32 23:8 27°6

October oss 200 13 17°77 39:2 11:4 25°3

November sae 80 8 23°4 20°3 23:4 31°2

December ae 100 4 13:9 19:3 47°2 M11

January be 400 9 2U°0 164 16°4 38° 1

February ta 200 10 3U°1 217, 37°4 6:0

March ee. 300 18 Splen 14°8 32°8 18°90

April as 300 29 29°8 4-2 | 48°9 14:9

May Oe: 400 | 26 27:2 11:96 | Sll 6°

June We: 800 35 27°6 oe eee) 10:2

July oe 1500 | 98 17:9 12°3 38°7 29-2

August Nee 1 000 157 27°95 13 43°5 15:9

September hee 700241 110 32:8 16-4 27:9 19°7

October iS 300 | 20 20:9 | 25°6 16:3. | 34:9

November Bee 200 | aes 500 vied vee mie

December S23 200 | wat ee Ba

January ee 100 | See ea !

February Pe 200 | see coe

March | 400 | A:

Frequency of Occurrence jot Velie ers ins tiie

Plankton: A total of 250 samples of plankton of an average

volume of 500 c.c. each were examined during 1954 and 1955. Each

fresh sample was shaken up allowing the heavy shelled larvae to

settle to the bottom and the number of larvae occurring in an aliquot

fraction of the sample was counted. The number occurring in the

samples were averaged for each month (see coiumn JI, Table). A

peak is noticed during July, followed by rapid decline through the

next three months till it reaches a minimun: count in November.

Occurrence of Post- settled stages: Sixteen test

planks each measuring 5’ x 4” x 34” were examined from July 1954

—

* The veliger larvae represented in this column are those of Bankia sp. alone,

with the following features: Shell-height more than shell-length, with a light

brownish flush, valves equilateral, characteristically convex, with high, steeply-

slanting, narrow ‘shoulders’, prominent knob-like umbones, and short, sharply-

curved bases; well-spaced lines of growth present, especially towards the . ventral

margin where radial rays are also distinguishabley at the posterior end of the foot

a transparent byssus thread is present.

THE SHIFWORMS OF SOUTH INDIA 355

to October 1955 for post-settled stages (about 2 cm., long which

it reaches within a month). These blocks which were anchored in

the sea off San Thome at a distance of about three miles

from the shore were removed each month and brought to the

laboratory. The shipworms were carefully chiselled out and the

number of juveniles noted. The post-settled stages were observed

during all the months, but they were clearly more during the month

of August than at other times as will be seen from column 2, Table.

Gondition ot the Adults) “Lhe gonads) of 1287 adult

shipworms collected from test planks in the course of sixteen months

were examined by taking smears of all and sections of a few, to note

those with ripe sexual products, those which have started discharge

of sexual products, and those which have completely discharged them.

In cases where ripe gonads were formed, artificial fertilisation proved

that they are capable of starting normal development. The data

collected and examined in percentages of males and females (rest

being hermaphrodites) and represented in column 3 of Table show

that breeding is continuous, with two peaks one in December and

another in May-June. :

The abundant occurrence of larvae and intensive settlement in July

and August respectively show that this period is very conducive for

larval development and settling. The other peak period of spawning

in December is, however, not followed either by the presence in great

numbers of larvae in the sea or by dense settling of the young on test

planks, probably because of certain as yet very little known unfavour-

able environmental conditions.

THE DEVELOPMENT

Bankia indica is oviparous. Fertilisation is external and cleavage

unequal. Gastrulation is mainly by epiboly and partly by invagina-

tion. The trochophore stage is reached within thirteen hours after

fertilisation and swims about for nearly eight hours before it trans-

forms into the early veliger. The typical veliger stage is reached on

the fifteenth day when it has shell-valves, which are equilateral and

characteristically convex, with high, sieeply-sianting, narrow

‘shoulders’, prominent knob-like umbones, and short, sharply-curved

bases.

These. larvae are plagic, swimming actively and feeding on-

plankton. The larvae, when they are about seventeen days old, are

ready for settling on wood. It was noticed that rough surfaces of

the panels received more larvae than polished ones. It was interest-

ing to note that if a suitable substratum is not available, this tropical

borer can retain its larval organs and postpone metamorphosis into

the adult and continue as a free-swimming larva for a number of

days.. Such a capacity to prolong the free-swimming period is of

considerable survival value since it helps the larvae to cover a wide

area in their search for their appropriate substratum, and since it

increases the chances of their encountering a piece of wood on which

they can settle and perpetuate the species (Nair, 1956b).

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

THE RATE OF GROWTH

Study of the rate of growth of Bankia indica in large test planks

of red cedar for a period of 219 days shows that growth is very rapid

in the first 90 days and thereafter becomes slackened, and the trend

indicates the rate of growth becoming almost nil at the end of the

eighth month.

It is suggested that the growth in length is impeded by the

depletion of the woody material in the panel due to overcrowding.

It is possible that if larger voiumes of wood had been offered, the

increase in length would have continued for a period longer than eight

months.

THE DIGESTION OF WOOD

Studies on the physiology of digestion were carried out in great

detail (Nair, 1955, 1955a, 1956e). These showed the presence of

enzyme systems capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

in the digestive diverticula and a carbohydrase system including a

cellulase in the crystalline style. The shipworms which feed chiefly

on wood have the power of hydrolysing the highly resistant cellulose,

since a strong cellulase system is present in the crystalline style and

digestive diverticula. Their capacity to elaborate cellulase in addition

to other carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases is as much an adaptation

to their peculiar diet as the modification of the alimentary canal, the

shell, or the foot.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. C. P. Gnanamuthu for suggesting the

problem, and for encouragement during the course of this work and

to Dr. C. H. Edmondson of Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu,

Hawaii, for various suggestions. I am thankful to Mr. O. N.

Gurumani, M.A., for assistance in my work.

REFERENCES

Bartsch, P. (1921): Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 34: 25.

— — — (1922): Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 122: 1-51.

— — — (1923): Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 36: 95.

— — — (1927): J. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist., Supplement, 7: 59.

Calman, W. T. (1919): Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Econ. Series, 10: 35.

Edmondson, C. H. (1942): Occas. Pap. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 17 (10): 35.

— — — (1946): Occas. Pap. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 15: 211.

— — — (1955): Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 217: 1.

Erlanson, E. W. (1936): Curr. Sci., 4: ‘726.

Ganapathy, P. N. and Nagabushanam, R. (1955): J. of the Timber Dryers’

and Preservers’ Assn. of India, 1 (1): 19-26.

Shean C. (1901): Aust. Assn. for the Advancement of Science, Melbourne, p.

‘ eae T. (1932): Published by the Maritime Services Board of N. S. Wales ¢

Jeffreys, J. G. (1860): Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Reft., 30th meeting Trans., 117.

tee See (ELL) Soh, aS | REL

THE SHIPWORMS OF SOUTH INUVIA

2 Kuhlmann, E. (1914): Uber das Bohren der Muscheln Prometheus, 25:

Lamy, E. (1927): J. Conchyliol, 70 (4): 201.

Miller, R. C. (1924): Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool., 26: Al.

Moll, F. and Roch, F. (1931): Proc. Malac. Soc., London, 19 (4): 201.

— — — (1937): Mitt. Zool. Mus., Berlin, 22: 161.

Nair, N. Balakrishnan (1955): Curr. Sci., 24: 126.

— — — (1954): Kec. Indian Mus., 52 (2-4): 387-414.

—— > (bE) s Celie Sab, “ig” UIE

— — — (1955b): J. Madras Univ., 24: 109.

— — +— (1555c): Rec. Indian Mus., 53: (1-2).

— — — (1556). J. Sci. Industr. Res., lsc. 3: 8i.

— — — (1556a). J. Sci. Industry. Res., 5c. 12: 282.

— — — (1956b): J. Madras Univ. B. vol., 26, No. 2.

ee = (19a fee Sea industns hes, loc. 12.39:

Palekar and Bal (1955): JBNHS, 53 (2): 201-204.

Roonwal, M. L. (1954): Proc. Zool. Soc, of Bengal, 7 (2): 91.

Sivickis, P. B. (1928): Philippine J. Sci. Manila, 37: 285.

Wright (1865): Trans. Linn. Soc., 25: 561.

a, A

1 Not referred to in original.

307

360.

THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN

BY =

SWAMI PRANAVANANDA, F.R.G.S.

During the last ten years sensational news, stories, and legends

regarding the ‘Abominable Snowman’, from the lay public as well as

from Himalayan expeditionists, have become a feature in the press.

On a close examination of these pieces of information, articles, etc., it

seems remarkable that there has hardly been a single person who has

actually seen one of these creatures or got reliable first-hand knowledge

of the same, devoid of legend’or exaggeration. Added to this, con-

fusion is worse confounded by the fact that different persons have

translated differently, and sometimes grossly mistranslated, the

original Tibetan words designating or describing this animal, used by

local inhabitants (Tibetans) who, from all accounts, could be presumed

to have a more intimate knowledge of this creature than others. For

example, the Tibetan expression mi-te has been rendered as ‘abominable’

by Lt.-Col. Howard Bury of the Everest reconnaissance party.'

Really, however, the Tibetan word mi-te connotes ‘man-bear’. I

beard of the mi-te for the first time in August 1935 when I was up at

Thugolho gompa (monastery), on the southern shores of the sacred

Lake Manasarovar, western Tibet, to select a site for my twelve-

month sojourn in that region.

A Tibetan dokpa (shepherd) pilgrim from Markham (eastern

Province of Tibet) was describing an incident how one of the sheep of

his flock was attacked by a mi-te at the Kyang Chhu (16,000 ft.), a

tributary of the Tamchok Khambab (Brahmaputra). It was dusk

time when the dogs began to bark violently. The dokpas spotted an

animal, which at first sight they thought to be a changu (wolf) and

immediately fired two shots at the beast with their matchlock guns

(literally flintlocks). Both shots missed the target; the animal left

the sheep dead and bleeding and ran away. The shepherds saw the

creature from a distance af about roo cubits (50 yards). The animal

at first ran on all fours, but after running for some distance it stood

up on its hind legs to look back at the place from which the shots

came. Seeing a number of men standing together, it disappeared into

the upper portions of the valley, walking on its hind legs. The animal

was described to be the height of a man and light red or reddish

brown in colour. They called it mi-tre.

Again, in the month of June 1957, I heard of the mi-te for the

second time, when I was camping at the traditional source of the

2 But from the ‘ Gleaning ’ published’on p. 509 of Vol. 53 (April 1956) it will

be seen that Col. Howard Bury’s original report of the ‘ Abominable Snowman ’

was not intended ‘ to be taken too seriously ’ !—Enps.

THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN 369

Tamchok Khambab or the Brahmaputra. A number of nyakora

(pilgrim) nomads from Bongba and Amdo Province in northern Tibet,

on their way to Lake Manasarovar and Kailas, were camping on the

banks of the Brahmaputra, four miles below its source. They had gone

there to try their luck if they could get a dong (wild yak) for a change

in their meat. During the course of talk they told me that the source

regions of Tamchok Khambab (Brahmaputra) and Kubi Tsangpo

abound in wild yak (dong), Tibetan gazelle (goa), wild sheep (na and

nyan), Tibetan antelope (cho), and lynx (yi). Incidentally they also

told’ me that they had seen) ai mi-te in the; source région’ of. the

Kubi (17,000 feet), one of the headstreams of the Brahmaputra.

The mi-te or the red bear once attempted to attack one of their sheep,

while they were grazing on the slopes of a mountain in a deep valley,

but was scared away by a pack of watch dogs which began to fiercely

bark at it. They further reported that the mi-te is found at several

places on the Tibetan side of the Nepal border. This and the informa-

tion gathered by me from other Tibetans go to show that the Tibetans

know mi-te to be the red bear, one of the three varieties of bear

familiar to them.

In my books ‘Exploration in Tibet’ {published by the Calcutta

University) and ‘Kailas-Manasarovar’ I -made mention of three

varieties of bear known to the Tibetans, while describing the fauna

of the Kailas-Manas region (pages 111 and 69 respectively): black

bear (tom), brown bear (te), and man-bear (mi-le) (walks. on hind

legs like man). .

In the word ‘tre’, the letter ‘r’ is so very lightly pronounced that it

is almost inaudible. So, for all practical purposes I prefer to use the

word as ‘te’ only. I have not seen the mi-te myself, but collected this

information from a number of local Tibetans, and from shepherds and

pilgrims going to this region from eastern and central Tibet, con-

tiguous with the Himalayas. Since the Abominable Snowman became

such a prominent and sensational topic in the press in connection

with almost all the Himalayan expeditions of the year 1950, I

instructed some of my Tibetan friends in the Manas region to collect

firsthand information by offering a substantial reward in cash. As a

result of this I got the following information in July 1953. One

mi-te visited the Tomo-mopo camp (15,000 ft.) on the Tag Tsangpo

on the south-eastern side of Manasarovar. In February 1953, the

mi-te passed that way in the evening. The shepherds camping at

Tomo-mopo witnessed with great curiosity the animal moving in

the Tag Valley, sometimes on all fours and sometimes on its two hind

‘legs. At that part of the year the upper regions of the valley, and

even the vast plains of the Tag Tsangpo, were under snow. It was.

perhaps for this reason that the animal came down so near the

shepherd camps, obviously in search of food. Not finding an oppor-

tunity of snatching away any sheep since the shepherds were all

alert, it disappeared into the upper region of the valley.

The following is the account given by my informant. The foot-

prints of the mi-te left on the hard ground scantily covered by sand

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

measured 16 fingers or 11 inches in length and 7 fingers or 5 inches

in breadth. The ‘feet’ had 5 toes each and the ‘hands’ only 4 toes—

at least only 4 could be seen in the imprints. In Tibetan, the front

legs of an animal are called /hakpa or hands and the hind ones kangba

or legs. The toes were two fingers or 14 inches long; all the toes

are almost of the same size, excepting the little toe which was a bit

shorter than the rest. The animal when up on its hind legs was

described as being a little taller than a tall man. The colour of the

bear was deep brown, like that of the ngaruserchung (brahminy duck),

though the shade varied from one part of the body to another. The

body of the animal was covered with a thick coat of reddish brown

hair and the hairs on the face were pretty long. Ten days after,

when the shepherds had gone up the valley for grazing their sheep, they

noted the footprints of the mi-te on the snow-fields to be about a

cubit (18 inches) in length and correspondingly wide with no trace of

the toes whatsoever. This, obviously, was due to the melting of the

snow at the edges of the imprints and the consequent enlargement of

the whole.

It was also reported that the mi-ie sometimes attacks the yak and

even man, when found alone. In the Manas region mi-te is found

near about the sources of the Brahmaputra and the Kubi. Much like

the wild yak, the mu-te often makes excursions into the snow fields

and on to the glaciers.

Shrubs, grass, moss, rhubarb, champa-estella (pang), small plants,

and flowers are found growing on either side of glaciers beginning

from the snout right up to the head after the winter snows have

melted. As a matter of fact, | have seen vegetation right up to an

altitude of 20,000 feet or so. The question, therefore, does not arise

as to what the mi-te or any other animal wandering in these regions

may be after. I have actually seen wild asses and domesticated yaks

digging snow with their hoofs and pushing aside sizeable stones with

their noses for picking up grass and its roots.

It may be noted in this connection that the mi-te (red bear), like

wild yak, kyang (Tibetan wild ass), lynx, snow leopard, wolf, ibex,

bharal, ghural, Tibetan antelope, musk-deer, and other animals, often

make excursions far on to the snow fields and glaciers, both during

winter and at other seasons, in search of food and sometimes

apparently for wandering’s sake. So it is no wonder or a mystery

that the footprints and tracks of ihese and other animals are seen on

snow and glaciers, freshly made or old and distorted. As a matter

of fact I actually saw, during my winter sojourns in Tibet during

the years 1936-37 and 1943-44, tracks of wild yaks, wolves, and the -

other animals mentioned above for miles together. When the whole

of the Manasarovar region was covered with heavy snow in winter,

on two occasions a number of domestic yaks, belonging to the

shepherds of Nonokur camping on the Tag, travelled on snow the

whole night up to Selung Hurdung, a distance of 13 miles. Even as

recently as 1 October 1954, when there was a heavy snow fall on

Manasarovar, yaks from Riljen camp trekked on snow for seven long

THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN 361

miles to Shushup Tso in search of grass. During my stay at

snow. Also musk-deer and bharal were seen moving about leisurely

and aimlessly on the vast expanse of snow round about the Gangotri

Temple at midday.

Since the mi-te walks sometimes on all fours and sometimes on

hind legs only, it is but natural that the tracks of footprints are

sometimes seen in pairs and sometimes in single files.

When the footprints are observed after they have long been

exposed to sun, it is no wonder that, due to the melting of the snow

along the edges, the marks, become enlarged to a length of nearly

18 inches with a corresponding width in case of the mi-te. Thus,

Eric Shipton’s footprints ‘of the size of a young elephant’s’ could

well be those of a lynx, snow leopard, or wolf, greatly magnified by

the melting snow between the time they were made by the animal

and the moment of observation. Footprints on the snow can be

defaced, deformed, or decreased in dimensions, with the details of

the finger marks etc. obliterated as a result of blizzards or by the

blowing of strong winds.

When I was crossing the Khandosanglam Pass in 1941 I came

across giant footprints as long as 21 inches. Khandosanglam is a

pass east of Kailas peak. According to Tibetan traditions it could

be negotiated only by those pious pilgrims who have completed twelve

circumambulations of the Holy Kailas Peak by the regular Parikrama

route. As such, hardly one or two pilgrims in a year negotiate this

pass. My guide from Diraphuk gompa (second monastery of Kailas)

1uformed me that a lama from Kham crossed the pass some twenty-

five days before we did. The glacier was about a mile long and full

of treacherous crevasses. The footprints left by my predecessor, the

lama, on the deep snow had melted away a good deal along the edges

by the warm sun of July, with the result that a trail of foot-

prints, each 21 inches long with corresponding width, was before us

when we were crossing the pass. A credulous or a superstitious

pilgrim would have easily described the footprints as those of a great

Himalayan Yogi a thousand years old, or of Asvatthama or Hanuman

(one of the seven immortal chirajivis) of Mahabharata fame; they

might as well have been described by some Himalayan expedition party

as those of an “Abominable Snowman’ !

It may be recalled in this connection that Col. A. Waddell was

the first Westerner to mark the footprints of the mi-te in 1899, in the

north-east of Sikkim. Later, members of different Himalayan ex-

peditions also noted similar footprints at heights ranging from 10,000

to 21,000 ft. above sea-level, in the Karakoram Range, Salween Valley

in Burma, Kulu Valley, Garhwal, Nepal, Sikkim, Chumbi Valley,

Bhutan, Assam, etc., and a few others in regions contiguous with

Bhutan, Sikkim, and East Nepali on the Tibetan side. Much of the

information regarding the origin of the footprints was, however, not

firsthand, being based on hearsay, which in turn was a mixture of

myth, legend, superstition, exaggeration, and imagination.

Let us now closely examine the real meaning of the Tibetan words

used for the so-called Abominable Snowman. The following table

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

indicates the different ways in which the expressions and words are

- translated by the various expeditionists :—

mi-te=abominable; filthy; dis-

gusting to a repulsive degree;

dirty.

miteh-kangmi= abominable snow-

man.

mih-teh=teh far excellence of

the Sherpas.

me-te = man-bear.

me-tre = man-bear.

mih = man.

yeh-teh=rocky area-animal; ani-

mai which lives in a rocky

area.

yeti=mi-te.

yite = mi-te.

kangmi=snowman.

gangmi=snowman.

mi-go=wild man.

mi-do=which goes like man;

dangerous to man; man-bear.

mi-chempo=big man,

imi-bompo= strong man.

dzu-teh=livestock-animal; ani-

mal which is dangerous to

livestock; red bear.

chhu-mung = water goblin.

_tho-mung=mountain goblin.

The following are the correct meanings of the corresponding

terms :—

mih | = man.

teh == bear.

tre

]

kang

gang J

mi-gve, mi-go=beast that waiks

like man; these terms are used’

for snowman (man-bear) in

Amdo and Kham Provinces of

Tibet (now China); _ these

terms are also used by or

known to Tibetans on the

Indian border adjoining the

Province of Kham.

Yeh-da, Yih-da, Yeh-te, Yi-te—

these terms are used for a

mythological being with the

throat as thin as a needle and

stomach as big as a mountain;

hence, a glutton; therefore, a

contemptible being. Some’

people use these terms to ‘mi-

te’ also; since due to ignor-

ance of facts, they ‘believenis;

to be a dreaded creature.

t'i-do, thu-do dhu-dho—a general

term for a beast or a four-

legged creature.

hlo-mung, lho-mung=wild witch

or goblin.

chhu-mung=snow (literally

water) goblin; since many

have not actually seen the ‘mi-

te’ or man-bear and since they

consider the same to be a fear-

ful or dreaded being connected

with witchcraft, they wrongly

dubbed the ‘mi-te’ or red bear

as tho-mung or chbu-mung.

As a matter of fact, Tibetan words are pronounced with a wide

range of sound, sometimes beyond recognition ;for example:

'.t is pronounced as th, d, and dh,

k is pronounced as kh, g, and gh,

p is pronounced as ph, b, and bh, and so on.

It may be mentioned that these wild, exaggerated, false, snowman

stories are heard mostly on the Indian and not on the Tibetan side.

Very likely the first mistranslation made by Henry Newman in 1921

of the word ‘meteh’ (in meteh kangmi) as filthy, dirty, disgusting to

FHE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN 363

a repulsive degree, hence. abominable, may be responsible for the

misconception which has. prevailed ever since and misled others into

repeating and perpetuating the mistake. Thirdly, the fact that the

matter was not investigated thoroughly on the Tibetan side, where

the local population have a correct knowledge of the identity of the

animal and several persons have actually been eyewitnesses to it as

the red bear, has helped the perpetuation of the wrong notion.

The terminology given above boils down to two expressions ‘mi-te’

and ‘kang-mi’, which respectively mean ‘man-bear’ and ‘snowman’.

These two terms connote the same object and they are the alternative

terms used for the same animal, just as people call the orang-outang

as bana-manas or wild man. On this-score the so-called ‘Abominable

Snowman’ is no other than the red bear of the Himalayas, the colour

of the animal varying from light brown to reddish brown. ‘The

indisputable evidence from all sides points to this conclusion. All

speculations, exaggeration, fanciful hypotheses, and fantastic stories

and legends, believed or woven in this regard must be set at rest.

It is just possible that the ‘te’ (brown bear) and the ‘mi-te’* (man-

bear or red bear) might be identical; or it may be that these two are

confounded one for the other by the Tibetans on the Indian side of

the Himalayas, and that it is the footprints of these animals that have

been puzzling the brains of so many expeditionists, scientists, and

laymen at large.

I have also got. a.report, not so far confirmed by a firsthand

informant, that the ‘te’ and the ‘mi-te’ both go into hibernation under

some rocks protected from wind, or in a cave, from the middle of

November or December to the end of February, that getting up from

hibernation they sometimes dig deep into the snow in search of grass

and roots, and they sometimes make excursions on avalanches in

spring for excavating the bodies of bharal, blue sheep, and gazelle,

killed and buried under avalanches. I mention this here, as it may

throw some light on the occurrence of the footprints of the mi-te in

snow at high altitudes.

So far as my knowledge goes, the langur or the black-faced

monkey of the Himalayas has never been seen wandering on snow,

as it is seldom or never seen beyond the tree-line. As a matter of

fact most of the langurs in the upper Himalayas are seen getting

down to warmer regions much before the snowfall. So the foot-

prints, resembling human footprints, observed on the snows by some

of the Himalayan expeditionists could not be those of langurs.

Two years after the conquest of Everest and soon atten my first

article on the ‘Abominable Snowman’ appeared in the press, Sir

Edmund Hillary opined that ‘the snowman might be an unknown

species of bear with super strength, but no man has ever seen it?

[June 3, 1955]. And Sri Ten Zing still believes ‘in the existence of

“Yeti”? or some queer animal’, though he has never seen one.

Sri M. Lutroffle and Sri Pierre Bordet, French geologists exploring

in the Makalu Range, still assert the existence (reality) of the

snowman.

Dr. Charles Evans, leader of the British Kanchenjunga Expedition,

says that in his opinion the mysterious yeti or Abominable Snowman

is either a bear or a large sized monkey.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

For years, the lamas of the famous Tyangboche (or Dangboche):

monastery, situated in the Everest region, had been showing: their

special guests, the skull of an unknown animal as that of a ‘yeti’ or

‘snowman’, Dr, Evans reverentially picked up two hairs from the

said skull and sent them to the British Museum for examination.

The experts’ verdict was ‘pig bristles’ ! -

Dr. Strafford Mathews, member of the Kanchenjunga Reconnais-

ance, declared that the Abominable Snowman does not exist, and that

it is an animal, and that it was nonsense to give opinion on the

‘yeti’, when you know that every bear has five toes (22-7-55).

Dr. Eggler, of 1956 Swiss expedition, does not believe in the

existence of the ‘yeti’ and says: ‘all the sherpas had heard stories of

the yeti but none of them had seen one. No young man among the

sherpas believes in the Snowman’ (1-7-56).

Col. Huerta, leader of the ‘Argentine expedition to Dhaulagiri, says

that he did not believe in the existence of yeti and that. he had

always thought that the animal was nothing but a high altitude bear.

He said that he did come across a bear, which he described as a

diving symbol of the yeti myth’ during one of their base camp days,

when they were out wild goat shooting at about-10,000 ft.. He said

that he had the animal killed by a Shikari to prove that the yeti was

really a bear. The expedition’s photographer, Mr. Bertone, had taken

several photographs of the dead bear, which were available for any

expert examination.. It is cent per cent like an ordinary bear, a

ee fellow with shaggy hair and hooked claws, Col. Huerta said.

“Hid a701ug

"ayo yoi1OLl

—————SSSSsssS

— SIJINIV3IIN

(,00C'® )

SvAvavonusyy

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“A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS |

B. N. Guitpyat ~

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

(With a sketch map) —

INTRODUCTION

The beautiful Valley of. Flowers has: long remained . evidiosed in

mystery, but.a natural curiosity about this valley was excited by the

writings of Mr. F. S. Smythe, leader of the Kamet expedition, who

gazed upon it in 1931.

The valley is characterised by high altitude and uneven topo-

graphy. It is situated at about 13,000 ft. above sea-level in the

Sune! District of Uttar Pradesh, and is about 24 miles long and

11 miles broad. It is. surrounded on three sides by permanent

snow-capped mountains, and is open to some distance on one side.

Locally the valley is variously called Bamnidhar, Kandolyasain,

Bhyundhar Valley, and Valley of Flowers (Smythe, 1931). The

significant features of the climate are long cold winters, deep

snow, low mean temperature, and noticeable daily fluctuations of

temperature.

_ Collections were made previously fom this valley by R. Strachey

and J. E. Winterbottom (1846-49), Smythe and Holdsworth (1931),

Smythe (1937), and J. Legge (1939). :

Curious to know about the flora of the Valley of| Flowers, I

visited this place in September 1955, starting from Srinagar, Garhwal,

my home town.

SRINAGAR—PIPALKOTI

I left Srinagar on September 18, 1955 and reached Pipalkoti, the

last bus terminus, on the same day. The valley here broadens out

into terraces of cultivated fields, and the rest of the area looks bleak

and bare except for a few scattered Pinus roxburghii trees. All along

the valley of Alaknanda River there are a number of brooks, rivulets,

streams, and small springs. There is a beautiful waterfall here.

Polygala abyssinica, Coleus barbatus, Nepeta spicata, and Violas are

commonly seen,

PIPALKOTI-——JOSHIMATH

Left Pipalkoti early in the morning on 19 September and reached

Joshimath after covering 18 miles on foot. The way from Gulabkoti

(between Pipalkoti and Joshimath) to Joshimath passes through woods

of Pinus roxburghii, Quercus incana, Rhododendron arboreum, Pizris

ovalifolia, Ilex dipyrena, and Moyriea nagt. Peperomia reflexa inter-

mingled with moss is very common on rock layers or on Quercus

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

incana bark. Lactuca violaefolia shows fine drooping violet bells.

Polygonum capitatum with pink flowers in dense heads trail on rocks

and rocky slopes. The beautiful shades of areas lanuginosa are

very common on open slopes.

JosHIMATH—BADRINATH

Next morning at about 6 a.m. I started for Badrinath. After a

break of 3 hours at Pandukeswar I reached Badrinath at 5 p.m.,

covering again 184 miles on foot. The path along the Alaknanda

kept me alert all the time. The vegetation within the neighbouring

places of the shrine has been completely destroyed by the inhabitants.

It is a pleasant sight to see patches ot Rhododendron lepidotum,

Morina longifolia, Allium stracheyi, Thalictrum reniformis, and Asters.

Occasionally patches of mushrooms and puff bails were seen in shady

areas.

BADRINATH—VALLEY OF FLOWERS

After paying a visit to the sacred shrines of Badrinath, I left on

22nd September for the Valley of Flowers. , I halted at a small chatti,

Govindghat, 12 miles below Badrinath.

Next day I crossed the swinging bridge over Alaknanda River and

reached Ghangarea (about 11,000 ft. above sea-level) after a gradual

Io mile ascent along the Bhyundhar stream. The path between

Bhyundhar village and Ghangarea passes through Corylus colurna

(Himalayan Hazel) and Cotoneaster bacillaris forest.

On this way there are two villages, Punn and Bhyundhar. The

latter is the last village in the area, where people live only between

May and September and move down to the village Punn before their

houses are buried deep under snow.

At Ghangarea there is a forest rest-house and a Sikh dharamsala

amidst Abies pindrow Himalayan Silver Fir), Picea morinda (Spruce),

and Taxus baccata (Yew) forest. The dominance of these affects the

sunny aspect in the locality. Beneath this forest canopy, Viburnum

and Geranium are conspicuous. The tree-line ends here and the

valley opens. From this place there is a bifurcation of the footpath,

one branch leading to Lokpal and the other to the Valley of Flowers.

Lokpal (Hemkund), about 14,000 ft. above sea-level, is a holy

place where Guru Govind Singh worshipped. It is virtually a

paradise for painters and photographers, and is of course a seat of

pilgrimage. When I reached Lokpal on 24 September I was stirred

with feelings of intense joy and happiness to see such a beautiful lake

of crystal clear water. The lake is situated at the base of brilliantly-

lit snow peaks. It is significant to note that it does not show aquatic

vegetation. Aconitum violaceum, Cassiope fastigiata and Saussurea

obvallata (locally called Kamal) are found near the lake. Potentilla

and Geum are amongst the common way-side plants. I returned to

Ghangarea on the same day after a pleasant roaming about.

The next morning was cloudy and I followed the track through

Alnus, Betula utilis, and Cotoneaster bacillaris trees, leading to the

Valley of Flowers along the Bhyundhar stream. On the way to the

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 367

valley there are two wooden bridges, which swing giddily as one

crosses them. The path is a zigzag course, and at some bends one

finds the stream covered with snow, and water oozing out through it.

The monsoon rain converts the Bhyundhar stream with uncanny speed

into a fast flowing river.

I was not fortunate enough to enjoy the outing that day, as the

weather was not kind; the clouds gathered and icy winds blew fast

accompanied by rain showers. So I was forced to rush back to

Ghangarea. As the first rays of the rising sun glowed on the snow-

veiled peak, I started for the valley again on 26 September and reached

there after enjoying the scenic beauty. The day being pleasant and

sunny, I was fully rewarded in visiting the place. The valley was

not colourful at that period, yet it showed some little and big patches

of alpine flora. The flowers are naturaily arranged in different beds.

The most spectacular spread was that of Polygonum vaccinfolium and

Polygonum affine. Other herbs, like Parnassia nubicola, Corydalis

nana and three species of Cyananthus, seem to spread in the near vicinity,

but it is obvious that they extend their range in the valley. I came

across a solitary blue poppy, Meconopsis aculeata, and many yellow-

flowered Geum elatum growing here and there in the _ valley.

Saxifraga diversifolia, Polygonum polystachyum, and Saussurea have

become common way-side plants. It is interesting to note that several

species persist in their classical locality, Cassiope fastigiata and

Gaultheria trichophylla on exposed slopes, Sedum trullipelalum on

rocks, Epilobium roseum, the willow herb, near ditches and close to

water or streamline. Capsella bursa-pastoris was found to be the

neighbour of Epilobium. Potentilla argyrophylla were closely packed

in an open place.

Dipsacus imermis owes part of its charm to the peculiar sequence

of development of its flowers, which begin to open as a girdle of

blooms half-way up to the conical flower-head. Allium wallichii has

handsome fragrant purple-pink flowers.

Lastly I may mention here that due to my visit in autumn, I could

not see the Valley of Flowers in full bloom. Composits, Cyananthus,

Saxifragas, and Polygonums were the dominating plants at that time.

The valley awakes from winter snow in May-June and the flora is at

its best in July-August.

These notes on the Valley of Flowers are based principally on

collections made during this visit in 1955. The collection treated

herein represents 74 families, 189 genera, 283 species, and 6 varieties.

Out of this 18 species and 3 varieties are new additions to Strachey’s

‘Catalogue of Kumaon and the adjacent portions of Garhwal and

Tibet’. The sequence of families followed in this paper is that of

Bentham and Hooker. Gymnosperms are placed last.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank my respected teacher Prof. V. Puri for

the inspiration and for many suggestions, and Dr. Y. S. Murthy for

great help and encouragement. My sincere thanks to Father

Santapau for his very valuable suggestions and keen interest, and for

kindly going through the manuscript. Thanks are also due to

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY.NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Mr. U. P. Mookerjee (Calcutta) for lending me the book ‘Valley. of

Flowers’, to Mr. M. L. Banerji and my colleague Mr. V. P. Dube for

encouragement, and to Mr. M. B. Raizada. for the. facilities. ae

during my stay at F.R.I., Dehra Dun. :

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

RANUNCULACEAE :

Clematis gouriana Roxb. A climber with greenish white flowers

in dense axillary panicles on Berberis and Callicarpa ‘arborea.

Srinagar. pg | bas pec

Wy enone vitifolia Ham. - Forming a ‘catpet beneath OSES) libani

and Pinus. wailichiana forest. Joshimath. |

*Thalictrum reniforme Wall. Known as Mamiri in Garhwal,

the roots are powdered, and used as Survna. _ Govindghat.

T. cultratum Wall. (BI.). Kriown as Mamira in Garhwal, ‘in

achenes and leaves. Pandukeswar. ‘

Saap. javanicum Blume.- A shady— herb with white, flowers.

Joshimath. : ee Can ie

oe. minus L. var. majus Jacq. An erect. herb in shade of

Rhododendron campanulatum. Ghangarea. ene

-*Ranunculus diffusus Royle. A’ herb. with soft hairs ‘on ‘moist

shady (plates -Joshimath. - ee ro He

_ Aconitum violaceum Jacq. sn Saue Bot not poems

abundant at Lokpal. th ae ec ale ee

As “balfourii Stapf. | Tiscali called =puggogee deadly poisonous,

solitary growing in a fern grove at Valley of Flowers, but adore on

way to porve! on Ghangarea. Se

“MENISPERMACEAE oi

Cissaneneins pareira. Linn. al, climber on | Carissa spinarum and.

Rhus parviflora. Srinagar. ~*°

HESS IE) 1 [3 EID) i (0 1 aS

Berberis lycinum Royle. Bice ous. “shrub with dull yellow

flowers. ‘Fruit edible. Joshimath. ,

oe elon Lindl, Extraction from. the. stem ae roots. ds, used in

medicine, known as ‘Kingora” in. . Garhwal.. _ Joshimath,

A BOTANICAL. TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 369

»~ . PAPAVERACEAE

Meconopsis aculeata Royle. A. blue solitary Poppy growing on

a precipitous rock at Lokpal, and again a solitary one at Valley of

Flowers.

FUMARIACEAE

Corydalis nana Royle. Growing in bunches on moist gradual

slope. Valley of Flowers.

C. longipes DC. A weak herb with yellow flowers. Valley of

Flowers and on way to Lokpal.

C. cachemiriana Royle. A blue-flowered herb. Profusely growing

en slopes and meadows. Valley of Flowers.

CRUCIFERAE

Nasturtium officinale R. Br. The watercress, as it is icalled, grows

profusely in streams and ponds. Srinagar.

Lepidium ruderale Linn. An erect herb near a stream. Srinagar.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.). Moench. Abundant near a stream.

Valley of Flowers.

VIOLACEAE

Viola serpens Wall. A trailing herb with pink coloured corolla.

Joshimath.

V. biflora Linn. Yellow flowered herb growing profusely at

Valley of Flowers,

*V. distans Wall. A herb with light pink corolla. Joshimath.

POLYGALACEAE

_ Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. A procumbent ‘herb with

pinkish violet flowers. Govindghat—Punn. :

_ P. abyssinica R. Br. Along pink racemed herb, in both dry and

moist places. Pipalkoti.

P. persicariaefolia DC. A herb on dry soil. Srinagar.

P. chinensis Linn. Yellow flowering herb) on dry slopes.

Srinagar.

*P. evioptera DC. A herb on dry sandy soil. Srinagar.

*P. tatarinowii: Royle. A small herb with pink flowers in shade.

Joshimath. ett

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

CARYOPHYLLAGEAE

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk. Common on dry waste land. In

flowers and fruits. Srinagar. as tS

HYPERICACEAE

H ee cernuum Roxb. A yellow flowered ele of shady rocky

habit. : Punn and Pandukeswar.

H. elodeoides Choisy. Comparatively small a with small sallow

flowers, growing at the wood margins or near rocks. Govindghat. —

BOMBACACEAE,

APACE

Salmalia malabarica Sch. et Endl. (=Bombax malabaricum DC).

A tree with buttressed stem. Srinagar.

TILIACEAE

Grewia oppositifolia Roxb. A tree known as ‘Bhyunl in Garhwal.

The bark of tender branches gives fibre, and the leaves are used as

fodder. Srinagar. :

LINACEAE:

Reinwardtia trgyna Planch. ‘A handsome herb with yellow

flowers, growing on slopes at Korchula. Srinagar.

MALPHIGHIACEAE

Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz. (=Hiptage madablota; Gaerten).

A large shrub .with cream coloured flowers on rey surfaces at

Srinagar. 3

GERANIACEAE

Geranium collinum M. Bieb. A spreading herb, on moist soil.

Joshimath. 2

G. nepalense Sweet. <A_ prostrate herb with purple flowers.

Joshimath. :

G. ocellatum Camb. A prostrate herb, on. dry slopes. Joshimath.

OXALIDACEAE

*“Oxalis latifolia H.B. Ke A shady Hert with bulbous roots and

pink flowers at Srinagar.

O. corniculata Linn. A widespread herb, in shade. Srinagar.

_.. Biophytum sensitivum DC. A sensitive plant on open waste land.

Srinagar.

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS atl

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens sulcata Wall. An erect herb, on moist soil. Valley of

Flowers.

I. bicolor Royle. ‘An erect herb in shade. Valley of Flowers.

I. scabrida DC. A pubescent erect herb, in shade. Valley of

Flowers.

RUTACEAE

Boenninghausenia albiflora Reichb. <A glabrous herb, in the woods, .

white flowers. Joshimath.

Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. Known as Timru in Garhwal. The

fruit is good for tooth : oublS and is also used as a condiment...

Gulabkoti. :

Glycosmis peniaphylia Correa. A tree, on dry soil. In _ seed.

Rudrapryag.

Murraya koenigi Spreng. A shrub, on waste land. In flowers.

Srinagar.

MELIACEAE

Cedrela toona Roxb. <A tree known as Tun. The timber is used

in house-making and furniture. Srinagar.

ILICACEAE

Ilex dipyrena Wall. A middle-sized tree. In fruits. Joshimath.

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd. A drooping plant, on rocks. In

flowers and fruits. Srinagar.

SAPINDACEAE

Aesculus indica Colebr. Known as Pangar tree in Garhwal.

The fruit is poisonous. Bhyundhar village.

ANACARDIACEAE

Rhus cotinus Linn. Known as Tunga in Garhwal, a shrub, on

waste land. In flowers and fruits. Srinagar.

R. parviflora Roxb. Known as Tunga in Garhwal. The

brownish red drupe is edible. In flowers and fruits. Srinagar.

MORINGACEAE

Moringa oleifera Lamk. A tree, in the forest of Rhus parviflora

and Carissa spinarum. In flowers and fruits. Srinagar.

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

PAPILIONACEAE

Indigofera gerardiana Wall. A gregarious shrub with red flowers.

Punn.

I. pulchella Buch.-Ham. <A shrub known as Sakina in Garhwal.

In leaves and fruits. Pandukeswar.

I. dosua Buch.Ham. Sub-erect herb with: bright red floweror on

open slopes. Punn.

Lespedeza stenocarpa Maxim. An undershrub, on steep rocky

‘slopes, in red flowers. Srinagar.

*Desmodium jfloribundum G. Don. A une ee with pink flowers,

on sandy soil. Ghangarea. 7 |

D. oxyphyllum DC. A herb with fete pink flowers. Pauri.

D. concinnum DC. A tall undershrub ih drooping branches.

Joshimath.

D. reniforme DC. A weak herb with white flowers, on rich black

soil in shade of Carissa spinarum and other shrubs. Srinagar.

D. parvifolium DC. A diffuse undershrub, on waste land. In

fruits and flowers. Srinagar.

Abrus precatorius Linn. A climber, in dry seeds and leaf.

Srinagar.

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth. A twiner on Carissa spinarum and

other neighbouring plants. In flowers and fruit. Srinagar.

Flemingia vesita Benth. (=Moghama vesitia (Grans)) Ke eZ.)

A creeping herb with dark velvet flowers, in the woods. Joshimath.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. A tree fairly distributed on slopes ; wood

is used in making furniture... Srinagar.

ROSACEAE

Prinsepia utilis Royle. _A dark green spinous shrub, in open places.

Known as Bhekal in Garhwal. Oil is obtained from the _ seeds.

Punn-Ghangarea village.

Rubus ellipticus Smith. Known as Hinsar in Garhwal. The

edible fruit is an aggregation of drupes. _Joshimath.-

Geum elatum Wall. Yellow erect bee. on moist Deol Lokpal.

Fragaria indica Andr. A ppreaine feo with yellow flowers, on

moist soil. ‘Known as - ‘Chota cae in- Garhwal. Fruit is edible.

Srinagar. ay

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 373

Potentilla fruticosa Linn. An undershrub with yellow flowers, on

rock crevices. Valley of Klowers.

Pp. fulgens Wall. Known as Bazradanti, used in tooth troubles.

Valley of Flowers.

P. argyrophylla Wall. Locally known as Kamalya, on meadows

and slopes. Valley of Flowers.

P. argyrophylla Wall. var. atrosanguinea Lodd. Erect herb with

orange petals, in open meadows. Valley of Flowers.

Agrimonia eupatorium Linn. Yellow flowering erect herb, in

shade. Valley of Flowers. :

Rosa moschata Mill. Known as Kunjo in Garhwal, a large

thorny climbing shrub along streams. Bhyundhar and Srinagar.

Stranvaesia glaucescens Lindl. A middle-sized tree with white

flowers. In fruits. Joshimath.

Crataegus crenulata Roxb. Flowers white, scented; woody

spinescent shrub, on open slopes. The red drupes are edible.

Govindghat.

Cotoneaster bacilluris Wall. A small tree, on way to Ghangarea

from Bhyundhar village. The branches give convenient walking

sticks.

(Gs microphylla Wall. A prostrate shrub spreading on grassy slopes

and. rocks’ in the Valley of Flowers.

SA XTPPRAGACEAE

Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. An erect herb, on rich soil. In

fiowers. Valley of Flowers. |

S. filicaulis Wall. A very slender procumbent herb. In flowers.

Valley of Flowers. ;

*S. moorcroftiana Wall. An erect herb on sandy soil, in Sowers.

Valley of Flowers.

S. hirculus Linn. An erect herb, on. sandy soil. In flowers.

Valley of Flowers.

S. ligulata Wall. A Anil Ghent: stemmed herb with showy flowers

on poor soil. Joshimath.

Parnassia nubicola Wall. <A glabrous Hes b with long-stalked white

flowers. Valley of Flowers. :

.Deutzia corymbosa R. Brown. A shrub with creamy white

flowers, in shade. Ghangarea and Badrinath..

374: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 54

CRASS 210 ES O18 ee

Sedum trullipetalum Hk.f. & T. It was common on rocks; yellow

flowers. Valley of Flowers. :

S. ewersii Ledeb. <A succulent herb, on rock crevices, in flowers.

Mana village near Govindghat.

S. multicaule Wall. A succulent herb with white flowers. Mana

village.

DROSERACEAE |

Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham. A solitary erect plant with crescent-

shaped leaves. In flowers. Valley of Flowers.

“MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cumini (Linn.)- Skeels. (=Eugenia jambolana Lamk.)

A tree, in ravines of Balayan, fruit small and edible. Srinagar.

MELASTOMACEAE

Osbeckia stellata Wall. A solitary pink flowering plank growing

in a shady rocky place. Joshimath.

LYTHRACEAE

Woodfordia frutisosa (Linn.) Kurtz. (=W. floribunda Salisb.)

Known as Dhaula in Garhwal; a very handsome red-flowering Sue,

growing on rocky surfaces; in full bloom. Srinagar.

ONAGRACEAE

Epilobium royleanum Hausskn. An erect plant, near a stream.

Valley of Flowers. :

*E. roseum Schreb. An erect plant, near a stream. Valley of

F lowers.

Oenothera rosea Sims. A herb with pink flowers, on moist slopes.

Srinagar. ‘ :

Circaea alpina Linn. A weak erect herb, in woods. Joshimath.

PASSIFLORACEAE

*Passiflora coerulea Linn. A climber, in flowers and leaves, culti-

vated. Joshimath.

BEGONIACEAE

Begonia picta Smith. ‘A small herb, on rocks, with showy leaves

and flowers. Srinagar. z

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 375

UMBELLIFERAE

Selinum tenuifolium Wall. ‘An aromatic glabrous herb. Valley

of Flowers.

*S. tenuifolium Wall. var. filicifolia Clark. An aromatic glabrous

herb, in meadow. Valley of Flowers.

Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn. An erect plant, on waste land.

Srinagar.

Daucus carota Linn. A_ cultivated plant, in Dang locality.

Srinagar.

CORNACEAE

Cornus capitata Wall. Known as Bhamora in Garhwal. The

red fruit is edible. Joshimath.

CAPRIFOLICEAE

Viburnum cotinifolium Don. A small tree with red drupes, on

open slopes. Badrinath.

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. An erect herb, on waste land, in

flowers. Srinagar.

O. gracilis DC. An erect slender herb, on grassy slopes. Srinagar.

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. Called Padera in Garhwal,

gregarious on rock. The leaves and flowers release unpleasant smell

when bruised. Srinagar.

Leptodermis lanceolata Wall. It is also called Padera, but it is

a small shrub, releasing unpleasant smell when the leaves are rubbed.

Srinagar.

Spermacoce stricta Linn. An erect herb, on open slopes, in flowers.

Srinagar.

Galium aparine Linn. A trailing herb, in fields. Srinagar.

Galium asperifolium Wall. A common trailing herb. Srinagar.

DIPSACACEAE

Morina longifolia Wall. Locally known as Kandela, thistle-like,

erect plant with showy flowers. It was also seen near Badrinath.

Valley of Flowers and Ghangarea.

Dipsacus inermis Wall. An erect white-flowered plant, in shady

places. Ghangarea. ey

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY;. Vol, 54

COMPOSITAE

Solidago virga-aurea Linn. <A shrub with yellow flowers. Valley

of Flowers. _ Ata tos

Aster diplostephioides Benth. A herb with yellow rays, in open

meadows. Valley of Flowers. : ay Aine :

A. thomsoni Clarke. A herb with violet rays, in open meadows.

Valley of Flowers. : : hes

A. asperulus Nees. A _ zigzag-stemmed herb, on sandy soil.

Valley of Flowers. Beene ; )

Engeron linifolius Willd. Abundant, in open dry soil. Srinagar.

Erigeron Sp. A herb with thick rootstock, on damp soil.

Valley of Flowers. .

Leontopodium alpinum Cass. A woolly herb, on rocks. Srinagar.

Anaphalis nubigena DC. A woolly herb, abundant on_ slopes.

Valley of Flowers.

A. royleana DC. An erect herb, in Ke. in “sandy soil.

Valley of Flowers.

om triplinervis Clarke. Abundant, on slopes in association with 4.

voyleana. Valley of Flowers. ..

A, araneosa DC. Occasionally seen in meadows. Valley of

Flowers.

*Gnaphalium pulvinatum Del. A woolly herb, on rock crevices.

Srinagar.

Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn. A_ small erect herb with yellow

“nflorescence, on moist soil. Pandukeswar. -

Caesulia axillaris Roxb. An erect herb, on waste dry land.

Srinagar.

Inula grandiflora Willd. A hairy shrub, close to a. stream.

Valley of Flowers.

I. cappa DC. A shrub, on open slopes. Valley of Flowers.

Bidens pilosa Linn. An erect herb, on slopes, in flower. Srinagar.

Tanacetum nubigenum Wall. A strong-scented herb, often offered

in Badrinath temple. Valley of Flowers and Badrinath.

T. longifolium Wall. A herb with bright yellow flowers. | Valley

of Flowers.

Artemisia vulgaris Linn. An aromatic. shrub-like weed, on open

ground. Srinagar.

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 377

*A. vulgaris Linn. var. myriantha. Known as Kunja in Garhwal,

a gregarious weed, on sunny slopes. Valley of Flowers.

Senecio nudicaulis Ham. ‘An erect herb with yellow flowers, on

slope. Valley of Flowers.

Tridax procumbens Linn. A procumbent herb with flowers, on

dry slopes. Srinagar.

Echinops mveus Wall. A thistle-like herb with a globose whitish

pink ball, on sunny ground. Srinagar.

Saussurea obvallata Wali. Locally known as Brahm Kamal, a

very showy plant, in flower, at Valley of Flowers and Lokpal.

S. taraxicifolia Wall, A small herb, in flower. Valley of

Flowers.

S. piptathera Edgew. Occasionally seen on high slopes. Valley

ct Flowers.

S. albescens Hk.f. & T. An erect herb, in flower. Valley of

Flowers. eee

S. hypoleuca Spreng. A pubescent herb, on a steep slope. Valley

of Flowers.

S, denticulata Wall. Abundant, on wayside and in shade. Near

Valley of Flowers.

S. gossypiphora Don. Commonly called Yogis King Plant.

According to superstition, one person may not collect more than 7

plants, the collection of a large number may result in sudden death. It

possesses valuable medicinal properties. Valley of Flowers and

Lokpal.

Gerbera lanuginosa Benth. <A scape-bearing small herb, common,

on open slopes. Joshimath.

Lactuca lessertiana Clarke. An erect plant with drooping violet

flowers. Joshimath.

*E. violaefolia Clarke. ‘An erect plant on rocks. Joshimath.

*L. brunoniana Clarke. Often seen hanging from _ rocks.

Joshimath. |

*Dubyaea hispida DC. Solitary growing, in open _ places.

Ghangarea.

CAMPANULACEAE

Cyananthus lobatus Wall. An erect herb with showy flowers, in

open meadows. Valley of Flowers. :

C. integer Wall. Many clumps were seen ySteatveted in the Valley.

Flowers showy. Valley of Flowers.

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

C. linifolius Wall. Spreading widely in the Valley. Flowers blue.

Valley of Flowers.

Campanula canescens Wall. An erect herb, on open sunny

ground, in flower. Srinagar.

ERICACEAE

Gaultheria trichophylla Royle. Known as Satawari in Garhwal.

Fruit is edible. Valley of Flowers.

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don. An erect small herb with crimson

flowers, on slopes and meadows. Valley of Flowers.

Pieris ovalifolia D. Don. A small tree, in association — with

Rhododendron arboreum. Flowers white. Joshimath.

Rhododendron campanulatum Don. <A small tree, on open ground.

In leaf and fruit. Ghangarea.

Rhododendron arboreum Smith. Known as Burans in Garhwal.

In scarlet showy flowers. Joshimath.

R. lepidotum Wall. A small shrub with purple flowers, on rocks.

Valley of Flowers.

PRIMULACEAE

“Primula floribunda Wall. ‘A yellow-flowered herb, on rocks.

Valley of Flowers. ae

Androsace sarmentosa Wall. ‘A herb, on rocky slopes, with showy

flowers. Joshimath. :

Androsace lanuginosa Wall. A herb, on gradual slopes. Flowers

showy. Joshimath. 7

STYRACACEAE

*Symplocos paniculata Wall. A middle-sized tree, in flower.

Joshimath.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa spinarum DC. Known as Karonda, at Srinagar, fruit

edible. Flowers scented. Srinagar.

Vallaris heynei Spreng. A twining shrub with scented white

flowers, on Euphorbia rvoyleana. Srinagar.

Ichnocarpus frutescens Br. ‘A twining shrub, on Rhus parviflora

and Euphorbia royleana. Srinagar. ah

Vi BOLANICAD ED RIPS LO RHE VALLEY. OF. FEOWDPRS 379

GENTIANACEAE

Gentiana decemjida Ham. var. aprica Dene. A small erect herb, on

shady slopes. Srinagar.

G. argentea Royle. A small herb with showy blue flowers forming

carpets in open meadows. Valley of Flowers.

Swertia paniculata Wall.- A stout herb with ‘white flowers.

Srinagar.

S. cuneata Wall. <A bluish-black flowering erect herb, on rich

soil. Known as Black Chirata. lLokpal.

*S. cordata Wall. An erect herb, on open dry slope. Srinagar.

BORAGINACEAE

Cynoglossum wallichi G. Don. A dark-blue flowering herb, in

epen slopes and shade. Valley of Flowers, Ghangarea.

Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm. ‘A decumbent herb, in shady places.

Valley of Flowers from Ghangarea.

CONVOLVULACEAE

*Cuscuta capitata Roxb. A parasite on Quercus incana; flowers

in a compact umbel. Joshimath.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum nigrum Linn. In fruit. and flower, wildly grown.

Srinagar. |

S. verbascifolium Linn. A middle-sized tree with white flowers,

on coarse soil. Srinagar.

S. xanthocarpum Schrad. et Wendl. A _ spiny plant with violet

flowers, on waste land. Srinagar.

*S. seaforthianum Andr. <A_ shade-loving climber with showy

flowers, on Punica granatum. Srinagar.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

- Lindenbergia indica O. Kuntze. A plant with showy flowers, in

moist places. Srinagar.

*T. ruderlis (Retz.) Voigt. A herb, on moist soil, in flower.

Srinagar. eee

Sopubia trifida Ham. A _ yellow-flowered herb, on grassy open -

slopes. Valley of Flowers, Jeane.

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 54

Pediculanis siphonantha Don. An erect. herb, on moist soil, occurs

in abundance. Valley of Flowers.

P. pectinata Wall. A glabrous herb, in open meadows. Valley

of Flowers.

P. carnosa Wall. Very common, in shade and up valley. Valley

of Flowers.

OROBANCHACEAE

Aeginetia indica Roxb. A root parasite without leaves, in shade.

Flowers deep brownish. Srinagar.

GESNERIACEAE

Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume. An erect plant with blue

flowers, on rock crevices. Pipalkoti.

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes dalhousianus Clarke. A sub-erect shrub, in shade;

flowers showy. Near Valley of Flowers.

Barleria cristata Linn. A herb, in dry rocky place. Srinagar.

Adhatoda vasica Nees. An evergreen shrub, known as Kala

Bans. It has various medicinal properties. Srinagar.

VERBENACEAE

Lantana indica Roxb. Common on waste lands at Srinagar.

Lippia nodiflora Rich. A creeping herb, near water. Srinagar.

Callicarpa arborea Roxb. A shrub with pink flowers, in shady

spots. Srinagar.

Vitex negundo Linn. A common shrub on dry waste soil.

Srinagar.

LABIATAE

Plectranthus gerardianus Benth. <A small shrub, on moist slopes..

Valley of Flowers.

Coleus barbatus Benth. Showy flowers, an erect herb, in rock

crevices. Badrinath.

Colebrookea oppositifoia Smith. A common shrub all along the

valley, called Binda in Garhwal. Srinagar.

Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth. A small erect herb, on stone.

Lokpal. ©

ATBOTANICAL GRIP EO THE VAELHY: OF FLOWERS 381

Mentha sylvestris Linn. A herb, in moist place near a stream, in

flower. Srinagar.

Origanum vulgare Linn. An aromatic herb, on open surface.

Locally known as Ban tulsi, used as a medicine. Ghangarea.

Thymus serpyllum Linn. <A spreading herb with strong aromatic

smell, flowers showy. Ghangarea—Valley of Flowers.

Micromeria biflora Benth. A spreading herb with minute leaves,

-on open slopes. It has some medicinal properties. Srinagar.

Salvia lanata Roxb. <A scape-bearing herb, on open slopes. Punn.

Nepeta spicata Benth. Commonly seen on open slopes. Srinagar.

N. graciliflora Benth. ‘A. pubescent herb, in moist places.

Scutellaria linearis Benth. An ascending herb, on rock crevices,

in flower. Srinagar.

Carniotome versicolor Reichb. An _ erect herb, near water.

Joshimath.

Colquhounia coccinea Wall. A shrub with scarlet flowers, on dry

slopes. Gulabkoti and Punn-Bhyundhar.

Stachys melissaefolia Benth. ‘A slender hairy herb, on slopes.

Srinagar.

Roylea elegans Wall. An undershrub with grey bark, known as

Titpati in Garhwal. Srinagar.

Leucas lanata Benth. An erect herb with white flowers, on open

sunny slopes. Srinagar.

L. hyssopifoia Benth. Frequently seen in grassy places.

Srinagar.

Teucrium quadrifarium. Ham. An undershrub, associated with

Zizyphus sp. in open space. Srinagar.

Ajuga parviflora Benth. An ascending herb. Srinagar.

A. macrosperma Wall. An erect herb, in grassy land. Srinagar.

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major Linn. A spreading herb, on roadsides and waste-

lands. Badrinath.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. A common weed on rocky ground.

Foliage is used as vegetable. Srinagar.

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

AMARANTHACEAE

Deeringia celosioides Br. ‘A shrub with white flowers, in a moist

ravine. Srinagar.

Achyranthes bidentata Blume. A herb, below Quercus incana

trees. Near Joshimath.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum plebejum R. Br. A prostrate herb, on waste dry land. -

Srinagar.

P. viviparum Linn. Locally called Kukurmakuri, a weak plant

growing near a stream at Valley of Flowers.

_ P. amplexicaule Don. An erect herb, in abundance. Valley of

Flowers.

P. affine Don. An erect herb with showy flowers. Valley of

Flowers.

P. vaccinifolium Wall. <A spreading herb with very showy flowers,

on sandy soil and rocks. Valley of Flowers.

P. capitatum Buch.-Ham. A trailing herb, on rocks and slopes,

with pink flowers in head. Joshimath.

P. polystachyum Wall. Occasionally seen in meadows. Valley

oft Flowers.

*P. donii Meissn. An ascending herb, near water. Joshimath.

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Known as Ogal in Garhwal.

(The leaves give vegetable, and flour from the seeds is called Kotu

flour. Bhyundhar.

Oxyria digyna Hill. An erect herb, on moist surface. Valley

of Flowers.

Rumex nepalensis Spreng. An erect herb, on sandy soil. Valley

of Flowers. .

R. hastatus Don. An erect herb, on dry soil. Joshimath.

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia reflexa A. Dietr. Widely spreading on rock layers

or on Quercus incana bark. Joshimath.

THYMELEACEAE

Daphne cannabina Wall. Known as Satpura in Garhwal;

undershrub; paper pulp is made from the bark of the shoot. Near

Pandukeswar.

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 383.

LORANTHACEAE

Taxillus vestitus (Wall) Dans. (=Loranthus vestitus Wall). A

parasite on Quercus incana, bearing rusty-tomentose flowers; the

fruits are edible, of chewing gum taste. Joshimath.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia hirta Linn. A common weed on dry waste land.

Srinagar.

E. royleana Boiss. Locally known as Sulla; a shrub, on dry

waste land all along the Valley. Srinagar.

E. pilosa Linn. An erect herb on open ground, in flower.

Ghangarea.

E. prolifera Buch.-Ham. Commonly seen. Srinagar.

*E. gemculata Ortega. An erect plant, on waste land. Srinagar.

Sarcococca pruniformis Lindi. A green undershrub, abundant on

wayside from Punn to Bhyundhar village on route to Valley of

Flowers.

Andrachne cordifolia Muell. A small shrub, very common on rocky

crevices. Joshimath.

Sapium sebiferum Roxb. A solitary shrub near a_ rivulet.

Joshimath.

S. insigne Benth. Known as Khinna in Garhwal, a middle-sized

tree with corky bark and thick latex; on dry open slopes high up to

the valley. Srinagar.

URTICACEAE

Celtis australis Linn. Known as Kharik in Garhwal; leaves

make good fodder. Srinagar.

Cannabis sativa Linn. Bhang plant, an erect herb with greem

flowers, used variously. Srinagar.

Urtica parviflora Roxb. A solitary plant near water. Valley of

Flowers.

*U. dioica Linn. Very common on waste land and near streams.

Srinagar.

Gerardinia heterophylla Decne. It is known as Bichhu plant, the

hairs are stinging. Joshimath.

Pilea umbrosa Wedd. Erect herb, in shady places. Srinagar.

P. scripta Wedd. Common in shade. Srinagar.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Elatostema sessile Forst. Commonly seen, in _ flowers.

Rudrapryag.

Boehmeria platyphylla Don. Called Khagsa in Garhwal. Leaves

make good fodder. Srinagar. :

Pouzolzia viminea Wedd. A shrub, in moist shady ravine near

the G.I. College tank.

P. pentandra Benn. Commonly seen in ravines. Srinagar.

P. hirta Hassk. A decumbent herb, in flower. Srinagar.

Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd. A _ pubescent shrub, on_ slopes.

Srinagar.

MYRICACEAE

Myrica nagi Thunb. Locally called Kaphal; the reddish or

yellowish brown drupes are edible. The bark is variously used in

medicine. Joshimath.

CUPULIFERAE

Betula utilis Don. It is called Bhoj in Garhwal. The bark is

used variously. The leaves give a rich fodder. Valley of Flowers.

Quercus incana Roxb. A tree known as Banj, the wood is used

as fuel and charcoal. In fruit. Joshimath.

Corylus colurna Linn. Locally known as Kapasi (Himalayan

Hazelnut). Tree with fruits and flowers. The fruit is edible. Near

Ghangarea.

ORCHIDACEAE

Dendrobium alpestre Royle. A small orchid, on rocks; slowers

pink. Joshimath.

Spiranthes australis Lindl. An orchid with white flowers, on moist

soil. Srinagar.

Haberaria marginata Collebr. On open slopes, with yellow flowers.

Srinagar.

Herminium angustifolium Benth. On shady moist soil. in flower.

Joshimath. Se :

Satyrium nepalense Don. On moist soil, with dark pink flowers.

Joshimath. | id

SCITAMINEAE

Roscoea procera Wall. An erect herb with solitary bluish pink

flowers. Near Pandukeswar.

A BOTANICAL TRIP TO THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS 385

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea sativa Linn. Cultivated for the tubers, which are used

as vegetable. Srinagar.

LILIACEAE

Smilax aspera Linn, A climber, on Carissa spinarum. Srinagar.

Asparagus filicinus Ham. An unarmed erect shrub; tubers aie

pickled. Srinagar.

A. adscendens Roxb. A sub-erect shrub, called Jhirna in Garhwal.

Juvenile shoots are used as vegetable. Srinagar.

Allium stracheyi Baker. Locally called Dhun pangar, used for

flavouring pulses, etc. Valley of Flowers.

A. wallichit Kunth. Known as Chora; flower parts and foliage

are used in condiments. On rocks. 3 miles down from Badrinath.

COMMELINACEAE

Aneilema divergens Clarke. A_ solitary plant with fiowers in

Rhododendron campanulatum shade. 4 miles down from Valley of

Flowers.

GRAMINEAE

Crysopogon montanus Trin. Common in waste lands. Srinagar.

Polypogon monspeliensis Desf. Common on _ dry ground.

Srinagar.

Evragrostris tenella Beauv. A spreading herb, on waste land.

Srinagar.

E. tenella var. viscosa Stapf. Growing on a slope, in flower.

Srinagar.

E. amabilis W. & A. Fairly abundant in small tufts. Srinagar.

GYMNOSPERMS

Cupressus torulosa Don. A large tree, on a gradual slope.

Joshimath.

Juniperus wallichiana Hook. A moderate-sized tree, on open

«round. Ghangarea. :

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Taxus baccata Linn. Known as Thuner

the powder of the bark

Near Ghangarea.!

in Garhwal. Locally

is used as tea dust. The fruit is edible.

Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson. (=P. excelsa Wall). A tree,

on slopes. ‘The wood is used variously. Joshimath.

P. roxburghn Sargent. (=P. longifolia Roxb.): A tree’ Chin,

on rocky slopes. Joshimath.

Cedrus deodara Roxb. ‘Deodar’ is a tall tree, abundant in eastern

slopes. Hanumanchatti.

Picea smithiana Wall. It was found in association with Taxus

baccata. Ghangarea.

Abies pindrow Spach.

A lofty evergreen tree with dark green

foliage. (Ghangarea.

Note.—The plants marked with an asterisk have not been reported

in ‘Catalogue of the Plants of Kumaon and the adjacent portions of

Garhwal and Tibet’ by Richard Strachey, 1852, revised and supple-

mented by J. F. Duthie in 1906.

REFERENCES

Blatter, E. (1928): The beautiful flowers of Kashmir (1-11).

Collett, H. (1902): Flora Simlensis.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97): Flora of British India (I-VII). _

Smythe, F. S. (1939): Valiey of Flowers.

. Strachey, R. (1906): Catalogue of the plants of Kumaon and adjacent

portions of Garhwal and Tibet.

CU CO DD

1 All parts of the Yew tree, except the aril round the fruit, are known to be

deadly poisonous. This local use of the bark is rather striking. The aril is

edible, the rest of the fruit is not.—-EpDs.

JOURN. BomBAY Nar. HIstT. Soc.

LORIS TARDIGRADUS

Position at rest

Photos: Mrs. Swarna Subramonian

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF THE SLENDER

LORIS, LORIS TARDIGRADUS (LINNAEUS)

(Mrs.) SwWARNA SUBRAMONIAM, M.SC.

(With five plates)

The anatomical aspects of Loris tardigradus lave been subjected to

an extended study by a series of workers. As one of the two living

representatives of Lorisiformes of the Lemuroidea and a typical ex-

ample of a tailless primate possessing such distinctive structural

adaptations providing numerous striking morphological characters

similar to the Anthropoidae and Hominidae and at the same time

retaining some of the features of the primitive Mammalia, Loris

tardigradus deserves a closer study regarding its habits.

Confined to the forest-clad misty ravines of the High Range in

Travancore, Nilgiri Hills, and south-west Ceylon, its nocturnal,

retiring, and arboreal habits, and its innocuousness to other fauna

sharing the same environment make it difficult to observe in its

natural habitat. The following is the resuit of an attempt to study

the habits of eight specimens kept in captivity, with as much simula4

tion as possible of the natural arboreal environment. ‘They were

reared in spacious deal-wood boxes with wire-netting fronts. Every

morning, after cleaning the cages, fresh branches with foliage of jak,

anjili, portia, mango, punna, or cashewnut trees were arranged

inside the cages to provide natural arboreal surroundings. They

were fed early morning and late in the evening. A shallow can filled

with fresh water was provided every morning in each cage.

Foop

A wide range of different food materials, both vegetable and

animal, was given to the animal to study its likes, dislikes and pre-

ferences. Although omnivorous, it has been found to be predo-

minantly insectivorous. The following were the food materials

experimented with:

Vegetable Food: plantain, jak, mango, papaya, and rose-

apple fruits, dates, currants; fried potato, plantain, and jak chips.

Animal Food: grasshoppers, mantis, crickets, cockroaches,

termites, butterflies, moths, caterpillars, carabids, scarabids, stink

bugs, dragon flies, damsel flies, lacewings, house fly, wasps,

carpenter bees, rats, frogs, caridina, prawns, fish, earthworms, milk,

and eggs. :

Of the vegetable foods, plantain fruit was the only item which the

animal ate, and that too only when the fruit was in an over-ripe

condition. All the other items were summarily rejected.

Of the insects listed above every one was relished with the ex-

ception of stink bugs, butterflies, moths, hairy caterpillars, ant-lons,

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. a4

wasps, and carpenter bees, which were rejected. It was consistently

observed that the loris ate only live insects. When dead insects

were offered they were thrown away without hesitation.

Certain noteworthy characteristics were observed in the method of

killing the insects and eating them. Whether the insect lay on the

floor of the cage, or was placed on the branches, or was proffered in the

cage at the end of a pair of forceps, the loris never picked it with

its mouth. The insect is first of all caught by both its hands if the

victim is a big’ one, or by the left hand if the insect is a small one—

always and consistently by the left hand. Only on one occasion the

loris was found using the right hand to catch an insect, and at that

time the left hand was gripping a support. When an insect was

securely caught in the hand, the anterior part of the victim was taken

right into the mouth and the head was crushed between the molars,

probably to put a stop to its struggle. Invariably on all occasions,

the head of the insect was first of all bitten off and eaten. Then the

entire body, wings, and the appendages were devoured. Two ex-

ceptions were noticed in its usual habit of consuming the entire insect.

In the case of cockroaches, after munching the abdomen, which is

the last portion consumed, the loris spits out the black alimentary

canal. In another instance, when a Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes

rhinoceros) about 2” long was the victim, the loris rejected the legs,

the elytra, and the wings. It was noticed that the loris munched that

part of the wings where they were attached to the thorax and threw

away the membranous part. The legs and elytra were too chitinous

and hard for the loris to chew. Curiously enough, this beetle although

much bigger than a cockroach did not suffer the ignoble fate of the

latter of having its alimentary canal jettisoned. With the exception

of the legs, elytra, and wings the entire beetle was consumed. The

intestines of the cockroach alone are found to be distasteful to the

loris. The causes for this rejection are being investigated.

On one occasion a young rat (about three days old) happened to

fall down from the ceiling of the house. The creature was obviously

stunned by the fall and lay still, breathing and living. It was tendered

into a cage containing four lorises. They attacked it with avidity,

each one struggling to get a major portion, and within five minutes

the entire rat was consumed. With a view to see whether the lorises

are able to subdue an adult rat, one (about 3” long) was caught in a

trap next day and left in the cage. An hour later it was found that

the posterior half (abdomen, legs, and tail) of the rat was left un-

consumed.

The lorises ate live fish. The fish offered was Aplocheilus caught

from the lake near-by living and struggling when introduced into the

cage. It is strange that they relished the fish, a food material which

obviously they are not accustomed to. Being arboreal animals catch-

ing such prey as they find on the trees they could not have come

across any fish before.

Experiments with frogs and earthworms indicated that the lorises

do not relish these creatures.

Liquid and semi-solid foods like milk and yolk of eggs were lapped

up with the tongue. It drinks water sparingly from the can kept

inside the cage. Water is lapped up with the tongue and, unlike the

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SLENDER LORIS 28S

Anthropoids, the loris does not drink water by suction through pouted

lips.

To find out the maximum quantity of food it could consume at a

time, each loris was fed with cockroaches on different dates. The

average maximum was seen to be seven cockroaches.

While feeding, it was strange to notice that the first bite the loris

gives to the head of the victim was by taking the anterior part of

the insect far into the mouth between the molars, and not by the

incisors. In spite of the fact that it has sharp incisors, the animal

did by-pass them and took the insects on all occasions to the molars.

Even when a piece of plantain fruit was given, the piece was caught

by the hand and then pushed far into the mouth. The act of deli-

‘berately pushing the pieces in could be unmistakably seen. Is it

because the incisors are not able to function, or are their bites

ineffective? The following experiment was conducted to study them.

As usual, pieces of the plantain fruit were introduced into

the cage stuck at the end of a slender wooden splinter. I wanted so

to manage it that the loris bit the piece without taking hold of it in

the hand. The branches, foliage, and perches kept inside the cage

were removed. The loris had only a narrow platform, jutting out

from the posterior side of the cage, to sit on. The wire-netting front

was about nine inches from the platform. I introduced the fruit piece

at the end of the wooden splinter high up through the wire-netting.

The loris had to stand on its legs to reach it. The grip its legs main-

tained at the edge of the platform was not convenient to slant its

body forward over nine inches. So it placed both its hands on the

wire-netting for support. As it could not remove either of the hands

it extended its neck and took the piece of fruit between its jaws. I

noticed that the open mouth was being pushed forward, so that the

fruit piece got between the molars on the right side before it closed

its jaws and removed the piece from the splinter. This performance

was satisfactory for the purpose of the investigation. When the next

piece of fruit was about to be caught between the molars, I withdrew

the splinter so that the bite fell between the incisors. The animal

immediately opened its mouth again to get the piece further in and at

this time I took away the splinter with the fruit piece for examination.

The fruit piece was not severed and, as it was a soft over-ripe fruit,

the impression of the incisors was not distinct; at any rate, the result

of its bite on a soft ripe fruit gave sufficient indication that the bite

of the incisors will be totally ineffective on the chitinous shell of an

insect. To be abundantly cautious before arriving at such a con-

clusion, I wanted to examine the impression made by the incisors. I

repeated the experiment with a piece of ripe but firm (not over-ripe)

plantain fruit. But unfortunately the loris would not touch it.

ADAPTABILITY OF THE LIMBS

The shoulder joint of the loris is endowed with almost universal

movements of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduc-

tion comparable to those of Anthropoidae and Hominidae, and more

specialised than those of a generalised type of mammal. The hip

joint permits the hind limb all the above mentioned movements to a

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

greater range, much more than the Anthropoidae and Hominidae are

capable of. There are few parts in the body which the toe cannot be

made to explore, and the leg has its maximum mobility. It is re-

markable to note the following wide range of mobility of the leg. In

abduction, the thigh is capable of being raised outwards and upwards,

so that the toes can touch the opposite shouider across the back. In

circumduction, by a combination of all movements it is capable of, the

lower limb can move round a large circle, larger than could be

possible for any of the Anthropoidae or Hominidae. The curious

gait with which the animal moves on the ground and on the branches

of trees, and the astonishing postures it is capable of assuming are

evidently the result of the extraordinary powers of circumduction of

its hind limbs. The legs although relatively slender seem to have

been provided with powerful muscles. While grasping a_ vertical

branch with the legs, the animal is seen capable of stretching its legs

and ‘body to their full length in almost a horizontal plane in order to

get a grip on an adjoining branch. The animal is also able to

maintain this posture for a long time.

The hand has a remarkable resemblance to that of man (fig. 1).

The palm (fig. 2) is broader and flatter than the wrist and continu:

ous with the front of the forearm, but its surface is raised from that

of the forearm by the thenar and hypothenar prominences at the bases

of the fingers. The opposable thumb is widely separated from the

other digits. All the five digits have flattened nails, the distal ends

of which come within 2 mm. of the extremities. The extraordinary

mobility of the thumb distinguishes it from that of the Anthropoids.

The thumb is well developed and its axis is directed downwards and

outwards. The opposability of the thumb is influenced by its rotation,

and an attempt was made to express this rotation by means of the

angle between the transverse axis of the thumb and the transverse

axis Of the other digits. These axial lines were determined by a

modification of the method adopted by Schultz (1) for a_ similar

measurement in the gorilla. The fingers II to V were held straight

and touching each other, and the thumb was abducted as much as

possible. The axial lines were the median line passing through the

third finger and that passing through the thumb. The angle between

these lines was measured with a transparent protractor. ‘The mean

of the readings taken gave an angle of 120 degrees.

Schultz (1) records: ‘Among the Simian primates the thumb is least

rotated in Platyrrhines and most in the great apes. It is surprising

to find that the thumb of man is, on an average, less rotated than are

the thumbs of the Old World monkeys and apes. In the Chimpanzee

the thumb rotation has reached the extreme, the relevant angle

averaging less than go degrees.’

From the measurements taken of eight specimens under observa-

tion the thumb measured 12 mm.

The second digit is the shortest of the five and measured only

Io mm., giving a rudimentary appearance. Its nail is very small.

The third digit is 15 mm. long, the fourth digit, the longest in

the hand, is 17 mm. long, and the fifth digit is 14 mm. long. The

relative elongation of the fourth digit in the hand is a characteristic

of. the Loris, when in both Anthropoids and Hominids the third finger

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SLENDER LORIS 591

is the longest. Morton (2) has pointed out that such a disproportion

in the digital formula may be related to the fact that, when the hand

grasps a branch of a tree, a more secure hold is obtained if the palm

is placed obliquely across it with the thumb opposed to and meeting the’

other digits round the branch and in this way increasing the span of

the grasping hand.

When the hand is not employed either in catching hold of a branch

or in walking, it is held up with the fingers clenched into a fist

(fig. 7). The fingers close over the palm with the thumb below the

second and third digits. It is also observed that, when the fingers

are opened out or when around a branch in the act of gripping, the

second digit which has a rudimentary appearance never straightens

out, the distal phalange is always held slightly flexed inward (fig. 3).

The hind limb has a well developed hallux, very widely separated

from the second digit, so widely abducted that it extends backwards.

The hallux has all the mobility of the thumb and is opposable to the

other digits of the foot but, however, not to such an extent as the

pollex. The angle of abduction of the big toe is also 120 degrees.

The big toe is 14 mm. long and has a small flattened nail.

The second toe is 10 mm. in length with a small pointed claw

5 mm. long. While all the other toes have small flattened nails,

this second toe alone has a specialised sharp claw. Le Gros Clark (3)

has pointed out its functional importance for grasping. Claws will

undoubtedly increase the grip of the limb. But careful and continued

observation does not confirm the statement that in Lovis tardigradus

the claw on the second toe helps the animal in grasping. It is found

that the claw has very little part to play when the limb grasps a

branch. It is seen that, when the hallux and the toes in opposite

directions go round a branch, the second toe is so disposed that the

claw lies over the third toe (fig. 8), its point does not touch the obiect

within the grip, and unless the sharp point of the claw comes in

contact with the branch it cannot serve any purpose in actually

increasing the security of the grip. This peculiar disposition of the

second toe cannot be considered as an abnormality in one loris since

it has been observed in all the specimens examined.

Le Gros Clark (3) has suggested that this claw may be used by

the animal for toilet purposes. Actually it was seen that the animal

often used the second toe to scratch the body, and in doing so, since

the toe is the shortest, the other toes close over the plantar surface

so that the clawed toe stands out for the efficient use of the sharp

appendage (fig. 12). In view of the fact that all the nails on the

fingers and toes appear to be rudimentary and do not even extend to

the tips of the digits, the animal uses the claws for scratching its

body. Under the circumstances the sharp claws in the second toes

are the only available appurtenances capable of penetrating the thick

coating of fur for effective scratching.

The third toe is 13 mm. in length. The fourth toe, 15 mm. long,

is the longest of the toes, and like the fourth finger shows a specialised

functional adaptation for grasping. The fifth toe is 12 mm. long.

When the foot is raised from the ground or away from a branch

the toes close in, but not to such an extent as the fingers of the hand.

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64

The hallux and the toes bend towards each other leaving a gap between

them.

The plantar pads are more prominent than those in the hand, more

individual and often separated by grooves instead of lines. The thenar.

eminence is large and occupies almost half of the plantar surface, :

separated from the distal half by a deep groove starting from the

centre of the inter-digital lobe between the hallux and the second ioe

and going up the hypothenar pad. On either side of the groove, the

interdigital lobe thickens into two protruding processes. The faint

lines and ridges, straight, concentric, and in loops, are seen on the

plantar pads, having the same functional significance as those of

the hand. |

Morton (2) suggests that in Primates of more thoroughly arboreal

types the foot is used to maintain to a greater or lesser degree a

clinging or perching grasp of the branches, and that this has led to a

specialisation and the wide abduction of the hallux, which can be

opposed to the outer digits. The same holds good for the hands as

well in the Loris tardigradus. Ali the postures and movements of the

specimens I was able to observe made use of the predominant faculty

olf the limbs to have a firm grip. It was found difficult to dislodge the

animal when once it had gained a grip on a branch.

The most characteristic pose is that it takes when at rest or

sleeping. It rests or sleeps rolled up like a ball with the head and

hands between the thighs. The legs take a firm grip round a branch

with the lower portion of the torso resting between a fork formed of

two branches or even on a horizontal limb of the tree. Sometimes

the hands also catch the same branch which afforded a grip for the

legs or another branch close by (figs. 15-18). The constant habit, as

observed later, of the loris to frequent and remain on the outermost

slender branches or twigs, surrounded by foliage, has presented the

animal in the sleeping pose with their haunches not resting on bare

naked branches. Before it settled down, it was seen pulling down

one of the adjoining leaves and taking a seat with the leaf immediately

below the haunches to relieve the discomfort of the hard bare surface

of the branch. This possibly explains why Loris tardigradus has no

ischial callosities often noticed in such arboreai animals as monkeys.

Several variants of this posture have been observed and in all these the

variations occur only in the disposition of the limbs in accordance with

the availability of convenient branches nearby.

When, frightened, as for instance by bringing a dog in front of the

cage, the loris stands erect on its legs with the arms drooping on

either side of the chest, the hands clenched, and elbows held up at the

level of the sternum (fig. 19). It remains steady and without the

slightest movement in this posture stares continuously at the object

it is afraid of or towards the direction from where a frightening

sound is heard. But the attitude was different when a small pup was

presented to it in front of the cage. It then stood up on its legs with

clenched fists and half opened mouth, fixed a savage glare on the

pup, and made repeated short starts as if about to spring forward,

uttering at the same time audible guttural sounds.

The movements of the animal are slow and deliberate, and

dependent on the grip of the limbs. It relies more on the grip of the

‘ 7] Bo o i e ®

nee rPey Nat. Hist. Soc PLATE 2

Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7

Bion 31 Fig. 12

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig, 13 Fig. 14 Fig, 15

Fig. 16 Fig. 17

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 4

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 5

Fig. 29

BD VA

Fig, 30 - Fig. a

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SLENDER LORIS 393

hindlimbs than on that of the forelimbs, and I have found that the

former are far more tenacious than the latter. While moving forward

the limbs advance in the following order: right hand, left leg, left

hand, right leg, in the same manner as an experienced climber

goes up a coco-nut tree in Travancore. Its deliberately slow and

careful movement can be seen to be the result of its hesitation to

move forward its hand unless and until the advancing leg has secured

a firm grip. This instinctive reliance on the grip necessitates its

circumspection to select a twig sufficiently slender to get a firm grip

on. Since a twig of more than half an inch in diameter does not

allow its toes to completely encircle it, the animal looks round and

prefers such supports in its surroundings that could enable its legs

ic get a firm grip. It has also been observed that, if it suspects a

twig over which its leg has been placed to be a dry one or likely

to break off, the leg is immediately removed and seeks after another

suitable support. While climbing up, the forelimb serves to steady

the position, and it is the hindlimb that pulls up the whole body.

(Plate, photo I.) While climbing down, head downwards, the

hindleg slowly lets down the body and, until the other leg secures a

firm grip in a forward position, the rear leg is not removed from

the branch. It was interesting to notice that the hindlimbs are

capable of rotating a full wide circle about the hip joint, permitting

their use at all imaginabie angles (figs. 23-26). The forelimbs seem

to have certain limitations to such a wide range of movements.

Its movement on a flat surface is also slow, deliberate, and seems

to be handicapped by the peculiar position of the digitals of the hand

and the leg (figs. 27-28). Being specially adapted for grasping, the

pollex and hallux are placed opposite to the other digits and widely

separated from the respective second digits. While walking, the thumb

of the hand makes a very wide obtuse angle with the other fingers,

and the base of the angle is anterior to the fore-arm (fig. 29). The

same is the case with the leg (fig. 30). With such a disposition

of fingers and toes, a forward movement as a result of the digitals

pushing back the ground under it is difficult or not effected’ in a manner

that could be done when the digitals are extended to the front as in

Anthropoidae and Homindae. Left on the ground, the loris waiks

with an uneasy gait but faster than it can climb up the branch of

a tree. It is evident that the limbs are adapted more for prehension

than for locomotion on the ground.

To observe the animal more closely in its arboreal environment,

I selected at first a short spreading mango sapling about four feet

high, and left the lorises free near the foot of the stem which was

about an inch in diameter. They immediately proceeded towards the

small trunk, climbed it, and quickly passed on to the tiny branches.

Suspecting ‘that this tendency to go up to the extremities of the

branches might be due to the lack of a larger surface area in which to

move, I transferred the animals to a small spreading cashew-nut tree

about ten feet high. I still noticed the same tendency of going up

and up to the end of the tiny branches; here they settled down to

double up ventrally and go to sleep. It was ten in the morning, and

1 could not see any further movements on the tree as they slept in

the day-time. Early next morning, just after 5-30 a.m., I repeated

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

the previous day’s experiment by letting loose the lorises on the same

cashew-nut tree. They behaved as they did before, and went out to

the extremities of the branches. One of them-walked along a thick

branch going sideways, avoiding the one standing vertically.

It did not attempt to climb up this branch which was more

than an inch in diameter. It continued along the horizontal

branch till it came to another vertical offshoot about half an inch in

diameter, which it climbed. I was led to suspect, that the animal was

either unable or felt it difficult to climb up any limb of the tree which

was too thick for its feet to grip, and that was perhaps why it always

went out sideways in search ot a slenderer branch. To test this I

took out the lorises from the tree and let them loose at the foot of

another cashew-nut tree, whose trunk was about four inches in diameter

and with no branches within three feet of the ground. The trunk was

smooth without any notches or cracks. The lorises attempted to climb

it but they failed. They could not get a grip on the smooth surface

oi such a thick stem, even with the help of the sharp claws on the

second digits of the hands and feet.

I transferred the animals to the foot of a large portia tree, whose

bark was cracked into deep crevices and rough projections. The

lorises succeeded with evident difficulty in grasping the broken bark and

climbed up the tree. This shows that the animals have to rely entirely

on the grip of their feet and hands for arboreal locomotion.

In all my observations of its movements on the trees I did not

notice a single instance when it could jump or swing out from one

branch to another. I have noticed the animal hanging from a branch

by its feet in order to reach another support below, but have never

seen its hanging by its forelimbs. To test its capacity to jump from

one branch to another I conducted the following experiment.

I let loose a loris on a slender branch of a solitary cashew-nut

tree. It moved slowly along and, when it reached the extremity of

the branch, I bent down the branch so that the twigs and leaves were

about two feet away from the adjoining twigs. The loris moved about

on the branch in order to come to a position close enough to be able

to reach out to one of the twigs farther away. Finding none

available, it stood on its legs and tried to reach up. Failing again,

it settled down and sat quiet. If it could jump it would have certainly

done so.

It was rather difficult to observe their movements at night. <A

two hour watch by shifts was arranged one night to observe them.

The animals were awake throughout the night, and were constantly

moving about inside the cage showing unmistakable signs of

impatience.

A marked difference was observed in the way the loris grasps a

horizontal support by its feet, characteristically different from what

a member of the Anthropoidae does. An anthropoid leg grasps a

horizontal branch in front with the plantar surface away from it.

The loris is seen to grasp it with the plantar surface towards it. In

the case of a vertical or nearly vertical branch there seems to be no

difference in the method of the grasp in the loris and the anthropoid.

At the beginning of the study under report, the lorises were kept

for a few days in spacious cages with wire-netting fronts with:

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SLENDER LORIS 395

perches inside them. A narrow wooden platform was also provided

at one end of the cage. The animals seldom came to the floor of the

cage, but always remained on the platform or preferably on the

perches. One morning, I introduced into the cage thick branches

with copious foliage to simulate an arboreal environment. I could

notice the marked enthusiasm and pleasure of the animals at the

close proximity of the green moist leaves. They climbed over the

twigs and, having settled in a place, began to lick up the tiny dew

drops found on the leaves. Perhaps this is how they quench their

thirst in nature for in the High Range, where the slender lorises are

found, there are few streams and these at long distances. A journey

to a stream would necessitate movement on the ground at times, which

these animals avoid. ‘Their slow, unsure, wavering progress over

unfamiliar ground on the way to the stream would, moreover, expose

the defenceless creatures to danger from predacious animals. From

all this I am led to speculate that the loris quenches its thirst by

licking up the dew drops on the leaves of the trees. In the dense

forests of the humid misty ravines of the High Range dew drops are

always present on the ieaves in the mornings.

Their habitat in the High Range of Travancore is subjected to

heavy rainfall during the monsoon. To find out how they behave

when it rains, I projected a light shower of water over them to

simulate the rain. They did not run about to take shelter, but simply

doubled up ventrally (fig. 31). In this position they protected their

open ears and by bringing up the knees over the ears on both sides,

prevented water from entering them. The thick coating of fur kept

the water particles on the surface and it was found impossible to

drench the animal through. When the spraying stopped, they licked

off the water from all over the body. Each individual assisted its

neighbour in thus drying and cleaning the fur. After licking off the

water, the lorises preened their coats carefully with the help of the

sublingua and probably the incisors as well. The action of the sub-

lingua was clearly seen, but that of the incisors was not so definite,

although during the cleaning the incisors constantly came in contact

with the fur.

SOCIABILITY AND DOCcILITY

For the first few days the lorises were kept in separate cages to

prevent them from fighting with each other. After four days two

male lorises were put together in one cage. They did not fight.

Producing a Jow screeching sound, they approached each other and

behaved in a friendly way, showing that they liked to be together.

Each one in turn preened and cleaned the other’s body, beginning

with the face. The cleaning was done as follows: the hands caught

hold of the skin wide apart and with the sublingua and incisors the

fur was combed and cleaned. ‘After this demonstration of friendliness

they huddled together in a corner on the narrow platform.

From the next day four lorises were placed in the same cage for

observation. They were always friendly except when food was

introduced into the cage. There was then a momentary fight for the

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

food, one snatching away the material from the other. But when

the aggressor moved away with what he got, the other did not chase

him. In daytime ali the four lorises could be seen huddled together,

and sleeping. This tranquillity was disturbed at night when at frequent

intervals a variety of sounds were heard emanating from the cage.

When bright light was suddenly brought near the cage for observation,

the animals became -quiet. But by slowly bringing a flickering

diffused light near the cage, their activities could be observed. The

youngest loris (trunk length 14 cm.) was sitting on a branch and

another inmate was trying to pass him in order to mount the platform,

The young one resented this giving out a low growl. But when the

other persisted in his right of way, he gave a screech and caught hold

of both the ears of the intruder with his hands. Once the ears were thus

caught the victim became helpless and gave out a characteristic cry

of helplessness. Probably such a grip on both the ears prevented

the animal from moving his head even if he wanted to retaliate. In

another instance, where a female and two males were kept in a cage,

there was regular pandemonium at night. The female loris fought

off any male coming near her, while. the males fought constantiy

with each other. But they were all quiet and friendly during the

daytime.

The general procedure of the fights was the same, the attacked

trying to ward off the bites of the attacker by holding on to his ears.

Since the fingers have blunt, flattened nails, which do not project

beyond the Sarin of the digits, the holding of the ears does not

result in any damage beyond the removal of a few hairs of the fur.

In these fights, the limbs take no part since they are fully occupied in

maintaining the position of the animals on the branches. ,

- When several lorises are left free on a tree, they ‘follow the ieadér?

and crowd near each other on one branch. No instance was DUSOV OL

when they tried to distribute themselves on the tree,

This shy, retiring animal does not show any vicious aggressiveness

towards humans. Conscious. of its limited powers. of defence, it

always attempts to get away from any person coming near and takes

the first opportunity to climb up a tree or other support. My first

attempt to pat the animal on its back drove a shiver down my spine

when, as a warning not to take liberties with it, my thumb received a

sharp bite. On examination of the bleeding spot I found that a

canine had punctured a deep wound like that of a narrow sharp chisel.

‘Later, such bites were frequent when the animals were taken out of

or put into the cages. It is strange to find that on all occasions only

one canine succeeded in piercing the finger, possibly because only the

lower canines are sharp and the upper canines blunt. They are under

investigation. |

After four months of handling and feeding the lorises, I found

them not so afraid of me as they were at first. The bites became

infrequent and the animals allowed me to pass my hand over their

backs. They became so docile that during feeding time they would

take pieces of food straight from my hand. It may be possible to.

tame ‘the loris completely if captured young. . ;

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SLENDER LORIS 397

SOUNDS PRODUCED

The following sounds produced by the loris were identified:

1. Growl: When I attempted to catch the animal by running

the thumb and forefinger of my hand from behind and over the chin

to prevent its biting, it gave a growl, somewhat like gr-gr-gr-gr, a low-

pitched angry sound. The same growl is produced when one loris

does not like the approach or the close proximity of another.

2. Screeching: At night a long continued screeching sound,

not unlike that of the chirping of crickets, is heard.

3. Whistle: Sometimes, when two lorises who were kept for

a long time in separate cages are put in one, they come together

emitting a low, short whistle. Probably this indicates satisfaction.

4. Distress Sound: One day, when I introduced into the

cage a fairly large mantis, two lorises fought for the insect. One of

them subdued the other by the usual hold on the pinnae of the ears.

At that time the vanquished put forth a long distress sound like

kree-kree-kvee in quick succession.

5- Warning Sound: Whenever a dog was presented in

front of the cage, the loris produced a warning sound like krichit-

kvichit4krichit-krichit in quick succession, and stood upon its hind legs.

The other lorises in the same cage, on hearing the warning, took a

similar defensive position on their legs.

6. S.O.S.: In the morning, the lorises are usually let out of the

cage for exercise. They are allowed to climb up and roam about the

trellis of the veranda. After half an hour they are coaxed back

into the cage. But often one or two refuse to be led to captivity. To

avoid its bites, a thick hand-towel is put over its head and the animal

then removed bodily into the cage. When subjected to such treat-

ment, first of all it growls, then gives the distress sound of kree-

kree-kree-kree, and when it finds itself helpless it sends out an S.O.S.

closely resembling the mewing of a cat, mee-a-0, mee-a-o0, mee-a-o.

INTELLIGENCE

The underlying factor in the evolution of primates is the increased

function of the brain that has excelled all other animals. This ts

often evident in their power to respond to and overcome the difficulties

of environment. In the loris, with such keen powers of vision and

hearing, the rapid association of these two faculties with muscular

movements seems to be not vital enough to constitute any recognisable

factor of memory or experience. My observations lead me to record

that in Loris tardigradus the power to respond to and overcome diifi-

culties that come out of environments, and the power of memory in

order to regulate its actions by what it has already experienced under

similar circumstances are very poor. I record below two of the

experiments conducted.

The door of the cage was kept ajar just sufficient for the animal

to put its forelimbs through, but not the head. When such situations

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

were presented, the loris put out its hands and when it found that the

gap was not wide enough for its head to go through, it withdrew its

hands and retreated into the cage. Although the door could be easily

opened with the slightest push to allow its exit, the animal did not

even attempt it. The same situation was presented several times and

the result was the same. To give it an indication of the ease with

which the door could be pushed open, when the loris was trying to

put its head through the gap the door was opened allowing it to

come out. This was repeated six times. On the seventh time, I

did not open the door and wanted to see whether the animal would

push it open himself. It did not. This unmistakably indicated its

failure to overcome the difficulty presented by its surroundings. It

lacked the curiosity of the monkey, for instance, which under similar

circumstances would have taken the first chance to break out.

For the close examination of the loris, I used to scoop it out in

a strong butterfly net having a wide mesh, so that I could pull out

its limbs through the mesh and inspect them, avoiding the possibility

of its bites. Even after several such examinations the animal does

not seem to remember the experience, and whenever the net is brought

in front of it, it does not bolt away but calmly walks into it.

POWERS OF ATTACK AND DEFENCE

An animal with long limbs, a shapely trunk with broad chest,

and narrow waist generally gives an impression of agility. But Loris

tardigradus falsifies this impression. Its limbs with specialised

modification for prehension do not endow the animal with any agility.

Its movements both on the ground and on the branches of trees are

slow. A predatory animal which could prey on the loris would find

it easy to chase and catch it. For both attack and defence an animal

depends upon its claws or nails and powerful jaws. The loris has

harmless nails, and only one claw on the second digit of the legs which

cannot be put into action as the legs are predominantly concerned in

maintaining a grip on the branches. (As for the jaws, they are useful

only when furnished with powerful incisors or canines. It is observed

that the incisors of the loris are ineffective, and of the canines only

the lower pair seems to be effective. Observations tend to show

that Loris tardigradus is very poorly endowed with powers of attack

or defence.

REFERENCES -

1. Schultz, A. H. (1945): Morphological Observations on the Gorilla.

2. Morton (1924): Evolution of Human Foot. American Journal of Phys.

Anthrop. vii.

3. Le Gros Clark: Early forerunners of Man.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE A

1. Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata x %

2. Atergatis integerrimus x }.

3. Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus x 2. 4. Matuta planipes x 13.

5. Charybdis (Gontosoma) lucifera x }. 6. Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus x 2.

ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA : BRACHYURA)

OF BOMBAY STA1TE*

B. F. CHHAPGAR, M.SC., .

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay

Part [I

(With one coloured und eleven line plates, and two text figures)

| INTRODUCTION

The study of the brachyuran fauna of the Indian seas has been

comparatively restricted so far. Milne-Edwards (1832), de Man (1887),

Henderson (1888), and others have published several reports on Brach-

yura, but this work was mostly confined to the investigation of species

inhabiting the deep seas. Alcock also made extensive collections on the

Indian Marine Survey Ship ‘ Investigator ’ as well as in India. His obser-

vations are recorded in his monumental publications (1895-1900), which

are invaluable for a systematic study oi crabs of the Indo-Pacific region.

Additional observations by Gravely (1927), Kemp (1915-1919), Chopra

(1930-1937), and Das (1930 and 1937) have also contributed considerably

to our knowledge of Indian Brachyura; but the papers deal mostly with

crabs of the eastern coast of India and the Bay of Bengal.

The brachyuran fauna of the west coast of the Indian subcontinent

has not received much attention in the past except from Kohli (1921-

1922), who described the crabs of Karachi. The only other work is that

of Pillai (1951), who has described the crabs of Travancore. Karachi

and Travancore represent the farthest extremities of the western coast of

undivided India. The vast intermediate area has remained unexplored,

except for a few isolated specimens recorded by Alcock and Chopra. It

was, therefore, considered necessary that a representative collection of the

crabs of Bombay Siate should be studied to augment our knowledge of

this group on the west coast of India.

As it was not possible to make a comprehensive study of the crab

fauna from the entire coast, collections were confined to localities selected

to represent the various environmental conditions, such as sandy beaches,

rocky foreshores, mud fiats, marshes, mangrove swamps, etc. The loca-

lities of collection were Okha, Kodinar, Udvada, Kolak, Umarsadi, Bulsar,

* as it existed up to 3lst October, 1956.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Bombay, Mithbao, Jaitapur, Ratnagiri, and Karwar along the coastal

strip (see map).

UMARSADBI

VOWADA

{ KOLAK

DAMAN

CPORT)

BASSEIN

a) anes

| URAN

ALIBAG

REV OANDA

RATNAGIRI

JAITAPUR }

oad M ITHBAO »

GOA

CPORTY

KARWAR

BINAG! &

CHEN OWA

Ax~-R -A 8

Fig. t. Map‘of Bombay State showing Localities of Collection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimens were collected mainly from the inter-tidal zone exposed

during ebb tides as well as from the catches of inshore fishermen. The

collections were made in all seasons. Though extensive collections

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 401

were made in inshore waters, lack of facilities prevented collection of

material from the deep-sea. A few deep-sea forms were, however,

made available for study by the Japanese trawler ‘Taiyo’ Maru No. 17,

from the Gulf of Cutch.

The specimens were examined on the same day as collected, then

preserved in 70% alcohol, and later examined again in detail.

It was seen that killing the crabs even in weak alcohol or formalin

solutions caused them to shed their legs or chelae ; to prevent this, they

were numbed by freezing in a refrigerator for a few hours, then taken out

and preserved in 70% alcohol.

Miss Gordon! has directed attention to the importance of studying the

abdominal appendages oi the male in view of their providing characters

of considerable systematic value, and Chopra has followed the same

line of study. The author too has paid special attention to these appen-

dages, and has found them to afford, in many cases, useful characters

in separating closely allied species. :

The author has adhered to the terminology and classification used by

Alcock in his ‘ Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India.’

FINGER

oe 23

’

i) \

y \ y

: PALM (HAND) *,

: THUMB

WRIST

Fig. 2

Diagram of (a) Carapace and (b) Cheliped of a crab:

B. Gr.—Branchio-cardiac groove. Card.—Cardiac region. C. Gr.—Cervical groove.

Eb.—Epibranchial region. #r.—Frontal region. Hep.—Hepatic region. Int.—Intestinal

region. Mb.—Mesobranchial region. Mg.—Mesogastric region. Mtb.—Metabranchial

region. Mtg.—Metagastric region. Orb.—Orbital region. Pg.—Protogastric region.

Ug.—Urogastric region.

SYSTEMATICS

Tribe DROMIACEA

Subtribe DROMIIDEA

Family DROMIIDAE

Genus Dromia Fabricius

Dromia dormia (Linnaeus)

(Plate 1)

Dromia rumphii, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 107 (1850).

ses f Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool,) xx, p. 111 (1890),

1 Gordon, I., Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 37, pp. 525, 526 (1931).

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Henderson, Zvans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 406 (1893)..

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc Kengal \xviii, p. 137 (1899).

Alcock, Catal. Ind. Dec. Crust. Pt I, p. 44 (1901).

bone Fauna Geog. Malaive and Laccadive Archipel. (2)

J, p. 577 (1°03).

Pillai. Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 24 (1951).

Dromia dormia, \ble, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 22 (1913).

Shen, Hong Kong Nat. ii, p. 96 (1931).

Barnard, Aun. Mag. nat. hist. xii, p. 366 (1946).

The species is represented in the collection by a female from Bombay.

Its dimensions are :—

length of carapace ee rostans

breadth of carapace coe Oe, Sano

This species can be distinguished by the carapace being broader than:

long, and the front being cut into three nearly equal teeth. ‘The antero-

lateral borders are cut into three teeth. ‘The third pair of legs are

hardly shorter than the last, and there is no spine at the far end of the

posterior border of tle last. pair.

Colour harsh grey, fingers of the chelipeds pink.

This species has been previously recorded from the Red Sea, Persian

Gulf, South Africa, Mauritius, both the coasts of India, Laccadives and

Maldives, China, and Japan.

Genus Pseudodromia Stimpson

Pseudodromia integrifrons Henderson

(Plate 1)

Pseudodromia integrifrons, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zooi.) v,

p. 406 (1893).

Alcock, Journ. As, Soc, Bengal \xviii, p. 150 (1899).

Gordon, Sct. Aep. John Murray Exped. (1) ix, p

209 (1950).

Pseudodromia caphyraetformis, Balss, Zool. Anz, Leipzig liii, p. 110 (1922).

Thirteen mature specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Okha

among pebbles and weeds in the inter-tidal zone. A large, berried female

gave the following measurements :—

length of carapace., ..7.75 mm.

breadth of vatrapace....5.75 mm.

The carapace is smooth and polished, subpentagonal, regularly convex

both transversely as weil as longitudinally, and is very sparingly pubes-

cent. ‘The ceivical and branchio-cardiac grooves are well-marked, the

latter indenting the lateral margin of the carapace behind its middle.

The lateral borders are long and entire, somewhat ill-defined, parallel

for more than half their posterior extent, then abruptly turned inward

and downward to end in a down-turned. simple, triangular acute rostrum.

The subhepatic region has two slight subparallel sulci, the upper of

which is very short and contains a fissure passing back from the poorly

marked external orbital angle. The entire border of the carapace is

fringed with silky hairs, which are longer and more dense between the

orbits and are very dense at the rostrum.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 403

The eyes and antennules fold into common orbito-antennulary pits.

The eyes are somewhat elongated, the lower orbital margin being formed

simply by the antennal peduncle. The rostrum, when viewed from

below, is seen to have an inferior vertical extension, which partly separa-

tes the antennules, but which is not joined to the epistome, although it

comes very close to it. The antennal flagellum consists of about 25

segoments, the second segment being twice as long as wide. There are

eight gills and three epipcdites.

The chelipeds and legs are covered with a short pubescence, which

is most dense on the former. The chelipeds, with the exception of the

fingers, are devoid of tubercles or teeth; the hand is only slightly dilated.

The movable finger has a few small teeth proximally and two larger

ones at the tip. The thumb has three enlarged teeth. The tip of the

finger shuts into a notch in the tip of the thumb, the last tooth of the

latter being double-pronged. Both the fingers are slightly hollowed at

the tips, and gape proximally.

_ The first three pairs of legs are covered with coarse, long, downwardly

directed hairs. The meri of the first three pairs of legs have, in addition,

fringes of very long, barbed hairs on both the borders; the anterior

borders of the meri of these legs have the slightest indication of serration.

The dactyli of the first three pairs of Jegs are strongly curved, horny,

and have short, horny spinules on their inner border. The third pair

also has a prominent lobe at the outer distal end of the carpus. The

elongated last pair of legs are subdorsal and are the longest. Their merus

is curved elegantly, and has both the borders fringed with silky hairs.

The borders of the carpopodites and propodites are also covered with

hairs, but not so densely as in the other legs; moreover, the hairs are

directed upward. Their carpal joint lies on the branchial region of

the carapace over the cervical groove. ‘The dactylus of the last pair of

legs is Straight, not curved. The distal end of the propodites is provided

with two long and two short spines arranged in a ring, on which the

dactylus can shut down.

The distal ends of the carpopodites and propodites of all the legs are

clothed in aring of longer, stiff hairs, as also is the dactylus of the last

pair in its middle.

The abdomen consists of seven separate segments in both sexes. There

are no lateral platelets. The sternum of the female is traversed longitudi-

nally by a pair of grooves that end in tubercies at the level of the bases.

of the first pair of legs. The ova are large, 1.0mm. x 0.8 mm.

Colour of the (cleaned) carapace greyish orange, the denuded legs and

fingers of the chelae with orange and white stripes.

The crab is protected by a colonial Ascidian.

Only two females, the co-types of this species, are known so far,

having teen recorded from Tuticorin. ‘This is the first record of this

species {from the west coast of India, as well as ¢he first record of the

male throughout the world,

The male is much smailer than the female, being about two-third the

length of the latter. It resembles the female in all its characters, except

that the iateral borders of the carapace ate more thickly fringed with

hair, and the chelipeds are comparatively slightly stouter.

The abdomen is narrcwer than in the female, and consists of seven

segments. The genital ducts of the male open on the bases of the last

pair of legs. The male has the usual two pairs of copulatory abdominal

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

appendages. The first is stout, with a thin tip bearing a brush of

setae. The second is thin, with a globular tip, and has three plumose

hairs near its middle.

Tribe OXYSTOMATA

Family CALAPPIDAE

Subfamily CALAPPINAE

Genus Calappa Fabricius

Calappa lophos (Herbst)

(Piate 1)

Calappa (Lophos) lophos, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v. p. 72 (1850).

Calappa lophos, Walker, Journ. Linn, Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 111 (1890).

Henderson, 7rans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 395 (1893).

nee and Anderson, Journ. «ls. Soe. Bengal xiii, p. 203

(1894).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, p. 144 (1896).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5) p. 353( 1906).

Ihle, Sidoga Exped. Rep, xxxix, p. 182 (1918).

Rathbun, Dept. of Trade and Customs (Ffish.) Commonwealth

of Australia v, p. 137 (1923).

Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxv, p. 28 (1933).

Shen, Chin. Journ. Zool. ii, p. 64 (1936).

Sakai, Scz. Rep. Tokyo Bun. Daig. (3), p. 90 (1938).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 76 (1940).

Barnard, Aun. Mag. nat. hist. xiii, p. 372 (1946).

Barnard, Anu. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 351 (1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 148 (1950).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 8 (1951).

Some specimens were collected at Bombay, Ratnagiri, and Karwar.

It lives in sandy or muddy regions. An average female measures :—

length of carapace ago ale) Toaven

breadth of carapace see OO) maton.

This species is distinguished by the smoothness of the carapace in the

adult, the extreme length of which is about two-third its extreme breadth.

The clypeiform expansions are well-developed, their free margins being

strongly laciniate. There is no spine on the posterior border of the cara-

pace in the middle. The anterior border of the endostomial septum is

deeply concave.

Colour pinkish, the fingers of the chelipeds yellow.

In a female specimen. in the present collection, there is a curved line

of red ocelli present during life (although the female is an adult); this

disappears in spirit. Also, there isa toothed ridge near the lower border

of the palm.

This species occurs commonly along the eastern coast of India, from

the delta of the Hughli to as far south as Pondicherry. It has also been

recorded from Travancore, the Andamans, Ceylon, Laccadives, Persian

Gulf, Dar-es-Salam, Siam, Japan, Celebes, Amboina, and Australia. This

is the first-record of this species from Bombay State.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE 1

}

ill

)

“fl

2D LDP

a. Dromia dormia (Linnaeus), dorsal view. 06. Pseudodromia integrifrons Henderson. Ber-

ried female, dorsal view. c. Same, side view. d. Abdomen of male. e. Tip of fourth walk-

g. ist left abdominal appendage of male.

ing leg. f. 2nd left abdominal appendage of male.

h. Calappa lophos (Herbst). Dorsal view of crab. 7. 1st left abdominal appendage of male.

j. Tip of same, enlarged.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ee PLATE 2

10 MM,

(pe

5 MM. 3 MM. 5 MM.

a. Matuta lunaris (Forskal). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appendage of

male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Matuta planipes Fabricius. Dorsal view of crab. e. 1st

left abdominal appendage of male. f/f. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Leucosia pubescens Miers.

Dorsal view of crab. h. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged. j.

Leucosia sima Alcock, dorsal view. k. Philyra globosa (Fabricius). Dorsal view of crab. J. 1st

ie cece appendage of male. m. Tip of same, enlarged. x. Philyra corallicola Alcock,

orsal view.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 405

Subfamily MATUTINAE

Genus Matuta Milne-Edwards

Matuta lunaris ( Forskal)

(Plate 2)

Matuta victor, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 127 (1850).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, p. 160 (1896).

Kemp, Mem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 209 (1915).

Kohli, Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. iii, p. 83 (1921-1922).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 142 (1927).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 148 (1950).

Matula victrix, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 133 (1882).

Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 111 (1890).

Henderson, Zrans, Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 393 (1893 ).

Bata and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 203

(1894).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 762 (1900).

Matuta lunaris, Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 356 (1906).

Ihle, Siboga Exped. Rep. ¥3xix, p. 185 (1918).

Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxv, p. 31 (1933).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 282 (1937).

Sakai, Sct. hep. Tokyo Bun. Datg. (2) lili, p. 100 (1937 ).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 77 (1910).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 358 (1950).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p.9 (1951).

Numerous specimens, oi both sexes, were collected at Bombay, Kar-

war, Okha, and Umarsadi. It lives in sandy and muddy regions.

This species is distinguished by the presence of a distinct spine at the

angle of the hand where it comes in contact with the external angle of

the arm. The length of the composite segment 3-5 in the male is greater

than its breadth at the base, and the length of the terminal segment is

considerably more than its posterior breadth.

Colour yellow, with a multitude of violet speckles—these fade into

a red tint in spirit.

An average male gave the following measurements :—

length of carapace 260 SOF Tinta.

breadth of carapace (excluding lateral spines) ... 35 mm.

length of lateral spine 560, el74 joobenls

posterior breadth of composite segment 3-5... 8.75 mm.

median length of composite segment 3-5 .- 11.0 mm.

posterior breadth of segment 7 .. 3.0 mm.

median length of segment 7 ... 4.75 mm.

In the specimens in the present collection, it was found that the

speckles on the carapace were of two types, viz. (1) very minute dots, and

(2) coarse speckles. Examination of a large number of specimens indi-

cated that the ratio of crabs having minute dots to those with coarse

speckles was roughly 1: 2. A differentiation in the direction of spines

was also noticed, some pointing forward, some laterally, and some even

backward.

The anterior male appendage is straight, shaped like an arrowhead at

the tip, where there are numerous blunt spinules, tubercles, and hairs.

This crab takes the place of Varuna litterata (Fabricius) in Bengal in

being used as the poor man’s food in Bombay.

It is a very common species, having been previously recorded from

various localities from Polynesia in the east to as far as the Red Sea and

the Cape region on the west. In India it has been recorded from both the

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. This is the first record in Bombay

State.

Matuta planipes Fabricius

(Plate 2)

Matuta lunaris, Walker, Jouvn. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p.111 (1899).

ae Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v. p. 396

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, p. 161 (1896).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 763 (1900).

— Suvatti, Lept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 148 (1950).

Matuta planipes, Rathbun, Dept. of Trade and Customs (Fish.) of Common-

wealth ‘of Australia v, p. 138 (1923).

Chopra, ee. /nd. Mus. XXXV, p. 32 (1933).

Chopra and Das, Acc. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 384 (1937).

Sakai, Scz. Rep. Tokyo Bun. Daig. (2) iii, p. 101 (1937).

Shen, /ns/. Zool. Nat. Acad. Peiping iii, p. 172 (1937).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 77 (1940).

Shen, Just. Zool., Nat. Acad. Peiting iv, p. 106 (1918).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p.10 (1951).

Matuta flagra, Shen, Chin. Journ. Zool. ii, p. 64 (1936).

Two female specimens from Bombay and Bassein and a male from

Bombay are in the present collection. ‘The measurements of one of them

are given here :—

leneth of carapace 29 mm.

breadth of carapace (excluding lateral spines) .. 23 mm.

length of latera! spine Balt ots) a0 e015

There is no spine, only a tubercle, at the angle of the hand where it

touches the external angle of the arm.

Colour of the carapace bright yellow with vermiculat red lines, which

usually form spots or incomplete rings on the anterior half of the

carapace and narrow longitudinal loops posteriorly.

This species has been previously recorded from the mouth of the

Hughli, Mergui, Andamans, Burma, along both the coasts of Peninsular

India, Cape of Good Hope, Singapore, Siam, China, Japan, Java, Celebes,

and NW. Australia. This is the first record from Bombay State.

Family LEUCOSIIDAE

Subfamily LEUCOSIINAE

Genus Leucosia Fabricius

Leucosia pubescens Miers

(Plate 2)

Leucosia pubescens, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 119 ee

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal Isv, p- 233 (186).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report rat p. 363 (1906).

Ihle, Siboga Ex ped. Rep. xxxix, p. 282 (1918).

Two males from Bombay are in the present collection. One of them

measures :—

length of carapace .. 19 mm.

breadth of carapace .. 16 mm.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 407

- It is distinguished by the sharply hexagonal carapace, which is Ssix-

seventh as long as broad. The front is about as long as broad, with its

sides subparallel. The thoracic sinus is shallow. The male abdomen

consists of three segments.

Colour light slaty blue, chelipeds and legs with brownish bands.

The anterior male appendages are straight with a curious twist in the

middle. Their tips are bilobed and bear brushes of hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from the Persian Gulf,

Madras coast, Gulf of Manaar, Andamans, Thailand, Mergui, Hong Kong,

and Australia. This is the first record from the west coast of India.

Leucosia sima Alcock

(Plate 2)

Leucosia sima, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, p. 227 (1€95).

This species is represented in the present collection by a female

from Okha. It measures :—

length of carapace Sore) des jon veo

breadth of carapace 2. 14-mm.

The carapace in this crab is alittle broader than long and almost

pentagonal. The antero-lateral borders appear convex due to the strongly

marked angular projection of the hepatic region. The posterior border

is longer than half the greatest breadth of the carapace. The front is

hardly prominent beyond the hepatic regions. ‘The hand of the chelipeds

is about twice as long as the fingers. .

Colour light chocolate brown. le

In the present specimen, the carapace is pitted throughout, and

the front is very obscurely quadridentate.

This species has been previously recorded from Bombay by Alcock.

Genus Philyra Leach

Philyra globosa (Fabricius)

(Plate 2)

Philyra globosa, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 202 (1887).

Henderson, Zvans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 401 (1893).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Béngal \xv, p. 243 (1896).

Lanchester, Proc. Zoal. Soc. London, p. 764 (19.0).

Laurie, Cey/on Pearl Oyster Fish Report (5), p. 364 (1906).

Chopra, feec. Ind. Mus. xxxv, p. 271 (1933).

Baraard, Ann. Mag. nat. hist. xiii, p. 373 (1946).

Barnard, dun. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 330 (195v).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay. It

frequents sandy places. An average male measures :—

bre dth of carapace ws. 16 mm.

length of cheliped ... 2 mm,

lenyth of finger of cheliped fa 7am.

length of outer border of hand so 7 Tm.

_The carapace is subcircular, almost smooth. Its border is defined by

a line of uniformly sized beads. ‘The epistome projects well beyond the

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

edge of the front, and its margin is not cleit below the eye. The

terminal segment of the exognath of the external maxillipeds is semi-

circular. The hand of the chelipeds is very slightly longer than broad.

Colour smoky bluish brown above, the blue deepest on the carapace.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is broad at the base and

abruptly narrows half the way; the tip is bent suddenly and bears

numerous spines on a lobule just like a cock’s comb.

This species has been previously recorded from various places atone:

the east coast of India, from the mouth of the Hughli to Madras, and

from Karachi. ‘This is the first record from Bombay State.

Philyra corallicola Alcock

(Plate 2)

Philyra corallicola, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, p. 247 (1896).

Two females from Bombay and Ratnagiri represent the present collec-

tion. It lives in burrows in sand. The larger one measures :—

length of carapace ECHO) saatea\

breadth of carapace Bog (che) saabenl,

The carapace is circular. The hepatic regions form a pair of distinct

dorsal swellings. These and the posterior part of the gastric region, as

well as the convexities of the other regions, are covered with large

vesiculous granules.

Colour sandy brown.

This species has been previously recorded from the Malabar coast.

This is the first record from Bombay State.

Subfamily ILIINAE

Genus Arcania Leach

Arcania septemspinosa (Fabricius)

(Plate 3)

Arcania seplemspinosa, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 403

(1893).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soe. Bengal Ixv, p. 265 (1896).

Ihle, Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 265 (1918).

Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus, xxxv, p. 43 (1933).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 77

(1940).

Barnard, Ann. Mag. nat. hist. xiii, p. 375 (1946).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 147

(1959) .

A male was caught off the Gulf of Cutch at a depth of 25 fathoms.

It lives on muddy bottom. It measures :—

length of carapace (excluding the spines) -. 21 mm.

breadth of carapace (excluding the spines) ... 22 mm.

length of lateral spine cua. lls) soatao,

length of cheliped Seg. OLS) ab Fal,

The carapace is bluntly rhomboidal, its surface being finely granular

in irregular patches. There are seven spines on its. margins, the lateral

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY... — 409

ones being the longest. The fingers of the chelipeds are longer than the

hand. ‘The male abdomen consists of five segments.

Colour streaky and patchy red.

In the specimen in the present collection, the posterior spine is broken

off and indicated by a hole; the fingers of the right claw are also partially

broken. ‘There is a spinule at the base of the merus of the chelipeds.

The lateral spines are only two-third the length of the carapace. The

tubercles on the merus and exognath of the external maxillipeds indicated

by Chopra (1933) are present.

- The anterior male abdominal appendage is straight; it is narrowed

and spooned at the tip, and bears numerous long hairs near the end.

_- This species has been previously recorded from the Andamans, the

Arakan coast, the delta ot the Ganges, all along the east coast of India,

Persian Gulf, Cape of Good Hope, Red Sea, Malay Archipetago, and

Hong Kong. This is the first record from the west coast of India.

Family DORIPPIDAE

Subfamily DORIPPINAE

Genus Dorippe Fabricius

Dorippe astuta Fabricius

(Plate 3)

Dorippe aStuta, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 405 (1887).

‘Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zoo!.) xx, p. 111 (1890).

Alcock, ‘Journ. As. Sot. Bengal \xv, p. 280 (1896).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London. p. 769 (1900).

Shen, Lull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 76 (1940).

This species is represented by a male from Bombay. It measures :—

length of carapace vee 11.50 mm.

breadth of carapace wae 10575 mom.

The carapace is smooth, and flat, and is slightly longer than broad,

The body and appendages are covered with short, distant hairs. The

spine at the inner canthus of the orbit is rudimentary. The last pair of

legs is more than half the length of the second.

‘Colour ashy grey.

The anterior male appendage is shaped at the tip like a tin-opener,

with one crescentic tip, and the other bent over itself.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andamans,

Mergui, Orissa coast, Karachi, and China. ‘This is the tirst record from

Bombay State.

Tribe BRACHYGNATHA

Subtribe OXYRHYNCHA .

Family HYWVENOSOMIDAE —

Genus Elamena Milne-Edwards

Elamena cristatipes Gravely

(Plate 3)

Elamena cristatipes, Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 150 (1927).

Chopra and Das, fec. nd. Mus. xxxii, Pp. 425 (1930).

Pillai, Budd. Ceniral Inst. Travancore ii, p. 33 (1951).

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were obtained from Bombay

and Okha, living among rocks overgrown with sea-weeds. A typical

male measures :—

length of carapace SGo. OAS) ieabool.

breadth of carapace eee oer Olaaninas

This crab is distinguished by its pyriform carapace and rounded front.

The walking legs are flattened, with a prominent crest at the distal part of

the upper surface of the second and third joints. The dactylus is

curved, its lower edge is sharp, and it is provided with two curved teeth

at the tip. .

The anterior male appendage is sinuous and is split to form two

whip-like tips. They do not bear hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from the Gulf of Manaar,

Madras, and Travancore. This is the first record from Bombay State.

Family WAZIDAE

Subfamily ACANTHONYCHINAE

Genus Menaethius Milne-Edwards

Menaethius monoceros Latreille

(Plate 3)

Menaethius monoceros, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 9 (1882).

ep desons Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 342

(18935).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, p. 401 (1895).

Calman, Zvaus. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p 34

(1900).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 722 (1900).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5) p. 375

(196). ;

Chopra, Fec. Ind. Mus. xxxiii, p. 324 (1931).

Montgomery, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii,

p. 417 (1931).

Sakai, Scz. ep. Tokyo Bun. Daig. (3) iii, p. 263 (1938).

Barnard, Anau. S. Alr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 43 (1950).

Buitend jk, ull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 63

(1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 149

(3950).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p.5 (1951).

This species is represented in the present collection by two males

from Okha. The crab inhabits rocky regions overgrown wiih weeds, but

Chopra (1931) has recorded a specimen from the cloaca of a Holothurian.

The larger male measures :—

length of carapace .. 22mm.

breadth of carapace te 2 mms

length of rostrum .. 8mm.

The crab is distinguished by its elongate-triangular carapace, and the

acute, styliform, horizontally compressed rostrum, flanked on either side

by the forwardly directed supraocular spine.

Colour a pale Jemon yellow.

The carapace is usually encrusted with weeds, and is very variable as

regards the number, position, and size of the spines. In the specimens

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 411

in the present collection, the tubercles on the carapace are arranged in a

regular manner, viz. three in a triangle on the gastric region, three others

forming a triangle on the cardiac region (three to four lateral spines on

the antero-lateral borders), two on the branchial region, and a median

intestinal one at the posterior end.

The carapace is finely granular under the microscope. The rostrum,

which is as long as the carapace in some, varies greatly and in the

present collection is only one-third the length of the carapace; it is

hairy, the hairs being of two types: (1) simple, (2) clubbed.

There are two to three hairy knobs on the anterior border of the

meropodites of the legs, and one in the middle of the posterior border of

the propodites. There is a spine-like tubercle near the base of the arm

of the chelipeds.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is peculiar, its tip being at

tight angles to the body and shaped like a bird’s head. The distal half

of the appendage is abruptly narrowed.

According to Laurie (1906), the phenomenon referred to as ‘ facul-

tative dimorphism’ is observed in this species, viz. alternate phases in

the life-history of the same individual co-related with the breeding and

non-breeding period respectively, the breeding male with pronounced

secondary sexual characters changed by a moult to the non-breeding

form with much resemblance to the young.

This species is widely distributed, occurring throughout the Indo-

Pacific region, in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, east coast of Africa, both the

coasts of India, Laccadives and Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar Is.,

Malay Archipelago, Japan, Fiji, and Hawaii. This is the first record

from Bombay State.

Subfamily PISINAE

Genus Hyastenus White

Hyastenus planasius (Adams & White)

(Plate 3)

Hyastenus planasius, Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 109

oe As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, p. 212 (1895).

Buitendijk, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 63

cen i Dept. of Fisheries. Bangkok, Thailand, p. 150

AUB ee Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 6 (1951).

A male from Bombay and a female from Okha are in the present

collection. ‘The male measures :—

length of carapace (Without rostrum) ect 20. Mande

breadth of carapace feo 20 erin,

length of rostrum Soo Mabehoohan\s

length of cheliped eee tola)soaboay,

length of second walking leg a) 00 mm:

This species can be distinguished by its elongate-ovate carapace, with

a small epibranchial tubercle on each side, and the absence of an intestinal

spine.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Colour ashy grey.

The specimens in the present collection agree with Buitendijk’s

description, having nine tubercles, viz. three gastric tubercles, behind

these two small lateral ones, an indistinct cardiac, two on the hinder

slope, and a prominent intestinal tubercle.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is shaped at the tip like a

barbed hook.

This species has been previously recorded from Ceylon, Mergui,

Travancore, Arakan coast, and Singapore. ‘This is the first record from

Bombay State.

Genus Doclea Leach

Doclea gracilipes Stimpson

(Plate 3)

Doclea sp., de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 13 (1887).

Doclea gracilipes, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, p. 239 (1895).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report ee p. 381 (1906).

Chopra, kee. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, p. 470 (1935

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) iH 'p. 80 (1940).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay. It

lives among rocks encrusted with weeds. A large male measures :—

length of carapace (from the base of the rostrum to the base of

the median posterior spine) PAs Ay She) saab

breadth of carapace onc Seat coo hare

length of rostrum 555 pose Ontaatias

length of median posterior spine ... eo. 4mm.

length of second leg er eee 126 mm.

It is a variable species, but it can be distinguished by the following

characters, which are constant :—

(1) the discoid (non-globose) carapace, with elevations only on the

middle line ;

-(2) the long slender legs of the second pair ;

(3) the large size of the spine at the externai angle of the buccal

frame.

The colour of the carapace and the part of the legs covered by fur is

dark green, the last two segments of the legs have a reddish tinge.

Alcock’s description of the species is not complete and can be

supplemented by the following observations. The sternum and abdomen

are also hairy in the male, except for two knobs on the third abdominal

segment. In the female, there is no hair on the abdomen. On the second

leg, the proximal half of the propodite is hairy.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are more or iess straight,

there being only a slight bending about the middle. The distal half of

the appendage is abruptly narrowed and the tip is sharply pointed.

This species has been previously recorded from Hong Kong, Mergui

Archipelago, Andamans, the Sandheads, Orissa coast, Gulf of Manaar,

and Ceylon. ‘This is the first record from the west coast of India,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1) BEATE

;

j 171MM.

11MM

4 MM n

a. Arcania septemspinosa (Fabricius). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appen-

dage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Dorvippe astuta Fabricius. Dorsal view of crab.

e. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. jf. Elamena cristatipes Gravely. Dorsal view of. crab.

g. Walking leg, enlarged. h. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. 1. Menaethius monoceros

Latreille. Dorsal view of male. j. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. k. Tip of same,

enlarged. /. Hyastenus planasius (Adams & White). Dorsal view of crab. m. Ist left abdo-

minal appendage of male. mn. Tip of same, enlarged. o. Doclea gracilipes Stimpson. Dorsal

view of male. . 1st left abdominal appendage of male.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

a. Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus (Milne-Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st

left abdominal appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Schizophrys aspera (Milne-

Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. e. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. f. Tip of same,

enlarged. g. Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor Herbst. Dorsal view of crab. h. 1st left abdo-

minal appendage of male. 7. ‘Tip of same, enlarged. j. Cryptopodia angulata Milne-Edwards &

Lucas. Dorsal view of crab. k&. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. J/. Tip of same, en-

larged. m. Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus (Herbst). Dorsal view of crab. 2. Ist left

abdominal appendage of male. o. Tip of same, enlarged.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 413

Subfamily MATINAE

Genus Paramithrax Milne-Edwards

Subgenus Chlorinoides Haswell

Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 4)

Mithrax aculeatus, de Saussure and PER, Crustaces de la Guadeloupe (1)

p. 5 (1867).

Chlorinus aculeatus, var. armatus, Miers, ‘ Alert’ Crust., p. 182 (1884).

Chlorinus aculeatus, Henderson, Trans, Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 345

(1893) .

Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus, Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xiv,

p. 241 (1895).

Calman, Zyrans. Linn. Soc. London

(Zool.) viii, p. 38 (1900).

Chlorinoides aculeatus, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 724 (1900).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok. Thatland,

p. 150 (1950).

A male and a female specimen from Okha, and a female from

Bombay, are in the present collection. It lives among rocks covered with

weeds. The measurements of the Okha specimens are given below :—

Male;

length of carapace sc oo Int.

length of rostrum sos LO MM -

Female :

length of carapace ... 24mm,

length of rostrum ; Acco) mim.

The carapace is pyriform, convex, smooth, armed with five huge

thorn-like spines down the middle line, and with two even larger spines

on the branchial region. ‘There are also, on either pterygostomian region,

two oblique crests, the anterior with three to four teeth, two of which

are visible in a dorsal view, and the posterior crest with one or two teeth.

Colour dirty white.

The body and legs in this species are somewhat hairy and are encrust-

ed with sponges, zoophytes, polyzoa, etc. The specimen from Bombay

is encrusted with coconut fibres.

The spine on the upper border of the merus is distinct in all the legs,

There is another slightly smaller spine at the distal end of the posterior

border in all the legs.

In the female from Okha, the first spine on the branchial region is

cleft into two from the base. ‘The rostral spines are only a little more

than one-third the length of the carapace.

__ The anterior male abdominal appendage is straight, hairy at the tip,

with a hook-like spine near the distal extremity.

This species has been previously recorded from the Arakan coast,

Mergui and Ceylon. This is the first record from the west coast of

India.

4] 4, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

Genus Schizophrys White

' Schizophrys aspera (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 4)

Maja (Dione) affinis, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 94 (1850).

Schizophrys aspera, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 22 (1882).

de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 20 (1887).

Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 109 (1890).

Henderson, 7rans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 346(1893) .

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, p. 243 (1895).

Calman, Zvrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p. 39(1900) ,

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 725 (1900).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Laccadive Archipel. (10)

ii, p. 688 (1903).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 383 (1906).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 151 (1927).

Sakai, Sez. Rep. Tokyo Bun. Daig. (3) iii, p. 306 (1938).

Tweedie, Bull. Ratfles Mus. Singapore 18, p. 28 (1947).

Barnard, dun. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p.61 (1950).

Buitendijk, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 67 (1950).

Schizophrys asper, Chopra and Das, Rec. ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 390 (1937).

A male and a female from Bombay are in the present collection. It

lives in rocky places. The male measures :—

length of carapace nop elle fray

breadth of carapace Aas af), wade

length of rostrum ae | Sesouvens

length of cheliped ee eh seokeay,

length of hand soo. LW, canton,

length of finger 2. sO aati.

It can be distinguished by the pyriform carapace, the greatest breadth

of which is nine-tenth its length behind the point of bifurcation of the

rostral spines. The outer border of each of the rostral spines carries a

strong accessory spine; the length of the rostral spines is from one-fifth

to one-sixth that of the carapace. A spine is present ventrally on the

subhepatic region outside the angle of the buccal frame.

Colour grey ; chelipeds, tubercles, and spines pearly white.

The body and legs are hairy,and the animal protects itself with flat

pieces of Nullipore, etc.

In the female an enlarged tubercle exists between the true third and

fourth spines of the antero-lateral border at a lower level. ‘There is

another tubercle in both the sexes between and above the tubercles

marking the posterior border. The anterior male abdominal appendage is

straight, blunt at the tip, with afew hairs and minute spines near the

tip.

This species is quite common in the Indian coastal waters, being found

both from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea up to Karachi. It has

also been recorded trom the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, east coast of Africa,

Ceylon, Malaya, Australia, New Caledonia, Samoa, and Funafuti. This

is the first record from Bombay State.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 415

Family PARTHENOPIDAE

Subfamily PARTHENOPINAE

Genus Lambrus Leach

Subgenus Platylambrus Stimpson

Lambrus (Platvlambrus) prensor Herbst

(Plate 4)

Lambrus prensor, Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 109 (1890).

Lambrus (Platylambrus) prensor, haiaesee AS: Soc. Bengal Ixiv, p. 262

Flipse, Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 79

(1930).

Chopra, fec. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, p. 473 (1935).

A male was found washed up on the beach at Udvada and another at

Bombay. The Udvada specimen measures :—

length of carapace sno. ell) Fanvoals

breadth of carapace foc OA mM.

The carapace is broadly triangular with one median and two lateral

carinae. The infra-orbital lobe is entire and strongly produced at the

inner angle to form aspine plainly visible from above on either side of

the rostrum. The surfaces of the chelipeds are smooth.

Carapace pink, the edges of the fingers of the chelipeds chocolate

brown.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is broad, squat, and blunt-

tipped ; the tip bears numerous spinules at its extremity.

It is a fairly common species in Indian waters, having been previously

recorded from Penang, Andaman Islands, the Arakan coast, the Sandheads,

and along the Orissa and Ganjam coasts, Madras, Singapore, Indian

Archipelago, and Ceylon. This is the first record from the west coast of

India.

Genus Cryptopodia Milne-Edwards

Cryptopodia angulata Milne-Edwards & Lucas

(Plate 4)

Cryplopodia angulata, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, p. 282 (1895).

Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, p. 473 (1935).

A male was caught off the Gulf of Cutch in an otter trawl at a depth

of 25 tathoms. It measures :—

length of carapace ... > oo mm,

breadth of carapace saa oS) saatany

This species can be distinguished by the convex, sharply pentagonal

carapace, with very large lateral clypeiform vaulted expansions which

completely conceal the legs.

Colour pinkish.

The male in the present collection has only five distinct abdominal

somites, segments 3-5 being coalesced. The segments, except the

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

terminal, are more or less keeled transversely in the middle, and there is

a sharp upright spine on the sixth segment. ‘There are also a few, small

- scattered tubercles on the composite segment 3-5, on the sixth segment

and on the sterna.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is elegantly curved in an

S-shape ; the tip is pointed and beset with numerous hairs.

This species does not appear to be common in Indian waters, there

being only a few specimens from the Sandheads, and perhaps from

Orissa. It is, moreover, restricted to Indian waters only. Apart from

the Sandheads collection, this species is represented in the Indian

Museum collection by a single specimen, collected off Honawar along

the west coast of India. This large male has the dorsal surface of

the carapace and the chelipeds profusely granular, and their borders far

more sharply toothed than is usually the case in this species. It is

possible, according to Chopra (1935), that this specimen represents an

undescribed species. In that case, the present record is the first from

the west coast of India.

Subtribe BRACHYRHYNCHA

Family PORTUNIDAE

Subfamily LUPINAE

Genus Scylla De Haan

Scylla serrata (Forskal)

(Plate 5)

pelos serrata, Miers, Catalogue New Zealand Crust., p. 27 (1876).

Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 78 (1882).

Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 372 (1893).

Alcock, Journ, As. Soe. Bengal \xviii, p. 27 (1899).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 748 (1900).

Kemp, Mem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 248 (1915-1924).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 142 (1927).

Shen, Chin. Journ. Zool. ii, p. 66 (1936).

Chopra and Das, “ec. lund. Mas. RMKIX Pe Sole lyse

Leene, Szboga Exped. Rep. XXxix, p. 14 (1938).

Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 384 (1939).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool. ix} p. ol ie

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus, xxxviii, p. 160 (1950

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 173 (1950).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 21 (1951).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay, Karwar, and Kolak

are in the present collection. The largest specimen in the collection,

a male, measures :—

length of carapace ec. 144mm.

breadth of carapace Goo. CALL soawone

length of cheliped .. 345mm.

girth of hand Se re tommaa2

It can be distinguished by its antero- lateral borders being cut into nine

~ sharply acuminate teeth of about equal size.

Colour a uniformly dark greenish grey.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY ~ Aen 417

It is the common edible crab of India which is commercially impor-

tant, being available in large quantities throughout the year. It is fished

along the entire coast of India and the East Indies, especially Java. It

reaches a length of eight to nine inches and may weigh two to three

pounds.

The anterior male abdominal pp penddiies are elegantly bent and bear

hairs along one border and spinules along the other. The tip is shaped

like a scalpel and bears a patch of spinules.

It is found all over the Indo-Pacific region, from the Red Sea, east

coast of Africa, India, Japan, Australia, Tahiti, and New Zealand.

Genus Neptunus De Haan

Subgenus Neptunus

Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus (Herbst)

(Plate 4)

Portunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus,De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 38 (1850).

Portunus (Portunus) sanguinolentus, Rathbun, Dept. of Trade and Customs

(Fish.) of Commonwealth of Australia

v, p. 130 (1923).

Portunus sanguinolentus, Suvatti, Dept. 13 sees, Bangkok, Thailand;

p. 172 (1950)

Neptunus sanguinolentus, Miers, Caralobae New Zealand Crust., p. 26 (1876).

Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 7 (1882).

Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v,

p. 368 (1893).

Aleock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc: Bengal xiii,

p. 201 (1894).

Alcock, eee, As. Soc. Bengal \xvili, p. 32 (1899).

ae Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p. 21

Kohli, Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. iii, p. 84 (1921-1922).

Delsman and de Man, 7veubza vi, p. 310 (1925).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p, 21 (1951).

Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

p. 745 (1900).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report

(5), p. 412 (1906).

Chopra, ec. Ind. Mus, xxxvii, p. 474

(1935).

Chopra and Das, frec. Ind. Mus. xxxix,

p. 391 (1937).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 387 (1939).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst, Biol, (Zooj.)

x, p. 81 (1940).

Lupa sanguinolenta, Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 154 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were caught in Bombay and

Karwar. An average male measures :—

length of carapace «.) 43, mm,

breadth of carapace (excluding the last lateral

spines) .. /6 mm.

length of cheliped ... 94 mm.

The antero-lateral borders are cut into nine teeth, of which the last is

the largest. There is no spine on the posterior border of the arm of the

chelipeds.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Colour dark grey, three blood-red spots ringed with white posteriorly.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are quite straight and have

no sharp bend near the tip. ‘The margins in the distai part are beset

with somewhat stout spines.

This species has been previously recorded from Hong Kong, the Anda-

mans, India, Ceylon, Persian Gulf, Red Sea (coast of Eritrea), Natal,

Cape of Good Hope, Indian Archipelago, China Sea, Japan, Hawaii, and

Australia.

Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus (Linnaeus)

(Plate 6)

Portunus (Neptunus) pelagicus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 37 (1850).

Portunus (Portunus) pelagicus, Rathbun, Dept. of Trade and Customs (Fish.)

of Commonwealth of Australia v, p. 130

(1923).

Portunus pelagicus, Montgomery, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii,

p. 427 (1931).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 171

(1950).

Neptunus peélagicus, Miers, Catalogue New Zealand Crust., p. 25 (1876).

Haswell, Catalogue Austr, Crust., p. 77 (1882).

Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool.) xx, p, 110 (1890).

orgceen Tvans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 367

(1893).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii, p. 34 (1899).

‘ica; Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p. 21

1900).

Kohli, Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. iii, p. 85 (1921-1922).

Delsman and de Man, Zreubia vi, p. 309 (1925).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 142 (1927).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 21 (1951).

Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus, yee Proc. Zool. Soé. London, p. 745

(1900).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5),

p. 412 (1906).

Chopra, Aec. nd. Mus. xxxvii, p. 476 (1935).

Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 387 (1939).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x,

p- 81 (1940).

Lupa pelagica, Barnard, dun. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 153 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay, Karwar, and Okha

are in the present collection. An average male measures :—

length of carapace 57 mm.

breadth of carapace suo Iss seat eol

This species is distinguished from Veptunus (Neptunus) sang'utnolen-

tus by the presence of a spine at the far end of the posterior border of the

arm of the chelipeds.

Colour in the male, pinkish purple, with extensive irregular white

spots, the tips of the chelae and the distal segments of the legs purple;

female sand-coloured.

Like Scylla serrata, this species is also of economic importance, as it

is availabie in large numbers and grows to four or five inches across the

carapace.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are quite straight and have

no sharp bend near the tip. The margins in the distal part are beset

a. Scylla serrata (Forskal). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appendage of male.

c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata (Herbst). Dorsal view of crab

(walking legs on left side denuded of hair). e. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. f. Tip

of same, enlarged. g. Male abdomen.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 6

- 5 MM

(rosea 1MM,

a. Neptunus (Neptunus) pelagicus (Linnaeus). Dorsal view of crab. 06. ist left abdominal

appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera (Fabricius).

Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left side denuded of hair). e. 1st left abdominal appendage

of male. f. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Male abdomen. h. Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata

(Fabricius). Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left side denuded of hair). 7. 1st left abdo-

minal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged. k. Male abdomen.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 419

with a larger number of spines than in Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguino-

lentus.

It has been previously recorded from the Red Sea (Suez), Mediter-

ranean (Port Said), Natal, Zanzibar, Mozambique, Madagascar, India,

Persian Gulf, Mergui Archipelago, Ceylon, Singapore, Indian Archipelago,

Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Tahiti, China Sea,

and Japan.

Genus Charybdis De Haan

Subgenus Goniosoma Milne-Edwards

Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata (Herbst)

(Plate 5)

FPortunus (Oceanus) crucifer, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 40 (1850).

Gontosoma cruciferum, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii,

p. 79 (1887).

Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 374

(1893).

Gonidsoma crucifera, Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 110

(1890).

Charybdis (Goniosoma) crucitera, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii, p. 51

(1899).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii,

p- 22 (1951).

Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata, Delsman and de Man, TZvreudia vi, p. 311

(1925).

Chopra and Das, Aee. nd. Mus. xxxix, p. 392

(1937).

Leene, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 24

(1938).

Shen, bull. fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x,

p. 82 (1940).

Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciatus, Chopra, sec. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, p. 482 (1935).

Charybdis cruciata, Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo p. 403 (1939).

Barnard, Aun. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 166 (1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 175

(1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were caught at Bombay and off

the Gulf of Cutch at a depth of 25 fathoms. A large male measures :—

length of carapace SAP ero }s) Naay oat

breadth of carapace ees, Joo) Inia,

length of cheliped ... 260 mm.

distance between the tips of outstretched

chelipeds sesh OU) Matin

There are no distinct transverse ridges behind the level of the last

spine of the antero-lateral borders. The first spine of this border is

anteriorly truncated. The major diameter of the orbits is one-third the

width of the inter-orbital space. The propodite of the last pair of

legs bears one or two inconspicuous denticles near the far end of its

posterior border. In the male abdomen the sixth segment is much

broader than long and has curved and gently convergent sides.

Colour purplish brown with a jiarge yellow cross; chelipeds purple,

spotted with yellow, the tips pink and light brown.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are more or less straight,

with the tip blurtly pointed. There is a thick fringe of hairs on the

distal part of the outer margin, and a few short scattered hairs on the

upper surface also.

420. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

It is a very common Indian species, occurring extensively both in the

Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. It is also found in the Indian Ocean,

South Africa, Indian Archipelago, China Sea, Japan, and Australia. _

Its large size makes it a suitable edible species, but it is not very

common along the Bombay coast.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) lucifera (Fabricius)

(Plate 6)

Portunus (Oceanus) dentatus, de Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 41 (1850).

Goniosoma luciferum, Hendesen Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 374

(1893).

Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 1zxiii,

p. 201 (1894).

Charybdis (Goniosoma) quadrimaculata, Ce ee As. Soc. Bengal \xviii,

p. 54 (1899).

Charybdis (Gontosoma) lucifera, Delsman and de Man, 7reuéia vi; p. 313 (1925).

reas and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 392

1937) 5"

Charybdis (Charybdis) luciferae, Leene, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 57 (1938).

Charybdis lucifer, Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 401 (1939).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 175

(1950).

The present collection is represented by a male from Bombay. It

measures :—

length of carapace esol amma.

breadth of carapace Boo. (oY4 [aayroo),

length of cheliped soo ekey4 1anvon\,

A sharply dentiform lobule at the outer end of the lower border of the

orbit is characteristic of this species.

Colour yellowish brown with two large white spots on either branchial

region, chelipeds scarlet pink, the tips light brown, extreme tips

whitish.

The posterior border of the propodite of the last pair of legs is

serrated throughout. The sixth male abdominal segment has its sides

parallel or even slightly divergent in at least two-thirds of its extent.

In the anterior male abdominal appendages, there is no bend near the

tip. The inner margin in its distal part is beset with hairs. There is a

fringe of hairs on the distal part of the outer margin also.

This species is met with on both coasts of India, Ceylon, Java, and

Siam.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) annulata (Fabricius)

(Plate 6)

Gontosoma annulatum, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 375

. (1893).

Charybdis (Gentosoma) annulata, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii, p. 54

(1899).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Gout. Mus. i, p. 142

(1927).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 393

(1937).

Leene, Szboge Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 60

(1938).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii,

p. 22 (1951).

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 421

Charybdis annulata, Sakai, Vokendo Ltd. Tokyo p. 492 (1939).

Barnard, Ann. Mag. nat. hist. xiii, p. 363 (1946).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p.169 (1950 ).

ee Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 175

(1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were caught at Bombay. An

average male measures :—

length of carapace sco» els) Pavol

breadth of carapace .. 306 mm.

diameter of orbit anes Od) moaknayy

inter-orbital space so. Al) soaeat,

The following may be added to Alcock’s description. The upper

borders of the merus, carpus, propodus, and dactylus, and the lower

borders of the propodus and dactylus of the legs are fringed with hairs.

The posterior border of the propodites of the last pair of legs is

serrated in a large part of its extent.

The sixth male abdominal segment is nearly as long as broad and has

its sides parallei for about three-fourth of their extent.

In the specimens in the present collection, there is no spinule at the

far end of the inferior border of the arm of the chelipeds. Moreover, the

major diameter of the orbits is one-third the width of the inter-orbital

space.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are somewhat sharply bent

near the tip. The inner margin has a small lobe-like process a little

behind the tip.

Colour flesh-coloured or purple with creamy blotches, with a light

greenish tinge. Legs and chelipeds with circular purple and creamy

bands, fingers deep red, grey, and black, with brownish white tips. Other

specimens have a uniform sandy brown colour.

This species has been previously recorded from Penang, Bimlipatam,

Travancore, Karachi, Tahiti, Siam, Mergui, and Ceylon.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) callianassa (Herbst)

(Plate 7)

Goniosoma variegatum, var. callianassa, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London

(Zool.) v, p. 377 (1893).

Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc.

Bengal \xiii, p. 201 (1894).

Charybdis (Goniosoma) callianassa, gel cock Journ. As, Soc. Bengal \xviii, p. 57

(1899).

Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxviii, p. 489

(1935).

Chopra and Das, ec. Ind. Mus. xxxix,

p. 395 (1937).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol, (Zool.)

x, p. 83 (1940).

Charybdis (Charybdts) callianassa, aeene, Siboga Exped. Rep, xxxix, p. 81

5 (1Y¥30).

Charybdis callianassa, Sato ee of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p.175

(1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay and Udvada are in

_the present collection. Average specimens measure :—

Male :—

length of carapace oe Lo: Min,

breadth of carapace -» 24 mm.

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64

Female :—

length of carapace «, 14 mm.

breadth of carapace . ise Ca) Taken

The carapace in this species is convex, about two-third as long as

broad (except in adult females, in which the last spine of the antero-

lateral borders is prolonged). The teeth on the antero-lateral borders are

serrulate. A transverse ridge is present on the cardiac region. ‘The

posterior border of the propodites of the last pair of legs is smooth.

The sixth male abdominal segment is transversely oblong with the

anterior angles rounded.

Colour dirty white or light grey.

In the specimens in the present collection, the ridge on the cardiac

region is present, as also the carina on the fourth abdominal tergum of

the female. The major diameter of the orbit is a little less than one

third the inter-orbital space.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are sharply bent a little way

behind the tip, which is somewhat sharply pointed. There are only a

few hairs on the outer border quite close to the tip.

This species has been previously recorded from the east coast of

India, Bombay, Karachi, Siam, and Sumatra.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) orientalis (Dana)

(Plate 7)

Goniosoma orientale, Tags Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 375

1893). |

Charybdis (Gontosoma) oriéentalts, yes Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \aviii, p. 63

(1899).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report

(5), p. 418 (1906).

Charybdis (Charybdis) orientalis, Leene, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 68

(1938).

Charybdis oriéntalis, Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 407 (1939).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 170 (1950).

The present collection is represented by numerous specimens, of both

sexes, from Bombay. An average male measures :—

length of carapace spo. AS) ioaveo

breadth of carapace sod. ChS: Taalfonl,

This species is distinguished by the presence of one ridge on the

posterior half of each branchial region, and the rudimentary nature of the

second tooth on the antero-lateral borders. ‘The posterior border of the

propodite of the last pair of legs is serrated. The sixth male abdominal

segment is almost square with the anterior angles rounded.

Colour of carapace mottled gray brown, spines tipped brown, fingers

of chelipeds dark red, tips brownish, extreme tips white, alternate dark

and light grey-brown stripes on legs.

In the specimens in the present collection, there is no trace of any

tidge behind the level of the last spines of the antero-lateral borders.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is bent a littie way from the

tip, which is slender; the inner margin is notched off in a small rounded

lobule a little way behind the tip. Both the borders bear hairs, the outer

border up to the tip.

This species has been previously recorded from Pedro Shoal, Madras,

and Arakan coasts. ‘This is the first record from the west coast of India,

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 433

Subgenus Goniohellenus

Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites (Wood-Mason)

(Piate. 7)

Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii,

p. 66 (1899).

Leene, Sz6oga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p.99

(1938).

Charybdis ho plites, ent Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 207

(1911),

A male, with both the chelipeds broken off, was caught off the Gulf of

Cutch at a depth of 25 fathoms. It measures :—

length of carapace Baby ia/mp anv ea:

breadth of carapace Soo me) seabed

In this species the antennal flagellum is completely excluded from the

orbital hiatus, and the posterior border of the carapace forms an angular

junction with the postero-lateral borders. The posterior border of the

arm of the chelipeds ends ina spine. The last tooth of the antero-

lateral borders isa long, eptunus-like spine at least twice as long as

those in front of it.

Colour dirty white.

The posterior border of the propodite of the last pair of legs is finely

serrated. ‘The sixth male abdominal segment is_ truncate-triangular,

having almost no curve to the sides.

In the specimen in the present collection, the two granular subregional

convexities of the anterior part of the gastric region are distinct ridges.

There is a terminal spinule on the posterior border of the merus of the

penultimate pair of legs. The lower orbital border outside the inner

angle is finely crenulate.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are extremely broad at the

base. The tip is spoon-like and bears hairs along both borders.

‘This species has been previously recorded from the Coromandel

coast, and off the Indus delta. This is the first record from Bombay

State.

Genus Thalamita Milne-Edwards

Thalamita crenata Milne-Edwards

(Plate 7)

Thalamita crenata, de Man, Journ, Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 79 (1887).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Lengal \xviii, p. 76 (1899).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 748 (1900).

Rae Trans, Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 207

(1911).

Kemp, Mem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 249 (1915-1924).

Kohli, Proc. Lahore Phil: Soc. iii, p. 85 (1921-1922).

Delsman and de Man, Z7reudia vi, p. 313 (1925).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 144 (1927).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 414 (1939).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. ( Zool.) x, p. 84 (1940).

Barnard, dnn. S. Afr. Mus, xxxviii, p. 172 (1950).

ene Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 174

1950).

Acie Bult. Rattles Mus, Singapore 21, p. 109 (1950).

Thalanmuta prymna var. crenata, Vaurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report

(5), p. 418 (1906).

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay represent the

present collection. An average male measures :—

length of carapace .. 34mm,

breadth of carapace ace eo) ams

The antero-lateral borders of the carapace are cut into five equal teeth.

The transverse ridges of the carapace are faint. ‘The front is cut into six

lobes, exclusive of the inner supra-orbital angles. The extreme extent of

the basal antennal joint is far greater than the major diameter of the

orbit. The outer surfaces of the palms of the chelipeds are nearly

smooth. ‘The posterior border of the propodite of the last pair of legs

sometimes has two to three denticles, but these are often absent. The

sixth male abdominal segment is broader than long and has gently curved

sides.

Colour uniform greenish grey, claws pinkish, tips dark brown,

extreme tips white.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are straight, the tip bearing

a few hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andamans,

Mergui, Bombay, Karachi, Red Sea, east coast of Africa, Persian Gulf,

Singapore, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Samoa.

According to the opinion of the International Commission on Zoologi-

cal Nomenclature (Prov. Biol. Soc., Washington, xxxi+x, 1926, p. 91)

Milne-Edwards, not Latreille, must: be regarded as the author of this

species, as Latreille did not publish the name ; the latter is, according to

Milne-Edwards, that of a specimen in the Paris Museum.

Thalamita prymna (Herbst)

(Plate 7)

Portunus (Thalamita) prymna, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. oo (1850).

Thalamita prymna, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 80 (1882

de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 75

(1887).

ae. Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 372

(1893

Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc, Bengal \xiii, p. 201

(1894).

Alcock, Journ. As. Sec. Bengal \xviii, p. 78 (1899).

Calman, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p. 22

(1900).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Laccadive Archipel.

(2) i, p. 201 (1902).

Rathbun, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 208

(1911).

Gravely, Bull, Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 144 (1927).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 395 (1937).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 416 (1939).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 84 (1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 174

(1950).

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 81 (1950).

A male and a female from Okha are in the present collection. The

male measures :-—

length of carapace MnieBdc: joes wecvoal,

breadth of carapace aod) (Sep iaavear

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 7

SMM

1MM

a. Charybdis (Goniosoma) callianassa (Herbst). Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left

side denuded of hair). b. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged.

d. Charybdis (Gontosoma) orientalis (Dana). Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left side denuded

of hair). e. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. f. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Male abdomen.

h. Charybdis (Goniohellenus) hoplites (Wood-Mason). Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left

side denuded of hair). 7. rst left abdominal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged.

k. Male abdomen. 1. Thalamita crenata Milne-Edwards. Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on

left side denuded of hair). m. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. mn. Tip of same, enlarged.

0. Thalamita prymna (Herbst). Dorsal view of crab (walking legs on left side denuded of hair).

p. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. gq. Tip of same, enlarged.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

TMM,

a. Atergatis integerrimus (Lamarck). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appen-

dage of male. c. ‘Tip of same, enlarged. d. Atergatis floridus (Rumph). Dorsal view of crab.

e. rst left abdominal appendage of male. f. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Atergatis roseus (Rup-

pell). Dorsal view of crab. h. ist left abdominal appendage of male. 12. Platypodia cristata

(Milne-Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. j. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. k. ‘Tip of

same, enlarged. J. Xantho (Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus baccalipes Alcock. Dorsal view of crab.

m. ist left abdominal appendage of male. za. Tip of same, enlarged. o. Leptodius exaratus

(Milne-Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. p. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. gq. Tip of

same, enlarged.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY AQS

This species is distinguished by the fourth tooth of the antero-lateral

borders being rudimentary, and sometimes even absent. The orbital

prolongation of the basal antennal joint is traversed by a row of spines

of which from one to three are large. The posterior border of the

propodite of the last pair of legs is serrated throughout. The sixth male

abdominal segment is about as long as broad, and has gently convergent

sides.

In the female specimen in the present collection, there are six spines

on the hand of the chelipeds instead of five, and four on the arm (one

very small spine distally).

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent towards the tip

which is spoon-like and bears a few hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from the Bay of Bengal

from Mergui to Madras, Natal, Red Sea, Andamans, Malayan Archi-

pelago, Liu-Kiu Island, Japan, Australia, New Caledonia, Tonga Islands

and Samoa. ‘This is the first record from the west coast of India.

It has become customary to refer to ‘ prymna’ all forms of Thalamita

in which the front is cut into eight lobes, the basal antennal joint exceeds in

breadth the diameter of the orbit and bears a row of spines, and the

fourth antero-lateral tooth is small or rudimentary ; and to maintain as

specifically distinct a number of torms differing in the absence of spines

on the basal antennal joint and in the fourth antero-lateral tooth not

being smaller than the rest, although Kossman regarded all these forms

as conspecific with Thalamita prymna and Alcock (1899) endorsed his

view.

Family XANTHIDAE

Subfamily xANTHINAE

Genus Atergatis De Haan

Atergatis integerrimus (Lamarck)

(Plate 8)

Cancer (Atergatis) integerrimus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 45 (1850).

Atergatis integervimus, de 1687) Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 24

887).

pars Journ. Linn, Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 109

(1890).

Henderson, 7rans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 352

(1893).

Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p, 95 (1898).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 730 (1900).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 394

(1906).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 144 (1927).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 397 (1937).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 448 (1939).

Tweedie, Bull. Rattles Mus. 21, p. 87 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay,

Karwar, and Okha. It inhabits rocky places. A large male measures :—

length of carapace . ~ 4s. 64 mm.

breadth of carapace fee GOR TIT.

This species is distinguished by the smooth carapace, without indica-

tions of regions, the edges of. the antero-lateral borders being sharp and

crest-like, and forming a ridge at the lateral epibranchial angle. There is

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

almost no hair on the surface of the external maxillipeds, and there are

no comb-like tufts of hair on the legs. ;

Colour brick-red, the pits on the carapace whitish, fingers black, with

whitish tips and teeth. 3

In the specimens in the present collection, the walking legs, in addition

to the usual little tuft of hairs near the far end of the lower border of the

propodite, have a few stiff hairs in a similar position on the ischium;

there is also a tuft of hair on the tooth on the inner border of the wrist

of the chelipeds.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is bent sharply at the tip,

which bears a few long hairs at the end and numerous spinules near it.

This species has a wide range of distribution, having been recorded

from Japan to Zanzibar. It has been recorded so far in India only from

the Bay of Bengal. ‘This is the first record from the west coast of India.

Atergatis floridus (Rumph)

(Plate 8)

Cancer (Atergatis) floridus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 46 (1850).

Atergatis ftoridus, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 41 (1882).

de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 24

(1887).

anaes Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 109

(1890).

Henderson, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 35

(1893),

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 98 (1898).

Calman, Zvans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) viii, p. 5

(1900).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 730 (1900).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 207 (1950).

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. 21, p. 87 (1950).

Atergatis ocyvoe, Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 163 (1950).

A male from Bombay represents the present collection. It

measures -—

length of carapace =. = 30) tm.

breadth of carapace .. 54 mm.

This species is distinguished by the jumpy carapace with broad,

shallow depressions.

Colour yellowish pink, with symmetrically disposed spots and con-

fluent blotches. |

The anterior male abdominal appendages are somewhat similar to

those of Alergatis integerrimus, in being tipped with spinules and hairs,

but the hairs in this case are much longer.

This species has been previously recorded from South Africa, Red

Sea, Andamans, Mereui, Laccadives, Karachi, Thailand, Philippines,

Australia, and Japan. ‘This is the first record from Bombay State.

Atergatis roseus (Ruppell)

(Plate 8)

Atergatis roseus,* Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 97 (1898).

Three male specimens from Okha are in the present collection. It

frequents rocky regions. ‘The largest male measures :—

length of carapace .. 16 mm,

breadth of carapace cieee Zo) mama,

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 427

This species is distinguished by the edges of the antero-lateral borders

being thick and blunt. and ending smoothly, without any ridge or tooth

at the lateral epibranchial angle.

Colour during life a beautiful dark pink, with a narrow white lining

on the sides, fingers blackish brown, with whitish tips and teeth. The

colour fades in spirit.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is split into two at about half

the length. Both the split parts bear tufts of hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from Madras and Karachi.

This is the first record from Bombay State.

Genus Platypodia

Platypodia cristata (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 8)

Lophactaea cristata, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 100 (1898).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Laccadive Archipel.

(3) i, p. 258 (1902).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 146 (1927),

‘Platypodia cristata, Rathbun, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 214

911

ae Ann, S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 208 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Okha are in the present

collection. An average male measures :—

length of carapace Si, oe, mat,

breadth of carapace ee 39) mim:

This species is distinguished by the carapace and the outer surfaces

of the carpopodites and propodites of the legs being covered with pearly

granules, and the upper border of the hand of the chelipeds being

sharply crested.

Colour of the carapace bright pink, the crests whitish, fingers of the

chelipeds black.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is elegantly bent at the tip,

and carries spinules on its distal part.

This species has been previously recorded from Madras and Mauri-

tius. This is the first record from the west coast of India.

Genus Xantho Leach

Subgenus Lophoxanthus Milne-Edwards

Xantho (Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus baccalipes Alcock

(Plate 8)

Xantho ( Lophoxanthus) scaberrimus, var. baccalipes, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc.

Bengal \xvii, p. 117 (1898).

The present collection is represented by two males from Bombay.

The larger one measures :—

length of carapace --- 45 mm.

breadth of carapace .-» 60 mm.

This variety is distinguished by the worn appearance of the tubercles

on the carapace and chelipeds; the dorsal surfaces of the arm of the

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.\ SOCIETY, : Vol. 54

chelipeds and meropodites of the legs are covered with a row of berry-

like teeth.

Colour a deep brick-red. Fingers of chelipeds dark brown in their

basal half, white at the tips.

There is a tendency for the antero-lateral her ders to continue BoaeaEh .

the orbits to the angles of the buccal cavern, as in Wedaeus.

‘The anterior male abdominal appendages are thin, covered with back-

ward projecting spinules, five of which are situated close together near

the tip where, also, are about 16 barbed hairs.

It has been previously recorded from Ceylon. ‘This is the first record

of this variety from India.

Genus Leptodius Milne-Edwards

Leptodius exaratus (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 8)

Leptodius exaratus, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 60 (1882).

ae an, Journ. Linn. Soc. Debaon (Zool.) xxii, p. 33

aa Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 362

acne Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 738 (1900).

cae Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 215

Shen, Just. Zool. Nat. Acad. Peiping iii, p. 61 (1936).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Lnd. Mus. xxxix, p. 398 (1937),

nye Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool. \iavaio epeml75

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 85 (1940)

Saal Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 164

(1950

Lepthodius exaratus, Maccagno, Aun. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova lix, p. 174

(1935-1937).

Xantho (Leptodius) exaratus, 1888). Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 118

(18

Calman, Zvrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.)

vii, p. 6 (1900).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report

(5), p. 402 (1906).

eas Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 146

927).

Sakai, YL nendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 464 (1939).

Xantho exaratus, Gordon, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii, p 543

(1939- -1932).

Xantho hydrophilus, Montgomery, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii,

p. 435 (1931). ;

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at various places

around Bombay. It lives among rocks. An average male measures :—

length of carapace - 21 mm.

breadth of carapace . 3] mm.

This species is distinguished by the antero-lateral border being cut into

four teeth, and the postero-lateral border being equal in length to the

chord of the antero-lateral border.

Colour a dirty purple grey, fingers of chelipeds black, with whitish

tips. In the young, there is a vertical white ean in the middle of the

carapace ; this fades in spirit.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY § 4:29

_ There seems to be a great deal of variation in the shape and acuteness

of the lateral lobes and teeth of the carapace; in young crabs, the

lobes are usually less distinct and the teeth are blunter.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is bent at the tip like a

ploughshare. The tip bears spinules and its edges are serrated.

This species has been previously recorded from both the Bay of

Bengal and the Arabian Sea, including Bombay, also from the Persian

Gulf, Polynesia, Australia, Malaya, Ceylon, Maldives and sera,

Red Sea, and Seychelles.

Leptodius crassimanus Milne-Edwards

(Plate 9)

Leptodius crassimanus, Haswell, G, atalogue Austr. Crust., p. 61 (1882).

Xantho (Leptodius) crassimanus, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 120

(1898).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Bombay.

It lives among rocks. An average male measures :—

length of carapace .. 26 mm.

breadth of carapace ... 41 mm,

breadth of front .. 8mm,

This species is distinguished by the narrow front with the edges

of its lobes deeply concave, so that it appears to be quadridentate,

and the antero-lateral borders cut into five teeth.

Colour dirty yellow or grey, fingers of chelipeds black with whitish

tips.

The anterior male abdominal appendage is curved, and has its tip

flat and arrow-headed and covered with long spines.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andamans,

Karachi, and Australia. This is the first record from Bombay State.

Leptodius euglyptus quadrispinosus Chhapgar

(Plate 9)

Leptodius euglyptus quadrisbinosus, Chhapgar, tec. Ind. Mus. iii

(1955) (in press).

Numerous adult specimens, of both sexes, were collected among rocks

from Okha.

A male of average size gave the following measurements :—

length of carapace! ... 10.0 mm.

breadth of carapace oho 5 J eentony

Though the specimens greatly resemble Lepfodius euglyptus Alcock,

they differ from the latter in some important respects, and a detailed

description of a typical specimen is, therefore, given below.

Carapace two-third as long as broad, rather strongly convex in its

anterior two-thirds, flat posteriorly; its regions well delimited, convex,

and as completely areolated as any Actaea—the areolae being strongly

convex and somewhat pitted transversely.

Front projecting beyond the orbit, from which it is separated by a

notch, cut into two lobes of which the outer angle is prominent ; its

breadth is not quite a third of the carapace.

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, 54

Antero-lateral borders cut into four conical teeth, not including the

outer angle of the orbit, or a small denticle below it; postero-lateral

borders strongly convergent, as long as the chords of the antero-lateral

borders.

Chelipeds unequal ; the upper and outer surfaces of the wrist strongly

wrinkled and pitted ; the upper surface of the hand nodular, upper half or

more of the outer surface of the hand longitudinally ridged and transver-

sely wrinkled; fingers short, stout, hollowed (but not broadened) at the

tip.

Legs with the carpopodite and propodite longitudinally ridged and

grooved above—the carpus more distinctly so; the dactylus furred.

Side walls of carapace, edges of the upper surface of the arm, and

edges of legs, especially the upper edge of the meropodites, hairy.

Colour, during life, of carapace pink, a white longitudinal band from

the front across the gastric region, fingers of chelipeds and front lower

corner of the hands blackish brown.

This variety resembles Leptodzus eugly ptus Alcock in the sharp

Actaea-like sculpture of the carapace, but differs from it in having only four

teeth on the antero-lateral borders, as well as in the relationship ot the

lengths of the antero-lateral and postero-lateral borders. In this case, the

postero-lateral borders are as long as the chord of the antero-lateral

borders, whereas in Leptodius euglyptus Alcock they are shorter than the

chord of the antero-lateral borders.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are elegantly bent, serrulate

near the tip, proximal to which are about 12 to 15 larger spinules.

These spinules do not extend up to the tip. (In Lefptodius euglyptus

Alcock the spinules are ionger and sharper and extend right up to the tip;

the serrulations also are sharper and form only a single row.)

Genus Medaeus Dana

Medaeus granulosus (Haswell)

(Plate 9)

Medaeus granulosus, Geren, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii, p. 543

1931).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 459 (1939).

The present collection is represented by five males from Bombay and

Okha. An average specimen measures :—

length of carapace Auge IS) soolen',

breadth of carapace s... 19 mm.

This species is distinguished by the antero-lateral borders being

distinctly continued beneath the orbits to the angies of the buccal cavern.

The carapace is two-third as long as broad, with numerous short, trans-

verse rows of bead-like granules on its anterior half. ‘These are more

scattered on the hinder regions, but are distinct on the posterior border

and between the four antero-lateral teeth.

Colour ashy grey. Fingers of chelipeds chocolate brown.

The anterior male abdominal appendages have their sides with back-

ward projecting spinules. Near the tip are numerous barbed hairs. The

appendages show a marked resemblance to those of Xantho (Lophoxanthus)

cabervimus baccalipes. .

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 431.

Genus Etisus Milne-Edwards

Etisus laevimanus Randall

(Plate 9)

Etisus laevimanus, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 54 (1882).

Henderson, 7rans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 362

(1893).

Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 200

(1894).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 131 (1898).

Calman, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool.) vii, p. 7 (1900).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 738 (1990).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maidive Laccadive Archipel.

(3) i, p. 263 (1902).

Rathbun, Zrvans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 217

(1911).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 146 (1927).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 497 (1939).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay and Okha are

represented in the present coliection. The largest measures :—,

length of carapace abe, AS) Foaoal

breadth of carapace ... 44 mm.

This species is distinguished by the four-toothed antero-lateral

borders, the tooth at the inner angle of the lower border of the orbit being

in contact with the eave of the orbit beyond the tip of the process of the

basal antennal joint, the legs being spineless, and the fingers of the

chelipeds broadened and hoof-like.

Colour patchy orange and white, fingers of chelipeds black.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent at the tip at a plane

right angles to the plane of the body ; the tip bears saw-like teeth.

This species has been previously recorded from Karachi, Bombay,

Persian Gulf, Laccadives, Andamans, Singapore, Celebes, and Mauritius.

Genus Galene De Haan

Galene bispinosa (Herbst)

(Plate 9)

Cancer (Galene) bispinosus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 49 (1850).

Gaiene bispinosa, Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 110 (1890).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii. pp. 136, 137 (1898).

Chopra, /ec. Ind. Mus. xxxvii, pp. 509,510 (1935).,

Two males from Bombay are in the present collection. The larger

one measures :—

length of carapace -» 40mm.

breadth of carapace Sho 1 Sls) soalools

This species is distinguished by the convex carapace, with the slightly

granular antero-lateral borders indistinctly four-lobed. The chelipeds are

massive and unequal, and bear pointed fingers. All joints of the abdomen

are distinct.

Colour during life pinkish.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are long and straight. The

tip bears a peculiar blunt finger-like process on the outer margin, with

two rows of spines proximal to it.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

This species has been previously recorded from Vizagapatam and the

Ganges Delta, as wellas Hong Kong and Japan. This is the first record

from the west coast of India.

Subfamily ACTAEINAE

Genus Actaea De Haan

Actaea savignyi (Milne-Edwards)

| (Plate 9)

_ Cancer (Actaea) granulatus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 47 (1850).

Actaea granulata, Miers, Catalugue New Zealand Crust., p. 16 (1876).

Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 44 (1882).

Henderson, 7rans. Linn. Soc, London (Zool.) v, p. 356 (1893).

alee and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 200

894).

hieae Journ. As. Soe. Bengal \xvii, p. 151 (1898).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 732 (1909).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Laccadive Archipel. (3)

i, p. 256 (1902).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 405 (1906).

Actaea savignyt, Been Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv, p. 221

(1911).

Montgomery, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxvii, p. 438

(1931).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 485 (1939).

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem, Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 85 (1940).

Barnard, dun. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 231 (1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 163 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Okha are in the present

collection. An average male measures :—

length of carapace op 13 mm,

breadth of carapace Son / sootoay,

This species is distinguished by its mulberry-like carapace, owing to

_its entire surface being covered with confluent tubercles, each tubercle

again being formed of confluent granules. These tend to be spiny on the

legs.

Coiour light reddish brown, fingers black with white tips.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are narrowed and hook-like

at the tip with a few spines and numerous feathery hairs. SOR

This species has been previously recorded from Seychelles, Persian

Gulf, Red Sea, India, Ceylon, Maldives and Laccadives, Malaya, Hong

Kong, Australia, New Zealand, Karachi, Ganjam coast, Mergui, and

Malacca. ‘This is the first record from Bombay State.

Subfamily MENIPPINAE

Genus Myomenippe Hilgendorf

Myomenippe hardwickii (Gray)

| (Plate 10)

Myomenippe granulosa, de ee Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 40

: (1887).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 740 (1900).

a Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 166

(1950). |

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 9

1 MM 1MM,

a. Leptodius crassimanus Milne-Edwards. Dorsal view of crab. 0b. 1st left abdominal

appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Leptodius euglyptus quadrispinosus Chhapgar.

Dorsal view of male. e. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. ff. Tip of same, enlarged.

g. Medaeus granulosus (Haswell). Dorsal view of crab. h. 1st left abdominal appendage of

male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged. j. Etisus laevimanus Randall. Dorsal view of crab. k. 1st

left abdominal appendage of male. 1, Tip of same, enlarged. m. Galene bispinosa (Herbst).

Dorsal view of crab. 1. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. o. Tip of same, enlarged.

p. Actaea savignyi (Milne-Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. q. 1st left abdominal appendage

of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 10

Ni ‘te

fremmemy |

71MM. 1 MM

a. Myomenippe hardwickii (Gray). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appendage

of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Ozius rugulosus Stimpson. Dorsal view of crab. e. 1st

left abdominal appendage of male. /. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Epixanthus frontalis (Milne-

Edwards). Dorsal view of crab. h. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same,

enlarged. j. Pilumnus vespertilio (Fabricius). Dorsal view of crab. k. 1st left abdominal

appendage of male, /. Tip of same, enlarged. m. Pilumnus longicornis Hilgendorf. Dorsal

view of crab. m. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. o. Tip of same, enlarged.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 433

Memppe (Myomenippe) granulosa, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal xvii,

; p. 179 (1898).

Myomenippe eabemen cs ES & Das, Rec. Ind. Mus, xxxix, p. 404

(1 37).

The present collection is represented by two females from Bombay.

It lives among rocks. The larger specimen measures :—

length of carapace. .. 45 mm,

breadth of carapace .. 64mm.

The antero-lateral border i is thin and rather sharp and is cut into four

teeth: The front is bilobed, each lobe being cut into three teeth. The

inner lower angle of the orbit is aS prominent. as the innermost lobule

of the frontal lobes.

Colour chocolate grey, fingers of chelipeds black.

_ According to Chopra & Das (1937), the anterior male abdominal

appendages are short and stout and are rounded at the tip. The usual

ciliated channel is entirely closed, leaving only an oval aperture near the

distal end. The sides are beset with long stout hairs.

This species has been previously recorded from the Bay of Bengal,

Mergui, Singapore, and Dar-es-Salaam on the east coast of Africa. This

is the first record from the west coast of India.

_ Subfamily OZIINAE

Genus Ozius Milne-Edwards

- Ozius rugulosus Stimpson

(Plate 10)

Ozius rugulosus, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 63 (1882).

Alcock, ‘Journ. As. Soc. Bengal Ixvii, p. 182 (1898).

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 145 (1927).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 518 (1939).

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 15 (1951).

_ Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were caught at Bombay and

Karwar. It lives among rocks. An average male measures :—

length of carapace ... 46mm.

breadth of carapace ... 66 mm.

This species is distinguished by the smooth carapace without any

tubercles, it being two-third as long as broad. The surface of the wrists

and hands of the chelipeds is reticulate-rugulose.

Colour dark reddish or violet brown, fingers of chelipeds black, teeth

and tips white.

In the specimens in the present collection, the front is cut into four

equidistant teeth, but the two inner teeth are far bigger than the outer-

most ones. Only the upper surface of the carpopodites of the legs is

hairy. The antennae are more than 12 times the width of the orbit in

length.

The anterior male Bee nal appendages are bluntly tipped, like the

tip of a banana. The sides are beset with long stout hairs, and there is

an oval patch of spinules near the tip.

This species has been previously recorded from India, Ceyion,

Andamans and Nicobars, Australia, New Caledonia, and Tahiti. This is

the first record from Bombay State. aol

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 .

Genus Epixanthus Heller

Epixanthus frontalis (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 10)

Epixanthus frontalis, de se ee ie Linn. Soe. London (Zool.) xxii p. 46

(188

Penden Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 364

(1893).

Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 185 (1898).

Lautie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. ee (5), p. 408

(1906).

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 405 (1937).

Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokvo, p. 519 (1939).

Barnard, Ann. Mag nal. hist. xiii, p. 365 (1946).

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 259 (1950).

Beene ‘Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 167

(1950).

The present collection is represented by a male and a female from

Bombay. It lives among rocks. ‘The male measures :—

breadth of carapace Pe Gh) odour

breadth of front fe 1 mip:

This species is distinguished by the smooth, almost flat carapace, with

the antero-lateral borders divided by very short narrow fissures into four

broad and shallow lobes.

Colour dirty yellowish or bluish brown, fingers chocolate brown.

In the male in the present collection, the fourth lobe of the antero-

lateral borders is further subdivided by a slight fissure, there being thus

five lobes. In addition to the bluntly pointed inner angle of the wrist,

there is a subterminal denticle on the same border.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are slightly curved; the

tip is blunt and bears minute spinules in a patch at the end. Longer

spinules occur along the borders.

This species has been previously recorded from the Bay of Bengal as

well as the Arabian Sea. It is also known to occur from Tasmania to the

east coast of Africa and the Red Sea.

Subfamily PILUMNINAE

Genus Pilumnus Leach

Pilumnus vespertilio (Fabricius)

(Plate 10)

Pilumnus vespertilio, Miers, Catalogue New Zealand Crust., p. 19 (1876).

Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust.,; p. 6s (1882).

He sey} Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, P. 58

687).

Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 110

(1880).

Henderson, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 365

(1893).

Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal xiii

p. 201 (1894).

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 192 (189s).

Lanchester, Proc, Zool. Soe. London, p. 743 (1900).

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 435

Borradaile, Fauna Geog, Maldive Laccadive Archipel.

(3) i, p. 245 (1902),

vue Oe Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 408

(1906). :

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 263 (1950).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 167

(1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Bombay

and Okha. An average male measures :—

length of carapace won oe Imm,

breadth of carapace .. 25 mm,

breadth of front Soo ts) soohenls

This species can be distinguished by the upper margin of the orbit

having two distinct notches, the outer orbital angle being sharp but not

spinuiar, and the presence of a subhepatic spine just below it. The

carapace, legs, and chelipeds (with the exception of the fingers and the

lower border of the hand) are concealed by a thick, dark, shaggy coat of

hair.

There seem to be two colour variations :—

(1) with greyish white carapace (when denuded), tending to a very

faint blue ;

(2) a whitish carapace blotched with bright brick-red, legs striped

with the same colours.

In the specimens in the present collection, the upper surface of the

meropodites of the legs is not hairy.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent upon themselves at

the tip to form a hook ; the borders bear spines.

This species has been previously recorded from Karachi, Tavoy,

Mergui, and the Andamans. This is the first record from Bombay

State.

Pilumnus longicornis Hilgendorf

(Plate 10)

Pilumnus longicornis, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 193 (1898).

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 408

(1906).

Rathbun, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (11) xiv,

p. 228 (1910-1917).

Chopra and Das, fee. Ind. Mus. xxxix. p. 496 (1937).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 167

(1950).

The present collection is represented by two males from Okha. It

lives in the mud under stones. The larger male measures :—

length of carapace sos) Mei naeyents

breadth of carapace .- 17 mm.

breadth of front Se Oo OnE.

This species is distinguished by the absence of a subhepatic spine

below the outer orbital angle. The free edge of the front, which is very

prominent, and the upper margin of the orbit, are finely denticulate. ‘The

carapace is covered with a fine, short fur among which are numerous

long, silky bristles.

436 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Colour of the denuded carapace a very light pinkish red, which fades

to grey in alcohol ; fingers of chelipeds brown.

In the specimens in the present collection, the external margin of the

second tooth of the antero-lateral borders is distinctly bluntly spinate, that

of the third obscurely so. |

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent sharply upon

themselves at the tip, which bears spines, five or six on the inner border

being larger.

This species has been previously recorded trom both the coasts of

India, including Bombay, as well as from Thailand and Seychelles.

Genus Heteropanope Stimpson

Heteropanope laevis (Dana)

(Plate 11)

Heteropanope laevis, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 209 (1898).

The present collection is represented by a male and two females from

Okha. The male measures :—

length of carapace bes 9 mm.

breadth of carapace oe 12.5 mm.

This species is distinguished by the convex carapace and smooth

chelipeds.

Colour greyish yellow.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are S-shaped. The tip is

bent over itself and carries five spinules on the inner border.

This species has been previously recorded from Karachi and Bombay.

Genus Eurycarcinus Milne-Edwards

Eurycarcinus orientalis (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 11)

Eurycarcinus orientalis, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii, p. 210 (1898).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 166

ee Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 16 (1951).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay, Kolak, and

Umarsadi are in the present collection. An average male measures :—

length of carapace ag Ike) Seoveal,

breadth of carapace Soa CA). saataa),

length of antero-lateral border Se) OMe TATAN

length of postero-lateral border ... 14 mm.

This species is distinguished by the antero-lateral borders, being less

than two-thira the length of the postero-lateral borders, and the thumb of

the larger cheliped with an enlarged tooth at its base.

Colour bright pink, fading to yellowish brown in spirit.

~The tooth at the base of the thumb of the larger cheliped is not so

enlarged in young specimens.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY : 437

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent sharply back at the

tips in the form of a hook bearing three large spinules and five to six

smaller ones. Tee

This species has been previously recorded from Karachi, Bombay

the Andamans, and Thailand.

Subfamily ERIPHINAE

Genus Eriphia Latreille

Eriphia laevimana smithii Macleay

(Plate 11)

Eriphia laevimana smithiz, panes Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 110

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xvii. p. 216

(1898).

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 744 (1900).

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 523 (1939),

Seen Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 86

(1940).

Eriphia smithii, Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 274 (1950).

The present collection is represented by a male and a female from

Okha. ‘The male measures :—

length of carapace 46 mm.

breadth of carapace 586 Oe) scabon,

This variety is distinguished by the absence of hairs on the carapace,

which is four-fifth as long as broad, the frontal lobes being bluntly

spinate, and the hand and wrist of the smaller cheliped being covered

with tubercles.

Colour dull maroon, fingers of chelipeds chocolate brown, teeth and

tips white.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are sharply tipped like a

scalpel ; the tip bears a row of spines along the inner border and a few

spinules placed haphazardly.

This variety has been previously recorded from Karachi and the

Mekran coast. This is the first record from Bombay State.

Family GONEPLACIDAE

Subfamily PSEUDORHOMBILINAE

Genus Eucrate De Haan

Eucrate crenata dentata (Stimpson)

(Plate 11)

fleteroplax (?) dentatus, eons Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 110

Lucrate crenata, var. dentata, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 301

(1900).

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Six berried females from Bombay represent the present collection.

An average specimen measures :-—

length of carapace .. 20 mm

breadth of carapace soon MC OMA,

This variety is distinguished by the antero-lateral borders of the

carapace being cut into four teeth of which the second and fourth are

quite inconspicuous. The median notch of the front is almost obsolete.

The chelipeds bear a patch of fur at the far end of the upper surface of

the wrist. .

Colour bright yellow, with minute red spots scattered throughout.

One of the specimens has two black squarish patches on the outer sides

of the gastric region.

The local specimens are very large compared to other Eucrate crenata so

far recorded in India. This variety probably visits the Bombay shore

only for breeding, as they are not found throughout the year. Two

berried females were caught in the first week of December, 1952. After

this, despite exhaustive search, no more specimens were found till the

last week of November, 1953, when again four berried females were

caught.*

This variety has been previously recorded from the Red Sea, Palk

Straits, and Hong Kong. ‘This is the first record from the west coast of

India.

Genus Litocheira Kinahan

Litocheira angustifrons Alcock

(Plate 11)

Litocheira angustifrons, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 315 (1900).

Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Laccadive Archipel.

(5) i, p. 430 (1903).

Tesch, Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 411 (1918).

The present collection is represented by numerous specimens from

Bombay. It lives in mud. An average male measures :—

length of carapace .. 9.4 mm.

breadth of carapace apo: al fe) sanyo,

breadth of front eee Sco) atiale

This species is distinguished by the carapace being two-third as long

as broad, the antero-lateral borders being arched and cut into three teeth.

Colour dirty light brownish, fingers white or light brown.

The anterior male abdominal appendages have the apex bent outwards

and considerably upwards. Just behind the tip on the outer side is a tuft

of long hairs decreasing in size distally, and a few minute spinules on the

inner border.

This species has been previously recorded from Bombay, Karachi,

Maldives, and Mergui Archipelago.

*Two male specimens of this crab were caught in the same locality in December,

1955. The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent at right angles at the tip,

which is transparent and of a golden yellow colour. The appendage bears rows of

short backwardly directed spines.

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 11

—— |

——————

22MM. 1 MM.

a. Heteropanope laevis (Dana). Dorsal view of crab. 6. 1st left abdominal appendage of

male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Eurycarcinus orientalis Milne-Edwards. Dorsal view of

crab. e. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. f. Tip of same, enlarged. g. Eriphia laevi-

mana smithi Macleay. Dorsal view of crab. h. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. 17. Tip

of same, enlarged. j. Eucrate crenata dentata (Stimpson). Dorsal view of crab. k. 1st left

abdominal appendage of male. J. Tip of same, enlarged. m. Litocheira angustifrons Alcock.

Dorsal view of crab. 1. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. o. Tip of same, enlarged.

p. Litocheira setosa (Milne-Edwards), Dorsal view of crab. gq. 1st left abdominal appendage

of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged.

ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY : 439

Litocheira setosa (Milne-Edwards)

(Plate 11)

Litocheira setosa, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 315 (1900).

Tesch, Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 165 (1918).

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 161 (1950).

A male from Okha is in the present collection. It measures :—

length of carapace de de mm:

breadth of carapace He slsRiugaatcok,

breadth of front .. 4.1mm.

This species is distinguished by the antero-lateral borders being arch-

ed and cut into two teeth.

Colour dirty white, fingers white.

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent at the tip, which

bears a few hairs on its outer border and a few minute spinules on the

inner border.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andamans and

Meregui. This is the first record from the west coast of India.

(Zo be continued)

OBITUARY

BRIGADIER VW. El. VANS, C:S.1-) C.1-Eu, D:S-O.) REEF

One of the most distinguished entomologists of our time has been

lost to us by the death in November 1956 at the age of 80 of Brigadier

Evans. He was born in Shillong, Assam, in 1876, his father

General Sir Horace Evans being there in command of the 8th Gurkha

Rifles. As a Royal Engineer he saw service with the Somaliland

Field Force in 1903 to 1904, and in France in the 1914-1918 War.

In 1927 he was appointed Chief Engineer, Western Command, and

retired in 1931. !

His first contribution to the journal of the B.N.H.S. was in 1912

and he sent articles to the Journal on the Identification of Indian

Butterflies, including those of Burma and Ceylon, from 1922-26.

These were published in book form in 1927, a surprising achievement

for one who had always worked hard in his profession as a Royal

Engineer.

The Keys constructed by him have stood the test of time and have

been largely used as the basis for the Keys of Talbot in the two

volumes of 1939 and 1947 of his revision of part of Bingham’s

Butterflies of India, Ceylon and Burma in the Fauna of India series.

Not only are the keys notable, but the number of species and sub-

species Newly named by him is large.

For the Hesperiidae alone he named 2 new genera and 37 new

species. He did not live near a museum and its library, and his

specimens were those he could catch himself or procure from Indian

collectors or from Tytler who collected in Manipur and the Naga

Hills from 1911-1914. His only extensive trips were for five months

in Burma in 1920-21 and two months in Sikkim in 1906. After his

retirement in 1931 he visited the Andamans and Australia. He

published a second edition of his book in 1932, with three new genera

and 161 new species and subspecies of Hesperiidae and 52 new species

and subspecies of other families. Since that time he worked daily

devoting himself to Hesperiidae of the World. The volumes are all

entitled Catalogue of the Hesperiidae in the British Museum

(Natural History), but they include species or subspecies of which

there are no examples in the Museum. The first dealt with Africa

and was published in 1937. The next in 1949 was on those of

Europe, Asia, and Australia. Four volumes followed between 10952

and 1955 upon those of North and South America. He found the

American material to be the most difficult as so many insects existed

indistinguishable in appearance but differing in genitalia. Only the

volume on those of Europe, Asia, and Australia is familiar to the

writer, whol has used it constantly for identification of Indian species.

The magnitude of the work is astonishing. The particular volume

is 502 pages, packed with information conveyed in the most economical

form as descriptions are reduced to a few words showing the salient

OBITUARY 441

points distinguishing each subspecies. The work is in fact a huge

key, compiled with meticulous accuracy.

Drawings| of the genitalia of every species, and where necessary of

subspecies, are placed in an appendix, so that an unknown male can be

identified by dissection, the exact subspecies being ascertainable by

its geographical range recorded in the key and by the short description

cf its particular markings. His ability in construction of a key to

genera, always the most difficult task as it should cover females as

well as males, can be appreciated by a comparison of the one made in

this volume with that of his key in 1932 in his Identification of Indian

Butterflies; the advance was made possible only by years of study.

The secret of such a vast accomplishment was his skill in dissecting

_by the application of wood naptha to the genitalia and extraction of

them and sticking on a card or by mere inspection without removal.

He could do a complete dissection in two minutes and must have

done many thousands. He has shown to the writer boxes full of

set specimens, all of which he had dissected while engaged on some

particular problem. :

It must be remembered that his work covered Europe, where many

experts had laboured and his decisions had to be exposed to critical

examination by them, not always to their satisfaction as he reduced

large numbers of names to synonyms. Many new species and

subspecies were discovered by him in course of the work. For the

single volume on Europe, Asia, and Australia he had to deal with

Over 75,000 specimens and with 1,065 types of species and subspecies

in the Museum out of the 1,641 active specific and subspecific names

for the area.

In his last years, between the age of 77 and 80, he published a

paper in the BNHS Journal correcting mistakes in the Lycaenid genus

Lycaenopsis. Another article in The Entomologist in 1954 was a

revision of the genus Curetis, based on genitalia and an examination

of the facies of 4,000 specimens.

One new species was found in South India, one in South Burma

and SE. Asia, and another in Tonkin, and a new subspecies in the Naga

Hills, Assam. In 1955 he published another article on the genus

Tarucus, hitherto so confused, and produced a firm basis for the

species based on genitalia but with a key that allowed identification

by facies. Only those who have used it can know what difficulties

it solved. A revision of the Arhopala of Asia is now in the hands

of the printers. With lungs which never fully recovered from a

German gas attack in France, with an unhealed phlebitis in a leg

which gave constant pain and made walking difficult, and with a

heart that did not allow him to climb stairs, he yet somehow managed

to get to the Museum every day, doing original work that required

great concentration of mind, keenness of vision, and steadiness of

hand, ever ready to put aside his work and to welcome anyone who

came to him with a butterfly for identification. He delighted to talk

of old days in India and his happy wanderings in the villages, where

he was received with such kindness and courtesy. A great entomo-

logist and a great man has passed away.

K.C.

REVIEWS

1. FEATURES OF EVOLUTION IN THE FLOWERING

PLANTS. By Ronald Good. Pp. xv+405 (21.5x14 cm.); 162

illustrations by Marjorie E. Malins and the author. London, 1956.

Longmans, Green & Co. 30s. net.

This book will certainly gladden the heart of many a botanist;

it is a contribution to the literature on Evolution taken in a rather

wider sense than is usual. The author draws the attention of all

biologists to the lack of balance in our approach to evolutionary

problems, and points out that this is the result of the general neglect

of the evidence shown by the Plant Kingdom; in the author’s

opinion, we are greatly in need of reorientation in our ideas on the

subject.

The first chapter deals with the critical evaluation of some of the

points usually proffered as evidence for Evolution. The second

chapter draws a comparison between piants and animals, and shows

that little account has been made of the evidence supplied by plants,

in spite of their close relationship with animals, in the past our ideas

about evolution have been based almost exclusively on the study

of the Animal Kingdom. In successive chapters the author reviews

the whole group of Flowering Plants with reference to evolutionary

problems. ‘This is more clearly explained in some chapters where

particular families are studied in detail.

The last chapter gives the summary of the author’s conclusions.

He has some interesting remarks to make, such as the following:

‘Little or nothing in this picture of evolution in the Flowering Plants

supports the view that they are the product of any highly competitive

and eliminative plan of nature. On the contrary, it suggests that

nature is expansive rather than contractile and no matter what new

characters or new combinations of old characters change with time

may present they are all able to find an existence somewhere in the

scheme of things.’

Surely one would at once ask: ‘How, then, to account for extinct

forms of life?’ Although the author has provided no direct answer

to this question, he has drawn our attention to the many drawbacks

of the evidence supplied by fossils, which constitute one of the most

important points in support of Evolution in a limited sense.

The printing is excellent, and the illustrations ‘made under con-

ditions far from ideal’ make a notable contribution to the high

standard of the book. There are 162 illustrations, of which the

greater number show individual species; 4 illustrations are rather

striking, as they represent the development of Monocotyledons and

Dicotyledons in a novel fashion.

Of late the interest of biologists in problems of evolution is grow-

ing deeper every day; the influence of personalities is slowly fading

REVIEWS 443

away in face of the accumulation of new and significant facts ; the

values attached to the various arguments in support of Evolution are

changing constantly, and the change is a welcome one. The author

has made a good attempt at bringing together some of the important

points of evidence from the study of Flowering Plants, and his facts

are reliable. In this reviewer’s opinion the book will definitely

stimulate the interest of all biologists, and particularly of botanists,

in the study of the problem of Evolution.

P. V. BOLE

2. THE SHERPA AND THE SNOWMAN. By Charles

Stonor. Pp. xii+209 (84”x5”), 37 plates. London, 1955. Hollis

and Carter. 18s. net. —

The author was biologist and anthropologist to the Daily Mail

Expedition in search of the Snowman. On pages 594-598 of Vol. 52

of this journal the editors reviewed the evidence available for the

belief in the existence of the Snowman, but did not express any

opinion.

The present accounts of the Snowman, picked up here and there

as the author progressed into suitable country, are well reported.

‘They appear to point to a bipedal creature about the size and build

of a small man, and with a loud high-pitched cry which has apparently

been heard by many. If it were not already known that the expedi-

tion was unsuccessful in its special quest, the interest in these reports

would perhaps have been more sustained; as it is, and in the absence

of any tangible fresh evidence, their reading is never very convincing.

The Tibetans apparently know of two species of Teh: Dzu-Teh

and Min-Teh. The Dzgu-Teh, which is larger, quadrupedal, and

carnivorous, is similar to the Black Bear except ‘for its size, colour

and habits’, while the latter is the Yeii or Snowman. The differences

in size and habits are not mentioned but their descriptions otherwise

appear to be similar.

The Yet: reported to be kept in the zoo at Shigatse (/BNHS,

52: 597) is now identified as a gibbon! The wide range of animals

which can, and are made to, fit the descriptions of the Yeti makes

one wonder if it really has any constant characters! However, so

long as these legends and local descriptions persist, it is impossible

to prove definitely that such a creature does not exist. We have just

seen press reports of yet another expedition setting forth for the same

purpose, this time equipped with a helicopter and blood-hounds! It

will certainly be long before this mystery is settled one way or the

other.

‘The Sherpa and the Snowman’ is well written and makes

interesting reading. In spite of one’s personal opinions and doubts

one cannot resist the forlorn hope that such interesting creatures still

remain to be discovered.

H.A.

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, d4

3. ) BIRDS: OF: CEYLON) 32>) By WAVE TA Phillips, mise

M.B.O.U., F.z.S. Pp. 50 (74” x 5”), 2 maps, 5 photographs by author,

20 coloured plates by Cicely Lushington. Colombo 1955. ‘The

Associated Newspapers of Ceyion Ltd. Price Rs. 5.

The present slim volume is No. 3 in this useful series of booklets

of which the first two have already been noticed in the Journal | 49

(3): 534, 51 (3): 7o8|. It deals with the birds of the Central Hilt

Zone or Highland Zone, which is perhaps of the greatest interest for

the ornithologist since it contains most of the forms endemic to the

island, or relics of the invasions (or ‘waves’) it received during its

periodic connections with the Indian mainland in the geological past.

The author points out that of the 397 species and subspecies of birds

found in Ceylon 22 are confined only to the Hill Zone, while altogether

133 different birds may be met with in the Nuwara Eliya District and

the higher hills. From these last, zo species have been selected as

likely to be of the greatest interest to the reader. As in the two

previous booklets the text begins by pinpointing the leading clues for

identification in the coloured plate on the facing page. Then follows

a short account of the bird’s habits, distribution (local insular as

well as overall), and nesting. The book ends with a chapter on Bird

M‘gration in relation to Ceylon and gives a useful map of the assumed

main migratory routes to the island. The coloured plates are well

drawn and well reproduced.

Mr. Phillips, who has now retired to settle in the U.K., has made

himself deservedly immortal in Ceylon by his thoroughgoing field ~

studies and writings on the island’s natural history, particularly its

mammals and birds.

Sohn

4. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BOTANY OF TROPICAL

CROPS. By Leslie S. Cobley. Pp. 357 (847% x52”), 82 plates.

Line drawings. London, 1956. (Longmans, Green & Co.) Price

RSs (Glohe

It has been a pleasure to run through ‘The Botany of Crops’ which

is a masterly abstract of a vast subject, in a very businesslike form.

Even in this book over four hundred crop plants have been described,

and that in less than 350 pages. Of course, quite a large number

of crops have had to be omitted. For my part, I would have pre-

ferred a larger number being omitted, but the fewer treated in greater

detail.

The book is excellently got up and I am glad the author has

divided the plants not according to natural orders, but rather accord-

ing to the use to which the produce is going to be put: cereals, fibres,

oilseeds, pulses, root crops, spices, beverages, drugs, fruits,

vegetables, rubber, essential oils, and sugarcane. This is far more

useful to an agricultural student than arrangement by natural orders.

The two indexes meet the needs of the student excellently.

A very good feature of the book is the. excellent drawings and

photographs. These give a clear idea of what the author has

described. Although the scale of size is given in places, in others it

REVIEWS 445

is not. The usefulness of the drawings is gireatly increased by the

mention of the scale and I wish it had been given for every drawing.

The descriptions are extremely lucid and give one a clear picture

of the plant or flowers described. This is achieved in spite of the fact

that the descriptions are very brief. At the end of each section is a

list of reference books. From these lists, it is evident the author is

not familiar with Indian literature on the subject. |

The brevity adopted throughout has affected the accuracy of

certain statements. Regarding bananas, it says, ‘will grow in a

variety of soil types wherever rainfall is spread evenly throughout the

year and wherever the temperature does not fall below 50° F.’ This

and similar statements are inaccurate, as bananas grow quite well in

areas where rainfall is small and limited to three months in a year,

as also where temperatures fall considerably below 50° F. Take

again the following in regard to turmeric: ‘It requires a hot, moist

climate’. Turmeric cultivation is carried on in India in some of the

areas with very dry climate, and there very successfully. Under

‘Sugarcane’ the author says ‘an annual rainfall of at least 60” is

required’. Now we have areas in India with rainfall of only 20”

which produce bumper crops of sugarcane. One~ more inaccuracy

must be mentioned: the book states that the Indian varieties of

mangoes contain only one embryo. This is incorrect for there are

polyembryonic varieties also, and many that ordinarily produce one

but occasionally more embryos.

When all this is said and done, inaccuracies of this kind are not

found on the side of descriptions of plants, flowers, and fruits. These

latter are very accurate and clear. I have no hesitation in saying

that this work is a most valuable addition to the literature on the

subject and as a book of reference for students of tropical botany and

agriculture.

5. OPEN AIR GUIDES—BARK. By Dr. Alfred Schwankl.

Translated and edited by H. K. Edlin. Pp. 100 (20.5x13.5 cm.).

With 156 illustrations of which a few diagrammatic, the rest photo-

graphic. Thames and Hudson, London—New York, 1956. Price

12530

“This handy manual is highly recommended by its presentation,

which is of the highest quality; the photographs and their reproduc-

tion are excellent; the text is simple and without technical terms.. The

text has been accommodated to forest trees of Britain. When

reading the text and admiring the magnificent photographs, I feel

not a little envious. A similar book for India would serve a very

useful purpose.

The book consists of three parts of rather unequal length, but all

of excellent quality. Part} One deals with the bark of trees at various

stages of their growth, the differences between heaithy and diseased

trees as shown by the bark, etc. Part Two is the longest, and gives

details of the bark of seventy-five different trees and woody shrubs.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Part Three is a study of the component parts of bark and the various

uses to which bark can be put. All these points are explained

with great lucidity, and illustrated with equally good photographs.

The author states in the introduction that ‘the bark reveals the

tree, and is the outward expression of its inner character .

Further, each kind of tree may be identified by the form and colour

of its bark . . . This book about bark is addressed both to nature

lovers and also to those professionally Someetaes with tree bark,

whether as foresters or timber merchants .. .’

In my frequent rambles through the forests of iva, I have come

to recognise many of the more important tree constituents of our forests

from the colour or structure of their bark; some of our trees have

such a clear and definite structure and colour that the tree can

at once be identified merely from the bark, even when leaves, flowers

or fruits are absent. A similar book on our forest trees would be a

great boon, particularly for those forest officers who are not particularly

strong in systematic botany. The book under review shows what

can be done in this line; but a book on our Indian trees will

require both a good photographer and an even better printer. The

present book is printed throughout on art paper, on which the photo-

graphs show even the minutest detail.

The standard of presentation is of the best and does honour to

the British printing industry. I have no hesitation in recommending

this book to nature lovers and to keen photographers. In view of

the number of illustrations and of the quality of the paper, the price

of 12s. 6d. is very moderate; and this is another good reason for

recommending this book to interested readers.

H. SANTAPAU

Subramanian and K. Ramakrishnan, University Botany Laboratory,

Madras-5. (A _ separate reprint from the Journal of Madras

University, B, 26 (2): 327-421, 1956; no price indicated.)

This is an excellent List, in which all the new Fungi discovered

in India during the years 1952 to 1956 have been given with full

references to the original journal in which the Fungi were described,

and the hosts and places where the various items were discovered.

The list is an impressive one, as it enumerates not less than 765

new species or genera or new records; many of the new organisms

have been discovered by the authors themselves, but the list is not

restricted to their own discoveries. As a complement to this List, the

authors give several appendices of interest; one is of references to

the literature, in which 307 items are given in alphabetical order of

authors’ names; the references are fully in accordance with Appendix

VI of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and in a

style that is uniform and clear. Appendix 3 gives ‘List of Hosts

and Substrata’, and Appendix 4, ‘Systematic Arrangement of

Genera’; these appendices add greatly to the value of the paper.

REVIEWS 447

The presentation and printing is good; to judge from the present

specimen, the Journal of the University of Madras is considerably

ahead of most of the journals of our Indian Universities.

H, SANTAPAU

7. BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION. By M. A.

Wynter-Blyth, Pp. xx+523 (10° x7). With 27 coloured and 45

black-and-white plates. Bombay, 1957. Bombay Natural History

Society. Price Rs. 28:

Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s book has come as a pleasant surprise to me.

I had been led to expect a ‘Popular’ book, which is usually of equally

little use either to the specialist or the enthusiastic amateur, but the

Society has produced a publication which will occupy a permanent

place in Indian Natural History, akin to Whistler’s ‘Popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds’. It is the book for all grades of collectors

excepting the specialist, but par excellence for the general natural

historian or the beginners, who wish to know something about the

butterfly fauna of their country without recourse to pages of small-

print descriptions or keys of the genitalia. It represents the type of

Natural History book which has become so popular since the war in

Britain and United States, combining much scientific information in

simple language with descriptions of most of the species likely to be

found by the ordinary person.

There are four aspects of this book which are a particular joy.

In the first place it is very complete as far as those species are con-

cerned which are really rare but which by their geographical distri-

bution are not impossible for the ordinary collector to find. Secondly,

the cover given to species in Eastern India is excellent. Time: after

time one has been driven to despair by books which seem to forget

that Assam is included in the Indian region, but Mr. Wynter-Blyth

has avoided this pitfall, Considering that Assam has the most

Numerous, interesting, and spectacular butterfly fauna in India, not

to mention a considerable proportion of the total number of collectors,

this is an important recommendation. Thirdly, a new and welcome

feature for the beginner is a key to the commonest butterflies. And

lastly, the general and introductory sections are excellent and could

pa be bettered, giving a great deal of information in a readable

orm.

I am so filled with admiration at the enormous amount of work

entailed in preparing a book of this nature that it seems ungenerous to

be critical. This especially applies to a group such as the Lycaenids,

but I feel, nevertheless, that a few more keys here would have been

of the greatest help. The illustrations are profuse (72 plates, of

which 27 are in colour and 7 figures), greatly adding to the value

of the book and making it the more remarkable that it has been

possible to keep the cost as low as Rs. 28.

T.N.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. FOOTPRINTS OF ‘SNOWMAN’

I was on the fourth trip to Rupkund on September 16, 1956, and

was camping in the rock-shelter of Baguva-vasa, 34 miles before

reaching Rupkund. It began to snow from 2.30 p.m. with terrific

thunder-claps at intervals, and fine hail bigger than mustard seed

fell. By 5 p.m. the snowfall stopped; the sky became completely

clear by 6 p.m. and there was bright moonlight. The depth of snow

was 4 to 6 in. in front of the rock-shelter, but it was less towards

Balpa-Sulera, a hundred yards on the east of Baguva-vasa and on

the windward side.

On September 17, 1956 at about 4 a.m. the whole region was

enveloped in thick mist; at 4.30 a.m, it began to snow intermittently ;

at about 9 a.m. there was a hailstorm for about 15 minutes. There

after the sky began to clear up, and the sun could be seen shining on

the neighbouring hilltops, but there was mist still here and there

though Rupkund was seen clearly.

Leaving the luggage in the rock-shelter, I started with my two

porters at 10 a.m. towards Rupkund. We had hardly proceeded a

hundred yards to the place called Balpa-Sulera, with Nanda Ghunti,

Trisul, and Chananiya Kot peaks, and Rupkund in front of us, when I

suddenly saw some footprints on the ground. Casually I enquired

of my porters if there were any panthers or hyenas in that region;

they said that there were ‘lakad-baggha’. On a close examination

of the footprints, after removing my goggles, I found them to be like

those of a human being. The elderly porter immediately burst out:

‘Footprints of Chananiyas, the doliyas or palanquin-bearers of Nanda

Bhagavati’.

The trail of footprints was seen coming from the direction of Rupkund

and going towards the ruins of Balpa-Sulera, and then up over the

Baguva-vasa rock-shelter. I could not follow the trail, since the

animal had travelled over a steep track from one rock to another,

and since the footprints were not in one plane. The footprints

measured 52” x 28” and one to two inches in depth, on fresh snow.

The impressions were quite clear and fresh with all the five toes and

heel distinctly seen; black spots of bare ground could also be

seen in some footprints. They were just like those of a human boy.

The animal must have passed that way after the fall of the last hail

before the mist cleared at 9 a.m., since there could not be seen any

hailstones in the footprints, whereas small pearl-like hail was lying

about on the surrounding snow. So, the animal must have passed

that way at the most an hour before I saw its footprints. At places

there were three, or rather 24 footprints; and so the animal must

have been on all fours, at least at those places. Unfortunately I

could not pursue the trail for more than 50 yards on either side, first

because the trail led up a steep ascent and secondly because the porters

were in great haste and fear as it had begun to snow again at about

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

10.45 a.m. Reluctantly I had to return to Wan, giving up all

chances of a fuller investigation.

I am of opinion that the footprints [ saw could well be those

of a baby Brown Bear, which might have come down from Rupkund

side or Gingtoli plain. It had snowed heavily on the previous day

as well as the following morning and the whole slope from Kailva-

vinaik to Rupkund was one continuous white sheet. The animal

might have come down this slope in search of food. If not a Brown

Bear it may have been an ordinary Black Bear from the near-by

jungles, which are situated within a radius of four miles on all sides.

It may be mentioned in this connection that in the year 1905

Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, visited Jetha Kharik, 14 miles east

of Ali Khal and about 6 miles from Baguva-vasa (where I found

the footprints), for shooting brown bear. A road was specially con-

structed at that time from Wan to Ali Khal, which still exists and

which has been repaired by Shramadan. So it would not be sur-

prising for the footprints I noticed near Balpa-Sulera, at a height of

about 14,000 ft. above sea level, to be those of a brown bear cup,

with its mother sitting somewhere near by; or perhaps even of a

black bear, which is very common in the neighbouring jungles. I

came across a solitary male bharal near Chedi-nag midway between

Baguva-vasa and Rupkund on August 25,°1956, on my first trip to

Rupkund.

When I was on my fifth trip to Rupkund, on October 7, 1956, I

came across a trail of footprints, a little beyond Patar-Nachauniya

(about a mile before reaching Baguva-vasa), which were round at

one end and tapering at the other. They were 4 in. long, 3 in. wide,

and % in. deep. They were found on snow which had fallen four or

five days previously. The upper part of the snow was encrusted

so hard that my feet were not sinking in it at all but were skidding

at several places. Several of the footprints were found in the

middle of human footprints, that were left two days previously by an

advance party who had gone up to Baguva-vasa. On enquiry from

the elderly people of Wan village I was told that the footprints might

be those of a tharuva (Snow Leopard) or a lakad-baggha (hyena).

Some villagers of Wan reported that the footprints of Chananiya

(footprints like those of human beings) were noted occasionally in

winter at Bagchho and Kukin Khal (34 and 8 miles respectively

from Baguva-vasa). So the strange footprints of the so-called

snowman are apparently known in the Rupkund region from long

years, though the villagers do not suspect them to belong to a bear.

They believe them to be those of Chananiyas, whose abode is said

to be the peak Chananiya Kot, situated on the northern side of

Rupkund.

In the paragana of Danpur of Almora District and in Badhan and

adjoining paraganas of Garhwal District, Chananiya is a Vana Devata

or deity of the forests. She is said to have the feet reversed, i.e.

toes pointing backward and heel in front. So, this deity is also called

Ediya (heeled one). When lone women go to the jungle for cutting

grass they are said to be frightened and affected by the evil influences |

of this deity. To get rid of these evil effects, the afflicted persons

propitiate this deity. So far as my knowledge goes, there are two

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

shrines dedicated to this deity, called Ediyaka Than—one between

Gwaldam and Garur in Almora District, and the other near about

Karnaprayag in Garhwal District.

Langurs or Blackfaced Monkeys are very timid and I never heard

of one biting a man, excepting perhaps at Jagannath where they

are fed freely by pilgrims and where they often become bold enough

to snatch away food from their hands. No doubt Redfaced Monkeys

attack man and even bite, assault, and injure very badly. I have

never seen the Blackfaced Monkeys beyond the tree line or at heights

above 10,000 feet; as such there seems absolutely no_ possibility

whatsoever of either the Redfaced Monkey or the Biackfaced Langur

having left the footprints at Baguva-vasa, which is at an altitude of

14,000 ft. Besides, the footprints of a langur monkey are in fours,

quite different and distinct from human footprints. The footprints I

saw were just like those of a human being. Monkeys and langurs

do not go beyond Wan and Sutol in the Rupkund region.

I would be much obliged if any of your readers could tell us the

height and place in the Himalayas, and the year, in which the two

Norwegian engineers Age Thorberg and Jan Frostis had an encounter

with the two langaulilee animals, one of which is alleged to have

bitten Forstis.

AUMoRA. QUBy SWAMI PRANAVANANDA, F.r.c:s.

November 6, 1956.

2. HAIRLESS LION CUBS IN THE TRICHUR ZOO

(With a plate)

At the first meeting of the Zoo Wing of the Indian Board for

Wild Life, held at Mysore in last May, I had occasion to point out

the existence of a litter of three lion cubs in the Trichur Zoo, of

which the two males are practically hairless while the single female is

covered with hair and normal in every respect. They were born on

March 6, 1955 and during growth even the scanty hair the males

had was shed, developing at the same time a tendency to accumulate

dark pigment in the skin, probably as a protection against excessive

heat. The entire skin is now somewhat rugose, the rugosity being

more marked on the head and neck. The few hairs still left are

confined to the chin and the inside of the ear lobes. ‘The absence

of hair on the body is certainly a handicap to the two cubs, causing

abrasions in the skin especially at the haunches, where even small

callosities have been formed. The present condition of the lion cubs

looks like alopecia with a tendency to melanism.

Being the first instance of its kind in this Zoo, where lions have

been breeding in captivity for over thirty years, the deficiency could

not be traced to any known cause. On the advice of the local

veterinary surgeon, Murnil, a preparation of Bayer with vitamin H,

was given to the cubs continuously for several months but without

any effect on the growth of hair. All the three cubs have norma!

health and have grown remarkably well with their usual ration of

mutton and beef.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc.

Male lion cub, 3 months old, before Lion cubs, hairless male and normal

shedding the sparse coat of hair female, six months old

Hairless lion cub, male, about twelve months old

Photos: M. Govindankutty Menon

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 451

In the previous litter of triplets born of the same parents on

August 8, 1954, that is just over six months back, all the cubs were

normal. That littering, however, took twenty-four hours to complete,

with an exceptionally large cub coming as the third in the series.

The long interval between the birth of the first two cubs and the

third one not only resulted in the still birth of the latter, but complete

neglect of the two first-born cubs causing their deaths in turn. But,

apart from their accidental deaths, the cubs themselves were perfectly

normal.

No doubt the absence of hair in the two male cubs of the second

litter of this lioness can be attributed only to some developmental

deficiency caused probably due to malnutrition during the period .of

gestation. Even so, it is interesting to note that the female of

the same litter is completely free from this congenital defect.

Tracing the ancestry of the parents it is found that nothing abnormal

has been noticed at any time and it remains to be seen how the

hairless condition of the two male cubs will behave in subsequent

generations. The only departure followed in the breeding method in

the present case is that the male and female were allowed to pair

in less than three months after the first parturition. This, of course,

would not have happened if the cubs born of the first litter were alive.

Tue STaTE Museum anp Zoo,

“PRICHUR, M. GOVINDANKUTTY MENON, .a.

August 29, 1956.

Dr. W. C. Osman Hill, Prosector of the Zoological Society of

London, has kindly sent us the following memorandum on the subject:

‘The appearance of what seems to be a ‘sport’ in a litter of lion

cubs strongly suggests that the hairless state has arisen by genes

mutation. The fact that only the males are affected is presumptive

of sex-linkage, but further breeding, which it is to be hoped will

follow, should settle this point, as well as others relating to the genetic

behaviour of this curious allele.

‘Total alopecia of congenital origin (atrichy) is known so far in

mice (both wild and domesticated) and dogs (especially the now well-

known Mexican hairless breed). It has also been reported in horses

and in a shrew (see Bateson, 1894, and references there cited). _The

lack of hair is commonly associated with other (? compensatory)

dermal changes, notably increased pigmentation, thickening and a

tendency to transverse wrinkling, or warty developments. Sometimes

the teeth are defective, e.g. in hairless dogs (Yarrel, 1833; Jerina,

1920, quoted by Danforth, 1925).

‘Once present the condition is heritable, hence the feasibility of

producing the ‘pure lines’ in dogs. Unfortunately, little is known

of the genetics of atrichy. Winge (1950) makes the rather ambiguous

statement that it may either be dominant or recessive, though when

dominant does not seem to be especially ‘weakening’.

‘That dietetic or metabolic effects upon the pregnant female are

responsible is ruled out in the present instance by the normal con-

dition of the female member of the litter. But it might be mentioned

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

that Jerina reports experimentally produced alopecia totalis in rats by

feeding thallium acetate to the pregnant and nursing mothers.

‘The bald condition of the Naked Mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber)

is of a different nature being, in all probability, due to phylogenetic

retardation whereby the newborn condition persists until adult life,

an explanation which also accounts for the relatively. glabrous skin

in man. This retardation (neoteny) is itself determined by a mutation

affecting the behaviour of certain ductless glands whose activities con-

trol the growth processes.’ 7 ;

REFERENCES

Bateson, W. (1894): Materials for the study of variation, London, Macmillan,

p. 56.

Danforth, C. H. (1925): Hair, with special reference to hypertrichosis, Chicage,

Amer. Medical Association.

Jerina, F. (1920): Studien iiber die Haararmut und Haarlosigkeit bei Haustieren,

Inaugural Dissertation, Bern. (quoted by Danforth).

Winge, O. (1950): Inheritance in dogs, with special reference to hunting

breeds, translated from the Danish by Catherine Roberts, Ithaca, Comstock.

Yarrel, W. (1833): Exhibition of Egyptian hairless dog, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.

1833, p. 113.

Writing on 192-1957, Mr. Menon adds:

‘The mother of the cubs littered again on 1-11-1956 having

paired with the same male. The two cubs (one male, one female)

born now are quite normal. The hairless male cubs of the last

litter have grown quite as well as the female cub. There is a

tendency for the two male cubs to go together and also le close

to each other. They are also rather timid compared to the female.

The teeth and claws of the two males, originally not quite so well

developed as those of the female, are now more or less of the same

size and strength. In addition to the pigmentation, warty growths

are also noted on the skin of the hairless cubs.’—Ens.

3. “SCENT TRAILS’ AND ‘POOKING’ IN TIGER

In the Journal of December 1956, the reviewer of ‘The Tigers of

Trengganu’ has touched upon some interesting matters that must

have caught the particular attention of many other readers of that

very interesting book. And here I should like to discuss the state-

ment therein that the Malayan tiger ejects a strong smelling secretion

from the root of the tail, and then to introduce certain other matters,

not irrelevant to tigers in general, in order to invite the interest of

other sportsmen who have carried an enquiring mind in their pursuit

of the tiger. |

Once while watching a zoo tigress pacing her cage, I observed

that almost every time she turned away from one side of it, to resume

her walk to the opposite side, she squirted a jet of urine at the bars,

and simultaneously uttered what I shail here allude to as the ‘pook’

—but uttered more softly than it probably is in other circumstances.

‘And, immediately preceding the ‘pook’, there was a sound like a.

short, suppressed hiccup, which in after years took my mind to

the Burmese version of the sound as the ‘tit’, or titting of a tiger

(though I myself had never heard it there); those who have had

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

any acquaintance with that language will know how our Burmese

friends pronounce the ‘t’ at the end of such a syllable; and if I have

chosen to imply that the utterance of it resembles a hiccup, it is chieily

because I noted that when that zoo tigress uttered that double sound

(hic-conk; though the second one was more of a high-pitched kink)

there was a slight spasmodic contraction of the belly and, with the

hic or tit, the head was dipped momentarily with the neck slightly

arched, while the cheek, muscles retracted the corners of the lips at

the same time.

The tigress did not utter the ‘pook’ every time she ejected urine,

nor vice versa, the ‘pooks’ being uttered usually during her walks

to opposite sides of the cage. In the act of squirting urine the

vulva briefly opened as those of mares do, and the tail was rigidly

flirted upwards; and I seem to remember that this movement of the

tail always accompanied the ‘pook’ too. From these signs I formed

the opinion that the tigress was in season.

The urine—a short jet—was squirted slightly upwards, at an angle

of perhaps 15 degrees above the horizontal; and being propelled at

a velocity sufficient to carry it about 1o ft. or more, this jet of urine

was barely visible to anyone standing a few yards away from that

large cage, especially as the jet broke into a fine spray towards the

end of its trajectory. It was when I moved to the rear of the tigress

as she walked away that my clothes received some of that spray ;

and the pungent odour of it was similar to that which I have

sometimes: detected in the jungle and ascribed to the proximity, or

recent presence, of a tiger. Indeed, I once detected this odour a few

seconds before a wounded tigiress began ‘caterwauling’ in a thicket

about 50 yards away (a cry discussed in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s journal many years ago). I cannot, however, remember

having noticed this odour at tiger- or panther-‘scrapes’ which I have

examined in the jungle; nor have I detected it on a dead animal,

tiger or panther. If, as the author of ‘Tigers of Trengannu’ seems

to suggest, the odour is derived from scent-glands at the root of the

tail, I must admit that I have not yet discovered such glands there on

a dead animal, perhaps because I had not looked for them?

Some amongst the jungle tribes that I have hunted with have

assured me that even male tigers can, and do, spray tree-trunks and

high bushes with their urine.

On a few occasions in Indian jungles I have believed I had heard

a tiger “‘pooking’; but, as the sound was said to resemble the ‘conk’

of a sambar, I was never certain of having correctly identified it.

On two later occasions, however, a couple of years ago and when

camped in the lower Nilgiris, I did recognize the sound with certainty.

For on both occasions it was uttered from quite a short distance off,

and was preceded by the hic I} have described, faint but quite |

distinct from the conk that followed. Besides, on the evening of

the first occasion a tiger had killed a cow less than a furlong from

where I was, and actually while the herdsman was calling the cattie

to the pen; on the following evening a man had run in to say that

the tiger was behind him and on its way to the kill. It was about

10 p.m. when I heard the ‘pooking’ for the second time (and I

wonder why the sound has become so widely accepted as a pook

454: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

when it is more like the sambar’s conk—even the Burmese tit is

phonetically a more apt description !).

Ratna COTracGE, . BOSWELL,

FERNHILL, (NILGiRIs), (Capt.)

fanuary 22, 1957.

4. FOLLOWING UP WOUNDED TIGER AT NIGHT

Lt.-Col. A. Locke, the author of the recent book ‘The Tigers of

Trengganu’, apparently believes in following up a tiger immediately

after wounding it, even at night. I once read about a well-known

professional hunter in French Indo-China, a man with a French name

(was it de Fosse?) who preferred to follow up at night because, as

he pointed out, the wounded animal was then the more readily

spotted by its eyes. reflecting the light of - an electric ’ torch,

and he insisted that this was therefore the safer method. And,

considering the matter objectively and quite impersonally, it would

at first appear that he was right, that his was the saner method, as

seeing the animal before it charges certainly reduces the odds, even

in daylight; and it must be assumed that the torch used for the

follow up at night must have a wide, diffused beam of light, and that

not too many torches in the hands of ethers would be used, for their

effects would be bewildering. But, and I would suggest that this

ig the crux of the matter, before the animal’s eyes may be picked up

with the torch its trail must be followed. Can this be done as well

by artificial light as by daylight? I think not. My torch has

shown the blazing eyes of panthers (unwounded) at very close ranges,

a tiger’s too, and once at about 200 yards when they shone like

small twin stars; but I have also known raindrops and dew, as

well as bits of quartz, to reflect gleams that resembled the eyes of

animals. And to follow up a wounded tiger at night, when human

morale is naturally low (and is not a measure of confidence always

important?), must require stark courage, for a task which is

invariably the most frightful in the experience of a big game hunter.

And can one be always certain of the torch revealing both eyes, to

thus indicate the position of the head as a target for the first shot

before a charge is launched, or before the animal can turn away? On

one occasion a tiger, suspicious of my ‘hide’ on the ground which

had not been there before the kill had been made, was finally revealed

about 75 yards away by the diamond-bright gleam from one eye

it was exposing at the side of a tree-trunk behind which it was

sitting. On another occasion, while returning through scrub jungle

from a point where I had hoped to ambush a panther whose usual

route I knew, something prompted me to stop and flash my rifle-

torch to the rear, and there in the beam was a single brilliant eye

beside some dark object, probably a small boulder. On yet another

occasion, with a Gond as companion, we were taking a short cut

through scanty jungle. The Gond stopped. Getting his bear-

ings, I thought, till I noticed him make a slight recoiling movement

and saw his hand reach back towards me; and then ‘there, crossing

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ASO

our front and perhaps only 15 yards away, was a tiger, ghostly

gray in the moonlight but recognizable by its shape and gait. A

few moments later I put up my rifle and switched on the torch, but

the apparition instantly, vanished; the few, bare, intervening twigs

reflected back the light dazzlingly, so that nothing beyond the nearer

ones could be seen. And who has not observed this effect from a

single leaf or twig near the front of a torch? In such circumstances

the most brilliant light has not sufficient “depth of penetration’ to aid

the eye. And, similarly, I have seen the eyes of a tiger at about 20

yards almost blacked out by the reflection from a bunch of leaves

above the beam from my torch. And, after all, how much of the

body behind brilliantly blazing eyes is ever revealed by the torch?

Even the outline of the head cannot be clearly discerned !

So, to my mind, to follow up a wounded tiger (or, especially, a

panther) at night might well be a game which is not worth the great

risk involved. And I think that the most difficult part of such an

undertaking must lie in the preliminary following of the animal’s

tracks and other signs, including the recognition of any but a heavy

blood-trail (torch directed at the ground !}).

Nevertheless, it has been done successfully; and perhaps the

physical condition of the wounded tiger had contributed to that. So

one must suppose that a tremendous amount of luck entered into it

too, and that the pitcher did not go too often to the well!

RATNA COTTAGE, K. BOSWELL,

FERNHILL (NILGIRIS), (Capt.)

January 22, 1957.

5s. FURTHER NOTES ON THE HIMALAYAN MOUSE-HARE,

OR PIKA, (OCHOTONA RUFESCENS) :

Last year I collected several specimens of the Baluch Pika

Ochotona rufescens vulturna Thomas! a subspecies of the Afghan

Pika, from the Munna Valley (8,000 ft.) about ten miles west of

Ziarat and about sixty miles north-west of Quetta.

The type specimens of the Afghan species described by Gray in

1842 were captured from Bagha-i-Babar, two miles south-west of

Kabul in Afghanistan. JI paid a number of visits to the Baber Gardens

during my recent stay in Kabul, but in spite of careful search was

unable to find any pika living there. The animal appears to have

totally disappeared, owing probably to the reconstruction of the tomb

of the great king and other alterations made in the Gardens during

recent years. I did, however, notice the animal inhabiting the

neighbourhood of the city (JBNHS, 45: 82), in the rocky hilis of

Tungi-a-Syyedan about nine miles south-west of Kabul. I also

found it at Surchashma sixty miles south-west and, in August 1946,

1 According to Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (Checklist of Palaearctic Mammals :

453) vulturna is an aberrant form based on one specimen only (the type from

Harboi, near Kelat, Baluchistan) and may not belong to the species rufescens.—

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

in Durra-i-Shaidan about a hundred and thirty miles north-west of

that city. The Durra is a valley beyond Bamian (8,000 ft.) on the

way to Bund-i-Amir in Hazarajaat. Further north it is stated

(P.Z.S. 1848: 800) to occur in Grishk.

We find, among early records, Alexander Burns (Cabooi, 1842,

p. 163) saying: ‘In Kohistan, the most active search is made for all

animals which yield fur... There are eight or ten different species

to be found here, amongst which are . . . and the Hazara rat, which

is a creature without a tail.’ This tailless creature is doubtless

an Afghan pika and it is evident from the statement that it also

eccurs in Kohistan, a province north-east of Kabul. The pika, as I

was informed, is common in Hazarajaat, the central plateau of

Afghanistan, and this seems to be correct because the two places

mentioned above (Surchashma and Durra-i-Shaidan) lie on the borders

of Hazarajaat. It is natural that the animal should be calied in some

districts ‘Mash-i-Hazdara’ or the Hazara rat. It is interesting to note

that Alexander Burns was presented with the Hazara rat as one of the

fur-bearing animals having commercial importance!

In most species of small rodents a cycle of abundance alternating

with scarcity is known to occur, but little is recorded about the

Himalayan Mouse-Hare. I was able to observe the phenomenon in

the case of the Surchashma pikas. In 1939, while walking along a

rill on the hillside, ;I noticed a pika (for the first time in that country)

sitting on a rock. I advanced stealthily and threw a stone at it, which

accidentally killed the animal on the spot. Next year I attempted in

vain to kill another animal in the same manner. But in toq:, I

noticed that the numbers of the animal had greatly decreased and it

was with much difficulty that I was able to obtain one. Unfortunately

this too was badly damaged and bruised like the last specimen.

When I visited the place again in 1942 I completely failed to notice

the animal in spite of sufficient search, and it appeared to have totally

vanished. On discussing the matter of its disappearance, some of

the local cultivators told me that periodically the animals migrated to

some distant place while others held that some sort of disease spread

among them and decimated them. When I had another chance to

visit the place in 1943 I found the animals there but was unable to

procure a specimen myself. Consequently I sent word around offering

a reward for each specimen whether alive or dead. Returning after

two hours from a round along the adjoining hills, 1 was surprised to

find myself surrounded by men, women, and children, some with wire

traps, others with box traps, containing two, three, or even four pikas

in each, while other villagers held the animals—one, two, or three

together—by their ears or wrapped up within their garments. This

scene as well as my own observations assured me that the animals

were present in far greater abundance than in any of the previous

years.

The villagers of the Munna Valley, however, seemed to be un-

acquainted with the cyclic fluctuation in the numbers of the animals,

but the pikas were certainly present in large numbers this year.

One would be peeping out of its hole among loose stones, another

carrying straw, while another would be sitting on a rock on its

haunches and sniffing the surrounding air as if to examine the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

environment. The inhabitants here have no idea of pulling the animal

“out of its hole by its ears as the Surchashma boys sometimes do; they

usually shoot them. Almost every man possesses a matchlock to

guard his family but, since cartridges are ditficult to procure in these

remote regions, the hunters carry with them a quantity of powder and

a lead wire. Whenever required they load up with some powder, add

pieces of lead cut from the wire, and shoot. In this way they shot

several pikas for me. They are good marksmen and hardly ever miss.

During a talk the inhabitants complained of the pikas being a

great menace to their cultivation. They remarked that some English

people had introduced these creatures (which they call ‘musfiai’) into

the country from some foreign land a century ago. As proof of this

they added that certain Englishmen were used to visiting these parts

very often in order to look after the animals and to ascertain their

welfare !

WeEsT REGIONAL LABORATORIES,

Pec. Sala... S: A. AGRA AT

LAHORE,

December to, 1956.

6. A NOTE ON INSECTS CONSUMED AS FOOD BY

SQUIRRELS AND BIRDS AT KUNDRI FOREST,

PALAMAU DISTRICT, BIHAR

With a view to ascertain the agencies responsible for a new

type of damage to living lac cells observed at Kundri forest, Palamau

District, Bihar, a large number of squirrels and birds found on the

lac-bearing trees at the time of occurrence of the damage were shot

and their stomach contents examined for the presence of lac insects.

During the examination a large number of insects besides the lac

insects were also encountered and this note records the species

of insects consumed as food by these animals.

It is seen from the results that besides jac insecis, termites, ants,

grasshoppers, beetles, lepidopterous larvae and moths, bugs, wasps,

lice, and mites were traced in the stomach contents. —

Lac Insects: These are consumed freely by the common

Five-striped Squirrel (Funambulus pennanti Wroughton) and to some

extent by the Goldenbacked and Mahratta woodpeckers and the

Redvented Bulbul. The number of each of these bird species was

comparatively small in the area and they were found distributed

throughout the forest; whereas the squirrels were more common and

seen in greater concentration in the coupe that was under lac infection.

Further, the fact that 23 squirrels out of the 36 examined contained

lac insects ranging between 1 and 134 establishes beyond doubt that

the squirrels are responsible for the huge destruction of lac insects at

maturity of the lac crop in summer.

Termites: The mound-building termite species Odontotermes

obesus (Rambur) which attacks palas trees (Butea monosperma) was

Vol.

fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

458

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punoj YoIYM Ul “ON

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Sduld INV STaNMINGS Ad GOOA SV GAWNSNOD SLOGSNI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459

found to have been taken in large numbers by 35 out of the 36 speci-

mens of squirrels examined, as many as 834 being found in one

specimen. All the forms of the termite colony except the Queen were

found as stomach contents, of course the workers being in far larger

numbers than the soldiers. This indicates that the squirrels play a

not insignificant role in the natural control of termites. ‘Among the

birds, the two woodpeckers, the Redvented Bulbul, the Small Minivet,

and the House Sparrow had consumed the termites in fair numbers.

Ants: Species of ants comprising Camponotus compressus and

Solenopsis geminata were found in considerabie numbers in the stomach

contents of the two species of woodpeckers and to some extent of ithe

Grow-Pheasant, Small Minivet, Indian Pitta and Common Myna.

In one specimen of squirrel two ants were traced which might have

been taken in accidentally.

Grasshoppers: Grasshoppers were tound in the stomachs of

the Jungle Babbler, Small Minivet, Rufousbacked Shrike, Common

Myna, and the Crow-Pheasant. The grasshoppers being bigger in

size must have been deliberately picked as food, although they were

found in fewer numbers.

Beetles: Beetles were found in the stomachs of the squirrels,

the two woodpeckers, Indian Pitta, Small Minivet, Common Iora,

Rufousbacked Shrike, King Crow and the Common Myna. While

they might have been consumed as food in the case of birds, their

entry into the stomach of squirrels appears to be only accidental.

Larvae and Moths: The lepidopterous larvae were traced

in fairly good numbers in nine specimens of squirrels and 3 of the

Mahratta Woodpecker, suggesting that these larvae are deliberately

sought after as food. A single specimen of an adult moth was seen

in one squirrel and another in Mahratta Woodpecker.

Bugs: The bugs had been consumed in very small numbers by

one specimen each of the Goldenbacked Woodpecker and the Small

Minivet.

Other Insects and Mites: Wasps, lice, and mites were

detected as stray items only in a few specimens of the squirrels, having

been taken in accidentally.

Acknowled@ement: Lhe authors, are:,erateful to | Dr.

S. V. Puntambekar, Director, Indian Lac Research Institute, for his

keen interest in the work and for affording facilities, and to Dr.

B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India for kindly identifying

the squirrel and bird specimens.

InpDIAN Lac RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

NamMkKuM, RaAncuHt, S. KRISHNASWAMI

Binar, N.S. CHOWHAN

November 20, 1956.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

7, TUSKS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS

With reference to Mr. P. D. Stracey’s note on the above subject

in the Journal for August 1956 (Vol. 53, No. 4) I give below the

measurements of two pairs of tusks of rogue elephants shot on the

Baragur Hills in the Coimbatore District, Madras State, in 1926 and

1920. ;

1. Shot Iby “R23. Morns von iMiarch 2; #1620) Gatefold yarn

Madeswaranmalai. Length of right tusk 7 ft. 44 in. (weight

63h ib.); wleneth ot Wert usie 7 nt 77min, | wierciatoombn|:

2. Shot by Col. F. S. Gillespie and R. C. Morris on February

13, 1929, at Madeswaranmaiai (Kokkurvari). Length of both

tusks 8 ft. 2 in. (weight 904 and o1 Ib.).

It was remarkable that both these fine tuskers were shot in almost

the same spot. The first elephant was undersized, due possibly to

the fact that it had considerable difficulty in feeding itself, its tusks

being crossed within about 18 inches of its mouth. The tusks of the

second elephant were also crossed, but near the tips. Both were

vicious rogues, attacking pilgrims proceeding to and from the famous

Madeswaranmalai temple. The measurements were sent to and

recorded by Rowland Ward and the Bombay Natural History

Society.

c/o Nationat BANK oF Inp1A L7tp.,

26, BISHOPSGATE, R. C. MORRIS

Lonpon E.C. 2,

December 20, 1956.

8. HYPNOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A WHITEHEADED

BABBLER (TURDOIDES STRIATUS)

At 5.15 p-m. on the 17th of October 1955, hearing the clamour of

a party of Whiteheaded Babblers, a pair of Magpie Robins, some

striped squirrels, and crows, I went out to investigate and found our

kitten crouching in front of a babbler which was less than a foot

away from its nose. The babbler appeared to be dead. It had its

bill, chin, and breast pressed to the ground; its wings were partly

open and touched the ground; and the tail was thrust up vertically

and awkwardly. The cat seemed to be waiting for the bird to make

some slight movement before pouncing on it. There were 4 or 5

Jungle Crows on the trees close by ready to swoop down and carry

away the babbler at the first chance but the cat refused to budge even

after I had given it a kick. I turned away thinking that as the

babbler was dead, and our cat had been off its feed for a few days,

it would be better for all concerned to let the cat eat the bird if it

wanted to. ‘At the next moment there was a sudden uproar among

the babblers that had assembled there, and I turned back expecting

to see the cat walking away with the corpse. But, in fact, the ‘dead’

babbler had suddenly fiown up into the mango tree and the cat was

walking away mewing plaintively. The moment the babbler reached

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 461

the tree, the others gave chase to it and, driving it from tree to tree,

disappeared from the place.

I wonder if the cat could have ‘hypnotised’ the babbler; or was

the bird merely paralysed or playing possum? It will be interesting

to know whether instances of a similar nature have been observed by

other bird-watchers.

Govt. VICTORIA COLLEGE, ;

PALGHAT, K, K. NEELAKANTAN

January 14, 1957.

9. DRUMMING OF THE MALABAR GOLDENBACKED

WOODPECKER BRACHYPTERNUS BENGHALENSIS

Neither Whistler nor Salim Ali say anything specific about whether

this particular species of Woodpecker resorts to drumming.

EF. N. Betts, however, records [/BNHS, 37 (1)| that he has

observed this species also drumming. Stiil it is apparent that the

Goldenbacked Woodpecker drums much less often than some other

members of the family, e.g. the Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker

(Dryobates mahrattensis).

In view of the comparative rarity of the performance the following

OdserVation MNeht be: oF. imterest. «On the’ evening of the 7th

November, 1956, a male Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Brachypternus

benghalensis) was seen to alight on a coco-nut tree at a height of

about twelve feet from the ground. It moved round and round the

trunk a few times, then pressed its beak on the trunk and produced

the drumming note. Then it moved a few paces up and repeated the

performance. After drumming a third time the bird flew away.

Throughout, the bird did not produce its usual notes. The Wood-

pecker was not accompanied by its mate.

The note produced was a Hur-r-r-v-r-r sound, each time lasting

for about two or three seconds. It was not particularly loud and

could not have been audible beyond some twenty yards. The coco-nut

tree is apparently in a healthy condition. I could not be certain

whether the bird’s head was vibrating when it was producing the note.

It would be heipful to have details from the readers of the Journal

regarding which Indian species of woodpeckers are in the habit of

drumming.

CHANDRAMANDIRAM,

PUTHUR,

PALGHAT, B. VIJAYARAGHAVAN

December 13, 1956.

{Drumming has been recorded in the following species of Indian

woodpeckers. Absence of specific records does not imply that other

species do not drum, but merely points to the dearth of detailed field

notes.. Additions to the list from observers will be welcome.

Large Black Woodpecker—Dryocopus javensis.

Andaman Black Woodpecker—Dryocopus hodgei.

Pigmy Woodpecker—Picumnus innominatus.

Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker—Dryobates mahratiensis.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Indian Great Slaty Woodpecker—Mulleripicus pulverulentus.

Blacknaped Woodpecker—Picus canus.

Little Scalybellied Green Woodpecker—Picus xanthopygeus.

Goldenbacked Woodpecker—Brachypternus benghalensis.—EDs. |

10. ACCIDENTAL DEATH OF A CRIMSONBREASTED

BARBET [MEGALAIMA HAEMACEPHALA (MULLER)]

In volume 39 of the Journal (p. 339) Salim Ali writes that the

Emerald Dove [ Chalcophaps indica (Linn.) | sometimes meets with

accidental death by getting dashed against whitewashed walls, in

flight. He adds: ‘The birds, flying as they do at great speed, no

doubt take the sunlit patches of this wall (as seen through the dense

surrounding shrubbery) to be the open sky and rush towards it with

fatal sresults to themselves.’

At twelve noon on the 11th November, 1956, the body of a freshly

dead Crimsonbreasted Barbet [Megalaima haemacephala (Miiller)] —

was brought to me. I was told that the bird in flight dashed itself

against a whitewashed wall of our house, fell down because of the

impact, struggled for a few minutes, and then gave up the ghost. The

bird’s neck was broken and a pink liquid was oozing out of its

beak. This case looked strange especially considering the fact that

the Crimsonbreasted Barbet does not usually fly at such break-neck

speed as the Emerald Dove obviously does. The wall mentioned here

is not surrounded by much of shrubbery either. To top it all the

unfortunate bird hit the wall at as low a height as six feet from the

ground !

CHANDRAMANDIRAM,

PUTHUR,

PALGHAT, B. VIJAYARAGHAVAN

December 13, 1957.

il. HALCYON, PILEATA INUAND

In a note by the Editors on the specimen of this species shot at

Coimbatore (JBNHS, 53: 698) they state that it has hitherto not been

recorded so far inland. As you will see in my paper on the ‘Birds of

Coorg’, however, I came on it twice near Somwarpet at a height of

3,000 ft. on one of the small hill streams which run into the Cauvery.

Though the direct distance from the sea is not as great as that of

Coimbatore, the occurrence was if anything even more unexpected as

the Coimbatore bird could have worked along through the Palghat

gap without having to climb the hills at all while the Coorg bird was

well on the eastern slope of the ghats and must have surmounted the

range over very unkingfisherlike country to get where it did.

ARDURA,

CRAIGNURE,

IsLE OF MULL, F. N. BETTS

SCOTLAND, |

October 29, 1956.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 463

12. REDLEGGED FALCONET, ERYTHROPUS AMURENSIS

(RADDE), NEAR BOMBAY

On 3rd December 1950, while beating for partridge in open scrub-

covered country at Ambernath near Kalyan, Bombay, I shot an

Eastern Redlegged Falconet (Erythropus amurensis) of which the

distribution (vide F.B.I., 5: 59) is as follows:

‘Siberia East of Lake Baikal to Manchuria, North China and

casual as a breeder in the Eastern Himalayas. In winter South

- to South China, North-East India and South and East Africa.’

Ticehurst remarked (JBNHS, 34: 475) that the distribution in

India was not restricted to the north-east in winter and drew attention

to ‘odd, mostly undated, records from Nepal, Darjeeling, Kumaon,

Carnatic, Nilgiris, and Ceylon. There is a record that thousands

were seen passing over Belgaum on November 24’.

The last record is obviously from a manuscript note by EHA

(E. H. Aitken) in an interleaved copy of Barnes’ Handbook to the

Birds of Bombay Presidency, now in the Society’s library, thus:

‘Karwar, 24th November 1891. Last week, at Bolshitta, about 7

miles from here, I found large numbers of a small hawk which, if

Barnes is right, must be C. amurensis; but there is no pale rufous, or

buff, on the under parts of either female or young. I secured one

mature o, one mature Q@, and 5 immature birds. ‘The iegs, feet, and

cere of the male are red, those of the female yellow. They usually

appeared at and after sunset, flying low and very swiftly over muddy.

fields. Examination of the stomachs of those shot proved that they

were hawking large beetles, probably dung beetles, which take wing

after dusk.

Majali (near Karwar) 4th November 1953. Saw one flying swiftly

over wet ground after sunset. It was too dark for certain identifica-

tion, but I think it must have been this bird.’

All along the coast in North Kanara Davidson (/BNHS, 12: 16)

found this little falcon in immense scattered flocks in November-

December in some years. Curiously it does not appear to have been

noted anywhere in peninsular India over the last sixty years or so,

though the fact that it breeds in Assam (April/May—Stuart Baker)

and further eastwards, and is a regular winter visitor to East Africa

(Benson, Ibis 1951: 467-8—arriving in December and leaving in

March) would indicate that it must pass over India every year.

Benson records that they are sought after as food, being very good

to eat. Vide also Stuart Baker, F.B.I., 5: 59.

33 Pati HILt,

BANDRA,

BOMBAY 20,

November 12, 1956.

SALIM ALI

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

13. AN INCUBATING PEACOCK (PAVO CRISTATUS LINN.)

As is well known, among the pheasants and particularly peafowl, the

female alone incubates. When some school children reported seeing

a peacock incubating eggs on an old wall on 19th September 1956,

the story was not taken seriously. Next day we accidentally investi-

gated the place and saw a peacock incubating 5 eggs. The bird was

kept under observation the whole day, and it was noted that he sat

patiently on the eggs for most of the time. Occasionally he left the

nest and was seen feeding in the vicinity. He even danced a little

once or twice. In the evening he left the nest but was back next

morning.

On the 20th September 1956 six Neophrons were seen sitting on

the wall and the ground around the peacock, one of them even boldly

approaching and attempting to drive the peacock off the eggs. The

Neophrons were driven off by a man but one egg was missing. The

cock was seen incubating 2 eggs on 24th September 1956; on 25th

September 1956, all the eggs were missing.

No peahen was noted at this nest, although both peahens and

peacocks were constantly observed in this area.

This peacock was a fully mature bird in good plumage.

I believe a male Amherst Pheasant was noted incubating in the

London Zoo. It would be interesting to know of any other records

particularly in the wild state.

JASDAN,

November io, 1956. Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

| Although in some species of pheasants the cock assists the hen

in the care of the chicks, he does not take part in nest building

or incubation. The case of this peacock is certainly exceptional.

We cannot trace other similar instances, whether in captivity or in

the wild state.—Ebs. |

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUFF AND REEVE

[PHILOMACHUS PUGNAX (LINNAEUS)| NEAR COIMBATORE

Mr. Subbiah Pillay has sent us a specimen of a Reeve shot near

Coimbatore. Whistler and Kinnear in the Eastern Ghats report

({BNHS 39: 257) state ‘only recorded in the Madras Presidency from

the neighbourhood of Madras—one specimen in the British Museum

and another in the Madras Museum’. It is known as a rare

and irregular winter visitor to Ceylon, but for the sake of

completeness it may be worth while recording its occurrence at

Coimbatore. Mr. Subbiah Pillay writes that it was picked up from

a bag of Spotted Sandpiper, Tringa giareola, and adds that though

very rare in these parts, it has been shot by him on previous occasions

also.

January 5, 1957. EDITORS

Wp stee

oC 4h

a ete aero!

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

Rednecked Phalaropes in flight, Bhavnagar

Photos (copyright): R. S. Dharmakumarsinhj

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 465

15. REDNECKED PHALAROPE (LOBIPES LOBATUS

LINN.) IN BHAVNAGAR, BOMBAY STATE

(With a plate)

We drove to the salt pans on the evening of the 28th October,

1956, to see the numerous shore birds which annually gather there.

The salt pans are filled with saline water varying in depths of 1 inch

to 3 feet and are about 800 yd. x 400 yd. rectangular compartments.

The earthen bunds which divide the pans are about 4 to 5 leet high.

The shallow basins of sait water form ideal feeding ground for all

kinds of waders.

A few steps from the car and we were looking over a pan; the

light was favourable, the sun at the back of us, and the first bird to

attract our attention was the phalarope, it was floating in shallow

water. Up went our binoculars and both of us identified it as the

phalarope since it was so conspicuous and typical of the coloured

pictures we had seen of this bird in winter plumage. As we drew

near, the bird flew and we saw its grey and white and_ blackish

plumage with a white wing-bar; the black nape and almost pied

plumage were distinct. The phalarope flew about 4o yards and then

alighted on the water like a waterfowl. This convinced us of its

identity without doubt. Thereafter, we followed its movements and

marked the black ear-coverts, a conspicuous feature which we had

noticed at our first glance. Soon, we discovered there were two

phalaropes. The salt pans were full of shore birds such as Ruff,

Blackwinged Stilt, Curlew-Sandpiper, Dunlin, Little Stint, Redshank,

Greenshank, Marsh Sandpiper, Lesser and Large Sand Plover, and

Blacktailed Godwit.

A special characteristic of the phalarope was that, whiie the rest

of the waders preferred to land on their feet in ooze or in very

shallow water, the phalarope alighted on the surface of the water

where it was deeper and began swimming in typical waterfowl manner.

Within the next few days from the 28th to the 30th evening, we

watched the phalaropes of which we counted five, feeding and

approaching us as close as 20 yards. I took photographs while

Shivrajkumar watched them. The feeding action of the phalaropes

was moorhen-like, off the surface of the water. The bird had a

resemblance to a Pheasant-tailed JaCana without the long tail. We

once saw a phalarope twist sharply in the air for a second while

flying, only to continue its swift flight. We also saw them turn or

wheel sharply while flying and they then looked very much like other

small shore birds in flight.

A feature of the phalarope is the feet lobed and_ slightly

webbed, a character which cannot be seen in the field. Phalarope

means coot-footed. The slender black bill, black ear-coverts,

blackish nape and hindcrown, white forehead and lower parts, ashy

upper parts, coupled with the white wing-bar and snipelike design of

the back, are the best pointers for identifying the bird. The. above

including its moorhen-like feeding behaviour and its habit of alighting

on water would make it unmistakable with any shore bird of our coast.

In size, it is small from 6 to 8 inches in length.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54

On 31st morning, we revisited the pans but owing to a strong

north-easterly wind, the birds were not seen, the visibility was poor,

and we thought that the birds had migrated. Other shore birds were

behaving shyly and flighting frequently.

On the morning of the first of November, we were out again.

This time it was a windless morning and visibility was good. A

pair of Large Flamingos which we heal seen earlier were there, added

to this was a solitary ‘TLeeser Flamingo, Brahminy Ducks, and avocets.

Masses of other shore birds had arrived. In the distance we made

out 15 phalaropes swimming together, while other waders were up to

their belly in water. As flighting was taking place, a small section

of the phalaropes, eight of them, took wing and flew past us, their

pied upper parts, reminiscent of Turnstone and almost striped like a

snipe except for the white wing-bar, gave them a distinctive appearance.

This was indeed a wonderful sight. The remaining seven birds were

seen feeding separately and then joining up. In their behaviour we

found them rather individualistic while feeding but grouping together

while resting and flying. Their coloration is much like Sanderling

in winter plumage and thus conspicuous, whereas in halts they differ

totally.

Di. Banar, SHIVRAJKUMAR OF JASDAN

BHAVNAGAR, gS ,

Mowamlice a nos. R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHBJI

| With the excellent points for field identification contained in the

above note it is to be hoped that more observers on our north-western

seaboard will now be able to keep a proper look-out for phalaropes.

It may be that they are less uncommon in winter than the lack of

records suggests, and possibly are often overlooked. Ticehurst (Birds of

Sind, Ibis, 1924: 126) found the Rednecked Phalarope a common winter

visitor to the coast of Sind, swimming about and feeding actively on

the calm inshore waters and lagoons as well as on small pools or

shallow jheels inland. It wili be recalled that only recently (Vol. 54:

190) K. S. Lavkumar and K. S. Himmatsinhji reported it bon Kutch

in May. The birds, presumably on northern passage, were then

in the unmistakable breeding plumage, with white cheeks and

chestnut-red sides of neck.—Eps. |

16. SOME RIDDLES OF GAME-BIRD MIGRATION IN KUTCH

There can be little doubt that within living observation the general

pattern of the annual migration of some gamebirds into Kutch

during the winter season has changed substantially, to the chagrin of

sportsmen. The gamebooks of the State shoots, which have been

preserved meticulously. since 1901, provide a record of the more strik-

ine changes in this pattern. |

Among: the mysteries of the gamebird migrations must be reckoned

the almost complete disappearance of the Imperial Sandgrouse

(Pterocles orientalis) from Kutch. Although this bird was never

among the more numerous visitors, it could always be relied upon to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 467

put in an appearance in numbers which ensured that it figured in

shoots regularly held at any one of several particular locations and

was known as far afield as Abdasa. In the first ten years of the

present century, there were only three years (1903, 1904, 1906) when

none was shot at these places, and these were famine years.

when there was little or no water to attract the birds. Between

t909 and 1921, there were ten years in which bags of between 13 and

41 were shot, with only two blank years (1910, 1911) apparently

owing to water shortage; but from 1922 until 1927 there are five

blank years—-no Imperial Sandgrouse were seen in those localities

where they had been customarily encountered. Between 1928 and

1937 there were six blank years (1929, 1931-36) but the birds, when

they came, seemed to come in larger numbers. On 27th and 28th

December 1930 two guns, in camp at Mokhana, accounted for i117

birds—quite a heavy bag for Imperial Sandgrouse in Kutch. 1937

was another good year, 44, 100, and 30 birds being bagged in three

shoots during January and February. Since 1940, when 18 birds

were shot, there has been a complete blank. No Imperial Sandgrouse

have been seen or shot in their accustomed localities. Wiaull they come

back again? This blank period is by far the longest for which

records are available; it includes years when there was plenty of

water in Kutch. . It may perhaps indicate a permanent change in the

usual choice of water by the Imperial Sandgrouse.

Another mystery is the gradual change in the habits of the Spotted

Sandgrouse (Pterocles senegallus—locally wuaku). The arrival. of

these birds in Kutch seems likewise influenced by the nature of the

monsoon. During the first ten years of the century, there were three

blank years (1903, 1904, 1906). but, when the birds came, their

favourite haunt was Rudra Mata-Kunaria, near Bhuj. In 1905 one

gun bagged 54 at this spot, in 1907 four guns accounted for 124,

and leaving the blank years aside there were always waku at Rudra

Mata. Between 1909 and 1919 there were two blank years {1910,

1911) when no waku came; but during the rest of this period the

bags were steady if moderate. In 19172, 1913, 1914, and 1913, waku

remained faithful to Rudra Mata-Kunaria; but towards the end of

the period, they showed an interesting tendency to move away from

this locality. From 1917 onwards, they were found again at Rudra

Mata-Kunaria; in November 1919 three guns bagged 93-~the best

record for many years. From 1919 to 1927 there were two blank

years (1920, 1921); otherwise Rudra Mata-Kunaria showed better

bags than in the preceding period. For example, 1922 was a record

year, 496 birds being bagged in four shoots. ‘Throughout the period

1930-1943, waku continued to come to Kutch with 1931 to 1936 and

1939 as blank years when none were shot in these accustomed places;

but they began now to desert Rudra Mata, and to go further away to

Amrapur, Bhimasar, Lakhara-Velara, and the Banni. During this

time, only a single waku was shot at Rudra Mata in 1937, which is

a dramatic contrast with earlier bags at the same place. At the

present time, waku are rare in Kutch, although they are still to be

found in the comparatively remote area of the Banni. The reports

from outlying districts, which convey news of the arrival of game

birds, now scarcely mention waku. It would be interesting to learn

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

whether any other area is now visited by birds which once came to

Kutch.

Duck present another mystery. During the early years of the

century, they always came to Kutch in fair numbers whenever the

monsoon gave enough water for them. There were certain localities

where a shoot could always be arranged in the assurance that good

sport would be forthcoming. As an example, the shoots at Ningal

and Ratnal may be given for the year 1922. In January of that year

eight guns bagged 116 birds, in February six guns got 98 birds, in

the following December eight guns bagged 213 birds. Devisar and

Dhonsa too would usually provide their quota. Owing to the

frequent monsoon failures with which Kutch is afflicted, there are

always a number of blank years when no duck can be expected—for

example 1923, 1926, and most ot the years in the middle thirties.

But when conditions were favourable, the ducks always came,

whether in greater or lesser numbers. Of late years, when the

assembly of experienced guns was more difficult, bags were naturally

smaller; but when the water was there, the ducks were found in their

accustomed spots. It has been noticed, however, during the last few

years, that they have been coming in smaller numbers; and that

even when the rains have been good, there have not been as

many as used to be. The spots which were once favourites of

theirs are now deserted by them; and this year, extraordinary to say,

when Kutch is green, when the tanks and lakes are fuller than has

been the case for many years, there are practically no duck at all.

If the last monsoon had been a bad one, the absence of the duck

would not be surprising; but the fact that none have come, even

when conditions are favourable, taken along with the fact of

the steady fall off in previous years, suggests that some definite

change is taking place in the migration-pattern, which has influenced

their arrival in Kutch for the last half century. In this connection

the article Ducks Unlimited in the December 1956 number of the

Journal is very suggestive. The trouble in Kutch is certainly not

over-shooting; it must also, as in North America, lie with breed-

ing grounds. Can it be that large scale developments in U.S.S.R.

connected with land reclamation, or even with atomic weapons, have

caused the shortage which we have noticed? Comparison with

observations along similar lines to the above, gathered in other parts

of India, might be interesting.

RANJIT VILLA,

Buuj, Kutcu, H. H. MADANSINHJI OF KUTCH

January 30, 1957.

1. THE LIVER FLUKE OF THE FROG, RANA TIGRINA—

A NEW RECORD OF MEHRAORCHIS RANARUM

SRIVASTAVA, 1934 (PLEUROGENITINAE)

Srivastava (1934) reported a new trematode Mehraorchis ranarum

encysted in the body cavity, specially in the pancreatic region of Rana

cyanophlyctis. My colleague Dr. R. Rakshpal, to whom my thanks

are due, pointed out a dissected Rana tigrina in the B.Sc. class, which

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 469

showed a large number of very small cysts attached to lungs,

intestines, kidneys, etc. The cysts were examined and found to be

only bacterial. The general examination of the various organs

revealed infection of liver and gall bladder only. The liver showed

white spots on its lobes, which gave these a pathogenic appearance.

The liver had 16 liver flukes in its bile ducts. All the flukes were

fully gravid. The gall bladder which was very much inflated was full

of trematode eggs, which were later found to be of the flukes re-

covered from the liver. The flukes resembled Mehraorchis ranarum

Srivastava, 1934. The general shape of the body and the topography

of the various organs were as described by Srivastava (1934). The

spines on the body were quite sharply distinguished and were pro-

jecting out of ‘the surface very conspicuously, at least along the

anterior end and the margins of the body. These were densely

crowded at the genital opening. The uterine coils extended, in the

majority of the specimens, beyond the intestinal caeca posteriorly and

the caeca were more or less hidden under the coils all along their

length. The vitellaria extended up to the levels of the anterior end

ot the pharynx and the posterior end of the ventral sucker. ‘At least

in their anterior region the vitellaria of the two sides continued in

the middle of the body, even overlapping the oesophagus. The

measurements of the various organs though different from those given

by Srivastava {1934) were not taken into consideration as the flukes

were found ito be of the same type.

As no flukes have so far been recorded from the liver of frogs in

India, I have called it the liver fluke of frog.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

LUCKNOW UNIVERSITY. R, S. TANDON

December 29, 1956.

REFERENCES

Srivastava, H. D. (1934): Bull. Acad. Sc., U.P. 1934.

ise DICKS FROM) BALUCHISIAN, WEST PAKISTAN

During the Peabody Museum-Harvard Expedition to West

Pakistan, 1955, some Jxodoidea were collected.

1. Hyalomma excavatum. A specimen was obtained by the writer

at Little Kapoto, 1c miles south of Kalat.

2. Hyalomma marginatum. One specimen collected at Kon-e-Murid,

2 miles south of Turbat in Mekran, by Naem Beg Chugtai, University

of Karachi Zoologist, from the bark of an acacia tree (B. kahur).

dihicy lance tee 1s) Meld) sacred! by) the Ziknis, a religious sect im

Mekran. }

The determinations were made by Dr. Harry Hoogstraai, U. S.

Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3, in Cairo.

3551 Main Hicuway,

CoconuT GROVE, HENRY FIELD

Fioripa, U.S.A.,

November 14, 1956.

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

19. BIONOMICS OF THE PUMPKIN CATERPILLAR,

MARGARONIA INDICA SAUND

There are two points I would hke to mention in connection with

Messrs. Patel and Kulkarny’s paper under the above title (1956,

Journ. BNHS., 54: 118-27).

Firstly I consider that the figure of the pupa is somewhat mislead-

ing as it shows the wing-markings of the pharate imago, which would

not be visible until shortly before emergence.

Secondly it may be of interest to record that I have collected many

hundreds of examples of this moth at both ordinary and mercury

vapour light during the last thirty years or so in both India and East

Africa and I have never seen a female. In ali the other Margaronia

species that I have known attracted to light, females are as common

as males and very often more so.

MOMBASA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

January 25,. 1957. F.R.E.S.

AO A NEW PEST OF SCREWPINE IN KERALA, AGONIA

FUSCIPES BALY (HISPINAE, CHRYSOMELIDAE)

(With four figures)

Screwpines (Pandanus spp.) are of considerable economic impor-

tance in Kerala. Leaves of these plants are used in making mats,

baskets, and fancy articles, a premier cottage industry of the State.

The important pests so far recorded on screwpines are the cetonid

Agestrata orichalcea L., the pvralid Acara moroselia Wlk., and the

tettigonid Sexava nubila Stall. in Dutch East Indies (Leefmans,

1927 a, b), the tineid Aeolarchis sphenotoma Meyr. and the curculionid

Diathetes pandanae Zimm. in Fiji (Lever, 1935, Zimmerman, 1939).

The only insect recorded on screwpines in India is Leptocorisa

varicornis, but its relationship with the host plant is not known (Pillai,

1923). Agonia fuscipes Baly (Hispinae, Chrysomelidae) has been

recorded for the first time as a pest of screwpines.

At Vellayani, Kerala, A. fuscipes has been observed attacking

different varieties of screwpines all the year round. This appears

to be the first time A. fuscipes is recorded in India and is of economic

importance. The present contribution embodies observations made on

the insect.

LirE-History AND MORPHOLOGY

Hoe (Mice 15 ea Be bhe tere ssare laid singly, on the undersides

of leaves. Unlike those of many other hispids the eggs of A. fuscipes

are not sunk into the leaf tissues but are wholly on the leaf surface.

The egg is normally situated nearer the base than the tip of the leaf;

‘t lies with its long axis parallel to the midrib. Adhesion of the

ege to the leaf surface is strong and lasting; the empty shell remains

on the leaf long after the contained egg has hatched. Soon after the

egg is laid, the female beetle covers it up with a convex broadly oval

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4 471

mass of excrementitious matter consisting mostly of partly digested

fragments of screwpine leaf tissue, irregularly arranged and stuck

together. If the beetle is disturbed while constructing this covering,

it moves away never returning to complete the work.

Egg with its covering measures 4x3 mm. ‘The outer covering

is easily removed with a needle exposing the egg. Egg proper is

oval, flat ventrally being in contact with leaf surface and convex

dorsally. Chorion is smooth and light yellowish brown; it flattens

out to form a thin flange all round the egg. The flange and ventral

surface of egg adhere firmly to leaf, together forming a plane surface.

Egg with flange is 3.5 x 2.5 mm. and ege proper 2x1 mm.

Egg hatches out in 14-16 days in December to January.

Larva (Fig. 1, C). The grub effects its exit from the egg through

a slit made in the chorion ventraliy and directly cuts its way into the leaf

and starts mining. Direction of the mine depends on the orientation

of the egg. Initially the mine is about 4 mm. broad, gradually it

Fig. 1

(A) Egg with excrementitious covering, (B) Egg with covering removed,

broadens out to 10-15 mm. as the grub grows. Mine constructed by

one grub is confined to one side of the midrib. The grub feeds on the

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

green tissue within the leaf. Inside the mine it is capable of energetic

and rapid movements backward and forward. When removed from

the mine, the grub is incapable of re-entering a leaf. There are three

larval instars. Larval period is 71 days during February to May.

External morphology of the grub is more or less the same in all

the instars. Fullgrown grub, 16x4 mm., is elongate, considerably

flattened with characteristic form of leaf-miners. It is broadest across

the 2nd thoracic segment, narrows slightly and regularly towards the

posterior end and steeply towards the anterior end. Flattening is more

pronounced at anterior and posterior ends than in the middle. Mouth-

parts, head between antennae, anterior border of dorsal and ventral

prothoracic plates are dark brown in colour, rest of head, antennae,

prothoracic plates, light brown and body yellowish. Head, deeply

sunk inside prothorax; only mouthparts and antennae protrude;

strongly flattened, cranial structure being almost lost. Epicranial

halves elongated into lobes imbedded in prothorax. Labrum, maxillae,

and labium considerably reduced in structure. Mandibles strong,

well-developed, form a cone along epicranial margin. Each mandible

with two sharp chitinous blades along inner side enclosing a cavity.

Antennae short, three segmented, 2nd segment largest, 3rd smallest ;

2nd segment surmounted by one sensory peg and three sense hairs;

3rd segment surmounted by three sense hairs. Body, strongly

segmented, with three thoracic and ten abdominal segments.

Prothoracic segment largest, roughly triangular; with two similar

strongly chitinised, hard but pliable plates, one dorsal and one ventral.

Mesothoracic segment, the broadest, constricted in the middle and

rounded laterally. Metathorax and first eight abdominal segments

similar in form, being broader than long and approximately rounded

laterally. oth segment narrower than 8th and truncated laterally.

toth segment considerably narrower than the goth, subcylindrical;

bears anus ventrally. A chitinised, short, cylindrical, peg-like structure

borne on each side of mesothoracic and first eight abdominai seg-:

ments, it projects sideways and bears the spiracle laterally. This

structure and disposition of the spiracles are unique among’ hispid

grubs. A transverse furrow present across first seven abdominal

segments, both dorsally and ventrally; each furrow bordered by slight

segmented ridges. Only ends of furrow present dorsally and venirally

on mesothorax, present in whole dorsally and only ends ventrally on

metathorax and present in whole dorsally and absent ventrally on 8th

abdominal segment. These furrows and ridges appear to be useful

to the legless grub in movements inside the mine. Skin of grub very

minutely wrinkled; all body segments with a few minute hairs laterally.

Pupa (Fig. 1, D). Pupation takes place inside the larval mine.

The pupa measures 12x4.5 mm. It is golden-brown in colour;

mouthparts antennae and eyes turn dark brown with development.

Head, mouthparts, and prothorax resemble those in adult. Among

thoracic segments prothorax is largest and tesothorax smallest.

Sheaths of antennae, legs, and wings closely apposed to body.

Abdomen is strongly segmented with ten segments. First seven

segments more or less of similar form and size; each segment is

broader than long and rounded laterally. 8th segment smaller than

MUON M ) + sojoyg

(soavg| oyy BUIXL suid oae somnsy oY} UL UVes sDal[qo pepunoy )

‘sopjooq ynpe Aq

a, surdmasog ‘¢ “big Ope S4kdS-SUIpsey BuLMoys soavoy outdmaiog *6 “bag

*SOULUL [PATe] BULMOYS fe

‘00§ “LSIH “LVN AVaWog ‘Nuno[

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 473

“th and slightly flattened laterally. oth segment very narrow,

reduced in size; possesses a notch on posterior edge of sternum into

which fits the smali hexagonai roth segment. Spiracular pegs of

‘the type found in grubs are borne laterally on first six abdominal

segments. A transverse ridge surmounted by a row of minute, black

spines is present dorsally near the posterior imarein of each’ (Or

segments 2 to 6; each ridge is curved anteriorwards middorsally.

Smaller ridges with spines are present one on either side of middorsal

line in front of the posterior ridges; the smaller ridges alone being

present on 7th segment. Body surface with very minute wrinkles ;

few small hairs present on the segments laterally. Pupa is capable

of only slight movements. Pupal period is 14 days in August.

Adult (Fig. 4). The adult beetle effects its exit from the larval

mine through a slit it makes on the thin wall of the mine. Sexual

dimorphism is not marked in the beetles, but the

sexes can nevertheless be distinguished by the

smaller size of males. Average measurements of

female and male are 12x 4 mm. and 10x3.5 mm.

respectively. Further, in males the elytra are

almost parallel-sided, in females they are slightly

wider posteriorly.

The beetles are capable of crawling and flying,

but they very seldom fly. During daytime they

usually lurk in the axils of leaves. When dis-

turbed they either drop to ground or crawl back

into the deep recesses of the leaf axils. Feeding

takes place on both sides of the leaves and the

beetle consumes the epidermis of the side on 'F1¢. 4.—The adult

which it feeds and the mesophyll; epidermis of the eee eae

opposite side is left intact. The feeding-scars are Et

short, narrow, straight lines, parallel to the midrib. Distal half of

the leaf is preferred by the beetle for feeding.

DaMAGE CAUSED: Economic STATUS

The nature of damage caused by the adult beetles and the larvae

to screwpin leaves are shown in Figures 2 and 3 (Plate) respectively.

The grubs mine the leaves and the aduits make feeding-scars on them.

The thin epidermal walls of the larval mines get dried up and eventually

tear and break away, rendering the leaves unfit for use. Leaves with

feeding-scars break along these scars in the wind and present a ragged

appearance. Such leaves also are unsuitable for making mats and

other articles. In cases of severe attack most of the leaves show either

one or the other, or both the types of damages. A. fuscipes can

thus be ranked as a major pest of screwpine.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The beetle was identified at the Commonwealth Institute of Ento-

mology. Thanks are due to the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta, who arranged for the identification. Thanks are also.

due to Mr. M. C. Cherian, Principal, and Mr. K.: V. Joseph,

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

Entomologist, Agricultural College, Vellayani, for their helpful

suggestions and facilities provided.

ASsT. ENTOMOLOGIST,

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, ~M. R. G. K. NAIR

VELLAYANI,

KERALA.

December 8, 1956.

REFERENCES

Leefmans, S. (1927 a): Korte Meded. Inst. Plantenziekten, No. 4.

CE) 8 sticks INO

Lever, R. J. A. W. (1988): Agric. J. Fiji. 9 (38).

Pillai, N. K. (1923): Rept. Dept. Agric. G Fisheries, Travancore, 1921-22.

Zimmerman, E. C. (1939): Proc. Havaii Ent. Soc., 10 (2).

21. A GIANT FORM OF CELOSIA ARGENTEA L.

(With a photo)

Celosia argentea L. (Amarantaceae) is a tropical weed spread all

over India, sometimes ascending the hills up to 5,000 ft. The species

is an annual ranging from three to four feet in height, carrying white

spikes which attain a length of four inches (photo, fig. 1) with a

pinkish tinge towards the apex of the inflorescence. Hooker recorded

a length of eight inches in the inflorescence. The leaves exhibit great

variation with regard to size and shape.

9 eS So ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 475

_ During a recent visit to Rajapalayam (Ramanathapuram District,

South India) a giant form of the above species was found occupying

extensive areas of cultivated fields, of mostly black soils. The

species makes its appearance after the harvest of Sorghum

(Jowar). The plants were comparatively larger, reaching a height of

six feet, bearing very narrow and ash-coloured leaves. The inflore-

scence which was eight to thirteen inches in length attracted

attention and plants presented a white appearance, being populated

with over a hundred spikes each. The variation was interesting in

as much as all the plants in the locality were of this form. The floral

characters however agreed with the normal species. Cytological

studies are being pursued which may throw further light on this giant

form.

AGRICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

COIMBATORE, J. SAKHARAM RAO

October 22, 1956.

[This species is a very variable one; at the end of October it can

be seen in many parts of Bombay State, going up to 6-7 ft. tall, with

rather large inflorescence spikes; but the length of the spikes mentioned

in the note is out of the ordinary.—Ebs. |

22.) BHCLIPTA PROSTRATA, EE. ERECTA,: OR E., ALBA:

WHICH IS THE CORRECT NAME?

The nomenclature of this plant has often given me much trouble

in the past; in our floras the plant is known under the name of

Eclipta alba or E. erecta; foreign authors favour E. prostrata Linn.

The present note is written to clarify the position.

Linne in Species Planiarum, 1753, listed three specific names for

what he took to be three different plants, but which have been proved

to be identical: Verbesina prostrata Linn. (page 902), Verbesina alba

Linn. (page 902), and Verbesina pseudo-acmella Linn. (page go1). The

three names, prostrata, alba, and pseudo-acmella, are generally

accepted as belonging to the same plant, of which there are a number

of different forms; these forms do not amount to varieties. In face

of the Rule of Priority these three names stand equal, since ‘they were

all published in 1753; the International Code does not accept page

priority, though some authors, particularly American ones, do accept

ii.

The general custom, which is not regulated by any rules of the

International Code, is to adopt the name that was selected by the

author who treated of these plants in a subsequent taxonomic book

or paper under the name of Eclipta. lLinne himself in 1771 gave

the following two plants: Eclipta prostrata Linn, Mant. 2: 286, and

Eclipta erecta Linn. ibid. It is clear that from among the 1753 names

Linne selected prostrata for this plant; the name erecta is a new one

dating only from 1771, and therefore according to the Rule of Priority

must give way to prostrata.

ATG JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54

The nomenclature and synonymy of this plant S, therefore, the

following :

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Mant. 2: 286, 1771; Roxb. FI.

Ind 934385) e382.

Verbesina prostrata Linn. Sp. Pl. 902, 1753.

Ve alba Vann. Sp.) Pir o02)6753- 3

V. pseudo-acmella Linn. Sp. Pl. go1, 1753.

Cotula alba Linn. Syst. 2: 564, 1767. 3

Eclipta erecta Linn. Mant. 2: 286, 1771; Lamk. Illustr. t. 687,

1796-1797; Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 117, 1861; Cooke, FI.

Bombay Pres. 2: 38, 1904.

Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Pl. Jav. Rar. 528, 1848; Dalz. &

Gibs. Bombay Il. 117, 1861; Clarke, Comp. Ind. 134, 1876;

Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 304, 1881; Gamble, Fl. Madras

705, 1921; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 150, 1953.

It is clear, therefore, that the only correct name of this plant is

Eclipta prostrata Linn., all the other names going into the synonymy.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BomBay 1, H. SANTAPAU,

January 30, 1957. S.J., F.N.I.

| Article 57 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature,

1956 edition, regulates such cases as the present one very clearly;

Art. 57 states: ‘When two or more taxa of the same rank are united,

the oldest legitimate name or (for taxa below the rank of genus) the

oldest legitimate epithet is retained, unless a later name or epithet

must be accepted under the provisions of Art. 58. The author who

first unites taxa bearing names or epithets of the same date has the

right to choose one of them, and his choice must be followed.’ The

1956 edition of the Code was not at hand when the above note was

written.—Ebs. |

23. ALTERNANTHERA PARONYCHIOIDES SY, HIL.—A

CORRECTION

In a previous number of this journal (53: 525, August 1956) Mr.

D. D. Sundararaj mentioned under No. 5 the following:

‘Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil. Voy. Brés. II, 2: 439, 1833.

Syn. Achyranthes polygonoides (Linn.) Lam. Encl. 1: 547, 1785.

Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. Prodr. 417, 1810

‘A native of tropical America. Reported first in India by Raizada

as occurring on the banks of the Ganges in py Cawnpore and

Benares. (jf. Ind. Bot. Soc., 15: .149-167).’ |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 477

This citation calls for comment on several counts. The first is

that the J. Ind. Bot. Soc. referred to does not mention this plant

at' all; there are two papers only by Raizada in the same volume, none

of which mentions the plant.

The second and more important comment concerns the nomenclature

of the plant in question. The names were published at the following

dates. Alt. paronychioides St. Hil. 1833; Achyr. polygonoides Lam.

1785; Alt. polygonoides R. Br. 1810; the reference to Linne in

‘Achyranthes polygonoides (Linn.) Lam.’ probably refers to Gomphrena

polygonoides Linn. 1753, though Lamarck, loc. cit., does not give

such a reference to Linne. It is clear that in accordance with the

principle of Priority, the oldest name is the valid one, otherwise the

reasons for the refusal of the oldest name, polygonoides, should be

indicated. As Mr. Sundararaj has put it, the nomenclature is decidedly

against the principle of Priority,

There seem to be two plants, which though different in them-

selves, have become rather mixed up in the literature; their

nomenclature is the following :

r. Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil. Voy. Brés. II, 2: ABO Ona,

Schinz in Engler & Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,

eden, Hy 1a: 'rrs.) (Omit the synonymy as given in

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 525.)

2. Alternanthera ficoidea (Linn.) R. Br. ex R. & S. Syst. 5: 555,

1819; Merrill, Enum. Phil. Fl. Pl. 2: 131, 1923; Backer in

Fl. Males. I, 4 (2): 93, 1949.

Gomphrena ficoidea Linn. Sp. Pl. 235, 1753.

G. polygonoides Linn. Sp. Pl. 225, 1753, pro parte.

Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. Prodr. 416, 1810,

Telanthera polygonoides Mog. in DC. Prodr. 13 (2): 363, 1849.

Moquin in DC. Prodr. 13 (2): 358 lays much stress on the structure

of the staminodes for the identification of some of the species of

Alternanthera. According to him, the staminodes of Alt. parony-

chioides are ‘much shorter than the filaments (of the stamens), dilated,

subirregular, irregularly 2-4 toothed at the apex, margins entire’,

whilst the staminodes of Alt, ficoidea (=Telanthera ficoidea Mogq.)

are ‘longer than the filaments, elongated, ligulate, multifid at the

apex, margins entire’.

There seems, then, to be no doubt that the two plants are different

from each other, but to judge from the confusion in the literature the

identification of the plants is a matter of some difficulty.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BomBay, H. SANTAPAU, s,J.

December 13, 1956.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

24. HABENAKIA PANCHGANIENSIS—NEW NAME FOR

A BOMBAY ORCHID

Blatter and McCann, in this journal (35: 19-20, tt. 445, 1932)

described a new species, Habenaria variabilis, from Panchgani on

the Western Ghats. The plant seems to be endemic in Panchgani

and its neighbourhood, as it has not been reported from any spot other

than Panchgani and Mahableshwar; in the latter place it is abundant

and common on rocky ground in the middle of August.

The Panchgani plant is quite distinct in many of its characters

and well deserves specific rank; the name, however, needs modifica-

tion, as it is a later homonym in the sense of the current edition of

the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

Ridley, in Journ, Bot. (Lond.) 24: 294, 1886, described another

Habenaria variabilis from Abyssinia; the species is accepted as valid

by Kranzlin in Bot. fahrb. 16: 144-45, 1892. We have not

seen the type of Ridley’s plant, but comparison of the descriptions

of these two orchids shows that the two plants are quite different,

and therefore cannot go under the same name. In these circumstances,

the older plant retains its name; the Panchgani plant must have a

new name in accordance with the Rules. For our Indian plant we

propose the name Habenaria panchgainiensis, to commemorate the

place where the plant was first collected and where it seems to be more

or less endemic.

The one point in which both plants agree is the great variability

in their floral structures, which can be judged from Ridley’s des-

cription and from McCann’s plates in the fournal, ioc. cit. The

nomenclature of our Indian plant is the following :

Habenaria panchganiensis Sant. & Kapadia, nom. nov.

Syn.: H. variabilis Blatt. & McCann in Journ. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 35: 19--20, tt. 445, 1932 (non Ridley, 1886).

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

ForT, BompBay, H. SANTIAPAU, S.J., F.N.1.

January 2, 1957. Z. KAPADIA, B.sc. (Hons.,

25. WiLD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA

PREDATOR CONTROL AND THE INTRODUCTION OF ExoTIC SPECIES

I must confess to being shocked by parts of Colonel Guman Singh’s

article on ‘Game Preservation in Jammu and Kashmir State’ in your

August number, and do wonder whether the views expressed on

predator control and the introduction of exotic species have the support

of your Society. The editorial disavowal at the foot of page 649

seems very mild. I hope you will not mind my giving my personal

views, for what they are worth; I am not writing as Secretary of the

Fauna Preservation Society, for I have not discussed the matter with

the Council. :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 479

Predator Control. This is certainly a _ controversial

subject, but the following principles do seem generally applicable.

There may of course be exceptions—indeed the black bear may well

be a special case in Kashmir. (Is not ‘vermin’ an out of date con-

ception, implying as it does the existence of good and' bad animals?) :

(1) If the object is to keep the population of any animal at a

balanced level, wild deer for instance, predator control is dangerous

and may quickly lead, through over-population of the herbivorous

animals, to destruction of the plant cover, and finally to desert con-

ditions with the collapse of the herbivorous population. The classic

example is, of course, the Kaibab in U.S.A.

(2) If the object is to produce an artificially high animal population,

so that man, instead of another animal, may kill the surplus, the

effectiveness of predator control is arguable. Pheasant breeding in

England is an example—stoats, weasels, and hedgehogss are still killed

by gamekeepers and it is generally believed that a higher population

of pheasants results. But if this is applied to large animals, it must

be remembered that the sportsman is highly selective in his killing.

He has no use for under-sized or half-starved beasts. So if the

vegetation is being destroyed by overgrazing, he will not take the place

of the removed predator, and still further land deterioration will

result.

(3) When a predator is doing damage, it is that individual animal

which should be destroyed. War should not be waged _ indiscri-

minately against his whole species; they may well be working for

mankind in other ways, for example in controlling the numbers of

rodents. ,

(4) Bounties as a means of predator control lead to many abuses

and are seldom effective.

(5) A very. much debated case, which is still under experiment,

is that of wolf control in Canada. Does killing the wolves really

benefit the caribou herds on which they prey?

[Introduction of “Exotic Species. I should have

thought that the introduction of exotic species had got beyond the

state of being highly controversial, at any rate from a scientific point

cf view. There can seldom be room ecologically for a new animal

Species without ousting an indigenous one or doing harm to the

indigenous flora. Colonel Guman Singh is peculiarly unfortunate in

his statement that deer in New Zealand have thriven well. I need

hardly tell the Bombay Natural History Society that deer in New Zealand

have so devastated the vegetation that they are that country’s greatest

menace. The New Zealand Government’s official object is to destroy

every single deer—a particularly wretched result of introducing animals

for sport.

| Another example of introduction without sufficient forethought was

the 1,200 reindeer introduced into Alaska at the end of the last

century. They had become 250,000 by 1940. Then overgrazing (in

this case of winter food, lichens) caused starvation and a reduction

of the population to 25,000 in 1950, a drop of 90%. Bs Darlings;

says (Oryx {I No. 5, p. 283) that at the peak period 1934 there were

estimated to be 650,000 reindeer in Alaska.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

Should not each country strive to conserve its own typical flora

and fauna and hesitate long before introducing exotic species, the

final effect of which is usually impossible to foresee? -

c/o THE FAUNA PRESERVATION SOCIETY,

c/O0 ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, Cyl BOMEE

REGENT’S Park, N.W. 1,

November 22, 1956.

[| Dr. Ira N. Gabrielson, President, Wildlife Management Institute,

Washington, D.C., who is an international authority on wildlife pro-

blems, comments on the above as follows:

‘I certainly agree with the views expressed in C. L. Boyle’s letter

on predator control; most biologists who have had experience with

the introduction of exotic species expect bad rather than good results.

Fortunately, most such introductions fail, and so produce no bad results

other than wasting the money spent on them.

‘There are a number of cases of introduced species that have

become first-class pests; for example, the European house sparrow

and the starling in the United States, the American muskrat in parts

of Europe, the mongoose in many of the West Indian and other islands,

the rabbits in Australia, and a great number of introduced species in

New Zealand, the most destructive of which seems to be the red deer.

I recently read a report that single hunters employed by the govern-

ment to reduce the numbers of these animals were reported to have

killed as many as 2,000 deer each in a single season. The carcasses

were left on the ground. This is certainly a wasteful way to use

natural vegetation and a wasteful way to use an animal that has good

food value.

‘In the United States, the introduction of exotic species is now

carefully controlled in many States, and there are Federal laws prohibit-

ing the admission of many of the animals that have caused trouble

either in parts of North America or other parts of the world. Such

introductions as are sanctioned are taking place under very carefully

controlled conditions, and are preceded by studies of the territory in

which it is proposed to introduce a species and a study of that species

in its natural range with ecological conditions.

‘Up to the present, there has been little success with most exotics.

While many hundreds of thousands of dollars have been spent in this

country in the past fifty years in introducing’ exotic game birds, only the

ring-necked pheasant has established itself over a wide area.

Hungarian partridges have established themselves and did well for a

while, and then have gone down drastically in most of the range they

had occupied. The chukor partridge has done well in some of the

arid western States, but failed in others that seemed to be identical.

There is a lot to be learned about the reasons for the success and

failure of this bird before it can become very widespread in the United

States, although some progress is being made. :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 481

‘In each case these birds have succeeded in habitat where there are

no gallinaceous birds to compete with them. Where there is com-

petition from similar birds, none of the introductions have been

successful.

‘From the background and experience we have had in this country,

we certainly would advise anyone to go slow in introducing exotic

species and to be very sure that the animal, if it is successful in

establishing itself, is not going to become a nuisance, or worse.’

We trust that, in our efforts to boost our stocks of game animals by

the introduction of exotic species for the benefit of sportsmen and for

the revenue expected to be derived therefrom, an _ understanding

appraisal will first be made of the sorry and costly experiences of

other countries. —EDs. |

GLEANINGS

EXTRACTS FROM ‘THE NEw ConQguEest OF CENTRAL Asia’ (Natural

History of Central Asia, Volume 1) by Roy Chapman Andrews.

Published by the American Museum of Natural History, New York

1932.

Voles

Near Tsetenwang ‘on the flat ground at the entrance to the

canyon there was a vast colony of meadow voles, Microtus brandt.

I have never seen so many individuals of a single species of any

mammal. To say hundreds of thousands is not over-stating their

number. The plain was literally alive with them and one could not

step without treading on their burrows, which were connected by tiny

paths. ‘A continual high-pitched chirping -sounded like thousands of

crickets underground. They appeared to be almost entirely diurnal,

for our traps caught many more during the day than at night and we

saw them at all hours.’ (p. 75)

Speed and other notes on the Wild Ass

‘The highest speed that it could reach was forty miles an hour;

however, this could be maintained for only a short dash, perhaps two

furlongs. Subsequently we found that only a few of the fleetest

individuals could reach that speed but that all could do thirty-six miles

an hour when galloping full out. Thus there was a difference of four

miles an hour between the speed of the slowest and the fastest

animals.?

‘To me the most amazing exhibit was the endurance of the wild

ass. The stallion which we followed travelled twenty-nine miles before

it gave up and lay down. The first sixteen miles were covered at an

average speed of thirty miles an hour, as well as could be estimated.

During that time there never was a breathing space; it would some-

times slow up to twenty-five miles an hour, when it had evaded us by a

sharp turn, but a few moments later would speed up to a rate of forty

miles as it tried to cross in front of the car. Once we pounded along

fifty feet apart for a considerable distance at thirty-six miles an hour. |

‘After sixteen miles the ass began to slow up perceptibly but kept

doggedly at it, averaging almost twenty miles an hour for four miles

more. Then he reduced his speed to a slow canter and resorted to

more frequent twisting and turning to throw us off his track. Finally

the animal stood quietly and Shackelford decided to lasso him.

Fortunately, I did not fasten the end of the lariat to the car as

Shackelford had suggested, for the instant the rope settled over the

animal’s neck it lashed out with both hindfeet, badly damaging the

1 Compare this with\estimates given for the Kutch Wild Ass: 26 m.p.h. (Mosse,

JBNHS, 29: 275) and 30-32 m.p.h. (Salim Ali, ibid, 46: 476).—Eps.

GLEANINGS— pea S! 4&3

radiator, and then started off on a sharp angle at twenty-five mile an

hour sprint.

‘We had other opportunities later to check our observations as to

speed and feel sure that we are correct in saying that forty miles an

hour for a short dash is the greatest speed any of the Mongolian wild

asses can reach. However, this is considerably better than a wolf can

do, for after several runs we were convinced that thirty-six miles an

hour is the Mongolian wolf’s fastest pace. The wolf is the only

natural enemy of the wild ass.’ (pp.111-112)

‘Like the desert gazelles, the “‘kulon’’ seeks a flat plain upon

which to drop its young. They are particularly careful to avoid a

region of ravines or gullies which might give cover to wolves. Also

like the gazelles, they gather into herds, largely composed of mares,

just before the young are born. The stallions do not entirely leave

them but remain somewhat separated. Later in the summer many

of the males range by themselves. The solitary individuals which

we saw were invariably stallions.’ {p. 115.)

*,.. On the great plain north of Tsagan Nor, however, where two or

three thousand wild asses had gathered to foal, [ did not see a single

wolf, and carcasses were left untouched except by birds.’ (p. 115)

‘The *‘kulon’’ (Wild Ass) seemed to prefer the hard gravel plains

and would run into the sandy country only when we approached in the

car. They appeared to know instinctively that we could not follow

them there and would always make a direct line for soft ground, or

into the lava flows which; cap part of the region about Loh.

‘The car had an irresistible attraction for them, as it did for the

gazelles, ponies, camels and all other animals on the plains. When

we were running an ass, it would make a supreme effort to cut across

in front of us, sometimes missing the car by only a few feet. If

there were several hundred asses upon the plain, we needed only to

drive up the center to have the animals come in diagonally from both

sides, as though drawn by a magnet; after a few miles the whole mass

would be thundering along in front of us. Usually such a spectacle

was too much for gazelles in the vicinity and they, too, would join

the procession.’ (pp. 115-116)

Fauna at Tsagan Nor

‘In the marsh-grass and rank vegetation beside the lake, a. green

insect, like a large mosquito, swarmed in countless thousands. Just

at dark these began to rise with a hum like distant motors. The noise

was quite appalling and we thought that we should be forced to leave,

but fortunately the insect is exclusively a vegetable feeder and did not

annoy us in the slightest. They formed a stratum three feet thick and

seemed to be following the lake shore from west to east. The flight

line lay four feet above the ground, and below that level there was

hardly an insect. Not many came into the tents when the candles

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

were lighted, and there were no mosquitoes or sand flies; in fact, it

was an ideal summer resort.’ (pp. 120-121)

Hedgehog

A tame hedgehog placed together with an eighteen-inch alligator,

killed it by almost entirely devouring the right hind leg and eating

a large hole into its abdominal cavity. (p. 122)

Abundance of “antelopes mean, (Gur biuen

Sva vikihvan Vo tun taines

‘Well over toward the mountains we had an amazing spectacle of

wild life—the largest herd of antelopes I had ever seen. The entire

horizon appeared to be a moving line of yellow bodies and curving

necks. As we ran toward them in the car, the great herd divided

into groups of bucks, does and young. Thousands passed in front

of us, sometimes stopping to gaze curiously at the car, or running

just fast enough to keep at what they thought was a safe distance.

‘Nowhere else, except in Africa, would it be possible to see such

a herd of wild animals. We estimated that at least six thousand

were immediately in front of us, but there may have been twice that

number, for the yellow groups stretched far beyond our sight. They

were feeding upon rich grass along the lower slopes of the Gurbun

Saikhan, where the mountains insured a greater rainfall. They

belonged to the short-tailed species, Procapra gutturosa, which lives

only on the grasslands. (p. 2109.)

‘, . . There was not a sign of human life, but a dry lake-bed ran

the entire length of the valley, which swarmed with antelope and wild

asses. They were feeding on alfalfa, and we found this plant grow-

ing wild at half a dozen spots in other parts of the Gobi. I never

have seen such a concentration of game in a small area. Antelopes

were running beside the car and crossing our course every moment ;

tiny fawns hardly larger than rabbits jumped out. from almost under the

wheels, where they had been lying flat on the ground with necks

outstretched.

‘Herd after herd of wild asses pounded along beside us, unable to

tear themselves away from the fascination of the car. Most of the

asses were mares and many of them were chaperoning fuzzy, long-

legged colts. It was amusing to see the little fellows bend to the

work of keeping up with their mothers. With ears laid back and

slim legs flying they put every ounce of strength and determination

into what probably was the first time in their short lives that they

had run from danger. Once we saw four wild asses fighting.

Kicking and biting: viciously, they kept at it until the car approached

and they joined the zoological assemblage which we were driving

up the dry lake-bed.

‘In spite of the thousands of animals, there was something utterly

desolate about the valley. Perhaps it was the black mountain walls

GLEANINGS gut 485

which shut us in and the fact that for more than a hundred miles

we had not seen even the remains of an old camp-fire or the circular

mark left by a Mongol tent. All of us were exhausted when we

camped at dark in a sandy stream-bed. The speedometer of the car

registered one hundred and fifty miles...’ (pp. 219-220.)

World’ Camels im the Black Gobi

‘Three of the men said that they had seen wild camels in the

Black Gobi but only at a distance. They were very shy and almost

like mythical creatures. Some Mongols, they said, had caught them

when young but that even then they were difficult to tame. As far

as I can discover, very little has been published about wild camels.

Doubtless this is due to the fact that few explorers have visited the

arid Black Gobi where they live.’ (p. 296.) i

Ge So aliges Ole tg Oma (an Automobile

‘While we were returning through a mountain pass just before

dark, two great brown animals leaped into view on the saw-tooth rim

of the highest'.peak. Lovell saw them first. ‘Sheep, as I’m alive!’ he

shouted. There they stood, two magnificent rams, silhouetted against

the sunset sky. Granger’s rifle was in the car beside me. ‘As Lovell!

switched off the power, I fired, sending my bullet into the quarters of

the larger ram. I wonder if any other man has ever shot a mountain

sheep from a motor car! I have killed a good many bighorns but

never one that did not exact strenuous work. Sheep-hunting means

liard climbing, skilful stalking, straight shooting. To sit comfortably

in a touring car and pot a Mongolian argali, the trophy par excellence

of a sportsman’s life, was a new experience. Incidentally, it gives: an

idea of where we had taken that car about as plainly as it could be

told. I am not surprised that the sheep were too curious to run away

when the roaring black thing appeared among their mountain peaks.

Our being there seemed so strange even to us that at times we could

hardly believe it true.’ (p. 305)

Pitomor , ap min cara Great. Eherd of Antelope

‘... This time they had arranged themselves as though directed by

a stage manager; perhaps fifty thousand were in the bottom of an

enormous valley where from the rim we could “‘shoot’’ down at them

with the telephoto lens. There was a light wind and for the first time

in my life I could smell live antelope. A mile away the squalling of

the babies could be heard. With the glasses we could see them

nursing and playing. All the intimate details of domestic antelope

life were carried on before our eyes. Sometimes a thousand or so

would dash at full speed through the center of the herd, only to stop

abruptly and begin to feed. The mass was in constant motion; hardly

for a moment as any part of it stationary, although the animais

were entirely at peace.’ (p. 317.) -

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54

‘A magnificent herd of gazelles, Procapra gutturosa, suddenly

appeared in front of us. There must have been at least twenty-five

thousand bucks, does and fawns, running on all sides of the cars.’

(p. 407)

The Fish of the Tsangan Nor Region:

‘During the night of our return to camp a strange thing happened.

We were awakened by fish! A strong wind blew from the west until

about two o’clock in the morning, pushing the water in the shallow

lake over to our side. Suddenly the wind dropped and the water

receded so quickly that thousands of small fish which had been feed-

ing close up under the bank were left stranded on a strip of mud

about three feet wide. Flapping widely as they tried to work back into

the water, they made a noise like scores of people softly clapping

their hands.’ (p. 298)

Experimental spirit in a Bird

One day . . . one of the youngster Great Tits made an important

discovery . .. In the west room there hangs a large plastic lamp

shade, shrouded in dark chiffon. .. . The Tit flew to this shade,

inspected it carefully, then bored a small hole through the chiffon and

tapped on the broad rim underneath. Discovering the noise this

rade, she excitedly pulled and tore at the chiffon ... This done she

rained blows on the taut plastic band with the vigour of a Nuthatch,

putting her back into it and at times nearly losing her grip of the

slippery foothold, but she went on rapping, louder and louder, making

such resounding bangs that it brought several Tits hurrying through

the fanlight to see what she was doing, one of them so scared by, the

sound that she quickly retreated again. The others stared a moment,

then a male (adult) flew to the shade and chased her off, afterwards

perching there himself to make an examination before flying away.

The discoverer then returned to continue her drum _ music.

Drummer as I named her, now began experimenting on different parts

of the shade, tearing many small holes in the chiffon, then testing the

sounds with sharp raps on various parts of the shade. Except on the

broad rim) (or band) the sound was feeble and low-toned, for only the

rim was tightly stretched. She went back to it in between testing

other parts, evidently to compare the sounds. She did this with quick,

excited movements, obviously thrilled by her discovery. The broad

rim was then tested on the other side of the shade, the noise there

being the same; she then made hammering tests on one or two other.

things in the room which produced little noise, but she stayed several

moments on the screen, hammering for all she was worth. The noise

it made was nothing compared to the shade, so she returned to this

for another ten minutes of drum music .before she flew away.

Drummer often repeated a short performance (always on the rim)

during the autumn, but in these later performances the excitement of

discovery was missing.

_ (Lrvinc witH Brrps by Len Howard, 1956, page 56)

GLEANINGS --. 437

Hormone Treatment increases Wool Growth

Experiments on a cheap and simple way of increasing wool yields

have been in progress at the Lincoln College,. Canterbury, New

Zealand. These involve the administration of the hormone ‘L’-

thyroxine’ to sheep, and the limited samples on which this was carried

out successfully during the last three years has given very encouraging

results with no visible ill-effects on the animals subjected to the experi-

ments nor any reduction in lambing percentages. In the treated

animals the wool was of a definitely finer quality and the growth was

found to have increased by an average of 13.5% (about one lb. on

an 8 lb. fleece).

‘The World ‘Wool Digest reports that ‘the hormone treatment

resulted from the discovery that changes in the alternation of light

and darkness produced a spurt in wool growth. This effect was traced

back to the light-sensitive pituitary gland, the ‘‘master’’ gland which

controls most of the body’s hormones. Researchers found a definite

rhythm which gave the best growth. This was the alternation of

eight hours’ light and 16 hours’ darkress. From their indoor, arti-

ficial light experiments this group yielded 15 per cent more wool

than a control flock exposed to a duplication of the normal, seascnally-

varying amounts of light. The link between light, the pituitary and

wool growth explains why wool growth varies throughout the year in

response to the changing pattern of daylight and darkness’.

Further experiments on a large scale are in progress, the results

of which shall be looked forward to with interest.

[World Wool Digest, VII (25): 269, 5th December, 1956|

Education of Children

‘What beautiful and useful knowledge the teaching of Natural

History might put into childish heads, if only science would consider

the very young; if our barracks of universities would only combine

the lifeless study of books with the living study of the fields; if only

the red tape of the curriculum, so dear to bureaucrats, would not

strangle all initiative.

Little Paul [his seven-year old son| and I will study as much as

possible in the open country, among the rosemary bushes and the

arbutus. There we shall gain vigour of body and of mind; we shall

find the true and beautiful better than in school books.’ (J. H. Fabre

in ‘SociaL LirE IN THE INSECT WoRLD’.)

Life Span of the Common Shrew, Sorex araneus L.

It has been believed that the entire wild population of shrews in

England was completely renewed each year and that no individual

survived longer than two summers and the intervening winter.

Mr. Peter Crowcroft of the Bureau of Animal Population, Department

of Zloological Field Studies, Oxford University, undertook an

examination of this statement on the basis of teeth wear and confirms

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54

that the common shrew does: not breed in the year of birth, and dies

before the end of the following year. Individuals caught during winter

were neither sexually mature, nor had they teeth as worn as those

of mature animals.

[Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 127 (2): 285-292, October, 1956|

Honey in Australian Ants

‘The honey-ant (Melophorus inflatus) is found in many parts of

central Australia, where it is highly regarded by the aborigines as an

article of food. The honey-bearing: ants seem to be modified workers

which are fed with nectar or honey by ordinary workers until their

distended abdomens approach 2 in. in diameter. ‘‘In eating them the

native seizes each with the fingers by the forepart of the body and,

after blowing off the dust, places the distended abdomen of the insect

in the mouth and bites it off, letting the slightly acid honey flow

over the tongue with evident satisfaction. The abdomen is swallowed

while the remainder of the body is discarded’’.’

[G. M. Badger and W. Korytnyk, University of Adelaide, S.

Australia, in Nature, 178: 320-321, August 11, 1956}

NOTES AND NEWS

It is gratifying to note that the Indian Forest Service is also

beginning to agree that the existing machinery for the preservation

of wild life is insufficient and that a more specialized staff both inside

and outside forests is neccessary. Item IV. (1) of the Recommenda-

tions of the IX Silvicultural Conference held in December 1956 at

Dehra Dun reads:

“WHEREAS

(a) the condition of the wild life of the country, particularly in

the areas outside legally constituted forests, has been steadily going

from bad to worse;

(b) the existing machinery is inadequate to cope with the enforce-

ment of the provisions of wild life legislation, which in many States

is inadequate and defective;

deserving of greater attention and the concept of wild life as a forest

crop, has not yet found sufficient place in forest management ;

(d) the existing methods of conservation and control, which are

the two aspects of wild life management, are not based on sound

scientific principles of an ecological nature nor on adequate censuses and

surveys, but on casual observations and impressions resulting in

faulty management practices of an empirical nature.

NOTES AND NEWS 489

THis CONFERENCE RECOMMENDS THaT

(1) urgent attention be paid to the problems of protection of

wild life both within the constituted forests and outside them;

(2) special staff be set aside in every State for the exclusive task

of protecting and conserving stocks of wild life and for controlling

harmful species and vermin, both within and without constituted

forests ; : |

(3) forest working plans devote more attention to the problems

of management of wild life as an integral part of the forest complex

and as a forest crop; and

(4) research be undertaken on the ecology of wild life species

and proper censuses and surveys, which form the basis of all wild

Iie measures.. |The Indian Morester, 83 (3): 215, March 1957. |

* * * *

We have received from the Promotion Section, Distribution Division,

Documents and Publication Service, United Nations Educationai,

Scientific and Cultural Organization, descriptive leaflets of their

recent publication entitled ‘Study Abroad VIII-1956/1957’ which

contains information on over 74,000 awards offered in 1956/1957.

The book is priced $2.00 or tos. 6d., and may be obtained from

Orient Longmans Ltd., Indian Mercantile Chamber, Nicol Road,

Bombay; 17 Chittaranjan Ave., Calcutta; 36-A Mount Road, Madras ;

Sub-depots Oxford Book and Stationery Co., Scindia House, New

Delhi; Rajkamal Publications Ltd., Himalaya House, Hornby Road,

Bombay 1.

CORRECTION

In’ the Note on, (the Dimorphic Egrets’, Vol. 54 (1), p.. 180,

para 4, line 1.

For ‘generic’ read ‘genetic’.

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JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

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Editor’s Name.—(1) Salim Ali, (2) Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.,

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Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal.

ele. Rs. 2.50

Identification of Poisonous Snakes—Wall charts in English, Gujarati and

Mahratti. (Jn preparation)

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114 Apollo Street, Bombay |,

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London, W. 1}.

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