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FORFT HE PE OREE

FOR EDVCATION

RORTSIGCrIEIN GE

LIBRARY

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY

2 Oo Vee N AL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.

VOL. XXXYV.

PART II.

Nos. I. to ILI.—1866.

AND A

SPECIAL NUMBER ON INDIAN ETHNOLOGY,

EDITED BY

THE NATURAL HISTORY SECRETARY. 4

“Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men

of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing,

and send them to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. Jt will languish, if such

communications shall be long intermitted; and it will die away, if they shall

entirely cease.”

Sir Wat. Jones.

eae

CALCUTTA :

PRINTED BY J. WENGER, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS.

1867.

| CONTENTS.

0 BE Qtaco

No. I.

(Published 15th June, 1866.)

Page

Physical Characters of the Karens.—By the Rev. F. Mason, D.D., 1

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI. Descriptions of new

land shells from the Nilgiri and Anamullay Hills, and other

places in the Peninsula of India.—By W. T. Buanrorp,

Hisg. A. RS. M., FB. G. &.,

Catalogue of the Specimens of Meteoric Stones and Meteoric

Trons in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Cal-

-~ _ eutta, corrected up to January, 1866.—By Dr. F. SrontczKa

and H. F. Bianrorp, Hsq. F.G.S., ...

Observations on the Astronomical points determined by the

brothers Schlagintweit in Central Asia.—By Captain Gouuv-

BIEF,

Comparative hypsometrical and physical Tableau of High “Asia,

the Andes, and the Alps.—By Roxsurt pz ScnnaGINt WEI,

Professor at the University of Giessen, wee 506

Notes and Queries, :

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa-

tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Ofice, Calcutta, in

the month of August, 1865, . cis “ate

Meteorological observations taken at Gangaroowa 1 near Kandy,

Ceylon, in the month of May, 1864, nls

No. II.

(Published 14th November, 1866.)

Russian Geographical Operations in Asia.—Communicated b

if I y

Lieut.-Col, J. T. Wauxer, R. E.,

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper by Arspurt M. Vercupre, Esq., M.D. Bengal

Medical Service ; with a note on the fosssils by M. Epovarp pr

Verneuit, Membre de I’ Académie des Sciences, Paris, Pt. L.,

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VII. List of species

of Unio and Anodonta deseribed as occurring in India, Ceylon

and Burma.—By Witiram T. Buanrorp, ee A. B.S. M.,

BGS. isc nce oe ae

Scientific Intelligence,

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa-

tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in

the months of September, October, November and De-

cember, 1865, ay as “0 nine sa

lvii

5 Iban

. 134

iv Contents,

Noe tlie

(Published 22nd February, 1867.)

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper by Atsert M. Vercunre, Esq., M.D. Bengal

Medical Service; with a note on the fossils by M. Epovarp

DE VERNEUIL, Membre de V’Académie des Sciences, Paris,

Parr II. continued from page 133, ... 159

EXxpErmMentan INvestrGarions connected with the ‘supply of

water from the Hooghly to Catcurra, by Davin Waxpiz,

IDR 1s Ce Se Cae, Lt ILS oo 203

Abstract of the Results of ‘the Hourly } Meteorological Obser-

vations taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the months of January and February, 1866, aa i

SPECIAL NUMBER

Eranonoey.

(Published 22nd November, 1866.).

The Ethnology of India.—By Mr. Justice Campsstt,.. 1

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore,—By Lt.-Col. E. mT. Daron,

Commissioner of Chota-Nagpore, ? 158

Apprenprx A.— List of words and phrases to be noted and used as

test words for the discovery of the radical affinities of lan-

guages, and for easy comparison, by Mr. Jusricn Camppetr, 201

AppEnpdIx B.—Comparative Table of Aboriginal words, do., ... 204

Apprnp1x C.—Comparative Table of Northernand Arian Words, do. 207

Appenpix D.—Kashmiri Vocabulary and Grammatical Forms,

by L. Bowrtne, Esq., 225

AppEenpIx HK. —Language of Deavidiion ‘Aborigines. Notes on Alba

Oraon Language. Py the Rev. F. Barscu, oe at

APPENDIX TL oes Vocabulary of the Moondah and cognate

Languages oftthe Kolarian type-—By Lieut.-Col. E. T.

Darron, ae ... 266

APPENDIX a Een of the Ho Language. (Kolarian Abo-

rigines.)—By Lieut.-Col. Trickett, ke, fa ... 268

Volume XXXV Part II

1866

List of Maps and Figures page

A figure at 96

Fig. ie 98

26 102

Se 104

4,and 5. 121

& 126

7 and 8. 156

9 393

° Maps B& € at end of volume

Sections Ae Be Ce Le Eo Fe Go at end of volume

Perhaps "Map A" is the "general Preliminary - Xv")

which appears in 36:2 1867 (Yes, see page 128

line 14,

Map A therefore is bound at end of 36:2

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JOURNAL

OF THE

mot TIC SOCIETY.

—}—.

Pant I.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

eee

No. I.—1866.

eee eee

Physical Character of the Karens.—By the Rev. F. Mason, D. D,

[Received 7th January, 1865. |

Karens.*

The name Karen has been adopted from the Burmans, who apply

it to various uncultivated tribes, that inhabit Burmah and Pegu; but

it is used, in these notices, as designating a people that speak a lan-

guage of common origin, which is conveniently called Karen ; embracing

many dialects, and numerous tribes. These tribes, though speaking

a common language, have no common name with which to distinguish

themselves; but in this respect, they do not differ from our own

ancestors. Oasar found some twenty or thirty different tribes in

Britain, but it does not appear that they had any common name by

which they designated themselves.

* The following pages are offered as answers to “Queries respecting the

human race addressed to travellers, by a Committee of the British Association

for the Advancement of Science,” at the request of Col. Phayre; and embrace

all the writer has to say on the general division of the Queries, entitled “ Phy-

sical Characteristics ;”’ from Query 1 to Query 49.

No answers are given to Queries 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 30, relating mainly to

anatomy, because satisfactory ones have not been obtained. Nor are’answers

given to Queries 13, 14, 15, 16, because the writer has already published on the

subject of Language in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and in his

work on “ Burmah.” ‘To write again on the subject, would necessarily compel

him to repeat considerable of what is already in print, which seemed un-

desirable.

2 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

The word Karen has been supposed to signify aboriginal, from yen*

‘first,’ and kat} a formative particle ; but the derivation is European,

not Burmese. The Burmans have never been so recondite in naming

wild tribes. When the Buddhist missionaries landed at Martaban, they

denominated the aboriginal inhabitants Beloos, or ‘‘ Monsters,’ and

the Burmese still retain the name for a tribe of Karens on the borders

of Karenee. The subdued Bghais they dispose of as Loo-Yaing,t

“wild men; while the more civilized Mopghas that bring honey and

’

bees’ wax for sale, they call Zaubya,§ ‘‘ wild bees ;” and they find in

the dress of another a distinctive name, and call them “ Red Karens.”

The word Karen is probably a Karen word. One of the northern

Karen tribes, with which the Burmans must have held most inter-

course before they conquered Pegu, call themselves Ka-yong, which is

sufficiently near the Burmese to be the same word. ‘Then we have a

precisely parallel case in the name they give this tribe, which is

Gai-kho,|| a Karen word that is manifestly identical with Kaz-khen,

the name the other Karen tribes give them.

Hight distinct Karen tribes are known, who speak dialects so diverse,

that they cannot understand each other; and yet, on examination, the

larger proportion of the roots of each dialect are of common origin.

These’ tribes have often several names, and not only are travellers

misled by them; but residents often take up wrong impressions and

give, for distinct nations, names that refer to the same tribe.

A few of the tribes only have distinctive names for themselves, and

all, when speaking to each other, use the word for man to designate

themselves ; precisely as the Hebrews use the word for man as the

proper name of the first man, Adam. Were these terms for man

adopted in English, the tribes would be much more accurately distin-

guished than they are at present. Thus we should have

Pegha-knyan for Sgau.

Pie-ya Fs Bghai.

Pra-ka-ya, or Ka ya __,, Red Karen.

Heu-phlong Hh PANO,

Peu is Taru.

Plau a Mopgha.

Bem Ge i cacee § Caps) qa-mmmr age

1866.] Physical Character of the Karens. 3

Pray-ki-yong for Kay or Gaikho.

Lau . uv Toungthu.

Sgau, or Pgha-knyan.

This tribe is known by a diversity of names.

Sgau, the name the tribe give themselves.

Burmese Karens, thus designated by some English writers.

White Karens, the name given them by English travellers to distin-

guish them from the Red Karens.

Myeet-tho, so designated by the Burmese.

Shan, the name the Pwas give them.

Pa-ku, the name by which they are known in Toungoo, and to the

Red Karens ; but it more properly denotes a sub-tribe of Sgaus.

Shan-ne-pgha, a name given to another sub-tribe of Sgaus.

We-wa, a small sub-tribe of doubtful origin, but probably originally

Segaus.

Bauat, or Prs-ya.

The Bghais have no distinctive name for themselves, besides Pie-ya.

Bghai is the name the Sgaus give them, and they recognise the

name so far as to apply it with an adjective to sub-tribes among

themselves.

Bghai-ka-teu, ‘‘ Bghais at the end,” is the name of the Tunic

Bghais, as used by the Pant Bghais ; because they live at the extre-

mity of the tribe nearest Toungoo.

Tunic Bghai is the name given to the above sub-tribe, by English

writers, because they wear tunics or frocks.

Behai-ka-hta, ‘‘ Upper-Bghai.” The Pant Bghais are thus de-

nominated by the Tunic Bghais, because they live on the streams

above them.

Pant Bghai is the denomination by which all the Bghais that wear

pants are known to English writers.

A-yaing, or Ka-yen Ayaing, ‘‘ Wild Karens,” is the name the

Burmese give to nearly all the Pant Bghai.

Leik-bya-gyie, ‘‘ Great Butterflies” isthe Burmese name of a por-

tion of the Tunic-Bghai.

Leik-bya-guay, ‘Little Butterflies” are other villages of Pant

Bghai.

4 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. I,

Pra-pa-ku, is the name given by the Red Karens to the Bghais

that live near the Pa-kus.

Manu-manau isa Burmese name given to a mixed sub-tribe of

Bghais.

Pray is the Red Karen name applied to the Manu-manau and to

some other clans related to the Bghais.

Lay-may is Burman for a sub-tribe of Bghais, called Pray by the

Red Karens.

Shan-kho is a name given to a Bghai clan in the north-eastern part

of Toungoo.

Rep Karen, or Ka-ya.

The Red Karens have no name for themselves, except Ka-ya, or

Pra-ka-ya.

Ka-yeu-nie, “‘ Red Karen” is the name given them by the Burmese,

on account of the red-striped pants they wear.

Bghai-mu-hta, Bghai-mu-htay, names given them by the Bghais,

signifying “ Hastern Beha.”

Yang-laing, ‘‘ Red Karens” is their name among the Shan tribes.

The-pya the name by which the Kay people designate them.

Ta-lya a small sub-tribe of Red Karens, are thus denominated by

the Red Karens themselves.

Yen-ka-la, the Burmese name of the above clan.

Tha-vie, or Tha-vie-la-kha is a Red Karen name for a people of

their own tribe living ten days’ journey above them, on the Salween,

and who were separated from them when driven from Ava, sixteen

generations ago.

In 1861, our Assistant in Karenee reported a singular letter that

was sent by them to Karenee ; the object of which was not stated dis-

tinctly, but it was understood as a challenge to fight. The followmg

is a translation :—

““ Now, the words of God and his commands have come to us. Let

all men give up the customs of their ancestors, and offerings to spirits,

and live in peace. As for us in the land of Tha-vie, we will dwell

in peace and obey the commands.

_ “ Nevertheless, at the proper time we will make a feast; and this

feast is not a woman’s feast, but a man’s feast ; and when the time

arrives to dance, we will dance. And the shades of the dead, and the

—-:1866.] Physical Character of the Karens. 5

spirits will look on. We say to you, if you wish to look on, come and

look, and bring sword and spear. We have appointed the month of

March for the time of holding the feast.”

Pwo, or Hrv-patone.

The Pwos call themselves Sho.

Pwo is the name given them by the Sgau.

Meet-khyen is a name given them by the Burmese, signifying

“ River-khyens.”

Talaing-Karens is a designation they have in some published papers,

and they are sometimes thus designated by the Burmese, because they

are principally found among the Talaings.

Shoung is a name given to a small sub-tribe of Pwos in the north

of Toungoo.

Taru, or Pru. :

Taru is the name given to a tribe nearly related to the Pwos by

the Red Karens.

Khu-hta is the name they give themselves.

Be-lu or monsters is the name by which they are characterized by

the Burmese. A part of the tribe shave the whole head excepting

two tufts of hair, one on each temple, which gives them a sufficiently

frightful appearance to account for the name the Burmese have given

them.

Be-lu-ba-doung is the name given them by the Kay tribes.

Mo-pana, or Prac.

Mo-pgha is the name of one of the villages, from which the mission-

aries have named the whole tribe ; but it is a name they do not recog-

nise themselves. Neither do all call man Plau. Small as is the tribe,

there are two or three different dialects among the people, and we

have Pie-zau, and Pie-do for man, as well as Plau.

Tau-bya, ‘‘ Wild Bees” is a name the Burmese give them in some

settlements.

Beha-Pwo is a designation sometimes given them.

Kar, Gaixuo, or PRaI-KA-YounNG.

The Kai, or Kay, or Gaikho have no distinctive name for them-

selves, beyond Pra-ka-young, or Ka-young, their word for man.

Ka appears occasionally as designating the people, but it signifies

land in their dialect, and properly denotes the country.

6 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

Kai, or Kay is the name given them by the Bghais, but they never

use it alone. They make three divisions of the tribe.

Kai-kheu “ Upper-Kai,”’ often applied to the whole tribe.

Kai-la ‘“ Lower-Kai.”

Kai-pie-ya ‘‘ Kai’s people.”

Gai-kho is the name which the Burmese give them in imitation of

the Bghai Kai-kho.

Pa-htoung is the name the Red Karens give them.

Hashwie is a small tribe related to the Kay, and thus denominated

by the Bghais.

Hashu is the name they give themselves.

Touneruu, or Lav.

The Toungthus are related to the Pwos by their language.

Toung-thu ‘is the name given them by the Burmese.

Pa-au is the name by which they designate themselves.

There is nothing to associate this tribe with the Karens but their

language, excepting that the people have the appearance of being a

Shan tribe.

Suan Karens.

The generic name that the Shans give the Karens in their own

country is Yang, which is softened in Burmese into Yen, or Yein.

Hence we have of the following Karen tribes is the Shan country of

which we know little more than the names.

Yang-lang, ‘‘ Black Karens.”’

Ying-ban.

Yen-seik.

Yein.

Sok, or Tsok is the name the Shans give all the Karens that reside

in the Burmese territories, without distinction of tribe.

PrysicaL CHARACTERISTICS.

Though the preceding tribes are one in language, they are scarcely

one in anything else. They differ materially in their physical cha-

racteristics.

The Pwos and Toungthus, that usually mhabit the lowlands, resem-

ble the Burmese, who inhabit similar localities, in their physical

traits more than they resemble the Karens that dwell on the moun-

tains. They area short muscular people with large limbs, larger than

’

1866. | Physical Character of the Karens. 7

the Burmese; while the mountaineers are usually of little muscle and

small limbs. It is a popular idea that mountaineers are stronger, and

hardier than lowlanders, but, however, it may be in other lands, it is

certain that in Burmah the mountain tribes are weaker people than

those who live on the plains. The cause, however, may possibly be

other than the locality.

In stature, all the Karens, excepting perhaps the northern tribes, are

shorter on an average than Huropeans. In a promiscuous assembly of

one hundred men, embracing several tribes, two were five feet seven

inches high, eight were five feet siz and a half inches, and all the rest

were shorter. An intelligent man that measured five feet jive inches

and a half, was confident that he was taller than the average of

Karens. I should fix the average at from jive feet four and a half

to five feet five. 'The shortest man I have measured, is a Bghai chief,

who was only four feet ecght inches high ; and the tallest Karen I have

seen, was not quite six feet.

A company of one hundred Karen women had only two that were

five feet one inch high, eight were about four feet ten ; and the rest

shorter. The average cannot be more than four feet nine. The short-

est woman I have noted, was four feet five.

In different villages, the average would vary considerably from the

above. A village of Mopghas, on the hills, that can be seen with a glass

from the city of Toungoo, is remarkable for its short men, especially

the younger ones. I doubt there being one over five feet high. On

the contrary, the northern Bghais and Gaikhos are comparatively tall,

perhaps as tall, usually, as Huropeans ; but they are a small minority ;

and I attribute their superiority, in part, to the higher and cooler

“region that they inhabit.

Though small in stature, the Karens appear to be tolerably well

proportioned. No prevailing disproportion between different parts of

the body has been noted.

In those parts of the body which are not exposed, the northern

Karens, at least, are as fair as the Chinese. The young people, both

male and female, among the Gai-khos and northern Bghais, often

show red and white in strong contrast on their countenances; alto-

gether unlike the uniform clay colour of their more southern relatives.

I have met with individuals, who, if seen alone, would be pronounced

8 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

part European. Indeed, if not exposed to the sun, some of them

would be as fair, I think, as many of the inhabitants of Northern Eu-

rope.

The yellow tinge of the Chinese is very distinctly seen on many of

the Karens, particularly the females ; and yellow, as well as white, is

considered handsome, by Karen connoisseurs of beauty.

The hair is straight and coarse, usually jet black ; but a few have

brownish hair.

The eyes are commonly black, but as we proceed north, many hazel

eyes are met.

The head is pyramidal, the breadth of the face across the cheek

bones wider than across the temples, and the bridge of the nose rises

only slightly above the face. Occasionally a decided Roman nose is

seen, but there is still a depression between the eyes not possessed by

the Romans. ‘The face is lozenge-shaped, and the whole countenance,

in typical specimens, is Mongolian. There is a great diversity in indi-

viduals, and these traits are less developed in the more civilized Sgaus

and Pwos than in the wilder Pakus and Bghais.

It is not easy to describe the characteristic countenances of the

different tribes, yet there are characteristic differences, which the ex-

perienced eye detects. There is considerable too in locality, which

affects the countenance, apart from the difference of race. Thus the

Sgaus of Tavoy and Mergui can usually be distinguished from the

Sgaus or Pakus of Toungoo. Education also affects the countenance.

The Karens that have been educated in our Mission schools look like

quite a different tribe from their wild countrymen on the hills.

The Karens rarely marry with other races ; but among those who are

settled near the Burmese, a Burman is sometimes found with a Karen

wife, and in every instance that has come under my personal observa-

tion, the children have had a strong Burmese cast of countenance.

There in a village near Toungoo where there are several of these mix-

ed families; Huropeans do not distinguish them from Burmans. Still,

persons acquainted with the Karens, readily recognise them as a mixed

race. There is a village, however, on the mountains called “ Village

of Talaingings,”’ that tradition says was settled by a company of

Talaing men who fled into the jungles during some of the wars in

Pegu two or three centuries ago ; but there is very little in the coun-

1866. ] Social Customs of the Karens. 9

tenances of their descendants to distinguish them from other Karens.

Their faces are a little longer, their cheek bones not quite so widely

expanded, and their faces have a little less of the lozenge shape.

Birvus.

When a child is born, in some clans the mother, in others the mid-

wife, cuts the umbilical cord, and puts the placenta into a joint of a

large bamboo, and wraps it ina rag. The father then takes it and

hangs it up on atree. An abortion is treated in a like manner, but

the tree selected is a species of Ficus, and the abortion is supposed to

become one of the Cicadez that are so often heard singing at evening.

On returning to the house, if the child be a girl, the father goes

through the pantomime of performing a woman’s labours, beating

paddy in a mortar, and the like. Ifa boy, he spears a hog, and, seizing

the first man he meets, wrestles with him, to indicate what his son

will do when he comes to manhood.

The knife with which the navel string is cut, is carefully preserved

for the child. The life of the child is supposed to be in some way

connected with it, for, if lost or destroyed, it is said the child will not

be long lived.

About the third day, when the navel string sloughs and comes

away, the father takes his net, and, with a few friends, goes out fish-

ing and hunting. The success of the party is deemed prophetic of the

character of the child. If much fish or game is obtained, he will be

prosperous ; if little, he will be unfortunate.

On the return of the party, a feast is made, the friends are invited,

and the child is purified and named. Children are supposed to come

into the world defiled, and unless that defilement is removed, they will

be unfortunate, and unsuccessful in their undertakings.

An Elder takes a thin splint of bamboo, and, tying a noose at one

end, he fans it down the child’s arm; saying :

“Ban away ill luck, fan away ill success ;

Fan away inability, fan away unskilfulness :

Fan away slow growth, fan away difficulty of growth:

Fan away stuntedness, fan away puniness :

Fan away drowsiness, fan away stupidity :

Fan away debasedness, fan away wretchedness :

Fan away the whole completely.”

10 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1

The Elder now changes his motion and fans up the child’s arm ;

saying :

“ Fan on power, fan on influence :

Fan on the paddy bin, fan on the paddy barn :

Fan on followers, fan on dependants :

Fan on good things, fan on appropriate things.”

He next takes a bit of thread that has been prepared for the pur-

pose, and tying it round the child’s wrist, says: ‘“ I name thee A. B.;”

using the name that the parents had previously determined upon.

Sometimes a name is selected from among their ancestors, or other

relatives ; but in such cases they are always careful to select one whose

bearer was rich, or valiant, and prosperous; ever avoiding the poor

and unfortunate, as they suppose the name influences the character of

the man.

Often a name is selected indicative of the state of the parent’s mind

at the time the child is born, A man rejoices at the birth of a son,

and he names it “ Joy.” A mother is suffering, and she calls her

daughter, ‘“ grief.”’ Another has a son born when he is hoping for de-

liverance from Burmese oppression, and the advent of White Foreign-

ers, so he names him “ Hope.”

Frequently a child is named from some circumstance connected with

its birth. One is called: ‘‘ Father-returned,” because the father re-

turned from a journey just as the child was born; and another is nam-

ed ‘‘ Harvest,” because born at harvest time. For like reasons we

have, ‘‘ New-house,” “‘ Sun-rise,”’ ‘“‘ Evening,” “ Moon-rising,” “ Full-

moon,” and “ February.”

Sometimes the child is named from its appearance, and hence we

meet with the names ‘“‘ White,” ‘‘ Black,” and “ Yellow.’’ ‘‘ White’

is about as common a name in Karen, as Smith or Jones in English.

The animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms all occasionally furnish

names. There are “ Tiger,” ‘“Yellow-tiger,” “ Fierce-tiger,” “ Gaur,”

and “ Goat-antelope ;” “ Hornbill,” “ Heron,” ‘ Prince-bird,” and

““ Mango-fish ;” “ Hugenia,” “‘ Job’s-tears,” “ Cotton,” “ Gold,” “ Sil-

” with many others of a like character.

When the child grows up, and developes any particular trait of

character, the friends give it another name, with “ father” or “‘ mother’’

attached to it. Thus, a boy is very quick to work, and he is named

ver, aud ~~ Qin’;

1866.] Social Customs of the Karens. 1

“ Father of swiftness.” If he is a good shot with a bow and arrow,

he is called “ Father of shooting.” When a girl is clever to contrive,

she is named “‘ Mother of contrivance.” If she be ready to talk,

she becomes ‘ Mother of talk.”

Sometimes the name is given from the personal appearance. Thus,

a very white girl is called ‘‘ Mother of white cotton; ”’ and another,

of an elegant form, is named ‘‘ Mother of the pheasant.”

Occasionally, the name refers to locality. Thus, one living near the

Sitang, is ‘‘ Father of the Sitang;” and another, on the borders of

the Thoukyekhat, is ‘‘ Father of the Thoukyekhat.”

Frequently a second name is given without “ father” or “ mother’

being attached to it. Thus, a handsome young person is denominated

““YVellow-rising sun ;” and one with remarkably long hair, ‘‘ Horse-tail.”

When a man is married, and has a child born to him, his name is

changed again to the father of that child. The mother’s name is

changed in like manner. Thus, I have a Bghai writer called Shie-mo,

and his father is known as the ‘“ Father of Shie-mo; and his mother,

as the ‘‘ Mother of Shie-mo.”’

Where there are two persons of the same name, they are distinguish-

ed by appending to their names the names of the villages where they

reside ; analagous to the Norman de followed by the name of a place.

The Red Karen ceremonies, at the birth of a child, differ consider-

ably from those noted above. With them, after the child is three days

old, the time at which the mother is deemed convalescent and able to

walk out, a feast is made by the parents, and the house is open for all

to come and eat and drink who choose. All who come are treated as

brethren. After the feast, the mother takes the child in a wrapper,

on her back, and goes down out of the house. She is then supposed,

by a legal figment, to proceed to the paddy field, but in fact she goes

out a few yards, digs the ground a little with a hoe, ‘or spade, pulls up

a few weeds, and returns to the house. These are symbolical acts, by

which the mother pledges herself to labour for the support of the child.

The mother next carries her babe to the houses of her near relatives,

where the people visited present the child, if a boy, with silver or iron;

if a girl, with beads, or a chicken, or a pig.

After these preliminaries, the child is named; often after some per-

son that has been visited who made handsome presents ; and always

12 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1,

after some relative, that the memory of their ancestors may be pre-

served.

Infanticide is rare. Occasionally, when the mother dies, the infant

child is killed and buried with her; and I have known a woman con-

fess that she killed her little sister, soon after her birth, because it was

ugly ; but such things are not common. Children are not exposed.

No measures are taken to alter or modify the form of a child, or

any of its limbs. It is carried about in a wrapper, naked, till it can

walk, when it is sometimes clothed in a loose tunic ; but more often,

it is allowed to run about naked. No modification of the limbs is

practised.

Among no people are children taught so little as among the Karens;

and nothing is taught them to modify the character. They grow up

like weeds, and are remarkable for nothing so much as for their wilful-

ness and disobedience. Yet the Sgaus have a very stringent injunction

to obedience to parents. The Elders say :

“OQ children and grandchildren ! respect and reverence your mother

and father; for, when you were little, they did not suffer so much as a

musquito to bite you. To sin against your parents, is a heinous crime.

‘‘ Tf your father or mother instruct or beat you, fear. If you do

not fear, the tigers will not fear you.”

They are also taught to obey kings; another of the commands of

the Elders being: ‘‘ O children and grandchildren ! obey the orders of

kings, for kings in former times obeyed the commands of God. If

we do not obey them, they will kill us.”

There is nothing remarkable in the sports of the child.

The age of puberty may be set down at from twelve to fifteen years.

The people not having had the means of keeping their ages, nothing

precise can be affirmed that depends on a knowledge of the age. The

Karens consider fifteen as the marriagable age.

While writing, six Karens came in, and on inquiry, one says his

mother had five children, two say their mothers had eight, two be-

longed to families of twelve children, and one man of about fifty years

of age is the last surviving child of thirteen by one mother. Women

that live to forty-five years of age probably bear on an average from

nine to ten children. The Karens consider ten as the proper’ com-

plement.

1866. | Social Customs of the Karens, 13

A verse from an old song intended to teach the duty of children

taking due care of their aged mothers, says :

‘‘ A mother can bear ten children,

A child cannot bear ten mothers :

A mother bears ten children

And her strength is exhausted,”

Twins are very uncommon; much more so than among Huropean

nations; and I never heard of more than two at a birth.

A large family is deemed a great blessing. When seated around the

fire at night, they sometimes sing :

“ People’s Kyee-zees many, I covet not,

People’s money much, I covet not,

I covet young paddy ten cubits high,

Good children and good grandchildren.”

The proportion of sexes among adults is remarkably equal, for it is

very rare to find either man or woman over twenty-five years of age

that is not married or has been married. The proportion in infancy

cannot be yery diverse.

Children are reared with difficulty. Large numbers die in infancy

from want of care, and from ignorance of the proper way to manage

the diseases of children.

Nothing remarkable in their senses has been observed, excepting

that their eyes are uncommonly good in seeing objects at a distance ;

but which may be the result of habit. When I have shown them the

villages on the distant hills through my glass, and asked if they did

not see them plainly; the reply has often been: ‘‘ Yes, but I can see

them about as well without the glass.”

The women bear children to quite as late an age as Huropeans.

Women, that I should judge to be between forty and forty-five, may

be often seen with children at the breast.

Three years is the period for which a child is deemed entitled to

his mother’s milk; but they are oftened suckled longer. It is not

uncommon to see a woman suckling her babe at one breast, and its

elder brother or sister at the other.

14 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1,

BetROTHAL.

The Karens go on the principle that marriages are made in heaven.

They believe that parties who marry do so in accordance with an engage-

ment into which their sentient spirits entered in the presence of God,

before they were born.

It is a very common practice among all the tribes, except the Red

Karens, for parents to betroth their children while young, if not in in-

fancy. They have an idea that children are benefitted by it. Hi a

child is sickly, the parents say, ‘“‘ We had better seek a wife for this

boy. A wife may invigorate him and make him stronger.”

Some one then who has a daughter is selected, and if the parents

are agreed, and the fowl bones give a favorable response, a feast is

made, and the children are betrothed. The feast is provided by the

parents of the boy, and one of the Elders offers the prayer of betrothal,

saying : ‘‘ Lord of the land and water, Mokhie of the land and water ;

these two are engaged to be united in marriage. May they have long

life, may they produce seed, may their shoots sprout forth, may they

grow old together !

After a boy and girl have been betrothed, should they, on coming to

marriageable age, be unconquerably averse to the union, the parents

say : ‘‘ Ah! their spirits did not consent, their guardian angels did not

make the agreement.”

The young people sing :

“God and the spirit ;

Without their consent,

No marriage is made.

God and the spirit,

And with their consent

No marriage is staid.”

Should there be a mutual desire to sever the engagement, the pa-

rents of the youth go to the friends of the girl ; and after the introduc-

tory remark that the union does not appear to have been agreed to in

heaven, they say: ‘‘ They were not planted together, they were not

sown together, and they do not love each other. Water spilt, leaves

the vessel empty ; flour thrown out, leaves the basket empty. There

must be the loss of half, and the paying of half.” Then the parents

of the girl pay half the expenses of the feast at the betrothal.

1866. | Social Customs of the Karens. 15

ENGAGEMENT.

When a young man wishes to take a girl for a wife, the first persons

to be consulted are her parents. If they make no objections, he em-

ploys a go-between to transact the business for him.

The go-between takes a fowl and gives it to an Elder who consults

its bones, and if the response is unfavorable, the match is broken off

and no further proceedings taken.

When the fowl’s bones are read as approving the marriage, the

go-between goes to the parents of the girl, when, in some sections, the

following form of dialogue takes place :

Go-between.—‘‘ Now I will creep up thy stairs, I will tread on the

steps of thy ladder. Thou plantest up large house posts, thou flattenest

out wide bamboo planks. Thou callest thyself the master of the

house, a good man. When the sun rises, it shines upon thee ; when the

moon rises, it shines upon thee. Thy head is as large as a still pot, thy

tongue as long as the gigantic bean pod. How wilt thou reply? The

children lift their eyes on each other. They lift their hearts on

each other’s heart. Wilt thou approve?”

Girl’s Guardian.—“ Man is the horse’s tooth ; the elephant’s tusk.

Woman is a tree, a bamboo. We are the woman, the female. We

cannot reach distant waters, nor arrive at far off lands. We dare not

Seize those who seize us, we dare not strike back again. The man can

reach waters, and arrive at distant lands. Can he take upon himself

the charge of a house and a field ? ”

Go-between.—“ Fear not, be not anxious, for the house and the field.

Mother dying, occupy mother’s chamber ; father dying, occupy father’s

hall. By day, there is one sun; by night, there is one torch. Fear

not, be anxious for nothing.”’

Gils Guardian.—“ li thy word is true to thyself; if thy language is

faithful to thyself ; if thy word is one, thy foot-print one—Let not the

tree depart from its shadow, let not man leave his place—very good.

Thou art a hunting dog, thou scentest the covert ; thou trackest the

game. Art thou satisfied?”

Go-between.—““ T am a hunting dog, and in scenting the hiding

place, and tracking the game, I have got to thee.”

Girl's Guardian.—“ Thou art a hunting dog. What ornaments hast

thou brought ? Let me take a look at them.”

16 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1,

Vhen the work of the go-between is done, the friends of the young

man take a hog, an ox, or a buffalo, according to their circumstances,

and, leading it to the dwelling of the parents of the girl, they kill it

and examine its gall bladder. If the bladder is full, they say the

omen is favourable to the union; but if flaccid, containing little liquid,

it is deemed unfavourable. Still, a feast is made, but it is eaten in

sadness, and the people murmur, “If they are married, they will have

no children; they will be unsuccessful in their undertakings, and they

_ will die young.’”” Sometimes the marriage is broken off, and sometimes

it proceeds.

Tf the gall bladder be plump, there is great rejoicing, and all say,

the couple will live to old age, and have a numerous posterity. Be-

fore partaking of the feast, an Elder takes a bit of the liver and viscera

of the animal together with boiled rice on a plate, and, pouring them

out on to the earth, prays; ‘‘ Lord of the heavens and earth, Lord of

the lofty mountains and high hills, we give thee food and drink.

May these two persons prosper and be successful, may they have a

posterity, may they live to old age, that they may bring up sons and

daughters.” After the prayer, the elders eat, and then all the people

*eat after them. After eating, they drink spirits, beat kyee-zees,

dance, and sing songs.

After this engagement feast, sometimes the marriage takes place in

a few days, but frequently, for various reasons, it is delayed for a con-

siderable period, sometimes for years ; and when the delay is protract-

ed, it is not uncommon for the engagement to be broken off.

Should the girl refuse to fulfil her contract, she must pay all the

expenses of the engagement feast with interest. ‘“‘ If a hog was killed,

she must repay a buffalo. If a horse was offered, she must repay an

elephant ; and there is the shame besides.”

These exaggerated demands are never exacted to the letter. In

general terms it is said: ‘If a man breaks his engagement, he loses

his outlay ; if a girl breaks her engagement, she must pay a fine.”

If a young man wishes to break the engagement, he publicly de-

clares that he will sacrifice all the affair has cost him, and ask no

return: ‘‘ Let the fowl be,” he says, ‘as if the hawk had taken it.

Let the food I furnished the parents be as if the tiger or leopard had

devoured it. Let the presents I made her relatives be as if sunk in

1866.] Social Customs &c. of the Karens. 17

the water, or destroyed by fire.” After this public declaration, the

girl is considered at liberty to receive proposals from others; which,

without it, she is not.

Marriage.

If there are no obstacles to an immediate union, after an interval of

two or three days, the relatives of the bride conduct her to the house

of the bridegroom’s parents, with a procession of her friends blowing

trumpets. When the bride ascends the ladder into the house, water

is poured on her abundantly from the verandah, till her clothes are

wet through. She then eats with the bridegroom’s relatives, and, at-

tended by her female friends, she goes into the chamber. The young

man’s friends make presents to all the party, giving the most valuable

to the relatives of the bride.

When the time for the company to separate approaches, two of the

Elders take a cup of spirits, which is called “ the covenant drink,”

and one speaks for the bride, and the other for the bridegroom.

One says; “* Now the woman is thy wife, thy daughter-in-law,

thine own daughter, thy own wife who will live with thee. Should

she be drowned, should she die by a fall, should she be bitten bye

a poisonous snake, we can say nothing. But should she be killed

in a foray, should she be carried into captivity, should she be put

in bonds, thou must purchase her freedom, or obtain the price of her

blood.”

The other Elder then says: ‘‘ What thou sayest is true. She is not

the child of another, she is my child, my wife, my daughter-in-law.

Should she die by accident, I can do nothing. I will lay her out, put

food in her mouth, drink by her side, make a funeral feast, and bury

her. But should she be carried into slavery in a-foray, I will carry

a kyee-zee for her redemption, and thou must demand a fine. I will

carry spirits to drink, thou must spread out food to eat. We together

will purchase the woman. But if we cannot obtain her if she has

been killed or is lost, we will demand her price. If I ask her price in

kyee-zees, thou must demand it in slaves. We together will make it

a reason for making reprisals ; and if I am the father of the foray, thou

shalt be the mother of it. If Iam the head of the foray, thou shalt

call the army; and if I call the army, thou shalt be the head of the

18 Social Customs &c. of the Karens. [No. 1,

foray ; and we will work together. If I go first, thou shalt come last ;

and if I come last, thou shalt go first.”

Each one then gives to the other to drink, and each says to the

other : “‘ Be faithful to thy covenant.”

This is the proper marriage ceremony, and the parties are now

married.

Now, the people say, they are man and wife and may live where they

choose, with the parents of the man, or with the parents of the

woman, or may live independent of both. ‘‘ They may have food or

no food ; clothes or no clothes ; may live in peace, or fight and quarrel.

No one will interfere. It is nobody’s business but their own. No

one has any right to control them.” As a matter of fact, however,

the young man usually goes to live with the parents of his wife, and

remains with them for two or three years.

Marriage ceremonies among the Red Karens differ materiaily from

those described above. They never betroth their children in infancy,

but leave the young people to make their own engagements.

When the parties have agreed to marry, the man kills one or two

hogs or fowls in his own house, and makes a feast. To this the

-friends of the bride, male and female, conduct her; and she eats and

drinks, and spends the night in the house with her companions.

In the midst of the feasting, and in the presence of the whole com-

pany, the bridegroom offers a cup of spirits to his bride, who drinks it

up; and then he asks her: “Is it agreeable?’’ To which she replies:

“ Very agreeable.”

The next day the bride returns home and makes a similar feast, to

which the bridegroom and his friends go. It is now her turn to

offer the cup to him, and when he replies to her question: ‘Is it

agreeable?” that it is “very agreeable,’ the two are regarded as

married.

Often, however, the reply is playfully given: “ Not agreeable,” and

then the feasts have to be repeated till the favourable response is ob-

tained.

Marriages, according to the Bghais, ought to be always contracted

among relatives. First cousins marry, but that relation is considered

undesirably near. Second cousins are deemed most suitable for

marriage. Third cousins may marry without impropriety, though that

1866. Social Customs &c. of the Karens. 19

relation is considered as undesirably remote. Beyond third cousins

marriages are prohibited.

CHASTITY.

Among the Red Karens, chastity, both with married and unmarried:

is reported as remarkably loose. The commerce of the sexes among

young people is defended as nothing wrong, because ‘‘it is our custom.’’

The Sau-bwakepho has a regular rule to give six rupees damages in

cases of rape ; but these are the only cases of crim. con. that he enter-

tains in his courts.

Chastity is cultivated, however, by the other Karen tribes; and one

means by which it is preserved, is early marriages. The great majo-

rity are married soon after the age of puberty. Still, while the young

people are as chaste as most people in Christian nations, lapses among

the married are not uncommon; but illegitimate children are very

rare.

The Sgaus at least are not wanting in good precepts, notwithstand-

ing, for a contrary course. The Hlders say :

“’O children and grandchildren ! do not commit adultery, or forni-

cation, with the child or wife of another ; for the Righteous One looks

down from above, and these things are exposed to him, Those that

do thus, will go to hell.

“Tf you meet the wife of another, avoid her, and pass on the lower

side of the road.”

Though the Bghais do not appear to have precisely the same form

of command, yet they regard adultery as particularly offensive to God,

and as being the cause sometimes of bad crops.

Human nature is the same everywhere, and the betrothal of child-

ren in infancy often results in unhappy marriages, and unfaithtulness

to the marriage tie.

Sometimes the parties, on becoming of marriageable age, so dislike

each other, that they rebel against the authority of the Hlders, and

form connections for themselves more congenial to their tastes.

PoLyGamy.

Polygamy is neither permitted nor practiced by any of the Karen

tribes; but Karens who live in the neighbourhood of the Burmese

20 Social Customs &c. of the Karens. [No. 1,

sometimes adopt the Burmese custom of taking an additional wife, as

they do that of worshipping idols. The Sgau Elders charge their

children :

‘“‘O children and grandchildren! If you have one husband or wife,

lust not after another, male or female; for God at the beginning

created only two, one male and one female.”

Divorce. "

Divorces are not unfrequent, arising often from marriages being

made by the parents of the betrothed in infancy, and the children

grow up without any love for each other.

If a man leaves his wife, the rule is that the house and all the pro-

perty belongs to her. He is allowed no claim on his money and

valuables that may be in the wife’s possessions, after he has left her.

Nothing is his but what he takes with him.

If a woman forsakes her husband, it is usual to allow a share of the

property, but no more than the husband consents to allow.

Wipows.

Widows retain their husbands’ fireplace, and endeavour to support

themselves. When young they usually marry again; but if old and

unable to support themselves, they look for help to their own rela-

tions, and often suffer from neglect. The obligation to treat widows

kindly is recognised in theory, but often neglected in practice. The

following story from the Bghai gives a too true picture of this

matter.

‘““Wormerly, there was a woman whose husband died, and left her to

get a support as best she could. All her children were small. Their

father had forsaken them, and the mother took care of them in any

corner or interstice she could find.

“She had no relations of her own in that country. She had none

but her husband’s relations, and her husband was dead, and his rela-

tions would not help her. She could not therefore get curry to eat,

and she fed her children on the sheaths of the blossoms of the wild

plantain flowers : these she called to the children “ brains,” and they

knew not, but that was the proper name.

“When the neighbours heard the children say they lived on brains,

they said: ‘The woman is a witch! Morning after morning it is

1866. ] Social Customs dc. of the Karens. a

brains; evening after evening it is brains. It must be she goes and

gets human brains to eat. We cannot get so many brains: and they

have no father. Where can so many brains come from ?’

“ After awhile they concluded they would kill her for being a

witch, and they made known their intentions to an uncle of hers. He

said: ‘ Wait till I can go and see her.’ When at leisure, he went to

see the family. He killed a deer, took the head to the children, and

showed the brains to the children, asking: ‘Does your mother feed

you with brains like these?’ They all replied: ‘ No, uncle, mother

feeds us with brains that are bright red.’ There are no fibres in them

like these.’

“The uncle then repeated his enquiries successively with the heads

of ahorse, an elephant, a bear, a goat-antelope, a bison, a barking deer,

a porcupine, a bamboo-rat, a squirrel, a tupai, a rat, a bird, a fowl, a

snake, a frog, a fish, and every kind of animal known in the country ;

but the children said to all, ‘Uncle, our mother feeds us with no such

brains as these.’

“ He thought to himself; ‘It is not this, and it isnot that. Surely

the woman is a witch, for there is no other kind of brains it can be,

but human brains.’ So he concluded it was best to kill her.

*“* However he went out hunting one day more, and all day he met

with nothing; so on his return home he plucked two sheathes of wild

plantain blossoms, and bringing them into the house, he laid them

down by the wash stand. One of the children saw the bright red

sheathes ; ‘My uncle has brought me some brains, I will eat them aly

myself, I will not give a taste to any one else.’ All the children

rejoiced greatly, and said ‘ These are the brains on which mother fed

HIS:

“When the uncle knew that his niece was not a witch, he

almost fainted at the thought of having so nearly consented to her

death.”

Foon.

A Karen is a most omnivorous animal. Always excepting the

feline race, he eats every quadruped from a rat to an elephant; and

there is scarcely a reptile unacceptable to his palate, from a sand lizard

to a crocodile, and from a toad to a serpent. Flying ants and crawl-

ing grubs are in his bill of fare; and there is no bird too tough, no fish

22 Social Customs &c. of the Karens. [No. 1,

too bony for his table. Dogs are not eaten by the Southern Karens,

but they are as great delicacies in the Bghai country as they are in

China.

To this great mass of animated nature, the whole vegetable king-

dom is made to serve as greens. Nearly every weed is a vegetable,

and the young shoots of the largest trees serve as spinage. They are

so careless about what they gather for greens, that one of our young

teachers poisoned himself, not long ago, by the vegetable curry he

made by the way, while travelling. i

Besides game, the Karens raise hogs and fowls for home consump-

tion as well as for sale, and on festive occasions, those who are able,

purchase and kill a buffalo or ox; so they do not seem to lack for

animal food. Still, they may be often seen sitting down to rice and

vegetable curry, with perhaps a taste of dried fish, and they certainly

do not eat as much animal food as Huropeans. They lve much lke

the wild beasts of the forest. When chance, or something very like

it, sends them a whole beast, they eat meat to surfeit; and then they

live on vegetables and rice, till the wheel of fortune tums round

again.

The meat is often cut into small pieces and boiled in curry; but it

is also frequently roasted or grilled. Fish is often dried, as is also the

flesh of game sometimes ; but dried so imperfectly, that it usually has

a very bad odour.

The Karens distil from rice or millet a kind of whiskey, of which

men, women, and children often drink to intoxication. But, like their

meat, this too they have not on hand constantly ; and they are sober

a great part of the year, because they cannot get anything to drink to

be intoxicated.

In the matter of quantity, they take more food at a meal than

Europeans ; and yet, if labouring hard, require to eat more frequently:

I have often walked with them, up hill and down; and though I

could walk all day, from sunrise to sunset, after an early breakfast

with a couple of crackers, and water from the brook by the way ; the

Karens were always knocked up by noon; and had to stop and eat a

hearty meal, before they were able to proceed. This is true of all the

natives in the country ; but is not quite understood by some of our

medical men. Natives are sometimes taken into the hospitals, and

1866. | Social Customs dc. of the Karens. 28

actually starved to death by not having food enough allowed them to

keep up their strength.

Dress.

The dress of Karen men, south of Toungoo, is a tunic, or frock, and

a wrapper ; the latter serving for a sheet to sleep in at night. Hach

one, too, usually carries a bag slung over his shoulder.

The tunics of different tribes and clans are distinguished by the

peculiar embroidery of each.* The Sgau tunic has red horizontal

parallel lines on a white ground. The Bghai tunic, on the contrary,

has the red lines perpendicular. The Pgho tunic has a broad belt of

embroidery at its base, and the Pahu tunic has a narrow band, and the

figures varied for every village, originally distinct families, so the

markings are equivalent to coats of arms.

One clan of the Bghais wear tunics, but by far the larger portion of

the tribe wear pants, and no tunic; and all the tribes beyond them, as

the Gaikho, Tarus, and Red Karens wear pants; but each tribe or

clan has some variation in the stripes of figures worked on them, so

that, like those who wear tunics, they can be distinguished at a

glance.t .

Excepting the Red Karens, all the women wear a short gown, petti-

coat, and large turban, all variously omamented. The Red Karen

women have corresponding articles of dress, but each one is merely a

rectangular piece of cloth.

The dresses are made of cotton, which the women usually plant,

gather, clean, spin into thread, and weave into cloth. The Northern

Bghais and Gaikhos, who raise the silkworm, adorn their dresses with

a profusion of silk embroidery.

In some of their clans, the Elder who officiates as high priest in

their offerings, or sacrifices, has a longer and more ornamented tunic

presented to him than ordinary, but nothing in their traditions has

been found to explain the reason.

To describe the different modes of ornamenting their dresses, would

require a long article by itself, and a series of drawings.

* There is one exception. The Mopghas wear the same tunic as the Tunic-

Bghais, but why, no reason is known. ‘They speak widely different dialects.

+ There is one exception. The Northern Behais, and the Gaikhos wear the

same pants,

24 Diseases of the Karens. [No. 1,

Tattooing is a practice quite foreign to all the Karen tribes, except-

ing the Red Karens, who are all tattooed across the back with a figure

resembling the rays of the rising sun. They can give no account of

the origin of the custom. Karens who are brought in contact with

the Burmese and Talaings, often adopt their customs, so that Karens

are often found, especially among the Pghos, tattooed and dressed like

Burmans.

No characteristic mode of amusement has been observed. The

Karens dance, wrestle, and show their agility much like the other

nations around them. ¢

Games of chance are not unknown to the people, but they are little

addicted to them, and never bet on them, unless they have been cor-

rupted by the Burmese or Shans.

Every village has a good complement of old people in it, and I have

met with two men, who considered themselves a hundred years of age.

Every village has persons over sixty, seventy is not uncommon, eighty

is rare, but ninety is met occasionally.

No marked difference has been noticed between the sexes in respect

to longevity.

SICKNEss.

Where diseases are not deemed contagious, ordinary attention is

bestowed upon the sick by their friends and relatives; but when conta-

gious diseases appear, like the small-pox, the whole population seems

struck by a panic, and they abandon their houses and scatter into the

jungles, where they build booths, and remain till they consider the

disease to have passed away. They deem the cholera as contagious

as small-pox, and though husbands and wives, parents and children

will unite and watch each other to the end; yet all often run away, as

soon as a person is dead, and leave him unburied. It is extremely

difficult to get people buried in times of cholera.

The Karens attribute diseases to the influence of unseen spirits, and

hence, to cure them, they resort to making offerings to appease the

spirits that are supposed to be offended. They have twenty or thirty

distinct names for different offerings that are made for the sick. They

do not, however, exclude the use of medicine altogether ; and the

Karen Elders have a large Materia Medica, consisting of roots and

1866. ] Diseases of the Karens. 95

herbs, leaves and bark, to fall back upon when the offerings do not

prove efficacious.

From satisfactory statistics the annual death rate of the Mountain

Karens has been ascertained as a little over two and a half per cent.,

or about the same asin London. The same years that these statistics

were collected, the death rate among the acclimatized European

soldiers in Toungoo, was only one per cent. The difference should be

attributed, it is believed, to difference in constitution, difference in

habits, and difference in treatment of the sick; and not to locality.

The Karen Mountains appear as healthy as the Scotch Mountains, or

the Mountains of Pennsylvania. That something does affect the death

rate besides the locality, is manifest from the deaths in the Toungoo

jail. The very years that one man only in a hundred was dying in

Cantonments, from eight to seventeen in a hundred were dying in the

jail.

Karens lack vigour of constitution, and therefore present a weak

resisting power to disease. They are subject to intermittent fevers

throughout life. I have prescribed to shivering infants at the breast

and to shaking old men of threescore and ten. An Kuropean does not

escape them, but he has a strong constitution, which struggles hard,

and if it comes off victor, it is a victor for life. For the first four

years of my jungle travels, I had fever every year, but for thirty

years since, with one slight exception, I have been entirely exempt.

Bites from land leeches often result in bad sores on Karens; while

an European will sit down and pick off a dozen from his legs after

a walk, without the slightest subsequent inconvenience. In some

localities, there is a species of gad fly that bites severely, and its

bite is often followed by an ulcer on a Karen; while I have had

the backs of both my hands dotted all over with blood spots from

their bites, without suffering anything beyond the temporary incon-

venience.

The Karens are a dirty people. They never use soap, and their

skins are enamelled with dirt. When water is thrown on to them, it

rolls off their backs, like globules of quicksilver on a marble slab.

To them, bathing has a cooling, but no cleansing effect. Dirt is

death’s half brother, and is the father of a host of skin diseases to

which the Karens are subject. About half of them have the itch, and

26 Diseases of the Kurens. [aor Lt

many in the form of dreadful sores. Shingles, and fish-skin, and ring-

worm are nearly as common as psora.

Many diseases, common to all nations, are much more fatal to Karens

than to Europeans. The measles are as fatal as the small-pox in

Europe, and the hooping cough often makes sad havoc among children.

I have known more than twenty die of this disease in a small village

of some two hundred inhabitants.

Consumption kills a few, dropsy more, dysentery many, and occa-

sionally considerable numbers are reported to me as dying of fevers;

and yet I have never met with a single case of fever among the

Karens, that did not yield to medicine. Enlarged spleen is very com-

mon, and is sometimes fatal. Ulcers do not kill, but they are as com-

mon as skin diseases, and are in great variety.

There is a disease very prevalent among the Sgau tribes, in which

large ulcers appear on the limbs. I have had patients brought to the

towns, where they have been sent to the hospitals; and sometimes

they have been slightly benefited; but in no case has a cure been

effected by European treatment ; and I have never found a Surgeon

who understood the nature of the disease. One said: “It is not

leprosy ;” but I think it is a kind of leprosy. Another remarked on the

cases submitted to his treatment: ‘‘T cannot help thinking there is some-

thing venereal in it.” This the Karens uniformly deny, but I have

certainly seen cases in which both legs were masses of what appeared

to be incurable sores completely cured, by severe salivation administered

by a Burmese doctor; which favours the idea of the venereal character

of the disease; but I have seen others die under the same treatment.

The disease is hereditary in most instances, but whenever an ulcer

appears, the Karens consider it infectious, and will not have the

patient in the same house with them. They insist on his living in a

separate house, as much as they would a leper. The Burmese, how-

ever, do not consider the disease infectious, in which they are partly

correct. The Bghais say it is a foreign disease, and some call it “the

Paku disease,” and others the ‘“‘ Burmese disease ;” while the Burmese

in some sections call it ‘the Martaban disease,’ and in others “the

Toungoo disease.”

Goitre is common on the hills in special localities. It abounds in

one village on the granite mountains, while villages three hours’ walk

1866 ] Diseases of the Karens. Daf

distant are nearly exempt, though located on the same hills, with the

same geological formation. Three or four days’ journey beyond this,

in an extensive region, where the rocks are exclusively secondary

limestone, goitre is:again found in. excess, while other villages, on the

same limestone range, are quite free from the disease. In neither of

these districts has any metallic mineral been found. Still, there must

be something special in the localities where it abounds to produce it;

but what that is, remains to be discovered. All that can be said of it

with certainty is, that it is a disease of the hills, for it is not found on

the plains; nor did I ever meet with it on the hills in the Tenasserim

Provinces. The Karens attribute it to the soil, and say. that the dis-

ease is caught by eating beans, pumpkins, and other vegetables raised

in the infected locality, and by drinking the water that runs through

it. Their theory has probably some foundation in fact.

Fowls and hogs that the Karens raise, are occasionally attacked by

a violent disease by which they die off as.if they had the cholera ; and

buffaloes. on the plains are subject. to a like complaint.

Worms.

Hntozoa are very abundant. The round worm, ascuris lwmbricoides,

is often vomited up by Karens, both children and adults, The com-

mon tape worm, tenia solum, is.a common inhabitant of the bowels, as

are also thread worms, ascaris vermicularis.

Deratu.

When an elder among the Bghais,. with a large number of descend-

ants, dies, the people build a place in the hall for the deposit of the

corpse, and they hew a coffin out of the body of a tree, and hew a

cover for it, like the Chinese coffins. ‘

The body lies in state three or four days, and during the time men

blow pipes, and the young men and maidens march round the corpse

to the music. At night, the piping is discontinued, and singing is

substituted.

When the piping and marching is not going forward, the exercises

are diversified by weeping and mourning; or by the men knocking

pestles together, and others showing their dexterity by putting their

hands or heads in between, and yibhdrawane them quickly before the

missiles come together again.

28 Burial rites among the Karens. [No. 1,

Before the burial, an elder opens the hand of the dead man and

puts into a bangle or some other bit of metal, and then cuts off a few

particles with a sword, saying: ‘‘ May we live to be as old as thou

art.”” Hach one in the company goes through the same ceremonials,

and the fragments gathered are looked upon as charms to prolong life.

When about to bury the corpse, two candles made of bees-wax are

lighted, and two swords are brought. A sword and a candle is taken

by the eldest son, and a sword and a candle by the youngest ; and they

march round the bier in opposite directions three times, each time

they meet exchanging swords and candles. After completing the

circuits, one candle is placed at the foot of the coffin, and the other at

the head.

A fowl or a hog is ted three times round the building in which the

body is placed, and on completing the first round, it is struck with a

strip of bamboo once; on completing the second round twice; and at

the third round it is killed. Ifa fowl, it is killed by twisting its

head off. The meat is set before the body as food.

Young people are buried in a similar manner, but with some

abridgement of the forms.

When the day of burial arrives, and the body is carried to the

grave, four bamboo splints are taken, and one is thrown towards the

west, saying : ‘‘ That is the east.”” Another is thrown to the east,

saying: ‘“‘ That is the west.” <A third is thrown upwards towards the

top of the tree, saying: ‘‘ That is the foot of the tree; ” and a fourth

is thrown downwards, saying: ‘“‘ Phat is the top of the tree.” The

sources of the stream are then pointed to, saying: “ That is the mouth

’ and the mouth of the stream is pointed to, saying :

of the stream ;’

“That is the head of the stream.” ‘This is done, because in Hades

everything is upside down in relation to the things of this world.

The body is then buried, and the grave filled in without further

ceremony, and when the top of the grave has been neatly smoothed

off, a little fence of trellis work is built around it. Within this fence,

boiled rice and other food is placed for the dead.

On returning from the grave, each person provides himself with

three little hooks made of branches of trees, and calling his spirit to

follow him, at short intervals, as he returns, he makes a motion as if

hooking it, and then thrusts the hook inte the ground. This z done

1866.] Karen feasts for the Dead. 29

to prevent the spirit of the living from staying behind with the spirit

of the dead.

After the funeral, the grave-digger washes his clothes, or the neg-

lect to do so renders him unfortunate, Married children may dig the

grave for a parent, but young ones are prohibited. ‘They must hire

some one to do the work, and give him five rupees.

Feast ror THE Dean.

Like the Chinese, the Bghais make annual feasts for the dead, for

three years after.a person’s death. The feast is made at the new

moon near the close of August, or the beginning of September; and

all the villagers that have lost relatives, partake in it.

Before the new moon, they prepare food, plantains, sugar-cane,

tobacco, betel nuts, betel leaves, and other articles of consumption. A

bamboo is laid across one angle of the roof of the room, and on it are

hung wp new tunics, new turbans, new petticoats, beads and bangles ;

and at the appropriate time, when the spirits of the dead are supposed

to be present, having returned to visit them, they say: ‘“ You have

come to me, you have returned to me. It has been raining hard, and

you must be wet. Dress yourselves, clothe yourselves with these new

garments and all the companions that are with you. Eat betel

together with all that accompany you, all your friends and associates,

and the long dead. Call them all to eat and drink.”

After dark, all the people eat bread nzade of boiled rice beaten in a

mortar. The bread is spread down, and the people are invited: “‘ All

who are hungry, eat bread here.”

Next morning, the first day of the moon, which is deemed the

proper feast day, the previous last day of the month being regarded as

the day of preparation, all who have Kyee-zees hang them up, and

beat them. Then they kill a hog, and make thirty bottles of bamboos.

Into one bottle, they put honey, into another water, in a third whis-

key, in a fourth salt, in a fifth oil, in a sixth chillies, and into the

seventh tumeric. The other twenty-three are laid aside. Loopholes

are made to each bottle through which a string dyed yellow is tied.

After setting apart the seven bottles that have been filled, the re-

maining twenty-three are filled with food indiscriminatively. Some

with pork, some with boiled rice, some with bread, some with whis-

key, and some with betel. When these are filled, rice bread is rolled

30 Karen feasts for the Dead. [No. I,

up in leaves, and the rolls piled up together ; and then a large basket

of open work is woven, into which all these bamboo bottles and the

rolls of bread are put.

When the rice and meat is cocked for the feast, after the above

arrangements have been made, the food is placed on kyee-zees, or

little bamboo stools, if they have no kyee-zees; and they have to be

very particular to spread out all the food at the same instant, lest

some of the spirits of the dead, being delayed in eating, should be left

behind by their companions.

So soon as the food is arranged on the tables, the people beat the

kyee-zees and begin to cry, which they say is calling the spirits to

come to eat. Each one calls on the particular relative, for whom he

has prepared the feast, as father, mother, sister or brother. lia

mother, he says; weeping: “O prince-bird mother, it is the close of

August, Oh! It is the new moon in September, Oh! You have

come to visit me, Oh! You have returned to see me, Oh! I give

you eatables, Oh! I give you drinkables, Ch! Hat with a glad

-heart, Oh! Hat with a happy mind, Oh! Don’t be afraid, mother,

Oh! Do not be apprehensive, Oh! ”’

After the weeping exercises are over, the spirits are supposed to

have finished their repast, and then the people sit down to eat what is:

left.

More food is then prepared and put into the basket with the bam-

boo bottles, that the spirits may have food to carry away with them ;

and at cock-crowing next morning all the contents of the basket,

including the bamboo bottles, are thrown out of the house on the

ground ; when the same scene of crying and calling on the spirits of

the dead is repeated, as detailed above.

They do not weep long, because it is related that in ancient times

a woman had a daughter, whom she loved much, and after her death

she made this annual festival for her and wept long ; when a prophet

reproved her, saying: “That is enough. Your daughter says : ‘ My

companions have left me. They have all gone on before.’”” Then

the mother said: ‘‘ Seize her for me,” and the prophet attempted to

grasp her, but he got only a single hem from her garment. Hence

the people never weep long, that the departed spirits of their friends

may not be left behind by their companions.

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Matacology. 81

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI. Descriptions of new

land shells from the Nilgirt and Anamullay Hills, and other places

in the Peninsula of India.—By W. T. Buanvorn, A. &. 8S. I,

EEG SS.

[Received 3rd February, 1866. |

Of the shells described in the following pages, the greater portion

were collected by Captain Beddome, Deputy Conservator of Forests,

in the Madras Presidency. This is the case with all the shells from

the Anamullay hills, and also the remarkable species of Spiraculum

from the neighbourhood of Vizagapatam. The Nilgiri Hill shells

were found by myself in a recent visit, and H. intwmescens was given

to me some years since by Mr. Theobald as AH. Bajadera, Ptr.

I have since collected the shell myself living at Mahableshwar.

1. Sprracurum Beppomet, n. s.

Shell very broadly umbilicated, depressed, sub-discoidal, smooth, (?)

solid, white with transverse chesnut zigzag stripes. Spire flat or sub-

convex, suture deep. Whorls 5, rounded, the last cylindrical, de-

scending gradually towards the aperture, and furnished, 7-10 milleme-

tres behind the peristome, with a short open sutural tube, projecting

forwards and upwards, not touching the penultimate whorl. Aperture

diagonal, circular, peristome double, both lips continuous, the inner

slightly expanded, curved back into a shallow angular sinus at the

suture, the outer expanded, and inverted upon the upper and dextral

margins, rising near the suture into a compressed wing, which is at-

tached throughout on the left side to the penultimate whorl. Opercu-

lum horny, concave within, convex without, flattened near the centre,

2 or 3 outer whorls furnished with a free spiral testaceous lamelliform

border.

Millem. Inches.

Mayor cianretern Matt cmtie. oh 27 1.12

VGN CEO 4/5 acih enin)s we'ersteincers 23 92

SIO deceit iesie es socsey y LO 4

Interior diameter of aperture,.. 8 ry)

Habitat. Kimery Hills near Waltair (Vizagapatam), northern divi-

sion of the Madras Presidency.

4‘)

ise)

Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,

This species is of about the same size as Sp. hispidum, Pearson,

which it closely resembles in many particulars, though differing in

several essential characters. Of these perhaps the most remarkable is

the forward direction of the sutural tube, which, in all the previously

described species of Spiraculum (even if the Moulmein Opisthoporus

Fordoni, Bens. be included), is retroverted. In several forms of Opzs-

thoporus, however, the spiracle projects forward, as in the present

species. The wing of Sp. Beddomet is much more distinct, higher

and more pterocycloid than that of Sp. hispidum ; the inner peristome,

(which is deficient in the last named species), is angularly sinuate

beneath the wing, but there is no approach to the deep sub-circular

opening of the Indian species of Pterocyclos. All the specimens pro-

cured by Captain Beddome were dead and weathered, and had lost

their epidermis, but the traces which remained, shewed no approach

to the hispidity from which the Khasi hill shell derives its name.

The operculum has even more resemblance to that of Pterocyclos

tenuilabiatus, Metcalfe, than has that of Sp. hispidum.

This is the first discovery in the peninsula of India of a species of

Spiraculum, that genus having hitherto only been met with to the

east of the Bay of Bengal, in Assam and Burmah, while the sub-

generic form Opisthoporws occurs in the Malay countries and Borneo,

In a country like India, which intervenes between two great zoologi-

cal provinces, the Malayan, and the Africano- Asiatic, such exception-

al occurrences are natural, and instances are known not merely of out-

lying species, but of genera, such as Cataulus and Cyclotopsis, peculiar

to the Indian peninsula or to Ceylon, though belonging to Malayan or

African families. The presence of a Spvraculwm on the eastern coast

of India, is a parallel case to the existence of Otopoma Hinduorum,

W. Blanf. in Hattiwar. It should also be noted that the discovery of

specimens of the two Burmese helices, H. Castra, Bens. and H. levi-

cula, Bens., on the hills of Orissa, shews that some few Burmese

species even have extended their range down the western side of the

Bay of Bengal.

2. Nanina (ARIOPHANTA) INTUMESCENS, N. 5.

Shell sinistrorse, narrowly and sub-obtectly umbilicated, globose,

thin, finely, subplicately, transversely striated with obsolete decussating

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacology. 33

sculpture, dull fulvous brown, horny, rather lighter in colour just

above the periphery and around the umbilicus. Spire convexly

conoid, apex very obtuse, suture scarcely impressed. Whorls 43,

slightly convex ; the last bluntly carinate, descending very little near

the aperture, tumid beneath, compressed around the umbilicus. Aper-

ture large, diagonal, truncately sub-circular; peristome white, sub- -

expanded, margins approaching each other, columellar margin nearly

vertical, rather broadly reflexed, partly covering the umbilicus.

Millem. Inches.

Mayorrtciameternt 2 occcct sods se: 32 1.3

Nilronore ChaasO nes obceon Be ab ed Sa tlh 26 1.05

ASE 1 Ge Seite Spa eal eine MR dtp 0.9

Habitat. Mahableshwar. Western Ghats of Hindustan.

This fine species of Ariophanta has long been confounded with

Nanina Bajadera, Pir. which is, however, although a variable

shell, easily distinguished. N. Bajadera is more globose and thicker,

being at the same time more transparent, it has much stronger sculp-

ture (and deeper sutures) and is always rounded at the periphery near

the mouth, and frequently throughout, while in N. intumescens, the

blunt angulation is persistent. MN. Bajadeya too has a fine vitreous

lustre, while zntwmescens is dull, and the former shell is usually of a

greenish olive colour, though varying in this character and sometimes

resembling the latter. The animals also shew a difference in colour,

that of VV. atwmescens is uniformly, so far as I have seen, dark cine-

rous, while that of Bayjadera is much lighter, but very variable. The

latter shell is found mostly on shrubs, the former on the ground, and

while imtwmescens has as yet only been found at Mahableshwur, 4,500

feet above the sea, Bayadera (which is rare at Mahableshwur) abounds

on the equally or nearly equally high hills of Singhur and Poorundhur,

and along the summit of the Western.Ghats at about 2,000 feet. It

abounds at Khandalla at the top of the Bhore Ghat.

Thave already mentioned, in a previous paper, (An. Mag. Nat. Hist.

for February, 1863) that an examination of the type specimens of

N. Bajadera, Pir. and N. ammonia, Valenciennes, has shewed these

two supposed species to be identical. I long doubted the distinct-

ness of the species now described from N. Bajadera, but although

34 Contributions to Indian Malacology. fio. 4,

I have specimens of the latter from many different places, they are all

easily distinguished from JV. intwmescens.

3. N. (Hemiplecta?) Stsparica, n.s.

Shell openly perforated, subumbilicated, depressed, rather thin,

striated, white with a yellowish brown epidermis, having a rather dull

oily lustre. Spire convex, apex obtuse, suture flat, linear, submargi-

nate. Whorls 4, very flatly convex above, apical whorl marked with

very fine decussated plicate striation, the last not descending distinctly,

but bluntly angulate above the periphery, convex beneath. Aperture

oblique, semiovally lunate, white and pearly within, the breadth ex-

ceeding the height, peristome thin, margins distant, united by a thin

callus, columellar margin very oblique, and triangularly reflexed ciose

to the perforation.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, ........ REL oT 1.5

WOOO CMO) ea yasabscb Acie akneaasad 31 1.3

BAAS ae tenors Bees Par Sankey 18 15

Habitat. Sispara ghat, Nilgiri hills, 8. India, rare.

T know of no near Indian ally of this species. NN. Ovobia, Benson,

from Darjeeling, which approaches it in some respects, is more globose

and more solid, and has impressed sutures. The Ceylonese NV. Chenwz,

however, closely resembles the species above described in form, though

it is easily distinguished by its peculiar impressed sculpture. I ob-

tained but two specimens, one of which was living, near the top of

Sispara ghat. It is remarkable that so fine a shell should have escap-

ed detection before.

The animal differs in no essential character from those of the sinis-

trorse Ariophanta section. It has a large mucus pore at the end of

the foot without any lobe above, the mantle is oi moderate size, the

head and neck granulated, the caudal portion of the body marked by

oblique parallel, impressed wrinkles, and broadly margined near the

sole with a double, impressed line.

4. N. Macrochlamys ?) Hususcens, n. s.

Shell scarcely perforate, inwardly depressed, yellowish or fulvous,

thin, horny, dull, marked with very close microscopic impressed

1866]: Contributions to Indian Malacology. d

oblique lines above, more polished and radiately striated below. Spire

low, apex rather acute, prominent, sub-acuminate, suture deep.

Whorls 53, rounded, the first narrow, the last. much. broader, very

bluntly sub-angulate at the periphery, and tumid beneath. Mouth

large, nearly vertical, lunately sub-ovate, breadth exceeding the

height ; peristome thin, straight, margins sub-distant, united by a very

thin: callus, columellar margin nearly: vertical: above, very briefly and

broadly reflexed, nearly covering the perforation.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, ....... Pe leae il oy 0.6:

MIGEINO Ee oor en ee ear dist) hed 0.5

Sig SPS et aS Ne 82 0.33.

Habitat. Anamullay hills. §. India.

This species resembles the Bengal N. swbgesta, Bs., and the Cey-

lonese N. carneola, Pir. (as figured by Reeve) in form, but has

a duller histre and deeper sutures, resembling in the latter character

some of the Ceylon Nanine of the same section. The microscopic

sculpture is peculiar, the impressed lines being very close, but some-

what irregular and wavy. They cause the dull. appearance of the

surface. An ordinary lens is insufficient to shew them: under a

microscope with a 14 in. objective they are wery distinct.

5. N. (Macrochiamys ?) Lrxa, n. s.

Shell. obtectly perforate, rather depressly turbinate, very thin, ful-

vous, horny, dull, obliquely striated and marked with very fine and

close impressed lines, also oblique, only visible under the microscope,

polished beneath. Spire conical, apex acute, suture impressed.

Whorls 53, convex, gradually increasing, the last much broader, obso-

letely sub-angulate at the periphery, tumid beneath. Aperture nearly

vertical, roundly Innate, breadth very little exceeding the height.

Peristome thin, straight, margins sub-distant, columella nearly vertical

and very briefly reflexed above, almost concealing the perforation.

Millem. Inches.

Major AIAMELETAG sp heslss.veiewsiass 133 0.54

MUUCH CHIEEO: Wee enfidslocs vioienesis a's 12 0.48

NCS i sae Pee «Weiss cea!) oe 0.38

Habitat, Anamullay hills, E, side.

36 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,

This is a shell with a similar dull greasy lustre to the last and

owing it to the same cause, viz, microscopic sculpture. It is a well

marked species. Very possibly, however, intermediate varieties may

be found connecting it with N. hebescens.

6. N. (lacrochlamys) Inrausta, nu. s.

Shell openly perforated, convexly depressed, very thin, fulvous

horny, obliquely finely striated, spire convex, apex distinct, suture

scarcely impressed. Whorls 6, flattish above, gradually and regularly

increasing, the last not descending, depressed, swollen beneath, obso-

letely sub-angulate above the periphery. Aperture oblique, lunate,

breadth exceeding the height ; peristome thin, margins distant, united

by a very thin callus, columellar margin vertical above, briefly and

triangularly reflexed.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter ce h.ceses 23 0.92

Minor ditto; ntehcciesscececees 20 0.8

DASA SDE! tA HME Fae Pe eE 0.5

Habitat. Anamullay hills, S. India.

Three specimens of this species occur amongst Captain Beddome’s

Anamullay collections. «Ihe above dimensions are those of the largest

and most perfect specimen. In both of the smaller specimens which

measure respectively in their major and minor diameters and axis 193,

18, 10, and 17, 15, 9 millemetres, there is more or less descent of the

last whorl at the aperture, but both specimens have a stunted appear-

ance, and irregular descent of the last whorl is very common in abnor-

mal individuals of all forms of Helix.

This species has no very marked character. It is very near WV. vi-

trinoides, Desh., but may be recognised by its smaller and rounder

mouth, narrower last whorl and more convex form. In shape it re-

sembles H. monticola, Hutton.

7. VITRINA AURIFORMIS, 0. s.

Shell very depressed, irregularly ovate, ear-shaped, very thin, striat-

ed, polished, with a membranaceous epidermis, greenish or brownish

yellow in colour, paler at the nucleus. | Spire flat, suture slightly

impressed. Whorls 13. Aperture oval, occupying the whole under

1866. | Contributions to Indian Matlacology. ab

part of the shell, and exposing the interior to the apex ; peristome

membranaceous.

Millem. Inches.

Length, ..... BM cist eavee it 13 0.52 °

Breadth, 2... .tc0 «- OEE aPeAnee 8 0.382

UCTS abi ese ce ciontnlc iver setetaetn< 24 0.1

Habitat. Sispara ghat, Nilgiri hills, Southern India.

This species is very near V. gigas, Bens. and still more closely allied

to V. Peguensis, Theobald, being, however, a more depressed species

than either, and more open. It is also less solid than the last named

species. I have not met with the animal, which may possibly differ

from those of other Vitrinx.

If the animal resemble those of V. gigas and V. Peguensts, the oc-

currence of this mollusk on the western flank of the Nilgiri Hills

will be one of the most anomalous with which I am acquainted

amongst the land-shells of India, since I know of no other instance of

a Malayan type, unrepresented on the Himalayas, of which species

occur on the hills of Southern India. A small auriform shell such as

this may, however, have been easily overlooked, and the Himalayan

Molluscan fauna is, probably, far from thoroughly known.*

The animal of V. Peguensis has been partly described by Mr. Theo-

bald who, however, has unfortunately not mentioned the form of the

mantle, the presence or absence of lobes covering the shell, nor the

existence of a caudal gland, unless by the expression “ caudali papilla

nulla’ is intended to imply its absence ; more probably Mr. Theobald’s

meaning is that the overhanging lobe, so conspicuous in some forms of

Nanina is absent, the gland existing, as in Ariophanta &.

This Vitrina is not the only south Nilgivi species. A larger mem-

branaceous form also occurs, which requires comparison with Mr,

Benson’s V. membranacea from Ceylon.

8. Acuatina ANAMULLICA, n. s.

Shell turrito-ovate, thin, finely striated, horny with high vitreous

lustre. Spire turrited, sides convex, apex obtuse, suture impressed.

* Mr. Theobald (J. A. S.°B. XXXIII. p. 244,) includes V. gigas in his list of

Himalayan shells, but the species is found on the Khasi hills, the fauna of which

differs widely from that of the Himalayas.

38 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1

Whorls 8, scarcely convex, the last rounded beneath. Aperture

oblique, peristome thin, columella moderately arcuate, obliquely tran-

cated below. -

- Millem. Inches.

Bene thyy ii.ccmevesecoser es 27 11

Diameter. ici ececeeaeeeer ee i, 0.48

Aperture 10 millemetres high, 61 broad. Habitat. Anamullay Hills:

Intermediate in its characters between A. Nilagarica, Bens., and

the oblong ovate, Achatina of Ceylon.

Captain Beddome’s Anamullay collections comprise the folowing

species in addition to those above described :—

Nanina vitrinoides, Desh. var.

. Shiplayi, Pir.

. Indica, Pfr. var.

. Travancorica ? Bens.

. Basilens, Bens.

. ampulla, Bens.

AZAAAARAA!AN

. auris ? Pfr.

Bulimus Nilagaricus, Pir var.

B. physalis, Bens.

B. sp. near B. trifasciatus, Rv., one imperfect specimen.

Cyclophorus Jerdoni, Bens.

©. deplanatus, Pfr.

C. sp. near C. ravidus, Bens. (or possibly an immature A ulopoma. )

C. sp. (apparently near C. Shiplayi, Pfr., but finely costulated,

possibly the young of an Alycceus. )

Pterocyclos nanus, Bens.

Pt. rupestris, ?! Bens.

Paludomus, sp.

Neritina Perrotettiana, Recleiz.

To which there only remains to be added Cataulus recurvatus, Pir.,

to complete the list of known shells from the Anamullays. I adda

few remarks upon the species above quoted.

But one specimen occurs of the shell which I am disposed to con-

sider a variety of Nanina vitrinoides. It is small, measuring only 183

millemetres by 16 in its two diameters, and 83 in height. It is de-

pressed in form, and of a greenish tinge, but appears to differ in no

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 39

essential particular from the Bengal variety. The species has not

before, so far as I am aware, been found in Southern India. WN. Ship-

layt, Pfr. inhabits the eastern base of both the Anamullays and the

Nilgiris ; on the latter hills I have found it at the foot of the Coonoor

ghat. The animal is a Nanina, closely resembling NV. indica, Pir. and

N. acuducta, Bens., having a large mucus pore at the caudal extremity

of the foot without an overhanging lobe, or with but a very rudimen-

tary one. The mantle lobes are small, and the animal in all respects

closely resembles that of the sub-genus Ardophanta. A solitary speci-

men of NV. indica from the Anamullays is very solid and rather strong-

ly marked, the sculpture being less regular than in the common

Nilgiri form, and scarcely granulate, the last peculiarity being perhaps

due to weathering, as the specimen is decorticate and somewhat

bleached. It isa dwarf form, less depressed than the type, and mea- _

~ sures 17 and 15 millem. in its two diameters, and 10 in height, The

shells found on the Nilgiris vary considerably.

N. Basilens, Bens. (H. Titanica, Pir.), I learn from Captain Bed-

dome, is far from scarce in the teak forests of the Anamullays, a tract

2,000 to 3,000 ft. above the sea, where V. ampulla, Bens. also occurs.

The range of the latter shell extends a considerable distance to the

north in the Wynand district, where it was found by Dr. Jerdon, if

not to the base of the Coorg hills, while N. Basilens does not appear

to be found north of the remarkable gap in the Western Ghats at

Paulghat cherry, which, traversing the very highest portion of the

whole chain, divides the Nilgiris from the Anamullies, and through

which the railway from Madras to Beypoor passes. Both N. ampulla

and NV. Basilens have only been found west of the Hills.

I have not had an opportunity of comparing the shell referred

doubtfully to Mr. Benson’s recently published N. Travancorica with

the full description, and the identification is therefore unsatisfactory.

The shell referred to NV. awris, Pir. is identical with a species found at

Neddiwuttom on the Nilgiris, and corresponding closely with Reeve’s

figure of that NV. auris in Conchologica Iconica.

The little shell which I have called Bulimus Nilagaricus, I was at

first disposed to consider a distinct species. It is only 14 millem. in

length, and base by 6 in diameter. But some specimens from the

Nilgiris are no larger, and there are graduations in size from these to

40 Contributions to. Indian Malacology. [No 1.

the typical shells. The solitary specimen of B. physalis has only

traces of spiral sculpture, but it appears to agree in every other respect

with Mr. Benson’s description.

A dwarf form of Cyclophorus Jerdoni, only 29 millem. in diameter

and 19 high, and 2 species of Pterocyclos, one of them unquestionably

identical with Pt. nanus, Bens., are also comprised in Captain Bed-

dome’s collections. The second species of Pterocyclos of which a

single weathered specimen was found, shews no essential distinction

from the Bengal Pt. rupestris, Bens., but it appears improbable that

that form should really exist so far to the south.

Cyclophorus deplanatus, Pfr. some decorticated specimens of which

were amongst the Anamullay shells, occurs abundantly on Sispara

ghat, at the western extremity of the Nilgiri plateau. A small shell

in Captain Beddome’s collections, with more colouring than C. ravi-

dus, Bens., and ornamented with zigzag transverse stripes, may possi-

bly be a young specimen of that species, but its thin and continuous

peristome recalls that of some forms of Aulopoma, and the possibility

of its belonging to that genus is strengthened by the deficiency of the

epidermis close to the peristome. As the Anamullays have already

furnished a Cataulus, the occurrence of a species of Aulopoma is by no

means improbable.

The Paludomus is perhaps a variety of the species common near

Bombay. The little Nerztina Perrotettiana was previously unknown

except in the Pykara river on the Nilgiris.

We have evidently, as yet, only an instalment of the molluscan

fauna of the Anamullays. None of the shells above specified are from

the higher ranges. So far as they have been collected, there is, as

might have been anticipated, a general identity with Nilgiri shells,

but at the same time a somewhat closer approximation to the Cinga-

lese fauna.

P. §.—The above paper was written six months ago, and would

have been sent for publication in the Society’s Journal at once, but

that I hoped to be able to procure drawings of the shells for the pur-

pose of illustrating it. In this, I have again been disappointed, and I

am compelled to forward the descriptions of the shells by themselves.

In the meantime, however, I have received from Captain Beddome

several additional shells from the Anamullay hills collected by him

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 4]

during the past year. Besides several new species, the collection com-

prises Helix Anaw, Bens., and a fine large Nanina resembling N. Cy-

sis, Bens. but dextrorse, and which is very possibly a large variety of

Mr. Benson’s H. Basilessa. It occurred at a height of 7,000 feet

above the sea. I append descriptions of 3:of the new species sent.

9. Acuatina BEepDoMET, n. si

Shell turrito-ovate, solid, finely and closely sub-costulately striated,

dark purplish brown, epidermis in parts-having a tendency to assume

a dirty cream colour, especially in dead specimens: Spire convex

below, slighly acuminate above, apex obtuse, rather inclined to the

right, suture impressed. Whorls 74-8 convex, the last. 2 of the entire

length, rounded at the base. Aperture nearly vertical, sub-pyriform,

milky within; peristome thickened, white, outer margin rather

straight, not arcuate, columella deeply curved, lined with. callus, sub-

obliquely and rather broadly truncated at. the base.

Millem. Inches.

Re MOH Metrics se eeseascciasser OU 1.2

DEGGIE Sancohnanpreec aeons Peon ie 45

Aperture 10 millem. long, 6 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, 5,000 to 7,000 feet (Beddome.):

This is a more solid form than any of the N ilgiri species, and’ it

differs from all of them, and also from the solid Ceylonese forms, in its

sub-acuminate apex. It is a well marked species.

10. ACHATINA TEXTILIS, n. s.

Shell ovate-oblong, rather solid, translucent, striated near the

suture, smooth, polished, dark chesnut with close vertical and horizon-

tal lines of a greyish yellow colour, varying in breadth and resembling

the threads of an irregularly woven cloth. Spire elongated, conoidal

with convex sides, apex obtuse, sutures impressed. Whorls 7, convex,

the last about 2 of the entire length, rounded beneath. Aperture ver-

tical, truncately semioval, milky within ; peristome slightly thickened,

white, right margin slightly sinuate toward the base, columella deeply

curved, obliquely truncated beneath, margins united by a thin callus,

42 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,

Millem. Inches.

There thy, © tacos tic aeetsrcaeee rant 26 1.05

Dianieter) tiaasc.seciet cde dees 13 0.52

Aperture £04 millem. long, 7 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, 6,000 feet, (Beddome.)

This is the only indigenous Indian Achatina with which I am ac-

quainted, possessing coloured markings. In form it approaches some

of the Ceylon Achatine, and also an undescribed Deccan species.

11. Butimus trurta, n. s.

Shell perforated, conically ovate, thin, finely striated, light yellowish,

with two spiral rows of sub-distant chesnut spots, sub-quadrate in

form, on all the whorls, and two spiral chesnut stripes, the lower

sometimes very faint, upon the last whorl below the periphery. Spire

conical, apex acute, sutures impressed. Whorls 55, convex. Aper-

ture nearly oval, slightly oblique. Peristome thin, margins united by

a thin callus, columellar margin vertical, narrowly reflexed, the reflexed

portion meeting the penultimate whorl at an angle.

Millem. Inches.

heneth ee sccese Cement 14 00

Diameters ss. ers reescsees poonis ile oe 30

Aperture 7 millem. long, 43 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, (Beddome.)

There is some doubt whether the shells above described be adult.

They have a somewhat immature appearance, but all the specimens

sent, four in number, are of precisely the same size, and the thin

peristome is characteristic of the group of Bulimus Bengalensis, to

which the present species belongs. From that species and its allies, it

s easily distinguished by its short conical form.

PPAR PADDED

Catalogue of Meteoric Stones and Meteoric Irons. 43

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46 On the Schlagintweits’ [No. 1,

Observations on the Astronomical points determined by the brothers

Schlagintweit in Central Asia.*—By Captain GouvuBier.

From the Journal of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Part 4th, 1861,

[Received 11th January, 1866. |

During the current year, the first volume of the Narrative of the

Scientific Expedition of the brothers Schlagintweit to India and High-

Asia, extending over a period of four years, from 1854 to 1858, has

made its appearance. This remarkable production is all the more

valuable, inasmuch as it will not only embrace the results of the ex-

plorations of the brothers Schlagintweit, but likewise those of many

learned travellers who were their predecessors in this field of inquiry.

The first volume contains a collected series of astronomical and mag-

netic determinations. The number of the points for which geographi-

eal co-ordinates are given is 112, but the degree of their exactness

differs considerably. Many of the points for which co-ordinates are

given were obtained from Indian triangulations ; but many others were

determined from march-routes alone. The determinations which are

less exact, belong naturally to the northern portion of the journey, to

Tibet and Turkestan. The corrections which it would be necessary

to make in the existing maps, in consequence of the Schlagintweits’

determinations, would be very considerable, particularly in longitudes.

Thus, for instance, Lé, in Ladak, is alleged to lie 44’ more to the West

than was originally supposed, and altogether the whole of western

Tibet would have to be removed about 20’ to the westward. The

changes in the latitudes are less extensive, the highest do not exceed

10’, as in the case of Balti. The Karakoram pass, the highest point

attained by Europeans who had preceded the Schlagintweits, lies more

northwards by 11’, and the same distance farther to the West than

marked on any previous map.

* This paper was read at a general meeting of both sections of the Russian

Geographical Society. The president of the section of physical geography, M.

Seménof, who had only just returned from abroad, took occasion to express his

own doubts as to the correctness of some of the determinations and conclusions

of the brothers Schlagintweit. He communicated to the members present that

these results, which bear evident traces of haste, are regarded with equal doubt

by the learned in Germany. The extensive range of the labours, the multipli-

eity of the collections and observations which devolved on the celebrated tra-

vellers, produced the confusion and irregularity apparent in their observations

and collections,

1866. | Astronomical points of Central Asia. 47

The weight which is to be attached to these corrections, must de-

pend on the degree of exactness which regulates the scientific labours

of the brothers Schlagintweit ; but unfortunately, in the volume that

has been issued, this consideration is not dwelt on, that is to say, the

probability of errors in the determinations is nowhere alluded to. The

determinations themselves are not particularised minutely enough, to.

enable us to estimate their value.

In order to judge of the correctness of these labours, we bring for-

ward some examples. Thus, in the determinations of Lé in Ladak,

the error which should be expected in the latitude would amount to

30’*. The longitude of Lé was determined by the transfer of one

chronometer which was rated at Simla on the 15th May, at Lé on the

17th September, at Srinagar the 24th October; the longitudes of

Simla and Srinagar are known. The rate of the chronometer should

have been deduced from the longest transfer occupying 162 days, from

which, in the main result, a considerable error was to be expected}

amounting to no less than 7’.5. . Further an error has crept into the

ealculations of the brothers Schlagintweit which, when corrected, will

alter their result by 8’ (instead of 77° 14’ 6” it should be 77° 22’ 5”

east of Greenwich). The correction of the chronometer was determined

on the Karakoram pass on the 9th of August; by its action from

Simla (15th May) to Srinagar (24th October) the longitude of the

pass was determined at 77° 30’ 4”. But corrections of the chrono-

meter at Lé were also obtained on the 11th July and 17th Septem-

ber, according to which the determinations of the Karakorafh pass is

found to be 77° 39’ 5” or, otherwise, differing by 9’.

* The latitude of Lé was determined twice by polar heights.

Rely Ma eae tee AUR 4k Sisal TIS

16th September, Ds ire tea! Sons nia G70

WIGRHijes so COOoaOCODe | Be 8S

According to Cunningham, ......... 84° 9’1

5 Moorcroft, .......-. --. 34° 9/3

+ The chronometer was rated in the Observatory of Calcutta in March,

1855 and April, 1857 (pp. 98 and 102). From this it must appear, that the

probable 24 hourly disturbance of the chronometer on the spot would not be

less than -ts. In the longitude of Lé, also, one can suspect an error of at

least sie Pee" — + 29s. From Simla to Lé is a journey of 125 days, from

Lé to Srinagar 37 days; whole duration of the journey 162 days,

48 On the Schlagintwerts’ iNo: £

But the Schlagintweits express their doubts as to the correctness of

the determination of time at Lé on the 11th July, and, therefore, do

not take it into account. Nevertheless, an error of no less than 10’

must, in all probability, be suspected in the longitude of the Karako-

ram pass as well as in the longitude of Lé. It remains, consequently,

open to doubt, which longitude is to be accepted, that given by the

Schlagintweits, or that previously adopted by Humboldt, which

Thompson, who visited this pass in 1848, found to. be quite accurate.

Up to this point, the corrections are less than 5°, and applied to the

map attached to the description of their journey, they excite curiosi-

ty, but not surprise; but the upper portion of the map representing

Central Asia puzzles every one, by its marked difference to every

thing that has hitherto been known of these countries. It is sufficient

to say that the position of the three bases of the cartography of this

part of Asia, namely the towns of Khotan, Yarkand and Kashgar,

disagrees with those hitherto generally accepted, by nearly 180 versts,

for all the three points nearly equally lie 10’ in latitude, and 130’ in

longitude, more southward and westward, according to the dictum of

the Schlagintweits.

At the same time, the determinations of little Bokhara, which

belong to the Jesuits, cannot call forth strong doubts ; on the contrary,

there is strong reason for believing, that if these determinations are

not altogether correct, they are but very slightly incorrect. In Djun-

garia, there are several points determined by the Jesuits, and some sub-

sequentlysby me in 1859. From a comparison of these determina-

tions, it becomes evident that the latitudes given by the Jesuits are

correct toa minute. But the astronomical observations in Djungaria

were, in all probability, not made by the Jesuits themselves, but by

Chinese whom they had instructed. It must therefore be supposed,

that the points in little Bokhara, where the Jesuit fathers worked

themselves, are equally correct. As regards the longitudes, it is well

known that the existing itineraries coincide periectly well with the

determinations of the Jesuits, though it must be acknowledged that

the marche-routes having almost a meridional direction, cannot point

out any appreciable error in the longitudes. Generally speaking, the

better acquainted we become with Chinese Turkestan, the more con-

vinced we are of the accuracy of the determinations of the Jesuits.

1866. ] Astrononucal points of Central Asia. 49

In support of this, we shall here bring forward the following example.

There are two routes, besides others, across the Tian Shan leading to

little Bokhara; one from Kuldja to Aksu, the other from the south-

ern shore of Lake Issyk-kul by way of the Faukt pass, to Ush.

Until the astronomical labours of 1859, both these routes presented

on the map considerable angles with the axis of the mountain range ;

the first one of nearly 45°, and the other that of 30°, but according

to the astronomical results obtained in 1859, it was found that the

inclination of routes from Kuldja to Aksu, to the axis of the range,

did not exceed 30°, while the route to Ush intersects the ridge in a

direct line, and runs north and south. It appears strange then alter

this, if, seeing the great inclination of the transverse routes to the axis

of the mountains, that Issyk-kul, with the neighbouring countries on

the northern side of the Tian Shan, had not been before removed to

the west, as was done subsequently in consequence of the astronomical

determinations; or that all the series. of points in Little Bokhara were

not removed to the east, and in every case not to the west. Facts

like these, speak in favour of the positions of Ush and Asku, and other

towns of Little Bokhara determined by the Jesuits ; and it must be

observed, that up to: the present time no one has had the same means,

as possessed by them, of determining the relative positions of these

towns. The last point that the Schlagintweits determined instru-

mentally, is Suget, a halting place for caravans, proceeding from

Ladak to Yarkand. This route is marked on a very rare map, which

is a direct copy of an original one compiled by the Jesuits and trans-

lated by Klaproth ; a point on this road under the same latitude with

Suget, as determined by the Schlagintweits, has nearly one and the same

longitude. Beyond Suget, all the other points on the Kuen-lun and

in Turkestan, are determined by the marche-routes ; the most northern

of these and nearest to Khotan, which the two brothers Herman and

Robert succeeded in reaching, is the village of Bashia. ~ This point is

also given on the map of the Jesuits, its position being fixed by

marche-routes, not by direct determination. The difference in the

positions of Bashia, as given by the Jesuits and the brothers Schla-

gintweit, amounts to 6’ in latitude, and 47’ in longitude. How is it

then possible, after this, to accept the position of Khotan, and with it

that of the other towns of Turkestan, as given by the Schlagintweits,

50 On the Schlagintweits’ Astronomical points. [No. 1,

differing as it does by 130’ in longitude from the astronomical deter-

minations of the Jesuits, when neither Herman nor Robert visited

Khotan, while the papers of Adolph perished with him in Kashgar ?

But how are we to regard the more recent labours in the country

adjoining Little Bokhara, which cannot be reconciled to the points of

the Schlagintweits ?

Thus Sarry-Kul, the source of the Amu, which was determined by

Wood, the Schlagintweits could not place on their map, according to

the determination of Wood, but were obliged to remove it nearly 2°

to the westward.

Issyk-kul is also marked on the map 2° more to the west than it

should be, according to the last Russian astronomical determinations

in 1859. And if this Lake be marked in its true position on the

map of the Schlagintweits, Sarry-kul would then fall back on Yarkand,

and the western extremity of Issyk-kul will appear above Asku,

which, of course, would be impossible.

Petermann, in his notice of the labours and researches of the Schla-

gintweits, is of opinion that a review of their determinations in Little

Bokhara is premature, more especially as the marche-routes by which

they were guided, are not yet published. But the astronomical re-

sults of 1859, which so distinctly contradict the determinations of the

Schlagintweits, belong to the Russian Geographical Society, and this

is our excuse for expressing our doubts of the correctness of a certain

portion of the results of the brothers Schlagintweit, before receiving

the data on which they are based.

LO ON OOOO

1866 ] ~ Lableau of High Asia. 51

Comparative, hypsometrical and physical Tableau of High Asia, the

Andes, and the Alps —By Rosrrt pe Scunacintweit, Professor

at the University of Giessen.

Contents—I. Geographical configurations. 1. Plateaux. 2. Passes

3. Peaks.

Il. Hydrography. 1. Wakes. 2. Springs.

III. Physical phenomena. 1. Snow-fall. 2. Snow-line.

3. Glaciers.

IV. The varieties of habitation. 1 Towns and villages.

2. Pasture grounds.

V. Extreme heights visited by man. 1. Mountain-ascents.

2. Balloon-ascents. 3. Effect of height.

VI. Limits of vegetation and animal life.

Remarks.—1. Drawings of many of the objects (plateaus, peaks,

towns, &c.) mentioned in this Tableau, as well as panoramic pro-

files and maps, are contained in the Atlas to the ‘ Results of a

scientific mission to India and High Asia,” by Hermann, Adol-

phe, and Robert de Schlagintweit.

2. The heights, given in English feet, are absolute, referring’

to mean sea-level.

Transcription.—V owels and diphthongs sound as in Italian and Ger-

mia — on bub a) —— an in the Mrench “gant. W —= a

in German.— Consonants as in English. The sign ’

marks the

syllable to be accentuated.

The materials, upon which this comparative tableau is based, are :

For High Asia, viz.—The Himalaya, Western Tibet, the Karakorim

and Kinlin, our own travels and observations, combined with the

valuable data of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and

with those of our predecessors.

For the Andes.—The celebrated ‘‘ Voyages aux régions équinoctiales,”’

by Alexander de Humboldt, which possess to this day the high-

est value and importance ; in his recent publications,* the newest

contributions of science have been added with a master’s hand.

* Kosmos.—Ansichten der Natur, 3rd edition.—Kleinere Schriften.—I always

quote the original, German edition,

52 Tubleau of High Asia. [No. 1,

For the Alps.—The two volumes “ Untersuchungen wber die physi-

calische Geographie und die Geologie der Alpen,” published by

my brothers Adolphe and Hermann.

I. GeoarapnicAL CONFIGURATIONS.

1. Plateaus.

Plateaus, in consequence of their being more or less intersected by

deep and broad valleys, or from being covered with ridges, are so

variable in their form, that the use of the name, in many instances,

appears to be somewhat arbitrary. I prefer not to extend the meaning

of the name too far, and in so doing diverge from the practice of

earlier travellers, who commonly applied the term to every mountain-

ous region of great general elevations—as the natives of the Himalaya

have a tendency to do—irrespective of its form.

In the Himalaya, which is composed in almost every direction of

lofty and irregular ridges, and intersected by numerous valleys of

inconsiderable width, no plateau of any extent has been discovered as

yet, nor is it at all probable that one exists.

Western Tibet was for a long time supposed to be little else than a

country of plateaux—an erroneous impression emanating from the first

observers, though Humboldt had early pointed out the error of this

belief,* as well as later travellers (the Stracheys, Cunningham, and

Thomson). Plateaux certainly do occur in Tibet ; they are, however,

much less numerous and considerably smaller than I had been led to

expect. In Balti, the plateau Deosdi is 14,200 ft. high.

Between the Karakorim and Kiinliin, especially near the western

erest of the former, several well-defined plateaux of extraordinary height

occur. Some of the highest are called : Dapsang (17,500 ft.), Béllu

(16,883 ft.), Aksée Chin (16,620 ft.), and Vohab (16,419 ft) In

summer, no snow covers these plateaux, but also no vegetation : in the

far distance there are some isolated, lofty, snowy peaks, besides which

the eye discerns nothing but barren rocks, and extensive sterile plains,

all well watered by streams, to which the glaciers covering the flanks

of the peaks afford an ample and lasting supply. If water was want-

ing to these plateaux, they would be a complete desert, as uninhabita-

ble to man as to any animal.

* Ansichten der Natur. Vol. I., p. 104,

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 53

In the Andes are to be found, if not the highest, at least the most

extensive plateaux of our globe, which generally lie along the very

ridge of the mountains, and on which large towns are situated, as

Cerro de Pasco (14,098 ft.), Potosi (13,665 ft.), and Cuzco (11,380

ft.). There is also a large plateau surrounding the elevated lake

Titicaca (12,848 ft.).

In the Alps, plateaux occur only at their base ; the Swiss plateau

having a mean height of 1,460 ft., the Suevo-Bavarian plateau of

1,420 ft.

2. Passes.

The mean of a sufficient number of such passes, which lead over the

principal crests, is particularly to be taken into consideration, it being

approximatively proportional, or, to express it more clearly, equal to

the general mean height of these crests. The passes situate in the

lateral ramifications of the principal crests—though they are numerous

—cannot be included in these general means, being geographically

of subordinate importance.

The mean height of passes in the three principal mountain-chains

of High Asia is as follows :

A. For the Himdlaya (mean of 19 passes,)...... 17,800 ft.

From Sikkim to Kishtvar : Bhutan and Kashmir being excluded ;

the former for want of materials, and Kashmir on account of the

Himalaya there losing the character of one well-defined and predomi-

nant chain.

B. For the Karakorim (mean of 3 passes,)...18,700 ft.

From long. KE. Gr. 76° to 794°, the heights in the eastern continu-

ation being quite unknown.

C. For the Kiinliin (mean of 2 passes,) ......... 17,000 ft.

As the two passes are situated in parts not differing in any particu-

lar from the general mean of this chain, they may be looked upon as

representatives of the other.

From these numbers it appears, that the Karakorém has by far the

greatest mean height of passes; but the one pass which we must still

consider the highest, is situated in the Himalaya. This is the 1b

Gdmin pass (20,459 ft.) leading from Garhval to Gnéri Khorsum,

which my brother Adolphe and I myself crossed as the first, and as

yet as the only Europeans, Aug. 22, 1855. The pass next in height

54 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

is the Mustagh passin the Karakorém chain (19,019 ft.), the third the

Changchénmo, or Yéngi Davaén (about 18,800 ft.), in the same chain.

None of these passes are generally used as commercial roads. The

highest pass as yet known to be regularly crossed with horses and

sheep, for the purposes of commerce, is the Parang pass (18,500 it. ;

Mr. Theobald, Jr. makes it 19,132 ft., which seems too high—); and

between this height and 18,000 ft. are situated several of the most

important and frequented passes, as the Mana (18,406 it.) the Kara-

korim (18,345 ft.) and the Kidbrang (18,313 ft.). The lowest passes

in the Himalaya chain are the Shinku La (16,684 ft.) and the Bara

Lacha (16,186 ft.); the well known Niti pass reaches 16,814 it.

In the Andes, the general mean elevation of the passes is, according

to Berghaus :

Morithe Western eAmdes! Sane, sess eons et Ora

orate; astern Amdes,: je-ce)-te0 seen 13,500 ft.

The highest passes are: Alto de Toledo (15,590 ft.), Lagunillas

(15,590 ft.), and Assuay 15,526 ft.). The latter pass attains, accord-

ing to Schmarda, only 14,517 it.

In the Alps, the mean of the passes is ............ 7,550 ft.

The highest pass, at least in former times not frequently used for

commercial purposes, is the St. Théodule (11,001 ft.), upon which

the brothers Platter have now erected a meteorological observatory.

3. Peaks.

In the beginning of this century, the Andes were supposed to con-

tain the highest peaks on our globe, and Chimborazo to rise supreme

above the rest. Though as early as 1816 this was proved by Captain

Webb’s measurements to be incorrect, yet some time elapsed, before

the superiority of the Himdlaya above the Andes was generally

admitted. Now we know, from the valuable and accurate observations

of the G. T. Survey of India, that Gaurisdnkar, or Mount Everest

(29,002 ft.) is the highest peak of the world. The memoir of Major

J.T. Walker in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1862,

No. L., pp. 32—48, gives a detailed enumeration of the peaks hitherto

measured in the Himalaya; this memoir, as well as the publications

of Captain Montgomerie and private communications kindly received

from the Surveyor General’s Office, enable me to state, that 216 peaks

are now accurately measured in the chain of the Himilaya. Among

1866. ] Tableau of High Asia. 5d

these 216 peaks, 17 exceed the height of 25,000 ft., 40 the height of

23,000 ft., and 120 the height of 20,000 ft.

In the Karakoriéim, peaks have lately been discovered, which are

scarcely inferior in height to the loftiest in the Himalaya, though

only its western part has as yet been explored. With regard to the

heights of its eastern continuation, there is mot enough known to

allow even of an estimate being made.

The highest peaks of the Karakorim are the Dapsang (Ko of the

G. T. S. 28,278 ft.), the Diamar (26,629 ft.), and the Masheribrim

(25,625 ft.)

With reference to the Kiinliin, we can only mention the peaks that

we saw and measured between the Yurungkash pass and the western

termination of this chain; our idea about the general height is the

more limited, as we have not even itinerary reports of former travel-

lers to assist us. None of the peaks seen there by ourselves exceeds

22,000 ft. -

In the Andes, important alterations have very recently been made

with reference to the succession of the peaks, when arranged according

to height, and, even now, the same amount of accuracy cannot be

ascribed to the hypsometrical determination of its principal peaks as

to the trigonometrical operations in the Himalaya. The highest peak

in the Andes is the Aconcagua (23,004 ft.) in Chili (Pissis gives

only 22,451 ft.): and there are as many as five peaks higher than

the Chimbarozo (21,422 ft.). In High Asia, forty-five -peaks are

known, which exceed in height the dominating peak of the Andes,

the Aconcagua.

In the Alps, Mont Blanc (15,784 ft.) and Monte Rosa (15,223 ft.)

are well known to be the highest peaks. Other high peaks are ;

Taschhorn, or Lagerhorn (14,954 ft.), Weisshorn (14,813 ft.), Mont

Cervin (14,787 ft.), and Dent Blanche (14,305 {t.).

Il. Hyproeraruy.

1. Lakes.

In the Himdlaya, there are but very few lakes. That of Nainital

(6,520 ft.), in Kamaon, the Villar lake (5,126 ft.), and the Chinar

lake near Srinégar in Kashmir, suffice to exhaust the category of those

deserving mention. |

56 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

Glacier lakes.—Accumulations of water formed by one glacier ob-

structing the outlet of a higher one—are of much more frequent occur-

rence. At times, the wall of ice breaks away before the pressure of

the swollen waters, when the lower lands become suddenly inundated,

and the torrent rushes on with uninterrupted violence for miles, exer-

cising a marked influence even down to the lower parts of the river.

Similar inundations, some of them of a most destructive character,

have several times occurred. Two of the most elevated glacier-lakes

are the Destal (17,745 ft.), in Garhval, and the Namtso, or Yunam

(15,570 ft.) in Lahdl.

Western Tibet and Turkistdn possess many lakes, all of which are

situated in great heights; they are, however, gradually drying up, as

becomes apparent by the unmistakeable marks of larger suriaces re-

maining from former times. They contain a greater quantity of salt

than lakes in general, and most of them to an amount which renders

them more or less brackish.

The following are the names and the heights of the principal :—

Lakes of Western Tibet and Turkistan.

Aksae Chin, ee . 16,620 | Nima Kar, ... fice aeRO

Tso Gyagar, : 15, 20050 uliauile wae: 500 ... 14,600

Tso Kar, or Khauri Talau, 15,684 | Tso Gam, ... roe bee ACOOO

Mire Tso, we . 15,517 | Tso Bul, ae ... 14,400

Kitk-Kidl, Nee Son Wee 15,460 Tso Mitbal, Fics vosp ACTION,

Mansaraur, or Tso Mapan, 15,250 | Upper Tsomognalart, ... 14,050

Rakus Tal, or Tso Lanag, 15,250 | Lower Tsomognalari,... ... 14,010

Tsomoriri,, coo ooo IL ISO)

In the ee the most remarkable lake is that of Titicaca

(12,843 ft.)

The foot of the Alps is adorned with a great many lakes, all in low

elevations of from 600 to 1,600 ft.

2. Springs.

Springs of an ordinary, mean temperature, commonly called cold

springs, are of frequent occurrence in High Asia; the finest and most

copious springs are to be found in Kashmér, as the spring Vérnag,

Vétur Villar, Kokar Nag, Achibal, A’nat Nag and others. The

spring Sonda Bréri, also in Kashmir, situate about five miles south-

east of Shahabad, is the only intermittent spring as yet known in

High Asia.

* According to Mr, Theobald, Jr. (see Journ. As. Soc., Beng, 1862, No. V.,

p- 513) only 14,272

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. oT

In Western Tibet, where rains in the higher parts are rare, and

where the dryness in summer is so excessive that even the formation

of dew is scarcely perceptible, cold springs are comparatively rare.

In Turkistén, in Balti, and Hasora, we find a greater number of

springs; a fact intimately connected with the general meteorological

conditions of these provinces. |

With reference to the limit, at which springs are to be found still

in High Asia, I give the following data, derived from our own obser-

vations. The greatest height, at which we found a spring in the

Himalaya, was 15,920 {t.; this ‘spring was situated on the slopes of

‘the Kytngar pass. In Tibet, we discovered a real spring on the

slopes of the Ibi Gamin peak still at a height of 17,650 it.; this

spring is. probably the highest spring hitherto found.

As the highest spring in the Andes, Humboldt names the one

called “Ladera de Cadlud,” at a height of 15,526 ft. above the level

of the sea; in the Alps, Adolphe and Hermann have found the high-

est cold spring at 10,440 ft.

Hot springs occur in High Asia in a surprisingly great number,*

from the sea-level up to heights of more than 16,000 ft. The highest

hot springs of High Asia are at Murgai, (16,382 ft.), in Nubia, at:

Momai (about 16,000 ft.), in Sikkim, at Paga (15,264 ft.), in Ladak,

near the lake Aitkkié (15,010 ft.), in Turkistan, and at Chagrar

(about 15,000 ft.), in Pangkéng. As a carious and remarkable fact I

may add, that the highest hot spring in India, at Hazaribagh, in

Bengal, is only 1,750 ft. above the level of the sea.

The hottest spring of High Asia is at Manikarn (temp. 202° Faht.)

in Kulu (this is the hottest spring as yet found all over Asia), at

Jamnotri (temp. 193° Faht.) in Garhval, and at Chorkénda (temp.

190° Faht.) in Balti. The hottest springs of the world Gf we

exclude those, which rise in the immediate neighbourhood of volca-

noes) are to be found in the Andes. There ‘‘ Aguas de Comangillas,”’

near Chichemequillo and Quanaxuato, at a height of about 6,200 ft.,

in latitude north 21°, show a temperature of 205°.3 Faht.;+ and the

springs “Las Trincheras’” between Porto Cabello and Valencias, in

*See the “ Hnumeration of the hot springs of India and High Asia, given

by me in As. Soc. Journal, 1864, No, I., p. 49.

( + Humboldt’s “ Essai pratique sur la Nouvelle Espagne.’ 2nd Ed., Vol. III,

1827), p. 190.

58 Tabled of High Asia, [No. f,

Mexico, have increased, between the years 1806 and 1823, from 195°

Faht. to 206°.6 Faht.,* thus exceeding at present the temperature of

the ‘ Aguas de Comangillas” by 1°.3 Faht.

The hottest known spring of Europe, unconnected with present

volcanoes, is that of Chaudes Aigues in Auvergne (temp. 176°

Faht.).+

III. Puystcan Puenomena.

1. Snow-fall.

The lowest height at which snow has fallen in the Himdlaya

during the winter, is about 2,500 ft., but such cases are extremely

rare, having occurred in Kamdon and Garhval only twice Gn 1817

and 1847), since the British took possession of the country.{ Snow

has fallen in the memory of man only once in Nahaén§ (8,207 [t.), in

the province of Simla. The snow, which falls once within several

years in the Kangra valley, down to heights of 3,090 and 2,700 ft.,

disappears almost immediately. At Haribégh the snow melts away

on the day it falls, or at least within thirty-six hours. During my

travels in Kalu, I was informed by the natives, as well as by several

gentlemen who knew this part of the country thoroughly, that the

village of Mandi (2,480 ft.), is below the limit of snow-fall.

At an elevation of 5,000 ft. scarcely one year passes by without

snow-fall; but, even at this height, the snow disappears after a few

days, and sometimes even hours. ‘It snows, but one does not see

it,’ the natives of Kathmandu (4,354 it.) very significantly use to

say, meaning, that the rare nightly snow-falls are melted away by the

earliest rays of the sun. 6,090 ft. may be assigned as the limit in

the Himalaya, where snow regularly falls in winter, with the proba-

bility of remaining some time upon the ground.

In Western Tibet and in the Karakorum, the general elevation of

the country is so great, even in its lowest regions, that no part lies

below the limit of hibernal snow-fall. But the quantity of snow

actually falling is inconsiderable, and this circumstance it is, which

forms one of the chief causes that the passes of the Karakorim, even

* Humboldt’s “* Kosmos,” Vol. IV., p. 246.

+ Newbold, in “ Philos. Transactions,” 1845, p. 127.

+ Colonel R. Strachey, in this Journal, Vol, XVIIL, Part I., p 309.

§ This Journal, Vol, III., p. 367.

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 59

the highest, remain open throughout the year. In some parts of

Tibet the winter is the only season, when atmospheric precipitation

at all takes place.

In the Kiinliin, even on its southern slopes, a greater amount of

snow is precipitated than en the northern side of the Karakortim,

whilst its Turkistani (northern) slopes differ still more from the

Karakorém in this respect, they being visited by very heavy rains and

great snow-falls. Even at Kashgar (about 3,500 ft), in Turkistén,

there are said to be several snowy days every winter.

The data, which I was able to collect on snow-fall in the Andes, are

so few and vague, that I could not draw any conclusion from them.

Also for the Alps, I could not bring forward any new facts with

reference to the snow-fall.

2. Snow-line.

The snow-line, or the average height where snow remains perpetu-

ally throughout the year, has offered unexpected difficulties in its de-

termination for the Himdlaya. When Webb and Moorcroft first

pointed out the general heights reached by the snow-line, when they

first discovered the remarkable fact, that, in spite of the influence

arising from exposition, the snow-line of the Himalaya descends lower

on its southern (Indian) than on its northern (Tibetan) slopes, the

statements of these travellers, now proved to be correct in all material

points, were discredited by men of science both in Kurope and in

India. Humboldt, however, was among the first who endeavoured

to remove the distrust with which these discoveries were received ;

he also gave an explanation* of the causes which were possibly suffi-

cient to originate so remarkable a phenomenon as this of the unlooked-

for differences existing between the snow-lines of the Tibetan and

Indian slopes. He considers it “the results conjointly of the radiation

of heat from the neighbouring elevated plains, the serenity of the sky,

and the infrequent formation of snow in very cold and dry air.” Of

all these causes, however, the last is the most important. The direct

insolation, being less interrupted on the Tibetan side, has also its

share of influence ; but the effect is comparatively small. As the best

corroboration of the quantity of snow-fall being the principal cause of

the depression on the southern (Indian) slope of the Himialaya, may

* “ Asie Centrale,” pp. 284, 327; “ Kosmos;” Vol. I. p, 358,

60 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

be adduced the fact, that we found the isothermal lines for the year

and the summer, which coincided with the snow-line on the Indian

side, decidedly warmer than those on a level with the Tibetan snow-

line. The fact, moreover, of the Karakorim—though on an average

three degrees farther north —having the snow-line so excessively high

on both its slopes, offers another instance of the influence of limited

precipitation.

In the Kiinliin, the meteorological conditions also become apparent

in the different limits of the snow-line on either side; but here the

effect is the reverse of that perceived in the Himalaya, the greater

precipitation on the ‘‘ northern” slopes (towards the plains of Turkis-

tan) lowering the snow-line on that side to a considerable extent.

Although, in the Himalaya at large, the snow-limit of the Tibetan

side does not descend so low as that of the Indian, yet the influence

of exposition at once becomes apparent in the ordinary sense, corre-

sponding to these latitudes, if we examine the slopes of a crest or

mountain, of which, by the nature of its position, both slopes belong

either to the Indian side of the ridge in general, or to the Tibetan

side. The many and vehement disputes upon the much-discussed

subject of snow-limits have chiefly arisen from the entire neglect of

this modification.*

The values we obtain for the height of the snow-line on the three

mountain chains of High Asva are :

Feet.

A. Himdlaya. Southern (Indian slopes), ... tye): ae MAOZOD

Northern (Tibetan) slopes, _... shes e400

B. Karakorim. Southern (Tibetan) slopes, oie eae O00

Northern (along the Turkistani Auekoe 18,600

C. Kiinliin. Southern (facing mountainous ramifications), 15,800

Northern (facing the Turkistani plain),+... 15,100

For the Andes, the snow-limits are, according to Humboldt and

Pentland :

* See Batten, in the “ Calcutta Jour. of Nat. Hist.,”’ Vol. IV. p. 537; Vol. V.

p. 383. Capt. T. Hutton, “in the same Journ.” Viol! IV. p. 275; alk Vi

p. 379; Vol. VI. p.56; and Capt. A. Jack, “in the same Journ.” Vol, IV.

p. 405.

+ “ Asie Centrale,” 1847, Vol. Il. pp. 165 and 177,

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 61

Feet.

Kastern Andes of Bolivia,... ee ae 1 LOs900

Western Andes of Bolivia, Nie ee S500)

Andes of Quito, ... ae sho. eas JRO TRO

For the Alps, my brothers obtained :

Southern slopes, et ae bes) SAUD

Northern slopes... a 8, 900

Hxtremes (near the Mont Elon and Monte

Rosa group), ws uh 95300)

3. Glaciers.

The existence of the glaciers of High Asia was first made known

for Western Tibet, by Vigne, who alludes to them repeatedly in his

“Travels in Kashmir,” London, 1842. Colonel Richard Strachey

was the first* who Gn 1847) proved their existence in the Himélaya.

The recent date of this discovery will appear the more surprising,

when the immense number of glaciers now positively ascertained to be

in this region is taken into consideration. The great amount of ice

to be met with, even in lower elevations of the Himalaya, could not

of course escape the observation of previous travellers; these masses,

” and to

however, they used to designate as ‘“‘ hard, frozen snow-beds,

consider them as local phenomena, analogous to remains of avalanches.

On both sides of the Karakorim and the Kiunlin, we also found

glaciers, having forms identical with those of the Alps, and following

the same laws of motion. Some of them are considerably larger than

the glaciers in Hurope. The Aletsch glacier in the Alps extends a

little over fifteen miles in length, whilst some of the glaciers, surveyed

by Captain Montgomerie and his party in Balti (on the southern side

of the Karakoram)” boast of no less than thirty-six miles in length,

with a breadth of from one to two and a half miles. The Bidfo

glacier forms, with the glacier on the opposite slope towards Migeair,

a continuous river of ice of sixty-four miles running in an almost

straight line, and without any break in its continuity beyond those

of the ordinary crevasses of glaciers. The Biafo glacier is supplied in

a great measure from a vast dome of ice and snow, about one hundred

and eighty square miles in area, in the whole of which only a few pro-

jecting points of wall are visible. The Balsoro main glacier, thirty-

* See this Journal, Vol. XVI, part II. p. 794; Vol. XVII, part II. p. 203,

62 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

six miles in length, and with fourteen large tributary glaciers of from

three to ten miles in length, would form a study in itself, and give

employment for several summers, before it could be properly examin-

ed.’’*

In the Himdlaya, the lowest glaciers go down to 11,000 ft. and even

10,500 ft.; the Pindari ending at 11,492 ft., the Timtimna at 11,430

ft., the Ts6ji at 10,967 ft., and the Chaia at 10,520 it.

In Western Tibet, they descend to about the same elevation ; thus,

the Mustégh 11,576 ft., the Tapto 11,508 ft., the Tami Chutet to

10,460 ft., the Bépho (Bidfo of Capt. Montgomerie ?), near Askoli,

even to 9,876 ft. The latter is worthy of notice as a remarkable case

of low termination.

In the Kiinliin, the glaciers end probably at heights not much differ-

ing from those in Western Tibet ; at least so we infer from the gene-

ral appearance of the upper part of the glaciers we saw during our

travels in these regions. The glaciers on both flanks of the Hlchi

pass presented, however, no instances of particularly deep descent.

In the Andes, no glaciers are as yet known to exist,; and they do

not occur in tropical America, from the equator to 19° latitude north.

In the Alps, the lowest glacier is that of Lower Grindelwald, end-

ing at 3,290 ft, but in general 5,000 ft. must be considered as a

rather low end of a glacier.

IV. Tue Varieties oF Haprrarron.

1. Towns and Villages.

The Himdlaya rises, in general, so abruptly above the plains of

India, and the latter, particularly in the western regions, are in them-

selves of such an elevation, that even in the lower parts of the valleys

there are but few, if any points of less height than 1,000 ft. above the

level of the sea. Two causes more especially have tended to displace

the order of population in these districts, the lower parts being almost

deserted in favour of the lands lying immediately above. In the first

instance, the prevailing steepness of the country hereabouts, which is

still considerably increased by the erosion of the rivers, precludes the

successful cultivation of the soil; and, again, the fertile, well cultiva-

* Montgomerie, in “ Journ. As. Soc. Beng, 1862, No. II. p, 210.

+ Humboldt, “* Asie Centrale,” Vol. II. p. 167.

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 63

ted plains of India are converted, wherever they touch the southern

foot of the Himalaya, into swampy and marshy lands, called the Tarai,

which in some parts form but a narrow strip or belt, whilst in others,

as in Nepal, they attain a breadth of thirty to forty miles. The Tarai

abounds with large and lofty forest trees. Owing to the swampy and

malarious character of the Tarai, which skirts the extremities of the

valleys, the neighbourhood is rendered as uninhabitable to the tribes

of the Central Himalaya as to the highly susceptible and less seasoned

visitor from European climes. Consequently (from all these reasons

stated), in the inferior stratum of heights, ranging between 2,000 and

3,000 ft., the number of places inhabited by the natives is compara-

tively insignificant; while population reaches its maximum in the

rich belt of life rising from 5,000 to 8,000 ft., the traces of man and

his dwelling-place begin rapidly to disappear at 11,000 ft., and

even before.

The highest limits of habitation, however, very often present them-

selves under a form which almost excludes the possibility of strictly

comparing them as dependent upon climate. It is a remarkable fact,

that in some provinces of the Himalaya, especially in Nepal, Kamaon,

and Garhval, many villages are deserted in winter, though as far as

regards their elevation and the solid construction of the houses, they

might very well be inhabited throughout the year. The natives, how-

ever, prefer removing to villages less elevated, where they spend the

colder months. In the Himalaya west of Garlival, such modifications

do not occur; at least we are not aware of the existence of villages in

Simla, Kulu, Kishtvaér &c., where the inhabitants follow regularly

the nomadic example furnished in other parts of the hill country.

The Alps of Europe also present instances of this kind in Findelen

(7,192 ft.), Bresily (6,594 ft.), and many other summer villages of

greater or less elevation on the French side of the Alps.

Western Tibet is a country of such general elevation, that only in

the province of Balti villages are to be found below a height of 6,000

dt. Some of the chief towns are built at considerable elevations ;

Leh, the capital of Ladak, lies 11,527 ft. above the level of the sea.

The highest permanently inhabited places are, however, Buddhist

monasteries, the most elevated being probably that of Hanle, (15,117

ft.), in Ladak. I state it positively as my conviction, that nowhere in

64 Tableau of High Asia. ENow I,

the world there exists a permanently inhabited place at a height ex-

ceeding 15,600 ft. Paul de Carmoy’s ‘‘ Pueblo de Ocoruro,” in the

Sierra Nevada, 18,454 ft. high, will prove, on a closer examination, to

be a temporarily inhabited place, similar to the swmmer villages of

Tibet, of which I name Gartok (15,090 it.), Norbu (15,946 ft.), and

Piga (15,264 ft.)

In the Kiimliin, even the foot of its southern (Tibetan) slopes is so

elevated, that no villages exist at all. By combining with our own

observations a variety of reports received, I obtain for its northern

slopes 9,400 ft. as the limit of permanently inhabited villages; sum-

mer villages reach about 10,200 ft.

In the Andes, large and important permanently inhabited places

have been built at great heights (Cerro de Pasco, 14,098 it., Potosi

13,665 ft.); they are generally situated on plateaux. Santa Barbara,

a mine with solid houses, about three miles south of Huancavelica, is

situated at a height of 14,508 ft.

For the Alps, I have already had occasion to mention their summer

villages. The highest permanently inhabited villages are in the

valley of Avers in Graubindten, where Juf lies at an elevation of

7,172 it., and that of Cresta exceeds 6,700 ft. But the roads leading

across the passes have rendered it necessary to construct houses near

the top which are permanently inhabited; the highest of these at

present being the well known monastery of St. Bernard (8,114 ft.)

As long as the road over the Stelvio or Stilfser Joch was kept up,

Santa Maria (8,146 ft.) was also inhabited throughout the year.

D5 Pasture-grounds.

In the Himdlaya, pasture-grounds “ Karik,” for sheep and bovine

cattle, are for the most part in low elevations, and at no great dis-

tance from the villages. The Karik Biterguar, in Kimadon, must be

mentioned as an exception to this general rule, it being situated at

an elevation of 14,594 ft. Nowhere are there built on these pasture-

grounds chalets (Alpenhiitten), which are as little used in the Hima-

laya as tents in the Alps.

Dairies, which are dispersed all over the Alps, and which form the

source of a profitable income under an able management, are quite

unknown in the Himalaya, even in those parts, as Kashmir and Nepal,

1866.] Lableau of High Asia. 65

where ample tracts exist extremely favourable for erecting such estab-

lishments even on a large scale.

The pasture-grounds of Z%bet, to which the numerous herds of sheep

are driven in summer, reach an elevation from 15,000 to 16,349 ft.,

beyond which the Tibetan shepherds, who sometimes remain upon the

mountains from June to September, cannot be supposed to make any

permanent residence. The most elevated pasture-grounds of Tibet

are, Larsa (16,349 {t.), Zinchin (16,222 it.), Kydngchu (15,781 it.),

Rukchin (15,064 ft.), Amlung (15,300 ft.), and Jugta (15,058 ft.)

Though many cloudless days succeed each other in these lofty

regions, thus leaving the power of direct insolation unimpaired, the

climate always remains bleak; while the prevailing winds not only

aggravate the effects of a low temperature, but also that of a low baro-

metrical pressure, thus presenting a remarkable modification of cli-

mate, of which I shall hereafter give some detail in the considerations

upon the influence of height in general. The shepherds with difficul-

ty provide themselves with a sufficient supply of fuel for cooking pur-

poses; sometimes they contrive with much labour and pains to erect

rude stone walls, behind which they may take shelter during the

night. These walls are usually circular in form, from four to five

feet high, and without a roof.

In the Kiinliin, the slopes on its southern side are so elevated, that

there exist no pasture-grounds at all; on its. northern slopes, they do

not occur above 15,000 ft.

For the Andes no data with reference to pasture-grounds are at my

disposal,

The pasture-grounds in the Alps, which are generally in the neigh-

bourhood of Chalets, may be met with at heights of 8,000 ft. and

upwards : the Fluhalpe (8.468 ft ) on the Findelen glacier near the

Monte Rosa, and the Torrenthttle, in the Anniviers valley, being

instances of the greatest elevations.

VY. ExtREME HEIGUTS VISITED BY MAN.

1. Mountain-ascents.

Temporary habitations, frequented for some months, as we have

seen from the discussion of the highest pasture-grounds, sometimes

reach a height of nearly 16,300 ft. As far as my experience goes, I

66 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

may state, that for short periods of ten or twelve days, man may con-

siderably exceed this height, not without suffering, but at least with-

out positive injury to himself. During our explorations of the [bi

Gamin glaciers, August 13th to 23rd, 1855, we encamped and slept

during these ten days in company with eight men at very unusual

heights. During this period, our lowest camp was pitched at 19,326

ft—the greatest height at which we ever passed a night : — another

was at 19,094 ft.; two camps exceeded 18,300 ft., and the remainder

ranged between 18,000 and 17,000 ft. Apart from the extreme ele-

vation and consequent cold, the bodily exertions imposed upon us

during our stay, proved a great tax upon our powers. Once we cross-

ed a pass of 20,439 ft., and three days earlier, August 19th, 1855, we

had ascended the flanks of Ibi Gamin to a height of 22,239 ft. This,

as far as we know, is the greatest height yet reached on any mountain,

though considerably below that to which man has arisen in balloons.

On the Sassar peak we attained (August 3rd, 1856) an elevation of

20,120 ft. As early as 1818, however, the brothers Alexander and

James G. Gerard ascended (October 18th) a peak in Spiti 19,411 ft,

high, not far from the Porgyal, or Tazhigang. Subsequently, August

31st, 1828, Dr. James G. Gerard reached 20,400 ft.

From Captain T. G. Montgomerie we learn, that a station of 19,979

ft. has been reached twice by Mr. W. H. Johnson, and another of

19,958 ft.* in height by Mr. W. G. Beverley. Mr. Johnson took,

besides, observations in Ladak at one station more than 20,600 ft.

high, the greatest altitude yet attained as a station of the Trigonome-

trical Survey of India.t A trigonometrical mark has even been erect-

ed on a point 21,480 ft. above the level of the sea, ‘‘ but unfortunately

there was not sufficient space to put a theodolite on it.”

In the Andes, Humboldt ascended the flanks of Chimborazo (June

23rd, 1802) to a height of 19,286 ft. ; this being the extreme elevation

attained at that period. Some yearsafterwards (December 16th, 1831),

Boussingault reached, on the same peak, a height of 19,695 ft.t

In the Alps, my brothers Adolphe and Hermann once remained in

the Vincenthiitte, on the slopes of Monte Rosa, fourteen days at a

* See this Journal, 1861, No. II., pp. 99, 110,

+ See this Journal, 1863, No. II., p. iii.

t Humboldt’s “ Kleinere Schriften,” p, 157,

1866.] Tableau of High Asia, 67

height of 10,374 ft. The well known English Professors Tyndall and

Frankland even passed the night of August 21st, 1859, on the top of

the Mont Blane (15,784 ft.)

2. Balloon-ascents.

In the free atmosphere the greatest height was reached by Mr.

Glaisher in a balloon, which was directed by Mr. Coswell ; he ascend-

ed, September 5th, 1862, the extraordinary height of at least 30,000 ft.,

but, as he was unable to make any observations above that height,

being suddenly overtaken by sickness, it is supposed that the balloon

rose as high as seven miles = 36,960 ft.

Not less remarkable than this ascent was the one performed by

Gay-Lussac, as early as the beginning of this century (September

16th, 1804), when he rose to 23,020 ft, Between Gay-Lussac’s and

Mr. Glaisher’s ascent, several attempts have been made to reach great

heights in balloons, especially in England, during one of which the

late Mr. Welsh reached (November 10th, 1852) 22,930 ft.* The bal-

loon-ascents made in England were all combined with experiments of

a highly interesting nature, and instituted by a scientific committee,

among whose members it is sufficient only to name Sabine and Sykes.

Previous to Mr. Welsh, Messrs. Bixio and Barral rose (July 27th,

1850) to a height of 23,009 ft.

As a balloon-ascent, remarkable not only on account of the height

Teached, but on account of the horizontal distance performed, I must

mention the one made by Mr. Nadar, in company with eight persons,

October 18th, 1863. Mr. Nadar rose from Paris and let himself down

—or he rather fell down—near Rethem, a small town on the river

Aller, in Hanover. The direct distance between these two towns is

about 395 miles, and as it took 15 hours, 47 minutes to travel

through this distance, the balloon flew 2,227 ft. per minute, or 37 ft.

per second. But, as the balloon was far from going in a straight line,

it has been computed, that the greatest velocity attained by it

amounted to 50 ft. per second.

3. Liffect of height.

The effect of height is chiefly perceptible in the decrease of tem-

perature and barometrical pressure. According to our observations,

* Philosophical Transactions,” 1853, Part JII., p. 320,

68 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

the atmospheric pressure is, at a height of about 18,600 or 18,800 ft.,

one-half of that at the level of the sea. At an elevation of 22,200 ft.

(so trivial a height when compared with the extreme upper limit of the

atmosphere), we observed a barometrical pressure of 13.364 inches, so

that nearly three-fifths of the weight of the atmosphere lay below the

point reached by us at the time.

Tt is evident that there must be a limit beyond which the degree of

rarefaction is mcompatible with the conditions of human existence ;

but it will ever remain extremely difficult to determime the line of

demarcation, with any approach to scientific precision.

The influence* which height exercises upon man, varies with

the individual ; a man in good health having the chance of less suffer-

ing. The difference of race has apparently no appreciable importance.

Our Hindu servants suffered far more from the cold than our Tibetan

companions, though not more from the diminished pressure. For the

generality of people the influence of height begins at 16,500 ft., a

height nearly coinciding with that of the highest pasture grounds

visited by shepherds.

The complaints produced by diminished pressure are,—headache,

difficulty of respiration, and affection of the lungs, the latter even pro-

ceeding so far as to occasion blood-spitting, want of appetite and even

sickness, muscular weakness, and a general depression and lowness of

spirits. Bleeding of the nose we experienced ourselves, though very

rarely, the loss of blood on such occasions being insignificant; but

bleeding of the ears and lips we neither experienced personally, nor

observed in others during our travels in High Asia. Humboldt,+

however, states, that on the Antisana, at a height of 18,141 ft., his

companion, Don Carlos Montufar, bleeded heavily from the lips, and

that during the ascent of the Chimborazo, every one suffered from

bleeding of the lips and even the gums.

The effects here mentioned, which disappear in a healthy man

almost simultaneously with his return to lower regions, are not sen-

sibly increased by cold, but the wind has a most decided influence for

* Notices and remarks on this subject are to be found in “ Gleanings in

Science,” Vol. 1., p. 330; Gerard’s “ Koonawur ;” Hooker's “ Himalayan Jour-

nals,’ Vol. II., p. 413; Thomson’s “ Western Himalaya and Tibet,” p. 185 and

p. 433.

+ “ Kleinere Schriften,’ Vol. I., p. 148.

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 69

the worse upon the feelings. As this was a phenomenon we had not

hitherto found mentioned by former observers, we directed our parti-

cular attention to it, and remarked instances where fatigue had abso-

lutely nothing to do with it. In the plateaux of the Karakorim, it

was a common occurrence, even for the sleepers in the tents, where

they might be considered as somewhat protected, to be waked up in

the night with a heavy feeling of oppression, the entire disturbance

being traceable to a breeze, which had sprung up during the hours of

rest.

The effects of diminished atmospheric pressure are considerably

aggravated by fatigue. It is surprising to what a degree it is possi-

ble for exhaustion to supervene; even the act of speaking is felt to be

a labour, and one gets as careless of comfort as of danger.

VI. lLamits oF VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFR,

1. Vegetation.

In India, the vegetation is not limited by climate in the elevations

existing ; the highest peaks, as the Dodabétta (8,640 ft.), in the Nil-

giris, the most elevated plateaux are covered with trees, shrubs, and

in fact a luxurious vegetation, not only along their slopes, but even

on their top.

In the Himdlaya, trees grow very generally up to heights of 11,800

ft., and in most parts there are extensive forests covering the sides of

the mountains at but a little distance below this limit. Those forests

ave especially beautiful in the higher valleys of Kaméon and Garhval,

in the Bhagirathi valley.

In Western Tibet, though we did traverse it in various directions,

none of us found anything at all corresponding to a forest. Apricot

trees, willows, and poplars are frequently cultivated on a large scale:

poplars, indeed, are found at Mangnang, in Gnéri Khorsum, still at

a height of 13,457 ft.; but they are the objects of the greatest care

and attention to the Lamas.

Th the Kimliin, we found the trees on its northern side not to grow

above 9,100 ft. On the northern side, we saw no trees at all; here

the considerable height of the valleys we passed excluded them.

In the Andes, trees end at about 12,130 ft.; in the Alps on an aver-

age at 6,400 ft., isolated specimens occurring, however, above 7,000 ft-

70 Tableau of High Asia, [No. 1,

The cultivation of grain coincides, in most cases, with the highest

permanently inhabited villages: but the extremes of cultivated grain

remain below the limit of permanent habitation. In the Himdlaya,

cultivation of grain does not exceed 11,800 ft., in Zvbet 14,700 ft.,

and in the Kiinliin 9,700 ft. For the Andes, the limit is 11,800 it. ;

in the Alps, some of the extremes are found near Tindelen, at a height

of 6,630 ft., but the mean is about 5,000 ft.

The upper mean limit of grass-vegetation is, in the Himdlaya, at

15,400 ft., in Western Tibet at 16,500 ft. ;

found above 14,800 ft.

Shrubs grow, in the Himdlaya, up to 15,200 ft., in Western Tibet, as

high as 17,000 ft. On the plateaux to the north of the Karakorim,

shrubs are found at 16,900 ft., and, which is more remarkable, they

in the Kinliin, grass is not

occasionally grow there in considerable quantities on spots entirely

destitute of grass. As an example, I mention the Vohab Chilgane

plateau (16,419 ft.) and Bashmalgin (14,207 ft.)

In the Kiinlién, the upper limit of shrubs does not exceed 12,700

ft. ; above this height grass is still plentiful; and shrubs being here,

as generally everywhere else, confined to a limit below the vegetation

of grass, the range presents an essential contrast in this respect to the

characteristic aspect of the Karakorim.

In the Andes, shrubs grow up to 13,420 ft, in the Alps, their upper

limit is at 8,000 it.

The very extreme limit of phanerogamic plants appeared in T%bet

at the north-eastern slopes of the Ibi Gamin pass, at a height of

19,809 ft.; next in order came those of the Gunshankar peak, in

Gnari Khérsum, at 19,237 ft. Inthe Himdlaya, the highest plants

were found by us at 17,500 ft., on the slopes of the Jante pass, in

Kamaon.

In the Andes, Colonel Hall found the highest phanerogamic plants

on the slopes of Chimborazo, at 15,769 ft., consequently 4,040 it.

lower than the Ibi Gamin plants in Tibet.

Inthe Alps, my brothers found an analogous extreme on the south-

ern slopes of the Vincent pyramide at 12,540 ft.

2. Animal life.

Monkeys appear to frequent, in the Himalaya, regions exceeding

11,000 ft. in height ; the Semnopithecus schistaceus, Modgs. ascending |

1866. | Tableau of High Asia. 71

higher than others. These monkeys, called “‘ Langirs” by the natives,

have been frequently seen at 11,000 ft., while the fir-trees among

which they sported were loaded with snow-wreaths. This species is

not known in India, whilst the Macacus Rhesus is met with in India,

as well as in the Himalaya. 7m

In Western Tibet, and farther to the north, no monkeys have yet

been found. Z%gers ascend to 11,000 ft. in the Himalaya; they are

not, however, seen in Western Tibet or the Kunlin.

Leopards may be met with, in the Himalaya and in Tibet, even at

13,000 and 14,000 ft. The on, though intimately connected with

the mythology of High Asia, has been forthcoming, in historical

times, only in Kashmir. In India, the lion occurs at the present day

only in Guzrat, and there only in very small numbers.

Jackals were found by us in the Karakortim between 16,000 and

17,000 ft. Wolves ave not known to frequent the Himalaya Proper,

but they are found in Tibet, where we saw of traces of them in sand

close to the Karakoram pass (18,345 ft.)

Various species of beautiful wild sheep and ibex, together with the

Kyang and the wild yak, are met with in large herds on the highest

plateaux between the Karakoraim and the Kiunliin.

The cat is common in Tibet ; dogs are the companions of the Tibet-

an shepherds, whom they follow over passes exceeding 18,000 ft.

Some species of bats are seen in the Himalaya up to 9,000 ft.; and

the Tibetan hare occurs even in heights exceeding 18,000 ft.

Migratory birds are not known to cross the Himalaya, as many

birds of Europe cross the Alps. Doves were seen by us at very great

heights in the Karakorim and Kiunlin; this was the most surprising,

as other birds were very rare.

The domestic fowl has recently been introduced with great success

by Gulab Singh into Balti, Ladaék, and Nubra.

Lishes were found by us in some rivulets of Tibet exceeding 15,000

ft. In the Alps they cannot live beyond 7,000 ft.

Of reptiles we found snakes and saurians as high as 15,200 ft. In

the Alps they go up to 6,000 ft., in the Pyrenees to 7,000 ft. In the

Andes, snakes were found by Schmarda at about 11,500 ft.

Por butterflies we found in the Himalaya 13,000 ft., in Tibet and

Turkistan even 16,000 ft, as localities of permanent habitation. Bee-

72 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

tles probably follow the highest formation of grassy turf in the Hima-

laya, as well as in the Andes and the Alps. Mosquitoes go up to

8,500 ft.; and peepsies make themselves very troublesome during the

rainy season as high as 13,000 ft.

The existence of nfusoria seems as little subject to limitation by

height in High Asia, as in the Andes and Alps. In a few fragments

which we chipped off from the rocks of the Ibi Gamin pass (20,459

ft.) Prof. Ehrenberg of Berlin detected their presence, and found

them not insignificant in quantity ; he discovered twelve species new

to science.

'1866.] Notes and Queries. 73

(Notes and Queries.)

[Received 20th December, 1865. ]

Camp, near Myanoung, November 22nd, 1865.

During a visit to Calcutta a few months ago, Mr. Grote drew my

attention to a sort of controversy which had been started at home,

touching the habit, which fireflies were stated to exhibit occasionally,

of a concurrent exhibition of their light, by vast multitudes acting in

unison ; a statement which appeared to have been somewhat sceptically

received. Mr. Grote does not appear to have ever witnessed this

phenomenon in Bengal, and questioned me if I had ever observed any

confirmatory instance. Fireflies are tolerably well known, of course,

to the resident in Bengal, but I had never there observed any such

habit among the countless fireflies, which form such fiery-like orna-

ments to the shrubberies about Calcutta. In Pegu, however, I have

witnessed the exhibition in question; myriads of fireflies emitting

their light, and again relapsing into darkness, in the most perfect

rythmic unison. I much regret, that I did not secure specimens, but

the circumstances were as follows. I had halted my boat for the

night, alongside a small clearing in the low lying tract of country,

forming part of the Irawadi estuary (Delta), east of the Bassein

river, where the water was salt, and the entire country not more than

a foot, if so much, above the flood level. Night had closed in, and my

servant, who brought in the tea, asked me to step out of my tent and

see the fireflies which, he said, he had never seen the like of before.

On stepping out of the tent, a truly beautiful sight presented it-

self. In front was the broad and deep river sweeping on, vu«re

eouxws, With its indistinctly seen background of primeval forest on

its opposite bank. Around me was the recently-formed clearing, with

its two or three huts and my own camp, as the sole proof of man’s

occupancy, for miles and miles, but, for all the wildness and almost

desolation of the scene, the bank on which I stood was a glorious

spectacle, and those acquainted with the class of native servants

will well understand that it must have been at once unusual and

beautiful indeed to rivet the attention of a listless khitmutgar !

The bushes overhanging the water were one mass of fireflies,

though, from the confined space available for them on low shrubs, the

74 Notes and Queries. [No. 1,

numbers may not have been actually more than are often congregated

in Bengal. The light of this great body of insects was given out as I

have said, in rythmic flashes, and, for a second or two, lighted up the

bushes in a beautiful manner; heightened, no doubt, by the sudden

relapse into darkness which followed each flash. These are the facts

of the case (and I may add, it was towards the end of the year), and

the only suggestion I would throw out, to account for the unusual

method of luminous emanation, is, that the close congregation of large

numbers of insects, from the small space afforded them by the bushes

in question, may have given rise to the synchronous emission of the

flash, by the force of imitation or sympathy.

Mr. Montgomery, of the Survey Department here, also fully corro-

borates the habit of our Pegu fireflies simultaneously emitting their

light, but adds, he has only remarked it under conditions similar

to those described above, in low swampy ground. It still remains,

therefore, to be decided if the insect is different from the ordinary one,

or if, as I am inclined to think, the simultaneity is produced by sym-

pathy and great crowding of individuals.

Whilst my pen is in my hand, I would add a few words on the

address of Dr. J. EH. Gray to the Zoological Section of the British

Association, printed at page 75 of the Notices and Abstracts appended

to the Report of the Association for 1864.

The excellent remarks on the aim and arrangement of Public

Museums will, it is to be hoped, not escape the attention of those

interested in our own Calcutta Museum, and the especial stress he lays

on the exclusion of light from collections on spirits, is what I urgent-

ly brought to the notice of the Society but a short time since. It is

not, however, to this portion of Dr. Gray’s address that I would now

refer, but to the statement at page 82 that, ‘‘ the natives of India and

of the islands of the Malayan Archipelago have brought into a semi-

domesticated state various species of wild cattle, such as the Gyal, the

Gour, and the Banteng.”

Of ae first of these, the Gyal, we know that such is the case, but

I should much like to know in what part of India or Malaynesia the

Gour or the Banteng are “‘semi-domesticated,”’ certainly, the feat has

never been performed by any “ native of India,’ of whose geography

and powers incurably lax notions appear to be stereotyped in England,

1866. ] Notes and Queries. 5

from the ablest downwards. I would enquire, therefore, through the

pages of this Journal, to what instances Dr. Gray can allude, as the

fact is certainly novel to those in India. The Governor of Rangoon,

at the time of the last war, I am told, had a pair of Gour sufficiently

tame to be yoked in a cart, but this is quite insufficient to establish

their claim to be viewed as semi-domesticated. In India, the difficulty

of rearing the calves is notorious.

Again, immediately before the passage I have quoted above, Dr.

Gray remarks, “‘ In the lower and warmer region of Central and South-

ern Asia, the Zebra has been completely domesticated.”

In the passage, Dr. Gray is alluding to wild species brought by

man into a state of domestication, and I confess to some curiosity as

to the wild stock of the domesticated Zebra. There is, I fancy, some

little confusion, however, in Dr. Gray’s ideas here, as, on the previous

66 ry 1) 66

page, he tells us, ‘the oxen

-are never found truly wild.”

The distinction, too, which Dr. Gray draws (loc. cit.) between the

“truly domesticated’”’ animals, the ox, the sheep, the horse, the camel,

the dog and the cat, and the “‘ semi-domesticated,” as the buffalo, the

goat, the pig, the rabbit, the reindeer, the yak &c., appears forced

and to a great extent imaginary.

The distinction between these two classes of animals is more due to

the efforts of the Breeder than to mere domestication, and I should have

thought, that the highest triumphs of some of our rabbit fancies and of

our breeds of pigs merited quite as much as our ‘‘sheep”’ to be con-

sidered as “ truly domesticated,” if thereby is intended an unnatural

deviation from the wild stock, solely produced by the art of the

Breeder.

I cannot enter at greater length on this most interesting question,

but I hope that some of the readers of this Journal who have perused

Dr. Gray’s report, will be able to furnish some explanation of the

points indicated above.

Another query I would ask is, to what race of Calotes mystaceus

can Gunther refer to, when he states that “an old male measures

nearly 24 inches, the tail taking 19 inches?” Now Calotes mystaceus

is common in Birma, and more than a score have passed through my

hands, but no specimen that I ever saw attained to even 12 inches of

total length !

76 Notes and Querves.

Are not two races or species here united, a smaller one from Birma,

and a larger one from Camboja or elsewhere south ?

The type in the Paris Museum, Gunther says, is ‘ not full grown,”

but it was from Birma, and is probably the size of ordinary Birmese

specimens.

W. Tueopatp, Jr.

ERRATA.

In Part II. No. I. 1866.

Page 75, line 10, for Zebra read Zebu.

75, —— 18, — Zebra ‘Lebu.

0 Wty ING AY

OF THE

eee tA TIC SOCTETY.

——<B—

Part IL—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

No. II.—1866.

Russian Geographical Operations in Asta.—Communicated by Lreut.-

Col. J. T. Watxur, &. H.*

[Received 8th March, 1866. ]

TRANSLATION oF A Portion or tHE “ Compre Renpvu pE LA Socinee

ImpPERIALE GuogrRaPHIQuE DE Russie” ror. 1864.

The Society has never failed to profit by every opportunity that

has presented itself, for extending our geographical knowledge of

the countries bordering on Central Asia; consequently, in the month

of February last year, M. Severstow, a distinguished Naturalist, who

Was accompanying an expedition into the countries beyond the Ili

and the Tchou, was charged to collect information, with a view to

preparing a physico-geographical description of all the countries through

which the expedition would pass.

* Of the two accompanying papers, one is a translation of a portion of the

*“Compte Rendu de la Société Impériale Géographique de Russie,” for the year

1864, while the other is a translation from the 4th volume of the Journal of the

Russian Geographical Society for 1864.

In the first the names are spelt as in the original French memoir.

78 Russian Geographical Operations im Asia. [No. 2,

The Society has just been enriched by highly interesting geo-

graphical materials, thanks to the cordial co-operation of its honorable

members M. Milioutine, the Minister of War; M. Duhamal, the

Governor-General of Eastern Siberia, and Admiral Boutakow.

We have been furnished with a very interesting manuscript chart

prepared by the Staff Major. It represents, on a scale of 40 verstes

(27 miles) to the inch, the southern portion of the Kirghiz Steppe,

or, approximately speaking, the region between the Hastern shore of

the sea of Aral, and the Chinese frontier, extending from 76° to 102°

of longitude, and from 40° to 50° of latitude, and comprising the

northern half of the district called Touran. On this map we have the

result of all the geographical operations of the past few years

represented for the first time. Until now they had remained isolated,

and almost unknown to the scientific world. They greatly modify

the general geographical aspect of this region. There are now

determined a sufficient number of astronomical points to serve as

a basis for an exact cartographic representation of the region above

mentioned. We must observe, however, that the fixed astronomical

points are as yet very irregularly distributed. They are comparatively

numerous in the western part of the map, along the road from Oren-

burgh to the Syr-Daria, and along the lower course of that river, also

along the Chinese frontier in the Hastern part of the map, but, about

the middle, they are very sparsely scattered.

We now possess many orographic and hydrographic data, thanks

to the military expeditions, and reconnoissances of 1864, and to the

operations carried on for several years in the basin of the Syr-Daria

by Admiral Boutakow. These data serve to correct the hitherto

confused notions of the countries situated within and around this

region. We have also received more accurate information regarding

the races that people these countries, their mode of life, their migra-

tions, the remains and traces of their ancient condition, and the

possibility of their future civilization, We can here only point out the

most salient geographical features of the mass of materials we have

received, and of which the Society will avail itself for its future publica-

tions. The geographical position of all the region above mentioned

will have to be considerably altered, more especially as to western

Turkestan, and the Khanat of Khokan. For instance, Aouliéta, a town

1866. ] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 19

of Khokan, ought to be shifted, on the map, half a degree towards

the south, and one degree towards the east ; the town of Turkestan at

least a degree and a half towards the south, &e. Similar changes are

equally necessary for many other points. The eastern part of this

region is essentially mountainous. The principal chain of mountains

is found to be a western branch of the Tian Chan; its direction is

from east to west from the lake Issik Koul, down to the lower course

of the Syr-Daria; these mountains were vaguely known under the

general name of Karataou. They may be divided into three groups,

the chain of the Kentchi-Alataou, the chain called Alexandrowskaia,

and that of Kazikourt.

The Kentchi-Alataou consists of two parallel chains, which follow

the northern bank of the Issik Koul; they are separated (on the east

of the Issik Koul) from the Tian Chan by the Pass of San Tasch ;

their greatest height is 14,000 feet. From this range, a lower range

trends in a north-western direction, separating the waters of the Ili

from those of the Tchou.

The second group, the Alexandrowskaia, or the Alataou-Kirghisnyn

chain, whose summits are covered with perpetual snow, joins the first

at the defile of Baoum, on the western extremity of the Issik-Koul ;

thence it stretches due west towards Aouliéta, separating the river

Tchou from the river Talas; its greatest height is 15,000 feet. To

the west of this chain, other hills, rising not higher than 5000 or 6000

feet, stretch as far as the Syr-Daria, following the direction of that

river down to Djoulek, and forming, so to say, a prolongation of

the Alexandrowskaia chain. It is to these hills that the name of

mount Karataou, which has been wrongly given to the whole system,

_ of mountains in this country, properly belongs.

Lastly, the third group forms the Kazikourt chain and lies to the

south of the Alexandrowskaia, from which it is separated by the

basin of Talas. The Kazikourt mountains appear to be a continu-

ation of the principal branch of the Tian Chan; winding along the

southern bank of the Issik-Koul, they fill the territory of Khokan

with their southern ramifications. The disposition of these chains of

mountains fixes the watersheds of the basins of the Tchou and the

Syr-Daria, the two principal valleys of this country, lying almost

parallel to each other, The valley of the Syr-Daria trends, with many

80 Russian Geographical Operations im Asia. [ No. 2,

windings, from the south-east to the north-west. The Tchou flows

in the same direction. Conformably with the general disposition of

the whole mountain system of this region, these great basins are

much narrowed towards the east, near Issik Koul, where all the above

mentioned ramifications of the Tian Chan are concentrated. It must

be observed, that the predominant direction of these chains of moun-

tains, not only in this country, but in all mountainous parts of Central

Asia, is always to the north-east. We now have more accurate data

concerning the course of the Tchou, especially about its various

sources, also its relation to the Issik Koul, from which it does not

take its source, but with which it is connected by its affluent, the

little river of. Koutemalda.

The central portion of the basin of the Syr-Daria has been explored

in detail, and with much success, thanks to the expeditions made

during many years by Admiral Boutakow, who has quite recently

communicated to us the general results of his enquiries, but especially

of his late explorations between Fort Perowsky, and the locality called

Baildir Tougai.

It is impossible to set forth here all the accumulated data of these

countries of Central Asia, but seeing the interest that they excite, we

must adda few more words about their population. It consists

chiefly of nomadic Kirghises, and a rather restricted number of

Khokans. Their mode of life and degree of civilization correspond

with those of the Kirghises who inhabit the country north of the

Syr-Daria and the river Tchou.

Their chief wealth consists in cattle, horses and camels. They

also cultivate their land and sow wheat, barley and tobacco.

After the military expedition of 1862, a great part of these Kirghise

wanderers, from beyond the Tchou, passed into our territory.

To retain these tribes in subjection, the Khokans constructed forts,

called Kourgans, in great numbers. Tho four chief ones were

Pichpek, Merké, Aouliéta, and Souzak. Aouliéta on the Talas

(between the valley of the Tchou, and the chain of mountains which

trend from Issik Koul towards the west) has an important position,

for it is situated on the grand commercial road from Tachkend and

Turkestan, towards the fortifications of Vernoi, Kouldja and Sémi-

palatinsk. It is by this road that the caravans come from the southern

1866. | Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. SI

regions of Central Asia to go to China, as well as to Russia. Ona

branch of this road, which stretches towards the north-west, at a

junction of the roads of Orenbourgh, Troitsk and Oufa, is situated

the town of Turkestan which encloses within its walls a sacred edifice,

the mosque built over the tomb of Azret Sultan.

Passing now to the topographical operations executed in these Kir-

ghise steppes of Siberia, we will mention the surveys that were effected

on the western borders of China, under the direction of Colonel Babkow.

These operations embrace two distinct circles,—the northern parts of

the Tarbagatai mountains, and the valley of the river Borokhoudzir.

In the first of these circles, Captain Nifantiew of the Topographical

Corps, surveyed the region that is bounded on the west by the road

which crosses the Khabar Assou Pass, and by the course of the river

Tamyrysk ; on the south, by the chain of the Tarbagatai; on the east,

by the line of the Chinese posts, and on the north, by the Kitchkiné

Taou mountains, branches of the Manak, and of the Tarbagatai. This

region includes an area of 5,270 square verstes.

In the country beyond the river Tchou, the topographers who

formed part of the detachment with the expedition, surveyed the

following localities. Ist, From the post of Kastek, by the pass of the

same name, to the mouths of the little Kebin, and thence re-ascending

the river Tchou, to the mouths of the great Kebin, then 40 verstes

of the lower course of this last river. Then again, from the mouths

of the little Kebin, along the river Tchou, to the ford of Tchoumitch.

All these surveys have been. mapped on a scale of 250 sagénes (or 1750

feet) tothe inch. 2nd, From the river Talas, crossing mount Kara Boura,

to the river Tchotkala (Tchirtchik). 8rd, The marching roads along the

valley of the Arys, and those from Tchemkent to Aouliéta, also from

Tcholak Kourgen to Aouliéta, have been drawn on the scale of 5

verstes to the inch. 4thly, Plans of the forts of Tokmak, Merke and

Aouliéta have been drawn out, on ascale of 250 sagenes to the

inch.

We have received from M. Bésae, the Aide-de-camp General, a

map of the topographical operations, executed and projected in the

country of Orenbourg, from the year 1861 to 1865, with a Memoir.

The total survey is 17,687 square verstes done in detail, and 3,928

in half detail ; 168,178 reconnoitered, and 2/,100 triangulated. During

82 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

a period of four years, the total amount of survey operations is

212,019 square verstes.

These surveys embrace the following localities ; 1st, the two banks of

the river Yany Daria; 2ndly, the left bank of the Syr-Daria, from

the fort Perowsky to Yany Kourgan, a destroyed fortress belonging

to the Khokans, and thence to the place called Baildyr Tougai; 4thly,

the northern and southern slopes of the Karataou chain; 5thly, the

mouths of the river Emba, and the Bay of the Caspian Sea at the

mouth of this river. Among the newly made maps, the principal are,

the map of the country of Orenbourg, on a scale of 50 verstes to

the inch ; a new map of Central Asia and the country of Orenbourg,

200 verstes to the inch; and 24 sheets of a special map of this

country, on a scale of 10 verstes.

The Society is continuing the publication and translation of the 7th

Vol. of Ritter’s Geography of eastern Touran. M. Grigoriew is

compiling and making the necessary additions for completing this

work, and is carrying on his labours with such activity, that we may

look for the first part of his work during 1865.

However short our account may seem of all the important geo-

graphical operations in Asia, it is nevertheless sufficient to show that

they embrace a large extent of this part of the world, and give rise to

questions of both local and general interest. The several expedi-

tions and explorations, in which our Society has taken part, form an

uninterrupted chain which extends along our Asiatic frontier, from

the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea; from the valley of the Onssouri

and the peninsula of Corea to the Oust Ourt, Turkestan and Khoras-

san. With the exception of some conflicts with the Khokans, our

enterprises along the frontier have been of a strictly peaceful, scienti-

fic or commercial character, and our commerce has been considerably

developed. These friendly relations are strengthened by an event

of great importance which marks the past year, viz., the final pacifi-

cation of the Caucasus, the point of our Asiatic frontier that is

nearest to Europe.

We must now pass on to the hydrographic operations executed in

the Caspian Sea, which have always greatly interested our Society.

Last year, our honorable member, M. Ivachinzew, who is the chief

of these operations, read out to the Society, at a public meeting,

1866.] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 83

a remarkable Memoir on the question of the variations of the level

of the Caspian Sea. The same pergons who carried on these hydro-

graphic operations in 1863, continued them in 1864. At the begin-

ning of the year, the Surveyors were concentrated in the southern

parts of the sea, between Bakow and Lenkoran, a region bristling

with rocks and voleanic islands. From January up to May, they

explored and fixed the positions of several isolated volcanic reefs,

which, as they undergo frequent change from the action of subterra-

nean forces, often become very dangerous to navigators, and conse-

quently require frequent soundings and examinations. The materials

thus collected, regarding this volcanic region, may some day serve as

valuable contributions towards the composition of a complete mono-

graph of this extremity of the Caucasus.

In the month of May, the hydrographic expedition crossed over to

the eastern shore, between Tub-Karagane and the gulf of Karabougaz.

During the subsequent five months, an extent of more than 200

verstes was surveyed and sounded, chiefly between the isthmus of

Manguich-lac and the gulf of Krasnovodsk, under the command of

Lieut. Phillippow and Lieut. Dournew of the Pilot Corps. Sound-

ings were also taken by Lieut. Onlsky, in the middle of the Caspian

Sea, with‘an apparatus specially constructed for bringing up specimens

of the different soils, and the fossil and animal life they contain.

In June and July Captain Phillipow’s party explored the entrance

to the gulf of Karabougaz. At the same time, Lieut. Staritzki made

some interesting observations on the speed of an uninterrupted current

of water directing its course through the Gulf towards the Sea.

The object of these observations was to determine the quantity of

water which enters the gulf of Karabougaz, and the quantity of saline

particles which is brought there. The exploration of the mouth of

the Karabougaz will serve as a basis for a complete study of this

interesting gulf. It is the opinion of M. Baer, the Academician, that

this study will lead to a solution of the question regarding the varia-

tions of saltness in the Caspian Sea. No one will doubt the economi-

cal importance of this question, which is intimately connected with

the future fisheries of the Caspian. The results of the hydrogra-

phic operations are developing gradually, and are partly published.

In addition to the maps and plans of different parts of this sea

84 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

that have already appeared, a report of the astronomical and magnetic

operations is being actually printed. -

In speaking of the favourable results that have been obtained by the

activity of our Society, we have not had the least intention to attribute

it to one more than to another of its functionaries. Among us,

individuals change and succeed each other so rapidly, that we cannot

say the progress and strength of our institutions rest with them. It

is the general conditions of our activity, and the liberal spirit by

which they are pervaded, that unite and attract a constant succession

of individual labourers. Besides the actual operations of the Society

during the past 20 years, a vast amount of labour has been undertaken

voluntarily, and without remuneration, by members of the Society,

as well as by strangers, in private and in official capacities. Such

are the public lectures, which many of our colleagues have delivered

without any remuneration, and which haye attracted large audiences

to our reception Halls. We need not mention, in this place, the

number of persons who, during the past and many preceding years,

have disinterestedly brought accounts of their labours to the Society.

It is doubtless through the liberal spirit which unites and animates

all our members and constitutes our strength, that this great amount

of work has been accomplished. MReligiously to preserve this spirit

should be our first duty, and our most sacred obligation.

TRANSLATION OF A PORTION OF THE JOURNAL OF THE Russian Guo-

GRAPHICAL Society, Vou. rv. 1864.

At a meeting of the Society on the 2nd and 14th December, 1864,

Rear Admiral Boutakof read a paper on the subject of his last explora-

tion on the Syr-Daria, between Fort Perovski and Baildyr-Tugai

(a locality in the Tashkened territory). In 1863 Rear Admiral

Boutakof steamed 538 miles up the Syr-Daria, from Fort Perovski.

This officer has now explored, determined astronomically, and mapped

1005 miles of that river’s course, beginning from its mouth. He

expresses his conviction that the river is navigable still higher up,

although, for want of fuel, he could not this time proceed further, The

general ascending direction of the river from Fort Perovski is towards

the south-east as far as the parallel of 43° of latitude; thence it is

directly to the south. Throughout the whole distamce of 538 miles,

1866.] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 85

from Baildyr-Tugai to fort Perovski, the river flows in a magnificent

mass of water between depressed banks of an argilo-salinous and

sandy character, for the most part inundated at high water; there

was nowhere either a break in the banks, or a stone, for the observa-

tion of the geologist. The swamps, after the subsiding of the waters,

afford excellent pasturage whereon numerous Aouls of Kirghizes settle

for the winter. In the midst of these meadow patches there occur

here and there like éslands, sand hillocks differing in height, from 30

to 40 feet, and overgrown with tamarisk, &c. The dry argilo-

salinous banks rise from 7 to 10 feet above the level of high water,

and are covered with tamarisk bushes with thorn (growing high and

thick), and in some places with the “ Turanga’”’ and “ Dyida.” Nearer

to our own possessions, large tracts are covered with the ‘ Saxaul.”

Vegetation is most abundant on. the islands, many of which are two

miles long. Upon these the “ Djida” grows 4 fathoms high, and the

thickness of the “ Turanga”’ reaches 10 inches in diameter, Almost

all the islands are covered with a dense, almost impassable brushwood,

where the Kirghizes declare there are tigers, drawn thither in pursuit

of wild boars. The breadth of the river is from 150 to 400 fathoms;

the depth from 3 to 5 and 6 fathoms; the current ran at a speed of

7 verstes (42 miles) an hour, the average being from. 43 to 6 verstes (8.

or 4 miles) ; the water was of a dirty yellow colour, but when allowed

to settle, was very soft and agreeable to the taste. Admiral Boutakof

found no evidences of a settled life throughout the whole of the river’s

course. Patches of soil, cultivated by the poorest of the Kirghizes,

occurred at extremely rare intervals; and these were irrigated by

water from canals replenished by hand from the river. The Kirghizes

generally sow millet, sometimes barley, water-melons, and musk

melons in their fields. There are two principal reasons for the absence

of population along the banks of this river: firstly, the absolute want

of any guarantee for personal security and for the protection of

property and labour in the face-of perpetual disturbances in Turkestan,

Tashkend and Khokan; and secondly, the greater advantage of settling

along the rivulets running from the Kara-tau mountains ; these afford

better facilities for irrigation than the Syr-Daria, which inundates

an washes away its banks, and consequently demands an enormous

amount of labour for the construction and maintenance of the necessary

oD)

fash

86 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

embankments. This splendid water-course, navigable to Fort Djulek

(the extreme eastern fort on the Syr-Daria line of frontier) which would

be a picturesque feature in any other place, is surrounded by a bleak

desert, and is now only occasionally enlivened by migrating hordes of

Kirghizes, whereas the remains of the ancient towns of Otrar (where

Tamerlane died) and of Tunent (destroyed by Tamerlane) which were

seen by Admiral Boutakof, and the traces of a once extensive system

of irrigation surrounding the ruins of these places, and occurring also

in many other parts, are evidences of a once numerous, industrious, and

settled population. The shores of the Syr-Daria, above and below Fort

Djulek, present a striking contrast. Above Djulekis a howling desert ;

below, and particularly commencing from Fort Perovski, all is life and

activity along the banks. Corn fields and melon fields occur conti-

nually, with populous Aouls of well-appointed tents, animated by the

presence of herds of cattle. The Kirghizes assemble by hundreds to

dig fresh canals for irrigation. Vast tracts of swamp and reeds, which

were impassable in 1848, have been protected by embankments

against the overflowing of the river and converted into corn fields

which now engage the labour of thousands: and all this is exclusive

of the localities within 50 or 100 miles of our Forts, especially the

neighbourhood of Fort No. 1, where, in the excellent gardens surround-

ing the Cossack settlements, grapes are grown, and cotton has been

sown not without success. Kirghizes and sometimes Karakalpaks

constantly migrate from the Khivan territories to the lands under

Russian protection, so that they at length find themselves cramped

for space. The Khivan and Khokandian forts which stood on the

grounds now occupied by the Russians, were the centres of the most

merciless and barbarous persecution. The Russian forts, on the other

hand, are now guarantees for security, and serve to promote traffic and

the general well-being of the natives.

The advent of the Russians did certainly produce a most beneficial

crisis in the condition of the Kirghizes of the Syr-Daria.

Within 8 miles of Baildyr-Tugai, Admiral Boutakof’s highest

limit of ascent, there are the ruins of a small Khokandian fort, Bair-

Kurgan, demolished, according to Kirghiz tradition, about 100 years

ago. Ata distance of 40 miles higher up, on the left bank, are the

remains of the town of Tunkat (rased by Tamerlane). This place is

1866.] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia, 87

now called Tskilleh, after a saint of that name whose tomb is close

by.

There are more Kirghizes grouped about Tunkat than over the

entire extent of country traversed by Admiral Boutakof; and to all

appearances these were opulent, being possessed of immense studs

of horses and camels, and of droves of horned cattle and sheep.

“Above that place, 7. e. nearer to Tashkend, he fell in with two rich

migrating Aouls, one encamped by the side of the river.

Descending the Syr towards the river Arys, an open space becomes

visible beyond the zone of reeds, at 4 or 5 miles from the river,

studded with clayey sand mounds that are covered with a scanty

and low brushwood. Some of these mounds are evidently artificial.

On a sort of tableland, within 7 miles in a direct line, and almost

due north from the mouth of the Arys, are seen the remains of what

‘may have been the citadel of the ancient town of Otvrar.

From the mouth of the Arys to the little fort of Utch-Kayuk,

abandoned two or three years ago by the Khokandians, and built on

a marshy soil, the distance is 842 miles. The character of the river

here is still the same, the same bends and islands, the same depressed

banks, mostly flooded, the same vegetation along the shores and on

the islands. The forts Utch-Kayuk, Din-Kurgaon, Yang-Kurgaon,

Djulek and Ak-Mechet, (now fort Perovski), Kumysh-Kurgaon, Chin-

Kurgaon, and Kash-Kurgaon (the three latter below fort Perovski,)

were the rallying points of the Khokandians, for the subjugation of

the Kirghizes, and the centres for the collection ef tribute and the

general merciless oppression of that people. Yang-Kurgaon, raised.

by the Khokandians in 1857, and Din-Kurgaon, erected in 1860, were

the last points of Khokandian resistance against the spread of Russian

influence ; here also the last attempts were made by the Khokandians

to retain under their yoke the Kirghizes who passed over in masses

to place themselves under our protection. Yang-Kurgaon fell in 1860

to the Russian arms; Din-Kurgaon in 1861. Utch-Kayuk is the

nearest place to the town of Turkestan; it was visible from the

river, being situated in a hollow of the foreland of the Kara-tau

mountains.

The only affluents of the Syr seen by Admiral Boutakof are the

rivers Arys and Sauran-Su, falling into the Syr on its right bank

88 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

opposite the An-djar settlement, 82 miles below Utch-Kayuk; other

rivers emerge from the Kara-tau mountains, namely the Tuitchke

whereon Turkestan is situated, the Karaichik, 6 miles lower down,

and the Sart-Su; these do not reach the Syr-Daria, but lose them-

selves in the marshes formed by its inundations.

- Below Utch-Kayuk the country at first is inundated, and large

wet meadows, or more correctly morasses, extend along both banks of

the river, but further on, especially on the right bank, land is firmer.

Nearer Djulek the trees on the banks are higher and thicker than

along the whole remaining portion of the river’s course. In the

immediate vicinity of this Fort, there is a very pretty avenue of tall

and thick willows, looked upon by the Kirghizes as a sanctuary

(Aulie).

Between Djulek and fort Perovski the banks are generally firm and

salinous, but not elevated. The “ Saxaul’’ is very abundant at the

Kasakty-Syra, Chagouon and Kushsant settlements, and opposite

Burinbai. The islands and the continuing banks are covered with

the “djida,”’ ‘‘turanga,’”’ and occasionally with willows, and the

margins are usually clothed with high dense thorn and reeds. Sandy

hillocks occur beyond the saline plains, and in many places Kirghiz

tombs and the remains of long neglected irrigating canals are met

with.

From the 14th July, when the expedition was proceeding upwards

and was within 67 miles of Utch-Kayuk, the waters were visibly

subsiding, and daily decreased, though the heat continued to be great,

up to 30° R. in the shade. This was doubtless owing to the exhaus-

tion of the supply of snow which accumulates on the mountains,

where the river takes its rise. At fort Perovski the water began to

fall only from the 30th of July, and at Fort No. 2 from the 5th of

of August (N. 8S).

Notwithstanding that Admiral Boutakof’s expedition had to halt

at night close to marshy lands, there were no cases of ague, and so

far as he was able to judge, the climate on the Syr-Daria, in its upper

as in its lower course, was healthy. His astronomical observations

disclose great inaccuracies in this portion of the map of Central Asia

which is founded on the determinations by the Persian Missionaries

of the 18th century.

1866.] Geology of the Western Himalaya, &c. 89

The communication made by Admiral Boutakof, who has lone

distinguished himself by many years of labour in this region, was

listened to with great attention, and received with great enthusiasm.

We could not give here more than the mere outlines of the paper,

which he is now preparing for the press, and which will appear with

a map of the Syr-Daria. There is no doubt that Admiral Boutakot’s

work will be an agreeable acquisition for modern geographers.

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a geological

_ paper by Aupert M. Vercuurn, Lsq., Bengal Medical Service ; with

a note on the fossils by M. Epnovarp pr Vernuxin, Membre de

? Académie des Sciences, Paris,

[Received 11th March, 1865. |

IntTRODUCTION.

Of all the great chains of mountains on our Planet, the most

stupendous is, singularly enough, the least known to the geologist.

Many fossils have indeed been collected by travellers in the Himalaya,

and a few have been determined ; but satisfactory sections and careful

descriptions are very scarce, and it has not yet been found practicable

to attempt any general grouping and arrangement of the rocks and

beds of these mountains. Jacquemont’s researches in Kashmir have

not, I believe, much advanced our, knowledge of the geology of the

country. Mr. Vigne was no geologist, and his observations were not

sufficiently accurate for scientific purposes; the same remarks apply,

more or less, to most visitors who have published what they saw

amongst the higher ranges. Captain R. Strachey, R. H. in his papers

onthe geology of the Himalaya, between the Sutlej and the Kali

rivers, gives a map and two sections which are of great interest; they

do not, however, refer to the portion of the Himalaya which I have

studied, and they leave yet a vast field for more precise investigations.

I regret not haying been able to consult Capt. H. Strachey’s paper

90 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

on the physical geography of Little Thibet, and Dr. Thompson’s work

on the same country ; neither have I had the benefit of Mr. Medlicott’s

Memoir on the southern ranges of the Himalaya, between the rivers

Ganges and Ravee, nor any of the other papers which have been

written on the Sub-Himalayan ranges.

Of the geology of Kashmir especially, I believe that very little

indeed has ever been published, and that not even a geological horizon

has been discovered. Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming reported having

found in Kashmir ‘‘ Nummulitic limestone disturbed and calcined by

greenstone ;” this was an error of some importance, as it gave a false

datum from which to fix the age and relations of the Azoic rocks.

Dr. A. Fleming, in his report on the Geological Structure of the Salt

Range, published in Selections from Public Correspondence of the

Punjab Administration, Vol, II., 1855, has the following passage :-—

“From Kashmir, too, Mr. Vigne obtained limestone containing

“nummulites. This we have seen in situ on the side of a mountain

“at the upper end of the Manus Bal lake, where it is much disturbed

“and calcined by greenstone. It probably forms the summit of

“many of the higher hills on the northern side of the Kashmir valley,

“a district fraught with interest to the geologist and hitherto quite

“ unexplored.”

When [ arrived at Srinuggur, Mr. Drew, who had visited Manus

Bal, showed me some specimens of the limestone of that locality, and

expressed a doubt about the markings seen on the rock being nummu-

lites; he considered their markings to be the result of crystallisation

and weathering; but I could not accept this view, and regarded

the little marks as indications of organisms. I was unwilling to

believe that Dr. A. Fleming could possibly have made a mistake

about nummulites, after the experience he had had of their appearances

in the Salt Range and the Bunnoo district ; and, as Mr. Drew ac-

knowledged that he was not familiar with the nummulitic formation,

and the specimens shown me were very bad and _ ill-preserved, indeed

merely faint marks in a coarse limestone, I temporarily admitted

Dr. Fleming’s view. I was, at the time, unable to visit Manus Bal,

or to absent myself a single day from Srinuggur, owing to great

sickness amongst the visitors; but I had the good luck to discover

abed of fossiliferous limestone and shales within a few miles of

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 91

Srinuggur. These beds were near enough to enable me to ride to

them in a few hours, and I soon found that they contained the same

forms as were known to occur in the dressed blocks of limestone

(obtained from Buddhist ruins) of which the river-walls and river-

stairs of Srinuggur are built, and I also found the remains of one of

the antique quarries near my favourite locality. Ultimately, the

rocks reported to be nummulitic were found to be carboniferous, and

the so-called nummulites, rings of Hncrinite-stems ; the volcanic rocks

were also ascertained to be paleozoic in age and not intrusive. (See

para. 53, where the Manus Bal limestone is described in detail.)

To my friend, Captain Godwin-Austen of the great Trigonometrical

Survey, I owe my best thanks. JI had wished that this paper

might have been written in conjunction with that gentleman, and it

would have been well for the reader, if it had been so; but as Capt.

Austen went to Bhotan and I to Bunnoo, such a hope had to be

abandoned.

In drawing up the map, I have used for its topography whatever

materials J could procure, but I have not had the benefit of many

recent discoveries and surveys. The compilation was made from works

of very different values. Kashmir, Hazara and the British Trans-Indus

districts are, I believe, tolerably accurate; the Salt Range is less so ;

whilst the Korakoram Chain, the Hindoo Koosh, Kaffiristan, Chitral,

Kabul, etc. only lay claim to give a general outline and direction of the

ranges, valleys and rivers. About the Hindoo Koosh, I much regret

not having been able to avail myself of the maps of Kaffirstan lately

published in the office of the Surveyor General of India.

It may appear, on seeing how little of the Afghan mountains is

geologically coloured, that there was no necessity of extending the

map as far as the Hindoo Koosh, but I hope that the advisability

of having sketched in this chain will be acknowledged, after reading

the fourth chapter of this memoir.

The geology of the map is partly from my own observations and

partly from information obtained from friends and travellers; I have

endeavoured to enter nothing which did not appear pretty certain.

I have been able to sift satisfactorily a good deal of the information

obtained, by means of specimens which were cither shown or given

to me,

92 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

T have added a few sketches of fossils which, I hope, will be found

sufficiently well done to enable the organisms to be easily recognized.

The forms sketched are those which have appeared to me most

characteristic of the beds met with.

The two parts of which this paper consists are nearly separate

memoirs. In the first, chapters 1 and 2, a description of the mountains

of Kashmir is given in some detail. In the second theoretical views

are discussed; but as Kashmir is merely a small portion of the

Himalaya, it was found impossible to understand many fossils without

taking such general views as referred to the whole mass of the

chain ; and, further, as the Himalayan chain is supposed by me to be

intimately connected with the Afghan mountains, these mountains

had also to be considered. In order to be intelligible, it became

therefore necessary to write a cursory survey of the Afghan-Himalayan

regions ; this is done in the 3rd chapter. It is of course very superficial

and incomplete ; yet I hope that it may not be without some interest.

On the data furnished by the first three chapters, the hypotheses

advanced in the fourth are based. :

I have not entered into many details on the eocene and miocene

formations (except incidentally), as it would have lengthened to undue

proportion this already too long paper; these formations deserve to

be studied by themselves. The same remarks apply to the Jurassic

and Saliferian rocks. In chapter 3, however, a few words will be

found on the nature and relations of these beds. The principal object

of this paper, in its descriptive portion at least, has been a study of

the older rocks, viz. Silurian and carboniferous, together with the

volcanic and metamorphic rocks.

I trust that the many imperfections and errors which cannot fail to

occur in a memoir of this nature, will not be too severely criticised.

My excuse is that this paper was prepared at one of the out-posts of

the Punjab Frontier, where I had not the usual assistance of a Museum

anda Library. Such as it is, I hope that it may not be without

interest to some of the members of the Society who are fond of

geological researches.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 93

Cuaptir I.—Felstone and Porphyry.

The mountains South-West, South and West of Cashmir.

Baramoola is a small city, well’ known to the tourist in Cashmir

and to the pedestrian coming from Murree; it is a haven of rest, for

here boats may be hired to take him to Srinagar, the very heart of

the valley. From the heights above the town the traveller gets his

first view of the celebrated vale, and in the spring of the year it is

difficult to imagine any more beautiful landscape than it affords. It

is here also that disappointment or enthusiasm commences, according

to the traveller’s disposition: for to many Cashmir is an overrated

land, whilst to the scientific man, to the artist or the antiquarian it is

a mine of great wealth.

The town is built at the foot of a hill which has a direction west

to east, and is cut in two to give a passage to the river Jheelum. It

is approximatively in N. Latitude 31° 13’ and H. Longitude 74° 23’,

Its southern view is limited by a small hill, the Atala, and on

the west a mountain of 8,467 feet, the Shumalarum, also confines

the horizon. Thus, placed in a cradle of hills, on the banks of the

Vedusta, it has a picturesque aspect, a damp cold climate, a celebrity

for rain and storms, and a great name for earthquakes.

The hills at the foot of which Baramoola is built are the extreme

eastern extension of the great Kaj Nag Range, which, proceeding

from EH. to W. for 20 miles, bifurcates into a huge north-westerly

branch (which I shall leave alone for the present, as I know nothing

about it), and a southern branch which, proceeding S. 8. W., divides

again, one arm going west towards Mozofferabad, whilst the other,

the Kiren or Kirna range, crosses the river at Ori (or rather the river

crosses it) to be continued with the Kandi range in the direction of

the Pir Punjal chain.

2. The whole range of hills near Baramoola dips 8S. by a few

degrees H., and in describing the rocks from 8. EH. to N. W., we shall

therefore proceed from the more superficial to the deepest.

On the left bank of the river, we find a clinkstone or felstone of a

dark grey colour and slaty texture, and an appearance as if it had been

drawn while in a viscid state. It has a sandy feel to the hand; it

breaks into long narrow flags having a close resemblance to pieces of

94 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

pine wood which have been cut and prepared for burning, and have

weathered grey by exposure. It has a well marked stratification,

which is cut obliquely to its plane by a slaty cleavage which forms with

it an angle of about 113°. It has also a series of parallel joints,

about 2 or 3 feet apart, and which cut the stratification at right angles

but form with the cleavage an angle of 67°. The joints are usually

lined by a coating of quartzite, and both quartzite and felstone are

occasionally stained by iron.

The felstone appears to be entirely composed of elongated and

flattened granules of felspar or albite, which has a sub-vitreous lustre

when closely examined ; it has a dark bluish-grey colour, but weathers

ash-grey and even dirty white and some pieces which are very fissile,

assume somewhat the silky appearance of amiénthus. The colour of

the paste appears to be due to augite; this, by decomposition, lets free

a certain quantity of iron which causes the surfaces of cleavage and

stratification to be covered by a powdery, rusty incrustation. Sparingly

disseminated in the mass are seen minute fusiform nodules of dark

shining augite; these nodules are never crystalline. Some strata

are extremely thin-bedded, like sheets of paper, and fall to pieces very

easily, ultimately decomposing into a brownish earth. Other strata

present an alternation of very thin lamine of nearly white and dull

albite, and a dark grey shining mixture of felspar and augite, so that,

when the rock is broken vertically, it appears striped white and grey.

3. ‘The above beds dip S. and a few degrees H., with an angle of

60° near the Atala hill, but the angle diminishes as we go towards

the N. W., being no more than 45°, near the river at Baramoola.

For two miles along the left bank of the Jheelum, this felstone was

observed with, here and there, a band of amygdaloid interbedded.

But I made too superficial an examination of the Atala to enter here

into detail. Crossing the river to the right bank, we find that felstone

also forms the hills which overhang Baramoola. Just over the city,

it-is similar to that of Atala, but as we proceed towards the N. W,

and therefore see deeper beds, the character of the beds changes

considerably. There is a beginning of separation of the minerals of

the felstone, the dull white albite forming by itself innumerable

penicilli having the shape of extremely elongated spindles which

are imbedded in the grey felspathic paste. The rock has still,

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 95

however, a well marked stratification which is rendered very conspicu-

ous by the white penicilli being parallel to it. There are also

cleavage and joints as before, but a great deal more quartz in the

latter.

The next beds, lower down, are much lighter in colour and more

compact in structure. The paste is ash-grey, felspathic and dull

looking, but instead of the penicilli noted before, we have here reeular

almond-shaped masses of white saccharine albite, usually about one

inch long and two-tenths of an inch across, but often made larger

and with the albite in the state of a fine incoherent sand. Then

rocks, like the one with penicilli, but bluer in tint and interbedded with

amygdaloidal greenstone and felspathic ash, containing oval nodules

of augite, extend to the west, as far as the Shumalarum which they

appear to entirely compose.

The angle of dip, on the right bank of the river, is again very

great, being about 60°, and the beds are a good deal faulted. One

fault has a direction N. H.—S. W. and the river runs in it at

Baramoola. It is continued in a ravine on the right bank of the

river, about a mile below the town. The angle of dip is not the

same on both sides of the fault, and there has been a slight down-throw

on the south. The Jheelum, while in the fault, is narrow but

navigable; at the ravine, it turns suddenly to the south, quitting the

fault and passing over a band of rock which stretches from W. to E.,

thus forming a small rapid. From this place to Ori, where the

Jheelum enters the Sub-Himalayan tertiary sandstones, the Vedusta

follows its course across the much up-tilted beds of felstone, changing

its character of a winding, placid, broad and shallow river into that

of a boiling, rapid, deep and narrow torrent, and forming, as it were, a

succession of small falls and cascades all the way down. The thick-

ness of the felstone near Baramoola is enormous. I can form but a

mere appreciation, not having followed the beds sufficiently far to

the west ; but I am certain that it is much above 5,000 feet.

4, The following section (marked I. on the map) is merely a

diagram to enable the reader to understand the position of the beds.

Tt is oblique and not at right angle to the dip.

96 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

WNW

about 5100 ft.

above Sea level.

A. Dark grey felstone, slaty, stratified and with a cleavage and

joints. Fusiform, elongated, minute granules of augite. Many

Hhinsbeda edushrabaseesee cee epee eee sesteciaelrcier ite ssciere about 400 feet.

B. Felstone like A, interbedded with strata of felspathic ash

containing nodules of augite, ............- sna OO Tas

C. Rough trachytic clinkstone or felstone, breaking in elongated

slabs terminated by oblique, clean joints generally lined with

QUALEZILO, .....0...c22ece ses ceroneercees cnecoe sae scseesens vedtagiensanaceslens 500,

D. Bluish grey felspathic paste with innumerable penicilli of

white powdery albite,....... Gp cid odo HOB DB EERUAI DA TSASGAGndoos0eGdH5600 . 5600

E. Pale grey felspathic paste with almond-shaped masses of

albite, either powdery or compact and saccharine. Beds of

ash interstratified, ......... Mogae s ntesia anced aaiace i sisaebeimenereriee 400 ,,

F. A succession of beds similar to D. and E. interstratified with bands of

amygdaloid and of felspathose ash containing oval nodules of augite.

This rock appears to form the whole of the Shumalarum, and was seen,

- as far as I could see, towards the west.

G. Shumalurum, 8467 ft.

H. River Jheelum or Vedusta.

I. Baramoola.

J. The dotted line is the Atala.

K. lLacustrine Clay and Boulders.

5. The rocks, which I have endeavoured to describe, are continued

along both banks of the Jheelum as for as the fort of Ori, about twenty -

five miles south of Baramoola. Following them on the left bank,

(Murree Road) we first’ cross the Atala, and can observe, near

the village of Mihrur, very fine narrow slabs of felstone, twelve feet

long, used as rafters to support a roof over a holy well or spring.

Proceeding S. W. we cross a small marshy valley, and near the

village of Ghaut Mullah we meet a succession of spurs directed

towards the N. W., and which are the extreme north-western

extension of the Pir Punjal Chain. These spurs are also made up

completely of felspathic flagstone, identical to that which I have

described above, but the dip and strike of the beds are different

from that of the beds near Baramoola: the dip is W. with a

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. . 97

very high angle; but the rock.is much decomposed, the vegetation

rich, and little is seen until we reach Nausherra. Thence, thf beds

are well exposed, forming lofty cliffs over the path, of a grand and

picturesque aspect ; they are often quite vertical and seldom form an

angle with the horizon of less than 85°. But the same force which

has made those strata stand on end, has also broken them and

wheeled round enormous sections of the beds. Even a superficial

examination shows that portions of the hills, some thousands of

yards long, caught as it were between two faults and thus set free

in their movements, have been made to rotate on themselves, the

strike changing its direction from a few to ninety degrees. Thus,

near Buniar, the strike is N.—S.; a little further south it is W.—E.;

four miles before we get to Ori it is W. 15° N.—E. 15° 8. and the dip

is southern and only 45°. At Ori the strike is again about N. W.—

S. E. and the dip northern and 80°. But it is often difficult to see the

stratification in these laminated rocks, as cleavages and joints are

generally better marked than the stratification. The general strike,

however, is from N. a few degrees W., to S. a few degrees H., and the

dip is northern.

Between Nausherra and Ori, the felstone presents several ap-

pearances. The bulk of the hills is made up of a pale grey and

extremely laminated felstone, having much the appearance of slate,

and being crossed by numerous veins of opaque quartz. These

veins are sometimes so thick that they form bands of quartzite.

Near Ori, some beds are seen having the appearance of metamorphic

chloritic slates. Others are made up of very thin-bedded felstone of an

earthy appearance, and are wonderfully wavy and crimpled, whilst the

beds above and below them are but gently undulated. It appears

probable that these thin-bedded layers were deposited by water

during periods of volcanic inaction, and that when the covering

felstone contracted in cooling, the aqueous -deposit was gathered in

zigzag folds. They ought, therefore, to be considered either as an ash

arranged by water, or as a laterite derived from the surface of decom-

posing felstone, and having the same composition as its parent rock.

6. About half way between Buniar and Ori, is a small Buddhist

ruin concealed by brambles and wild roses, and built of a dark grey

rough trachy-dolerite. This rock was obtained from a thick band

98 Mr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

which is well seen close to the ruin. It is divided into somewhat

prismatic blocks by joints; it is generally compact, but sometimes

Scoriaceous, and it appears to have had some influence on the cooling

of the felstone above and below it, this being much more compact

near the trachy-dolerite, and becoming gradually more laminated and

slaty as we get further off. I cannot say whether the trachy-dolerite is

intrusive, or interbedded; but it is perfectly conformable to the felstone.

7. At Ori, we find a small valley sunk between high mountains

and crossed by a tolerably big ravine and by a torrent flowing from

the 8. E. to N. W. This torrent divides the hills on the 8. W. which

are miocene sandstones and shales, from the mountains on the H. and

N. HE. which are volcanic. The Jheelum describes a semi-circle

round the extremity of the Kiren range, the beds of which cross the

river to be continued with those of the Kandi or Kanda Range, which

are the link between the Kirna Range and the Pir Punjal Chain. The

river runs for a little while between the volcanic rocks of the Kirna

and the miocene sandstones, but it very soon leaves this bed, and

cutting a canal through the tertiary sandstones and clays, bids farewell

for ever to rocks of a volcanic origin.

8. Iwill not enter into a description of the tertiaries in this

paper, though we shall have to see much of them incidentally, but

as it has been said and written by many persons that the miocene sand-

stones and clays dip under the volcanic felstone (generally described as

metamorphic schists or quartzose mica-slate), I must correct the error,

while we are at Ori. Both the volcanic and miocene beds are nearly

vertical, but not quite, and dip northernly, and there is therefore an

appearance of the miocene dipping under the felstone. On examin-

ing the high bank of the Jheelum, however, not far fromthe fort, I

could see the miocene beds bend backwards, thus showing that they

FELSTONE

Ti 7

TERBACE

R, JHEELUM

ORL FORT

fig. 1.

are superior to the voleanic rocks, but have been dressed up against

them by a lateral pressure. The diagram (fig. 1.) shows well the folded

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 99

disposition of the miocene and the bending backwards of the beds in

contact with the felstone. These beds are partially concealed by a

very high river-terrace of conglomerate, but this has been washed off

in many places and the rocks are left uncovered.

There is, in the Sub-Himalaya, sufficient evidence of miocene

sandstone having been mostly raised by a lateral movement; there

appears to have been a reflection, a refoulement of the miocene

beds towards the 8. and the W., as if the enormous masses of the central

chains had surged up through a chasm of the earth’s crust and forced

the sandstone aside, instead of lifting it up. And thus the volcanic

rock of my diagram would have pressed against the miocene, and

curbed up and bent back the yielding plastic beds of sandstone and

clay.

9. Returning now to Buniar, half way between Ori and Baramoola,

we cannot fail to admire the remains of a Buddhist temple of con-

siderable size and great beauty. It is built of a white porphyry,

and of this porphyry we must now speak in detail.

The stones of the temple were obtained from huge blocks which

are strewed on the river terraces on both sides of the Jheelum, in the

neighbourhood of Buniar. Some of these blocks are of enormous

size: one I noticed is about 20 feet above ground and nearly as thick

and broad as it is high. No water-power could have moved such

enormous masses, and they have evidently been brought down by

glaciers. I have been told that Mr. Vigne supposed them to have been

brought by icebergs floating on a huge Kashmir lake, but we need

not go so far for their origin, as the Kaj Nag peaks, seven “miles to

the north, and the Sank or Sallar, eight miles to the south, are mostly

composed ofthis porphyry. A glance at the map will easily demon-

‘strate how glaciers, filling up the narrow valleys of the Harpeykai and

the Khar Khol, brought down to the river-terraces blocks of porphyry

detached from the summits of Kaj Nag and Sallar (13,446 it.

and 12,517 ft.). I had not time to visit these valleys and look

for ancient moraines, but some blocks show striz and scratches such

as glaciers alone can produce. These glaciers no longer exist, but their

disappearance is only the result of a change of climate of the Himalaya,

which is abundantly proved to have taken place at a very late

100 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

geological epoch by the river-terraces, raised lacustrine deposits and

other indications of diminished rain-fall.*

10. Examining the porphyry of the Kaj Nag mountains in hand

specimens, we find it composed of the following minerals :—

a.—Paste of granular, white, opaque albite, fusing before the

blowpipe without much difficulty or = 44 of Von Kobell’s scale of

fusibility.

b.—Small transparent crystals of quartz-like rock-crystals.

c.— large crystals of glassy shining albite, with a vitreous lustre

and a lamellar cleavage. Sections of the crystals are sometimes as

much as five inches long.

d.—Plates of white mica; sometimes grey.

e.—Dark augite (or Horneblende ?) with an Iodine lustre and a dark

greenish grey colour. It fuses = 4, without swelling or boiling.

/.—Garnets ; red, brittle and cracked.

g-—Grains of magnetic iron ore ; metallic lustre ; black.

h.—Gold; in invisible scales.

The paste of granular albite is hardly to be seen in the most

crystalline specimens of the porphyry; but it increases very much as

the several crystals are less abundant and less well defined, forming

rocks in which we see, beside it, only a few specks of dark augite and

spangles of white mica; even these occasionally disappear, and we

have a rock having a saccharine appearance, and entirely composed of

minute shining grains of albite. Specimens are found in all the

stages of transition, from the highly crystallized porphyry to the

saccharine rock.

The quartz is not very abundant in the most perfect porphyry,

but it increases in some specimens, rows of small rock crystals appear-

* The diminished rain-fall is the result of the filling up with diluvial deposits

of the great troughs situated between the Himalaya, the Affehan mountains

and the mountains of Central India once covered by the sea, and now repre-

sented by the valleys of the Ganges and Indus. This filling up of the

sea-communication once existing between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian

Sea, converted the Himalaya’s climate, then insular, or at least littoral, to an

eminently continental one. The tremendous rain-fall at Cherra-Poonjee

(504 feet during S. W. Monsoons) enables us to form an idea of what the

snow-fall must have been on the high summits of the Himalaya in the days

when the Bay of Bengal extended to the foot of the Siwalik hills, and the

Arabian Sea bathed the Salt Range,

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 101

ing in the map. It becomes also amorphous and forms bands of

considerable thickness of opaque quartzite, crossing the rocks in the

same manner as similar bands often cross beds of shales or other

stratified rocks.

The mica is also scarce in some specimens, small spangles being

occasionally imbedded in the substance of the large crystals of albite

of the porphyry it becomes very abundant, forming tufts of plates

which resist decomposition better than the other minerals, and stick

out of the rock where this has been worn and rounded by exposure.

_ These tufts of mica often form irregular bands.

The augite varies from a few specks to laminar masses of

considerable size. It is often found associated with felspar alone, the

other minerals having disappeared, and it thus forms a rock composed

of amorphous grains of albite and lamellar masses of augite. Before

the blowpipe it fuses only in places, small globules of a shining black

glass appearing on the assay.

The garnets are sometimes wholly wanting and sometimes very

abundant. It is very difficult to extract them from the mass, owing

to their brittleness. They are mostly found where the porphyry is

well crystallized and the mica abundant.

The large crystals of albite vary in size from half an inch to five

inches. They have two cleavages, one nearly at a right angle to the

surface of the plate, or forming with it an angle of about 95°. The

other cuts the first cleavage obliquely with an angle of about 115°.*

The form of the crystals is, I fancy, uncommon, and I will describe

one of them with its dimensions, in order to give an idea of the

proportions of the crystals.

The crystal is always twin or composed of two hexagonal plates

(fig. 2) two and half inches in diameter between opposite angles, and

0.4 inch thick. Hither four or the six edges of the plate are

bevelled by oblique facettes, which form with the plane of the surface

an angle of about 138°, so that one surface is considerably smaller

* The angles of these crystals were measured with strips of paper and

a graduated half circle; the crystals were also much weathered ; the results

are therefore mere approximations. If I had had the means of measuring the

angles with precision, I would have figured the crystals.

102 Mr. Verchéere on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

than the other. Two such plates are applied one against the other

by their greatest surface, but one of the plates has (apparently) rotated

half a turn, so that A of one plate is opposite B of the other.

Fig. 2.

This rotation is of course only apparent, but it appears to have taken

place from the cleavage of the two plates being opposite, so that when

we look at a section of the double crystal (fig. 2), one side presents

the shining striped surface of a lamellar cleavage, whilst the other

shows the dull rough surface of a fracture across the grain. This

opposition of cleavage is probably due to a play of opposite electricity

generated during crystallization, but it gives the idea of one of the

plates having made half a turn before applying itself against its

fellow.

The perfect crystal is rarely seen; it is generally broken across,

and the section (fig. 2) is conspicuous on the surface of the rock,

so that, at first sight, one may fancy the crystals to be prisms,

and a little trouble is necessary to understand the arrangement of the

twin plates. This macle is therefore, to all appearance, a twin crystal

of one of the numerous modifications of triclinic albite.

By exposure to the atmosphere, the porphyry crumbles easily and

falls to a coarse gravel which is soon converted into a very white

sand. While the rock is still hard and sound, the large crystals

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 103

of albite sometimes become loosened in their matrices, and, falling

out, leave angular cavities on the face of the rock. The rock,

when fresh and well crystallized, is however very hard: some

varieties appear to crumble much more quickly and completely than

others.

Ii.—The grains of magnetic iron ore and the gold I have not seen

in the porphyry,* but they are found in the sands which, I will now

endeavour to prove, have been formed by the decomposition of these

volcanic rocks.

Gold is washed in most of the rivers which traverse the miocene

sandstones and conglomerates of the sub-Himalaya, and is always

found associated with grains of magnetic iron ore. Let us examine

one of the districts where the washings are, I believe, most abundant,

the banks of the Soane river, in the districts of Jheelum and

Rawul Pindee, especially near the villages of Pindeh Geb, Kothair

and Mukud. Let us therefore go to Rawul Pindee and travel towards

the $8. W. along the road to Kalabagh. We find that this dreary

road, about 120 miles long, crosses obliquely from the N. N. H. to the

S. S. W. the great plateau of miocene sandstone, conglomerate

and clay (Sect. G.).

There is a thick bed of miocene sandstone and conglomerate,

above 2,000 feet thick, which might be called the upper miocene

formation of the Sub-Himalaya (contemporary of the Sewalik hills

and containing the same Mammalian fossils), whilst the sandstone

and shales of Murree and adjacent hills, about 5,000 feet thick and

without fossils, might be regarded as the inferior miocene. These

two divisions of the miocene are not exactly one on the top of

the other, but rather the upper bed thinning towards the north,

covers in the southern edge of the lower bed in an intricated

* A similar granitoid porphyry exists in Portugal, in the hills near Cintra

about five leagues from Lisbon. It is there very variable in appearance and

consistency, and is generally made up of large grains of felspar and of quartz,

and of large plates of mica. It contains grains of magnetic iron ore, but I am

not aware whether it contains the large twin crystals of felspars seen in the

Kaj Nag porphyry. The Portugal rock is generally described by travellers as

granite, but is considered by geologists as decidedly volcanic. It presents

the character of crumbling easily after a certain amount of exposure,

104 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

Fig. 3.

manner, as represented in the accompanying diagram (fig. 3): 1, Upper

Miocene with Mammalian Bones; 2, Lower Miocene without fossils

(excepting a few roots and stems and imprints of leaves) ; 3, Porphyry

and Felstone, &e.

The upper bed is therefore not seen near Murree, whilst the lower bed

is equally absent from the great plateau of Rawul Pindee, where the

fossiliferous sandstone is always seen to rest directly on the Nummulitic

formation, wherever this breaks through the miocene. The bed we

have to deal with here is, therefore, the upper miocene only. It is

much folded and faulted, forming stray folds and many faults at both

extremities of the bed, and rolling in broad undulations in the centre

of the plateau. Now, if we examine the much up-tilted beds near

Futteh Jung, Nusrulla, or else close to the Salt Range near Kalabagh,

we find them composed of a grey or greenish calcareous sandstone, of

conglomerate and of sandy indurated clays containing nodules of

kunkur. These beds look like inclined and parallel walls sticking

out of the alluvium, and separated one from the other by open spaces

or intervals ; and one may at first sight fancy that the several strata

have been wrenched apart at the time they were upheaved, But if

we examine the beds where they are nearly horizontal, as in the

neighbourhood of the Soane river near Kothair or Jubbie, we find.

that they consist of a hardly cohesive sand, very white and composed of

minute grains of albite and quartz, with black grains of augite and

spangles of mica. I have been in the habit, in taking notes, to call

this sand, Pepper and Salt sand, and I shall here make use of this

term, as it is a convenient one. Interstratified with this sand we find

the beds of grey or greenish sandstone, of conglomerate and of sandy

clay noted at Futteh Jung ; and it becomes evident that at the places

where we first observed the beds, and where they are much tilted up,

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 105

the pepper and salt sand has been washed out from between the harder

beds, whilst in the horizontal strata, the sand has been protected by

one of the strata of harder rock which acted as a roof over the sand

underneath.

Now this pepper and salt sand is the one washed for gold. The

washings are done during and after the rains, asthe swollen waters of

the torrents bring down to the beds of the rivers a large quantity of

fresh sand. It is washed in the usual manner, and gives a residue of a

black sand which is composed of shining grains of magnetic iron ore

and grains of augite. A little more washing in a smaller vessel

removes the augite and a great part of the iron; and the gold, which

is rarely visible with the naked eye, is picked up by mercury.

If we examine the pepper and salt sand in situ, we shall very soon

become convinced that it is nothing but the porphyry of the Himalaya

ground down to powder, for we find in it numerous pieces of the

porphyry not quite crushed to sand. I have found some of these pieces

half an inch long and composed of a hard fragment of albite supporting

specks of augite. Pieces of the large felspathic crystals I have

seen also, and the smaller crystals of quartz are frequent and hardly

altered and rubbed. The sandstone consists mostly of undecomposed

albite and augite. It is not easy to describe in words the great

similarity between the porphyry and the white sand, but their

complete identity strikes one at once when we study the beds.

Dr. Fleming made therefore a good guess when he wrote the following

passage: ‘‘ We have been quite unable to trace the source whence

the gold has been derived, and are not aware that amongst the

quartzites and quartzose mica slates (felstone is meant,) which are

much developed in the Punjal Range, near the Baramoola Pass into

Kashmir, and stretch west into the northern Hazara mountains, the

metal has ever been detected in situ. From similar rocks there can

be little doubt that the auriferous sands have been derived.”’*

And again he writes: ‘In the neighbourhood of the Salt Range

the scales of gold are small and almost invisible, but we have heard

from natives, that, in Hazara, grains of gold are sometimes found of

a size such as to admit of their being picked out of the sand. If

* Report on Geological Structure of Salt Range ; Selections, P, Govt. Vol. II.

1855, page 342, ,

106 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

this be true, we may infer that the auriferous source is somewhere to

the north, and that by tracing the gold stream, so to speak, we might

arrive at a point where the drifted materials become coarser, and

where the gold, from its high specific gravity, has been deposited in

larger quantity.”’*

That the miocene deposit of the Sub-Himalaya has been derived

from the mountains situated N. or N. EH. of it, is evident from the

boulders contained im the conglomerates of the formation, these

boulders being mostly volcanic rocks, such as we have seen in the

mountains near the Baramoola, and such as we shall see in other parts

of Kashmir. We will see, by and bye, that these volcanic rocks extend

to the west, along the northern boundary of the Peshawur valley, as

far at least as Jelalabad, and to the east as far, at any rate, as 80° east

long., and probably much farther, though it appears from Captain R.

Strachey’s memoir on the geology of part of the Himalaya mountains,+

that the volcanic rocks in the eastern portion of the Himalaya are

more intrusive than they are in the western extremity of the chain.

If it is indeed true that grains of gold of some size are picked out

of the sand in Hazara, some valuable diggings might yet be found

in the valleys situated between the spurs of the Kaj Nag range or its

extension to the west. But I cannot help thinking that, with a

population everywhere anxions to wash gold even in very poor wash-

ings, auriferous sands of any economical value would have been worked

long since, especially as the sands formed by the decomposition of a

porphyry, similar to that of the Kaj Nag chain, and situated on

the eastern frontier of Kashmir are searched for garnets only.

The magnetic iron ore is tolerably abundant in the pepper and salt

sand, and is at present wasted by the gold-washers of Kothair and

Mukud: but it has not been always so. In traversing the great

miocene plateau of Rawul Pindee, I noticed for many miles along

the road, between Pindeh Geb and Jubbie, small pieces of black

slag, often in some quantity and evidently very old, as many

pieces were seen where ravines had cut the ground, buried a foot

* Ditto ditto, page 344.

+ On the Geology of part of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet, by Captain

RB, Strachey, Bengal Engineers, I’. G, 8. Proceedings of the Geological Society of

London, 1851,

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 107

and half below the surface. Knowing nothing then of the magnetic

iron sand, I could not conceive whence the slags came, but on seeing

the large quantity of iron ore which is washed out of the sand by the

gold-diggers, I was forced to conclude that a time had been when the

iron powder was saved and smelted. [t is not such a poor under-

taking as it might appear to wash iron from sand, especially as the gold

alone would pay the men 3 or 4 annas a day, and a very little arrange-

ment would save the iron. It contains about 70 per cent. of metal

of the very finest quality and the very best to make steel. It resembles

- Swedish iron, and it is the same as the Kangra iron which has been

proved to be of excellent quality by experiments in England. It

is very dear, selling at £14 aton. It is probable that the smelting

of this iron sand was discontinued from the want of fuel, which is now

very scarce on the plateau. That fuel was once more abundant, is

sufficiently proved by the amount of travertin seen in many places where

no springs exist now-a-days ; and these fossil springs, if I may call the

travertin by that name, tell us of a time when a higher jungle on the

plateau and forests on the hills arrested a good deal of moisture, and

wrung from the humid monsoons a portion of the rains which are

now poured on the Himalaya. It would be, I imagine, easy for the

local government to find out whether the magnetic iron ore is still

smelted in some localities in the district, or when the smelting was

discontinued, and to resuscitate the trade, the iron ore being brought

to Mukud from the neighbouring villages, and there smelted with

charcoal brought down in boats from the Akora Kuttuck hills or

from Hazara. Hxcellent limestone is abundant near the banks of the

Indus ten or twelve miles above Mukud. It is also abundant in the

conglomerate on which Mukud is built.

The smelting of this iron sand would not, of course, give profits or

yield a quantity of metal worth mentioning in comparison to the

results of Huropean industry, but it might be a valuable enterprise for

natives possessing some little capital, and might much ameliorate the

miserable condition of the gold-washers.

12.—Returning now to Buniar and the Kag Naj range, I must

insist on the very changeable appearance of the porphyry. We have

seen that it consists of a granular mass, with large crystals of albite,

small crystals of quartz, crystals of garnet, plates of mica and lamellae

108 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

of augite, and that any of these crystalline minerals or all of them

may disappear, leaving a rock entirely composed of a saccharoid paste

of albite. At other times the quartz becomes very abundant, and

thick bands of white quartzite traverse the mass. Again, the augite,

which is sometimes wholly wanting and at others in very minute

specks only, may increase and at last predominate and form dark

rocks with a semi-metallic lustre, the augite being generally collected

in masses of aggregate plates having the lustre of iodine. It very

often happens that the minerals are arranged in bands or layers as in

gneiss, and this apparent foliation also varies much, and often it does

not exist at all, whilst in other instances it is extremely well marked,

thus gradually forming a passage to the clinkstone, described in the

beginning of this paper.

13.—I have not visited the high summits of the Kaj Nag : indeed,

I have only seen a few spurs of this enormous centre of mountains ;

but, from the road between Nausherra and Ori, one can see on the

other side of the river, towards the tops of the hills, immense masses

of the white porphyry glaring in the sun through the underwood which

covers these mountains ; and Captain H. Godwin-Austen, G. T. S.,

who assisted in the survey of this district, informed me that the white

porphyry of the Buddist ruin at Buniar forms the summits and

all the central system of the Kaj Nag range. From a coloured sketch

kindly made for me by this officer we are enabled to see that the

porphyry forms the whole of the main chain of the Kaj Nag, a portion

of the huge North-Western branch, and extends along the western

or Mozufferabad branch towards Hazara. The rock passes gradually

from the granitoid porphyry I have described to less and less crystal-

lized rocks, until it becomes the pencillated white and blue felstone

which we have seen at Baramoola, and finally the earthy, slate-like

felstone of the Atala mount.*

The summit of the Sank or Sallar, on the left bank of the Jheelum,

I have also painted as volcanic porphyry, from my observing that the

valley of the Apaikey is strewed with blocks of porphyry to a

* Captain Austen described the felstone asa hard slate, but as he said

that this slate was identical with the “hard slate of the lofty cliffs over the

road near Nausherra,’ it is evident that what was taken for slate, was an

earthy slate-like felstone. At the time Captain G. Austen observed these

rocks, he had not yet begun to study geology.

1866.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 109

considerable height, and disposed in such a manner that they cannot

have been brought from any other locality but the summits above.

When I visited the Apaikey valley, the summits on both sides were

covered with a thick mantle of snow, but the very shape of the peak,

a smoothly rounded boss, was suggestive of a hill composed of

materials which wear quickly and round easily under the influence

of ‘atmospheric vicissitudes.

14.—We must now endeavour to ascertain the extent of country

‘covered by volcanic rocks similar to those I have described, and I am

again indebted to Captain H. G. Austen for the following information :

“The so-called granite, or, as you say more properly, volcanic por-

phyry, of the Kaj Nag is quite unlike the granite of the Deosais or

Ladak, which is pure granite or syenite. This Kaj Nag rock is seen

- again in the mountains bounding the south-east end of the valley

(of Kashmir) and in Kistwar; and the whole length of the Chota

Dhar range, bounding Badrawar to the south, is of it ; I have seen it

nowhere else. It is so strikingly peculiar that I should certainly have

noticed it, had I come across it in other parts of Kashmir.”

How far the porphyry of Kistwar and Badrawar extends to the

east, I have no means of judging ;* but we have seen that the Kaj

Nag extends towards the west into the upper part of Hazara; and

I have had described to me some “ granite’ seen a few miles north

of Mauserah, near the entrance into the Kaghan valley, which

appears to be a volcanic porphyry similar to that which we have seen

at Buniar.t But it extends still further west: Dr. Costello informs

me that a great deal of “ granite” and quartz occurs in and near the

Umbeyla pass, lately occupied by the troops under General Sir Neville

* The “ granitic’ belt between the Sutlej and the Kali rivers, long. 77° to

80° 15’, appears to be a continuation of the porphyry of Kaj Nag, Kistwar and

Badrawar. In Sirmoor, Garhwal and Kum .on it forms the centres of moun-

taimous systems such as Chor, Dudatoli, Binsar, &c. Capt. R. Strachey

describes it as “ often porphyritic and muc. subject to decay.” It passes into

“mica-shist showing a distinctly laminated structure,” (felstone ?) and also

into greenstone.

+ Also “a place on the road (to Mausora) as it passes along the eastern

edge of the Pukti valley gets its name of Chitti wat (white stone) from several

large blocks and hillocks of white felspathic rock containing large crystals, the

Same as that of the blocks on the ridge of Buri a few miles to the 8. W., and

hke them visible “from a great distance.”—Jowrnal of the Agricultural and

Horticultural Society of India, Vol, XIV. Part I,

110 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No, 2,

Chamberlain. The General himself, in one of his dispatches, describes

some of the hills as “ granite,” putting a note of interrogation after the

word, and thus showing that the granitoid rock he noticed was

sufficiently peculiar in its appearance to make it doubtful whether it

was really a granite. From specimens of the mountains near the Pass,

kindly given to me by Dr. Costello, I have no doubt that the

so-called granite is one of the varieties of porphyry described in

paragraph 12. It passes into a felstone composed of very elongated

and large spindles of opaque, dirty white, and somewhat granular

felspar and bluish semi-translucent glassy felspar, and in the

spare felspathic paste which cements the spindles together, a few

irregular grains are seen of a mineral having a metallic golden lustre,

and which is probably Diallage or Bronzite. The rock has a great

resemblance to, and is indeed identical with, the most compact sort of

felstone seen at Baramoola. Bands of quartzite, of which I have

seen very beautiful specimens as clear as Wenham lake ice, are also

extensively developed, as well as enormous masses of compact gypsum

and tabular selenite.

Dr. Bellew, in his ‘ Report on the Yusufzaies,” describes a variety

of voleanic rocks occurring in the ranges which separate British

Yusufzaie from Chumla, Buneyr and Swat: “ Feldspar grit’ and

99 06

‘various combinations of mica and felspar, porphyry in a yariety

of forms,” “ trap-rock in great variety,” quartz, mica and clay-slate,

hornblende-rock, felspar-rock and amygdaloid; “ hard trap’ (green-

stone?) ‘‘loose, friable and crumbling” ditto. (ash?) He also de-

scribes granite and gneiss; but he adds that the gneiss is quarried for

mill-stones, and, if these mill-stones, (which is very likely) are similar

to the mill-stones of Jellalabad, they are a coarse gneissoid felstone,

and not a gneiss. The granite again is a whitish rock, and we find

it connected with and surrounded by, rocks undoubtedly volcanic.

T have no hesitation therefore in regarding it as a granitoid porphyry,

similar to that of the Kaj Nag. A great deal of slate and “ primative

limestone’’ is also mentioned in these mountains.

Dr. Bellew concludes that these hills are “all of primitive and

metamorphic rocks ;” but the list of rocks he gives, proves conclusively

that they are of volcanic origin.

These volcanic beds in Yusuizaie are capped, in some places, by beds of

1866. ] the Western Himdlaya and Afghan Mountains. T11

limestone, and these again by sandstone. No fossils have yet been dis-

covered in either the limestone or the sandstone, and the age of these

strata must therefore remain unknown for the present. Near Jellalabad

beds of gneissoid felstone appear. This rock is quarried to make hand-

mills which are brought down by the Povindahs and sold in Peshawur

and the Derajat. These hand-mills are made of a coarse trachyte which

has begun to effect a partial separation of minerals, and these minerals

are arranged in streaks of white, granular felspar, greyish-blue

felspar, with here and there a grain of augite. It is, therefore, again

one of the varieties of felstone seen at Baramoola, and provably the

same gneissoid variety quarried in Yusufzaie.

15.—By reference to the map we observe that the Pir Punjal chain

is the first great parallel of the Himalaya, between the long. 73° 30’

and 76° H. It isa great chain, forming a belt of high mountains

between the miocene districts of Jummoo, Rajaori, Poonch and O11

and the Kashmir valley, and at both ends of this great chain an

immense accumulation of porphyries and other volcanic rocks, rising

to tremendous heights, and covering some thousand square miles of

country, are placed like two bastions at the extremities of a centric

wall. What rocks then compose the connecting chain, the Pir

Punjal? The reader will easily conceive how vexed I am that I was

prevented visiting this range, more especially as the information

I obtained from travellers is most conflicting and unsatisfactory. Mr.

L. Drew, who has traversed the chain three or four times, was especially

struck with the enormous development of a great slate bar of un-

known age. We shall see in the next chapter, how very thick and

extensive courses of slate are interstratified with beds of trachyte,

ash and agglomerate, in the mountains bounding the Kashmir valley

to the North. Thgse slates are completely devoid of fossils, but as

I hope to be able to fix the age of the volcanic rocks with which

they are interbedded and contemporaneous, we had better reserve

the discussion of their age until after the examination of the fossili-

ferous strata of Kashmir.

But the slates form only a band or bar in the Pir Punjal chain,

and not the whole of it. I believe, that the remainder of the rocks.

of this range are mostly volcanic ash, felstone and agglomerates. A

friend of mine and a very trustworthy observer, in the following passage

112 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

from a letter to me, is describing, I think, volcanic rocks, especially

agglomerates and ash full of lapilli and volcanic conglomerates. “‘ It

(the lacustrine deposit of the valley of Kashmir) rests unconformably

on trapean rocks, quartzite, quartz conglomerate, very hard and

forming a compact mass.”’ And again, further to the S. W. on the road.

through the Pir Punjal Pass, he says: ‘The rocks are principally

mica-slate, with thick beds of a hard conglomerate having a very fine

dark blue matrix ; this, in some places, was a mass of water-worn

pebbles ; but im most of at these are scattered through the mass, and are

often in that case angular and small. Uptothe Pir Punjal Pass the dip is

N. with a high angle ; having crossed the ridge N. HE. this contmues

all the way to Barangulla, giving these altered sandstones, slates and

conglomerates an enormous thickness.’’* The excellent observer who

wrote the above remarks did not think, it appears, that the rocks

were mostly volcanic in origin, but I cannot help imagining that

his description applies, in great part, to stratified ejecta of volcanic

eruptions, and the passage I have put in Italics is, I think, a very

fair description of ash with lapili. Again, I must also remark that

the felstone of Baramoola has always been described by travellers,

and by geologists also, as mica-slate, though it contains no mica

and is nearly wholly made of felspar; what has been taken for mica,

being minute spindles of glassy albite. It certainly has a slaty

cleavage, and the most earthy varieties have a close resemblance to

metamorphic slate, and it is probably this fact which has misled most

people as to the nature of the rock. It is not therefore impossible that

some of the “‘ mica-slate,’”’ mentioned above, is in reality earthy felstone.

16. The position of the Pir Punjal chain is rather peculiar, abut-

ting as it does at both ends against enormous centres of volcanic rocks,

and being separated by a great fault (the valley of Kashmir) from moun-

tains also composed of the same rocks. In the enormous accumulation

of amygdaloidal ash, agglomerate and conglomerate which we shall

see, by and bye, on the other side of the valley, there is abundant

proof of the existence of open volcanoes in this part of the Himalaya,

at the time the porphyry was in a fluid or viscid state. The extreme

* J do not give the name of the person who kindly gave me the information

quoted, as 1 do not agree with him on the origin of these rocks, and believe

that he missed appreciating their true value, though his description is

accurate.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 113

regularity and evenness of the stratification of these cinder beds

renders it highly probable that the showers of ejecta fell in a shallow

sea in which the volcanoes formed islands. It appears to me, that we

cannot refuse to admit that the porphyry was the base of the vol-

canoes, and indeed the matter which failed to escape through the

vent in the earth’s crust, whilst the felstone or clinkstone and varicties

of trachytic rocks into which the porphyry always passes, are lavas

which have flowed under the pressure of the sea. Hi these views

are admitted, we have a series of volcanoes beginning at the Kaj Nag,

and forming an are along the north-east boundary of the valley of

Kashmir, down again to the mountains of Badrawar : of this arc of

volcanoes the Pir Punjal chain is the chord. Can we wonder, huge

though the chain is, at its being in a great measure formed by ejecta

of volcanoes received in a sea gulf and there arranged in conformable

layers? The slate, as we shall see in the next chapter, was formed

during the intervals of volcanic activity, and it is not improbable that

the continual shower of ashes and hot stones into a shallow bay kept

the water at a temperature too high for the development of animal

or vegetable life.

Since writing the above paragraph, Capt. G. Austen has informed

me that beds of unmistakably volcanic rocks, such as amgydaloid

and coarse greenstone, are interbedded with the slate and other rocks

of the Pir Punjal. This is precisely what occurs in the hills north

of the valley of Kashmir, we may therefore regard the Pir Punjal

as a mass of volcanic ejecta interbedded with slate which was

deposited during the periods of volcanic tranquillity.

Cuaprer Il.—The Mountains North and North-East of Kashmir.

17. By referring to the map, we observe that the Kashmir valley

is an elongated trough with its longer axis directed 8. H.—N. W. The

Jheelum has a similar general direction, as far as the Woolar Lake,

and the smaller stream which drains the north-western end of the

valley flows from the N. W. to the S.E. To the north-east of

this axis, we notice long spurs of hills which descend to the water-

114 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

edge of the Woolar Lake, the Manus Bal and the Dal and to the

lacustrine plains of Pampur, Avantipoor, Bij-Behara and Islamabad.

These spurs are the extreme south-western ends of a labyrinth of

mountains which forms a barrier, nearly forty miles across as the crow

flies, between the flat plain of the Kashmir valley and the chain of

mountains which separates Kashmir proper from Drass, Sooroo and

Ladak. If we consider the Himalaya as a series of parallel chains

and valleys, we should have the Pir Punjal chain as one of the ~

parallels ; traversing the valley of Kashmir and the labyrinth of moun-

tains to the north-east of it, we meet another great parallel chain,

which has unfortunately no general name. It has been called by

Col. Cunningham the Western Himalaya, but the name is evidently

objectionable, as. we want the term ‘‘ Western,” to designate the

whole of the Himalaya between the longitudes east 73° and 79°, or

between the Indus and the Sutlej. It has also been called the Central

chain of the Himalaya by several authors, but the great quantity

of snow which covers its peaks is merely the result of its being so

placed, that it collects and condenses nearly all the remaining mois-

ture contained in the south-western winds, and sends these winds

perfectly dry to the Kailas and Karakoram ranges. The beautiful

series of snowy summits presented by this chain is therefore no claim

to its being the central chain of the Himalaya. I am afraid no other

rule, but that of the division of drainage, can be considered safe in

estimating which of the many parallel chains of a same system of moun-

tains is the central one; and if we conform to this rule, the Kara-

koram range is to be regarded as the central chain of the Himalaya.

It is therefore preferable to name the chain under consideration by

the name of one of its great peaks, and as the Kun Nun or Ser and

Mer Peaks (23,407 feet) are well known and very conspicuous

in the western portion of the Himalaya, I shall make use of the

term “Ser and Mer chain” to designate the great parallel range

which separates the basin of the River Jheelum from that of the

Indus.

Between the Pir Punjal and the Ser and Mer chains, we have not

only the valley of Kashmir, but a number of independent and, as it

were, isolated centres of mountains which, as I have said before, form

a complicated labyrinth of hills and valleys to the north and north-

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 115

east of the Jheelum. If we travel, on the map, from the N. W. to

the S. H. of the valley of Kashmir, following the banks of the Jheelum,

we shall notice a series of mountains of moderate height, encroaching

into the valley, and separated one from the other by broad lateral

valleys more or less filled with lacustrine deposits. The first mountain

we meet ison the eastern side of the Woolar lake, and is called the

Safapoor (10,309). Its foot is bathed by a small but exquisitely

picturesque lake, (Pl. 6) the Manus Bal. The next is close to

Srinagar and is the Zebanwan (8813). Ten miles to the south-east,

the Wastarwan, near Avantipoor, is the next summit; then, after

crossing the valley of Trahal, we meet the hill of Kamlawan (8601),

over the village of Murhama, and the Sheri Bal close to the Kamla-

wan. Crossing the broad valley of the Lidar River, we find the

Hapatikri, a mountain which sends a spur to the 8. W. to form the

small hill of Islamabad at the foot of which the town of that name

is built. Crossing the valley of the Arpat river, we meet with the

Dhar (8146) and the Nawkan (9207). We have therefore, from

the eastern shore of the Woolar lake to the extreme south-east of

the Kashmir valley, a catenated chain of mountains composed of

isolated summits, whilst their relations are covered by the diluvial

and lacustrine deposits which fill the Kashmir valley, and the

lateral valleys which open into it. This chain is therefore presented

to us as a series of summits and not as a regular chain.* Its

direction ig that of the general parallelism of the Himalaya, viz.

from N. W. toS. E. Ten miles, as the crow flies, to the northeast of

this chain there is another similar one, that is to say a series of

summits, apparently somewhat detached one from the other, but being

in a line with the parallelism of the Himalaya. These mountains are

from the S. H. to the N. W.—the Liwapatoor, the Wokalbul (14,310)

the Girdwali (14,060), Batgool (14,423), Boorwaz (13,087), Handil

(13,273) Saij Aha (11,334). West of the Saij Aha, this catenated

* T need hardly say that the catenated appearance of the chains described

in the text is in great part due to erosion, and that this great erosion is only

what was to be expected, if we remember that the whole rain-fall of the

southern slope of the Ser and Mer chain has to find its way to the valley of

Kashmir across these catenated chains, and that the Ser and Mer chains re-

ceiye a tremendous snow-fall. I use the word “catenated,’ in the same

sense as it is used in Anatomy, to designate the arrangement of the lymphatic

glands of the neck, viz. like the beads of a necklace or rosary.

i16 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

chain becomes blended with the first one I have indicated. Ten miles

again to the north-east of the series of peaks just enumerated, is

another chain of detached peaks or centres of mountains, arranged.

along a line parallel to the two others and to the general direction

of the Himalaya. From the S. H. to the N. W. we have the follow-

ing summits or centres of mountains: the Rajdain (15,389), the

Gwasbrari (17,839) the Harbagwan (16,055), the Basmai (15,652),

the Kotwul (14,271), the Haramook (16,903) and the numerous

peaks which, with their complicated spurs, separate the valley of

Kashmir from Gurais and Tillail.

Between all these catenated chains, connecting spurs or branches

are to be seen spreading in all directions, and it is extremely difficult

to give the direction of the resulting masses of mountains. But the

geology of these mountains will help us a good deal to understand

their topographical grouping. As we see these mountains on the map,

we should be disposed to consider them as long spurs of the Mer and

Ser chain descending towards the 8. W.; but we shall see that all,

or at least most of these summits, are composed in their centre of

rocks which have once been in a fluid or viscid condition, that is of

porphyry, greenstone, basalt and amygdaloid; that these melted

rocks are covered by enormously thick layers of ash, agglomerate

and slate interbedded, and that on the top of these beds of ejecta

fossiliferous strata rest quite conformably. It becomes therefore

evident, that the summits represent separate and isolated centres

of volcanic action, no doubt much displaced by the last upheaval of

the Himalaya, but yet preserving their relations to the beds of ejecta

which were collected around their feet and on their slopes. We have

therefore a linear arrangement of volcanoes, or at any rate of volcanic

fused matter, (for some of the collections of melted minerals may not

have reached the surface and never had a vent), this linear arrange-

ment forming three parallel lines, and these lines being parallel to the

general N. W.—S. E. direction of the Himalaya. I believe that

similar lines of voleanoes or collections of volcanic matter are to

be found between several of the great parallel chains of the Himalaya,

but whether they are thus general or not, the ones in Kashmir are

sufficient to prove that during the Paleozoic epoch, the volcanoes of

the Himalaya had an arrangement more or less linear, and that the

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 117

great lines of fracture on which these volcanoes were situated, had

the same direction as that of the Himalaya of our time.

18. Beginning with the southernmost line of summits, I will

now describe in some detail the hills which compose it. I shall begin

with that nearest to Srinagar, viz. the Zebanwan.

The Zebanwan is a mountain of 88138 feet at its highest point, with a

general direction from E. to W. (Map B). Its eastern portion is nearly

due E.—W., and is 24} miles in length. It then turns to the S. W., at

the same time throwing out long spurs to the N. W. to embrace the

eastern shore of the Dal. The Zebanwan keeps its N. E.—S. W.

direction for 34 miles, when it bifurcates into two branches, a southern

one, small and short, and a W. N. W. one, 22 miles long. It is at

the end of this W. N. W. branch that the Tukt-i-Suliman rises, a very

conspicuous little hill, seen from nearly every part of the valley.

Still further to the W. N. W., 21 miles from the Tukt, the hillock

of Hurri Parbut rises out of the lacustrine alluvial. It is evident

that the Tukt-i-Suliman and the Hurri Parbut are only continuations

of the W. N. W. spur of the Zebanwan, and appear as detached hillocks

on account of the thickness of the lacustrine deposit. (Sect. A).

The following detailed section of Hurri Parbut, the Tukt-i-Suliman

and the W.N. W. spur of the Zebanwan is at a right angle to the

axis of these hills. It will give, I hope, a good idea of rocks which

we shall meet again and again, and which I will, therefore, endeavour

to describe now with some precision, as they are nowhere better seen

or more conveniently studied.

Section of Hurri Parbut, Tukt-i-Suliman and W. N. W. spur of

the Zebanwan. (Sections A, B, &c.).

Direction of chain: 8. 65° E.—N. 65° W. General strike of beds S. H.—

N.W. General dip of beds, north-easterly. The Section follows the direction

of the range and consequently cuts the dip at an angle of about 65° instead

of 90°. (See Sect: A). (Section II, of General Map). See also Map B.

Hurri Parbut. This hill is a succession of hard layers of trachy-dolerite

and soft layers of other rocks. The trachy-dolerite is rough, compact, very

hard and dark, I have never seen it scoriaceous. It is sparingly amygda-

loidal, containing sometimes a few large geodes filled with white quartz.

These beds are nearly vertical, with a dip east-north-easterly, forming with

the horizon an angle seldom under 75°. The most westerly beds are nearly

vertical, whilst the most easterly layers are more sloping, There are seven or

118 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

eight thick beds of this trachy-dolerite separated one from the other by the

following rocks: (a) A slaty basalt, hard when fresh, but very soon falling into

foliated debris, It reminds one somewhat of the earthy variety of the felstone

of Baramoola. It is grey in colour. (b) an ash of a dirty-looking felspathic yaste,

full of rounded or oval nodules of dull angite or hornblende. These nodules

are probably amygdaloidal in origin, being due to a bubbling of a hot paste

of ash aud water. It desintegrates very quickly into a yellow earth or a grey

gritty soil on which grass grows well, soon concealing the rock below. :

These beds of slaty basalt and ash are well stratified, and fill up all the

spaces left between the layers of trachy-dolerite ; this last rock forms promin-

ent ridges or saddles ou which the several works of the fort are built.

A marshy alluvial plain intervenes between the Hurri Parbut and the

Tukt-i-Suliman,

Tukt-i-Suliman. The western extremity of this hill (as it appears above

the lacustrine deposit) is a little knoll which has received the name of Rustun

Ghurree.

1. Rustun Gurree: Compact greenstone either greenish or bluish; hard ;

fracture conchoidal. Hither no amygdala or a few large ones, about the size

ofa pigeon’s egg, often irregularly shaped, composed of white opaque quartz

arranged in concentric layers and never crystallized.* Strike §S. H.—N. W.;

Dip N. EH. = 50°. This is a hard rock and forms a prominent boss of a barren

character, It is quarried for building purposes, but is too hard to be dressed,

and as it breaks in angular pieces, it is altogether a very unsatisfactory building

material. This bed has a thickness of about... .............c2:seseeeeesee 60 ft.

2. <A dirty yellowish-grey felspathic ash, full of geodes of dark augite.

It decays fast, the nodules of augite, after partially decomposing and

colouring the whole mass ochre-yellow, drop out of their niduses and leave

a spongy mass of yellow earth somewhat resembling pumice, but not in its

hardness. It is used as a good clay for pottery. It is much better developed

on the northern than on the south-eastern side of the hill. In one section

Its nNo- More than eee readies ciseicuelse Mesorse estieoeebioks vseqlgme seer ee eer eer eam Oebus

3. Resembling greenstone but much more amygdaloid. It is hardly seen on

the southern aspect of the hill, where it is covered by vegetable earth and a

cemetery ; but it is well seen on the lake side near the water gate,... 20 ft.

4. Tuokt-i-Suliman: A mass of amyedaloidal greenstone, sometimes

compact, as at the base of the Rustun Gurree, but more generally showing

dark specks of augite or hornblende in the mass. The amygdala of white

quartz invade it, either as large and scarce geodes disposed here and there

* These amygdala of white quartz occasionally fall out of their matrices

and are to be seen in numbers, half-buried in the soft silty mud of the lake near

the village of Drogehand. Should this mud one day dry up intoarock, a false

amygdaloid will be produced, all the more difficult to distinguish from fused

pacer er as the mud of the lake is entirely formed of the dcbris of volcanic

rocks,

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 119

irregularly in the rock, or as smaller geodes mixed among long cylindrical and

twisted branches of quartz running through the mass. (See figs. 1, la. plat. X.)

I must confess, I had some difficulty in understanding these branches; they look

precisely like the arms of a canal or like small rhizomes, and they sometimes

have the form of worm-burrows ; they begin with thick branches or trunks about

the sizeof the finger and throw out smaller twigs; they are often 6 or 8 inches

long, and are cut obliquely by both stratification and cleavage, I have come to

the conclusion, after examining a great many of these cylinders, that they are

gas-vents, similar to the amygdala in origin, the imprisoned gas, in its efforts

to rcach the surface, having had sufficient streneth to force a long passage

though the viscid paste.* Dip 55° to 60° ...............0c0see cee about 600 ft.

5. Amygdaloidal greenstone, graduating to trachyte; with innumerable

small geodes, rounded and pressed together. The greenstone becomes rough

and gritty and passes into a trachyte, it is much less amygdaloidal; and on

the other hand, where the rock is excessively amygdaloidal, the paste is a

dark brownish black rock, which is cleaved into well defined slabs, and breaks

easily into prismatic fragments. This bed forms a depression between harder

layers. The stratification is easily seen by the several courses of the rock

superposed one on the other; but of course it is not seen in the thickness of

GAO, COWES dos 'candedsuntagg euvoreawandadaanpucncsehinn eA abana eT oN Soa eeaeante cLexe ano, 0.8 tr

6. Pale bluish greenstone, hard, compact, with conchoidal fracture ; it is

closely spotted with irregular dots of hornblende. At the base of each compact

layer, there is a margin 1 orl} foot thick and very amygdaloidal, the

geodes being filled with quartz. It is a very hard stratum ... about 150 ft.

7. Closely set amygdaloid. The paste is a greenish felspar, sometimes

very compact and then dark, and cleaved into slabs half an inch thick ,

sometimes light in shade and with the amygdala rather irregular and nearly

touching one another. In many specimens, the felspathic paste shows

a division of the felspar into a bluish or greenish mass and patches of white

felspar ; but there is no crystallization. Dip 70° nearly due H. The fels-

pathic paste decays pretty quickly and thus this bed forms a depression

Dial WS Lav MNCS) 8 coee kage s Ueda ro Ubmera manne te aatnan ecuane center Ane oMer A cB Tn anaRe 50 ft.

8. This is the stratum on which the celebrated Buddhist ruin is built; it

is the highest summit of the Tukt-i-Suliman (6263 ft.) It is composed

of very hard, dark greenstone, with amygdala of white quartz, occurring

sparingly. Beds of lighter coloured greenstone, with specks and nodules of

augite are interstratified. A great many well defined long cylinders of quartz,

either white or black or smoky, such as I have described as gas vents, are

seen here, This stratum is a hard saddle or ridge; nearly vertical, and

EMEC ira yay) ede ts fees oa os icn taste tele vaginas iterantemntvuscass |. GOGs

* T have since read that Dr. MacCulloch observed in Little Cambay, one

of the Western Islands of Scotland, amygdaloid containing elongated cavities

similar, | believe, to those which are here described,

120 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2

So far, the rocks have been purely igneous. We now meet an

alternate succession of igneous rocks produced by the decomposi-

tion and arrangement under water of volcanic minerals. Ash,

agglomerate and other strata of volcanic ejecta become also much

more abundant.

9. A dark blue slate, in places clayey, in others calcareous, and effervescing

slowly and feebly with acids. It decays soon and forms a depression. It

Contains no) trace Of oreamisriss: aisle meiee nee este ree cer) eet eas eames

10. A lumpy brown rock composed of a coarse felspathic paste which

weathers chocolate-brown and contains a great number of lapilli, mostly black

and basaltic-looking. It shows thin, lenticular beds of pale grey felspathic

esh coataining innumerable geodes, filled, some with quartz, some with dark

augite (?) This stratum is not very hard, and rounds by weathering, so that it

forms a smooth round boss and not a sharp saddle. Itis about ... 30 ft.

11. This bed is interesting and presents a very peculiar appearance.

The rock is a pale grey trachyte in which crystals of dull white

albite have imperfectly formed and arranged themselves in tufts

of imperfect crystals forming more or less a star or section, (see

fig. plate X.) When the rock is polished, (such as is seen in the

pavement of Srinagar where it is polished by people walking over

it*) the starry disposition of the crystals is evident enough, though

in the fresh broken specimen it is rather confused. The rock is ¥

passage between a trachyte and a felspathic porphyry. I have

never seen or read a description of this variety of volcanic rock,

and I therefore propose to call it ‘ Soolimanite.” On the north-

western flank of the hill, this bed of Soolimanite is better seen than

on the other side, and there presents some layers which show well the

nature of the rock. Some of these layers, rather darker than those

we have seen on the other side of the hill, contain the starry crystals

well developed in the centre of the beds only, whilst above and

below, that is near the lowest and uppermost parts of the beds, the

* The stone is not abundant, and very few pieces of it are seen in the pave-

ment of Srinagar. I have seen two however, one in the vegetable market

near the great Musjid, and the other between the first bridge and the gate of

the Shere Ganie on the left bank of the Jheelum.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. fon

Fig. 4. crystals disappear and are replaced

Soe Tore Se SS by amygdala filled with quartz

a (fig. 4.) Other beds again of compact

< _trachyte show neither starry crystals

nor amygdala in their centres, but

have their deepest layers invaded by

large amygdala, and their upper-

"0.0 Ne mn - sos ae em or a

ea CED EaT *=° most portion full of small geodes,

having besides a scoriaceous aspect

fof Je'o % %"o “oo (fig. 5).

Fig. 5. In the middle of this bed of Sooli-

manite, some of the cylindrical tubes of quartz described before as

gas-vents are well developed, branching in all directions through the

Oar Omrenecenerssclsv sats eset nceces vs se eine cess about 30 feet.

12. Slate of various colours, laminated and very false-bedded, often squeezed

and twisted. It has been folded, the lower part being nearly vertical with a dip

westerly, whilst the upper part dips east 65°. The centre of the fold is much

contorted and gathered in zig-zags, and in these contorted parts a great many

gas-vents (branching cylinders of quartz) are well seen; some as large as the

finger, others of the usual size, viz. a crow’s quill. ...... ..c.ceeseesee ees 200 ft.

13. A band of Soolimanite like 11. The slate of No. 12, has evidently

been metamorphosed by the action of heat emitted by the band of Soolimanite

which covers it. There must have been a considerable period of inaction

between the two out-pours of Soolimanite to enable the slate to become collect-

ed, and it is evident that the slate was yet in the state of a silty mud at

the time of the second eruption and was set bubbling by the heat of the

Soolimanite.

Imay here remark that I am satisfied that many of the layers

of laterite, cellular slate and ash, which we shall see in this

section, are nothing but true sedimentary deposits metamorphosed

and rendered amygdaloidal by the bubbling or boiling of the

waters which covered them. I had thought at one time, to try and

distinguish the beds of ash and volcanic mud which were probably

formed as I have just explained ; but I found the work too uncertain

and requiring too much time to be worth prosecuting. But no doubt

can be entertained that, besides the slate and laterite, many of the

beds of the mountains of Kashmir which appear to be volcanic ash

or dust, are in reality metamorphosed sedimentary layers.

122 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

The Soolimanite has a thickness of ........... Apopoda Sao bocmodoeaddmaadgeme a5) clr.

14. The band of Soolimanite gradually passes into a felspathic ash,

often friable, but often also hard and compact and full of oval nodules of

dark augite, varying in magnitude from the size of a pea to that of a pin’s head.

Occasionally the ash passes, along the strike, into a hard compact quartzite.

The whole bed appears irregular and lenticular, and has been probably formed

by ejecta falling into shallow pools of Waiter ..........cscccecseee see eve use 15 ft.

15. A calcareous rock which is not seen on the hill side, but gives

ont, on the brow of the hill, a good deal of nodular muddy carbonate

of lime (kunkur). Here and there a brown ferruginous rotten ash (or

metamorphosed calcareous shale ?) crops through the grass on the top of the

hill. It effervesces feebly with acid, and is probably the rock which gives

out the kunkur. This layer, which is probably squeezed out of its place near

the foot of the hill by the gradual curving of the strike of the harder rocks,

is, at the top of the mount, at least .............. pasozan90a000 569000000 00000 . 20 ft.

16. A thin band of amygdaloidal greenstone ........ comsond, WA tite

17. Slate, grey. On the western side of the bed i it = dis W. N. W. 65°

In the centre it is much folded; on the eastern side it dips H. S. H. 75°.

This angle, however, diminishing quickly to 65°... ....cseceeeseeeeeess 20 ft.

18. Greenstone alternately coarse and fine ........esseeeeeeseereesee 20 ft.

19. Slaty basalt, dark bluish black, fracture cometh. It dips E. a few

degrees S. 70° . Btu ee eee c tere caittae ave otk cotaen tee bore erence mame OREES

20. A éeaeablings brown, lumpy metamorphic mud, slightly amygdaloidal.

It decays rapidly into a dirty yellow coarse gravel. It is interbedded with bands

of agglomerate, the lapilli being mostly basalt ..............ceceeceseesee 90 ft.

21. Sandstone, hard, rough, quartzose and micaceous; apparently much

altered ly heat.) SNolormanismsm.ceejacees rece ieeeee nee ai ee eee mmm mets

22. Coarse quartzose grit, very hard and rough. It appears to be composed

up of angular grains of quartz, variously coloured, cemented together by a

siliceous paste. It may be a siliceous deposit in which crystallization of the

purer quartz has begun to take place ..........sc.csscssecseeceerereseseeses 15 ft.

23.) Sandstone likey21am Mi psi Se philee he aten eset ee nee eee eee ae O i

24. Blue compact slate, becoming gradually first coarser and more like a

shale, and then more silty or like yellow and grey clay-slate. The stratification

is best seen by the coloured markings which indicate it to be only 25° and E,

The bed has probably been squeezed out of its place ............... 08 150 ft.

25. Coarse yellow sandstone with a calcareous cement. Cleavage well

anavied.) No. organisms). 2.4. <.isclcs. dina neueretasaeehae Seue ees ARS aR eeee acme ONES

26. Slate, thin bedded ; and falling into angular fragments, It is mostly

deep blue with bands or ribbands of yellow and grey, The dip is more regular

than that of the slates seen before. It is nearly due E. with an angle

OL AO Sameer sate iain (iach Hessiiys yee secuucheoes dice ter toreh nearer 200 ft,

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 123

27. Slate, fissile. It differs from the preceding by decaying much more

quickly by exposure, the whole bed being covered by small débris. It dips

W. on its western side, and WH. on the eastern, whilst the centre of the fold is

zigzageed .. Baeah DEAR oca alec oaeieseina vce ssinret ese OO Us

28. Slate, oe. a foie ee don sccons Age Siac Oneor aO THs

29. Slaty shale, grey and dark, dipping Ww. a ee dee ees N. at an angle

of 55°. Itis continued (underneath) by coarser shales which form an anti-

clinal (not easily seen on account of débris and of the decayed state of the

shale). On the other side of the anticlinal the dip is nearly due H, 60°. The

extent of outcrops of this layer (not its thickness) is about...... 5 to 600 ft.

30. Metamorphosed slate, fissile and greyish blue ; much jointed ; the joints

are yawning, sometimes a foot apart; they strike W. H, vertically. The stra-

tification dips H. S. H. with an angle of 50°, but that is much falsified by the

stratum inwrapping the end of the spur. This bed presents in its middle,

thin layers as follows :

a. Soft, yellow quartzose sandstone, nearly friable, 8 inches. 6b, Dirty

quartzite, 8 inches. bb. Do. with veins of pure white opaque quartz, 1 foot.

ce. A nard, brown, baked quartzose with spreading veins of quartz, 6 inches.

Total 3 feet. The whole outcrop of the bed (not its thickness) is about 130 ft.

Here ends the Tukt-i-Suliman, and between this hill and the foot

of the W. N. W. spur of the Zebanwan passes the road from Srina-

gar to the Nishat Bagh. (Sect. A).

The W. N. W. Spur of the Zebanwan. Ascending this spur in the

continuation of the section, we have the following beds :—

1. Slate more or less laminated, with large yawning joints striking W—H.

The stratification is well shown by the colouring of the slate; it dips W. 45°;

inwrapping the end of the spur.

It may be here remarked, that the beds of slate, ash and fogsili-

ferous rocks nearly always present. this inwrapping arrangement

at the end of spurs and when they cross a spur; it appears that

these beds had plasticity enough to bend all round when upheaved by

inferior rocks. A fine example of this inwrapping arrangement is

seen in the limestone which terminates the spur of the Zebanwan

over the village of Zeeawan: the limestone, in endeavouring to

arrange itself around the band of volcanic rock which upheaved it,

has split into slices from 5 to 15 feet thick, diverging like an open

fan. (Sect. C).

To come back to our section, the slate has a tendency to break into

prismatic pieces, and the joint-surfaces are coated with a yellowish or

124 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

dirty white quartz. This bed is evidently a continuation of the last

bed of the Tukt-i-Suliman (80 of section A), and the road passes over

a synclinal, which would be very evident, were it not for the inwrap-

ping arrangement of the slate at both extremities of the bed. As we

go up the hill, we observe that the bed forms a small eminence of its

own, being separated by a fault from the western beds which have a

general south-easterly dip. It extends for about a thousand yards

along the southern aspect of the hill, wheeling round and, as it were,

lining the foot of the spur, its dip becoming gradually more southerly

until it is 8. W.

2. Following our section, we find, after the fault, the same alter-

nate disposition of felspathic ash with nodules of augite, of dark

slate more or less laminated, baked and metamorphosed, and of vol-

canic agglomerate full of dark coloured lapilli. It would be tedious and

unprofitable to give a minute description of each bed, especially as

the enumeration would be a long one, each bed being seldom more

than 10 feet in thickness. No greenstone was seen for more than

half a mile; the ashes are always tolerably compact when not in a de-

composed state, and always invaded by innumerable nodules of augite.

They are always well stratified, and it appears therefore evident that

the whole of the ejecta fell into water, by which they were arranged

in well defined strata. The amygdaloidal condition of nearly all

the rocks, whether ash or slate, seems to indicate that the water was

raised to a high temperature during the volcanic eruptions ; and the

want of animal remains in the slate beds and amongst the agglome-

rates is in accordance with this hypothesis.

It goes on, as I said before, for above half a mile, alternating ash

and slate, with occasionally a dirty-brownish bed of rotten and cal-

careous ash decomposing very fast and throwing out, on its surface

and also between its joints, a large quantity of kunkur. The strike

of the beds turns gradually to true N. §. and the dip is H., the angle

with the horizon being between 60° and 70°. Beds of laterite now

begin to appear, of a yellowish grey colour and resembling indurated

clay. They are alittle harder than slate, sparingly amygdaloidal,

and the geodes are very small and filled with quartz. They break

into small cuboid fragments. These laterites are interstratified with

beds of dark slate, and lying over them we get the following strata :—

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountazns. 125

«, A band of greenish-grey trachyte with small rounded geodes of chalk-

white albite. It weathers somewhat reddish on its outside and wears in

rounded masses. Jt reminds one very much of some of the felstone of Bara-

moola, Strike N. 15° W.—S. 15° EH. Dip Easterly 40°. But this stratum

varies very much along its strike, becoming in places a ferruginous, rotten,

augitic amygdaloid; in others a sandstone made of big rounded grains of

quartz, of hornblende and of other voleanic minerals, with a calcareous cement

which effervesces powerfully with acids, This sandstone forms slabs 1 to 1%

inch thick, and superposed one over the other like bricks ina wall. Again a

little further on, it is a fine, very compact, smooth laterite, passing gradually

into a more sandy variety containing very minute spangles of white mica

hardly visible in the day time, but which shine well by candle light, and also a

few small rounded nodules of a pale green semi-lucent mineral. The variations

of this bed along the strike seem to indicate a very shallow shelving shore or

a pool of water, the bottom of which had been frequently disturbed by the

appearance of lavas or other heated matter. The bed is about 165 feet thick

at the outcrop.

zt. Then the slate, blue and compaet, comes again, with occasional thin

beds of sandstone or dark-stone: a coarse grained highly ferruginous amyg-

daloid, a sort of peperfno, forms a bed 15 feet thick, and on the top of this,

here and there, are patches of grey laterite. The slate and the sandstone

alternate repeatedly in beds of more than five feet each, and this goes on for

a thickness of about 160 feet.

wit. A ridge of coarse, brown, slightly micaceous sandstone, in superposed

slabs like a built wall, now makes its appearance. It strikes S. W.—N. H. and

dips easterly 45°. This strike S. W.—N. H., meeting the strike of the preceding

layers « and «i which is N. 15° W.—S. 15° E., leaves an open angle or yawning

on the northern flank of the hill, and this is filled up by laminated slate, much

broken and of various colours, a good deal of it being yellow. It is the yielding

of this soft slate which has allowed the hard and unyielding sandstone to take

a direction to the S. W. instead of to the S.

The thickness of this sandstone ridge is about 45 feet, and that of the slate,

which fills up the gap or yawning on the flank of the hill, about 40 feet.

aii. Slate, hard but much cleaved ; about 80 feet.

wiv. A ridge of very compact and massive baked clay, having a conchoidal

fracture and large distant joints. It is yellowish grey in colour, with bands of

lighter yellow: one would take it for a light-coloured basalt, if it were not for

its trifling hardness, which is about that of slate. It appears to be a clay

made up of silty mud, derived from basaltic and other voleanic rocks and

baked after formation. Perhaps it would be best named ‘“ Massive Laterite.”

The joints and the surface are covered with a rich brown iridescent oxide

of iron or a black crust of the same material. This rock is nearly vertical,

and is neara fault of considerable extent which cuts the hill right across;

126 _ Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

and this proximity to a large fault might perhaps account for the metamor-

phosed appearance of the clay.

Favutt. The fault is about 500

feet wide, and is filled with

zig-zagged slate, ash and

laterite. A very great deal

of kunkur is found all over

the eround. This fault goes

right across the hill, from

near the ruin of Pari Ma-

hal to the small spur over

1. Slate. 2. Massive Laterite or Baked Clay. 3

3. Slate, Ash and Laterite in the fault. the village of Pandrettan.

4. Amygdaloidal Greenstone.

East of the fault, the rocks are very different; they are rocks similar to

those we saw at the foot of the Tukt-i-Suliman ; viz. greenstone and amygda-

loid, and there has been therefore a downthrow on the west of the fault. The

strike is very different on both sides of the fault. We have seen that on the

west side it is S. W.—N. EH. with an eastern dip; the greenstone and amyg-

daloid strike S. H.—N. W., dipping to the N. H.

There is no occasion to describe these greenstones and amygdaloids

again, as I have done so before at the foot of the Tukt-i-Suliman. But

we must notice here a very great quantity of what I have called gas-

vents; the amygdaloidal greenstone is in some places completely per-

forated by these vents which are sometimes filled with quartz,

sometimes with augite, and sometimes left empty. (See figs. 1. la,

Bx)

20. Crossing the broad ravine above the village of Pandrettan, a

ravine in which once flourished a Buddhist city of which the ruined

walls are still to be traced, we notice a spur composed of dark and

brittle basalt, much jointed but not columnar. It is interstratified

with a volcanic ash, similar to that seen in the Rustun Gurree. The

end of the spur presents a fine example of beds of ash and laterite

inwrapping or infolding subjacent beds: the spur is narrow and the

layers of ash and laterite are bent down on each side of it, just as a layer

of paste laid across a ruler would by its weight bend on each side of

the ruler. The dip of the beds is N. E., and consequently the strike

is obliquely across the spur which has a W. south-western direction,

and when we look up the hill, facing to the N. H., we can then see the

beds of ash and laterite cropping out one above the other, like steps,

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 127

and forming arches along the strike. This curvature of course falsi-

fies the dip on both fianks of the hill, the dip becoming northern on

the south eastern flank of the spur, and south east on the other

flankk.

The lowest portion of the spur forms a little mound on which may be

seen the remains of a gigantic Buddhist figure. The figure is that of

a woman, but it is now prostrate and headless. It is a huge block of

limestone. There are many other Buddhist remains at Pandrettan,

all built of that rock: amongst others, a small temple in a tank is

well worthy of a visit.

From Pandrettan to Panchhooka, we have a succession of thick

beds of dark basalt, cleaved and jointed but never columnar, and

greenstone and amygdaloid, with a few beds of compact ash

containing oval nodules of augite. The basalt is the only rock

which has not been described before. It is best seen in a little spur

which descends to the Jheelum, hardly half a mile east of the

Buddhist figure on the little knoll. It has sometimes a very black

and conchoidal fracture, and at other times a pale pitch and bluish

colour, It breaks into prismatic blocks which are quarried at the

place where the spur hangs over the river. It does not appear

to be amygdaloidal, but the greenstone into which it passes is

sparingly so, the geodes being large and filled with quartz. It is

difficult to ascertain the stratification or superposition, owing to the

well marked cleavages and joints, but by observing the beds of com-

pact ash occasionally met with, it is found to be easterly at a very

high angle with the horizon. All the way from the stone quarry, at

Alwajin, to that portion of the village of Panchhooka, designated on.

the map as “‘ Large Cheenar Trees,” there is a succession of these beds,

but the angle of dip diminishes gradually as we travel eastwards and

is only 45° at Panchhooka. There we find the following beds :—

A slaty basalt, dark and heavy, dipping to the EH. a few degrees S. at an

angle of 45° with the horizon. It has a cleavage dipping due W. with an angle

of 45°, and vertical joints striking S.W.—N. H, It is succeeded by a coarse

trap, a sort of trachyte showing a certain amount of crystallization, the

rock haying a granitoid or rather gneissoid appearance. The augite and the

glassy felspar are the only minerals tolerably crystalline, the remainder

being a paste which is sometimes nearly white, or yellow and rough;

sometimes greenish-grey and conchoidal in fracture, or blue, indigo-blue and

128 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

French grey. There is much in these strata to remind one of the starry

trachyte or Soolimanite of the Tukt-i-Suliman, but the starry arrangement

of elongated crystals of albite is never perfectly seen.

A layer of amygdaloid covers in the trachyte.

From Pandrettan to Panchhooka, we have been examining the beds

of the southern spur of the Zebanwan. The W. N. W. spur may be

considered to end or rather to begin over Pandrettan, and from thence

eastwards we cross the digitations of the southern spur. A glance at

the horizontal section (Map B) will render any further explanation

unnecessary.

Here ends our section through Hurri Parbut, the Tukt-i-Suliman

and the W. N. W. portion of the Zebanwan.

21. We will now examine the south-south-eastern flank of the

Zebanwan, following a section from near Panchhooka towards

the H. N. EH. (See Map B.) (Section ILI. of General Map or

Map A.)

~ We meet first a long slender spur proceeding from the main range

of the Zebanwan to the §. 8. H., and as this spur is very interesting,

T have called it the Zeeawan spur from the name of a village situated

close to its extremity. (Sect. A, B and C.).

The Zeeawan spur is composed, high up the hill, of the same

basalt, amygdaloid and greenstone which we have seen in the preced-

ing spur, but towards its end it is made up of enormously thick beds

of volcanic agglomerate. This agglomerate is composed of a cement

having the shining appearance of a slag, but not in its vesicular arrange-

ment. It contains lapilli of nearly all the rocks which we have seen

before, viz. greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, slate of various sorts, and

pieces of both felspathic and augitic ash. These lapilli are quite

angular and crammed together so close that in some places the cement

can hardly be seen. This cement appears to have at first coated the

fragments with a thin layer of a dark shining paste, and then glued

them togethér with a coarser material; or it is very possible that this

coating is a superficial melting of the lapilli, and that the cement is

a lava. However this may be, this agglomerate forms the greater

portion of the spur. A confused stratification is discernible, dipping

to the H. 8. H. at a higher angle, and cut at right angles by well

marked joints; thus huge blocks are separated from the mags and

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 129

strew the ground at the foot of the spur. Towards its end, the spur

bifurcates into two digitations, the most westerly being entirely made

up of agglomerate, whilst the most easterly presents the following

section : —

Section of the end of the Zeeawan spur above the village of Zee-

awan. (See Sections B. and C.)

1. Volcanic agglomerate with a shining, dark, semi-vitreous cement. It is

interstratified with bands of amygdaloid and thin layers of peperino.

2. Quartzite, white, opaque, stratified; it breaks into cuboid fragments,

owing to numerous well-marked joints. It is sometimes yellowish, but

usually quite white. It is a conspicuous layer and deserves to be remembered,

as it always occurs between the volcanic rocks and the beds of limestone to be

Ingreepyiineie Ghegeralloyercle oo5 dyn goagoc obo sag voo oud CoN OG OO GodnHocobbbo eco dbo scdooo so + Ali ate

3. Compact basalt, of a Gon ase and breaking in prismatic pieces. It ig

often scoriaceous on the surface Of layers.....6 secsssseece cossecsesseesee 20 ft,

4, Compact amyedaloidal greenstone. .... ssc Ralollveciscitsee sel cenit

5. Greyish-blue basalt; heavy ; much fissured. ...,.......0.0000 5 ft.

6. Coarse yellow sand, with numerous water-worn pebbles of the basalt

No. 5 imbedded in the sand. The pebbles are lenticular in shape, such as are

seen on the shores of lakes and sluggish rivergy and unlike those rounded

ID VARUO GRE TI Stem ore cols rcat ley aalaisteleis asters ssi conie aici eusecctesiatsepvare, ess: uealeweyeess 6 ft.

7. Sandstone, grey and bluish, bets seo nteiene toa pee colour. It contains

afew water-worn pebbles similar to those seen in the preceding layer, 3 ft.

8. Slate, ereyish-blue ; fissured and foliated. ...... ORS isiceeee 5 ft.

9. Sandstone of rolled grains Of QUartZ. 1.1.26 sevesscorcrssesse eecvee 3 ft.

10. Slate, as before. ............. PEUNe Maa ah teaterataate cieiwiss elaleletoterel Weieae 3 ft.

11. Compact and dark rock, much jointed and breaking in flat square

pieces. Hither a baked clay or a laterite. It is all broken to pieces on the sur-

face of the bed. ....

12. A conglomerate of water-worn pebbles of trap united by a calcareous

cement. The pebbles are not lenticular, but rounded.................. 0 A ilo

13. Dark shales containing débris of fossils not determinable. ... 10 ft.

14, limestone; dark greyish-blue; coarsely crystalline; in places very

impure, argillaceous and shaly. It is a mass of fossils. .............. 5 ft,

* Having now reached the fossiliferous strata, I shall not, in charity to the

reader, give the section of the spurs of the Tukt-i-Suliman and Zebanwan

which face the little lake or Dal. But the map (see Map B) will enable

any one wishing to know the geology of these spurs, to satisfy his curiosity.

Ihave indeed to apologize for the minuteness of the section of the Tukt-i.

Suliman, &c. But in a country new to the geologist, a section, I think, cannot

be too minutely detailed,

130 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

15. Dark brown calcareo-ferruginous shales, exfoliating in thin plates and

undergoing quick decay. It weathers nearly black. Extremely rich in

Hars\S)IS hy pao aap aen eppieo DnoBedongbad parindodsODuicAosemebucardaoscbicr won savcdaonaasece, NO) Bh

MG dalanes tome: Wecsih sin. waren tana, Renta tae Sac PAA a TE ae LO Bite

17. Dark brown calcareo-ferruginous shale....,. Daa tes om he Sac aes

TSA enime sbome ume 5 Gd0B sod0nalnae0songe don adoson00eC ei (9 3

19. Sandy shales, very fend haste black; do not effervesce with acids ;

Very richtin fossils iia. ees. sa hears Pee etain. we lel esis nacts Sep met

20. Limestone; less coarse than preceding ; very fossiliferous. . 15 ft.

21. Limestone; hard and arenaceous; separated by thin layers of shale

which weather dark brown and appear in relief on the section of the

bed... .... desonanaie nod b0nc80 a9 ueo0o000 ns s00204 aod uO HOD ObaSenAodoHBoDD ODESAO COKE 5 ft.

Any further bed which may exist is concealed under Hboulis.

22. When I first met with this bed of limestone, I was particularly

delighted, as I had seen no limestone in Kashmir, except the huge

carved blocks of the Buddhist ruins near Srinagar and at Pandrettan.

T was told that the fine bluish-grey limestone of these ruins

was no longer to be found in the country, and that nobody could

guess whence the stone had been obtained. Even some of the Sur-

veyors of the Kashmir Series, G. T. S. corroborated this opinion,

which appears to be the received one amongst the natives. I could

see at a glance that here I had the very stone, and in examining the.

bed I came across the remains of an old quarry. I subsequently found

some much larger Buddhist quarries of limestone, as we shall see by

and bye.

Misled by Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming, who, as I have said,

stated that they obtained nummulites from the Kashmir valley, I

began to look diligently for these foraminifers. I found indeed a few

rounded bodies which might be taken either for nummulites or

rings of crinoid stems. I did not at first hit on a very good

portion of the bed for fossils; those I found were extremely weather-

ed, and I could only pay flying visits to Zeeawan. But I tried onee

more to discover nummulites, when lo! I came across a Productus !

The following genera were found to be abundant: Productus,

Athyris, Orthis, Strophomena or Leptena, and Spirifers amongst

the Brachiopods. Very few lamellibranchiates and gasteropods

were seen, but an immense number of Bryozoa, especially two or

three genera of Fenestellides—viz. Acanthocladia and Fenestella and

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 131

innumerable inviduals of what has been called Vincularza multangu-

laris (Portlock), but which some say is not a Vencularia at all.

Some of the fossils are familiar to every body: the Productus

semi-reticulatus (Martin), P. costatus (Sow.), the Athyris Rorssyt

(L’Eveillé). Other fossils are interesting on account of their rarity,

and first amongst these is the claw of a crustacean, the pincers of

which are two and a half inches in length. Though the pincers are

neither teethed internally nor flattened into organs of natation, we

may, I think, refer the fossil provisionally to the genus Hurypterus,

if it ig not even a true Limulus. (See Pl. V. fig. 4.)

23. We have therefore, resting on the volcanic rocks, beds of

carboniferous limestone. These beds are of great thickness, and they

change their characters very considerably as we follow them

upwards. I have divided them into three great divisions, and I

have called these by the names of the localities where they were

found to be well developed. The lowest bed, which we have just

seen, Ihave called the Zeeawan bed, from the village of Zeeawan.

The next above will be called the Weean bed, from the village of

Weean near which it is well developed ;-and the uppermost division

I have named the Kothair bed,* from the name of a small district

at the foot of the mountains where this upper bed is well seen.

I have preferred adopting these names to the plan of using the desig-

nations of Lower, Middle and Upper, as further observations may

render it desirable to sub-divide any division into two or more sec-

tions, in which case the terms lower, middle and upper would become

inconvenient. In the present state of our knowledge of the geology

of Kashmir and the N. W. Punjab, we may nevertheless remember

with advantage, that the Zeeawan is the lowest, the Weean the middle,

and the Kothair the upper bed of the mountain limestone.

24. To come back to our section near Zeeawan: we must first

notice the inwrapping disposition of the beds around the end of the

spur. The general strike of the volcanic rocks is N. N. H.—S. 8. W.

* So few fossils were found in the Kothair bed, that it is not possible te

place it, with any certainty, in the carboniferous; the same reason prevents

its beg placed in the Permian or Triassic. The place of this bed as the

uppermost carboniferous is therefore only temporary. See the remark after

the list of fossils found in the Kothair bed, Chapter I1., para. 50,

1382 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

and the dip E. 8. E. High up the spur, this dip forms a considerable

angle with the horizon, but it diminishes gradually as we descend

towards the plain; at the bed of quartzite it isabout 45°, and at

the limestone it is generally 40°. But these rocks, that is from the

quartzite upwards, appear to have been upheaved by a narrow band of

hard rock catching them in the centre and pressing them upwards in

that central point, whilst the sides of the beds were unsupported.

Instead of yielding softly and shaping themselves into a carapace-

like coating, as slate and ash would have done, the limestone and the

shales have separated into thick bands or slices, and these bands have

spread themselves out like a fan. At the small end of the fan there

has been a considerable crushing of the beds one against the other,

and enormous blocks, indeed whole pieces, of the limestone courses

have been squeezed out of place; whilst, at the circumference of the

fan, the beds have been parted from one another, and in some places

we can see the layers of limestone separated by open intervals two or

three feet wide. (See horizontal section, Sec. C.)

25. I will now try to define the character of the Zeeawan bed of

carboniferous limestone :—Its lithological characters are, that it is a

rough, coarse and semicrystalline limestone of a dark bluish-grey colour,

weathering a rich grey. If we break it, we find it made of innumerable

irregular grains of a darker limestone united by a lighter cement more

or less crystalline. It is full of debris of fossils ; indeed I am not quite

sure that the darker grains are not the debris of the organisms or

excrements of animals. It is foctid. Portions of it are arenaceous or

rather shaly, and these, when exposed to the air, decompose partially,

becoming soft and crumbling. The stone is soft to work and cuts

with great ease, except where there are too many large fossils. It

contains an immense number of minute crinoid-stems converted into

spar: it breaks obliquely to the surface and gives flashes of light

at certain angles. It is interstratified with courses of rich-brown

calcareous shale, often of a bright rust-colour, and generally much

decomposed and with bands of a black, not calcareous, sandy shale:

it is also full of fossils, these being apparently converted into oxide of

iron. Finally, it contains limited short lenticular layers of a much

paler limestone, in thin-bedded and false-bedded patches having

somewhat the appearance of a fine mortar or cement.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 133

The characteristic fossils of the bed are the following :—

Productus Costatus (Sowerby).

33 Semireticulatus (Martin).

3 Cora (D’Orbigny).

2 Humboldtii (D’Orbigny).

eae (D’ Orbigny).

% Longispinus (Verneuil).

Athyris, Sp. PLIL fig. 1 & la. <A. Swbtelita (Hall)?

» orssyt ? (Verneuil) Pl. II. fig. 3 & 3a.

» sp: Nora (A. Buddista, Verchére) Pl. IL. 2, 2a 20.

Spirifer (Sp. Verchéria (Verneuil) Pl. I. fig. 1, la & 10.

Sowerby, Pl.-I. fig. 2, &e.

Spiriferina octoplicata ?

Orthis Crenistria, Phill.

Strophomena Analoga, Phill.? Pl. IL. fig. 4.

Fenestella Sylesi. (Koninck).

us Megastoma (Koninck).

a Sp. — TEL, Weg sees IES

Vincularia Multangularis (Portl.)

Acanthocladia, Sp. —~-———- Pl. V. fig. 4.

We shall have therefore no difficulty in identifying this bed wher-

ever we meet it, as the Bryozoa make a great show and immediately

attract attention. The coarse granular limestone is unlike that of

the other beds we shall see hereafter; the rich brown shales are also

peculiar to the Zeeawan bed, and even the position close over the

glaring white quartzite would assist us, if necessary.

fuck

134 lontributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VII. List of species of

Unio and Anodonta described as occurring in India, Ceylon and

Burma.—By Wiiu1am T. Buanrorp, A. 2. S. W., F. G.S.

[Received 5th September, 1866. |

There are few genera in the whole range of natural history more

puzzling than Unio and Anodonta. Every naturalist who has at-

tended to them has been struck by the great variation of which the

different species are susceptible, though it is to be regretted that this

knowledge does not appear to have had much influence in restraining

some naturalists from recording as distinct species isolated specimens

which reached them from distant conntries, and which only differed

from other specimens in characters of very doubtful specific value,

Although the Unionide of the Tudian waters are far behind those

of some countries, and especially of America, in the amount of vari-

ation which they exhibit, amply sufficient is shewn to render them

very difficult to classify. And as the question of variation is one of

the most important, especially at the present day, in the whole range

of zoological science, those animals which, in the wild state, exhibit

the greatest amount of variation, are peculiarly worthy of study.

In endeavouring to classify the Indian shells, one great difficulty

that Ihave found, has been the determination of described types.

Descriptions of Indian Unionide are scattered through many works,

not easily procurable in India. There are, probably, yet a few to

which I have not had access, but as I have been able to compile a

list, comprising, I believe, a very large majority of the published

forms, I think that I shall be aiding any one who, in India, may be

engaged in the same study, by printing the list, with references to the

original descriptions and to figures, whenever such exist, and by

adding such remarks as appear to be necessary.

I also hope to be able to publish figures of a considerable propor-

tion of the species named ; in some cases, copies of the original illus-

trations; in others, drawings of authentic specimens. I shall feel

greatly indebted to any one who will aid me in this endeavour by

furnishing me with typical forms, or with any specimens from distant

parts of the country. In all such cases, a small series of the varieties

and different ages is desirable.

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacology. 135

The present list, therefore, is merely an instalment of what I hope

may be an illustrated monograph of Indian Unionide.

It is not my intention at present to enter at all fully into the

question of the limitation of specific forms. I would merely point

out, that some of the described species are certainly within the ordi-

nary limits of variation of others described as distinct. Thus out of

one tank in Calcutta, I have taken specimens unquestionably belong-

ing to U. Corrianus, Lea, others which were nearer to U. lamellatus,

Lea, and young specimens representing U. bilineatus, Lea, whilst

other forms again appeared to appertain to U. anodontina, Lam., (or,

at least to the species figured as such in Kister’s monograph) which

by Lea is classed as a variety of U. marginalis, Lam. Yet all these

forms were unquestionably identical, being united by numerous inter-

mediate varieties, all living together in the same small pond.

Lea’s figures in the Journal of the American Philosophical Society,

and the Transactions of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-

phia, are so good and characteristic, that the difficulties which might

otherwise exist in identifying forms discriminated by such minute

and variable characters are obviated. Benson’s species, of which only

descriptions exist, are far more difficult to identify, and Gould’s,

which are but briefly described, still more so. Kister’s monograph,

in Martini and Chemnitz’s Conchylien Cabinet, contains figures of but

few Indian and Burmese Unios, and of those, several are incorrectly

named.

For convenience sake, the species of Unio inhabiting India proper,

Ceylon, Assam, and Burma will be separately enumerated. The

species referred to Anodonta are so few that subdivision is unnecessary,

especially as none occur in India or Ceylon. No typical form of the

genus is known to exist in the Indian or Burmese area.

The following works are referred to in the ensuing pages by the

abbreviations appended in each case.

Miili.—O. F. Miller, Historia Vermium, 1774 (not procurable in

Calcutta).

Chemn. Conch. Cab.— Martini and Chemnitz systematisches Conchy-

lien Cabinet. About 1780? (not procurable in Calcutta).

Gmel.—Caroli a Linne Systemata nature. Tom. I, Pars. VI, 1789.

Lam,—Uamarck, Histoire des Animaux sans vertebres, Vol. VI. 1819.

136 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

Gleanings in Science, Vol. L., Caleutta, 1829.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem.—Systematisches Conchylien Cabinet von

Martini und Chemnitz, 2nd edition, by Dr. H. C. Kiister and others.

Vol. [X. Part 2, commencing in 1843 : unfinished.

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist—The Annals and Magazine of Natural

History, London, 3rd series, Vol. X. 1862.

Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.—Tyransactions of the American Philosophi-

cal Society held at Philadelphia, new series, Vol. IV. 1834; Vol. V.

1837 ; Vol. VI. 1839; Vol. VIII. 1843.

Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.—-Journal of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. [V. 1858-60; Vol. V. 1862-63.

J. A. S. B.—Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. III.

1834; Vol. IV. 1835; Vol. V. 1836.

Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.—Proceedings of the Boston Society of

Natural History, Vol. I. 1848-44, (not accessible in Calcutta).

Gould, Ot. Conch—Augustus A. Gould, Otia Conchologica, de-

scriptions of shells and mollusks from 1839 to 1862, Boston, 1862.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test—Supplement to Wood’s

Index testaceologicus, 1855 (not accessible in Calcutta).

Genus UNIO, Retzius.

T.—Inpia.

No. 1.—Unio Corrueatus, Mill. sp. Rivers of Coromandel.

Mya corrugata, Miull., p. 214, No. 398.

Unio corrugata, [a.| Lam., VI., 78, No. 34.

U. corrugatus, Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 289, pl. 97, figs. 3, 4.

There is the greatest conceivable confusion about this species and

the next one, and it is far from clear what Miiller’s type was. I

cannot obtain access to his work in Calcutta, but Kiister copies the

description thus :—

Testa rhombea, viridescens, tenera, pellucida ; (umbonibus corruga-

tis ;) valvule intus siriis radiantibus subtilissimis notantur.

The figures are, I suppose, those of Chemnitz’s types; they are

two in number, one representing the exterior of a subequilateral, nearly

elliptical shell, measuring 36 mm. by 24 in its two diameters, and the

other the interior of a far more inequilateral shell, also subelliptical,

rather smaller than the first, and having every appearance of being a

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacoloqy. 13%

thick form, with strong lateral teeth. The first shell is subalate pos-

teriorly, and the posterior margin is very bluntly biangulate, the

anterior margin is rounded at the end, but the slope thence to the

~ umbo is almost a right line ; the second shell is perfectly rounded both

before and behind. The shell of which the interior is figured corre-

sponds so ill with Miuller’s description, being neither rhombic nor

thin, that it may certainly be neglected. The figure moreover is ill-

executed.

Lamarck’s description is a little different from Miller’s : “ Unio testa

ovato-rhombed, tenwi, viridi, umbonibus rugosis, rugis undulato-flecuosis

sublongitudinalibus. Of the variety a he adds testa viridis, pubis

caring levigatd. His variety 6 is said to be the next species, U.

PUGOSUS.

The type shell in Mons. de la Serre’s cabinet in Paris, which, by

the politeness of M. Chenu, the Curator, I was enabled to examine in

1862, is a thin broadly ovate form with small teeth, and a well

marked posterior wing. It measures 40 mm. from anterior to pos-

terior margin, and 33 from the uinbo to the ventral margin, the latter

diameter being thus much greater in proportion to the former than

in Kister’s type. The valves are inequilateral and much _ broader

behind than before, the anterior margin rounded, sloping away below

to the ventral side; posterior margin bluntly biangulate, the two

angles rather wide apart. The form is common in Southern India

and Ceylon, and appears to have been generally accepted as the type.

Both Lamarck’s and Chemnitz’s types are quite distinct from

Benson’s U. favidens, which has been confounded with them.

No. 2..-Unto rugosus, Gmelin. Rivers of Coromandel.

Mya corrugata magna, Chemn. Conch. Cab. X. 346, Pl. 170, f. 1659.

M. rugosa, Gmel. p. 3222, No. 32.

Unio corrugata, [b.|, Lam. VI., 78, No. 34.

Unio rugosus, Kiister, Mart. and Chem. p. 290, Pl. 97, f. 5.

Both this and the preceding species probably inhabit the Cauvery or

neighbouring streams. Kiister’s figure represents an elliptical sub-

equilateral shell, with strong angulate sulcation at the umbones,

extending to within no great distance of the ventral margin. Gmelin’s

original description is the following :—

138 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

M. testé ovali rugosd, extrinsecus virescente, intus margaritacea :

cardinis dente primario crenulato, laterali longitudinali, alterius

duplicato.

No. 3.—Unio maretnatis, Lam. Bengal.

Lam. VI. 79, No. 41.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem. p. 239, Pl. 80, f. 4,

This species is probably the most widely distributed of all the

Indian forms. It is extremely variable, and I am inclined to believe

that many of the species to be hereafter enumerated are merely

varieties of it. I have examined the type and compared a shell from

Pegu with it, which will be figured. It agrees very well. Kiister’s

figure represents a variety with unusually prominent umbones, and

rather longer from the hinge to the ventral margin than usual.

U. marginalis is by no means confined to India. It abounds, as I have

already mentioned, in Pegu. One of Lamarck’s forms came from Ceylon,

and Kiister appears much disposed to unite to it a species from the Nile

in Egypt. Lamarck’s type was said to inhabit rice-fields in Bengal.

No. 4.—Unto anopontints, Lam. Bengal.

U. anodontina, Lam. VI. 80, No. 47.

U. anodontinus, Kuster, Mart. and Chemn. p. 240, Pl. 80, f. 5.

Lea has classed this shell as identical with U. marginalis, Lam.

Tf Kiister’s figures in the Conchylien Cabinet can be trusted, the two

shells differ more than any one of Lea’s three species, bilineatus, lamel-

latus, and Bengalensis do from each other, or from marginalis. Most of

the Bengal specimens of marginalis, however, are intermediate between

the two forms figured by Kiister as marginalzs and anodontinus.

The locality given by Lamarck for this species is Virginia.

I unfortunately omitted to examine the specimen when I had the

opportunity of doing so. There is, I believe, no question but that

the shell was really from India.

No. 5.—Unio ravipens, Bens. Ganges valley and Burhampooter

valley, Assam.

Benson, Gleanings in Science, I, Pl. 8, f. 1.

» Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 188.

This species has been frequently confounded with U. corrugatus,

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 139

Lam. It differs totally from all the shells referred to that species,

and all its numerous varieties are easily distinguished both from

Lamarck’s and Chemnitz’s types of corrugatus. U. favidens is more

inequilateral, it is a thicker shell with much stronger and broader

cardinal teeth. The type, too, is more angulate, both anteriorly and

posteriorly. The following varieties of U. favidens, with their

localities, are described by Mr. Benson in the Ann. and Mag. Nat,

Hist. Vol. X, pp. 188, 189.

Unio favidens, type. Bhitoura on the Ganges between Cawnpore

and Allahabad.

vor. marcens,......... Burhampooter river, Assam.

Me EURUGON Gs ues een. Nujeebabad in the north-west of Rohilkund.

3 IDO: Aono . Jellinghy river, Bengal.

A ,, Chrysis, .........Dojora river, Kareily Ghat near Bareilly.

5 5 ROCKO, cobcoosor “ Jheel” between Humeerpore and Someer-

pore, Bundelkund.

GREE CENSOR Bese ceee ness Ganges river above Chunar.

No. 6.—Unio Camrutevus, Lea.—Hoogly river, 100 miles above

Calcutta.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. IV, 95, Pl. 13, f. 25.

Benson, J. A. S. B. IV. 450.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem. p. 228, Pl. 77, fig. 4.

The two figures agree perfectly. The type is a very thin shell,

with fine lamellar teeth. Specimens exist in the Asiatic Society’s

Museum, brought from Bhagulpoor. The form is widely distributed

in N. India; I have even a variety from Sind.

No. 7.—Unto sinmveatus, Lea. Hoogly river with the last.

Symphonota bilineata, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., IV. 98, pl. 11, f. 19.

ah Benson, J. A. 8. B. IV. 452.

Benson, (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. X., pp. 187, 195) shews

that this is merely the very young form of U. marginalis, Lam. He

is unquestionably correct. The ‘‘ two delicate lines passing from the

beaks to the posterior region” are, like many other umbonal mark-

ings, characteristic of young shells, and disappear gradually with age.

The remains of them, much blunted, are oiten to be detected on

adults,

140 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

No. 8.—Unio ontvartus, Lea. Ganges valley.

Lea, Trans. Ann. Phil. Soc. IV, 108, pl, 16, f. 38.

Benson, J. A. 8. B. IV. 453.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 244, pl. 82, f. 2.

The locality given by Lea is Burrill river, India. Kiister, who

appears to be indebted for all his Indian species described by Lea to

Dr. von dem Busch, gives Burrill river, Indiana (!), North America,

as the locality. Mr. Benson says—‘‘ It is widely distributed in the

Gangetic region, and is most abundant in the Rohilkund streams.”

The variety figured by Kuster differs from Lea’s type is being more

inequilateral, much shorter anteriorly, and more obtuse posteriorly,

and of a light green colour instead of pale olive. Indeed, it is by no

means clear that the specimen figured is not a variety of U ceruleus.

I do not know if there be such a river as the Burrill, but the locality

for the original type is very probably the neighbourhood of the Burail

Range, north of Cachar, as the shell was received by lea from a

Dr. Burrough who collected extensively in Assam, and who supplied

the original specimens, from which Hylobates Hoolock was described,

to Dr. Harland.* This is not far from the localities whence the closely

allied U. Nuttallianus, Lea, and U. involutus, Benson, were obtained.

No. 9.—Unio Corrianus, Lea. Calcutta.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. V. 65, pl. 9, fig. 25.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 229, pl. 77, fig. 5.

Two completely distinct shells are figured by the two authorities

above referred to. lLea’s original type is a young form of one of the

common varieties of marginalis, approaching U. anodontina of la-

marck; Kiister’s, on the contrary, is a form allied to U. c@ruleus, but

thicker, and with broader hinge teeth than that species, so that it is

more diverse from U. marginalis than even ceruleus is! Kister’s

specimen was derived from Dr. von dem Busch, who, in this and

other instances, appears to haye utterly confounded different forms.

* See Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. IV. p 52. It

is a disgrace to the science of England as represented in British India, and a

lasting memorial of the disregard of natural history which has always been a

characteristic of the British Government of India, that so remarkable an ani-

mal as the Hoolock should have been first recognised by an American natu-

ralist at so late a date as 1834. Had India belonged to France, the United

States or Russia, the study of its fauna would not have been left to the

unaided efforts of private individuals,

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 141°

- No. 10.—Unio Brneatensts, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VI. 3, pl. 2, f. 3.

Kister, Mart. and Chem., p, 228, pl. 77, f. 2, 3.

Tn this case again, two totally distinct shells are figured, and again

the authority for Kiister’s appears to be Dr. von dem Busch, whose

collection furnished the specimen figured in Martini and Chemnitz.

hea’s type is a very peculiar variety of U. marginalis, very much

“longer” (that is wider when measured from the umbones to the

ventral margin) in proportion to the breadth than usual. I have not

met with it. It was obtained by Lea from Dr. Burrough who pur-

chased it in Calcutta, and believed that it inhabited the Ganges, It

has better claims to distinction than most of Lea’s ‘ species.’’*

Kister’s type is a much thicker, more tumid shell, with far

stronger teeth and impressed cicatrices, much more inequivalve and

different in almost every character. I cannot recognise it as any

form with which I am acquainted, and I much doubt its being Indian

at all. At all events it is nearer to U. corrugatus than to U. mar-

ginalis.

No. 11.—Unto tamettatus, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VI. 19, pl. 6, f. 16.

This is another variety of the U. marginalis type, perfectly inter-

mediate between the two last named, and approaching the type more

nearly than either. Lea’s shells were probably immature. In the

younger shells of marginalis, the hinge teeth are more lamellar than

in the adults, and the principal character of this “ species” and of the

two preceding is the lamellar teeth.

IT have not met with the exact type of this shell, but it doubtless

inhabits the neighbourhood of Calcutta. Specimens resembling it in

every way except in being rather less long Qn the dorso-ventral dia-

meter) in proportion to their breadth are common.

No. 12.—Unio Rasanensts, Lea. Rajah’s Tank, Calcutta.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VIII., 239, pl. 23, fig. 53.

The above is the locality quoted. Jam unable to discover what

*In a letter to my brother, Mr. Benson suggested a doubt as to whether

this species were Indian. Taking into consideration the circumstance that

nearly all the shells in the Calcutta bazar are foreign, this suggestion appears

highly probable.

142 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

;ank is referred to. The shells inhabiting the Seven Tanks shew a

considerable difference. The shell is a small, subrotundate, thick

form, approaching some of the varieties of U. favidens, Bens., and has

much the appearance of being stunted and distorted, a very common

occurrence in tanks, and especially in those of Calcutta, probably in

consequence of their being slightly brackish at times. Two speci-

mens, agreeing well with Lea’s figures, exist in the Asiatic Society’s

Museum. A very similar shell inhabits the Nerbudda.

No. 18.—Unio Suurtierr1anus, Lea. Sina River, India.

Lea, Jour, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, Iil., 302, pl. 27, £. 17.

The Sina river runs past Ahmednugger in the Deccan. It is an

affluent of the Bheema, one of the principal feeders of the Kistna.

This shell has somewhat the form of Unio ceruleus, but is thicker.

Unfortunately the volume containing the description of this shell does

not appear to exist in Calcutta, so I cannot tell whether specimens,

which I possess from the neighbourhood, belong to the type form or

not. In such extremely variable shells as Unio this is a matter of

considerable importance.

No. 14.—Unio Meropasensis v. d. Busch, Province of Merodab in

Bengal. (!) :

v. d. Busch. MS. in Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 233, pl. 78, fig. 4.

I give the locality of this ridiculously named species as it is

quoted in Kiister. The locality is doubtless Moradabad in Rohilcund.

Kiister gives as a synonym ? U. flavus, Benson, and adds the remark :

‘Whether this species be Benson’s described U. flavus, I cannot

ascertain, as I have not access to Benson’s work. The name would be

ill-selected, as the shell is by no means yellow.”

Of course Benson’s species thus referred to is U. favidens, of which

the present appears to be a variety, very close to Mr. Benson’s var.

trigona. The name Merodabensis is so utter a barbarism, that it will be -

satisfactory to be rid of it. For the little series of blunders attending

the description of this type, Dr. v.d. Busch again appears to be

responsible,

No. 15.—Unio Sixxrmensis, Lea. Sikkim.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser, IV. 251, pl. 39, f. 131.

I have some doubt about the locality assigned to this species. It

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 143

approaches the S. Indian forms of the corrugatus type (Lamarck’s) in

outline, and is barely distinguishable from two shells in the Asiatic

Society’s collection, which are labelled from Ceylon. It is a stouter

shell than the Lamarckian corrugatus.*

No. 16.—Unto Naagpoorrnsts, Lea. Ambajiri tank, Nagpoor.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Ser. 2, IV. 270, pl. 45, f. 150.

This species is barely separable from some varieties of Unio favidens,

Bs. It is, howeyer, a rounder, thinner shell, forming a link, both in

character and locality, between that species and Unio corrugatus.

No. 17.—Unito Wynrcuneaznsis, Lea. Wynegunga river, east of

Nagpoor.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, 2nd Ser. IV, 271, pl. 45, f. 151.

_ Except in greater thickness, and stouter hinge teeth, there appears

no distinction of the slightest importance between this “‘

species’ and

the last. The type abounds in the Godavery and its feeders, and

is, as usual, variable. The locality given by Lea is Wynegunga

river, Hast of Nagpoor in the Deccan, Bengal, which is equivalent

to talking of Philadelphia in New England, Virginia. However it is

hardly fair to expect American naturalists to have accurate information

on Indian geography, when an English naturalist of repute confounds

the Khasi hills in N. E. India with the Nilgiris in the S. W., and

when a second, in a work solely devoted to Indian zoology, perhaps

the most important work on any branch of Indian Natural History,

exclusive of botany, ever. published in England, confounds Saharun-

poor with Serampoor on the Hooghly. After this, the discovery made

by the Zimes newspaper, a few years ago, that a spur of the Hima-

layas is visible from Calcutta is not so surprising. <A distinguished

French naturalist, five or six years since, placed Kattiawar in Cochin

China, but it is only fair to add that this was before the French expedi-

tion to the latter country, and that French naturalists have already done

not a little towards making us better acquainted with the Molluscan

fauna of that little known region.

* Since writing the above, I have learned that the locality is correct. The

shell was collected by Dr, Bacon,

144 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

No. 18.—Unio Tueca., Bens. River Cane near Banda, Bundeleund.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 186.

T have not seen this form. It belongs, according to Mr. Benson,

to the Corrianus type of Unio marginalis.

No. 19.—Unro macttentus, Bens. Choia Nuddy, near Bijnore,

Rohilcund.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 187.

A rather thin species resembling ceruleus, but with stout hinge

teeth, resembling those of U. favidens. I am unacquainted with the

type, but a very similar form is common in the Damuda and its

tributaries in Bengal.

No. 20.—Unto triempouus, Bens. R. Ramgunga, near Moradabad.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 190.

A thick shell with large hinge teeth. A massive species which

inhabits the Nerbudda, and the shells of which are found fossil

associated with the bones of extinct mammalia in the gravels of the

river valley, may be a variety of this species. I have never seen the

type.

No. 21.—Unto piaciosoma, Bens. River Cane near Banda, Bundel-

cund.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser, X. 191,

No. 22.—Unto tzvirostris, Bens. Near Chunar, in streams and

tanks.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 191.

No. 23.—Unto Pivax, Bens. Gungun stream, near Moradabad,

Rohilcund.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd-Ser. X. 192,

The three abovenamed species appear all to be allies of U. favidens.

They probably pass into each other.

No. 24.—Unio Lzroma, Bens. Deccan? near Bombay.

Benson, Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 192.

The locality of this shell is uncertain. I have no species from

Western India which agrees with the description,

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 145

No. 25.—Unio occatus, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. V. 398, Pl. 50, fig. 304.

A compressed form, with strong teeth, fairly intermediate between

ceruleus and favidens, and allied to U. macilentus, Bs. and U. plagio-

soma, Bs. but more compressed than either. It especially requires

comparison with U. macilentus, of which it may be a compressed form.

No. 26.—Unio Gerepipont, Hydoux. Coromandel.

Said by Lea to be the same as Unio ceruleus.

No. 27.—Unio Bonneavnt, Hyd. South India.

No. 28.—Unto Gavpicuavni, Hyd. Bengal.

No. 29.—Unto Keravprenn, Hyd. Chandernagore.

IT am indebted for all my information as to the above four species

to Mr. Benson. I have not access at present to the work in which

they are described.

In Kister’s monograph of Unio in Martini and Chemnitz another

species is described from the “‘ Hast Indies,”’ U. Hxanthematicus, Kister,

p. 248, pl. 81, fig. 2. The authority, however, for the locality is Dr.

v. d. Busch, whose general accuracy, after the instances given above,

may be open to doubt; the ‘‘ Hast Indies” in a Natural History sense,

not many years since, denoted any country between Africa and

Kamschatka, and the peculiar pustulated surface of the shell, from

which the name is derived, is unknown in any Indian species. I

think it is probably not a native of the Indian Peninsula.

U. discus, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. IV, 74, Pl. 18, 7. 57, was at

first stated to be from India, on, however, palpably insufficient

grounds, the original specimen having been purchased from a dealer

amongst a lot of shells from India. The shell is so distinct from any

known Indian species, that I had concluded that the locality was

assigned to it in error, before I found that in a subsequent volume of

the Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. VIII, p. 234, note, Lea mentions

his having ascertained that the locality was the River Moctezuma in

Central America.

Mr. Benson mentions (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 195,)

his having received from the Malabar Coast a shell which he refers to

U. consobrinus, Lea,

146 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

Unio spuria is said by Lamarck to be from Southern Asia. Mr.

Benson states (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 189,) that the

young of U. favidens approaches the figure given by Wood of Mya

spuria, which is, I suppose, the same species. It is not clear that

Lamarck’s type was Indian. Mr. Benson also (1. c. p. 189) refers to

Mya radiata, Chem. as being from Malabar. Mya radiata, Gmelin is

by Lamarck, Lea and Kiister, said to be American, and even in

Kiister I can find no allusion to Chemnitz’s species.

It is only right to add too that some of what Woodward most

justly terms “the worthless fabrications of Rafinesque’” (Man. Mol.

p. 136, note,) came from India. No scientific purpose can be served by

recalling the names from the oblivion in which they are happily buried.

II. —Assam.

No. 80.—Unio 1nvotutus, Benson. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

I only know of this and the succeeding three species from reference

being made to them by Mr. Benson in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

for 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 186. The work in which they were originally

described is not procurable in Calcutta. U-. involutus is said to be

thin and tumid and to represent U. olivarius, Lea, in Assam.

No. 31.— Unto Corzis, Bens. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

No. 32.—Unto Raputa, Bens. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

No, 33.—Unto Scosrna, Bens.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

U. fluctiger, Lea (teste Benson) Jour, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser, IV. 250,

pl. 39, f. 130,

+ Kister, Mart. and Chem., p. 287, pl. 80, fig. 1.

Mr. Benson (in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 186) states

that U. fluctiger, Lea, is a synonym of U. Scobina. Kiister’s figure

of fluctiger differs from Lea’s type, and the shell is stated to be from

S.America. As, however, Kiister’s specimen was from Dr. v. d. Busch’s

cabinet, very little reliance can be placed upon the assigned locality,

especially as Lea, who did not know whence the shell came, sug-

gested that it was, possibly, South American,

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 147

Kiister’s type is narrower anteriorly and has rather different, coarser

plication posteriorly, than Lea’s. It may be a different shell.

No. 34.—Unto Nurtatiianus, Lea. Assam, teste Benson.

Lea, Jour. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phil. IIT., 310, pl. 30, f. 25.

The locality is simply stated to be India by Lea. Benson, Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 194, states that he has received speci-

mens from Assam. The volume containing the description of this

shell is not procurable in Calcutta.

No. 35.—Unto Jenxinstanvs, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist, 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 185.

An ally of U. marginalis, distinguished by “the very tumid form,

the sloping posterior end, absence of a wing, the short ligament, and

the nature and position of the teeth.” (Bens. 1. c.) In the Asiatic So-

ciety’s collection there is a shell from Bhagulpoor perhaps referable as

a variety to this species.

No. 36.—Unio pacuysoma, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 186.

“ An inflated form of the ceruleus type.” (Bens. 1. c.) Mr. Benson

also states that he has received a distorted variety from Calcutta. A pe-

culiar tumid form which is not uncommon in Calcutta tanks is doubt-

less referred to. It agrees generally with the description given. This

form therefore adds one more to the Bengal list.

No. 37.—Unio Smaracpires, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam,

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 190.

A shell allied to U. favidens.

Besides these forms a variety of U. favidens, Bens. (var. marcens) has

already been quoted as occurring in Assam. Mr. Benson also records

the receipt of a variety of U. ceruleus (J. A. 8. B. VI. 750) and of a

small variety of U. marginalis (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 3rd Ser. X.

186) from that region.

TIL.—Cryton.

No. 38.—Unto Layaront, Lea. Ceylon.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV., 248, pl. 36, f, 122.

This is a shell of the marginalis type with a convex dorsal margin,

and generally rounded outline. It appears to be a fairly distinguish-

able form, though very close to Bengalensis and lamellatus.

148 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No: 2,

No. 39.—Unto Tuwartzst, Lea. Ceylon.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV., 246, pl. 37, f. 125.

This shell only differs from the last in having a rather straighter

hinge line, and being slightly more inequilateral. If such differences

‘species’ might be manufac-

are to rank as specific, half a dozen

tured out of any tank in Calcutta. The separation of these two forms

is perfectly unjustifiable in a genus like Unio.

The above are the only species that I can trace specially described

from Ceylon. Lamarck’s variety 6. of Unio marginalis described as

var. testé minore, breviore, and 75 millimetres broad was also from

Ceylon (iam. VI. 79). Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work on Ceylon,

enumerates only U. corrugatus besides U. marginalis. He, however,

adds that Mr. Cuming possessed six species from the island, which

had been sent to Mr. Lea. U. Thwaztesii and U. Layardi are doubt-

less two of these, as they were from Mr. Cuming’s cabinet, but no

mention is made of the others by Mr. Lea.

IV.—Borma.

No. 40.—Unito Tavoyensts, Gould. Tavoy.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I., 140.

» Ot. Conch, p. 190.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 166, pl. 48, f. 2.

“Closely allied to U. corrugata, Lam. which is less rounded and

less corrugated” (Gould, 1. c.) More nearly allied to Lamarck’s than

to Chemnitz’s type of U. corrugatus. Kiister’s figure agrees well with

Gould’s description, but represents a young shell, not mature. The

specimen figured was from the collection of Dr. Sturm (and not from

that of Dr. v. d. Busch).

No. 41.— Unio crispatus, Gould. Tavoy.

U. crispata, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I,, 141.

” ry) Ot. Conch. p. 191.

No. 42.—Unio rouiacnus, Gould. Tavoy.

U. foliacea, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat, Hist. I, 141.

Ot. Conch. p. 191.

29 2)

An ally (variety?) of U. marginalis, Lam. “ Closely allied to U.

Bengalensis and Corrianus, Lea.’”’ (Gould, 1. c.)

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 149

No. 43.—Unio rxorzescens, Gould. Tavoy.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat, Hist. I., 141.

» Ot. Conch, p. 191.

Apparently, from the description, another ally or variety of the U.

marginals type.

No. 44.—Unto generosus, Gould. Tavoy.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, II., 220.

» Ot. Conch, p. 201.

I believe I possess this species. Specimens were sent to me by Mr.

Theobald from Pegu, which agree with the description fairly, except

that they are smaller than the type.

No. 45.— Unto tutsus, Lea. Newville, Tavoy.

Lea, Jowr. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, III., 302, pl. 27,17.

I have not access to the description or figure of this species.

No. 46.—Unio crispisutcatus, Bens. Bangong R. near Thayet

Myo, Pegu.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 193.

I am indebted to Mr. Theobald for specimens of this shell. It ap-

pears doubtful whether it be more than a variety of U. crispatus,

Gould, to which Mr. Benson does not refer in his description, and

with which he was possibly unacquainted. Gould’s description is very

brief, and gives the idea of a more coarsely sculptured shell ( ‘ rugis

angulatis radiantibus undique: crispata’”’) besides being somewhat

shorter (from the dorsal to the ventral margin) in proportion to its

breadth, but these are not necessarily specific distinctions.

No. 47. Unto Puato, Bens. Ava and Pegu.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 198.

A solitary valve was sent to Mr. Benson by Mr. Theobald, who gave

the locality as Ava. Isubsequently found the same form in the Mya-

noung district of Pegu, and Mr. Theobald has since obtained larger

varieties, I believe from Prome. It is a well marked type, extremely

inequilateral, and with a peculiar acuminate form posteriorly.

As already observed, the type form of Unio marginalis, Lam.

abounds in Pegu. I found unusually fine specimens in large swamps

about Henzada and Myanoung in the Irawady valley. The type gra-

dually passes by insensible gradations into a much less transverse

150 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

form, almost subquadrate. The posterior portions of the valves were

often covered by the remarkable fresh water Bryozoon. Mislopia of

Carter, apparently a new species.

I have other species from Pegu, but I am unable at present to com-

pare them with the numerous named forms described by Lea irom

Siam, many of which probably extend to Burma.

Genus ANODONTA, Brugiere.

No. 1.—Anoponta soLENIFoRMIs, Bens. Assam.

Benson. J. A. 8. B. V., 750.

The type specimen is in the Asiatic Society’s Museum (now the

Imperial Museum). There is also an A. solenzformis, D’Orbigny, but

Mr. Benson’s name is the oldest, as it was published in 1836.

Mr. Lea has described a species from Siam, evidently very closely

allied to this, as Iycetopus emarginatus, Lea. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sei.

Phil. 2nd Ser. V., 398, pl. 50, £. 305). As the animal has not been.

observed, it may be doubtful if it is really a Mycetopus. At the same

time the character of both the Siam and Assam shells are so distinct

from those of any true Anodonta, that perhaps the best provisional

classification is that adopted by Mr. Lea. Specimens of A. solenzfor-

mis with the animal living are a peculiar desideratum.

No. 2.—Anoponta Satwentans, Gould. Salween R., Burma.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I., 158.

Ot. Conch, p. 193.

A very peculiar broad shell, belonging to Monocondylea. (See

next species.) I have never seen this form.

No. 3.—Anoponta Inoscunaris, Gould. Salween R., Burma.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I. 158.

ns Ot. Conch. p. 193.

Subsequently in the same volume, p. 161, Dr. Gould suggested

that this species might be the type of a new genus which he named

Pseudodon. This name is by Adams quoted as a synonym of Anodonta,

but the type species is not quoted under that genus, nor, so far as I can

detect, under any other. In Otva Conchologica, Gould, in describing

the genus, adds in brackets “perhaps equivalent to Monocondylea,

D’Oxb,” So far as the shell is concerned, this is undoubtedly the

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 151

correct position of these species, if the hinge teeth are trustworthy

indicators of generic affinity. H. and A. Adams, in the Gen. Ree.

Moll., include under Monocondylea, M. Vondenbuschiana, Lea, from

Java,* described by Lea as a Margaritana (Baphia of Adams) and

several species of the genus have been described from Siam and

Cochin China by French and American naturalists.

I have received from Mr. Theobald fine specimens obtained in Pegu

which correspond admirably with Margaritana Vondenbuschiana, Lea,

and unquestionably belong, I think, to that species; and also shells

which appear to belong to a variety of Anodonta inoscularis, agreeing

with the type in size, shape and every character of importance; and

not only are the two forms unmistakeably congeneric, but I even

think it probable that specimens might be met with to unite them

specifically, as they differ in no essential character, except the very

different degree of development of the cardinal tooth, which in

Vondenbuschiana is scarcely raised, while in the specimens which I

refer to inoscularis it is sometimes nearly a quarter of an inch high.

There are in the Asiatic Society’s collection, also, two forms which

appear to me certainly varieties of M. Vondenbuschiana. One of them,

however, agrees more closely with the figure of MZ. Cumingir, Lea

(Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV, 235, pl. 33, f. 114) a Ma-

lacea shell, which only differs from Vondenbuschiana in unimportant

minutie,

M, Vondenbuschiana is described and figured by Lea in Trans. Am.

Phil. Soc. VIII, 222, pl. 18, f. 39, and also in Kister.

Were there nothing but the form of the hinge teeth to connect the

South American species of Monocondylea with the Burmese and Java-

nese Pseudodon and Margaritana, especially having regard to the very

diverse form of the shell, I should suspect them to be in reality distinct

types. But there is one little peculiarity which appears to tend to

unite them, At the termination of the portion of the hinge line in

which, by close inspection, flattened obsolete representations of the

lateral teeth may be seen, there is a very peculiar expansion of the

end of the ligament which covers a small sinus in the inner surface of

both valves. This is very well shewn in Lea’s figure of Margaritana

* Yet they state, ‘“ All the species of this genus known are from the rivers

of South America,’

152 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No.-2,

Vondenbuschiana, and also in both Adams’s figures of different species

oi Monocondylea from 8. America. The same ocenrs in Anodon and

im the type species of Margaritana of Schumacher,* (7. margaritifera,

L.). I have not had an opportunity of examining the animals of the

Burmese species of Monocondylea, and therefore cannot say ii the

gills are free or not.

Besides the above forms, a minute species of Anodon is stated by

Mr. Benson to inhabit ponds in Bundelcund, J. A. S. B., V. 750.

P.S. No. 2a.—Unto spurtus, Gm. Tranquebar.

Mya spuria, Gm, vol. I, Pt. VI, p. 3222, No. 16.

Unio spuria, Lam. V1,.80, No. 45.

Mya spuria, Wood, Ind. Test. p. 12, pl. 2, No. 35.

Since writing the note on this species at p. 146, I have found that it

was described originally as from India. Gmelin refers to Schroeter

Hinl. in Conch. I, 617, No. 9, pl. 7, f. 5, so perhaps the name may

haye been given by Schroeter, though that by no means follows from

the reference. The description is very brief: “ MZ. testa rhombea viridt,

natibus glabris” and the shell is said to be like corrugatus, but near-

ly twice the size and pertectly smooth in front of the beaks (‘“ praeter

vulveé regionem tota glabra,” Gm. 1. c.). Wood’s figures are all poor.

The shell can scarcely be a young form I think, if considerably larger

than corrugatus.

Mya radiata,t I find, is attributed to Malabar by Gmelin, (p. 3220,)

from whom Wood appears to have only copied his localities. The species

is, I think, correctly attributed to Chemnitz by Mr. Benson, although

other authors give Gmelin as their authority. Gmelin’s description

runs thus—“ MW, testa equivalvi pellucida tenuissime transversim stri-

ata viridi flavicante livido radiata ; valvis altero latere latissimis, altero

angustissiumis.” J know of no form of Indian Unio to which this de-

seription would be applicable, and I cannot help suspecting that the

writers who have applied the name to an American species may very

possibly be right. Wood’s figure, also, does not recall any Indian

* It is by no means clear that Margaritona and Monocondylea are more than

subgenera, or even artificial sections of Anodonta. M. Vondenbuschiana is inter-

mediate between the second and last in characters of the shell, and there is no

known essential distinction in the animal.

+ The Linnzan genus Mya, like most Linnean genera, was an artificial group

to some extent Besides Mya as now understood, it comprised Unio and seve-

ral other genera.

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 1538

species ; for it is evident from the above description that the radiating

lines shewn do not refer to strie but to coloured markings. Mr.

Benson’s shell from Malabar was striated.

Good collections of the Unios of both Coromandel and Malabar are

greatly needed to determine all these doubtful species.

MonoconpyL™A crepristriaATa, Anthony. Pegu.

American Journal of Conchology, I., 205, pl. 18.

_ Moyoconpynma Prevensts, Anthony. Pegu.

Am, Jour. Conch. I., 205, pl. 18.

I am indebted to Mr. Theobald for the above quotations. The

shells are the two Monocondylea above referred to, the first being

that referred by me, though with some doubt, to Anodonta (Pseudo-

don) inoscularis, Gould, the second to Monocondyl@a Vondenbuschiana,

Lea. So long as it is the practice of naturalists living in foreign

countries, and, necessarily, imperfectly acquainted with the fauna of

distant regions, to give a “‘specific’’ name to every animal or frag-

ment of an animal which reaches them, lists of synonyms must multiply;

and as everybody will contend for the distinctness of his ‘‘ species,”

false notions as to the nature and value of specific distinctions must

prevail. Thus, in the same paper, one of the numerous varieties of

Melania variabilis, Benson, is called AZ. gloriosa, Anthony. Now it

is worthy of remark that Mr. Benson, who has examined far more of

the Mollusca of Burma than Mr. Anthony can possibly have seen, has

not for years described a single Melania from that country as new,

and has only described two species of Unio, although he had speci-

mens of all Mr. Anthony’s supposed new species. I can only add

that it would be easy for me to describe, from the materials I possess,

20 or 30 forms of Unio (and nearly as many more of Melania) with

as good claims to distinction as one-half at least of those already pub-

lished from India and Burma; but were I to do so, I cannot help

thinking that, while burdening science with additional names, I

should have added nothing to the knowledge of the fresh water mol-

lusca of India. Amongst fresh water shells I am convinced that.

forms pass into each other far more than amongst land shells, that

“species,” in the usual definition of the word, have no existence,

that all the characters relied upon for distinguishing ‘ species” of

Unionde in especial, the form and thickness of the hinge teeth, form

154 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. Z,

of the shell, prominence of the umbones, shape of the muscular im-

pressions, colour of the nacre, characters of the epidermis, &c. vary

ad infinitwm—in short that species must be described like genera and

grouped around types, not distinguished by characters.

I see from a notice in the Paris Journal de Oonchyliologie that, in

the same volume of the American Journal of Conchology, Mr. Conrad

proposed a new genus Zrigonodon for Monocondylea crebristriata of

Anthony, from which, as I have stated above, Anodonta inoscularis,

Gould, is at the best but dubiously separable specifically. But the

last named shell is the type of Gould’s genus Psewdodon, and Gould

himself suggested the identity of that genus with D’Orbigny’s Mono-

condylea.* Unless Mr. Conrad has procured the animals of the Pegu

forms, and shewn them to be distinct from those of South America,

(and I scarcely think he can have done so,) I cannot believe that any

useful object is attained by inventing these geneyic appellations. Even

if Trigonodon be not Pseudodon over again, (Mr. Conrad appears to

have already furnished one synonym before for Pseudodon, viz.

Monodontina,) there has been no distinction of any generic value

shewn between the shells of Burmese and Malay species of Monocon-

dylea and those of S. America; and bearing in mind that there are

some genera of more restricted distribution than those belonging to

the Unionide, e. g. the Tapir, and amongst Mollusks, Cyclophorus

and Megalomastoma, common to .the two regions, it would, I think,

be more scientific to examine the animals of the Burmese shells allied

to Monocondylea, before founding new genera to comprise them.

There is of course the possibility that Mr. Theobald may have been

misinformed as to the respective names of the two species, and that

the type of Tmgonodon is the form I have referred to Monocondylea

Vondenbuschiana, I can only add that the specimens of the same shell

from the same locality sent to me by Mr. Theobald, do not differ

more from Kiister’s figure of V. d. Busch’s original specimen of JZ.

Vondenbuschiana in Martini and Chemnitz, than that figure does from

Lea’s.

Unio Praurnsis, Anthony.

American Journal of Conchology, Vol. I.

I cannot learn what species has been thus named I hope to be

able to refer to the volume before long and to return to the subject.

* Ot. Conch., p, 194,

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 155

Two Indian species of Unio in the Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle at

Paris have received MS. names from Valenciennes. I am unable to

ascertain at present if these names have been published or not.

Corrigenda in Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI., in this volume :

P. 31, line 2, from bottom, for Kimery read Kimety.

OMe ENS EO a 2 COD, » Fordont » Gordont.

>» 8 », bottom, ,, Hattiwar » Kattiawar.

34, ce ae inwardly » conoidly.

99 39

SB, gg BD og WOW, >, subgesta > subjecta.

3%, 5, 125.4; bottom, supply “it” after nulla,

5 Teo ets a omit the word South.

Soy ue LOM Ts, Lop; » Oblong ovate, Achatina read oblong ovate

Achatinee.

7 Bei ya hag a » Basilens » Basileus.

= » 12, , bottom, ,, Alycewus 5 Alyceus.

ie elie to pa Ny a at » Recleiz >» Recluz.

39, lines 21, 16 & 11, from bottom, for Basilens >» Basileus.

» line 17, from bottom, for Wynand » Wynaud.

5 sy eae Lee Me , Paulghat cherry » Paulghatcherry

ui Sines ee tee 35 » of that N. awris » of N. auris.

32 3) 2, 3) 32 22 base by 22 barely.

AM py A a OO » slighly » slightly.

In the previous number V. of the Contributions, an important error occurs

N. conuta, n. s. for N. Conutus JJ. A. S. B. XXXIV, 73, 1865).

In the same page, Phoung ditto, Arakan, should be Phoung Do, and three

pages further, p. 76, line 12, a semicolon is omitted, altering the sense. The

passage should read “ a vertical lamina in front, and a second, slightly oblique,

just behind ; the first giving out’ &c. instead of “just behind the first.” The

only other erratum of importance is in page 81, line 20, where “ re-entering

lamellar parietal” should be “re-entering parietal lamella.”

156 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2,

Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

The following is from Mr. Blyth :—

T have already elucidated* sundry species of Aigialites (or Ring

Plover) and may now further add that I have since made out the

Charadrius pusillus of Horsfield to be the same as 4. ruficapillus, Gould,

figured in his Rirds of Australia: Horsfield’s specimen being in winter

dress, and his name of course standing for the species.

The Indian Neophron (281) will have to rank as N. ginginianus,

Latham. The Spilornis of Ceylon and of all S. India is the same as S.

Lilgint, Tytler, and will bear my prior name Spilogaster (J. A. S.

XXI. 351) being distinct from the Malayan S. bacha, with which Pro-

fessor Schlegel identifies it. Kalco babylonicus is the PF’. peregrinoides

apud G. R. Gray, as suggested in p. 282. The Cat noticed as Helis

macrocelis in p. 283 seems, after all, to be of a different and smaller race

than one received from Asdm also in the Zoological Gardens. It has

now been more than three years in the garden, and has only a slight

fulvous tendency even yet, while the other is much more fulvescent,

and is also of heavier build. I think that the larger only has the very

elongated canine teeth. Neither seems to be the true Diardii (vel

macrocelis) of Sumatra and Borneo; and I suspect that the larger and

more fulvous animal (which the Society’s Museum has from Sikhim)

should rank as F’. nebulosa, C. H. Smith, figured in Griffith’s English

edition of the Régne animal. There is also great variation in the F.

aurata, Tem. (murmensis, Hodgson, and the young F. Temminckii,

Vigors.) A rufous specimen in the India Museum has strongly deve-

loped body-markings, akin in type to those of the macrocelis group ;

others (alike from Sikhim, Malacca and Sumatra,) are deep rufous

without trace of body-markings; and thirdly, there is the blackish

race, which is designated F’. nigrescens, Hodgson, in the second edi-

tion of the British Museum Catalogue of Mr. Hodgson’s collections.

These Cats would seem, in fact, to be in process of specialization,

which is carried on a further stage in the F'. Swinhoei of Formosa, as

compared with the other races akin to 7. Diardit. Lastly, F. Oharl-

tom may be a race not strongly specialized apart from #7. marmorata.

* Asiatic Society's Journal, vol. XXXIV. p. 280.

1866.] Scientific Intelligence. 157

The whole of these constitute a group of H. and 8. HK. Asiatic Cats

per se, Which have not the peculiar clubbed tail of F. wncia, with

which Dr. Gray associates them. To the species of birds to be ex-

punged from Jerdon’s Indian series (p. 282), may be added Otocoris

penicillata, for which O. longirostris of Kashmir, Kooloo, &c., has

hitherto been mistaken. O. penicillata of W. Asia is smaller, with

much longer ear-tufts, and the black of the cheeks is continuous with

that of the breast. Have I told you that Carpophaga cuprea, Jerdon,

is well distinguished from C. insignis, Hodgson, having the neck and

lower parts much more ashy, while both differ from C. badia,

(Raffles), of Sumatra? Of C. pusilla, nobis, I have seen more spe-

cimens from §. India, where perhaps it co-exists with the large C.

@nea; and both cuprea and pusilla are very likely to inhabit the

mountains of Ceylon. Grauculus Layardi, nobis, (papuensis apud

Sykes,) of S. India and Ceylon, is very distinct from G. mace of

Bengal, &c., much smaller, with the wings strongly banded under-

neath. The Malayan G. javensis is a miniature of G. macez, of the

same small size as G. Layard. As many as four races have been

confounded under Pycnonotus jocosus, (.,) a name which must be

retained for that of China, which I have not seen. The Bengal bird

will stand as emeria of Shaw (pyrrhotis, Hodgson). The Tenasserim

and Penang race is monticolus, M’Clelland. That of 8. India will be

named by Gould, and it has no white markings on the rectrices. In the

Zoological Gardens are apparently two new species of Pheasant. One

is a female, of a duplicate race to nycthemerus, being of the true silver

Pheasant type. The other is a male; very like léneatus of Burma;

but the markings of the upper parts more resemble those of nycthe-

merus; it hag no white along the ridge of the tail, and no white

streaks on the flanks. Some think it a hybrid; but, if so, it can

only be between lineatus and nycthemerus. The tail, however, is

shaped exactly as in the former, whereas it should be considerably

more lengthened, if the bird had nycthemerus for one parent ; and its

legs also should in that case be larger, and shew some trace of the

crimson colour of those of nycthemerus. I am, therefore, disposed to

consider it as a true wild race of Kallij, probably from some more

eastern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula,

—— SE SE eeESeESeEeaSe See

rs , Ms ps

ie aed Sa Sanne

ok ores ae cn % Bathe one. op

wh 5 OED.

gO U.N aks Li

OF THE

BelATIC SOCIETY.

——<p—_

Parr I.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

a a ee ae

No. III.—1866.

TN aad

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a geological

paper by Ausert M. Vercuirs, Esqg., Bengal Medical Service ; with

@ note on the fossils by M. Epouarp pe Vernevit, Membre de

V Académie des Sciences, Paris.

(Continued from page 133.)

Leaving with regret the Zeeawan spur, we will continue our

examination of the Zebanwan mountain along its southern aspect.

(See Map B.) (Section III. on General Map.) 4a | ;

We first cross a considerable mass of volcanic rocks, well stratified,

and which we will not stop to describe, as they are similar to the

felspathic ashes, black slates and the amygdaloid seen before. They

present, however, a few layers of a coarsely crystalline limestone,

without fossils and interbedded with layers of ash; some of this lime-

stone is quite black and remarkably well crystallized in small crystals

of jet-black spar. It would be a valuable ornamental marble, if found

in some quantity. Ihave only seen it in thin and small patches,

accompanying an amygdaloidal dust-stone of fine texture, but much

decayed and nearly as black as the limestone. These patches of black

rock are well seen on the slope of the long spurs which descend

towards the 8. H., from the highest summits of the Zebanwan. These

volcanic rocks dip easterly, and their inclination is not more than 20°

to 25°.

‘

160 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashnwr, [No. 3,

Having crossed a ravine, we arrive at the spurs over Zowoor, where

we find the following beds along one section, from W. 8. W. to

EH. N.E. We begin with No. 4 of the Section: the Nos. 1, 2 and 3

refer to the volcanic rocks and black limestone just described.

1. ......... Amygdaloidal greenstone, dips H. 8. EH.

12 addoanued Ash interbedded with thin beds of highly erystalline azoic limestone,

Sb oodco000c Ash interbedded with black crystalline limestone in thin patches.

4. Amygdaloid; dip EH. S. H. 20°.

5. Quartzite, white and stratified. It becomes gradually sandy and coloured

blue syellows onjeneysinm plACES mrrenetriere sree reer reser aac aera 15 ft.

6. Crystalline limestone with the debris of fossils, undeterminable, 5 ft.

7. Lenticular beds of coarse granular limestone, full of Athyris sp.? (see

Pi. II. fig. 1 and la) and Productus Flemingt,............0.ccec sess neces 1 foot.

8. Limestone; grey, weathering brown, presenting abundant sections of

Orthoceras and a few, Flenestevlides, .......0...::scocccer ser ceesscussncunosene 10 ft.

9. Coarse limestone; Fenestellides, Producti, &c. passes into.

10. Calcareo-ferruginous, brown shales with some fossils: 9 and 10,

11010) ise a Yeric ad Heo na lonaadad ab sascmosdsab Gate Nao ScaeHobop sauna cosoadasangcacoaca 40 ft.

These beds 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are therefore the same beds as there seen at

Zeeawan, or they are in other words, Zeeawan limestone. They all dip H.S.H. 20°.

11. Limestone, thin bedded and shaly: no fossils, ...............4. 5 ft.

-A fault occurs here, and the following beds are seen on the eastern side

of it.

_ 12. Limestone of the Zeeawan bed brought up again. It presents the

same succession as above, viz. an Orthoceras bed, a Fenestellide bed, and a

brown shale bed; the Fenestellide beds are, however, less abundant, and

the lenticular Athyris ones were NOt SCeD, ............ 2.0 ..ee0e connec eee ee 4O ft.

27. Resting on this limestone, we find other beds of limestone

having a very different aspect. In fact we have the beginning of the

Weean bed of carboniferous limestone. The fauna changes consider-

ably : no Producti are found, no Fenestellides, no great flat Orthide,

but instead a very great number of small bivalves, much broken and

comminuted, and here and there in lenticular beds, where fossils of

one or two species have been heaped together, some small Brachio-

poda of the genera Spiriferina and Terebratula ; some large mussel-

Shaped bivalves which are probably Anthracosie or some other near

sub-genus of Cardinia ; some large and sometimes extremely gibbose

Aviculo-pectens ; some Pectens four inches across; Goniatites and

an innumerable variety of Hncrinite stems of all sizes. The appear-

ance of the rock will be noticed as we get on with our section.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 161

13. A light blue limestone, argillaceous and compact, weathering rugose

like frosted glass, but without losing its fine, lustreless, clay-like, pale blue colour.

It contains many remains of fossils in a bad state of preservation,... 30 ft.

A fault from N. N. W.—S S.H.; downthrow 8. W. The fault is met near

the end of the spur by another running W. 8. W.—H. N.H. The end of the

spur, detached, as it were, by these two faults, strikes 8. H.—N. W. and dips

N. H. 20°. The rock of this detached bed is a shaly limestone; the fossils are

small and ill-preserved ; they occur in patches, one or two feet of the bed pre-

senting a great number of remains, whilst hardly a trace of organisms is to be

seen for some yards, It is about 50 feet thick,..................0.:see eee 50 ft.

Another fault from N, N. W.—S. 8S. E.; downthrow 8S. W. The effect of

this fault has been to bring up again the bed of Zeeawan limestone, and we

therefore have the following bed to the N. H. of the fault.

14, A coarse micaceous marly slate, without fossils, and passing gradually

upwards into sandy shales of a dark brown colour and containing Producti,

Orthide and Spirifers in a very bad state of preservation. These dark shales

are identical in appearance and in some of their fossils with the brown shales

of the Zeeawan bed, but the Bryozoa, so extensively developed in other

localities, appear to be totally absent, and some small bivalves, which are

found in the Weean bed and have not been seen in the Zeeawan bed, were

discovered here,* These differences however may be easily accounted for by a

difference of depth of the sea at the time the Zeeawan limestone and shale

were deposited. The sandy and coarse micaceous slates seem to indicate a

shallow sea with a drifting current on a shelving coast, a physical arrancement

which may be a tolerable habitat for the large Brachiopoda, but unsuitable to

the delicate Bryozou.

This Zeeawan bed is succeeded by a shaly limestone, similar to that

which is seen before the fault, that is to say Weean limestone. It

has a well marked cleavage, due probably to its argillaceous impurities,

and this cleavage is not unfrequently more conspicuous than the stra-

tification.

The end of the spur is, like the preceding spur, cut off by a

transverse fault W. S. W.—E. N. EH. and the detached end dips

H. N. HE. 20°, whilst the body of the spur, above the transverse fault,

dips’ H. §. EH. 20°, the cleavage noted above dips N. W. 70°.

The thickness of these two beds together is about 100 feet; they form the

whole of the spur above the village of Koonmoo, ..........:.s...:.se eee 100 ft.

28. Above Koonmoo, in the angle formed by the divergence

of the two arms of the spur, is a spring with a Zyarat called Shokim.

* A similar mixture of Zeeawan and Weean fossils is found in some parts of

the Rotta Roh in the Punjab. See Chapter III. para. 60.

162 Mr, Verchere on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

‘The rocks which are above this spring form a little knoll very insigni-

ficant geographically, but interesting for its fossils. These are often

converted into hematite, sometimes crystalline, sometimes powdery.

The rock of the bed is mostly a hard, cherty, pinkish limestone, and

in this are lenticular beds of a soft, granular, pale french-grey lime-

stone, with innumerable minute black dots which are the crystallized

stems of a very slender crinoid. ‘These minute rings are sometimes a

round plate and sometimes a five radiated star. The rockis sometimes

coloured pink by iron, and then the crinoid-rings are dark red instead

of black. It is foetid and it contains the large Anthracosie (Pl VL.

fig. 8,) and the Aviculo-pectens mentioned before, and also the

little shell Pl. VIII. fig. 5. This spur contains also a very com-

pact, dark, nearly black limestone, with a very fine grain, but with

only a few fossils and encrinite-rings. It is a similar bed which has

furnished the blocks of which the beautiful black marble pillars

of the Shalimar Bagh are made of. It takes a fine polish, and is

evidently very durable. It is probable that this bed of black

limestone crosses over to the valley of the Arrah river, and has been

quarried there for these pillars.*

The remainder of the little spur is made up of calcareous, micaceous sand-

stone without fossils (?). The thickness of the beds forming this spur, is

1 0(0) 01 aR BaR eR DocoBbHne occes Spa coanebnasGee ios ten duende ce HueneadauauBcddescauber 60 ft.

Then we have again beds of limestone, shaly and sandy, much cracked and

fissured, and with only the debris of fossils. The harder portion of the rock is

blue, and is traversed by innumerable white lines cutting one another in all

directions. It dips H. 8S. H. 20°.

It is succeeded by a bed of blue argillaceous limestone, weathering rugose,

and traversed by thin streaks of yellow, ochrous limestone, and containing

fossils in abundance, amongst others a plaited Spiriferina which appears

common in some layers, whilst it is rare in others, Crinoid stems are also

very abundant, occurring as it were in patches.

The above mentioned bed is covered in by a grey micaceous sandstone,

weathering pale brown and containing the fragments of fossils, but no Spiriferine,

The total thickness of the three last beds mentioned is above ... 150 ft.

Crossing the dry bed of a torrent and a great deal of rubbish which —

apparently covers a fault, the sixth spur is reached, and presents the

following layers :

* These pillars are generally described by travellers as black porphyry, a

mistake which a very little attention would have prevented, as the sections of

fossils are to be seen on the polished surface of the columns.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 163

a, The bed with the spur brought up again after the fault, ...... 20. ft.

6. The micaceous sandstone, thin and false-bedded, with well marked

ees AA MME Reais sto ere iclascrsign ders secis cele v sARAU Laisaisoeie Sub aee ae i idbel evades 16 ft.

c. Hoetid pale brown, calcareous sandstone, viz. false-bedded; no fossils ;

dips. H. 8. EH. 30°.., 98100060000 doo od Dob0aRH000D HoDOGOBOM ODO dbHAgIOeO coGOUoHOG | tle ahi,

d. Shales; no fossils, aelentsuieles Mslobecielesiele(ostit}rieslsseiscrisocetere ci satechestni nn li LOOLE

e. Limestone, compact and danke erey, ait weathering oi It is much

- shivered, and is divided by innumerable white lines crossing each other. No

fossils except what appear to be worm-burrows filled with sandy ochre, 15 ft.

Ff. Very argillaceous limestone of a pale blue colour, with patches of a dirty

Pe macy alesUEOWMICOLOUL picsversscscessveacss¢: e6 ssh csnospoessesecsncsecs, EBL:

29. I consider that these beds are the top of the Weean division of

the carboniferous limestone of the Himalaya, as the following beds

show a very great difference in their fauna, which is nearly entirely

confined to gasteropods and corals, the gasteropods presenting a great

variety of shape and size. The corals of the Cyathophyllide are

abundant and of considerable dimensions. The crinoid stems, some of

them minute and starred, continue to be seen everywhere. The beds

characterized by gasteropods and corals form the Kothair bed, which

we shall see better developed elsewhere.

Continuing our section, we have therefore, resting on the argilla-

ceous limestone, the following layers :

g. Limestone, fine grained, blue, compact and argillaceous, with patches of

dirty yellow. It contains many fragments of fossils, nearly entirely gasteropods.

Some of these are two inches in length. Starry rings of crinoid stems

abundant. The limestone becomes gradually of a richer blue colour, some

portions being indeed light blue; it weathers rugose like frosted glass. The

upper part contains no gasteropods, but fossil roots and rootlets the size of

the finger. It 1s about 25 feet thick, 20.22. ..0..6..ce sos caestersrrerseecss 25 ft.

This is all we see here of the Kothair bed, as a fault running N. S.

brings up again the Weean bed; but this patch of the Kothair

is interesting, as showing its relation to the Weean bed, a relation

which I have not been able to trace so well anywhere else. The

Weean and Kothair beds are quite conformable.

On the other side of the fault we find :

a. A limestone, bluish-grey and compact; weathering sandy and dull

grey. Itis divided in layers by several sandy partings. It contains only

a few encrinite stems and dotted white patches which are probably decomposed

fossils. It is shivered and traversed by innumerable white lines,...... 20 ft.

164 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

b. Brown foetid limestone, full of a transverse species of a plaited Spi7i-

ferina and a globular Terebratula. It is probably a lenticular bed, and takes

the place of the Spirifer bed noted above, .......ccccsseeseeseseeersesesees 8 Eb,

c. Limestone like a.

The end of this spur is cut by a transverse fault in the same manner

as we have seen in the preceding spurs. The cut off beds are much

disturbed, being vertical at the tops of the ridge, and dipping N. H. at

high angles along the slope.

Beyond this is I have not examined this fine section of the lime-

stone of Kashmir. I was never allowed to visit it again, as I was

suddenly ordered away from Srinuggur, my professional services being

required elsewhere. Had I had time, I intended to follow the section

across the range into Nawan and down to the bottom of the Harrah

Valley.

30. From the brow of the last spur which I have visited, a fine

view is obtained of the next spur, which is remarkable for a great

twist of the strata which composé it. The limestone is extremely

white and resembles chalk-cliffs at a distance. We shall, however,

see this white limestone at Manus Bal, and find that it is probably

a portion of the Weean bed altered by heat. We shall find it similarly

altered at Islamabad.

The whole mass of hills of Nawan appears to be limestone. The

summits of Boorwaz and Batgool appear behind the range, present-

ing high rugged peaks of porphyry. To our right, the limestone

forms a small chain which advances for some miles into the Pampur

valley, and behind this chain a long line of mountains, also entirely

composed of limestone, runs N.—S. to join the Wastarwan. (See

maps B. and C.)

31. The little chain which descends into the Pampur valley

terminates over the village of Weean. At its extremity, the Weean

limestone, or middle bed of carboniferous limestone of Kashmir, is

well developed, and we will now proceed to examine this locality.

It is, tome, the classical ground of the Weean limestone, as the

Zeeawan spur is that of the Zeeawan Bed.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 165

Section of the hills above the village of Weean in the Pampur valley y-

(See fig. 7.)

The little hillocks above the villages of Weean and Kohew, are

separated from the main hill by a fault running W.—EH. The beds

have moreover been folded on themselves and dip due W. (at Weean),

with an angle of 55°, whilst in the main hill the dip is to the N. H.

with an angle between 20° and 30°. This does not, however, prevent

the section of the little hill near Weean being a very good one for

study. We shall proceed from H. to W.

1. Impure arenaceous limestone with fine spangles of mica. It is very

shaly in the centre of the bed and there very much decayed. It

changes its aspect repeatedly, adding here more sand and mica, there more

BIBT. Sobor nd Hod EAUE BESO RCC IEEE CREE EUS ene ra ncnree: soem aod cna BLO OaEts

2. Limestone, ar ea: in bie itd lew ie Nop BdonHa son 4 ft.

3. Blue limestone, weathering brown and rough. It is arenaceous near

its upper part. It contains a very few fragments of fossils, ......... 20 ft.

4. Finely crystalline limestone; nearly saccharine; grey and

SUL UND steer sede taree tata as casts eitavocsnvele ae ic tigre chaneaea Sigs o weaeTara ass adhels walslng braun inils wk natauliaele bl 15 ft

5)p. -\ ILA) sansocuaodeacannncrecutoene caer nacre cup nodes tcarcanesnaecne nocsoueD9 8 ft.

6. Limestone in blue and dirty yellow patches; fossils much

IDLO GH as fare cial sortniciisiseisins piece. cdopo.co0 SoH ho HadasHed BWon oe noose A Sao ROH Mon ne lam llth

7. Flesh colour limestone ; hard, cherty and magnesian, ......... 4 ft.

8. Sandstone, micaceous, grey, calcareous and muddy. It decays faster

than the other beds and forms a depression on the hill-side, ...... .. 2 ft.

9. Limestone, patchy blue and brown. The hardest and roughest por-

tions are full/of the’ debris of fossils) so. .ci le. sic eewce cee cee eres enec ese sesle 25 ft.

10. Sandstone, soft and wearing off quickly, forming a depression 20 ft.

11. Limestone, hard and grey; it is brecciated and weathers

SPAEALELEIU LAD CM see teeta i yeaa ycisi era lero saystaied sister cietareiietate ga sto fueforelelahesiape Stotaslejerstesialsters 30 ft.

12. Marly and sandy limestone, compact and hard, dark grey and weather-

ing into a granular surface, having the appearance of a sandstone. The debris

RRA LLY te ery s rc oe ei sbdiecs wfosivais due avs dgieedernvannselativene des) Seinc-ieain ON EL,

13, Fawn-coloured ferns very muddy ; it weathers ochrous and decays

fast, forming a depression on the hill side,............. ibaa taease oko Lbs

14, A wall of very hard, crystalline, dark as isles limestone with

166 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [ No. 3,

patches coloured brown. It weathers a dirty dark yellow, and becomes extremely

rough and pitted by exposure. The organisms it contains are quite indistin-

SUISHADIE, 22.10. secses sec cce sce soeser see tee cer ees censcenenseecessee san aesaeg recess res 3 ft.

15. Fawn-coloured limestone like 18,................ nates wan LOPE

16. A wall of very hard and compact limestone, grey and very arenaceous.

Where it is tolerably free of sand, it is bluer and contains the debris of fos-

SIS dda soo nade AaGase dee socbe asoan od cocs5obodaodeds sou aecsabscasonboouauddccobcnced 0dr 15 ft.

17. Sandstone, pale and calcareous, with bands of crystalline carbonate

of lime. It decays fast and forms a depression, .................ss00005 10 ft.

18. A well marked wall of dark greyish-blue limestone, very rough and

pitted; it is arenaceous and in places cherty, ..............cscss.e sense 5 ft.

19. Sandstone, micaceous, very false-bedded and very muddy. It efferves-

ces with acid along the scum-markings of the false bedding only,... 16 ft.

20. A very arenaceous and argillaceous limestone, extremely variable in

its appearance, but being generally of a pale clayey yellow. It is formed of

extremely thin layers of two distinct rocks, one being a yellow marl, and

the other a bluish grey arenaceous limestone, and these thin layers are also

very false-bedded. When we make a vertical section of a hand specimen, we

have a Striped rock; and ina horizontal one, a succession of regularly round-

ed patches of bluish grey and sickly yellow. This alternation of very thin and

very false-bedded layers of rocks of two different colours is the cause of the

patchy appearance of many beds of the Weean group. But it is rarely

so well defined as in this present layer. In other places, the bluish limestone

forms irregularly-rounded balls or nodules cemented together by the yellow

marl, or the marl forms lumps imbedded in the limestone. Then again mi-

caceous sand forms, here and there, small false-bedded layers or bands in the

rock: and lenticular beds of a hard, brittle, pale yellowish, limestone, full of

the fragments of bivalves and of small crinoid stems, are also found. But all

these varieties of rock constitute a thick course of impure limestone, 60 ft.

Total ... 425 ft.

We have now arrived at the little ravine which indicates the centre

of the fold of the beds; on its other side the same beds are repeated in

an inverse manner as far as the bed 16 of the above section; the re-

maining beds have been denuded from the western branch of the fold.

This fold deserves notice, as showing well how completely beds may

be reversed in their position. It is probable that the beds nearest

to the ravine are the deepest or oldest, whilst the bed which we have

numbered No. 1, in the section, is the most superficial. If the hill

had been denuded to half its present height above the village, the beds

Fig. 7.

Sketch Section of the hills above Weean and Kohew, bearing N.; to illustrate the descriptive Section of these mountains. (Not drawn to scale.)

Boorwaz Bat

a Limestone hills, (Zebanwan) dip S. Easterly. (13087) a 133)

ANS

\. XS

oN AY wy IW OAL <i

ii,

fooNyoo

—— S=HDY

; (es

Vin Wipyreta\\

KonEW

1017 1810 20 20 10 1817 agas 141912 11109 8 7 6 5 “4 3 2 1

Fig. 8.

Sketch-Section of the Hapatikri and Saijnarh Mountains, bearing N. L. as seen from the top of the Ishlamabad Hill. (Not drawn to scale »)

Beds not visited. Hapatikri Mt. Sajjnarh Mt, Niltopa (14538)

ive y aes

ZW, ( (foe V7! RT Vy

POU ROAH At Mea -anpotevoug |

t BL

: LL NN SI, LY =<

Ye le OSS Lh

Ze Tin Z

—_MAARTAND.

—fACUGTAINE —PLATEAG

iP 3

FPO. BIN

Be ee

eh :

Goat 7 y

cit WET i

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 167

would appear to succeed one another with considerable regularity

from W. to E., and one bed, No. 1, would appear the deepest; but

the top of the hill having been preserved, the beds can be seen plainly

bending and folding themselves in two. There is a circumstance which

renders it extremely easy to follow the beds along the hill-side and

it is this, that the layers 16, 17 and 18 forma sort of broad ribbon at

their outcrop ; 16 and 18 being composed of dark grey walls of: lime-

stone which, from their hardness, are prominent 2 or 3. feet over

the general surface of the slope, whilst 17, the layer between them,

is a pale sandstone, decaying fast and forming a sunken furrow be-

tween the two walls. This broad ribbon, about 30 feet wide, can

be followed with the eye for miles. The layers 7, 8 and 9 also form

a ribbon, but less well marked than the other, being paler and not

so sharp. Now, these two ribbons are of the greatest assistance

in following the twists and foldings of the beds. We have seen

that the ribbon 16, 17 and 18 ascends. the eastern branch of the fold

over Weean and curves over at the top of the hill, where its beds are

perfectly horizontal, and then descends along the western branch. We

see the two ribbons forming near the village of Kohew an anticlinal

similar to that of Weean, but not quite so sharp, and the description

of the ribbon also shows us plainly that the beds of the Weean

hillocks are reversed. here isa great fault between the main hill

and these two little hillocks of Weean and Kohew; on the north

of the fault, the beds dip to the N. H. ata high angle, and all the

soft and marly layers have decayed and tumbled down in éboulis,*

but the hard ribbon has remained, and can be traced along the

hill showing the outcrop of the beds. All the way up to Nawan

we can see the beds of limestone dipping N. HE. and we can infer the

existence of many faults across the range from the reappearance of

the ribbon on the top of each small spur which descends in the

Kohew valley. We see these pieces of ribbon plunge under the soil

of this small valley to emerge on the other side (fig. 7), giving us

the strike of the beds of that long chain of limestone hills which

connects Nawan with the Wastarwan Mountain ; but although I have

* The French word is so convenient and expressive, that I do not hesitate

to use it, as no Knglish word expresses equally well the broken materials of

beds which have slipped.

168 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

not visited that long chain of hills, and have not travelled up the

Kohew valley, I was enabled in following these ribbons, to see

that it is composed of the variety of limestone which I have galled

the Weean Bed.

We shall observe these ribbons wherever the Weean limestone

is well developed; they are to be seen in the section I have

given, between Yeeawan and Koonmoo, on the southern aspect of

the Zebanwan. I did not mention them there, because they

make but little show near these localities; but we shall see them

well marked near Mutton, in the eastern portion of the valley of

Kashmir.

32. I will now try to characterise the Weean Bed of carboniferous

limestone. .

It is a very arenaceous and argillaceous limestone, the sand bemg

either in thin grey bands, or mixed with the general paste of

the rock. A sandy, marly clay, yellow, dirty-yellow, pale brown

or brown, forms thin and very false-bedded films in the rock, so

that this is striped when bisected vertically, and patchy bluish and

yellow when divided horizontally. The hardest beds are brittle, flesh-

coloured and generally full of bright red minute crystals of hematite,

and the fossils are here replaced by a powdery or semi-crystalline

hematite which, however imperfectly, preserves their outlines. The

harder rock is never blue, and the blue variety of rock is suffici-

ently muddy to have a soft, velvety, lustreless appearance like a

fine clay, and not the clean brittle fracture of a pure and hard

limestone. It has in places all the appearance of a very dirty dark-

grey mud dried up, and it is then full of fossils and extremely fetid.

It contains lenticular beds of a very pale, nearly friable limestone,

containing black specks which are the rings of stems of very minute

crinoids, and this variety of soft limestone is the habitat of large

bivalves. One single bed of limestone may be mistaken for Zeeawan

limestone, bluish-grey, coarse hard and semi-crystalline, but it

contains innumerable Foraminifere transformed into yellow ochre;

very large Peciens, and an incredible quantity of fragmentary

Crinoidea. Indeed, it is the great number of those small rings of

crinoid stems, always crystallized, which causes the. rock to resemble

the limestone of the Zeeawan Bed.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 169

Everything in the Weean bed tells of a shallow sea formation.

The rocks in some localities, to be described hereafter, have been

much altered by heat or other forces soon after their formation. We

shall see them thus altered at Manus Bal and at Islamabad, and

also at the Kafir Kote in the Punjab district of Bunnoo. It appears

that considerable disturbances occurred while the Weean Bed was

still in a soft state. But this subject will be examined more carefully

in another paragraph of this paper.

The fossils differ a great deal from those of the Zeeawan Bed. In

most layers they are mere debris hardly to be recognized. When

they do occur, they are always crowded together in limited beds.

The Spiriferine and Terebratule appear to have lived in shallow

lagoons, in creeks in the sand, in pools on a flat marshy shore,

and the large bivalves on sandbanks and shallows. The following

fossils appear to be characteristic of the Weean Bed, as they

are not found either in the Zeeawan Bed below or the Kothair bed

above.

Spiriferina Stracheyit (Salter) ?

¥ Stracheywt (Salter)? var. altior, (Verch.).

Solenopsis imbricata ? (Koninck).

Pl Vale tie

Cucullea ? sp. -— Pl. VI. fig. 4.

Anthracosia ? (King)—Cardinia, sp. Pl. VI. fig. 3. —

i ? Cardinia ovalis ? (Martin) Pl. VI. fig. 3.

Axinus, sp. n., allied to A. obscurus.

Solenopsis sp.

Aviculo-Pecten dissimilis (Fleming).

a ot Sp. cn. (A. circularis, Verchére,) Plat. VII.

[fig. 1, la, & 1b.

E 4 SY ? Pl. VL. fig. 6, 6a, 6b.

4, CSP MET) VAR high ot, ia.

a ih Sp: CPL Vi igea, vas 1b:

‘ » sp. n. ——?(4. Testudo, Verch.) Pl. VIL fig. 3, 3a.

45 » sp n.? CA. Gibbosus, Verch.) Pl. VII. fig. 4, 4a.

Goniatites, sp.

like G. Henslowiw (Sowerby).

Entomostrace-~Cypridinia ?

Foraminifere, -

Crinoidea ; Cyathocrinites and Pentremites.

170 Myr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

A small bivalve, giving on section the appearance of a pair of

spectacles is also found, but I never could detect the shell entire,

although it is often the only fossil to be discovered.

33. But tothe positive evidence afforded by these fossils, we

must add the negative evidence: I mean we must remember that

this is a bed of carboniferous limestone, and that notwithstanding

we have no examples of the genera Productus, Orthis, Euomphalus

Bellerophon, and Orthoceratites, and that there are no large Spirifere or

Fenestellides. Neither have we the Gasteropods and Cyathophyllides

which characterise the uppermost or Kothair bed, more by their

number and variety, than by any species well defined by me. Iam

anxious to insist on the absence in the Weean group of these fossils,

which are generally regarded as eminently carboniferous, because

it has been found difficult to determine the age of rocks belonging

to the Weean bed, when seen apart from the Zeeawan Bed; thus

the limestone of Manus Bal, which belongs to the Weean group, has

been twice reported to be nummulitic.

34. The next mountain to examine is the Wastarwan. It is

a fine hill, its summits rising above Avantipoor, a small city on the

Jheelum celebrated for its Buddhist ruins. An inspection of the

map will be better than any description I can give of the position and

relations of this mountain. It is a centre of elevation, with spurs

descending in all directions, like the spokes of a wheel. I never

ascended it, but I travelled along its northern and its western sides,

and the following is a description of what I saw.

Section from Reechpoora towards the LH. as far as longitude 73° 5’.

across the northern spurs of the Wastarwan : (See Map C.)

The spur which descends to near Reechpoora is entirely composed

of Zeeawan limestone with the characteristic fossils. The bed forms

a sharp anticlinal of which the two arms slope or dip N. HE. and 8S. W.

respectively, striking N. W. to 8. HE. The beds of limestone inwrap

the end of the spur, the layers seen above the little Buddhist

ruin dipping nearly due N. The anticlinal is so sharp that the

courses of rock have separated, and caves, now converted into holy

quarters for afew fakirs, are to be observed on both sides of the

anticlinal.

35. Proceeding eastwards, after crossing the bed of a stream, we

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 171

observe near Banda, a small Zyarut up the ravine above Ladoo,

some very fine beds of limestone of which the following is the

section.

Proceeding from the bottom of the ravine up the side of the spur

we find.

1. Slates, so much decayed and broken that it is impossible to see their

dip and strike. They are identical with those “which we have seen inter-

bedded with volcanic ash and agglomerate in the Tukt-i-Suliman and the

Zebanwan, and they are very extensively developed in the Wastarwan, They

are, aS we have seen, more or less metamorphosed, often slightly amygdaloidal

and always devoid of organisms, 0.000 900 900 406 000 044 Ode HHDDG0 butiodu coo doo WEIR Wau.

2. Augitic ash, very cer ane dees being filled sometimes with

dark augite, sometimes with bluish-white opalescent quartz. It strikes N. W.

by W. and dips north-easterly, About ..,....c..cececrserevscereesecseesee 20 fb,

3. Trachyte, sparingly amygdaloidal ; coloured brown outside by

AE OT ces safsl- le scoeeeonocon dM) dite

A, Pre orshocca de foliated, foie eee ncosoones » AQ), dre

Dem Compacusbasaliss Menskas Mr is oun tamareurena ser eascoe ae cossamaseeaeeses f4uumehess

The debris of voleanic rocks form a yas et over ‘the basalt ; but this bed

is very irregular and lenticular, The basalt is replaced in some places along

the strike by a dull, light-olive-coloured laterite or baked clay, about one foot

thick,

6. Quartzite, sometimes pure, opaque, white; often translucent, bluish or

smoky ; never crystalline. It gradually invades the laterite mentioned above,

and forms ribands of dull olive and pure white quartz, pooch

7, Zeeawan limestone with usual fossils; dips N. 15°, ............ 40 ft.

SOA CE Ay ATM TO Wil SAT ES ane cracls sisettasleto sigielain vitiantordeureinnieeteleate wwtiierac’e 10 ft.

9. Fine blue clay-slate; calcareous and breaking in large thin slates. It

contains no fossils, ......... EGO SRHOROHOBH ER DInSe SE BRCR EEE ICBO CIC ODBAA MRcCEeRere 10 ft.

Extensive old quarries remain here, showing how fine and free

a limestone the Zeeawan bed can give, when quarried in portions of

rock which are not weathered. The quarries are far from exhausted,

or rather the amount removed is insignificant compared to what

remains ; blocks of any size and very sound could now be procured

easily from the old quarries. It is a great pity that the Maharajah’s

government do not work this and other quarries for the limestone they

want, instead of destroying the interesting Buddhist ruins which

cover the valley, especially as the style of architecture now in favour

in Kashmir is perfectly hideous.

172 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

Traversing a ravine we meet the spur which descends towards the

village of Mandikpal, and the following section is met with :

1. Amygdaloidal greenstone.

2, Amyedaloid,

3. Quartzite.

4, Rotten Augitic ash.

Some of the ground is covered with ths debris of the ash, so that its relation

to the next bed is not seen,

5. Limestone, argillaceous, pale bluish-grey, weathering fawn-coloured : after-

wards patchy blue and brownish. Itis thin-bedded and breaks in slabs about

one to one and a half inch thick, It contains an abundance of Goniatites of 2 or

3 species. The bed is about.. Boot Lalsecieuscciesalee OU aby

The dip of these several heen of bones is ane N. E. 25°,

This is the only locality where I have seen Weean limestone resting

immediately on volcanic rocks.

Hrom Mandikpal, our section goes through a succession of limestone

ridges which, from the appearance of the ribbons described at the

hillocks over Weean and Kohew (para. 31), are conjectured to

be Weean limestone, but I had not time to visit them. The general —

dip of their beds is north-easterly.

36. The western aspect of the Wastarwan I shall describe from

S. to N., that is from Avantipoor to Reechpoora. It is a series

of spurs with a general westwardly direction, and at the end of one

of these spurs is a little knoll which I shall call for convenience sake

the ‘ Pampur knoll.”

The following is the section of these spurs from S. to N. (see

Map C.).

1. The whole of the spurs between Avantipoor and Tangur are composed

entirely of volcanic rocks, viz., amgydaloidal greenstone, coarse basalt and

ash, and black slate without fossils, The limestone is first seen about three

quarters of a mile south of Barus, where two spurs approach very near the

river Jheelum.

2. As we ascend the most southern of these spurs, we find, resting confor-

mably on dark amygdaloidal greenstone, a bed of white quartzite about 2 feet

thick, . sersevee Fee cee cee eceneesccrccrce 2 ft,

3. we coarse sal sole, ee 500d 200.960 009000 000 950 ca daGo0e 12 ft.

A fault N. N. E.—S. 8. W. It opens Leen the northern end, whilst the

edges of it are crushed one against the other at its southern extremity. On

the northern side of the fault we find :—

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 1738

1. Quartzite, bluish grey, gritty and rough, .....,...........cceenes een 2 ft.

2. Trap, having a shaly appearance, A great deal of kunkur is seen along

the line of fault, 9909000000 .nn Hep oo SOU OODUOR de Ontoqd coMadGSEH aoe moO howoso : abl! atiR;

3. Quartzite, ee ee Ze ieee a very peculiar appearance :

it is divided in meshes like a very coarse travertin, or rather like lead which

has been dropped in cold water while in a melted state. There is however a

certain pretty well marked stratification or superposition of courses. The

rock looks like a siliceous paste which had solidified suddenly when in a sate

of ebullition, It first dips W. about 50°, increasing gradually to the vertical

and then inclining the other way, dipping 8. E. 80°. It, however, soon becomes

vertical and gradually dips again W. 50°,...........sseeseeccssssscesssvceees 40 ft.

EAS LLACH YbOs DUS W ie BOs das desresticessuslsineliccilelsetleses tees see, LDittbs

5. Limestone, crystalline and metamorphosed ; no organisms. Weathering

rough ; much stained by iron-OXde,........ccesseeceseeeceetceseesecseeserses 8 fb,

6. Zeeawan limestone with the usual fossils; dips W. 40°,..,...... 50 ft.

dee Meeaiwam PLOW SHALES, ces-oicc.sercesoicdsersicu ive sindteoliseseciies sncileeves 10 ft,

8. Slate; coarse, micaceous. Squeezed by proximity to a fault; no fossils P

A fanlt, from N. E.—S. W. with a downthrow or the southern side. The

slates are partially in the fault,

37. If we ascend the next spur, Barus spur, from the south, pretty

high up the little ravine, and make our way to the monumental

“ Ling” which crowns the hill,* we see nothing but trap and

ashes which have been brought up again on the northern side of the

fault. The top of the hill is covered with grass and debris which

prevent the rocks being seen in situ, but many pieces of ash, amyg-

daloid and white quartzite are seen loose on the earth, showing that the

usual quartzite bed exists here. On the western and north-western

aspect of the hillock, the rocks are uncovered and we have the follow-

ing series.

Prap and VOLCANIC ASH.....ssccssesecvesseoeccosssersecaes ooangdeboonondsday G0

Ml rreMraZb eat aewac cok dea sietalot as vcteis tig sais cinclapstoaveSatielsode cide ta dalerelsedyveaiees ;

Here two beds are ane He earth, ag atonal above.

1. Zeeawan limestone with usual fossils, Dips W. 50°,............ 40 fb.

2. Greyish-blue limestone without fossils,................ceseeneeensees 15 ft.

3. Beds concealed by vegetable earth and by lacustrine deposits 30 ft.

4, Shaly limestone with few and broken shells..................... vee 40 ft,

* This is, 1 believe, one of the largest, if not the largest “ Ling” or “ Em:

blem of Creation.’ It measures 14 feet in circumference and was about 20

feet high, The base is hexagonal; the preputial line isin relief, and appears

to have been carved. This monster ling is now broken in two or three pieces,

and the upper half is prostrate on the ground; the hexagonal base and about,

6 feet of the body of the ling are still standing.

174 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

5. Limestone, very impure and containing immense numbers of a Spirifer of

large size, very similar to Spirifera Verchéri, De Vernueil Pl. I. (fig. la. 1b. 4 ft.

6. Limestone with a few fossils, .....cseeseeees sesatae teehee nO etbs

7. Limestone, filled with Productus costatus (S. WwW) tien extremely depressed

by pressure. Many other fossils associated with the Productus, such as Athyris

Spirifera, and a species of Chonetes, &c. The limestone is arenaceous and mica-

ceous, often so much so that it passes into a calcareous sandstone. This passes

gradually into the next bed, the fossils becoming less frequent and the rock

less sandy.

8. Shaly limestone. The beds 7 and 8 are together about, ...... 60 ft.

All these beds are evidently, from their fossils, members of the Zeeawan

group. The series is continued by beds of the Weean limestone.

9. Sandstone, grey, then pale brown, It contains lenticular beds of lime-

stone. The bed is much disintegrated and overgrown with grass

Goniatites,,

Dee bet G00 Poo ee COE Fee Ok BOE FOE FEE VEL FEF HOH OEE EEE FOE POETS GOO EOR EEEEES

10, Flinty- ‘teal ate shining eon of a ‘erst grey colour. Divided by

pastings of shale, thin and irregular. It weathers rugose and contains no

LOSSILS py Wersarcoeiseeecoe wists Heese atin Lek lesan de aibuleleles dota de cao da wanlonece net GheL LEED MEUE

11. Calcareous slate, thin-bedded and exfoliating, ...........c.00.0. 1 ft.

12. Flinty limestone like 10, BOKGN 000008 cbocd ond GoOHGONEbOGTOORGoG «=D Li

A lacustrine deposit covers any further bed which may exist.

The total thickness of this section is about 260 feet. The Zeeawan

bed is nowhere so thick as it is here, being about 220 feet thick from

stratum 1 to 8.

The remainder of the section is Weean limestone, but only partially

seen here.

38. The end of the spur, immediatly north of Barus, presents also

some Zeeawan limestone, but it was not examined. The two following

spurs are entirely composed of volcanic ash and agglomerate.

39. Then comes the long spur which ends in the somewhat

detached hillock which I have called the Pampur knoll. We find

in this spur the beds we have just seen above Barus, precisely in the

same position and relation. The similarity is so complete that it is

evident that the Barus beds once extended to the Pampur knoll with-

out a break, but that a great portion o! this limestone has been

denuded.

The volcanic rocks, in the long spur, are well stratified and rather

thin-bedded as they approach the limestone. They dip W. N. W.

with an angle of about 45°. The Zeecawan bed rests on quartzite

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 175

and presents the same beds full of the gregarious fossil Spirifera trigona-

lis (2) and of Productus Costatus : the distance between these beds is the

same as it is at Barus. On the top of the Zeeawan beds are seen

Weean beds, but they are much more complete than at Barus, having

a thickness, from the top of the Zeeawan bed to the foot of the knoll,

of about 660 feet. But I believe there are probably some faults

which cause beds to be repeated, and that the Weean bed is not quite

so thick; about 500 feet.

The Pampur knoll gives the following approximate section from

east to west.

Coarse grey limestone.

Slaty grey limestone.

Patchy blue and yellow or pale brown limestone.

Compact blue limestone, argillaceous.

Patchy blue and dirty yellow.

These beds are together about 100 feet thick, They dip W. with an angle

of 60°.

6. Flesh-coloured limestone.

7, Shaly coarse blue limestone.

8. Flesh-coloured limestone.

These 3 beds are together about 80 feet. Dip as above.

ee eee Noe

Other layers are buried under lacustrine deposits. This little

hillock was examined very superficially, owing to want of time. No

fossils were seen except the small broken bivalves mentioned above,

and which are so common in all the rocks of the Weean group.

40. The spur seen half way between the Pampur knoll and

Reechpoora, is tipped with Zeeawan limestone, but was not examined

in detail.

41. Here ends our survey of the Wastarwan. I need not say

that the central ridges and summits are entirely composed of volcanic

accumulations. Black basaltic rocks are abundant, and by their

disintegration, and the rearrangement by water of the black mud

they gave in decaying, a great quantity of black slate was formed

which is seen interbedded with beds of ash and agglomerate. These

voleanic rocks do not require to be described, as they are identical with

those of the Zebanwan Mountain. All the rocks of the Wastarwan

present a stratification or superposition; on the northern slope it

176 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

has a general dip to the N. E., whilst on the western aspect of the

hill its dip is generally westerly. There is therefore a sort of

anticlinal towards the centre of the hill, following a direction from

the N. W. to the 8S. EH. We have seen how this anticlinal affects the

limestone at Reechpoora, a locality which happens to be at the end

of it.

42. The next mountain we meet, travelling towards the 8. E.

along the banks of the Jheelum, is the Kamlawan (8601) which.

terminates over the village of Murhamma. The mountain is com-

posed, like the Zebanwan and the Wastarwan, of volcanic rocks.

Melted rocks predominate in the centre of the system, whilst

ash and laterite compose, in a great part, the most extended spurs.

Slate is intermixed with the beds of volcanic cinders, and over

these carboniferous limestone rests conformably. But the limestone

of the Kamlawan appears to have been extensively denuded, and is

only found in a small bed which makes but little show. The follow-

ing is a section of the spur immediately over Murhamma. Direction

of the spur N.—S. Strike H. S. H—W. N. W.; dip 8S. S. W.

(See Pl. 11. Section D.)

1. Trachy-dolerite, coarse and dark, here and there amygdaloidal; it has

large joints regularly disposed, at right angles to the stratification and yawn-

ing, giving it a somewhat columnar aspect. This bed appears to extend from

the top of the hill, to the beginning of the spur now under consideration. It

is of very great thickness, and, making allowance for faults, it cannot be less

than 2000 feet.

2. Baked clay-stone or compact laterite, grey, smooth, much jointed ; it

dips 8. S. W. 70°. It has a thickness of about ...............ss000+.000e. 200 ft.

3. Limestone, crystalline, coarse and metamorphosed, It contains a few frag-

ments of fossils, not recognizable and mostly transformed into spar, 3 ft,

PNG LANG arsreivalsciters caascinia arsinararee oem ee eetneee neta RRnnepecrnereaocta Finis :

4, Grey laterite or baked clay, like No. 2,.......ccsccsecseevseseseseees 200 ft.

5, Alstmy Za MOC), coogacxac0de aod0d0000 65 aNatolesleleretace dein eneoncachedcenineneees 20 ft.

6. Sandstone, or perhaps voleanic dust-stone ; no fossils, ........ 9 By ihr

7, Coarse grit of rounded grains.

8. Basalt, fine and dark brown, The beds 7 and 8 are together 150 ft.

9. Sandstone or duststone, like 6, aieaitalaaalnwentng tena eeeee ees 5 ft,

10. Beds covered with grass aa aah Pieces of white quartzite and

rotten ash seen amongst the grass, .is...ssc..sseesecsessersesseesersecseeess LOO fb,

11, Limestone of the Zeeawan group with Productide, Fenestellide,

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 177

Orthide, etc. It is fruch fractured and fissured, and is evidently but the rem-

nant of larger beds removed by denudation, It dips 8. S. W. 50° and it is

UIA econ cesrcloisisislc eiicis us sisis ele siersitisics siairid vaciele’ ceiceslesla nels seas 25 ft.

Any further beds which may exist are covered by the lacustrine deposit,

which is here 150 feet above the level of the Jheelum.

The Sheri Bal is a small mountain close to the Kamlawan,

to which it is united by a connecting ridge. It is entirely composed

of the same semi-columnar trachy-dolerite which forms the bulk of

the Kamlawan. The compact, smooth, grey, laterite or baked clay-

stone, described in the section as No. 2 and 4, is seen extending on the

flank of the hill, both to the west and to the east. It forms a conspicu-

ous belt along the side of the Sheri Bal, appearing, from the high

angle of its dip, to rest against the trachy-dolerite. Some of the

volcanic and azoic rocks, described in the section of the Kamlawan

as superior to the laterite, were seen on the slopes of the Sheri Bal,

but no limestone ayas observed, it having probably been denuded.

43. Crossing the valley of the Lidar River, we find the next

mountains to be the Hapatikri and Saijnarh group. The whole of

this system of hills appears to be composed of limestone. It is

continued to the S. W. by a low ridge, which is mostly buried under

lacustrine deposits, but rises above these at Islamabad, forming

a small hill at the foot of which the town is built.

The following section (fig. 8) will, I hope, give a good idea of the

rocks composing these hills. The section is above the celebrated Tank

of Mutton, near which locality the lacustrine deposit is about 120 feet

thick. Above the lacustrine we find :

1. A limestone, coarse arenaceous and apparently much metamorphosed.

It contains hardly any trace of fossils, excepting very crystalline rounded

bodies which are altered stems of crinoids. The rock is divided into sub-beds

by shaly or clayey partings, which are very false-bedded and very hard. Only

a few feet of this rock appear above the lacustrine.

2. limestone, jointed and cleaved; but hard specimens have a remarkably

compact, smooth appearance, like hornstone.

These 2 beds dip H. N. BH. 20°.

3. The bed No, 2 becomes gradually bluer and more argillaceous and less

cleayed ; towards the top of the bed it is the patchy blue and brownish rock

which we have seen before repeatedly. It contains traces of fossils, but no

shells sufficiently well preserved to be recognized. Jt has an enormous thick-

178 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

ness, varying however a good deal in places. There are remains of a Buddhist

quarry in this bed.

The three beds have together a thickness of about .................. 200 ft.

4. White and friable sandstone, apparently a compressed quartzose sand

without cement. It dips N. EH. by H. 25°. It contains traces of fossils. It is

remarkably well seen near the Karaise or Irrigation Canal which is cut on the

flank of the hill.* It is a thm bed and presents variations of color and aspect.

itiasvonlyione and shalt foot bhiekea pn ndescdesleecbuatseciia ds seivaciseciasigsseereee 13 ft.

FauArorllaccousiblmeNlintestoue eassmclacdsscine cesses sesteseensieciessissce aim methT=

6. Yellow sandstone, calcareous, not very hard, much disturbed and faulted,

the faults, which are small and short, being at right angles to the strike. The

sandstone has a thickness Of ADOUL ...........020ssecnscocsscccesersosseeeses LO) fb.

In this sandstone, which, by the bye, does occasionally pass into

lenticular patches of impure arenaceous limestone, a great many sections

or outlines of large bivalves and some small ones were seen; but no

shell in a tolerable state of perfection could be obtained; I, however,

made drawings of the outlines presented by these bivalves, on the

weathered flank of the rock. When I first saw these outlines, I did

not know of the large Anthracosie, Pectens and Aviculo-pectens

which exist in the Weean group, and it appeared poor and ungrateful

work to copy them. Soon after, however, I found the <Avzculo-

pectens and other bivalves represented at Pl. VI. fig. 3, and Pl. VIL.

fig. 4, 4a, and my sketches of the sections came in very opportunely,

proving, in the absence of better fossil evidence, the Weean nature

of the Hapatikri limestone.

7. Very hard and brilliant white quartzose sandstone, .....0...+.. 10 ft.

8. Sandstone, yellow and soft, like 6,. ApoeccaneooubooDboscnooic. | BD) Mili

These sandstone beds are uhpee wavy al ete as if they had

suffered from lateral pressure. The limestone above and below participates

but very triflingly in these undulations.

9. Sandy limestone, blue and compact. The debris of small fossils, 10 ft.

10. Dark shales, slightly carbonaceous. In this bed, casts of roots of

trees with a concentric arrangement and, in rare cases, the vegetable cells

filled with coal, were seen. The roots are generally thoroughly petrified ; they

are numerous and mostly horizontally (to dip) arranged; they are branching

and haye generally a starry disposition like Stigmaria. Some pieces of these

* This canal was apparently intended to brine some of the waters of the

Lidar to the Martand plateau ; but it was never finished, and it is now falling

into ruin, It is said to have been begun during the reign of the Mogul Emperors

of Delhi; it igs a work of considerable extent,

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 179

roots show a sort of epidermis, somewhat scaly like Lepidodendron. Large

trunks were not seen. The bed is-very thin, only 1} foot, and is covered

by a bed of limestone 25 feet thick. It appears therefore probable that,

owing to littoral oscillations, the vegetable covering of the shale was denuded

during the progress of the sinking of the coast and previous to the deposit of

“US LEGA RITORNG), apd cog Sotatinn HSH Ga COM ASd OB GEEICACIR SE SEER CICRERET CIEEIE: Cit ac CHIC ICES aaeme Conte

11. Argillaceous limestone, compact and weathering white.

‘clnelyy [DRIPIRISSL) “Gonssosebhao weabor noo aOR Rue OR neod bocHaconseoucucodoamecr sabocd. 2) tits

12, Calcareous ee of a aaah structure a a dark blue color

when fresh, but weathering reddish in an irregular and patchy manner, the

redder patches being due to shaly masses which are seen here and there

imbedded in the sandstone: these shaly masses sometimes form lenticular

thin beds, as thin-bedded as sheets of paper. No fossils, ............ 10 ft.

PowGuney, limestones MO FOSSILS: Joo hosc.>vesicceccecescscsesseeccnvessesece | GO Lb.

14, Limestone, patchy blue and pale brown, ....,....ssesee eesenere 15 ft.

These two beds of limestone are not quite conformable to the sandstone and

preceding beds; they are nearly horizontal, with a trifling dip of about 3°

to the H. N. EH. This is probably due to littoral oscillations or earthquakes.

15. Sandstones, greyish-brown and pale, .....cscocssscsersorcessscses 2 ft

MIG rE TIMES UOMO Mesa at athe cg ed Cue la ah caine wale egees, 1 At abs

17. Very arenaceous, grey ie resione: ae a ages yellowish grey ;

it shows no organisms. It dips H. N. H. 20°. It does not appear to participate

at all in the faults and folds noted before. It has resisted atmospheric influence

well and forms a prominent and striking wall near the top of the hill. It

ASAP OUb ye cseccsseicsesee T.aq0 CHO TOL a0 Gc HOO BRG OD OS Uncn Cosme asa eaaOaHancrreeting irAO tn

18. eile. blue ae marly and shaly, Saige greyish-brown and

patchy. It decays fast into a yellow sandy marl and forms a furrow at its

DUGOLOP ie wesiles tncsivacieceiesiett sels accis ve Ute datas as salae deal Deke

us Gheiaet Eecctone, very ea eal ane Tt is fawn-coloured, but

sometimes greenish blue, It contains no fossils, ........csecsesvceceeeee © fb.

These three beds, 17, 18 and 19, form at their outcrop a ribbon

similar to those described at Weean. Another ribbon is formed by the

layers 14, 15 and 16, which appear to be the equivalent of the ribbon

7, 8, 9 at Weean. (?)

20. Sandstone, brown, hard and micaCeous, ....s..-+sserovcossecreceee 2 be

21. Limestone in blue and brown patches, ..,.cc.ecscesecssesesseseee 4 ft,

22, Sandstone, shaly and much fissured. Color grey or brownish-grey. It

is hard, cherty and calcareous. It has a slaty cleavage, cutting the stratifica-

tion obliquely by striking W. H. and dipping N. with an angle of 60°. It

contains afew fossils, This bed varies a great deal, being sometimes a pure

enough sandstone, at other times a sandy shale, and again a coarse sandy slate.

It goes to the top of the cliff.............. Giosinsuhelevedaalvensanescselccctesves/ 020) <tr

180 Mr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

This section gives a thickness of Weean limestone and calcareous

sandstone, of 360 feet.

When I ascended the Hapatikri, I unfortunatly did so above Mutton,

and only carried my section as far as the top of the hill at that place,

that is as far as layer 22. A little swelling of the surface concealed

from me the summits to my right, and I thought that layer 22 was

the highest of the hill. From the top of the Islamabad hill,

about four miles to the S. W., I could see, while sketching fig. 8,

that the summit of the Hapatikri is considerably above the layer

22. Two dark layers or ribbons are well seen near the highest

summit of the Hapatikri, and it is not impossible that some faults

bring up again the same beds. It is, however, probable that some

beds of the uppermost or Kothair Bed exist near the summit of

the hill, as I found amongst éboulis and lose stones near Martand

some corals, which are, I believe, highly characteristic of the Kothair

bed. (PI. VIII. fig. 4, 4a.)

44, The Sketch-Section (fig. 8) shows that all the ridges of the

Saijnarh are well and regularly stratified limestone and calcareous sand-

stones ; I did not, however, visit these spurs. Behind the Saijnarh and

the Hapatikri areseen the rugged volcanic mountains which bound Kash-

mir on the east, separating the waters of the Jheelum from those of the

Chenab. The Arpat river brings down boulders from these mountains,

and the lacustrine conglomerates, which are so extensively developed

at the point where the Arpat and other streams leave the mountainous

gorges to emerge in the open valley, give us a good idea of the

composition of these mountains. All the boulders and pebbles, both

of the bed of the river and of the conglomerates, are volcanic rocks,

of which many varieties of amygdaloid are the most frequent. I

never saw a single pebble of granite, syenite or gneiss, but quartzite

is common, as well as limestone. That the pebbles and boulders

of the conglomerate have been brought down directly from these

mountains by torrents and rivers, and have not been drifted to where

they are by the waves of the ancient great lake of Kashmir,* is

* The valley of Kashmir has been a huge lake since the appearance of man

in the Himalaya. It is probable that a lake fillmge up the whole of the

valley existed before that period, and that it was drained or tapped by some

cause or another, allowing the valley of Kashmir to dry up nearly to the same

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 181

sufficiently proved by the shape of the boulders, these being rounded

and ovoid in form, and not worn into the flat lenticular stones which are

found on the beach of lakes, and which are so much appreciated by

persons fond of making “ ducks and drakes in the water.”

45. I have said before that a spur of the Hapatikri extends to

Islamabad, concealed under the lacustrine plateau (see fig. 8,) for

a few miles, but appearing as a small hill over the town. The

following is a section of this Islamabad Hill, from the §. W. to the

N. H., beginning with the lowest strata exposed to view. The general

dip of the beds of this hill is N. Hasterly.

1. Marly limestone; bright blue; debris of fossils,..... daanaonddo 15 ft

2, IDM@ CHO B Tplaullee) B 10K) KOSISIIIS, Gy oddconocondodepboDoAsdooaouCe sadoo © AU) 18,

3. Ditto ditto; grey; often reddish. ree number of Foraminifere

forming ochrous bands in the rock, 2. ........4 eee adooooso00g dl 3th

4, Arenaceous, dark grey limestone, divided me Sa of shaly pale-

yellow limestone, very false-bedded and very thin. Rich in the debris of fossils,

but very few in a good state of preservation, ,.......... anodoumononso obo) Ay din

These four beds dip N. HE. 15°.

5. Limestone having a slaty cleavage and joints, white or pale grey, cheriy

in appearance, Fossils very numerous, but in comminuted fragments, 10 ft.

6. Marly, yellow, limestone. It is often flesh-coloured, and then shaly in

appearance and weathering with a rough pitted surface,............... 2 ft.

47, Jimestone like 4; full of the debris of fossils,...... noocca coo dodtoo |) = 2b Fs

8. Limestone, brown and cherty; debris of fossils,........0.ccec0ss 5 dle Ri

9. Very pale blue limestone, often white ; very hard and rough; weathers

rugose like frosted glass. Thin and false-bedded ; fragmentary shells, 15 ft.

10. Sandstone; yellowish white or greyish-white, .................... 6 incheg

11, Coarse, gritty limestone, full of the debris of fossils; great abun-

dance of Foraminifere, crinoid stems, Pusus (?) and fragments of a smalk

60000 000000000 sscesves & fhe

12. Marly, dark grey- saa Ret nos 5 ee aes ooov00sco¢00 «Iti

[SIRIKYE) cagon pad podnes tee ase oouKdd

extent as it is now, and that the valley then became populated. The lakes, how-

ever, began to fill up again, and the whole of the valley was again converted into

one immense lake. This in its turn was tapped and dr fined to its present

state. The earthquake, which broke up the barrier or dam at Baramoola, is

reported by tradition to have been the beneficient act of the Hindoo god

Kashyapa. The Mahomedans, however, say that it is Kashaf, Solomon’s

minister, who performed the wonderful work, and it is very pr obable that both

Hindoo and Musulmans borrowed the tradition from earlier inhabitants.

I hope to be able to prepare before long a paper “ On the Lacustrine deposits

of Kashmir,” in which the proofs of two successive lakes having existed will

be given in detail. See also my note to para 9, page 100,

182 My. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [ No. 3,

13. Marly limestone, deep blue in colour, cherty in appearance and weather-

ing rugose ; it is compact and contains no fossils,.......sscsseeceeeceeeee 15 £6.

14, <A portion of 13, im a brecciated State, ....cssescesseescrseeceess ; 2 ft.

BL aS ALTA CRS Wpl ico emepeneyerictematsteatic eve sis istotelsieVolsslatelelolas}aisleleelerdlaefste ole clare siete itersteete mmmmneometiET®

NGM MinIMESTONE Similar DONO. 2s lasejecercantessisealsesiecisceledaiceistetea tec mame MELE

17. Foraminiferous limestone, similar to No. 3, ....ccsecsseseeeeesss & INChES

This limestone contains many small yellow rounded bodies, mixed with the

Foraminifere and appearing to have no organisation. They are perhaps excre-

tions of mollusks. Also large patches of white, dotted, chalky, limestone

which are, I believe, the remains of decomposed fossils of considerable size.

18. Argillaceous, pale grey, nearly white limestone. It gets coarse to-

wards the top of the bed, and the uppermost layer is brecciated, ... 10 ft.

A OM Mlen chumabeduclaiyay Meseciodan: seal stecivactecowes ase sudlesciooucec es tectcee ete: amma enmea

20. Limestone varying in colour, oe white, Ete flesh-coloured, grey

or pale lustreless blue. It is very argillaceous, occasionally sandy. The debris

of fossils mostly enecrimite-SbeMS, ...... 0.0.20... .0ssecescorrensoescescsseeves LO) ft

21. Calcareous brown sandstone; no fossils, ......sc0-esseccosresvee 4 fb,

22. Shales, hard and without fossils. These shales are in places, fine,

silty and foliated ; in other places sandy, coarse and thicker bedded, 10 ft.

Zao HANASLONE Like rZilh Merce sarcchinccissisices sitstieasteeeieenecieeeroreen eee ama NEL TE

24, Shales like 22, ag nos obONGUONO HNO AUG CHOCO HSAONBcHoONOcooaH IMO) IRE,

25. <A repetition of ahs ede 29 , 23 and 24; but the materials are generally

coarser, the shales never being fae and thin-bedded, but rough and thick-

bedded; and the sandstone contains so much lime that it passes in some

places into a very arenaceous limestone. It contains but little of the debris of

fossils, but shows some flat impressions like those of large flat Alge. These

impressions are, however, ill-defined and could not be identified, ... 25 ft.

26. Pale but bright blue limestone ; very argillaceous and interbedded with

thin films of yellow silt,. 50006 aaoonrdacandocobeoneccoconsanooces | A itt,

27. A second oe of ne eae 22,23 and 24. A few shells, but no

imprints of alge. It becomes gradually a coarse sandy limestone, and at

the top of the bed itis an argillaceous and arenaceous limestone, pale blue or

rather French-grey, weathering rugose like frosted glass and containing

anveLyelew, trasments of shells onlyamnedcseeeansicedecceeceedecteestecece im OmetUE

These three beds, 25,26 and 27, seem to resist the influence of exposure better

than the rocks above and below them, and they form at their outcrop a well

defined ribbon ; this, owing to the trifling angle of the dip, appears on the

hill-side as a cliff which faces the city of Islamabad a little more than half

way up the hill. These beds are slightly wavy along the strike, as if they

had been pressed laterally. These undulations occasion trifling discrepancies

in the dips taken in different parts of the hill, Along the line of our section,

the cliff formed by the beds 26, 26 and 27 has a strike N..N. W.—S. S. HE. and

a dip E. N. E. 15°.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 183

28. Limestone, patchy blue and yellow; argillaceous, ........... 20 ft.

29. limestone, very argillaceous and having a pure lustreless grey colour,

and being striped on section, owing to bands of a lighter colour. The rock

is So compact and fine-grained that it resembles a fine greenstone in structure.

It is traversed by bands of rougher stone and also by bands of blue limestone.

It weathers rugose and pitted,,.,..csecss.00s BABIES EDEEISCOTSTIaR HS REIIE ee arterial 0 lah a

BO, lbmmesiverne IK FS}, ascn0 goopdoncness aoppooouG su DoD acd doaDbeoDoycDKGGnoD FAL) ain;

SeMmRIGTTVES TOME pliikcey 2Os As hiis coataeslallsivieeictileelsecleceloescceisidclacteldse dua sclsiolec 15 ft.

32, Limestone, as white as chalk, tae hard. Tk j is “fall of geodes like an

amygdaloid, the geedes being filled or lined with minute crystals of spar. The

rock weathers in rounded bosses like granite or trap. It appears to have

suffered a metamorphosis. It is probable that the calcareous mud which

originally composed it was thrown into a bubbling condition by the infiltration

of heated vapours or the immersion of hot volcanic products into a shallow sea.

It presents no fossils or traces of fossils. The bed is not lenticular, but

extends regularly along the strike the whole length of the hill, being

conformable to the other loa leys Baa ed ucnoasiicoscoabocas BGG SCOCRE SOC eM OR IE

83. Limestone similar to 31, ...........-. Hao seine reyciaetes 5 ft.

34, Marly, dark bluish grey and rough Heese povnscaeoanossaneo «thE

2, Ibias B38) eileen) sdoceaqgadodonconsoood sean Shae Vara vi linia Ua ybg re

36. Hard and cherty jets: salels grey or 1 doa. oleae. It contains

a few geodes like No, 32. It weathers pitted and rugose; no

OSS (DP) ereleectlal|-tle ns sincielsas « sesececteeeeeerneseses sesetseesesteecsreesssecee es 2 ft,

27. Thame stuereve) Inte) BYE Bod gccn6a.coo Boo cop bod non'360 ood odo\0S4 too bod 005803 sco OCG 5 ft.

The last three beds are a good deal denuded, owing to their being

at the top of the hill, which is narrow and barren.

46. There can be no doubt of the Islamabad hill being composed

of Weean limestone; the argillaceous and arenaceous condition of

the rocks is exactly what we have seen in other localities where this

sort of limestone is developed. The fossils are very unsatisfactory,

being extremely comminuted. I have found, however, one Spirifera

and one Athyris which are to be seen in the beds at Weean.

I have seen also many sections and outlines of large bivalves

(Aviculo-pectens and unio-like Anthracosié) similar to those found

near Mutton. The Foraminifere are also extremely numerous,

and the fossil shell which gives on the surface of rocks an outline

resembling a small pair of spectacles, is very common amongst

the debris of comminuted shells. The upper beds of the hill,

from 29 upwards, contain no fossils and have a peculiar appear-

238

184 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

ance, suggestive of their having been baked, and:they weather in

rounded bosses like many volcanic rocks. I have suggested that

their amygdaloidal condition and their ‘‘ metamorphic weathering”

may be accounted for by the hypothesis that hot ejecta of volcanoes,

either hot water, steam, hot ashes or a current of lava, had found their

way into a shallow sea and set it a-boiling. It might be said that

these very impure calcareous muds might have had gases generated

in their interior by the decomposition of organic matter or some other

cause; but many layers which are much more feetid and were there-

fore more likely to emit gases are not at all amygdaloidal, and besides,

there is so much volcanic power manifested all over our tract of

country, that it is more natural to invoke a little steam to boil mud

with, than to look for less obvious hypotheses. But another reason

in favour of volcanic metamorphism is, that these same white

baked limestones have been observed in other localities, near Manus

Bal in Kashmir and in the Kafir Kote mountain, in the Punjab, and

in these localities they are disturbed by actions which appear to have

taken place locally and to have affected these limestones much more

than the rocks below them. The beds of Manus Bal will be de-

scribed hereafter in these pages, and we shall be able to observe how

faulted and twisted are the white limestones of that place. At the

Kafir Kote there has been a similar local upheaval, and the disorder

is very considerable. In this locality a felspathic sand, invaded by

quartzite in tortuous branches, is the remains of the volcanic action

which has taken place there, and the limestone, though much less

marly than in Cashmir, is filled with geodes and veins of spar. I

believe these actions to have been local and not very extensive; they

had little effect on the Zeeawan bed which had, by the time they took

place, become tolerably consolidated, and they merely fractured and

pushed aside the nearest portion of the bed; but they acted power-

fully on the yet soft and muddy Weean bed, curving it and twisting

it in all sorts of manners and directions; and when these folds and

twists were again disturbed, probably intensified and placed in new

positions by the final upheaval of the Himalaya, they became what

we see them now, viz. most incomprehensible doublings and reversings

of strata. Let us also remember the beds which I mentioned as

having been seen from the brow of the last spur of the Zebanwan

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 185

visited by me; these beds were the top or near the top of the series

of Weean limestone seen along the section of the southern aspect

of the Zebanwan between Zeeawan and Koonmoo. JF said, “ From

the brow of the last spur I have visited, a fine view is obtained of

the next spur, and this is remarkable for a great twist of the strata

which compose it. The limestone is extremely white, and resembles

chalk-cliffs at a distance.” Is it not highly probable that there again

we had the same altered limestone? The beds were wonderfully

twisted and folded, whilst those above and below them .were hardly

affected.

I consider, therefore, that these altered limestones are portions of

the Weean group, and Ef believe that the alteration was produced by

bursts of water at a very high temperature, or of gases hot and

compressed ; the eruptive power of these agents being sufficiently

powerful to displace and uplift the calcareous mud of the sea-bottom,

a mud which must have been plastic, from the great admixture of clay

it contained, and which was covered by no great depth of water. It

is for such an action, as I have supposed, that Mr. Dumont has proposed

the term of ‘““Geyserian”’ action, and for the rocks precipitated from these

watery volcanoes (such as the felspathic sand with quartzite of the

Kafir Kote) the name of Geyserian rocks. The name is sufficiently

suggestive and requires no explanation. It is probable that the

quartzite which we have seen placed between the volcanic rocks and

the limestone, belongs to that class of rocks.

47. The Arpat river runs through a district named Kothair or

Kotehar, and it is from this district that I have named the uppermost

bed of the Carboniferous(?) limestone of Kashmir. We have seen

a small patch of this bed near Koonmoo, in the Gebanwan, but we

will find the bed well developed in the next hills we are about to.

visit.

A few miles to the S. E. of Islamabad ts a mass of well-wooded

and picturesque mountains which separates the valley of the Arpat

river from the Nowboog valley. Arckbal, Tippoo, Karpur, Dhar and

Nawkan are summits which appear to form the centre of a small

system of hills; their height is between 8 and 9000 feet, and they

deserve careful study. J was unfortunately not able to do more than

pay the most superficial visit to Arckbal and the iron mines of Kothair ;

and the following are the notes taken during that visit.

186 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

The rocks which overhang the well-known Arckbal Garden, near

the western foot of the hill, are a rough grey limestone similar to

the grey coarse limestone seen on the Islamabad hill, (see No. 27

of the section of that hill), full of sand and other impurities. It

dips W. by 8. 52°, There appear to be beds of shales between

the limestone courses, and these shales by their decomposition

furnish the fertile soil on which grow the fine forests of those

hills.

The foot.of the Arckbal hill is therefore Weean limestone and

shales.

I then proceeded to the small village of Kothair, on the eastern

side of the Arckbal hill, in a small valley situated between it

and Karpur. The rock of the spur of Arckbal, which extends to-

wards Pahaloo, is a whitish or greyish limestone with very few fossils,

and interbedded with beds of calcareous slate, apparently belonging

also to the Weean group.

From Kothair, the path to the mines, crosses a couple of small

spurs which have a direction §. to N. until we arrive at the ridge

which unites Dhar and Tippoo and has a direction W. N. W.—HE. 8S. E.

The spurs above mentioned are composed of marly limestone,

either lustreless and velvety pale blue or dark blue, weathering frosted.

The beds are very badly seen, on account of the vegetation and

humus. Where the limestone crops out, it seems to be dipping

S. E. or E. 8. E. with a very variable but considerable angle. “The

beds of limestone appear to be separated one from the other by

thick beds of shales and slate. The limestone has exactly the appear-

ance of that seen a little higher up, and which we shall see contains

fossis characteristic of the Kothair bed; but I failed, however, to find

organisms in the present beds.

48. The iron-ore is obtained from the sides of the main ridge

between Dhar and Tippoo. The ridge presents many beds of very

argillaceous limestone of a lustreless bright blue colour, dipping 8. 8. W.

with an angle of 45°. This limestone is remarkable for the large

number of gasteropods it contains; it is also rich in corals, especially

of the Cyathophyllide, but the fossils appear generally as sections

or outlines on the surface of the rock, and I could not obtain any of

them whole,

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 187

Between the courses of limestone are beds of slaty shales of

various colours, but generally dark grey, brown or reddish. The

outcrop of these shales has disintegrated and decomposed into a

vegetable earth of a dark red colour and covered by grass and under-

wood, and this earth has to be removed to bring the shales into view.

In these shales the iron-ore ig found as flat bands or ribbons of great

tenacity and hardness, accompanied by softer ochrous clayey earth

which is also used as an ore. The richest ore is the steel grey

variety ; this is not continuous as a regular bed, but forms bands

or ribbons in the shale, sometimes thickening into a trunk a foot

thick, at other times thinning into a flat ribbon a quarter of an inch

thick.

The shales containing the iron-ore are about four feet thick, and

are between beds of an arenaceous limestone which is blue and

compact when freshly fractured, but weathers into a coarse, brown,

nearly friable sandstone in the neighbourhood of the iron-shales.

This change in the limestone (evidently produced by the infiltrating

water becoming charged with peroxide of iron in its passage though

the shale, and then acting as an acid on the limestone below the iron

bed), is the indication sought after by the miners to dig an exploring

hole; they dig above the altered limestone, and after removing a few

feet of vegetable mould, discover the iron-ore in the upper part of the

shaly bed. They make a hole just large enough to creep in and use

« short miner’s pick; the ore is difficult to detach, and, from the

cramped position of the miner, the work is excessively laborious. The

mines do not extend any distance under ground, and are generally

abandoned in favour of a fresh hole, when artificial ight is required

to work.

From the examination of three or four of these small mines, I feel

satisfied that the ore does not form a bed, but is arranged in a succes-

sion of ribbons and bands which run in the direction of the dip,

sometimes anastomosing into a broad plane two or three feet across,

sometimes thickening into a trunk or pocket, and sometimes dividing

into thin and narrow ribbons which become lost in the shale.

The mines are all situated high up the hill (on this side of the

ridge at least), within about 200 feet of the summit. The miner

[ had for a guide told me that no iron-ore is found lower down.

188 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 8,

49, The ore is carried in kilters or baskets, carried on the back,

by the means of shoulder-straps, to Kothair, a distance of two miles

ona bad hill-path. It is not smelted nearer the mines, on account

of the want of water; though it seems that it would be very much

easier to bring up water for the miners, who only know of that element

asa drink and therefore require but little of it, than to take the

ore down tothe village. The ore is broken into small fragments

by children, and mixed with the ochrous earth and with coarsely

powdered limestone. These materials are piled up in a small furnace

about two feet high, with intervening beds of charcoal, and two hand

bellows are used to create a blast ; the smelting lasts about 12 hours,

and the produce of a furnace is only a few seers. The heat is not

sufficient to make the iron run; and it remains at the bottom of

the furnace as a viscous mass, full of scorie, and very brittle when

cold, with a tufaceous aspect. The slag isa black glass, compact,

and much less scoriaceous than is customary. The iron is heated and

beaten with hammers to refine it. It is short, probably from bad

manufacture.

Two or three men and children and some women, all of one family,

working as miners, carriers and smelters, turn out about two maunds

of iron in the month from one furnace. There are only three

furnaces at Kothair, giving a supply of six maunds of iron per mensem.

There are similar mines at Loap and at Kookur Nag in the Bringh

valley, on the southern side of the same mass of mountains.

From the dip of the beds, it is probable that these works are in a

much more favourable position than those of Kothair; they are said

to be much more considerable ; the ore is obtained in the same manner

as at Kothair, and there are no regular mines. The ore is the same,

according to my guide, a miner who had worked at Loap, but it is

obtained much more easily and is found in thicker beds. Mr. Turner

showed me some iron from Kookur Nag, and it appeared identical to

the pig-iron of Kothair.

The turn-out I have given of the smelting at Kothair is not to be

regarded as an indication of the richness of the mines. I believe that

the miners only work the ore to pay their taxes to the Maharajah’s

government, and that their most usual occupation is to grow a little

rice and Indian corn. I have no doubt that the amount of ore is

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 189

considerable, and that a large quantity of iron could be obtained by

increasing the mines, and adopting better furnaces with a blast worked

by water-power, windmill or horse-power; but the miners and other

inhabitants of the villages take great care not to mention to the

Maharajah’s officials any valuable deposit of ore which may be

worked with advantage ; they pretend that the Maharajah takes away

all the iron for his arsenal and pays nothing for it, and that, when

a supply of any ore is discovered near a village, the inhabitants have

to work it by corvées, so that the discovery of a vein of valuable

mineral is a calamity to the people of the neighbourhood. But this

is probably untrue in many ways: the iron they supply is, as I have

said before, taken in lieu of taxes; the care with which many of

the holes are concealed with rubbish and branches, induces me to

believe that a good deal of iron is smelted in a contraband way; and

last but not least, making a secret of mineral wealth is quite consistent

with the love of hoarding riches so prevalent amongst natives. The

same concealment of ores is now going on in Huzara, where a little

iron is known to exist, and where the reason of the Kashmir miners

would certainly not avail; and it is reported by the geological sur-

yveyors of the Ranigunj coal-field that it is impossible to believe

negative reports from natives. In Kashmir, moreover, the Maha-

rajah’s government entertain the same childish fear, lest the mineral

wealth of the country should become known, and I well remember

with what silly recommendations of secrecy I was shown by one of

the Maharajah’s servants a small piece of iron pyrites of the most

insignificant value.

50. The rocks we have described form the Kothair bed (of

Carboniferous limestone ?). They are a succession of courses of lime-

stone, shales of a dark reddish or ochrous colour, dark slates and

calcareous sandstones. I am sorry I cannot give a section, but the

following remarks will, in a way, supply its want.

The limestones are of two descriptions, viz. : some coarse and very

sandy, indeed so much so, that when the carbonate of lime is removed

by water charged with peroxide of iron, a brownish sandstone is

left ; it contains no fossils, and passes gradually into a rough grey

sandstone with a calcareous cement. The other variety of limestone is

argillaceous, and passes into calcareous slate; it is dark blue or even

190 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashinir. [No. 3,

perfectly black when fresh-fractured, lustreless like a clay and with

a strong earthy smell; it weathers much paler, becoming covered

with an incrustation which is bright pale blue, yellowish or whitish ;

the surface being at first velvety or satin-like, and so fine-grained in

some specimens, that drops of rain or of dew falling from grasses

leave small blots or stains, which after a while becoming frosted. The

fossils of this limestone are well brought out on the weathered sur-

faces, as outlines or sections which are slightly in relief. The shales

when ochrous, are very sandy. sometimes calcareous, oftener not so ;

they contain beds of clay iron-stone in irregular and wavy tabular

bands or ribbons of an iron black and bluish black colour, and also of

yellow carbonate of lime, and iron in a more or less friable condition.

These shales have a well-marked slaty cleavage cutting the strata

at aright angle. The slate is black, thick and massive and contains

no fossils. It often becomes pale green and unctuous, and is then very

thin-bedded and exfoliating. The sandstone is composed of rounded

grains of transparent glassy quartz which are brittle, and break across

when the rock is fractured, and each broken grain reflects the light,

so that the sandstone has somewhat the aspect of a micaceous sand-

stone.

The fauna of the Kothair bed is more remarkable for the abun-

dance of certain animals than for any species that I can well define.

Gasteropoda, generally small, and corals of the “ Cyathophyllide”

are nearly the only animals seen. A few bivalves, small and

thin-shelled, also occur, but they are rare, compared to the quantity

of gasteropods. A few roots and stems, generally small, have been

observed in some beds, but could not be recognized.

The following fossils are the most usual in the Kothair bed,

Naticopsis ?

Macrochilus ?

Chemnitzra ?

Loxonema ?

Nerinea ?

The fragments of Gasteropoda in great number.

Cyathophyllum ? sp. PROV EEL tig. 28

2) sp: Pl. VIII. fig.

2h? Sep Pl. VIII. fig.

He sce

er]

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 191

It is evident that a list of fossils, such as is given here, is

insufficient to determine the age of a bed. My calling the Kothair

bed Carboniferous, is therefore only temporary, and it is possible,

and indeed probable, that the bed is either Permian or Triassic.

I have often felt inclined to regard it as Triassic ; but the total absence

of Monotis, Ammonites and other characteristic fossils prevents my

doing so. I have therefore preferred to represent the Kothair bed

as the top of the Carboniferous series, until some characteristic forms

be discovered. The Kothair bed was examined much more super-

ficially than the others, owing to want of time; yet it is worthy of

notice that I have never heard of an ammonite having been found

in the valley of Kashmir, though the mountains of Kothair limestone,

at the extreme eastern end of the valley, are very often visited by

tourists and amateur geologists.

51. The Kothair formation differs from the Zeeawan and Weean

by the great quantity of shales it contains, these being in thick

strata between thin beds of limestone. The fauna is, I believe,

strongly indicative of a low swampy shore bathed by a shallow

brackish sea. The arrangement of the iron-ore is, I fancy, to be

explained only by the hypothesis of a clayey shelving sea board: any

one who has observed hot chalybeate springs issue from the earth,

near a flat piece of ground, must have noticed the sluggish stream

divide into rills and rillets, form shallow pools here and there, reunite

and divide again, meandering over the clayey soil; he will have

noticed the oxide of iron contained in the water precipitated along

the rivulets and in the pools as a bright red peroxide, whilst the

surface of the nearly stagnant water is covered by a many-coloured

film. This, I would submit, is the very process by which the iron

of the Kothair shales has been deposited on the flat muddy shore

of the Carboniferous sea: the rills of chalybeate water have become

the tabular ribbons of our iron-ore, and we have therefore the iron-

stone arranged as a main flat vein, or rather in somewhat parallel

veins, with irregular small shoots on both sides, and occasionally

a thickened and widened mass representing a pool or a hole in the

bed of the stream. Many springs, such as I have described, exist

now-a-days in the Salt Range, near the Kafir Kote hill, and in several

localities in the Himalaya; the iron mud they deposit would, under

favourable circumstances, and in the course of long years, form beds

192 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

similar to the iron-ore of Kothair; and when it is remembered how

essentially volcanic the Carboniferous period has been, it is no great

stretch of imagination to assume, that much of the iron contained in

the rocks of that period was derived from hot chalybeate springs, rather

than from decomposed minerals on the surface of the earth.

Here ends the description of the Kothair bed. No rocks superior

to it (excepting lacustrine and alluvial deposits) were seen in Kashmir,

and the Kothair bed appears the most superficial stratum existing

there. In other localities, both in the Himalaya and in the Punjab,

Secondary and Tertiary rocks cover in the Paleozoic beds, but neither

Oolitic, Nummulitic nor Miocene are to be seen in Kashmir proper,

that is, between the Pir Punjal and the Ser and Mer chains, and

betweeft the northern branch of the Kaj Nag and the chain connecting

the Ser and Mer chain to the Kistwar mountains.

52. As far as I could learn, the whole of the hills, which fill up

with their spurs the south-eastern end of the valley, are composed

of carboniferous limestone; this appears to go as far as the foot of

the range which separates Kashmir from Maroo and Kistwar, where

the limestone rests on volcanic rocks. Producti have been found

among éboulis close to the volcanic rock high up the slopes, and it is

therefore probable that the Zeeawan bed reappears under the Weean

and Kothair beds, as we near the volcanic rocks. The river Bringh,

which drains all the 8. EH. and a good deal of the east of the valley,

carries in its bed boulders of volcanic rocks and of carboniferous lime-

stone. No granite was seen. :

As I have not visited these hills and possess only little information

on their geology, I will not enter here into any detail of what may

be inferred from reports received by travellers who are not geologists,

and I must refer the reader to the map for the probable position of

the several rocks which compose these hills.

53. To the N. W. of Srinuggur there is one more mountain

belonging to the same catenated chain of summits which we have

described in this chapter; it is the Safapoor, with its outlier, the

Aha Tung, and the beautiful little lake of Manus Bal at its foot.

This locality is interesting, and I will describe it in detail. (See

Sections EH and F'; Section IV. of General Map). The Safapoor

and the Aha Tung are both composed of volcanic rocks exactly

similar to those which we have seen at the Tukt-i-Suliman and the

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. es

Zebanwan. In the small valley or gap between the two hills are beds

of limestone which I will now describe. (See Section EH; and also

Sketch-Section F.)

Proceeding from 8. to N., we first find at the northern end of the

Aha Tung a limestone quarry. The limestone is about 120 feet

thick, and dips south with a very high angle. It appears to be cover-

ed by beds of greenstone contusely stratified ; but on examining the

bottom of the quarry, the courses of limestone are seen to bend to-

wards the N., and the limestone is therefore superior to the trap. The

diagram here given

fig. 9, represents

the position of the

rocks. I am in-

debted to Captain

Godwin-Austen of

the Great Trigono-

metrical survey for

calling my atten-

tion to this bend

of the courses of

limestone at the bottom of the quarry. If this curving of the limestone

was not seen, it would be nevertheless easy to understand the true

position of these beds, as they are precisely similar to those on the other

side of the road (see Section), but in an inverse position: the rock

nearest the greenstone is a glaring white and much altered limestone.

It is succeeded by a dark, greyish, argillaceous limestone, weathering

bluish and rugose. On the other side of the road, the dark limestone

appears first, and underneath it the bed of glaring white altered

limestone. There is therefore every evidence of a synclinal; but, of

course, the discovery of the bend of the beds in the quarry completes

the evidence very satisfactorily.

Taking our Section from the 8. to N., beginning at the road and leay-

ing out the beds redressed against the Aha Tung which I have just

described, we have the following strata :—

1 Greyish-blue limestone; marly, rugose, hard, dips 8. 60°, increasing to

70° ; much broken bed: about Fo “ace ve ... 20 ft. thick.

* a White Limestone. b Dark Limestone, e Alluvium, d Road.

e Dark Limestone. f White Limestone,

194 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 38,

2. Pale limestone, weathering glaring white ; filled with geodes, lined with

small spar-crystals. No fossils. Dips 8. 80°, ... S00 ».. LOO ft.

3. Thin-bedded, shaly, striped limestone, ... Preaie i2) Lhe

Fault. It rons E.—W. and is about 10 feet wide at the ibe It is filled with

rocks similar to No. 3, folded in all directions.

4, Limestone like 3; vertical, a0 pot ae wo eloptbe

5. Pale limestone; with geodes, like 2. Traces of fossils were observed,

but much altered and not recognizable, es 200 ee LOOM iE:

6. Pale blue, shaly limestone; dips N. 80°, ... 200 (ate aeietbs

7. like 5; dips N. 80°, ... Pe 66d a0 eee OON tbe

Fault; it rons H.—W.

Sapp S alae) a8 7, ees 00 See eee eeay Oaths

9. Argillaceous, thin-bedded, pale grey estou breaking in flat thin pieces,

like pottery, A 000 600 ae) OU MEL.

10. Sandy Teens: thewel oa dik 400 ven ecee Opstitre

- 11. Conglomerate limestone, varying from a coarse sandy Hmestone to

a perfect conglomerate, the pebbles being rounded, pieces of limestone im-

bedded in a soft calcareous paste. It contains many sections of the Aviculo-

pectens and other large bivalves peculiar to the Weean bed. Portions of the

bed are white and altered, ... eee m0 odo eee LOO ft.

12. Sandy, micaceous, limestone; dark grey, ee opens

13. White limestone; no fossils, ... ee a Ps Omtbe

14. Argillaceous limestone, blue and pale; weathering lustreless

and velvety, 03 cae 300 300 pa soe) | eObehte

15. Conglomeratic limestone lke 11, 500 vee .. 650 ft.

16, Brecciated and sandy limestone; sometimes a coarse calcareous sand~

stone, 306 vee ooo 300 doc 50 soo) ttt,

17. Ash-blue, pale, muddy limestone; weathering lustreless, ... 25 ft.

18. Brecciated and sandy limestone, Rid Bet cece Latte

19, Ash-blue, pale and muddy ; weathering lustreless,............ 25 ft.

All these beds dip 8. with an angle diminishing gradually from 80° to 35°

20, This bed is the top of a well defined anticlinal. The rock is a yellowish-

grey limestone, with rolled pieces of limestone imbedded. It is sandy, some-

times quite a sandstone, oftener a sandy impure limestone. It contains a great

many remains of fossils. The southern branch of the unticlinal dips 8. 35°;

the northern branch dips N. N. W. 25°. There is therefore a squeezing of the

strata at the western end of the strike, and a divergence or opening of the

fault at the eastern end, Thickness about 30 feet,

Then we get a repetition of the beds seen before, as follows:

21. Ash-blue, lustreless muddy limestone, ... a Bey i itt

22. Brecciated and sandy limestone, ine Ay a lt

93. Ash-blue limestone, .,. sae oe aes wa 2 aethe

24, Brecciated limestone,,.,, nes 990 na cee, Out

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 195

25. Conglomeratic limestone, with sections of large bivalves, ., 50 ft.

26. Ash-blue, lustreless limestone, ... non ah ee Oe ube

27. White limestone, Se ae ae Be see oli eats

_ 28. Micaceous and sandy limestone; thin-bedded ee grey ;

dips N. N. W. 80°, .. boc ia ae Be fecal ciehle

29. Conglomeratic limestone; gritty ; in places a conglomerate, in others

a breccia; dips N. N. W. 85° at first; then it becomes vertical and at last

dips S. 80°, soe 500 Gon ies ae ... LOO ft.

30. Arenaceous limestone, dark, rough and forming a prominent ridge; it

dips south 80°, 560 900 sho re a ono | 40) dt,

31. Thin-bedded, muddy limestone, breaking in pieces like pottery ; dip

irregular ; bed folded and wavy, much disintegrated, fie ... 80 ft.

32. Shaly limestone, very impure; dips N. 80°.

33. Sandy limestone, dark and rough and hard ; dips N. 70 to 75°. These two

beds together are about, 000 000 p00 one .. 930 ft.

34, Limestone, generally sandy and grey, but sometimes more compact and

bluer, and then showing innumerable white lines crossing each other in all

directions. It dips N. 70°, ... site aod we Peek ONents

35. These several varieties of limestone, viz. shaly and sandy, and blue

with white lines, repeat themselves continually as far as the top of the hill,

but the rock becomes more and more massive and presents portions of crinoid

stems well preserved and petrified into a black spar. Sometimes the rock ig

flesh-coloured, and then the crinoid stems are lighter in colour, and weather in

relief on the surface of the rock. These are the sections of crinoid stems which

have been taken for nummulites by Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming. 150 ft.

The strike of the beds of limestone wheels more and more toa N. to S.

direction. As we approach the volcanic rocks of the Safapoor, the dip becom-

jng more and more westerly. This wheeling of the strike is well shown by

the Sketch-Section (Sect. F), where we see the face of the limestone-courses

mncovered and exposed, and facing the W. N. W. The thickness of the Weean

bed is altogether 649 ft.

A large fault, well marked by a deep ravine, separates the limestone from the

volcanic rocks. It runs N. E.—S. W. At the highest point the limestone is

seen to attain, the fault is a mere crack, and the limestone is in contact with

the volcanic rocks ; butt the S. W. end of the fault, it widens considerably,

and beds of limestone are to be observed on its northern side, applied against

the trap and conformable and superior to it. The trap dips 8. S. H.

On the western face of the Safapoor, long beds of well-stratified laterite

and ash are conspicuous; they dip 8. with an angle of 40.

54, Oursection runs through the spur of limestone nearest to

the lake; three other spurs, parallel to it, descend towards the

village of Paturmoola (see Section F.). They present very won-

196 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

derful twists and foldings, but appear less altered than the beds which

are bathed by the lake; their fossils are better preserved. I have

not ascended these spurs, but amongst the éboulis, I saw many

fossils characteristic of the Weean limestone, amongst others large -

Aviculo-pectens and Anthracosie, of which sections only had been

discovered in the rocks in situ.

Some blocks of limestone were also found exhibiting Gastero-

oda, so conspicuous in the Kothair bed, and it is therefore evident

that this bed forms the uppermost layers of the limestone of the

higher spurs. I need hardly say, that the beds of Manus Bal belong

to the Weean group, and that they have been folded and altered in part

by volcanic action, subsequent to the formation of the volcanic rocks

on which they rest. The order of the beds is from the anticlinal

upwards on both sides of it, and the rocks nearest to the trap are the

most superficial, excepting, however, the detached beds which are

conformable to the volcanic rocks on the northern side of the great

fault. Ifthe limestone had been baked by the amgydaloid and the

greenstone, we would naturally expect to find the beds nearest to

these rocks most altered; the reverse is however the case; and we

must therefore admit that a burst of hot gases or hot water had taken

place at the time these limestones were still asoft and plastic mud, and

that it upheaved, folded and metamorphosed them.

Tt must not be forgotten, that the limestone might have been much

less folded by this first disturbing action than we see it now, when

the last upheaval of the Himalaya took place: the beds then slightly

folded would naturally give way in the same direction as they were

already bent, especially if the space they occupied between two un-

yielding trappean hills had become so restricted that the limestone

must of necessity either be folded or override the trap. On the appli-

cation of such lateral pressure, a straight, flat, hard bed might have

slided over the trap, but a bed already undulating would more natu-

rally give way at the weakest parts, viz. the angles of the undulations,

and thus become gathered in crumpling folds. Such folds are well

shown in the Sketch-Section, (plate F).

55. Having terminated our examination of the several moun-

tains which form the first catenated chain on the N. H. of the valley

of Kashmir, we can now understand how this chain was once conti-

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. WS

nuous, the several summits being re-united to one another by ridges

of stratified ash, agglomerate and limestone. These connecting

ridges have been denuded by the several streams which flow towards

the bottom of the valley, and the limestone is now found only in

limited beds, which have escaped denudation from the shelter they

received of large and hard volcanic mountains. These streams and

rivers, it is hardly necessary to mention, have had a volume very

different from what we see now-a-days ; the enormous layers of lacus-

trine conglomerate, which they have accumulated near their entrances

into the valley, demonstrate plainly their former great denudating

power. The direction of these streams being from the high moun-

tains in the N. H., to the bottom of the valley in the 8. W., they have

cut for themselves channels which are directed from N. H.—S. W., and

thus bands of the ridges, which united the summits of our first chain

to those of the second chain, have remained between the channels of

these streams, and given to those mountains the appearance of being

long spurs descending from the N. H. to the S. W.

56. I shall, I hope, best terminate these detailed Sections, by

appending a table of the fossiliferous and other rocks in Kashmir, to-

gether with such observations as the nature of the rocks or the fauna

best justify.

£ 3 Masses, Beds, &c. &e. Fossils. Conditions indicated.

a. Granitoid porphyry ; tra- vaadieg Melted masses which have not

chyte and felstone. flowed, or have flowed under

water. Centres of volcanic

| action.

b. Greenstone amygdaloid, 500006 Melted masses which have flow-

a basalt. ed under water or in the air.

# | \c. Felspathic and augi- 500000 Volcanic ejecta falling in shal-

iS) tic ash; agglome- low water.

aa rate, &c.

= | jd. Black slate, sometimes 500006 Mud derived from volcanic

q :

4 amygdaloidal. rocks, rearranged by shallow

a water, often heated by

= showers of hot ashes, vapours

; or currents of lava.

“| |e. Laterite, slate, baked Mealeue Same origin and same condi-

clay. tions.

- Quartzite, vewnee Geyserian action. End of the

great volcanic eruptions ap-

proaches.

g. Similar to e, genes Occasional eruptions and slight

fall of ashes and dust in shal-

low seas.

198 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

Masses, Beds, &c. &c. Fossils. Conditions indicated.

For-

mation

ORGANISMS APPEAR.

[ a. Crystallime limestone, Few. Open sea coast, not very deep.

coarse and with very

few fossils.

b. Massive limestone, gra-| Productus, |Open sea coast. About 50 fa-

nular, or crystalline. |Orthis, Spiri-| thoms.

| fera, Fenes-

tellide, Or-

thoceras.

c. Ferruginous calcareous|Same fossils. |Sea coast, not distant. Heavy

| brown shales. water-fall on Volcanic islands.

| |d. Dark sandy shales. Same fossils. [Sea coast, not distant. Drift

| near shore. Heavy water-fall

| on Volcanic islands.

LJje. Limestone, shaly, with|Same fossils;|Sea becoming shallow; shore

shaly partings. no Bryozoa. shelving and drifty.

Thickness = 200—250.

B. Zmeawan Bev.

a INES

FAUNA CHANGES.

(\a. Shaly and sandy lime-| Encrinites; |Shallow shelving, coast line.

| stone. small

bivalves ;

| Debris.

| b. Black argillaceous lime-| Debris. Shallow sea between islands.

stone.

| jc. Altered, amygdaloidal)None or mere| Local voleanic action ; geyserian

| limestone. traces. bursts of water or vapours.

a | Earthquakes.

fq | \d. Flesh-colored limestone; Anthiacosia, |Proximity of land; banks and

= | with lenticular beds of} Aviculo-pec- shallows on a shelving coast-

= 1 pale blue, nearly fria- tens. line.

la ble limestone. Pectens.

E | Solenopsis.

5 |

| |e. Thin-bedded, argillace-| Goniatites. |Slow formation of fine silt in

| ous limestone, break- well protected creeks.

ing in slabs.

. Shaly, muddy, very fee-

tid limestone, with gre-| Cyrtia and |Warm, damp and shallow sea,

garious fossils. small swamps, teeming with life.

Terebratule.

g- Argillaceous and arena-| Debris of |Very shallow sea-shore ; sublit-

ceous limestone pale-] small thin toral oscillations; frequent

less blue and yel-| bivalves. freshes of fresh water carry-

low. Roots of ing mud to the sea.

plants.

ie =¢j—

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 199

hot chalybeate springs. Sub-

littoral oscillations.

& = Masses, Beds, &c. &c. Fossils. Condition indicated.

FAUNA CHANGES.

(a. Dark, blue or black ar-| Gasteropoda |Protected creeks,rather swampy.

gillaceous limestone. jand Cyatho-

phyliide.

¢ | \0. Slate and shale. None. Rivers bringing down mud to a

a shallow sea. Sublittoral oscil-

| lations.

a |

e. Sandy limestone with- aasien Drift on shallow shelving coast.

S) out fossils.

@ | \|d. Shales; sandy shales;|} ...... Shelving low land near sea-

| clay iron-ore in ribbons. shore, traversed by rills from

e. Limestone like a; pass-] Gasteropoda |Shallow creeks or protected sea

ing into calcareous|jand Cyatho- | coast. Swamp with grasses P

slates. phyliide. Shallows between tides ?

_ |Ehickness = 500 feet.

This succession of beds shows a steady shallowing of the sea. If

we reflect for a moment how the sea bottom which received the

limestone was formed, by volcanic ash and ejecta falling into the

sea around the craters of numerous volcanoes, we would be led to

expect a shallow shelving sea coast. Whether the volcanoes had

existed for ages and prevented the development of life during the

Silurian epoch, or whether they broke out after the Silurian beds

had been deposited and buried these beds under their ejecta, I

cannot say. It appears much more probable however that the volcanoes

existed during the Silurian epoch, and prevented marine animals

from living, by keeping the water at such a temperature or per-

meating it by such gases as were incompatible with life. However

this may be, there can be no doubt that the volcanic ejecta were

disposed in very gently sloping beds all around the volcanoes which

produced them, and, as these ejecta were arranged by water, we would

naturally expect the beds they formed to extend far into the sea,

Hence a long shelving shallow coast would be formed, a coast which

would speedily become more and more shallow from the enormous

200 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3

amount of sand and clay which was washed into it from the volcanic

islands which studded it, by a rain-fall of tremendous volume.

57. We have yet to describe the second and third catenated chains

of Kashmir; the second is marked by the summits of Liwapatur

(13,012), Churn Wolkalbul (14,310), Girdwali (14,060), Batgool

(14,423), Boorwaz (13,087), Handil (13,273), Saijhaha (11,334), and

joins the first parallel at the Safapoor on the eastern shore of the

Woolar lake. On the other side of the lake, it is continued by the

Kahoota, the Manganwar (8,728), and the Sheri Bal. These moun-

tains are all composed of volcanic rocks and of azoic slate inter-

bedded with ash and agglomerate. They need not therefore be

described in detail. The Boorwaz, Handil and Batgool form

a porphyritic mass which is generally described by travellers as

granite ; it passes gradually on the west into amygdaloid and green-

stone to form the summits of Saijhaha over the village of Gunder-

bul. The transition between the porphyry and the greenstone is

a feldspathic rock of a pale colour and imbedding very numerous

transparent crystals of quartz, a description of rock which is also

found to form a passage between the porphyry and the felstone of

the Kaj Nag. From the examination of a few specimens, kindly

given to me by travellers, I have no doubt that the whole of this mass

of mountains is composed of volcanic rocks, volcanic ejecta and slate.

T am not aware that limestone exists anywhere amongst the spurs

of these hills. Between the valley of Thral or Trahal and the river

Lidar, there is a great labyrinth of mountains with many of the

summits enumerated above, but I could obtain no information

regarding them. I therefore requested Captain MacQueen, of the Punjab

Trregular Force, who had arranged a shooting expedition to these hills

to be kind enough to bring me a few specimens of the commonest

rocks of the country he was about to visit, and also any rock which

appeared to him in any way remarkable. By the use of the speci-

mens thus obtained, and the examination of Captain MacQueen’s

route on the map, I was enabled to ascertain that the whole mass of

these mountains is composed of the same volcanic rocks, which I have

described in detail at the Tukt-i-Suliman and the Zebanwan. Ashes

appear to have been accumulated in enormous quantity; they are

interbedded with bands of black compact slate such as is so well seen

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 201

in the Wastarwan and Zebanwan, and both ash and slate are occa-

sionally cellular or amygdaloidal. There is neither limestone, granite

or porphyry among Captain MacQueen’s specimens, and I believe

therefore that the two last rocks at any rate do not occur in these

mountains, as pieces of granite and porphyry generally attract the

attention amongst the dull ash-rocks and would not have failed to form

part of the collection, if they had existed. It is very possible that

remains of beds of limestone are to be found amongst the spurs of

the hills.

On the north of the Woolar Lake, many mountains of no great

height form a sort of amphitheatre. They are nearly entirely

composed of amygdaloidal greenstone, ash and slate interbedded,

but near the village of Bundipoor, about two miles east of the

road, some beds of limestone are seen. Mr. Drew has kindly sent

me some specimens of it that are a flesh-coloured, sometimes

greenish, very arenaceous and argillaceous. They are not at all

crystalline, but contain an enormous number of encrinite stems

transformed into spar with a cleavage oblique to the axis of the

stem, so that when the section of a stem weathers, it appears striated

across. This crystallisation has destroyed the structure of the stem,

but the central canal is seen in a few specimens. We have seen

this rock well developed at Manus Bal, towards the end of our section,

where the beds of flesh-coloured limestone alternate with grey sandy

limestone containing crinoid-stems transformed into a spar as black

as coal. (See 35 of the section of Manus Bal). The limestone of

Bundipoor is therefore Weean limestone.

On the west shore of the Woolar lake, the Taltiloo and the

Chralkoot present perpendicular cliffs of volcanic rocks descend-

ing into the water. From a boat on the lake, it is easy to

observe the usual thick and confusely bedded masses of greenstone

and amygdaloid forming the centre of these hills, and the more sloping

and regularly stratified layers of ash, laterite, agglomerate and

slate well developed, in the long spurs which descend on all sides,

The whole mass of hills appears to be made of volcanic rocks, and the

lowest spurs which approach the shore of the lake present no fossilifer-

ous beds. Of the higher peaks, the Kahoota, Manganwar and Sheri

Bal, I know nothing, but there can hardly be a doubt, however, of

their being volcanic in their formation,

202 Mr. Verchére on the Geoloyy of Kashmir, de. [No. 3,

58. The third catenated chain is composed of summits of great

height, the Gwashbrari (17,839), the Harbagwan (16,055) the Basmai

(15,652), and the Haramook (16,903), and many other peaks which,

with their spurs and connecting ridges, separate Kashmir proper

from Tillail and Gurais. All these high summits are formed by

porphyry having a granitoid appearance, which passes, towards the

north, into felstone generally earthy and similar to the earthy fel-

stone of the Atala Mount near Baramoola. On the north-western

extremity of the chain, this felstone becomes continued with that of

the great chain of hills which unites the Kaj Nag to the Ser and Mer

chain. This flaggy rock is continued to near the city of Gurais

where, in the valley of the Kishengunga, beds of limestone

appear extending from about 15 miles N. W. of Gurais to Fillail.

The limestone is, after a break, continued at the Sono Murg

and is in all probability identical to that of this Jocality. I have

never seen any specimen or fossil from the Tillail limestone, but the

Sono Murg limestone is Carboniferous, and it is most probable that

the Tillail limestone, which appears to be the continuation of that

bed, belongs to the same epoch.

Due north of Sono Murg, the limestone is much developed and

forms the summit of a considerable peak.

The porphyry-centres of mountains pass towards the south to rocks

of an appearance different from that of the northern spurs; while

we have seen that, towards the north, the porphyry generally graduates

to a felstone more or less earthy. Towards the south it changes, as we

travel from the peaks towards the end of the spurs, into trachyte,

greenstone, amygdaloid, basalt, ash and agglomerate, together with

interstratified, azoic and often amygdaloidal slate.

The northern spurs of Gwashbrari, the Harbagwan and the Basmai

are composed of felstone, and near the road to Drass, in the valley

of the Sind Torrent, of amygdaloid and ash. On these beds of

ejecta rest fossiliferous beds, and, near the small village of Sono Murg,

the beds of limestone are well developed. Captain Godwin-Austen

found in that locality some fossils which he was kind enough to

show me. ‘They were identical with the forms described as charac-

teristic of the Kothair group of Carboniferous limestone, viz, the

Gasteropoda and Cyathophyllide which are represented at Pl. VIII.

1866. ] Mr. Waldie on the water of the Hooghly, &c. 203

fig. 4, 4a. They occur in a thin-bedded, dark-grey, argillaceous

limestone, having in some places the appearance of a calcareous

slate. But beds of Weean limestone must exist not far from Sono

Murg and form propably some of the beds of limestone which are

seen in the high valley between the Ambernath and the Gwashbrari,

as blocks of limestone of this description, rounded by running water,

were found in the bed of the Sind, near the traveller’s home at

Sono Murg.

To be continued.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS connected with the supply of watTER

from the Hooghly to Caucutta, by Davip Waupin, sq. F.C. S. dc.

[Received 31st August, 1866. |

The attention which of late years has been given amongst civilized

communities to the preservation of health and prevention of disease,

has naturally been directed amongst other subjects to that of the

water employed for economical purposes, and more particularly to its

purity and wholesomeness asa beverage and as the medium for the

preparation of food. The subject has been under the consideration

of the municipal authorities of Calcutta, who, as is well known, have

organised a scheme for the supply of the town from the river Hooghly,

for the carrying out of which arrangements are now in progress.

The Sanitary Commission appointed some time ago in the Bengal

Presidency, and I believe in the other Presidencies also, recommended

to the several governments of the Subdivisions, that the water of the

various cantonments and stations should be subjected to chemical

analysis for the purpose of ascertaining their wholesomeness, and

these recommendations are in course of being carried out.

In England, and more particularly in the metropolis, much attention

has been given to the same subject, and also to another one closely

connected with it, namely, the disposal of the sewerage of towns. This

subject is connected with that of water supply, not only, because in

the plan generally followed for getting rid of sewerage in towns, a large

204 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

supply of water is necessary, but also on account of the circumstance

that in many cases the readiest way to dispose of the liquid sewerage is

to turn it into rivers. And as it frequently happens that these rivers

may afford the easiest or perhaps the only practicable source of supply

of water for other towns, the pollution of their waters so produced may

be not a little deleterious. From the enormous extent and population

of the English metropolis, and the comparatively small size of the

river on which it stands, the evil in that case has become palpable and

notorious. The most eminent chemists and engineers bave been

engaged in the examination of the subject as respects both the supply

of water and disposal of sewerage, and the results of their enquiries

have been published and subjected to public criticism and discussion.

So far as I am aware, nothing has yet been published of the results

obtained by the examination of the waters of the Military cantonments

‘of India, nor do I know if it be intended that anything shall be.

With respect to the Calcutta supply, as is well known, a series of

analyses has been made, and a Report of results and conclusions drawn

out, by the Chemical Examiner to Government, Dr. Macnamara.

That report, no doubt from being intended for a non-professional, and

(regarding it collectively and officially) not a professedly scientific body,

gives only results and conclusions, omitting altogether the details

of analyses and the specification of the methods employed. Dr.

Macnamara’s attention seems to have been directed chiefly to the

water of the Hooghly, to ascertain the proper point nearest to the town

from which a supply of water of sufficient purity all the year round

could be obtained. The examinations were made on samples from

Cossipore, Pultah Ghat near Barrackpore, and Chinsurah. The general

conclusion arrived at is, that the influence of the tide is little felt at

Chinsurah at any period of the year, not much more at Pultah Ghat,

except towards the close of the hot season in May and June when it

is decidedly perceptible though not great, and not only decided but to

a large amount at Cossipore during the months of March, April, May

and June; and that the river water from its admixture with sea water

and the sewerage of Calcutta during that time is unfit for human con-

sumption. The organic matter is stated to be much larger in quantity

during these months than at other periods, and also to be highly

nitrogenized ; the quantity amounting to 6 or 7 grains or even 10 or

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 205

12 grains per Imp. gallon during the months of April, May and

June; and this increase in quantity and deterioration in quality is

considered to be due to the organic impurity from the sewers and banks

at Calcutta. The analyses, I may observe, were chiefly made on samples

taken at high water, obviously to get the water at its worst. Analyses

are also given of the waters of two tanks inthe Maidaun or plain round

Fort William, namely Monohur Doss’s Tank and General’s Tank,

which are considered as unquestionably superior to the river water.

I may observe that, when I commenced this investigation, it was not

in connection with the water supply of Calcutta at all, or even in con-

nection with the economical use of water or its wholesomeness as a

beverage. These enquiries had been placed in the hands of others ; but

it occurred to me, that residing, as I did, on the banks of the Hooghly,

and possessing certain facilities for the purpose, it might be a contribu-

tion to science of some small value to make a minute examination of

the constituents of both the water and the mud of a great river

draining so large an extent of country as the Ganges. The investiga-

tion is as yet far from completion, but during its course, it occurred

to me that many of the results obtained might have some value in

relation to the subject just adverted to—the economical use of water ;

and that the local interest attached to it might render it in some

degree appropriate to publish these results, more particularly at a

time when all the knowledge attainable connected with the subject

is desirable.

This communication then is not intended to present a full statement

of the composition of the Hooghly water, but only to treat of such

points as are of more particular interest in connection with its applica-

tion to supply the wants of the inhabitants of Calcutta. And indeed

this is all that is necessary for the purpose in view. As regards the

general composition of the river water at different seasons of the year,

my own results only go to confirm those already given in Dr. Mac-

namara’s Report, but in some particulars, not of minor importance, the

results I have obtained and the conclusions drawn from them are

somewhat different ; and in other particulars it may be found that I

have added to the stock of information on the subject.

It is scarcely necessary to allude to the course of the seasons in

Bengal and the way in which they affect the river. But for

206 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

convenience I shall briefly state how I shall speak of them in

what follows. From the middle of June when the rains generally

commence and the river rises, till the end of October or middle of

November, when the rains have ceased and the river is rapidly falling,

I shall speak of as the rainy season; thence till the end of February

as the cold season; and thence again till the rains recommence as the

hot season. The first is identical with Dr. Macnamara’s “‘ Full season,”

the two latter with his ‘ Low season.”

During the rains, the river comes down in full stream from the parent

Ganges through the effluents which unite to form the Hooghly, viz. the

Bhagiruthy, Matabangah and Jellinghy, with contributions from other

tributaries from the west. During that period, and more particularly

during its earlier part, the water is loaded with mud in a very

fine state of division and very slow in settling. As the season comes

near its termination, the water becomes clearer, and remains so during

the cold season, any mud in suspension rapidly settling. The water,

which during the rains naturally contained the smallest proportion of

saline matter, now contains more, the proportion gradually increasing

till the end of February, the first increase having been more rapid at

the stoppage of the rains. All this, of course, is the natural and obvious

result of evaporation without any rainfall to supply the place of the

lost water, aggravated by the diminished supply of water from the

Ganges caused by the bars at the entrance to the tributary effluents.

These causes operate with still greater power during the hot season, aided

by strong southerly winds and powerful tides. During this season the

mud is stirred up, and the water rendered more dirty, but the mud is

not in the same state as during the rains, and settles without difficulty.

The influence of the tides becomes increasingly felt as the season

advances, and the admixture of sea water becomes unmistakable.

The following table exhibits the results I have obtained as respects

the amount of solid residue obtained by evaporating the water. They

are given for 100,000 grs. of water, instead of the Imperial gallon used

by Dr. Macnamara. By multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10, the

quantities per gallon are obtained.

Lhe following Table showing the amount of solid matter dried at

212° to 220° Fah. in the river water at ebb tide, at a point from two to

three miles above Calcutta.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 207

Taste I,

For 100,000 grs. For 70,000 grs.

or Imp. gall.

1865

August 31st, 1865, including very fine clay,* Ebb, 12.13 8.41

December 6th, Ebb, 24.00 16.80

1866

February 25th, Ebb, 30.00 21.00

May 2nd, spring tide, Ebb, 386.20 25.34

Flood, 88.50 61.95

24th, Neap tide, Ebb, 21.25 14.88

June 14th, spring tide, Ebb, 30.70 21.49

Flood, 151.90 106.33

July 6th, including very fine clay,* Ebb, 12.59 8.81

August 8th, clay and some silica deducted, Ebb, 8.13 5.69

These numbers confirm the results exhibited by Dr. Macnamara’s

report, making allowance for difference of seasons. They shew clearly

the increase of solid contents more especially during the dry season.

And here I may remark that samples were chiefly taken during

ebb tide, as my primary object was the examination of the river water

proper, and it was only during the hot season that particular attention

was paid to the state of tide, after my attention had been directed in

part to what is the special object of this paper. And. indeed, except

during the hot season, the composition of the water is little affected by

the tides.

And further, as the object was to make a full analysis of the water

at several different seasons, I did not adopt the readiest or simplest

methods of merely comparing the water at different periods for sanitary

purposes, which would have been done, had that been my primary

object. The methods adopted will be noticed in due course.

The preceding table exhibits a very great variation in the amount

of solid constituents during the hot season, owing to the influence of

the tides, a subject which will be separately considered.

* These waters had settled well—that of August 1865 for 19 days, that of

July 1866 for about 35 days, yet by comparison with that of August 1866

it will be observed that about one third of their solid contents was fine clay.

208 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

Influence of the Tides.

It will indeed be convenient to take up this subject first in order.

Dr. Macnamara’s results exhibit-very clearly the increased quantity of

saline constituents during the hot season, commencing in March, and

coming to its height just before the commencement of the rains. His

table shews as much as 77.7 gyrs. dry saline residue from 1 gallon of

water at high water on 12th June, 1862. Lobtained from water taken at

full spring tide, on 14th June of this year 1866, as much as 106.3 ers.

per Imp. gallon. This is easily accounted for when it is found, as ascertain-

ed from examination of the rainfall, that from June 1861 to end of May

1862 there had fallen 87.4 inches of rain, while during the correspond-

ing period of 1865-66 there had been only 47.9 inches: the river

must have been much lower and its current feebler, and consequently

the sea water had penetrated farther. My observations were all made on

water taken from the river near my own residence at the viliage of

Baranagur or Barnagore, with a few exceptions which I shall notice

afterwards. The locality is about two miles above Cossipore. But I

made observations also on the effect of time of tide.

This point is also noticed in Dr. Macnamara’s report, though not

very fully. He mentions that the water varies much in the degree of

its impurity with the time of tide, falling as low during April and May

as 23° at low water, that is, 23 grains of saline matter in 1 gallon. My

observations indicate even a greater amount of variation than is by this

suggested, as will be shown by the table I have prepared. As the

evaporation to dryness and weighing the residue of numerous samples is

very tedious and troublesome, another plan was adopted for estimating

the amount of variation. The river water proper contains very little

chlorine in its composition, while in the state of common salt this is

the characteristic constituent of sea water. The quantity of chlorine

was therefore ascertained by the usual volumetric process with nitrate

of silver, and calculated as if it existed entirely as chloride of sodium

or common salt, which afforded a very good means of comparing the

samples and estimating the proportion of sea water present.

I endeavoured to make some observations further up the river, but

found that it could not be done properly except with an expenditure

of time, trouble, &c. that I could not devote to it. Any observations

that I did make were only confirmatory of Dr. Macnamara’s results.

The following table exhibits the results of my observations on the

1866.] ‘with the supply of water to Calcutta: 209

influence of the tides. The change of course is gradual, commencing

in March and increasing as shewn by Dr. Macnamara’s report. I did

not make observations until the first of May.

Tasie IT,

Chlorine cale.. Saline matter dried

as Chloride at 220° F.

To compare Hbb and Flood Tide. of Sodium. ee

1866 a mile above Baranagar— For 100,000 100,000 Imp. gal.

grs. ors.

May Ist, second day of full moon. — “~ =

Low water nearly complete, ..... ais 28.0 19.60:

High water nearly complete, Surface, 61.55 43.08

Deep, 59.55 41.68

At Caleutta—

2nd, third day of full moon,

About ~ Ebb, stream, Surface, 36.20 25.30

i Opposite Bankshall. Deep, 15.50

About 2 Flood, stream, Surface, 88.50 62.19

i Opposite Hatkolah. Deep, 55.50

At Baranagar—

16th, third day of new moon, :

Above 1 or 14 hour Ebb, Surface, 40.00 66.40 46,48

Deep, 68.60

Above # Flood, Surface, 78.00 107.20

Deep, 75.00 109.00 76.30

Nearly high water complete, Surface, 82.50 104.70

Deep, 80.00 106.20

To shew state at Neap tide..

24th, fourth day of first quarter of moon.

Lhour afterbeginning of Ebb,Surface, 17.50

Deep, 18.50

3 hours after do. Surface, 12.50 05

Deep, 1150} 2125 16.

To shew rate of change during

Ebb and Plow.

May 30th, third day of full moon.

At shore 5h. before tide begun, ... 27.00

PE PMPLOVS 10, 915 ive esses erssceens os « 2L.50-

210 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

Stream, above 4 hours flood,......... 64.00 83.85 58.7

June Ist, fifth day of full moon.

5 h. 10 m. before tide begun, ......... 35.00

PDD onteO Guth Osererscys-x'.¢.5+ petsele 16.50

2-10 after ditto, ....... eebilierc aisle on O15)

5-10 after ditto, Surface, 69.50

Deep, 58.50

14th, third day of new moon.*

Tide commencing about noon,

At 6h. 40 m. A. M. Surface, 63.50

Deep, 65.90

Teds Mi ewe 1100 | 30.7 21.49

2-20 P. M. Surface, 71.00

Deep, 85.50

4-20 P. M. Surface, 123.00

ae Bhan, 151.9 106.33

The water was collected either by filling vessels from the surface,

or in the case of the deep water by lowering atin bucket provided with

proper valves. The much larger quantity of heavier mud brought

up by the bucket proved that it acted properly. The water was

collected in almost every instance under my own personal superinten-

dence.

The collection was made by means of an ordinary small boat

or dinghy. The changes of position which could not be avoided

account for the irregularities between the surface and deep waters,

taking into account the strong currents and eddies that prevail.

The table exhibits the great influence of the tides: taking the

extreme case of 14th June after long drought, just two days before

the rains commenced, we have in 100,000 fl. grains of water 151.9 gts,

solid matter at high water, and 30.7 gr. at low water, or nearly 5 to 1;

while comparing the Chlorine as Chloride of Sodium or common salt,

the proportion is fully 8 to 1. These great differences occur chiefly at +

spring tides. The results of 24th May shew how comparatively

small this is at Neap tides, 19 grains of salt at nearly high water to

12 grs. at nearly low water.

* Highest tides are on third day of new or full moon,

1866.] - with the supply of water to Calcutta. 211

A study of the particulars of this table shews that the period

during which the water can be obtained with the smallest admixture

of sea water is during the last three or four hours of ebb tide and the

first one or two of flood. From tables of the analyses of the waters

supplied to London which I shall have to refer to more particularly

afterwards, it appears that the water of five Thames Companies contains

at an average from 26.41 to 26.97 grs. of saline matter per 100,000 ;

and that of four other Companies,—two river waters contain about 26

gys., and two artesian well waters contain from above 38 to 40 grains.

The Hooghly water at Baranagur therefore even during the hot season

at ebb tide contains little more solid matter than the Thames water,

but probably a larger proportion of this is salt.

Constituents of River Water proper.

We have now to direct our attention to the river water proper, which

we may consider that we can get from the Hooghly at different degrees

of dilution all the year except three or four months of the hot season.

The water of rivers is of course in greater part generally water fallen

from the atmosphere. Aided by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere,

it acts upon rocks, even silicious rocks, producing a certain amount of

decomposition and carrying off their constituents partly in solution,

partly in suspension as mud ; it carries off similar constituents from

the soil, which consists of decomposed rocks ; and also from this source

a quantity of organic matter, the result of the decomposition of vegeta-

ble and animal substances, as also the excrementious matters deposited

there. Hxcept in special circumstances the water of rivers generally

contains a rather small proportion of alkaline salts in the state of

silicates, sulphates, chlorides and carbonates, with a larger proportion of

carbonates of lime and magnesia kept in solution by excess of carbonic

acid gas. They differ from spring or deep well waters and agree with

surface waters generally in containing a notable proportion of potash

as well as soda, and also more silica, phosphates, earthy carbonates

and organic matter, and sometimes ammonia and nitrates, than deep

spring waters do. When brought in contact with argillaceous deposits,

they part with their potash, ammonia, silica, phosphoric acid and

organic matter, while the soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid and

chlorine are generally retained, forming the usual constituents of

spring waters, This subject is treated of fully in an Essay on the

D199 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected FNo. 3

g }

Chemistry of natural waters by Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, which will be

found* well worthy of perusal.

I am not aware whether much consideration has been given to the

peculiarities of the constitution of such surface waters in regard to

their mineral constituents and their action on the animal economy,

except in the case of the abundance of earthy carbonates. This,

however, is perhaps the least characteristic of these constituents, as

many spring waters abound in earthy carbonates, or at least in earthy

salts, sulphates and muriates of lime and magnesia. More charac-

teristic is the deficiency of muriate of soda or chloride of sodium in

the surface waters and its comparative abundance in spring waters.

Soda is the characteristic alkali of the components of the human

body, but some curious observations have been made by physiological

chemists on the relative proportions of the two alkalies in different

parts or tissues of the system; and though it is stated in these cases

that the peculiarities exist entirely irrespective of the nature of the

food taken, it would scarcely be warrantable to assume as certain that

such differences in the predominance of potash or soda in food or

drink are entirely destitute of influence. The point is at least worth

bearing in mind,

Phosphoric acid, when present, exists in such small quantity that only

in very minute analyses is it sought for by the analyst. Silica is

found much more generally. From its neutral and indifferent

character, much attention has not been given to it in its influence

on animal bodies. But attention has been given to all of these

substances in relation to vegetable physiology, as plants draw their

food directly from the soil in part at least, and the nature of its

constituents is therefore of immediate importance.

To the other constituents I have mentioned, namely organic matter

with the products of its decomposition, including ammonia and nitri¢

acid, more attention has lately been paid in connection with water to

be used for human consumption. Indeed this may be said to be the

principal point to which the analysis of waters selected on sanitary

considerations has of late been chiefly directed.

The water of the Hooghly has a composition similar to that

already given as that of river waters generally. According to Dr,

* Sillman’s American Journal of Science for March, July and Sept. 1865.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 213

Macnamara’s report, in the month of August there was in 1 gallon of

water 1.2 grains of soluble salts and 5.4 grs. of insoluble earthy salts,

beside silica and organic matter, and in February 1.8 of soluble and

15.4 of earthy. Or, asI prefer to express it, there was in August 1.7

grs. alkaline salt and 7.8 grs. earthy carbonates in 100,000 fl. grs., and

in February 2.6 alkaline salt and 19.1 grs. earthy carbonates in the

same volume. The first represents the water in its most diluted state

during the height of. the rains, the last in its most concentrated state

at the end of the cold season, just before tidal influence begins to be

felt. Ido not intend to give any of my own results, partly because a

full analysis of the water is not the object of this paper, and partly

because a circumstance entirely unforeseen and unexpected has thrown

doubts on the correctness of some of those obtained, and I do not

wish to give them in an imperfect state, as they cannot be corrected

until the return of the cold season gives me a new supply of water.

It is sufficient to gay that they do not appear to differ materially

from those given in Dr. Macnamara’s report. The only point to

be noticed is, that Dr. Macnamara, in accordance with the usual custom,

where minute accuracy is not required, assumes that the alkali is soda,

Both potash and soda, however, are present in the river water ; to what

extent they vary, I have not yet ascertained. During the hot season,

from the increase of common salt from tidal water, there is of necessity

a great increase in the proportion of soda in the state of common salt,

The alkaline salts consist of potash and soda in combination with

sulphuric acid, silicic, and probably hydrochloric acid (or more strictly

their metals combined with chlorine) and perhaps some organic

acid. The earthy salts are carbonates of lime and magnesia, kept in

solution by excess of carbonic acid. On evaporation nearly the

whole of the lime and magnesia separate as carbonates insoluble.

Besides these there are a few minute constituents to be noticed after-

wards. The only particular now to be noticed is, the different

proportion of solid constituents in the water at the two extremes ; in

August there is 9.5 grains of alkaline and earthy salts in solution in

100,000 fl. grs. of water, in February there is 21.78 grs. or about two

and a quarter times asmuch. This great difference is of course due to

the nature of the*seasons*in Bengal, where almost all the rain falls

during four or five continuous months.

214 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

It may be useful to refer for the purpose of comparison to the

composition of some other waters supplied to towns, and I shall take

for that purpose one of the most recently published reports on the

subject, namely, that by Professor Frankland on the water supply of

London during the year from February 1865 to January 1866.*

The only points determined connected with the mineral consti-

tuents are the total amount of saline matters and the amount

of earthy salts as ascertained by the soap test ; this, as is well known,

being the application of the familiar fact that hard water curdles

soap, to ascertain its purity; a solution of known strength of soap

being added to a measured quantity of the water to be examined

from a graduated tube, until the curdling effect of the salts of lime and

magnesia which cause the hardness is exhausted, and the water produces

a lather on shaking. The quantity of soap required indicates the

amount of earthy salts present ; an easy and speedy means of obtaining

a sufficiently good estimate of the amount of earthy salts in water.

By deducting from the total solid matter first the amount of organic

matter, the total inorganic is obtained; and by deducting from this

the amount of carbonate of lime, the remainder will indicate, with

sufficient approximative accuracy, the amount of alkaline salts. Here

are the results of this proceeding —for the waters of

Five Thames New River Kent and 8.

Companies and River Essex Co.’s

average. Lea. Artes. Wells.

Total solid matters, mean 26.63 26.11 39.08

Deduct organic and volatile, mean 1.60 1.30 1.73

25.03 24.81 37.30

Carbonate of Lime 17.69 20.65 25.16

Alkaline salts 7.34 4.16 12.14

It will be observed that the alkaline salts are in much larger

proportion to the earthy carbonates than in the Hoogly water, this

being specially the case in the Artesian well waters. The waters of New

River and River Lea come nearest the Hooghly. The amount of solid

matter is much greater in the average than that of the Hooghly river

* Jourval of the Chemical Society, June 1866,

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 215

water proper, the mean indeed being nearly as much as the maximum

of the Hooghly before tidal influence begins. The amount of variation

is much smaller in these waters: of the Thames water the highest

quantity of solid matter was 32.62 grs. the lowest 18.78, and the well

waters vary less. And it was observed that the quantity of solid

matter tended to increase after heavy rain fall.

Other river waters contain more or less of such constituents, dependent

on the nature of the rocks and soil they traverse. Mr. Sterry Hunt

gives an analysis of the Ottawa water, taken before the melting of the

snows, containing 6.12 ers. solid in 100,000. Bischoff, in his Chemi-

cal Geology, gives a pretty large list of analyses of river waters, show-

ing a variation of from 2.61 to 54.5 grains solid matter in 100,000.

The nature of their mineral constituents also varies greatly, but that

will not engage our attention at present as it is more a geological

question than a sanitary one. We shall proceed to the point more

immediately connected with the object of the paper.

The substances treated of can scarcely be called impurities with

reference to natural waters. They are rather constituents, and are

only to be considered impurities in a sanitary point of view when

they are excessive in quantity, as for instance exceeding 40 or even

50 grains in 100,000. The remaining substances to be noticed may

in a purely chemical point of view be called constituents also with

quite as much truth, but with reference to sanitary considerations

may with propriety be termed impurities. They were enumerated

before as organic matter, ammonia and nitric acid. It may be better

to consider them as organic matter of vegetable origin and organic

matter of animal origin, with the respective products of their decom-

position.

Vegetable substances of all kinds mixed with the soil, exposed to

air and moisture or immersed in water, dead animal bodies of every

variety in similar circumstances, all rotting, fermenting and putrefying,

with the excrementitious matters from living animals, constitute the

materials from which river water derives that portion of its consti-

tuents called organic matter. Its nature is so heterogeneous and its

quantity so small, that it would be hopeless to attempt to separate it

into its proximate constituents. All we can attempt is to get some

general idea of its nature, from which to form some judgment of its

216 Mr, Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

properties, especially with reference to its action on the human system.

Of late more attention has been paid to this subject, previously little

thought of.

The first point requiring attention is to ascertain its quantity as

correctly as practicable. The plan formerly followed was to dry the

solid contents of the water obtained by evaporation carefully at a

certain fixed temperature such as 212° or 250° F., or even about 300°,

till the weight remained constant ; then to burn off the organic matter

by as moderate a heat as possible and weigh again: the loss of weight

was considered organic matter. But this method is liable to great

error, and may give grossly erroneous results. Other substances may

be volatilised: salts of ammonia have been mentioned, but they may -be

included amongst organic matter ; nitrates may be partially or wholly

decomposed, but they generally exist in very small quantity. Harthy

carbonates may lose carbonic acid :—carbonate of lime will not readily

lose it if the heat be moderate, but carbonate of magnesia will very

readily, and moreover chloride of magnesium (or muriate of magnesia)

loses part of its acid easily: It is the magnesium salts which are the

chief source of loss, but this can be prevented or remedied. Ii the

contents of the water be not naturally sufficiently alkaline, a sufficient

quantity of accurately weighed and perfectly dry carbonate of soda is

added to the water on evaporating it; the soda combines with hydro-

chloric acid to form chloride of sodium and water, while the magnesia

remains as carbonate; and by this means, as the chlorine is not

separated by ignition from the sodium, the loss of chlorine is avoided.

The only loss is of carbonic acid, which can be restored again. This

is done by adding to the ignited residue in the platinum crucible

distilled water charged with carbonic acid and evaporating to dryness

by gentle heat, drying again at the same temperature as was employed

at the first weighing before ignition till the weight is again constant.

The loss of carbonic acid is by this means corrected, the acid being

restored, and the difference of weight shows the quantity of organie

matter, at least more correctly than by any other method known.

This plan is attributed to Dr. Thomas Clark, the inventor of the soap

test, by Dr. W. Allen Miller ina paper* to which I shall have further

occasion to refer. It is tedious and troublesome, requires a fine balance,

* Journal of the Chemical Society for May, 1865.

1866. ] with the supply of water to’ Calcutta. 217

patience, and care ; but it isnot too much to say that the results obtained

without the above detailed precautions are of no value, or rather worse

than useless, asthey mislead. The results which I shall give were ob-

tained by this plan carefully carried out. It will be found that they

differ materially from those given in Dr. Macnamara’s report; and L

can only account for the discrepancy, by supposing that some precau-

tion requisite for ensuring accuracy in the process was omitted, either

from inadvertance, or because it had not at that time (1862) been

generally known to or used by chemists.

In the table in that report the smallest quantity of organic matter

entered is 0.9 grain in 1 Imperial gallon, the largest 8.3 grains, gene-

rally however 3 or 4 grains per gallon, which are equal to respectively

1.23, 11.8 and 4.3 or 5.7 grains per 100,000 grains. My own results

have yielded me only from 0.6 to 1.9 grains in 100,000 and Dr. Frank-

land’s in the report already alluded to, vary from .54 to 3.5, or average

about 1.6 for the Thames, and 1.3 for the other two river waters, The

table which will be given will exhibit the results I have obtained,

Remarks will be postponed till the whole subject is considered.

The time, trouble, and care necessary for estimating the amount of

organic matter by weight is so great, that chemists have been desirous

of finding some easier and speedier method of estimating its amount.

Precipitation of the organic matter by salts of lead or reduction of salts

of silver and gold have been proposed, but never come into general

use. But another re-agent has of late been very generally employed,

the permanganate of potash, which from the facility with which it

yields its oxygen to organic substances has been made the means of

estimating the amount of these ; and as it can be very easily employed,

it has come very much into favour. A good deal of difference of

opinion prevailed at first as to the proper method of applying it and

as to the value of its indications, but more agreement is being arrived

at lately. It is used in the state of weak solution poured from a

graduated tube, and the permanence of a slight pink tinge in the

water to which it is added is the sign of the action being complete :

the quantity by measure of the solution required indicates what is

wanted. Dr. Letheby continues to add the solution at intervals for

24 hours: if the action was completed, then this would be very

well, but it is not, as there are different kinds of organic water, some

218 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

of which act slowly on it, others more rapidly. Dr. Miller strictly

enjoins that the water should not be warmed, without however stat-

ing any reason, and other English chemists seem also to practise it

cold; Dr. Woods, who wrote a paper on it some years ago published in

the Chemical Society’s Journal, recommends warming the water, as

also does Dr, Macnamara, and gives reasons for it. It-now generally

seems to be agreed that it is desirable to restrict the use of the

permanganate to the oxidation of those substances that can be rapidly

acted on; and after consideration and experiment, I have adopted with

some small modifications the details of Dr. Frankland’s practice, except

that the water is heated to about 120° F. at the commencement.

English chemists forget that what is our natural cold here, requires

artificial heat with them, and that it is desirable to follow a plan that

can be easily made uniform for all climates. The solution of per-

manganate is added in small portions at intervals, until a perceptible

tinge of pink remains for ten minutes; when this is the case, the

quantity used is read off. I use 4000 fluid grs. of water with 80 fluid

ers. of diluted sulphuric acid, containing 1 grain concentrated acid by

weight in 5 fl. grs., heat the whole to about 120° F. and having

removed it from the lamp, proceed to add the solution. This is made

of such strength that each measure of the tube (it may be, each equal

to 1 cubic centimetre or to 10 fluid grains) yields .001 grain oxygen

as ascertained by its action on oxalic acid in solution in similar

circumstances, that is dissolved in a similar quantity of pure distilled

water with the same quantity of sulphuric acid and treated in the

same way. As .63 grains oxalic acid requires .08 grain oxygen, the

solution will be of proper strength, if 80 measures are required for

oxidizing that quantity of oxalic acid: that is, 80 measures are equal

to .08 grain oxygen, or 1 measure is equal to .001 grain oxygen.

Although it is certain that in many or most cases the permanganate

as used in this process does not oxidise all the organic matters, and

that we cannot tell how much remains unacted upon; and though

at present at least we do not know what is the particular chemical

constitution of the matters oxidized, it is at least certain that it acts

upon those substances which give the putrid odour to stagnant water,

and renders them after a time, when the products of its action have

settled, pure and transparent and quite free from offensive smell+

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 219

It thus removes the matters which are actually in a state of putrefac-

tion, and I believe preserves the water from further putrefaction for

at least a considerable time, For this purpose it is advantageously

employed for the purpose of purifying water for domestic use. In such

application it is used alone, no sulphuric acid being used: a very

small quantity being added to the water, just sufficient to give it a

very slight pink tinge, which will remain for above 15 minutes; the

water is allowed to stand till next day, and is then decanted off and

filtered and is fit for use. The minute quantity of potash salt

produced can do no harm.

Provided it be properly understood what the use of this re-agent

indicates, and it be not credited with more than it does effect, the

permanganate test is a valuable addition to our means of examining

the quality of drinking water. The results of my examination of

the Hooghly water by means of it, and the amount of organic matter

by weight, are given together in one table.

The quantity of oxygen required is very small. The results are

given as obtained, but cannot be counted on too minutely, as there is a

certain amount of error unavoidable, in not getting the colour exactly

of one degree of intensity, im slight difference of quantity required

dependent on rapidity of adding the liquid, and probably on other causes

not very well ascertained. The purity of the waters as respects such

offensive constituents is in proportion to the oxygen required to oxidize

them : the purer the water the less oxygen is necessary.

Taste III.

River water taken from the Hooghly two to three miles above the north

end of the town, except when otherwise specified.

For 100,000 f. gs. water.

Organic

matter dried. at

212° to 220° Oxygen re-

Grains. pee :

6th July, 1866 Ebb, from surface, Meh ao .80 0375

10th ditto, from shore, eae ane SOON abo 0338

8th August, Ebb tide, ... . ue a .60 0450

21st ditto ditto, 505 ; 86 0345

dist August, 1865, Ebb tide ; Tie sean in Oe

ed bottles ten months, aa much vegetable

growth had been removed, aie pe aa ea 14 0225

220 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

9th December, 1865, Ebb, Surface, On Ae a0?

Weepyane.. Tae 78 0175

25th February, 1866 Ebb, Surface, ahh ee 92

Deep, ... 1s Bae 45

2nd May, Ebb at Bankshall, southern part of

Calcutta, ie uae an ae Bsi3 0325

Flood at Hatkolah, northern part of Calcutta,... 2.70

30th May, Ebb, Hor rie eee 90 0238

Flood, ae i a AGO 0275

14th June, Ebb, ose SB bd 90 0250

Flood, Se 2 een Be 0225

6th June at Chandernagore, 20 miles above

Calcutta, Ebb, Surface, ... i oH .60 .0163

Deep, es 67 0213

From an inspection of this table, it will be observed that the

permanganate test exhibits the largest quantity of organic matter in

the river water during the rainy season, and the smallest quantity

during the cold season, the hot season giving results intermediate.*

The same ratio is not so distinctly perceptible in the weight of the

organic matter. Ii the water at all these seasons were at the same

state of dilution as regards saline matter, there would be the largest

proportion of organic matter during the rainy season and the smallest

during the hot season. The hot season is usually associated with ideas

of corruption and concentration of impurities, the rainy season with

purification by the abundance of pure water from the clouds. In

point of fact it is directly the reverse. The same thing has been

observed in England, as will be manifest from the following quotatioa

from Dr. Frankland’s report on the London waters. He says, “‘ This

* It was with considerable hesitation that I left the indications given by

the permanganate test in the table, on account of objections raised to my

determinations of the organic matter which led to a supplementary paper read

at the succeeding meeting of the Society. But after due consideration, they

were allowed to remain as sufficient for the purpose required. The objections

will be noticed as occasion calls for it, in notes or in the Supplement.

It is to be observed also that, as reported in the Proceedings of the Society

for October, page 1866, 1 had stated 1.4 grains per gallon as the largest amount

of organic matter obtained. 'T'wo of the results in the table, those of 2nd and

30th May somewhat exceed this, viz. 2.7 and 2.6 grains corresponding respective-

ly to 1.89 and 1.82 grain per gallon. The correctness of these was doubted from

supposed inaccuracy in the process, but this not being certain they have been

jutroduced into the table. 380th Noy. 1866.

1866. | with the supply of water to Calcutta. 221

comparison shews clearly (as might be anticipated) how closely the

condition of river waters is connected with the amount of rain-fall ;

but, in opposition to the commonly received opinion, it proves that the

waters in question are much purer in dry than in wet weather, even

if the drought occurs during a very hot summer.” He seems, however,

to hesitate a little about drawing general conclusions irom the observa-

tions of one year; and in the report of the discussion which followed

at the Chemical Society’s meeting as reported in the Chemical News,

some of the speakers seemed inclined to attribute it to special and

particular causes. I have no doubt that it is owing to general causes,

and that when we consider the circumstances, we cannot expect any

other result.

Unfortunately in the case of the Hooghly at Caleutta, the question

is complicated by the admixture of sea water during the hot season.

This introduces two sources of error into the process of examination,

namely an increased amount of saline matter, and a difference in its

nature and properties. These will probably tend to cause indications

of an amount of organic matter in excess of the truth. The point is

under examination. There is also great difficulty in estimating

correctly the amount of organic matter during the rainy season, on

account of the impossibility of getting the water clear by filtration,

and the very long time it requires to become clear by subsidence.

This point is also under investigation.*

There can be no doubt also that the kind of organic matter in the

sea water mixture is different in some respects from that of the river

water proper. I was much struck with the observation made many

months ago of the difference of colour presented by the different spect-

mens of water when highly concentrated, that of the August water

being so much deeper in colour than the others. On the contrary,

a sainple of water from the salt water lake to the east of Calcutta,

though indicating both by the weighing and the permanganate

processes much more organic matter than the river water, when concen-

trated, was almost colourless.

But to return to the greater proportion of organic matter during the

rains, it seems to be nothing but what may be expected. During the

* For the reasons stated there is considerable uncertainty respecting the cor-

rectness of the weight of organic matter in the waters of July and August

222 Mr, Waldie’s investiyations connectcd [No. 3,

remainder of the year, vegetable and animal matter of every kind is

deposited in or upon the soil in all stages of decomposition. The

amount of drainage is small and the flow of water gentle: the water

carried thus to the river is comparatively pure, and that from the

sources of the streams is from places bare of vegetation and part of

it from melting snow. But when the rains come, they wash off all the

accumulated products of decomposition of vegetable and animal sub-

stances in the state both of solution and suspension, of which the

appearance alone of the water and its flavour give ample evidence.

The increased proportion, it is true, is counteracted by the largely

increased quantity of the water which dilutes it; for if, instead of

looking to the proportion of organic matter to the water, we look to

its amount in proportion to the inorganic or mineral saline matter,

then in the rainy season the excessive proportion of organic matter is

rendered much more evident. After the rains the mud subsides,

which is favourable to the purification of the water, and the atmo-

spheric oxygen contained in solution in the water, as it is in natural

waters generally, acts upon the organic matter in solution, oxidizing

and destroying it. And as heat in general materially increases the

energy of chemical action, there can be little doubt that this purifying

influence goes on more rapidly in tropical than in temperate climates,

and that this explains why the organic matter in the Hooghly water

is smaller in amount than that of the London waters, both of river

and wells in their natural state.

But we have to consider not only the quantity but the quality of the

organic impurity. We can scarcely expect to go more minutely into

this than to endeavour to ascertain the relative proportions of vege-

table and animal matter, and to get some idea of their state or of the

stage of decomposition in which they exist in the water. The

chemical constitution of these gives us some aid in this enquiry, the

main constituents of vegetable compounds being carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen, those of animal substances containing nitrogen in

addition ; a statement which, though not strictly exact, is sufficiently

characteristic, so much so, that by azotized or nitrogenous substances

are generally understood compounds of animal origin. The ultimate

products of the decomposition of non-nitrogenous organic matter in

presence of oxygen, namely water and carbonic acid, of course give us no

help in this enquiry, nor are the intermediate products likely to be

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 223

possessed of any such striking properties as to aid us much, as they

are mostly of a neutral nature without active chemical or physical

characteristics. Nitrogenous bodies, however, yield products more

readily recognised, and as it is this class of substances which are most

likely to possess properties injuriously affecting the animal economy,

their detection is also the most important.

The ultimate products of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic

substances “are, in addition to water and carbonic acid, also. ammonia,

and where excess of oxygen is present, nitric acid. But there are also

numerous intermediate products, and these are often characterised by

offensive smells which give a certain character to the putrefaction of

animal substances, different from that yielded by the fermentation or

corruption of vegetable bodies. The smell or flavour then of a water

is a very good test of its purity, though it indicates rather the stage

of decomposition in which its organic matter exists than the amount

of organic matter present. And in connection with this I may

mention the test of keeping the water and observing the changes

which take place in it, the production of animalcules or of aquatic

vegetation. Now Ihave kept samples of water taken from the river

at all seasons for many months. Those taken during the cold and

hot seasons settled easily and suffered very little further change; at

the most a little greenish deposit at the bottom of the bottle formed,

which is the case, however, with ordinary distilled water. It was very

different, however, with the water of the rainy season. Some water

taken from the river on 3lst August, 1865, was kept for about two

or three weeks, then syphoned off the deposited mud into other clean

stoppered bottles in which it remained, the bottles being closed for

about four months, when the bottles were found to have their sides

covered with abundant green branching vegetation: the water was

again syphoned off quite clear to other clean bottles and kept for about

six months longer, when the same appearances were observed, though

to a much smaller extent. There was abundant proof in this case

of the presence of organic matter, probably both in the form of living

germs and of chemical compounds dissolved in the water. The water

taken during the hot season may have contained as much: possibly

the presence of the excess of saline matter may prevent such develop-

ment, but I am not prepared to give an opinion on the subject. The

224 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected ; [No. 3»

water of the hot season shewed more indications of vegetation than

that of the cold season, though greatly less than that of the rains,

Ammonia.

Ammonia, perhaps one of the most characteristic evidences of the

presence of nitrogenous matter, can be detected in natural waters, and

even when in such minute proportion as in natural waters, its quantity

can be estimated. Dr. Miller has given a process for doing so with

sufficient accuracy, and without the necessity of operating on very large

quantities of water, which will be found in the paper I have already

mentioned on the analysis of mineral waters in the Journal of the

Chemical Society for May 1865. It depends on the great delicacy

of the test for ammonia possessed by an alkaline solution of the

Hydrarg-lodide of Potassium, which produces a fine rich yellow

brown colour with a very small quantity of ammonia, or a precipitate;

if the quantity be larger. In the weaker solutions, the colour varies

in depth of shade with the proportion of ammonia present, and by a

comparison with another solution containing a known quantity of

ammonia the proportion is estimated. Dr. Miller attributes the plan

of proceeding to Mr. Hadow, and gives the details of procedure. He

gives the formula for the preparation of the alkaline solution of

Hydrarg-Iodide of Potassium, which I have strictly followed and

adopted. His standard solution for comparison is a weak solution of

pure muriate of ammonia of such strength that 1 fluid grain of the

solution contains .0001 (one ten-thousandth of a) grain of ammonia

or 3.17 grains muriate of ammonia in 10,000 fluid grains. I also

adopt this solution, but have modified the plan of proceeding, it

appears to me with advantage. It is thus:

A convenient quantity, 10,000 fluid grains is very suitable, of the

water, to which a small quantity of pure hydrochloric acid has been

added, is concentrated by a gentle heat to about 1,000 fluid grains:

it must of course be slightly acid. This is put into a flask, some excess

of pure milk of lime added, and the flask connected by a bent tube

with a small Liebig’s condenser, to the extremity of which is connected

a small Woulfe’s bottle, and to this another one furnished at its further

neck with a tube containing broken glass moistened with water, this

being to prevent escape of ammonia. About half or 500 fluid grains of

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 225

product is distilled over and emptied into a tube graduated into 100

divisions of 10 fluid grains each, the bottles washed out with distilled

water and added to the tube to make up 100 measures of liquid which

isto be thoroughly mixed together. Two wide mouthed bottles or jars

of as nearly the same size as possible are provided, into each of which

25 fluid grains of the Hydrarg-Jodide solution is introduced with

some distilled water. Then ae one of these an aliquot part of the

distilled liquid is poured, say {5 or 4, so as to produce a distinct colour,

and the bottle is filled up Al water. Another similarly graduated

tube or burette has been’ prepared ready filled with the standard

solution of muriate of ammonia, and this is carefully added to the

second bottle, until the colour produced is as exactly as possible of the

same shadeas that of the first, both bottles being of course made equally

full. The quantity added is then noted, and then calculated on the

whole. Thus: suppose 74 fluid grains of the standard solution of

muriate of ammonia has-been required, this is equal to 74 & .000L

grains or .0074 grains ammonia. If 25 measures of the distilled liquor

has been used for trial, this is }th of it, consequently the whole contains

0074 & 4 = .0296 grains ammonia, and as this was from 10,000

fluid grains of water, by consequence the standard quantity of 100,000

fluid grains water contains .296 grains ammonia.

The process requires great care, that there be no accidental

admixture of ammonia. The vessels must be scrupulously clean, the

distilled water and the lime used must be carefully examined to make

sure that they contain no ammonia. The plan of measuring the

distillate enables the operator to repeat the trial in case of accident

or uncertainty. It is better to work with rather weak colours, as the

eye can better detect differences of shade: .0074 grains ammonia is

too much for a 2000 grain bottle: any size of bottle may be used,

provided the two bottles be as exactly as possible alike in size, shape

and capacity.

226 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

Taste LV.

The following table shews the results obtained by this process.

Ammonia in

100,000 fi. grs.

River water of

Rainy SEAson.

6th July, 1866, yak ae aioe 58 aes Bi 1133

Slee NAT, 255 60 ai 507 500 crajer yee 1825

Average, ... Bes Lae wats 1429

Cotp SEASON.

9th December, 1865, Shore, ie oe Bere Seah 0162

Ditto, Stream, oer ae ASO ee .0220

Ditto, ditto.) ee oa ace rota gate .0208

27th ditto, ditto, cae 400 500 ts: 0328

Average, ss. wel depck vei 0229

Hor Szason.

Ebb tide.

30th May, ... ae eae as sel ee as .0250

14th June, a ia 2a Axe ae wiese| oh .0189

Ditto repeated, ... 506 650 ae 600 sa 0550

INT EVROS 660 555 505) 000 0329

Flood Tide.

HOela Ney 445 Sha 400 Be 300 ste Bi .0370

14th June, fake ae schy ue Rs Seenee .1850

Ditto repeated, ... 600 orks aoa 050 960 1075

Average, ... ae sishe Dee 1098

Now on an inspection of this table it will be easily observed that

the discrepancies are so great that the results cannot be depended on

as at all accurate. I have mentioned the difficulties and nicety of

the process, and the errors manifestly point out the necessity of

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta, 227

carefully examining wherein they lie, in order to see if they can be

avoided. Yet notwithstanding these inaccuracies, it seems to me

that the general results are pretty evident, that the amount of

“ammonia is greatest in the rainy season, diminishes during the cold

one, and again increases during the hot, which increase, however, is

probably not in the river water proper. One examination of water

from Chandernagore, which was very slightly if at all contaminated

with tidal water, yielded only .0118 grain ammonia in 100,000 flood

grains. This conclusion is not a certain one; to make it so, it would

be necessary to have examinations of the Chandernagore water at all

seasons; but other considerations, to be afterwards noticed, render it

probable.*

I am disposed to attach a good deal of importance to the estimation

of the ammonia, not only because it helps to indicate how far the

nitrogenous matter has gone in the stage of decomposition, but because

that stage is not improbably one of importance. It has been long

known that many, I may say most, of the organic proximate principles

found in vegetables are alkaloids possessing active properties and

producing the most marked physiological effects, and that there are

many similar principles produced in the decomposition of nitrogenised

substances by destructive distillation or otherwise, which possess marked

physical properties, and probably, if they were examined, also decided

physiological actions. But by modern chemical research, it would

appear that these alkaloids are all formed on the type of ammonia,

or are ammonias having one or more atoms of its hydrogen replaced

by some other organic combination or radical. Hence it seems not at

all unlikely that such compound ammonias as they are called may be

produced at the same time and along with the ultimate or ordinary

ammonia. And even though no such compounds should exist, the

amount of ammonia would give some probable indication of the stage

of decomposition, and existence of compounds is a state of transition

towards ammonia,

* The examinations for ammonia were all made about the same time in the

month of August, consequently the waters were of different ages. The samples

had been preserved mixed with a little Hydrochloric acid and mostly in a

concentrated state. Of course objections may be made to their value on this

account and possibly may be valid, This will again be referred to in the sequel,

30th November, 1866,

928 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

I have seen few published analyses of water indicating the presence

or amount of ammonia. Such examinations have been made, but

they do not seem to be common. In the case of waters examined

for sanitary purposes it appears to me that the point should be

attended to. One observation that has come under my notice on

the subject is in a paper by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert on town

sewage,* in which is mentioned the quantity of ammonia found in.

the River Wandle before and after receiving the drainage water

from the land irrigated by the sewage of Croydon. In both

instances, it amounted to .18 grain per gallon or 70,000 grains, being

therefore more than I have found at the worst in the Hooghly water

viz. .185 grains per 100,000 grains.

Nitrates.

The presence of nitrates has been more noticed than that of

ammonia, though it appears to me less worthy of attention. It is

true that they indicate the existence of nitrogenous matter, but it is

rather as a thing of the past: the animal matter has been there, but

is no longer now, at least that part of it which now has the form of

nitric acid ; it is now fully oxydized, its animal essence and corruptibi-

lity destroyed: it ranks with water and carbonic acid, no longer an

organic substance. A process has been devised for estimating small

quantities, known as Pugh’s process, which Dr. Miller in the above

quoted paper recommends for application to water. I have not made

use of it, indeed have not had time, but have satisfied myself with

some other observations and experiments on the presence of nitrates

in the river water. In many instances indeed very distinct deflagration

has been observed during ignition of the residue obtained by evapora-

ting the water. This alone does not give good grounds for forming

an opinion as to the quantity of the nitrate, as it may be masked or

altogether obscured by an excessive proportion of other salts, as of

common salt during the hot season. The presence of nitrites can

also be observed by the blue colour produced with starch and iodide

of potassium by the water acidulated. But as nitrites are simply

imperfectly oxydised nitrates, the same observations apply to the

former as have been made respecting the latter.

* Journal of the Chemical Society, April,-1866.

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 229

I had intended, and still intend, to estimate the quantity of nitric

acid for the complete analysis originally contemplated ; but for the

reasons just stated, I preferred, for the purpose of this communication

to direct my attention to other points which appeared of greater

importance. That of ammonia which has been just discussed was

one of these, and a greater number of determinations of ammonia

would have been made, but time did not permit: besides I wished

first carefully to examine the ammonia process in order to ascertain

the causes of the discrepancies already referred to, with a view to

discover the precautions necessary to be taken to ensure more

concordant results.

Other nitrogenous matter.

But ammonia and nitric acid are only the ultimate terms of the

fermentative and oxydised decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter,

and there may be much more present in all stages of decomposition

intermediate between these and unchanged animal or vegetable

constituents. The amount of these could be estimated by ascertaining

the quantity of nitrogen they contain, but the operation is too trouble-

some to be generally applied to such minute quantities of matter

as exists in drinking waters. Animal matters in being ignited or

burnt, as is well known, omit a peculiar smell, different from that

produced by burning non-nitrogenous substances such as wood, and

this has been used as an indication of the presence of, and even as a

means of forming a judgment respecting the proportion of matter

of animal origin. But it affords a very uncertain means of judging,

as even corrupting vegetable matter gives a different smell from fresh,

and the peculiar animal odour may be more or less obscured by the

greater or less proportion of vegetable matter mixed with the animal.

Besides the most characteristic smell given by burning animal matters

is that produced by albuminous or gelatinous substances such as

muscular fibre, blood, skin, or in short the undecomposed tissues of

animal bodies in general. But these substances are probably not to

be found in sewage except in small quantity, its constituents are

more nearly of the nature of urine and other excrementitious animal

matters and the sour products of vegetable decomposition: many of

them are volatile and evaporate by a moderate heat with a peculiar

230 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

nauseous smell, but one not so characteristic as that produced by

burning horn or wool for instance.

Nevertheless not to neglect any means of obtaining information on

the subject, I not only, in the course of ascertaining the weight of

organic matter by burning it off, paid attention to the appearances

then presented, but afterwards made a few experiments on purpose.

But with all I cannot concur in the satisfaction expressed by Dr. Angus

Smith on the results, as quoted by Dr. Macnamara in his review of the

pamphlet.* He speaks of the remarkably clear insight given by

boiling down a few thousand grains of water and burning the residue.

He says, ‘‘ We can by the eye and the smell detect humous and peaty

acids, nitrogenous organic substances, and nitrates, and estimate their

amount toa very useful degree of accuracy. We may even decide

by it the animal or vegetable origin of the matter.” Now I have

carefully evaporated down repeatedly quantities of 50,000 and 100,000

grains of water and attended to these appearances, and the only

conclusion I came to was, that the information obtained was very

limited and unsatisfactory. Ihave also varied the experiment and

instead of burning the matter in an open platinum crucible have heated

it ina glass test tube. For some ofthe objects in view this is a

better plan; and I compared in this way samples of water of the rainy

season, of the cold season, and of the hot season during flood tide,

For the latter, which is a mixture of river and sea water it is necessary

to mix the saline matter with some dry carbonate of soda, or better, to

evaporate the water to dryness with this admixture, in order to prevent

the evolution of hydrochloric acid vapours. The mouth of the tube is to

be loosely closed with a glass stopper which is removed from time to

time to examine the smell and try with test papers. Examined in this

way, all those samples gave some ammoniacal vapour with no very

marked difference; all gave a somewhat urinous animal smell, but

not one the characteristic smell of burning flesh or horn: there were

slight variations, but none very distinct. The rainy season water gave

more of the smell of burning vegetable matter than the others, this

being the most distinctive point observed ; but altogether the informa-

tion obtained was very small.

After the failure of all these plans, there remained but one likely to

* Indian Medical Gazette, April, 1866,

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 931

be satisfactory, and that was to determine the amount of nitrogen

existing in other forms than those of ammonia and nitric acid, this

being the only way in which the amount of undecomposed or

imperfectly decomposed animal matter can be estimated. The way in

which this is usually done is by what is well known to chemists as the

soda lime process, and depends on the circumstance that all such

animal substances containing nitrogen (this not including nitric acid

however), when heated to redness in contact with a hydrated alkali,

yield up all their nitrogen combined with hydrogen as ammonia, and

this ammonia can by suitable arrangement be collected and its amount

ascertained. Iam not aware that this plan has been much applied

to the examination of animal matter in waters, no doubt on account of

the minute quantity of nitrogen present ; nevertheless it appeared to me

that it might be modified so as to estimate it even in drinking water.

I intended to have postponed the trial of this process altogether, as I

had not time to make proper arrangements and test the accuracy of the

plan. However I made three experiments in a rather hasty and

crude manner with such means as [ had at hand. They are not at all

to be depended on, but I may give the results as obtained.

River water of 2nd June, Ebb, from Chandernagore, containing very

little tidal water. 100,000 grains gave .028 grains ammonia.

River water of 91st August, Ebb, from Barnagore. 100,000 grains

gave .030 grains ammonia.

River water of May and June, Flood tide, from Barnagore. 100,000

grains gave .010 grains ammonia.

The results, as I have already said, are not to be depended on. Yet

it cannot be denied that they are in accordance with the results

obtained in other ways, respecting the organic matter. The ready

formed ammonia existing in the water had of course been previously

removed,

In a practical point of view this portion of the subject is of the

principal importance, as more than any other it bears on the question

as to how far the river water is contaminated by the sewage of

Calcutta. Judging from the results obtained and just mentioned

respecting ammonia and fixed nitrogenous organic matter, the amount

is not great: even at the highest tide at flood on the 14th June of

this year, after twelve months of an unusually small amount of rain-

232 Mr, Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,.

fall, it is no worse as regards ready formed ammonia than the water of

the rainy season ; and if the rough experiments on the other nitrogenous

matter are to be trusted, it is no worse or not so bad even in this

respect ; and comparing the results with the one observation quoted

respecting the river Wandle as regards ammonia, the Hooghly water

even at the worst, has the advantage. In considering this point,

it must be borne in mind that the refuse which Calcutta can yield

must bear but a very insignificant proportion to the great volume of

the waters of the Hooghly compared with that which a large English

town will yield to an English river, and more particularly London to

the Thames. And then the purifying influences here are so much

more active that contaminating constituents are much more speedily

destroyed; nature with her all pervading oxygen, its power exalted

by a tropical temperature, burning all up. ‘The water of the stream

in constant motion presents perpetually renewed surfaces to the

atmosphere to absorb the great purifying agent, and the importance

of this will perhaps be more clearly manifested by comparison with

another class of waters with which I shall conclude this paper.

Tank Waters.

This class is the tank waters, a few of which I have made a partial

examination of, for the purpose of comparison. These are General’s tank, _

near the entrance to Park Street; Monohor Doss’ tank, near that to

Lindsay Street, both of them on the plain round the Fort ; Dalhousie

Square tank, supplied by the river; Cornwallis Square Tank, at the

northern part of the town; a newly cleaned and dug out tank at

Dhurrumtollah (supplied by Mr. Dall); and a village tank near my

own premises, Also I have examined slightly two well waters, and

the water of the Salt Water Lake to the east. of the town; the results

of all will be given in one table and a few remarks appended afterwards-

The water of the two tanks from the plain in May and June had a

slightly putrid flavour; in August this was much less. Cornwallis

Square tank was very low in May and putrid, had not increased very

much in August and was still bad. The Dhurrumtollah tank was bad

flavoured and abounded in vegetation; the Barnagore tank in May and

June was covered with a thick coat of floating vegetation, and was very

dirty and bad smelled, quite unfit for use even by the villagers, In

August during the rains its appearance improved somewhat.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 233

Taste V.

For 100,000 fluid grains.

Date of col- | Solid | Organic ; Oxygen |Ammoe

lecting. matter. | matter. | reqd. to | nia.

1866. oxidise.

General’s Tank, ...(6 June, | 12.05} 1.35} .0825) .235

14 Aug. 1225

Monohur Doss’s Tank, ...,l4 May, | 24.60} 2.00) .0913

6 June, .1000

14 Aug. 1400) .204

Dalhousie Square Tank, ...,14 May, | 23.85} 1.50

6 June, 25.80, .0750

Cornwallis Square Tank, :

settled and veg. matter de-

posited, ...{14 May, | 58.00) 4.40) .1550

not settled, 14 Aug, 5.15

Dhurrumtollah Tank, ... Aug. 2975) .237

Barnagore, .».(11 May, | 51.00} 4.25) .38170

8 June, .2938

17 Aug. 3375

Dhurrumtollah well, Hoole ibis 0725

Barnagore well, softs) eames. .0900

Salt Water Lake,

from Canal at Dhappa Toll

House, ... {13 June, | 908.00} 20.00} .1250

Ditch conveying sewerage of

Calcutta, ...{L June, | 295.80} 33.10) 5.680

* Ditto, 18 Sept. 27.33

* Ditto, ... 13 Sept. 22.25

On examining this table, it will be observed that even the best tank

water contains more organic matter by weight, and requires more

oxygen to oxydise it than does the river water during ebb tide; even

Dalhousie Square water appears to deteriorate by being removed

from the running stream into a stagnant reservoir. The excess of

organic matter in the bad tanks is also very noticeable. The two

well waters require more oxygen than the river water generally.

* Added since the date of the paper.

234 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

The Salt Water Lake water did not require more oxygen than the

tank waters.*

T have little to add in the way of concluding remarks, as my object

was not to report on any scheme or recommend any plan, but simply

to communicate to a scientific society the results of numerous experi-

ments and observations on a subject of practical importance. Some

of these investigations are defective, but I intend to endeavour to

remedy these defects by further investigation. And even after these

are remedied, the results may indicate that there are yet other points

to examine. There is work for the naturalist in the investigation of

the animal and vegetable life in such waters, possibly exercising as

great an influence on their salubrity as their chemical composition,

Yet even this can only be aided by a full and accurate knowledge of

their chemical constituents. There are also questions connected with

the preservation and use of the water, and these too are more likely

to be correctly answered, the more complete is our knowledge of the

nature of its composition.

But I may briefly sum up the conclusions arrived at with reference

to the application of the Hooghly water to the supply of the wants of

Calcutta. As regards its inorganic constituents, the Hooghly water

taken near Calcutta is at least as pure as any of the waters supplied to

London, or indeed generally more pure for about eight or nine months

of the year; during the hot season it is mixed with sea water under

the influence of the tides and thereby rendered brackish. This can

be avoided by taking the supply of water from further up the river.

As regards organic matter, again, my results, if correct, indicate that

the state of the water seems to be worst during the rainy season, and

that notwithstanding the influence of the tides and the sewerage of

Calcutta, it is doubtful if even at the hottest part of the hot season in

June its impurity equals that of the water during the rains; and it is

* T have already stated that it was with considerable hesitation that I

left the indications of the permanganate Test in table III. on account of the

objections raised to their value: similar hesitation was felt as to inserting

Table IV. and it was the indications given in Table V. which determined me

to retain them. The same objections indeed apply to the results shewn by it,

but this does not materially affect the purpose for which it is introduced. It

will serve sufficiently well for purposes of general comparison, the trials for

oxidizable matter and ammonia having been made at the same times on both

river and tank waters, so that generally both kinds were of the same age or

nearly so, More exact determinations will be made in future, 30th Nov. 1866.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 235

questionable if even in the nature or quality of the organic impurities

it is worse. Now as it is not likely that during the rains the water

is materially different at Barrackpore from what it is at Calcutta, there

will be little or nothing gained by taking it from Barrackpore during

these months, the chief advantage being therefore that the salt water

of the hot season will be avoided. Still even as it is, there seems to

be no better source; for the organic impurities of the tank waters,

even the best of them, seem at least equal in amount to those of the

river water during flood tide, and greater than the same during ebb tide.

And so far as a judgment can be formed from the means of comparison

within reack, the water during the rains probably contains less

organic impurity than the London waters.*

Such are the conclusions I have arrived at, some of them unexpected

even to myself, and which may be disputed by others. They are of

course open to criticism and discussion. They may be suggestive of

other things possibly of practical application, but into these I have

not yet had time to enter.

* T have much doubt upon these points, as much of the organic matter of the

rainy season is probably adherent to the finely divided mud in suspension in

the water, which is so difficult to separate. With a view to the use of the

water, the point would require to be investigated in connection with the process

to be employed for the purification of the water. Judgment may be consi-

dered suspended on them, more particularly on that of the purity of the water

of the best tanks at all seasons of the year, and of the nature and amount of

the organic matter of the river water during the rainy season. Further remarks

will be made on these subjects in subsequent communications. 30th Nov. 1866.

7) ait ay

aaa Be :

Widde Ci hag

| « Pein me “he

Si RTAL | Po TD, = Pte aoe ® oh

nat ‘BAR SRA SE i cad Mat

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Ge sy Q

ie = eo Range of the Barometer é % | Range of the Tempera-

eh 5 rq during the day. a8 ture during the day.

Date. Ks 3 ee 48

Aa A

qo : : do : 4

eae Max. Min. Diff. 6 a Max. | Min. } Diff.

or Gs} o i=]

=| =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO (0) fo) oO

1 80.056 | 30.147 | 30.006 | 0.141 68.3 76.4 61.0 | 15.4

2 .045 1384 | 29.993 141 68.0 77.8 60.4 | 17.4

3 .029 113 .987 .126 69.1 49.4 60.2 | 19.2

4, .001 .082 .930 152 72.0 82.8 62.8 | 20.0

5 29.961 .061 .886 175 73.4 83.6 65.8 | 17.8

6 .906 } 29.971 848 123 73.1 81.2 66.4 | 14.8

7 30.007 | 30.073 .948 125 68.4 73.8 64.6 9.2

8 113 .221 | 30.057 164 64.0 73.0 55.8 | 17.2

9 119 219 .064: 155 63.4 72.9 56.0 | 16.9

10 .068 158 004 154 65.2 75.5 57.6 | 17.9

11 .042 112 | 29.992 .120 66.9 77.0 58.6 | 18.4

12 .068 158 | 30.003 155 66.1 76.6 57.0 | 19.6

13 .060 .140 .015 125 65.5 76.8 56.0 | 20.8

14, .060 133 | 29.995 138 67.8 79.0 58.0 | 21.0

15 .082 183 | 30.019 164: 68.8 78.6 60.0 | 18.6

16 .036 .123 | 29.969 154 67.5 77.2 59.2 | 18.0

17 .012 .098 .955 143 67.1 T7A 58.9 | 18.5

18 .018 .107 .959 148 68.2 78.7 59.2 | 19.5

19 29.990 .056 .923 133 69.9 81.4 61.0 | 20.4

20 30.028 .166 .967 139 70.1 81.2 61.0 | 20.2

21 044 113 .962 151 71.3 81.0 62.6 | 18.4

22, .080 161 | 30.033 128 73.1 81.3 65.0 | 16.3

23 .096 .165 .029 136 70.5 79.8 62.2 | 17.6

24, .105 .185 .020 165 71.6 81.2 62.8 | 18.4

25 077 148 | 29.989 159 73.1 82.0 64.4 | 17.6

26 .085 173 | 30.013 .160 74.5 83.8 66.4 | 17.4

27 .066 152 | 29.983 .169 74.0 84.7 67.0 | 17.7

28 042 .083 | 30.001 .082 68.3 77.8 \ 63.4) 14.4

29 .005 .079 | 29.935 144 68.6 75.2 63.4 | 11.8

30 29.975 .056 .929 127 68.2 72.2, 63.8 8.4:

31 30.003 094 .937 157 63.4 64.6 62.2 2.4

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther-

mometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations made, during the day.

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at. the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—Continued.

Dry Bulb above Wet.

Date. an) A

: 38

Eo.

a i

(9)

1 62.5

2 61.8

3 63.2

4 67.3

5 68.2

6 68.2

4" 62.2

8 56.8

9 57.3

10 58.7

11 60.3

12 58.8

13 58.4

14, 62.1

15 61.8

16 60.5

U7, 60.6

18 61.1

19 64.4:

20 64.1

21 66.7

22, 65.6

23 63.1

24 64.2

25 67.2

26 69.5

27 69.3

28 65.5

29 66.5

30 66.2

31 61.8

7.2

ies WO) RSS CROMER TER TES I Je CN) CERT ED RTT ON IST GOED GP)

AOHPWBNISCOBRBANBAOMNEPNOONHWRAAH

Mean degree of Humi- |

peal 3 es

6 = So |}458

a e & ee). | eee &

A a Bet Le Nee, 2

Z 2 3g - pets oll ey £

= - ts Oe q =

Soi pe | €2 |) suis

‘) a S = <q

) (o) Iiniehesss ily cara leon.

57.9 | 10.4 | 0.488 | 5.388 | 2.92

Bes ale) |) e470 19 B34

58.5 | 10.6 | .498 A8 30

63.5 8.5 | .588 | 6.43 .07

64.0 9.4 | .597 58 BA

64.3 8.8 | .603 60 19

Bi | ee | Ae |) Ros 37

OA | TE | Bie | B20 45

Bits | GU) 397 A2 niet

Bey 9) ky) |) Ae 68 28

BBO | 119 |) 442 .90 38

53.0 | 13 || 414 59 1

Bai | ME || 40) BD 43

Bae | MOS | ase) eee 16

Bere ial eG tee 07 64

549 | 126 | 441 | 497 BB

55.4 | 11:7 | 449 96 36

55.4 | 12.8 | .449 95 63

60.0 9.9 | .523 | 5.75 28

OBS = TOs) |) lah 61 AQ

63.0 8.3 | .578 | 635 | 1.98

59.6 | 13.5 | 516 | 5.64 | 3.15

B72) | 138) 476 28> | 290

58.3 | 138) |) 494 AZ 98

62.5 | 10.6 | .568 | 6.21 58

66.0 8.5 | .638 95 23

66.0 8.0 | .638 97 07

63.3 5.0 | .584 44 | 1.16

64.8 3.8 | .613 78 | 0.89

64.6 3.6 | .609 73 185

60.4 3.0 | .580 | 5.91 62

dity, complete satu- |

ration being unity

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. ill

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

6 8 Range of the Barometer =. |Range of the Tempera-

43 2 = for each hour during a 2 ture for each hour

"Ep 5 s the month. ba during the month.

Hour. | 5 & a ra e

qo” : : 2 9 i ;

Rog Max. Min. Diff. @ a Max. Min. | Diff.

or Ss oe

= a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Co) to) oO Co)

Mid-

night. 30.046 |30.119 | 29.921 0.198 65.5 72.4 60.0 | 12.4

1 .039 113 902 211 64.8 72.4 58.8 | 13.6

2 .030 .LO06 .886 220 64.2 72.0 57.8 | 15.2

3 021 .099 867 232, 63.6 71.8 57.4 | 14.4

4 014: 094: 848 246 62.9 70.4: 57.0 | 13.4

5 .022 103 861 242 62.3 69.7 56.4 | 13.3

6 .038 120 867 258 62.1 69.5 55.8 | 13.7

7 .059 .156 .885 271 61.8 67.4 56.0 | 11.4

8 .088 .190 927 263. 63.7 69.2 57.8 | 11.4

9 114 215 957 258 67.2 73.2, 61.2 | 12.0

10 122 221 O71 .250 73.8 ea 63.8 | 13.9

11 105 197 .960 237 73.2 79.4 63.6 | 15.8

Noon. | .075 167 | .935 232 75.2 81.6 | 62.6 | 19.0

1 .035 124 897 2217 76.5 82.8 62.4 | 20.4

2 007 O91 871 220 77.5 84.0 62.8 | 21.2

3 | 29.989 077 861 216 78.0 84.7 63.8 | 20.9

4 -983 064: 851 213 76.8 82.8 64.4 | 18.4

5 .992 077 864 213 75.5 81.5 63.8 | 17.7

6 .999 076 .880 .L96 72.6 79.2 62.6 | 16.6

7 |30.018 .088 904: 184) 70.9 77.0 62.8 | 14.2

8 .035 -LO9 .929 180 69.5 75.3 62.8 | 12.5

9 .050 121 941 180 68.1 TAL 62.6 | 11.5

10 .056 137 .940 197 67.0 73.4: 61,8 | 11.6

11 .052 132 927 205 66,1 72.5 60.6 | 11.9

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several

hours during the month,

iv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Hourly means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

5B 2 ae 24 | Salas

ae) Cs} ° 2

Be ie | ees ee

2 i 2 5 | ROORa Sel aeons

=| 2 e 5 a 6.2.4) ee eae Noman

Q iS) ® 2 ° of |E os a By

Hour. ; 2 qa 3 2) el Be ose

S83) 2] 8 |-2. | 45 | 32 |e.8 | bee

Pal ela fe | 8 | bode cau.

do a 5 dea da rea avr-

g 5 B B | be | 8 | ba | SPs | aca

= A ‘S) A = a < a

oO (0) fe) Co) Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.

Mid-

night.| 62.1 3.4 59.4 6.1 | 0.513 5,69 1.29 0.82

1 61.7 3.1 59.2 5.6 .009 .66 17 83

2 61.2 3.0 58.5 5.7 498 53 16 83

3 60.7 2.9 58.1 5.9 AQ1 A6 Al 83

4 60.2 2.7 57.8 5.1 486 Ad .0O 84

5 59.7 2.6 57.4 4.9 -480 36 0.95 .85

6 59.7 2.4 57.5 4.6 ASL 38 89 86

vi 59.4: 2.4 57.2 4.6 A76 32 .89 .86

8 60.7 3.0 58.0 5.7 489 AA, 1,15 83

9 62.7 4.5 59.1 8.1 .508 62 13) a

10 64.4 6.4: 59.3 11.5 O11 -60 2.60 .68

11 65.3 7.9 59.0 14.2 .506 03 3.29 63

Noon.| 65.9 9.3 59.4: 15.8 .513 .58 79 .60

1 66.3 10.2 59.2 17.3 .509 0A 4,21 57

2 66.7 10.8 59.1 18.4) .508 50 oA .55

3 66.8 11.2 59.0 19.0 .506 AT 72 04

A 66.2 10.6 58.8 18.0 .503 A5 38 .55

5 65.9 9.6 59,2 16.3 509 ‘55 3.91 09

6 65.8 6.8 60.4 12.2 .030 81 2.85 67

7 65.1 5.8 60.5 10.4 002 85 08 71

8 64.4 5.1 60.3 9.2 .528 .82 06 74

9 63.7 4,4) 60.2 7.9 527 .82 1.73 17

10 63.1 3.9 60.0 7.0 523 79 ol 79

11 62.5 3.6 59.6 6.5 .o16 72 38 81

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Vv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Oo oO

dd |25 3 4

SoG ils2qg Prevailing

.| “ae | = S| direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

$ 4S A & & Wind.

Al Ss” |e

o |Inches

1) 138.0 N.& W.&N.W. | Clear, slightly foggy at midnight &1 a. Mu.

and from 8 to 11 P. uM.

2} 134.0 N. & W. Clear, slightly foggy from 8 to 10 P. m.

3} 134.0 S.W.&S. Clear, slightly foggy at 1 A. mu.

4) 138.4 S. Clear to 8 p: M. Scatd. “i afterwards.

5} 139.0 S. Nito 8 A.M. “i to 4 p.m. clear after-

wards.

6) 129.5 S. & variable. Clear to 9 A. M. Scatd. i afterwards,

slightly foggy at 5 A. M.

7| 139.0; ... |N.& N. W. Various clouds to 7 a. M., clear "aliens

wards,

8] 129.0 N.&N. W. Clear.

9) 124.8 N. & N. W. Clear.

10} 131.0 N. W. &N. Clear, slightly foggy from 8 to 10 P. M.

11) 133.2 W. Clear, shghtly foggy at 9 P. M.

12) 131.0 N. W. &N. & N. E.| Clear.

13} 129.0 W.&N. HE. &N. Clear.

14) 133.4 W. & variable. Clear, fogey at 5 and 6 A. M.

15) 133.0 N.& N. H. Clear to 10 A. mM. Scatd. “i to 5p. M.

clear afterwards, slightly foggy at 10

. & lle. M.

16) 126.0} .. | N.&S. Clear to 6 a. mM. Scatd. “i to 11 a. m.,

clear afterwards.

17; 129.0/ ... |N. GW. &N. W. Clear to 9 a. mM. Scatd. “i to 6 P. M.

clear afterwards.

18} 130.8 W. Clear, slightly foggy at 6 A. M.

19} 129.5 S. GN Clear to 5 A. M. 91 to 6 Pp. M. clear after:

wards.

20) 134.5 H. GN. H. Clear, slightly foggy from 5 to_9 A. M.

21) 180.0 S. W. & W. Clear to noon, Scatd. i to 4p. M. clear

afterwards.

22) 134.0 N. Clear, foggy from 2 to 4 A. M.

23) 127.2 W.&N. Clear to Noon, Scatd. \i to 5 p. m. clear

afterwards, slightly foggy from 8 to

11 Pp. u.

24) 130.8) ... | W. Clear to 3 Pp. M. Scatd. “i to 8 P. mM. clear

afterwards, slightly fogey at 7& 8p. M.

25) 135.2} ... |W. &S.W. Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. 1i to 7 P. M.

Scatd, -i afterwards.

Mi Cirri, —i 8trati, Ni Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, W-i Nimbi,

Wi Cirro-cumuli,

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

# 4 | Gob

< iS 5.2 S Prevailing

.| 22 |© & &| direction of tion General Aspect of the Sky.

| ge |e Se Wind.

al! SS land

=a |22INo)

o (Inches

26) 139.5 E.&S. & W. Clear to 5 A. M. Scatd. i afterwards.

27| 129.5 S. Scatd. %i to 7 p. u. clear afterwards,

slightly foggy at 7 A M. and thin rain

at 6 P. M.

28 ager, 0.45 | H. &S. EH. Clear to 10 A.M. Overcast to 6 P. M.

“i afterwards rain between 1 & 2 P. u.

and from 4 to 6 Pp. M. Thunder at

3 & 5 P. M.

29) eee 0.80 |S. H. & §. Overcast. Lightning towards N. at 8 &

9 Pp. M. rain after intervals.

30] os 0.20 | N. Scatd. %i to 5 A. M. overcast to 11 A. M.

ito 3 P.M. overcast afterwards. Light

rains from 7 to 10 a. um. and from & to

9 Pp. M.

Si eee 0.46 | N. & N. E. Overcast, rain at 4, 8, 9, 11 and Noon.

Meteorological Observations. Vii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Montuty Resvuts.

Inches

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, . si ww. 30.041

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 A. M. on the sth, «. 90.221

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 A. M. on the 6th, ... 29.848

Extreme Range of the Barometer during the month, 500 ww. = 0.878

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... Sob uae ... 30.123

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ... val er 29-979

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .., oe «= 0.144

Co)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... ae 30 69.0

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. u. on the 27th, is 601 84.7

Min. Temperature occurred at 6 a. M. on the 8th, a S00 55.8

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, Bre ood 28.9

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, 6% soc 660 78.2

Ditto ditto Min. dittce, ... nee aah er 61.4

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, ... ee 16.8

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, sia 63.4

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above mean Wet. Bulb ee are sas 5.6

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ... a bee 58.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- Le Bee 10.1

Inches

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .., a .. 0.504

Troy grains

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, ee 563 5.56

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, aan 2.20

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.72

Inches

Rained 5 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, she sek 0.80

Total amount of rain during the month, BA Say EL

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached a “ie ee

meter during the month, ae a bbe a 1.70

Prevailing direction of the Wind, .., 500 me N. & W.& 5S.

Vili Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of ths Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Monruty Restvxts.

Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind

blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when any particular wind was blowiug, it rained.

Hour.

d] (€] |e] le] jet jel latte] tale

ajslal] |alsla| (Se ls| |siEleis ale

N. Sig S18. ela IS. ela a sizieisiele

No. of days.

Midnight, yl 1 Al F2i | 3i 6 9

1 9 3 3 2| 6 8

2 9 4. 1 iL 9 7

3 11 2 A. 1) 7 2 4.

4. 11 3 4) 1 Vf 1 4, 1) 1

5 11 3 3 6 2 4 a ae 1

6 11 6 2 6 2 4.

a 10| 1} 3 5 2 3 2 4. 2

8 11) 2) 1 vi 2 2 3 3 2

9 12} 2) 4 3 4, | 2 2 3 1

10 10) 1) 5 3 4 1} 2 2 A 1

11 8 1] 4 2 6 1 2 8

Noon. » 113) 1] 3 1) 11 6 1 rf

1 11 2 di 4) 11 3 3 7

2 al 3 3) 1 3 3 vi 11

3 Se tet A} | 1} | 7 [13

4 5) 1 2) 1 3 2 10 8

5 7 2 1 A 10 9

6 8) 2 1) 1 5 12 5

v4 9 1 2 2 3 1 10 3

8 9) 1) 2 1 2 2 2 10 3

9 9) 1) 1 z 1 3 1 11 3

10 Wy 3) 1f 2 2 A 2 8 3

11 | i) 2 3 6 1 8 1}

Meteorological Observations, 1x

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in,

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon,

SH 2

i £ 28 Range of the Barometer = & | Range of the Tempera-

re 8 c during the day. Qe ture during the day,

Ou H 5

Date. ea so Ag

qo : F do : :

eq Max. Min. Diff. Sa Max. | Min. | Diff.

or o

= =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO fo) oO oO

1 29.982 | 30.052 | 29.934 | 0.118 63.1 66.9 60.0 6.9

2 994 .067 .946 120 64.3 71.6 58.4 | 13.2

3 921 .013 840 ie 65.3 73.8 57.2 | 16.6

A, .833 | 29.898 787 ALL 63.6 70.6 60.4 | 10.2

5 .848 .925 .766 .159 66.3 75.8 58.6 | 17.2

6 .983 | 30.062 .915 147 69.2 78.4: 61.8 | 16.6

7 30.045 138 .985 153 70.5 80.2 61.4 | 18.8

8 O24 101 .967 134: 70.8 80.4 63.0 | 17.4

9 .060 132 .997 135 68.1 75.2 64.6 | 10.6

10 O51 122 .982 .140 415 81.7 62.0 | 19.7

11 29.98 041 915 .126 69.9 80.0 65.4 | 14.6

12 943 .013 .850 163 66.8 71.2 62.4: 8.8

13 30.037 124 .986 .138 63.8 71.1 56.4 | 14.7

14 .006 .075 937 138 64.7 73.5 56.2 | 17.3

15 29.975 057 .919 188 67.3 76.4 58.6 | 17.8

16 .952 .040 .888 152 69.3 78.4 59.8 | 18.6

17 .966 .046 .925 121 72.6 82.0 63.2 | 18.8

18 981 .073 .930 143 72.8 78.3 68.8 9.5

19 981 .062 .886 176 74.9 86.0 67.4 | 18.6

20 .953 .039 .896 143 71.9 80.2 67.8 | 12.4

21 945 .023 897 .126 73.7 81.8 67.8 | 14.0

22 .923 | 29.992 .856 136 72.0 81.0 63.2 | 17.8

23 .945 | 30.021 894 127 72.7 82.6 62.2 | 20.4

24, .967 .056 .916 140 73.0 84.8 62.8 | 22.0

25 937 .009 874 135 75.1 87.2 64.8 | 22.4

26 .887 | 29.959 824 135 77.0 88.2 67.5 | 20.7

27 843 914 791 123 77.9 89.2 68.4 | 20.8

28 815 .900 736 164 79.6 91.4 70-8 | 20.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther-

mometer Means are derived from the hourly observations made during the day.

x Meteorvlogical Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Daily Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.— Continued.

3 : “5 S 4 Bas C22 aa ee eae

= 2 = A 3 Ge leo | 2 ae

Ee om © a Sa easy A =

Novel | §. | seers eee

rQ (Pa oO — 69

Date. a ie 3 a S ze a2 = 2 a 2 a8

, 3) ro S os mS = ae

Fel] 2 |92 | as] as | £6 | eee

He les || oe | Oe | 8 | ae eee

Sq b a poe | €£ | $8 |SES|egs

= A ‘S) A = a < |=

fe) (0) fo) o Ibaeagss || LU, eae, || WS eee.

1 61.4 1.7 59.9 3.2 0.521 5.81 0.66 0.90

2 59.3 5.0 54.8 9.5 440 4.88 1.84 13

3 59.9 5.4: 55.6 9.7 452 5.02 cow 72

4 59.9 3.7 56.6 7.0 467 21 .36 79

5 61.7 4.6 58.0 8.3 489 A2 73 76

6 63.5 5.7 58.9 10.3 .004 06 2.25 afl

7 62.6 ae) 56.3 14.2 A462 08 3.05 .63

8 64.0 6.8 08.6 12.2 499 AQ 2.71 67

9 63.9 4.2 60.5 7.6 532 87 1.68 18

10 65.9 5.6 61.4: 10.1 048 6.02 2.36 72

iit 65.6 4.3 62.2 ed. .563 ol) 1.79 78

12 62.8 4.0 59.6 7.2 .016 5.72 O44 SS)

13 56.2 7.6 49 A. 14.4 .366 4.08 2.53 .62

14 58.8 5.9 54.1 10.6 A29 Eri .03 70

15 60.8 6.5 55.6 11.7 452 5.00 37 .68

16 62.9 6.4: 57.8 ill 5) .486 30 A8 .68

17 67.8 4.8 64.0 8.6 597 6.53 13 15

18 70.2 2.6 68.1 4.7 .684 7 AT 1.24 .86

19 68.4: 6.5 63. 1itGih .093 6.46 2.82 70

20 67.5 4. A, 64.0 7.9 BOOT, o4 1.94 17

21 66.3 7A 61.1 12.6 043 5.92 3.04 .66

22 62.9 Shi 55.6 16.4 452 4.96 “54 08

23 62.7 10.0 54.7 18.0 438 -79 89 .55

24 62.9 10.1 54.8 18.2 440 -80 .96 5D

25 64.9 10.2 57.8 17.3 A86 5.29 4.05 57

26 67.3 7. 60.5 16.5 a2 77 12 .08

27 69.8 8.1 64.1 13.8 -099 6.48 3.68 64

28 73.2 6.4: 68.7 10.9 .697 7.52 olly/ 70

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants,

Meteorological Observations. x1

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

‘Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

6 8 Range of the Barometer =. [Range of the Tempera-

2 a2 3 _for each hour during 9 2 ture for each hour

"op 8 the month. bd during the month.

Hour. | © #5" 5 8

~ | OAs As

go re . do : fs

Aas Max. Min. Diff. a Max. Min. | Diff.

ors oe

a =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO o o ray

Mid-

night. | 29.964 |30.079 | 29.831 0.248 66.3 74.2 59.8 | 14.4

1 954 070 .821 249 65.8 74.0 59.0 | 15.0

2 943 051 794A 257 65.2 74.0 58.7 | 15.3

3 931 046 778 .268 64.6 73.5 58.0 | 15.5

4 925 .039 766 273 64.1 72.4, 57.4 | 15.0

5 .936 O71 797 274 63.7 71.6 56.8 | 14.8

6 954: 079 827 252 63.3 71.2 56.6 | 14.6

if 74 .085 845 240 63.3 70.8 56.2 | 14.6

8 |30.000 106 .868 238 65.6 71.0 68.8 | 12.2

9 .026 132 .898 234: 68.9 75.2 60.6 | 14.6

10 .031 138 883 255 71.6 78.6 60.8 | 17.8

il 021 AG 884 243 74.0 82.0 62.0 | 20.0

Noon. |29 .994 .099 847 252, 76.1 86.4: 62.9 | 23.5

1 962 .063 .813 .250 77 A 88.8 65.0 | 23.8

2 931 .028 178 -250 78.3 90.6 66.8 | 23.8

3 SL | SOL 748 264 78.6 91.4: 64.4 | 27.0

4 .905 .022 740 282 Wes) 91.2 63.8 | 27.4

5 907 .062 736 326 77.0 90.6 62.8 | 27.8

6 .915 070 742 328 74.6 87.6 62.5 | 25.1

a -929 LIL -760 ol 72.6 84.6 62.2 | 22.4

8 948 122 784: 338 70.9 80.6 62,0 | 18.6

9 962 17 798 319 69.7 78.4: 62.1 | 16.3

10 .969 080 .809 271 68.6 77.2 | 61.8 | 15.4

va 964 071 804 267 67.6 76.0 61.4 | 14.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several

hours during the month,

xii Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Hourly means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.— (Contimued.)

Ba : E S pr tisher Sole) 2

EI “ = a : Bi |b eee | tease

i= 2 3 S) Se | ace lm7s

ie E om © 5 Seas e |S ae

= g 5 oS) 6 |. Ose Sulonaie

a 5 ie 3 3 ee |E Os] oa

Hour. Tite 8 q 3 ‘3B 59 a 2 Ba

oo oS Sees m Se) 3, te an 2 2

pe | 3 | € | 22/82 | £8 |s2a)6 g

a& ca By ens = 2 arg 3

iS) 3 ds = 8 oes

§ 4 Ps 5 pa | 8 | 84 |SES|] Sc 8

= A iS) a = = <q a

o o te) Inches. | 2. er. |/ I ex!

Mid-

night.| 62.9 3.4: 60.2 6.1 0.527 5.84 1.31 0.82

1 62.7 Sol 60.2 5.6 AByPAYl 84 -20 83

2 62.5 27 60.3 A.9 528 87 04. .85

3 61,9 AT 59.7 4.9 .518 76 .02 -85

A 61.5 2.6 59.2 4.9 .509 67 .0O .85

5 61.3 2.4 Be) IL 4.6 .508 .65 0.94 .86

6 60.9 2.4 58.7 4.6 501 08 93 .86

7 61.0 2.3 58.9 44 504 .62 .89 .86

8 62.2 3.4: 59.5 6.1 515 Arf 1.29 .82

9 63.6 5.3 59.4: 9.5 O13 64 2.10 73

10 64.4: 7.2 58.6 13.0 A99 AT .93 .68

11 65.0 9.0 58.7 15.3 .oOL AT 3.57 61

Noon.| 65.4 10.7 57.9 18.2 A88 29 4,34 5D

1 65.8 11.6 Biot 1G)7/ A85 24 eel .o2

2 66.1 12.2 57.6 20.7 A483 21 5.07 51

3 66.1 12.5 57.3 21.3 478 16 22 50 .

4 65.9 12.0 57.5 20.4: ASL 21 4.95 ay,

5 66.0 11.0 58.3 18.7 AOA .80 4 4

6 66.4: 8,2 60.7 13.9 536 .83 3.37 63

7 66.3 6.3 61.3 11.3 546 AY) 2.67 .69

8 65.4 5.5 61.0 9.9 AL 94) 29 72

9 64.6 5.1 60.5 9.2 002 .86 .07 74

10 64.3 4.3 60.9 7.7 .539 94 1.73 art

11 63.9 3.7 60,9 6.7 000 96 A8 .80

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

Xill

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Date.

Hw bo =

Peeve

ae |283

Pee al

ee $8

HS 1.8 Ok

ge ies

o |Inches

“ 0.49

124.0| ...

134.0) ...

ie 0.33

128.0] .,..

131.3 He

133.0]...

125.5] vs

Bae 0.10

BBS bec

122.0] 1.56

es 1.26

128.0 5

136.5

128.5

137.5

139.0] .,

145.0| ..

136,0

186.4] ,

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c:

General Aspect of the Sky.

Overcast to 5 Pp. M. clear afterwards;

Rain from 5 to 10 A. M.

Clear, slightly foggy at 3 A. M.

Clear.

Clear to 2 4. M. “ito 10 4. mM. Overcast

afterwards. Rainat11 a, mM. and from

1lto4P, M

Clear.

Clear to9a.u.Wito2p.m. “ito 7 P.M.

clear afterwards.

Clear to 11 a. mM. Wi to 6 Pp. m., clear

afterwards.

Clouds of different kinds to 6 P. M., clear

afterwards.

‘i to 3 P. M. overcast afterwards. Thin

rain at 11 A. M., 4 and from 7 to 9 Pp. M,

Clear nearly the whole day.

Clear to 4 a. mM. Scatd. “i to 1 Pp. M.

Overcast afterwards. Thunder at 3 &

Yp.mM. Rain from 4to7 &10&11P.™,

Overcast to noon. i to 5 Pp. M. clear

afterwards. Lightning and Thunder

at 2a.M. Rain at midnight from 2 to

5 & at 7A, M.

Clear.

Clear to 8 A. Mu. Scatd. i to 4:P, mu, clear.

afterwards.

Clear to 7 A. M. overcast to 5 P. M. clear

afterwards fogey at 6 & 7 a.m.

ni and Vu to noon, Wi to 7 P.M. clear

afterwards.

Overcast to 3 Pp. mM. clear afterwards,

Thin rain at 9 a. M. & 2 P. M.

Clear, slightly foggy from 9 to 11 P. M.

Clear to 9 A. mM. Scatd. -i to 3 P. M. clear

afterwards. Slightly foggy at 8 P. M.

Mi Cirri, —i Strati, ©i Cumuli, “i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, “-i Nimbi,

\ii Cirro-cumuli,

Xiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

44 [Be

28 |22¢| _ Provailing ;

Qe |O = 8] direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

@\) rel ie @ Wand

Ala” |Ro

o {Inches

93] 140.0 ; N.&N.W.&S Clear.

94| 139.0| ... | N.& W. Clear, slightly foggy at 10 & 11 Pp. u,

25| 139.9) .. |N.W.GW.&N Clear, slightly foggy at midnight.

26) 142.2 ¢ W. Clear. ,

27} 141.5 W. Clear, slightly foggy at 6 & 7 a. M.

28, 145.0; ... |S. Clear, slightly foggy at midnight and

at6& 7a. M.

Meteorological Observations. xv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Monrtuty Resvuuts.

Inches

. Mean height of the Barometer for the month,.., wee vo §=62.9.956

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. M. on the 7th, ». 80.188

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 28th, we §=629.736

Hutreme Range of the Barometer during the month, Ses vee =: 0.402

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... 306 se ve. 380.034

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ... Ae ae ws 29.894;

Mewn daily range of the Barometer during the month, ... ve 0.140

co)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... “00 “00 70.3

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 28th, 500 boo 91.4

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 A. M. on the 14th, san bod 56.2

Hatreme range of the Temperature during the month, 600 oo 35.2

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, 00 900 900 79.2

Ditto ditto Min. ditte, ... 1 Bs Ming 1 62°9

Mean dwily range of the Temperature during ad month, fe 16.3

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... soo 500 64.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, ... 6.3

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ... 000 006 59.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer «bove computed mean Dew- point, poo 11.3

Inches

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .., no »» 0.506

Troy grains

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, 000 ee say 5.56

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, as 2.52

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.69

Inches

Rained 5 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, 900 500 1.56

Total amount of rain during the month, a ane a 3.74

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the esa.

meter during the month, Bot oni sis 500 3.34

Prevailing direction of the Wind, .., une nn EH. &N. & W.

xvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of ths Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Montuty Resutts.

Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind

blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when any particular wind was blowiug, it rained.

Honr.

dl ia) je) jet iat jay (1 let lie

ajsisl lala] (2/4) |e leigla

Ce Gee amepmacrr cr

No. of days.

Midnight. 3} | 3 ‘AL MB) Eye

1 3} 13 A Bh | Sie

2 a 83 713 | 4 BS

3 5) | 2 6|. | 2) 13 5] 1] 4 1

A 6| 1] 2 Ay onal j 2! 4| | 83 1

5 711 2) 1}6 | a) 15 4) 13

6 at SB) ay Pay |e Al 15

7 7| 1] 3] 1f 6 2 6 A

8 4) | 5| 116 2 6 5

9 A) 2) 2 8 2 6 6

10 Al || Bh LUMO PH a) 2 6 2

il 4| | 1) | 8] 2! 3) 13 5) | 4

Noon. Al | 4 | 6) | a) 74) fal Pa] f3

il 2 Se eee eal iene ecjiaen Peele Word tenn 27)

2 3 2 5| 1} 1 3| 1 ie i)

3 a U5) a a PS a 4

4 6, 2] 4| 1) 2 2 +8) 16

5 if Pa) Oh ab) I) pe He OH BP)

6 11 1) 1) 7 | Ales

7 14| 1 7) 1 2 4) G1

8 ney) aM WP 2/ 2 [ 4) F1

9 10) 1 11 A F3l |

10 8| | 1] 191 6 poi | fal

11 "| |i} | 91 6 4) ft 2

Meteorological Observations.

XVI1E

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

ene

3B ee

Date. ZA

Bebe

Sse

Inches.

1 29.789

2 821

3 821

A 756

5 .786

6 .816

7 792

8 793

9 .800

10 184

11 .808

12 977

13 .967

14 845

15 828

16 871

17 885

18 .820

19 -798

20 .842

21 198

22 Bl

23 715

24, 151

25 748

26 .700

27 .730

28 .812

29 .859

30 .855

31 .806

Range of the Barometer = # | Range of the Tempera-

during the day. as ture during the day.

Max. Min. Diff. aire Max. | Min. | Diff.

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) co) Co) | )

29.866 | 29.740 | 0.126) 814 93.6 | 72.8 | 20.8

.898 1A8 .150 82.3 92.8 74.5. , 18.3

oo7 | 745 | 182| 814 | 917 | 72.4. 193

818 .678 140 $1.8 93.6. 72.0: | 24.6

865 732 133 | 82.4 94.8, | 72:4.) 22.4

892 57 135 $1.8 94.0 714 | 22.6

.860 124 136 82.6 94.0 75.4. | 18.6

876 119 157 83.4 95.2 725 | 22.7

872 132 140 83.8 95.0 75.4 | 19.6

.859 fg 140, 83.4 94.4) WG |) Men

937 178 162 83.6. 92.4. 76.8 | 15.6

30.060 .900 .160 83.4) 92.4 77.4 | 15.0:

.056 872 184 83.3 92.2 77.8 | 14.4

29.945 764 18l 86.4 96.4 77.9 | 185

924 761 163.| 84.3 94.0 76.6 | 17.4.

.952 812 140 84.5 94.0 79.0 | 15.0:

.970 822 148 | 84.0 94.4 | 77.0 | 17.4

899 750 149 83.4 92.9 77.0 | 15.9

869 . 129 140 84.5 95.0 77.6 | 17.4

921 HEY) 142 84.3 94.0 76.6 | 17.4

878 703 175 85.5 96.5 76.8 | 19.7

803 .619 L384 86.7 98.6 77.8 | 20.8

790 .663 127 86.4 98.4 77.8 | 20.6

.838 684 154 84.9 95.3 HOA A AUC

827 678 149 86.4 96.2 81.0 | 15.2

769 .626 143 87.4 97.4, SOM7, | 167

811 .668 143 86.1 95.1 79.5 | 15.6

914 743 ABE fo tile) 93.2 | 76.0 | 17.2

.960 ollHlk .189 81.9 91.6 73.8 | 17.8

927 175 152 81.0 91.0 72.4 | 18.6

887 139 148 | 83.7 93.0 | 77.0 | 16.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

XVIII Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the mouth of March 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)

Pa : 3 Ee 6 BB ge ste ete gi hens

Bie) Ba) A>) og! eee ee

= e am . z So | Sos |e

a Bul | ce eee Se

ime 2) ® a} > 2S mS Se,

Date. a oe S A = S rani a es 5 2.8

ope 2 © = = x oe | €95 | #62

aa =| g eas Fe ae So tes =

Sele | ee ea | 22 | BO | eee

ao ~ S Bene of os ate S a5 a

oS H iS zed oF os ae oO eaé

a A}; Oo] A a Spier at as =

0 Oo 0 Oo Inches ae An vores pinion

1 72.9 8.5 | 66.9 14.5. | 0.657 7.06 4.21 0.63

2 72.8 9.5 | 66.1 16.2 640 6-87 aft oo

3 70.3 11.1 | 62.5 18.9 .568 JUL 5.16 4

A 69.4) 12.4 | 60.7 21.1 536 5.75 -63 50

3) 70.2 12.2 | 61.7 20.7 D4 93 68 1

6 69.4 12.4 | 60.7 21.1 536 15 65 50

ah 76.9 5.7 | 72.9 OFF, AO 8.56 3.12 13

8 74.5 8.9 | 68.3 15.1 .688 7.37 4.59 62

9 77.2 6.6 | 72.6 11.2 -790 8.47 3.63 10

10 77.3 Cala 73-0 10.4 801 58 38 72

11 72.8 10.8 | 65.2 18.4 621 6.66 5.37 .5d-

12 75.3 8.1 | 69.6 13.8 afl) 7.68 4.28 64

13 76.7 6.6 | 72.1 11.2 778 8.34 3.59 70

14, 77.1 953) |) 70:6 15.8 TAL 7.89 5.17 .60

15 75.0 9.3 | 68.5 15.8 692 Ad 4.87 60

16 73.5 11.0 | 65.8 18.7 634 6.77 5.58 50

17 74.2 9.8 | 67.3 16.7 -666 7.12 05 59

18 74.8 8.6 | 68.8 14.6 .699 A8 4.48 63

19 75.6 8.9 | 69.4 15.1 13 62 73 62

20 73.6 10.7 | 66.1 18.2 -640 6.84 5.44 56

21 75.4 10.1 | 68.3 17.2 688 7.34 Rte) 58

22 76.3 10:4 | 70:15|. 16:6 129 716 AZ 9

23 75.6 10.8 | 68.0 18.4 681 .26 .80 50

24 78.6 6.3 | 74.2 10.7 832 8.89 3.60 Bri

25 79.6 6.8 | 74.8 11.6 849 9.04; 4.02 .69

26 80.8 6.6 | 76.8 10.6 -905 61 3.84 BY

27 76.3 9.8 | 69.4 16.7 ails} 7.59 5.36 59

28 9A 5.8 | 75.0 9.9 854, 9.12 3.37 13

29 75.1 6.8 | 70.3 11.6 734, 7.89 ay) 69

30 75.1 ay TU 10.0 751 8.09 -05 13

dl 77.3 6.4 | 72.8 10.9 195 52 aY5) VOL

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. XIX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

im the month of March 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

pom Range of the Barometer = .. | Range of the Tempera-

B=) Oa: for each hour during a 2 ture for each hour

PS 4 the month. a during the month.

o | 5 cn

Hour. a aa a :

25 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Diff

aa Sa

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. (0) (0) ro) ra)

Mid-

night.| 29.821 | 30.007 | 29.706 | 0.301 (@eil 82.8 72.5 | 10.3

if 807 .OOL .696 305 78.6 82.0 72.4 9.6

2 194 | 29.985 .682 .303 78.1 81.6 72.8 8.8

3 784 978 671 307 77.5 81.5 72.8 8.7

4 781 .982 .668 14 17.2 81.6 72.8 8.8

5 796 995 | .687 .308 76.8 81.4 71.6 9.8

6 815 | 30.009 707 302 76.4 81.1 71.5 9.6

7 839 025 730 .295 76.7 81.4 71.4 | 10.0

8 .869 043 748 | .295 78.8 82.8 | 73.8 | 9.0

9 885 .055 761 294 81.9 86.6 76.6 | 10.0

10 .889 060 751 309 85.1 89.8 80.0 9.8

LT .878 .056 OS) || asi 87.9 92.4 | 83.8 | 8.6

Noon. 851 .031 740 | .291 90.3 BG | edd |)

1 .818 .003 wiles) 292 92.0 96.0 | 89.2] 6.8

2 .784 | 29.976 .666 310 93.4 97.4 91.0 6.4

3 761 957 642 15 94.1 98.4 90.6 7.8

4, 748 933 625 .308 94.0 98.6 89.8 8.8

3) 745 .939 619 | .3820 92.5 97.4 87.6 9.8

6 152 .950 624: 326 88.9 93.6 84.6 9.0

7 .769 964 .633 ool 86.0 90.6 82.6 8.0

8 193 .990 -666 324 84.0 87.0 81.6 5.4

9 819 | 30.009 693 316 82.1 84.8 73.8 | 11.0

10 830 O21 107 14 80.9 83.3 76.2 7.6

11 831 .O19 706 303 79.8 83.0 74.2 8.8

_ the Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several -

hours during the month.

xX Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

im the month of March 1866.

‘Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

“. e is} 5 | cera ‘ 3

a 28 a= om ©.4 Sere ts

uy Wise) Bea ee ete |e

aa eet aaa = ro [hes | SEs

2 0) ' o iS) GS > oe eine Ge

Foe ee ie) | ae aes | OS:

Hor} 2 |e |e le | @ | ee | eens

Se P| eur |e ae Ee ls | Be) es =

es a = So | Be Se | See | se 2

ag FA ey Pg se 2, SUPA east yer | el So

or po] 8 PS é 8 Sa | SS) Sh eens

ST ise sls ete alage ties |) Sie © | is

Oo co) oO oO 1Gralnes, | 4b, eae, || SD, exe

Mid-

night.| 75.8 3.3 | 73.5 5.6 0.814 8.79 1.74 0.84

1 75.6 3.0 | 73.6 ol 814 81 7 85

2 75:4 2.7 | 73.5 4.6 814 S81 Al .86

3 75.0 2.5 | 73.2 A3 -506 ey fs) 29 87

4 74.7 “25 | 72.9 4.3 HO 66 29 87

5 74.5 5a) || AY) 3.9 797 66 all .88

6 74.2 ery || Poll 3.7 792 61 lll .89

7 74.6 2.1 | 73.1 3.6 803 12 08 89

8 75.2 8.6 | (72.7 6.1 792 08 86 82

9 75.8 Gall |) 7S 10.4 763 21 3.23 (2

10 75.7 9.4 | 69-1 16.0 £06 7.53 5.04 .60

11 75.0 12.9 | 67:3 20.6 .666 .06 6.58 52

Noon.| 74.9 15.4 | 65.7 24.6 .632 6.68 7.95 AG

1 74.6 17.4 | 64.2 27.8 601 2 9.04 AL

2 74.5 18.9 | 63:2 30.2 582 ll .88 38

3 74.3 19:8 | 62.4 31.7 567 5.93 10.39 .36

A, 74.9 19.1 | 63.4 30.6 056 6.13 14 28

5) 75.1 17.4 | 64.7] 27.8 611 43 9.16 AL

6 75.1 13.8 | 66:8 22.1 695 94, 7.10 AI

7 75.5. | 10.5] 68.1 | 17.9 684, 7.28 5.63 56

8 75.1 8.9 | 68.9 15.1 GOL ol 4,.66 62

9 75.3 Geiss | “OD 4) | INS £739 93 3.58 .69

10 75.8 5.1 | 72.2 8.7 Sik 8.40 2.70 76

11 75.9 3.9 | 73.2 6.6 .806 70 2.05 81

All the Hygrometrical clements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

xxi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of

Mareh 1866,

Scolar Radiation, Weather, Xe.

oo |

Se |e Prevailing

/ | ts © =.=| direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

ere |g Oo Ss Tes

2) e2 bas Wind.

Al = * leas

o Inches |

1| 146.0 N. W. & W.&S. | Clear.

2 | 142.0 W. Clear.

3 | 142.8 W.&S. W. | Clear.

4 | 141.6 W.&S.W&S. | Clear.

5 | 148.5 W.&S. | Clear.

6 | 142.0 WwW. Clear.

7 | 141.5 8. & S. W. Clear. Scuds from S.between 4 &7a.M.

S. & W. Clear to 4 a. m., scatd. ito9 a. M.,

8 | 142.4 clear afterwards.

9 | 136.4 S. W. Clear, slightly foggy from 4 to 6 4. M.

10 | 137.2 S.&N. Clear, slightly foggy from 3 to 8 a. M.

11 | 140.0 N. & W. Clear, slightly foggy at 4 a. M.

12 | 142.0 S. & N. Clear.

13 | 137.0 S. & S. W. Clear to 2 4. M., overcast to 6 A. M.,

clear afterwards. j

14 | 140.0 5S. & W. Clear, slightly foggy at 1 a. mM.

15 | 141.0 S. & W. Clear, slightly foggy from 3 to 54. M.

16 | 150.0 S. W. & W. Scatd. clouds to 8 4. m., clear after-

wards.

737.0 S. & N. Clear to 7 A.M. \i to 7 Pp. M., clear

afterwards.

18 | 134.7 S. & S. W. Ni to 8 p. M., clear afterwards.

19 | 142.0 W.&8.&S8. W. | Nito8 4. m., clear afterwards.

20 | 149.0 S.W.&W.&N.W.| Clear, foggy from 4 to 7 A. M.

21) 142.0 W.&S.W.&S8. | Clear to 1 Pp. m., scatd. \i to 6 P. M.,

clear afterwards.

22 | 142.0 S. W. & W.&S. | Clear.

23 | 146.0 S. & W. Clear.

24 | 140.5 S. Clear.

25 | 141.0 8S. &S. W. Scatd.~i to 9 a. M., clear afterwards.

26 | 146.0 S. Clouds of different kinds.

27 | 142.5 S. Clear. :

28 | 137.0 S. Clear to 6 A. M., scatd.“i to 5 P. M.,

overcast afterwards. Thin rain Inght-

| ning. and Thunder at 10 & 11 P.M.

29 | 132.0 S. Overcast to 6 a. M., scatd.“i to 8 P. M.

over cast afterwards Thin rain at

ll P.M.

Mi Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,-i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~—i Nimbi,

/j Cirro cumuli.

XXII Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the mouth of March 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

General Aspect of the Sky.

Max. Solar

radiation.

Rain Guage

5 feet above

Ground

30 | 135.0] ... s. “isto 10 a. M. Wl to 4 Pe) Me elear

afterwards.

Bul BOW soc E.&8.&8S. W. Clear to 4a. m. “ito l-p. mu. Scatd.

Ni afterwads.

Meteorological Observations. XX111

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the

mouth of March 1866.

Monraty ReEsutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.... ... 29.811

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 4. mM. on the 12th, ... 30.060

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. mM. on the 22nd, ... 29.619

Extreme} range of the Barometer during the month, us w. 0.441

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... Bi oe ... 29.893

Ditto ditto Min. ditto fhe ... 29.740

Mean daily range of the Barometer duri ing the month, ... ree ODS

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... ou jap By)

Max. Temperature occurred at 4p. M. on the 22nd, Be OSG

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. m. on the 6th, Ba tue) Meee

Extreme range of the Temperature oe the month, ... Foon (ler

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. be ee Wao OARS

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, A ee Oe fim!

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month... bichin 2 bShm

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 75.1

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 8.8

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ie ~ Gel)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. . 15.0

ne aee

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... oF ee OO

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month Me Nees Sayfa.

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ... 4.62

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.62

Inches.

Drizzled 2 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ie veh Nil

Total amount of rain during the month, aes se Nil

Prevailing direction of the Wind, a see S.&W.&S. W.

XX1V Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866. ‘

Montuiry REsutts.

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular

wind blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when any particular wind was blowing, it rained.

Hour. | eee : ; : F .

SSS Se Se Ver SSS Siac

Plat bis) Ses] lsFlelelee

: : -| Sy [a S os -| Sts res

secnaneoueeea|) | |

No.of days

Midnight. Lent 2 7 3

1 1| }2 g| 12

2 1 8 2

3 1) g| | 4 1

A 1 91 | 5 I

5 i 10/ 16 1

6 1) 9] | 5 il

57 1 1 ll) 15 1

8 3 | 11 6)

9 1| 9} 110; 12

10 2) 10) fio; [4

il 5) {1 1 6 | 9l 16

Noon. 5 2 1 1 4,| 7 6

1 2} [2| 12 6| [lll 15

2 Py yo at 3) 115] 4

3 4,| 9/ 11 i 6) 15) 1

A, 3 | 9| 11 3] 115] 1

5 Bi) MPI ay eadeL 9, W14| $1

6 OP ae 1 2 }13} 12

7 Dea PS) 1} | 9 t2

8 2 | 1 1} Jo fl

9 1 il 3} | 4 fl

10 1| iL 5143

iii 1 6} | 4'241

Meteorological Observations. XXV

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of Aprit 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Fast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &ce. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

je § Range of the Barometer a « | Range of the Tempera-

a 2s during the day. el se ture during the day.

368 PS

H °

Date.| 5 Qo a :

se 2° | Max. | Min. | Dif? | $2 | Max. | Min, | Diff,

| Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. cr) Oo Co) Oo.

i 29.842 | 29.976 | 29.781 | 0.195 82.5 89.9 76.9 | 13.0:

2 844) 915 796 119 82.6 91.8 76.4, 15.4.

3 893 95d 801 | AeA: 17A 83.4 73.6 9.8

A 511 882 753 129 73.6: 89.0 71.4 | 17.6

3) B06 879 25 154 82.1 93.0 72.8 | 20.2:

6 738 834 .620 214 83.9 95.0 78.2 | 16.8

7 695 12 617 155 85.6 96.8 77.2 | 19.6

8 688 .760 621 139 86.6 97.6 78.0 | 19.6:

9 07 794 .629 .165 88.2 98.8 81.0 | 17.8

10 .655 730 562 168 89.3 102.6 81.8 | 20.8

11 615 .685 040 140 89.1 102.3 78.8 | 23.5

12 642 709 576 133 88.1 100.2 77.4 | 22.8

13 130 - 810 671 139 87.7 100.2 77.0 | 23.2

14, 116 of) 634 .165 88.5 101.8 79.2 | 22:6

15 674, TAT O81. 166 88.8 102.6 80.6 | 22:0

16 676 736 630 106 | 86.3 93.8 | 80.7 | 13:1

17 700 766 642 124 | 85.3 90.8 | 81.4 | 9.4

18 123 796 .618 178 85.1 92.1 80.8 | 11.3

19 134 812 679. 133; 86.4 95.6 | 81.2 | 14.4,

20 803 894 a2 .162 86.8 94.0 81.4 | 12.6

21 914 | 30.062 806 .256 | 82.4 91.4 | 69.6 | 21.8

22. .983 O74 .899 175 75.5 84.4 68.4 | 16:0

23. 951 .039 846 194 79.3 88.2 73.0 | 15.2

24, .902 | 29.973 804 169 82.5 91.2 75.0 | 16.2

25. 835 917 721 196 83.6 94.2 75.7 | 18.5

26. .766 853 .660 193 85.7 96.4 77.4 | 19.0

27. 796 -858 31 127 86.1 94.41 77.8 | 16.6

28. 853 995 788. 207 80.3 89.8 72.2 | 1746

29. 874) .9d9 192 167 78.2 87.0 73.0 | 14.0

30 839 -900 51 149 | 81.0 90.6 | 72.0 | 18.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Pamenster Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

XXV1 Meteorologicas Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April \866.

Daily Means, &e. of the Observations. and of the Hygrometrical elements:

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

= =) A ee A. 2 a. |eue | see

HH = cy, mn = 6 aS eae es

r2 o = 2 Ga ‘oo ot o =

S 5 5 3 Ve > Bie levees

Dee eee a als 2 22 |B FE | oes

Pee | 28 | 8s | Be | sees

a: | OS | gh | ge | See | gee

o- 8 Ee 5 PAY oF oa amo] oes

a Alo} aA = a | =

) )

0 ) ) Inches: || T: gr.) I. ge:

il 75.1 7.4 | 69.9 12.6. 0.725 Mesut 3.87 0.67

2 75.1 7.5 | 69.8: 12.8 122 TA 94. -66

3. ales 6.3 | 66.7 10.7 693 07 2.94 7k

A 69.9 8.7 | 63.8 14.8 593 6.41 3.97 62

5 13.27 8.9 | 67.0 15.1 659 7.08 4.43 62

6 77.3 GEO 7250 11.2 £92 8.49 3.64. 70:

7 75.2 10.4 | 67.9 17.7 679 7.24 5.52 57

8 79.2 7.4| 74.8 11.8 .849 9.04 4.10: 69

9 81.2 BAO | 0 11.2 910. 67 09 70:

10 80.4 8:9) 7OaL 14.2 857 08 5.13. 64

Wil 76.7 12.4 | 69.3 19.8 off Il 7.52 6.60 53

12 75.3 12.8 | 67.6 20.5 622 13 59 52

13 77.6 OT ee ple 16.2: 763 8.11 5.45 .60

14 78.2 10.3 | 72.0 16.5. 716 21 67 Oo.

15 79.8 9.0 | 74.4 14.4 838. 89 11 64.

16 80.7 5.6 | 76.8: 9.5 905 9.63 3.00 A,

AZ 79.7 5.6 | 75.8 9.5- .876 3 1s 29 74

18 79.7 5.4 | 75.9 9.2 879 AO ally, 7d

19 80:1 6.3. | 75.7 10.7 873 -t)! 76 afl

20 80.4 6.4 | 76.6: 10.2 .899 OF 64: 72

21 76.2 GP2) | 7eleg 10.5. 173 8.29 32. Th

22 70.7 4.8 | 67.3 8.2. 666 7.25: 2.21 TE

23 74.6 4.7 | 71.3 8.0 758 8.20 239. hk

24 76.1 6.4 | 71.6 10.9 766 22 3.42 a!

25 78.0 5.6 | 74.1 9.5. .830 89 14 74

26 78.7 7.0 | 73.8 11.9 .822 76 4.04 68:

27 80.6 5.5 | 76.7 9.4 902 9.62 3.33. TA

28 76.3 4.0 | 73.5 6.8 814 8.78: 2.13. SL

29 74.0 A.2| 71.1 Moll 153 16 .O9 .80:

30 74.1 6.9 | 69.3 LN 7¢ sil 7.64 3.50) 69:

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. XXvii

‘Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

an the month of April 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

‘63 Range of the Barometer = .. | Range of the Tempera-

awe for each hour during ae ture for each hour

rs 45 5 FQ

: abe ai the month. os during the month.

aS a5

Hour.| 5 = Ad

aan 5 ; 45 : ae

= a en EY

= 4 =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.

[o}

Mid-

might. 29.783 | 30.042 | 29.623 | 0.419 79.5 83.4 68.8 | 14.6

a 7T71 | 29.963 .608 .300 79.0 83.0 68.4 | 14.6

2 761 982 093 389 78.8 82.6 68.8 | 13.8

3 fo2 .959 D380 379 78.5 82.2, 68.4 | 13.8

A, 755 960 O87 373 78.2 82.0 69.0 | 13.0

5 770 982 .600 L382, 78.0 82.2 69.0 | 13.2

6 790 | 30.005 .620 .38) 77.8 82.2 68.6 | 13.6

ai LL 038 640 398 78.8 83.4 70.4 | 13.0

ra) £833 .068 ~665 A403 81.2 85.8 WOH |) WSoll:

9 849 O74 684 390 84.3 88.8 73.38 | 15.5

10 ol 070 68d O80 86.9 92.2, 75.0 | 17.2

11 AL O14 .683 ool 89.1 95.6 76.3 | 19.3

Noon. 822 B07 662, 345 96.6 98.9 WG-6), 23

vl JAS PSA 627 344 91.9 100.2 78.0 | 22.2

2 157 947 08d 362 92.7 101.8 82.0 | 19.8

3 29 US) .5609 .303 93.0 102.3 82.8 | 19.5

4A 709 .899 Hdd 344 92.4 102.6 81.0 | 21.6

5 705 Gd 540 .300 90.6 100.8 79.0 | 21.8

6 AQT souly 07 .360 87.7 96.4 Media VOED

‘i TAL 948 O77 Bil 84.7 91.6 72.8 | 18.8

8 768 .963 G05 .308 82.6 89.8 73.6 | 16.2

9 183 989 632 207 81.6 87.0 73.4 | 13.6

10 796 | 30.016 | 641 375 80.6 85.0 72.2 | 12.8

1 795 -062 .639 A23 80.0 84.4 73.3 | Lil

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

r ¥ r) , .

Thermometcr Means are derived from the observatious made at the several

hours during the month.

XXVIII Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

im the month of April 1866.

Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements:

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

! : | Bos | Se pe oa aD

a oi ne E 5 Be amgey Se eS

a = ‘8 rat So an ae =S

ae z eo | woe | A ae

2 o o fo) Se [ike Sa hey rey ~

Z a is | 2 3 26 | Eee oad

Hour. a ( eS fe = ze ae | F os oe

o x ae "3S ™?3 oo | wg

Pe (2 | 2) 2. | es | ee | see leee

qs pa am Pe eS em see cies

ES) bb | aS) Seay od wed | sea

oe 4 5 4 VeK | mie oO O-=

| Q 'S ot | ssl =O | a ane Sie

o 0 cy) cy) loneliness, | UN, eae || Abs exe.

Mid-

might.| 76.1 Sea | WB 5.8 | 0.819 8.85 1.81 0.83

iL 76.0; 3.0) | 73.9 51 824) 92 58 85

2 76.1 2.7 | 74.2 4.6 -832 9.00 AA, 86

3 76.1 2.4 | 74.4 4.1 838 08 27 88

4 76.0 2.2 | 74.5 Buff -840 sil 14 89

oS 75.8 2.2 | 74.3 Bislf/ 835 05 14 89

6 75.8 2.0 | 74.4 3.4 838 10 03 90

7 76.3 2.5 | 74.5 4.3 840° eile 33 87

8 77.2 4.0 | 74.4: 6.8 .838 02 2.19 81

9 77.8 GS |) Tas IILall .806 8.63 3.65 70

10 78.1 8.8 | 72.8 14.1 795 AT 4.78 64

iD 78.1 IMD) 7S 17.6 763 08 6.04 Sys

Woon. |. 17-7. 12.9 | 70.0 | 20.6 A127 7.66 7.10 52

i He) 14.0 | 69.5 22:4, 15 53 SAS) 49

2 Te 15.0 | 68.7 24.0 -697 32 8.36 AT

3 77.6 | 15.4 | 68.4 | 24.6 690 25 56 A6

A, 17.4, 15.0 | 68.4 24.0 .690 25 .29 AT

5 Wes 13.3 | 69.3 21.3 BZalalt 50 7.26 OL

6 17.5 OP2 Seales 16.3 761 8.08 5.48 .60

7 76.9 fields | TL) 13.3 761 ld 4.29 .66

8 76.7 5.9 | 72.6 10.0 790 AQ 3.19 13

9 76.5 5.1} 72.9 8.7 197 57 2.77 .76

10 76.3 43 | 73.3 7.3 809 72 29 dS

11 76.1 3.9 | 73.4 6.6 ll YAS) 3.06 81

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

XX1x

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

General Aspect of the Sky.

Overcast to Noon,\ni to 5 P. M.,

Li to 7 a. M., scatd. ~i to 4

P. M., overcast to8 P. M.\d

\ni to 3 Pp. M., overcast after-

wards. Thin rain between 6

Nal too A Mee) Ors ton Noons

Clear to 11 a. m., scatd. “i to

Clear to 7 a. M., scatd. “i to 7

p. M. clear afterwards, light-

ning to theS. H.at 10&11 P.M.

Clear scuds, from 8S. W. from 4

to 7 a. mM, Foggy at 6 a. M. -

Clear to 10 a. m. Seatd. “ito 5

Seuds from S. to N. to 9 a. M.

Seuds from S. W. to N. E. to

Clear. Foggy from 5 to 7 a. M.

Clear to 3 a. m. Seatd. clouds to

Clear to 9 a. Mm. Scuds from S.

toN.to 3p.m.clear afterwards.

Clear to 4 4. mu. Scuds from S.

to-N. to 3 vp. M.. Overcast to 7

p. M. clear afterwards, light-

ning to the 8S. at7 & 8a. M.,

thin rain between 4 & 5 A. M.

Clouds of different kinds to 6 P.

M., clear afterwards. Light-

ning to the S. E. at 4 a. M.

2 See 24

3 6 est Prevailing ce

ulneus ORs direction of the os

= | ere Isl eas Wind. aS

See i. | as

o (Inches tb

1 | 132.0 W.S. W. & E.S.E.) 2.75

clear afterwards.

2 141.0 S.S. E. & W.S. W.) 1.25

: afterwards.

3) 121.5 N. & N. N. W. 2.25

&7a.M.&at8&107. mM.

4 | 128.0 W.S. W. 0.25

clear afterwards.

5 | 135.0 W.S. W. &.S. S.-W

5 p. M., clear afterwards.

6 | 132.0 iS. S. W. & S. W. 2.25

7 | 141.0 IS. W. & W.N. W.| 0.50

8 | 145.6 ‘S. & W.S. W. 0.25

| Pp. M., clear afterwards.

9 | 140.0 S. by E. & S.

clear afterwards.

10 | 143.0 is. & S. S. W.

8 a. M. clear afterwards.

11 | 144.6 S. & N. W. ... |Clear.

12 | 140.5 \S. & variable 0.50 |Clear. Foggy at 6 & 7 a. mM.

13 | 145.5 IS. & variable 0.50

14 | 140.5 Ss. & W. 0.75 |Clear.

15 | 148.4 S.S.W.&S. byE.| ...

8 a. M., clear afterwards.

16 | 132.4 5S. & 8, 8. W. (high), 2.00

17 | 122.0 S. (high) 4.50

18 | 128.7 8. S. W. &S. 3.25 |Clouds of different kinds.

19 | 130.2 5.€8.5.W.&S.by W.) 2.00

20 | 138.0 5. &5S. 8S. W 1.80

Clouds of different kinds. Light-

ning to the E.

XXX

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April 1566.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

General Aspect of the Sky.

Overcast Lightning Thunder &

| vain at 10& 11 p. om. Hails at

| 1OP. mM.

) Overcast to Noon ™i & \_i af-

| terwards, Lightning & Thun-

der at Midnight light rain at

| Midnight,1 & from 4 to 64.M.

\ni & i to 6 Pe. mM. clear after-

wards. Lightning toS.at 9P.M.

Rain at 4 & 5 P. M.

‘Overcast to 3 a. m. clear to 9

A. M. Seatd.%i to 6 Pp. M. clear

afterwards, Lightning to S.W

| atl a.m.

Clear to 6 a. m. Scatd. “i to 4

| p.m. clear afterwards.

Clear to 1 vp. m. i afterwards

Lightning to the W. & 8. at

7&8 p.m. Thunder at 7 Pp. M.

Light rain between 7 & 8 P. M.

‘i to a. M. Scuds from S. to 10

A. M. \Wji to 4 p.m. clear after-

wards.

‘Clear to 7 a. mu. Scuds from 8.

| tol0a.m.Overcastafterwards

Lightning to the E. from 6 to

9 p.m. Thunder at5 & 6 P. M.

rain at Noon, 5,6 & 8 Pp. M.

iSeatd. “ito 5 a. M.._1& “1 to

le. mM. overcast afterwards

Lightning to the E. at 8 & 9

p. mM. Thin rain at 6 Pp. M.

Bloe Wisa . | ie |

= Bs re Prevailing | SE

Nae | = | direction of the = a

r S eS iB e (a5) ind. | S é

o |Inchkes Ib |

soils ae AY x8. & S. 8. E. 10.50

: 0.51

22 | 123.2 S. E. & variable 2.00

23 | 128.0] 0.148. W. & N. N. W. | 2.80 |

24 | 135.8 E. S. E. & variable.| 1.00

25 | 132.0| ,. KE. & 8S. S. W. 1.00

26 | 128.5 S.S. W.&S. 1.25

27 | 131.6 S. 8. E. & S. 1.00

eee 1.16 |S. E. & E. 2.75 |

29 | 128.0) ... |W. & variable. 2.00

30 | 131.0 S. W.& N.N. E. 5.00

Scatd. . i & \_i to 1 p. m. Seatd

i to5 p.M. overcast after-

wards Lightning to the 8. W.

at 9 p.m. Thin rain at 10 &

ll Pp. M.

Cie a Strati,7i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, “i Cumulo strati,i Nimbi,

\; Cirro cumuli.

* Pell from 10 pv. m. of the 21st to 6 a. mM. of the 22nd.

Meteorological Observations. XXX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of Aprit 1866.

Montuty REsvutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,... soo BLOTS)

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 4. M. on the 22nd, ... 30.074

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the llth, ,.. 29.545

Evtreme } range of the Barometer during the month, fea oa 029

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... Te ae ... 29.863

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ... 29.700

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the ‘month, ». 0.163

ty)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ow 84.1

Max. Temperature occurred at 4 p. m. on the loth & 15th . ... 102.6

Min. Temperature occurred at 1 & 3 4. mM. onthe 22nd ,.. w= 68.4

Extreme range of the Temperature us the month, ie we = B42

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. sr sae aw. 94.0

Ditto ditto Min. GHIREOY) hac aoe OST,

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. ‘en, Lae

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 76.9

Mean Dry Bulb Tnermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 7.2

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ates on dpleg

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. . 12.2

| Tare

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .., <a ws» 0.773

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month we «= 8.28

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, .. 3.93

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.68

Inches.

Rained 9 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours wee we BIG:

Total amount of rain during the month, me ee SL

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. : 37

Prevailing direction of the Wind, a 8. &S8.S. W. & W. S. We

XXXIL

‘veyor General s Office, Caleutta, in the month of April 1866"

SS)

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologica

Meteorological Observations.

ee — pee

“UO ULB]

“M Aq? Ny

“UO UBT

—

ys on

“AA NUN

“UO WLR IT

AGL oN

“uo ule y

MN M

S089 SS NN

“WO WIRY)

“NiAg" AA

“uo UIBYy

Mi,

| uo Urey

"g Aq “MA

7 UO UIv Y

together with the number of da

o, it rained.

“MSM

Act SI SOD ot oN 10s SS

LOM IMDIANATATAAA

“GO ULBY

= Lome

Fits

‘UO ule

CE iW SH CONCO

2 oD 1N10 AAs + SH

“MSS

AD 6 Be WHO 19 10 10210 GON

QU QU SF 2D 6 6 SH 16 oD OD

“UO ULBT

MM Aq *y)

“MO UIBY

AMMAN TNA

NIAAAAS

a) —

ROMANO OIDORE 16

CIwWSCOOMAONND

Loon he

“UO ULB Sy

any particular wind blew,

articular wind was blowin

“ap Aq 9

“MO WIR

i Of GD 6D GA oD It]

TAN

—

hour

CSS

NA OO OD HH

cum cS)

a AMANN

“UO WIRY,

“aS

given

No.of days

on AN

ANNAN

, when any p

“Uo Wey

SH Seay

rir NANT AAAN

UO WLBT

ee Teele ae

"g Aq oor

uo WIR

‘uO ULB

‘Al

"N Aq “of

Ls Le es |

which at the same hour

‘uO ULBY

“HL ON “H),

]

“HO Uleyy

“HN

“MO UleyYy

‘ad NUN

“uo UrRyT |

Va Aq -n

“uo Ure YY |

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a

“Ino FT

ANNA

OIG Hid co bs DH GD

Meteorological Observations. XXXili

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

me 3 Range of the Barometer = # | Range of the Tempera-

3| 2 5= during the day. ea] se ture during the day.

Bra bs

oO > foal

Date.| © Zo 5 5

go | Max. | Min. | Diff. | €3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

Ss > ios} = <a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. o to) ) )

1 | 29.827 | 29.900 | 29.736 | 0.164] 81.4 91.0 | 72.4] 18.6

2 838 .890 807 .083 78.8 87.4 3.6 , 13.8

3 .769 .855 .686 169 78.9 88.9 HBT lige

A, 705 158 .628 130 79.5 89.8 74.6 | 15.2

5 .659 726 569 157 82.2 9i.2 72.7 | 18.5

6 079 .630 482 148 84.2 93.2 76.6 | 16.6

7 563 .607 514 .093 84.4 93.0 76.0 | 17.0

8 583 .634 542 .O92 87.2 94.9 82.0 | 12.9

9 611 701 .5a2 149 88.3 98.6 82.4 | 16.2

10 674 133 .606 127 88.8 99.2 81.8 | 17.4

11 .672 739 564 175 86.9 97.8 78.4 | 19.4

12 622 675 543 lle tafe) 96.7 | 80.8 | 15.9

13 643 694 088 106 88.5 96.6 82.0 | 14.6

14 681 740 612 128 87.4 96.4 76.0 | 20.4

15 .0380 751 595 156 84.8 95.0 76.4 | 18.6

16 652 .693 061 132 85.8 96.3 74.2 | 22.1

17 .666 73d .600 135 83.9 94.3 78.2 | 16.1

18 .665 720 586 134 87.0 95.8 77.0 | 18.8

19 661 720 604 116 87.9 97.3 79.2 | 18.1

20 681 740 624 116 89.3 97.8 83.0 | 14.8

21 .670 734 576 158 | 89.3 97.2 | 83.8 | 13.4

22 .621 672 O32 .140 89.2 95.8 83.8 | 12.0

23 O17 642 495 147 | 89.3 96.4 | 83.8 | 12.6

24, 599 647 AQT 150 88.3 96.8 80.4 | 16.4

25 595 657 523 134 90.0 97.8 84.0 | 13.8

26 614 .680 03 127 90.7 102.6 83.0 | 19.6

27 .585 .660 508 155 92.0 105.8 83.0 | 22.8

28 553 617 AT9 138 91.2 101.0 84.4) 16.6

29 547 623 476 147 90.3 98.2 84.6 | 13.6

30 -610 677 542 135 90.2 98.4 83.0 | 15.4

31 633 .690 537 153 | 90.6 98.0 | 85.0 | 13.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

qpemmometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

e day.

XXXIV Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

un the month of May 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

He eae ese eae Me eH | SEs | az

Ee a 2° | 2 eee eres

) © i & G4 42 20 5 a ro) |

é ae ees ‘ 2s |e es | 82 x

Date. = “ = a 3 3 as He 8 Be

ssla|z|4.|d¢| 2 |228| 82

Balle | eaee |e | bo | poe

Cie p | 8 ba Se So Sone

a A} oA ai Poel od a

) oO oO | oO Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr

] 72.7 8.7 | 66.6 14.8; 0.651 6.99 4.28 0.62

2 74.4 4.4 | 71.3 7.5 158 8.20 2.24 whe

3 72.6 6.3 | 68.2 NOLS -686 7.41 3.06 71

4, G41 5.4 | 70.3 9.2 734 -93 2.73 74

5 76.2 6.0 | 72.0 10.2 776 8.33 3.21 12

6 79.3 4.9 | 75.9 8.3 879 9.42 2.82 niles

7 80.7 3.7 | 78.1 6.3 943 10.10 21 82

8 82.4 4.8 | 79.5 7.7 -936 49 88 19

9 82.0 6.3 | 78.2 10.1 -946 © 08 3.75 13

10 81.7 7.1 | 77.4 11.4 .922 9:79 421 70

11 80.2 6.7 | 76.2 10.7 887 45 3.80 ah

12 81.5 G2 ides 9:9) 934 .93 .63 13

13 81.7 6.8 | 77.6 10.9 - .928 85 4.03 efit

14 79.6 7.8 | 74.9 12.5 © 851 04 Al 67

15 78.5 6.3 | 74.1 10.7 830 8.87 3-59 © a(fil

16 80.5 5.3 | 76.8 9.0 905 9.65 18 15

17 80.9 5.0 | 77.4 8.5 - 922, 83 04 16

18 81.5 5.0 | 78.2 8.8 946 10.07 22 76

19 82.3 5.6 | 78.9 SOP n G7 28 36 15

20 83.3 6.0 | 79.7 9.6 992 Ol 70 74

21 82.7 6.6 | 78.7 10.6 - 961 18 -| 4.03 12

22 83.1 6.1 | 79.4 9.8 .983 Al 3.75 © 74

23 83.2 6.1 | 79.5 9.8 986 45 Aho) 74

24, 80.4 ded) \ hes: 12.6 - 873 9.26 4.54 67

25 83.2 6.8 | 79.1 10.9 973 10.30 © 20 aii

26 83.6 7.1 | 79.3 11.4 BIg 06 4, 70

27 83.8 8.2 | 78.9 13.1 967 © .20 5.16 © .66

28 85.0 6.2 | 81.3 9.9 1.043 -| 11.02 4.00 © 13

29 84.2 6.1 | 80.5 9.8 O17 10.76 3.87 74

30 82.7 7.5 | 78.2 12.0 0.946 .0O 4.59 .69

31 83.3 7.3 | 78.9 ity -967 22 O4 .69

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. | XEKV

» Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer = .. | Range of the Tempera-

ce for each hour during aS ture for each hour

Sin) .

eS the month. 2 during the month.

as e

Hour. 3 a0) A 5

N a =

s es oo | Max. Min. Diff. 5 a Max. | Min. | Diff.

jas a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. fc) oO ° oO

Mid-

night.| 29.660 | 29.868 | 29.545 | 0.323 82.2 86.8 | 73.2 | 13.6

1 .650 .858 534 | .324, 81.9 86.2 | 73.2 | 13.0

‘2 .639 .839 525 314 81.7 85.6 72.9 | 12.7

3 .630 826 511 315 81.4 85.8 72.6 | 13.2

4 635 823 531 .292 81.1 85.8 72.2 | 13.6

5 646 .830 540 | .290 81.0 85.6 | 71.7.) 13.9

6 .660 846 571 275 81.1 86.6 72.0 | 14.6

7 677 .868 573 | .295 82.5 88.2 | 73.4 | 14.8

8 .693 895 582 313 85.2 89.8 77.0 | 12.8

9 400 -900 582 318 88.1 93.6 80.7 | 12.9

10 701 .896 582 | .314 90.5 96.5 | 83.6 | 12.9

11 .690 874 .568 | .306 92.6 97.4 | 85.2 | 12.2

Noon. 673 851 548 303 94.1 101.4 85.6 | 15.8

1 .650 827 53d 292 95.1 103.0 86.8 | 16.2

2 626 820 521 299 95.3 104.4 74.3 | 30.1

3 604 818 512 -306 95.4) 105.8 76.7 | 29.1

| 585 811 A481 -330 94.3 105.0 75.6 | 29.4

a) 576 812 476 396 92.7 101.5 75.7 | 25.8

6 589 Sle 488 325 89.8 96.5 74.8 | 21.7

7 613 822 496 326 86.8 91.6 74.2 | 17.4

8 635 .838 .516 22 84.6 90.0 74.2 | 15.8

9 653, 843 549 294 83.7 88.2 73.6 | 14.6

10 .661 842 561 281 83.3 88.0 74.2 | 13.8

11 663 856 013 283 82.7 87.6 73.8 | 13.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

XXXVI Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

é 3 “3 Se 64 | 65.) 38

A = |e é 2 Be | 2" 8 | Be

lit : PS | aes | Hes

Ai-toe-|| ea | 02 '|.&-— | eee

s iS) o } S 2o |S ES | gs 8

foe) | 3 eo) 3. | 3) ae.) eee

Fi i2)2) 2; | es | ef | 228/283

sia (eae tt occ a eee ea) =e) = Se

ce) > a ae Se ay waa | SHE

= 4 A 8 ae o> | OH | Ses | gos

= = S) i = aie oe =

Oo ) co) to) Inches.4)" Togr..| Tier:

Mid-

night.| 78.6 3.6 | 76.1 6.1 0.885 9.51 2.03 0.82

it 78.7 3.2 | 76.5 a4 .896 65 19 84

2 78.7 3.0 | 76.6 5.1 .899 67 70 85

3 78.7 a ae Ae) 4.6 905 13 54 .86

4 78.7 2.4 | 77.0 4.1 .910 BL .36 .88

5 78.7 Pail Clall 3.9 .913 84 30 88

6 79.0 ya Na A) 3.6 .925 .96 21 .89

eh 79.9 2.6 | 78.1 4.4, .943 10.14 50 87

8 81.0 4.2 | 78.1 Gel: .943 08 2.53 -80

9 81.8 6.3 | 78.0 10.1 940 9.99. 3.73, 13

10 82.3 8.2 | 77.4 13.1 .922 15 4.97 .66

11 83.0 0) A 15.4 -916 65 5.98 62

Noon.| 83.2 10.9 | 76.7 17.4 .902 47 6.85 58

1 83.6 TRS G27 18.4 .902 45 7.34 56

2 83.2 TALIS) Wee) 19.4, .879 21 .68 DD

3 83.1 12.3 | 75.7 19.7 875 lS 81 04

4 82.9 11.4 | 76.1 18.2 .885 .28 13 57

5 82.5 10.2 | 76.4 16.3 -893 Al 6.27 .60

6 81.8 8.0 | 77.0 12.8 .910 .63 4.79 67

i _ 80.5 (eas | Ge 10.1 .902 .60 3.61 73

8 79.4 5.2 | 75.8 8.8 .876 37 02 76

9 79.1 4.6 | 75.9 7.8 879. 42 2.65. 18

10 78.9 4.4 | 75.8 7.5 .876 39 54 WKY)

11 78.8 3.9 | 76.1 6.6 .885 50 22 81

All the Hygrometricai elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. XXXVil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

im the month of May 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

oo o® . ae

Sd [eS 2 8

3.9 |B 2 Prevailing ce

-| . 3 |\O 2 2] direction of the ‘sg, | General Aspect of the Sky.

“= | ace) eles Wind. ee

S Ss fea O So

A = a fate 10 = a

o {Inches tb

1/130.5| ... |S. & variable. 3.50 |Overcast to 2 a. M., scatd. \i to

3 Pp. M., scatd. i & Wi after-

wards. Thin rain at Midnight.

2/ 126.0) ... |S. by W. &N. E. 3.00 |Scatd. ito 6 a.m. \i to Noon

\ni & Wi afterwards. Light-

ning to 8. H.atl ep.m.Thunder

at2p.m.'Thin rain at2 & 8 P.M.

3/ 126.0) .. IN. W. &S. by E. 1.75 |\ni to 5 a.m. scatd. \i to 11

A.M. Wi & i afterwards.

Lightning to W. at 8 & 9

P. M.

4,| 129.6] 0.88 |S. by E. & E. 2.20 |\Wito3 a.m. Scatd. “ito 1P. m.

\wi afterwards. Thunder at

3 &4P.m. Lightning at4&8

P.M. Hail at 4p. mu. Rain from

3 to 5 P. M.

130.2; ... IE. &S. 0.50 |Scatd. “i to 7 Pp. M., clear after-

wards.

127.0} 0.31 |S. S. E. & S. 2.70 |Clear to 1 a. m. Scuds from S.

tolla. m.,seatd. “i to 3 Pp. M.

Overcast afterwards. Thunder

at 7 & 8 p. m. Lightning from

47 tolle. m. Rain from 6 to 8

P.M.

S.&8.S8. E. & E. | 1.00 |Scatd. ~i to 4 vp. m., clear after-

wards.

S. by E. & S. 1.00 |Clear to 4 a. um. Scuds from S to

A.M., scatd. “1 to 4. P. M., clear

afterwards.

9| 135.0} ... |S. & variable 1.50 |Clear to 3 a. m. Seuds from S. to

10 a. M., clear afterwards.

10 | 140.0] ... S. 0.50 |Clear to2 p.m. Seatd. “ito 7

p. M., clear afterwards. Light-

ning to N. at 8 Pp. M.

11 | 137.0| 0.12 |S. & variable. 3.60 |Clear to 5 a.m.Scatd.“ito 8 P.M.,

clear afterwards. Lightning to

N. H.at7 & 8 p. m. Rain at 7

oO on

co «sy

qc bo

QUS

eS ©)

P. M.

12 | 136.0) ... S. i 0.60 |Clear.

13 | 128.2; ... IS.&S8S.S. EB. 0.50 |Scatd. “i to 6 a. mu. Seuds from

S.to10 a. m. Seatd. “i after-

wards. Lightning to N. W. at

8,9 &11P. mM.

14 | 130.0) 0.55 |S. E. & S. by E. 19.50 |Clear to 6 a.m. “ito? p.m. Over-

cast afterwards. Lightning

from7 toll Pp. m. Thunder from

8 to 10 Pp. m. Rain at 8 P. M.

XXXVI

Meteorological Observations.

‘Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

zen

38 oe Prevailing

-. |. | © 8) direction of the

| #3 ase Wind

aAlsk Bae ind.

o |Inches

15 | 129.2; ... |Variable.

16 | 134.9] 0.58 |S. & S. by E.

17 | 130.2

18 | 128.0| 0.12

-19 | 132.0

20 | 130.0

.21 | 1380.2

.22| 134.0

23 | 129.0

24} 132.0

25 | 130.0

26 | 141.6

27 | 143.0!

28 | 132.0

29 | 128.0

30 | 133.0

-31 | 130.0

Max. Pres-

sure of Wind.

S. by E. & 8. by W.| 0.25

& 8.8. W.

W.&S.W.&S.

S.W.&S8.

& 5

NR De :

MR KN.

. W.

Wi.

& 8.8. E.

Be &

PRD

.& 8.8. W.

-& 8.8. W.

& 8. 8. W.

3.00

0.70

0.50

0.30

0.70

3.50

1.25

Sore

RSSs

1.50

1.30

General aspect of the Sky.

Overeast to 4.4.m. Clear to Noon.

Scatd “i to 6 p.m. Scatd Ni

afterwards.

Seatd. \i to 5 4. M., scatd. “1 to

6 p. m. Overcast aferwards.

Lightning from 7 to 10 p. M.

Thunder at 7 & 8 Pp. M. Rain

between 6 & 7 P. M.

Clear to 7 a.M., scatd. i fo 6

P. M., clear afterwards.

Clear to 6 a. M., scatd “i to6P.m.

Overcast afterwards. Rain be-

tween 7 & 8 P. M.

Clear to 11 a.m., secatd “ito 2

Pp. M., Clear afterwards.

Clear.

Seatd.X\i to 4a. M., clear after-

wards.

Clear.

Clear to 5 a. M., scuds from S.

to 11 a. M., clear aiterwards.

Shock of an earthquake, felt

at 3-41 from N. W. toS. E.,

the shock, or shocks, lasted

several minutes and there was

apparently a cross wave from

N. to S.

Scatd. i to lla. m., clear after-

wards. Lighting to N. W. at

-8&9P.M.

Clear.

Clear to 3 a. M., scuds from S. to

7 a.M., clear to 6 P. M.,, scuds

from S. afterwards.

Scuds from S. to 9 a. m. Clouds

of different kinds afterwards.

Clear to 4 a. M., scatd. “ito 6

Pp. mM. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning to N. W. at 8

& 9 p.m. Thin rain between

1&9P.M.

0.80 |Scatd. “1.

Ni Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~—i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

Meteorological Observations. XXX1X

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of May 1866.

MontHiy ReEsvtts.

Inches

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,.. 1. 29.646

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. m.onthe Ist, ... 29.900

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. M. on the 29th, ... 29.476

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, ne ... 0.424,

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, _... see a ... 29.708

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ... 29.571

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, se mOuleaa

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ‘ ae Sop, esi fed)

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 27th ae aL Oa

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 3rd . ie We mney Lt

Fixtreme range of the Temperature during the month, on soo Al TL

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature . He ~ ne GOne

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, 4-25 Fe 9.0

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. wanny Gs

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, .. 80.7

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 6.3

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, 76.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. . 10.1

i eepee

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .., 50 », 0.908

Troy grains.

Mean Wei ae v Vapour for the month ; cao POO

Additional ht of Vapour required for complete saturation, don eeeisoe}

Mean degree of umidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.73

Inches.

Rained 9 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours site 4) 0:88

Total amount of rain during the month, ae 2206

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. 1.85

Prevailing direction of the Wind, ie §.&8.8.W.&S. 8. E.

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of May 1866.

Monrtuty REsvutts.

tOns

lObservat

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologica

‘HO Ie

"MM 4Q °° NT

‘HO UBT

“MN UN

“UO Ue]

EMEENG

“HO UIey

"MNUM

“wo UV

“sq "AA

“uO ULB

Meteorological Observations.

[ee Ee |

SsQcoce ee =

be, sda

‘WO Ue

'§ Aq “AA

“UO ULey

AAS MA

‘uo uIey|

An ea

“UO ULeY

d blew, together with the number of days on

s blowing, it rained.

Lacan | ei -——c—AV—"1

ast 19 6 Ho QI XG 6 i]

“MO ULB

ISO 6D 6 SH ST 6 19 Oa Od Iw Be 10 1 HO SH TAIN

UMN ANAL ASI eS

‘uo UR

wind wa

ll’ MeN Baclinc) GY QW oD OD CO AGN I of

e—

articular Ww

‘'S

WIAA ODDDMDOAMIDOM WWD WAVIONS

Ee rs sk ae Seq Aes

“UO ULB

‘a fq °s

“TO Ue

Loon!

RC SEeS,

“WO Wey

No.of days

AAANAINANANAMATAAMIMANMMIO AAA SH

a4 =

iven hour any p

ic is

‘TO UIey

“a aS Gf rs

‘TO ULE

“HO UIeY

TD WORT

"N 4q

“HO Ulery

‘a Na

UO UR

‘uO ULey

‘ANN

“uO ULE

ich at a g

hour, when any particular

which at the same

Are ANNA AMAMMANAA ATH

Loe pen teen OS Be Be | Ar ei me La N AN

Leal De I | Los een | re

“a Aq “NT

‘uO Lexy

Tables shewing the number of days on wh

‘mMoyy! i

Mid

night

i} al oS) I AN

roa Gl 6) Hid Or WD OD

BNO Hinge OOO

are

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

ght of

meter

eee

Date. = Se

Foo

Slee

Inches.

1 29.610

2 .629

3 .625

4, .D93

5 71

6 59

di A9 4;

8 ool

9 070

10 046

11 .503

12 499

13 532

14 .538

15 492

16 AIA

17 515

18 O31

19 003

20 A425

21 3/9

22, A429

23 502

24 433

25 AAL

26 431

27 Ab5

28 514,

29 573

30 .607

Range of the Barometer

during the day.

Max.

Inches.

29.662

.682

.678

647

628

.ba7

bal

6.2

.622

621

O13

590)

604

.596

5 4A

533

oll

0/5

Min.

Inches.

29.543

097

31913)

489

499

AOL

431

479

497

423

425

462

AS)

ALD

443

451

476

436

359

305

ALG

493

339

2310

Ald

452

.503

060

Diff.

Inches.

0.114

.125

123

167

199

153

120

133

125

174s

.150

125

142

.146

104

.090

120

.099

127

.135

.097

154

lil

137

LOD

10L

.105

134

107

Mean Dry Bulb

Thermometer.

00H

Per I CO Ne

ei el Role of sao)

Range of the Tempera-

ture during the day.

Max.

Min.

83.0

79.6

79.2

81.4

83.4

84.0

84.2

3.6

82.0

76.2

89.2

85.4

83.0

84.6

80.8

79.6

78.4

89.0

81.8

79.0

79.4

79.6

81.8

81.2

80.6

82.0

83.4

81.8

Diff.

NDAD PWD WH DWAID MW AWN OVD

—

QADAnWAND EH ERNWOBDENNIDELD

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

xlii Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/( Continued.)

f ua sae is Bs eee

ra S| 2 ie 2 Boe | 2 Sea) See

a ee les i 2 ro | ese lm og

= co) 5 ae) Ce osiu= 5 a =

= Se ake 28 |e es | C2m

Dae ee S| Sal zs Bo | Se Monee

Sa aye ae es ee ene ess. | 2S

Pel | 2) ee | 82 | bo | sete

Be Peal a aan gS So 4] Se Seer

= a | on | eS = a7 | =

co) Co) Co) Co) inches serke| alsoa:

LP CA NG | IBS Ors) O88 | 263 | O48

QB | SO | BH | Wer | lor | oon 58. | er 71

By 610.) 68 176.9) | TOI) | 908 64. | 4.04 wd

A | Se | G62) WO) 08 | BO | 102 | B75 23

8 | Say | BB | FS) 104 | wos 54 | 4.05 We

B | SR 8s iy PL 3) ern 16 51 69

i SL ON FO bP Le | OR Ba 28 .70

3 | Se) 28) eo | es |. gar 20 90 68

9) SAB Te | We | 1s) | og 00 72 68

1O Gd | we | We i) as 00 29 70

TG Oe ee Oe 3 | Oe I, 8.05 al

1 | GBS) | 3.9 | pow | OL | GOR | loss 79 75

1 | 680 | 34) 72) toe | one BB 90 23

i SOS | ie) TD | GBIF es | a.50) 68

5 || TSO || 2k Fete | 41S) O58) | 108 1 bees 86

1B VSO | 82 |) WO) Bey BBY OB a 84

WP GO | BR Oy | AB ORY 08 46 87

A OG A ih) Ops Oss VOD 99 83

I} | ENS OO) Ob ar | BO Weide 30 89

DO 2980.6) 87 Ni 78010) 68 NOd0) Oe. | B21 82

21 78.8 Pll |) Tow 3.6 919 9.90 1.20 .89

Z| OWN BOM MS | Bie ls Be AN NORE 28 89

23 80.4 2.9 | 73.4 4.9 .952 21 12 .86

BE ES EONS | | ste. ad 108)" 46 85

25) 808) || 5.4. |) 72ers) | Os C306 1s Os aai a Rios 75

Ber soa) 4:0: 770) a1 \ toi 73 ||) soem Bye

Die aslee in| 2h) FONT PSG ri We LOO Dal Ole aes grin) 89

28 \ e872 | \ 80.0) | att | aloo 72 AQ 88

Boy sion tl: 162) 773 |, 199 091g |) spl78 wneise 73

BON e798 1 41 1176.9 |) oN le logg Lei fos 30)

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. xl

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations.

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

= 63 Range of the Barometer r= ,. |Range of the Tempera-

*2 Bie for each hour during ec) § ture for each hour

fe) 1S) 1 3

es the month. ¢ during the month.

o Be Es

Hour.| = Ex aa

San ae

22 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 32 | Max. | Min, | Dif

as ae

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. © ) Co) te)

Mid-

night.| 29.532 | 29.646 | 29.407 | 0.239 83.4 BZ 49-2 8.0

1 ol .630 397 233 85.2 87.0 79.2 7.8

2 507 621 383 238 83.0 87.0 79.2 7.8

3 500 .633 367 .266 82.8 86.8 78.8 8.0

A, AT 641 365 276 82.7 $6.8 78.4: 8.4

5 DOT 644 .365 279 82.7 86.4 78.8 7.6

6 24 651 19 272 82.7 86.6 79.0 7.6

ff 539 664 397 267 83.7 88.0 89.0 8.0

8 553 67 397 251 85.2 90.8 80.6 | 10.2

9 561 .676 396 -280 86.9 95.0 1.0} 14.0

10 561 682 394 .288 88.5 97.2 80.4 | 16.8

11 052 -.676 319 297 89.8 98.6 80.6 | 18.0

Noon. 539 651 362 | .289 9059") 100.6 Saal ons

1 520 .632 304 .280 91.6 101.6 82.4 | 19.2

2 499 618 Rstsi5) .279 91.9 101.2 81.6 | 19.6

3 ASL 579 029 .250 $1.9 101.0 80.8 | 20.2

4 463 065 O19 246 91.0 100.2 80.4 | 19.8

5 459 .652 .320 329 90.0 98.2 81.0 | 17.2

6 475 578 2403 230 88.2 95.2 81.4 | 13.8

7 .500 601 302 200 85.9 O2ai 76.2 | 16.5

8 520 614 382 202 85.1 90.8 79.4 | 11.4

9 O38 .656 401 .250 84.4 89.8 79.0 | 10.8

10 49 651 Ail 240 83.9 88.4 79.2 9.2

11 AT .656 A416 .240 83.5 87.8 79.4: 8.4

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

xliv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

4 aS 3 ay | 2 4 Seal te ea)

a fe | 8 e Big” | 3 Saleeis

Sg ee

2 Soul 3 28 eee eae

: 2 ° 0) 2 Ns a

Pe ie) 2)3. | ef es | Sse lease

ae | a | Ag a 3, Sipe este | is) Sa

Sea ede | tee | 88 | seca aes

Sa 4 3S Am Se SF Tae sists

to) 0 oy) iinelve sg) ls oarages Alors

Mid-

night.| 80.3 Ball | Sal 5.3 0.943 10.12 1.84 0.85

1 80.3 2.9) | 78:3 4:9 .949 18 offal .86

2 80.5 PsN Hisel 4.3 961 335) 49 .87

3 80.5 2.3 | 78.9 3.9 967 oo 36 .88

4 80.5 2.2 | 79.0 3.7 970 42 30 89

5 80.6 ALM | Se 3.6 973 Abd Rer7ip 89

6 80.6 pL 7S) 3.6 973 45 27 .89

7 81.1 2.6 | 79.3 4.4 979 51 06 87

8 81.4 Shste) fk 1 6.5 961 26 2.35 81

9 81.8 IL SM 8.2 961 24 3.01 Min

10 82.0 6.5 | 78.1 10.4 .943 02 .86 12

11 82.3 TIS | VAs 12.0 934 9.89 4.53 69

Noon.| 82.8 Srl ees, 13.0 .937 .90 WY 67

1 82.9 Sot | AHa1 13.9 931 82 5.37 65

2 83.1 8.8 | 77.8 14.1 934 85 AT 64,

3 82.9 9.0 | 77.5 14.4 .925 76 56 .64

A, 82.9 8.1 | 78.0 13.0 940 93 .00 67

5) 82.5 Has | WSs 12.0 .940 95 4.55 .69

6 82.2 6.0 | 78.6 9.6 .958 10.17 3.59 74

if 80.9 5.0 | 77.4 8.5 .922 9.83 04 16

8 80.4: AAW Gell 8.0 913 16 2.81 78

9 80.0 4.4| 76.9 7.5 .908 70 61 YAS)

10 80.1 3.8 | 77.4 6.5 .922 87 .26 81

i 80.2 3.3 | 77.9 5.6 .937 | 19.04 1.96 - 84

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. xlv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

» . |e ae

36 |s25 Prevailing EE

.| .3 (OS =| direction of the ‘~. | General aspect of the Sky.

& o aS a= LO Wind. So

A)\a* FS 10 = 5

o {Inches eth

ceetsGO1 2 4S.& S. 8. HK. 0.80 iClear to 5 a.m. Scatd. “i to 9

A. M. Seatd. Wi to 4 Pp. mM.

Clear afterwards.

2) 132.0) 0.32 |S. 8S. E. & S. 2.00 |Clear to 5 a. Mm. Seatd Mi to 4

Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder & Lightning at 6,7

&9 p.m. Rain from 5 to9 p.m.

8/ 137.0) ... |IS.&8S.E. 1.25 |Overcast to5 4. M. \i to 6 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

4,| 135.0 S. by E. & S. 5.00 |\i to 10 a. m. clear to 3 P. M.

Overcast afterwards. Light-

ning to the E. at 9 p. Mm.

5 | 180.0] ... |S. &S.S. W. 1.25 |Scatd. \i to 11 a. m. Seatd. 7i

to 5 p.M. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning to the N at7 &8

P. M.

6 a .. 19.9. W.&S. 4.25 \Clouds of various kinds. Thin

rain at 9. P. M.

.S. HE. & S. 2.00 |Clear to 3a. mM. Seatd. \i to 5

Pp. M. “i & \W_i afterwdrds.

. by E. & variable} 3.00 |\.i to 6 a. m. Thin clouds to 10

A. M. Clear to 5 Pp. Mm. Over-

cast afterwards. Lightning

to N. E.at 8 & 9p. m. Thun-

der at 8p. m. Light rain at

10 & ll Pp. Mu.

9/ 185.0} 0.15 |S. W. & S. 3.00 /Overcast to 3 a. m. Scatd. i

& \ni to 5 Pp. mM. Overcast

afterwards. Lightning at 8 &

5@ 10 p. um. Thunder at 10 Pp. m.

Rain at 9 Pp. M.

10| 128.0) 0.24 |S. & 8. S. E. 23.00 |Overcast to 4 a.m. Seatd. “i &

\Ai to 5 ep. m. Overcast after-

wards. Rain from 7 to 9 p. M.

ei260 .. 1. & S: S. EB. 0.25 |Scatd. \i to ito 10 4. mM. O71

to7 p.m. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning to the N. at 8 p.m.

12) 128.0! ... |E.S. E. & variable.| 0.30 |Overcast to 8 a.m. \i to 7 P.M.

Clear afterwards. Thunder at

3 p.m. Thin rain from 7 to 9

: A.M. & at 3p. M.

13/ 136.0/ ... |E.N.E. &S.&E.| 0.50 |Clear to 4 a. m. \ito8a.M.

Scatd. “i afterwards. Light-

ning tothe N. EH.at 9& 10 p.m.

14| 131.0) ... |H.S.E.&S. E. 0.50 |Overcast to 3 a. mM. Scatd. ~i to

. : 7 P.M. Clear afterwards. Light-

ning to the N. at 1 a. M.

7 | 130.0

™M

8 | 132.0

xlvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Resulis of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Solar Ra .diation, Weather, ae.

5 2D > 7s ng

S & is es Prevailing aS

. | ..8 (OS 2| direction of the | "1%, | General aspect of the Sky.

=| Ko |g os HO

S|) SF fet Wind. ey

Als eal) al

o |fnches tb

SSW eee 0.38 |H.S. BH. & BE. 0.80 \Clear to 44. mw. \ni to 11 A. mw.

Overcast afterwards. Thun-

der at 1 p. mw. Rain at 6 & 9

A. M. & from 1 to 5 Pp. M.

AUB aoe 0.18 |S. H. & EH. by S. 0.80 iClear to 3 a. mu. Overcast after-

wards. Thunder at 7a.m. Rain

ae 6&7a.m. Kat ZP. M.

opel bes 0.53 ISSHE&SSHE&S by EH} 0.90 OnseaT Light rain from 2 to 9

; ut. & at Land 2p. mM. Iight-

coe at 2,3, &4 a. mM. Thun-

der at 2 & Jl A. M-

1S .. |S.9.H.&9.8.W.&W.| 0.50 |\\Xi & \i to 7 Pp. m. Overcast

afterwards. Lightraimatlla.m.

OT lteee 0.23 |W. &S. W. 0.40 |Overcast. Light rain after inter-

vals.

FAO) | oS x |W. S. W. 0.40 |Overcast. Thin rain at 3 4. mM.

& from 7 to 11 Pp. mM.

21 0.96 |W. by S. &W.N.W.) 0.60 |Overcast. Light rain after inter-

. vals.

Pa We ss 0.58 |W.N. W. &S. 0.80 |Overcast to 5 a. M. \Wi & 71 to

lp.ma. Overcast to7P. Mm. Clear

afterwards. Rainat3,4&7P.M.

23 | 121.0| 2.41 |S. S. W. & W. 0.80 |~ito3 a. m.Overcast to lla. um.

| to 4p. mM. Overcast after-

wards. Rain at 5 & from 8 to

lip. uw. Thunder & Lightning

at 8 & OP. M.

24)... 0.28 |W. by S. & W.S.W.| 0.80 |Overcast nearly the whole day.

> Light rain from 6 toll a. wm.

25/117.0| ... |W.S.W.&W.by S| 0.40 |Clear to 5 a. M. \i to 9.4.2.7i to

3p. m. Overcast PNET

_ Slight rain between 2 & 3 p.m.

26| 117.8) ... |S.W.& W.N. W.| 0.40 |~i:& \Wi to 6 P. mu. Overcast af-

eels Shght rain at 3, 10,

& 1 1 Pp. M,

DEN east 0.64 )W.S.W.& N.N.W.) 1.25 |Overcast rain atl, 4, 5 & from

7 to9 a.m. & at 8 Pp. M.

ed || bao .. |W.S.W.& S. W.| 0.50 |Overcast. Sight rain at 6, 10 &

Jl a. mu.

29) 126.0); ... |W.byS.&N.N.W,) 0.50 ni to3 4. ™. Overcast to 7 a. ¥.

; \ni & “1 to 5 Pp. u. Overcast

afterwards. ‘

Ole 72 0.12 |W. by N. & variable} 0.50 |Overcast to Noon.\ni, to 5 p. ™.

Thin clouds afterwards. Rain

at 6&7 A. aM

Ni Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro- strat, ~i Cumulo strati, i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

*Fell from 7 p.™. of the 20th to 10 p. ™. of the 2lst.

‘Meteorological Observations, xlvii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of June 1866,

Monruty Resutts.

Inches. -

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,... ... 29.518

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. M. on the 2nd, ... 29.682

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 Pp. M. on the 2]st, ... 29.319

Extreme range ot the I Barome eter during the month, te Oras

Mean of te. daily I Me x. Pressures, ... te re 56 AS) ED

Ditto ditto M in. ditto a Ane ... 29.449 .

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, ... rae Ont26

Co)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, : Sy bie 9. Oe

Max. Temperature occurred at 1 p. M. on the 8th at eee LOMG

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 p. Mm. on the 10th ... 76.2

Hixtreme range of the Temperature during the month, 25.4

Mean of the oa Max. Temperature ... 92.8

Ditto ditt Min. ditto, e 81.3

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,., 11.5.

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 81.4

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 5.0

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, oe 77.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above compute d mean Dew-point. , ee SO

Inches

Mean Hlastic force of Vapour for the month, .., ie re O34

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the savor i g.98h

Additional Wei: ht of Vapour required for complete satur ation, tae to OR,

- Mean degree of humidity for the menth, complete saturation being unity 0.7 6

Inches. :

Rained 21 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ee we G24)

Total amount of rain during the month, id O2

Total amount of rain indicated by the ee attached to the anemo- _

meter during the month. . 6.25

Prevailing direction of the Wind, SS E&S.& WS. W.

eee

xlvili Meteorological Observations.

“ado UlBYy

veyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of June 1866.

taken at the Sur

tons

ical Observat

RSE =

_ |AA4o'N

>) UO ULB i,

a 5 here ON N — ——

= [ALNCN =

ro “Uo ULBY aR S fi

an . : i Se a CS a OUGU SS ines a

° M N- cs See et es

B “UO WB yy ee i>]

2 Aes NOAA S SSS SS TAM HNNAMHHATKH AN

= [-ANTA\) Da is

5 ‘dO UTBY, e

. ea [eel

a AQ" AA = SN = an -— AAA

a — = =

ay “Uv ULBY

FZ | -uo wey = cs o =n — ——s

Hos = = SS

o.4 i. : NAAAMAAAMATOAT DNS SS

aa 7s 4d M fe

_ ee men | — eo — ec

3 © [rao wey] Gea? CBsr

ES) ae Co IDS HMMM HANNS DANMANDOMA

ome ye NASP NN

ES p'uo ulegy oar Ane

2 ej “AA O| LW CuIGuICUICN sa cu ca CU ot o9 QI OD co GU Ge <I

SS =

mom Uv uscy

‘22M 'S'S TNAM ON ROSIN IM TOMA NN

Bees ve eee oe

Pers || OLE ey

lee oo AN ao lo Iie mas man N

“SE M AY» ee

A.2 |-uo wey irae

Baa Ql A VHLANN STAR HHNNDATOWA =

DM ee SE

AS "MU Usa os S44 i

a= “aq Ay g 2 THADANDARA ANNA DAO

aes a

ns Be ‘do ule YS Bi sy oh ex

ROS «yp ea-al © MHMAMAMMIMMRANAANMO SSIS AN SD

Za ss HS ‘$s Bs

S| q 5 ‘UU Ue y Z, ans eS NX Loe |

oS “LS A MAAAMAUMMOAAHMANAPTHAANAATAAMH

@ .- “UO UIBy GN o om a N S|

a6 “aoa 20 oH NOS N SOON nN Sao Sh =

So ‘Wo Uby ms =

x 3 5 Anas = a)

E | S 4a

ci “Uu tht:

os ANDAASS a 4 a

oe Jb

28 "UO uLey

. : Chi} =

aire PN AQ “if

ee ‘Us Wey ee

o . . On, N NN j aS eo en!

5 "do Wee iu

a A ON J hi) Co) fo) i) Lome a =) =o

oO Se

a "do ule T = a,

ae Ope Ee = aN An

0 a ON UN

ors . rs

: uO Uley a

Fai Toa Ore re

oI H AQ 'N

15 U0 Wey Fann

aa)

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

Meteorological Observations. xlix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

im the month of July 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

ae Range of the Barometer = # | Range of the Tempera-

~r - 5 7 :

hes during the day. a = ture during the day.

eer ! ES

Date.| 5 5 Q al A

2° | Max. | Min. | Diff’ | S2 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

Ss > 3S = Sl

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. fo) | 0 Co) oy)

le 956021) 29.642") 29:50) (O:001 |) ized SLOP ie Grie aoeA

2 097 .646 O37 .LO09 76.2 77.8 (3.27) 2.6

3 569 613 517 .O96 79.1 85.6 74.4 | 11.2

A 538 576 476 LOO) (Sig 85.4 | 78.0} 7.4)

5 529 580 ASA, O96 81.3 86.6 77 A 9.2

6 604 .665 564: LOL 81.6 87.6 78.4 9.2

7 635 .698 O70 128 83.2 89.0 79.8 92

8 572 634 482 152 85.1 93.0 80.0 | 13.0

9 520 878 433 142 85.8 93.2 80.6 | 12.6

10 AQ AT 436 lil 86.2 91.6 83.2 8.4)

dig! 50d 598 AAT ele, 85.1 90.5 81.0 9.5

12 50d .616 .506 110 84.5 90.0 81.0 9.0

13 646 697 593 104 84.6 89.8 81.2 8.6

14 .660 714 602 -112 | 85.0 90.4 | 80.2 | 10.2 -

15 575 .6d1 489 162 83.4 86.0 81.2 4.8

16 521 560 469 O91 84.2 86.7 82.0 |. -4.7

17, 50d 597 522 O75 83.2 91.0 78.6 | 12.4

-18 563 .600 516 084. 82.9 86.2 80.4 5.8

19 580 631 509 122 83.3 88.6 79.0 9.6

20. |. .604) — 654 AT 107 82.3 86.0 80.2 5.8

21 615 | _.662 ASS Ween LOM aster 80.37 2922) |) 76

22 587 634 a4 _.100 83.4 87.0 79.8 7.2

23 | 614 664, 040 119 | 84.5 89.4: 80.0 9.4

24 | .638 681 584, O97 | 84.6 las) I tees WN GO

25 634 .670 573 O97 84..0 99.4 81.6 | 8.8

26 O97 645 O17 128 82.2 85.0 81.2 3.8 |

27 597 .639 39 .-L06 83.7 88.6 79.2 9.4

28 611 .668 D9 113 83.2 87.5 80.4: ik

29 631 691 560 151 84.3 99.2 79.8 | 10.4

30 629 673 573 100 84.8 99.8 80.3 | 10.5

31 631 .668 575 093 | 83.0 84.8) | |) S06) e 7-2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Bae omoter Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during -

lay.

] Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

im the month of July \866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

H +3 a E % SH | oS5¢4 |-as

& e a ray ) aS ro Ba

GS eed 2 | BAS ae eee

2 o 2 2 4 42 OU AW as

iE 6 5 2 36 ot Sree enone

aa 2 as 2 Se |F Sa | ose

Date. Pires 3 =) 3 = "on © eS ics o am

28) \.2 | | 2. | 26 | Sea] sete

Belle |) see | he) bo eee

BSI | ess | og S | ae | 33 | Sous

o 9 a S ray oF oe me o |] oo

= eS | S | 4 = a | =

Co) ) ) Co) Inches=)|) hoa st ers

1 75.3 2.4 | 73.6 4.1 0.817 8.86 1.24 0.88

2 75.0 1.2 | 74.2 2.0 .832 9.05 0.61 94

3 77.0 2.1 | 75.5 3.6 .868 38 1.15 89.

A, 78.9 2.3 | 77.3 3.9 919 .90 1 88

5 78.1 3.2 | 75.9 5.4 879 AZ AT 84,

6 79.3 Zed | hel 3.9 931 10.02 .o2 88

7 80.4 2.8 | 78.4 4.8 952 21 .68 86

8 81.0 4.1 | 78.1 7.0 943 .08 2.49 80

9 $1.6 4.2 | 78.7 Tok 961 .26 7 .80

10 82.1 Anl | 79:2 7.0 976 Al 58 .80

11 80.8 4.3 | 77.8 7.3 934 9.99 38 .80

12 80.1 4.4.| 77.0 7.5 -910 a 62 sno

13 80.6 AO | 77.8 6.8: 934 9 40 1

14 80.7 ACD |) Whed 7.3 -931 .96 7 .89

15 81.2 2.2) | MO Bell 992 10.63 1.33 .89

16 81.4 2.8 | 79.4 4.8 -983 ol 13 86

17 80.4 2.8 | 78.4 4.8: 952 21 68 .86

18 80.1 2.8 | 78.1 4.8 943 alls 67 86

19 80.8 2.5 | 79.0 4.3: 970 A2 51 87

20 80.6 Lot) G4! 2.9 .983 06 02 91

21 80.4 2.3 | 78.8 3.9 -964 06 36 58)

22 80.2 3.2 | 78.0 5.4 .940 -O9 87 84

23 81.4 3-1 | 79:2 5.3 .976 45. 90 85

2A 81.5 al | 79.3: 5.3 is) 48 Oil .85

25 81.1 2:9 | 79.1 4.9 973 A2 75 .86

26 80.3 1.9 | 79.0 3.2 .970 44, 10 =i

27 80.3 3.4 | 77.9 5.8 937 04 2.03 83

28 80.0 3-2 | 77.8 5.4 .934 03 1.86 84

29 80.7 3.6 | 78.2 6.1 946 13 2.15 83

30 80.5 4.3 | 77.5 WB .925 9.90 56 .80

31 79.9 SIE CLI AE 5.3 .931 10.00 1.82 85

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. li

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

SS Range of the Barometer = .. | Range of the Tempera-

ame for each hour during as ture for each hour

ea the month. ae during the month.

Hour.| 5 ae a q

se | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $$ | Max. | Min. | Diff.

aE =a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) o ts) fe)

Mic-

night.| 29.605 | 29.674 | 29.515 | 0.159 81.2 84.5 76.0 8.5

1 O93 .663 AQ) 172 81.0 83.8 75.8 8.0

2 583 .656 466 -190 80.7 83.5 75.4 8.1

3 Bsy (a) -650 456 194 80.4 83.3 74.8 8.5

4A, 570 .659 476 183 80.2 83.2 74.6 8.6

5 O17 664: 480 184: 80.4) 83.4 74,4) 9.0

6 91 -680 493 187 80.6 83.4 74.5 8.9

i -605 200 504 196 81.2 84.0 74.6 9.4

8 618 705 O16 -189 82.5 85.3 75.8 9.5

9 .626 712 530 182 84.1 87.4 76.6 | 10.8

10 .629 714 .590 ly) 84.9 88.8 77.0 | 11.8

11 .620 02 O29 173 85.7 90.2 76.8 | 13.4

Noon. .608 .686 509 ollie 86.1 91.2 77.2 | 14.0

il O9L .675 A9L 184 86.5 92.2 76.4 | 15.8

2 069 657 460 197 86.3 93.0 76.6 | 16.4

3 548 .632 433 199 85.9 93.2 75.2 | 18.0

A 536 616 A39 177 85.6 91.0 75.6 | 15.4

5 534 .608 AA43 165 85.3 89.6 75.5 | 14.1

6 542 .616 456 .160 84.5 88.0 75.5 | 12.5

7 .560 637 480 157 83.3 86.0 75.4 | 10.6

8 581 .660 505 155 82.7 85.2 75.6 9.6

9 .602 684 527 157 82.3 84.7 75.6 9.1

10 .616 697 540, 157 81.8 85.2 75.6 9.6

11 .616 .689 542 147 81.4) 85.0 75.6 9.4,

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

hi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

Oe emilee |e eA | eee | ae

5 Ee 2 A 3 Sn B= ino} = ia = .

PY ro | "ess | OSs

2 © © S oe > “ms | Gy

Co b = BS (Pas os) — sos i) O-4

aS ) 2 S) 2 62 |e ee | se 4

Hour. a ; a = ic 2 aplo S& | 2 Bee

Bee | 2s. | aa | ee see

eg are Se | a aa | ¢ Sag | dea

See Ie (es |} SS (eS 2 eee

i A A S am Se SA | Bro | sos

Co) oO Co) ) intehvesi|) Mascaras melee

Mid-

night. 79.4 HES Mie ASelk 3.1 0.943 10.16 1.05 0.91

1 79.3 Nez | shall 2-9 .943 16 0.98 sg)

2 79.1 1G) 7820 2.7 .940 13 91 .92

3 79.1 Wes) 7h} 2.2 .946 21 3 .93

4 78.9 1.3 | 78.0 2.2 .940 15 73 .93

5 79.0 1.4 | 78.0 2.4, .940 15 79 .93

6 79.2 1.4 | 78.2 2.4 .946 21 80 .93

f 79.5 1A E83 2.9 .949 22, .99 91

8 80.2 2.3 | 78.6 3.9 .958 30) 1.34 .89

9 80.7 3.4 | 78.3 5.8 .949 16 2.05 .83

10 80.8 4.1 | 77.9 7.0 .937 .O2 AT .80

11 81.2 4.5 | 78.0 Wall -940 03 dl 18

Noon. 81.2 4.9 | 77.8 8.3 934, 9.97 .98 ed.

1 81.2 5.3 | 78.0 8.5 .940 10.01 3.09 76

2 81.1 5.2 | 77.5 8.8 .925 9.86 16 76

3 81.1 ASS 7h 8.2 931 94, 2.93 SHV

A, 80.8 4.8 | 77.4 8.2 .922 85 il rel

5 80.8 4.5 | 77.6 Wel. .928 91 73 78

6 80.3 4.2 | 77.4 7.1 .922 87 A8 .80

7 79.8 Bt I) 1/733 6.0 .919 .86 .O7 .83

8 79.8 2.9 | 77.8 4.9 .934, 10.03 1.69 .86

9 79.7 26 a9 4.4, 937 .O8 50 .87

10 79.6 2.2 | gf 8.1 Bel .943 14 .26 .89

11 79.6 1.8 | 78.3 3.1 .949 22 5 il

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1865.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Max. Solar

radiation.

Rain Guage

5 feet above

Ground.

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

Max. Pres-

‘\sure of Wind.

General aspect of the Sky.

{o)

zal

ig 2}

118.4

119.0

134.0

125.4

128.0

112.0

129.8

121.0

0.13

0.87

0.61

0.10

0.09

0.16

S. 8. E. & S. by E.

S. by E. & 8. by W.

S.S.E.&8.& S.by W.

S. by W.& 5S.

8.8. W. &S.

8.8. E. &S. BE.

S. E. & E. by S.

S.E.&E.S. E.

S. E. & 8.8. E.

8. &8. 8. E.

S. by E. &S8.

DONO

WOQws

el esiies)

1.50

1.00

0.50

1.20

2.10

0.70

0.50

Overcast. Rain day & night.

Overcast to 11 a. Mm. Seatd. \Wi

& Ni afterwards. Rain from

5 to 10 a. M.

Seatd. \i to 44. M. Overcast to

5 p.m.clear afterwards. Light

rainat6&104a.m. &at1&

3 P.M.

Overcast to 8 a. M. “i after-

wards.Light rain at 2,7 & 10

A.M. andat4d& 10 Pp. mM.

Overcast to 2 P. mM. Seatd. ~i to

6p. mM. clear afterwards. Rain

at 2, 5, 8&lla.mM. & at2 &

5 P. M.

Clear to 4 a. M. “1to7 P. M.

clear afterwards. Rain be-

tween 10 &il a.m. & at 2 P.M.

Overeast to5 a.m. \ni to I] a. ™.

“iatterwards. Light rain at

4A. M.

\ni to 4 P. M. overcast after-

wards Thunder at 6 Pp. M.

Lightning to the N. W. at 8

Pp. M.

Seatd. “ito 7 p. m. clear after-

wards.

Clear to 3 4. mM. Sceatd. ~i to 8

p. Mm. clear afterwards. Rain

between 1O & ll a. m. & be-

tween 2 & 3 P. M.

Clear to 34. Mm. ito lla. mM.

Seatd. “i & -ito5 p.m. i

afterwards. Rain at 5 a. Mm. &

between 9 & 10 a. m.

Seatd. 71 & \i to 7 pe. m. clear

afterwards. Light rain at 6}

& lid a. mM.

Clear to 4.4. m. Scatd. “i & Wi

to 7 vp. m. clear afterwards.

Light rain at 6 P. M.

Seatd \ito 4 a.m. Wi & “i to

8 p. m. clear atterwards.

Light rain from 9 to ll a. mM.

*Fell from 1 pv. ™. of the lst to 4 p. M. of the 2nd.

+ Do. 5 vp. m. of the 2nd. to 10 a. m. of the 3rd.

liv

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

General aspect of the Sky.

vito 3 4. M. Wi to 10 a. mw.

overcast to 7 Pp. M. clear

afterwards. Rain from 9 a.

mu. to Noon.

Clear to 3 a. mM. \i to 2 P. M.

afterwards. Rain

from 3 to 5 P. M.

Overcast, slight rain at 65, 73

& 10 a. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from 2 to 6 a. M. & at 8°

Overcast to-4 Pp. M. “i after-

wards. Rain at 10 & 11,4. mu.

& atl, 3,4 & 7 et um

\~i & \ni nearly the whole day.

Slight rain at 7 4. Mm. & at 3

Pp. M.

\ni & 71. Rain at 6 & 102i a. mu.

& between Noon & 1 P. m.

Seatd. \_i to 5 A. M. overcast

afterwards.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain at 3,10 & lla.m. & from

2 to 4 Pp. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day,

Rain at 6 & trom 8 to ]lda. wu.

Scatd. \wi to 10 4. mM. ni to 5

p. mM. Scatd.\_1 &\i after-

i to 4P.m.Sceatd. i&\_i after-

wards. Light rain at 5 & 7 A.

uM. & at 3 P. M.

Scatd. “ito 4p. m. Scatd. \i

afterwards. Rain between

midnight & la. mM. & at MP.

Scatd. \i to 84. M. “ito 4P.M.

Seatd. \i afterwards. Rain at

lla.m. & atl P. mu.

a a 25 = Prevailing | zg 5

.| 23 | = 2! direction of the ae |

£| #o |g em Wind Set

S| 88 face : Se

a Ss eee a =

o Inches Ib

OR eer: ORS: 1.00

17 | 118.0) 0.78 |S. S. W. & S. by W| 4.30

overcast

18 S. W. 1.00

19 0.88 |S.& S. W. & W. 1.00

A. M.

20 0.85 |S. by E.&S.&58.8.E.) 0.20

21 Sh Cis [S919 0.50

22 0.18 |S. &. 8.8. E. 0.50

23 | 113.7 Ss Cease MiG 0.50 |7i & “ni.

PENN ae Senos Wierda. 0.50

25 0.50 |S. by W. &S. 0.60

26 1.94 |S. &S.S. E. 0.40

27 | 120.0 S. byW. & E. 8. E.| 0.40

wards.

28 | 114.0 8.8. E. &S. 0.70

29 | 134.0 S.E.&S8.8. E. 0.70

30 | 127.0| 0.10 |K.S. E.& 8. E. 0.40

31 K.N. EH. &N. EH. 0.25

Clear to 5 a. M. ‘i & Wi to 10

A. M. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder at 2p. uw. Light rain

from | to 3 Pp. M.

Mi Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

Meteorological Observations. lv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of July 1866.

Montuiy ReEsvtrs.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,. ... 29.587

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. “M.on the 14th, ... 29.714

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 9th, —... 29.433

Extreme} range of the Barometer during the month, Se jou Onttell

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... a ~~ obo POOR!

Ditto ditto Min. ditto bee ... 29.527

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the ‘month, rou goo OIG)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, 83.1

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. m. on the 9th 93.2

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 3rd . 74.4

Extreme range of the Temperature ane the month, 18.8

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. a 88.0

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, oni owt

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. 8.3

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 80.1

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 3.0

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, 17820

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point. . 5.1

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... ae .. 0.940

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ba 10309

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ... 1.77

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.85

Inches.

Rained 26 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours nak soa 083

Total amount of rain during the month, .. 13.42

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. spo lade

Prevailing direction of the Wind, ORL ORR, CSR

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta, in the month of Fuly 1866.

2 2,

aS}

DS)

™=

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

articular wind blew, together with the number of days on

ular wind was blowing, it rained.

s on which at a given hour any

h at the same hour, when any partic

whic

Tables shewing the number of day

Meteorological Observations.

HO WIR]

CMAQ NT

{-uo ULesy

M NUN

“uo ULeYy

“MN

‘uO Wey

MI NU MAY

“UO ULB

“NAG AAI.

“uo UI yy|

“M.

——

“HO HB iT

eae an = =

S Aq “M

5 5 5 NA wena AAT OD OD OO ret Lae Nit oe! ANN

MSM

“UO ULB yy are SsMMON Neate enn et a Oe

ain el AANTAAANDODIONDAMADA GS OA

“UO Ulbg i rae Qs UGH

“MS's 4 ASAAND AO ANMID OM AON SION Ge

“uo Ue y oS aN Lomal |

“mM Aq‘S NN Hao AA oF aon IG oD cD

“To Wey SNH FAA ANR Se oS

Ea ares a CO ROM DRI HDOOMARASCHOR AAR RDOD

FAS mig | = = a =] aoe

q &q 9) BY cA 6D a oD OI AAA ao ID NID SID OANA

“uo wey ro aA aS Ss Ss 4

Ges o8 IDR DAOMMOMAHANMAN DHNKROCDOAROS

x ») 7

ToMmey Z aN Conte! > ie

7 aaa HOMoaMoOAARDODAMROAAMAMHD

“U0 Wey re = a)

TFANTNNMMONN aN Aa a SS aq aN

fac Sieg

“uo ane

‘N Aq “gf

‘Uv ULey

“MO Wie sy)

HN}

“TLO ue yy

"A “N “NI

“HO Ue {|

‘a Aq “NT

“10 wey fon ion Boe a

ce ret =) I Cet il ee i

iat i} Fl tl I

—

Sp IA Hin Om ODO TNO Hig ore OOO

“eee ore ae

Noon.

Meteoroloyical Observations. lvit

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level,-18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

& 8 Range of the Barometer = H Range of T mpera-

=e during the day. al aes ture during the day.

355 aee|

Date. ae & Q A :

Bo°-| Max. | Min. | Diff. = 2 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

Ss SS Sia

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 0) fo) fo) (0)

i 29.586 | 29.625 | 29.520 0.105 83.2 89.6 80.4: 9.2

2 614 699 4d Lol 80.7 83.2 Nisey 5 Bd

3 HBO) .809 683 126 80.4: 83.6 79.2 | AA

4, 739 BO Ushdl .677 - 100 80.0 82.7 79.0 Biff

5 689 TAZ .616 126 81.5 84.8 79.4 5.4

6 040 .699- 442, 218 82.2 86.0 79.8 6.2

7 .390 AY 382 SIU 81.2 85.4 79.2 6.2

8 A1A, 499 .309 .130 80.9 85.2 78.2 7.0

9 AA -630 Als pillxey 83.6 89.7 78.8 | 10.9

10 593 -631 O24 107 84.3 90.8 80.7 | 10.1

11 - TET .613 ATA .139 84.6 89.2 81.8 7 Ay

12 OL ool 426 25 83.6 89.4 80.4: 9.0

13 542 .O9d A89 .LO6 83.0 87.6 79.8 7.8

14, 597 .639 AL .098 83.3 87.4 80.0 7 A,

15 617 651 .060 O91 83.4 89.6 80.2 9.4,

16 .589 681 pil -100 82.4: 86.0 78.8 72,

17 563 .623 484 .139 83.8 87.8 80.2 7.6

18 529 012 A522 120 82.6 86.7 80.5 6.2

19 50D AT AAZ -L05 83.8 88.3 80.2 8.1

20 509 61 A465 .096 83.2 85.6 81.5 AL

21 543 .607 A985 LL 82.0 85.2 79.6 5.6

22 078 634 ay) 5) -119 83.7 89.4 79.4 | 10.0

23 562 615 AT5 140 84.6 90.4 80.4 | 10.0

24, D8 .613 ASS 128 85.0 90.8 81.4) 9.4,

25 585 645 .OLd .130 84.3 89.8 81.8 8.0

26 .606 657 AT 110 83.6 88.4 80.6 7.8

27 .607 649 .0d0 099 82.3 88.4 80.3 8.1

28 002 636 511 125 82.0 86.0 17.4 8.6

29 .670 739 615 124, 81.9 85.8 73.6 7.2,

30 754, 822 691 ail 84.1 90.0 79.0 | 11.0

ok 723 787 .639 148 86.2 91.8 81.4 | 10.4

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

Ivini Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of August 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

a Sa KE rRS ad | 2

ra E "B on g ee Baus |e a>

py © a ie © B02 alesse

2 o = 2 Ga 42 ‘oS os

2 5 é = S Se Ee Be | 2 en

Data ee ee lS a ze as oo | Sige

2 oe) 8 | Sev) See) Sar) = See

Fe |2i|2| ae | Be | ES | see) so8

=o) =I 6 as As oad 45°65

4 Ps 5 Pay Se S$, |Ses| Sd

= Se | S.| 4 = ee =

) ) fo) ) Mbavdeveisi || Abe eae, |), Ibe eae

1 79.8 3.4 | 77.4 5.8 | 0.922 9.89 2.00 0.83

2 79.1 18 | 7.) Bir .940 | 10.13 | 0.91 .92

3 79.0 1.4| 780) 24 .940 15 79 .93

4 | 78.5 1.5 | 774 DIG || 922 9.95 .86 .92

5 79.8 1.7 | 78.6 2.9 | .958 | 10.32 .99 91

6 80.0 2.2 | 78.5 a7 .955 27 Ly) 89

7 79.2 PON 1708 3.4 934 07 14 .90

8 79.0 LO) Wi 3.2 931 04 06 91

9 80.1 ee | UA: | CO .928 9.95 | 2.08 83

10 80.9 3u4))| 785 | 6:8 .955 | 10.23 05 83

11 81.3 Be | EG .970 37 .02 84

12 80.0 | 3.6] 77.5 6.1 .925 9.92 11 .83

13 79.9 Boll Ua 58 2951) | OOO | paege 85

14 80.3 3.0 | 78.2 5.1 .946 5 78 85

15 80.4 | 3.0| 78.3 5.1 .949 18 78 85

16 79.8 2.6| 78.0| 4.4 .940 aul 50 .87

17 80.3 Be | Visi 5.4, .943 12 .88 84

18 79.7 2.9 | 97.7 4.9 931 .00 .68 .86

19 81.0 | 2.8) 79.0| 48 .970 40 70 .86

20 81.5 1.7 | 80.3 2.9 | 1.011 84, 05 91

21 80.2 1.8 | 78.9 3.1 | 0.967 Al .06 91

22 80.8 | 2.9] 78.8 4.9 964, 34 Le .86

23 81.2 3.4 | 78.8 5.8 964. Bil 2.08 .83

24, 81.3 ab I ted 6.3 961 .29 24 82

25 80.7 3.6 | 78.2 6.1 .946 13 als .83

26 80.4 | 3.2) 78.2 5.4, .946 15 1.88 84

27 79.9 2.4 | 78.2 4.1 .946 pls AL 88

28 Hae) || PAS || rate AA, .928 9.99 A8 87

29 en. 208) 78:3 3.6 949 | 10.20 24 89

30 80.6 A | Weil 6.0 .943 HOO | Quit 83

31 82.1 4.1| 79.2 7.0 .976 Al 58 .80

Ali the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. lix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorvluyical Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer | = Range of the Tempera-

= iS fe for each hour during as ture for each hour

Be g a= the month. a during the month.

Hour.| 5 25 as

nN i

e433 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | §& | Max. | Min. | Diff.

as ao

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. co) ) 0 co)

Mid-

night.| 29.601 | 29.760 | 29.399 | 0.361 81.3 83.7 79.0 4.7

1 589 51 389 362 80.9 83.8 79.2 4.6

2 .580 144 -o09) .3600 80.7 83.0 79.2 3.8

3 570 138 372 306 80.5 82.6 78.9 aheif

4 566 TAL .368 373 80.2 82.2 78.2 4.0

5 574 £750 378 312 80.1 81.8 717A 4.4

6 088 71 378 393 80.3 82.4 77.8 4.6

7 .603 801 393 408 81.0 83.2 78.8 4A,

8 .616 .809 All 398 $2.0 84.8 79.0 5.8

9 .626 .816 AA .392 83.6 87.0 79.6 74

10 .629 .822 A432 .390 84.7 88.4 79.2 9.2

11 .618 .812 408 404 86.1 89.6 80.5 9.1

Noon. 603 196 384 | .412 85.7 90.4 | 81.4] 9.0

1 583 .766 378 .388 86.1 91.0 81.2 9.8

2 .560 133 .303 .380 85.8 91.2 79.2 | 12.0

3 540 713 .309 374 85.8 90.8 79.4 | 11.4

4, 525 694 .oa2 .362 85.7 91.0 19.6 | ENA

5 527 .693 343 .o00 85.0 91.8 | 80.0 | 11.8

6 540 713 .300 .308 83.8 89.7 TOLD OAL

7 508 123 307 .306 83.1 87.7 79.2 8.5

8 583 748 388 .960 82.6 86.4 79.6 6.8

9 .604) 758 400 .308 82.2 85.6 79.6 6.0

10 617 .809 All 398 81.9 84.8 79.6 5.2

11 613 767 415 352 81.6 84.4 | 79.2 5.2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

-hours during the month.

Ix Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

' . =} . SH Stee

5 Sepa % uae | 2 =

aa . aS) @ Bic | eee eens

2 Ar) ieee os

= Bie aieeh liens 3 fe |e fe eee

lone, a ‘3 G iC = ae SE @ Bop

D $4 2 as) 2 csi. 35 Feige © en § at

ES | 3 So ene Be | eee

aq cn ey Fa ds i Soe. ere

ao bs = pS SS B.S) | 2 Se cesue

oa a 5 ayer OS Og mH 2 C-n 1.3

Ser eee wee a | eae |e a= mee

) Co) ) ) Tbavelavetsa || 40, Grey | als axe

Mid-

mighite | 97957 LS fo eSK6 2.7 0.988 10.52 0.92 0.92

1 79.5 1.4 | 78.5 2.4, .955 3l 19) 93

2 79.4 IE} I 70) 2.2 955 ail [3 93

3 79.2 V3 |) 78:3 2.2 -949 24, 7A 93

4 79.0 1.2) 78.2 2.0 946 21 67 94,

5 78.9 ey Weriskell 2.0 943 18 .66 94,

6 79.0 sy Psa 2.2 .943 18 13 .93

7 79.5 1.5 | 78.4 2.6 952 25 $89) 92

8 80.0 ABO I FILS 3.4, 958 32 1.15 99

9 80.5 Ball Ws 5.3 949 18 85 85

10 80.8 Boe) |) “Soll 6.6 943 08 2.34 BL

11 81.5 4.6 | 78.3 7.8 949 12 83 18

Noon.| 81.3 4.4| 78.2 7.5 946 .O9 7 79

1 81.6 4.5 | 78.4 Heth 952 15 80 78

2 81.2 4.6 | 78.0 Has) 940 03 80 78

3 81.2 4.6 | 78.0 7.8 940 03 80 78

4 81.2 4.5 | 78.0 HSE 940 O03 el: 18

5 80.7 ABS |b Tall 3) BIL 9.96 57 .80

6 80.4: 3.4 | 78.0 5.8 940 16.07 03 .83

7 80.2 2.9 | 78.2 4.9 .946 15 1.71 .86

8 80.1 2.5 | 78.3 4.3 949 2 48 87

9 79.9 2.3 | 78.3 3.9 949 .20 34 88

10 80.0 HQ) | hee 3.2 961 30 .O9 G1

11 79.9 1EVA\ | After 2.9 961 £00 0.99 aopli

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologicat Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the mouth of August 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

esl ia srs eae

s ies. Prevailing ca =

3 (==! direction of the "=, | General aspect of the Sky.

ars 2 Ges Wind. BS

o |Inches tb

1) 126.0| 0.34 |E. N. E. & E. 0.50 |\ni nearly the whole day. Rain

between 11 & Noon & be-

tween 5 & 6 P. M.

2 0.43 |E.S. HE. & E. 0.80 |Overcast. Rain constantly.

3 0.67 |K. 8. E. &S. by E. | 0.75 |Overeast. Rain at 2, 5,7, 9, &

10 a. m. & from 1 to 3 Pp. M.

Thunder at 8 a. M.

4| ... | 1.56 |S. 8S. E. & 8S. by E.| 0.75 |Overcast. Rain from 4 4. m. to

\ 5 p. M. Thunder & Lightning

at 4A. M.

oh lifer 0.21 |W.N.W. & 8S. S. E.| 0.40 |Clear to2 a. m. Overcast to 10

A. M. Wi to 8 Pp. M. Overcast

afterwards. Rain at 10 a. m.

at 2 & 3 p.m. Thunder at 2 &

3 p. M. Lightning at 9 Pp. mM.

Giinia. 0.44 \N. N. E. 0.50 |Overcast to 11 a. Mm. \Wi to 8 P.

m. Overcast afterwards. Rain

at8 & lla.m. &at2,6& 9

p. M. Lightning at midnight.

0.58 IN. N. HK. & E. S.E.| 2.12 |Overcast. Rain constantly.

H.S. HE. & 8.S. EH. Overeast to 3 Pp. M. “i to 6 P.

M., clear afterwards. Rain

from midnight to 4 a. M. at

8a.M. & at3p.m.

9 |130.0 | 0.12 |S. S. BE. & S. E. Scatd. “i to5 p.m. clear af-

‘ terwards. Rain at 4, 6 & 11

A. M. & between 4 & 5 pv. m.

10 | 125.0 .. |S-5.H.&S.E.&5SW. Clear to 7 a. M. Seatd. “ito 8

p. M. clear afterwards. Light

rain at 5 P. M.

CO ST

rc)

(o°0)

11/126.0; ... |S. S. W. & variable Clear to 2 a.m. \Wito 7 Pp. M.

& S. by HE. clear afterwards. Light rain

between Noon & 1 vp. mM: & at

6 P. M. i

12 |124.0 | 0.25 |S. E. & E. Clear to 44. m. Seuds from E

to 11 a. m. Seatd. “i toc8 p.

m. clear afterwards. Rain at

7,11 & Noon.

13 | 130.0 | 0.17 |S. 8. E. & E. by S. Seatd.\i & \_1 to 6 a. M. clouds

of different kinds afterwards.

Rain at 9 & batween 11&

: Noon & between 10 & ll p.m.

Ue ae? .. |S. H.& S. by E. Overcast tol04.m. Wi & Mi

to 6 Pp. mM. clear afterwards.

Slight ram at 3 & 4 A. M.

“15 /131.0 | 0.14 |S. S. E. & S. EB. Clear to 3 4. uw. \Wi afterwards.

: Rain betweends &6am &at2 pm.

lxti

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of August 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

General aspect of the Sky.

= 8 goog Prevailing Ris

.| . |O © 2] direction of the aes

o 2) S

S| 28 beens Wind a 5

S Ss a ae ind. = =

o |Inches tb

10} ees th ESTO ee Wie sae

17 soo (Se Ss Wo ee 1S, SoD

18 1.36 |S.S. W. & S. W.

19 S.S. W. & variable} &

20 0.44 |W. & variable cn

21 0.63 |S. & 8. by W. A

22 S. by E. & 8. 8. E.

23 | 133.0 S.S. E. & 8. by E

DAG. ch. EK. & H.S. E.

25 0.12 |E-N. BE. & E. 8. E

26 0.10 |S. E. & E. N. E

27 0.30 |E. & 8. S. H.

28 0.30 |S. E.& 8.8. E.

29 3.14 |S. by W. & variable.

30 | 133.0 8.&8.8. W.

31 | 134.6 S.S. W. & S. by W.

Overcast to 3 p. mM. \Wi to 7 P.

M.\i afterwards. Light rain

at2 & 9} a.m. & at lf P.M.

\ni nearly the whole day.

wi to3 a. Mm. Wi tolOa.M.

Overcast afterwards, Rain at

lla. m. 124 p.m. & from 5 to

ll Pp. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Lightning & Thunder at mid-

night. Slight rain from mid-

night to 2 4. M. & at 6 P. M.

Overcast to 4 p. M. “i & Ni

afterwards. Rain at 2 &3 4.

mM. & at Noon.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from midnight to2 &

at 5 & from 7 to 9 a. M.

Seatd. \i to 8 a. M. “i tol p.m.

Overcast to 6 Pp. M. Thin

clouds afterwards.

\ni to 9 A. M. Ai afterwards.

\ni & Mi nearly the whole day.

Light, rain at 3 P. M.

“i & \\i nearly the whole day.

Rain at 3 & 4P. M.

Seatd. clouds to 7 4. M. “i to

Noon. Overcast at 5 P. M.

Scatd.cloudsafterwards, Rain

at 1 & 45 P. M.

Scatd. clouds to 11 a. m. Over-

cast to 3 p.m. Thin clouds af-

terwards, Rain at 113 a. m.

Overcast to 6 a. M. \Wi & Seuds

from E to 1] a.m.Thin clouds

to 4, p. mM. Scatd. 71 afterwards.

Rain ffom 2 to 5 A. M. at 10 a.

mM, Noon 34 P. mu. & at 1O}P. u.

Overcast to | P. M. ~i to 6 P. m.

clear afterwards, rain from 3

to5 a.M.at 8 a.m. & at 35P.M.

ito 7 p.m. clear afterwards.

Light rain at Noon...

Clear to 2 4. M. Seatd. “i to 6

p. m. clear afterwards.

Mi Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

Meteorological Observations. Ix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of August 1866.

Montuty ReEsvtts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month... ... 29.584

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. “M. on the 30th, ... 29.822

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4p. mM.on the 7th, ... 29.532

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, a ... 0.490

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... st nee ... 29.642

Ditto ditto . Min. ditto ».. 29.519

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the ‘month, sot Onli23

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, _... = seis (HSEAD

Max. Temperature occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 31st, nce Je es

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. m. on the 28th, ibe son Oe

Katreme range of the Temperature ee the month, Bat » 14.4

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature . hs ee at SURO

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, a joa GD)

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. sia Tod

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 80.2

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 2.7

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ie 78.3

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. . 4.6

Mita

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... a »» 0.949

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month : oe LOMS

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ei ed eto

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.86

Inches.

Rained 27 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours aah wo, OGL

Total amount of rain during the month, .. 11.48

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. _ . OSes

Prevailing direction of the Wind, 8.8. E.E.S.E.&S. ‘by KE.

lxiv

veyor General's Office, Caleutta, in the month of August1866

wep

~ wD

ba)

LSS)

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind blew, together with the number of days on

which at the same hour, when any particular wind was blowing, it rained.

Meteorological Observations.

UO WIR}

. . | oe |

“M Aq: Ny

“UO WIRY

‘MN UN

UO URI]

TNENT

“UO Wey

= = SS ee ee ee

“MN MA

“UO UTR YT Dae,

"NAG" AA ae

“UO WIRY a

ieee ATS SSS SESH Sl

“m0 Ue Fa ees

a — _— ee

§ Aq

“UO ULB ine Se

; sO nll eeniloe | NXT Lo

MSM

“MO UlR yy re CIN -

ar “a = 4 SSN SANA OS

“MO We Ay is ial aloes ee =

“MSS SODAS. AMMA NOI AG N10 6 10 & S10 19 10

“UO UleIy aN —! ce rei

“mM Aq A FANS ao 4 NNN AO Hw OANA AGA

i iS

“MO ULe3y med N re rei ed

ante Han HmMHOHHAMA NMA SMOMaNANSS

| “uo Wey re | fe | La No asd

l- &q-¢ BOTTA AANT N VDoNHIADoOhROnw

a SS

| "uo uy = nN = Ag aS 4

Wig g) G10 12 DOT FMM MDSGANGDAOTSOTT OWS

Sk kK Q

S| 6

“uo Ue) i i! re moa OD ro ten Fe | [ey |

“—S “NANMD NAAAWMOLWOMWMWMOAANMADH

| “Uo UIey OND MON Ao =I Do ih ih fil | La | NAN

Da ga] 2 PNT STO SCHTANTTOAITAN TS So

a ‘ \

} WO WLR yy oe i 4 ON

leo hq on AH HNMTA TR HNN i ANH inl

| uo Ue a4 4 aN | —

| gg fs OL SSS SPST CO CUCU ST GU GUT GN 9 aN

| mo uley ae Te

5 Ll moe aoe

Ni Aq “of

| “mo Urey a a

la Now SANNA GOAN CIM NAS =

| uo uwrexy foal anna AN

TANT mr De Be OO ee il oe (en i oe OC) | re

“HO Ue ial rt = S

5 eae ANNAN Aaa = ee

HON UN

"O UIey e

ra Aq oN La | I |

| “uo WIR

i e =| de

NOT] 4 Ep AND FID ON DAO SHANMHMONDACH

HS. eS) ae

Ao Zi

Meteorological Observations. Ixv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

, an the month of September 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Se |

e g _ | Range of the Barometer = 5 Range of Tempera-

sas during the day. ral ture during the day.

ort Sl ics ae

Date. | & ated a =

of | Max. Miciasis|) atte: ae Max. | Min. | Diff. ©

Ss > 3 = =! |

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 7) o ) Oo

3 29.669 | 29.730 | 29.582 0.148 87.0 93.2 S222) | eo

2 646 715 576 139 86.8 93.0 82.2 , 10.8

3 .098 .669 O17 152 86.5 92.0 82.0 | 10.0

4 570) 627 ADA 133 83.1 87.2 80.0 | 7.2

5 612 683 550 133 | 83.3 S94) FOLONE O25

6 .666 726 615 ltl 83.9 58.4, 80.6 7.8

if .667 726 584 142 89.7 90.2 81.6 8.6

8 571 .652 473 179 83.5 89.0 79.6 9.4

9 498 509 444, LIL 80.8 $2.8 79.0 3.8

10 048 607 004 103 83.3 87.3 80.2 Go

11 -626 .687 .069 118 83.2 87.0 80.6 6.4

12 615 .672 534 138 84.2 96.1 80.5 9.6

13 -638 .691 O86 105 84.9 91.8 81.8 | 10.0

14 642 694, 079 119 84.8 83.0 81.8 6.2

15 579 618 515 103 85.8 | 91.6 81.8 9.8

16 O79 .622 Oil eiaialt Savon O28 80.2 | 12.6

17 099 645 523 122 A) | G4 8.2 6.0

18 643 724 .O76 148 82.9 86.8 79.8 7.0

19 730 786 674: Ze S3e2 89.0 | 80.6 | 8.4

20 TAL 197 681 116 82.5 87.6 80.4 7.2

21 712 162, 645 ess 82.6 87.5 79.0 8.5

22 763 812 713 O99 84.1 89.8 HOLS | WO.2)

23 802 .855 746 109 85.1 80.8 80.2 | 10.6

24 18 834 698m wae 3 Ste SOLO) LOLO ne OKO

25 729 176 657 119 82.2 84.0 79.2 4.8

26 a/fex 182 .652 130 83.9 90.0 73.0 | 12.0

27 167 842 688 5A 85.4) 91.2 80.8 | 10.4

28 152 Stl 676 135 86.2 91.4 82.2 9.2

29 51 .803 .676 127 86.5 93.2 81.4 | 11.8

30 -760 ol 677 154 86.5 93.6 81.8 | 11.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

lxvi Meteorological Observations.

dbstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

luken at the Surveyor Geueral’s Office, Culentla,

in the month of September \S66.

Daily Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

s sa) = 5 © So lS Seles

a eile a g ex | Sos | Bee

z = ro) A i © > ee ps es

Sy © , = “s os ‘Tele ge

Pe 5 eu eS a OS |e Be cee

Wate || a |S e 3 me |_He| eee

eee eS | eae | Se See aero

a5 a = SS EG ae | 2 65) see

| s = Lien Cy ta os Tecan CTH

= =) S A = a | | =

Lo co) Om) O=eee| laches: erly gecen el meas

192-9 41 | 8).4| 66 | 1.014 | 10.79 2.50 0.81

Be | 8247 ASRS Oe Zell 0 OOSan| i ueaies A8 81

3 | 82.5 AO) (SOs V6 | 005. |) eel .39 82

4 8).6 25) 738i 14-5) | O64e |) a6 1.50 .87

5 80.5 931.785 | 4.8 19550 Meee 68 86

6 | 814 Deal ei Os6u)) odes ‘989, || 1260 53 87

7 | 82.4 Sd Selmi Toor jelOpeam | Gegel 2.09 84

8 | .80.6 2.9 78.6) 4.9 | 0:958 | | .28 1a? 36

OF a aoee 1.5 | 78.2 2.6 1G | pee G88 92

10 8).7 2.6) 78.9} 4.4 e907 ees 1.54 87

IE Oe 4.1 | 76.2 TEOn | SSS ora? 9.37 .80

12 | 89.8 3.4 | 78.4 58° | i952 | TO19 5 83

13 81.5 3.41) 79.1 5S Oe AO 09 .83

14 | 82.1 27) ES zelae snows) 1kOO8m l= ei 1.69 86

15 | 82.1 Ewan Wien CBI Okien see 250 82

16) | 2 81-4 3.1 | 79.2 53 | 976 AB 1.90 85

1M 81.0 19 | 7a eee On| G6 13 90

138 89.5 24) 78.8) 41 | (964-1 - 36 43 .88

19 8.7 2.5) | 789) fA | OG ee 1 ees9 50 87

20 8).2 233, | 87S: GAe ASO ei) JUSS Bie lee eS ot 89

21 | 479.4 Biel aeop le woe 916 | 9.85 83 4

22 | 80.4 Benet ts ee (ine) ob OBA TOO 2.20 82

23 | 81.5 3.6 | 79.0 CA OT On acer .20 83

Dhl 9:9 4.4) 76.6 7.5 | .899 9.61 60 79

25 | 79.4 228 | ifiiclah (AES eee tana ail 1.63 .86

26 79.3 4.6 | 76.1 F280! | 8a eas 2.65 78

27 | 89.8 AG) Tie6|) 7.8 928. | (91 7 78

28 81.9 4.3 | 78.9 hee .967 | 10.32 G7 79

29 | 81.5 5.0 | 78.5 SHOMnP Weise Ail cite 92 78

30 81.8 AEN G9:0)\¢ 7.5 Die Neos STE 19

i |

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwieh Constants.

Meteoroloyicul Observations. Ixvii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken al the Surveyor Generals Office, Caleutta,

in the mouth of September 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Ss | Range of the Barometer =. | Range of the Tempera-

a oe for each hour during me ture for each hour

Tab @ the month. ne during the month.

Hour. = a S =

ee@ | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 32 | Max. | Min. | Dif

aa = |

Inches. | Inches. | hiches. | Inches. Cy) oy) Ce) 0

Mid- | |

night.| 29.681 | 29.807 | 29.537 | 0.270 82.2 84.6 79.0 5.6

al i 805) = a9") 2286 5 820 | 842) a)

.2 .663 .800 003 297 81.7 83.8 78.5 8.0

3 .650 91 488 3803 81.4 83.2 78.4 4.8

4, 648 | 781 469 312 81.2 83.0 78.2 4.8

5) 656 | 798 AGA a4 81.1 82.8 78.0 4.8

6 671 | B11 ATO .oa2 $1.0 83.0 78.2 4.8

7 687 | 824 499 325 82.0 84.3 79.6 5.2

8 105 — 846 U6 AO 83.8 87.0 81.3 5.7

9 716 | .8d1 O19 O32 85.3 88.2 81.8 6.4

10 BAS | 800 523 | .332 86.3 Oz |) tie ts)

11 408 S16 016 330 87.2 91.0 82.2 8.8

Noon. 688 836 502 | .334 87.8 91.2 | 804); 10.8

1 661 808 A481 27 88.2 92.8 81.2 | 11.5

2 .633 182 AGL 21 88.1 92.8 80.0 | 12.8

3 611 169 AAA, .o20 88.2 93.6 ey |) 128

4, 603 | 758 448 310 87.7 93.0 81.4 |} 11.6

5 GOL | 746 456 .290 86.8 92.6 80.2 | 12.4

6 .622 .760 A480 .280 85.2 99.7 80.5 | 10.2

7 642 |) 774 49) | 284 B44 89.0 | 80.5 | 8.5

8 666 | 786 O19 267 83.6 88.4, 80.4 8.0

9 686 | 801 50 | 200 &3.0 85.8 £0.0 5.8

10 698 | 812 000 257 82.7 85.6 79.6 6.0

11 .690 -809 000 200 82.4 85.0 79.2 5.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

Ixvill Metleo.oloyical Observations.

‘Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of September 1866.

Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

| ; : eb er gy [peeetalgise

yes Si beeae |) oe 3 Seema 2 | = =

Ss re oe 2 Bs Reo } 2 ah, 2 2

E Flee | 3 eS 28 |e ae | eae

“= Ss 2 3 - —

Paes = 2: | BS | 2S eet

| gg Fa 5, jaa) (ca fran} 2 4 cia 2 4 Sis

| Ss 8 = a =a) As mSHel)abs

| oO 2 a par oS oa es 8 | Se-8

| S| =| a 5 qm Sie si-5 | BA S| soe

0) ty) ) ty) Inches; |) “yer? | ever

Mid-

night. 80.4 1.8 | 79.1 3.1 0.973 10.47 1.07 0.91

1 80.2 1.8 | 78.9 3.1 967 AL 06 OL

2 80.2 1.5 | 79.1 2.6 973 A7 0.90 92

3 80.0 1.4 | 79.0 2.4 970 45 81 93

A, 79.8 1.4 | 78.8 2.4 964 40 81 93

5 79.8 1.3 | 78.9 2.2, 967 43 74 .93

6 79.8 1.2 | 79.0 2.0 .970 46 .68 94

7 80.4 1.6 | 79.3 2.7 979 Oo 94, -92

8 81.0 2.8 | 79.0 4.8 970 AO 1.70 .86

9 81.5 3.8 | 78.8 6.5 O74 .29 2.35 ol

10 81.6 AZ | 78.3 8.0 949 12 90 78

11 81.8 5.4 | 78.6 8.6 958 19 3.18 76

Noon. 82.0 5.8 | 78.5 9.3 955 16 AA ie

ae col: 82.3 5.9 | 78.8 9.4, 964 25 wilt 75

2 81.9 6.2 | 78.2 9.9 946 07 65 713

3 82.2 6.0 | 78.6 9.6 958 all .o9 TA

4, $1.9 5.8 | 78.4 9.3 952 12 44, 75

5 81.4 5.4 | 78.2 8.6 946 07 14, 76

6 81.2 4.0 | 78.4 6.8 952 lig 2.44 81

7 81.2 3.2 | 79.0 5.4 970 40 1.91 .8d

8 80.9 2.4 | 79.0 4.6 970 40 .63 87

9 80.5 iy N Wieholl 4.3 961 30 AQ 7

10 80.5 2.2) 79.0 Ba 970 AZ .30 .89

11 80.5 9) |) 79-2 Bee 976 00 ll YO

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Obserratins.

lxix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

im the month of September 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

Max. Solar

radiation.

Date.

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

Rain Guage

5 feet above

Ground.

Max. Pres-

General aspect of the Sky.

2 | 141.0

3 | 130.6

5 | 128.0

\Inches Tt

S. by W. &S.

3.08 |S. & S. W.

W.S. W. & N. W.

85.8. W. & S. W.

Variable.

H.S. E. & variable

8S. & 8S. W.

0.73 | Variable.

Variable.

8.8. E. & EH. S. E.

3.84

S.S.E,S., & 8. by E.

0.18 |S. S. E.& 8. by E.

8.8. E.&S. E.

0.27 |S. 8. HE. & 8.

~ |sure of Wind.

Clear to 7 a. Mm. Seatd. i to 1

Pp. M. Wi & ~i afterwards.

Lightning to Kat 7& ll p.m.

Seatd. \i to 6 a. m. Seatd. -i

to 6 p. m. Overcast after-

wards. Thunder at 9 & 10 Pp.

M. Lightning at 9, 10 & 11 P.

M. Rain from 7 to 11 Pp. Mm.

\Wi & “i. Lightning at 10 p. m.

Light rain at midnight & 8

A. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Thunder & Lightning from

midnight to 3 4. M. Rain at

1,2&4& from 8 to 10 4. um.

\ni to Noon.~i to 6 P. m. Over-

east afterwards. Rain at 7 a.

M. &at3 &8 P.M.

Clear to 34. M. “ito 8 Pp. M.

Clear afterwards. Slight rain

at9a.mM. & 5 P.M.

Clear to5 a.m. Wito3 P.M. Ti

afterwards. Lightning to N

W from 8 to 11 Pp. m.

“ito 4 p. m. Overcast after-

wards. Thunder at 11 Pp. m.

Lightning from 9 to 11 P. u

Rain at 1,2 &1lla.m. & at

5 & ll Pp. M.

Overcast. Rain constantly from

midnight to 4 p. M.

Seatd. \i to6 a. m. Seatd. “i

to 1 vp. mM. Overcast to 8 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

i nearly the whole day. Slight

rain at 11 Pp. M.

Scatd. “1 to 6 Pp. m. Clear after-

wards. Rain at midnight, 1 &

6a. mM. & between 3 & 4P. M.

Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. “i to 7

p. mM. Clear afterwards.

Clear to 44. M. Seatd. “i to 6 Pp.

M. Scatd.\i to 9 p.m. Clear af-

terwards. Rain at Noon & 13

P. M.

Clear to 7 a. mM. “i afterwards.

Light rain at 8 Pp. M.

Ixx

Meteorological Observations.

dbstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culeutta,

_ tn the month of September 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

Date.

| Max.

Solar

radiation.

Rain Guage

5 feet above

yround.

(

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

isure of Wind.

General aspect of the Sky.

28 |

WJ)

140.2

846.2

147.4

138.2

145.2

0.03

0.14

0.84

0.05

9.12

S. & variable.

N. EH. & N.N. E.

IE. N. EB. & 8. E.

E. 8S. EH. & variable

Sh Sb Je wae 1dp

S. 8. E.

S. E. &.S. by E.

S. by E. & S.S. W.

N. W. & W.

W. & variable.

K.S.E.& S. E.

S. by E., 8.S.E.&S.

S.& 8. EH.

S. & variable.

S. 8S. W. & variable

‘Clear to 5 a. Mm. Seatd. ~i to 1

Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder at 4,6 & 7 P. M.

Lightning at 7 pe. m. Rain at

3,4,7 & SP. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from 11} a. M. to 2 p.m.

& at 5 Pp. M.

Clear to 3 a. m. Scatd. \i to 7

A. M. “i afterwards. Rain

from 93 a. M. to123 a. m.

Clear to 5 4. mM. “ito lla. ™.

Overcast afterwards. Light-

ning & Thunder at 5 P. M.

Rain at 7 a.m. Noon, 1 & from

'5to7 P. M.

“1 & \i. Rain at 1 & 3 p.m.

Clouds of different kinds. Rain

at 125 & at 55 P. M.

Clear to 44. mM. >i to 6 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

Clear to 7 4. mM. 71 to 4P. M.

\_i afterwards.

_ito9 a.m. Clouds of different

kinds afterwards. Light rain

at 7 P. M.

Scatd. “i to 2 4. Mm. Overcast to

4p. m. Scatd. \_i afterwards

Shght rain at 4 & 5 4. M.

Scatd. i to 5 a. M. Seatd. 7i to

le. mu, Seatd. \ni afterwards.

Rain at 8 & 9 P. M.

Clear to 7 4a. M. Seatd. \_i to 10

A.M, Seatd. 7Ai to 5 P.M. Wi

afterwards. Thunder at 6 P.M

Rain at 6 & 7 P. M.

Clear to 7 4. M. Seatd. 71 to 6

p. M. Clear afterwards. Light

rain at 5 P. M.

Scatd.\i to 7 A. M. Seatd. ~1 to

6p. M. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning & Thunder from 7

to 9p.m.Rain between 8 &9rx

Clear to 8 4. M. Scatd. “1 after-

wards.

“Mi Cirri, —i Strati,~ i Cumuli,:—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro eumuli.

* Rain Gauge 1 Foot 2 Inches ahove ground.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Culcutta, in the

mouth of Septemper 1866.

Montruty Resutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.666

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. 3. on the 23rd... 29.855

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 p. M. on the 9th ... 29.444

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month wi ze COrAMI

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... on ae ... 29.724

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ee ... 29.597

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... ee OMT,

)

Mean Dry Bwb Thermometer for the month _.. moe .. = 83.4

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 30th “i Joo he eae

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 26th Hi eo | Cts)

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month “fis wa > 18.6

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. bet nae Be meh)

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, + .. 80.5

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. ‘ 9.0

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 81.

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 3.

anNwsd

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month Be Benin

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point ... 5.6

Inches.

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ... son Soe ONION

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month wh ee O29

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 1.99

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation neue unity 6 8h

Inches.

Rained 23 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ae .. 3.84

Total amount of rain during the month Bo ET

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __.. on BE oD eo Or

Prevailing direction of the Wind a oe 8.8. E.& 5.

Ixxu

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the month of Sept. 1866.

Montutiy Resvtts.

ich at a given hour any particular wind blew, together with the number of days on

10Ons

ical Observat

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

, When any particwar wind was blowing, it rained.

which at the same hour

Tables shewing the number of days on wh

Meteorological Observations.

‘uO WIRY]

aperar Se

“AA Aq" NI

“UO ULB YT) i=] al a

5 Apoorezo = a4 S aA N SS ~

M'N'N

“UO WIRY ie

“MON = —— 7 ) NAAN S44

“uO Wey | rc ei sec

SAA ORSIAT = — SNA NN ae —

MN M) m

SO MUETCe S| a

3 : | a) AANA

“UO ULB es = my

rn i i len ON

NM s

“HO ULB "5. eae

5 3 6 (=) it re ret

S Aq “MA

mo Uley| 7 ae

2 5710 eons et esos N far) et

MSM)

“WO ULB] re iS

avers a QANNADA SD ONS

“uo uve ec | res Fl eh | ee re

RGSS, N woOAnMMAANNDA GNM ODAOINSOM

‘MS 'S

“mo We YT) tig

A “ay N An RO NGN et ct ANN NAINA

MAY'S)

“UO ULB YT re oF

eg) SO assis Sis NN 20 8 SS Oo SS

uo yalesy | a = ot

hate) ZO NMDANAASASGAIOAMRMANIDANOAS

q Aq si & = q 7 mo THA 15 S15

“UO ULB = ose re lo ln | et Aes

a -a-8 “a om 1D ID ID ID NDMAANODWMSMOMMOSHOAOS

L y ‘ <

“Uo Ulex] 7, aan aan

“aS NOMANAMD AABDCOoOoMMA RMAdTAAA 4

“UO UIR yy) ee. a

: Se SS AC RAP TAC Caine TON | OoaN a AaNmA

HS 4

UO ULBY

ez x S

“g ka ny rr Lal Ye en eS | Cn

“UO ULLIF aN Caen

Te ain qo aS FAANAMA AS Sas

“UO WIRY Pe

“aT Kq A co Lael eae | et

“UO Wey a

bie OnGETOR AHN NMNNHNSH NaS Ss ANAS

HON CH

1) wy = =

Om DR cs oon! aoe ANNAN eT NN S

Ree eoN

“uo Trey es ey

ampere = NANA ir

aH NN

“lo TLR | er a

E he ae ce ano

H Aq oN

“uo ULB a fat

SE = ae = aes

Pare a

; SS HOD HID OR ODOM SGHAMHAMNONRAGSH

Inop) Sf ae) act

| 7,

Afeleorolugicul Observations. Ixxil

Abstruct of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the mouth of October 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 85° 20’ 31” Kast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

“a a

a & Range of the Barometer = H Range of Tempera-

eee during the day. a = ture during the day.

Caen Ra | : E:

Date. HS o | ei |

eee) Moxos Mins >| Di S22) | Max | Minny) Die

mp oS | = = | j

{ A |

Tuches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | 0 irae ie ides

| | |

1 29.759 | 29.808 | 29.689 OME 85.2 91.2 82.0 9.2

2 795 on | 7b Seah SS 92.2 | Sid, 1018

3 853 915 791 124 | 85.6) | 90-4) | 801) tou

A B49 913 783 128 S4cO- in | SOLON |= SOLOR LONG

5 815 "S64 733 Se | Steed: G20” een enone

6° 821 884 759 125 | 83.7 SOY EO I 70

7 819 882 748 UB Sack 89.8 | 79.6 | 102

8 847 901 780 | Sa 87. | 7 Oae S80

fo) 841 | 903 732 ON | Sie ||) SORe Cram oi nae

10 779 854 Od MO | (802%) 785.40 7 only tem

11 799 875 743 132} 82.5 BSiGu 78200 bong

12 876 938 .832 SOG) | soe 89.8 | 73:0 | 11.8

13 877 953 808 MW | cL 89.9 | 79.2 | 10.7

14 1855 923 797 126 35.0 90.6 | 81.0) 9.5

15 1839 902 773 HDS | Sih 90.2 | 80.7 | 9.5

16 .869 928 8i6 AID | Ble S84 i Fels OB

ys 905 951 857 094 83.2 | 90.0 78.0 | 12.0

18 936 998 880 UU Py D4), NED Mee le OLS

19 909 981 84d MAO. | 82K6 B87Sh | 7ecOnt eles

20 869 965 | .787 S78 >> (S3N7e | 9028) aoe lesonG

21 .820 875 751 LO i apes a AG

22 778 836 TAOS Me allBXOrt OWS a) MeO tl (Bz

23 TAQ 810 668 MAD SSO |e S7eOm lineout lol

2A 638 715 566 EO YB | MR Nh | OBR

25 .628 802 514, 288 | 792 | 82.7 | 765| 62

26 (850 915 778 HBT) W758 le 79 4 ero merase

27 924 982 8418 MBH P78t2w| | SBMA | ene aly aeges

28 950 | 30.004 900 04 | 789 86.0) | 7386 | 12)

29 922 | 29.994 879 115 | 79.6 85.6. | 7.0 | 1G

30 904 966 849 ie | HO 85.4 | 74:8 |) 10.6

31 895 954 813 I HOB SHiGa ula donde eee,

a ; ; I

The Mean Height of the Barometer. as likewise the Drv and Wet Bulb -

Therinometer Meaus are derived, from the hour! y observations, made during

‘the day.

bexiy Meteorological Obserca tious.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

an the month of October \866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—( Continued.)

See ee Sah e Se eal © oe

Ss epee val ase © z eS S22 ere eee

= S iS e = AS gayeh= Scns >

sy = S | 2 2 £5 {eos | C8 sp

Bateman: re | Es = ie S a

Sees Sole: Se eee See

ee a 5s as | 83 | Be }S seer

| gs as elie alee = = a- | Bes | gee

Sa > S ae a & aS erate) ans

a BS mS) Bu pdt eet gh uA. |S Sis

rede O41!) 100g) AO | Inches: || deson | gore

ee SA SS 7S oor) <O96Is |e VOLE 2.35 0.81

SON SOdles Zul Gale |, Over || wale 5 83

Be heel LEM OO) | rie meee 10.0) 76 78

Ae | 28057 82 Sy GMA GRA ER OED I 1G 1.98 S84

El) SONG RSs og) i Gee al Gove | ande 2.29 81

6 | 80.7 3.0 | 786| 51 | 958 28 1.79 85

PAN HOE 43 | 76.8) 73 905 | 9.69 2.52 79

8-| 79.5 So eo 54 OnIG) mye ees 1.84 84

On ease 20| 7641 5.1 1893) S| eG? 69 85

1Oe weiss Pls) WG Me| Aull 885 5S 233 .88

Te iQ. SO Wyle) Fale Gee OT. 73 85

12 79.2 29 Foo | (6G eS06. i eG 2.25 SL

13 79.6 RETO G7. |" a0 alent. 65 78

14 80.0 BO: | We SLE 396.0 | 57 a ass 76

15 79.4, EO) 7D RS eee Ob ae

16 77.9 AO | Yio GS | eR 21 93. | 23

17 17.0 BO TORN Oy PS BA 3.40 7h

SS pee Yn G7 | FROM UVa SNe yal ae ee

19 76.1 65.|) Wiest aig le eGsen) ee0 AS 70

20 77.6 6.1) FB OA 2500) 1 6G Pea iss

2 78.2 3.3 | 75.91 5.6 | .879 | $46 1.85 84

22 77.6 F9| GerGul) VAS | 7A cl es Oeil myers 86

23 Th Bleep | Ea Be) oo Be 63 85

2A, 74.3 Le) 7a, Chirp Wek Se UG | eH 9.80 92

25 75.8 BA | TS Aa | oS lh eo, yleeegG 1.80 83

26 72.6 37 || 7Oaan see eee: a eee 52 84

27 74.2 BO 71 Al) GAS eae ho) ees 2.02 80

28 3.7 52 1/701) 68 Sh mae 58 5

29 74,3 53 |) 7016 | 30 741 | 8.00 69 75

30 GAA ALO Me fale OL SiS ily apie laa eee AT TF

Pin. B82 6.4| 68.7, 10.9 | .697 | 7.52 3.17, 70

| | |

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

Ixxv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Cffice, Calcutta,

an the mouth of October 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

)

dependent thereon.

‘Os Range of the Barometer =. | Range of the Tempera-

#2 Dee for each hour during ms ture for each hour

Mee the month. = during the month.

a) ae i ; bs

Hour.) = aa as

sc | Max. | Min.-| Dif. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

is 3 i |

aS x

Taches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 0) ° Oo Oo

Mia-

night., 29.842 | 29.953 | 29.560 | 0.393 79.8 84.4 Pesce || Be

1 834 .949 O34 15 79.5 84.2 74.6 9.6

2 826 VAG 522 ADA: 19.2 83.8 | 74.0 9.8

3 -819 -939 421 408 78.9 84.0 73.0 | 11.0

4 -817 -936 14, 422 WSL 83.8 Peat Ip 5 Ta

5 -830 954 523 AZL 18.5 83.6 72.4) 112

6 -846 9270 539 ABT 18.3 $3.0 eon lala

vi 861 -987 502 AQS FO 83.8 72.6 | i12

8 881 | 30.001 | -395 A403 $0.9 86.8 (youll G80)

2 891 O04 627 -o17 82.4 87.8 74.6 | 13.2

10 893 -C04. 645 396 84.0 90.4 76.0 | 14.4

al .880 | 29.998 -645 800 89.1 SON oom lion,

i {

Noon. 856 968 631 od 85.6 Ue a Ged PEC:

1 825 937 621 316 86.3 91.4 76.8 | 14.6

9 800) 821 666 315 $6.8 | 92.2. | 75.8 | 16.4

3 .785 911 577 | B34 86.4 91.2 | 74.8) 16.4

A 87 904 -577 27 $4.7 90.4; 74.9 | 15.5

i) SH 913 543 | .340 84.2 90.4 7o.1 | 15.3

6 .804 Ee of 1 302 82.5 88.0 Za... | 12-9

7 821 935 566 .369 81.7 86.6 76.8 | 9.8

8 842 AS O90 395 81.1 86.0 76.2 9.3

9 -896 954: 897 oT 82.6 85.3 75.4 G8)

10 -862 961 -588 373 80.2 85.2 | 75.0 | 10.2

ll io ose | 576 |, a82 | 798 | -85.0 | 74.7) 08

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

Ixxvi Meteoological Observations.

Abstract of the Resulls of the Iourtly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1566.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continucd.)

= 2 (ces mal eS | mee | Ree

2 3 é 3) 5 Go 45 itis |G). =

E Sy wee & tS 2s |eee| ese

Hour) © i A rs 3 BF Bee Noe ae

; Po 5 & a he LOGI) pa eae

Vee ete 2 3 2 me 28 SS ol are

Meee a = Ee ae ES | 582 | 358

lee Fa ey c= 2 &, Bo Soe ee

SelB BP BS |. B.S ees ee ee

| Ss =| | a OS am Ei S-5 ae 5 | So 8

| |

(amo tO) oea| | Ong f | Invclies'a| (1h goncaal Melis com

Mid. | | |

night.| 77.7 2 762 |) BIG | O:887° | | 9158 4) URI ae

1 17.5 DEO a Gell 3.4 885 Boy | 09 90

Pl Gey | Ie VEO BS) Ne See 5A 02 90

et mall Te ise (hal ae a eer A8 0.99 9

A 76.9 1S one Bolt O71 42 agg 91

5 Gf) 2) Tee | 75.6 2.9 671 42 93 91

| AGH \ Wk8 |) 758 Doll 871 AQ .86 .92

A AD) 2.1) 79.5 3.6 888 38 1.15 89

8 iieses 3.7 | 74.6 6.3 843 .O9 2.01 82

9 Meg 4.8 | 74.5 8.2 810 O83 69 77

10 | 78.2 §.8| 74.1 | 9.9 830 | 8.89 | 3.28 73

11 78.4 (Dele || Wasoll 11.4 819 106 | 81 70

WNoon.| 78.4 7.2 | 734 12.2 $11 66 4.10 .68

1 73.5 7-8 | 73.0 13.3 cCU eos 49 66

DN Shs 8.3 | 73.5 13.3 B14 | 67 ad 66

: 78.3 J 28218) 7226.1) ters 290 AQ 64: 65

AN HESS FSO TEMG a 2s 90 45 aOF .68

5 en CO aera ileal .803 60 64 70

Coal eieS AN SO) 840 9.03 2.61 7

7 deg 3.8 | 1o2 | 6.5 .860 24, 13 81

8 ideo 3.2 | (o-4 5.4 873 Al L276 84

9 | 78.0 2.6 | 76.2 4.4 887 58 43 87

10 77.8 2.4 | 76.1 A.1 885 ap) 33 88

eb | 23') Fb. 9: |... Wp es7 9 AQ 26 88

| | |

{ I |

All. the Hygrometrical elements ave computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxvil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culeutla,

m the month of October 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather. &c.

ge]

sure of Wind

in. abov

Ground.

Prevailing

direction of the

BS General aspect of the Sky.

Wind. ms

MS,

Date.

Max. Solar

radiation.

Rain Gua

ft.

nehes

0.05 |S. by W. Scatd. 71 to 2 p. mM. Overcast to

6 p.m. Clear afterwards. Rain

at Noon & 6p. m. Thunder

from 1 to5p. mM. Lightning

at 4 P. M.

2/ 148.0} 0.45 |S. & variable \Clear to 5 a. M. Scatd. “ito 6

p. M. Clear afterwards. Rain

from 3 to 5 P. M.

3/ 143.7) ... |W. by N. & variable Clear to 7 a. Mm. Scatd. “i to 5

p. M. Clear afterwards.

4) 127.2) 114 |W. by N.& 8.8. E. Clear to 7 a. M. 71 & \ni to 2 P.

M. Overcast afterwards. Rain

from 4 to 6 Pp. M.

3.8. E.&S. W. Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. 71 to 7

p. Mm. Clear afterwards.

. & variable. Clear to 5 A.M. Seatd. ~i to

Noon. Wi & Wi afterwards.

.& 8.8. E. Seatd. “ito 6 P. Mm. \_i after-

wards. Light rain between

Noon & 1 Pp. M.

. & variable. Clear to 7 a. m. Seatd. ~i to 7

p. M. Clear afterwards. Light

rain at 4 Pp. M.

9} 126.2; 1.23 jE. by N. & E.S. E. Scatd. \_i to 3 a. M. Scatd. \Wi

to 9 a. Mm. Seatd. 71 to 3 p.m.

Overcast to 7 p. m. Clear af-

terwards. Rain from 3 to 7

P.M.

HOS lis? 139 IN. N.S & N. EE. Clear to 5 a. M. Overcast to 6

| P.M. \~_i afterwards. Rain

between 3 & 4 P. M.

eee

—_

re}

—

ESR)

Aa (EN

im)

A Mm

149.2

8 | 12071

GT 3h eee ING INE IR goal: Overcast to 3 4. M. 71 to 6 P.

m. Clear afterwards.

12 | 144.0 A tukisl dS hotd Bre Clear to 6 a. M. Seatd. >i to 6

Pp. M. Clear afterwards.

13/|143.0| ... IN. E.& N.N. W. Clear to 7 a. m. Seatd. 71 to 4

Pp. M. Seatd. i afterwards.

14 | WABsoviee ss OW NZ We. & IN. OW. Scatd. “i to 5 p. m. Clear after-

wards.

15 | EON. |S. Heé&e Ek. S. E: Clouds of different kinds till 10

A. M. Seatd. 71 to9 Pp. M.

Clear afterwards.

Ixxvill Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta,

an the month of Octoter 1866.

Solar Radiation. Weather. &e.

}

- jo pa

a eral Poiuies “as lon Ss

Sire! (e) + “ eh Sh

35 Pac Prevailing Ee |

| . = < & =| direction of the | “‘Z | General aspect of the Sky.

eee es | ee

S i patois V ind Seal

sie —) . Lal |

mesen | cas ee |

pee ee ayes tees sol = :

o |Inches! ho the

16/ 145.2) ... |S. by E. & N. W. a lets Ee 5 a. M. Scatd. \nito 9

“i to 3 p. Mm. Seatd. \ni

vee wards.

17 | 144.6| ... |E. N. BE. &S. by E. Clear nearly the whole day.

| | Foggy from 9 to 11. Mm.

18 | 140/2)) 2... |N. EB. dN. by E. Clear to ll a.m. Vito 3 P.M.

Clear to 8 p. M. Seatd. \_1 af-

| terwards. Foggy at 11 Pp. mM.

19 | 144.8 | N. by E. &. N. E. Clear to 10 4. um. Seatd. “i to 4

p. ma. Clear afterwards.

2 ON A225 ee NE. &ENE.&NNE.| Clear to 5 a. wm. \Wi & 71 after-

| | wards.

ZW noes. ORAS ISG Gani Sudgeaiees. 1ea Overcast to 11 a. mu. Scatd. “1

| | to 6p. mw. Thin clouds after-

wards.

DOA ng 0.15 |N.NE.&SSE&ESEH. Thin clouds to 3 4. um. Overcast

to 10 4. Mm. \wi afterwards.

| Rain from 5 to 8 A. M.

23 | 146.8) 0.57 |N.N. E. & N. E. Overcast & \ni. Rain from 7 to

9a.m. & between 3 & 4 P.M.

ZAG 2.00) iE INGSE: Overcast. Low seuds from KE

from Noon to 6 pv. M. Rain

| nearly the whole day.

25 |... |*0.08 |W. S. W..&S. W. | \ni & “i Low seuds from S

| from 7 a. M. to2 p.m. Light

rain at midnight, 4 & 5 a. M.

| & at 8p. M.

POMDEO | a. |INa IN Winds INS WE. Clouds of different kinds to 6

p. M. Clear afterwards.

ii USOO: levees NIN, Wis Seatd. \i to Noon. Seatd. \~i to

| 5 p. m. Clear afterwards.

IN. N. W. & N. W. Clear to 10 4. wm. Seatd. ‘ni to

7 p. m. Clear afterwards.

| | Foggy at midnight.

PON NAGS eres WING IN|. WW Clear to 9-a. a. Scatd. “i to 4

p. m. Clear afterwards.

30| 147.0) ... IN. N. W. Clear to 7 a. mM. Seatd. ~i to 4

| | Pp. M. \_i & \i afterwards.

31/146.0| ... |N.W.&N.byW.&N. \Ai & “ito d p. M. Clear after-

wards.

M Gon —) i Strati,- i Cumuli,s—i eee! a, Oj Guaies strati, 1 Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culcutla, in the

mouth of October 1866.

Montruty Resvtrts.

Tnches.

Mean height of ie Barometer for the month.. ... 29.838

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 & 10 4. xt. on the 28th... 30.004

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 a. M. on the 25th ... 29.514,

Extreme runge of the Barometer during the month wee ... 0.490

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... cas oe ... 29.905

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ae whe eo Dali Ces

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... goa WIE,

Oo)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month oe San spars ONLY)

Max. Temperature occurred at Zp. M. on the 2nd ma sco BH

Min. Temperature occurred at 6 4. M. on the 26th te Bean ty)

Letreme range of the Temperature during the month ie Pe see AOS)

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature ... ite si bea. ed

Ditto —_ditto Min. ditto, sue ; sth ae dda

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. sie 9.7

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month _... lets

Mean Dry Bulb Therinometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 4.2

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month ie aoe ot alas)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point ... 7.1

Inches.

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the mouth .., sf .. 0.849

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ra Hey ROS

Additional W eight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.31

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.80

Inches.

Rained 12 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ie eee 00

Total amount of rain during the month seen (tess)

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the ancmo-

meter during the month .. ae aoe Eee or

Preyailing direction of the W ind a ees NGG N.W. & N. EE.

}

oxox Meleorological Observations.

“uo UIC

“M 4q°N Sens NAMA AG r

"dO ULB} Fe

AN OATS OD OD OD HH CO ti 2D 10 SH oD SI

M NUN

“UO ULB]

General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Oct. 1866.

taken at the Surveyor

LOns

1Obsera

(ca

“ONT CA ANT TANAN A210 ON O aN WN aN

‘UO UR YT Ti: oa

a oN NNANM DMO Hip 1.w Lio MSaMAN SH QU oD

f the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

“uO ules an

‘NN AANTNMAH NANAMMAAOIMNGMAMA

“LO WLBT i

“a Aq ‘NI Le Fe ee OU es cee BLD | re N LOSS es ee es ee Il oe ee |

“UO UBT

> aN MGRT Cee aN AON HANS

“AT

[=]

GH . : | NANNARA AR AANAHHOST MANNA AN

S MN | > i

iB “UO ULB |

A ona =e 0

a MN’ M aan

= |-do wey

oka |) US SRR ee ANNA Aaa ees

4 NT AQ TMA. eo Pecans : Te

“uo ULB

a ley

Bis yas M

Ban! tee —

_ © | U0 UITy

o.5 ae ol al 44

a 2S 4q

Spe | UO UR] a

CMP aan een a Seana eae

= off MS MA

EE }-uo ureyy a

oe :

aS “AN “Cl S aaa AANA AHN Ss

io) i

“S| - WO ULB ay} ' :

— © D . . al rs Si =i =I

e = [MS's

> arg | uo wee

a - | =

a-5 “M Aq *y See HH NN NN

noe - a a

SS, } uo wey ye

PaeS| -qi © ema saN = ANANDA NS =

2 ae |

(Sea = . 7 2 rat

ae Sot aS CN co oN = = =

. . ae es 2S I Cal | |

42 si Hu Aq sg) =

BE f-uo uy = al =!

ie 6) Zp | ay fee = z ae =

el ene NAANNAAA N AS ANNONA NS

ao) Gh GSS) oe = Py

Sf g|uouey| 74 = [Sie] =

5 exams tesnnane rman (Nt SR ee ee aes ake ES ak i a

1 Je S| Sm Ora SAAN A AMAA MN MAN Pl of

tos HS

e . f-uo Uley oo rl I ao

a & 7S om = — EOP RAPMACICY Mia ANN

tect MS :

Sg | uo wey li os

asa |

Es “a Ka oor Cr es en Mee te N

a 4 “UO UTRIF| iY)

ns | of

Pow | = =)

el : eae

; al ANA AAASEANM 4 =

eS LNT &q ey g 2

ons “uo Ure yy aHoANN rr NX aS

Gb) te 7

—

ia)

is)

Wlfeces atest = as =~

“INO FT S38 T=) ON Ge) Say a) CO) BS 8) Se

| Aa

Abstract o

Meteorological Observations. lxxxi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1886.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

“ § Range of the Barometer = # |Range of the Tempera-

aes during the day. aS ture during the day.

2 iS = Pg

Date. | = 2 9. a 5

22° | Max. | Min. | Dif? | &3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

ey a= | SoH

= Lie

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) Cy) Co) O-

1 29.907 | 29.963 | 29.861 0.102 80.0 86.0 74.2 | 11.8

2 954 ) 30.013 911 .102 79.9 85.4 74.8 , 10.6

3 989 C59 943 116 81.7 88.6 75.9 | 12.7

4 30.002 O74 945 129 82.1 87.8 77.0 | 10.8

5 29.972 045 921 124 (OD 84.0 76.5 7.5

6 .946 GOL 888 13 79.5 85.9 75.6 9.4;

7 936 O09 872 137 78.9 84.9 73.4 | 11.5

8 910 | 29.979 847 132 78.6 86.6 72.0 | 14.6

9 .S90 -961 846 115 78.3 85.8 72.0 | 13.8

10 -809 G15 786 129 18.7 84.0 70.0 | 14.0

11 -885 944, .829 115 75.7 §3.6 68.0 | 15.6

12 983 | 30.047 925 122 76.6 83.6 70.8 | 12.8

13 | 30.021 .O96 965 131 ied, 84.8 70.8 | 14.0

14 O11 OTA 953 121 77.4 85.2 71.2 | 14.0

15 084, 124 | 30.003 21 Hos 84.8 70.4 | 14.4

16 .O82 145 O37 106 77.0 84.1 71.0 | 13.1

Ay) 097 163 029 134 75.2 83.9 70.2 | 13.7

18 063 142 | 29.991 161 76.0 83.6 70.0 | 13.6

19 059 121 | 30.007 114 76.0 83.4 70.0 | 13.4

20 -032 106 | 29.971 135 75.5 82.6 69.2 | 13.4

1 .026 094, 959 135 75.4 82.6 69.8 | 12.8

22 O21 083 964 119 74.1. 81.8 67.2 | 14.6

23 -000 .058 .939 LL. 73.1 81.0 66.7 | 14.3

24 29.990 064 931 133 1.4 80.1 64.8 | 15.5

25 985 .059 919 140 71.3 79.6 64.0 | 15.6

26 -936 | 29.999 876 123 70.4 79.0 62.8 | 16.2

27 -945 291 890 101 70.1 78.0 62.0 | 16.0

28 30.000 | 30.060 959 105 72.0 80.0 64.4 | 15.6 ©

29 029 .0S5 .983 112 71.8 80.4 64.2 | 16.2

30 -038 107 974 .133 (er 81.0 65.9 | 16.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Premmometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

e day. .

lxxxu Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)

4 . 4 = oH EI - SS 4 Ag peoeen

A | ea fo joes eee | eee

2 2 ) S S fa | “Bo Suen ees

& 5 5 iS So |S Bee ae eaee

Date.| ©. 3 A s = eh | eee eee

3 8 = a 2 mes 35 | see | Se

Eo = $ a 45 ie aes azo | 22g

q a) 5 F.8 aS 2° |e SSRs

a 8 a Es we as 8. | 2S Saal eee

oA x a Sie & > eis a ome

a A 1 O46|A a S| a

) oO Oo te) Inches sy) yeas ison

1 73.3 6.7 | 68.6 11.4, 0.695 7.50 3.31 0.69

2 73.8 6.1 | 69.5 10.4 T15 2 05 12

3 76.4 5.3 | 72.7 9.0 £92 8.52 2.85 15

A, 76.2 BN | Zroll 10.0 1718 36 3.15 13

5 74.0 5.9 | 69.9 10.0 725 7.82 2.96 3)

6 73.3 6.2 | 69.0 10.5 LOA 9 3-07 vill

y. 72.2 6:7 | 67.5 11.4 670 25 21 69

8 72.4 6.2 | 68.1 10.6 684 38 00 fi

9 71.8 6:5 || 67.2 11.1 664 hl .O9 70

10 68.1 8.6 | 62.1 14.6 d61 6.08 2 62

ey 67.8 7.9 | 62.3 3.4) 500 15 8 65

12 69.6 7.0 | 64.7 Lg) 611 64 13 68

13 70.2 4.0 || 65.3 IL) 623 16 9 68

14 70.6 6.8 | 65.8 11.6 634 87 14 69

15 70.5 6.6 | 65.9 11.2 636 99 02 70

16 70.5 6.5 | 65.9 aired 636 .90 2.99 70

17 65.9 7.3 | 63.8 12.4: 503 Ad 3.21 67

18 69.6 6.4 | 6a.1 10.9 619 74 2.86 70

19 70.2 5.8 | 66.1 9.9 640 96 64 73

20 69.4 G.1 | 65.1 10.4) 619 75 fal 71

2 63.8 6.6 | 64.2 11.2 GOL oA 89 69

22 67.1 7.0 | 62.2 INE) 063 14 93 68

23 66.2 6.9 |. 60.7 12.4; Oo 0.86 93 67

24 94.3 7.1 | 58.6 12.8 499 AZ 88 66

25 64.3 6.5 | 59.6 We 7/ O16 .66 67 68

26 63.4 7.0 | 57.8 12.6 486 4 76 66

27 64.2 5.9 | 59.5 10.6 O15 65 30 © 70

Bar ane Ga | 60} ior | Sat 93 57-| 70

29 65.7 GLa 60:83 eo a7 89 56 70

30 65.4 6.3 | 69.4 11.3 530 82 61 .69

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants,

Meteorological Observations. Ixxxiil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

wn the month of November 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

‘S83 Range of the Barometer rz. | Range of the Tempera-

as 8 i for each hour during cA 3 ture for each hour

oa the month. 2 during the month.

Hour.) © 2s Ad

aA am

23 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 3% | Max. | Min. | Diff

ae an

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. fo) to fe) Sy)

Mid-

night.| 29.990 | 30.104 | 29.861 | 0.243 73.2 80.8 | 67.4) 13.4

1 984 .102 852 .250 72.6 80.2 66.6 | 13.6

2 977 100 845 -250 72.0 79.4 65.6 | 13.8

3 sk .100 833 267 71.6 79.0 64.8 | 14.2

4 .969 105 .829 276 71.0 78.0 64.0 | 14.0

5 978 lll 850 .261 70.4 77.4 64.0 | 13.4

6 994 122 .872 .250 69.9 77.0 63.2 | 13.8

7 30.916 144, 894 .250 70.3 174, 62.0 | 15.4

8 037 154 902 252 73.0 79.8 64.4 | 18.4

9 052 163 910 .253 70.6 81.8 67.0 | 14.8

10 050 157 915 242 78.7 85.2 69.9 | 15.3

11 .028 132 893 239 80.7 87.0 73.2 | 13.8

Noon. .002 .105 860 | .245 82.0 87.4 | 75.0 | 12.4

1 | 29.971 072 825 | .247 82.6 SIS Vie MOud lett

2 .949 049 801 248 83.1 87.4 77.4 | 10.0

3 936 037 £86 | .251 83.0 88.6 | 78.0 | 10.6

4A, .932 043 189 204 81.5 87.0 76.4 | 10.6

5 941 059 798 .261 80.3 85.8 75.8 | 10.0

6 953 072 .805-| .267 78.2 84.2 | 73.3 | 10.9

7 ia 087 .840 247 76.8 83.0 71.61 11.4

8 .989 .095 893 242 75.9 82.3 69.6 | 12:7

9 30.001 112 856 246 75.1 81.6 69.4 | 12.2

10 007 slate 867 | .244 74.3 81.2 | 68.6 | 12.6

11 002 .108 868 | .240 73.6 | 80.8 | 68.2 | 12.6

}

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the obseryations made at the several

hours during the month.

Ixxxiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutia,

in the month of November 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations ard cf the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—( Continued.)

! : : Se ea a 2k <

2 in Cen) iS 2.4 | (Seles

BH Ee cS a 8 Se | toe | ae

{ 2 © o 5 Seo =e S eles icy

2 Be rca e ma seston, 2 os

Teter, | | Pe Pe as ze Nee evs eis

; oe 2 oS a se ‘315. |e 2 | ee a

Bet Ss tes ae ae | ee ee

> =) = 2 8 Els er | 8 ea oo 5

a enone | ee) oe eee

eg A PS & 8 gue || SS a worse

a0 hey OM omil en cmb oe ke

oO Co) oO Co) finches: | (yalisors)\ lesen:

Mid- ,

night.| 69.1 4.1 | 65.8 7.4 | 0.634 6.94 1.83 0.79

il 68.6 4.0 | 65.4 7.2 626 85 81 7

2 68.2 3.8 | 65.2 6.8 621 81 .69 80

3 67.7 3.9 | 64.6 7.0 609 69 afi 80

4 67.3 3.7 | 64.3 6.7 603 63 62 80

5 66.9 3.5 | 64.1 6.3 599 59 5 81

6 66.6 3.3 | 64.0 5.9 597 57 Al 82

7 66.8 3.5 | 64.0 6.3 597 By 51 81

8 68.1 4.9 | 64.2 8.8 601 5 2.19 75

9 69.4 | 62) 65.1 | 105 619 74 74 71

10 70.7 8.0 |/65.1 | 1216 619 70 3.71 64

a mes 9.4 | 64.7 | 16.0 611 58 4.46 60

Moony) aes) | alO7) 63-80) a82 598 37 5.10 56

1 LO) LB GAS) ey 576 nl 51 53

2 PamO ne | avin Beri) 7 2016 568 .08 78 51

3 FOO MO G24n) (2016 567 .06 76 51

4 70.4 | 11.1} 62.6] 18.9 570 13 18 BA

5 70.7 9.6] 64.0) 16.3 597 Ad 4.47 59

6 Fae HO BED | WU) 644 .98 3.27 .68

7 70.9 5.9 | 66.8 | 10.0 655 Te a2 72

8 70.5 5.4| 66.7 9.2 653 10 33 74

9 70.0 5.1 | 66.4 8.7 646 4 .30 75

10 69.7 4.6 | 66.5 7.8 648 07 05 78

il 69.3 4.3 | 66.3 33 644, 05 1.88 79

All the Hygrometrical elemenis are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxxv-

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

tal a S 0 Ss

3 q bn S cot ue © R=

Se |ee 5 _ Prevailing Av

-| .« |6_¢5/| direction of the ‘4. | General aspect of the Sky.

22 | EIS | eee Wind. PS

3 as and oO

Alea as e 5

o |Inches Ib

1) 150.8; ... |IN. by W. & N. W. \ito5a.m.\itolp. Mm. “i

& \Wi tod p. M., clear after-

wards.

2/145.0; ... |N.&N.E.&N.by W. lear to 34. M. Wi tod p. M.,

clear afterwards.

3/145.0| ... IN. & N.N. W. Clear to 5 p. wm. Wi to 10 a. M.

\i & 71 to7 P. M., clear after-

wards.

4'147.0| ... IN. N. W. Clear to 7 a. M. Wi to 6 P. M.

“i afterwards.

6/|141.0/} ... |N.&N.N.W.&N.W. Aito7 a. mM. Wi to 3 p. mM. Over-

cast afterwards, Thin Rain at

; 5,6 & ll Pp. M.

6) 145.5} ... |N. by W. Overcast to 6 a. M., \Wito 2 Pp.

m., clear afterwards, Slight

Rain at 4 a. M.

7|145.0} ... IN. by W.&N. Clear to 9 a. Mm. Seatd. \.i to 1

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

8 | 146:0 N.N. W. & N. Clear

9 | 148.0 N.N.E.&N. Clear to 7 a. m. Seatd. \i to 6

p. M., clear afterwards.

10 | 143.0 N. N. W. Clear.

11 | 138.0 N.W.& NN. W. Clear.

12 | 140.0 N. W. & W. \ni to 8 a. M. clear to 1] a. mw.

ni to 5 p. M. \i afterwards.

TAH AOLOH me Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. \ni to

7 p.., clear afterwards.

14/ 142.8; ... |W.&N.&N. by W. Clear, slightly foggy at 10 Pp. m.

15 | 147.0) ... |N. by E. & N. W. Clear to 10 a. m. Seatd. “i to

4p. M. Seatd. \i afterwards.

16;149.0; ... IN.&N.N.W.&NNE. Clear to 4 a. mM. Scattered ‘—1

to 7 a. m. Seatd. “1 & Wi

afterwards.

17 | 138.0; ... INW&NbyE&EN.E. Clear to 9 a. m. Scatd. \_i to 6

Pp. M. Scatd. \i afterwards.

Slightly foggy at 7 & 8 Pp. M.

18|148.0|) ... IN. Clear to 11 a. m. Scattered “i

afterwards.

19| 144.4) °° IN. E. Seatd. 71 & \i to2 p. m., clear

aiterwards.

20|148.0| ... |N. N. W.&N.by W. Clear to 19 a. uw. Scatd. “i to3

: Pp. M. Wi afterwards.

21/145.5| ... IN. N. E.&N. NW. Clear to 10 a. mw Seatd.~i to 4

p. M., clear afterwards. _

22|141.4| ... |N.W.& N. _ {Clear to Noon. Seatd. \i after- -

wards. Slightly Foggy from 8

to li Pp. M.

Ixxxvi

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

on the month of November 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

wos ue ae

= &§ ep 5 rs Prevailing 2 E

3 rs & ¢ =| direction of the Re General aspect of the Sky.

2 Sa lence Wind. s :

rt SS R

o |Inches tb

23 | 142.0 . |N.N.E.& N.by W.| ... |Clouds of different kinds to 5

p. M., clear afterwards, Fog-

gy at ll p.m.

24 | 140.2 N. Scatd. \_i to 9 a. M., \i after-

wards. Foggy at 8 p. M.

25 | 137.0 N. by W.& N. W. Clear to 10 a. m. Seatd. “i to 6

p. M., clear afterwards.

26 | 139.8 N.W.& N.N. W. Clear to 11 a. m. Scatd. ~i to3

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

27 | 133.0 INGEN Weed IN. WW. Chiefly clear.

28 | 145.0 N. by W.&N. byE. Clear to 11 a. m. Seatd. >i to 5

| p. M., clear afterwards.

29 | 140.0 N. by E.& N. W. Clear.

30 | 142.0 N.W.&N.by E. Clear.

“i Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, 7 i-Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

_ Meteorological Observations. Ixxxvii

. Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of November 1866.

Monrtsuiy REsvtts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.988

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a.m. on the 17th ... 80.163

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3p. M. on the 10th ... 29.786

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ee Fan Ooh

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... te wea ... 80.053

Ditto ditto ~ Min. ditto 18 ... 29.930

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... .. 0.123

Co)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month _... Bs hss BAOLE

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 3rd i 4-8) ROS OF

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 27th sie Ae MOZLe

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month im Boe CAS:

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. a. a8 .. 83.4

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, a: eco) OBES.

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. Som BME

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 69.5

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 6.6

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month f 64.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean | Dew- -point . 11.2

oe, lier:

| Mean Basie fore of Vapae for the a oats ee . 0.615

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ee.) 2Onf0

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.93

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.70

Inches.

Drizzled 2 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24hours __... oo eNul

Total amount of rain during the month oe v@Nal

Total amount of rain indicated by the eee attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __... f ae Nil

_ Prevailing direction of the Wind i N.W.N.N. W.&N.

Ixxxvili

cal Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Nov. 1866.

Monruiy Resutts.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

g, it rained.

ticular wind blew, together with the number of days on

ind was blowin

h at a given hour any par

rot

rol

a, 2

S15

Tables shewing the numb

when any particular w

“TO UIE}

| AA Aq" Ny

Meteorological Observations.

1919 CHO MMOGN aN maid be G 6 6 6 =i =H

“dO ULeYT

(MN UN

“uO Uley

‘uo Wey

“MN M

“UO UL YT

“Nr Aq" AA

10) 1

— FUN SUGGES OIC GUIS Le) eee) 5) ey eS

Sa 4

ese re

“uO UlBYy

“M

uo Uley

rs 4q “MA

ANNNNA RA RAR RRR RRR ANNNANAAN

“UO UIByT

“MSM

“uo Urey

“MS

“UO Uiv ey

‘M'S'S

“TO WRT

PM Aq “ss

“WO UIe}Y

set TSS

UO Mey

“UO ULBYT

cae S eS)

“do Ulex

No.of day

“U0 WIRY]

"aS

WO Wey

3 hq “a

“uo wey

“UO UIey

“AT ka “a

“Uo WIR]

‘a ON Ca

“uo Trey

“aN

“moO Urey

‘dN ON

‘uO UII

ha Aq “NT

‘uO ULexy

“Ino

a 4 a |

andes AN SS ol

Qn onl ANWAR A AAAS

AON OD CO HOD SA ID HW NIN IN aos

NAH Aig ris iwwiwOodgnrtinNONMIInANANANANAN

OOOO Dr Or ODrAGHOSCDOEDMAANAANAAN

BAAN FID OMRDRAOH SHAMAMONRDAOH

2 arc ae

Mid

Noon.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxxix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of December 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

a © | Range of the Barometer = = |Range of the Tempera-

Shee during the day. aie ture during the day.

ope ae

Date.| & a 2, rig

ams ae

5 © cB Max. Min. Diff. Bc Max. | Min. | Diff.

a A |

Tnehes. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. a) ° ° fo)

1 30.023 | 30.072 | 29.962 0.110 TET 82.0 64.0 | 18.0

2 O17 O88 935 ol lis333 71.8 | 80:6 64.6 , 16.0

3) O14 LOO GAT Milienes 69.8 80.6 61.4 | 19.2

4, O11 065 941 124 68.4, 78.0 60.2 | 17.8

5 29.985 062 911 151 68.2 78.0 60.0 | 18.0

6 O61 044, 904 140 67.0 78.6 60.6 | 16.0

7 30.006 O71 944, ei 65.9 77.0 57.6 | 19.4,

8 O71 59 | 39:000 59 65.8 76.0 57.0 | 19.0

9 O71 aleiin| .029 102 65.4 76.0 56.8 | 19.2

10 104 73 O54 19 67.1 76.4 89.0 | 17.4

slisli .130 185 08d L100 67.9 78.0 60.0 | 18.0

12 ealuities 195 O45 150 67.0 76.8 59.0 | 17.8

13 025 096 | 29.955 AL 67.5 77.0 59.6 | 17.4

14, O14 078 .959 119 68.0 Tf 60.6 | 16.6

15 065 | 22) 30.022 .LO0 67.2 OL Pa 58.7 | 18.5

16 136 208 O87. 121 67.9 7.5 39.8 | L727,

i 148 2222 076 146 66.7 76.6 58.8 | 17.8

18 144 NG. .08 129 68.0 G72, 61.0 | 16.2

19 alias 208 119 plas 67.5 7) 8 58.4 | 18.9

20 195 he A231 2152 66.9 16.6 58.6 | 18.0

21 164) 226 | 108 118 67.1 76.0 58.8 | 17.2

22 164 a2 117 115 67.1 76.0 58.8 | 17.2

23 158 21 087 134 66.5 76.0 58.2 | 17.8

2A, 170 20k 124 130 68.0 78.6 88.0 | 17.6

25 163 | 249) | 096 153 65.3 74,2, 57.4) 16.8

26 119 L186 050 136 | 65.4 75.8 | 56.6 | 19.2

gi | O75 | 138 | O12 126 63.4 | Foa.4 66.0 | 19.4

25 O88 | 159 | | .035 | TAZA 6a 75.4 56.4 | 19.0

29 O23 | 113 | 29.952 161 64.8 75.8 58.8 | 19.0

30° | 29.960 033 890) 143 | 65.4 77.4 | 55.6) 21:8

31 979 049 934) le |) MGR 77.0 | 58.0 | 19.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

: the day.

Ke Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of December 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/(Continwed.)

S80 hE z © 6H | 654 | As.

Be BR | 8 ee eee

Py iS) = aed nes |. a

= 2 S ee TAS ‘Bos law ee

iiss: eS : 2S | i ee pee

Date: ee ca a = i a 2 aie

pele] 2) sa:h'e) go eae

Pele | 2) ee | 22 | 2o | eee

a r= iS) =) a Ss at lS BSS =

oA a a Poy oF oe | ero] sce

a A} Oo} A = a |< a

oO () co) Inches: ters) Peto

1 65.6 Bell a GO.7 11.0 9.536 5.87 2.56 0.70

2 64.4 7.4 | 58.5 13.3 498 AB 3.00 .65

3 63.2 6.6 | 57.9 IIL.) 488 36 2.59 67

4 60.6 7.8 | 54.4 14.0 ABA 4.78 84 63

5 61.6 6.6 | 56.3 IY) 462 5.10 48 67

6 59.8 7.2 | 54.0 13.0 A28 4.73 OT 65

8 58.8 7.0 | 53.2 12.6 A16 62 AZ .66

9 59.4 6.0 | 54.6 10.8 AD7 85 10 70

10 61.3 5.8 | 56.7 10.4 469 5.18 14 Hi

11 62.7 5.2 | 58.5 9.4 AIS 50 OL 78

12 61.9 5.1 | 57.8 9.2 486 38 1.92 74

13 61.5 6.0 | 56.7 |. 10.8 469 all7/ 2.25 70

14 61.5 6.5 | 56.3 IL #/ 462 | 10 43 68

15 61.0 6.2 | 56.0 11.2 458 07 .28 .69

16 61.6 6.3 | 56.6 11.3 467 16 F315) .69

7 60.7 6.0 | 58.9 10.8 456 05 18 70

18 61.5 6.5 | 56.3 11.7 462 10 43 .68

19 60.9 6.6 | 55.6 11.9 452 00 A2 67

20 69.1 6.8 | 54.7 12.2 438 4.85 43 67

21 60.6 6.5 | 55.4 WL AAD .96 30 .68

BoM eaois | iG!3 | S5eal dies |) E455 | ossod 28 69

23 59.9 6.6 | 54.6 11.9 437 4.84) R13) 67

24, 58.9 Gol | aos 12.8 416 .62 46 65

25 58.3 HADEN B47 12.6 409 55 8 .66

26 58.1 7.3 | 52.3 13.1 404, 49 46 65

27 58.9 6.5 | 53.7 IBV 7 423 70 20 .68

28 59.3 5.8 | 54.7 10.4 438 87 02 Wil

29 59.6 5.2 | 55.4 9.4) 449 Wy 1.84, 73

30 59.9 5.5 | 55.5 9.9 450) 5.00 95 12

31 61.6 5.5 | 57.2 $y) 476 .26 2.06 42

“All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Cl

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of December 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

gone thereon.

63 Rance a ne Beep eein = . | Range of the Tempera-

oe ‘ease (oral hour during a 8 ture for each hour

"eps 2 the month. ae during the month.

os a

Hour.) 5 oom ea 3

e233 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 32 | Max. | Min. | Dif

As a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Co) ) 0 7)

Mid-

night.| 30.082 | 30.205 | 29.958 | 0.247 63.2 68.6 58.6 | 10.0

1 076 195 952 243 62.6 68.4 58.4 | 10.0

2 .069 188 946 242 61.9 68.0 58.2 9.8

3 .063 186 943 243 61.2 67.4 58.0 9.4,

A, .060 182 .940 242 60.6 67.0 57.4 9.6

5 .O70 .196 949 247 60.0 66.3 56.7 9.6

6 085 212 968 244, 59.2 65.0 56.4) 8.6

Uf 103 231 .982 249 59.0 64.6 55.6 9.0

8 126 .253 993 .260 62.2 66.5 57.6 8.9

9 148 .266 | 30.03: .233 65.9 69.8 62.6 7.2

10 .150 213 O31 242 69.6 73.2 65.0 8.2

11 131 209 008 201 72.6 70.4 69.2 7.2

Noon. 097 SBI | ASS) .258 74.7 79.0 71.0 8.0

1 O64 186 .930 .206 75.8 80.0 73.2 6.8

2 040 157 -908 249 76.8 81.2 74.2 7.0

3 .026 135 891 244) 76.8 82.0 74.1 7.9

4, O21 124 .899 234 B24 80.2 72.9 7.3

5 -030 129 904 .225 73.3 77.6 71.3 6.3

6 O44) 142 914 .228 70.3 74.7 68.5 6.2

7 -960 .162 932 230 68.3 73.0 66.0 7.0

8 O76 174, 949 225 66.9 72.0 64.2 7.8

9 O91 194 -967 227 65.8 70.7 62.6 8.1

10 101 221 969 252 64.9 69.8 59.9 9.9

11 -093 212 -961 2ol 64.1 69.2 59.0 | 10.2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at ube several

hours during the month.

xell Meteo: ological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor Geueral’s Office, Calcutta,

OY)

in the mouth of December 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

acetate Heid ek

2 F : | : SS se

gS 3 = zB hyers ra) SS eee es

orm 5 | i “~ i « =

2 Spee, 2 whe al Bie ee eee

et = al | ae) S ise Segment te

| ro | | Bet 7 oF cS | oo wae

= 2 s © [oe as) || °Es pedir eee ome

ee ia > | ba 2 | Sistah, pes ND OS I islet

= (e) a © Ss S = 25 ea © 5

Hour.| a en f= pees] aS

pail ey ee eS a es a GO | A eee ees ea ee

oe Hel = 2 sags) ss 1@ eh Nes | en | eed

= =e ae = a SS | Se oe elena

an mE me | 25 | ao ao eae

aS J ms Lr fei a ae cols qt Eee eee

aS be. = Boe | €e | So | ie Byes

=| fi S a tes Lo Sa OS Se anaes

See ho ar | Peewee 2°

W am | {

| |

iN l

) ° fo) © neh: 2 1 cue | ieaeera

Mid- |

yy a | ~D a i 2 | { |

night.| 59.6 3.6 | 56.4 6:8) | 0464.1 S17 1:32. | G89

i Oo Vl ees! | aoe) 6.2.4) 456 09 28 89

2 58.6 Oye | POOL PGsae W ABD .O6 Wee 1

3 58.1 Sal lean to.9 AAT OL .O9 2

A, 57.6 SOE PAR Nar 44d 4.94 | 04 83

5 57.1 2.9 | 54.5 5.5 43d | 88 | 0.99 83

6 56.7 2.5 | d4.4 4.8 ASA | Omen Eee 85

a RR A, 961 544 A, Gg AQE oO | ee 85

O04! raph O44 4 Nee A239 180 .06 <O9

8 Ose Ace | 40 8.2 A82 48 L51 16

Oy | 59-9) )| 620 | 5a), WOS. | Aaa) woahe) \gai3 70

16 61.7 7.9 | 55.4 14,2 449 94 6 63

11 62.8 9.8 | 59.0 17.6 442 84 | 3.82 06

Noon.| 63.3 11.4 | 68.3 19.4 AAT 88 4.35 53

it 63.4 | 12.4 | 64.7 raat 438 SfKoean mune ofS) 59

2 63.8 13.0 | 54.7 22.1 A38 15 5.08 | 74e=

3 63.7 | 3b | oda. \0 22-3 435 12 sil AS

a sein. | otal 5 KO aa

4, 63.2 12.0 | 54.8 | 20.4 440 78 | 4.59 1

5 6378+) 1 9:6 | (56,2 Hfa3t AGL 5.03 3.81 7

6 63.6 6.7 | 58.2 12.1 493 42 2.66 G7

7 62.9 5.4.) 58.6 See A499 51 09 73

8 62.1 4.8 | 58.3 8.6 494 46 1.8 $2 ie

9 61.6 4.2 | 58.2 7.6 493 46. 58 18

10 61.0 SoM dew 7.0 488 41 44, 19

ie 60.3 3-8 | 56.9 0.2 472 «20 42 49

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. X¢clil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of December 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

= oO a;

& a | er Bo x S|

2 812% e Prevailing é = .

Phe caallcoises |) dinection of the "a, | General aspect of the Sky.

2 | ee [ees Wind. Bg

SB) Se eno Se

=a. oe x =

o {inches lb

1 | 141.0 N. by W.&N.N. W. Clear to 4p. mw. Seatd. \-i to

8 p. M., clear ‘afterwards.

2 | 141.2 N. & N. by W. Clear to 7 a. M.\i & Wito 3

p. M., clear afterwards.

3 | 143.4 N.& N. by EH. Clear to 11 A. M.\_1 to 3 Pi M.,

clear afterwards.

4)138.4| .... |W.N.W.&N.N.W. Clear. Slightly fogey at 9 & 10

P. M.

Ou EON oe GIN. ty ING & ING IW). Clear.

Oaiaseenln oc |W. & We IN. W. Clear

als ORO) | Won INE NWiode IN 2 IN: OW. Clear. Foggy from 7 to 11 p. m.

Sales on On imen ie IN INS Hie& ING INS Wi. Clear.

Guietso.O |) 8 Ne Ww. Clear.

LO MSA2 | IN: W.& W. & NN. Clear.

iti | LOO) Gee GIN e aN Ne Clear. Slightly fogey at 7 p.m.

12 | 138.0 ING oa ING Wie Clear. Slightly toggy at 10 &

1} Pp. M.

13 | 187.0 W.N.W.&W.S.W. Clear. Foggy at6&7 a.m. &

from 7 to 11 Pp. M.

14/| 140.0) ... |W.S.W.& variable. Clear.

15|1381.2| ... |N. by E.& W. by N. Clear. Shghtly fogey from 7

to 10 Pp. m.

16 | 138.0 N. & variable. Chiefly clear. Foggy from 7 to

10 Pp. M.

17 | 185.5 N.by E& N. W. Clear. Foggy at 64. mM. & from

4 to lle ar

18 | 134.0 N.& N.N. KE. Clear to 5 4. wu. \Wi tol p. M.,

clear afterwards. Foggy from

Midnight to4a.m.& at 9 &

10 P. M.

MON SOON 5) IN. by, We & Nj. Clear.

20) 136.07)... IN. by W.&N.N. WwW. Clear.

Ziaihsa0 50, |N.AN. W. & NIW. Clear.

22/135.0; ... |N.byW.&N&NNW. Clear to 9 a. m. Scatd. \i to 6

; Pp. M., clear afterwards.

Zeehso.0)| 7. | N. by W:. ‘|Clear to 6 a. m. Seatd. \i to 6

p.M., clear afterwards. Foggy

at 8 & 9 ep. M.

24|136.8| ... |N. W. Clear.

25 1133.0) .. |IN.N.W.&N.by W. Clear.

Zoloane | ... |N- Clear.

Za | aaOn, <.. » (IN. by W. Clear. Slightly foggy from 8 to

ll P. M.

28/ 135.2} ... |N.byW.&N.N.W. Clear. Foggy from Midnight to

& N. W. 24a.M. & from 7 toll Pp. m.

X¢ClVv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of December 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Salma al Seas vg

= E B08 = Prevailing @ ie

< ne 6 3 =| direction of the ae General aspect of the Sky.

at} lize) fo] “sR 3 =

é S es a Wind. Ss zg

o |Inches tb

29/ 133.0) ... [N.W.&N.N.W.&N.| ... |Clear. Foggy from Midnight to

: 4 a.m. & from 8 to 11 P. m.

30 | 138.2} ... |W.N.W.&SSW.&S. Clear. Slightly foggy from Mid-

night to 6 a.M.&at8 & 9 P.M.

Chiefly clear.

Bil SISO Gag So

™ Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

Meteorological Observations. XCV

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of December 1866.

Montuty ReEsu.ts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the menth.. .«. 80.079

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a.3t. on the 20th sce AIS

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4p. M. on the 30th ... 29.890

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month si: ... 0.383

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... ie Be PenaOulton

Ditto ditto Min. ditto Le ... 80.019

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... ret Onlse

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. m. on the Ist

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 30th

Lixtreme range of the Temperature durin ng the month

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature ..

Ditto ditto Min. ditto,

Mean daily range of the Temperature ‘during the month..

Ee orn ox 2a

£2 C9 Sh) CUS

FPOORROH

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 60.7

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 6.4

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 55.6

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point . 11.5

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., Be »» 0.452;

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month Ne OO

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.32

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.68:

Inches..

Rained No. days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours... Gant SENT

Total amount of rain during the month sone euN DI

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __.. He Nil

Prevailing direction of the Wind. . N.&N.N. W.&QN. W.

xXCV1 Meteorological Observations.

"wo Trey]

“Mw Aq? NT 1D BOOM OOWIDO Naat cast oo oO co SIS

IAA NUON BS 00 MD Hof < e 6O 6 SI Be 10 SS OS OD SO SH UG 19 10

“MON O HAAS OD 0 1 SH ST be DH 10 D DD HW BE 19

. “are Ce Pik lo ce Di a0 GA COS G 6 a0 CD GD GO) Ht

Mo NUM

, UO ULB YT

I Sq A = SS

n the month of Dec. 1866.

ANANAAAAAAS =

[uo Wey

i. OT Se | =e

1S Aq “AA

| UO We yy

i “aA: Se Ane eR Re eS re Ne

MIS AN

{uO WIE yy)

“KA °Qy (—! i! =I

to ULe

av wind was blowing, 1t rammed.

articular wind blew. together with the number of days on

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

LOnNS

q- ‘a: Pn al aa

| MS 8

} Uo Ulery

: M Aq’ i z

= } mo mLeRy

b ae | “C lon Il es ene ee ee SSO SAN NS

ne 24 2

ica > 4 |

ae bos Uv Ue y

ry iiss aes Te) 2 =

ee 2 [a Aas |e.

aS <<)

=, [o) P Cy =

= ao ace G

Zi | 2

Bs = uo wey 7,

SPS | ee =

an COusS)

S .7 co Wey

1 — §

SA henca cn i—| tI Ll

ae CS

(2 fwO ue

TH SSG) Pini

v2)

E ~ | UO Uleir

ae Taal =| = nS

m+» |

Pris f |

= = (U0 wey]

Cie es

El lbp 6 Len! =I

eS NT AQ “yf

as] ‘Uo UR

. o.y G loa|

2 GE INL AG

5 ‘TO WRT

A “hr oa ta) tl ANNONA 4

au) aS

ce “mo Urey |

ae Ope ANNAN Sc of =aa44

ep 1 NN

: “HO Urey

2 “mp Aq “NT DN GUN OD Of cA ca St =

Mm . ——.

ee “ao TB 7} .

zs | ID DOIidq Mm CHRIS FAOnRDDMIADDOMOMMO =

ay .

“INO TT] 15 ep TO HID © GH

iit

oon

ONO Fin om ODO

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observat

Journal As. Soc. Vol XXXV. Pl Il

Scale 1 Inchy= 00 feet: or yobq Section B.

100 100 ee 300 fue su

So £ — es a oe

A Se

13% 15 16 W718 +19 20 Eboults

ase

Zeeawan

VERTICAL SECTION of the ZEEAWAN SPUR of the ZEBANWAN

— lacustrine clay =

IQS NM SE

we . . yy SS ~ <

~ wh ‘is Nas y \ . S

Sis

. WS

WA\ WS Wy ‘

Mi wi ‘S ESTs sos =

Led of the Sheclum abou 5245 feet above the Se

Fours as: Soe. d ; - VoL XXXV PL IL

GEOLOGICAL MAP of the ZEBANWAN

and Neighbouring Mountains.

ee Neale- Finch =2 English Miles

/ me ~

Mas MN coktin,

ShatimarBagh ~

3 Pash

Ee asf | SS

Nasech Bagh

adh

® Khoonimoo

i *Zoowoer

i x |

a } Ste), + Vawar

ase Zeeawan Voy

x Marpoor x

FA Kohew

Patarkoo) Rive!

y —) Voloume

AA Ash & Slate miter heddest

DN State (feats) Stim

Wl pean

| Ys, The parallel tres icicle

b ea. " —

=. Vue arrows mdicate the dip.

‘ Vol: XXXV. PL: IL

Journal As. Soc. A .

GEOLOGICAL MAP

of the

WASTAR WAN

in Kashmir

Si\

.\\

CD) tuartsite

[FD Viteanio Rocks

[7] Azote State (Silurian)

TA) Corbentterous Limestone

=e eee State

indicate Strike of Buis

—

7 indicate Dip

See TWD HEAD mane LHLISN ILE, A\Joobie

See

(Milly tizet Fron Cape Mentgomerizs Map (aF Kashmir)

[J\Avantipoor

i \ 2. vant hat

at ‘ hi ee patos aii | Teh si

v ‘

‘ TOES TORT EC Ome “¢: Bi ae "2

ie ee ye See Vee

» Or ai

ath

ASG on

is y eile

igs

ee?) (ene),

yall

hice

Journal As. Soc.

Vol XXXV.PLIL

Section. C.

es all

hen

Scale J Inch = 100 feet

on a

° [200

HORIZONTAL SECTION of the ZEEAWAN SPUR

of the ZESANWAN

Showing the fan like disposition. of the

courses of lumestone and Brown Shales

A Crushing of the beds at the

small end of the Fan

BBB. Cpervngs between the beds and. courses of rocks

at the exponded end of the Fan.

Journal As. Soc.

Vol XXXV. PI IL

Section D -

Seale One inch =100 leet or 1200 th

joo 60 60. )

ul cu u 2p0 p0 0 zt

Dip SSW

aL A Heo SR 8 7 6s 4 - a i

Ash Quartxite Ash, ete. |

Level of the Lacustrite deposit

WU th. Ahan. ;

s N

hevel of the Jheelian, about 5250 teet above the Sea.

SECTION across the Spur of the KAMLAWAN abbve the Village of MURHAMMA

~ pee Be P

7 Journal As. Soc, Vol XXXV. PI II.

; [Sect TV of

Section H ( Generueatan)

OneTnch— 500 Fel. or tte

San {0

Wy wien

5029)) 34 S wz a ba we sr

> OR 4

Encamping ground, under Chinur Trees

Arygialeidal. Greenstone dips SSE-Confiuscly-

Granstone NNE— SSW and the d

bccormes WNW

Ruin of Buaddist Pagoda: Datum tine the level of the Hanus Bal Lake abe S190F% above the Sea:

Kundabal

SECTION of the MANUS BAL LIMESTONE -

between the SAFAPOOR and AHA TANGH

‘Lith byH, Niven Surv! Generals Office Calcutta Aug* 1566.

‘ Witt

‘i

: ay ;

yaa

Journal As. Soc. |

Manus Bat from the Lake ( Bearing due Rast) Vol: XXXV_ PILI

Section F | |

E — 5 % = -

= a : : /

E —— = > ; a = a we if \

1. The porphyritic Summit “of Kutwal (14271 ft). 2. The Northern Extremity of the Saij-sha (11334) composed of Gresnstone,Ash,&- 3, One of the Spurs of the Safapoor (10309), similarly composed. 4.The

Spur of Safapoor which overhangs Manus Bal (Lake) Greenstone, Bacalt, Ach, &c.. 5. The Aha‘Tang, similarly composed. G. The bed of Limestone between the Safapoor and Aha-Tang; wondarh

having beon squeezed between the iwo hills. 7. The spur of Limestons of which'a detailed seclion is given,(seeSection!))8 Face of the beds of Limestone, dipping WNW. 9 small beds of Li

to the Ash,and Greenstone, dipping SSE. 10. Fault.

———S

contorted by

e couformable

( or General Section.)

Journal As. soc, Vol:XXXV. Pl: I.

Section G.

| §

pales

§ aa

000° 008 8

"2 00! 5

: g

ove] oa

8 5

SI te

: :

z4 a

000 00, 1P'> S |

‘a oS |

— 000 82 i is ‘

tl is il

00005 Se ;

FER. : %

al )

(Gs00081 FNOGY 39, o) pesoding) AUYOUY UBT Ud MAT

ws a i

Sait

= Shh

» it)

Fecal

= ih

; ey itl

SSS = |i

= 1

— || 3

— 5

- = |i

(A/00081 LL) Sossny Jo MPR -

GI LCOLE 92) UIDYD UDLOYDIOY

a ae

= An

@y0009/ 490) ssnz esses ey) hy passa cbuvy &

Bi]

3 I 5

— _ | ia = — = —— —

ee PS a ea

< 3 ak! ——

— ml .

s ov ry -

(9/20012-0e) UND SOPOT

3 Vail

& |

(CAND Spaomo? sno] yf) SMpUT waar fi |

S fi :

! I

eet ee ~ oy We = —

| SSeS ng (2)

; : 3

; a

f ea |

= B

phbiwoy, DIU

- ——- — <= a oie aaa ie , =

= =

ial

é Y

Gp000Len 0006) sassug jo yb AIT

(7100992-G2) ULXOYD Lap Pun 13S

(Lf LEAUTYSOMY YOOULDLO]L) UID POPQUIPLOY HE

é (29 qo0b rg rz

5g BR JOODWY 2ZOMLOOT) UIDYY POYDURIO) Fe a

2 Z

8 (Cy Uva, 90M UOMmva—'],) ULIUY PIFIUETA) 450[ g

ie j

s LN Op spunsop sao)s) cumarye omy SW @

a | oN

= &

3 = / Ss

E Gisooo'y sass Jo PORID

alas, _

8 (G/00081-H1) UY) TOUNT LJ

8 je

2 (eee

3 ‘

5 Gif 000% 49P) YPUOOT

se]

“i

(S PY) SPLOMO} SMOLL) UMYIIYL, AAARYT =

g s

4 ~

= =

jo}

— — —— — ———— — —

o \

i] *

°o

(S ayy. sprono7 smony) smut waar

— mn Peg,

ES ae

LIND 1UBTYS me

7 ‘

hae)

i=}

f=}

ia}

* ‘a

ee ae!

; Zi

. SOY LL22EM hore —

ees eal

5 ‘

= s

a=]

Gf%00 GP) TD AT

; § eS

& :

i=]

. ix =

TEL ET RT

. ee : ; ES

a =

: n

‘

bes

(Middle Ootite)..

arab Lakes thers deserts of Eastern Paein

Signing towards the Swamps of the Z.

h Inch =7000 feet, or 12000

2000 3000 4000 5000 f 2

Ma [ Ce2thLuUt,

Marshes % Gardens

ay, sh, Te pap eaaLs ae Hh ee

>»

The Dal or small lake .

5209 above the Sea

Journal As. Soc. Vol: XXXV, Pi: itt.

- ‘ E Section Il of

Section A Cae Map

Tukhé -i-Suliman | 6063 F above the Sew

ad to Nishat Bagh

| SECTON across the HURRI PURBUT, TUKT-I- SULIMAN and

W.N.W. portion of the ZEBANWAN,

a Alternate 10 leet thick Beds of brown

| Augitic Ash, oftert Calcareous, of wgglome:

| =vate and of axoie slate.

5 a" HE

a8 SN

x S28 Summit of Lebanwan

$ Ny See

on os © 8818 1! above the Sea.

‘s g RG

g Ss Re

Se Be

Rou

mS S

as 8

Creen Stone, often,

Of Augitic Ash, nun

Augitic Ash,

a Lasaltic Grey rock:

a Basaltic Grey rock, with thin J ds

With but little Asp,

he compact Slate

— —Fault

Laterile eae dar

ke.

eee

Dip Eafew

degrees S,

Panchthooka

Gheenar Trees

7O 0 12 ay & ob

OF THE

Part II. —1866.

SPECIAL NUMBHR.

ETHNOLOGY.

—=a 2e—

‘CONTENTS.

ioe AT be8 0G le Try,

ETHNOLOGY OF INDIA, BY MR. JUSTICH CAMPBELL.

InrRODUCTORY.

General remarks, fs

Points recommended for pieeeeaey:

General divisions,

THe ABORIGINES.

General description, ...

Main divisions,

Southern or Dravidian tribes,

Northern or Kolarian tribes,

Tribes of Western India, ...

- Tribes under the Himalayas,

‘tne ‘ Bhooyas’ of the Bengal borders,

Question regarding the Brahuis,

Tae Mopern Iyprans.

The Bramins or Khashas,

The Jats,

The Rajpoots,

The maar or aa ores

er piinedan Hoe if

Pastoral tribes, Goojars, Aheers, ee

Page

101

Contents.

Mallies and other cultivating tribes,

The Khatrees,

The Banees and other trading ees

The Kaits and other writer tribes,

The Artizans, sc

The Inferior Helot saeaes,

The tribes of the South, ... 500

Tur BorpDERERS.

Mixed tribes of the Thibetan frontier, eas oer

The tribes of the Hastern Frontier, ons) Sb Werner eines

Postscript, eee

EeOowP

The Teermen or Islanders, ... Bee eee

The Moplahs,

Tribes of the Bombay Coasts.

The Scindees, ... am ond BY 4 5

The Belochees, ae 200

The Pathans or Affghans, a 5

‘The Aboriginal Arians of the Caucasus, ... Bra eh/ oor

THE KOLS OF CHOTA-NAGPORE, BY LIEUT.-COL.

ee Da ON ze

APPHNDICES,

List of test words for use, by Mr. Justice CampBELL, ...

Comparative table of aboriginal words, do., _ _... ae.

Comparative table of Northern and Arian words, do.,

Kashmiri Vocabulary and Forms, by Mr. L. Bowrzne,

Vocabulary and Grammar of the Oraon (Dravidian Abo-

rigines), by Rev. F. Batscu, :

Comparative Vocabulary of’ ellen Wen, np Tent Col.

HK. T. Darton, .

Grammar of the Ho (Kelitian concen) Lees -

‘Lieut.-Col: Trickett, ... are 0 oo)

153

201

204

207

225

251

266

268

EDITOR’S NOTE.

It is hoped that farther communications on Hthnological sub-

jects may be received and published in continuation of the

present special number, so as to form in all a separate and

special Ethnological volume of the Journal of the Society. The

paging is therefore kept distinct.

eee

JOURNAL

OF THE

foto SOCTE LY.

SUPLEMENTARY NUMBER.

Vou. XX XV. Part Il.

PPD

The Ethnology of India.— By Mr. Justice CampBEnt.

[Received 4th June, 1866. |

T trust that the great subject of Indian Ethnology has been taken

up by the Society in a serious and earnest manner, with a view to

that actual observation and practical inquiry which is only possible

in the countries and on the spots where the various races are found, or

where specimens of them may be collected together. The Govern-

ment has already consented to take the first step in aid of the move-

ment by collecting from its officers, in all parts of India, lists of the

races and classes existing in the various districts. The present paper

is designed to assist both Government officers and private persons in

making classified and descriptive lists in such a uniform manner, and

with such a uniform nomenclature and arrangement, that it may be

afterwards possible te weld together the whole of the information thus

obtained. Without some common plan and nomenclature, without, as

it were, some Hthnological skeleton to serve as the guide and model

into which the various details may be fitted, and by which they may

be classed, I fear that there may be much confusion and error in

bringing together lists which must necessarily often be made by offi-

cials who have little knowledge of Ethnology as a science, and whese

practical knowledge and nomenclature are limited to their own par-

ticular parts of India. My object then is, to supply a sort of rough

2 The Ethnology of India.

hand book of existing information on the subject, particularly as re-

gards the North of India, and my hope is, that such a guide may

render much more easy, intelligible, and uniform, the collection of a

mass of details, which will render our knowledge ample and complete.

Tt happens that my personal experience has been wider than that of

most officers; I have also travelled much in those parts of India in which

I have not served, and have made the people a constant subject of

observation and inquiry. I have farther, for some time past, noted the

information on this subject which I could collect from books. And

lastly, I have received much aid in my inquiries from many kind

friends. During a late visit to the Punjaub frontier, I was under

great obligations to many of the officers employed there, and feel that

Tcan always look for assistance in that quarter. Recent papers by

Colonel Dalton, Commissioner of the Chota-Nagpore territories, have

given much information respecting several of the tribes of that locality

of which I have made free use, and I had looked also to use another

paper on the Coles promised by Colonel Dalton. It has not been

received, but I hope that it will soon add to the information which

I am now able to give. During a tour in the Bombay Presidency, I

was fortunate enough to make the acquaintance and to obtain the

assistance of Mr. Perceval of the Civil Service there, since Private

Secretary to His Excellency Sir B. Frere, and through Mr. Perceval

I have received a series of very interesting notes on the aborigines of

that part of India by Captain Probyn, Major Keatinge, Mr. Ash-

burner, Mr. Probert, and the Rev. Messrs. Moore and Taylor, con-

taining information not elsewhere procurable. During a former tour

in the Mysore country and in some of the Madras districts adjoining, I

received much kind assistance, and Mr. Bowring has since been good

enough to point out to me some very interesting additional informa-

tion. With respect, however, to the Telinga country, and the extreme

South of India, I have not been fortunate enough to obtain all the

information that I could desire.

It will be understood, moreover, that as respects every part of India,

I by no means profess to give a complete sketch. I have not the

necessary information, and have not time for the necessary study to

enable me to attempt that. Indeed, in this as in so many other things,

the more one learns, the more one sees one’s ignorance and the vast

The Ethnology of India. 3

amount of inquiry that still remains. I only desire to tell so much as

I know, and to suggest points on which inquiry is desirable. Although

I have always been much interested in the people, I have usually not

had time and opportunity to commit all that I have observed to

Writing ; it is in fact only of late years that I have in some degree

done so. Iam obliged therefore frequently to use such expressions

as ‘I think,’ not because I do not speak from personal observation,

but because, writing from memory, I must give my impressions subject

to the chance of error. In attempting too so wide and general a

subject without great opportunities of study, I am at every turn liable

to error. I would at once avow that I warrant nothing, even when

I do not specially qualify my phrases. I only give my impressions

for what they are worth. It is true that it would have been possi-

ble to verify many doubtful points, to fill up many gaps, and to solve

some difficulties which occur to me in writing this paper, by farther

enquiries in the proper quarters; but looking to the character of my

paper, as an avowedly imperfect sketch, designed to elicit the infor-

mation which may afterwards render possible something more com-

plete, I have preferred not to delay, but to give what I now can, as I

now can. In truth, my object is to suggest our deficiencies, to point

to them, and to prospect the quarters where valuable strata of in-

formation may be found. I shall say what I have to say in the most

simple and least technical form—in a rough and unpolished way.

My philological acquirements are very deficient. As respects South-

ern India, Dr. Caldwell, by his comparative grammar, has made com-

parison easy. But there is no such synthetical account of the Northern

languages. The character of each can only be separately learned.

The Rey, Mr. Trump has done much for the languages of the extreme

North West, but as respects the characteristics of Bengallee, Maratta,

Guzeratee, &c. when compared to Hindee and Punjabee, I find no

easy guide, and have not been able to acquire any adequate knowledge.

—Cashmiree is still scarcely known at all. We very much want such

an account of the languages of the North as Dr. Caldwell has given

us for the South.

In the mere matter of nomenclature, it is surprising how much

confusion arises, both from calling the same tribes by different names,

and also from calling different tribes by the same name, The former

4 The Kihnology of India.

error can only be met by explaining in detail the tribes variously

known in various localities ; but in respect to the latter, some general

caution seems necessary. It often happens that the same term is

applied both to a Tribe or Caste, and to the profession usually exer-

eised by that caste, and that while in one sense the term is proper

to the caste, whether exercising the same or any other profession, in

another sense it is applied to all exercising the profession, whether of

the same or of any other caste. For instance, in the greater part of the

Punjaub, the great agricultural tribe is the Jat, and there the words

‘ Jat’ and ‘ Zemeendar’ have come to be used by the people as

almost synonymous. A man who is asked of what caste he is, will

reply ‘a Zemeendar,’ meaning a Jat. And, vice versd, a Punjabee

will sometimes call a man a Jat, meaning only that he is a Zemeendare

When I pressed some of the servants of the Maharajah of Cashmere

regarding the Ethnology of the valley of the Upper Indus and other

little known parts, I was at first much puzzled by finding them de-

clare that the great mass of the people there are ‘ Jats,’ but I pre-

sently discovered that they meant merely Zemeendars or cultivators,

there being in fact no Jats within the Hills. In the West and South

too, I believe that the terms ‘Koonbee’ and ‘ Wocal’ are used both

to designate certain agricultural tribes, and cultivators generally; soe

that while ‘“ the Wocals are by the Mahommedans called Koonbees,”

that circumstance gives no assurance that the tribes are the same.

The term Bunneah or Banian is properly applied to the great trading

easte, but it also means a trader, and is often so applied. Again in

India religious denominations are often apphed in a way which con-

founds them with proper tribal denominations. The character of the

Hindoo religion is such that it is a pretty safe Ethnological guide,

converts not being ordinarily received. Mahommedan and other pro-

selytising religions, on the other hand, are no guide in Ethnology ; on

the contrary, the Mahommedan Laws of Marriage and Legitimacy are

such as to tend very much to efface Ethnological demarcations. For

our purposes therefore, Mahommedan denominations may be entirely

put aside. But the mere fact, that people are Mahommedans, should

not deter us from seeking their Tribal denominations in the back

ground. Many Mahommedan tribes still retain their Hindoo caste

names, some Hindoo laws, and something of caste exclusiveness,

The Ethnology of India. 5

Though not so pure or characteristic as their Hindoo brethren, many

Mussulman Rajpoots and Jats are just as well known as such as the

Hindoos; while many whole tribes have become Mahommedans with-

out changing their tribal designations and occupations. Most of the

modern Sikhs in no way separate from their tribes, and are known as

‘ Jat,’ or ‘ Khatrie,’ or ‘ Braman Sikhs,’ one member of a family

being frequently a ‘ Sing,’ while others are not. Jains, I believe,

are not ethnologically distinguished from Hindoos. Among the Bun-

neahs, it appears that some are Hindoos and some Jains, in the same

tribes and sections of tribes. Very puzzling in the South is the term

* Lingaiyat’ applied to those Ultra-Sivites who wear the Lingam, who

seem almost to form a caste, and who are generally spoken of as such.

So far, however, as I can gather, the term is really a mere religious

denomination, and the Lingaiyats are of various castes, which should

be distinguished.

In all inquiries then, great care is necessary in sifting out tribal, as

distinguished from mere professional and religious denominations.

When we arrive at proper tribal titles, it is farther desirable to in-

quire into the aliases or varieties of title often possessed by the tribes;

for it may happen that while an obscure local title is in the most

common use, another, less frequently used, will at once indicate iden-

tity with some well known and widely spread caste.

It is also very necessary to attend to the distinctions between great

caste titles, and the sub-divisions of those castes. All the great

castes have numerous gotes or sub-divisions ; and when a man is asked

to what caste he belongs, he will sometimes give the name of the

general, and sometimes of the special caste or gote. Some of these

sub-divisions really are or may be ethnological sub-divisions, others,

from the peculiarity of Hindoo laws, are not so. On the principle

which forbids the marriage of relations (carried by Hindoos to an

extreme) men of the Rajpoot and other castes cannot marry in their

own ‘ gotes,’ but must seek their wives in other gotes. In blood

therefore such castes really form but one race—so far at least as the

intermarriages are carried—for there are many tribes claiming to be

Rajpoots whom the higher tribes will not recognize. Of other castes,

the primary sub-divisions keep altogether apart. I apprehend that

under the general term ‘ Bunneah,’ are to be found many separate

6 The Ethnology of India.

tribes who would on no account eat together or intermarry. I think,

however, that throughout all the great Hindoo castes, a strong ethno-

logical resemblance exists. Ido not propose in this sketch to at-

tempt to notice the sub-divisions, except in any case in which they

may suggest marked ethnological features.

The details of Rajpoot and Bramin heraldry and hierology have

been amply given in several excellent works, and I shall touch on

nothing of that kind.

A caution which seems to me to be necessary is, that the accounts of

their origin given by many tribes, and especially by their Chiefs, must

be received in a very guarded way, because there is a great tendency

to invent origins illustrious in the eyes of men of the races and reli-

gions to which they belong. Among the Hindoos, the Rajpoot rule

is so famous, that almost all tribes which have taken to soldiering or

acquired power, pretend to a Rajpoot origin. At this day, some of the

followers of Maratta Chiefs have the impudence to tell strangers that

they are really Rajpoots, as if their origin was not matter of the most

recent history ; and almost all the aboriginal tribes who have risen to

any power (or at least the chief families among them) affect a Raj-

poot descent. As Colonel Dalton describes it, they are undergoing a

gradual process of ‘ refining into Rajpoots,’ a process probably founded

on a very small Rajpoot immigration and alliance, and a very large

amount of invention. Even the Jats and other tribes who need

hardly descend to such stories, frequently make themselves out to be

Rajpoots who have been separated from the orthodox for some loose-

ness of practice ; but my impression is, that most of these stories are

quite idle. Even acknowledged Rajpoots of the North-Western hills

who are, in an Ethnological point of view, a much finer and purer race

than any in the plains, assert that their ancestors came from Ajoodea

or Oude. So in Cashmere, the Bramins there, whose mere features at

once proclaim them to be one of the highest and purest races in the

world, instead of adopting the more ancient and_ better traditions

which would point to their country as the common origin of the

Bramin races of India, prefer the story that when Kashyapa dried up

the Lake (a geological fact patent even to Hindoos) detachments of

all the most famous and most sacred of the different Bramin classes

were brought into Cashmere, who, amalgamating, formed the present

The Ethnology of India. T

Cashmeeree Bramins. The real cause of all these stories, I take to be

this. The Hindoos, as Hindoos and from an orthodox Hindoo point

of view, did not attain their highest religious, literary, and political

development, till they were settled in the plains of India ; consequently

the early Bramins of the valleys of the Himalayas are not considered

nearly so orthodox, so sacred, or in the Hindoo scale so high,*as the

more famous Bramins of the plains. And the Rajpoots of the Pun-

jab and the adjoining hills, are not so high in the scale of strict

Rajpoot orthodoxy as the Solar and Lunar races of Ajoodea.

Hence it is that the races, really earlier and purer, think it necessary

to claim descent from those who, in our pcint of view, are really very

inferior.

Again, most tribes which have been for many centuries converted

to Mahommedanism, set up some origin founded on the traditions and

literature of the dominant Mahommedan races. They are generally

descended from Soleiman or Nooshervan, or something of that kind.

Jewish names and traditions are particularly in vogue among the

Mahommedans (Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, and many others known to

us, are their most common names, in the form of Ibraheem, Yacoob,

Yoosoof, &c. &c.) and it has been pointed out, that the Affghan asser-

tion of Jewish descent loses most of its significance, when we find

how many other tribes have stories of the same kind. I have not been

able to ascertain whether the ‘ Soleiman’s Throne” met with in so

many places is to be specially referred to the Jewish Solomon, or

whether the term is merely the ‘‘ Suleh-man”’ or wise man of the Hast.

At any rate I believe that most of the pretended Mahommedan

genealogies are in brief ‘ bosh.’

Ido not mean that popular traditions are to be neglected, on the

contrary, I think that they often lead us far towards the truth ; but I say

that we must use caution and discrimination, to sift the wheat from

the merest chaff.

I should add that I believe that the claim of aboriginal and other

tribes to Rajpoot and such like origin, is not always without some

foundation in fact. The Rajpoots seem, like the Normans, to have

frequently found their way in small numbers among inferior races, and

there amalgamating and intermarrying with them, to have acquired.

by force of character a leadership over them, and to have considerably

8 The Ethnology of India.

vaised the position of such tribes. There is, I think, a good deal

to suggest that during the various invasions of Southern India by a

succession of Northern ‘ Yavanas,’ small tribes of these latter may have

taken up their position in difficult parts of the country, and there,

amalgamating with the aboriginal tribes, have formed hali-breed races

of much robber-like and semi-military energy.

Before going farther, I would suggest the following as especially

deserving the attention of those who are willing to aid in a popular

way in classing the various tribes and castes in India.

1. Physical appearance. ‘The three main types, Caucasian, Mon-

golian, and Negro or Negrito, are well-known. In India we have, in

the extreme North, the finest and purest Caucasian type, the handsomer

and more open form of that which we know as the Jewish cast of

countenance ; fine head and features, high brow and nose, long beard,

tall, lithe, powerful figure, colour generally light. Throughout India,

we have this type modified and subdued by every variety of straight and

snub nose and plebeian features, much as in Hurope, and with a dark

skin unknown in Europe. Sometimes the skin becomes very black,

and the lips are thick and protuberant; there may be marked the

infusion of blood of the Negrito type which probably modifies the

higher phase of the Caucasian type, even when actual Negrito features

cannot be traced.

This Negrito type we find in India not accompanied with the

muscular form of many Africans, but in a small slight race. The

principal points to be marked, in addition to colour, are the lips, already

alluded to, shape of face, nose, and eyes, presence or absence of a

considerable beard, character of the hair,

Among the Thibetans and Nipalese we have extreme examples of

the type which I call generically Mongolian. The eyes particularly

there is no mistaking. The hair is straight. The colour is yellowish,

but never dark.

2. language is liable to disturbances, and has been perhaps too

much taken as a sure guide, but it is always of great assistance, and

in 19 cases out of 20 tells a true tale. In practice I think that no

considerable philological acquirements are necessary to enable an ob-

server to make most useful observations of a language quite unknown

to him, if he can only get the rudest interpreter. There are certain

The Ethnology of India. 9

words which may almost be taken as unfailing tests in classifying lan-

guage ; for instance, the first few numerals, the names for the com-

monest parts of the human body

head, &c.—the names of the commonest family relations—father,

as hand, foot, nose, eyes, mouth,

mother, brother, sister—sun and moon, fire and water—the personal

pronouns, and one or two others. I shall try to add to this paper

some of Mr. Hodgson’s lists. I do not know that they are all the

best selected words, but they are uniform lists of different languages

in parallel columns, and will enable any observer to determine on the

spot whether the savage he has caught, primd facie, seems to belong

to one or other of the classes represented in the columns. I shall

also make a smaller list of Hnglish words, a translation of which I

would recommend to be sent with each account of a tribe or race,

speaking a language in any degree peculiar.

It should be observed that it may not unfrequently happen that

men who seem to speak but a rough jargon of some well known lan-

guage may, on close observation, be found to use peculiar terms for

some of the most familiar objects, and that these latter may be inva-

luable as containing the remnants of their original language, all but ab-

sorbed in another which they have for the most part adopted. Especially

will such words be valuable, if they can be in any degree identified with

those in any of the Aboriginal Vocabularies.

Grammatical structure is somewhat more difficult of observation, and

so far as I know, the general structural character of all the modern

Indian languages is in a considerable degree similar. I mean that

there is no such radical difference of formation as there is between

Hindee and Arabic, But those who can give a little attention to the

subject, might supply small grammars of declension, conjugation, and

derivation, which would be eminently useful. And on the Hastern

Frontier, the distinction between Indian and Indo-Chinese grammatical

forms might probably be readily marked.

3. Religion. There isso much similarity in the religions of so

many rude tribes, that there may be doubt whether such worship as

that of the Sun, Moon, and the lord of Tigers represents a wide spread

religion, or merely a coincidence of very obvious ideas repeated again

and again; but it is worth noticing these ideas, in the hope that some

16 The Ethnology of India.

substantial inductions may be formed from putting together many

observations.

And among the more civilised races, I think it not improbable that

an accurate observation of the prevalence of Sivite and Vishnuite ideas

respectively, among particular tribes and castes, may be found to have

an ethnological significance. I cannot help thinking that these two

forms of modern Hinduism may im fact represent entirely different

religions derived from widely different sources, and that while the

Vishnuite faith came from the north, the Sivite may have had some

other origin, and may be the special property of races which of old

peculiarly affected it. Sivite monuments certainly seem to be marks

of a very old faith in the greater part of India, and the essential

element of it, the reverence for and deification of the procreative power,

seems to be the same idea of natural progression which is carried on

by the Buddhist doctrine of gradual perfectibility (raising man almost

to the rank of a god) in opposition to the Vishnuite or Vedic creed of

a separate creation of gods and their occasional incarnation in thé

form of man. If then pure Sivites, Buddhists, and Jains are in some

way connected, and they all prevail most in the West, who are those

who brought their doctrines there ? and whence did they come ?

4. Laws. I believe that, laws are among the most persistent

ethnological marks, and that, as such, they have been too much ne-

glected. Caste, and Marriage as a sacrament strictly limited by

caste, seem to be Arian institutions. Arian are strict rules of inhe-

ritance, resulting from that sacred form of marriage and subject to none

of the caprices of Mahommedan and similar laws. Arian is the pri-

vate property in land, as distinguished from the Tribal; the property

first of the village—then of the family—then of the individual ; anda

consequence is, the attachment of the Arian to his native soil. Espe-

cially Arian is the form of what we call constitutional, as opposed

to patriarchal and arbitrary government. The Indian village or Com-

mune is a constitutional unit, common to all the Arians. A main

distinction, as I think, between two great classes of Arians is to be

traced in the constitution of these Communes—Aristocratic among

the one—among the other democratic, and recognizing as equals all

free citizens, to the exclusion of Helots only.

Among the non-Arians, on the other hand, the rule of the Chicfs

The Ethnology of India. ii

seems to be patriarchal and arbitrary—property in the soil is tribal

rather than individual. There is little local attachment to the soil.

he aboriginal tribes of India move from place to place, abandoning

one location and taking up another in a light way; they are even

ready to give up their land, to become labourers, and to emigrate in a

way to which the Arians are by no means prone. They seem to

have among themselves no caste, they eat anything and every thing.

Marriage is, I fancy, but a loose tie. On all these points, however, we

want much information.

5. Manners and mental characteristics. Under this I must in-

clude so much that I cannot attempt to detail it. Suffice it to say,

that any information regarding the temperament and bearing, the

intelligence, the customs and habits, the amusements and the cere-

monies of little known tribes, may be in many ways most useful.

It is patent in India to the most superficial observer that, owing to

the peculiar institution of castes, mere vicinage (even lasting many

hundred years) has not, as in Europe, led to the welding of different

races and tribes into proper local nationalities : that, in fact, in the

same locality many different races exist together without complete

intermixture, while a single race may frequently be traced through

many different provinces and countries, always retaining its own pecu-

liarities under a great variety of circumstances and in contact with

many varying races. On the other hand, language can never be

exclusive, it must be the means of inter-communication between man

and man, caste and caste, without distinctions of race or creed.

Hence, however much by religion and race a tribe may be segregated,

if it be politically and to a great extent socially united with other

peoples, it almost always in the end adopts their language, or a com-

mon language is formed by intermixture. That is the ordinary state

of Indian society. In the business of life, the different castes are

united in one society ; some are in the upper, some in the lower strata ;

one is the lord, another the priest, another the free cultivator, ano-

ther the hewer of wood and drawer of water; but still they form one

social whole. Farther, although the rules of caste and marriage may

hinder the inter-communication of blood, it cannot but be that in

the long course of time, during which different tribes live in the

closest intercourse, there must be some irregular percolation from one

12 tanks Ethnology of India.

to the other; in the course of thousands of years, something of the

blood and features of one will be infiltrated into the other.

Thus it has happened that in India there is a sort of double classi-

fication of the people, similar to that which we sometimes see in

rocks in which there is a double stratification, one line of strata

running say horizontally, and another line crossing the same rock

say vertically. When we trace a tribe or caste from one Province to

another, we shall find that in some things it retains the class charac-

ter, in others it varies according to provincial character, the latter

chiefly prevailing in point of language.

I propose to trace, so far as I can, the different tribes and classes

throughout India, irrespective of local nationalities, and to some extent

irrespective of language. I had thought that I might afterwards, when

that is completed, remark on the quasi-nationalities created by the

use of special languages and the social specialities of particular pro-

vinces ; but I find that our information is as yet so imperfect, that I

prefer to leave this latter task to another day. I shall merely

make some casual remarks on language and a few other national

features, as they occur in the course of my narrative.

Till we have accomplished an Ethnological Geography, whether

Tribal or National, I shall for the most part use the ordinary terms of our

Modern Political Geography, and speak of the Punjab and Scinde,

Bengal and Mysore. But for facility of reference, I must make one

or two explanations. I shall speak of Hindustan and the Hindu-

stanees as the terms are applied by the natives, to the whole of the

great Central region of Northern India fromthe Punjab on one side

to Bengal on the other, and from the Himalayas to the Southern de-

elivities of the Satpoora Range running across India in about the

parallel of 22° Lat. I include in Hindustan, Bahar, (confining the

term of Bengal to Bengal Proper) as well as Oude, Rajpootana, and

Malwa. South of Hindustan to the West is the Maratta country, which

may be roughly indicated as bounded by a line drawn from Nagpore

to Goa. And farther South are the Southern countries, sometimes

called Dravidian, first the Telinga or Telugu country to the Hast, the

Canarese to the West; beyond them again the Tamil country to the

Kast, the Malabar or Malayala country to the West.

As respects the physical features of these countries, it will be remem-

The Ethnology of India. 1

bered that the whole of Bengal proper, the N. W. Provinces and

Oude, the Punjab and Scinde, with part of the adjoining desert coun-

try, form a great semi-circular plain in which there is no place of

refuge (with little exception) for remains of aboriginal races; in all

these countries the modern races live together as one social whole.

But throughout Central and Peninsular India, while the most open

plains and best cultivated parts of the country are similarly inhabited,

there are scattered about, over every province, hills and jungles giving

cover to aboriginal tribes which hold themselves aloof from the

general population, and are very different in language, manners and

other particulars. ;

It is well known that the great plain is bounded on the north by

the line of the Himalayas, ‘rising almost suddenly in great and rugged

height, but yet habitable for a considerable distance inland before the

snows are reached. That boundary is so uniform that more need not

be said respecting it, except as regards the northern extremity of

India. There the plain is not at once succeeded by the Himalaya.

The range called the Salt Range runs across from Jhelum to Kala-

Bagh on the Indus, and thence to the Aifghan mountains, cutting off

as it were and enclosing a sort of triangle, and supporting a somewhat

elevated country something of the character of the Peninsular portion

of India, and lying between this Salt Range and the Himalaya. The

Salt Range, it will be presently seen, is an Hthnological boundary

of some interest.

T now commence my survey according to Tribes and Castes.

First, I take as a great division the black aboriginal tribes of the

interior hills and jungles. There can, I suppose, be no doubt that

they are the remnants of the race which occupied India before the

Hindus. I need not here go into any question, whether any portion

of them had received any civilization from any other source. It ig

enough that all these tribes have many ethnological features in com-

mon. ‘They are evidently the remains of an element, the greater

portion of which has been absorbed by, and amalgamated with, the

modern Indian race, and which, mixed in various degrees with the

high-featured immigrants, has contributed to form the Hindoo of

to-day. In the South their speech still forms the basis of the modern

languages. If proof were wanting that the predominance of Caucasian

14 The Ethnology of India.

features has been attained, in a great part of India, but gradually, and

that it is within the historical period that these features have alto-

gether preponderated, it is only necessary to look at the ancient

sculptures of the South and West. ‘Take for instance the caves of

Klephanta near Bombay. Who, looking at the faces there cut in stone,

and observing the universal thick lip and peculiar feature, can doubt

that when those were cut, the non-Caucasian element was still large

even among the higher classes ?

My scheme, however, is not to separate any of the tribes or castes

of modern Indian society, and to designate them as aboriginal. All

those people who have been either completely or partially amalga-

mated into Hindoo society, whether as proper Hindoos or as Helots

and outcasts, I regard as coming within the designations of ‘ Modern

Indians.’ I shall class as Aborigines only those tribes which still live

apart, forming communities by themselves, under their own leaders,

and often speaking their own peculiar languages.

As Modern Indians again I class together all the high-featured

northern races, and all the various trikes, castes, and nationalities

formed by them after absorbing so much of the aboriginal element

as has been amalgamated with them, whether they are now Hindoos,

Mahommedans, or of any other religion. Of course they are mainly

Hindoos. I draw no wide ethnological line between the Northern

and Southern countries of India, not recognising the separate Dravidian

classification of the latter as properly ethnological, It seems to me

that among all the Hindoo tribes the Arian element now prevails, and

that the presence, more or less, of the aboriginal element is only a

question of degree. As a question of degree, I do not think that

there is, at any geographical parallel, any decided line. It is remarked

by Max Muller that languages are seldom properly speaking mixed.

Vocables may be mixed, but a single grammar and structure usually

prevails. Therefore the change from one language to another must

in so far be sudden. It is still, I believe, open to dispute whether

the grammar of the present languages of Northern India is of Sanscrit

or of Aboriginal origin ; but at any rate this we know, that in the North

the Arians gained so rapid and complete an ascendancy as to introduce

their own radical words, numerals, &c., and to render the language

essentially Arian, while in the South the Aborigines held out

The Ethnology of India. 15

longer, the tide of Arian immigration was more gradual, and

the Aboriginal grammar and radicals formed the mould which

was only filled up by a large over-lay of Arian words. The

change then of language takes place, where passing southwards we

exchange the Maratta for Telugu and Canarese. But looking at

the people, we see no radical change of feature or characteristics. The

last of those who are more properly Arian in language, are not essen-

tially superior to the first of those whose language is by its structure

classed as Dravidian. The Marattas who are classed as Northerners

(though they probably take their name and much of their blood from

the aboriginal Mhars and such like tribes, whose features survive in

their monuments) have no decided advantage over their Canarese

neighbours; on the contrary, the Canarese of Belgaum and Dharwar

are deemed superior to the Marattas of the adjoining districts. And

to a traveller in Mysore and most of the Southern countries, the

general features and appearance of the people is, I think, not very

greatly less Arian than that of the lower classes of Hindustanees.

The truth I take to be, not only that in a mixture of races there is a

tendency of the higher, more marked, and more prominent type to

predominate, but also that it may well be that, although the people

speaking a Dravidian language in the South, may always by force of

numbers have linguistically prevailed over each separate batch of

immigrants, and so far annexed them, still by successive immigra-

tions, notwithstanding a Dravidian form of speech, the Arian blood

has come in reality greatly to prevail. The mere fact that they

are recognised as Orthodox Hindoos, seems to imply the Northern

origin of all the better castes in the South, and that is their own

account of their origin. I have no doubt that the Southern Hindoos }

may be generally classed as Arians, and that the Southern society is |

in its structure, its manners, and its laws and institutions an Arian

society. After all, in their main characteristics, the Southern people |

are very like those of the North.

Among some of the inferior tribes of the South, the remains of the

thick lips, the very black skin, and other features may, as I have said,

still be traced, but, colour perhaps excepted, the aboriginal features

are probably gradually wearing away.

Notwithstanding the identity in the main of the North and the

16 Lhe Ethnology of India.

South, it will be seen when I come to details, that the change of

language very much puzzles and baffles me in the attempt to

trace the tribes and castes from North to South, and in fact causes

a substantial gap in the contiguity of my survey, which I trust

that others will fill. To return to a geological metaphor, there

is as it were a serious fault at the point where the change of

languages takes place. A similar series of strata goes on upon

the other side, but I can’t exactly identify the particular veins and

say which is which. The same series of classes with similar cha-

racteristics prevail in the South, and, knowing that they must have

come from the North in a continuous stream, one feels sure that they

must be identical with Northern congeners. It remains for those

who have an intimate knowledge of the country on either side of the

Fault to connect the broken links. Meantime, with the exception

of the Bramins (who may be traced all through India), I must notice

the people of the Southern countries separately.

Commonly as the term is used, it may be well to say a word

in justification of the use of the term ‘ Arians’ as applied to all

the Northern people. Not only are they known by the South-

erners as Aryas, (see Buchanan,) but in fact I believe the term to

be the correct one. JI am aware that some have set down the Jats

and others as Scythians and Turanians. I have no intention of quar-

relling with any one who chooses to call them Scythians, for that is

a very wide and uncertain word, which may have been applied to

Germans as well as to Jats. But if the word Turanian is applied to

Punjabees, in the sense of expressing that branch, of the human race

which we call Mongolian, the squat, flat-faced, peculiar eyed, beardless

people of Central, Northern, and Hastern Asia, then I say that

the term is wholly inapplicable. Anything more unlike Mongols

than the tall, handsome, high featured, long bearded Punjabees it .

is impossible to imagine. To say, on the strength of some obscure

similarity of names, that any of these people are Mongols and

Tartars, is not only as unfounded as the connection between Mon-

mouth and Macedon, but is opposed to the most palpable physical

facts. It would be about, as reasonable to say that the people of

Tamworth are really Negroes of Timbuctoo, because Tam and, Tim

are clearly the same word. An Englishman is not more unlike a

Negro, than a Punjabee is unlike a Mongol.

Pie Ethnology of India, 17

Assuming then that the North-Indians are what we call Caucasian

in feature, the only question would be whether they may be in any

degree Semitic. This there seems to be no ground for supposing ;

there is no radical trace of Semitic language, and we nowhere trace any

considerable immigration by land of Arabian or other Semitic tribes.

That being so, I hope that I may properly call the North-Indians

Arians, and extend the title to all those Indians in whom Arian

features predominate, even where they have been softened down and

otherwise qualified by intermixture.

Although I believe any division of the Northern tribes in India

into Arian and Turanian to be quite out of place, I have long had

an impression that the result of a thorough examination may be to

divide the Indian Arians into two classes; the earlier Arians, the de-

scendants of the most ancient Hindus, a people acute, literary, skilled

in arts, but not very warlike, and rather aristocratic than demo-

cratic in their institutions ; and the later Arians, warlike people—pos-

sibly once Scythians—democratic in their institutions, and rather

energetic than refined and literary. War does not seem to have been

one of the earliest arts ; we are told that the earliest Egyptians have left

little in their monuments which suggests that art, and it may be that

the earliest Hindus had little occasion for it, meeting with but simple

and peaceful savages. The later Arians appear, in my view, in their

manners and institutions more nearly to resemble the German tribes, and

perhaps to them might more properly be applied the term Indo-Germanic.

The earliest Hindus appear to have had an intimate connection with

the hills immediately adjoining India on the North-west, and there may

well have been gradual immigration from the hills to the plains. But

at a later period, when the people in possession of the North of India

had acquired considerable power, it seems hardly possible that large

bodies of conquering immigrants should have found their way to India

by Cabul andthe Khyber Pass. Those defiles are far too difficult to

be forced by strangers in large bodies accompanied by women and

children. The Affghans, and those who have ruledthe Affghans, have

had the command of the direct route ; but if Rajpoots, Jats &c. came

as immigrant peoples, they probably came by the route of the Bolan,

oceupying the high pastoral lands about Quettah, and thence descend-

ing into the plains below. We shall find accordingly that the Jats

18 The Ethnology of India.

(whom on this theory we may suppose to have been the latest comers)

occupy just the area which would tally with such a mode of immigra-

tion.

In physical appearance I would divide Indian Arians into two

classes, as far as we can call that a division which is only a question of

degree. The people of the extreme north, the pure Arians, large, fair,

high-featured, I shall call “ High-Arian” in type. The prominence

and beauty of their features is remarkable. ‘The brow is remarkably

high and well shaped; the nose connected by a high bridge with the

high brow is also well shaped, sometimes straight, more often

slightly curved ; the eyes are very fine, the lips thin, mouth of a good

shape, the beard long and full. The type once seen cannot be mistaken.

The prominence of the brow in adults somewhat conceals the eye, but

in the children it is something marvellous. On the other hand, the

more subdued features, more frequently approaching a low and snub-

nosed type, and resembling those which are common among the lower

classes in Europe, are in India generally accompanied by a shorter

(but still pretty robust) form, a skin darker (but still more brown than

black), and an appearance altogether inferior, but yet not aboriginal in

its style. This I shall call the ‘‘ Low-Arian” type.

In addition to the two main divisions, of aborigines, and modern

Indians, I propose to put under a third division, those whom I shall

generally describe as ‘‘ Borderers,” that is, the tribes on the borders,

whose blood and manners show the influence of immigrants of races

other than those already noticed. These meet and mix with the

native populations, and form some marked classes. On the West Coast

there has been a considerable immigration of Arabs and others; the same

has been the case in Lower Sinde. Along the whole line of the

Himalayas, and on the whole of the Eastern Frontier, Turanian races

meet the Indians. *

Thus then I have three main classes :—

1. Aborigines,

2. Modern Indians, and

3. Borderers.

The 2nd are of course by far the largest and most important class.

Besides making the distinction among modern Indians of high and

low Arians, there are one or two other points which I would

notice, before going into details.

The Ethnology of India. 19

I should like to class Hindus as High and Low Hindus. There

is a full-blown style of Hindus (principally Hindustanees) who have

adopted to the full all the modern Hindu superstitions and obser-

vances, who are very particular about their cooking and such matters,

and in consequence generally eat but one large meal once a day, whose

widows may not re-marry, and who are in a continual state of anxiety

about the rules of their caste. These are high Hindus. There is

another class of Hindus, much less particular, whose religion and

religious observances sit very easy upon them, whose widows re-marry,

and whose prejudices do not prevent their taking good wholesome

meals as often as they can. Such are the Punjabees, some of the

Hindustanees, and I believe a good many of the Southerners. These

I would call low Hindus.

With respect to caste, whatever there may once have been, there is

mow no proper Military caste. The fighting and dominant tribes are,

it may be said invariably, in the main Agricultural and are classed as

such. Why the old Vaisyas are sometimes said to have been the

Merchant class I do not understand. It is clear that they were the

body of free people, whose duty it was to till the land, keep flocks,

carry on trade, and many other things besides. The Soodras were

the Helots, ‘‘ whose duty is expressed in one word, viz., to serve the

other three classes,’”’ evidently the conquered race. Now-a-days it

seems to be considered that, except the Brahmins, almost all are

Soodras, that is, all have more or less intermixed with the lower races

and lost their purity of blood. Hindu Society then has lost its former

great divisions, and has been split up into an infinite variety of decent

castes of mixed parentage, who have absorbed the old Soodras, as

well as the Vaisyas. Under them again new tribes of Helots are

found, probably tribes more recently conquered.

The Agricultural tribes may, for the most part, be divided into

three classes :—

1. Those whose proclivities were originally Pastoral, and gene-

rally somewhat predatory.

2. Agricultural tribes in the proper sense, that is, Farmers—men

who both cultivate the soil on a large scale, and keep cattle and

waggons when the country is favorable to that kind of Farming.

These tribes are also most frequently those who have the greatest

20 The Ethnology of India.

Military vigor, and most democratic constitution, and generally occupy

the dominant position in the country.

3. The gardening tribes, 7. e., those who do the smaller and finer

farming and kitchen gardening. These are generally peaceable and

unmartial people.

I shall not always exactly follow this order, but shall take first the

tribes who are politically most important.

The Mercantile tribes I shall notice separately, and then the Writer

tribes, where such tribes exist. When I speak of literate occupation,

I mean exclusive of mercantile business, that being almost every-

where in the hands of mercantile castes. Next come the Artizans,

and finally the Helots and inferior classes.

Tur ABORIGINES.

In giving any general description of the Aborigines, f must premise

that it is by no means to be supposed that all or most of the indivi-

duals of the race will correspond to the description. The fact is that

the Aboriginal tribes now remaining are but like scattered remnants

of a substance floating here and there in a mass of water, into which

they have been all-but melted, and in which they are on the point of

disappearing. . By far the greater part of their substance has already

commingled in the fluid around them, the remainder is saturated with

it, and it is only in the very kernel and inner centre of the largest

lumps, that something like the pure original substance is to be found.

There is not in Peninsular India any very large tract of very high

and difficult country ; the Aboriginal tribes are for the most part not

collected in any great masses supporting one another, but are found

in small and detached tribes here and there, wherever a bunch of

hills or an unhealthy jungle has given them a refuge. Even in these

retreats, they are everywhere closely surrounded by, and to a consider-

able extent penetrated, or as I called it, saturated with an Arian

element which modifies both their features and their language.

Another circumstance has perhaps almost as much contributed to

modify many of these tribes. There seems to be no doubt that at

points in Indian history, where one dominant race has given way and

before another has been fully established, tribes of hardy aborigines

from the hills, accustomed to the use of weapons in the chase and

The Ethnology of India. 21

probably to a good deal of robbery, have come down on the enervated

people of the plains and valleys, and have established a temporary

dominion over considerable tracts of country. Just as on the depart-

ure of the Romans and before the establishment of Teutonic rule,

the Picts and Scots came down on the cultivated portions of Britain,

so it seems certain that, at periods long subsequent to the glories of

the Solar and Lunar Rajpoots, Aboriginal Bhurs and Cheroos estab-

lished considerable principalities in parts of Oude and of the Benares

and Behar Provinces. So also Bheels, Mairs, and Kolees seem to

have had at one time considerable power in Rajpootana and Goojerat.

In comparatively modern times, the Bedas or Beders (whose name is

I believe really identical with that of the Vedahs or Vedders) seem to

have established considerable power in the South, and the Gonds in

Central India acquired quite a wide dominion. Under such cireum-

stances, the savage conquerors are generally themselves socially conquer-

ed, and the tribes so situated, while gaining some civilisation, lose much

of their peculiarities of blood and feature, and more of their language.

By far the largest tract in which the Aboriginal tribes prevail,

and may be said to form the mass of the inhabitants, is that

extending through the hilly country from the western and southern

borders of Bengal, Behar and Benares to the frontiers of the Hydera-

bad and Madras territories, and from the Hastern Ghats inland to the

civilised portions of the Nagpore territory; but even in this tract it

appears that there are evident monuments of old Hindoo civilisation,

showing that Hindoos, or at any rate Sivites, had at one time a far

greater hold on much of this country than they now have, and that

probably after being partially civilised, it was gained back by the

Aborigines. Even now this country is intersected by settled and

cultivated tracts. Hindoos are scattered about it, and there is an

admixture of Hindoo blood. Still, in all this part of the country,

Aboriginal tribes muster very strong, and they preserve their lan-

guage, their manners, and their peculiarities much better than elsewhere.

Tt is, however, as I have said, only in the heart and kernel of the

best preserved tribes, that we must look for the real original character-

istics existing in a palpable and little-diluted form. In less pure

specimens, they will be found less distinct. My impression is that, if

we look cafefully, they will seldom be altogether wanting. The

29. The Hihnology of India.

thick-lipped expression of countenance lingers long. The Gond Raja

of Nagpore is of a family for generations civilised and Mahommedan,

doubtless of very far from pure Aboriginal blood, and rather fair-

skinned, but even in him I noticed the thick lips as prominent as in

an African. Major Tickell seems to describe the ‘ Hos,’ who are iden-

tical with ‘ Lurka Coles’ and closely allied to Moondahs and Sontals

(one of the ugliest of races), as handsome ; but everything is compara-

tive, and I suspect that this beauty is of the same kind as that which

enthusiastic African travellers are constantly discovering in Negro

tribes. The Hos of the border land have probably much intermixed

with QOoriahs, and are less ugly than their congeners are always

described to be.

Setting aside then the numerous half-breeds, borderers, and people

of imperfect type, I take it that the general physical type of all the

purest Aboriginal tribes, is that which is commonly known as Negrito.

They are small and slight, very black, face broad and flat, the thick

lips already mentioned very prominent, noses broad and nostrils wide; —

beard scanty, hair very abundant and tangled, of a shock-headed

appearance, sometimes curly or even woolly. The peculiar Mongolian

or Chinese form of the eye is not conspicuous, and altogether the

features and the face are rather what we best know as African than

Mongolian. This description crops up everywhere in all the various

descriptions of Aboriginal tribes. I have not collected all these testi-

monies, but I will give one or two on which I can lay my hands.

Col. Dalton says, “The Jushpore Oraons are the ugliest of the race,

with foreheads ‘ villainous low,’ flat noses and projecting maxillaries,

they approach the Negro in physiognomy.’”’ And again, “ The Kaurs,

next to the Jushpore Oraons, are the ugliest race I have seen, dark,

coarse-featured, wide mouths and thick lips.” In a note which he

was good enough to send in answer to some inquiries which I made,

he adds, “‘ The Oraons have more of the African type of feature, and I

have seen amongst them woolly heads.” An isolated tribe on the

Hast Coast, called ‘ Chenchwars,’ are described in similar terms, and said

to be “ just what you might suppose to result from the crossing of the

Malacca Aborigines with the common people of this country,” the

Malacca Aborigines being very marked Negritos. The Savage Gonds

in the forests east of the Wyngunga seem to be of a similat type. So

The Eihnology of India. 23

in the papers with which I have been favoured from Bombay, I find

that Major Keatinge, describing the three tribes of Gonds, Koors, and

Bheels who meet about Asseerghur, says, “ All three tribes are very

black, with a decidedly African expression when met in the centres of

their country.” And Capt. Probyn, speaking of the more civilised

Gonds who are now, he says, finer and fairer, still adds, ‘‘ with some-

what African features,” Major Keatinge adds what illustrates that

which I have already said, ‘‘ On the outskirts of their country, their

features are much modified, showing plainly that they do not succeed

in keeping their blood pure. The Chiefs have generally made it a

point to get women of other castes into their households, and I have

consequently observed that none of them have the national features.’’

In the South, the Chermars of Malabar are described as “‘ very di-

minutive, with a very black complexion, with not unfrequently woolly

hair.” And of some of the tribes of the Kodagherry hills it is said that

** flattened noses, dark complexion and large white teeth filed into the

form of a saw give them an African appearance.” The Nagadees are

said to be ‘fin complexion invariably of the deepest black, their hair

thick and curly, their features brutish, their forms diminutive,’’

That the type which I have described prevailed among the Aborigines

generally in ancient times, is evident from the Purans, where they

are described in extremely uncomplimentary terms as ‘ vile monstevs,’

‘allied to monkeys,’ ‘as black as crows,’ ‘ of flattened features and of

dwarfish stature.’ Their long thick matted hair is also particularly

mentioned.

The ancient Greeks also describe the South-Indians as like Ethio-

pians, and it is difficult to assign any other country to the Oriental

Kthiopians of Herodotus.

It may be stated,*as a physical peculiarity of the Aboriginal tribes,

that most of them seem to have a remarkable power of resisting

malaria, and thrive in the most malarious jungles where no other

‘human beings-can live. This may, however, be the result of long

habit; some tribes inhabiting healthy localities sicken easily enough

elsewhere. i

The languages of the Aborigines seem to have all this much in

common, that they are of the structure described as Turanian. They

are neither like the Monosyllabic Chinese on the one hand, nor on the

24 The Ethnology of India.

other like those Arabian and African languages which seem to form

their changes by variations in the body of the word. The Indian

Aboriginal languages, in common with the Hindustanee, the Turkish,

and some Arian tongues, seem to form declensions, conjugations, and

derivations, and to supply the place of what we call ‘ prepositions’ by

post-positions and post-inflections. The verb or governing word comes

at the end of the sentence, instead of at the beginning as in English,

somewhat thus, our order being just reversed.

Rem acu tetigit

Cheez sui-se chuha

Thing needle with touched he.

The word ‘ Turanian,’ as applied to an immense class of languages,

does not, however, imply any immediate connection with Thibetans

or Mengolians, from whom the Indian Aborigines are physically so

world-wide asunder. It is used in that very wide sense which in-

cludes not only all the Mongolian races, but all the Polynesian races,

and all the Negritoes of the Indian Archipelago, Australia, and Van

Diemen’s land. A few vocables are said to be found, common to the

Dravidian tongues and to some other Turanian languages. But the

greatest resemblance is said to be not to the nearer Mongolians, but to

the most distant Finns, and it is at the same time admitted that there

are at least as great indications of a special connection with the

Australian Negritoes. It may then generally be said, that both in

physique and in the structure of their language, the Aborigines present

a type analogous to that of the Negritoes of the South Seas, Papuans,

Tasmanians and others, as well as to the nearer Negritoes of Malacca

and the Andamans. ;

That which I have already said of the general character of the laws

and institutions of the Non-Arians as distinguished from the Arians, is

all that I can give as common to all these tribes. On this and many

other points, we require much more information.

One tribe only I must except, as quite without and beyond the

general descriptions of the Aborigines which I have given, viz. the

Todas of the upper plateau of the Neilgherry hills. They are not

properly Hindoos, but no one who sees them, would for a moment

suppose that they belong to the Negrito races. They are evidently

Caucasians of a high type. In truth they are but avery small tribe; the

The Ethnology of India. 25

common tradition and consent of the country makes it clear that they

came as conquering immigrants to their present position at a compara-

tively recent period, and their pastoral habit renders their migration

easy. Their language, so small a body may well have almost lost

during their wanderings among Dravidians. They may be anything

Caucasian, and from anywhere ; ordinary Aborigines they are not. It has

been said, that in their speech some words have a resemblance to the

Brahui dialect, but personally they do not seem to resemble Brahuis,

they are rather like Greeks.

The points of structure which I have given, as common to all the

Aboriginal languages, are, it will be observed, of the widest character.

And this brings me to the fact that by the test of language the

Aboriginal tribes may be divided into two great classes, having very

few vocables in common. The first great division is that of the tribes

speaking dialects radically allied to the civilised languages of the

South, commonly called the Dravidian languages. These then I shall

call the Dravidian Aborigines. There is no doubt that the wild tribes

of the southern hills speak wild and primitive forms of the southern

languages. The Carambers seem to be ancient Tamil speakers, the

Maleasurs of the Western Ghats approach nearer to the Malayala.

The Burghers and Kotahs speak a primitive Canarese, the Ramooses,

a language which seems to be for the most part Telagoo.

The Gond language is as clearly Dravidian as Telagoo or Tamil, and

the Gonds are so considerable a people that the Gondee might almost be

added to the list of regular languages of the southern type. The

name Khond is so like Gond that, next neighbours as they are, one

would almost suppose the words to be the same. They are said to be

different, but at any rate the Khonds also are shown by their language

to be clearly Dravidian. More distant is the tongue of the Oraon

tribe, to whose physical characteristics I have already alluded, and who

are now found among tribes of the other division (to be presently

noticed) in the Chota-N agpore territory. But the radicals and main

features of the Oraon language leave no doubt that they are of

Dravidian stock—a circumstance which does not suprise us, aS we

learn that they are comparatively recent immigrants from the west

into their present locations. East of them again, in the Rajmahal

hills, we have the last of the Dravidian tribes (so far as has yet been

26 The Ethnology of India.

ascertained), speaking a language akin to that of the Oraons. Those

hills form a kind of knot at the extreme eastern point of the hill

country of Central India. It was known that the people were entirely

different from their neighbours the Santals. The latter cultivate the

lower lands, and it may at first sight seem surprising that the higher

grounds should be in the possession of more recent settlers of a distant

southern stock. The fact, however, seems to be explained by the

plundering habits of the Rajmahal hillmen. They seem to have

occupied those hills as a kind of stronghold, from which they could

conveniently plunder the plains around them.

The greater part of the Chota-Nagpore division and adjoining tracts

is occupied by tribes whom I take as representative of the second or

northern division of the Aborigines. There are ‘ Lurka Coles,’ ‘ Hos,’

‘ Bhoomiz,’ ‘ Moondahs,’ and Santals, and wilder tribes of the border

hills, all speaking dialects of a language very different from the

Dravidian. In fact, so far as vocables go, no substantial connection can

be traced. Max Miller speaks of these tongues as quite unconnected

with any other. Still I venture to think that there seems to be some

similarity of structure between them and the Dravidian languages.

Major Tickell has published in the Journal of the Society a grammar

of the Hos or Lurka Col language ; and I note the following as a few

of the peculiarities common to it and to the Dravidian tongues, as the

latter are set forth by Dr. Caldwell.

First, there is the general coincidence of structure, which I have

already noticed as common to all the Aboriginal tongues as well as to

Hindustanee, Turkish, &c. In this respect, the northern Aborigines

do not differ, and they similarly use postpositions, &e.

Further. In the Dravidian tongues there is no regular gender,

all inanimate things are neuter, and the terms male and female are

prefixed when necessary.

It seems to be the same in the northern aboriginal tongues.

Adjectives do not decline, nor are there degrees of Sgtnplnisee

Tt is the same in the northern tongues.

There are two forms of the first person plural, one to include, and the

other to exclude the person addressed.

This peculiarity also is found among the northern tribes, as well as

in the Australian tongues.

The Ethnology of India. 27

Relative participles are used instead of relative pronouns in both

classes of languages.

The northern tongues seem to be considered more highly inflected

than the Dravidian, and they have a regular dual form which the

others have not. The verbs have no passive voice.

Tt would seem to imply a higher organisation in the northern

aboriginal languages, that the vocabularies show them to be more

complete, and less to borrow from their neighbours all words beyond

the very simplest. For instance, in the matter of numbers, while the

Gonds do not go beyond ten, the Oraons beyond four, nor the

Rajmahalees beyond two in Dravidian numbers, (borrowing all the rest

from the Hindee,) the Coles and Santals count upto high numbers

in their own tongue, only using scores instead of the decimal notation

of hundreds, as do many Arian tribes. I have seen it stated that the

Dravidian Khonds count by dozens.

Max Miller remarks that savage tribes, with no letters to fix

their tongues, alter their speech much more rapidly than civilised

nations ; and it may be that, when we have two groups of people adjoin-

ing one another and with a general physical similarity, suchea general

structural resemblance of language as I have noticed may mark a

remote common origin, even when the community of vocables can no

longer be traced. But at any rate, the difference is now so wide as to

establish, as I have said, two distinctly marked groups.

The generic name usually applied to the Aborigines of the hill

country of Chota-Nagpore, Mirzapore and Rewah is ‘ Coles’ or ‘ Koles.’

Europeans apply the term to the Dravidian Oraons as well as to the

others, but perhaps erroneously. It is difficult to say to which tribes

the name is properly applied, for most of them have other distinctive

names. But in the south of the Chota-Nagpore country, about

Singbhoom, Ge. it is certainly applied to the ‘ Lurka Coles,’ and I can

myself testify that on the Mirzapore-Jubbulpore road, the Aborigines

are called by the natives Coles or Kolees, which they volunteered to

explain to me to be the same word “‘ which you call Coolee.” On the

Bombay side again a very numerous class of Aborigines are styled

Kolees. In the Simla hills also, the inferior people are known as

Kolees. Altogether I have myself little doubt that the ordinary word

Coolee, as applied to a bearer of burdens or labourer, is the same word,

98 The Ethnology of India.

and that in short it is the word generally applied by the Northern

Indians to the Aboriginal tribes, most of whom they reduced to the

condition of Helots.

There seems to be good reason to suppose that the original form of

the word was ‘ Kola’ or ‘ Kolar.’ In fact, India seems to have been

known to the ancients (who approached it coastwise from the West) as

Colara or Coolee-land (Asiatic Researches, Vol. IX.) and the people as

Colaurians. If Kolar be the original form of Kolee, it would seem

not improbable that, as in the mouths of some tribes by dropping the ‘ 7’

it became Kola or Kolee, so in the mouths of others, by dropping the

‘?’ it would become Koar, Kaur, Koor, Khar or Khor, a form which

would embrace a large number of those tribes as now designated. I

propose then to call the northern tribes Kolarian or Coolee Aborigines.

One may see frequent allusion to Kolarees or Colleries in the south

of India. It appears that the word there used is properly ‘ Kallar,’

In the Canarese language, the word ‘ Kallar,’ it seems, simply means a

thief or robber, and hence some of the predatory Aborigines of the

hills, are designated Kallars or robbers, just as the thieves of Central

Asia are*called ‘ Kazaks’ or ‘ Cossacks.’ The word is applied so

differently from that of Coolee, that there may fairly be doubt of its

being the same. But the subject is worthy of farther inquiry, and if

it prove that in fact the two words are identical, the term Coolee or

Kolarian must be applied to the Aboriginal tribes generally, not to one

division of them. Meantime, however, I apply it to the Northern

tribes only, but I confess I have misgivings whether the more general

sense may not prove to be the true one.

Beyond the difference of language, I am unable to state with con-

fidence any very marked features distinguishing the Dravidian and

Kolarian groups of tribes (each taken as a whole) from one another.

But a marked difference in habits, manners, and national characteristics,

has been found to exist where the two classes are in the closest conti-

euity. The Santals and Rajmahalees are known to present a marked —

contrast, and on the Chota-Nagpore plateau I am told that -“ the

difference is so great, that they appeared to be quite another nation,”

and ‘their customs, appearance, even manners, are very different.”

Of these differences we have not the details, but I hope that they may

be furnished in Col. Dalton’s promised paper on the Coles,

The Ethnology of India. 29

The Kolarian Santals are a very ugly race, and I gather that their

neighbours, the Dravidian Rajmahalees, have rather the advantage of

them in this respect, but these latter have probably kidnapped a good

many Arian women from the plains. I have fancied that I have noticed

in some of the ‘ Dhangar’ labourers in and about Calcutta, a peculiar

little ‘pique’ ‘retroussé’ sort of nose, as distinguished from the flat

broad-nosed features of the Santals, but this scarcely amounts to an

observation. It may be noticed that in the passages which I have

quoted in regard to the general type of the Aborigines, the African

style was more especially attributed to Dravidian Oraons, Gonds and

Chenchwars, &c. The Kolarians, Kaurs, Khairwars and Koors, are

also represented as only one degree less ill-favoured ; so, on the whole,

I imagine that in point of personal appearance there is not much to

choose between the two groups.. Ethnographers seem to distinguish

the Negritoes of the Southern Seas into two groups, a woolly or curly-

haired group, and a straight-haired group ; perhaps there may be found

to have been some such division in India.

The Santals and most of their immediate congeners, are certainly

amore simple, mild, and industrious race than the Rajmahalees, Gonds,

Khonds, and Southern Kallar tribes; but again the Lurka Coles seem

to be warlike, and the hill Khorewahs are described as wild savages,

armed with battle axes and bows and arrows. On the whole, I should

rather imagine that the Kolarians are more frequently good Coolees,

and the Dravidians oftener troublesome Kallars.

The descriptions of the Aborigines as a good-natured people, ever

dancing and singing (in a way that reminds one of the pleasanter

descriptions of the Negroes,) I find to be applied to the Kolarians,—

Santals, Moondahs, Khorewahs, &c.—more than to the Dravidian tribes,

As respects religion, although the indications are too slight for any

confident generalisation, the accounts of the Kolarian creed seem

pleasanter than those of the Dravidian beliefs and rites. The latter

seem to deal in demonology, fetishism, frantic dances, bloody and

even human sacrifices, in a way which reminds us of the worst African

types; while several different accounts of Northern Aborigines, in widely

different parts of the country, represent them as reverencing in an

inoffensive way the sun, moon, and Lord of tigers, and mild and innocent

Bhoots or household spirits. The superstitious belief in tigers’ claws

50 The Ethnology of India.

as a charm, is shared with the Aborigines by all the Hindustanees.

Another practice of the Aborigines the latter also have in hilly tracts,

the heaping up cairns of stones at particular points, and tying bits of

rag to a particular tree as votive offerings. This last may be seen

anywhere, and these practices are probably very widely spread.

If there really be such a distinction between the Dravidian and

Kolarian religions as that at which I have hinted, it is very like a

similar distinction in Africa. In a work on South Africa by the

Rev. Mr. Grout, we are told that the gods of the Hottentots are

above, the sun, moon, &c. while those of the Kaffirs and more war-

like Negroes south of the line are below, demons and evil spirits.

Among some of the latter too are seen the horrid rites and bloody

sacrifices. It strikes me that there is some resemblance in appearance

between Hottentots and Santals.

A curious testimony to the ancient rights of the Indian ‘ Boomeas’

or people of the soil, is the practice in many parts of Central India

where Hindu chiefs are dominant, that a new chief on his accession

receives the teka or investiture from the blood of an Aboriginal Kole,

Gond or Bheel.

I proceed to mention the various tribes in detail, so far as my imper-

fect knowledge of them permits.

The Aboriginal tribes now living apart from the general population

in the South of India, appear to be very small and scattered. They

are there for the most part absorbed in the general social system.

Pariahs and others, as is well known, merely form a lower social grade.

The robber tribes, Beders and such like, seem for the most part to

have robbed themselves into a respectable and even aristocratical posi-

tion. The Beders in some parts of Mysore now form a consideravle

portion of the population, and they have many Polygarships. There

seems to be some doubt whether the Badagras and Kotas of the lower

Neilgherry hills are properly Aborigines, they being, it appears, immi-

grants in those parts, and the Carambers the true Aborigines. I have

not been able to meet with any very connected or detailed account of

the thoroughly Aboriginal tribes of the hills and forests of the

Neilgherries, Pulneys, and Western Ghats. The word Maleasur seems

to mean simply a hillman, and the more proper tribal designations

appear to be Carambers, Irulars, Puliars, and Veders. These seem to

The Ethnology of India. al

be tribes in the very lowest stage of savageness, with in fact scarcely

any agriculture, mere men of the woods. ‘They are represented as of

very diminutive stature, with thickly matted locks and supple limbs,

living under trees in caverns or in the rudest wigwams, keeping

sheep or collecting forest produce, very stupid but also very mild and

inoffensive, except that they have a great reputation as sorcerers, and

themselves believing in a religion of demons and witchcraft, are by

their neighbours believed to be highly gifted that way. Altogether

they seem to be very inferior to the simple but sturdy and industrious

Coolees of the north.

The Chenchwars, already mentioned, and several very petty and

isolated tribes exist in the Hastern Ghats about and north of Madras.

T can only give the names of ‘‘ Chendaurs” and ‘‘ Yende” as near the

Kistna and Pulicat Lake. Allusions seem to be made to the existence

of Aboriginal or quasi-Aboriginal tribes at different points in the

Western Ghats and Coasts; the name of “ Chermars’” and ‘“‘ Neade”?

are mentioned in Travancore and Cochin, but they are no doubt the

same as Chermars and Nagadees, the slaves of Malabar. ‘The Dhers

and Ramooses of the centre and west of the Peninsula seem to be mixed

with the general population. On all these points more precise informa-

tion is much required. ‘

It is not till we cross the Godavery to the north, that we come to

the country really held by the Aborigines.

In the highlands between the Godavery and the Mahanaddee, the

savage Khonds, notorious for their human sacrifices, are to the Nast,

the barbarous and less known tribes of Gonds to the West and more

in the interior.

The Khonds appear to be in contact with Hindus and to have some

of that race among them. Their blood is probably somewhat mixed,

and they are not described as so ugly and ultra-Aboriginal as some

other tribes.

Of the Gonds of the forests of Bustar and thence running up towards

the Wyngunga we know very little, except that they are extreme

Savages, black, ugly, barbarous and dangerous. The name ‘“ Marees”

seems to be there applied to them, and they appear to be nearly inde-

pendent, owning a scant allegiance to chiefs whose blood is for the most

part Gond, From thence the Gonds extend a long way North, and

32 The Ethnoloyy of India.

occupy a broad tract east and west wherever the country is jungly or

hilly, but becoming more and more civilised and more dominant over

others as we go northwards. The valley of Sumbhulpore may be

taken as for the most part marking the division between the Gond

country on one side, and that of the Aborigines of northern stock

on the other.

On the east the Gonds, under the name of Gours, extend into the

borders of the Chota-Nagpore agency in Oodeypore and Sirgoojah,

but they are there much Hinduised and have lost their language. The

Raja of Sirgoojah, though pretending to be a Rajpoot, is suspected to

be a Gour; at any rate the Gours are there the dominant tribe.

Thence westward along the line of the Sautpoora hills, through all the

hilly country of the districts of Mandla, Jubbulpore, Seonee, Chand-

wara, Baitool and Hoshangabad, in fact in some degree to the neigh-

bourhood of Asseerghur, the Gonds predominate. In the wilder parts,

they speak their own Aboriginal language, and seem there to be a

simple and not intractable people, following both pastoral and agricul-

tural pursuits. In the older maps, the name Gondwana is given to a

wider tract of country in this part of Central India, being that which

was in modern times rather politically than ethnologically Gond.

The Gonds (in a somewhat civilised form) were in fact for some time

masters of all this part of the country, including the open and culti-

vated tracts about Nagpore, Raepore, Jubbulpore, &c. and perhaps as

far as Ellichpore on the one hand, and on the other to the south of the

Godayery, where some of them are found among the ordinary Telinga

population. Deogurh in the Sautpooras was the chief seat of their

power. They immediately preceded the Marattas. These latter

ousted them from the open and valuable tracts, and they do not now

- form any considerable part of the population of the plain country, but

they maintained a feudal dominion in much of the hilly country ; and

to this day not only the chiefs and large zemindars of the Sautpoora

range, but most of the men of considerable position in parts of Saugor

and other districts north of the Nerbudda are, I understand, Gonds,

diluted or improved Gonds as the case may be, (most of them wish to

become Rajpoots, and others have become Mussulmans), but still Gonds.

Following up the Dravidian tribes, we next come to the Oraons, now

located in the midst of Kolarian tribes and much mixed up with

The Ethnology of India. 33

them, The Gonds or Gours have been mentioned as found in a not

very pure form in the west of Oodeypore, and Sirgoojah of the Chota-

Nagpore division. In the highlands to the east of those states and

of Jushpore, the Oraons are found. Col. Dalton mentions them as form-

ing the greater part of the population of a considerable portion of the

Juskpore highlands, and it is these whom he describes as the ugliest of

the race. Thence eastwards the Oraons have pushed themselves into

the proper country of the Moondahs (of Kolarian race) in the plateau

of the Chota-Nagpore district and adjoining country. They must

have been strong, to effect an ingress to a country not originally their

own, but I do not understand that they are now at all dominant over

the others. In fact they seem to have very much adopted the habits

of the Kolarians, among whom or in contact with whom they live,

are industrious and laborious, and as much as the others contribute to

the supply of the labour market of Bengal. I understand that they

form a considerable proportion of the Calcutta Dhangars ; that last

term being one the proper meaning of which I cannot ascertain, but

which, so far as I can learn, is applied generically to the aboriginal

labourers in Calcutta.

Separated from the Oraons by a considerable space (principally of

lower but still more or less hilly country, occupied by mixed tribes of

Kolarians, Hindustanees, and Bengalees), are the Dravidian Rajma-

halees, whose proper tribal name, I have not ascertained. They are

sometimes called Maler, but that is merely the Dravidian form for

mountaineers, the word applied to so many of these tribes.

These are the men who are well known in connection with Mr.

Cleveland’s endeavours to tame and reform them. They seem to have

been in those days terrible depredators. That all the parts of India

adjoiming the Central hills, both at this point and throughout a con-

siderably wider range, were in times of anarchy dreadfully subject to

injury from the hill-men, is still attested by the numerous and exten-

sive ‘ghatwallee’ tenures held all along the foot of the hills and

about the Ghats and passes. They are particularly numerous in the

Bhaugulpore and Beerbhoom districts, adjoining the Rajmahal hills

on either side. Such estates pay little or no revenue, but are held on

the condition of guarding the passes against hill robbers, murderers,

and cattle-lifters, The hill-men have been successfully reclaimed,

34 The Ethnology of Indva.

I believe that they cultivate quietly, and there appears to be now

little complaint against them. Organised and serious raids on the

plains are, I understand, unknown. The Rajmahal men are those who

were enlisted into the British military service to form the local corps

known as the Bhaugulpore Hill Rangers ; but when the usually quiet

Santals were impelled by a sense of wrong to a headlong sort of

rebellion, the other (and it was supposed more military) race forming

the Rangers, when opposed to them, by no means distinguished

themselves, and they have since, I think, been disbanded.

I now pass to the Kolarian tribes. The more civilised and numerous

tribes of this race, occupying an extensive country about 150 miles

_west from Calcutta, and known as Moondahs, Bhoomiz, Hos, and

Santals, speak languages so nearly identical, that they may all

be regarded as Sub-divisions of one people. They are in fact very

like one another in many ways. They occupy most of the British

districts of Chota-Nagpore, Singbhoom, Maunbhoom, and the hilly part

of Bhaugulpore (Rajmahal hills excepted) now known as the Santal

Pergunnahs; also parts of West Burdwan, Midnapore and Cuttack.

They are a simple industrious people, and are reputed to be

remarkably honest and truthful. Their country is healthy and,

unlike most aboriginal tribes in most parts of the world, they seem

by no means to be dying out, but multiply and supply the labour

market. Partly on account of the cheapness of labour in their

country, partly on account of their tractable disposition and freedom

from all caste and food prejudices, and more especially, I think, because

-of that want of attachment to the soil which distinguishes the

Aboriginal from the Arian, they are much sought after and highly

prized as labourers. Many of them are settled in the service of Bengal

Indigo-planters ; they are very well known as labourers on the Railways,

roads, and other works of Western Bengal ; and they are now, I believe,

the favourite material for emigration to Assam. Unfortunately,

however, coming from a healthy high and dry country, they have not

that capacity for resisting malaria for which the wilter tribes are

remarkable, and seem to die very rapidly.

In the Chota-Nagpore country, the ‘ Moondahs’ seem to have so far

adopted Arian manners, as to live together in considerable villages,

instead of apart in detached houses or isolated hamlets, according to

The Ethnology of India. 35

the common practice of these tribes; but I am told that so great is

their instability and want of attachment to any particular spot, that

not unfrequently, on some petty quarrel with their zemindar, a whole

village will abandon their houses and seek other locations, or put

themselves under the guidance of a Coolee recruiting-agent. The Hos

and Bhoomiz* of the lower parts of Singbhoom and Maunbhoom, seem

to be tolerably civilised. The Santals, though geographically near

the plains, seem to be among the most shy and socially-isolated of.

the race. They cultivate the lower lands of their country, but seem to

have kept very much to themselves, and to prefer locations surrounded

by jungle and segregated from the world. They too, however, have

now taken much to labour for hire, and they must have become

intimate with Europeans. In the case of these people is to be found

practical illustration of a truth of wider application in India, viz. that

in a mere pecuniary and commercial point of view, tact and scrupulous

fairness in dealing with the natives are more effectual than all other

means, and go farther than any laws and any administration. I believe

that certain of the Railway Engineers, who have gained the special

confidence of the Santals and allied tribes, construct the railway mile

for mile infinitely cheaper than any others.

On the borders of the hills, a set of half-breeds seem to be not only by

profession Ghatwals, but to constitute a sort of caste under that name.

I have alluded to the language of these Kolarian tribes. One

would hope or expect here to find the origin of the non-Arian

elements of the Hindee and other northern languages. This, however,

has not yet been so. It is difficult to distinguish between words

borrowed by the Aborigines from the modern Hindustanee or Bengalee

and those of acommon origin. A few of the words in Hodgson’s lists are

like Hindee, but most of them seem to be Arian words. Sdéme words

seem to be used throughout India as ‘ Donga,’ a boat, and some are

words of much wider use as ‘ Ka’ ‘ Kahee’ or ‘ Kova,’ a crow and ‘ Pussi,’

a cat. It is then no doubt the case that the very brief and imperfect

vocabularies of the Kolarian tongues yet published, have not shown

an immediate connection with any other known language. More

*% Bhoomiz, I believe merely means ‘ people of the soil’ from Bhoomi, being

nearly the same word as the Persian * Zemindar. What the Hindoo tribes are

to the Mahomimedans, the aborigines are to the Hindoos.

36 The Ethnology of India.

minute inquiry would be very desirable. Besides a more exact and

full grammar, I think it would be well to separate out from the Hindee

a list of non-Sanscrit words of common use, (and which are not also

common to the greater part of the world, such as ‘‘ kowa,” a crow, and

some of the universal Turanian words), and having thus got what I may

call a Hindee proper vocabulary, to compare it carefully with the

dialects of the Santals, &.

In addition to the semi-civilised tribes which I have mentioned,

nearly the same language is spoken by the wilder Lurka Coles of the

hills to the West of the Singbhoom district. North of these latter

again, in the highest hills to the North of Jushpore, and in those

between Sirgoojah and Palamow, Col. Dalton mentions a considerable

tribe called Khorewahs, who speak much the same language, whose

manners and habits are the same, and who are evidently of the same

stock, though much less civilised; some, he says, utterly savage and

almost Nomadic. They are said to be of small stature, but better

looking and lighter than their neighbours, the Dravidian Oraons, with

shaggy heads of hair and some beard.

Mention is made of some other very wild tribes scattered about the

Chota-Nagpore division, Kherrias (who are a mystery even to Col.

Dalton), Bendkurrs and Birhores in the south of the division, and

Bhuhars or Boyars (not to be confounded with very different Bhuyas to

be subsequently noticed) in the north; but the languages and affinities

of these tribes have not been ascertained sufficiently to place them.

They are described as ‘‘ regularly wild inhabitants of the hills and jun-

gles, who have no fixed villages, but move about from place to place,

burning down the jungles, sowing in the ashes, and after reaping

what is produced, going elsewhere.”

On the Sumbulpore borders, the Coles, intermixed among the Gonds,

are said to be known as “ Kirkees.”’

Mr. Samuells mentioned a wild tribe in the jungles of Cuttack,

whom he calls ‘Janguas,’ perfect savages, small, slender, nearly

naked, and horrid in appearance. They speak a strange language,

and he gives a few words, some of which seem like the language

of the Santals, &c , as ‘ Minnah,’ one, and ‘ Bana,’ two.

The Aboriginal tribes near Cuttack strike a bargain by breaking

a straw.

The Ethnology of India. 37

In some places the word ‘ Soor’ or ‘Sourah’ seems to be used, as

if the same as ‘ Santal;’ and Mr. Stirling, in an article on Cuttack,

Gn the Asiatic Researches) enumerates ‘ Santals’ and ‘ Soors’

separately among the tribes of Coles. It would seem then ag if

Soors or Sourahs were a tribe of Santals on the borders of the

Cuttack division. But the Soors under the hills north of the

Mahanaddee, while described as small, mean, and very black, and like

the Santals naturally harmless, peaceable and industrious, are also

said to be without moral sense and ready to cut firewood or other men’s

throats indifferently, an accusation not, I think, brought against the

Santals.

Again, Macpherson tells us, that the hill tribes south of the Khonds,

and running up to near the Godavery, are Sourahs. That is quite a

different location, and I have not found any farther account of these

Sourahs, Caldwell says that the Tamil people were anciently called

“Sorahs,’ but as they are the most Dravidian of all the southern

people, they can hardly be allied to the Kolarian Santals, and the

word must be different. The whole subject requires a good deal

of fresh light.

Passing north, I have till now reserved, for separate notice, the

tribes chiefly prevailing in the district of Palamow, the hilly country

of Mirzapore and Rewah, and the borders of Benares and Behar.

These are the Aboriginal tribes most directly in contact with the

modern Hindustanees, and there is this difficulty about classifying

them, that I have not been able to ascertain their original language.

They now generally speak some sort of dialect of the Hindee, and

are more mixed with the Hindustanees, perhaps I may say generally

more civilised, than the tribes located farther in the interior of the

hills. The principal tribe of these parts are called ‘ Kharwars’ or

‘ Kharawars.’ There is also a widely spread tribe of ‘ Rajwars.’ A

division of the Kharwars are called ‘ Bhogtahs.’ The Kharwars seem

to be altogether the dominant tribe of .Palamow and Singrowlee

(the Mirzapore hill country). Both Kharwars and Rajwars are also

found in considerable numbers westward, in parts of Sirgoojah and

Jushpore, while to the north-east, in the parts of the plains adjoin-

ing the hills, they are numerous. In the Gya district, near the

hills, the Rajwars are the chief labouring class. They live in the

38 The Ethnology of India.

villages as a kind of serfs and bearers of burdens, carry palanquins,

and when out of employ, are apt to be thieves and robbers. A little

farther west, the Kharwars seem to perform the same functions ; they

are mentioned by Buchanan as in the outskirts of the Patna and

Arrah Districts. On the road from Mirzapore to Jubbulpore, where

it passes through Rewah, &c., the palanquin bearers and coolies are

Aborigines. When I passed that way some time ago, not having

then gone into the subject, I did not ask the particular tribe, nor

have I since been able to ascertain it, but in all probability they are

Kharwars.

All these people have in their faces unmistakeable marks of their

aboriginal origin. But they speak Hindee. ‘This then brings us to

the difficulty about language. Col. Dalton is not aware of any

Aboriginal language spoken by the Kharwars. I have had the im-

pression that in the Mirzapore district they spoke their own language ;

and Capt. Blunt, who in the last century made a remarkable journey

from Chunar right through the hills to the Godavery (see Asiatic

Researches, Vol. 7), almost at the outset of his journey mentions the

Kharawars of the Singrowlee hills as very savage, and speaking a

separate and quite unintelligible language. But the Rev. R. C.

Mather of Mirzapore, who has been good enough to write for me a

note on the subject (of which I have already made use), and who

refers toa tour made by the Rev. Mr. Jones, is unable to say that

any aboriginal language exists in these parts. He says that both

the Kharwars and another similar tribe, locally called ‘ Majhwars,’

speak the Hindee, or at least understand it when spoken. It would

be very interesting to ascertain if the remains of an original language

exists among these people, for with them more especially we should

expect to find the non-Aryan Hindee roots. If aboriginal tribes

so situated have no separate language of their own, it may arise from

either of two -causes; either they may have abandoned their own

language and adopted that of the people who are flooding over and

as it were submerging them; or the fact may be that, in its most

radical parts, the language of these latter having been the same as

their own, an influx of vocables on this common basis may altogether

obliterate the landmarks by which languages are distinguished. Till

however, this is cleared up, I think that we must on other grounds

(Su)

‘The Ethnology of India.

class the Kharwars, &c. with Kolarians rather than with Dravidians.

Mr. Mather, quoting Mr. Jones, says that, passing on from the Khar-

wars, he came to the ‘ Oraons,’ in whom he found “the difference from

the Mirzapore Hill people to be so great, that they appeared to be

quite another nation.” In fact, the Oraons are now a good deal

interposed between the Kharwars and Kolarian Moondahs, but Col.

Dalton also says that the Kharwars and Oraons, though in contact,

are very unlike one another in language, appearance, manners and

customs. The Kharwars, he says, are not quite so African looking

as the Oraons, but some of them seem to be not much better favoured.

A long connection with the plains would best account for the adop-

tions of the language and some of the manners of the plains-people

by the Kharawars and Rajwars. And here the question has suggested

itself to me, whether they may not perhaps be identified with the

Cheroos and Bhurs, those aboriginal tribes whose dominion in the

plain country to the north of these hills is matter of history, who

‘seem certainly to have come from and to have gone to the country

now inhabited by these tribes, and who from this point of their his-

tory almost or wholly disappear. Buchanan seems to speak ambi-

guously, sometimes classing Kharawars and Cheroos together, sometimes

treating of them as separate. While mentioning the Cheroos as

nearly extinct in the plains, he speaks of them as still existing in

numbers in the high country within the hills. In the accounts of

the latter country, on the other hand, I find no mention of either

Cheroos or Bhurs under those names. Farther inquiry seems neces-

sary. Our use of Roman letters applied to native names is very

uncertain, and if we could suppose the C in Cheroo to be pronounced ,

hard as in Cole, Cheroo would become Kheroo, and Kheroo would be

not very different from the Khara of Kharawar (the ‘war’ is a mere

termination), while Khara might again be connected with the name

of the Kolarian Khorewahs already mentioned, and with the Koors,

equally Kolarian, to be subsequently noticed. Again, the Bhurs are

more commonly known as ‘ Rajbhurs ;’

may not Rajhbur have been

corrupted into ‘ Rajwar ?’

The present dominant position of the Kharwars in a considerable

country would seem much to tally with the idea of their representing

the tribes once so famous, Both the Rajas of Singrowlee and Jush-

40 The Lithnology of India.

pore are Kharwars, however they may claim an origin from Rajpoot

foundlings, and they are the people who most affect what Col.

Dalton calls ‘refining into Rajpoots.’ Although many of them may

have achieved a good deal of improvement in their blood and appear-

ance, they are not originally a handsome race, for Col. Dalton expressly

tells us that in the more remote parts, the Kharwars of Palamow,

and especially the Bhogtahs, are very ugly and ill-favoured. Like

the other aborigines, they have no proper caste and eat anything.

I leave, for separate notice, a very numerous tribe all along the

borders of Bengal, Orissa, and part of Bahar, called Bhuyas, whose

connection with the races above described is not clear.

Tn this region of India, it only remains to mention one more Abori-

ginal tribe, called Kaurs, found in the extreme west of the Chota-Nag-

pore Agency about Korea, Oodeypore, and the adjoining parts of the

territory of Nagpore proper, the Pergunnah of Korbah of Chatteesgurh.

They are described as a very industrious thriving people, considerably

advanced in civilisation. They now affect Hindoo traditions, pretend

to be descended from the defeated remnants of the Kooroos who

fought the Pandavas, worship Siva and speak Hindee, but in appear-

ance they are ultra-aboriginal, very black, with broad noses and thick

lips, and eat fowls, &c., bury most of their dead, and contemn

Bramins ; so that their Hindooism is scarcely skin-deep.

From the last mentioned point westward, through a broad tract of

country, the plains are occupied by the ordinary Indian Arians, the

hills and forests by the Gonds (who here in the centre of India meet

the Hindustanees on the North, the Telingas on the South, and the

‘i Marattas on the West); and we do not again come to Kolarian

Aborigines, till we get in fact to the West of India. There is then a

hiatus, as respects the Kolarians, of four or five degrees of longitude,

where by the advance of the conquering Gonds they have probably been

split asunder. It somewhat singularly happens that the first people of

this race whom we come to in the West, bear as nearly as possible the

same name as the last we left in the Hast. The latter were called

‘Kaurs.’ In the Western Sautpooras, in the hills about Gawalghur

near Ellichpore, and thence towards Indore, is a tribe called ‘ Coowr’

or Koor Koos. These people speak an undoubtedly Kolarian language.

The name is sufficiently near to Gowr to cause them to have been

The Ethnology of India. 4]

sometimes confounded with their neighbours, the Gonds, but the

difference is clear. In the notes with which I have been favoured

from Bombay, Major Keatinge mentions them as “a tribe of Gonds

calling themselves Koor Koos,” but he goes on to distinguish them

from the Gonds, mentioning the geographical location of each, and

adding that the two tribes keep themselves separate, do not intermix,

and that each has a separate language of its own. He does not give

particulars of the language, and it is from a paper on which I stumbled

in an old number of the Society’s Journal, and which does not appear

to have been previously much noticed, that I have been able to

identify this tribe with precision. Dr. Voysey, writing at Hllichpore

so long ago as 1821, also at first calls them Gonds, but he goes on to

say that they are also called ‘ Coours, and that the Gonds consider

themselves a distinct tribe from the Coours and neither eat nor inter-

marry with them. This

was taken long before Hodgson’s vocabularies were published, and the

He then gives a small list of Coour words.

two seem never to have been compared. I have compared Dr. Voysey’s

list with Hodgson’s lists of words of the Kolarian tribes of Lurka

Coles, Santals, &c. and find a remarkable coincidence. For instance,

take the numerals. .

Coour. Hodgson’s Coles, &e.

Mieaeientes uN ai chs ue eat Mi.

Eg arias eo Barria,

SUMING ch Meee NS HID seal dese Oe Apia.

AMPA Ooms 48 2.62. 008 Ome . Apunia.

Drae Mammeaiytcvee. sie t SP an benes noon Adlormehyél.

Gagaee DRT es aire Sho cle Vic cls'sa'les « Turia.

Mei Acar me ROGe SAU Aad. Tya.

Bere inacsme aGula.. Gs) elie’.

Oe Amie oie cess). (ae Magee ee oe Area!

AO) Ror Geyni te May) 3 04) snihke. Be Gel,

And again.

Coour. Hodgson.

Man, Hoko, To.

Water, Da, Dah.

Fire, Singhel, Sengel.

vee; Davao, Daru.

42 The Ethnology of India.

House, Oah, Oa,

Mouth, Ah, A.

Hye, Meht, Met.

In fact, of the first nine of Voysey’s words which are also given by

Hodgson, seven are identical, a circumstance very remarkable, seeing

how far these illiterate tribes are separated from one another. None of

the words correspond with the Dravidian synonyms, so there can be no

doubt that we have traced the Kolarians so far.

Immediately beyond the Koors, from Asseerghur westwards, we are

in the Bombay Presidency. :

As I cannot ascertain that Mhars and Mangs and Ramooses

now live as entirely separate tribes, | may at once say that, so far

as my information goes, the Bombay Aborigines are (or my present

purpose) all comprised in the two tribes of Koolees and Bheels.

These tribes are scattered over a great portion of the Presidency, and

in some parts, the Koolees especially, seem to live as a part of the

general population. But the Koolees in part, and the Bheels more

generally, are still found in portions of their original seats as distinct

tribes, and they both seem to be numerous. Their name, position,

and character seem to mark the Koolees as Kolarians. But beyond

this, the more precise test of language is unfortunately wanting. I

have not been able to find that these tribes have now any aboriginal

languages of their own. They are generally said to speak dialects of

the civilised languages of the neighbouring countries. In one or two

places allusion is made to the existence or supposed existence of a

Bheel language in remote jungles, but I have not found any precise

indication respecting it.

I was at first inclined to conjecture that the separation into two

tribes of Koolee and Bheels, and perhaps the more predatory character

of the latter, might point to a division of race; that the Bheels might

be Dravidians. I find, however, that the general opinion of those

qualified to judge seems to tend to the belief that there is no essential

difference between the two tribes. Forbes in his Ras Mala says:

“ Koolees or Bheels, for though the former would resent the classi-

fication, the distinctions between them need not be here noticed.”

Capt. Probyn says, I think there is no actual difference between

Koolees and Bheels. Their religion is the same.’ Mr. Ashburner:

The Ethnology of India. 43

“There is no real difference between Bheels and Koolees; their habits,

physiognomy and mode of life are the same, modified by local cireum-

stances.” And the Rev. Mr. Dunlop Moore says, “‘ Koolees frequently

marry Bheel wives.’ Other authorities, however, say that they do

not intermarry. They both seem to claim a northern and not a southern

origin, pointing to the hills of Rajpootana and the north of Goozerat.

The Bheels say that they were originally called Kaiyos; Sir John

Malcolm says that they are related to the Meenas of Rajpootana, and

once ruled in the Jeypore country. Forbes again tells us that the

Koolees were originally called Mairs; while in Rajpootana, Col. Tod

speaks of Mairs or Meenas as one race. -

The Rev. Mr. Dunlop says that, though these tribes speak the

same languages as their neighbours, “certain words are universally

recognised as peculiar to Koolees as well as Bheels.” He only

istances one word written in a character which J can read, and that

is ‘ Bhoroo’ or ‘ Bhooroo,’ the head. As I write, I have turned up the

word head in Hodgson’s vocabularies, and find that the Kols, Santals,

Bhumiz and Moondas use the word ‘ Bu,’ ‘ Buho’ or ‘ Bohw’ which

seems to be the same word. The Dravidian words for head are entirely

different.

Tt would be in many ways very interesting and important to rescue

any remains of aboriginal words or aboriginal dialects of these

tribes, and especially to find whether among them can be traced any

non-Aryan radicals of the Goozerattee, Maratta, and the Hindee dialects

of Rajpootana.

Though probably in the main of the same class and similar origin,

the Koolees and Bheels ave now quite distinct tribes, and there is

this considerable difference that the Koolees have come much more

mto contact with Aryan blood and civilisation, are in appearance

generally much more Hindooised than the others, and consider

themselves altogether a higher class. As has been said, both tribes

are now much scattered over many parts of the Presidency and in

places a good deal intermixed, but their proper locale seems to be

as follows. The Koolees are the Aborigines of Goozerat (where they

now live in considerable number), and of the hills adjoining that

Province. The hills east of Goozerat are called ‘ Kolwan’ and seem

to be the property of Koolee tribes, just as in the Chota-Nagpore

44 The Ethnology of India.

territory the country of the Lurka Coles is called “ Kothan.” The

Bheels are the proper possessors of the hills farther in the interior

and east of the Koolees, there occupying both the Sautpoora and

the Vyndia ranges, and extending into Rajpootana. In the latter

direction and about the Vyndians some of the tribes claim to be

crossed with Rajpoots, and these are called Beelalahs. The Bheels

are numerous in Candeish, and are found in some parts of the adjoining

Deccan. They sometimes find their way to the Coast where they

are stated to be known as ‘ Dooblas’ or the “‘ Kala Pooruj” or ‘ black

men.’ The Koolees seem to be scattered down the Coast country

nearly as far as Goa, and: north again into the ‘ Thurr’ and the

neighbourhood of Scinde. While the wilder Koolees of the hills

are like the Bheels, the mass of more civilised Koolees are said to

be not only fairer and more Caucasian in feature, but also more sly

and cunning and less truthful. A large proportion of both races

have been much diluted in point of ‘aboriginality’ of feature by

intermixture, but the Bheels less than the others. Many of the

Koolees live in villages and adopt some Hindoo practices. They are

stated to average about 5 feet 3 inches in height. Though most of

them are now quiet agriculturists and labourers, they were not always

so. The wilder tribes of the race are still predatory, and Forbes

mentions the Koolees as by far the most numerous of the arm-bearing

castes who in former days, living in the hills between Goozerat and

Rajpootana, disturbed the country. He describes them as of dimi-

nutive stature, with eyes which bore an expression of liveliness and

cunning, clothes few, arms bow and arrows, habits swift and active,

bold in assault, but rapid in flying to the jungles, independent in

spirit, robbers, averse to industry, addicted to drunkenness, and quar-

relsome when intoxicated ; formidable in anarchy, but incapable of

uniting among themselves. This description seems exceedingly well

to apply to the wild Bheels of modern days, whom indeed Forbes

classes with the Koolees.

Many of the Bheels are so independent and so much apart in their

own hills and jungles, that it seems very strange that they should

have no language of their own; I think that the search for such a

language, or the remains of it, should not be abandoned without very

careful inquiry. '

The Ethnology of India. 45

I have not been able to ascertain whether there are any of these

aboriginal tribes in the Kattywar hills, or who are the aborigines

of Kattywar. I have not met with any precise mention of them.

Lassen in his map places Koolees (Kolas he calls them) in the centre

of Kattywar. He had probably some authority for doing so, but

more precise information on the point would be desirable.

North of the Bombay country, in the Aravallee range running

towards Ajmere, is the country of the Mairs or Mhairs, with whom I

have said that the Koolees claim kindred, and whose name also suggests

the question whether they may be related to the Maratta Mhars.

Tod says that Mbhair means Mountaineer, from ‘ Meru’ mountain.

The modern Mhairs are probably a very mixed race. Col. Dixon,

who is avowedly enthusiastic in their favour, makes them out to be

rather good-looking, and tells the usual story (as told by the chiefs

to him) of their descent from Rajpoots. They admit to have taken

a few Bheel and Meena women. It is probably the case, as Col. Dixon

says, that for hundreds of years they have been recruited by Hindu-

stanee refugees and rascals of all sorts. Though now out of the way,

it must be remembered that Ajmere was, under the emperors, one of

the chief seats of Mahommedan power.

The Meenas constitute a large portion of the population of Raj-

pootana, especially in the Jeypore country between Ajmere and Dehli.

I have said that they are supposed to be related to the Mhairs, and

they are called the aborigines of the country, but I doubt if they

are so in the sense in which I am now dealing with separate

aboriginal tribes. In Upper India, out of their own country, these

Meenas are principally known as dacoits; and of those that I have

seen in that capacity, my impression is, that they were not small and

aboriginal-looking, but fine powerful men. I suspect that if ori-

ginally a half-breed derived from aborigines, the Meenas are now

members of the ordinary Indian society, and that Aryan features

predominate in them. Farther information, however, is required.

I am not aware of any aboriginal tribes in Bundlecund. In a

recent Archeological paper read at a meeting of the Society, mention

was incidentally made of “‘the wild Sherrias” found about the

southern sources of the Nerbudda, and I also find mention of a tribe

called ‘ Naikras’ in the hills of Oodeypore, said to be like the Bheels,

46 The Ethnology of India.

but somewhat lower in the scale of humanity. I do not know whe-

ther these are really sub-divisions of the Bheels or separate tribes. In

fact there may be many remnants of tribes in the jungles of Central

India yet undescribed. I have now, however, noticed all the aboriginal

tribes of the hilly portions of the Indian Peninsula known to me, with

the exception only of the Bhooyas of the borders of Bengal.

In the plains, of course, we do not look to find separate aboriginal

tribes, and those now classed as ‘castes’ will be afterwards noticed ;

but before leaving the subject of Koolees or Kolaries I may mention

an assertion of Col. Tod that all the weaver caste throughout

Hindustan are of this class, though they now call themselves ‘ Julahas’

or Julahees. Ido not know what is the ground for this assertion,

but the weavers who have not turned Mahommedans are certainly

sometimes or generally known as ‘ Korees’ and considered to be low in

the social scale.

There are no aboriginal tribes, of the character which I have been

describing, in the Himalayas. The Kolees of the Simla hills and

Domes of Kumaon are merely inferior castes living among the

general population. Both in Kumaon and Nepal, there seems to be

a sort of tradition or popular belief of the existence in some remote

forests of a ‘ Ban-manush’ or wild man of the woods, but I cannot

find that any one has ever seen one of these creatures, or that his

existence is really in any way authenticated. One can hardly say whe-

ther the story points to the recent disappearance of the last remnants

of an ancient race, or whether it is merely a nursery tale.

It is not then in the Himalayas, but in the forests at their foot,

that we must look for some aboriginal tribes. And here I must

observe that I think the use of the term Sub-Himalayan by Hodg-

son, and (following him) by most other authorities, leads to a good deal

of misapprehension, from an Indian point of view at least. We are

in the habit of considering the Simla hills, Kumaon, and Nepal to be

part of the Himalayas (and with good reason too I think), but

Hodgson calls everything below the Snowy Range “ Sub-Himalayan,”

and classes as ‘ Sub-Himalayan’ people who live higher than the

highest mountaineers in Europe, in the most precipitous mountains,

8,000 or 10,000 feet high; while the people really living under the

hills are usually put in another class. I am now about to notice

The Lthnology of Incdva. 47

tribes who have nothing whatever to do with the hills, but live in

the forests and what is called the ‘ Terai,’ at the foot. No two

climates and locations can be more dissimilar than those of the hills

and the Terai, and no races are more distinct in their habits, manners,

and aptitudes than the people of the hills and those of the jungle

belt below. :

It may be generally said that there is no Terai or forest belt

northwest of the Seharunpore district and the Dehra Dhoon; but

thence eastward this belt stretches along the foot of the hills through

Rohilcund, Oude, and the Bengal Frontier, up to Assam. <A great

part of it belongs to the Nepalese. A very interesting paper by Dr.

Stewart on the Boksas, a forest tribe found in western Rohilcund

and in part of the forests or Sewalik hills of Dehra Dhoon, was

published in the Society’s Journal last year. They are entirely con-

fined to the forest tracts, where they enjoy a wonderful immunity

from the effects of malaria. They never (says Dr. Stewart) settle more

than two years on one spot, but after getting a little out of the soil,

move to fresh locations. They are of short stature and spare habit, and

in feature certainly Turanian of some sort, with broad faces, depressed

noses, prognathous jaws, thick lips, and very scanty beard and

moustaches, but in colour apparently not darker than the ordinary

Hindoos of the country. They are fond of game and pigs, eat almost

anything, have no caste, and are reputed to be very skilful in witch-

craft. They have no separate language. They are simple, inoffensive,

and good-humoured, but very ignorant and indolent, Their culti-

vation is very scanty and rude, but they also collect forest produce

and wash for gold. They are supposed to be dying out.

I haye seen mention of another small and savage tribe in the

Rohilcund Terai called ‘“‘ Rawats’’ or “ Rajis ;’’ and passing westward

we come to a very important tribe, the ‘ Tharoos,’ who in fact occupy all

the Terai from eastern Rohilcund all along the frontiers of Oude and

into Goruckpore. They are in many respects very like the Boksas

physical appearance and manners I should say extremely like—but

they are much more industrious, and altogether a larger, more settled,

and, one may say, less savage tribe, They, like the Boksas, keep

exclusively to the Terai and forest, living where no one else can live.

They are shy and timid, but frank and truthful, when you get hold of

The Ethnology of India.

them, and are very good cultivators in their own simple way. They

are not particularly dark, and, im addition to the ordinary breadth and

flatness of face, have a good deal of the Chinese-looking form of eye ;

so that it is difficult from appearance to say, whether they really

belong to the Negrito, or to the Indo-Chinese stock. The fact is that

though no two races can be more unlike one another than the slim,

black, tangled-haired Negrito, and the stout, fair, lank haired 'Thibetan,

yet when we come to half-breeds, the difference may not be so great.

When the colour is softened or heightened, and the size increased or

decreased to that of the ordinary Hindoo, and the hair reduced to

civilised limits, there is the same appearance of breadth and flatness of

face, and these latter characteristics are more apparent at a glance than

any distinction between prognathous and pyramidal skulis. It would

seem too that the Chinese peculiarity of eye is caused by the broad

cheek bone common to both races, and perhaps it may be that

while the eye being sunk deeper in the Negro and Negrito, and more

covered by a more fleshy form of face its form is not so apparent, in

the half-breed it is brought out, and the skin tightened by the high

cheek-bone shows the Chinese-looking form of eye. I have noticed

some of the Ghatwals on the borders of Bengal and Behar, who looked

not unlike Goorkas. Thus then it becomes difficult to distinguish

those tribes, on the northern and eastern frontiers, whose blood may be

supposed to have become a good deal mixed by long contact with:

other races, and whose colour may have been softened by the cool, moist

and shady climate of the Northern Terai.

I must also say that I think Hodgson has somewhat contributed to

mix up the two races in our ideas, for in his enthusiasm to establish a

connection between his Tamulians and the eastern races, he scarcely

attempts to distinguish them, and classes as Tamulians, Bodos, Dhimals,

é&c. of whose connection with the Aborigines of the South of India

there does not seem to be the slightest evidence in language, and

who in appearance are as different as can be.

To return to the ‘ Tharoos,;’ as I said their appearance might leave

doubt of their origin, and unfortunately they are not known to have any

language of their own. Those with whom we have come more imme-

diately in contact (including all those in eastern Rohilcund) certainly

now speak Hindee, but the tribe isso large and important, that it

The Ethnology of India. 49

would be, I think, desirable not to give up without farther inquiry the

attempt to find a Tharoo language, though it will be more difficult

now that, by the transfer of the Oude Terai, the great mass of them,

and all those least mixed with Hindustanees, are Nepal subjects.

Tn other respects the habits and manners of the Boksas and Tharoos

certainly point rather to an Indian than a Thibetan origin. I saw

something of the Tharoos before they were annexed to Nepal; and

their general style suggests a good deal of resemblance to the Santals for

instance. Mr. Robert Drummond, who has served both in Pillebheet

and in Central India, and who knew the Tharoos well, tells me that

in many ways they remind him very much of the Aboriginal tribes of

the Central hills. They have the same simple ways and the same

religion of Bhoots and familiar spirits. He also mentions a singular

circumstance, that on looking over a map of the hill country of Bhau-

gulpore (now called the Santal Pergunnahs), he was struck by the

occurrence of many names which he had supposed to be peculiar to the

Tharoos.

The claim of the Boksas to Rajpoot origin is of course ridiculous,

but it is clear that all their traditions point to the south and south-

west as the country of their origin, not to the northern hills. These

tribes have in fact little intercourse with and no known congeners in

the hills. The Boksas and Western Tharoos are separated from the

Thibetan tribes by a great tract of very difficult country occupied by

Avians; and though the Hastern Tharoos are nearer to Nepalese races

who show Thibetan blood, it seems hardly probable that inhabitants

of the hills should be driven out into the Forest below (of which the

hill-men have a great horror); while, that Aboriginal Indians should be

driven from the plains to the neighbouring jungles, would be probable

enough. [am inclined to think that the Tharoos and Boksas are

probably not Thibetan, farther than the accession of refugees and others

from Nepal may have introduced a little of that blood. Dr. Stewart

suggests the possibility that they may be akin to the Indo-Chinese

races who occupy the lowlands near the Berhampooter; but though

that may be possible, it seems to be a long way for emigrant tribes to

find their way up to the Dehra Dhoon in countries where, for so many

hundred miles, there is no trace of their congeners. On the whole, it

seems more probable that they are Aboriginal Indians a good deal

50 The Ethnology of India.

diluted. I have not heard of the Tharoos serving as labourers, but if they

ave akin to the Dhangar Coolees now so much sought after, seeing their

immunity against malaria, they would be very valuable to any one who

could induce them to emigrate. As yet, however, they are very shy.

From Goruckpore eastward in the Nepal Terai and along the

Frontiers of Bengal, I cannot learn that there are any Aboriginal

tribes till we come to the neighbourhood of Sikkim and Kooch Behar.

Those whom I have asked knew of none, and it is probable that if

there were any, Hodgson would haye mentioned them. Dr. Campbell

of Darjeeling speaks generally of the population of the Nepal Terai as

composed of a most varied assemblage of bastard Hindus.

The Kooch Behar people have become so Hinduised, that their

original character cannot be distinguished with certainty, They call

themselves “ Rajbansees,” as I think do several Hinduised Aboriginal

tribes. ‘fang

About this parallel we come upon the Meches or Mechis who form

the chief population of the forests and Doars at the foot of the

Sikkim and Bhootan hills, and a few of whom have recently settled in

the extreme eastern portion of the Nepal Terai. I understand that

these people are the same as the Bodos of Hodgson, who are of

an Indo-Chinese family. I shall rank them and other similar tribes

as ‘ Borderers,’ and now only notice them for the purpose of com-

parison. They are described as very Mongolian or Indo-Chinese in

feature, fairer than the Hindus and of a yellow tinge, taller and

larger than the Nepalese cultivators, addicted to spirits and to smoking

opium. They make small and temporary clearances in the forest and

are proof against malaria. In an industrial point of view they are

evidently much inferior to the Tharoos.

Dr. Campbell incidentally mentions among the lowland neighbours

of the Mechis a tribe inhabiting similar tracts called ‘ Thawas’ whom

I have not seen mentioned elsewhere. They seem (so far as one

can gather from the slightest notices) to be more industrious and

settled than the Mechis. Dr. Campbell seems to speak of them as

a different race. It would be interesting to know whether these -

Thawas may not possibly be related to the Tharoos.

Also among the neighbours of the Mechis are the Garrows, whose

yain habitat is the hill country just within the bend of the Berham-

The Ethnology of India. 51

pooter as it sweeps round from Assam into Bengal, the extreme

western portion of the range which separates Sylhet, &c. from

Assam. More to the east are the Cossya hills, to the west those of

the Garrows. While all the tribes of the eastern hills are Indo-

Chinese, I am inclined to suspect that the Garrows alone are Indian

Aborigines, more or less mixed it may be. They seem to be quite

distinct and different from the other tribes of the neighbourhood, and

several officers, to whom I have talked, agree in thinking them more

in the style of Coles and Bheels than of Indo-Chinese. I have not

found any very exact description of them, but gather that they are

small and dark, savage and troublesome. That they should belong

to the Aboriginal races of India, is primd facie by no means impro-

bable, seeing that their hill country is, as the crow flies, scarcely more

than 150 miles distant from that of the Santals and Rajmehalees, as

may be seen by a glance at any map. There is a kind of straight

between the eastern and western hills through which the Ganges and

Berhampooter run before expanding in the broader Delta of Southern

Bengal.

The little that is known of the language of the Garrows has not

sufficed to connect them with any of the Aboriginal tribes mentioned

by me, but it also seems to show that it is radically different from

the surrounding Indo-Chinese dialects. It seems especially desirable

to know something more of the Garrows and their language.

Ihave kept to the last the Bhooyas or Bhooians, because they

seem to belong to bothsides of Bengal, to West Bengal and Orissa on

one side, and to Assam on the other. J have not met with any de-

tailed account of their position in Assam, but I imagine that there

can be no better authority than Col. Dalton who intimately knows

both Provinces, and he, while describing them in the western hills,

distinctly states that they were once the dominant race in Assam.

It is always necessary to be cautious in dealing with names of this

sound, since, as I have already mentioned, ‘ Bhoomea’ means ‘ man of

the soil,’ and I believe that the word earth or soil also takes the form

Bui. The Bhooyas have no immediate connection (that is looking

only to the name) with either the Bhumiz or the Boyars. But

Col. Dalton no doubt looks farther than this; and indeed he goes on

to notice a considerable connection between Assam and the west both

52 The Ethnology of India.

in races and in language. The Bhooyas in the west seem to be

numerous. They appear to be the original occupants of much of the

lower country to the south of the Chota-Nagpore plateau, great part of

Singbhoom and Bonai, and the borders of Orissa. From a portion of

their country they have been partly driven and partly they are dominated

over by Coles, themselves probably impelled south and east by pres-

sure from the north and west. They are still very numerous in all

the districts and petty states hereabouts, and are found more or less

all the way across the lower hill-country to the borders of Behar.

Col. Dalton calls them a dark complexioned race, with rather high

cheekbones; but not otherwise peculiar. They have no language of

their own, but speak Oorya on the Ooriah borders, Bengalee on the

borders of Bengal, and Hindee farther north. They are now some-

what Hinduised, but have still priests of their own and traces of an

old religion, which seems even down to recent times to have included

human sacrifices. Major Tickell speaks of the Aboriginal Bhooians

who preceded the Coles in lower Singbhoom as ‘an inoffensive

simple race, but rich in cattle and industrious cultivators.” The

descriptions of Col. Dalton and Major Tickell seem to suggest a

resemblance in appearance to the Ooryahs, among whom high cheek

bones seem to prevail with good features and straight hair. The

Bhooyas whom I have seen in the hills towards the Bahar border

seemed to have a larger dash of the black Aboriginal type. Seeing

how far these Bhooyas are spread to the west, I was curious to know

whether they might be related to the Buis, a tribe of Telengana and

Central India who serve all over the centre, south, and west as

palanquin bearers and domestic servants, and from whose name is, I

believe, the most authentic derivation of the widespread word

‘ Boy’ as applied to a dark servant. Travelling from Nagpore towards

Jubbulpore I observed that I changed the Buis of Central India for

the Kahars of Hindoostan. Col. Dalton did not know whether there

was any connection between Bhooyas and Buis. But quite recently,

making a trip through a part of the Chota-Nagpore country, I found

that the palanquin was carried by Bhooyas there and below the hill

country till T got close to Gya, and I ascertained that they had no

connection with the Hindoostanee Kahars by whom they were then

reheved, but were consilered to be a wholly different race. I cannot

The Ethnology of India. 53

help thinking that the Bhooya palanquin bearers of Chota-Nagpore

may be the same as the Buis of Nagpore Proper. At any rate it

might be worth inquiring. These Bhooyas or Bhooians have been

reputed to be the Aborigines of Bengal, and if that be so, it would

quite account for their being found both in Orissa in the west and

in Assam on the east. The difficulty is that there seem to be no

such people now in Bengal, nor have I been able to identify them

with any caste under another name. If, however, one travels in a

palanquin from the Chota-Nagpore country into Bengal or Orissa,

the bearers will be relieved not by Kahars as in Hindoostan, but by

Gwallas or cow-keepers. These Gwallas do the work of palanquin-

bearing and domestic service in Bengal, functions not performed by

Gwallas so far as I know in any other part of India. An Aheer or

up-country Gwala would never dream of such work. In fact the

Gwallas in Bengal take the place of the Buis or Boys of the centre

and south of India. They are now the most numerous Hindoo

caste in Bengal and especially in Orissa, As I said, Major Tickell

describes the original Bhooians as rich in cattle. May not the

Hindoos have adopted them and turned them into Gwallas? I

should also however mention that the lowest or sweeper class are called

I understand in Bengal “ Buimals,”’ but I have not been able to

ascertain the derivation of that word.

The Bengalees are certainly in many respects different from any

other people of India, and if the Bhooyas are the Aboriginals of a

great part of Bengal, we may the more readily believe that they are

in fact different from the Coolees and Dravidians who have gone to

compose the Hindoostanees and Southerners respectively. Who they

are, and where they came from, are questions which open out a wide

field of inquiry. Can any Aboriginal language or words spoken by

them be traced? may they have any dash of more eastern blood ?

Is the mode of carrying palanquins rather a Chinese than an Arian

fashion ?

If we knew something more of the Garrows and the Garrow lan-

guage, they might possibly supply a link in the history of Bengal.

Another race mentioned by Col. Dalton, as found both in the West

and in Assam, are the Kolitas, whose name might suggest some

relation to Coolees; but they seem to be now considered rather high

54 The Ethnology of India.

caste and good looking Hindoos, so the name is probably not the

same. Is every direction, however, there is room for inquiry.

One word regarding a people in another quarter who have been

classed with the Indian Aborigines, the Brahuis of the higher parts

of Belochistan near Khelat, &c. These people are set down as allied

to the Dravidians upon, I think, the slightest possible evidence, but it is

one of those things that, having once got into print, is in the absence

of farther information repeated again and again, till it seems an

established fact. Dr. Caldwell, in his amiable enthusiasm for his

beloved Dravidians, and seeking to establish for them an aristocratic

pedigree, without acknowledging obligation to the northern Hindoos,

seizes upon the Brahuis as the link to connect them with the more

northern nations and goes somewhat into the matter.

The Brahuis are described as a stout, squat, somewhat flat-

faced people, fair, with hair and beards often brown if not red. That

they have indications of some Turanian element both in feature and

speech, may be at once admitted, using the word Turanian in its widest

sense; but for the rest anything in greater contrast to the slim black

Dravidian Aborigines, it is impossible to imagine. They are very

remote from any Dravidian tribe, the nearest being the Gonds. Their

language is not supposed to show any affinity to the Kolarians.

On the other hand, in one direction we have not far to seek for an

explanation of the Turanian element in the features of the Brahuis.

The Hazarehs of the hill country near Ghuznee and Candahar have it

in a more marked degree, and are without doubt of Mongolian blood.

‘They seem to be in many ways like the Brahuis, and we are told

that at one time they possessed the country on the Khelat side of

Candahar, and were nearer than they now are to the Brahuis. That

the latter have some of their blood, or may even be a branch of them

driven to the hills by Belochees or Hindoos, would seem priméd facie

the most probable thing in the world. It is then only by the test of

language that any Dravidian connection can be assigned to the

Brahuis, and in the case of people otherwise so dissimilar and so dis-

tant, the linguistic evidence ought to be very strong, to satisfy us. I

have been unable to find a paper giving a list of Brahui words said

to have been published by this Society, but Dr. Caldwell seems to

sum up all the evidence on the subject. He admits that ‘the Brahui

The Ethnology of India. 59

language, considered as a whole, is derived from the same source as the

Punjabee and Scindee” (in which no one ever suspected a Dravidian

connection), but he goes on to show that the Brahui has also a Dravi-

dian element in it. Now there are scarcely any two languages in

which here and there words of similar meaning and similar sound may

not be found, but so far as the vocabulary goes, Dr. Caldwell’s list

seems to show that he must have been very hard put to it. ‘ Khaff,’

the ear, and ‘ped,’ the belly, seem to me at least as near to the

Hindoostanee ‘kan’ and ‘ pet’ as to the Dravidian ‘ kadu’ and ‘ pir’

or ‘bir.’ ‘ Kat,’ a bedstead is, I think, distinctly a Hindee or Punjabee

word. ‘ Dir,’ water, seems to me as near to the Kolarian ‘ dah’ as to

the Dravidian ‘nr.’ ‘ Ae’ or ‘ ay2,’ a mother or nurse, and ‘ pussie,’

a cat, are words of world-wide use.

So also the pronoun ‘nz’ or ‘nim,’ thou or you, appears in some

shape in every dialect not purely Arian, from Australia to northern

Siberia and from Japan to Finland. I really cannot find above 6 or 8

words which Dr. Caldwell shows to be especially like Dravidian words,

and to make out these, he picks and chooses from every one of the

different Dravidian dialects and accepts some rather distant resem-

blances as ‘pak’ to go, Tamil ‘ pogu.’ This much seems to me to

prove nothing whatever. .

Again, take his grammatical resemblances. Some seem to be too

wide, applying to many other languages, and others too minute, The

use of postpositions and the want of. comparatives and superlatives in

adjectives is equally a coincidence with Hindoostanee and many other

languages, neighbours of the Brahui on one side. The expression of

gender by separate words and of plurals by postfixes denoting plurality

is equally common to many other languages, including the neighbour

of the Brahui on the other side, the Persian, e. g. ‘ nar-gow’ a ‘ male

cow, and Aspahan ‘ horses.’ The genitive in ‘na’ seems just as like to

the Hindoostanee and Punjabee ‘ka’ or ‘ da’ as to the Tamilian ‘ ma.’

The dativesaccusative in ‘e’ is a familiar Hindoostanee or Punjabee

form, thus instead of ‘ Mujh-ko do’ Give me, it is constantly ‘ Mujhe

do,’ and ‘ Use maro’ beat him, especially with the Punjabees. So also

‘ ten,’ said by Dr. Caldwell to mean ‘ self’ in Brahui, seems very like the

same syllable used to give precision in Hindoostanee as “ Use-ten do,”

which I should translate ‘give to him himself’ At any vate ‘ ten’ is

found nearer at hand than the Dravidian ‘ tan.’

56 The Ethnology of India.

‘w’ ‘and,’ most people would think palpable

The copulative

Persian, and not go all the way to the Canarese for it.

It comes then in my view to this that the only real appearance of

analogy to the Dravidian class of languages in particular (as distin-

guished from the body of Turanian languages in general) is reduced

to two numerals. In Brahui neither ‘ one’ nor ‘ four’ and upwards in

the least correspond with Dravidian numerals, but the two numbers

‘two’ and ‘ three’ as given by Dr. Caldwell do seem similar. He gives

the Brahui two, ‘ zrat’ and three, ‘ muszt’ or ‘ muoit’ which bear com-

parison with the Dravidian two, ‘ eradu,’ ‘irandu,’ ‘randu,’ ‘ ranw

and three, ‘mwrw’ ‘ mudu,’ ‘ mundu,’ ‘ munnar,’ * munu.’

The Brahui one ‘ asit’ seems very like the Pehlevi ‘ achat,’ and

the Brahui irat may come from the Pehlevi ‘ tarein’ two, the Cauca-

sian ‘zerw’ and the Georgian ‘orz.’ If so the ‘three’ would be the

only tie to the Dravidians left, and that is not very close. The

ground of induction seems insufficient to connect such dissimilar

people. My impression is, that if, instead of saying that the Brahui

language is mainly Punjabee with a Dravidian element, Dr. Caldwell

had said that it is mainly Arian (Indo-Persic) with a Turanian

element, that would have been more correct, At any rate in so

important a matter fuller inquiry is necessary.

THE MODERN INDIANS.

I commence with the Bramins.

It is well-known that the Bramins as Priests are a necessary part

of every Hindu society, and as Priests they are to be found wherever

there are Hindus. - In that character then it would be unnecessary

to my purpose more particularly to trace them, for with their reli-

gious sects and tenets I do not deal. I shall only trace them for

Kthnological purposes through the countries in which they form an

important part of the general secular population. In fact, far from

being restricted to the character of Priests, they are-one of the

most numerous castes in India, and probably that which follows the

greatest variety of avocations. On the whole I should say that they are

less prejudiced than any other of those whom I call full-blown or High

Hindus. At any rate, whether it be that their character as keepers and

expounders of the Law gives them greater licence, or that their intellect

The Ethnology of Indra. 57

is more varied and their necessities greater, they do in various places

and under various circumstances turn their hands to very many odd

jobs as it were. Throughout Hindustan they have almost entirely

lost that function of Clerks and Bureaucrats of the community

which they still retain toa great extent in other parts of India; and

it will be as members of the ordinary agricultural populations that I

shall most deal with them.

Beginning from the north, we first meet with the Bramins in that

quarter to which all their traditions point, within the hills north of

the Punjab. The first Indians encountered by a traveller from

Central Asia would be these Bramins of this extreme North-West

corner, occupying both the valley of Kashmir and the hills imme-

diately to the west and south-west of it.

Kashmir is a Bramin country. The lower classes have long been

converted to Mahommedanism, but they seem to be ethnologically

identical with the Bramins, and tradition also asserts that they are

of the same race. At the present day no other Hindu easte save

the Bramin is known, nor is there any trace (so far as I could find)

that there ever was any other in the country. The Bramin popula-

tion is numerous, but it would seem as if, while the illiterate

multitude adopted the religion of the ruling power, the better edu-

cated and superior class maintained their own tenets; and at this day

the Bramins (or Pandits, as they are usually called) form quite a sort

of aristocracy. They are almost all educated and exceedingly clever,

and so, being to a great degree above manual labour, they are an

excessive and somewhat oppressive Bureaucracy, which not only has

ruled Kashmir under every successive government, but sends out

colonies to seek a livelihood throughout Northern India. The Kash-

mir Bramins are quite High-Arian in the type of their features, very

fair and handsome, with high chiselled features, and no trace of

intermixture of the blood of any lower race. It may be partly race

and partly occupation, but they have certainly a greater refinement

and regularity of feature than the Affghans and others of a rougher

type; with, however, a less manly-looking physique and a colour less

ruddy and more inclining to a somewhat sallow fairness. The high

nose, slightly aquiline, but by no means what we call Jewish or.

Nut-cracker, is a common type. Raise a little the brow of a Greek

38 The Ethnology of Indva.

statue, and give the nose a small turn at the bony point in front of

the bridge (so as to break the straightness of line), you have then the

model type of this part of India, to be found both in the living men and

in the statues dug up in the Peshawar valley. There are also a good

many straight noses, and some varieties as in all places, but much less

departure from an ordinary handsome standard than in most countries.

The figure of the ordinary working Kashmeeree is strong and athletic.

But none of them are martial, and the Bramins are in this respect

no exception. They rule by the brain and the pen, and not by the

sword. It is this character that has gained them the favour of so many

rulers of a different faith. Kashmere long belonged to the Cabul

kingdom, but it was never in any degree colonised by Afighans, and is

singularly free from any modern intermixture of foreign races. The

fact seems to be that the valley never belonged to the Affghan nation,

but was always retained asa Crown Appanage of the kings, who

were very jealous of admitting into it subjects whom they might find

it difficult to turn out again, and much preferred to govern through

the Pandits. Others have to a great extent followed the same policy.

From a Hindu point of view, the Kashmir Bramins do not rank

well. As they are Priests to no one but themselves, they are

necessarily much more secular than Bramins who among other

Hindus claim to be a priestly class, while they eat meat and are

altogether loose in their observances, to an extent which makes them

very far short of the modern Hindu standard. They are in fact not

recognised among the modern Divisions of Indian Bramins, belonging

neither to the 5 Gours nor to the 5 Dravidas, but forming a class

apart. I have alluded to their attempt to claim the blood of all the

Bramins higher in the sacerdotal scale, and suggested that it is

more probable that the latter have sprung from and (in their sense)

improved upon the Kashmeerees. In fact, the founder of the latter

(Kashiyupa who drained the lake, colonised the valley, gave his name

to Kashgar and Kashmere and to the people originally called Kashas

or Kassias,) is still recognised by the Bramins and Hindus as the

first of the seven Rishis, and even far away down on the west coast

of India, the Bramins in general still trace their descent to Kashiyupa.

I shall afterwards notice the name Kash as Khas occurring again and

again in other parts of India, in a way which requires explanation.

The Ethnology of India. 59

The Kashmeeree Pandits are known all over Northern India as a

very clever and energetic race of office-seekers. As a body they

excel in acuteness the same number of any other race with whom

they come in contact. Probably they are in no respect inferior to

the Maratta Bramins, but they have not in Hindustan the same ad-

vantage as the latter have had in their own country among inferior

races. The Kashmeerees, as foreigners among energetic races, have a

much harder struggle, and though they get a good share of good

things, they are nowhere dominant, nor have they usually risen to

such high stations as many Maratta Bramins. The most conspicuous

man whom I recollect was Raja Denonath, Ranjeet Sing’s Financier and

in some respects Chief Minister. Although the Kashmeerees seldom

find their way as far as Calcutta, it is somewhat singular that in

Bengal the first native to attain very high office is a man of this

race, viz., Shamboonath Pandit, Judge of the High Court. Almost

all the secular Pandits use the,Persian character freely; they are

perfectly versatile, and, serving abroad, will mount a horse, gue G on a

sword, and assume at a push a semi-military air.

The Kashmir language igs separate and distinct, and the dress,

manners, and fashions of the Kashmeerees mark them as in every way

a distinct people. Of the language we only know that it contains a

very large proportion of Sanscrit. The Institutions of the people

have nothing of the democratic character.

In the hills also, between Kashmir and the Punjab, Bramins

occupy the van (or perhaps we should call it the rear) of the

Indian race to the west, though they have abandoned their Hindoo

religion and become partly Mahommedans and partly Sikhs. They

are in habits, language, and manners quite different from the Kash-

meerees, and seem now to belong to a different nation. Their

language is a dialect of the Punjabee (a very Pracrit tongue and cer-

tainly not borrowed from any Mahommedan race), while they are good

soldiers and altogether more Punjabees than Kashmeerees. Beyond

the Jhelum, the hill frontier is occupied by a tribe called Bambas, now

Mahommedans, but originally Bramins ; while on this side the Jhelum

the hills are shared with other races by a numerous tribe of Bramin-

Sikhs. The position of these men is curious. They became Sikhs

long before the extension of Sikh power to those regions, and in a

60 The Ethnology of India.

much more complete sense than most modern Sikhs, abandoning all

pretence of Hindoo religion and adopting to the full the Sikh

reformer’s tenets. Indeed they were converted during Mahommedan

rule, and when ‘ Sikh’ was really a religious rather than a political

name. The fact probably is, that they found the country too hot for

Bramins, but did not care to become Mahommedans, so adopted the

alternative of becoming Sikhs, and so free from the trammels of caste.

These men are very useful soldiers and servants, especially under

Sikh rule. A good many of them have been introduced into Kashmir

as a sort of military colonists, partly by a Hindu governor under the

Affghans, and partly by the Sikh rulers; but they remain quite apart

from the Kashmir Bramins. One of the best native officers in the

Punjab force, who is himself of this class, told me that the Bambas

are without doubt Bramins under a corrupted name. He says that

to this day the Sikh Bramins and Bambas exchange cakes on the

occasion of certain ceremonies (birthg, funerals, &c. I think), and that

there is no doubt that they are of the same stock. I believe that it

certainly is so. It seems to be a common practice in India to give to

tribes who have departed from the faith or mixed the blood of their

ancestors, names derived from their original tribal names. Thus half-

civilised Bheels are called ‘ Bheelalahs ;}) Mahommedan Rajpoots are

called “ Rangars ;” a tribe of bastard Bramins to be afterwards noticed

(in Benares and Bahar) ‘ Bamuns’ or ‘ Babhans.’

The Bramins of the frontier hills are, I think, even handsomer

than the Kashmeerees. To my view, the people in general of those

hills are the handsomest of the human race.

Descending from the Himalayas, there are some Bramins near

the foot of the hills. Except a few priests, Ido not think that

they are found beyond the Indus, but they are, I understand, pretty

numerous in part of the Rawal Pindee district. South of the Salt Range,

in the plains, they are well nigh overwhelmed by the strong flew of

Rajpoots and Jats (advancing, as I believe, at a later period and from

another direction). The Bramins either never occupied the plains

of the Punjab to the south-west, or they have been driven from that

country. Even nearer the hills they are not exceedingly numerous. But

still in that fertile and pleasant strip under the hills we have, among

other races, villages of agricultural Bramins in the districts of Sealkot,

The Ethnology of India. 61

Goordaspore d&ec., in the valleys of the broken country between

Hosheearpore and Kangra, and in parts of Umballa district and the

adjoining Simla hills; and thus we, as it were, mark the trail of the

Bramin race in its progress southwards from the hills of Kashmir to

the banks of the sacred Saroostee or Saraswatee and the famous

field of the Gulcheter at Tanessur close to the Grand Trunk Road,

some thirty miles south of Umballa.

Here also the Bramin population in the country is not specially

numerous. Other races have swept over the scene. But lower down

the course of the Saraswatee, where it may be traced through the

now somewhat desolate countries of Marwar and Jessulmere, the

Bramins are still numerous. Where the low and comparatively

moist tracts, in which the river once ran, still admit of cultivation,

the Saraswatee Bramins are found very industrious and good culti-

vators, who claim to have occupied the country before Jats and

Rajpoots became dominant. There is found (at Pokhar) the only

temple in India still dedicated to the worship of Brama the Father.

The town of ‘ Palli’ seems to be a Bramin centre, and thence come a

race of mercantile Bramins called ‘ Palliwals.’

Sir John Malcolm also mentions the Marwarree or Saraswatee Bramins

as forming a considerable proportion of the most industrious cultivators

in Malwa. And following the Saraswatee down to the Indus, we find

that (some southern immigrants excepted) they are also the Bramins

of Scinde, but said to be much looked down on by more orthodox

southerners as eaters of meat and altogether little advanced Bramins.

The settlement on the banks of the Saraswatee is a well-known

stage of Hindu history. Here the Bramins came in contact with

other races, castes were recognised, and early Hinduism became

literary and historical. But the extreme caste and religious system,

the full-blown High-Hinduism of the Gangetic Bramins, was not

yet. The descendants of those who continued to dwell on the

Saraswatee seem to have much kept to the tenets of their forefathers.

They are separate from the Kashmeerees and have a place among

the recognised divisions of Indian Bramins, but their more advanced

brethren give them the lowest place in the orthodox scale, and in

their native country they chiefly shine by those simple and agricul-

tural virtues in which their remote ancestors also probably excelled.

62 The Ethnology of India.

It is a curious problem, that lost river, the Saraswatee. The evi-

dent river-traces all the way down to the Indus, ancient Hindu

history, and the universal traditions of the people of those regions,

all go to make it as certain as any historical fact can be, that the

Saraswatee was once a fine river, and that the countries through which

it flowed (now for the most part desert and barren) were once well-

watered and green. No mere diminution in the amount of rainfall,

caused by denudations or the like, could have occasioned such as

change. The outer range of the Himalaya runs all the way from

the Sutlej to the Jumna without a break, and the tributaries of the

Saraswatee receive but the outer drainage of the slope a few miles

wide. No doubling or trebling of the rainfall could make any of

these considerable perennial streams; nothing in fact short of a

change of elevation of the ridges to the extent of several thousand

feet would render possible any outlet in this quarter of the drainage

of the interior of the Himalayas. The Saraswatee itself is now not

a stream at all, but an absolutely dry bed, which is only filled by

surface flooding in the height of the rains. The high embankments

on the present Grand Trunk Road, on the Umballa side of Thanessur

or Peeplee, mark the levels, and show the hollow where a great river

once flowed. I have long had a theory that, in truth, the stream now

called the Jumna once flowed in this channel. The present channel

of the Saraswatee points upwards to the point where the Jumna

issues from the hills, and ends in a confused drainage within 2 or 3

miles of that almost natural channel in which the Western Jumna

Canal (running more like a river than a canal) carries the Jumna

water in a course which eventually leads it lower down into the very

bed of the Saraswatee. The Jumna at its first issue from the hills

runs in a course which points directly towards the Saraswatee and

the lower Indus, and the moment you cross, to the west, the high

bank (which is accumulated along the course of most rivers), the whole

of the drainage of the country is to the Saraswatee and not to the

Jumna. In fact the bed of the Jumna is higher than that of the

Saraswatee. Sir P. Cautley was anxious, by a change of the Jumna

Canal, to carry it directly into the Saraswatee channel, and I believe

that to divert the whole river would be a work within easy reach of

modern engineering. May it not then be that nature caused a change

The Ethnology of India. 63

the other way, that the stream now called the Jumna then belonged

to the Saraswatee, but that those hill torrents from the Sewalik,

bringing down masses of sand and earth, raised between them and the

main stream a sort of James and Mary which eventually caused

the latter to break away to the south-east? If the stream moved,

most of the Hindus would probably move forward too and find them-

selves in the Gangetic valley.

The Saraswatee Bramins are also called (in the south at least)

** Kashastalee” a name which seems still to mark the time when they

were considered to be of Kashmeeree or Kasha origin. In fact there

seem to be several stages in the history of Braminism. The oldest

of the race may be the people of the upper hills who date from a time

altogether prior to Hinduism. The Kashmeerees were a civilised

and literary Braminical people not yet fully Hindu. The Saraswatee

Bramins (those Kasha settlers in the plains of India) were the earliest

and most simple and pure Hindus of Vedic faith, that faith being

now worked out and developed ; those of the Ganges and the rest of

India are in various phases the types of modern Hinduism.

From the Gulcheter down to Dehli and in the country about Dehli,

Bramin villages are scattered about, but the Bramins cannot be said

to constitute a very large proportion of the agricultural population.

Wherever they are found in this country, they are capital cultivators,

quiet, industrious, intelligent ; there is no better population, and the

women work as well as the men. It was remarked by the fugitives

from Dehli at the time of the mutiny, that whenever they came to

a Goojar village, they were always plundered ; whenever they came to

a Bramin village, they were always kindly treated ; while at any other

village their treatment was uncertain. These Bramins too are, I

should think, descendants of the Saraswatee Bramins. Some of the

less pure agricultural Bramins of these parts are called ‘ Tugas’ or

‘Gour Tugas.’ South of Dehli, in the Jyepore country, Bramins seem

to be numerous, but I have not been able to ascertain if they are of the

same branch. In the Seharunpore district too there are a good many

Bramins of secular occupations, besides the priests of Hardwar.

Sir H. Elliott has remarked on the difficulty of accounting for the

fact that all the Dehli country is occupied by ‘Gour’ Bramins. They

can hardly, he thinks, have come from Gour in Bengal, from which

64 The Ethnology of India.

they are separated by great tribes of Kanoujeas and others, and their

own traditions point to Harriana as their original country. I would

suggest the following explanation. The principal tributary of the

Saraswatee is the ‘ Guggur’ or ‘ Ghargar’ which now gives its name to

the main channel where it passes through the Harriana district.

May not the name of ‘ Gour,’ borne by these Bramins of Harriana, be

a mere abbreviation of ‘Guggur’ or Ghargar? May not the Gour

Bramins be simply Bramins of the Guggur or Lower Saraswatee ?

Generally speaking I think it may be said that in the western

parts of the present N. W. Provinces, in the Rohilcund, Meerut and

Agra Divisions and in Western Oude, the Bramin population is not

specially numerous. They are scattered about everywhere here and

there, both as cultivators and in other capacities, but I know no large

body of them. I don’t know that they follow much any profession

involving manual labour, except cultivation and almost any kind of

service; unskilled labour as Coolees or spade labourers, they may

undertake when pressed, but I do not think that they are artisans.

There are a few considerable Bramin bankers in Hindustan, er at

least one great house, but that trade is not generally in their hands.

Farther east, in the Lower Doab, Eastern Oude, and the adjoining

districts, is the great country of the modern Hindustanee Bramins.

Kanouj, the ancient head-quarters of the race, is on the old Ganges

50 or 60 miles above Cawnpore. It is now an insignificant place,

and the mass of the Bramin population lies to the east of it. In

the districts of Cawnpore and Futtehpore I believe that the Bramin

cultivators far exceed in number any other class ; in Cawnpore alone

there are some 250,000 of them. It is much the same immediately

on the other side of the Ganges, in the adjoining parts of Oude.

The country of which this is the centre may then more than any

other be considered especially that in which the Bramins are now

settled as a people. And in the far distant country in which also

they are very numerous, the Western Coast of Southern India, the

Bramins claim to be colonists from the same region, saying that

Paras Ram led them from Calpee (the great Ferry of the Jumna

opposite Cawnpore) and causing the sea to recede, settled them under

the Western Ghats. The Lower Doab is well-known all over Central

and Southern India as the ‘‘ Unter-bed.”

The Ethnology of India. 65

Whether from the example of the Rajpoots, or for other reasons,

these Bramins of the Unterbed and Oude have taken largely to the

profession of arms, not usually much followed by them in other parts

ofthe country; and beyond their own boundaries in their Military

character they are reputed the most- overbearing and disagreeable

of their race. Yet I fancy that it is rather their profession than their

natural character, which has attached to them this bad name. Numer-

ous as they were in the Sepoy Army and foully as that Army

behaved, I cannot find that the Bramins were really by any means

worse than others; some of the most Bramin Regiments stood the

best. And at home they seem to be quiet and peaceable enough.

The Bramin district of Cawnpore pays, I think, a higher revenue rate

than any other in India, except the peculiar Delta of the Cauvery about

Tanjore. Numerous as the Bramins are in this part of the country

and apt as soldiers, they have not been the dominant race. I do not

know much of the history of the Cawnpore district, but I have never

heard of Bramin rule ; and certainly over the river, in Oude, the rule

is with the Rajpoots, not with the Bramins. All the really old

Talookdars are Rajpoots, as are the Rajas of Bundlecund and Baghel-

cund beyond the Jumna.

IT am not sure what is the extent of the Bramin population in

Bundlecund. In the Banda District I think that they are common,

and certainly in ‘ Baghelcund,’ or Rewah, they are very numerous ; but

whether the same martial race, I do not know, for there they conde-

scend to very menial services and groom most of the horses on the

Jubbulpore road.

In the proper Bramin country, I think that some of them affect

the Rajpoot prejudice against actually holding the plough, but

even there they perform every other agricultural labour. Agri-

cultural and military as they are, they rejoice in the classic names of

Dobee, Tewaree, and Choubee, that is men of two Veds, of three Veds,

of four Veds, and are considered to be very high caste. Between the

Ganges and the Gogra, as we recede from the Ganges, the population

becomes more Rajpoot than Bramin, but there are many Bramins

‘about ‘ Ajoodia,’ the old ‘ Oadh.’ Beyond the Gogra again is a nu-

merous Bramin population of a different tribe from the martial

Bramins of the Ganges, humbler, and not soldiers, Thence to the

66 The Ethnology of India.

north of the Gogra and Ganges all the way into Tirhoot there are,

I believe, many Bramins. South of the Gogra and thence across the

Ganges, into the Arrah District (Bojpore), runs the Rajpoot dominions.

But about Benares, and still more in the greater part of Bahar, the

dominion is held by a numerous class of bastard Bramins called

‘ Bamans’ or ‘ Bhabans,’ to which belong both the Raja of Benares

and almost all the great landholders of Bahar. There seems to be

no doubt that this class is formed by an intermixture of Bramins with

some inferior caste. They live in strong and pugnacious brother-

hoods, and are in character much more like Rajpoots than Bramins.

The main country of the Bramins may then be described to be that

part of Hindustan (between the Vyndyas on one side and the Hima-

layas on the other), from the longitude of Kanouj and Lucknow

to near the frontiers of Bengal, with a large segment of more

especially Rajpoot country (stretching from Lucknow to Bojpore)

cut out of the centre of this tract.

The Hindustanee Bramins are all strict Hindus of the modern type.

They are generally good sized aud on the whole well-looking men,

not I think particularly fair among the higher castes, but seldom so

dark as the lower. Their features are good, but by no means

generally of the peculiar High-Arian and sub-aquiline type. In fact

the breed has here lost some of the purity of its blood, and the

features are very much as in Europe. I think I have noticed among

many of the Hindustanee Bramins a good deal of the open, blunt,

bullet-headed, and as it were anti-aquiline style of countenance ; not

so handsome as more High-Arian features, but still pleasant enough,

I do not think that in appearance they have any decided superiority

over the higher castes of Hindustanees in general, though the higher

castes have some general advantages over the inferior castes. By

far the greater number of them are quite illiterate and have nothing

of the clerkly character about them. The priests and Pandits are learned

enough in their way, but they have never taken to the use of the

Persian character. I doubt whether Hindustanee Bramins are as a

body much more clever that several other classes; if they had been,

they would have held their own better in spite of Mahommedan rule,

as they have done in several other parts of India. As it is, they

have scarcely any share of high office and very little literate service.

The Ethnology of India. 67

Besides serving as soldiers, they may be found among the lower

hangers-on of courts, jails, @&c., as process servers, guards over

prisoners, and so on, but little in anything higher. As I have said,

they turn their hands to many miscellaneous occupations not peculiar

to any one else, and of course occasionally rise.

Sir H. Elliott calls the bastard Bramins of Benares and Bahar

* Bhoonhars’ and seems to consider them a branch of the Sarwarea or

Transgogra Bramins. Again he speaks of them (quoting from the

*‘ Harivansa’) as Military Bramins descendants of Kasya Princes, and

here he seems to connect the term Kasya with Kashee, the Hindoo

name for Benares. I do not know the derivation of Kashee, or whether

it is connected with Kashupya.

Bramins are numerous in Kumaon and Gurwhal. The great tribe

of those Provinces are however ‘ Khassias’”’ who now claim to be

Rajpoots, but whose title to that character is more than doubtful.

Education is, I think, more general here than in the plains, and’

the Nagaree or ordinary Sanscrit character is always used. Again

the Goorkhas, the dominant tribe in Nepal, are properly called ‘ Khas,’

whence Gor-khas. They are certainly for the most part of Arian

and Hindoo origin, and pretend to be Rajpoots; but, according to

Mr. Hodgson, they are really bastard Bramins, the offspring of a

cross between Bramin immigrants and the people of the hills. Both

the Khassias of _Kumaon and the Khas of Nepal assert that they are

comparatively recent immigrants from the plains, but this is probably

in a great degree connected with their claim to the blue blood of the

Rajpoots of the plains. The latter by no means acknowledge the

connection. The circumstance that a bastard Bramin race is dominant

in the plains immediately under the Central parts of Nepal gives

much colour to Mr, Hodgson’s account of a similar race in the hills.

May it not be that the Rajpoots have never got’so far east in the

hills, and that the hill country was occupied by pre-Rajpoot Bramins ?

May it be that the names Kashee, Khassia, and Khas, point to a time

when the Bramins were known as Khasas or Kashmeerees, just as

English colonists are known as Anglo-Saxons ?

Mr. B. Colvin, long Deputy Commissioner of Almorah, tells me a

curious circumstance, viz. that in Kumaon, although the hill dialect

is in the main Hindee, it has some curious grammatical affinities to

68 The Ethnology of India.

the Bengalee, both in some of the popular terminations, in the verb

‘to be,’ and in other particulars. I had before learned that there was

a peculiarity of this kind in the Hindee spoken in the high

country immediately south of Bahar, but there I supposed it to be a

mere intermixture of the not distant Bengalee. The existence,

however, of Bengalee affinities in the patois of Kumaon would

seem to suggest the question whether these are not the remains of a

form of Arian speech older that the modern Hindee, spoken perhaps

before Rajpoots and Jats came on the scene, and then driven forward

to Bengal in one direction, into the hills in another. I have not

myself any acquaintance with Bengalee, but it would be interesting

to enquire ifit has any affinities with the older forms of speech in

Kashmir and the north-western hills, or again with the Maratta

and western dialects.

To get an idea of the Bengalee formation, I asked a friend the

other day a single word, the pronoun ‘he’ and the genitive ‘ of him,’

which he gave me ‘Se’ and ‘ Taha’ or ‘ Tah.’ At this present writing,

by way of experiment, I have just turned up these same words in Mr.

Edgeworth’s small Kashmir Grammar and find ‘he,’ ‘ Su ;’ ‘of him’

‘Teh. The ‘Se’ is a very old Arian form, found in the Kaffir hills,

which disappears in Hindee and reappears in Bengalee; but the genitive

‘ Teh’ in Cashmiree, ‘ Tah’ in Bengalee, seems a singular and hardly

accidental coincidence.

To return, this brings me to the Bengalee Bramins. They all

assert a northern origin as a historical fact, and I believe that there

is no doubt of it. Still their nationality is altogether Bengalee,

and as the Bengalees differ from all other Indians, these Bramins

also differ much in language, dress, habits, and general style from the

Hindustanee Bramins.

In appearance they are certainly fairer, larger, and altogether

Aryans of a higher type than the mass of the Bengalees. There is

much more difference, I think, between Bramins and the mass in

Bengal than in Hindustan, Some of them are fine looking men both

in size and feature. They regain here too, some (though not all)

of the aristocratic and bureaucratic position which they have lost

in Hindustan. They have little competition from Rajpoots and

rough northern tribes, and might have it pretty much their own way,

The Ethnology of India. 69

were it not that they are hard-pushed by the clerkly caste of Kaits

who also are numerous in Bengal. As it is, the Bramins have a

large share of the landed property, the public offices, the educated

professions, and some mercantile and banking business. They are

very numerous. In the entire absence of statistics and detailed

information in Bengal, the only source of ethnological information

which I can find is in the jail statistics. These show that about

9 per cent. of the total number of Hindu prisoners are Bramins.

We may suppose that the Bramins of Bengal proper come to jail

less frequently than the inferior classes, and this return certainly

seems to prove that the Bramin population must be very large.

I do not understand that anywhere in Bengal they form the mass of

the population, or that they are often found in the lowest ranks of

agriculturists and labourers. They are rather more or less an

aristocratic class, and though following a variety of callings and to

some extent cultivating the land, will not ordinarily put their hand to

the plough, and affect as far as possible the position of superiors. They

are altogether unwarlike and somewhat effeminate in their habits.

In Hastern Bengal Mahommedans prevail, and some Bramins are

supposed not to like to cross the Berhampooter, hence in that quarter

they seem not to be very numerous. In Orissa I believe they are

very many, and I see it stated in the Gazetteer of Southern India

that in the Oorya portion of the Ganjam District many of the Oorya

Bramins both obtain their livelihood as cultivators and traders, and

follow the occupations of brickmakers, bricklayers, We.

The result of education shows the Bramins of Bengal to be most

acute and intellectually capable. But they do not appear to have

the practical energy of the mercantile and some other classes, nor

the political and administrative success of Maratta and Kashmeeree

Bramins. In native times I do not remember to have heard of Bengalee

Bramins in great places, unless we except Nandcomar who attained

so unfortunate an eminence. In these days I believe that intellectual

eminence is often combined with much high principle among the

educated Bengalees, and I hope that both may bear practical fruit.

Going to the other side of India, in Goozerat the Bramins appear

to be numerous, but I have not yet visited that Province, and have

not exactly ascertained their position and avocations. Forbes does

70 The Ethnology of India.

not seem to speak of them as forming any large portion of the culti-

vating classes. ‘They trace their descent from Kashyupa, and are

divided into a large number of tribes and sub-divisions. In a secular

capacity they seem to have a good share of office (although there

also they encounter an energetic writer-caste) and also to trade.

The Jains of Western India have Bramins among them, and these

would seem to be for the most part Goozerat men.

Next to Goozerat comes the Maratta country, extending from

Damaun to the neighbourhood of Goa, and from Bombay to Nagpore

and the Wyuganga. ‘The Maratta Bramins are the most famous and

successful of their race. That their fortune is due to their talent and

energy, is shown by their success beyond their own bounds, in fact

throughout Southern and Central India. But in their own country

and among their own people, they are also favoured by circumstances.

The lower caste men of the pen, who have ousted the Bramins in

some countries of the north and more than rivalled them in others,

are not found in the Maratta social system (those now found in the

Bombay country are Goozerattees, and Bombay itself is in a mercan-

tile sense very much a Goozerattee city). The mass of the Maratta

people are of a comparatively humble class, without the pride and

jealousy of Bramins shown by Rajpoots and Jats. Hence wherever

there is a Maratta people or Maratta rule, Maratta Bramins are the

brains and directing power. At first they contented themselves with

the highest administrative offices under Maratta rulers, but later, as

is well known, the Peshwa and other Bramins usurped the supreme

power itself, assumed the command of armies, and openly ruled the

confederacy. In truth, so miscellaneous, and so loosely held together

by any other tie, were Maratta confederacies and armies, that these

Bramins may be considered to be the real source of the power and

fame of the Marattas as rulers in India. ‘They were the heads of a

body of which others were but the hands guided by them. Even

to the present day in many States and places beyond their own limits,

they have the chief power.

In fact perhaps no race, certainly no Indian race, has ever shown

greater administrative talent and acuteness. The native country of

the Maratta Bramins is chiefly to the west, and especially the

Concan, south_of Bombay, the hilly strip near the Western Coast.

The Ethnology of India. 71

Tt might be conjectured that centuries of Mahommedan rule might

have caused the retreat of the Bramins from the more open

plains to these regions; but I do not know that there is historical

ground for this supposition, and think it more likely that under any

rule they would hold their own and circumvent even foreign rulers.

Their personal appearance would lead one rather to suppose that they

came from the North-West. Many of them are very fair, and I think

that there is among them a much greater tendency to the common

occurrence of a somewhat aquiline, or what I call sub-aquiline type

of feature than among Hindustanee Bramins. A very marked feature,

not uncommonly met with, seems to be a light greyish kind of eye.

Altogether, I cannot suppose these Bramins to be a branch of the

race which, after occupying Hindustan, extended southwards. I can-

not imagine how they could in the south, as it were, in some degree

have returned towards an earlier type, instead of step by step

becoming darker and more Indian-like. It is undoubtedly the case

and is a subject of common remark, that all along the West Coast of

India the people are much fairer than in the interior, even though

most of the interior country above the Ghats is considerably elevated.

Some have accounted for this by saying that colour does not alto-

gether depend on the thermometer, that the inhabitants of the

more umbrageous Coast are less exposed to an unclouded sun and dry

atmosphere than the people of the bare and treeless plains of the

Deccan, and that thus the difference of colour is to be accounted for.

I will not say that this cause is wholly without effect, but I think it

quite insufficient to account for the whole difference. The Bengalees

in a moist atmosphere and amid a luxurious vegetation are generally

dark. The blackest of the Aboriginal tribes live in the densest forest

country in a moist malarious climate. Hven on this very Western

Coast I find the Aboriginal Helots of Malabar described as being

“of the deepest black.” We must look then to some other cause

modifying the complexion of many tribes on the West Coast, and

that I take to be immigration by sea. That there has been much

such immigration, is not only probable, but a historical fact. All

along the southern portion of the West Coast, a large part of the

population is notoriously to a great degree of foreign blood. The

Moplahs are to a great extent Arabs, the ‘ Teers’ or ‘ Teermen’ are also

72 The Ethnology of India.

said to be immigrants (as their very name indicates), and there are

many Jews and Christians, though the latter I believe have not much

trace of Western blood. All along the Bombay Coast also, from Goa

to Kurrachee, are the descendants of Persian, Arab, Portuguese, and

other Western immigrants. Hence I did not think it by any means

absurd when an educated Bramin of Poonah suggested to me as a

theory, that the Bramins owed the light eyes and light complexion

noticed among them to an intermixture of Western blood. The Bramins

would be less liable, however, to casual and recent intermixture than

other races, and I incline rather to the theory that these Bramins of

this part of the Coast may have more directly come from the original

seats of the race by the route of the Saraswatee and the Indus, and

thence perhaps by sea, without passing through Hindustan and Cen-

tral India and there suffering any infiltration of Aboriginal blood.

I have already traced the Bramins down the Saraswatee. Is it not

probable enough that in very early days, when they were pressed by

Rajpoots and Jats, they may have colonised the Konkan, reduced to

subjection the rude Aborigines, and transmitted to descendants

features preserved from great deterioration by caste rules, and forms

only somewhat deteriorated in size and robustness by a southern

climate and the absence of manual labour? Jf such an immigration

took place so early as I suppose, it might well happen that, in long

contact with southern elements and southern creeds, the colonists in

the Maratta country would separate themselves from the old Saras-

watee Bramins and become a separate division.

I have seen some allusions to Konkan Bramins as distinguished

from Maratta Bramins, but have not been able to make out the

exact distinction. Certainly Maratta Bramins are altogether the

dominant race in great part of the Konkan. But*it appears that

there is a strip to the south, extending beyond the district usually

known as the Konkan to some way beyond Goa, in which a mixed

language called Konkanee is spoken. In this Konkan there are some

Bramins still called ‘ Kashastala or Saraswatee’ and from the Konkan

some of them have penetrated into the north-western part of the

Mysore country, where they are traders and in public employment, and

described as very clever but greatly looked down upon by southern

Bramins who profess to be much more rigid in their rules. In the

The Ethnology of India, 73

towns of the North Canarese Coast, the Hindu traders are said to be

chiefly ‘‘ Konkanee Bramins who trade and keep shops.”

In the Maratta Konkan the Bramins are at the head of the

agricultural community. Most of the ‘ Kotes’ or village zemindars

who rule over and claim the proprietary right in each village are of

this caste. I have not been able to ascertatm what proportion of the

actual cultivators are of the same class. For the rest, office of every

kind, including the village and pergunnal accountantships all over the

country, and every service of the head and the pen, seem to be their

great resources. They are not military, nor generally in any way

men of the sword, though, as I have said, they have in their prosperity

taken the command of Maratta Armies. Nor do they seem to have

any great commercial proclivities. Among the various races who

push to so great a point mercantile enterprise in Bombay I cannot

find that the Bramins have any great share. Under our Government

they have almost a monopoly of office in Western India.

Adjoining the Maratta country on the east is the Teclinga or Telagoo

country, very little of which I have visited and of the castes and

population of which I have been able to learn less than of any other

part of India. This at least, however, I find that here also the

Bramins, though not so famous nor, I apprehend, so clever as those

of Maharashtra, are numerous and powerful. The Telinga people

are described as generally illiterate and as (unlike their Tamil neigh-

bours) leaving literature and science to the Bramins; so that the

latter would seem in Telingana, free from the competition of a

writer caste, to have in their hands all the secular business of a

clerkly character and a good deal more besides. I have not ascer-

tained what proportion of the population they there form, and

whether many of them are actual cultivators; but in more than one

place I find it stated that many of the Zemindars are Bramins, and

in Rajamundry the more respectable inhabitants of the Town are said

to be chiefly Bramins.

I can only trust that this meagre account of the Telagoo Bramins

will be supplemented by some one better qualified to describe them.

Towards Madras I gather that there are some learned Gwallas called

Yadayas and Telagoo Chetties (perhaps a merchant class, but I am

not sure), who must a good deal interfere with the Bramins. They

74 The Ethnology of India:

do not seem to be very conspicuous in Madras itself, which, though m

the Tamil country, is not far from the Telagoo frontier.

In the Canarese country (comprising Canara, Mysore and parts of

the Bombay Southern Districts and adjoining Nizam’s country) the

Bramins are not rivalled by a specific writer class, and have a large

share of literate office, very generally (Gt appears) occupying that of

Shanbogue or village accountant, besides many higher offices. But a

very large proportion of the Canarese people are of the ultra-Sivite

or Lingayet sect, who altogether ignore Bramins in their sacerdotal

character ; and there are energetic mercantile and other classes. The

rule of the Marattas in one quarter, and of the Mahommedans in another

was also unfavorable to the power of the Canarese Bramins, and thus

they are by no means dominant. Maratta Bramins, Mahommedans,

East Indians and others have a large share of the higher offices and

occupations.

In the North Western part of the Canarese country, in the district

of North Canara, in the high and hilly country above and about the

ghats, and the adjoining parts of Mysore, there is a large population

of Bramin cultivators who are on all hands represented as exceedingly

industrious, thriving, and in every way good. Most of these people

are called ‘ Haiga’ Bramins, and they seem to be of pure race and of

no bastard or doubtful caste. They especially affect the cultivation

of the betel-nut, and both own and cultivate the land over a large

extent of country. In the Canara District they constitute one of

the most numerous castes, being given by a census taken some years

ago as 147,924, to 146,309 Banters (corresponding to Nairs), and

151,491 of the inferior class called Billawars. In the Nagar district

of Mysore they are also numerous, and they are there described as

“very fair, with large eyes and aquiline noses,” a description which

would seem to imply for them a derivation from an uncorrupted

and little intermixed northern source. They are stated not to be

very literary or highly educated, being more devoted to agriculture.

In South Canara and what is called the Talava country, there are

again many Bramins who do much cultivation, and on the whole

West Coast, down to the extreme South of India, the country is said

to have been extensively colonised by the Bramin colony led from

Calpee by Parasram, who caused the sea to retire for their convenience.

The Ethnology of India. 75

In the centre of this tract, in Malabar, the Bramins, owing to political

circumstances and hostile rule, have been to a great extent driven

away, but they ave very numerous in Travancore and Cochin; and in

the Palghaut valley (a little inland, where the break takes place in the

line of the ghats) the Bramins seem to be very numerous as cultiva-

tors, and are industrious and good in that capacity. The principal

class of Bramins on the South Coast are called Namberees, and they

have some very peculiar customs. They affect, however, much of

the sacerdotal character, and seem to be very influential in Travancore

and Cochin. Throughout the South Western Coast, however, wherever

the Nairs and allied tribes are or have been politically dominant or

are now numerous, the Bramins have by no means a monopoly of

office, even among Hindus; for the Nairs themselves are frequently

educated and hold very many public offices.

The Namberee Bramins are described as very like the Nairs and

Seneral Hindu population of the South Coast, but as not unfrequently

fairer.

It remains to notice the Tamil country. There also the Bramins

are numerous, but it appears that throughout the extreme South, they

again lose that literary predominance, or almost monopoly, which they

enjoy in the Maratta and other countries in the middle zone of India

as well as in the extreme North. Ihave mentioned that the Nairs

of the Malayala and Talava country by no means resign the pen to

the Bramins ; and so also it appears that throughout the Tamil country

offshoots of the dominant tribes, under the names of Modelliars,

Pillays, &c., do much of the clerkly work, and the Bramins have not

generally the office of village accountant and collector—the posses-

sion of which is the greatest test of predominance in that respect. I

gather that the Lingamite sect is less numerous in the Tamil than

in the Canarese country, and consequently the Bramins are in a

sacerdotal point of view more important. They also push their

fortunes in many secular ways. They rent much land, but will not

hold the plough, and are extensively employed in the public offices

as hurkaras (messengers or process servers) and in such like capa-

cities, also as keepers of choultrees and in many other occupations.

With reference to what I have said of them as renters rather than

cultivators, I should add that, though the Palghat country is included

76 The Ethnology of India.

in Malabar, it appears that most of the cultivating Bramins there are

of Tamil extraction. Many of them condescend to officiate as astro-

logers and religious guides to the very lowest and scarcely Hindu

castes of Southern India.

Briefly I would thus recapitulate the position of the Bramins in

the principal Provinces of India.

In Kashmir, they are altogether dominant by the peat and pen,

but are not military.

In the Punjab, Scinde, and countries about the Saraswatee, Bramins

are superseded by other races, and are only found here and there in

the eastern part of this tract as industrious cultivators claiming to be

the ancient occupants of the country.

Jn Hindustan, Bramins have altogether lost literate predominance

(with the exception of some immigrant Cashmeerees), and also

political predominance, except something retained by quasi-Bramins

of mixed caste in the extreme east of this country. But they

constitute a large section of the population of Hindustan, especi-

ally of the eastern half, and a large proportion of the cultivators,

soldiers, de.

In Bengal and Orissa, Bramins form a large portion of the Hindu

population, occupy to a great extent an aristocratic position, and have

a large share in the superior rights in land, in offices, and in the

literate professions; but are at the same time quite rivalled by

Kaists.

In the Maratta country, Bramins are altogether dominant in literate

work, and have the largest share of political power.

In the Telinga country, Bramins are in possession of most of the

literate work, and apparently of a good deal of office, land, We.

but my information is very imperfect.

In the South of India, Bramins have but a moderate share of the

literate work; but on the West Coast, they have a large share

of the land and form a large proportion of the best cultivating

population; while in the east of this country they seem to be not

dominant and are rivalled by several other tribes, though here also

they are numerous and employed in many capacities, secular as well

as sacerdotal.

The Ethnology of India. Va

Tur JAts.

On the general scheme of tracing the Arian races from the North-

West, I take the Jats before the Rajpoots. These Jats are in fact by

far the most perfect specimen of the democratic and more properly

Indo-Germanie races, whom I believe to have appeared in India later

than the early Braminical Hindus, and who, while Hindu in much

of their speech, laws, and manners, have also some peculiarities and

institutions, and perhaps some grammatical forms of speech not to be

traced in the earlier Braminical writings. These tribes, now consti-

tuting over a great part of India an upper and dominant stratum of

society, have given to a great degree their own tone and colour to

many Provinces. In great part of Jat-land the Jats are not only

the upper stratum, but the great body and mass of the free people ;

and hence we have among them their original institutions in the

greatest purity, little modified by modern Braminical Laws, or by those

necessities of Military and Feudal organisation which so much alter

the institutions of a free people, when they become dominant con-

querors over other races greatly superior in number.

There is some variation in the pronunciation of the word ‘ Jat,’ it

being sometimes (chiefly in the west country) pronounced so short that

it may be written ‘ Jut ;’ sometimes (in much of the Punjab) variably

used, and sometimes (chiefly in the east) pronounced very long as ‘ Jat’

and even occasionally written by early English authors ‘ Jaut.’ And

the present religion, dress, &c. of the race also differing in different

regions (they are Mussulmans in the west, Sikhs in great part of the

Punjab, and in some sense Hindus in the east), some people have

supposed Mahommedan Jats of Scinde to be radically different from

Hindu Jauts of Bhurtpore, and the wide extent and populousness of

this great race is not very generally known. In fact, however, any

apparent differences in the extreme of the type disappear, when we

trace them as one great continuous population throughout the whole

tract, and find that the one extreme gradually and imperceptibly merges

into the other.

To prevent future doubts, I will, however, add that there may

possibly be small local western tribes of similar name, distinct from the

great Jat nation. It seems that on some parts of the frontier Jats are

78 The Ethnology of India.

known as a somewhat pastoral and light-fingered tribe; and Burton

in his ‘Scinde’ speaks of a tribe of Beloochis bearing the name; also

says that it is the name of a wandering tribe found about Candahar,

Herat, Meshed, &c., and that in all the Western parts of Central Asia,

the term is used as synonymous with thief and scoundrel. These

gentry may be offshoots of our Jats thrown by circumstances on the

resources of their mother-wit, or they may be some other tribe; but

at any rate they are in no way a type of the great agricultural nation

whose habitat I am about to describe, and about whose oneness and

complete ethnological nationality there can be, I think, no doubt

whatever.

Tn all the east of Beloochistan, about the routes by which the most

open and constant communications between India and the countries

to the west are maintained, in the Provinces marked in the maps as

‘ Sewestan’ and ‘ Cutch Gandava,’ Jats forma large, probably the largest

portion of the agricultural population, and claim to be the original

owners of the soil. In fact the Beloochis are there but a later wave

and upper stratum. The Persian Tajiks are the original agricultural

class of all the west of Affghanistan and Beloochistan; then there is

a tribe apparently somewhat mixed, called ‘ Dehwars,’ found about

Candahar and thereabouts. The Jats are not found in Affghanistan,

but in Beloochistan they succeed the Tajiks and Dehwars, as we go

east by the Bolan and routes thereabouts. Here then they are not

confined to the plains, but occupy the hilly country.

Descending into the plains, we find the Jats spread to the right and

left along the Indus and its tributaries, occupying upper Scinde on

one side and the Punjab on the other. But it is particularly to be

remarked that im the Punjab they are not found in any numbers

above the Salt Range, and they are wholly unknown in the Hima-

laya. In fact, to the north they are altogether excluded from the

hilly country, a circumstance which seems to me conclusively to show

that they did not enter India by that extreme northern route. The

hills to the north seem on the contrary to be a barrier by which the

flood of Jats was checked.

In all Upper Scinde the Jats are still the prevailing population, and

their language is the language of the country. It is moreover matter

of history that they were once the aristocracy of that land, though

The Ethnology of India. 79

latterly other races have dominated and the higher classes among the

Jats have lost somewhat of their position. In the south and west of

the Punjab too they have long been subject to Mahommedan rulers,

but latterlyjas Sikhs they became rulers of the whole Punjab and of

the country beyond as far as the upper Jumna, in all which territories

they are still in every way the dominant population. Over great tracts

of this country, I should say that three villages out of four are Jat, and

that in each Jat village the Jats constitute perhaps two-thirds of the

entire population, the remainder being low caste Helots, with a few

traders, artisans, Wc.

The Juts of the Indus seem on the map to be separated from the

Jauts of Bhurtpore and Agra by the whole breadth of Rajpootana, but

the fact is that the ordinary geographical nomenclature gives rise to

much misconception on the subject. By far the greater part of what

we call Rajpootana is, ethnologically speaking, much more a Jat than

a Rajpoot country. The great seat of Rajpoot population and ancient

power and glory is on the Ganges, and it is said that since the Mahom-

medans conquered them there, the chief Rajpoot houses have as it were |

doubled back on the comparatively unfruitful countries which now bear

their name, but where, notwithstanding, the most numerous section

of the population is Jat. Col. Tod expressly tells us that northern

Rajpootana was partitioned into small Jat republics, before the

Rajpoots were driven back from Ajoodea and the Ganges. It is clear

then that the Jats extend continuonsly east from the Indus over

Rajpootana. They do not seem to have occupied (or at least do not

now occupy) lower Scinde, nor are they found in Goozerat, although

in the history of the latter country mention is made of incursions of

Jat horsemen on the frontier in conjunction with Katties. Their line

of settlement lies farther north. They may have arrived on the

Saraswatee, before its banks lost their moisture, and if so, their passage

to the east would be comparatively easy. Throughout the more open

parts of Rajpootana they share the soil with the Aboriginal or semi-

Aboriginal Meenas, the remains of the Bramin population, and the

dominant Rajpoots ; the Jats having, I gather, the largest share of the

cultivation. The southern and more hilly parts of Rajpootana (where

Mhairs, Meenas, and Bheels so much hold their own,) are not Jat, but

in Malwa again they are numerous, and seem to share that Province

with Rajpoots and Koonbees,

80 The Ethnology of India.

To the north, in the north-eastern Punjab and Cis-Sutlej districts,

as we get near the hills, I think there are evident indications that the

Jat population has been advancing on what has once been a proper

Rajpoot country, after having perhaps been, before thag, a Bramin

country. It is not clear whether the Bhattees of Bhatteana were

originally Rajpoots or really are Yuti or Jats. But from Bhatteana

northwards, Rajpoot villages are scattered about in considerable

numbers among the Jats, and there are traces ‘of more extensive

Rajpoot possessions. The Rajpoots seem to be here undergoing gradual

submersion. But in the extreme north of the Baree and adjoining

Doabs of the Punjab (the Baree is that Doab in which Lahore and

Umritsir are situated) there is still a strip immediately under the

hills, which may be classed with the adjoining hill country as still

mainly Rajpoot. To the west, advancing through Rajpootana, we

come to the Jats of Bhurtpore and Dholpore, famous in history.

Gwalior was a Jat fortress belonging, I think, to the Dholpore Chief.

They do not go much further south in this direction. From this

_ point they may be said to occupy the banks of the Jumna all the way

north to the hills. The Dehli territory is principally a Jat country, and

from Agra upwards the flood of that race has passed the river in con-

siderable numbers, and forms a large part of the population of the

Upper Doab in the districts of Allighur, Meerut, and Mozuffernugger.

They are just known over the Ganges in the Moradabad district, but

they cannot be said to have crossed that river in any numbers.

To define then the Jat country ; take as a basis the country on both

sides of the Indus from Lat. 26° or 27° up to the Salt Range; from

the extremities of this base draw two lines nearly at right angles to

the river and inclining south, so as to reach Lat. 23° or 24° in Malwa,

and Lat. 80° on the Jumna, thus including Upper Scinde, Marwar, :

and part of Malwa on one side, and Lahore, Umritsir, and Umballa on

the other; then connect the two eastern points by a line which shall

include Dholpore, Agra, Allighur, and Meerut. Within all that

ambit the Jat race ethnologically predominates, excepting only the

hills of Mewar and the neighbourhood, still held by Aboriginal tribes.

The Jats of Beloochistan are described, from an Affghan or Candahar

point of view, as fine athletic men with handsome features, but rather

dark.

The Ethnology of India. 81

In Upper Scinde, up the course of the Indus, and in the south-west-

ern Punjab, they are now for the most part Mahommedans, and in that

character seem to be somewhat inferior to their unconverted and

perhaps purer brethren; the more so as they have been long subject

to foreign rule. The language spoken along the line of the Indus

and throughout Upper Scinde is there known as the “‘ Jatee Gul’ or

Jat language, but is in fact identical with that which we call

Punjabee. The Punjabee may, in fact, properly be called the Jat

language; to the Jats the dialect seems especially to belong, and by

them chiefly it is spoken. Advancing eastwards into the Punjab and

Rajpootana, we find Hindu and Mahommedan Jats much mixed ; it

often happens that one-half of a village or one branch of a family is

Mahommedan, and the other Hindu. Further east, Mahommedan Jats

become rarer and rarer, and both about Lahore and all that part of

the Punjab and along the line of the Upper Sutlej] and Jumna the

great mass remain unconverted. In the Punjab they all take the

name of ‘ Sing,’ and dress somewhat differently from ordinary Hindu

Jats, but for the most part they only become formally Sikhs, when

they take service, and that change makes little difference in their

laws and social relations. The Jats of Dehli, Bhurtpore, &e. are

a very fine race. They still bear the old Hindu names of ‘ Mull’ and

such like, and are not all ‘Sings.’ In Rajpootana the Jats are pro-

bably a good deal intermixed by contact with Meenas, &c., and they

have now been long subject to an alien rule. One does not there

hear much of them otherwise than as quiet and submissive cultivators.

The Jat Sings of the Punjab and the Upper Sutle) may probably

be taken as the best representative type of the race. They area

remarkably five variety of man—tall, large, well-featured, with very

plentiful and long beards, fine teeth, and a very pleasant open expres-

sion of countenance. I am told that in the Punjab Regiments, which

select from several of the finest races in the world, the Sikhs are upon

the whole the largest men, although they are not so stout-limbed or

in certain respects quite so robust as the Affghan Pathans. Perhaps

the larger population to choose from may have something to do

with the superior size, but I should say that on an average they are

taller than Pathans, with the upper part of the body especially well

developed. In pluck and Military qualities they excel the fairer and

82 The Lithnology of India.

in some degree more beautiful non-Pathan races of the northern

hills. Altogether then they are not excelled by any race in Asia.

There is among them a large proportion of High-Arian feature,

but there is much more variety and not so universal a high-nosed

type as among the men of the frontier hills. Compared to northern races

they are dark, but in every other respect they are, take them all in all,

a very remarkably fine handsome people.

- They are as energetic in the arts of peace as in those of war.

There are no better cultivators; hard-working and thrifty, they let

little land lie waste, and pay their revenue punctually. They have

this great advantage too that among them a woman is almost as good

as a man, works as well and makes herself as generally useful. They

are not literary, they leave that, with proper mercantile business, to the

Khatrees (to be afterwards noticed). But many men and some women

can read and write in their own rough way, and as waggoners they

not unfrequently carry their grain and other goods to distant markets

on their own account.

They have an excessive craving after fixed ownership in the soil,

and are essentially agriculturists. They seldom undertake a garden-

ing style of cultivation, and prefer broad high lands to more cramped

though moister locations. Where the country is more fitted for

cattle, they breed them largely, and both ordinary carts and large

mercantile waggons are generally plentiful in the Jat countries.

Camels too they sometimes breed. But still, in India the Jats have

never anything of the pastoral, roving, Gypsy-like character.

I have alluded to the democratic institutions of the Jats, institu-

tions to which we do not find allusions in the books of the Bramins.

Yet it is certain that such institutions prevailed in the North of

India as early as the time of Alexander the Great. The Greek

accounts are distinct on the point. They represent the institutions

as in fact extremely democratic, and add that the Indians ascribed

their free constitution to Bacchus, by whom they were led into the

country. I mentioned Col. Tod’s testimony to the former existence

of Jat republics in great part of what is now Rajpootana. I know

of only one recognised republican State which came down to our

day, that of ‘Phool’ or ‘Maraj,’ from which sprung the chiefs who

founded the States of Patteealah, Nabah, Jheend, &. The old terri-

The Ethnology of India. 83

tory of the Phoolkeean race was recognised, and treated, among the

Protected Sikh States, as a regular republic. But I fear that, with

many less creditable institutions, it has now been brought under the

general rule of British dominion.

However, States apart, every Jat village is on a small scale a demo-

cratic republic. As respects property, there is neither that common

tribal right which we find among the wilder Arabs, Turcomans, and

New Zealanders, nor that complete joint family which figures go

largely in the Hindu Law of the Braminical sages. Every man has

his share of the cultivated land, separate and divided. It may be that

a father and sons cultivate in common, but entire commensality

seldom goes farther. The union in a joint village community is

rather the political union of the Commune, so well known in Europe,

than a common enjoyment of property. The village site, the waste

lands and grazing grounds, and it may be one or two other things

belong to the commune, and the members of the commune have in

these rights of common. For all the purposes of cultivation, the

remainder of the land is in every way separate individual property.

And the government of the commune is no patriarched rule, but

simply representative government. A Communal Council or Punchayet

tules by right of representation. For the rest, the laws of these people

are of Arian, Indo-Germanic, and to some extent of the more liberal

Hindu type. Marriage is a sacred and irrevocable bond, though

remarriage of widows is permitted; and alliances are restricted by

the bonds of caste. The hereditary succession and general hereditary

character of everything, which usually attends this system of caste

and exclusive marriage, prevails among the Jats. Property is equally

divided among sons. Daughters get nothing but that which may be

given to them at the time of marriage. All the Jats are divided into

many Gentes and Tribes, after the universal fashion of the peoples of

this stock, and the usual fashion is to marry into another Gens,

In that portion of the Protected Sikh Territories which Sikhs

from the Lahore country had occupied as conquerors, there was a

periect feudal system. The chief of a tribe, as General, had a large

appanage; smaller chiefs owed him allegiance and service for their

smaller domains, and under-holders under them again (all holding on

a permanent hereditary tenure), till we come to the tenure of a single

84. The Ethnology of India.

horseman. ‘These latter again have come to be divided under the

operation of the rules of inheritance, But this system, it will be

observed, is only adopted abroad for purposes of foreign domination.

Beyond the caste system common to them with most Indo-Germans,

the Jats have very little of the ceremonial strictness of Hindu caste.

In Punjabee Regiments, they mess freely like Europeans, and have their

comfortable two or three meals a day.

’ The Jats sometimes claim to have been originally Rajpoots, and it

is so stated in some of the written accounts; but that is only one of

the many stories of the kind prompted by a desire to stand high in

the Hindu scale, and its futility is illustrated by a counter-story

told by some of the Mahommedan Jats, viz. that they are descended

from one of the companions of the prophet. That the Jats and

Rajpoots and their congeners are branches of one great stock, I have

no doubt. It may be possible that the Rajpoots are Jats who have

advanced farther into Hindustan, have there more intermingled with

Hindu races, have become more high and strict Hindus, and achieved

earlier power and glory. But that the Jats are Rajpoots who have

receded from a higher Hindu position, is a theory for which there is

not the least support, and which is contradicted by every feature in -

the present position of the now rapidly progressing Jats.

The suggestion that Rajpoots may be Jats more highly developed

in a Hindu point of view, would make the latter the earliest and most

primitive, though at the same time perhaps the purest of the race ;

just as I have supposed the Bramins of Cashmere and the Frontier

hills to be Hindus of an earlier stage of Braminical development.

But I am more inelined to suppose the Jats to be later immigrants

from Central or Western Asia. ‘The character of the northern hills

is such that immigration from thence could only gradually filtrate

into the plains; but by the passes of the Bolan, great immigrations

are possible. Looking at the area of Jat occupation, it is just that

which we might suppose to be covered by the steady flow of a large

flood of population issuing from the Bolan, about Lat. 28° or 30°, as

from a funnel, and thence spreading over the plains and pushing

away before it other populations. The Rajpoots, again, when I come

to treat of them, will be found to be ranged in a kind of horse shoe

form round the outer edge of the Jat area, the mags of them occn-

The Ethnology of India. 85

pying the richer valley of the Ganges. My conjecture is that the

Rajpoots are an earlier wave from the same source, and who came in

by the same route, who have farther advanced and have been more

completely Hinduised, while the Jats have come in behind them.

The Jat or Punjabee language is but a dialect, bearing somewhat

the same relation to the Hindee of the Rajpoots and other Hindustanees

that Lowland Scotch bears to English. In its main grammatical and

essential features it is not widely different. There are certainly in it

many words which sound strange to a Huropean only superficially

acquainted with the common Hindustanee, and it would be very

interesting to examine all these words and ascertain whether any and

what foreign elements can be found. But I may state broadly that

by far the greater number of these words are really of plain Sanscrit

origin, and very many of them are quite familiar to those well

acquainted with the purer Hindee dialects. I have been surprised to

find how Sanscrit are most of the words which (little linguist that

Iam) I had supposed to be peculiarly Punjabee. Indeed the Rev.

Mr. Trump broadly states the Jat language to be one of the most

Pracrit of Indian Vernaculars, and so it clearly is. There remains

the old question which concerns it equally with the Hindee, whether

the grammar can be derived from the Sanscrit. It seems very im-

probable that so great a mass of people as the Jats should have lost

all traces of a separate language, if they ever had one. Ii so, it may

surely be recognised in some Punjabee words. For the rest, the

only doubt seems to be whether the Jats and Rajpoots, speaking an

Indo-Germanic tongue allied to the Sanscrit, may have brought with

them the grammar which now distinguishes the Punjabee and

Hindee ; or whether the Bramins, when they spread wide over

Hindustan and mixed among a large Aboriginal population, adopted

some Aboriginal grammar, and fitted into it their own vocabulary,

making a language which Jats and Rajpoots also have received in

India; or whether in fact all these tribes have derived a common

tongue by direct Pracrit descent from the Sanscrit.

Tur Raspoors.

I have already made so many allusions to the Rajpoots, that I have

half anticipated my description of them, The best proof that they

86 The Ethnology of India.

are not a part of the original Hindu system, but rather something

engrafted upon it, is (I think) to be found in the difficulty of defining

what is and what is not a Rajpoot. I have already shown, in noticing

many tribes, that it is almost impossible to say where the Rajpoots

begin and where they end. I shall now, however, confine myself as

far as possible to the tribes who are generally acknowledged to be

real Rajpoots of blue blood.

They can scarcely be said to have any broad general tribal name

like that of the Jats. It is hardly contended that they are really the

old Kshatryas of the early Braminical accounts; and though, in a

military point of view, they have occupied and more than occupied

the place assigned to the Kshatryas, still their numbers, their position

and the existence among them of the institutions shared with them

by the Jats and unknown to the old Hindoo Shasters (in them we

find no trace of democracy) would all go to show that the Rajpoots

are another race. In fact the days of the Kshatryas were those of the

earliest Hindu annals, many hundred years before Christ, while the

Rajpoots may be considered to have been the immediate predecessors

of the Mahommedans in the rule of Hindustan. Except then in

an affected way and with direct reference to the old Sanscrit Nomen-

clature, the Rajpoots are not usually called ‘ Kshatryas,’ while the

name Rajpoot also is by no means universal among them, and merely

means ‘Son of a Raja’ or ‘ Royal. In some parts of the country,

they usually call themselves ‘ Thakoors,’ a word which also means

Chiefs or Nobles.

They are more frequently known by the names of their tribes

s ‘Chouhans,’ ‘ Soorujbansees,’ ‘ Bais,’ ‘ Rahtores,’ ‘ Baghels’ (or

Waghels’) or the like, but the practice of marrying into another tribe

makes all these high-caste tribes identical for ethnological purposes.

I shall continue, then, to call them Rajpoots.

They are chiefly known to Europeans in their aE character

and as feudal conquerors. But in reality, in their own villages in

the plains of the Ganges, they are simple agriculturalists of a con-

stitution very much like that of the Jats, only less pure and complete.

The fact is that the Rajpoots have had their day, and are now a

down-going race. Partly the furnishing of armies and feudal hosts

has exhausted the material and corrupted the simplicity of their ori-

The Ethnology of India. 87

ginal villages; partly infanticide and other causes tend to diminish

their numbers; the result of all which is, that over great tracts of

country we find them rather a minority trying to maintain a failing

rule over a scarcely subject majority, than forming full democratic

bodies of free Rajpoots. Still, in some parts of the country the

agricultural Rajpoot villages are strong and numerous; the land is

divided among them, every Rajpoot is free and equal, and the commune

is administered on democratic principles. Wherever this is so, their

institutions are like those ofthe Jats. Although they have never cared

much for Bramins, they have, unlike the Jats, the ceremonies and

superstitions of Hindu caste. They cook once a day with great fuss

and form, almost every man for himself after the most approved

Hindustanee fashion, and are very particular about caste-marks, &c. &e,

Their widows may not remarry, and it is their excessive point of

honour to marry their daughters to none but men of the best tribes

(a feeling allied to our chivalry no doubt) that renders the daughters

such a burden to them, and makes female infanticide unfortunately so

common among them. Their wives again are shut up after the

Mahommedan fashion, and are lost for agricultural labour. Altogether

Rajpoot females are a very unsatisfactory institution, and this goes

far to weigh down and give a comparatively bad name to men who

who are often industrious enough.

Like the Jats, the Rajpoots are not found in any numbers to the

North of the Salt Range, nor are they in any of the hill country west

of the Jhelum.* If they ever occupied the Western Punjab, they have

been driven forward by the Jats, and they are nowonly found about

the Salt Range itself, where a small tribe called Jhanjhooas’ (now

Mahommedans) represents a Rajpoot race that seems to have been

once great in those parts. But in the North-Hastern Punjab near

the hills, the Rajpoot population is (as I have already noticed) more

numerous, and the Himalayas of the Jummoo and Kangra districts

are occupied by Hindu Rajpoots who are there altogether the domi-

nant race. I do not know if the highest Rajpoots to the south east

* Tt was somewhere suggested that the Gadoons or Jadoons just over the

Indus, where that river issues from the Himalayas near Torbela, are Rajpoots,

but that seems to be a mere conjecture, founded on a fancied resemblance to

the name of a Rajpoot tribe. There ig not the least doubt that the Gadoons

are pure Pushtoo-speaking Pathans.

88 The thnology of India.

would admit the equality, but the Kangra and Jummoo Rajas and

their clans affect among themselves to be of very blue blood indeed, and

they are certainly very fine handsome men. The Kangra Rajpoots in

particular are very fair and handsome and High-Arian looking. I

fancy that in all these hills, for a considerable distance to the east,

there is a great deal of Kashmeeree or rather old Kasha blood. The

women of the hills are in deserved repute and much sought after

in the plains. The Kangra Rajas have endless genealogies, but I

think that their clansmen are somewhat effeminate looking and not

very first rate soldiers. The men of the Jummoo country, the im-

mediate clansmen and subjects of the Maharaja “of Cashmere, (and

who also occupy the west of the Kangra district), commonly called

Dogras, are not spoken of with so much Hindoo respect, and are not

so pretty and be-jewelled looking as the Kangra men, but they are

much more robust and brave. In the Punjab force, no men are pre-

ferred to them as soldiers ; they are quiet, staunch, steady and reliable,

without the disagreeable Hindustanee airs of the old Sepoy Rajpoots.

The Rajpoot population of these hills must be very considerable.

Hast of the Sutlej, in the Simla hills, many of the Rajas and their

followers are Rajpoots, but most of the agriculturalists are of another

caste called Kanaits.

A large proportion of the Rajpoots scattered about the Hastern

Punjab, Cis-Sutle] territory, and Dehli districts are now Mahomme-

dans, as are occasional Rajpoot villages all over Hindustan and a good

many Rajpoot Rajas, this being no doubt the result of the favour

shown to the Rajpoots by the Mogul Emperors; but east of Dehli

conversion is quite the exception, by far the greater number are

staunch Hindus.

In the Gangetic valley the body of the Rajpoot population may

be said to le next to the Jats to the east, in the middle Doab,

Rohilcund, and Oude; and still farther east the country is shared

with a Bramin population. Before Rohilcund (given as a jagheer to

Rohillas) acquired its present name, it was known as the Rajpoot

Province of Katerh, and to the present day in all lower Rohileund

the Rajpoot communities, (they are there called Thakoors) are strong

and numerous. They are also numerous in Western Oude, but for

what reason I know not, neither the Rohilcund men nor those of

The Ethnology of India. 89

Western Oude entered the Sepoy Army in large numbers. In the

Central Doab, in the districts of Mynpooree, Futtehgurh, Htawah, &e.

Rajpoots are numerous, and a good many of them served in the army.

The Raja of Mynpooree is, I think, one of the highest of the famous

Chouhan clan. The lower Doab is, as I have before noticed, more a

Bramin country ; but Eastern Oude, especially most of the broad tract

between the Gogra and the Ganges, is the home of the great Rajpoot

population which supplied so large a proportion of the Sepoy Army.

At home these Rajpoots are by no means a loose military class, but

a purely agricultural population. The prejudice against the particular

act of holding the plough which so many of them affect, is reduced

to the narrowest possible limits, and many ex-Sepoys may now be

seen grubbing up weeds, raising water by manual labour, and performing

all the lowest agricultural functions. Baiswara, the country of the

Bais Rajpoots, lying almost parallel to the Bramin country of the

lower Doab, is a famous nursery of Sepoys. In all this part of the

country, so far as there still subsist ancient superior rights in the

land, they belong to the heads of Rajpoot clans.

Some of the inferior clansmen hold subordinate tenures and village

proprietorships, but the great mass of the Rajpoots of Oude are now

reduced to the position of mere ryots, in which capacity they are

much intermixed with Bramins. Many of the superior rights have

passed away to modern men.

Passing to the east of Oude, Rajpoots are pretty numerous in

Azimghur and Ghazeepore, but, as I have already mentioned, in the

surrounding districts and those farther to east, the chief Rajas and

landholders are the bastard Bramins or ‘ Bhamuns’ whose clansmen

abound in Behar. In the Arrah district only (in the east) in the small

Doab between the Soane and the Ganges, the Rajpoots are strong and

numerous. Their leader was the famous rebel landholder, Koer Sing,

and they supplied to the Native Army the numerous class known

as ‘ Bhojpore’ Sepoys.

This is almost the limit of Rajpoot ethnological occupation to the

east, but turning round to the south-west, the Raja of Rewah is

chief of the Baghel Rajpoots (whence his country is called Baghelcund),

and has no doubt a numerous following of his clansmen, though

Aborigines on one side and Bramins on another are also numerous in

90 The Ethnology cf India.

his territory. The Boondeelas of Bundlecund are not, I beHeve, con-

sidered to be very pure Rajpoots; they have probably suffered some

intermixture, but they are notoriously bold and martial, form a domi-

nant aristocracy, and used to be very troublesome to us. I do not

know the proportion of Rajpoot population in Scindia’s territories to

the west, but believe that it is numerous. In Malwa, Rajpoots of the

Rahtore, Chouhan, Sesodya and other clans form a large proportion of

the population, and all the surrounding hilly country which is not

held by pure Aborigines seems to have been from very old times in

the possession of Rajpoot or semi-Rajpoot chiefs. The Mewar or

Oodeypore Rajpoots, occupying a strong and elevated country in the

west, claim to be the most ancient of the race; and I have seen it

stated that some of the western Rajpoots are comparatively fair, with

light or grey eyes. Ii so, that would seem to indicate that they

reached their present location by a direct route from the west, and

not by doubling back from the Ganges, as is supposed to have been

the case in northern Rajpootana.

Tn the history of Guzerat the Rajpoots are very famous, and many

of them seem to have been of the same high-caste tribes whose blood

is reputed the best in the east, the Waghels, for instance, being (it

appears) the same as the Baghels. They are evidently still numerous,

but I have not been able to ascertain what proportion of the popula-

tion they form, and to what extent they take part in the actual cul-

tivation. Forbes does not speak of them as if they were among the

most numerous cultivators. .

In Kathywar, Rajpoots seem to be numerous, and from the practice

of infanticide we may suppose that they consider themselves high-

caste, but I cannot exactly make out whether the Kathis are counted

as Rajpoots, or whether the many petty chiefs of Kathywar are prin-

cipally Kathis or proper Rajpoots. The Kathis seem to have been

undoubtedly immigrants from the west and at one time neighbours

and allies of Jats.

In Lower Scinde there are undoubted traces of ancient Rajpoot

rule, and the Summa Rajpoots ruled more recently under the Mahom-

medan emperors. Farther west, in Beloochistan, there seem to be

traces of Hindu rule of a character more orthodox than that of the

Jats, but whether the Rajpoots ever had dominion there, I am unable

to say.

The Kthnology of India. 91

Looking back, it will be seen that (as I before said would be the

case) I have traced the Rajpoots all round the edge of the more com-

pact mass of the Jat population ;—from the Salt Range through the

Northern Punjab and adjoining hills to Rohilcund, Oude and the

Centre Doab; thence by Bundlecund through Scindia’s territory,

Malwa, Mewar, Guzerat and Kattywar into Lower Scinde.

There remains in the centre of this circuit the greater part of Raj-

pootana which I have described as ethnologically more Jat than

Rajpoot, though the Rajpoots now rule, after doubling back from the

Ganges. They form a numerous and dominant aristocracy, organised

on the feudal principles necessary to domination.

Though a full and complete Rajpoot village mainly inhabited by

Rajpoots is democratic in its constitution, 1 have never heard of a

Rajpoot Republic on a larger scale ; and whether it be from long habits

of domination by means of a feudal system, from the imbibing of a

Hindu spirit, or from their original genius, they seem to be more than

the Jats given to suffer the rule of Rajas and Chiefs. In Rajpootana,

however, the chief seems generally to be but a chief, and not a despotie

ruler. Numerous fiefs are held by subordinate chiefs, who are again

surrounded by Military followers holding many petty jagheers and

grants of land on a hereditary service tenure. It may well be sup-

posed that under such circumstances, when the British peace-preserv-

ing power is at all relaxed, the authority of the chiefs is very apt to

collapse. They never could hold their own against the Marattas.

But still, as a quasi-chivalrous aristocracy, with their bards, and

genealogies, and military get-up, and contests about the possession

of high-caste young ladies, they make a very pretty picture,

The normal Rajpoot, however, to my view is, as I have said, the

cultivator of the Gangetic valley, where, at the eastern extremity of

the horse-shoe which I have described, they spread out in a broad

region into a large population. Physically I do not know any strik-

ing features which broadly distinguish the Gangetic Rajpoot from

his neighbour the Gangetic Bramin. In a Sepoy Regiment, setting

aside caste marks, &c., LI doubt whether they could be distinguished,

They are both in fact the type of the higher class of the modern

Hindustanee population. Both are tall men, though in the native

army Commanding Officers went in too much for height, and many

92, The Ethnoloyy of India.

of the unpadded recruits looked at first rather lanky. The modern

Rajpoots are quite as Hindu as, and a good deal more prejudiced

than, the Bramins. In their own villages they are pleasant good

fellows enough, but as Sepoys they were a disagreeable overbear-

ing set, and, so far as L can gather, were upon the whole about the

worst class in the mutiny.

As agriculturalists their style of cultivation, &., is much the same

as that of the Jats, although very greatly inferior. They are very

fond of land, and do not affect the finer garden cultivation but the

broad farming style of agriculture. They also keep cattle when the

country is fitted for it, and are very fond of laying their hands on

other people’s cattle when they have the chance,—a weakness from

which the Jats also are not altogether free.

They are as a rule wholly un-literary, and very much confine them-

selves to the two professions of agriculture and arms.

The Rajpoots everywhere speak dialects of the ordinary Hindee.

I am not aware that any traces of any other language have ever been

found among them.

Tur Koonsers on KoorMess.

To the south of the Rajpoots and Jats, the country is mainly occu-

pied by the class above mentioned. In all the central and eastern

parts of the N. W. Provinces, or in fact of Hindustan generally, the

Koormees are scattered about in considerable numbers as a well-

known and very industrious class of quiet cultivators. They own

villages of their own, and are also more widely spread in detached

families or groups of families. They affect the finer garden style

of cultivation much more than Jats and Rajpoots, and like the Jats

are assisted by industrious women.

As I shall afterwards notice, the Koonbees seem to be nearly con-

nected with the Mallies, whose name we apply to the whole profession

of gardeners.

The name is variously written, Koormee or Coormee, Kunabi,

Kunbee or Koonbee, and there is no doubt that the terms are syno-

nymous.

Tn Hindustan the Koormees do not go much beyond their own

agricultural calling, but they are not absolutely unknown as Sepoys,

The Ethnology of India. 93:

and they have occasionally, though rarely, risen to higher posts, espe-

cially one somewhat notorious family in Oude. In fact, in the

Gangetic valley the Koormees, though much appreciated as cultivators,

are somewhat looked down upon by the higher castes as mere humble

tillers of the soil. If we proceed south from the Lower Doab, towards

the Jubbulpore and Saugor territories, Koormees become more numer-

ous, and there are hereabouts a good many ‘ Lodhas,’ a tribe appa-

rently cognate to Koormees, and who are also pretty well known in the

North West Provinces. They seem in this part of the Central Provin-

ces to have at one time occupied a very considerable position.

Thence westwards, on both sides of the Nerbudda, and still farther

west to the north of the Nerbudda in parts of Malwa, that is in fact

throughout the southern borders of Hindustan, Hindee-speaking

Koormees are very numerous. In most of this country they are the

chief cultivating class. In Malwa they meet the Jats and share with

them the character of the most respectable and industrious cultivators.

In Rajpootana there is a cultivating class called ‘ Pittuls’ who are

supposed to be Koormees under another name.

Farther west in Guzerat the Koonbees form the main body of the

best cultivating population. They seem to be in the main the owners

of the land, and though quiet and unpretending, are said to be still

sturdy and independent and altogether a fine agricultural people.

Throughout the whole of the Maratta country, the Koonbees are.

the main agricultural and landholding tribe. Here also they generally

are quiet simple agriculturalists, but the Maratta Koonbees do not seem

to be so energetic and good in this way as their northern congeners.

They have lived long under much oppression and subject to great,

disadvantages. In the Nagpore country, Berar and Candeish, however,

they are now a sufficiently industrious and easily managed population.

To the south, where they meet the Canarese in the Deccan, every one

is agreed that the latter are decidedly superior in industry and agri-

cultural energy.

I have seen an allusion to Telinga Koonbees in the north-eastern —

portion of the Nizam’s territory, in the country down the Godavery

below the limits of the Maratta tongue, but whether these are really

Telingas of this caste, or whether the word is only used to express

Telinga cultivators, I am not sure.

94 The Ethnology of India.

In Hindustan the Koormees, as a lower class, are on an average

darker and less good looking than Bramins and Rajpoots, but still

they are quite Arian in their features, institutions, and manners. So

they are in the Maratta country ; indeed the Marattas are still known

to the people of the south as ‘ Aryas,’ but they have probably towards

the south a larger intermixture of Aboriginal blood, and it is noto-

rious that the Marattas are small men compared to the northern tribes.

The constitution of the Koonbees seems to be less democratic than

that of Jats and Rajpoots. In the Maratta country (and indeed in

the countries to the north of that also) the villages are for the most

part ruled by hereditary patels or headmen without much trace of

representation, so far as I could learn, and individual property in land

has been in many parts subject to many changes and vicissitudes.

Nothing puzzled me more than this, viz. to understand whence came

the great Maratta Military element. In the Punjab one can easily

understand the sources of Sikh power ; every peasant looks fit to be a

soldier. But the great mass of the Maratta Koonbees look like

nothing of the kind, and are the quietest and most obedient of hum-

bie and unwarlike cultivators. On inquiry I gathered that in fact

throughout by far the greater part of the Maratta-speaking country,

all through Nagpore, Berar, and the Northern Bombay districts, the

agricultural Koonbees furnish very few soldiers, nor ever did furnish

many. Although the Koonbee element was the foundation of the

Maratta power, though Sevajee and some of his chiefs were Koonbees,

it appears that these people came almost exclusively from a compara-

tively small district near Sattara, a hilly region where, as I judge, the

Koonbees are very much mixed with numerous aboriginal and semi-

aboriginal tribes of Mhars and others, and where, losing with the

intermixture many of theif agricultural virtues, they acquired more of

the qualities of predatory soldiers. It is notorious that Sevajee

relied principally on his ‘ Mawallees’ of the Western Ghats, who were

apparently little better than non-descript predatory tribes. In their

best days, it does not appear that the Marattas were ever Koonbees

to the same extent and in the same sense that the Sikhs were Jats.

In fact the Maratta confederacy was more a political than a personal

union. Many of the oldest chieis were not Koonbees. Hollkar was of

the shepherd, and the Guickwar was of the cow-herd caste. All these

Lhe Ethnology of India. 95

ag well as the Koonbees were quite illiterate, and would have done

little without the directing power of the Bramins. When they were

farther advanced, the Maratta forces seem to have been mere mercen-

ary armies, a congregation of every loose fortune-seeker of every race

and class, Mahommedans included, with a nucleus of the population of

Sattara and Poonah, from which the proper Maratta chiefs had sprung.

Take them all in all, I think that the Koonbees must be considered

one of the most important as well as one of the most useful and most,

easily governed tribes in India. A great territory is in the main

theirs, extending from about 23° or 24° to about 16° Lat., and from the

western frontiers of Guzerat to the countries watered by the Wyngunga

and the Middle Godavery, and the upper streams of the Nerbudda.

OrnEeR AGRICULTURAL TRIBES.

I have traced the Jats, Rajpoots, and Koonbees as the three chief

territorial tribes peculiar to Northern India. I must now go back to

notice other landowning tribes intermixed with them.

IT shall take first the farming tribes, apt in the use of arms and of a

constitution similar to the Jats and Rajpoots; these are principally

found in the Punjab. Second, the tribes more or less pastoral in their

proclivities, though now almost universally settled in agricultural

communities. ‘Third, the fine-farming or gardening tribes.

T have noticed how much the Salt Range seems to be the northern

limit of both Jats and Rajpoots. The people north of this range are

a great puzzle. They are those who seem to me the finest and hand-

somest in India, perhaps in the world. They are all now Mahom-

medans, but are wholly Indian in their language, habits, manners,

and constitutions. There can, I think, be no doubt of that ; the line

between them and their Pathan neighbours is very distinctly drawn,

the languages especially being totally different. Knowing the

Pathans so well, any relationship with them is never suggested ; a

Pathan is with them a Pathan, and a man of another tribe is not a

Pathan. But they have fanciful Mussulman genealogies, the

Dhoonds and Tanaolees from the Caliph Abbas, the Kurrals from

Alexander the Great, the Awans from Roostam and the Gukkurs

from some other Persian hero.

There are a large number of petty tribes, very like one another, but

96 The Ethnology of India.

known by their own tribal names only ; they have no common appel-

lation. On the one hand much in their features, &c. would seem to show

that they have kindred with the Kashmeerees or with the pre-Hindu

congeners of the earlier Indians found in the hills farther west; on the

other hand, their language and character, dress, and the architecture

of their houses would indicate that they are nearly allied to the

Punjabees. The language is altogether Punjabee. In these respects

they wholly differ from Kashmeerees. Jats and Rajpoots are so well

known that one would think that if they belonged to those tribes,

they would say so. As it is, the only tribe which admits a Hindu-

stanee origin, is that which seems to have the least claim to it, the

Dilazaks, the predecessors of the present Pathan tribes in the Peshawar

valley, and who seem to have themselves so considerable an infusion

of Pathan blood that it has been doubted whether they are not earlier

Pathans.

The Swattees too, the people driven out of Swat by the Euzofzyes,

though in the main of the blood which supplied the early Indians,

must be considered pre-Hindus, and have now a considerable Pathan

intermixture.

The Gukkurs were the rulers of the Rawal Pindee district in com-

paratively modern times. They might possibly be foreign conquerors,

but if so, it would seem singular that they should have completely

lost their language, and so entirely assimilated to those around them.

In appearance I do not think Gukkurs could be distinguished from

Awans. Both are very large fine men, but pot exceedingly fair, in-

habiting as they do a dry, bare, rather low country, hot in summer.

The Awans are the most numerous of these frontier tribes, and the

best ; there is no finer people in India. They are settled in large

agricultural communities in the ‘ Chuch’ plain, immediately facing

the Peshawur valley on this side the Indus, and are also found in

smaller bodies somewhat to the east, in the Jhelum, Guzerat, and

Sealkot districts. They are good soldiers as well as good cultivators,

and might be taken for the best class of Jats.

The Dhoonds and Tanaolees are to the north in the outer range

of the Himalaya and about the Indus near Torbela. I have not been

in the Tanaolee country, but the Dhoonds seemed to me to be the hand-

somest among handsome tribes. It is to be remarked, however, that

The Ethnology of India. 97

in the country far towards the frontier in this direction, the people

who are the fairest and handsomest, are not considered the most

plucky and trustworthy ; the blood of Cashmere and Swat does not

seem altogether to tend to these latter qualities. I cannot attempt

to trace the minor tribes of Alpials, &c. &c. &e. Both the Awans

of the lower lands and the Dhoonds, &c. of the higher lands seem

to have democratic village constitutions.

Till we know something of the language of the tribes ef the hilis

west of Cashmere, it would not be safe to speculate on the origin of

the people of this corner of India. if the language of the hills is

nearly allied to the Hindee and the Punjabee, we may suppose that

these are Indianised tribes from the same source. If on the other

hand the hill tribes speak a tongue ef an earlier Arian form, then we

must look to people of the blood of the Jats and Rajpoots for the

introduction of the Hindee form of speech both here and in the rest

of Hindustan. Looking to the want of any proper tribal name of

the Rajpoots, it might be that before they became famous in Hindu

story, some of them occupying the Punjab surmounted the Salt Range

and mixing with some aboriginal Caucasians, formed the present

tribes. Nowhere is there room for more interesting inquiry than in

this directicn.

Passing farther dewn in the Punjab I only remember -one class of

the character that I am now describing, the Doghurs, a Mahommedan

tribe found near the Sutlej, fine, good-looking, high-featured men, but

not very reliable and rather given to cattle-lifting. I do not know

their origin.

Beyond the Sutlej again I have mentioned the Bhattees of Bha-

teeana, whose origin is also obscure. But they are certainly one of

the very finest and handsomest tribes in India.

In the Simla hills, most of the land is held by a local tribe called

Kanaits. They are inferior in position to Rajpoots, more perhaps of

the level of Koormees and Lodhas, but they are often educated, and

men of this class are generally ministers to the Rajpoot chiefs. In

certain places there is a partial and local practice of polyandry among

them, but it is not the general custom of the tribe. All those who

are not (in the upper hills) in contact with Tartars are quite Arian,

though not very large ; the women very nice-looking.

98 The Ethnology of India.

it will also, I think, be proper to mention the Indian Pathans,

before I leave my present class of Fighting-Farmers.

I do not now touch on the proper Pushtoo-speaking Pathans. I do

not reckon them as Indian, and all the Pathans beyond the Indus, as

well as a few on this side (in the north of the Hazareh District and

west of that of Rawal Pindee), are Pushtoo-speakers. The Pathans

are the only Central-Asiatic people who have in comparatively

modern times colonised to a considerable extent in India. They have

never come in large bodies, nor occupied any large tracts at any one

spot, but Affghanistan has always been as it were the base of opera-

tions of all the successive Mahommedan Empires in India; and from

that base Pathans have immigrated in the service or under the pro-

tection of Mahommedan rulers, and have settled themselves here and

there at many places throughout Northern India and even in some

places in Southern India. They are not nearly so much mere Urban

fortune-seekers as other Mahommedans, but are generally settled in_

villages, in many of which they own and cultivate the soil, and in

some of which they form large brotherhoods, approaching those of

Jats and Rajpoots. Their constitution and modes of government also

seem to me to be in these villages very similar. They have been

generally a fayoured class who have had in places a good deal of

jagheer and rent-free land, and still look a good deal to service, but

many of them pay their rent or revenue by honest cultivation like

any one else. Indian society is a wonderful solvent and absorbent;

every one who long lives in it, becomes Indianised; and so ali the

Pathan colonists, even those whose immigrations are matter of recent

history, are essentially Indian, not Affghan. Among Indians, they

have very marked characteristics, but their nationality is changed, and

the Pathans from the Frontier, who came down in the mutiny times,

utterly refused to acknowledge the proudest Indian Pathans as

having anything in common with themselves, and chopped off their

heads with the utmost non-chalance. In many respects, however, the

Indian Pathans are a very great improvement on the wilder Pathans

of the Frontier. They are very much more civilised and educated,

In India, in fact, the Pathang are quite an aristocratic class. Not-

withstanding the wide door to corruption of blood opened by the

Mahommedan laws of marriage, they are still a very handsome people ;

The Ethnology of India. 99

a large proportion of them are in a respectable well-to-do position,

and many of them are very well educated. After all a well-educated

Mahommedan has much more in common with us than most Hindus,

and comes much nearer our idea of a gentleman. It may be, too, that

these Pathans retain some little trace of that non-Indian character

which makes us readily become familiar with Affghans. Altogether

I have no hesitation in saying that (putting the Punjab apart), among

Hindustanees, the Pathans are by far the best class with whom we

come in contact. They have always been very numerous in our

Irregular Cavalry and also had a large share in our Civil Service. I

shall be sorry, if, partly on account of the more insinuating and it

may be in some respects sharper character of subservient Hindus, and

partly from the difficulty of imposing our education on those who

have already an education of their own, these and other Mahommedans

are gradually extruded from the public service.

Pathan settlements are dotted here and there about the Punjab,

but they are not very numerous. In Hindustan they are more

so. They are found about Dehli, and are very numerous in the

Upper Doab and Rohilcund, though it must not be supposed that

the latter is really a Rohilla country ; it is only a Rohilla jagheer, and

the Pathans, though positively numerous, are relatively but a small

minority of the population. It may be mentioned that the term

‘ Rohilla’ does not signify any particular tribe, but is applied in India

to Pathans generally, meaning apparently “‘ mountaineer.” The Rohil-

cund and Dehli Provinces are the chief nurseries of Pathan soldiers,

&c., but all over Hindustan, and indeed all over India, Pathan Princi-

palities and Jagheers, Pathan settlements, and Pathan families are

found here and there.

It will be well here to dispose of the other Mahommedan settlers,

that is, Mahommedans who do not own or cannot be traced to a

Hindu origin. With the exception of the Pathans, their origin is,

in fact, generally obscure and doubtless very mixed.

The name of Mogul is assumed by but few, and whatever the word

may originally have been, it must be understood that it does not now

in India in any degree mean ‘Mongol.’ There is no ethnological

trace of Mongol immigration into India. Even the leaders who

inherited Mongol claims had, in fact, changed their blood in passing

100 The Ethnology of India.

through Persian and Affghan peoples. And on the Frontier, the term

Mogul is now applied to Persian-speakers, as distinguished from

Pushtoo-speaking Pathans. Most people will there tell you that

‘Mogul’ means a Persian, but it is really a somewhat wider designa-

tion. In Cabul, the Mahommedan population is simply divided into

Pathans and Moguls (or non-Pathans), the latter being chiefly compos-

ed of Persian Kazzilbashes and the like. So then in the armies and

followings of the Hmperors of Dehli, Foreigners were divided into

Pathans and Moguls; but while the Pathan settlers are many, the

Moguls are, as I have said, very few.

In small Mahommedan countries there are numerous people claim-

ing to be descendants of the prophet aiter the easy Mahommedan

form of descent. Indian Syuds are generally mere loose waits of

low degree among the Urban population; but here and there we have

considerable settlements of Syuds holding villages or jagheers, and

where these occur, they generally claim and maintain a good deal of

dignity and propriety, and are a superior and well educated, if some-

times somewhat bigoted, class.

It is generally said that a ‘Sheik’ means only a Mahommedan who

is neither Pathan, Mogul, nor Syud. There are, however, a good

many respectable landholders, and some village communities who bear

the name of Sheiks; for instance, the old proprietors of Lucknow, when

it was but a village, were Sheiks. It is impossible to trace the

origin of these people, much less that of the loose Urban Mahomme-

dan population. But I think it may be said that, generally speaking,

the Mahommedans retain among them considerable traces of north-

western origin. Dress and manners may have something to do with

it, and there are of course many exceptions, but on an average they

are fairer and show fewer marks of aboriginal intermixture than the

Hindus. High-Arian features are not unfrequently to be seen among

them. Hven among those who do not directly claim to belong to

Pathan and other tribes of the North-West, one often sees handsome

faces, features, and beards, such as would make good ‘ wise men of the

east,’ or the very best of our oriental imaginings. It is impossible to

attribute to these features, in Northern, Central and Kastern India, a

Semitic origin (on the South Western borders it is another matter), and

I attribute them to the hilly countries of the North-Western Arians.

The Ethnology of India. 101

Of the races which I call in some respect pastoral, I will take first

THE GooJars.

They have been long known to us as cultivators of predatory pro-

clivities in the country about Dehli, and after 50 years of enforced

peace and quietness, they distinguished themselves by breaking out

into wholesale plunder all over that district within a few hours of the

out-break of the mutiny, just as if the present generation had been

accustomed to it all their lives. However, we must take a wider

survey, for the Goojars are a far extending people, numerous in the

Punjab and on the Northern Frontier. In fact, they now extend

farther to the North-West than any other Indian people. I understand

that they are still numerous in Swat and the adjacent hills, and they

are said to have been the original inhabitants and owners of part of

the Hazareh District, on this side the Indus, before they were in great

degree dispossessed by the Swattees, themselves pushed forward by

the Affghans. In the hills about Kashmere the Goojars are very

numerous ; and there more than anywhere else they have an actual

pastoral character, being apparently somewhat vagrant in their habits,

and at one season receiving the cattle of the Kashmeerees to graze,

while at another they bring their own down for sale. Perhaps

these are the Goojars who were dispossessed of their homes in

Hazareh. It is supposed that in the event of any disturbance in

Kashmere, they might visit the valley for other than pastoral purposes.

Descending into the plains of the Punjab, we find the Goojars about

Goojerat and the country thereabouts in very much better repute than

elsewhere, in fact they are there said to be among the best cultivators.

They are very numerous, settled in prosperous communities, and give,

it appears, their name to the town and thence to the district of

Goojerat. There might be some question whether the word is not

the Persian one, ‘ Goozerat,’ 2. ec. ‘ Fords’ or ‘ Ferries,’ in allusion to

the ferries over several rivers thereabouts, but I understand that it

is really Goojerat from Goojar. And there are frequent names in

the Punjab derived from the same source. In fact, Goojars are very

much mixed with Jats in all the northern, if not in all the Jat

country, and form a considerable proportion of the population. About

Dehli they are, as I have said, very numerous, and they are so in the

Meerut and Seharanpore Districts of the Doab. They are numerous

102 The Ethnology of India.

in all Northern Rajpootana, and extend into Malwa and the adjoiming

parts of Central India.* They there extend as far east as Bundle-

cund, where one of the chiefs is a Goojar. But in the other

direction they do not approach Goozerat, and, so far as I can learn

have never been known there. I believe that the Bombay ‘ Goozerat’

is a name derived from some other source. Its proper form is said

to be Gurjarat, derived from ‘ Gurjar’ Princes. I do not know the

derivation of this last term, but there are Gurjat Chiefs in the

Cuttack and Southern Nagpore territories, where there are no Goojats.

I fancy, however, that I have heard it said (though I cannot now

trace the source), that a similarity of names can be traced between

places in Goozerat and in the Punjab Goojerat. If that be really so,

it would open up an interesting inquiry. To prevent mistake, I

should here notice that in the Bombay Presidency the word ‘ Goozar’

is used, not to signify a Goojar in the northern sense, but merely

an inhabitant of Goozerat, as thus ‘Goozar Bramins,’ ‘ Goozar

Banians.’

The Goojars are generally a fair good looking people, especially

towards the frontier, and have no aboriginal traces about them.

Those located to the east trace their origin from the west. All, I

think, to the north of Dehli are now Mahommedans; but those to the

east and south of that place are sometimes half-Mahommedans, some-

times a sort of Hindus, though of so lax a character that I believe

they are hardly admitted within the pale, and are considered to be in

some degree a sect apart. They are sometimes said by the natives to

have a language of their own; at least so I was told in the Punjab.

It may not improbably be that this is only the patois of one province

carried by them into another, but it would be interesting to inquire

whether they may possibly have among themselves some sort of

Gypsy tongue. Their most proper calling seems to be the keeping

of cattle and buffaloes, not sheep ; but they do not generally exercise

this as a mere caste profession among the general population. They

* The last Nagpore Prince is stated to have been a Gioojar adopted into

the family, the son of ‘Nane Goojar,’ but I apprehend that there must be

some mistake, as the Nagpore family were, I believe, Maratta Koonbees, of the

same race as the Sattara family. Hither ‘ Goojar’ must be here a mere name

or title of the individual, or the allusion must be to some supposed indiscretion

of a lady of the family.

The Ethnology of India. : 103

are usually settled in separate villages of their own, and in the absence

of pastoral and predatory opportunities are cultivators, like other

tribes, though in most places indifferent ones.

I shall here just mention ‘ Mewattees,’ not because I am prepared

to class them as ‘ Pastorals,’ but because they are very frequently

classed with Goojars, as ‘“‘ Goojars and Mewattees,’

” with reference to

their plundering propensities. In fact, although I have always been

familiar with Mewattees as a very thieving tribe of cultivators found

here and there along the south-western borders of the North West Pro-

vinces, I have not been able to make out what they really are. Theyseem

to come from the Central country, from somewhere in Rajpootana or

Central India, and their name might seem to indicate a connection

with Mewar. I have seen mention of ‘ Mewassees,’ hill chiefs, in those

parts, but don’t know if they are connected with the Mewattees. In

fact, the Alwar country near Dehli seems to have been of late

called ‘Mewat.’ Mewattees are mentioned as common in Malwa in

the characters of irregular soldiers and depredators. They extend

farther east than the Goojars. I think the villages razed to the

ground in the station of Allahabad, for their predatory activity in the

mutiny, were those of Mewattees. My impression is that they are

mostly Mahommedans and not bad looking, but in truth I know and

can find very little about them.

The Goojars are succeeded as cattle-keepers to the east and south

by the ‘ Aheers,’ who seem to be the pastoral element of the Rajpoot

and Bramin countries, as the Goojars are of the Jat countries.

Aheers and Goojars are sometimes spoken of as if connected, but

that I believe is an error arising from mere coincidence of profession.

Meeting as they do in the country east and south of Dehli, they keep

entirely apart (in a social point of view), and are universally recognis-

ed as entirely separate and distinct castes, with no connection what-

ever. The Aheers are not a very strict sect of Hindus in the modern

sense, and their widows re-marry, but still they are decided Hindus

of the respectable position which their charge of the sacred animal

demands. In the strictest days of caste there were a good many

Aheers in the Sepoy army. They are good and upper-class-looking

Hindustanees. Like the Goojars, they are not a mere cow-keeping

caste, but have many independent villages, and in some parts of the

164 The Ethnology of India.

country are in considerable tracts almost the principal landholding

class. Under these circumstances they are very fair agriculturalists,

only a little given to cattle-lifting, when opportunity offers. Besides

the Aheer villages, families of the caste are much spread about the

country as cultivators and herdsmen, ‘ Ghosees’ also, common as

buffaloe-keepers, are said to be related to the Aheers ; they are, I think,

Aheers converted to Mahommedansm. Except in the country occu-

pied by Jats and Goojars, Aheers are found all over Hindustan, but

do not generally extend east into Bengal. There are many of them

just between the proper Jat and the Rajpoot country about the

Ganges, to the east of Meerut and Allyghur, and on the other side

in part of Rohilcund, and they seem to extend into the south-east of

Rajpootana and of the Dehli territory, and are found about the Jumna

near Muttra, and in many places farther east. In the Benares -and

Behar Divisions there are also many of them.

Thence through Central India I am not prepared to say what pro-

portion of the population are Aheers, but they were certainly very

famous in old time on the Southern frontiers of Hindustan, in

Guzerat, and in the Maratta country. The famous Fort of Asseerghur

derives its name from Asa Aheer, a noted leader of this tribe, and

Aheers are still, I believe, found in those parts. They are said to

have been once powerful in Goozerat and to be still numerous in

Kattywar. That western country is stated in fact to have been

formerly called ‘ Abhira’ or the country of the Aheers. And thence

southwards, it seems probable that Aheers were one of the principal

Hindu races who along with the Bramins conquered and colonised

Southern India. Bramins and Herdsmen are said to have been the

first conquerors, and the Aheers may probably be the progenitors of

the cowherd castes who are still numerous in the Southern Districts.

One can only suppose Goozerat to have been a Goojar country, by

assuming Goojars and Aheers to have been originally identical, which

at any rate would require that we should go back a very long way.

The subject is, however, worthy of inquiry.

Besides the Aheers known in the Maratta Districts, there seems to

be in the south of that country and also in the Canarese country a

quiet respectable class of cultivators called ‘Dhangurs.’. The word

is translated ‘Shepherds,’ but I have also seen it stated that the

The Ethnology of India. 105

Dhangurs and Aheers are nearly the same. It would be well to

know more on the point.

In Hindustan sheep and goat herds, ‘ Gaderias,’ form a separate and

very inferior caste and profession. They have no villages of their

own, but tend sheep in the villages in which they reside.

In Bengal Proper and Orissa, the Aheers are succeeded by the

Gwallas, whom I have already incidentally noticed as very different

in their style, manners and occupations. ‘ Gwalla’ is not a tribal

name, but merely means a cowkeeper (from the old Sanscritic word,

go, acow), so that the name does not necessarily imply any tribal

connection with the Gwallas of the south and elsewhere. The

Gwallas (as I have before noticed) are, with their congeners thes

‘Satgopes,’ by far the most numerous Hindu caste in Bengal; and as

Bengal is not much of a grazing country, they constitute a large

proportion of the cultivators, besides carrying palanquins, acting as

domestic servants, and following some other ayocations. In the jail

returns they are about 13 per cent. of the non-Mahommedans, that

is, of Hindus and Aborigines of all sorts taken together; and as

Aheers prevail in Behar, it is probable that in Bengal and Orissa the

Gwallas amount to fully 20 per cent.

There are no democratic villages in Bengal; indeed village commu-

nities in the proper sense, with anything like a municipal constitution.

of any kind, can hardly be said to exist; the Province is in that

respect peculiar. Consequently it is unnecessary to add that the

Gwallas are not in regular communities. They are scattered about the

country. I believe that they have frequently acquired rights in the

land and attained to respectable positions. They seem to be a quiet,

decent set of people.

I am not well versed in the manners and customs of the Beusullees!

and there seems to be a great want of information on the subject,

which I trust may be supplied.

I have before hazarded a conjecture whether the Bengallee Gwallas

may not have been formed on the basis of the Aboriginal Bhooyas.

Of the fine cultivators or gardeners, the most important are—

Tue Matuizs,

to whom I have alluded as apparently allied to the Koormees, and

who are not only the humble gardeners to whom Huropeans ordinarily

106 The Ethnology of India.

apply the name (as to a profession), but a considerable and far extended

people. On the Frontier, above the Salt Range and extending up into

Peshawar, there is a considerable class of ‘ Mulleals’ who are I believe

Mallies (though like most of the people of those parts now Mahom-

medans), and who are very industrious cultivators and gardeners.

Throughout the plains of the Punjab, there is again a very im-

portant and numerous class who seem to be allied to the above,

called Raees or Raeens. These people have generally villages of their

own, or hold divisions of villages on equal terms with Jats and others,

and under a similar constitution. They chiefly affect the best lands

and finer cultivation, where they pay a high revenue and are much

rappreciated by native governments; for they are probably, on the

whole, the best cultivators in the Province. They are not martial,

but are generally (like almost all Punjabee Mahommedans) fair and

good-looking men. They are all, so far as I know, Mahommedans,

which may account for their bearing a different name from their

Hindu congeners, if congeners they be. So far as I am aware, they

are not known by this name beyond the Punjab.

A little farther east, long before we come to the Koormees, we meet

with Hindu Mallies. I know that between Umballa and Dehli, in the

Khytul country (one by nature very little suited for gardening

operations), there are a good many Mallie villages. Inthe North West

Provinces I do not think that they are much known as independent

landholders, but as gardeners they are scattered about. I find men-

tion made of them as common about Ajmere and on the Southern

frontier of Hindustan. Beyond Jubbulpore they are common, mixed

with the Koormees. Thence going onwards to the Maratta country,

in Nagpere also they share the country with the Koonbees, and are

the class next in importance to these latter. In fact, in all this part

of Central India, (the southern limits of Hindustan and the Maratta

country), Koormees and Mallies seemed to be classed together. The

Patels, I learned, were either Koonbees or Mallies, and they often

divided the same villages. The two classes (I was told by the Patels

of the Nagpore country) will eat together, but do not intermarry.

In this latitude both Mallees and Koormees extend far to the east.

I find mention of the former in Orissa, and of the latter in Maunbhoom

and other districts of Chota-Nagpore.

The Ethnology of India. 107

The Lodhas I have already mentioned as connected with and of the

same character as the Koonbees, though they are strictly speaking

distinct from them.

The remaining classes of Northern India, whose proper profession is

cultivation or gardening, have not generally, to my knowledge, villages

of their own. ‘There are, however, scattered through most villages in

Hindustan many industrious Kachees and Koerees and Morows (tobacco

cultivators) and Kumbohs, and some (though not many) who have no

other caste name than that of ‘ Kisan’ or cultivator. The farther we

go down in the scale, the greater seems to be the infusion of aboriginal

blood, the shorter is the stature, the darker the skin, and the more low-

Arian the features ; but in none of these decent castes of Hindustan do

the features or the complexion and hair assume at all an aboriginal type.

In Bengal the names of castes are different, and there very many of

the cultivators, the majority I believe in all Eastern Bengal, are

Mahommedans, whose original caste and ethnological history I am

at present unable to discover. Among Hindus, the most numerous

castes after Gwallas, Bramins, and Kaists, are Bagdees (who are I am

told of an inferior and aboriginal type), and a decent class of cultiva-

tors called Kyburtos. I am as yet altogether puzzled about the

ethnology of the mass of Bengal ryots. Most of them, though dark,

look Arian, but some are very dark, and have a decided tendency to a

thickness of lip, and to some features either Aboriginal or Indo-

Chinese. I am half inclined to think that there are two types among

them. Some of them seem to have a great tendency to curly hair,

and to a cast of features which I should be disposed to attribute to

the influence of the black woolly-headed Aborigines, who may have

stretched across from the Rajmahal to the Garrow hills. Others,

especially the Ooryahs, with the Bhooyas of those parts and some of

the Bengalees, seem rather to have straight hair with high cheek

bones and complexions not very dark, which might suggest an Indo-

Chinese element stretching from Burmah across the Soonderbuns.

But I have acknowledged that I do not understand Bengal, and I

hope that others will throw more light on it.

The inferior Helot classes, who generally, all over Northern India,

cultivate to a considerable extent, either on their own account, or as

the servants of others, I leave for another division of my subject,

108 The Ethnology of India.

It must, however, be understood that a good deal of cultivation, in

most parts of the country, is carried on by miscellaneous cultivators

of a great variety of classes, who by caste properly belong to other

professions. Cultivation is the one profession which is open to all

alike, and is occasionally followed by almost all. In a great part of

Hindustan in particular, wherever Rajpoots and Bramins are compara-

tively few, and Koerees and Kachees are not numerous, there is im the

present state of cultivation a large space not occupied by the classes

which I have enumerated, and lists of tenant cultivators of these tracts

present a very great variety. Itisthe same in Bengal. The caste

of ‘ Telees’ are supposed to be properly oil-manufacturers, but whether

(seeing the large growth of oilseeds) they were also in their origin

oil-growers, or whether their multiplication is accidental, they certainly

in many parts of the country form an important and respectable

section of the agricultural community. Many of them are found both

in Hindustan and in the Bombay Presidency, and in Bengal and

Orissa they are particularly numerous and well-to-do. In Bengal the

Tantees or weavers are also a prosperous class, and own a good deal

of land.

The Chumars or leather workers form a large proportion of the

population of Hindustan, and are both labourers and cultivators, but

they may perhaps better be put among the inferior labouring classes.

For the rest the list of cultivating artisans and others would be

endless. They must be classed under their own professions.

Ture Mercantittr Ciassezs.

First under this head, I will put—

Ture KHATREEs.

Trade is their main occupation, but in fact they have broad-

er and more distinguished functions. Besides monopolising the

trade of the Punjab and the greater part of Affghanistan, and

doing a good deal beyond those limits, they are in the Punjab the

chief civil administrators, and have almost all literate work in their

hands. So far as the Sikhs have a priesthood, they are moreover the

priests or gooroos of the Sikhs; both Nanuk and Govind were, and

the Sodees and Bedees of the present day are, Khatrees. Thus then

The Ethnology of India. 109

they are in fact in the Punjab, so far as a more energetic race will

permit them, all that the Maratta Bramins are in the Maratta country,

besides engrossing the trade which the Maratta Bramins have not.

They are not usually military in their character, but are quite capa-

ble of using the sword when necessary. Dewan Sawan Mull, Gover-

nor of Mooltan (and his notorious successor Moolraj), and very many

of Runjeet Sing’s chief functionaries were Khatrees. Even under

Mahommedan rulers in the west, they have risen to high administra-

tive posts; there is record of a Khatree Dewan of Badakshan or

Koondooz, and I believe of a Khatree Governor of Peshawar under the

Affghans. The Emperor Akbar’s famous minister, Todar Mull, was

a Khatree ; and (though I was not before aware of it) a relative of

that man of undoubted energy, the great Commissariat Contractor of

Agra, Jotee Pershad, lately informed me that he also is a Khatree.

Altogether there can be no doubt that these Khatrees are one of the

most acute, energetic, and remarkable races in India, though in fact

(except locally in the Punjab) they are not much known to Kuro-

peans. They are, either on account of their name confounded with

Rajpoots (by those who only see the name), or more frequently, on

account of their mercantile profession, are confounded with the Bun-

neahs or Banians, with whom socially (as matter of tribe and caste)

they have no connection whatever. The Khatrees are staunch Hin-

dus, and it is somewhat singular that, while giving a religion and

priests to the Sikhs, they themselves are comparatively seldom Sikhs.

And though, judged by a modern Hindu standard, they can hardly

penetrate as they do into Central Asia with much regard for caste,

they show their staunchness by never succumbing to the Mahomme-

dan faith, where all the Indians around them have done so. I scarcely

think that there are such people as Mahommedan Khatrees in lati-

tudes where Jats, Rajpoots, and others are all Mahommedan; and

even in Affghanistan they seem to maintain their faith intact. The

Khatrees are a very fine, fair, handsome race. And as may be gather-

ed from what I have already said, they are very generally educated.

There is a large subordinate class of Khatrees, somewhat lower, but of

equal mercantile energy, called Rors or Roras. The proper Khatrees

of higher grade will often deny all connection with them, or at least

only admit that they have some sort of bastard kindred with Khatrees,

110 The Ethnology of India.

but I think there can be no doubt that they are ethnologically the

same, and they are certainly mixed up with Khatrees in their avoca-

tions. I shall treat the whole kindred as generically Khatrees.

Though the Rors have not usually risen to such high posts, at

least one of Runjeet Sing’s ministers was of this class.

Speaking of the Khatrees then thus broadly, they have, as I have

said, the whole trade of the Punjab and of most of Affghanistan. No

village can get on without the Khatree who keeps the accounts, does

the banking business, and buys and sells the grain, They seem too

to get oh with the people better than most traders and usurers of this

kind. Of course, like all people so situated, they are often a good

deal abused, but in a Punjabee village I think that the Khatree is

generally rather a popular character and on friendly terms with his

clients ; at any rate they appreciate the necessity for him, and are by

no means anxious to get rid of him. In Affghanistan, among a rough

and alien people, notwithstanding occasional exceptions, the Khatrees

are as a rule confined to the position of humble dealers, shop-keepers

and money-lenders; but in that capacity the Pathans seem to look on

them as a kind of valuable animal, and a Pathan will steal another

man’s Khatree, not only for the sake of ransom (as is frequently done

on the Peshawar and Hazarah frontier), but also as he might steal a

milch-cow, or as Jews might, I dare say, be carried off in the middle

ages, with a view to render them profitable.

I do not know the exact limits of Khatree occupation to the west,

but certainly in all eastern Affghanistan they seem to be just as

much a part of the established community as they are in the Punjab.

They find their way far into Central Asia, but the farther they get,

the more depressed and humiliating is their position. In Turkistan,

Vambery speaks of them with great contempt as yellow-faced

Hindus of a cowardly and sneaking character. Under Turcoman

rule, they could hardly be otherwise. They have even found their

way to St. Petersburgh and made money there. They are in fact

the only Hindus known in Central Asia.

In the Punjab they are so numerous that they cannot all be rich

and mercantile, and many of them hold land, cultivate, take service,

and follow various avocations. But I do not think that there is in

the plains such a thing as a Khatree village or Khatree community,

The Ethnology of India. 111

such as I have described to be the social form of other castes. They

are always mixed among other classes.

It is somewhat singular that the Khatrees, so important in Affgha-

nistan, and who also push so far into Central Asia, are altogether

excluded from Bramin Kashmere ; they are not found there at all. In

point of acuteness, I fancy it is an instance of ‘two of a trade.’ In the

hills, however, the ‘ Kukkas’ on the east bank of the Jhelum are said

to have been originally Khatrees, (they are a curiously handsome race);

and in the interior of the Kangra hills there is an interesting race of

fine patriarchal-looking shepherds called ‘ Gaddees,’ most of whom are

Khatrees. There are some Bramins among them, and some of low

caste, but the great majority are Khatrees, and their story is that

they are the remnant of the former rulers of the plains of the Punjab,

driven to the hills by conquering invaders. They are a very pleasant,

frank, simple people, quite apart from their present neighbours, and a

great puzzle. Khatree traders are numerous in Dehli, are found in

Agra, Lucknow and Patna, and are well known in the Burra Bazar

of Calcutta (though there they are principally connected with Punjab

firms). But as soon as they pass east from the limits of the Punjab,

they get into the mercantile field of the Bunneeahs, who are quite

their equals in mere mercantile ability where little physical courage

is required, and in the Bunneeah country the Khatree merchants are

mere exceptions in large towns.

In Behar there seems to be a considerable agricultural class called

Kshatrees, Chatrees, or Khatrees, who are distinct from and considered

to be somewhat lower in rank than Rajpoots. They seem somewhat

to affect a Military character, sometimes serve, I believe, as soldiers,

and are well known as ‘ Darwans’ and the like in Calcutta. Bucha-

nan seems to have been inclined to suppose that they are really Kha-

trees from the west, but I have not yet been able to ascertain whe-

ther they are in truth of the same caste as the mercantile Khatrees.

I do not know the exact limits of the Khatrees to the south. IL

have not visited Mooltan which is a great mercantile centre of the

race, and cannot accurately distinguish between Khatree and Bun-

neeah sects called by their sub-tribal names. The term ‘ Mooltanees’

seems to be applied to several trading sects in different parts of Cen-

tral India, &c., some apparently wandering Pathan traders, and some,

112 The, Ethnology of India.

I suspect, of some Khatree sect. The Khatrees do not seem as a rule

to reach the western Coast; the Guzerat and Cutch traders appear

to be Bunneeahs (or Banians) not Khatrees, and in the Bombay

market I cannot find that they have any considerable place. In

Scinde, however, I find Gn Captain Burton’s book) an account ofa

race of “pretended Khsatryas who are really Banians of the

Nanuk-Shahi (Sikh) faith,” and who trade and have a large share

of public offices. These are evidently Khatrees. I had supposed the

Lohanee merchants to be Pathans coming under much the same cate-

gory as the “ Povindeahs,” but again Captain Burton makes mention

of the “ Lohanos, a Mooltanee caste of Banians,” a robust and good-

looking race who trade with Central Asia, and also with the Arabian

Coast, who form a very large proportion of the Government servants

in Scinde, and who also do some agriculture and labour. I cannot at

this moment ascertain whether these Lohanos are really Banians or

Khatrees, probably I think the latter. Palgrave again mentions

among the Indian traders of the Arabian Coast, as distinguished from

Banians, people whom he calls ‘ Loothians’ or Loodianah men. I

take it that these must be Khatrees, unless indeed they may possibly

be Kashmeree shawl merchants. Loodianah is a large and thriving

town of mercantile Khatrees, with a numerous colony of Kashmeree

shawl-weavers.

The Khatrees claim to be the descendants of the old Kshatryas,

and I am inclined to think that they really have the best claim to

that honour. With all their enterprise, it is difficult to imagine them

so completely domiciled in Affghanistan, among so alien a people, if

they are entirely foreigners in that country. It is well known that

the Pathans themselves have advanced into the North Hastern por-

tion of the country which we call Affghanistan, within comparatively

recent and historical times; and although the upper valleys of the

Indian Caucasus have probably all along been held by pre-Hindu

tribes, there seems to be little doubt that the lower valleys of the

Cabul country were once Hindu. To this day the peaks of the

‘ Sufed Koh’ between Jalalabad and Cabul bear the palpably Hindu

names of ‘Seeta Ram” and such like.

The old Sanscrit books make the Bramins and Khsatryas to have

remotely sprung from a common origin. May it not be that in early

The Ethnology of India. 113

Aryan days the Bramins of Kero may first have become literary

and civilised, and ruled on the Saraswatee by peaceful arts, after the

fashion of the earliest Egyptians before the art of war was invented,

(See M. Renan’s abstract of recent Egyptian inquiries); and that

later a cognate tribe of Khatrees of the Cabul country, rougher and

more warlike, may have come down upon them like the Shepherd

Kings, and assumed the rule of the Military caste of early Hindu his-

tory ? That warlike conquerors of one age should become astute

money-dealers of another, is but the ordinary course of history—Jews,

Greeks, Lombards and others are instances in point, and perhaps

when the New Zealanders rule in England, the English may be known

as the Khatrees of those parts,

Tue Bonneaus, Bantans, Banzxs, orn WANEES.

No race is more important in India than the Banees. What I

have described the Khatrees to be in a mercantile point of view in

the Punjab, that the Banees are in the whole of Hindustan and Wes-

tern India. No village can get on without them. Unlike the Kha-

trees, they are for the most part confined to their proper mercantile

business. A few of them are found in Government offices and such

service, more properly the domain of the Kaists, but these are only

rare exceptions. They have also under our system acquired by pur-

chase large rights in the land, and take farms of more, but this is in

fact with them a mere mercantile operation; they do not cultivate

the land, but make the most of the rents payable by the ryots, and

the ejected proprietors reproachfully term the British Government

“ Bunneah ka Raj” or the shopkeepers’ rule. Bunneahs may cultivate

a few fields, like any one else, or even reduced individuals may earn

their livelihood as ryots or labourers, but so far as I know, a proper

Bunneah village is nowhere to be found.

There is no doubt that in their own way the Banees are a people

of wonderful energy and enterprise, and it is their energy that gives

tone and sinew in a commercial, and to a great degree an industrial

sense, to the greater part of India. Without the Banee to supply the

sinews of war, little would be done. ‘Their function permeates every

operation of every village. In all the great cities of Hindustan, they

are found ina position commanding much respect as Bankers and

114 The Ethnology of India,

Merchants, and they are also most Me speculators, as is well known

in the markets of Bombay and Calcutta. Indeed they often carry the

rage for speculation to the point of gambling. In respect of physical

courage, however, the case is quite different. Both their habits and

their religious ideas make the use of a sword a thing unknown to

them, and they have no affectation of personal manliness.

If the Banees are not generally very tall or strong, they are not much

the contrary, and they are generally very fair. or this latter feature

their indoor avocations may in part account, but that alone is not,

I think, sufficient. When one gets peeps of the faces of their women

on the occasion of great religious gatherings and the like, they

seem to be fair beyond almost any other Hindustanee caste. The

men, though flabby and un-muscular looking, are, I think, to an

unprejudiced eye often by no means bad leoking. They have, how-

ever, none of the high-Arian sharpness of feature, but rather a sleek

comely pudding-faced kind of countenance, something like those old

Egyptian faces which are said to come nearest to the Hindu type.

They are, I think, generally reputed more grasping than I have de-

scribed the Khatrees to be; are more often accused of being hard

on those in their power, and exercising a severe tyranny of the purse.

But even in their case I believe that this is a good deal exaggerated, and

that many of those who abuse them most, can least get on without

them. Possessed as they are of so much capital and energy, there

can be no doubt that, from an industrial point of view, the acquisition

by them, from indolent and unprovident proprietors, of a good deal

of the land is beneficial, when it becomes their absolute property.

They, almost alone among superior landholders, perform something of

the industrial functions of landlords, and they know too well the

value of ryots, altogether to expend and sell up those in whom they

have a permanent interest. There is to be set, on the other side, the

political weakness resulting from the existence of large numbers of

strong-armed pre-owners still, as they think, natural proprietors, side by

side with new owners who in a difficulty will not fight, Still, if the

Bunneahs will not fight, they may perhaps pay others to fight for

them. It is only when they are set to ‘exploiter’ the ryots in a

speculative way, as mere temporary lessees and middlemen under

the great superior Zemindars, that they are often a great curse.

The Ethnology of India. 115

The great seat of the Bunneahs seems to be in the west, and most of

them point to a western origin, or rather, speaking from a Hindustanee

point of view, [ should say south-western, not to the Punjab, but to

Rajpootana and the Bombay country. There are a great many sub-

divisions among them, and my impression is that the different divisions

do not intermarry as do those of Jats and Rajpoots. There may

therefore be ethnological distinctions among them, but I do not

know that it is so. The most famous of them are the Marwarees ;

and that is the name of the country, and not of the sect, intimating

their habitat in Rajpootana. The red-turbaned gentlemen so conspi-

cuous in the Calcutta Opium marts and Bombay share-markets are

generally Marwarees. In Hindustan the highest class of Bunneahs

are called ‘ Aggerwals,’ and there are several other sects. The

Bunneahs professing the Jain religion are called Srawaks, and under

that name they seem to have been famous in very old times, even in

parts of Central India which are now comparatively barbarous. In

Hindustan, Hindu Boras are a sect of money-lenders and traders and,

T imagine, Bunneahs. I believe the name is the same as that of the

Mahommedan ‘ Borahs’ of the Bombay side; but the latter, with

some peculiar Mahommedan tenets, have probably got some traces of

transmarine blood, and I shall reserve them for the category of ‘ Bor-

derers.’ Towards the south of Hindustan I have heard of a sect of

inferior Bunneahs called ‘ Jashwals’ who, unlike the race generally,

are lax Hindus and even permit their widows to remarry.

So far as I can make out, the proper Banees are not thoroughly and

completely domiciled in Bengal proper, and to the want of that

element (or of anything equal to it) I attribute the absence of enter-

prise and practical achievement, which seems to be remarkable among

the Bengallee, notwithstanding the great value acquired by the land

under the permanent settlement, and the accumulation of wealth

during a hundred years of peace. In Calcutta most of the considerable

trade and banking business and all the Hindu speculation is done by

up-country Marwarees and other Bunneahs, not by Bengallees. In the

Bengal districts, though a good many Banee colonists are settled

in towns and considerable places, the money-lending and shopkeeping

business seems to be in great part in the hands of a variety of other

élasses. Bramins do, I believe, a good deal of money-lending, and the

116 The Ethnology of India.

goldsmith class are also Bankers in Bengal. Then there isa class

of Sahoos, whose proper profession is spirit-distillmg and vending,

but who have a large share of the general trading business. The

common ‘ Modees’ or grain-sellers, instead of being almost universally

Banees as in Hindustan; are, I understand, of various castes, and

there are separate spice-sellers, oil-sellers, &c. If there are not so

many enterprising Banees to make the most of the land, there is at

any rate this advantage that, I believe, the ryots are now not nearly

so much rack-rented in Bengal as they are in Behar and other parts

of Hindustan, where the lands of great landholders are almost in-

variably farmed to speculators.

In Goozerat, Forbes describes the Wanees as very universal and:

very grasping. But at any rate the traders of the Coast of Goozerat

and Cutch are very enterprising. The Banian of those parts is an

important institution all over the coasts of Arabia and Africa on

the opposite side of the Ocean. And in Bombay, Premchand and

other Banees have made their names famous. In the Maratta country,

the higher trade and banking seems to be done by Marwarees, the

village business by local Wanees. Farther south, in the Canarese

country, the classes of trading proclivities called, ‘ Banijagas’ seem to

be very numerous, but as the name is derived from the Sanserit

‘Banij’ a trader, I cannot be quite sure that the northern and

southern traders are related by blood. Inquiry is necessary on this

point.

Almost all the Banees are strict Hindus, that is, strict in their own

form of the faith ; for in some sense Jains and such like may be said

not to be proper Hindus. In Hindustan, though there are a good

many Jains, the great majority are proper Hindus. They may be

considered to be in religion very high Hindus, and carry to a great

extreme respect for animal life. This tenet, I think, connects them

with the western Jains and others, the foundation of whose faith is

really the doctrine of metempsychosis and the transmission of

souls from one creature to another. The Banees are, I think, really

the most sincerely religious among the Hindus, and much attached

to their tenets. Among many other Hindu classes, religion is little

better than form. In the west country, Jain tenets very much prevail

at the present day among all the Banee classes, and seem to have

The Lthnology of India. 117

had a very ancient hold upon them. In the south, the Banijagas are,

it appears, now chiefly Lingamites and, as such, scarcely Braminical

Hindus. But at one time the Jain form quite prevailed among them.

Tn fact, in all the west and southwest the Jain religion appears to

have been at one time predominant. The Jains seem to assert that

the Rajpoots were once of their faith, The Pali language and cha-

racter would seem especially to belong them.

What then is the origin of the Banees? That is a very puzzling

question. I cannot account for them in any historical way, but the

speculation which has occurred to my mind is, whether they may not

originally have been immigrants by sea from the west who brought

with them the Phallus or Lingam, and those ideas of a continually

self-reproducing procreative power which took shape in the worship

of Siva, and eventually gave birth to Buddhism and to Jainism, and

which finally, meeting and amalgamating with the Braminical faith,

produced modern Hinduism. If this be so, we might suppose that

tle Banees had done much to civilise the Central and South of

India, before the Bramins got so far. But, as I have said, this is

mere speculation ; much farther inquiry is necessary.

Among the mercantile classes of the north (as well as of the south)

should be clissed the well-known Banjaras or wandering grain mer-

chants, men of great energy and usefulness in their day. Though

they carry on their trade all over the country, they have in some

places fixed homes. On the borders of Rohileund, towards the Terai,

they have in fact considerable settlements, are considerable landed

proprietors and altogether important people.

I now come to the Writer classes :—

Toe Karts or Kayasts.

Important as this caste now is, I am totally at a loss to imagine

how or why it came into existence. In old Hindu times, with a great.

Bramin class occupying something the position which Bramins now

hold among the Marattas (by no means confined to sacerdotal duties,

but performing all literate functions), one can see no room for a sepa-

rate Writer class. If the Rajpoots, coming in as conquerors, wished to

put aside the Bramins, they would probably have found Khatrees and

Banees ready to assist them. The Mahommedans, we know, had:

118 The Ethnology of India.

always among them a large educated class of their own, so much so

that in the early days of our rule in Upper India most of our public

servants were Mahommedans. Yet somehow there has sprung up

this special Writer class, which among Hindus has not only rivalled the

Bramins, but in Hindustan may be said to have almost wholly ousted

them from secular literate work, and under our Government is rapidly

ousting the Mahommedans also.

Very sharp and clever these Kaits certainly are, They are looked

on by Hindus as rather a low caste, and their appearance is not aris-

tocratic. Most of them are decidedly dark, generally spare thin men,

and, I should say, on the average short, with often sharp weasel-like

features, small and quite low-Arian. They are somewhat lax in

their ways, given to drink, and on their great annual festival, when

they worship the pen, it is rather the correct thing than otherwise to

have a good debauch.

They have generally the office of Patwaree, or village accountant ;

and of high office, having always had a good share, they are getting

more and more a monopoly. They are, in fact, first-rate men of

business, and without pride ready to adapt themselves to our ways,

they have become almost indispensable to us. They have acquired

much landed property, some by honest means, some By dishonest

means, when very loose practices prevailed in our courts. And of

course, with dignity and wealth the respect with which they are re-

garded from day to day increases. What I have said of loose ways, is

only applicable to the lower and more common members of the sect. It is

only fair to acknowledge that there are now many high officers and

worthy proprietors of this class, whose respectability is great and con-

duct unimpeachable. I never remember to have heard a conjecture

as to the origin of the Kaits. They are never found in separate

villages, but are scattered about rather as a separate profession than a

separate race, There are a good many illiterate men among them

who earn their bread as they best can ; but most of them are educated.

T should not say that they anywhere in Hindustan form a very large

population. One may suppose that when the Bramins got indolent,

this class grew up as a sort of low-caste clerks to the Bramins, who

ruled by supplanting their masters. But whence did they get their

talent? Some ofthe Aboriginal races seem to have activity and

bodily energy, but none of them mental talent.

The Ethnology of India. 119

In Bengal the Kaits occupy a higher relative position and are very

numerous. It is related as a historical fact that they accompanied

the Bramins into Bengal from the North-West, and indeed it would

seem as if the Hindustanee colonists in Bengal had been almost ex-

clusively Bramins and Kaits; there are scarcely any other castes of

well authenticated Arian descent, while a large proportion of the

inhabitants show some aboriginal traces. In Bengal then the Kaits

seem to rank next or nearly next to the Bramins, and form an aristo-

cratic class. According to the Jail Returns, they are 7 per cent. of

the Hindus incarcerated in Bengal, Behar and Orissa, and in the

general population they are probably in still larger proportion. They

haye extensive proprietary rights in the land, and also, I believe, cul-

tivate a good deal. Of the ministerial places in the public offices

they have the larger share. In the educational institutions and

higher professions of Calcutta, they are, I believe, quite equal to the

Bramins, all qualities taken together, though some detailed informa-

tion of the capacities of different classes, as shewn by the educational

tests, would be very interesting. Among the native pleaders of the

High Court, most of the ablest men are either Bramins or Kaits ;

perhaps the ablest of all, at this moment, is a Kait.

Not knowing where else to put them, I shall here mention a caste

who are, so far as I know, peculiar to Bengal, the Boidyas or physicians.

They are not very numerous, are, I believe, often learned and respecta-

ble men, and rank high among Hindus, but in truth I do not know

very much about them. It would be interesting to know more.

The Kaits extend west all through Hindustan, are numerous in

Malwa and are found in Goozerat. But in this latter Province we

come upon either another caste of the same kind, or a branch of the

same bearing a different name, and called—

Pourgenoos or Purvors

who are very conspicuous in that part of India and in the town of

Bombay, where they do most of the work of clerks. I cannot make

out whether Kaits and Purbhoos are in the main the same or differ-

ent. Of two well informed native gentleman whose opinions have

been sent me, one seems to think that they are mere sub-divisions of

an original writer class, another, that they are different. Those whom

I saw in Bombay seemed to me different in appearance as well as

120 The Ethnology of India.

very different in dress from the Hindustanee Kaits; they are, I

should say, generally fairer and better looking. I should much like

to know more about them.

Tae ARTISANS.

For ethnological purposes it would be useless to go through the

long lists of professional castes, as they cannot, so far I know, be

distinguished as representing races, but are merely the modern Hindu

social division into professions. It will nearly suffice to say that in

Northern India almost every possible profession has its separate caste,

and that there is no grouping of them together, either into right hand

and left hand, or into such groups as the Punchalas of the south.

Nothing of the kind is known; Carpenters, Blacksmiths, Goldsmiths,

Bricklayers, Potters, Barbers, Confectioners, Washermen, Spirit-sel-

Yers, and very many others, have all their own separate castes, and

they eat and marry within those castes. Some are more and some

less strict Hindus. All are of a low-Arian type, and I am not prepared

to suggest any ethnological differences, except that they are better

looking in the Punjab, and less so to the east and south. I doubt,

whether substantial differences can be found till we get lower, to tribes

exhibiting more decided aboriginal traces. Most professions bear

different names in Bengal from those in Hindustan. I do not know

much of these classes in Goozerat and the Maratta country.

The Hindustanee Kahars or Palkee-bearers are a considerable class,

and are strong hard-working men, rather good looking than otherwise.

They stand well among Hindus, whose water-carriers they are, and

who will therefore generally drink from their hands. ‘They are also

fishermen and cultivate a good deal. They have by caste nothing

whatever to do with cow-keeping, though they may own cows, like

other people. I believe that they are quite distinct both from

Bengal Gwallas and from south country Buis or Booes. They are

found in parts of the Punjab as well as in all Hindustan, but not in

the west of the Punjab.

Tue Inrerton AND Hetot Cuasszs.

Finally I come to the inferior labouring classes, the Helots and

out-castes, among whom, if anywhere, the aboriginal blood should

show itself in a marked way.

The Ethnology of India. 121

' Castes originating in a difference of races, it may be pretty safely

assumed that Helot races represent conquered peoples; but it some-

times happens that the form remains when all substantial difference

has disappeared, just. as in fossils we have the form although in fact

the substance is stone like that which surrounds it. In the hills of

the extreme north, where we have the high-Arian race in its purest

and most unalloyed state, even the form of a Helot caste is wanting ;

which is just what we might expect in a country where the Arians

themselves are the aborigines. There are no out-caste Pariahs.

In Kashmere a tribe called Wattals are said to be low, but they appear

to be rather immoral than ethnologically low, a gypsy kind of tribe

which supplies dancing girls and prostitutes. The women are noto-

riously among the handsomest in the valley, so they are not at all

Helots such as I mean. In all these hills, the “‘ Chooras”’ of the plains

are altogether wanting.

In the plains of the Punjab there is a thorough Helot tribe.

The arrangement of castes is there generally more simple than

élsewhere, and a single low caste tribe are both the ordinary

labourers who do all the inferior Coolee work, and at the same time

the out-caste scavengers of the community. They are in fact all

considered to be of the lowest sweeper caste, and are called ‘ Chooras.’

As in most democratic communities there has generally been under

the freemen a Helot class (the Helots of Greece, the Slaves of Rome,

the Negroes of South and the Irish of North America), so also every

Jat village has its Helot quarter, where the low caste people, fewer, but

still considerable in number, reside. They sometimes cultivate on

their own account, but more generally act as labourers, and do all that

is done by the Chamars in Hindustan. When a traveller of rank

arrives at a village in Hindustan, the Chamars are called out to carry

his baggage ; the Chooras in the Punjab.

These Punjabee Helots are im fact fine powerful men and tolerably

good looking. They were well-known under native governments as

good soldiers, fit to be expended on desperate enterprises. The early

Sikh reformers, preaching their doctrines of equality, tried to bring’

these men within the pale, but with very partial success, though a

few were admitted to a respectable position as Sikhs. They were

only occasionally used as soldiers by chiefs who were hard-pressed,

122 The Ethnology of India,

It has been reserved for us to enlist them in regular regiments, and

to try to raise them to a good position. Like most low-placed men,

they look low, when in low case performing low offices; but that they

are well grown and powerful, is always clear. I had recently an

opportunity of looking at them carefully, in a body drawn up on

Regimental Parade, and looked especially with the view of seeing

whether I could detect any ethnological peculiarity. I was quite

satisfied that nothing of the sort is to be found. There may not be

so large a proportion of good looking men as among the higher castes,

but as a body they are fine Arians, not very materially inferior to the

other people of the country. The only physical peculiarity that I

have noticed among people of this class in the Punjab is, that a large

proportion of them have only one eye. I apprehend, however, that

this is not an ethnological peculiarity, but the result of inferior labour

in a dry and dusty country, as may be seen in Egypt.

In Scinde also the low caste people are mentioned as large men of

Punjabee origin and speaking the Jatee language. They are there

called ‘Bale Shahe’ or Royal, a term also I believe applied to the

sweepers in some other parts of India, and which may seem ironical, but

may possibly be founded on some traditions of their former rule.

In the Punjab, in addition to the functions which I have mentioned,

the Chooras are generally the village watchmen ; and it may be observed

that this office is all over India very generally held by the represen-

tatives of the oldest races, especially when they possess any fighting

capacities. It may be supposed that when conquerors came in, they

would find the headmen of the conquered races best acquainted with

the localities, and most capable of dealing with those of their brethren

who had taken to the jungles. I should always be inclined to look

to the watchmen for ancient ethnological traces. The same races who

do the watching also often do the thieving, and the Punjab Chooras

have done a good deal of theft and robbery and some thuggee.

What may be the origin of these Punjabee Helots, I must leave to

conjecture. Hither they may represent an old aboriginal tribe, whose

features have been wholly absorbed by infiltration and intermixture,

and who have left no ethnological traces but a dark tinge in the

colour of the Punjabees and Affghans of the lower hills, or they may

be early Arian inhabitants, conquered and enslaved by subsequent

tribes of Bramins, Khatrees, Rajpoots, and Jats.

The Ethnology of India, 123

- At any rate it may generally be said, that the whole population of

the Punjab, both high and low, is above the average Arian type.

I have before mentioned that the lower class of cultivators and

labourers in the Simla hills are called “ Kolees.”’ I have not noticed

among them any marked aboriginal features,

I have alluded to the Chamars as the labourers of Hindustan,

but there the functions of the Punjabee Helots are divided; the

Chamars are the labourers (besides their own proper profession of

curing skins), and the out-caste sweepers are an entirely separate and

lower class. I have never quite made out whether the Chamars are

considered to be properly Hindus. ‘They are not considered abso-

lutely offensive to the touch like the unclean out-castes, but their

name is commonly used to signify a low man, and the greatest insult

commonly proposed is to beat a man by the hands of Chamars.

They used to be sworn ina court by a peculiar Gooroo of their

own, not by the ordinary name of God; and the sweepers again had

a different Gooroo. They really are the modern Sudras of Hindu

society, and no Hindustanee village could get on without them.

Like others, they do not appear to advantage when engaged in

menial offices, but to judge them fairly we should take them clean

and decently fed and dressed. Most of our Hindustanee Syces are

of this caste, and any one in Northern India may among them satisfy

himeelf of their general style. It seems to me that they are a

good specimen of the lower grade of the low-Arian type. An ancient

proverb, quoted by Sir H. Elliott, speaks of a black Bramin and a fair

Chamar as perversities to be avoided. In these days I think many

Bramins may be found darker than many Chamars; but as a rule and

on an average the Chamars are very decidedly dark, also rather small,

though active and well knit. In features they are as it were quite

the opposite of the high-Arian; there is a want of prominence, a

simplicity as it were of feature; but still they do not I think show

anything whatever that can really be called aboriginal. Judged by

a European standard, and colour and size apart, I think that their

features are quite as good as the average of Huropeans of inferior

degree.

The Chamars have never been soldiers, though I believe that we

haye enlisted some of them since the mutiny ; nor have they generally

124 The Ethnology of India.

held the office of watchman ; that is more frequently held by the unclean

out-castes. In their own trade as leatherworkers and shoemakers, they;

are clever intelligent men, and they are the same as Syces and some-

times Coachmen, and as Coolees and hired labourers. In some parts of

the country, a good deal of the cultivation is in their hands; but I

have not heard of their acquiring considerable landed rights or rising

high in the world, except in Chateesgurh in the Central Provinces,

where I understand that a colony of Chamars of a reformed faith

have come to occupy quite an aristocratic position.

The Chamars generally are apt to be somewhat foul feeders; the

lower people of the race habitually eat the dead cattle which they skin.

They are also a good deal given to drink, when they can afford it.

The unclean outcastes are generally by no means numerous in

Hindustan, and are for the most part confined to their own proper,

functions. There are various sub-divisions of them, and they are

somewhat indiscriminately known’ by various names, Bhangees, Mek-,

ters, &c. General Briggs, in an ingenious paper, tracing the names of

provinces to aboriginal tribes, makes the Bhangees the Aborigines of

Bengal, but the term is a Hindustanee one, not Bengalee. The term

‘Dome’ is somewhat generally applied to these people, or if specially,

I should say that their particular function is more particularly con-

nected with dead dogs. It would appear, however, that in the north

of Hindustan under the Himalayas, the Domes were once a consider-

able tribe, and in the Kumaon hills, they are still a numerous Helot

section of the population, being in fact the only inferior class, and

assuming the functions of artizans as well as those of ordinary labourers.

They are there described as very black, with curly hair, and alto-

gether very aboriginal in appearance. I had not myself noticed this,

but when I knew Kumaon I had not much taken up ethnology. In

the plains where races have been longer and more mixed, and where,

as I have said, the lowest caste are few in numbers, they do not, I think,

exhibit aboriginal features. The fact is that so small a class has been

recruited by people turned out of other classes, to a degree which hag

quite obliterated their original type. There are now many decidedly

good-looking people among them, and their women often take up with

men of other caste. On the average, I should say, that they are now

decidedly better looking than the quiet decent Chamars,

The Ethnelogy of India. 125

- The result is that, in my view, in Hindustan, after 3,000 or longer

years of juxta-position, the Arian element has quite prevailed in

feature over the aboriginal type, and the population, take them all in

all, are in this particular about as Arian as Huropeans, but dark in

skin and usually smaller,

It is on the authority of one of the most learned native members of

the society that I have alluded to the Bagdees, one of the most numer-

ous non-Mussulman castes of Bengal, as aboriginal, but I have no

particular description of them; and though I have observed the

much greater frequency of aboriginal feature in Bengal, I am not

sufficiently acquainted with the people to distinguish the special per-

sonal characteristics of the different inferior classes. The Bagdees

seem to be cultivators, fishermen, watchmen, and dacoits. On the

borders of Bengal and Behar, the work of labourers is done by Raj-

wars, Bhooyas and other aboriginal tribes whom I have noticed.

The unclean tribes seems to be very various, and to have among

them a system of castes more particular than that of many Bramins.

I was lately obliged to dismiss the lowest servant in my establishment,

an excellent man, because he respectfully but firmly declined to wash

the cat, as impossible under the rules of his caste.

In the Prison Returns there is a large entry under the head of

‘ Chandals,’ the orthodox low caste name, and others appear under the

titles of ‘ Dosads,’ ‘ Harees,’ ‘ Bhoomallees,’ &c. Altogether they

must be numerous in Bengal. There is in the list a considerable

easte of ‘ Mooshers,’ but I cannot find what they are.

I consider that in Bengal there is still a very great field for ethno-

logical exploration.

In the plains of Goozerat, the Kolees seem to fill the place of the

inferior grade in the social scale, as labourers and lower cultivators,

being there rather members of the ordinary community that a separ-

ate aboriginal tribe. The unclean outcastes are there called Dhers

and Olganas.

_ In the Maratta country, the ‘ Mhars’ seem to perform the functions

of ‘ Begars’ (forced bearers of burdens), watchmen, and Helots gener-

ally, much as the Punjab Helots do among the Jats. There is also a

low caste of Mhangs. The lowest unclean caste are called ‘ Dhers’

there too, but I have also seen it asserted that the ‘ Mhars’ are really the

126 The Ethnology of India.

same as the “ Dhers.’’ There is a low caste called ‘‘ Parwarees”’ in

the country below the Ghats. They are found in the Bombay

army. They, also, seem to be much the same as Mhars. Everything

seems to point to the reasonable expectation, that if we could but

trace the matter back far enough, the Goozerattee language would be

found to be the tongue of the Rajpoots and Koormees with an infu-

sion derived from the Koolees, and the Maratta that of the Koormees

and Mallies with a considerable infusion derived from the aboriginal

Mhars. I have not any good description of the personal appearance

of the modern Mhars. The Ramooses of the south of the Bombay

country, seem to have been a bold robber caste, now settled down to

cultivation. They came apparently from the Telagoo country and

are not aboriginal to the Maratta districts.

Besides the settled lower classes, there are also in the north some

tribes of a character which is apparently more common in the south ;

people who are a kind of half-tamed huntsmen, watchmen, and thieves,

doing little regular labour. In all Oude and in some of the neigh-

bouring districts to the east, there prevails a very peculiar tribe called

“ Pasees’ who almost monopolise the office of village watchmen and

who are in their way extremely good active men. They are also

huntsmen and thieve extensively, also to some degree cultivate and

labour. On the whole they are superior to most of these tribes.

Then there are several wandering tribes of Bhoureahs, Sansees,

Harnees, Koonjars, Dhanuks, and others who go about on pretext of

trapping vermin and the like, and are great robbers. ‘There are also

everywhere the gypsy ‘ Nuts’ or ‘ Sirkie-bashes’ (dwellers under reed-

mats), but Gypsies are too well-known all over the world to need

farther specification here,

Tur TRIBES oF THE SouTH.

I have already avowed my ignorance of the Telinga country, and

without a good knowledge of the races there existing, it would be im-

possible to trace the Aryan tribes in their progress from North to

South—for I find that a very large proportion of the tribes farther

South refer to Andria, the Telinga country, as a former stage in their

southward progress. That country seems in fact to have been a great

nursery of the southern tribes. Whether ‘“ Andria” is another form of

The Ethnology of India. 127

* Ariana’ I am unable to say. The change, on the southern frontier of

the Maratta country, to a Canarese population seems to be abrupt, and

there are few traces of progress of the tribes southwards at that point,

Jam inclined to think that the aborigines held out in the hilly

country about Sattara and Poonah till a more recent date, and that

the Arian immigration into the south principally occurred by a route

farther to the east through the Telinga country, which may possibly

have been then more extensive than it now is. In this I put aside

the question of maritime immigration from the west.

The Telinga country seems, from some source, to have been civilised

at a very early date, and there appears to be reason to believe that a

good deal of the country about Warangal and thence eastwards to-

wards the sea, was in a better state than that into which it has

since fallen. Much of the ancient Telinga country is said to have

been taken from the Koles who (in the sense in which I have used the

word) are not now adjacent—the Gonds intervening —and the country

was it seems anciently called “‘ Kalinga” which may be another form

of Coolie-land. The old Telingas seem to have been a maritime

people, and it was probably they who carried Hindu ideas and perhaps

some Hindu blood into the Hastern Isles. To this day the Hindus

of the Hastern Coast are called ‘‘ Klings’’ on the opposite side of the

Bay and in the Islands, a name evidently derived from Kalinga or

Kalinga. It is then much to be hoped that we may obtain some

better knowledge of the Telinga country.

The Bainjagas, who are very important in the Canarese country, are

stated to be comparatively humble in the Telinga country and reduced

to the condition of cultivators and labourers, while the mercantile

business is in the hands of Comtees or Comatiyas, claiming to be a

race of pure Arian Vaisyas. The dominant classes are others of Arian

character, whom I shall presently mention so far as I know them,

All this would seem to indicate that if the Banees, being according to

my speculation western immigrants, ever reached the Telinga country

as Srawaks or Lingamites, or with some earliest forms of that type

of faith, they have since been reduced and humbled by Notthern

Arians,

The principal people of whom I find mention in the Telinga

country are Aylmas or Velmas, said to be “the Rajpoots of the

128 The Ethnology of India.

South,” and apparently somewhat like them in character, a dominant

agricultural tribe of military proclivities. But of the nature of their

settlements I have no information. Another similar tribe are men-

tioned as ‘ Ratsawars.”

Another fine tribe called Reddies and found in the Northern

Canarese country, are also stated to be a Telinga tribe, but of their

location in the latter country I have no particulars.

The original Telinga ‘“‘ Andras” seem to have come from the North

West by the valleys of the Godavery and Wyngunga. The better

classes of them would seem to be taller, fairer, and better looking than

most of the southerners. The ‘common Telinga peasantry” are

described as people of spare form and dark complexion, with little

spirit or enterprise, but it is added that they do well in the Madras

Army. I cannot make out what are the common castes of these people.

‘ Naik,’ a word known in the native army and elsewhere, is in some

sense a Telinga, but more properly I believe an aboriginal woud.

There are I think some people called Naiks towards the Eastern

Ghats, but in most places ‘ Naik’ is the title of a headman. The

Telinga villages, I find it stated, are not compact and fort-looking

like those of Northern India and the Maratta country, but loose and

detached, which would seem to be rather an approach to the very

loose Bengal form. There are a good many Gonds in the North Hast,

but the common low tribes are ‘ Dhers’ and ‘ Beders’ who have their

Helots’ quarter in each village.

The Telinga palanquin-bearers are widely spread over the south

and are, I imagine, the Buis of whom I have before made mention.

The bearers who ply at Madras itself and on the Hast Coast seem to

come from Ganjam and the Northern Circars, which also furnish many

of the so-called “ Coolee” emigrants to the Mauritius.

The Canarese country is a remarkable instance of the way in which

mames are transposed in India. The Canarese name is given to

everything that is not Canarese, and to nothing that is. What is

called in Bombay the “Southern Maratta country,” because the

Marattas conquered it (the districts of Dharwar and Belgaum and the

country about Beejapore) is for the most part ethnologically Canarese,

while the Canara districts on the West Coast (though there is some

Canarese intermixture and they were once ruled by a Canarese

The Ethnology of India. 129

dynasty) are principally inhabited by races alien to the Canarese,

more akin to the Marattas in the extreme north, and akin to the

Malayala people in the south. Aout and under the Ghats, the

Marattas and Northern Bramins run farther south than they do on

the plains of the Deccan.

On the other side of the Peninsula, the Carnatic, wholly Non-

Canarese, will always be called the Carnatic, because a dynasty seated

in the Canarese country once had authority there.

The real Canarese country is, the southern part of the Bombay

Presidency, part of the adjoining Nizam’s territory, part of Bellary,

and nearly the whole of Mysore. The Canarese can scarcely be said

to be Hindus, the Lingamite sect so much prevails, and those Linga-

mites so entirely ignore Bramins, and so completely make their Lingam

worship a separate faith. Most of the people are called ‘ Lingamites’

or ‘ Sibahtagars,’ a name which conceals various castes and races; for

it is only a religious designation, and Lingamites are of many castes,

So far as I can gather, the chief people of the Canarese country

are the Banijagas who both trade and hold land, and are very

numerous.

In the north of this couutry the Reddies, whom I have already men-

tioned, are described as a fine handsome powerful race, capital culti-

vators, living together in large villages, and raising much cotton, which

with other produce they often export as well as grow. They pay their

revenue well, but are jealous of interference in their village concerns,

and somewhat litigious. This is an old account, and it seems very

like what might be said of Jats. J do not know what is the present

condition of these communities. The widows of the Reddies re-

marry. They are much superior to their southern Maratta neighbours

in an industrial and personal point of view.

Farther south the chief castes of Hindu cultivators are ‘Wokuls’ or

‘ Ooculagas,’ said to be called by the Mahommedans ‘ Koonbees,’ and

whom the Abbe Dubois considers to be in essentials the same as or

similar to the Tamul Vellallers, though they will not eat or marry

together. Whatever they may originally have been, they are evidently

now a different caste from both Koonbees and Vellallers. I have few

particulars regarding their character, but they seem to be on the

whole good cultivators, The headmen of Canarese villages ave called

130 The Ethnology of India.

‘Gaudas,’ and under native goyernments not unfrequently farmed the

rents. There also seems to have been the village communal system

in some degree, but in most places not democratic. The Wokuls are

indifferent soldiers, but serve as Militia. They eat flesh freely and

are not a strict class. There are, it seems, a number of sub-divisions

among them. One of the chief are called Gungacara, but whether

that indicates a northern origin, I can’t say. In truth Wokul seems to

be a very wide word. A considerable proportion of the cultivators,

in several parts of this country, seem to be settled and reclaimed

aborigines, sturdy “‘ Beders” and “‘ Malawa” or “ hillmen,’”’ and there

are a class allied to the Billiaru and Teermen of the Western Coast.

The low Helot outcastes are numerous and called ‘ Hollayers.”’

Some of this caste seem to be still aboriginal in the Western Ghats,

they are mentioned as coming down to the Coast nearly or quite

naked; but most of them are agricultural labourers and serfs. They

are said to correspond to the ‘‘ Dhers” to the north and to the Palli or

Pallers to the south. “‘ Halaya” means ancient, and the word Hollayer

perhaps only means “ the ancient race.” The Gollars, Golavadu or

Gwallas seem to be few, but the ‘‘ Dhangars,” mentioned as connected

with Aheers, extend a good way south, and there is a large class of

the aboriginal shepherds the ‘‘ Carambers,’”’ There are Banjaras called

also “‘ Lambadi,” and I believe also “ Warali” or ‘‘ Katode Warali,” but

T am not sure whether these last are not a kind of Gpysies found also

in the Bombay country.

The Buis and Bustars are palanquin-bearers, fishermen, ferrymen

and distillers,

The old Ganarese dynasties and most of the people were at one

time Jain, but those of that faith are now few, they have returned

to the worship of Siva and the Lingam, which seems to be their

ancient faith. This former Jain profession seems to be, however, a

link of connection with the Banees farther North,

My impression, in passing through the country, has been that the

Canarese as a body are fairer and better looking than most of their

southern neighbours ; and as the tribes of a northern character seem

to prevail among thei less than in the Tamil and Telagoo country, it

may be a question whether their features are influenced by an infusion

from the west. It seems that the ancient name of the Oanarese

The Ethnology of India. 131

people and language is ‘“‘ Arabee,”’ but I have been unable to trace

the origin or derivation of that name. There are some vague tradi-

tions of former Arab conquest in those parts, but I have not been

able to connect them with the Canarese name. The language is

certainly, like the other languages of the South of India, Dravidian

with Sanscrit super-imposed, but it is an undoubted fact (as we shall

see when we come to the Western Coast) that a succession of immi-

grations has occurred there, and one of them seems to a considerable

extent to have flowed over into the Canarese country. Perhaps still

more ancient immigrations may have flowed farther, and it might be

well worth while minutely to inquire whether any Himyaritic or

Hegyptian importations can be traced in the Canarese tongue.

In the Tamul country there is little suspicion of Western blood.

The dominant tribe is of a very decided Northern character, while

the mass of the lower classes is probably more aboriginal than in

any other part of India. Consequently most of the Tamul people

are small and black, and there seem to be among them frequent

traces of aboriginal features.

The superior agricultural class, owning and cultivating most of the

land and in possession of many chiefships, &. are the ‘ Vellallers,”

a people of whom their own traditions of immigration from the North,

coupled with their laws and institutions, leave in my mind no doubt

that they belong to the class of later democratic tribes. Much has

been done to dissolve the old communal system, but the early descrip-

tions of Vellaller villages, their apportionment of the lands and mode

of self-government are exactly such as would describe a Jat village

of the present day.

The term Vellaller, like the Canarese Wokul, seems to be used to

express a cultivator of the soil, in fact may be translated zemindar

or cultivator, just as “Jat” is synonymous with zemindar in the

Punjab. Whether the Vellallers are directly connected with the

Velmas of the Telagoo country or with the Bellalla Rajas (who,

ruling in the Canarese country, carried their arms into the south), I

am unable to say. They appear to burn their dead, but are Hindus

of the looser sort in their religious observances, and in their rules

respecting marriage, &c. Like most of these tribes, they do not

ordinarily marry more than one wife, unless the first fails to bring

132 The Ethnology of India.

children. They have apparently some Poojarees of their own caste,

but also to some degree accept Bramins as priests. Some of them

are educated, or at least some sections of them are quite literate.

Of this sort I have mentioned the Modelliars, who are distinctly

stated to be a branch of them, but I am not quite sure whether it

actually is so as regards the Pillays. The Vellallers are the principal

tribe among the T'amul population im the north of Ceylon. The

whole race seems to be an industrious good people.

The cowherds in the Tamul country are it appears called “ Idayan,”

and I have alluded to the learned branch of the cowherd race called

Yadavas. I have not been able to ascertain who are the merchant

class among the amul people, whether Modelliars, Pillays, &e. or

whether there are any Banijagas.

The artisans in the south generally seem to be classed in groups,

one caste comprising several different handicrafts, the principal of

which is that of the Panchalas or Pancham-Bandams, comprising

carpenters, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, masons and another which has

escaped me. ; ;

The principal low caste tribes are the Palli or Pallers, and the Pariahs,

who, though somewhat similar m name, are quite distinct and in fact

seem to be a good deal opposed to one another one (the Pallers ;)

forming the lowest grade of what are called the right hand castes,

the other (the Pariahs) holding the same place among the left hand

castes. Then there are the robber castes, Kallars and Marawars. If

have been unable to make out accurately whether these are the same

or different, whether Marawar is the name of the tribe and Kallar

only means robber, or whether there are two tribes. However pre-

datory their disposition, they are not all now robbers, but seem to

form a considerable portion of the settled inhabitants of the extreme

south of the Peninsula. In one place I find the Marawars described

as very aborigmal in feature, and in that respect giving much ground

for the belief that they are descended from the monkeys who assisted

in the conquest of Ceylon, while in another place they are said to

be well made and featured and of a martial disposition. Probably

they vary very much, accordingly as they are more or less crossed

with Arians. The Tondimans people are, it appears, mostly Kallars.

There seems to be a great resemblance between the position of the

The Ethnology of India. 134

Ramooses of the southern parts of the»-Bombay territory, the better

Beders of the centre of the Peninsula, and the Kallars and Marawars

of the south. All are of a sturdy, semi-military, predatory character.

They have generally, in times of trouble, acquired considerable posi-

tion, and their chiefs have risen to be Polygars. Evidently they are

superior to the simpler aborigines. The Ramooses are described as

ill-favoured, but not altogether different in appearance from the ordinary

population. They have many customs which seem to indicate some

connection with the northern democratic tribes (see full particulars

in the Madras Literary Journal), and have the Rajpoot-like traditions

of the Sacred Horse, Ge. It is in such tribes that I think an infusion

of Yavana blood may well be suspected.

The Pallers are probably related to the Puliars of the Pulney hills,

but as settled inhabitants they seem to be decent cultivators of low

degree. They are very numerous, and seem chiefly to cultivate kitchen

gardens and small farms. They bury their dead, and have Poojarees

of their own caste, eat animal food when they can get it, and drink

freely. Like most non-Arian tribes, they appear to practice polygamy

when they can afford it.

The Pariahs are well known, their name having become proverbial.

They also seem to be numerous, and somewhat lower in degree than

the Pallers, being under native rule a sort of serfs, and living in serf

quarters attached to the Vellaller villages. I think that traces of the

thick lip and something of the prognathous jaws ef their ancestors

may sometimes be traced in those whom we see in service. Yet they

are certainly very intelligent good servants. It appears that they are

sometimes educated, and that there have even been Pariah authors.

Perhaps their masters sometimes found them intelligent, and had them

educated. .

A strong mark that even yet Hindu ideas and manners have not

fully taken hold of the extreme south, is this that there, as it appears,

even some pretty decent and respectable castes bury, instead of burning

their dead.

The division into right hand and left hand castes, which prevails all

over Southern India is very extraordinary and unexplained. They

are sometimes violent factions, and yet, for anything that we are told,

there is as little occasion for the feeling as for the feud between the

134 The Ethnology of India.

three-year-olds and four-year-olds in Ireland. The Canarese Bani-

jagas seem to be the chief of the right hand castes, with the lower

cultivating classes of Hollayers and Kallars under them—while the

better classes connected with the land appear to be the left hand, with

the Pariah serfs under them. The Abbé Dubois seems rather to

reverse this arrangement as respects right and left, but the more recent

statements are probably the better. The artisans seem to be divided,

I think that the subject deserves farther inquiry. Possibly these

factions may represent two different streams of civilisation and domi-

nation meeting in the south.

The old dominant tribe of the South Western Coast are the Nairs,

who seem long to have dominated that country from the Western Ghats.

These Nairs are the chief people of Malabar and Travancore, and the

Bunts, who occupy a similar position in Canara, are cognate to them,

as are the Coorgs above them. They are chiefly notorious for the

singular custom of polyandry, and the consequent order of succession

through females. Polyandry is not now universally practised (though

not uncommon), but the rule of succession through females is at this

day the actual unvarying law of this people. They are a good-sized

well-featured race, but rather dark, especially compared to the other

inhabitants of this Coast. They are not only soldiers and landholders,

but are also often educated, and are then considered to be remarkably

good accountants. I have mentioned the prevalence of Bramins in

this part of India. They seem to get on very well with the Nairs, and

share the land with them. Indeed, it is said, that the Nair women

are not always satisfied with their own polyandrical arrangements,

and that a good deal of Bramin blood has been infused into the Nair

aristocracy by the channel of female descent.

There seem to be a considerable number of the Agrestic slaves of

Malabar, the black aboriginal Chermars, to whom, as well as to the

Nagadies (if possible still lower), I have already alluded. The re-

maining important sections of the population of this part of India

I shall soon come to, but with regard to the effect of immigration

upon them, I shall class them under the head of Borderers.

The system of village communities does not prevail on this Western

Coast. The land is there considered to be the private property, in full

right, of private landholders who hold separately, more alter a modern

The Ethnology of India. 135

European fashion. It is also a general observation that in all hilly and

broken countries (such as are the Western Ghats and their spurs on

either side) village communities are neither required, nor can be easily

formed. In the midst of great plain countries, the cultivation of a

community is concentrated within fixed and not distant limits, and

concentration of habitation is required for defence. In hilly countries,

the occasional spaces fit for cultivation are occupied by petty scattered

hamlets and individual habitations.

I have never heard any attempt to account for the singular poly-

andry of the Nairs. My impression, however, is that polyandry is

only a step in advance of the custom which is well-known as existing

both among the old Jews and among almost. all those modern Hindu

tribes which permit remarriage, as well as among some other races,

yiz,, that the wife of one brother passes on his decease to the next

brother. Among the Jats, the men strenuously assert this right, and

the women generally as strenuously deny it ; but as we do not enforce

it, it has never been decided which is in the right. At any rate it is

always asserted. Now when the woman is recognised to be family

property, and when moreover the Hindu and older than Hindu doctrine

of joint family property is brought to bear on the matter, it seems

to require but a little pressure and a little philosophy to convert a

successive holding into a joint contemporaneous holding; especially

when childless elder brothers are getting old, and younger brothers

are rising up who may supply the want. In an early state of society,

we know that in war the women are always carried off as the prize

of the victors ; consequently, as the fortune of war varies, tribes must

often be left with a deficiency of women to an inconvenient degree,

which the polyandrical arrangement among brothers (already pos-

sessed of contingent remainders in the same woman) obviates. This

result seems to have followed among some of the Scythian tribes, and

there is a tendency to the same thing among some of the Arian tribes

of the Himalayas. In this last case, the cause assigned often is, that

the women being good-looking and much prized in the plains, fathers

have great temptations to make advantageous matches for their

daughters (to sell them, rude people say), and women become scarce

in the hills.

We may suppose that the Nairs were perhaps a tribe who had

136 The Ethnology of India.

pushed far ahead of their base of operations, possibly their baggage

and most of their women had been cut off, and being left with a scant

supply of wives in their new settlements, they may have adopted the

present arrangement. Yet it seems one which has little to recom-

mend it to permanence. The extraordinary thing then is, that it

appears that in some parts of the Malabar Coast, parts of other tribes

have actually to some degree borrowed the practice from the Nairs.

There can be nothing about the country unfavourable to the propaga-

tion of women. Any cause tending to female infanticide would also

tend to polyandry, but this has not been assigned as the reason in

Malabar.

In the Canara districts the Jains are still numerous, many of the

Bants, &c. being of this sect, and it appears that this country (known

also as the Tulu or Tulava country) was formerly a great stronghold

of the Jains and ruled by Jain Rajas.

THEH BORDERERS.

Tur TEERMEN OR IsLANDERS oF THE SoutH West Coast.

On the Malabar Coast there is a numerous class called Teers or

Teermen. They are generally a fair good-looking race, but considered

to be of very low caste. Caste ideas are there carried to an extreme

unknown in Hindustan, where, with the exception of the unclean

scavenger caste, mere contiguity and general intercourse is not sup-

posed to affect caste, and all classes mix freely together. In Malabar

and Travancore, the Nairs do not pretend to be more than Soodras,

but they make out the Teers and Shanars (who are much the same) to

be so infinitely below them, that they must get out of the way when

a Nair calls out to announce his approach in the public road. And

yet the Teers are by no means a low and degraded caste; on the

contrary they are, as I said, a good-looking, and they are also a thriving

prosperous people, who are largely educated in the Government

schools, obtain much public and private service, are acquiring land,

and are in every way well-to-do.

They have Gt seemed to me in Malabar) not the least aboriginal

trace, but are fairer and in appearance more refined looking than the

Nairs. The Shanar women of this class are those about whose

liberty to cover themselves a disturbance was made in the Travancore

The Ethnology of India, 137

eountry by the classes who considered them too low for this decent

practice. Al] the Teer and Shanar people are said to be by caste

or profession palm-growers or toddy-drawers, in allusion to the prin-

cipal product of their native regions. ‘ Teer’ it seems means ‘ Island’

and the Teermen are generally understood to be Islanders or immi-

grants by sea. Their relationship to the Maldivians is spoken of,

but that is a petty group, and the only people to whom it is clear

that they are related are the Singhalese. Iam not acquainted with

Singhalese ethnology, but the Singhalese whom I have seen seemed,

I think, to be a fine-featured straight-haired people with no dash of

the Indian Aborigines and like the Teers, only somewhat darker and

somewhat different in dress, &c. Caldwell speaks of the Teers as

being a reflex of the previous Hindoo emigration to Ceylon. Yet if

all the accounts be correct, it is difficult to suppose all the congeners

ef the Teers to have come from Ceylon. Not only are the Teers

very numerous in Malabar, where they form a great proportion of the

population, but all the Shanars farther south are stated to be of the

same race, as are the Billiaru (said to mean~‘ Bow men’), the lower

race in Canara, and a considerable number of people related to the

latter who are found in Mysore, and there called Halaya Paika or old

Paiks. Some of these people are, however, I believe much darker and

less good looking than the proper Teers. The latter are also said to

have contributed to form the Moplahs. If so large a population has

immigrated, it must have been a long time ago. I said I think that

there can be little doubt of their relationship to the Singhalese. It

would seem from the published accounts, that the Singhalese are not

Dravidian in language and manners, but derive the main portions of

their language and religion, and perhaps of their civilisation, from

Bengal and Magadha. That they received their present Buddhism

from Magadha, and much of their language from a Sanscritic source,

there can, I believe, be no doubt. But here also Western elements

may be mixed with the other, and very careful inquiry is necessary.

It would be curious if it proved that, as it were in the three

extremities of India, in Cashmere in the north protected by moun-

tains, Bengal in the east protected by the marshes of the Ganges

and Berhampootra, and parts of Ceylon and Malabar on the south.

protected by distance and water, there remain three remnants of the

138 The Ethnology of India.

older and softer Indian civilisation, not swept over by the democratic

tribes of the north-west, and still retaining considerable points of

resemblance among themselves.

Tur SoutHern CuRisrians.

T have not been able to find any precise ethnological description of

the Christians of the Southern Coast, but so far as I can learn, they

are principally Shanars.

Tur Moprans.

I believe that the notoriety of certain events has led most people

at a distance to suppose the Moplahs to be a small sect of religious

fanatics on the West Coast. Nothing can be a greater mistake.

They are a large, most energetic, and most prosperous people ; in some

industrial respects perhaps the best population to be found anywhere

in India. In point of numbers alone they are very considerable. In

a large portion of the Malabar country, they form full half the popu-

lation, and in the Malabar district their total number by census is

not far short of half a million. They are also numerous in Canara

and very numerous in Travancore. The Lubbays of the Tinnevelly

Coasts seem to be as nearly as possible the same race. It is evident

then that they are numerous enough to form a small kingdom, and

in point of wealth and individual comfort and prosperity they

certainly exceed any similar number of any other race in India. If

confidently assert that no one can see the comfortable, neat, superior

two-storied houses and homesteads of the Moplahs of the West

Coast, without feeling that he has come upon a people non-Indian in

their vigour, progressiveness, and whole style. One hardly feels oneself

in India. There is no doubt that the Moplahs have a very large

share of Arab blood. J have not been able to ascertain particulars

of the date of their immigration, nor of the parts of Arabia from

which, and the tribes from among whom they come, which latter

points would be important now that Mr. Palgrave has led us to

distinguish among Arab and quasi-Arabs; but the general native

belief, which is probably correct, is that the Moplahs are a cross

between Arabs and Teermen. ‘The result is a fine, stout, manly, good-

looking race. Their religion and much of their energy and manners

The Ethnology of India, 13)

are Arab, but at all events they are Arabs of an industrious money-

getting stamp. They have most of the trade of the Coast in their

hands, and they are rapidly acquiring a larger and larger share in

the land, not only inferior rights by settlement and lease, but also

superior rights by purchase and mortgage. As respects their religious

fanaticism, I believe it will generally be found that fanaticism is

most frequently used as an instrument of political warfare, and that

in the most sincere it is but a symptom of political discontent. In

spite of Mr. Palgrave, [ think that when Arabs beyond their own

country are Mahommedans, they are pretty zealous, especially when

they find themselves confronted with unbelievers. Probably the

Moplahs are as good Mahommedans as are usually found, and in time

of political discontent there is no lack of religious leaders from -

Arabia; but in fact I understand that it is perfectly clear to those

acquainted with the matter that the Moplah outrages of which we

have heard so much, are really political, or perhaps I should rather

say social, outbursts of a few individuals among an energetic people,

directed not against the British Government or Christian rule, but

against Hindu landlords. The land question is at the bottom of it

all. It is the old story of an inferior race with the law in their

favour, and a more energetic race who wish to progress somewhat more

rapidly than a conservative law allows. The more serious attacks

on Huropean officers have been made on them, not because they are

Christians, but because they have not taken a view sufficiently

favourable to the Moplahs in questions between them and the Hindu

landlords.

They are a sturdy and independent as well as an intelligent and

educated race, and though they make, I believe, capital public servants

when they enter our service, they do not much seek it, and circum-

stances seem to have rendered them somewhat apart and over-indepen-

dent. here is perhaps less intercourse and friendly feeling than is

desirable between the governors and the governed. Still the Moplahs

are an ethnological fact, and a strong and rapidly progressing fact ;

we can’t get rid of them, and we must try to guide their energy in

the right direction. After all, their outbreaks have been those of

a very few individuals, and have only been serious on account of their

extreme pluck and energy, with which only European soldiers can cope.

140 The Ethnology of India.

MIxED AND IMMIGRANT RACES oN THE Bombay Coast.

The Mahommedan Borahs, with equal mercantile energy, are a

pleasant contrast to the Moplahs in their quiet demeanour and ready

acceptance of British rule. They seem to be of the sect of Ismaleahs or

Assassins, who are supposed to hold murder among their tenets; but

the Borahs are very mild, peaceable, shop-keeping assassins indeed.

I believe that the name is that of the Hindu mercantile Borahs, but

there is an evident infusion of immigrant blood, which probably came

in together with their religion. It is probable that they are a cross

between immigrants from the Persian Gulf and Hindu Borahs.

Whether called Gulf-Arabs or Persians, the popnlation of the coun-

tries at the Northern end of the Gulf is evidently more Persian than

Arab, and there also seems to be a chief seat of the Ismaleah sect.

The Borahs seem to some extent to cultivate and hold land, but their

proper avocation is trade; and a most useful and prosperous race they

are. They are very numerous in Bombay, and thence west and north-

west; they have a large proportion of the trade of Western India, and

form an important class in all the large towns up to about the centre

of India. Boorhanpore is, I believe, the ‘city of the Borahs” to

which they attach peculiar importance, and where they desire to lay

their bones; and they are found in Ellichpore, Nagpore, Indore,

Nusseerabad, and many other places in those directions. They are

generally a fair good looking people, and deal largely in all sorts cf

Kurope and foreign goods.

The Parsees are so well-known that I need say little of them.

They must form altogether a considerable population in the west of

India, comprising many humble members in service, &c. as well as

merchants. They are, I think, in feature, in the main, of a high-Arian

type, somewhat intermixed perhaps after a very long residence in

India, and somewhat blunted and thickened as compared to the sharper

and more chiselled northern faces; but still there is generally the

prominence of feature which we might expect from an extraction

originally Persian.

I believe that there are some black Jews on the Western Coast,

but the comparatively recent Jew settlers somewhat numerous about

Bombay, and who form a considerable community in Calcutta, are one

The Ethnology of India. 141

of the most striking and, I think I may say, handsome of all races.

A remarkably showy oriental dress, setting off a complexion almost

European, no doubt goes for something ; but still the people themselves

are very remarkable. Far from the dingy old-clo’ looking complexion

which we are apt to associate with European Jews, their complexion

is the most bright and transparent looking to be seen anywhere, and

the blood seems quite to over-master the faint tinge of olive in their

skins. The features are large and prominent, almost to excess, and

their forms tall and goodly. I believe that these people are all

connected with the Persian Gulf, and that they derive their blood

from thence. After Mr. Palgrave’s description of the true Arab

physique, one may well believe that their traits are really rather

Persian than Semitic.

Tuer ScInDEEs.

T have already noticed the people of Upper Scinde. The people

and language properly called ‘Scindee’ are almost confined to the

lower part of the Province, andI have reserved them to be classed

among the Borderers, because they are not altogether an extension of

any of the Indian Arians of whom I have treated, but a composite

race largely influenced by other elements. The Arabs seem to have

conquered Scinde some centuries before India at large was overrun

by Mahomedans of other races; and at this day there is both much

Arabic in the Scindee language, and probably a good deal of Arab

blood in the Scindee people. There is also probably some Persian, some

Hindu, and perhaps some aboriginal Koolee blood. In short both

the people and the language are altogether composite. The amal-

gamation does not seem to have had the good industrial result shown

in the Moplahs and Borahs. The Scindees are described as well

grown and rolust, but dark in skin, debased in morals, and idle. The

Delta and the country of the Lower Indus seem to be very ill and

insufficiently cultivated ; and the people are given to hunting, fishing,

and pastoral pursuits quite as much as to cultivation.

Tur BeLocuess.

IT have not alluded to the Belochees as an element in making up the

Scindees, because it would seem as if the Belochees themselves were a

142 The Ethnology of India.

composite people, made up of the blood of Persians and Arabs, and

I don’t know what besides. However, if that is so, it is not now a

mere mixture, but a chemical union of the elements thrown together,

and the Belochees, if their language is composite, are still now a

people of distinct traits and nationality. They acquired, as is well-

known, at a comparatively recent time the dominion of Scinde, and

they are pretty well-known as settlers in the North-West of India, say

to about as far as Dehli; but they have there none of the dignity and

station of the Pathan settlers. I dare say there are decent cultivators

among them ; but they are more often camel-drivers and such like, and

they have not a good name, being generally supposed to have consider-

able robber and cut-throat proclivities. I don’t think they have any

villages of their own; they are generally only scattered about in the

capacities which I have mentioned. They are fine powerful men,

but rather dark. Those whom I have seen of the families of the

Ameers of Scinde are fair and good looking, but even in Belochistan

I believe it may be said of the Belochees generally, that they are a

good deal darker than the Pathans. They are similarly arranged in

tribes, and are similarly predatory upon the border; but I understand

that they are a good deal less democratic in their constitution, and

more amenable to the authority of their chiefs than the Pathans.

This too may make them preferable as mercenary soldiers. It is

somewhat curious that, while in the west of India Arabs are en-

tertained in that capacity, on the Coasts of Arabia itself and of

Africa, Belochees are the people so employed by the chiefs. They are

in fact the Swiss of those parts.

I have alluded before to the Brahooes, and as I believe that they

are not known as residents within Indian limits, I need not recur to

them.

Tor AFGHANS oR PATHANs.

T have included the Indian Pathans among modern Indian tribes,

and have sometimes called the Pathans proper ‘‘ Afghans,” to distin-

guish them, and in deference to English habit. But among the people

themselves, the name Afghan is hardly known.

Physically these people are among the very finest on the earth.

And they haye a pleasant, frank, simple, unaffected way, that makes

The Ethnology of India. 148

a man at once feel, when he gets among them, that he is out of India.

A BHuropean will really more amalgamate with a Pathan in a week than

with a thorough Indian in seven years.

The Pathans are decidedly high-Arian in feature; and if their

features are less universally very high and chiselled than those seen in

the northern hills, they have on the other hand more of a broad, robust,

ruddly, manly look, and the people are in fact a hardier and bolder

people. About Cabul they are fair, but some of the tribes in the

lower and hotter hills and valleys adjoining India have somewhat

dark skins. ough, simple, and frank as these people generally look,

they are in fact by no means simple. I believe that some of the

more isolated tribes, Wazeerees, &c., have more simple virtue, but the

great majority of the Afghans, partly probably by nature and more

in consequence of long dealing with many nations (holding as they

do the portals of India), have the reputation of being a very astute,

intrigruing, ambitious, avaricious, and crafty people. Great allowance

must, however, he made for their situation and temptations. One

cannot but feel that so energetic and fine a race, living in a country

so poor, but the highway of so many nations, must of necessity learn

to live a good deal on their neighbours. I am told by officers on the

frontier, that in point of bold unblushing lying, a Hindu is a mere

child to a Pathan. I suppose this habit comes from long living by

their wits. The character of faithfulness, however, is in the main

injurious to the Pathans. They are distrusted as mercenaries. It is

felt that if they are always ready to do any work when it is made

worth their while, they are also people of a calculating disposition,

who are very likely to turn, when the advantages preponderate in

favour of another policy; ag the Persians found to their cost in the

last century, when they too much availed: themselves of the services

of the Afghans. At present they are very popular in our native

army, and certainly make capital soldiers. But they are fickle and

uncertain, and seldom serve long without a break. A man gets a

message to say that it is absolutely necessary that he should come

home and murder his uncle, and off he goes with or without leave.

They come back, however. It is a thing to be understood that the

Ameer of Cabul pretends to no authority whatever over the Hastern

Aighan tribes. They are avowedly politically quite independent,

id4 The Ethnology of India.

while in one sense, without our attempting to interfere in their internal

affairs (that they will not permit for an instant), they are becoming

more and more our military retainers. A very large number of them

pass though our service, and a steady income is derived from it.

The Pathans south and south-west of Peshawar are pure and

rough, but the Kusofzies and tribes to the north seem to differ con-

siderably in character. In fact, as I have before mentioned, the Pathans

are comparatively recent conquerors and colonists of the northern hills

and valleys. They have there mixed much with people of an Indian

type, pre-Hindu it may be, but probably the ancestors of Hindus.

These people have not the Hindu caste which, for the most part, pre-

vents amalgamation on the part of the Khatrees, and I think there

can be little doubt that their blood has much influenced the

character of the Husofzye clans. The purer Afghans are extremely

illiterate, and the very opposite of bigots in matters of religion.

The Husofzies are perhaps all the fairer and handsomer for the inter-

mixture of blood; they are also more civilised in their manners and

much more literary. And they have imbibed very much of that

veneration, that religious capacity, which distinguishes the oldest

Indian branch of Arians. Mahomedans as they are, they really

seem to have some religious zeal, and they are very much priest-

ridden. In fact the Akhoond of Swat and other priests have, to

some extent, induced the tribes to submit to a certain and partial

religious government, if it can be called by that name. The priests

seem to have considerable grantsof land, and at any rate succeed in

levying a regular tithe from the landholders and cultivators, whose

differences they settle as far as they can. It is among these people

that discontented Mahomedan immigrants from Hindustan have

found some sort of shelter. It should be understood that intermix-

ture has not destroyed the military qualities of the Husofzies

themselves. With an inferior population at home to cultivate their

fields, they are amongst the most notable Pathan soldiers who have

pushed their fortunes in India.

The proper Afghan constitution is democratic in the extreme, so

much so that any sort of government on a large scale is almost im-

possible, and the Ameer’s authority is confined to a few open valleys

(for the most part cultivated by inferior races) and to a very uncertain

The Ethnology of India. 145

feudal chiefship over the western clans. They have their regular

system of democratic representation and self-government by the

assemblies of Jeergahs and Qolooses; but like mest rude people so

situated, no man’s nationality goes beyond his own clan (Gust as in

civilised Greece, it did not go beyond his ‘own city), and within the

clan order is very insufficiently maintained. Afghan individuality in

very irrepressible.

A considerable population of proper Pathans are now our subjects

in the districts of Peshawar and Kohat, and it would be very

interesting to examine critically, how. far their constitution is really

different from that of the Jats and other democratic Indian tribes.

Tt is generally said that as a people they are very different, and non-

Indians must be very different from Indians. The language too

shows that, Arian though they be, the Pathans are a branch separated

by a wide interval. But still I have not been able to discover by

cursory inquiry that their constitution is other than that of the more

democratic Indo-Germans. [I rather incline to think that*they are

probably of the same stock as the Jats and other tribes, but of a common

ancestry, long anterior to the entrance of the latter into India. It

may be that while some tribes poured into India, others have been

eradually working their way though the hills, dispossessing the

Khatrees and Khasas and more eborsina) Caucasians who held what

is now modern Afghanistan.

Tou ABoricginAL ARIANS oF THE INDIAN Caucasus.

{ have lately called attention to our ignorance of these most

interesting people, probably the remains of the pre-Hindu ancestors

of the earliest Hindus. Of the Kaffirs of the most inaccessible

portions of the range, between the Kashgar river and Bameean, we

have heard a great deal, but learned almost nothing. They are

thought to be related to Huropeans, because they sit on chairs and

drink wine copiously. They must be a sturdy race, to have maintained

their independence so long. All the other tribes seem to be more or

less Mahomedans. “There are the “ Neemchahs” or half breeds on

the southern slepe of the Caucasus, between the Afghans and the

higher peaks, speaking a language with a strong affinity to the Indian

tongues, and which also seems to present some curious affinities to

146 The Ethnology of India.

the Latin. In the lower country near the debouchure of the Kashgar

river, the people speak a mixed language called ‘‘Laghmanee.” In

the upper valley of that river, the name Kashgar seems to mark the

trace of early Khasas.

The ancient language of Swat seems to have disappeared, and the

country is now Pathan, with a subject race of aboriginal blood, that

is pure Arian aborigines. But farther north, in the valleys of the

Ghilghit river, running into the Indus from the West, we have an

Arian people speaking a language of their own, which is cognate to the

tongue of the tribes east of the, Indus in and about the country called

“ Chilas.’’ Some of these latter are independent and scarcely known, but

most of this country, and also Ghilgit, is now subject to the Maharajah

of Cashmere. The “ Dards’ seem to be among these tribes.

Tt may be asserted of all these Caucasian tribes (excepting the

Kaffirs of whom we know so little) that, while they are physically -

as handsome and fine as possible, they are not so democratic and

sturdy ia independence as the Afghans. We know very well what

an undertaking it is to subdue, still more to rule, an Afghan tribe in

their own country. But the Aighans have certainly subdued many

of these Caucasians. The Maharajah of Cashmere has conquered

and governs many more. Those in contact with our own frontier

are quiet and not troublesome. And in Kashgar it is understood that

the people submit to their rulers, in a way which Afghans will never

suffer. Altogether it may be assumed that this race is less indepen-

dent (though it may be more intellectual) than the democratic races ;

more amenable to Rajas and Priests, and altogether just such a people

as we might expect to give birth to Khasas and early Braminical

Hindus. Living in countries most. favourable to the Vine they seem

to be generally given to the use of wine. Whether the use of chairs

extends beyond Kaffiristan I cannot say. We have in fact everything

to learn about these people and their languages,

Tur NortHern BorpDERERS OF MIXED TarvaR or T'HIBETAN BLOOD.

The Mongolians and Arians seem to cross well. Most of the tribes

falling under this heading are physically vigorous and industriously

energetic.

The Ethnology of India. 147

I have before alluded to the Hazarahs beyond Cabul and Ghuznee,

who come down to Peshawar and the Punjab for labour. This name

“‘Hazarah” has no connection with that of the Cis-Indus district

so called from a town of that name. These Hazarahs are Persian in

speech, Sheeah in religion, and decidedly Mongol in feature, charac-

teristics, which would seem to tally with the story of their having

been a body of slaves in the train of some Mahomedan conqueror;

but whether this is really historical, I cannot say. They are very

- independent and industrious, decidedly a good race.

The people of Ghilgit are the farthest Arians of the country whence

the Indus flows. ‘To the north the people are of Turkish race, and in

the valley of the Indus above the junction with the Ghilgit river are

the Bultees of Iskardo, &c. The language of the Bultees is decidedly

Thibetan, and their features show a large proportion of the blood of that

“race. Some of it may be, as they say, that of Alexander, for anything I

know to the contrary; but we should hardly have heard of it, if they

had not been Mahomedans. They are Sheeahs, as are several tribes in

those higher countries, a circumstance which has not been explained.

They seem to be a good, stout, quiet race. The Maharajah of

Cashmere (who rules the country) has enlisted many ef them inte

his service, apparently with advantage.

In the upper valleys of the Sutlej, in Spiti, Hemiawen &e. there are

mixed races exhibiting much Thibetan blood, and apparently more

Buddhist than Hindu in religion. A very Thibetan-looking colony

used to be settled at Mahasoo just beyond Simla, and people of that

race did much of the heavier work, carrying wood on their backs.

They are powerful, gaddy-looking people, and as entirely unlike

Indians as anything one can imagine. The women especially are

remarkably fine females in an industrial sense; but in other respects,

whatever they may be from a Turanian point of view, they are not

likely to be dangerous to the Arian visitors to the sanatarium.

From this point for many hundred miles to the east, all the passes,

the very crests and ceytres ef the passes through the snowy range, are

occupied by a peculiar tribe who almost monopolise the trade across,

principally carried on upon the backs of sheep. They also cultivate

some land. They are known as the ‘‘ Bhooteas,”’ but that is so wide

a word (in fact identical with Thibetan) that it is little guide to us.

148 The Ethnology of India.

I believe that there are some very curious tribes m valleys wear

and immediately beyond the snows, but I have not the means of

specifying them.

As respects the Himalayas generally, the following may, I think, be

said. From Cashmere eastwards, all the easily accessible portions of

the Himalayas are occupied by perfectly Arian Hindus, as: far as the

eastern border of Kumaon and the Kalee river, separating that Pro-

vince from the Nepal dominions; the Thibetans being here confined to

the valleys about and beyond the snow. Throughout the whole

length of Nepal again people of Thibetan blood have partially flooded

over into the Nepal country, have there met and intermixed with

other races, and. have formed mixed tribes who appear to be generally

(the proper Goorkhas perhaps excepted) more Thibetan than Indian

in physiognomy and speech, but are or affect to be more Indian than

Thibetan in religion and manners, doubtless under the influence of ~

the dominant “ Khas.” East of Nepal, in Sikkim and Bhootan,

Mhibetans are altegether dominant, and the Hindu element almost

disappears. The soldiers whom we erroneously call ‘ real Goorkhas’

are mostly of the Gurang and Magar tribes of western Nepal. Their

features are ultra-Mongohan, but they are small, whereas the Thibe-

tans are generally large. Of their pluck and energy there can be neo-

doubt. At the Simla Government School, the children from a

Goorkha Regiment were found at least to equal, in fact rather to beat

the Hindus. They themselves affect to be Hindus, and stoutly

deny being Buddhists, though they are free from most disagreeable

Hindu prejudices. The Newars, the cultivating peasantry of the

valley of Nepal, are stated to have Thibetan loeking features, with a

fair and ruddly complexion. Both their language and that of the

Gurangs and Magars seem to be in the main Thibetan, at least in

the fundamental numerals, pronouns, &e. Stilk more is it so as

regards the languages of the tribes farther east, Kerantis, Murmis,

and others, of whom I know little.

The Lepchas of Sikkim and Lopas of Bhopgtan are unmitigated

Buddhist Thibetans. There seem to be several tribes of ‘ Rong,”

“ Khampas” or Kambas, and Limboos, who come from different parts:

of Thibet, and there are some differences of language. The Lepcha

tribes are described as a dirty, good-natured people, in character said

The Ethnology of India. 149

to be something like the Mongols from beyond the Chinese wall, as

described in recent accounts. The Lopas, &c. of Bhootan seem to

be more difficult to deal with. Farther east are, I believe, still wilder

Thibetan tribes. All these people are idle, but very powerful; and

when they do work, they carry enormous loads, both men and women.

They are said to carry up to Darjeeling as much as 250 lbs. in a

single load. And at some of the Hill Stations on the Hastern

Frontiers of Bengal, I understand it is the fashion that a European

visitor is carried up the hill in a basket on the back of an old woman.

TuE PEOPLE oF THE HastERN FRONTIER.

The people of the very lowest hills of Bhootan and of all the low

country at their foot are of another race, the Meches or Mechis (before

alluded to in marking the boundaries of the Indian Aborigines), who

~ are apparently the same as Hodgson’s “‘ Bodo.”” They are, it appears,

now quite ascertained by their language to be Indo-Chinese of the

Lohitic or Burmese branch of the Turanian family, a connexion

which their physiognomy confirms. They seem to be a good-sized,

fair, but rather yellow-looking people. They are described as rude

in their agriculture (using the hoe, not the plongh), and erratic in

their habits, but good-natured and tolerably industrious. They pro-

fess a kind of debased Hinduism, but are very omnivorous in their

habits. The Dimals are a smaller ‘but somewhat similar tribe,

speaking a language which in some degree differs.

Passing over the Garrow and Cossya Hills to Cachar, the Cachar

people again are of the same race as the Mechis. So, it would appear

(so far as I can gather), are the Nagas, Abors, and some other tribes

in the hills bordering on Assam. There are aboriginal tribes of

Tipperah and Munneepore, but of their ethnology I am not informed.

In the Cossya hills are an isolated body of people of the Taic or

Siamese race. Of this race were the Ahoms who once ruled Assam,

as are, it appears, the Khamtis and some other tribes of the more

distant hills of that Province; also the Shan tribes of the Burmese

interior. The Karens are, I rather think, Lohitic. It is evident,

however, that on this Eastern Frontier I have got into a vast

ethnological region, with which I have no personal acquaintance, and

with which I cannot deal farther than to point out the vast field for

150 The Ethnology of India.

inquiry, and to suggest how great a service any one would render, who

would briefly classify and describe these tribes. There are endless

distinet tribes, even the names of which I do not attempt to give.

EEO?

POSTSCRIPT.

When this paper had nearly passed through the Press, Colonel

Dalton’s paper on the Kols (to the want of which I have alluded) was

received in the office of the Society, and it will be printed along

with this. Ihave only had an opportunity of hastily glancing at it,

but have seen enough to be sure that it will admirably fill up just

what was wanting in regard to our knowledge of the aboriginal

tribes, and will be read with extreme interest. The two papers, thus

published together, having been written without concert, may be found

to express or assume different opinions on some points; but I hope

that the general result of Colonel Dalton’s paper will tend rather to

confirm than to contradict most of that which I have written. In

regard to the general Negrito character of the Dravidian tribes he

fully bears me out. «At the same time he seems to point to a consi-

derable difference in the type of the Moondahs, Hos, Sontals, and

others speaking the language which I have called Kolarian. He

seems in some degree to support Major Tickell’s account of the supe-

rior physical qualities of the Hos, but he also tells us that other

tribes of this race are much more degraded and less good looking.

Tn fact, the principal tribes of the race, the Moondahs and Sontals, are

now extremely well known, and it is patent to all that they are

among the ugliest of mankind. The Sontals are*a proverb for a

combination of simple good nature and ugliness. Still, I quite admit

that most of these people are less black and Negrito-looking than the

Savage Dravidian tribes. I think I have already suggested, and I

am inclined to repeat, that they look in some respects more like

Hottentots than Negroes. It is very much to be desired that a more

complete study of their language should in some degree break

through the complete isolation which has been hitherto attributed to

it. It seems to have no affinity to the more Eastern tongues so far as

has yet been discovered.

The Ethnology of India. 151

‘T have been struck by those parts of Colonel Dalton’s description,

which would seem to show, among the more civilised of these tribes,

some institutions akin to those of the modern Hindoos. Not only

does it appear that the Kolarian tribes burn their dead, but also I

notice that the systematic division of their tribes is very similar. to

that which I have described among the Hindoos, and especially that

they have the peculiar rule which forbids intermarriage among people

of the same tribe, and imposes on every man the necessity of taking

his wife from another tribe. The question will be, whether the prac-

tices common to Kolarians and Hindoos are borrowed by Kolarians

from Hindoos, or by Hindoos from Kolarians. Many interesting sub-

jects of inquiry may be opened out.

Colonel Dalton’s account of the tenacity with which some of the

tribes cling to their ancient rights in the soil, seems somewhat at

variance with the information which I had noted respecting their

ready emigration. That many of them do emigrate, is certain ; but

perhaps my information has reference to the Dravidians and less

settled tribes,

Colonel Dalton in one place speaks of the Kolarian Hos as more

dignified and more like North American Indians, and the Dravidian

Oraons as more like light-hearted Negroes; but in other places he

seems rather to confirm my suggestion that the Kolarian Sontals and

Moondahs are an especially light-hearted race, and the Dravidians less

so; the Dravidian Oraons having, he says, learned their songs and

dances from the Moondahs and other Kolarians among whom they

have settled. Certainly the flat and broad-faced Sontals and Moon-

dahs seem to bear no resemblance to the North American style of

feature. ;

Colonel Dalton more than confirms what I have said in regard to

the increase of numbers of the Kolarian tribes of the Chota-Nagpore

division. He tells us that, notwithstanding their tendency to drink,

they increase rapidly. He evidently takes a most favourable view of

them, and I think it impossible to doubt that we have in these tribes,

in a healthy and accessible country in the immediate vicinity of the

Capital of India, a people whom it behoves us to cherish and utilise—

a people comparatively free from the peculiar vices of the modern

Indians, simple, truthful and ready to receive our religion and the

152 The Ethnology of India.

impress of our manners——possessed moreover of much industrial

energy, laboriousness, and ductibility. To make such a people tho-

roughly our own—to render the central and healthy plateau occupied

by them a completely Christian and Anglicised country, would be

(higher considerations apart) a very great source of strength and

comfort to the English in India. I think that every effort should be

made in this direction.

Colonel Dalton has sent with his paper a grammar of the Oraon

language by the Rev. Mr. Batsch. This is a Dravidian tongue. The

Rev. Mr. Phillips has published a grammar and introduction to the

Sontal language, but he has put it in the Bengallee character, some-

what unfortunately, as I think—for although I have not advocated the

Romanising of the written vernacular languages, I should prefer to

give to the Kolarian tribes, hitherto entirely without a written cha-

racter, our own Roman letters, rather than those of the foreign and

hated Bengallee. Since then Mr. Phillips’s work is not available for

my present purpose, I propose to re-publish, for comparison with Mr.

Batsch’s Oraon grammar, the brief grammar of the Kolarian “ Ho”

language, published by Major. Tickell in an old number of the So-

ciety’s Journal. I hope then, by placing, as appendices to the present

publication, vocabularies of test words both Arian and Aboriginal

Gncluding in the latter both Dravidian, Kolarian and Indo-Chinese

dialects), and the sketches of Dravidian and Kolarian grammar, to

supply the rough elements for a comparison of all the dialects of

india. And I trust that if a beginning is thus made, we may here-

after obtain much information, more full, ample, and complete.

eee

The * Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. | 153

The “‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.—By Lt.-Col. BK. T. Daron, Commis-

stoner of Chota-Nagpore.

[Received 27th July, 1866.]

The country called Chota (or properly Chuttia) Nagpore is the

eastern portion of the extensive plateau of Central India on which are

the sources of the Koel, the Soobunreka, the Damoodah and other

less known Indian rivers. It extends into Sirgoojah and forms what is

called the Oopur Ghat or highland of Juspore, and it is connected by

a continuous chain of hills with the Vindhyan and Kymore ranges,

from which flow affluents of the Ganges, and with the highlands of

Omerkuntuck on which are the sources of the Nurbudda. That the

population of this watershed is found to be, for the most part, a hetero-

geneous collection of non-Arian tribes, is in itself a fair proof that these

tribes were at one time the inhabitants of the plains who, driven from

their original sites at different periods by Braminical invaders, gra-

dually fell back, following converging lines of rivers in their retreat,

till from different directions, nations, some bearing marks of common

origin though separated for ages, others bearing no trace of such

affinity, met at the sources of the streams, and formed new nationali-

ties in the secure asylum they found there.

The plateau averages more than 2,000 feet above the sea level ; it

is on all sides somewhat difficult of access, and it is owing to the

security thus given, that the primitive tribes, still found on it, retained

for ages so much of their independence and idiosyncracy. After over-

coming the,difficulties of the approach, these first settlers must have

rejoiced at finding they had not merely reached the summit of a

range of hills, but had ascended to a new country, well suited to their

wants and out of reach of their enemies; and here they made their

final stand.

They found a genial climate at this elevation and a well-wooded un-

dulating country, divided and diversified by interior ranges of hills

uplifting the fertilizing streams, or breaking out in rocky excrescences,

sometimes in vast semi-globular masses of granite, like sunken domes

of gigantic temples, sometimes in huge fragments piled in most fan-

154 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore:

tastic forms, viewed with awe by the new settlers as the dwelling

places of the local gods.

The total area of the plateau thus occupied is about 7,000 square

miles, and the present population may be estimated at a million ; more

than half of whom are of the race best known to us by the name of

“ Kol.”

This word is one of the epithets of abuse applied by the Brammi-

cal races to the aborigines of the country who opposed their early

settlement, and it has adhered to the primitive inhabitants of Chota

Nagpore for ages. It includes many tribes; the people of this pro-

vince to whom it is generally applied, are either Moondah or Oraon ;

and though these races are now found in many parts of the country

occupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields, celebrating

together the same festivals, and enjoying the same amusements, they are

of totally distinct origin and cannot intermarry without loss of caste.

The received tradition is, that the Moondahs first occupied the

country, and had been long settled there, when the Oraons made their

appearance. ‘The Moondahs believe themselves to be autochthonous,

or at all events declare that they are all descended from one man and

woman, who were produced or established themselves, at a place called

Satyomba, which is revered by the whole tribe as the cradle of the

race.

Satyomba is the name of a pergunnah on the edge of the plateau

overlooking the valley of the Damoodah. It is not improbable that

the Moondah race had previously occupied a position on that river,

and that, in departing from it, the division took place which separated

them from their brethren the Sonthals. The Sonthals, unquestion-

ably a branch of the same people, have to this day a veneration for the

Damoodah, and call it their sea ; and the ashes of their dead are always

preserved tillthey havethe opportunity of disposing of them by throwing

them into that stream or burying them near its banks. The Sonthals,

remaining in the plains, had easy access to the river and retained their

veneration for it. The Moondahs, settling on the highlands, were

less faithful to it, but from its name they might claim it as their

own ; for, though Damoodur has been adopted as one of the sacred

names of “ Krishno,” does not Dah-Moondah in their own language

mean ‘‘the water of the Moondah ?”

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 155

We find the Moondah settlements chiefly in the eastern and

southern parts of Chota-Nagpore, the Oraons predominating in the

western; and this strengthens the hypothesis that the Moondahs ascend-

ed from the eastern side of the plateau. |

: The intimate connection between the Sonthals, the Bhoomij and

the Chota-Nagpore Moondah tribes has long been known. I have

pointed out their affinity with the Korewahs of Sirgoojah and

Juspoor, and have given some account of that wild clan.* Ihave

now to add to the list the “ Kheriahs,” another aboriginal tribe

settled on the plateau of Chota-Nagpore, and the ‘‘Jwangas’”’ of

the Cuttack tributary mehals, whose women are so conservative in

their notions, that they still adhere to the fashion in dress first

introduced by mother Eve and wear nothing but leaves. I had

often met with individuals and families of the Kheriah tribe, living

in mixed communities, but from contact with other races they

had lost much of their individuality, and I found it difficult to place

them.

This year, I happened to come upon some of their principal settle-

ments in pergunnah Bussiah, on the southern borders of the portion

of the plateau occupied by the Moondahs, and collected round me the

elders of the tribe. These settlem@nts all lie near the Koel, one of the

streams from the watershed of Chota-Nagpore, which, after its union

with the Sunkh in Gangpore, becomes the Bramni and terminates

its career at Point Palmyras.

The Kheriahs venerate the Koel as the Sonthals the Damoodah.

They were in all probability once settled on its banks in the low-

lands, and clinging to it in their retreat and adopting the place of

refuge that it led to, regard it still as communicating with their

fatherland, and with this idea the urns containing the ashes: of their

dead are dashed into a rock-broken rapid of the river, so that their

contents may be rapidly borne away by the current to mingle with

the ashes of their forefathers.

They say their first settlement was Pora, a village on the Koel, and

that there were no Moondahs in the country,.at least in that part of

it, when their ancestors first came there. There is sufficient resem-

blance between the Kheriahs and Moondahs in language and customs:

* As, Soc, Journal, Vol, XXXIV. p. 1.

156 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

and appearance, to make us certain of their consanguinity, and at the

same time sufficient divergence to lead to the mference that the

relationship is a remote one, and that the two branches of the family

had been long separated when they met again on the banks of the

Koel. These points of resemblance and divergence I will describe,

when treating of the manners and customs of the race generally.

The Juangas or Puttoons (leaf-clad) are noticed in a paper by

Mr. EK. A. Samuells.* They are found in the Cuttack tributary

mehals of Keonjur, Pal Lehra, Dhekenal and Hindole. They are

thus isolated from all other branches of the Moondah family, and

have not themselves the least notion of their connection with them ;

but their language, a specimen of which is given in the table

appended, shews they are of the same race, and that their nearest

kinsmen are the Kheriahs, a fragment of the tribe left behind when

the remainder ascended the valley of the Koel. The Hos of Sing-

bhoom have a tradition that they once wore leaves only, and not

long ago threatened to revert to them, unless eloth-sellers lowered

their prices !

The Bhoomij form the majority of the population in all the estates

of the Manbhoom district to the south of the Kassae river. As they

approach the confines of Chota-Nggpore, they appear to be called

indiscriminately Moondahs or Bhoomij, and they intermarry. More

to the east the Bhoomij have become Hindooized, or rather Ben-

galeeized, toa great extent, and many of them have acquired consider-

able estates, like the Mankees of Chota-Nagpore, and positions of

influence as “ Sirdar Ghatwalls,” the hereditary custodians of the

passes.

The characteristics of the tribe that they most tenaciously cling to,

are the national dances and songs. The Bhoomij appear to have

been the first to colonise the large pergunnah called Dhulbhoom or

Ghatsillah, attached to the Singbhoom district. The Rajah or

Zemindar is, in all probability, himself a Bhoomij by race, though

(without thereby improving his pedigree, so far as I can see) he

endeavours to conceal his extraction under one of those hazy traditions

that Bramins always have ready for families in want of them. His

ancestor, according to their version, was a washerman, a Dhoby who

* As, Soc, Journal, Vol. XXYV, p. 295, 1856,

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. tae

saved the goddess Kali when, as Runkini, she ran away from Pochete.

‘Discredit has attached to the Bhoomij and Sonthal in consequence of

the human sacrifices offered at this shrine of Runkini, but the whole

establishment and ritual are essentially Braminical. The Bhoomyj

and Sonthal races personally do not much care for the blood-thirsty

goddess. The Bhoomij is the branch of the Moondah race that has

spread farthest in an eastern direction. Bhoomij are to be found in

Mohurbhunj and Keonjur, though perhaps not so much at home there

as in Dhulbhoom.

The Sonthals are now chiefly massed in the Sonthal Pergunnahs,

but they muster strong in Mohurbhunj, and there are several colonies

of them in the Singbhoom district. They are an erratic race, and

their ancient traditions are lost in the history of their modern migra-

tions; but my idea is that their chief settlements in Bengal were once

on the Damoodah river, and that they gave way to the Koormees, an

industrious Hindoo race, who now form the bulk of the population in

that part of Manbhoom.

In a southerly direction the next tribe of “ Dasyus” that we come

across are the Khunds, but I am unable to trace any point of regsem-

blance between them and the Moondah, either in their religion with

its morbid superstitions and horrible human sacrifices, or in their

language.

To trace the further ramifications of the Moondahs we must proceed

west, not south, and take up the link in the hills and highest table-

lands of Sirgoojah and Juspore, where we find the wildest of the race

in the Korewahs. Ihave given a brief note on them in the paper

above quoted, and have only to_add that the Korewahs are quite

unaware of the connectionship between themselves and the Kols.

They do not acknowledge, and do not see, that the languages are almost

identical. This would not, I conceive, have been the case if the

Korewahs had broken off from their Satyomba kinsfolk.

The Korewahs are another branch of the family, and the history

of their migrations is no doubt an independent one. It is probable

that they were forced back into the hills they now occupy by the

Gooands, as a Hindooized clan of that people became the dominant

race in the plains of Sirgoojah. Moreover, as pointed out by

Mr, G, Campbell, at a late meeting of the Society, we have in

158 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

this Journal* a brief notice of a tribe called “ Coour Gooand,” and

a vocabulary which proves them to be not Gooand at all, but

another branch of the great family we are describing, occupying the

Gavilghur range of hills near Ellichpore. Dr. Latham mentions

in connection with them another tribe which he calls Chunah, but I

have no further information about them. If the investigation is

carried out, we shall, no doubt, find connecting links in the intervening

ranges of hills.

Thus we have in the Coours of Ellichpoor, the Korewahs of

Sirgoojah and Juspore, the Moondahs and the Kheriahs of Chota-

Nagpore, the Hos of Singbhoom, the Bhoomij of Manbhoom and

Dhulbhoom, and the Sonthals of Manbhoom, Singbhoom, Cuttack,

tributary mehals, Hazareebagh and the Sonthal Pergunnahs (the author

of the introduction to the Sonthal lauguage, the Rev. J. Phillips,

adds ‘‘Nakales and Kodas,” I do not know where they are to be

found,) a kindred people sufficiently numerous, if united, to form

a nation of several millions of souls. They were, in all probability,

one of the tribes that were most persistent in their hostility to

the Arian invaders, and thus earned for themselves the epithets oi

“‘ worshippers of mad gods,” ‘haters of Bramins,” ‘ ferocious

0 66

lookers,” “‘ inhuman,” “‘ flesh-eaters,” “ devourers of life,” ‘‘ possessed

” “ changing their shape at will.”+ To this day,

of magical powers,

the Arians settled in Chota-Nagpore and Singbhoom firmly believe

that the Moondahs have powers as wizards and witches, and can

transform themselves into tigers and other beasts of prey, with the

view of devouring their enemies, and that they can witch away the

lives of man and beast. It is to the wildest and most savage of the

tribe that such powers are generally ascribed ; and amongst the Kols

themselves the belief in the magic powers of their brethren is so

strong, that I have heard converts to Christianity assert they were

first induced to turn to our religion, because sorcery had apparently

no power over those who were baptized! The upper classes of the

Moondahs, those who aspire to be Zemindars, have assumed. the

“* noita”’ and taken to Bramins and Kali, but the mass of the people

adore their “‘ mad gods” still, after their own primitive fashion. The

great propitiatory sacrifices to the local deities or devils are carousals

# As, Soc. Journal, Vol. XIII. p. 19. + See Muir's Sanserit texts.

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 159

at which they eat, drink, sing, dance and make love, but though the

austere “munis” of old must have stood aghast at such wild ebulli-

tions of devotion, it is a fact that whilst the mass of the Kols have

not taken to the worship of any Hindoo idols, the Hindoos settled

in the province think it expedient to propitiate the gods of the

Kols. It is gratifying that the darkness in which this primitive and

interesting people have so long dwelt, is now being dispelled by a

_ brighter light: that their paganism is at length yielding to the

gentle influence of Christian teaching ; that there is abroad amongst

them a widespread feeling that a change is necessary, a change more

perfect than can be typified by the adoption of a ‘ pouta.”’

As the Moondahs first settled at Satyomba spread over the country,

they formed themselves into communities called Purhas, or the country

was divided into Purhas, each consisting of twelve or more villages

under a chief. They do not appear in their earlier days to have

acknowledged any chief, superior to the head of the Purha; the

ordinary business of the community was conducted by him, and on

extraordinary occasions, the Purha chiefs met and took counsel together.

Vestiges of this ancient system are still’ et with in many parts

of the country. Though ignored’ __ graphical or fiscal or territorial

divisions, the Purhas still exist in the eyes of the people, and they

still have chiefs whom they call Rajahs, men of influence and weight,

who preside when a meeting is called to adjudicate regarding breaches

of social observances, and who take the lead on the great hunting

expeditions and national festivals.

It is said that the Moondahs were in a very wild state, occupying

but a small portion of the plateau, when the Oraons, driven from the

Rhotas hills, swarmed into the country, and sought and obtained

permission to occupy it jointly with the Moondahs. Both Moondahs

and Oraons declare there was on this occasion no fighting. The

former were glad to obtain assistance in reclaiming the country they

had adopted, and the Oraons are said to have come with large herds

of cattle and implements of husbandry previously unknown to the

Moondahs.

It is probable that the Moondahs of those days were not more

advanced than are to this day their brethren, the hill Korewahs of

Sirgoojah, a tribe that know not the use of the plough: but they

160 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

were great hunters, and could sing and dance and make merry. The

Oraon youth and maidens speedily acquired the songs and the steps,

and this I doubt not aided greatly the harmonious blending of the

two peoples. :

There are no ancient temples or other antiquities on the plateau of

Chota-Nagpore to indicate that the early Braminical races or

Buddhists ever obtained a footing there; there is no tradition even

of the ‘‘ Munis” having sought retreats amongst its rocks or by its

waterfalls for their devotional exercises. We find such monuments

in Sirgoojah to the very foot of the western face of the plateau ; and, as

I have recently described in a paper dovoted to the antiquities of

Manbhoom, we find numerous remains of Arian colonization close to

its southern and eastern approaches, but none on the platean itself.

Left to themselves, the Kols increased and multiplied, and lived a happy

arcadian sort of life under their republican form of government for

many centuries; but it is said that a wily Bramin at last obtained a

footing amongst them, and an important change in the form of

government was the résult.

The Rajah of the °° — of which Satyomba was the head quarters,

was a Moondah named Mau. His occupation of the supposed

eradle of the race gave him precedence in the confederate councils ;

and a child of his house, reared in it if not born there, was, through

his influence and by the advice of a Bramin he had taken into his

service, elected supreme chief over the whole confederacy ; but as it

would not suit the noble family, his descendants, to have it supposed

that their ancestor was one of the despised race called Kol, they have

adopted the following legend as their origin :—

“When Jonmajoya, Rajah of Hustinapoor, attempted the destruc-

tion of the Nags or Serpent race, one of them, Poondorik, assumed the

form of a Brahmin and went to the house of a Bramin at Benares

to study the ‘ shasters.’ The Benares Bramin, pleased with the

intelligence and grace of his pupil, gave him his only daughter

‘ Parbutee’ to be his wife. Poondorik and his wife, Parbutee,

together visited Juggernath, and on their return, passing through this

country, then called ‘Jharkhund,’ the forest land, she was seized

with the pains of labour near Satyomba, and gave birth to a child

and died.

‘The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 161

Madura’s Bramin happening to pass, bearing an image of the sun

worshipped by the Moondahs, saw the child sleeping and protected by

a snake with expanded hood. This snake was Poondorik, relapsed

into his original form. He addressed the Bramin, told his own

story and the story of the child’s birth, declared that the babe was

destined to be a great Rajah, and that his name was to be Funimatuk

Roy, ‘the snake hood crowned,’ a worshipper of the sun, whose image

the Bramin bore, and the Bramin was to be the family priest.

The snake then vanished. The child was taken to Madura’s house

and adopted and brought up with his own son, a boy of much the

same age. When Funimatuk Roy was twelve years of age, Madura

convened the Purha chiefs, and it is said the neighbouring Rajahs,

including the Rajah of Sirgoojah and the Dytya Rajah, and suggested

that one of ‘the two lads should be selected as the Rajah of Nagpore,

The lads were subjected to an examination, when it was found that

the snake boy had already acquired all the accomplishments necessary

for his destined position, whilst the other was a mere rustic. It was

then (according to the annals of the Nagbungee family) ruled, that

Funimatuk Roy and his heirs for ever shor'm .* the Rajahs, and that

the Moondah’s child and his dcas genes: Should bear burdens, and

thus all who claim to hold lands as descendants of the Moondahs and

Oroans that first cleared them, are bound, when called on, to bear the

burdens imposed on them by the Rajah and his assigns !”

It is frankly admitted in the annals I quote from, that a difficulty

arose regarding Funimatuk’s birth, when he sought in marriage the

daughter of the Sikurbhoom (or Pochete) Rajah. The Sikurbhoom

family priest. was sent to examine the certificates of birth and found

none: but Rajah Matuck Roy prayed for the intercession of his

ophidian parent; he had calmly contemplated his position and put

it to his father, that if the Sikurbhoom priest was not satisfied, a

Moondah or an Oroan girl should become Queen of Nagpore. This

was not to be thought of. So the Nag once more entered an appear-

ance, satisfied the Bramin by a relation of wonders, and since then

the Nagbunsis have always intermarried with the best Rajpoot families.

It is particularly noted that at Funimatuk,Roy’s wedding-feast the

Oroans and Moondahs all got drunk and began to fight, and the Rajah

of Nagpore and Madura had to obtain the assistance of his guests, the

162 The “ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore.

Rajah of Sirgoojah and the Dytya Rajah, to separate them. The

Dytya Rajah was, I presume, the Rajah of Patkoom, as that famiiy

bear the surname of Adytya to this day.

The marriage was celebrated at Satyomba, and there the first Rajah

resided in a mud fort. The fourth in descent from Funimatuk moved

his court to Chuttia, where we have the remains of a fort with masonry

walls and some stone temples ascribed to him. Subsequently Doisa

was chosen as the seat of Government, and here are some fine buildings,

shewing that the family were improving in art and in civilization,

when they moved there. This site also has been abandoned, and the

present Rajah lives in a very mean house at Palkote.

The sway of the Rajah of Chota-Nagpore does not, in early times,

appear to have extended beyond the plateau or fringe of hills which

divide it from the plains, but the Moondahs overran those limits and

formed colonies in what are now called the five pergunnahs—Silli,

Tamar, Barundah, Rabey and Boondoo—which did not acknowledge

the Rajah-elect of Satyomba. In time, each of these pergunnahs

elected a Rajah of its own, who (their descendants declare) were each

of a divine or miraculous birth, like Funimatuk Roy; and on the

strength of it they all call themselves Chuttrees and wear the cord.

They intermarry amongst themselves or with the petty Rajahs of

Manbhoom who are of similar origin ; so their claim to be Chuttrees,

or at all events Hindoos of respectable caste, is not disputed. According

to their own tradition, the Rajahs of the five pergunnahs first forfeited

their independence by submitting to pay tribute to the Rajah of

Cuttack. Eventually, however, they were subjugated by the Maha-

rajah of Chota-Nagpore, and submitted to pay tribute to and accept

the “ Tilluck” or symbol of investiture from him. The Moondahs

comprise about two-thirds of the population of the five pergunnahs,

and all who are not Moondahs are settlers of no very ancient date.

In the northern and western parts of Chota-Nagpore, the authority

of the old Moondah or Oraon chiefs has been almost effaced by the

middlemen who have been introduced by the Zemindars as more

profitable farmers, or by the Bramins, Rajpoots and others to whom,

for religious or secular services, grants have been made by the

Maharajah and members‘of his family holding under him. In many

instances, the Kols have been entirely dispossessed of the lands their

The ‘‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 163

ancestors brought under cultivation, and ryots from other parts of

India, more subservient to the wishes of the farmers, have been intro-

duced. In some villages the peasant proprietory right of the aborigines

has been entirely extinguished, and the few of that class that remain

are found in the position of farm labourers.

In the southern parts of Chota-Nagpore the Moondah chiefs, there

as in Singbhoom called Mankees, have managed to retain their position,

first, by resisting in open arms all attempts to encroach upon it, and

lastly, by a settlement suggested and brought about by the officers of

the British Government and concluded with the Maharajah shortly

after the Kol disturbances in A. D. 1833.

These Mankees have each under them about as many villages as

formerly were included in a “ Purha,” and they pay a quit rent to the

Maharajah as a commutation of the service and tribute in kind

formerly paid to him as Lord Paramount, and they collect this and a

little more as the contribution for their own support from the heads

of villages, who again collect according to ancient custom at fixed rates

from the villagers. There is fixity of tenure throughout, from the

Maharajah to the cultivator, notwithstanding the intervention of the

Mankee, the village Moondah, or Mohto. This is no doubt a living

exemplification of the relation that, in older times, subsisted between

the cultivator of the soil and his chief in most parts of India.

In the Hoor Lurka Kols of Singbhoom we have a people who,

till recently, had no notion of what it was to pay rent to any one, or

even to give pecuniary support to their chiefs. They had their

Mankees and Moondahs, but no one exercised any right arising from

a title in the land except the cultivators. We havea very interesting

description of the Hos, their country and their languages, by Colonel

Tickell,* and to this, before proceeding further with my memoir, IT

will add a brief sketch of their history.

The Singbhoom district is of a singular interest to the ethnologist.

That portion of it called the Colehan, the Ho-desum or country proper

of the Hos, is a series of fair and fertile plains, broken, divided and

surrounded by hills; about 60 miles in length from north to south,

and from 35 to 60 in breadth from east to west. It has to the south

and south east the tributary estates, Mohurbhun. Keonjur, Bonai

* As, Soc. Journal, Vol. IX. pp. 783, 997, 1063.

164 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

and Gangpore, inhabited by Ooriah-speaking Hindoos, to the east

and north the Bengalee pergunnah of Dhulbhoom and district of

Manbhoom, and north and north-east the Hindee district of Lohar-

daggah, and it is occupied by a race totally distinct by descent,

custom, religion and language from any of the three. A people on

whose smiling country covetous eyes have often been directed, but

into which no one ever attempted with impunity to intrude.

It is impossible to say when the Hos first entered Singbhoom ; but

as we find that the Chota-Nagpore Moondahs more and more assimilate

to the Hos, as we approach Singbhoom from Chota-Nagpore, we may

safely infer that the Hos came originally from that country ; and this

is their own tradition. They appear to have brought with them and

retained their system of confederate government by Purhas, but in

Singbhoom the word now used to express it, is Pirhi or Peer. Thus

the Colehan is divided into Pirhis, each under a Mankee as chief of

the Pirhi, and each village having its Moondah as headman.

According to their own tradition, the Hos displaced a nation of

Jains settled in the eastern parts of Singbhoom, some remains of

whom are still extant, and a nation of Bhuyahs from the western and

southern parts, driving them out of, and appropriating to their own

exclusive use, the richest part of the country. From these early times,

probably more than 2,000 years ago, they have proudly held the

country they acquired; and, in my humble opinion, they have the

right to say they never submitted to rulers of an alien race, till they

were forced to do so by the power of the British Empire.

At the commencement of the present century, Singbhoom was only

known to the British Government as a country under the rule of

certain Rajpoot chiefs, all of one family, whose independence, when we

first occupied the Orissa Provinces, Lord Wellesley promised to respect.

After the final cession of all the surrounding districts in 1819 these

chiefs, occupying a territory that embraces the Colehan, voluntarily

submitted to the British Government, and immediately sought #he

assistance of that Government in reducing the “‘ Hos” to submission,

asserting that the Hos were their subjects then in rebellion ; but they

admitted that for fifty years they had exercised no authority over

them, and I find no proof that the Hos had at any former period ever

submitted to them. It is not pretended that they were conquered,

‘ The “ Kels” of Chota-Nagpore. 165

but supremacy was claimed by the Rajpoot Rajahs over the Ho tribes

next to them, thus dividing the country and the people amongst four |

Rajpoot chiefs, the Rajahs of Mohurbhunj and Porahat, Koer of

Seraikilla, and Thakoor of Khursowan.

It is true that the chiefs of Singbhoom, ancestors of the Rajahs of

Porahat, Seraikilla and Thakoor of Khursowan, obtained great influ-

ence over their wild neighbours. They were gradually induced to

believe tales which gave to the founder of this family a miraculous

birth in their country, and they accorded to him divine honors, whilst

they repudiated the idea of his being their temporal chief. The

oldest surviving member of the Porahat family tells me that no

regular tribute was ever received from the Colehan, but they were

treated and employed rather as friendly allies than as subjects, and at

certain seasons presents of trifling value were received from them and

presents given in return.

When a division of the estate of the Singhoom chief occurred, the

brothers each took, with the share assigned to him, a share in the good-

will of the Hos. Thus the Seraikilla and Khursowan families claimed

the allegiance of the tribes nearest to them. The claim of the

Mohurbhunj Rajah sprang up as the Kols extended their cultivation,

till it touched or ran over his boundary. But it is admitted that all

recorded attempts of the Rajpoot chiefs to subdue them had been

signally defeated.

On the last occasion, the great grandfather of the present Maharajah

of Chota-Nagpore, at the head of 20,000 of his own men co-operating

with the forces of the Singbhoom Rajpoot chiefs, entered the Colehan.

The Hos allowed him to do this; they then fell on his army in masses,

and, routing it with immense slaughter, ignominiously expelled him,

pursuing him into his own territory, and severely retaliating on the

border villages of the Maharajah and his allies.

It was no doubt in retaliation for these attacks on their independence

that the Hos now became, as they were found to be when first brought

to our notice (in 1819-20), the scourge of the inhabitants of the more

civilized parts of Singbhoom and of all the surrounding districts.

They shewed no mercy to the Braminical inhabitants of the villages

they attacked and pillaged. <A long line of Bramin villages on the

Bramin river in Gangpoor was laid waste by them and has remained

166 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

depopulated ever since. No traveller ever ventured to pass through

their country. No Bramin, Rajpoot or other Hindoo caste, or Mussal-

man was suffered to reside in it.

In 1820, the Agent Governor-General, Major Roughsedge, entered

the Colehan at the head of a force consisting of a battalion of infantry,

with cavalry and artillery. He was surprised to find the wild race,

of whom he had heard such disparaging accounts, in possession of an

open undulating and richly cultivated country, studded with villages

in groves of magnificent tamarind and mango trees, abounding in

unusual indications of rural wealth. He was allowed to enter on this

scene unmolested, but the slaughter of some of his camp-followers,

who had incautiously strayed into one of the villages, demonstrated

the hostility of the people, and an attempt to capture the murderers

brought about the first collision between the Hos and our troops.

A party of cavalry, sent to the offending village, was met in the open

field by 300 warriors, who undauntedly advanced to meet the charge,

rushed between the ranks of the horsemen, hacking especially at the

horses with their formidable battle-axes, and shewing no disposition to

yield or to turn, till half their number had been sabred or shot. In

the village where the murder was committed, was found a reserve of

60 men who fought desperately and were all killed! The same evening

another body of Lurkahs* attacked the rear of the column and cut

off a convoy of supplies. It became necessary to act with vigour, and’

the old Hos of the present day describe the retaliation that now fell

upon them as dreadfully severe. Hventually some intercepted mails

were restored uninjured, as a token of submission, and the Lurka chiefs

in the vicinity entered into engagements to acknowledge and pay

tribute to the Rajah of Singbhoom.+

_ Major Roughsedge met with further opposition in his progress

towards Sumbulpoor through the Southern Peers: he had in fact to

fight his way out of the country ; and on his leaving it a war broke

out between the Kols who had submitted, and those who had not.

One hundred Hindustanee burkundazes under a Soobadar were sent

by the Agent to the support of the Rajah and his Lurka allies, and

this for a time gave them the advantage; but the Soobadar having

* “Taraka,”’ the fighters, a common name for the Hos.

} Major Roughsedge’s dispatches.

The ‘“ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 167

‘been induced to enter the Colehan to assist in levying a contribution,

was attacked, and he and the whole of the party cut up !

In 1821 a large force was employed to reduce the Lurkas to

submission, and after a month’s hostilities, the leaders, encouraged by a

proclamation surrendered and entered into engagement, binding them-

selves to subjection to the British Government, and agreeing to pay

to the chiefs at the rate of 8 annas for each plough. It was now

noticed that the Lurkas evinced a perfect willingness to be guided

and ruled by British officers, and the utmost repugnance to the

authority arrogated over them by the Singbhoom chiefs; and it would

have saved much blood, expense and trouble, if this feeling had at the

time been taken advantage of. Made over to the chiefs, they soon

again became restive and reverted to their old practices of resistance

and pillage. The circle of depredations gradually increased, till it had

included Dhulbhoom, devastated Bamunghatee, and extended to some

parts of Chota-Nagpore. The chiefs under whom the Lurkas had

been placed could not control them, and for some five years, from 1830

to 1836 the Hos, maintained this hostile attitude.

In consequence of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, a proposal

made by Captain Wilkinson in August 1836, to employ a force and

thoroughly subdue the Lurkas, and then to take the whole tribe under

the direct management of British officers, was favourably received by

Government and promptly acted on. Two Regiments of Infantry

and two Brigades of guns entered Singbhoom in November 1836, and

Operations were immediately commenced against the refractory Peers ;

and by February following all the Mankees and Moondahs had

submitted and bound themselves by fresh engagements to obey and

pay revenue to the British Government, and no longer to follow the

orders of the chiefs to whom they had previously been required to

submit. Six hundred and twenty-two villages, with a population

estimated at 90,000 souls, of whom more than three-fourths are Hos,

were thus brought and have since remained under the immediate

control of the British Government. Since then, the population and

spread of cultivation have immensely increased, and the people are

now peaceful, prosperous and happy. From the region round about

the station, Chybassah, 170 miles due west from Calcutta, the waste

lands have entirely disappeared. Colonies of Hindus may now be

168 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

found settled in the heart of the Colehan, occupying villages apart

from the Hos, but without demur placing themselves under the Ho

Mankees of Peers. For their own system of government is, as far as

possible, preserved, and the Mankees are officers of police as well as

the tuhsildars or rent-collectors of their circles. One great change is

now being peaceably introduced, the old system of assessment on

ploughs is under process of commutation toa light assessment on the

land.

This is undoubtedly the nucleus of the Moondah nation, the most

compact, the purest, most powerful and most interesting division of

the whole race, and in appearance decidedly the best looking. In

their erect carriage and fine manly bearing, the Hos look like a people

that have maintained and are proud of their independence. Many

have features of sufficiently good cast to entitle them to rank as Arians ;

high noses, large but well formed mouths, beautiful teeth, and the

facial angle as good as in the Hindu races. The figures both of

male and female freely displayed by the extreme scantiness of the

national costume are often models of beauty; but this description

applies only to the people of the highly cultivated part of the

country who have seldom been subjected to severe privation and who

generally fare right well. The inhabitants of the imperfectly reclaimed

hill forests are more savage-looking, but they seldom deteriorate to

the almost simian physiognomy that the Oraons are found with

under similar circumstances. When the face of the Moondah varies

from the Arian or Caucasian type, it appears to me rather to merge

into the Mongolian than the Negro. High cheek bones, small openings

for the eyes, having in some rare instances a tendency to the peculiar

oblique set of the Mongolian, and flattish faces without much beard or

whisker. They are of average stature, and in colour vary from brown

to tawny yellow.

Il.—Tue Oraons.

The Oraons have a tradition that they were once settled in Guzerat.

They were expelled from that part of India, and, retreating east, made a

stand at fort Kalinjur where they fought the “ Loorik Sowrik” of “ Pali-

pipri,” were defeated, and, retreating still east, settled on the Rhotas

hills. Here they say, they remained unmolested till attacked and

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 169

driven from the hills by the Mahomedans in the reign of the emperor

Akbar, but as they aver this occurred fifty-two generations ago, there

is an anachronism somewhere. I think they were settled in Chota

Nagpore centuries before the days of Akbar, but it is probable that

some of the clan remained in the Rhotas hills until the Mahomedans

constructed their fortress there.

The accounts of ancient Guzerat faintly confirm the Oraon tradition.

I find from Thornton’s Gazetteer that there is a race settled there from

remote antiquity who are called Coolies; but there is nothing in the

name, which, as«I observed before, appears to have been applied very

generally to the aborigines by the Arians, and the account given of

the Coolies does not lead me to suppese they are of the Oraon family.

There is, however, a short description of what appears to be a remnant of

a tribe, which would answer perfectly forthe Oraons,—“‘ A small, active,

well built race, engaged to some extent in cultivation, but by choice

deriving their subsistence, as far as possible, from the chase, fishing,

or the collecting of wild fruits and the marketable produce of the

jungles for sale. Their peculiar pursuits, little relished or shared in

by the rest of the community, caused them to be viewed with dislike

and dread, and the reputation of possessing great powers in sorcery

subjects them to much cruel treatment.”

Every word of the above description applies to the Oraon tribe,

is an

and the name given to this remnant of a people viz. ‘‘ Dunjas,’

Oraon word not unlike the term Dhangurh, so commonly applied to

the Oraons in the countries to which they emigrate for work.

The names traditionally handed down amongst the Oraons, as Loorik

Sowrik, allude probably to some tribe of Sravacks or Sowoks or Jains,

and the Palipipri might refer to the Palithana mountains, the Jain

temples on which are amongst the most interesting architectural works

in India, The etymology of the word Oraon, I have not been able

to trace satisfactorily, but it may have been applied to the tribe

in consequence of their migratory habits. They call themselves

“ Khoonkir.”

Between the language of the Oraons and the language of the

Moondahs and their cognates, I can trace no similarity either in

pronunciation, formation, construction or general character. With

pretty copious yocabularies before me, [ can find no analogues, and

170 The ‘‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

whilst the language of the Moondahs is soft and sonorous, that of the

Oraons is guttural andharsh. Doctor Latham, in his descriptive ethnolo-

gy, has noticed the near connection of the Oraon, Rajmahal hill and

Tamul languages, and especially observes on the similarity of the

personal pronouns.

English. Rajmahal. Oraon. Tamul, ce

I En En nam, Hn.

Thou Nin Nin Nin

He, she, it Ath As Ata

We Nim Em , Nam

Ye Nina Nim Nim

They Awar . Ar Awar

Out of a vocabulary of about 24 Oraon and Tamul words, I find

the following analogues.

English. Tamul. Tuda. Oraon.

Man Al Al Al

Hye Kam Kan Khan

Tooth Pal Paroh Pulla

But I find in the language now spoken by the Oraons, words of

Sanscrit origin not in common use, as “‘ pwph,” flower, ‘‘ amb,” water,

“kesh,” hair, indicative of their having occupied some country in

common with people speaking a Sanserit or Prakrit dialect.

The annexed notes on the language with which I have been favoured

by the Rev. Frederic Batsch, senior Missionary at Ranchee, will, I

hope, throw some light on the subject. The resemblance between the

Oraon and Tamul language does not invalidate their own migratory

traditions, for it is not more marked than the relation between the

Tamul and the language of the Gonds and others.

Their physical peculiarities are as different from those of the

Moondah as are their linguistic characteristics. The Oroans must be

regarded as a very small race, not short and squat like some of the

Indo-Chinese stock, but a well proportioned small race. The young

men and women have light graceful figures and are as active as

monkies. Their complexions are, as a rule, of the darkest ; but if we

take as our type those who dwell in mixed communities, we find great

variety in feature and colour. If we take those who, living in isolated

positions, may be supposed to offer us the purest blood, we find them

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 171

generally dark and ill-favoured. They have wide mouths, thick lips

and projecting maxillary processes, nostrils wide apart, and no elevation

of nose to speak of, and low though not in general very receding

foreheads. I have seen amongst them heads that in the woolly crispness

of the hair completed the similitude of the Oraons to the Negro. It

may be said that the class I am describing have degenerated in feature

from living a wilder and more savage life than others of their clan ;

but Ido not find this degeneracy of feature amongst the Jushpore

Korewahs, who are to the Moondahs of Chota-Nagpore what the

Jushpore Oraons are to the Oraons of the same district.* I found the

Korewahs mostly short of stature, but with well knit muscular frames,

complexion brown not black, sharp bright deep set eyes, noses not de-

ficient in prominency, somewhat high check bones, but without notable

maxillary protuberances. In the more civilized parts of the province,

both Graons and Moondahs improve in appearance. The former indeed

still retain their somewhat diminutive appearance, but in complexion

they are fairer, in features softer, some even good looking, and the

youthful amongst them all pleasing from their usual happy contented

expression and imperturbable good humour.

Driven from the Rhotas hills, the Oraons, according to their own

tradition, separated into two great divisions. One of these, moving

east, found a final resting-place in the Rajmahal hills; the other, going

south, sought refuge in the Palamow hills, and wandered trom valley

to valley in those ranges, till they found themselves in Burway, a hill-

locked estate in Chota-Nagpore proper. From thence they occupied

the highlands of Jushpore and formed the settlements in the vicinity

of Lohardugga, on the Chota-Nagpore plateau, where they still

constitute the bulk of the population. The Satyomba Moondahs had

not effected settlements so far to the west.

The identity of the language spoken by the Rajmahal hill people

(not the Sonthals) and that of the Oraons is full and sufficient

confirmation of the tradition of their common origin, and of the

division of the tribe spoken of above ; but a comparison of the customs

of the Rajmahal hill people, who being isolated must have retained

those they brought with them to the hills, with the customs of the

Oraons, demonstrates that the latter are derived from the Moondahs.

* Asiatic Society's Journal, Vol. XXXIV. p. 16.

172 The ‘ Kols’” of Chota-Nagpore.

Referring to Col. Walter Sherwill’s account of the Rajmahal hill

people,* I find, in regard to marriage, that ‘it is customary for the

young couple to sleep together on the same bed before marriage.

The Oraons would consider this a very indecorous proceeding, though

a public recognition that the young couple have slept together after

the marriage is with the Oraons an important sequel to the ceremony.

In the Rajmahal hills, says Col. Sherwill, the dead are buried. The

Rig Veda and Ramayun tell us that this was the custom of the

Dusyas, but the Moondahs and their cognates all burn their dead, and

the Oraons follow their example.

The Rajmahal hill men swear on salt, the Oraons have a veneration

for salt, but swear on dub grass,+ huldee and rice.

The Oraons know nothing. of Bedo Gosain, the invisible spirit

adored by the Rajmahalies. Their supreme deity is the sun under

the title of Dhurmo, but as that and the Rajmahalee term are both of

Sanscrit origin, it evinces that neither race have in their own language

any word for the Deity. ;

Lastly, the hill man is described as less cheerful than the Sonthal,

less industrious, and as not joining in the dances that the people of

the Moondah stock are so devoted to. In Chota-Nagpore the Oraons

are more lively than the Moondahs, quite as industrious, and the most

enthusiastic and nimble-footed of the dancers.

The two races, Moondah and Oraon, must have been for ages the

only colonists of the plateau; it is singular that they have no tradition

of any disqute having arisen between them. Affecting jealously to

guard against admixture of the races by sexual intercourse, they in

other respects lived as one people, the Oraon conforming more to the

customs of the Moondah than the Moondahs to the Oraon, and in

many instances adopting the Moondah language and losing their own.

In villages east of Ranchee, though inhabited wholly by Oraons, the

Moondah, not Oraon, is the language spoken ; but the Moondah language

is not much known in the vicinity of Lohardaggah or in Jushpore.

The village systems of the two people became almost identical in

form. The village priest, called the Pahan, is probably an Oraon

institution, as, I think, amongst the Moondahs the principle is that the

head of the family is priest; but the Moondahs of Chota-Nagpore

* Asiatic Society’s Journal, Vol. XX. p, 544. + Agrostis linearis.

The ‘‘ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 173

adopted it, and in their villages, as well as in those of the Oraons,

there is always a Pahan. The village system now existing is such as it

became after many encroachments by the Rajah and the middlemen

introduced by him. Still as bearing the impress of a very primitive

form of government, it is worth describing, and in doing so, I

will make use of a very elaborate report on the subject written by

Doctor Davidson in 1839.

The actual descendants of the men who formed the villages are

called Bhuinhurs. They are a privileged class, who hold their lands

at low fixed rates or rent-free, but they are bound to do service to the

chief or his representative. The head of the Bhuinhurs is called the

Moondah, and is generally the representative of the old Moondah chief

of the village. He presides when meetings are held to settle disputes

about social customs ; and all demands for service on the Bhuinhurs by

the proprietor or farmer are made through him. He holds his lands as

Bhuinhurree, and has no other emolument.

The Mahto, though second in point of rank, is the most important

functionary in the village. He has the assessment and settlement of

all lands not held by the hereditary cultivators ; collects all dues and

rents, and is responsible for them to the farmer or proprietor. He

holds for his services one powa of land rent-free, and in some villages

gets a fee of one or two pice annually from each ryot. The office is

not hereditary.

The Pahan is the village priest. He is a Moondah or Oraon by

caste, but all observances for propitiating the village gods or devils

are performed by him. No Bramins are permitted to interfere. The

office of Pahan is generally hereditary, but is not necessarily so. He

has under his charge the land called “ Dalikhatari,” and from the

proceeds of this land, he has to support himself and to provide the rice

and rice-beer required for the great festivals.

The Bhandari assists in the collection of rents, summoning ryots

who have to do work or whose attendance is required by the Zemin-

dar or farmer, and in looking after the collections made in kind. He

has an allowance of one powa of land, and gets from each ryot one

kerai or bundle of each crop as it is cut.

There is a Gorait for each village, and a Kotewar for one or more

villages. The former is the messenger of the Zemindar or his repre-

sentative, the latter is the Police officer,

174 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

The villagers maintain a blacksmith and a Gowala or herd; the

latter takes care of all the village cattle, and is supposed to be respon-

sible if any are stolen. They each get a maund of dhan for every

plough and three kerads, bundles, of other crops.

According to the tradition of the Kols, the Rajah is entitled to the rent

of only half of the land in each village. The remainder is Bhuinhurree,

or rent-free under some other denomination, but in most villages rent

is now taken on from two-thirds to three-fourths of the land. The

land is thus divided :—

I. Rughus—the land that pays rent to the owner or his represent-

ative.

II. Bhetketta, a certain portion of the Rughus which each ryot,

not a Bhuinhur, is allowed to cultivate free of rent, but for which he

has to perform various services to the landlord or farmer.

III. The land allotted te the Mahto, the Pahan and the Bhundari.

IV. Munghus—the land at the disposal of the landlord or his agent

or the farmer of the village. For the cultivation of this land, the

holder of the village can make any arrangement that he pleases.

V. Bhuinhurree is the land held rent free by the descendants of the

founder of the village, who are, however, bound to render certain

services to the Rajah or his representative.

VI. Bhootketta—the land, the produce of which is appropriated to

the expense of the great village poojas and festivals; a portion of this

called “‘ Dalikhatari” is assigned to the Pahan for the ordinary annual

poojas, and the proceeds of the remainder are reserved for the triennial

sacrifices and extraordinary occasions.

The rent is assessed on the wet land only. The cultivator is

entitled to upland in proportion to the wet land for which he pays.

Tf he cultivates more, the custom is for a payment in kind called

Muswur, to be made when the crop is harvested.

The Bhuinhurs cling most tenaciously to their Bhuinhurree lands.

Insurrections have followed attempts to disturb these tenures, and even

now such attempts are sure to lead to serious affrays. The Kol insur-

rection of 1833 was, without doubt, mainly caused by the encroach-

ments of alien farmers and sub-proprietors on the rights of the

descendants of the old settlers. The first burst of the outbreak was a

pretty broad hint, a general conflagration of the houses of alien farmers

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 175

and sub-proprietors, and the massacre of all that the incensed Kols

could find.

The Kols of Chota-Nagpore, generally a good-tempered, mild, inoffen-

sive race, become wild with excitement on this question, and nothing

can reconcile them to a decree or order which in any way infringes on

what they consider their proprietary right. According to their theory,

dispossession for generations can no more annul their right in the

land than it can extinguish the ties of blood. The courts will not

always accept this doctrine, and the Kols cannot regard as equitable

any decision that excludes it.

An Oraon family lives very promiscuously in a small, indiffer-

ently constructed and untidy looking hut, and their village often consists

of a street or court of such huts. In all that relates to their inner

domestic life, they are less susceptible of improvement than the other

tribes. They have no gardens or orchards attached to individual houses,

but the groves of fruit-trees that they plant outside the village form a

beautiful feature in the scenery of Chota-Nagpore, and they have

generally, in and about the village, some fine trees which are common

property. In every Oraon village of old standing there is a house called

the ‘‘ Doomcooreea”’ (Bachelor’s Hall), in which all unmarried men

and boys of the tribe are obliged to sleep. Any one absenting himself

and spending the night elsewhere in the village is fined. In this

building the flags, musical instruments, yaks’ tails, dancing equipments

and other property used at the festivals are kept. They have a regular

system of fagging in the Doomcooreea. The small boys have to

shampoo the limbs of their luxurious masters, and obey all orders

of the elders, who also systematically bully them to make them, it is

alleged, hardy. In some villages the unmarried girls have a

house to themselves, an old woman being appointed as Duenna

to look after them. She is always armed with a stick to keep the

boys off. A circular space, in front of the Doomcoorea, is kept

clear as the village dancing ground. It is generally sheltered by

fine old trees, and seats are placed all round for spectators or tired

dancers.

The Doomcooreea is never used by boys of the Moondah tribe. It is an

institution quite unknown to the Hos, but the Moondahs and Hos build

themselves houses in which all the family can be decently accommo-

176 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

dated. Their houses are more isolated, occupy much more space and

are in appearance much more civilized than those of the Oraons, with

verandahs, well raised plinths and separate apartments for the married

and single members of the family. Every Moondah village has its

dancing place, though it has no Doomcooreea. The best Korewah

villages consist of about forty houses built round a large square, in the

centre of which is the dancing arena; but as the Korewahs are nomads,

changing their abodes every second or third year, their villages may

be regarded as mere standing camps. ‘The Kheriahs build substantial

comfortable houses like the Hos. It is curious they have the same

word ‘“‘Q”’ for a house and the sky. The Moondah word “ Ora” is,

like the Turkoman “ Ova,” a house or tent. The flags kept in the

Oraon Doomcooreea appear to be an Oraon institution. Every village

or group of villages, probably the head quarters of each “‘ Parha,” has

its peculiar flag, and we have actually had cases in courts praying for

injunction against villages charged with having assumed flags that

did not belong to them !

I will now proceed to review the customs of the Moondahs and

Oraons together, taking care to note all points of divergence that are

known to me.

After the birth of a child, the mother has to undergo purification,

and on the same day that this ceremony takes place, which is simply a

process of ablution, the child is named. Elderly females or matrons,

friends and relations assemble for this purpose, and a vessel containing

water is placed in the midst, and as the name first selected is

pronounced, one of the women drops a grain of rice into the water.

If the grain of rice sinks, that name is discarded, and the experiment

is repeated with the second name on the list, and so on till, as the name

is pronounced, the grain floats. (Tho Garrows of the eastern frontier

have a similar method for divining the name of the spirit they ought

to invoke on particular occasions.) If the name of some friend is

chosen, it is considered as establishing a tie between the child and his

namesake, resembling that which subsists between a Christian child

and his godfather. The person whose name is selected is always

called Saki or Sakhi, a word of Sanscrit origin meaning friend, so that

in “nam Saki’ we have in meaning and sound our word namesake.

Lhe following are some names of girls, Jambi, Jima, Jingi, Turki,

The “ Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore. 177

Sulgi,* Pongla, Madhi, Makoo, Roomeea Saggi, Dinli; Natri, Akh,

Bangi, Julli, and the Hindoo names of the days of the week are very

commonly given. The following are the names of boys—Rumsi, Birsa,

Somra, Daharoo, Singra, Satri, Dubroo, Doolkoo, Didoo, Runka, Biggoo.

But they have adopted many foreign names, and the names of British

officers they have known and esteemed, are thus preserved amongst

the Hos of Singbhoom, and may be handed down from generation to

generation. Thus “ Major” and “Captain” have become common

names in the Colehan, originally taken from Major Roughsedge, the

first British officer they ever saw, and Captain Wilkinson (now Col.

Wilkinson) whom they regard as their greatest benefactor. Doctor,

Tickell, &c. are also common. Girls, when three or four years of age,

receive their mark of caste. Three lines tattooed on the forehead and

two on each temple, four dots on the chin and one on the nose. It

does not appear to be connected with any religious custom, nor is it

applied with any ceremony, and as neither the Moondahs nor. the

Oraons haye any particular term for it in their own language, it is,

probable that they adopted it from the Sudhs or Hindoos. Some

Moondah girls of Chota-Nagpore have different marks. Those of

Singbhoom have adopted the arrow, appropriately enough, as the

national weapon of their lords and masters.

The Kheriahs and Juangas, though isolated from the Moondahs and

Oraons, have the same triple and double marks on the forehead and

temples. The Oraon boys are marked, when children, on the arms by

rather a severe process of puncturation, which they consider it manly to

endure. The only reason I have heard assigned for this custom is, that

through it even the naked dead may have a distinguishing mark.

When a girl approaches maturity, it is incumbent on her to bind

up her hair, and from that period of her life she is restricted to food

prepared by her own people. Asa child with her hair loose, she is

permitted to partake of whatever is edible, no matter by whom prepared.

Young men enjoy this liberty of appetite till they marry. They then,

to use their own expression, put salt in their flesh, and must not

partake of food prepared by aliens. The Oraons have a veneration

for salt, and they are not absolutely prohibited from partaking of

* A common name and also the name of a goddess, and the name, I see, of

one of the young ladies from the Andaman Islands,

178 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

plain rice cooked by others, provided they are left to salt it themselves.

The salt, it would appear, thus applied, removes the ‘‘ Taboo,” and

makes fas what is otherwise nefas.

As a rule, marriages are not contracted till both the bride and

bridegroom are of mature age. It is sometimes left to the parents

to select wives for their sons, but the young people have ample

opportunities for studying each others characters, love-making and

following the bent of their own inclinations; and it very often happens,

that plans concocted by the parents are frustrated by the children.

In Chota-Nagpore, amongst the agricultural classes, and in Sing-

bhoom amongst all classes of Kols, the girls have all a price fixed upon

them, and this the lover or his friends must arrange to pay, before the

parents of the bride will give their consent. In Singbhoom, the price

is so high, especially for young ladies of good family, that marriage is

frequently put off till late in life; and girls valued not so much for

their charms and accomplishments as for their pedigree, often grow

grey as maidens in the house of their fathers. Singbhoom is perhaps

the only place in India in which old maids are found; they have

plenty of them there. But though urged to change this practice by

all who take an interest in them, the old Mankees of Singbhoom are

inflexible, not only in demanding a high price for their girls, but

in insisting that it shall be paid, according to ancient custom, chiefly

in cattle. A Mankee of the old school will not take less than

forty head of cattle for his daughter; but the eyes of the rising

generation are opened to the absurdity of the practice, and some of us

may live to see it changed.

In consequence of this custom, the grown up boys and girls are

quite a separate institution in every Kol village ; there is very little

restraint on their intercourse, they form a very pleasant society of

their own, from which the old people sensibly keep aloof. If a

flirtation is known to have gone too far, the matter is generally settled

by the young man being made to pay the price for the girl and

marry her.

In Chota-Nagpore the daughter of a Mankee was, some years ago,

valued at about 36 Rs, but they are gradually adopting the custom

of the Hindoos in regard to their marriages, and giving up the

objectionable practice of putting a price on them. The price paid by

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 179

the common people ranges from 10 to 12 rupees. These disagreeable

preliminaries having been arranged, the bridegroom and a large party

of his friends of both sexes enter with much singing and dancing and

sham fighting the village of the bride, where they meet the bride’s

party and are hospitably entertained.

The bride and bridegroom are ngw well anointed with turmeric, and

bathed, and then taken and wedded, not to each other, but to two

trees! The bride to a Mowa tree, the bridegroom to a Mango. They

are made to touch the tree with ‘ seendoor,”’ (red lead), and then to

clasp it in their arms. On returning, they are placed standing face to

face, the gil on a curry stone over a ploughshare supported on

sheaves of corn or grass. The bridegroom stands ungallantly treading

on his bride’s toes, and in this position touches her forehead with the

red lead ; she touches his forehead in the same manner. The bride’s

maids then, after some preliminary splashing and sprinkling, pour

a jar of water over the head of each: this necessitates a change of

raiment, and apparently concludes the ceremony, as the young couple

going inside to change, do not appear again till the cock-crowing

announces the dawn or its approach. At the first crow the bride’s maids,

who with the young men have been merrily keeping it up all night

with the song and dance, burst into the nuptial chamber and bring

forth the blushing bride and her bashful lord; and then they all go

down to the river or to a tank to bathe, and parties of boys and girls

form sides under the leadership of the bride and bridegroom, and pelt

each other with clods of earth. The bridegroom next takes a water

vessel and conceals it in the stream or water for the bride to find.

She then conceals it from him, and when he has found it, she takes it up

filled with water and places it on her head. She lifts her arm to

support the pitcher, and the bridegroom, standing behind her with his

bow strung, and the hand that grasps it lightly resting on her

shoulder, discharges an arrow from the pretty loophole thus formed

into the path before her, The girl walks on to where the arrow falls,

and with head erect and still bearing the pitcher of water, she picks

it up with her foot, takes it into her hand, and restores it to her

husband with a graceful obeisance. She thus shews that she’ can

adroitly perform her domestic duties and knows her duty to her lord

and master, whilst he, on his part, in discharging an arrow to clear

180 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

her path of an imaginary foe, indicates that he is prepared to perform

his duty as her guide and protector through life.

In the Oraon marriages, many of these symbolical ceremonies are

omitted, and the important one of exchanging the “ szndoor” is

differently performed. The bridegroom stands behind his bride with

his toes on her heels, and stretcheg,over her head to touch her forehead

with the powder. She touches his forehead by reaching back over his

shoulder. The cold bath completes the ceremony, they go to their own

apartment to change their clothes, and do not emerge till morning.

The price paid for a girl in cows is called “‘ Sukmur” by the

Kheriah tribe. They have no word for marriage in their own

language, and the only ceremony used appears to be little more than

a sort of public recognition of the cohabitation. They have learned

to call this “ beha,” but they admitted to me that this public recogni-

tion was often dispensed with.

It takes place in this wise. After the settlement of the usual prelimi-

naries, the bride is brought to the village of her intended bridegroom

by her own people and their friends, and they halt and bivouac in the

village grove. The bridegroom and his friends join them in the grove

where they all regale themselves and dance, and during these nuptial

dances the bride and bridegroom are each borne on the hips of one of

their dancing friends; they are not allowed to put their feet to the

ground. Thus wildly dancing, they proceed into the village, and the

bride and bridegroom are taken to the latter’s house and anointed with

oil; they are then brought outside, and the ceremony of touching each

other’s forehead with the “ sendoor” is performed, followed by the

splashing and sousing which becomes a general romp. Then the

young couple are left to themselves tili morning. The bride’s maids

arouse them as the cock crows, and after the public ablution of

garments and their wearers the party breaks up.

The gestures of the dancers on these occasions, and the songs, all

bear more directly thar delicately on what is eran considered as

the main object of the festivities.

In Singbhoom, marriages, notwithstanding the lateness at which

they take place are generally arranged by the parents, but their

wishes are not unfrequently anticipated by love matches. In the

various journeyings to and fro that are found necessary when a match

The ‘‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpere. 181

is being arranged, omens are carefully observed, and the match is broken

off, if they are unfavourable. At the acjual marriage there is much

feasting and dancing, but little ceremony, The turning point of the

affair is, when the bride and bridegroom mix and drink off some of

the beer they have each been helped to; the boy pours some of the

beer given to him into the girl’s cup, she pours from her cup into the

boy’s cup, and they drink and thus become of the same “ keelz”’ or

clan, for the Hos, Moondahs and Oraons are all divided into families

under this name, and may not take to wife a girl of their own keels.

This division of the primitive races into something having a

semblance to caste, will be found in the North Hastern Frontier as well

as in this province. The Garrows, for instance, are divided into what

are called ‘‘ maharis,” and a man may not marry a girl of his own

mahari.

It is obvious that the custom does not spring from any such notion

of caste as are found amongst the Hindoos, and that it is not one

which these races have adopted from the Hindoos, because with a

Hindoo, caste is destroyed by a marriage out of it. It is equally

opposed to the custom of the Jews, whose daughters (at least if

heiresses) were obliged to take husbands of their own tribe.*

In Singbhoom the bride and bridegroom do not touch each other

with ‘ sindoor’’, as is the custom in Chota-Nagpore. The Oraons and

Moondahs may have adopted the custom from the Hindoos, and the

primitive practice of the race is probably as it is found amongst the

more isolated Hos.

A very singular scene may sometimes be noticed in the markets of

Singbhoom. A young man suddenly makes a pounce on a girl and

carries her off bodily, his friends covering the retreat (like a group

from the picture of the rape of the Sabines). This is generally a

summary method of surmounting the obstacles that cruel parents may

have placed in the lovers’ path; but though it is sometimes done in

anticipation of the favourable inclination of the girl herself, and in spite

of her strugglés and tears, no disinterested person interferes, and the

girls, late companions of the abducted maiden, often applaud the

exploit.

The Ho husband has to pay a high price for his wife, and it is

* Numbers xxxyvi, 6,

182 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

certain that he highly appreciates her. - Although he is not known

to have for her any more eyearing epithet than “my old woman,”

yet by no civilized race are wives treated with more consideration

than by the untutored Ho. The whole of the domestic arrange-

ments are under her exclusive management. She is consulted on

all occasions, and I know one or two husbands whom I am almost

inclined to regard as henpecked. The Kols seldom take a second

wife during the lifetime of the first, but I know instances cf their

having done so. The wife always cooks for her husband, and when

the dinner is ready, they sit down and eat it together like Christians ;

but the Oraons have followed the Hindoo custom of making the

woman eat the leavings of her lord.

It is customary with all these tribes to pay particular attention to

omens, when any of them set out to arrange the preliminaries of a

marriage. The Hos who are more under the influence of this

superstition than their cognates or than the Oraons, have a long list

of deterrent signs, which have been described by Tickell in his paper

above quoted. I subjoin the most noticeable of those that are observed

by the Oraons.

1. On leaving the house ‘‘to win a bride’, they look out for

omens. If acowcallsand the calf responds, it is good. If there is no

response, the wooing is postponed or abandoned.

2. If they find a dead mouse on the road, they must stop and

make a diagnosis. If ants and flies have possessed themselves of the

carcass, it is good, they go on. If the insects appear to have shunned

it (which is not very likely to happen), they go back.

3. It is not good to meet oxen or buffaloes with their horns

crossed, or to see a hawk strike a bird, or to come upon women

washing clothes. It is good to see people burying a dead body, and

to find on their road a cow giving milk to her calf.

4, If they see a man cutting a tree, and the tree falls before they

can get past it, it is very bad. If they pass before it falls, it is all

right. A certain bird heard on the left gives a note of joy ; if heard

on the right, he is a harbinger of woe.

5. If, on approaching the village of the girl, they come on women

with water-pots full, it is a happy omen. If they meet a party with

empty water-pots, it is a bad one,

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 183

The Nagpore Kols, whether of the Moondah or Oraon tribe, and all

the cognates of the Moondahs that I know of, are passionately fond of

dancing, and with them dancing is as much an accomplishment as it is

with the civilized nations of Hurope. They have a great variety

of dances, and in each different steps and figures are used, of great

intricacy, but they are performed with aneatness and precision that

can only be acquired by great practice. Little children are hardly

on their legs, before they begin to learn their dancing steps; and

the result of this early training is that, however difficult the

step, the limbs of the performers move as if they belonged to one

body. They have musical voices and a great variety of simple me-

lodies. It is a fact that, when we raised a corps of Kols, their early

practice in keeping step and time greatly facilitated the operations

of drill; and the Missionaries have availed themselves of the musical

talents and taste of the Kol converts to produce congregational singing

that would be a credit to an English country church.

The dances are seen to the greatest advantage at the great periodi-

cal festivals called ‘“ Jatras.”” They are at appointed places and

seasons, and when the day comes, all take a holiday and proceed to the

spot in their best array. The girls, on these occasions, put on their

best dress, generally a white ‘ saree” with a broad red border. They

tastefully arrange flowers in their hair and plumes of the long breast

feathers of the paddy-bird. The young men wear Turkey red turbans,

and add a snow white cloth to their usually scanty garb, and also

adorn themselves with flowers and peacock’s feathers. As parties from

the different villages come near the trysting place, they may be

observed finishing their toilettes in the open fields; when all is ready,

the groups form, and their approach from different sides, with their

banners and yak’s tails waving, horns and symbols sounding, mar-

shalled into alternate ranks of lads and lasses all keeping perfect

step and dress, with the gay head-dresses of the girls and the numer-

ous brass ornaments of the boys glittering in the sun, forms a very

lively and pleasing picture. They enter the grove where the meeting

is held in jaunty dashing style, wheeling and countermarching and

forming lines, circles and columns with grace and precision. The

dance with these movements is called “ khurriah,”’ and they are held

in all months of the year, a series of them following each other at

184 _ The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

short intervals at different places all over the country, and the atten-

dance, at some that I have seen, could not be under 5,000 people, all

enjoying themselves.

When they enter the grove, the different groups join and dance the

khurriah together, forming one vast dancing procession. Then each

takes its own place and plants its flag and dances round it till near

sunset, when all go dancing home. ‘This is followed by a carouse

in the village, after which the dance is often continued at the

“akrah” all night.

At each of these “ Jattras,” a kind of fair is held, and fairings and

refreshments are to be had in abundance. The young men can treat

their partners with sweetmeats and do so, As already observed,

“akrah” set apart for dancing

there is a place in every village called

and ceremonies. This is a circular arena with a post in the centre,

and around it are benches for the spectators or for the dancers when

wearied, the whole being generally shaded by fine old tamarind, the

most beautiful of village trees.

The season dances in the village open with the kurrum in July,

at the commencement of the planting season. There is a movement

in this dance called ‘‘ hojar’’ when the girls suddenly kneel and pat

the ground in time to the music, as if caressing and coaxing it to be

productive. On the day appointed for the ceremony, the boys and

girls go in procession to the kurrum tree, cut and bring back to the

village some branches, which are planted in the akrah. An old

man with a liberal allowance of beer is placed to watch these, whilst

the young people refresh themselves. They all, old and young, then

assemble in the akrah, and one of the elders harangues them, and

after giving them much good advice, concludes by directing them to

commence the dance. Thesongs sung on this occasion are in Hindee,

and contain allusions to the flooded state of the rivers and fields.

They also sing an ode to the Satyomba Rajah. The kurrum is kept

by the Soodh or Hindoo population as well as by the Kols.

After harvest of the earlier crop of the planted rice, in November,

the ‘‘matha’ is danced by the boys and girls in the village. The

girls, moving in a semicircle and clasping each others hands, dance

with a very lively step and bowing motion of the body to the men

who sing and play to them. The girls have another dance at this

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 185

season called “‘ angua,”’ because it is danced in front of the house

instead of the akrah ; to this and to a feast held on the occasion the

young men are not invited.

The “ Jadoor’”’ dances commence on the completion of the great

harvest of the rice crop, and continue till the commencement of the

hot season. This is one of the most characteristic dances, from the

peculiar way in which the arms are interwoven and clasped behind

the back of the performers.

Then comes the “ Sarhool,” at the close of the month of Phalgoon

or early in March. The Sarhool is the flower of the Saul tree which

now blossoms. The boys and girls make garlands of these flowers,

weave them in their hair and decorate their houses with them. The

dance on this occasion, called the ‘‘ Baihini,” is a very frisky one.

The boys and girls dance to each other, clasping hands and pirouetting,

so as to cause ‘ dos-d-dos’’ concussions which appear to constitute

the best part of the fun. Yet the subject of the song sung at the

Sarhool feast is a sad one. A girl who had married out of the village

is supposed to return to it in affliction, and to sit weeping at one side

of the house, whilst her former associates are revelling at the other.

The songs are in the Moondah language.

They have besides different dances for weddings, and a dance called

“ Jumhir” which is suited to any occasion. The dances above briefly

noticed are all more or less connected with some religious ceremony,

but this is left to the elders. The young people seem to me to take

little interest in that part of the festival, which is, in proportion to

the dancing, in, importance like the bread to Falstaff’s sack. They

are always ready for a dance, and night after night in some villages

the akrah drums collect the youths and maidens after the evening

meal, and if you go quietly to the scene, as I have done, you may

find that, whilst some are dancing

@, others are flirting in the most

demonstrative manner, seated in detached couples on the benches or

on the roots of the great trees, with arms round each others’ waists,

looking lovingly into each others’ faces.

Next to dancing, that which most engrosses the mind of the Kol

is the belief in and fear of witchcraft. All disease in men and in

cattle is attributed to one of two causes, the wrath of some evil

spirit who has to be appeased, or the spell of some witch or sorcerer

186 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

who should be destroyed. The fear of punishment and, I may add

for some of them, the respect they bear to the orders of their rulers,

restrain their hands, and witch murders are now very rare, but a

village is soon made too hot to hold one who is supposed to be

a witch.

When a belief is entertained that sickness in a family, or mortality

amongst cattle, or other misfortune has been brought about by sorcery,

a Sokha or witch-finder is employed to find out who has cast the

spell. By the Sokhas various methods of divination are employed.

One of the most common is the test by the stone and “ povla.” The

latter ig a large wooden cup shaped like a half cocoanut, used as a

measure for grain. It is placed under a flat stone, and becomes a

pivot for the stone to turn on. A boy is then placed in a sitting

position on the stone, supporting himself by his hands, and the names

of all the people in the neighbourhood are slowly pronounced, and as

each name is uttered, a few grains of rice are thrown at the boy;

when they come to the name of the witch or wizard, the stone turns

and the boy rolls off!

There is no necessary collusion between the Sokha and the boy ;

the motion of the hand throwing the rice produces coma, and the

Sokha is, [suppose, sufficiently a mesmerist to bring about the required

result when he pleases.

The Singbhoom Kols or Hos, left to themselves, not only considered

it necessary to put to death a witch thus denounced, but if she had

children or other blood relations, they must all perish, as all of the

same blood were supposed to be tainted.

In 1857, when, in consequence of the mutinies, Singbhoom was

temporarily without officers, the Ho tribes of the southern parts of

the district, always the most turbulent, released from a restraint they

had never been very patient under, set to work to search out the

witches and sorcerers who, it was supposed, from the long spell of

protection they had enjoyed, had increased and multiplied toa danger-

ous extent. Ina report on this subject from the district officer, in

1860, it is stated that “the destruction of human life that ensued

is too terrible to contemplate ; whole families were put anend to. In

some instances the destroyers, issuing forth in the dusk and commen-

cing with the denounced wizard and his household, went from house

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 187

to house, until before the morning dawn they had succeeded in ex-

tinguishing, as they supposed, the whole race.” On the suppression

of the disturbances, the return of the refractory Hos to order was as

sudden and decisive as had been their relapse into barbarism. The

survivors of the families who had suffered at once emerged with confi-

dence from their hiding-places, and of the cases of witchcraft-murder,

thus or otherwise brought to notice, the perpetrators were in almost

every instance prosecuted to conviction.

It was melancholy to have to condemn men who themselves artlessly

detailed every incident of the crime with which they were charged.

The work of retribution was a sad task, but it was rigorously carried

out, and we have not since then had a single case of witchcraft murder

in the Colehan. That the belief in the existence of witches and sorcerers

is consequently extirpated, cannot be hoped. Nothing but their

conversion from paganism could effect this. I am convinced that

in most instances the prisoners, who in their examinations detailed

the most marvellous effects of imputed sorcery, were sincere believers

in all that they narrated.

One of them, named Mora, saw his wife killed by a tiger, which

he followed till it led him to the house of a man named Poosa whom

he knew. He told Poosa’s relations what had occurred, declaring to

them that Poosa had, in the form of a tiger, killed and eaten his

wife. The relatives appealed to, did not for a moment discredit the

charge. They said they were aware that Poosa did possess the

imputed power of metamorphosis. They brought him out and, deliver-

ing him bound to his accuser, stood by whilst Mora deliberately put

him to death,

In explanation of their having so acted, they deposed that Poosa

had one night devoured an entire goat and roared like a tiger, whilst

he was eating it ; and on another occasion he informed his friends he

had a longing to eat a particular bullock, and that very night that

very bullock was killed and devoured by a tiger ! |

From their having lived so long together, it is not surprising that

we should find the religious ceremonies of the Oraon and Moondah

almost identical. The Oraons have adopted the religion of the

Moondah, but they retain some features of their original faith which

indicate that it was in many essential points different from that to

which they have conformed, |

188 The “ Kols’ of Chota-Nagpore.

I have already observed that the Pahan or village priest is in all

probability an Oraon institution. The Rajmahali have a similar

functionary called ‘Demam,’ who foretells events, offers sacrifices,

regulates feasts and exorcises devils. In the Ho and Moondah villages,

all priestly functions may be performed by the head of the family, or,

if the occasion be one in which the village generally is concerned, by

any elder of the requisite knowledge and experience. ‘They worship

the sun, “Singbonga,” as the supreme being, the creator, the preserver ;

and a number of secondary gods, all invisible; material idol worship

they have none. The paganism of the Ho and Moondah in all

essential features is shamanistic.

The Oraons, in addition to the Pahan whose business it is to offer

sacrifices for the benefit of the community, have recourse to a person

called “‘Ojha” whom they consult regarding the proper spirit to be

invoked and the nature of the sacrifice that is required of them, and

whose functions appear to me to bear a strong resemblance to those

of the medicine man of the African tribes. The Craons have wooden

images or stones to represent the village and domestic spirits that they

worship. ‘Thus a carved post in the centre of their dancing arena -

represents the tutelary deity of the village, ‘‘ Daroo;” and they have

objects of some kind to represent their domestic gods, penates.

They never build a house, or select a new site for a village or even

a new threshing-floor, without consulting the ojha and omens. When

a new house is ready for the reception of its owners, an ojha is called,

and he takes earth from the hearth and charcoal, and mixing them

together, marks on the floor a magic circle. In the centre of this

he places an egg, and on the egg a split twig of the Bel tree. The

ege is then roasted and eaten by the people who are to occupy

the house. ‘This is followed by a great feast and dancing—a regular

house-warming—on the top of the house an image of a fish is hung

to avert the evil eye. These peculiarities in the paganism of the

Oraon, and only practised by Moondahs who live in the same village

with them, appear to me to savour thoroughly of feticism: before

affirming this positively, it would be advisable to examine more

minutely the customs of the Rajmahal hill tribes; but the elephant

gods, depicted by W. Sherwill as seen in their villages, are very fetish

im appearance.*

* Vide Journal, Asiatic Society Bengal, No. VII. 1851, page 553.

The “ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 189

The Moondahs, without applying to an ojha or medicine-man,

consult auguries in choosing the site of a house, with prayer to

Singbonga. A small quantity of rice is placed in holes made at the

four corners of the selected site, where it is left all night ; and if found

undisturbed in the morning, the site is good. The same process is

gone through in selecting a new site for a village. Prayer is offered

to Singbonga twice, first, that the test applied may truly indicate

if the site be good or bad ; secondly, for a blessing on the chosen site.

It is the fashion to call:the religion of the Kols ‘ devil worship,’ but

this is not strictly correct ; for although the minor deities may be mostly

of a malevolent nature and therefore devils who have to be propitiated,

still Singbonga is worshipped asa beneficent god. This worship

of the sun as the supreme deity is the foundation of the religion

of the Oraons as well as the Moondahs. By the former he is invoked

as Dhurmi, the holy one. He is the creator and the preserver, and

with reference to his purity, white animals are offered to him by his

yotaries. He is not regarded as the author of sickness or calamity ;

but he may be appealed to to avert it, and this appeal is often made,

when the sacrifices to the minor deities have been unproductive.

But besides these occasional sacrifices, all Moondahs who hold to

the faith of their ancestors, are especially bound to make a certain

number of offerings to Singbonga during their tenure of the posi-

tion of head of the family. He may take his own time about them,

but he will not be happy in his mind till he completes his comple-

ment and clears the account. I obtained this information from the

Kheriahs, and on speaking about it to some ancient Pahans and

Moondah elders, was told that it undoubtedly is the orthodox practice,

but it has been neglected. The sacrifices are five in number:

Ist, fowls; 2nd, a pig; 3rd, a white goat ; 4th, a ram ; 5th, a buffalo ;

and they must be offered in the open plain in front of an ant

hill, or with an ant hill as an altar. Sacrifices to other gods are

generally offered in the “ Saerna,’’* the sacred grove of Sal trees, the

remnant of the primeval forest left for the spirits when the settlement

was first made.

The names and attributes of the inferior deities are nearly the same

amongst the Hos in Singbhoom, the Moondahs and Oraons in Chota-

* Or ‘Saran,’ ‘ Charan,’

190 The “ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

Nagpore, and amongst the Sonthals ‘passim.’ Marang Booroo and

Pongla his wife; Desaoolli, Jaer Boori, Hekin Bonga, Boora Bonga,

Charee Desoolli and Dara are invoked in Chota-Nagpore.

The Sonthals have Marang Booroo, also Maniko his brother and

Jaer his sister. ickell’s paper in Vol. IX, part 2nd of this Journal

gives the Singbhoom gods and their attributes. They too have

Marang Booroo and Pongala, Desaoolli and Jaer Boori or Jaer Hra

and others. In cases of sickness the Ho, after ascertaining by augury

which of the gods should be propitiated, will go on offering sacrifices

till the patient recovers or his live stock is entirely exhausted.

Next to Singbonga I am inclined to place the deity that is adored

s “‘ Marang Booroo.” Booroo means mountain, but every mountain

has its spirit, and the word is therefore used to mean god or spirit*

also. Marang Booroo is the great spirit or great mountain. Not far

from the village of Lodmah in Chota-Nagpore one of the most

conspicuous hills on the plateau is called Marang Booroo, and here

the great spirit is supposed to dwell. It is worshipped by the

Sonthals, the Bhoomij, the Hos, the Moondahs and the Oraons. The

two latter make pilgrimages to it. The Hos have some vague notion

of its situation; the more distant members of the family canonize

some hill more conveniently situated.

The Marang Booroo is especially venerated as the lord of rain.

Before the rains the women go to the top of the hill, under the

Jeadership of the wives of the Pahans, with drums, which are on this

occasion only played on by young ladies, and with offerings of milk

and leaves of the Bel tree. On the top of the hill there is a flat mass

of rock on which they deposit their offerings.

The wives of the Pahans now kneel down, and with hair noxentel

invoke the deity, beseeching him to give their crops seasonable rain.

They shake their heads violently as they reiterate this prayer, till they

work themselves into a phrensy, and the movement becomes involuntary.

They go on thus wildly gesticulating, till a “little cloud like a man’s

hand” is seen. Then they arise, take up the drums, and dance the

Kurrun on the rock, till Marang Booroo’s response to their prayer is

heard in the distant rumbling of thunder, and they go home rejoicing.

. * Thus they have for their altars groves and high places like the idolatrous

EWS.

The “ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 191

They must go “fasting to the mount,” and stay there till ‘ there is a

sound of abundance of rain,”

when they get them down to eat and

drink. My informant tells me it always comes before evening. We

must conclude that the old women are wonderfully clever at taking a

“ forecast,’ and do not commence the fast till they sniff the rain.

All the villagers living in the vicinity of the hill make offerings of

goats, whenever they think it desirable to propitiate this spirit ; but he

is not invoked in cases of sickness, unless the ojha declayes it necessary.

Sometimes bullocks are offered.

The next in importance in Chota-Nagpore appears to be the spirit

Dara, whom the Oraons and Moondahs living with them adore in the

form of a carved post stuck up where the great jatras are held, or in

the village dancing place. Dara appears to be a god of rather

bacchanalian characteristics, worshipped amidst much revelling and

wassail. A sacrifice to him of fowls is followed by a feast in his

honour, at which all the elders drink themselves into a state of sottish

drunkenness, whilst the young people dance and make love; and next

day comes the jatra which all the country attend.

The Penates are generally called the “old folks.” They are in

fact the manes of the votaries’ ancestors ; votive offerings are made to

them when their descendants go on a journey, and they are generally

the first that are propitiated when there is sickness in the family.

By the Singbhoom Kols, the manes of the ancestors of the principal

lady of the house are also honoured. ‘The offerings to them are made

on the path by which she was brought home asa bride. Desaoolli

and Jaeroolli are propitiated for harvesés and for cattle, Chandoo

Seckur, the same probably as the Chanala of the Hos, for children.

The Pahan has to solemnize regularly the following festivals. The

Hurihur, at the commencement of the planting season. LHvery one

then plants a branch of the Belowa in his field and each contributes

a fowl, a pitcher of beer and a handful of rice to the feast. The sacrifice

is offered to Desaoolli, Jaer Boori and others, in the Saerna.

During the Sarhool—when the Sal tree blossoms—the sacrifice of a

goat and fowls is offered inthe Saerna by the Pahan to the manes of the

founders of the village and to Dara. The introduction of the Sal

blossom, in memory of the forest that was cleared when the village was

formed, is very appropriate. At the khurria Poojah, when the rice is

192, The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

harvested, the sacrifice is offered and the feast takes place on the

Pahan’s threshing floor.

Dalikattari: every second year a fowl, every third year a ram,

every fourth year a buffalo. ‘To provide what is required for this feast,

the Pahan holds the Dalikattaree land.

I have already alluded to the division of the Moondahs and their

cognates into “ Keelles’” or clans. Many of the Oraon clans and

some of the Moondah in Chota-Nagpore are called aiter animals, and

they must not kill or eat what they are named after.

Thus the Moondah “ Enidhi” and the Oraon “ Minjrar’ or Eel

tribe will not kill or eat that fish. The Hawk, Crow, Heron tribes

will not kill or eat those birds. Livingstone, quoted in Latham,* tells

us that the sub-tribes of the Bitshaunas (or Bechuanas) are similarly

named after certain animals, and a tribe never eats the animal from

which it is named, using the term, ‘‘7/a,”’ hate or dread, in reference

to killing it.

The above curious coincidence tempts me to give a few more details

regarding the Oraon clans.

The ‘“ Tirki’—have an objection to animals whose eyes are not

yet open, and their own offspring are never shewn till they are wide

awake.

The “ Ekkar”

The ‘ Katchoor’’—object to water in which an elephant has been

bathed.

The ‘‘ Amdiar’’—will not eat the foam of the river.

The ‘ Kujrar’’—will not eat the oil of the Kujri tree, or sit in its

will not touch the head of a tortoise.

shade.

The ‘ Tiga’—will not eat the monkey.

The Ho chiefs could give me no signification for the names in

which their families rejoice. The following are the most aristocratic,

the Boorioolli, the Poorthi, Sincoi, Baipoi, Soondee, Bandri.

I do not know of any people who are more careful in regard to the

disposal of their dead than are the tribes of whom I am treating,

especially the Singbhoom Kols and best classes of the Moondahs.

On the death of a Ho or Moondah, a very substantial coffin is

constructed and placed on faggots of firewood. The body, carefully

* Latham’s Ethnology, Vol. Il. p. 160.

The “ Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore. 193

washed and anointed with oil and turmeric, is reverently laid in the

coffin, and all the clothes and ornaments used by the deceased are

placed with it, and also any money that he had about him when he

died. Then the lid of the coffin is put on and faggots piled above

and around it, and the whole is burned. The cremation takes place

in front of the deceased’s house. Next morning water is thrown on

the ashes and search made for the bones; all the larger fragments are

carefully preserved, the remainder, with the ashes, are buried then and

there. The selected bones are placed in a vessel and hung up in the

house in a place where they may be continually viewed by the widow

or mother. Thus they remain till the very extensive arrangements

necessary for the final disposal are effected. A large monumental

stone has to be selected, and it is sometimes so large that the

men of several villages are employed to move it. It is brought

to the family burial place, which with the Hos is close to their

houses, and with the Oraons generally separated from the village

by a stream. A deep round hole is dug beside the stone, and when

all is ready, a procession is formed consisting of one old woman

carrying the bones on a decorated bamboo tray, one or two men

with deep sounding wooden drums, and half a dozen young girls,

those in the front rank carrying empty and partly broken pitchers,

and brass vessels. The procession moves with a solemn ghostly

sliding step, in time to the deep sounding drum. The old woman

varries the tray on her head, but at regular intervals she slowly

lowers it, and as she does so, the girls gently lower and mournfully

reverse the pitchers and brass vessels, to shew that they are empty.

In this manner the remains are taken to the house of every friend

and relative of the deceased, within a circle of a few miles, and

to every house in the village, and as it approaches, the inmates

come out and mourn, as they call to mind all the good qualities of the

deceased. The bones are thus conveyed also to all his favourite haunts,

to the fields he cultivated, to the grove he planted, to the threshing-

floor where he worked, and to the akrah where he made merry. When

this part of the ceremony is completed, the procession returns to the

village and moves in circles round the grave, gradually approaching its

goal: at last it stops, and a quantity of rice and other food, cooked and

uncooked, is now cast into the hole. The bones are then put into a

194 The “ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

new earthen vessel and deposited on the rice, and the hole is filled in

and covered with the large slab which effectually closes it against

desecration.

The collection of these massive grave stones under the fine old

tamarind trees is a remarkable feature in Kol villages, and almost an

indelible one, for they are found in many places where Kols have not

existed for centuries. Besides the grave stones, monumental stones

are set up outside the village to the memory of men of note. They

are fixed in an earthen plinth, on which, shaded by the pillar, the ghost

is supposed to sit. The Kheriahs have collections of these monu-

ments in the little enclosure round their houses, and offerings and

libations are constantly made to them.

The funeral ceremonies above described are of a composite order,

mingling with the Hindoo custom of cremation, what was in all

probability their original mode of burial; but a very profound

reverence for the dead pervades them all. I think it is very probable

that the Kols originally disposed of their dead differently. The coffin,

though put together on the faggots that are to consume it, has projec-

tions as if to facilitate transport. Omit the burning and substitute

burial, and we have the careful disposal and subsequent adoration of the

dead that is practised by the Chinese ; but the burning of the body and

the long retention of the ashes in a portable form may have been

adopted at a time when the tribe could not be certain of continued

residence in one place.

Tickell has given at length the Ho legend of the origin of the human

race. It is supremely absurd, and very few of the present generation

know anything or care anything about it. I have always found such

legends changeable and untrustworthy. With no written record to

give them permanence, they are altered either to suit new con-

ditions or the fancy of the reciter. Thus though the Kols have

known the Hnelish for little more than half a century, they assign to

them a most honourable place in their genesis. The Assam Abors and

Garrows do just the same.

T do not think that the present generation of Kols have any notion

of a heaven or a hell that may not be traced to Brahminical or Christian

teaching. The old idea is that the souls of the dead become “ bhoots,”

spirits, but no thought of reward or punishment is connected with the

The ‘ Kols” of Chata-Nagpore. 195

change. When a Ho swears, the oath has no reference whatever to a

future state. He prays, that if he speak not the truth he may be

afflicted in this world with the loss of all, health, wealth, wife, children ;

that he may sow without reaping and finally may be devoured by a

tiger ; but he swears not by any hope of happiness beyond the grave.

He has in his primitive state no such hope, and I believe that most

Indian aborigines, though they may have some vague ideas of conti-

nuous existence, will be found equally devoid of original notions in

regard to the Judgment to come.

It may be said that the funeral ceremonies I have described, indicate

clearly a belief in resurrection, else why should food, clothes and money

be burned with the body or buried with the ashes? 'The Kols have

given me the same explanation of this that I once before received from

the Chulikutta Mishmees in Upper Assam, who have no notion of any

existence beyond the grave. They do not wish to benefit by the loss

of their friend, which they would do if they were to appropriate any

article belonging to him: they therefore give with him all his person-

alties, all property that he and he alone used and benefited by; but

this does not apply to the stock of the farm and household property

that all profit by, or even to new cloth, for that might have been

procured for any member of the family. It often happens that a

respectable ‘ Ho’ has goods of this nature, that he abstains from using

even once, because if once used, the article will be destroyed at his

death.

The Moondah Oraon races are passionately fond of field sports, and

are so successful that large and small game soon disappear from the

. vicinity of considerable settlements ; and they fear not to make a new

settlement, consisting only of a few huts, in the jungles most infested

by wild beasts. Hvery year at the commencement of the hot season,

they form great hunting parties which are well described in Tickell’s

memoir. They are also greatly addicted to cock-fighting. They have

periodical meets at assigned places where hundreds of fighting cocks

are collected. Cruel steel spurs are used, and the combat is always

a Voutrance, the victims becoming the property of the owners of

the victorious birds. This is, I think, the only stake. They are

fond of fishing too, and some of them are very expert in spearing large

fish,

196 The “ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore.

The arms of the Kols are to this day what they were in the days of

““ Rama’—the bow and arrow and battle-axe. The bow is simply

a piece of bamboo, and the string is of the same material. The war

arrows have large broad blades doubly and trebly barbed, but they

make them of all shapes: poison they do not use. They commence

practice with the bow and arrow at the earliest age. In Singbhoom

boys three and four years old and upwards, when herding cattle or

otherwise engaged, have always their bow, and blunt and sharp arrows ;

the former for practice, the latter to bring down birds when they have

a chance.

Tn the villages of Chota-Nagpore where the Oraon and Moondah are

mixed up together, the difference of character between the two races

is not much marked ; but if we compare the Singbhoom Hos or Chota-

Nagpore Mankees and the Oraons, we see strong contrasts. The Oraon

has the lively happy disposition of the Negro. He is fond of gaiety,

decorating rather than clothing his person, and whether toiling or

playing, is always cheerful.

The Ho or Moondah has more the dignity and reserve of the North

American Indian, at least when he is sober. He appears to less

advantage when he is drunk, and he is not unfrequently in that state.

At all festivals and ceremonies, deep potations of the rice-beer called

“‘eeley”’ ave freely indulged in by both sexes. Inspirited by this

beverage, the young men and girls dance together all day and half the

night; but the dances are perfectly correct, and whenever these

meetings have led to improprieties, it is always attributed to a too

free indulgence in eeley. As a rule, the men are reserved and highly

decorous in their treatment of the women; and the girls, though

totally free from the prudery that secludes altogether or averts the

head of a Hindoo or Mahommedan maiden when seen by a man, have

a modest demeanour, combined with frank open manners and womanly

grace. @

It is said by some, that at the seasons of their great festivals

amongst themselves, breaches of chastity are of frequent occurrence ;

but the mere freedom of intercourse allowed to the sexes is likely to

be viewed with unmerited prejudice and misconstrued by their neigh-

bours of different race who place such restrictions upon it, and I believe

that this may give rise to false imputations of impropriety. It is, at

The “ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 197

*all events, a fact that illegitimate births are rare. Out of her own

tribe, a Ho girl is hardly ever known to go astray, though from the

freedom allowed to her and, for a tropical climate, the ripe age at which

she is likely to be sought in marriage, she must have to pass through

many temptations.

The Hos are acutely sensitive under abusive language that at all

reflects upon them, and may be and often are driven to commit

suicide by an angry word. If a woman appears mortified by anything

that has been said, it is unsafe to let her go away till she is soothed.

The men are almost as sensitive as the women, and you cannot offend

them more than by doubting their word. It has often seemed to me

that the more a statement tells against themselves, the more certain

they are to tell the exact truth about it. It frequently happens that

aman is himself the first person to bring to notice that he has com-

mitted a crime; he tells all about it, and deliberately gives himself up

to be dealt with according to law.

The Oraon is, I think, less truthful, he is more given to vagabondis-

ing, and wandering over the face of the earth in search of employment ;

he soon loses all the freshness of his character. He returns after an

absence of years, unimproved in appearance, more given to drink and

self-indulgence, less genial and truthful than before, with a bag of

money that is soon improvidently spent. Those who have never left

their own country have far more pleasing manners and dispositions, than

those who return to it after years spent in other parts of India or

beyond the seas. The fact is, they are not an improvable people.

They are best seen in their wild state.

There is no more pleasing trait amongst all these tribes than their

kindly affectionate manner one towards another. I never saw girls

quarrelling, and never heard them abuse each other. They are the

most unspiteful of their sex, and the men never coarsely abuse and

seldom speak harshly of the women. ‘This is remarkable on this side

of India where you seldom pass through a bazar without hearing women

screeching indecent abuse at each other across the street, whilst the

menlookon. A Kol girl’s vocabulary is as free from bad language of

this kind as a Bengalee’s is full of it.

The young Oraons of both sexes are intensely fond of decorating

their persons with beads and brass ornaments. These they entirely

198 The ‘‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

discard on embracing Christianity, and the converts may be always*

recognised by the total absence of all such adornment. The converts

do not join in the dances, or festivals, and must not even be seen as

spectators, when they are going on. They appear indeed to lose all

relish for their old amusements, and shrink with horror at the idea of

resuming their discarded ornaments. And as Christianity is rapidly

spreading amongst them, and in all probability will continue to spread

more and more rapidly every year, it is quite possible that in the course

of a few generations, the most marked characteristics of the races I am

describing, will have been effaced for ever. It is marvellous with what

firmness old prejudices are abandoned, old customs discarded, and even

tastes changed, when they become Christians ; and there is now a wide-

spread feeling amongst the Kols themselves, that this change will

inevitably come upon them all.

The Moondah-Oraon are a rapidly increasing people. We may

form some calculation as to the rate of increase by the statistics of the

Mission. In 1864, the baptised converts numbered 5,923, and in that

year there were 195 births to 80 deaths. In 1865 there were 7,828

baptized Christians, and the births during the year were 309 to 86

deaths. The number of professing Christians is probably double the

number registered as baptized. I subjoin in a tabular form brief

vocabularies of the Moondahs and their cognates, referring to Tickell’s

memoir for a full notice of the language. I annex notes on the Oraon

language with which I have been kindly favoured by the Reverend

Frederic Batsch.

APPENDIX A.

<= Q-e-

List of words and phrases to be noted and used as test words for the

discovery of the radical affinatees of languages, and for easy

comparison.

Numerals. Onetoten. Twenty. Fifty. Hundred.

Pronouns. I. Of me. Mine.

We. Of us. Our.

Thou. Of thee. Thine.

You. Of you. Your.

He. Of him. His.

They. Of them. Their.

Hand. Father. Sun.

Foot. Mother. Moon.

Nose. Brother. Star.

Kye. Sister. Fire.

Mouth. Man. Water.

Tooth. Woman. House.

Ear. Wife. Horse.

Hair. Child. Cow.

Head. Son. Dog.

Tongue. Daughter. Cat.

Belly. Slave. Cock.

Back. Cultivator. Duck.

Tron. Shepherd. Ass.

; Gold. God. Camel.

Silver. Devil. Bird.

Go. Come. Die.

Kat. Beat. Give.

Sit. Stand. Run.

202

near

who

and

yes

A Father.

Of a father.

To a father.

Appendia A.

down

far

what

but

Two Fathers.

From a father.

A daughter.

Two daughters.

Of a daughter.

To a daughter.

From a daughter.

A good man.

before

behind

why

alas.

Fathers.

Of fathers.

To fathers.

From fathers.

Daughters. .

Of daughters.

To daughters.

From daughters.

Two good men. Good men.

Of a good man. —

To a good man.

From a good man,

A good woman.

A bad boy.

good

high

a horse

a bull

a dog

a he-goat

a male deer

Tam

We are

T was

We were

Be.

I may be.

Of good men.

To good men.

From good men.

Good women.

A bad girl.

better best

higher highest

a mare horses mares

a cow bulls cows

a bitch dogs bitches

a female goat goats

a female deer deer.

Thou art He is.

You are They are.

Thou wast He was.

You were ‘They ‘were.

To be. Being. Having been.

I shall be. I should be.

Beat.

I beat.

We beat.

I am beating.

I may beat.

I am beaten.

I go.

I went.

Go.

Appendia A.

To beat. Beating.

Thou beatest.

You beat.

I was beating.

I shall beat.

I was beaten.

Thou goest.

Thou wentest.

Going.

What is your name?

How Old is this horse?

How far is it from here to Kashmir ?

203

Having beaten,

He beats.

They beat.

T had beaten.

I should beat.

T shall be beaten.

He goes.

He went.

Gone.

How many sons are there in your father’s house ?

I have walked a long way to-day.

The son of my uncle is married to her sister.

Put the saddle upon his back.

T have beaten his son with many stripes.

He is grazing cattle on the top of the hill.

He is sitting on a horse under that tree.

His brother is taller than his sister.

The price of that is two rupees and a half,

My father lives in that small house.

Give this rupee to him.

Take those rupees from him.

Beat him well and bind him with ropes.

Draw water from the well.

Walk before me.

Whose boy comes behind you ?

From whom did you buy that ?

From a shop-keeper of the village.

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Oececo

eyyood

eARULY]

90.10} S1

ound

eATUTUL

Appendix C.

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eka

euUUre

vygeyy “edde

aMoyp

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vkexess; ‘sox

ouey

Tyeur “aMqgtad

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0.0R

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pueyo

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Seocece

TUSBAAS

STURUT

TUryeq,

nfop

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eqeq

no ‘ney

OVI

Uey

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ysory

reu ‘uese

Yyusey

Unz

BITS

T1O3]

nyoou

nyoeu “mys

eq,

viq ‘euvuez

uATYOUL

yuaq

ror

freut

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jem “yseur

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rom

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red

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femays

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ally

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wog

PIED

OFT AL

TRU AA

UL]

Joys

ToyOIG

TOT IOTA

TOYI

onsuoy,

peerE

Ieyy

Ivy

Appendix O.

NSsTUIMA Ol PUOY

vuuoyp

»TSSTULUL dy puoy,

vAOUTU o|PUOY

By yey) oxervu

Aosvyqeyy

BUOY py yey

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eye

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Te,

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vloy.s

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Appendix 0.

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apuryRes

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UMOUBYV ys AowreUt

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218

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eo oovee

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221

BVT

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ferns

91 Ip

OL Ip

woyyo qowq

e110q ‘tjeuued

6 \

pAlOq “1.198

suet

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Appendix CO.

qqul

nyyeut

wey

yuyp

nage

Mee

IPYSYR]

Bipueyo

“OALINS

"yoA]

orynd ‘Sy Xoy

‘oLyey ‘TB URS

DLO

BsI10q

snUBUL

uryeq

ney

Te “reul

dvq

yan!

dis ‘eyop

soy

wey

puoy

a1Rp

B10}

opueyo

odl100s

oAtyl

o-ood

eid ‘eyyo

odrut

vAULYIVUL

odiurut

soUMoy

rey,

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odeq

equil

BY}OUL

oyeq

ouRy

ovueEp

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pueyo

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1138 “Seur

eut ‘eXeut

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quep

BI UUL

yoyo

1B4Q

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ung

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m0g

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onsuoy,

prop

Ivyy

reny

qq}O00L

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oAny

deq qureq3y

deq jovi

edeq, deq nyeq

dvq aq dq wop

iyjosed deq, ansed edeq

eudeq sedvq

nudeq apo vdeq

TY YyoRut BSSBUL

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ORCHIDY| BQN

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samy}oord

tued

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deq vepuemu

wiodeq

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nai0s

eioys

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LPOG) [QIOG, CRU ZO OGG EC O

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50g

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0j0Y 94

o0j0y 104

oj0y UN,

ayy 004

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Appendia C.

oqTYo 94

OTD unr

tneyyo uny

ayyepoq “nares syyuos

nies |

nies vieypoq

nas

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Appendix D, 225

APPENDIX D.

Kashnuree Vocabulary and Grammatical Forms.

In consequence of recent discussions in the Society, Mr. L. Bowring,

Commissioner of Mysore, was kind enough to let me know that he had

many years ago compiled and sent to the Society a Kashmiree Voca-

bulary. The result has been the discovery of a paper as valuable as

the hereditary reputation of the author would lead us to expect, which

the Society now loses no time in publishing, and which it has been

thought well to put in this place in connection with our Ethnological in-

quiries. Mr. Bowring’s paper gives us a far fuller and better knowledge

of the Kashmiree language than anything that we have yet had. The

Vocabularies are very full, exact, and well arranged, and the grammati-

cal forms of the verb especially are very fully set forth. It is only neces-

sary (treating the matter ethnologically) to observe that since Persian

has been for several hundred years the language of Government,

religion and literature in Kashmir, and there has also been a long

connection with Hindustan and the Punjab, a vast number of Persian

words and phrases, and some Hindustanee and Punjabee expressions

have necessarily incorporated themselves in the modern Kashmiree,

especially as spoken by the better classes. In fact, that wonderful

language Persian infuses itself wherever it comes in contact, and it

abounds in Kashmiree just asin the upper class Hindustanee and in fact

in Turkish also. Hence a faithful specimen of the Kashmiree of the

present day will be found to contain many foreign words. But they

are easily distinguishable, still wearing their foreign dress and little

adapted to the native forms; and for the most part such words need

not be confounded with original native words in such a way as to

mislead us regarding the radical affinities of the language.

T have taken the liberty of omitting from Mr. Bowring’s vocabularies

a few evidently Persian words of a literary, and for the most part com-

pound character, as I thought that these would not serve our present

purpose. Some remain as now part of the ordinary vulgar tongue,

but looking both to the vocables and to the grammar, I think it will

be found that Kashmiree is certainly allied to the Indian languages

rather than to the Persian,

226 Appendi« D.

Mr, Bowring has, perhaps, in the examples which he has given, put

the declension of the noun rather too simply. He has used the unin-

flected Indian form ‘ Manush’ for man and the Persian word ‘ Zananah’

for woman. He shows, however, that most Kashmiree nouns are in-

flected to form the plural, and I think it will be found that almost all

real Kashmiree nouns are inflected for cases also. Both my own

observations and those of Messrs. Edgeworth and Leech, as well as Mr.

Bowring’s dialogues give the proper Kashmiree form for man

‘Mohnyn,’ plural ‘ Mohnivi.’ And the following which I take from

Leech is, I believe, the true declension of the Kashmiree noun ‘ Nichu,’

a son.

A son, nichu Sons, nichivi.

Of a son, nichivi-sand ‘Of sons, nichiven-sand.

To a son, nichivis To sons, nichiven.

From a son, nichinishi From sons, nichiven-nishi.

With respect to the variations of the genitive case, Mr. Edgeworth

seems to differ from Mr. Bowring, saying that the genitive affix is,

like Hindustanee, governed in point of gender by the noun which fol-

lows rather than by that which precedes it. So far as I could make

out from cursory inquiry on the spot, it seemed to me that in fact the

form of this affix is affected by both the preceding and the following

nouns. Indeed it seems to have the most extraordinary chameleon-

like variety of shapes, according to the positions in which the words

are placed, and the only conclusion of my inquiries was, that the rules

of Kashmiree declension are so complicated, that nothing but careful

and scientific study will reduce them to shape.

It may be added that feminines are formed from masculines by

inflections, as—

Masculine. Femanine.

Gur, horse. eulr, mare.

Kokur, cock, kokair, hen.

Tsawal, he goat, tsavij, she goat.

Batak, drake, batich, duck.

Kay, male crow, kavin, female crow.

The language is evidently altogether subject to very many post-

inflections, and abounds in affixes and postpositions.

G. CAMPBELL.

Appendix D. 227

foctbulary of the Kashmiri Language.—By L. Bowrine, Esq.,

Commissioner of Mysore.

The following vocabulary was prepared in Kashmiri in 1851, after

comparison with another copy in Urdu.

It may be observed of the Kashmiri that the pronunciation of the

letter 6 is very broad, resembling the aw in aw/ul, as for instance ‘ mél,’

father, read ‘mawl.’ The language also affects the compound letter

ts in lieu of ‘ch,’ as ‘tsor,’ four.

The formation of the plurals of substantives is irregular, but they

generally take the affixes ‘ cha’ and ‘ chi.’ The genitive of substan-

tives takes its gender from the noun preceding, not from that fol-

lowing as in Urdu.

The particle os is not used with verbs. The great number of Sans-

krit words existing in Kashmiri is evident, but there are many words

peculiar to the language. The character is generally written with

Persian letters, but a form of Nagri is also in use.

Substantives.

Air akash Boat nau, shikéri

Apple tstint Brick sir

Ass khar Book pith

Arm nar Buffalo moesh

Army fauj Bread tsuit

Age bujar Breast vachh

Assistance yari Badness yach

Answer uttar Beard dor

Arrow tir Bone adij

Abuse lék Bill tont

Bird pak Breath shah

Brother boi Brass sartal

Boy lokat Business kom

Branch lang Basket phut, dak

Barley ushak Bush kradzal

Butter thain Blood rath

Blackberry bar Bag thil

Birth parsun Bow kaman

Bridge kadul Blow chék

228

Butterfly

Burglary

Bee

Child

Cucumber

Cherry

Clothes

City

Copper

Cow

Cat

Camel

Chin

Coat

Ceiling

Cotton

Cheese

Claim

Corner

Colour

Chesnut

Cedar

Carrot

Cloud

Crossbeam

Chair

Corpse

Chalk

Candle

Day

Dew

Daughter

Death

Dog

Deer

Duck

Dirt

didar

san

tilar

balak

lér

glas

kapar

shahr

tram

gao

barir

anth

hongain

faran

talau

kapas

chaman

dawa

kon

rang

bun

deodar

gajar

abar

thathar

sandal

mur

slap

soyét

duh

shabnam

kur

maran

hin

loh, ris

battuk

mal

Appendix D.

Deceit

Darkness

Dream

Danger

Drop

Dram

Dance

Earth

Elephant

Eyebrow

Evil

Edge

East

Elbow

Enemy

Exertion

Fire

Father

Father-in-law

Fruit

Flower

Flour

Fowl

Fox

Fish

Frog

Food

Field

Foot

Forehead

Fear

Flesh

Firebasket

Foreigner

bram

gath

supan

khatar

phitr

henur

nagmah

zamin

hasth

thol

tichh

kan

bumah

yach

buth

pur

khon

shitar

talash [gul

tungul, nartun-

mol, bab .

zamtur

mewah

posh

kukkur

patslo

gad

nifimondij

bat

_khyeti

khor

dek

bayi

shun

kangar

bishahri

Fraud

Face

Feather

Fever

Fireplace

Friend

Family

Ferry

Finger

Fisher

Fist

Funeral-pile

Flea

Fly

God

Girl

Grass

Gram

Garlic

Gold

Goat

Goose

Grain

Garden

Goodness

Greatness

Grape

Groom

Game

Girth

Husband

Hail

House

Horse

Head

Hair

Heart

dagha

but

par

tap

bukhari

mitar

-shirbots

ghat

anguj

gadhanj

musht

chenta

pish

mach

dé

I6kat kir

gas

chhola

ruhan

son

tsawij, tsawul

ans

andj

bagh

jan

bajar

dach

sais

gindun

tang

rin

dot

garh, lur

gur

kalah

wal

vandah

Appendix D.

Hand

Height

Heap

Hunger

Health

Hedge

Hoof

Honey

Horn

Hour

Hemp

Ice

Insect

Tron

Indian corn

Interest

Interference

Ink

Juice

Jest

Jackal

Knife

Leaf

Leg

Lip

Length

Lie

Life

Light

Letter

Linseed

Lime

Liver

Lock

Load

Log

Lizard

ath

thazar

dér, anbar

buchi

balan

var

padur

mach

hiang

gar

bang

yak

kim

shistar

makhai

sudh

khalal, toth

mil

Tas!

thatha

shal

srak

barak

lang

uth

zechar

apuz

umar

gash

achar, harf

alish

chunah

jigar

kuluf

bar

hat

hadzing

229

230

Moon

Mountain

Mist

Month

Morning

Midday

Man

Mother

Mushroom

Marriage

Mosque

Money

Mule

Mouth

Moustache

Measure

Medicine

Milk

Molasses

Manure

Minute

Market

Mat

Mine

Monkey

Mortgage

Mustard

Mint

Musquito

Meteorite

Mouse

Name

Night

Nephew

Niece

Nose

Nail

Appendix D.

koh, parvat

vunar

riat

subah, prabat

dopahar

manush, mohnu

mé6j

hedar

khandar

mashid

nakd

katir

génch

minun

dawa

dédh

gor

pah

laza, pal

koth

vagil

kan

vandur

band

asur

podin

mah

trath

anmur

nav

rat

bapitar

bapitar beni

nast

nam

Neck

Needle

Nest

Noise

Number

Nettle

Net

North

Onion

Oil

Oar

Oath

Pumpkin

Pear

Partridge

Pearl

People

| Platter

Pain

Price

Pair

Poplar

Piece

Peg

Pepper

Pace

Paper

Pen

Pillar

Pillow

Pit

Plough

Pole

Power

Pocketpicking

Question

River

gardan

stizan

él

shor, kraknad

ganzrun

swal

zal

vutar

paran

til

kar, chapa

dri

alah

tank

tsar

mukt

lok

thal

déd

mol

-jora

farast

tukra

mekh

marach

pur

kaghaz

kalam

tham

vatrun

khad

alah

chéb

kowwat

thappul

prachun

darya

Rain

Rains

Rice

Raspberry

Road

Rat

Rump

Roof

Relation

Rope

Red pepper.

Rind

Rate

Rein

Remedy

Ring

Rose

Rust

Sea

Sun

Star

Snow

Son

Sister

Son-in-law

Spring

Summer

Stem

Salt

Strawberry

Street

Stone

Silver

Sheep

Snake

Shoulder

Stomach

Appendix D.

rud Smallness

barsat Strength

tumal Shadow

chanchh Shoe

vat Sleep

gagar Skin

mandul Sound

bain Seed

rishta Sugar

raz Stick

martsuwingan | South

diyal Shop

mol Sugarcane

lakam Staircase

i1aj Saddle

v6] Sorrow

gulab Sack

khai Stool

samandar Spider

Aftab, saria Species

tarak Sand

shin Saw

nicht Scale

beiii Screw

heur Sheath

behar Sheet

rathkél Shield

mul Side

nin Silk

kandachh Sleeve

dur, kocha Smoke

kain Soap

chand Spot

gobh Sting

sarp Scorpion

phitk Steel

yad Straw

231

shikaslad

Zor

sayah

paizar

nindar

cham

awaz

beul

shakar

lur

duchan

van

waishakar

hér

Zin

azab

gun

rayat, garusth

zallur

kism

siak

lotar

trak, hayuk

pech

kum

chadar

sipar

tarf

pot

nur

duh

sabun

digh

toph

bich

folad

gas

232

Sweat

Storm

Spoon

Thunder

Tree

Temple

Teeth

Tongue

Thigh

Truth

Time

Throat

Turban.

Thirst

Tank

Tea

Tail

Trade

Toe

Tomato

Turnip

Thread

Tent :

Table

Taste

Thorn

Theft

Trust

Uncle

Umbrella

Udder

Urine

Use

Appendix D.

gumah

vau

choncha

gagral

kul

mandir

dand

jiau

ran

puz

vakt, vél

hut

dastar

tresh

talau

cchahi

dumah

saudagari

kh6rij angu]

ruvangan

gogal

pan

khema

mez

maza, swad

kanth

tsur

‘itimad, pats

pitar, chacha

tabdan

than

mutr

kam

Venom

Velvet

Vein

Vice

Village

Water

Wind

Woman

Wife

Winter

Wheat

Wood

Wrist

Width

Well

Weight

West

Washerman

Watermelon

Wall -

Worm

Whore

Weed

Wager

Wax

Wheel

Widow

Wing

Wire

Wool

Yard

Year

gahar

makhmal

rag

pap

gam

ab, pou

hawa

zenanah

kolai

vand

‘kanak

Zu.

mats

khajar

chah, krir

tolin

pachum

dub

handwand

dos

Amkhiim

hafiz

gas

dau

mom —

hagur

mond

par

tar

won

gaj

varih

Singular, Piural. Singular.

Plural.

Barak

Gam

Gas

J anwar

Active

Blunt

Boiling

Broken

Appendix D.

Declensions.

A man

Of a man

A man

From a man

Men

Of men

Men

From men

A woman

‘Of a woman

A woman

From a woman

Women

Of women

Women

From women

233

manush

manush-sund

manush-is

manush-nishin

manash

manash-sund

manash-is

manash-nishin

zenani

zenani-hund

zenani

zenani-nishin

zenanah

zenanah-hund

zenanah

zenanah-nishin

Examples of Plurals,

a sister Benicha sisters

a brother Bai brothers

a father Mail fathers

a mother Maji mothers

a son Nichii sons

a tree Kuil trees

a leaf Barakchi leaves

a village Gamchi villages

a grass Gascha grasses

an animal Janwarchi animals

Adjectives,

takra Blind un

mund Blue nidl

tut, bahar Black karhtin

phutmut Bitter tsok, chok

234

Bad

Cheap

Clever

Clear

Coarse

Crooked

Cold

Certain

Deep

Dear

Dark

Deaf

Dumb

Dead

Double

Dry

Dirty

Drunk

Easy

Empty

Expert

First

Former

Fat

False

Frightened

Fine

Full

Fond

Good

Great

Glad

Greedy

Green

Generous

General

High

yach

sug

gatul

saf

viut

hul

turun

pats

sun

drug

anigut

Zur

kul

mudmud

zoh

huk

malburut

mut

asan

khali

fazil

pathiim

bronth

viut

apuz

khochin

zayul

barit

t6th

jan

bod

khtish

lilachi

sabz

datah

am.

thud

Appendix D.

Hard

Hungry

Heavy

Hot

Ill, bad

Low

Long

Little

Less

Last

Lame

Leprous

Lazy

Light

Loose

Left

Lower

Many

Mad

Middle

New

Naked

Old

Proud

Putrid

Poor

Quick

Ready

Right

Ripe

Raw

Small

Sweet

Stupid

Straight

Square

Sharp

dur

buch

gubh

garm, ushan

yach

past, tsut

dsiit, khul

kam

kehna

brunthun

lung

hitrilad

sust

lut

diyul

hul

tal

sitéh

dewana

sum

nathnun

purén, budh

kibar

dudriyomut

gharib

tikan

tayyar

sind

papiumud

kham

lik

miut

nadan

siud

chankunjal

te]

Slippery pishul

Thirsty treshut

Thin lissa

Tight tang

Ugly yach

Upper piath

N. A good man

G. Of a good man

Acc, A good man

Ab. From a good man

N. Good men

G. Of good men

Acc. Good men

Ab. From good men

Good

Better

Best.

To awake votun

_» Avoid bachun

,», Ascend khasun

,, Advance bron khasun

» Ask prutsun

», Be sompanun

,», Be able hekkun

,, Dring anun

,, Begin lagun

», Bite tsdtun

,, Believe patskarun

», Boil pakinwun

» Beg mangun

Appendix D.

Weak

Well

White

Wet

Young

Declension.

jan manush

jan manush-sund

jan manush-is

jan manush-nishin

janchi manash

janchi manash-sund

janchi manash-is

925

liyad

jan

safid

tar, udar

jawan

Singular.

Plural.

janchi manash-nishin J

Comparison.

Jan

Yuts jan

Sitah jan

Verbs.

To Burn

», Blow

1) Bury

», Buy

,, Come

ny) (ORE

», Call

,, Conquer

», Choose

,, Cover

», Chew cud

», Drink

Nee

zalun

phok diun

garhun

mitl hitin

iyun

tsatun

nddun

jitun

tsarun

vatun.

dramun karun

chiun

marun

236

Dwell

Decrease

Draw

Drive

Drown

Expel

Hrase

Enter

End

Find

Fight

Fly

Fall

Fasten

Forget

Frighten

Give

Gamble

Hear

Increase

Join

Kill

Know

Kick

Lose

Live

Leave

Laugh

Learn

Hide

Lift

Leap

Lie

Meet

Melt

A ppendia

basun

karun

- kamgachun

lamun

patrozun

phatun .

kadit tsumun

kadun

andar atsun

makolawun

labhun

ladun

uphin

parun

lagun

mashun

kotsunawun

gasun

diun

zaras gindun

bozun

badun

melanawun

marun

janun

lat diun

harun

zindasun

chhorun

asun

hichun

khaditrozun

tolun

khanun

apuz vanun

melun

galun

Move

Open

Play

Put on

Put off

Pain

Place

Pass

Plague

Pour

Push

Read

Roast

Run away

Reap

Reckon

Recollect

Return

Repel

Retire

Ride

Rise

Row

Rouse

Run

Rub

Stick

Swim

Swell

Sweep

Suckle

Sing

Spit

Sell

Sit

Show

Send

alarawun

mussurun

gindun

gandun, chhawun

mutsurun, walun

dod karun

thawun

guzarawun

dek karun

dalun

dhakdiun

parhun

buzun

tsalun

fasl tsatun

gansrun

yad karun

phir diun

nibar kadun

pat nerun

khasun

vathun

vayun

uzanawun

datiwun

mathun

lagun

tsatwayun

’ hunun

dun

chawun

gewun

taktrawun

kunun

bihun

hawidun

sozun, ludun

Appendia’ D. 237

To Strain . chhanun To Take hiun

», Seek tsadun » Taste tsuhun

») Sow vawun ,, Leach hichunawun

», Strike marun ,, Lhrow trevitsunun

» stand istadrozun » Louch lagun

») meize ratun » Vomit khai karun

», Shut bandh karun ,, Weave vonun

» way vanun ,, Weigh tolun

») see uchhun », Wait prarun

» Smell mushakhiun », Wish yatsun

» Sleep shongun », Wash chhalun

» Speak vanun

ConsUGATIONS.

Sompanun, to be.

Present. Imperfect.

Tam buh chus I was buh ésus

Thou art tsuh chukuh Thou wast tsuh 6sukuh

He is suh chuh or ché | He was suh éus

We are as chih We were as 6us

Ye are tahi chiwuh Ye were tahi 6suwuh

They are tim chih They were tim dts

Perfect.

IT have been buh ésus osmutun

Thou hast been tsuh 6sukuh osmutun

He has been suh 64s osmutun

We have been as dus osmutun

Ye have been tahi 6dsuwuh osmutun

They have been tim 64s osmutun

Pluperfect.

I had been buh 6sus sompunwatun

Thou hadst been tsuh 6sukuh sompunwatun

He had been suh é6tis sompunwatun

We had been ag us sompunwatun

Ye had been tahi ésuwuh sompunwatun

They had been tim dus sompunwatun

238

I shall be

Thou shalt be

He shall be

We shall be

Ye shall be

They shall be

To be

Being

Been

I speak or am speaking

Thou speakest

He speaks

We speak

Ye speak

They speak

I spoke

Thou spakest

He spoke

We spoke

Ye spoke

They spoke

I have spoken

Thou hast spoken

He has spoken

We have spoken

Ye have spoken

They have spoken

Appendix D.

Future.

buh heksompanit

tsuh hekaksompanit

suh hekisompanit

as hekavisompanit

tahi hekitisompanit

tim hekavisompanit

sompanun

sompanit

sompun

Vanun, to speak.

Present.

buh chus vanén

tsuh chukuh vanén

suh chuh vanén

as chih vanau

tahi chiwuh vanat

tim chih vanau

Innuperfect.

mi vun

tsuh vanut

suh vun

as vanwutun

tahi vanwutun

timau vanwutun

Perfect.

mi chum vanwutun

tsuh chuh vanwutun

tim cha vanwutun

as cha vanwutun

tahi chuh vanwutun

timati chuh yvanwutun

Appendix D. 239

Pluperfect. ;

T had spoken mi 6s vanwutun

Thou hadst spoken tsuh 6si vanwutun

He had spoken tim 6s vanwutun

We had spoken as ésus vanwutun

Ye had spoken tahi 6si vanwutun

They had spoken timau 6s vanwutun

Future.

I shall speak buh hek vanit

Thou shalt speak tsuh hekak vanit

He shall speak suh heki vanit

We shall speak as hekat vanit

Ye shall speak tahi hekit vanit

They shall speak tim hekat vanit

Potential.

I may speak buh vanah

Thou mayest speak tsuh vanak

He may speak suh vani

We may speak as vanat

Ye may speak tahi vaniu

They may speak tim vanau

Speak van

Speaking vanan

Spoken vanwutun

CoNJUGATION OF THE PasstvE VOICE OF MARUN TO STRIKE.

Present.

I am struck buh gasa marah

Thou art struck tsuh gasak marah

He is struck suh gasa marah

We are struck as chih mérah gasan

Ye are struck tabi chuh marah gasin

They are struck tim chih marah gasan

240 Appendix D.

Imperfect.

I was struck buh gés marah

Thou wast struck tsuh gék marah

He was struck suh gai marah

We were struck as gayé mérah

Ye were struck tahi gai marah

They were struck tim gayé marah

Future.

I shall be struck buh gatsa mérah

Thou shalt be struck tsuh gatsak marah

He shall be struck suh gatsa marah

We shall be struck as gatsau marah

Ye shall be struck tahi gatsiii marah

They shall be struck tim gatsaa marah

PRonovns.

Personal. Possessive.

I buh Mine miun

Thou tsuh | Thine chhon

He, she suh His tasun

We asl, mil | Our mitn

Ye tahi Your chhén

They tim, timat | Their tasun

Relative and Interjective. Indicative.

Who? kus ? This ih

Which ? kya That uh, suh

Whoever yus These yum

Whatever yih Those tium

He who yus

Miscellaneous.

Self pané Another duyum.

Such yithui Any - kénh

All sari Every yusaka

Same sartt Own panun

Other bék

Nee 1

G. Of me

Acc. Me

Ab. From me

N. Thou

G. Of thee

Acc. Thee

Ab. From thee

N. He

G. Of him

Acc. Him

Ab. To him

N. This

G. Of this

Acc. This

Ab. From this

Nee Bhat

G. Of that

Ace. That

Ab. From that

Above

Always

Almost

Also

Already

Alone

A ppendia D.

Declension of Pronouns. ~

buh N. We

min G. Of us

mi Acc. Us

mi nishin Ab. From us

- tsuh Nea wow

chhon G. Of you

tsih Acc. You

tsih nishin Ab. From you

suh N. They

tasun G. Of them

humis Acc. Them

humis nishin Ab. To them

Th N. These

yimsun G. Of these

yimis Ace. These

yimis nishin Ab. From these

uh, suh N. Those

yusun G. Of those

humis Acc. Those

humis nishin Ab. From these

Myself buh pané

Of myself buh panas

we.

Adverbs.

plat Below

dohai Backwards

jaljal Except

biyih Exactly

yiut Enough

wuini Far

kunui From

sari san Forwards

Altogether

241

) mi

as in singular

) tsih

ras in singular

} tim

as in singular

yum

yuhund

yiman

yiman nishin

tium

tinhund

timan

timan nishin

tal

pat

siwai

thik

thayti

dir

piath, nishin

brunt

242

How

How much f

How many

Hither

Inside

Immediately

Near

Now

Nothing

Outside

Perhaps

Quickly

Slowly

Suddenly

According

After

Among

Before

Besides

For sake of

And

Although

But

Because

Alas!

Ho!

yur

andar

jhatpat

nakh

vuln

kechnui

nah

nebar

dewuh

jalpahan

ithui

lut

yekayek

ithui

pat

mauz

brint

vara

bapat

hargah

lekin

yudvane

afsiis !

hata !

Appendia D.

Still

Then

Thus

There

Thither

Therefore

Together

Very

When

Where ?

Why

Prepositions.

Towards

With

Without

Conjunctions.

Hither

Interjections.

Lo!

What !

tamat

til

ithui

tati

hér

imbapat

san

sitéh

yil

kati

kyazi

én, at

kitpothin

yithipéthin

tithipéthin

andar

piat

tarf

satin

slwa

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Seven

Hight

Nine

Ten

Eleven

Twelve

Thirteen

Fourteen

Fifteen

Sixteen

dzuh

tre

tsdr, chor

pans

Shah

sat

ath

nat

dah

kéh

bah

trowah

chaudah

pandah

shurah

Appendix D.

Cardinal Numbers.

Seventeen

Highteen

Nineteen

Twenty

Twenty-one*

Thirty

Forty

Fifty

Sixty

Seventy

Highty

Ninety

Hundred

Two hundred

Thousand

Lakh

243

saddah

athdah

kunuwth

with

ekwth .

truh

chatji

pansa

shet

satat

shit

namat

hat

zahat

dahshat, sag

lach

dzité6wih

trawtth

chatiwth

pantsuh

shawwuh

satowuh

athowth

untruh

ektruh

daitruh

tehtruh

chaitruh

panstruh

shahtruh

sattruh

athtruh

kuntazi

ektazi

pas above

unwanzah

ekwanzah

dowanzah

trewanzah

chauwanzah.

panswanzah

shahwanzah

satwanzah

athwanzah

unhath

ekhath

dohath

kunsatat

eksatat

dosatat

kunshit

ekshit

kunénamat

eknamat

namanamat

QA4 Appendix D.

Ordinal Numbers.

First godniuk

Second duyum

Third ‘treyum

Fourth tsurum

Fiith panchum

Sixth shayum

Seventh satum

Kighth athtum

Ninth hawum

Tenth dahiim

Hleventh kéhiim

What is your name ?

21st ekwthiim

22nd dzitowuhium

23rd trawuhium

24th chatwuhium

25th, &. &e.

Sentences.

chhén nati kyé chith ?

What its the name of this village? yit gamas kya chih nau ?

How far is it to Kashmir ?

Kashmir tamut k6éta chtth dir?

How many houses are there in this yit gamas kuts garh chuh ?

village ?

Who is the head man ?

What is the time?

Three o-clock.

Bring that.

Take away this.

What crops are grown here ?

Are the pears ripe or unripe ?

Go away.

Come here.

Come quickly.

What does this man want ?

Ask him.

I cannot say.

I shall go to-morrow.

It rained yesterday.

It is very hot.

mokaddam kus chuh ?

k6té chuh duh?

sihpahar chuh.

uh anun.

ih niun.

yithi kya fas] chuh sompanin ?

tank cho paminmud ki na kham

chuh ?

gats.

vol yur.

jald volah.

ih monhyt kya chuh mangan.

humis pricht.

buh chus sasna vanit hekén.

buh gats phaga.

rat volun rid.

sitah garm chuh.

Appendi« D..

The road is good.

The road is bad.

One must ascend that hill.

What is the price of this ?

It is dear.

It is cheap.

You ask too much.

Are there any manufactures here ?

Is cloth woven ?

What pay do you get?

Is the Kardar a good man?

I wish to find out.

Ts he able to carry that load ?

My horse is lame.

Can you shoe him?

What rent do you pay for this

shop ?

Six rupees a year.

He began to get tired.

They began to fight together.

Can you read and write?

A little.

How do you know?

In what way will you repair this ?

In what month is saffron gathered ?

In Kartik.

What colour is best ?

Tf he takes it what will you do?

Has he gone before, or is he follow-

ing ?

Why are you making such a noise ?

Put on this dress and put off that.

I went with him.

He walks without shoes.

When -he comes tell me.

Is it near or far ?

245

vat chuh (or chavuh) jan.

do.

yit kohas piat bania khasun.

vat yach.

yit kya chuh kimat ?

drug chuh.

sug chuh.

tsuh chukuh sith mangan.

yithi banid ki tyér karun ?

kapar banié vanun ?

tsuh kya chuh talab inelan ?

Kardar ché jan monhyu ?

buh chus yatsin zi maalim kar.

hekya uh bor tulit ?

miun gur lung chuh.

tsuh hekak yimis guris nal lagit ?

yit vanas kot chukuh diwan kiraya

tsuh ?

shah ript varihas.

suh Ing thakne.

tim lég paénawin harhar karani,

tsuh hekak likhit, parhit ?

kam kam.

tsuh kitpéthin zanak ?

tsuh kitpéthin karan ih durust

kat yretas andar chih kongposh

[tsatan ?

kya rang chuh sérikot jan?

hargah ih heki timsritit, tsuh kya

karakadah ?

suh chuh brint gomut, kin-pat

chuh awan ?

Kartikas andar.

tahikya zichtryut krakandd karan?

ih kaparu mutsar, uh tsun ndil,

buh chus gomut humis satin.

suh chuh paizar siwaéi pakén.

yili suh yi tili gasi mi khabar,

nazdik cho, kinh dir chuh ?

246° Appendix D.

You always delay.

We are almost ready.

I am hungry and thirsty.

Don’t eat raw apples.

I have ate enough.

Where is my servant ?

Is he here or there ?

It is still raining.

Shall you sleep inside or outside ?

This dog is exactly like mine.

I have already heard that story.

There is a bridge opposite.

Do as I say.

Write accordingly as I do.

Are you alone ?

He fell from his horse.

Throw down that blanket.

Come up here.

How far is it from here ?

It is five kos.

My brother and I went home.

Hither you or he will be punished.

Why should I be punished ?

Because you are a thief.

Unless you have witnesses you will

be imprisoned.

This horse is better than that.

What do you call that basket ?

Don’t be frightened.

He ought to have done so.

Can you swim ?

Listen! show me the road.

You must do it.

Taste this peach.

I cannot find my coat.

Look behind that wall.

tsuh chukth déhi tsér karan.

as chih thikén thikan tyar.

buh chus phaké bi treshut.

kham tsunt ma khitt.

thait, khiat.

miun naukar kati chuh ?

yithi ché, kinh tathi chuh ?

vunyas tanyat chuh vaélan.

andar shongak kinh nibar ?

yih hin chuh menis hiinis hid.

mi biz suh kissa briint.

brohun kani chuh kadul.

yithipothim buh dapén chus, tithi

pothin karit.

menis lekhinas hit likhii.

tsuh chukuh kunezun ?

suh piau guri piat visit.

uh kamal sun bonkun trevit.

yur khas hitr.

ithi piat k6ta chuh dur?

pans kroh chuh.

ak buh bi mitin boi gaye garh,

ya tsuh nat humis meliwuh saza.

mi kya zi ditt saza.

awé bapat zi tsuh chukuh tsur.

hargah tsuh gawa ashinah, ta kaid

sompanak.

ih gur chuh humsin kotjan.

hut fiatis kya chuh vanan ?

kots muh.

timis guts ih karun.

tsuh hekak tsant vayut ?

haté? mi hau vat.

tsuh gatsi zarvir karun.

ih tsunun gatsi tsuhun.

mitin kurtah chuh nah melan.

hut dewaras pat kani uchhu,

Appendia D.

He lost Rs 50 in gambling.

I won Rs. 100 ,, 5

A snake bit him in the leg.

She laughed much.

We seized 10 thieves.

They all escaped.

They shall leave this country.

I will punish them.

Can you lend me a rupee ?

What do you teach these children ?

Let him come, why do you stop

him ?

I beat him soundly.

His house has been burnt.

He will be buried to-morrow.

Choose one of these apples.

Cover that pan.

Send me some fruit.

He answered me falsely.

Hang up these clothes.

What are you doing?

I am cutting corn.

Are these cows chewing the cud ?

Go and see.

Feed them with grass.

Give them water to drink.

Has the room been swept ?

Can this be washed ?

I have two horses.

He had three wives.

I shall have plenty.

I rode 10 kos without stopping.

What is to be done?

They are drunk.

We are poor.

This room is 12 ft, long, 10 ft. wide,

247

hum hari zaras andar pantsah ripi.

5) east

humis ditsnas sarpan langas tiop.

humi us sitah.

On sO)

mi ziun ¥, 5

asi rit dah tstr.

timati tsail sari.

tim tsalan yihu mulk. ‘

buh dimak adh timan saza. [dit ?

tsuh hekak asi ripiyahak wozum

im shitr kyé chiwak hichanawan ?

yiu ih kya zi chuwan ratan ?

mi dint humis sitéh mar.

humis lug garhas nar.

phaga ihi daffan karanah. [ténah,

yimau tsuntai andar tsuhun ak tsun-

hut degchas piat thavin sarposh.

asi mishin ladiu kinh mewah.

tim vunasi mishin apuz jawab.

ih kapar tsinun awezan.

tsuh kya chukuh karan ?

buh chus kanak tsatan.

ih gat chuh drémun karan ?

gatsit vuch.

yim khiawtk gas.

yim chividk tresh.

at kothis duwah kinh nah ?

ih yiya chhalanah ?

mi chuh dzuh gur.

timas asah tre koleyih.

mi nishin 4si ih sitah.

buh gés dahan krohun guris kia

lakim varai.

kya gatsi karun ?

suh chuh mut.

as chih kangal.

ih koth bah pawah dsut, dah pawah

248

and 9 ft. high.

He was very lazy.

Give me rather less than one seer.

Weigh this ghee.

How much honey for a rupee ?

Change’ this rupee into pice.

Is there any batta taken?

Give that blind man, that lame

man and that leper each an anna.

Tare care how you carry that.

T shall be very glad.

All the people came to see.

Is this the same horse or another ?

Every man was killed.

His father and mine are cousins.

His uncle is rich.

Her mother is poor.

Your horse is lame.

My servant is ill.

Put this and that together.

This is my own watch.

Why was I beaten ?

Shall I be beaten ?

Why should I give you anything ?

You should go quickly.

There are rocks above and below.

This language is rather difficult.

With practice it will become easy

Never mind, speak every day.

Shall I go with or without my

horse ?

Why do you follow me?

T want alms.

Perhaps it will rain.

T was wet through.

Appendi« D.

khuishadah, bi ‘chuh nai pawah

thad.

suh 6s sitah sust.

mi gatsi ak sir akich kih kom ditn.

ih ghiai tuliun.

ripia kdta chuh mach ?

yit rupia aniu tiunk.

inh chuh hewan ripia vat ?

humis anis ta humis langis ta

humis hitriladas, akak ana did.

uh chiz gatsi khabardari san niun.

buh gatsa sitah khish.

sari lok aye uchhini.

ih chuh suhi gur kinh bék chuh?

pratakah gu marah.

humsnnd mél bi miun mél chih

panaion bdi béi.

humsund pitar chuh dailatmand.

humsanz m06j chuh kangal.

chhén gur chuh lung.

mitin monhyti chuh bemar.

ak ih bi ih gachi vatun.

ih chuh mi panin gar.

buh kya zi gos marah ?

buh gatsa marah ?

buh kya zi dimai tsuh kih ?

chhon gatsi jald gatsun.

koh chuh piat ti ta tal ti.

ih zaban chuh kentsa mushkil.

adat satin gatsi dsan.

ki parwar chunah duhi van.

buh gatsah garheth knih nah ?

tsuh kya zi chukuh mi patpat wan?

buh chus bechan.

dewah yalik.

buh 6s sitah baranah.

Appendia D.

Dry my clothes in the sun.

He and his brother were drowned

in the river.

The maharéja is very kind to arti-

sans.

They are never fined.

He sent me a good ‘ ziafat.’

I laughed and she wept.

This shawl is not’ worth Rs. 400.

This is not the first time.

The Government takes half the

produce.

I and you and he will go together.

You will never come back.

The people here are very dirty

| Kashmir ?

How many boats are there in

and poor.

About two thousand.

Do they pay any tax ?

Tf he ever do so, beat him.

If you can jump over this ditch.

I cannot jump over it.

Can you shoot birds flying ?

Is there any game in these hills?

Yes, a great deal.

Of what kind?

There are bears and deer.

How do you know ?

I am a sportsman.

What do the bears eat ?

Indian corn, walnuts and fruit.

Are there any white bears ?

Not here, but there are beyond.

In what district ?

249

mitn kapar hoknawt tapas. [phiat.

suh bi tasun bdi daryavas andar

Maharaja chuh karigaran piat sitah

miharbéni karan.

amis chun zehti chit ivan hinah.

tim laz asi zabar ziafat.

[hund.

ih doshélah chuh nah tsorhatun

mi us ta tim wud.

ih chuh nah godinitk dé.

sirkar chub nisf paidaish hewan.

ak buh bi tsuh bi suh gatsénikwatén.

tsuh guk nah biyi za yor.

yithik 16k chih sitaéh mail talryi

chih kangal.

Kashmiras andar kotsa nau chih ?

atsat chih désas.

kinh chih mahstl diwén?

hargah suh biyi ithui kare, adh

[ wot tarit.

hargah tsuh hekak yit khandakas

buh hek nah tarit. [tan ?

tsuh hekak wuphun jan4war mazl-

marun.

yit kohas cho kinh shikar ?

au, sitah.

kya kya chuh?

hapat ché kinh ras chuh.

tsuh kitpothin zanak ?

buh chus shikari.

hapat kya chih khiawan ?

makhai chih khiawan, dun chih

khiawén, kinh mewah chih

khiawaén.

kanu chah safid hapat ?

ithi chuh nah, amma wehin chuh

kut pergannahs andar ?

250 Appendia D.

On this or on that side of the hill? kohas ihpar kinh chuh kinh apéar

kinh chuh ?

Beyond it. aparé.

What kind of fish are there in the daryavas andar kami reng chih gad?

river ?

A great many kinds. _ gitahi reng chih.

Do people catch them or not ? low chih gad ratan kinh nah ?

Attend to what I am saying. - ih kinh tsuh buh vananchus, tat

piat that dhian.

If you do not, you will repent it. hargah nah karak, adh pashtawak.

Ti you do not go, I will beat you. hargah nah gasak, adh marut.

Had you done as I told you, this yithi péthin mi dah piumat, hargah

misfortune would not have hap- ‘tithi pdihin karihiu, adh ih

pened. hauwinan kanthi balai.

Ii I were rich, I would repair this hargah buh daulatmand dasah, adh

house. karahah yit kothas marammat.

If he had gone there, he would hargah suh 6r gatsaheh adh bila-

undoubtedly have been killed. shak gatse suh marah.

eae

Appendia EK. 251

APPENDIX E.

Language of Dravidian Aborigines. Notes on the Oraon Language.—

By the Rev. F. Barscu,

Nouns.

The language is very defective in nouns. It is evident that the

Oraons have lost much of their own language, and that they have

made up their losses from the languages of the people amongst

whom they have dwelt, chiefly Sanskrit and Hindustani. They have

no original religious terms, no abstract ideas, no words for actions of

the mind or thoughts.

GENDER.

Tn Oraon there are two genders, the masculine and the feminine, but

there are very few nouns of the latter.

Whether the noun is a masculine or feminine is only to be found

in the termination of the verb. Inthe declension, the gender is not

or only very seldom expressed.

DECLENSION.

There are all the usages of the Hindi language to be found in the

Oraon. The oblique cases are also formed by postpositions.

Note. Pronunciation of the Roman characters as used in writing the Oraon

words.

& like a in father e like e in pee

th gy tele aps = rellke) OF 5 oN Oy aan SO

I 5 5 ean) police BH gy EM oy STIS

les 0 am TOMA au , Ow , owl

Th ey eg al ch ,, ch ,, church

Tepieeys eee wre SOL ch as in German doch, loch

Nom,

Gen.

Dat.

Ace.

Abl.

Instr. (?)

Loe.

Agent.

Voe.

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Ace.

Abl.

Instr.

Loe.

Voce.

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Ace.

Abl.

Tnstr.

Loe. _

Agent.

Voce.

Nom.

Gen.

Appendia EE.

SINGULAR.

kukos, the boy.

kukosgahi, of the boy.

kukosge, for to the boy.

kukosin, the boy.

kukosgusti, from the boy.

kukusanti, from or by the boy.

kukosnu, on, in, upon the boy.

kukostm (?)

ana ko, oh boy.

PLURAL.

kukor.

kukorgahi.

kukorge.

kukorin.

kukurgusti.

kukoranti.

kukornu.

ana koe.

SINGULAR.

kukoi, the girl.

kukoigahi.

kukoige.

kukoidin.

kukoigusti.

kukointi.

kuknu.

kukoidim.

an koi.

PLURAL.

kukoier.

kukoiergahi, etc.

SINGULAR.

chad, the boy.

chadasgahi.

chadge.

chadin, or chadasin,

Appendix EH. 253

Abl. chadeusti.

Tnstr. chadanti.

Loe. chadnu.

Agont. chadasim.

Loe. ana chad.

PLURAL.

Nom. chadar.

Gen. chadargahi.

Cus

The plural is mostly expressed in the termination of the verb, the

noun remaining unaltered in the singular and plural.

Nouns.

Masculine. Feminine.

tangdas son tangri daughter

kukos boy kukoi girl

belas king belri queen

meut husband mukka woman

Nouns.

mercha firmament chebda ear

chechal earth tatcha tongue

binko star cheka hand

biri sun chochal bone

chando moon pall tooth

pair morning chesar shoulder

ulla day chocha back

macha night kul belly

ucha darkness umbalcho liver

al man ? heart

meth male ? lungs

mukka female cheso blood

kuku head ched foot

kes, chuti hair chosga leg

chan eye angli finger

kapre forehead eroch nail

moy nose gurchi heel

boi mouth mika knee

gale cheek bari arm

254 Appendia LE.

thapri palm of hand bercha cat

gunri cow lakra tiger

ado ox harha wolf

era goat tsigalo jackal

patha lamb cher fowl

allah dog cokro cock

Pronouns.

Bag nam we (both)

nin thou em _ we (more than two)

as he nim you

ad it ar they

ad she

ne who

end what

Declension of pronouns.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. En, I &e. Em, we, &c.

Gen. enghai, of me ~emhai.

Dat. engage , emage

Ace. engan eman

Abi. engusti emgustim

Tustr. enganti emanti

Loc. engnu emanu or emanum

Agent. enim emim

Nom. nin, thou nim, you

Gen. ninghai nimhai

Dat. ningage nimage

Ace. ninin nimin, nimanun

Abl. ningusti nimgustim

Instr. ninanti nimanti

Loc. ninganu nimganu

Agent.

ninim (?)

nimim (?)

Nom.

Gen,

Dat.

Ace.

Abl.

Instr.

Loc.

Agen.

as, he

asgahi

asge

asin

asgustl

asanti

asganu

sim

Appendia E. 255

ar, they

argahi

arge

arin

argustim

aranti

argnu

arim.

The dual may be formed, but does not really exist,—as

nim irab, we both nim irib, you both

nam irbgahi nim = irbargahi

nam irbge nima irbarge

nam irbatin nim irbarim

nim irbgusti nim iribgusti

nam irbanti nim = iribanti

nam irbnu nim iribnu

PostTPosrrions.

gane, with chocha, after

gusti, from mechha, above

gusan, unto kuti, beside

ewe toon) hiri, near

anti, by, through katha, beyond

nu, upon gechha, far

num, in menya, up

kinya, beneath mund, before

ADJECTIVES.

The adjectives, which are only a few, take no part in the declension.

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Ace.

Abl.

Nom.

Gen,

sanni alas, little man

sanni alasgahi

sani alasge

sani alasin

sani alasgusti

etc. etc.

sanni mukka, little woman

sanni mukkagahi

256

panru,

mocharu,

cheso,

hariar,

plyar,

digha,

pudda,

mot,

sarhua,

chaika,

kuba, i

‘benko,

ujgo,

mechha,

phuda,

maldan,

sobhdas,

kore,

bens,

malbens,

malkore,

pachgi,

joch,

sanni,

bhircha,

Dat.

Loc.

Abl.

Pos.

Comp.

Superl.

Pos.

Comp.

Superl.

white

black

red

green

yellow

long

short

thick

thin

lean

crooked

straight

high

low

ugly

beautiful

good

bad

ill

old

young

small

hard

Appendia E.

sanni mukkage

sanni mukkasin

sanni mukkasgusti, etc.

Comparison.

sanni, small

adinti sanni, smaller

ad hurminti sanni, smallest

koha, great

adinti koha, greater

ad hurminti koha, greatest

ADJECTIVES.

garl, deep

otta, heavy

nebba, light (not heavy)

marchia, dirty

kuri, hot

kurna, warm

kiri, cold

bariar, strong

jukki, little

chaiga, wet

chaika, dry

kira, hungry

didirna, satisfied (full)

nidi, empty

ninka, full

chandrna, sleepy

ejrna, watchful

landi, slow

kitka, rotten

panjka, ripe

chena, unripe

ghutum otaro, round

tissa, sour

phari, pure

onta,

enr,

mund,

nach,

pantche,

S0l,

sate,

athe,

nawe,

dase,

There are no ordinals.

one

two

three

four

five

six

seven

eight

nine

ten

tara, half

onghon thauna, once

Appendia E. 257

NUMERALS.

In numbering human beings,

these are the following numerals:

ort alas, one man

irib alar, two men

nub alar, three men

naib alar, four men

pantche alar, five men

etc.

panr enr, twice

panr mund, thrice

panr nach, four times

etc.

VERBS.

The auxiliary to be, manndge.

nin

nim

nin

nim

Inpicative Moop.

ra:

Present.

I am Ge.

: adan rain

: aday ra: adi

: adas ad ray ad rai

: adam raim

: adar ra : aday

: anar ar ra : nay

Imperfect.

I was.

:achkan ra: achan

: achkay ra: achki

: achas ad ra : acha

: achkam

achkar ra: ach kay

ra; achar ad ra ; achay

nin

nim

Appendix EL.

Perfect.

I have been.

manjkan be : edan en manjkan

manjkai —be : eday nin manjki

manjkas be : edas ad manjki

manjkam be: edam em manjkeem

manjkar be : edar nim manjkay

manjkar be : enar ad manjkay

Pluperfect.

Thad been.

manjkan ra: achkan en manjkin

manjkai _—ra : achkaij manjki

manjkas ra : achas ad manjki

manjkam ra: achkam manjkam

manjkar ra: achkar manjkay

manjkar ra: achar manjkay

Future.

I shall or will be.

En manon .

nin manoy

as manos ad mano

em manom

nim mannor

ar mannor

Future completive.

: I shall have been.

En ~~ manj chachon,

nin manj chachoy

aS manj chachos

em manj chachom

nim manj chachor

ar manj chachor

Imperative Moop.

Kn manon, let me be.

nin mana manai, be thou.

as mana ad mani, let him, ete. be.

em mannom

nim mannor

ar mannor

: achan

: achki

: acha

: achkam

: achkay

achay

Appendia Ei. 259

Porentrat Moop,

Present,

T can be.

En ~=manna ongon,

nin mana ongoi

as manna ongos

em manna ongom

nim manna ongor

ar manna ongor

Imperfect.

I might, could, &e. be.

Kn ~~ manna ongdon

nin manna ongday

aS manna ongdas

em. manna ongdam

nim manna ongdar

ar manna ongmar

Perfect.

I may have been.

En manna ongkan be: edan

nin manna ongkay be: eday

as manna ongkar be: edar

em manna ongkam be : edam

nim manna ongkar be: edar

ar manna ongkar’ be: enar

Pluperfect.

I might, could, &c. have been.

En manna ongkan ra: achkan

nin manna ongkay ra: achkay

as manna ongkar ra: achas

em manna ongkam ra: achkam

nim manna ongkar ra: achkar

ar manna ongkar ra: achar

ConprtionaL Moop.

Present.

Ti I be.

en manon, em manom

nin manoy nim manor

as manos ar manor

266

Appendia E.

Imperfect.

If I were.

Te en

nin

-kerkas

holle,

holle

nim

Ineinttive Moop.

Manna,

being

mannage, to be

Kdlage, to go.

Inpicative Moon.

Present.

Mase.

kalakdan,

kalakday,

Fem.

kalagin,

kalakdi,

kalakdas, ad kalgi,

kalakdam,

kalakdar,

kalaknar,

kalagem,

kalakday,

kalaknay,

Imperfect.

kalakkan

kalakkay

kalakyas

kalakkam

kalakkar

kalakyar

Perfect.

kerkan

kerkay

kerkam

Kerkar

kerkar

be:

- edas

eda

eday

: edam

: edar

: enar

Pluperfect.

kerkan

kerkay

kerkas

kerkam

kerkar

: achkan

: achkay

: achas

ra: achkam

: achkar

ra: achar

holle

holle :

Dual.

nam irbatim kalakda

nin

kaun

kaoy

kaos

kala chachor

kala chachoy

kala chachos

kaun kélon

Appendix EH.

Future.

kaom

kaor

Future completive.

kala chachom

kala chachor

Imperative Moon.

kaum kalom

kaoy kalakaloi kaor kala

kaos

kala ongon,

kala ongoy

kala ongos

kala ongdan

kala ongday

kala ongdas

kala ungkan

kala ungkay

kala ungkas

kala ungkam

kala ungkar

kala ungkan

kala ungkay

kala ungkas

kala ungkam

kala ungkar

kaor

PorentraL Moop.

Present.

T can go

kala ongom

kala ongor

Imperfect.

kala ongdam

kala ongdar

kala ongnar

Perfect.

be : edan

be : eday

be : edas

be: edam

be : edar

Pluperfect.

ra: achkan

ra: achkay

ra; achkas

ra: achkam

ra: achkar

ra: achar

261

Appendix E.

ConprrronaL Moop.

Present.

Ii I go.

kaun, em kaum

kae nim kéor

kaus ar kaor

Imperfect.

kerkan em kerkam

kerkay nim kerkar

kerkas ar kernar

PAatIcIPLe.

kalke

kalar

kalnosim

Inrinitive Moon.

kana, going

kalage, to go

Nandge, to do.

Inpicative Moon.

Present.

nandan nandam

nanday nandar

nandas nandar

Imperfect.

nanjkan nanjkam

nanjkar nanjkar

nanjas nanjar

Perfect.

Enim nanjkan be: edan

ninim nanjkay be: eday

Asim mnanjas be: edas

emim nanjkam be: edam

nimim nanjkar _ be : edar

arim nanjkar be: enar

Appendia LE.

Pluperfect.

Enim nanjkan ra: achkan

ninim nanjkae ra: achkay

asim nanjkas ra: achas

emim nanjkam ra: achkam

nimim nanjkar ra: achkar

arim nanjkar ra: achar

Future.

nannon em.

nannoy nim

nannos ar

Future completive.

nanjchachon em

nanjchachoy nim

nanjchachos ar

Imperative Moop.

nannon em

nannoi nim

nannos ar

Verss.

to beat laona

to drink ona

to sleep chandrna

to walk ekna

to swim ogna

to plough oyna

to cut choina

to sow ° chachna

to eat mochna

to eat ona i

to ride argna

to fall katrna

to rise cho : na

to see erna

to hear menna

263

nannom

nhannor

nannor

nanjchachom

nanjchachor

nhannom

nanor

nannor

264

to speak

to sing

to blow

to dance

to sit

to tie

to go

to cook

below

near

within

whence

how

not

yes

whence

whither

alone

because

also

when

Appendix E.

kochna karna

parna

urna

nalna

okna

chotna

kana

biitna

ADVERBS.

kinya

hiri

ekatara

ekaiants

ekane

ambo

hae

ekaianti

ekatara

oatoch

ConJsUNCTIONS.

dara

antle

pahe

bhel

igune

hon

ekabiri

je ,

The Lord’s Prayer.

He embai je mercha nu ra: aday. Ninghai name pavitr mano,

Ninghai raji bar: 0; ninghai suuwak ekane mercha nu, aneho chochal

nu ho mano. Emhai ulla ullanta asma ina emage chia. Antle emhai

dosan muaf nana, ekane omho emhai dosnanurin muaf nandan. Antle

oman pariksha nu amba cha:a, pahe burainti chhar a ba:a Raji,

sdwang antle mahatm sadau sadau ninghai rai. Amin.

Appendix LE. 265

Creed.

En bishwdés nandan Dhames embas nu, 4s je mercha dara che-

chalgahi sangias sirjanharas talias, antle asgahi ortostonka tangdas.

Prabhus Jisus Christusnu, je Dharmatmanti Kulnu barchhas dindam

Mariamauts kundrus, Pontius Pilatus tarti dukhan chedas, Krusnu

kilvas keras, ketchas keras, mandras keras, antle naraknu itids, ulmund-

nu ketch ka gusti ujias dara chochus mercha nu argias, antle sawan-

gias tambas Dharmeshgahi mandi cheka tara uk: as be: edas; eksanti

as ujnarin antle ketch karin niséb nanége phen bar: os.

En bishwas nandan dharmatma nu: Dharmir Christaéner gahi go

honda nu dhar mir gahi salha me, papgahi chhema, med gahi jia cho:

ona antle jug jug gahi jia nu. Amin.

Ten Com mandments.

1. Dharme nimhai Dharme entol konnek anum dosar Dharmesin

amba man: a.

Indri im juthi gahi dewt a puja amba nana.

Dharme ninghai Dharmes gahi namin begar bujhra : am amba ana.

Dharmes gahi ulan paoits nidge amba modr a.

Ninghai ago babésin maha tmchia,

Alawein amba chetar chia.

Nanna mukkargane amba nana bekamma drél tarah amba mana.

Chalal amba chara.

OID 1 w Io

Phasiar amba ana, ninghai orsi porsir un phasiar gawahi amba

chia

10. Ninghai orsi porsir gahi erpa erpanta talach amba nana.

ee PIS

266 Appendia F.

APPENDIX

Brief Vocabulary of the Moondah and

English. Moondah. Ho. Kherriah.

Man horo ho hibo

Woman era era kanseldo

Boy coora cooa baboo

Girl Corsi cool bui,

Head bohu bo boko

Hair ub ub ulloi

Kar lutur lutur lutur

Hye med met mud

Nout hii, ies a tamode

Tooth data danta goineh

Hand tihi tih tih

Foot kata kata katta

Bone jang used) OM EP a sesor

Blood myam myum enjam

Egg billi yeaare chutes

To-day tiping tiping mupoo

INT Lt eh Uae ec nida eedib

Sky sirma sirma fC)

Sun singi singi borho

Moon chandu chundu lerung

Star epil epil sencom

Heat lolo lola lolo i

Fire singil sengil tingson

Water dah dah ‘dah

Wind hoyo hogo kogo

River mars ath! Li Mia gamer asters

Stone wish iis ok ace UME ee ate ettace ohhh ce ial naan tee

Tree daru daru

Village 2) ate acct ta lieapireoe cPen cee eM marscee

House ora ora )

Snake aatiee beeng bungham

Appendix F. 267

cognate Languages of the Kolarian type-—By Lieut.-Col. Danton.

Putoons or Sonthal. Bhumiz Coour

Juang. (Latham.) (Dr. Voysey.)

juang horh horro hoko

FNAME gn Mee eee tT DOG 1) Or eelenes suttan

-lunda

lundi

bocob buho buho

juta (4) ub ub ap

lutur lutur lutur

emor met met meht

tamon mocha alang ah

goneh datha datta

Bolo thi thi

Shoes kata kata

har (H) jang jang

iyam myum myun

susuté billi pito

missing teheng tising

berote nindha nidha

akas (H) sirma reiumil

suruj (EH) sing singi

lerung chandu chandi (H)

konjinda | ipil ipil ipil

lalai sengel sengel singhél

dah dah 5 dah da

koyo

noi (H) garra garra

olag dirri dirri

sumsing daré dart darao

jaon (H) ath hathigé

ora. ora oarru

on esee

bubung bing bing

268 Appendix G.

APPENDIX G.

Language of the Kolarian Aborigines ;—Grammatical construction of

the Ho language.—By Lieut.-Col. TrcKeun.*

IT hope due allowances will be made for the imperfectness of the

grammatical details here given, when it is remembered that the Ho

language has no written character, nor does there exist a person, native

of the Kolehan or otherwise, who could give me the slightest assis-

tance on this point.

It would be trite to observe that grammar is as inherent and essen-

tial to all languages, even the most barbarous, as a vocabulary itself.

By first learning a number of the words and sentences arbitrarily, the

system on which they are founded may be detected in due time by

patient comparisons of them, even when the speakers themselves are

unable to give the inquirer the least information on the construction

of what they are saying. With this difficulty once mastered, it is

inconceivable with what ease the most (apparently) complex and

difficult languages become familiar.

The sounds of the Ho language are exceedingly pure and liquid,

without strong aspirates or gutturals, and may be well rendered by

the English alphabet, or still better the French one, as that admits of

the slight nasal inflection which prevails in many words in the Ho

dialect.

Let the following conventions be made to the sound of the vowels,

in the ensuing dialogues, &.

a as in “‘ father,” ‘ rather,”

é TEP RN TT Pe oP) i prey,” pete

i ——_——_,, “skip,” “trip,”

ee——_-——. ,,_ “ sheep,”’ “ peep,”’

y ESE . (a5 ithe (7 Lyne

ai or ay ,, longer sound as in “ aye, aye?”

) —— ,, ‘bone,’ ‘ stone,”

00 ==) 4) tool? “ stools’?

fn (masaln),, “Ton” ‘“ Fanfaron,” (French.)

* Reprinted from As. Soc. Journal, Vol. IX. p. 1063.

+ Also g, as the French liquid g, in Cologne, Boulogne.

Appendia G. 269

The long acute vowel sounds, such as 00 and ee, also the letter 1,

are pronounced too liquidly and subtilely to be easily imitated by a

stranger, and in some words the inflections of the vowels are in-

conceivably complex and mellifluous. The general euphony or cadence

of the language is sprightly and cheerful; if the subject be of a

complaining nature, it subsides into a strange chaunt, the sentences

being linked together by such see-saw sounds, as ‘‘né-do na-do enété

na-do” which have no meaning, bnt serve to connect together the

speaker’s ideas.

When two or more words come together, the former ending, and

the latter beginning with similar vowels, they are joined by ellipsis.

as “ Hola’lé seniéna,” instead of “‘ Hola allé seniéna,” we went yesterday.

ARTICLE.

There is none, (properly speaking), definite or indefinite.

Noun.

There is no distinction of genders, marked or influenced by ter-

mination, it being determined by the sense or meaning of the word,

whether referring to a male or female being. Besides man and woman,

* names of rela-

“erril” and “‘éra,” boy and girl, “koa” and “ kodee,’

tions, and those of a few domestic animals, all other nouns are

distinguished in their gender by prefixing “‘ Sandee” male, or “ Enga”’

Jemale, as in Persian or English ew ),? ew Wolo» he-bear, she-bear.

A noun has three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, as in Greek.

The nouns can scarcely be said to have declension, as the terminal

does not vary either according to number or case, although a dis-

tinguishing adjunct, which may be called a ‘ Pronoun article,’ from

its nature and use, is added.

Singular. Dual. Plural.

Nom. Séta, a dog. Seta king, two dogs. Séta ko, dogs.

Gen. Seta-4, of a dog. Seta kingya, of two dogs. Seta koa, of dogs.

Ab. Seta-té, from a dog. Seta king té, from two dogs. Seta ko té, from

dogs.

The dative, accusative, and vocative cases do not differ from the

nominative, being only known from their position in a sentence.

In composition, the noun in an accusative case takes the first place

in the sentence, if the nominative be a pronoun; otherwise the noun-

nominative precedes, the accusative follows, and the oblique or dative

case comes immediately before the verb, sometimes immediately after

270 Appendia G.

it. “En ho kajikeeai aya éra,” that man said to his wife, “ Dendka

o€ tootigoikeea,” Dendka shot the bird. “ Keén hin do chowlee seta

emadya,” my son gave the dog some rice.

ADJECTIVE.

The adjective does not alter in termination, either in number, case,

or gender; and always precedes the noun it qualifies. As “ Boogee

ho,” a good man ; “ Boogee ho-a,” of a good man ; “ Boogee ho lo té,”

with a good man, &e. There are no degrees of comparison, but as in

Hindustani the qualifying words very, or most of all, are prefixed to

denote grades of quality, as ‘‘ Htka,” bad, “ Hna té nee4 o etka,” this

as worse than that. ‘‘ Sabee ré nee o etka minna,” this is worst of all.

“ Boogee léka éra,”’ a pretty woman. ‘ Boogee leka era ko,” pretty

women.

PRonown.

The first personal pronoun has four numbers, the singular, dual,

ploral, and plural comprehensive. The others only the three first, as

noticed in the noun-substantives.

The possessive pronouns are the same as the personal, with the

genitive inflection @ added.

PrrRsonAL Pronouns.

Singular. Dual. Plural. Pl. comprehensive.

Ist. Heng or aing, Z Alleeng, we two Allé, we Aboo, we all

2d. Um, thou Abben, you two Appé, you a

3d. Ay or ayo, he Aking, they two Ako, they 4

In speaking, if the person include the person addressed, himself, and

every one present, aS nominatives or agents, he uses the plural com-

prehensive. If he exclude the person addressed, he employs the first

person plural, as “‘ Hola aboo seniéna,” yesterday we went (i. e. you

and all of us.) “ Hola allé seniéna,” yesterday we went (i. e. not you,

we alone.)

The personal pronouns in the nominative case both precede and

terminate the verb, optionally with the speaker, as, I speak, ‘‘ Heng

kajitanna”’ or “ Heng kajitannaing”’ or “‘ Kajitannaing.

I go, “Weng senotana,” or “ Heng senotannaing,” or ‘‘ Senotan- -

naing.”’

And to give energy to the sentence, the pronoun is repeated, with

the connect “do” between them, as “‘ Heng do eeng kajitanna,”’ ’Zis I

who speak,’ Um do um kombookenna,” Z'how alone statest tt.

Appendix G. 271

The most difficult part of their construction is in the dative and

accusative cases, which are absorbed in the verbs they are governed

by, in a manner unknown to other languages, being placed in the

centre of the verb, after the root, and before the tense terminal.

As, I speak to thee, “ Heng kajimetanna;” he spoke to me, ‘“ ayo

kajikedingia;” he spoke to them, “‘ kajiked koai;” the tiger saw me

“ koola do neldedingia ;” he killed him, “ ayo goikeddya.” Here I have

underlined the oblique or accusative pronoun, where it comes in, just

before the tense terminal of the verb.

Possusstve Pronowns.

Singular. Dual. Plural. Pl. comp.

1st. Henga* or aingia, my alleengia alléa abooa

2d. Umma, thy abbena appéa 3

3d. Aya, his akingia akoa ut

These always precede their substantives.

DermonstRATIVE Pronouns.

Singular Dual. Plural.

Nee or inee, this neeking, these two niko, these

Neea or ineea, of this neekingia, of these two neekoa, of these

Neetdé, or ineeté, to, with, neekingteé, neekoté,

&e. this

En, that enking, those two enko, those

En, of that enkinga, of those two enkoa, of those

Enté, by, from with &c. that enkingté, enkoté,

“Nee” this, is sometimes used idiomatically by a person referring

to himself. If a Kole were to be asked what countryman he was? he

would answer, ‘“ Ho nee gé,” £ am ; or literally, this isa Kole. Of

what clan are you? Answer, ‘“ Poortee neegé,” I am a Poortee.

Iyterrogative Pronouns.

Okoi, who ? chikan, which ? chia, what ?

Okoia, whose ? chikana, of which ?

Rexative Pronouns.

Relative pronouns are very vague, the sentence being generally so

rendered as to obviate the necessity of them, thus, instead of saying,

The man who went; a Kole would say, The gone man, “ Senien

Horo.”

* Pronounced, as ‘mignon,’ ‘ Ligne,’ &¢, in French.

22 Appendix G.

But at times “ Chikana,” whatever, and “Ena,” that, are used

relatively, as ‘‘ Chikana um kajeed, éna eeng diooma,” what you say,

that I will listen to.

VERBS.

Verbs are either active or neuter. There is no passive voice.

The Infinitive mood is formed by adding téé to the root.

The present participle by adding tan or fé.

The Past participle by affixing kedté.

In the active or transitive voice, the Present tense Indicative mood

adds to the root ‘‘ tanna,” in the neuter voice, “ akanna.”

Imperfect tense there is none, the Present tense being used, and

its Imperfect signification understood by the context.

The Perfect tense is formed by adding in the active voice, “ kidda,

keea, kenna, lidda, or tadda,” to the root. In the neuter voice, * lena,”

or “‘zéna,”’ sometimes “ kenna.”

There is no Pluperfect tense, but greater completion is expressed by

conjugating the verb “chabtea,” to finish, added to the root; much

“‘ chookna” in Hindustanee.

the same way as

The Future is formed by adding to the root eea or od, or sometimes

simply ¢, in which latter case the sound of the root is prolonged.

Except ‘ nooitea,” to drink, which makes ‘‘ noonooé;” and ‘ rotea,”’

Pp b) y) p) 7

to gore (as a bull) ‘ roroa.” :

The Imperative is formed by adding (in the 2nd person singular) to

the root, “‘ mén” and ‘ omén” or “ ymén,” if the root end with a con-

sonant. In the other persons kd precedes the pronoun, and the simple

root of the verb, which will be more clearly shown in conjugating.

In a negative sense, ‘‘ alum” or “alo” is prefixed to the 2nd personal

pronoun, d@ being added to the root; if in the 8rd person, singular,

dual, or plural “ aloka” is prefixed to the pronoun, and the root alone

of the verb is used.

The Subjunctive mood is vague and imperfect. In the Present and

Future tenses ‘‘ rédo”’ is added to the root, sometimes together with

the word “honang,” “derang,” or “ tora’ (signifying conditionality)

affixed.

The Past tense is formed in the same way ; indeed there appears to

be no Past Snbjunctive tense ; but sometimes the conditional terminal

“védo” is added to the Past perfect Indicative. ;

Appendix G. 273

This word “‘ rédo” admits the vowel to be affixed to it, or to come

immediately before it and after the root.

Conjugation of the verb “ Kajéetea,” to speak.

Infinitive Moon.

Present tense—Kajéetéa, to speak,

Present Participle—Kajitan, or Kajienté, speaking,

Past Participle—Kajikedté, having spoken.

Inpicative Moon.

Present tense.

Sing. Dual. Plural.

Ist. Person, Aing, Alleeng—Allé ce

FiO Um, Kajitanna, Aten Ap a

Sue eGt, Avo, Aking—Ako, Ta ae) 2

Perfect tense.

Ist. Aing—Alleeng— Alle, one Kajilidda or Kajitadda.

2d. Um— Abben—Appé

3d. oe ene Me I é&c. spoke or have spoken.

Future tense.

Aing, Um, &e. &e. &e.—Kajeea, I dc. dc. will speak.

ImpERATIVE Moop.

Sing. Dual. Plural.

Keng Kakajee, Let me speak. | Kajeeabooor Abookakajee, Let us all, ée.

Um Kajeemén, Speak thou. | Kajeeben or Abbenkakajee, Speak you,

Ayo Kakajee or ) Let him ae.

Kakajee 0 kai, speak, | Kajeealling or Allingkakajee, Letus, éc.

Kajeeallé or Alléokakajee Let us, de.

Kajeeako or Akokakajee Let them, &c.

Kajeeaking or Akingkakajee, Let them,

cc.

NEGATIVE.

Sing. Dual. Plural.

Alokaing kajeea, Do not let me speak. | Alo k’aboo kajeea. )

Alum kajeea, Speak not. Alo k’allé kajeea

Alo kai kajeea, Do not let him speak, | Alla’ bben kajeea, ene ee

Alappé kajeea.

Alo ka’ko kajeea. | °2¢%*

Aloka’ king kajeea

274 Appendix G.

Sussunctive Moop.

Present tense.

Heng Kajeerédo, [/ J speak. Aboo, )

Um Kajeeredo, If thou speakest. | Allé, |

: Tah

Aio Kajeeredo, If he speak. ee \ Kajeerbdo, If we &e, speaih

Ako, |

Aking, J

Perfect or Pluperfect.

Heng, Um, &e. &e. dic. Kajeekedrédo, If I dc. dc. dc. had spoken.

ConpDITIONAL, oR PoTENTIAL.

Heng Kajéding honang, J would speak. Allé Ge. &c. Kajeea honang,

Um “Kajeeum honang, Thou éc.

Avo Kajeea honang, Tile, ee We might or would speak.

Nore. As has been before explained, in all these tenses and persons (except

in the Imperative) the pronoun may be either prefixed, or affixed, or both.

feces

The same Verb, Conjugated with its Objective pronon.

Inpicative Moop

Present tense.

Keng or Ayng Kajeeing tanna, TI speak to myself.

Kajee metanna, J speak to thee.

Kajee ditanna, I speak to him.

Kajee’ létanna, I speak to ourselves.

Kajee’ ling tanna, I speak to us two.

Kajee’ ben tanna, I speak to you two.

Kajee’ pétanna, J speak to you.

Kajee king tanna, I speak to them two.

Kajee kotanna, J speak to them.

Mhe same exactly for all the other persons, and tenses, é&c.

Perfect tense,

( Kajikedingia. ( spoke to myself.

Kajiked’mia. : spoke to thee.

Kayikedaia. spoke to him.

Kajikede la. Pte ae spoketo ourselves

Pe Um, eats Kajiked’lingia. } be hoes 4 spoke to us two.

| Kajiked’bena. spoke to you two.

| Kajikedpéa. spoke to you.

Kajikedkingia | spoketothemtwo.

Kajiked’koa, J | spoke to them.

Appendia G. 275

Examples of this construction, especially in the Imperative mood,

will be given in the Vocabulary, so need not be further dwelt on here.

It is scarcely possible to reduce the verb ‘‘to be” to conjugation,

unless we suppose the varied forms in which it is used as inflections of

separate verbs, wanting in many tenses. Tor “to be’ is expressed by

different verbs, according to its allusion to time, a person, or a thing;

and its relation to mere existence or to the nature of existence. In

short, there.is no auxiliary verb ‘to be” which can be independently

conjugated. The unchangeable word “ minna,”’ or “‘ minnakana,’’ is

applicable in the present tense alone, to denote a state of existence,

as “ Heng, um, ayo, &c. menna, or minnakana,” J am, thou art, he is,

&c. But in past and future tenses some other verb denoting presence,

as the verb “to come,” “to reside,” &c. must be employed.

But the verb “to be,” when implying the nature of existence, can

be rendered in the past and future tenses, as well as the present, by

adding to the participle or adjective, od in the future,-and cena in the

past, as ‘‘ eeng laga akanna,” I am tured; “ eeng lagaoa,” I shall be

tired ; “eeng lagiena,”’ I have become tired ; “ eeng renga akanna, or

renga akannaing,’ I am hungry ; “‘eeng rengaoa or rengaoing,” J shall

be hungry; “eeng rengaiéna,”’ 1 was hungry. Od and dena, it is to

be remembered, are inflections of the future and past tenses in all

neuter verbs.

Again the verb ‘to be’? can be simply represented in the future

and past tenses, when speaking of a thing, by the word “ hobawa,”’

shall or will be, and “hobiena,” 7 has been; also in the present,

“‘ hobowtanna,” 7é 7s. This mode of expression commonly refers to

the success or accomplishment of any project. Inthe English idiom

we should say for “ hobawa,” 2 will do, or a will answer ; “ hobiena,”’

at is all over, or has succeeded ; “‘ hobowtanna,”’ 2 ts going on.

That boy will be a thief, could not be rendered, “ En kod do komboo

hobawa,” but “ En koa do komboo oa.”

Your business will be done to-morrow, not, “‘ Umma kajee gappa 04,”

but, “ Umma kajee gappa hobawa.”

This will never do, ‘Ka hobawa;” go away, vt is all over “ Mar-

senomén hobiéna,’’

276 Appendia G.

In English and other languages, state, nature or condition, is render-

ed by affixing or prefixing the various tenses of the verb ‘‘to be”

to the adjective, as to be hungry, L am hungry, I was hungry ; “to be

glad, I am glad, &c. éc.” But in the Ho dialect the adjective itself

becomes a neuter verb, and is conjugated by affixing to it the different

inflections denoting time and mood—to be hungry, “ rengatéa;’ I am

hungry, “venga akannaing ;” I was hungry, ‘‘ rengaiénaing ;”’ &e.

Neuter Verss.

After what has been said, it would be unnecessary to give any

example of the conjugation of neuter verbs. It only requires to be

remembered that their present terminal is ‘‘akanna’”’ instead of

’ and their past inflection “‘iéna,” instead of “ kidda, tadda,

lidda, or eea,”’ all of which latter are transitive forms.

“‘tanna ;’

Some verbs are both neutral and transitive, as “‘ chabated’”’ to finish.

They have therefore both inflections. In the transitive form “ chaba-

tea’”’ is frequently added to the root of some other verb, to denote

completion ; but it may also be used alone: in the neuter form, it is

of course confined to the third person.

HxaMPLes.

Yomchabakiddai, He ate zt all wp.

Bychabakidallé, We finished (making) tt.

Kajeechabymén, Finish speaking.

Gappa miang chabawa, Jt will be done to-morrow or next day.

Nado chabiéna, It 2s now finished.

The word “ hereé’”’ is placed between the root and terminal of a

verb to denote positiveness or certainty; as when the speaker means

to state something as an incontrovertible fact, as, “ Kajee hereakiddai,”

most assuredly he spoke. ‘‘ QOodoob hereamén,”’ speak positively.

The causal form is rendered by putting “chee” between the root

and terminal—as “ landatea,” to laugh, makes ‘‘ landacheetea” to cause

to laugh ; “‘ aioomtea,” to hear, “‘ aioomcheetea,” to cause to hear, as in

Hindustani d is inserted (with a few exceptions) for the same purpose,

as Hunsna, Hunsdna; Soonna, Soondna, &e.

Continuity (Gn the Imperative mood alone) is expressed by adding

akan”

to the root, as ‘‘ doobmén,” sé down, ‘‘ doobakanmen,” remain

sitting ; ‘‘ Aioom mén,”’ listen, ‘‘ Aioomakénmén,”’ continue listening.

Finally, the thoroughly performing an act, is often rendered by adding

Appendix G. 277

the verb, ‘‘j6meted,”’ to eat, to the root of the expletive verb, as “ nel-

joomkidallé,”’ we all saw at (thoroughly) ; “ aioomjommén,”’ listen (atten-

tively) ; ‘“Geetee jom-meén,”’ sleep (soundly). And should the verb

be of a violent nature (referring to some violent act) the particle

“tab” between the root and inflection gives force to the meaning, as

“¢ Goitabkiddai,” he slew hom (outright) ; “ Toltab kidallé,” we bound

him (forthwith); “ Neertabmén,” Run (quickly) fly ! so ‘ Ooited’’ is

to jump, and “ Ooitabtea,” to bound (as a tiger).

Ké before the pronoun gives the verb a negative form, as has been

before explained in describing the Imperative mood.

There is no verb “to have,” possession being denoted in the same

manner as in Hindustani. J have, ‘ Hengtra minna”’

‘“ Méré pas hye.”

From the foregoing remarks may be gathered, that in the active or

transitive voice-—

The present terminal is, “ Tanna.”

The past, “ Kidda, tadda, lidda, kenna or keea,”

In the Neuter Voice—

The present terminal is, “* akénna.”’

The past, ““7éna or léna ;”

In either Voice—

The conditional, subjunctive,

66 ” 66 79

: : s redo” or “‘ kedrado

or potential mood terminate in \ y

All these terminals being of course subject to the inflections of their

pronouns, which are, as has been said, as often affixed as prefixed.

A nondescript species of Verb is used in rendering the sentence

“ what shall or can I, (thou, he, &c.) do?

Future and Present.

Ch’eeng chikya, (I,

Chee’m chikya,

Chee chikya,

Cheeboo chikya

Chee’lé chikya,

Chee’pé chikYa,

Chee’ben chikYa,

Chee’ ko chikya,

Chee’king chikya,

Chee’ling chikya,

They two,

}

[ |

what shall or can 4 en eel

| |

J | We two, J

278 Appendia G.

Past tense.

Chee’ng chikakidda, what could I have done? &c. &c. &e.

The verb “to be able” is rendered by “ Dytea’’ in its moods and

tenses, as “‘ Niddo eeng bydya,” I can make this ; ‘‘ Umdokadya,” you

cannot ; ‘* K’ai dyoa,”’ he will not be able.

Many little exceptions and variations occur to these general rules,

which it would be impossible to become familiar with, without con-

stant practice in their arbitrary use; but the foregoing remarks com-

prise all that would be of practical utility. The constant elision and

confluence of words beginning and ending with vowels must be

remembered, and that the particle do, has no meaning whatever. This

will render the examples above given to the different rules simple

and illustrative.

INDEX TO PART IL

The numbers with an asterisk belong to the Special Number on Indian

Kthnology.

Acanthocladia, -.. ove a6

Achatina anamullica, 0 8., Be

— beddomet, n. s., ears

— testudo, D.8., ‘sas PY

— textilis, eee °

Aconcagua peak,

Migialites ruficapillus, (Goal,

Agricultural tribes,

Aha Tung Limestone quarry,

Alexandrowskiia chiains ier

Alto de Toledo Pass, RN

Ammonia in the Hooghly water,

Analysis of tank water,

—— of the river water,

Anamully land shells,

Andria and Ariana,

Animal life in Ceittral Asia, ie

Animal life in High Asia, ‘ ae:

Anodonta soleniformis, (Bens.), |

Arckbal peak, on ;

Arrah River, the, 600 ; a

Artisans, a0 sale

Athyris roissyt § ? ‘Vernl.,

Sp. (subtalita, Hall), a0

Augite of the Kaj Nag, ...

Aviculo-Pecten dissimilis, (Flemming),

coe

n. s. (allied A. testudo, Wigan. );

n. 8.? (A. gubbosus, Verch,),

Awans,

Awinus, ni. 8. (allied to A. obscur us,)

Bag’ dees,

Baidyas, ...

ooo ooa ooo

n. 8. (allied to A. circularis, Verchére),

vi Index,

Bainjagas, ane cere

Baloon ascents, ane ae

Balteers, 5 fara

Banteng, Dares itera of the, ae

Bara bein Pass,

Baramoola the extremity of the Kaj Nag Range,

Barhuis of Khelat, ae 50°

Barhui and Panjabi examined, ...

Barns Speers, aes

Bashia, Longitude of the Village of,

Batgool and “Boorwag summits,

Batsch (The Rev. E.) On the Oraon language,

Bedars or Beders, : ae

Bedas or Beders,... 5A0

Beloochees, mae sey an

Bengali Brahmans, oy 60C

Behai or Pieya,

Bhandari, or the Collector of rents,

Bheels, ae ame

Bhoomiz, nate

Baoonhars or basin Brahmins, ~ slole

Bhooteas, aa

Bhooyas of Bengal, ray ae

Bhurs and Ciena of Oudh, ae

Black tribes of the Hills, .

ece

Blanford and Stoliczka’s Catalogue of Meroe stones,

Blanford’s (W. T.) Contributions to Indian Malacology,

Nos. VI. and VIL,

Bodos,

Bokhara, Routes Across the Tian Shan to Little,

Boksas, Dr. Stewart on the, sists

Borahs, 56r ala

Borderers; od

Buddhist ruin at Buniar and Oye

Buis and Bustars, tee

Bulomus nilagariéis, @ir ae sce

— physalis, (Bens.), ee

——~——- — bengalensis, Pah

— — trutta, 0. 8., soe slate

Buniar Buddhist ruins, ... aie

Bunneahs, di ala

Burghers,

Campbell’s (Mr. Justice) Ethnology of a

Carpophaga cuprea, (Serdon),

— insignis, (Hodgson), ...

——— pusilla, por ri 58C

are 31,

oo6

Page

#127

*AT

Index,

Carambers, aaa

Caspian Sea, Variations of the level of the,...

Cataulus’recurvatus, (Pir.), oa

Caucasian race, Physical appearances of she,

Chamars,

Charadrius pusill us, (Horsfield),

Chenchwars, as.

Chermars, “ic 26

Cheroos, vs

Chimborazo peak:

Chinar lake near Sunager, piers

Chota Nagpore, Extent of, ar

Constituents of river water,

Coour and Cole languages compared, oor

Cyclophorus jerdom, (Bens.), :

—— — deplanatus, (Pir.), sal0

————- sp. near ravidus, a

Dapsang peak, ...

Wards, 2... 460

Destal, Glacier lake in Garhval,

Dhanuks, wee noe

Dhoonds, ni 3 |

090

Dimals, ...

Djungaria, Points ‘determined by thé J esuits in,

Domestication of. wild cattle i in India, Bee

Dosads,

Dravidian Aborigines, _ ese oes

HEllichpur Coours,

Ethnology of India ey Mr, J ustice fee

Kverest,. Mount,.. ke

Falco babylonicus, aise

- peregrinoides, ‘ iste

Fossiliferous rocks in Kashmir, Fae

Fauna of the Weean bed, os

Felis macrocelis, ... a

—— temmincku, (Vigors), Bae

—— swinhoet, See

—— diardiz, Hepa pork

—— charltont, s« isn

Felis marmor ata, app

Felstone on the iene -of ie Jheelum, -

‘and West of Cashmir; ... aes

and porphyry of -the mountains South- West, South

Page

%25

*121

156

6d)

#23

*21

54.

*153

211

*41

315)

*146

*126

*95

*149

74.

*125

#251

*15S

156

197

160

156

Vlil Index.

Fenestella sykesit, Koninck, 600 ian

megastoma, Koninck, iis

Fireflies, Simultaneous flashing of, Bie sie

Gaémin Pass, con oe

Gardening tribes, ae cor Ane

Garnets of the Kaj, Nag, ... ane ses

Garrows of Assam,

Geographical Configurations of High Asia, the Andes, and the

Alps, 200 500 52

Ghatwals, The half bred, | on hi

Glaciers of High Asia, fies

Golubief’s (Captain) Observations on the Astronomical points,

determined by the Brothers Schlagintweit in Central

Asia, 40 46

Gond language, Dravidian origin of ye 500 ove

Goniatites. sp., like. G. henslowst, . one

Goojars, sor 108

Goozrati Brahmans, 500 vee was

Gourisunkar or Mount Everest, By ‘

Gours of Udeypore, 907 eee one

Grauculus layardi, vee oe

Grave stones of the Oraons, o se koe

Gukkurs, soe eee oo

Gurang and Magars, oe ove ae

Gwallas of Orissa, see 507

Gyal and the Gour, domestication of the, aaa a

Hapatikri, 50 “See oes

Harees, eee vee ove

Hazarehees of Ghuznee, 900 ove

Helix anax, (Bens.), oon soe

- basilessa, (Bens.), ... ces 56:

- monticola, (Hutton), 600 ons

Helots, ... *120

High Asia, the Andes, and the at Hypsometrical Tableau

of, 30 51

Himalaya, Plateaux in the,.. no 207

Hodgson’s Himalayan tribes, | Miele ae one

Hooghly water, Organic matter in thes) the wee

Hos, tee oe Snr oo

Hurri Purbut, pee S

Hydrography ‘of High Asia, ane ae see

Influence of the tides in the Hooghly, a9 a

Islamabad Hill, a aoe eee or eae

Issyk-Kul, Position of, eee 50° foe see

Index.

Janguas of Cuttack, 00

Jatras among the Oraons, bis eG

Jats and Zemindar equivalent terms, 580 56

ettirs, 9...

Kafir Kote mountains, “

Kai, Gaikho or Prai- Ka- ae

Kailas range,

Kaj Nag , Porphyry of the,

Kamlawan hill, :

Kanouj Brahmins,

Karabougaz, gulf, ... 500

Karakoram Pass, Position of the, Ne Bl

Karakoram Pass, Longitude of the,

Karens, Hae

agian Brahmans, oie ae ais

Vocabulary,

Kashmir, Geology of,

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the ‘Afghan. Mountains,

Geolog gy of,

Kaurs,

Kayasthas, ou 506

Kaya or Red Karen, 600 boo

Kazalks of Central Asia, 508

Kazi Kourt chain,

Kharwars of Rewa,

Khatrees, ... 306 oe oe 350

Kheriahs, : 500

Khokandian ruins near Baildyr Tuga,

Khonds,

Khotan, Cartographical position Ole

Kol, iDastiwetiiom of the term,

ale or Kolar,

Kolarian Aborigines, Language ie thie wiaer

Koles, the generic name ‘of. the ’ Aborigines “of

Nagpore, 500

Koonbees or Koormees,

Kotahs,

eonhnit bed, ‘

a wanna of the, ?

Kours of Western frontiers of Chota- Nagpore,

Kumoun Hindus allied to the Bengal,

Kinlun and the Karakorum Pass, Plateaux between,

Kurrals,

Kashgar, Cartographical position of,

Kun Lun or Ser and Mer Peaks,

*28

*108

*155

*25

*154

*28

+268 et seq.

Chota-

*OT

*25

163

190

*39

*68

“BS

114

x Index,

Lagunillas, The pass of,

Lakes i in the Hinalaya,

Language of the Aborigines, Turanian, oa

Lé in Ladak, Determination of the position OL eas

Lepchas, : O

Light, Exclusion of, from specimens in Spirits,

Tavaere and Solar Teajpoots Ho ae

Lurk Coles, oe 400 cee

Macnamara’s (Dr. F.) estimate of Organic matters in the

Hooghly water, ..

Magnetic iron ores in the Sub- Himalayan Valleys,

Mahratti Brahmans, ab

Mairs,

Malacology, Contributions to Indian, ‘No. VE, see

a ’ No. VIL, ace

eee

Maleasur, ... cee

Mallees,

Manikarn, the hottest. spring of ‘High ch Asi, sez oo

Mankees, : Sec oes

Marang Booroo or the Landorians,

Mason's (the Rev. F., p. p.) physical character of the Karens,

Max Miller on the language of savage tribes, os

Mechis of the Doars, ee ee wae

Meenars of Rajpootana, ae oe nee

Mercantile class,

Meteoric stones and i irons, Catalogue of, in n the Asiatic Society’: Ss

Museum, Mele SAP

Mhairs of the Aravallee range sale 400 =

Modelliars, see : ret se

Modern Indians, de

Monocondylea crebristr iata, (Anthony), — :

—— peguensis, (Anthony),

vondenbuschiana, (Lea),

Mont Blane, ads :

Mont Rosa, ete 509 uae

Moondahs, ... 5 605 son :

Moonda and Oraon customs compared, at ee ae

Mopgha or Plau, _... Bc noe see ahs

Moplas, 0 oes 990 530 nas

Mountain ascents, ute 200

Mustagh Pass, “ae aoe

Mya radiata, (Chem.), oie soe

Nagas,

Naini Tal Lake,

Index.

Namberee Brahmans,

Namtso or Yuiném in Lahol,

Nanina acuducta, (Bens.),...

ammonia, (Vallenciennes),

ampulla, (Bens.),

(artophanta) imtwmescens, Ni. &.,

auris ? (Pir.),

-—_—. bajadera, (Pir.),

basileus, (Bens.), ... Rote

carneola, (Pir > coe

——— chenui 2.

indica, (Pir ek

(macrochlamys ?) hebescens, 0 ne seuQW: T. Blanf. yi, 8 34

(macrochlamys ?) infausta, n. 8. CW. T. Blanf.), a 36

(macrochlamys ?) lixa, n. 8., ow. T. Blanf.), ae 35

—— orobia, (Bens.), : 34

—— shplayv, (Pir.), 210 38

——_ (hemiplecta ?) sispar ica, 1 n. ae cw. T. Blanf. », pas 34

——— subgesta, (Bs.), _ ... ae 35

travancorica ? (Bens.), ... see 38

vitrinoides, (Desh.), 36

Nausherra and Ori felstone, wit

Neemchahs, *145

Neophron gin ginianus, “(atham), 156

Neritina perrotettiana, (Recleiz), 38

Niti Pass, — ; 506 54

Nitrates in river water, : 228

Nitrogenous matter in iver water, 929

Opisthoporus oe oo ), os 32

Oraons, #168, 22

- language, wad ae MUSE

Orenburgh, Topography Olah a sits 81

Organic remains in the Hooghly water, 207

Orthis crenistria, (Phill.), 33

Otocoris penrciilatus, 157

— longirostris, 157

Otopoma hinduorum, (W. T. Blant. yb 32

Paban or the village fruits, Lid

Pallers, SAo *133

* Pampur knoll’, aE 172

Parang Pass, o0 “ial 54+

Pariahs, Eaaiomlos

Pasees, iis ee FENG

Pastoral tribes, ade Sauer ipso)

Pasture gr ourid i in the Himalay ai aloes 64

Xil Index.

Page

Pathans or Afghans, , *143

Perovski Fort, Rear admiral Boutakof’s expedition to the, 84

Pir Punjal chain, bos A 1194

Plateaux, 52

Porphyry of Buniar, ’ 107

Productus sem- retieulatus, (Martin), 131

— — costatus (Sow.), : arcu ce

cora (D’Orbigny), aft 133

humboldtii (D’ Orbigny), Ey. 133

— flemingu (D’ Orbigny), 133

longispinus, (Verneuil), 133

Pterocyclos nanus, (Bens.), ; ae 38

Pterocyclos I , (Metealie), 32

Purbhoos, ... aE 3 *119

Puttoons, The leafclad, Be 13) 1)

Pwo or heu- -phlong, 5)

Pycnonotus jocosus, (L.) 157

Rajpoot Brahmans, *60

Rawats or Rajis of "Rohileund, . *45

Reechpoora Spurs, 1i7

TRonavers oc veh *140

Russian Geographical operations in Asia,. 77

Sansees, a 500 *126

Saij Aha hills, ae so 115

Saraswata Brahmans, ane 556 *63

Sarhools’ feast of the Oraons, ae *185

Sarry-kul, the source of the ‘Amu, Determination of, 50

Schlagintweit’ s eae Tableau of High Asia, the "Andes, and

the “Alps, 560 = 51

Scindees, *141

Serairkilla and Thakoors of Khurswan, Soo *165

Sgau or Peha-Knyan, 3

Shan Karens, oa 6

Shanar, 455 505 *136

Sheri Bal mountain, 177

Sherrias, The wild, ‘of Bundelcund, AS

Shinku La Pass, ee : 54

Shokum Spring, 1€1

Singbhoom Ho or Lurka Kols, *163

Snowfall in the Himalaya, eee 58

Snowline, The Himalayan, 59

Solenopsis embricata 2 oe 169

Sontals, Se *29

Spir aculum hispi dum, 32

- beddomii, n. §., 5c 3h

Indec.

Spoirifer vercheriz, (Verneuil), ee

Spiriferina octoplicata ? (Sow.),

—— stracheyt, (Salter), ...

St. Theodule Pass,

Stoliczka’s (Dr. EF.) Catalogue of Meteoric stones,

Strophomena analoga, (Phill. Dee a

Symphonota bilineata, (ea), se Bate

Syrdaria,. ... 500 me oh ae

Tanaolees, Ps

Tank water, Composition of,

Taru or Plu,

Teers,

Thon, Tnvestigations beyond the, :

Tertiaries near Ton Fort, sie

Thames, and New River, Quantity of solid matter in n the,

Than Karens, ghi2 Hae os

Tharoos of Goruckpore,

Todas, Peculiarities of the,

Total gold matter in river water,

Toungthu or Lau,

Towa and villages in High Asia,

Tukt-i-Suliman, oe eth

Turkistan and Weston Thibetan lakes, ee an

Unio anodontinus, (lam.), ... ans 500

bengalensis, (ea),

—— bilineatus, (ea), ...

—— ceruleus, (Lea),

—— corrianus, (lea),

favidens, var. marcens, (Bens. .

favidens, o0

favidens, var. trigona, ie

—— favidens, var. delte,

favidens, var. chrysis, ... tee

—— favidens, var. viridula,

Javidens, var. densa,

—— involutus, (Bens.),

—— lamellatus, (Lea), oe ae

—— macilentus, (Bens.),

margimalis, (luam.), ale

merodabensis, (Busch.), ... Bee so0

—— nagpoorensis, (Lea),

— nuttallianus, (Lea),

—-— olivarius, (Lea),

rugosus, (Gmelin),

corrugatus, (Mill.), . te ee ye. ie

XIV Index.

Page

Unio rajahensis, (Lea), owe ae BaP POPERAR a i

—— sikkimensis, (Lea), 506 co 500 ae

—— theca, (Bens.), hee ade yor woo HAE

—— wynegungaensis, (ea), _... sn ae «. =: 148

Vegetation of Central Asia, ... 50 cic ne 69

Vv elmas, ieee am

Verchares’ (Dr. A. M.) Geology of Kashmir &e., i 89 et seq.

Vernag spring in Kashmir, 607 56

Fimcularia multangularis (Port), eis 566 soe lee

Males ina auriformis, Ni. &., ses ods si Be 36

gigas, (Bens.), ... we Be ois aT

—— membranacea, (Bens.), ... 500 “a's ere 37

Waldie’s (Mr. D.) Investigations connected with the Water

Supply to Calcutta, 203

Walker’s (Colonel J. T)E Bussian Geographical operations in

Asia, one wis Sut 77 et seq.

Wastarwan, 172

Water Supply to Calcutta, Investigations ‘connected with the, 203

Water, Constituents of River, = op6 REIGN

Water at. ebb and flood tide at Baranagur, von SO”

Water, Amount of solid matter in the, “of the Hooghly, LOT ZOE

Weean and Kohew valleys, ane ed #2) Saks

Western Thibet, Plateaux in, 508 noe At) On

Wokuls, ... : Bre ate “ot of aD

Woolar ‘Lake, Fe Bors “ee si Fs 2) S208

Yarkand, Cartographical position of, S00 oe oa 48

Zebanwan spur, ee 600 i Mi eos

Zebanwan, cc ate aie see 29 0 RLS